LXII. FOR SCHOOL-CHILDREN…

LXII. FOR SCHOOL-CHILDREN

[Sidenote: Importance of Correct First Impressions]

When a stick of hot glass is drawn out, no matter how far it is stretched, the slender stick retains the original shape of the piece—square, round or oval. In the same way, a child’s mind retains in after life the shaping originally given to it. Everyone knows from personal experience how difficult it is to rid the mind of a wrong impression received in childhood. The editors of the new Britannica feel that they have solved a great problem in making a work of the most accurate and authoritative character interesting to children, for they have received much valuable testimony that this end has been attained. Dr. Charles W. Eliot, president-emeritus of Harvard University, was an early subscriber for two sets for the use of his grandchildren. He said that he found the work “altogether admirable; and my grandchildren, who are at the most inquisitive ages, are of the same opinion.” Professor W. G. Hale, of the University of Chicago, wrote, “My children feel the same fascination in it that I do.” Judge J. P. Gorter, of the Baltimore Supreme Court, has expressed his opinion that “every family with growing children seeking information should have this invaluable work in the library.” The owner of the new Britannica should constantly encourage his children to go to the volumes for further information on topics included in the course of the day’s studies at school. It will not take long to make them realize that the volumes open an inexhaustible mine of knowledge, and answer any question as to which curiosity has been aroused. With a little help from you, at the beginning, they will soon learn to use the Britannica for themselves.

[Sidenote: The Britannica Interesting to Children]

The love of reading is quickly developed in children. Some are attracted to history, to the lives of great men, to exploration and to adventure; others become more interested in the world of nature; still others have a natural bent toward science and the mechanical arts. Whatever the inclination may be, the Britannica stands at the child’s service, giving to him the true facts in such a way that he can easily understand them.

The following suggestions will help children to pursue their favourite lines of reading. They may like to begin with the heroes of myth and history. Andrew Lang contributes a most comprehensive article on MYTHOLOGY (Vol. 19, p. 128). The classified subject-list in Vol. 29 (Index) indicates nearly 500 separate articles on the gods and mythological beings of ancient Greece and Rome, Asia, Egypt, Europe and America. The central hero of medieval romance, ARTHUR (Vol. 2, p. 681), is described by Miss Jessie L. Weston, author of Arthurian Romances. The famous deeds of the CID (Vol. 6, p. 361), the foremost man of Spain’s heroic period, are related by H. E. Watts, the well-known translator of Don Quixote. ROLAND, LEGEND OF (Vol. 23, p. 464), tells another stirring story.

[Sidenote: Heroes and Heroines of History, Romance and Adventure]

[Sidenote: The Romance of the Middle Ages]

[Sidenote: Heroes of Later Times]

[Sidenote: Famous Women of History]

Of peculiar interest to children are such articles as Cyrus (The Great), (Vol. 7, p. 706), by Dr. Eduard Meyer, professor of ancient history, University of Berlin, author of the world-famous History of Antiquity; ALEXANDER III (THE GREAT), (Vol. 1, p. 545), by the noted Hellenist, Edwyn R. Bevan; CAESAR, JULIUS (Vol. 4, p. 938), by Henry Stuart Jones, of Oxford University; HANNIBAL (Vol. 12, p. 920), by M. O. B. Caspari, of London University; THEODORIC (Vol. 26, p. 768), the great ruler of the Gothic nation, by Theodore Hodgkin, author of Italy and her Invaders; CHARLEMAGNE, founder of the Holy Roman Empire (Vol. 5, p. 891), by Arthur W. Holland; CHARLES MARTEL (Vol. 5, p. 942), a great type of courage and activity, by Christian Pfister, professor at the Sorbonne, Paris; ALFRED THE GREAT (Vol. 1, p. 582), by Rev. Charles Plummer, author of The Life and Times of Alfred the Great; CRUSADES (Vol. 7, p. 524), by Ernest Barker, of Oxford University, a narrative with all the action and interest of the best tales for children; TEMPLARS (Vol. 26, p. 591), by W. Alison Phillips, author of Modern Europe, etc.; LOUIS IX (Saint) (Vol. 17, p. 37), by Prof. James T. Shotwell, of Columbia University; CONRADIN (Vol. 6, p. 968), the pathetic life of this marvelous boy who perished at the age of seventeen; HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR (Vol. 13, p. 893), by Jules Viard, archivist of the National Archives, Paris; FROISSART, JEAN (Vol. 11, p. 242), a notable biography, by Sir Walter Besant; CHARLES V (Vol. 5, p. 899), by Edward Armstrong, author of The Emperor Charles V, etc.; CROMWELL, OLIVER (Vol. 7, p. 487), by Philip Chesney Yorke, of Oxford, Capt. C. F. Atkinson, and R. J. McNeill; GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS (Vol. 12, p. 735), by R. Nisbet Bain, author of Scandinavia, etc.; MARLBOROUGH (Vol. 17, p. 737), by Dr. W. P. Courtney; FREDERICK II (THE GREAT) (Vol. 11, p. 52), by James Sime, author of History of Germany, and W. Alison Phillips; NAPOLEON I (Vol. 19, p. 190), by J. Holland Rose; NELSON (Vol. 19, p. 352), by David Hannay, author of Short History of the Royal Navy; WELLINGTON (Vol. 28, p. 507); WASHINGTON, GEORGE (Vol. 28, p. 344), by Dr. William MacDonald, professor of American History in Brown University; LINCOLN, ABRAHAM (Vol. 16, p. 703), by John G. Nicolay, private secretary to President Lincoln, and Charles C. Whinery, assistant editor of the Encyclopaedia Britannica; GRANT, ULYSSES S. (Vol. 12, p. 355), by Capt. C. F. Atkinson, and John Fiske, author of The American Revolution; LEE, ROBERT E. (Vol. 16, p. 362); BOADICEA (Vol. 4, p. 94), by Dr. F. J. Haverfield, professor of ancient history, Oxford University; MATILDA (THE GREAT COUNTESS) (Vol. 17, p. 888), by Prof. Carlton H. Hayes, of Columbia University; JOAN OF ARC (Vol. 15, p. 420), by Prof. J. T. Shotwell, of Columbia University; ISABELLA (Vol. 14, p. 859); ELIZABETH, QUEEN OF ENGLAND (Vol. 9, p. 282), by A. F. Pollard, professor of English history, London University; MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS (Vol. 17, p. 817), by Algernon C. Swinburne, the great poet, author of Mary Stuart, etc.; CATHERINE DE’ MEDICI (Vol. 5, p. 528); VICTORIA, QUEEN (Vol. 28, p. 28), by Hugh Chisholm, editor, Encyclopaedia Britannica.

The biographies are not dry outlines of the subjects’ lives, but narratives of a thoroughly interesting and often most entertaining nature. There has been a generous amount of space alloted the biographical articles in the Encyclopaedia Britannica. The article on Napoleon I is equivalent to 60 pages of this Guide; that of George Washington to 13 pages; of Abraham Lincoln to 23 pages; of Queen Victoria 23 pages. Such length provides space for the picturesque details which make the articles especially appropriate for children, and will establish a taste for this kind of reading in later years.

[Sidenote: Readings in Natural History]

Many children show a bent for knowledge of the world of nature, and to them the new Britannica will prove a faithful, constant companion. Their pleasure in going to the encyclopaedia will be heightened by the many beautiful pictures they will find in it. The articles on the domestic animals not only relate in simple, readable fashion the very interesting facts about their history and development, but are splendidly illustrated with pictures of the different breeds so that by this means alone anyone may learn to distinguish them. CAT (Vol. 5, p. 487), is by Richard Lydekker, the noted naturalist; CATTLE (Vol. 5, p. 539) is by Dr. William Fream, author of Handbook of Agriculture, and Robert Wallace, professor of agriculture, Edinburgh University; DOG (Vol. 8, p. 374) is by Walter Baxendale, kennel editor of The Field, and Dr. F. Chalmers Mitchell; HORSE (Vol. 13, p. 712) is by Sir William Henry Flower, the noted biologist, author of The Horse, a Study in Natural History, Richard Lydekker, E. D. Brickwood, Dr. William Fream and Robert Wallace; PIG (Vol. 21, p. 594) is by Robert Wallace, and SHEEP (Vol. 24, p. 817) is by Dr. Fream and Professor Wallace.

In too many books for children about the habits of wild animals, the facts of nature are grossly distorted with the idea of impressing the imagination. We are all familiar with the recent spirited controversy over “nature fakers” and the reaction to more sober statement which it brought about. It is the truth about the animal world that is wanted; for it is quite wonderful and fascinating enough as it is. And the new Britannica supplies this need in a most satisfactory and thorough manner. Children never tire of natural history, and parents may be assured that the information in the entertaining articles by noted naturalists, in the pages of the Britannica, is of the most reliable and accurate character.

[Sidenote: The Habits and Doings of Clever Animals]

Nothing, for instance, could be more absorbing to the average school-child than the article ANT (Vol. 2, p. 85), by Prof. George H. Carpenter of the Royal College of Science, Dublin, who wrote the well-known book Insects; their Structure and Life. Here he tells how colonies of ants are founded, and how they live, and how they receive other insects as guests in order to obtain the food they desire, and how some species make slaves of other species. Numerous examples of their sense and intelligence are given, and the question as to whether their actions are rational or instinctive is discussed in the light of the most recent knowledge. The story of the BEE (Vol. 3, p. 625), also by Professor Carpenter, is equally wonderful, for we learn all about the solitary and social bees, the social organization of the hive, and how the worker bees are victimized. Both of these articles are fully illustrated. SPIDERS (Vol. 25, p. 663), by R. I. Pocock, superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London, is another example of the adaptability of the Britannica to children’s reading. The accounts of their webs, nests and modes of catching prey hold the attention throughout.

A great deal of the most curious and recent knowledge of the animal kingdom is related in supplementary articles such as COLOURS OF ANIMALS (Vol. 6, p. 731), by Dr. E. B. Poulton, Hope professor of zoology at Oxford, author of The Colours of Animals, and MIMICRY (Vol. 18, p. 495), by R. I. Pocock. The latter tells how animals protect themselves from their enemies by resemblance to other animals or objects.

[Sidenote: Knowledge about Plants and Animals]

Space will not permit further specific mention. The life-story of the entire animal kingdom, detailed information about plants and flowers are to be found in the pages of the new Britannica. The accurate and beautiful illustrations and the text, written in every case by naturalists of acknowledged reputation, and written always in the clearest language, help to give the work its unique position as the greatest source of authoritative and easily comprehended knowledge.

[Sidenote: Marvelous Machines]

Children delight in machinery and what it accomplishes, and the Britannica tells about this with great thoroughness in its complete section dealing with processes of manufacture. A number of the articles on this subject have been suggested in the last chapter as suitable for parents who wish to interest their children in the industrial world, and the list may be further extended for the benefit of older children by including such articles as TEXTILE PRINTING (Vol. 26, p. 694), by Dr. Edmund Knecht, of Manchester University; FINISHING (Vol. 10, p. 378) also by Professor Knecht; WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES (Vol. 28, p. 805), by Aldred F. Barker, professor of textile industries, Bradford Technical College; TYPOGRAPHY, Modern Practical Typography (Vol. 27, p. 542), by John Southward, author of Practical Printing, and H. M. Ross; PRINTING (Vol. 22, p. 350), by C. T. Jacobi, managing director of the Chiswick Press, London; DREDGE AND DREDGING (Vol. 8, p. 562), by Walter Hunter, a noted consulting engineer; REAPING (Vol. 22, p. 944), by Primrose McConnell, author of Diary of a Working Farmer, etc.

Boys with a practical, mechanical turn of mind will delight in such articles as BRIDGES (Vol. 4, p. 533), by Prof. W. C. Unwin, with many illustrations; MOTOR VEHICLES (Vol. 18, p. 914), by the late C. S. Rolls, a pioneer of motoring, and Edward S. Smith; FLIGHT AND FLYING, Artificial Flight (Vol. 10, p. 510), which describes, with many pictures, flying machines from the earliest types to the latest, and CYCLING (Vol. 7, p. 682), an historical and pictorial account of the velocipede and bicycle. Nothing could be more interesting and instructive than SHIP (Vol. 24, p. 860), of which the historical part is by Rev. Edmond Warre, formerly head master of Eton College, and the account of modern ships by Sir Philip Watts, who designed the “Dreadnought” and the “Mauretania.” It is a real story, equivalent in length to 190 pages of this Guide, with nearly 130 illustrations of all sorts of craft including modern warships, ocean liners and vessels for inland navigation. Under RAILWAYS (Vol. 22, p. 819) there is an equally good history of the railway by H. M. Ross, editor of The Times Engineering Supplement, and others.

[Sidenote: Electrical Apparatus]

The remarkable attraction possessed by electrical apparatus for many boys will doubtless send them to such articles as DYNAMO (Vol. 8, p. 764), by C. C. Hawkins, author of The Dynamo; TELEPHONE (Vol. 26, p. 547), by Harry R. Kempe, electrician to the General Post Office, London; TELEGRAPH (Vol. 26, p. 510), also by H. R. Kempe, and the chapter on Wireless Telegraphy (p. 529), by J. A. Fleming, professor of electrical engineering in the University of London. These accounts are full of the most practical information, and will be of inestimable help to any boy who wishes to experiment for himself.

[Sidenote: Industrial Processes]

Many industrial processes, while not employing complicated machinery, nevertheless possess much interest, both from an historical and a technical point of view, and on these the new Britannica is as complete and authentic as in all other departments. Especially useful and entertaining to children will be found the material relating to the manufacture of the common objects by which they are surrounded. Such, for instance, are CERAMICS (Vol. 5, p. 703), by William Burton and several other experts, with beautiful illustrations; GLASS (Vol. 12, p. 86), by Harry James Powell, author of Glass Making, etc., Alexander Nesbitt, and William Rosenhain of the National Physical Laboratory, England; and PROCESS (Vol. 22, p. 408), an illustrated account, by Edwin Bale, of the photomechanical processes by which illustrations are reproduced in printing.

These and hundreds of similar articles will prove most helpful and suggestive to school-children who are constantly called on to prepare “themes” and write compositions. As soon as a child makes acquaintance with the new Britannica he will quickly realize its inexhaustible resources, and the aid it lends him in his studies will be continued throughout the course of his life, in his business and in his general reading.

[Sidenote: Explorers’ Voyages and Journeys]

Children love to read adventures of explorers in forcing their way to unknown lands. The impression they make is much clearer when the child has learned to distinguish the different motives which have led to discovery and to exploration—commercial expansion, fresh conquests, religious zeal, flight from persecution, or the advancement of knowledge for its own sake. With such information he will read in a new light the stirring history of adventure, the great story of hardship and endurance.

The Britannica presents all this on a definite, scientific plan. The inquirer starts on his trip through any field of learning with guide-posts clearly marked, and successive ones in sight one from the other; so that there is no going astray, no uncertain wandering. A reader—young or old—with taste for exploration and adventure may turn first to GEOGRAPHY, Progress of Geographical Discovery (Vol. 11, p. 623), by Dr. H. R. Mill, editor of The International Geography. This article outlines geographical discovery in chronological order from the days of the Phoenicians. The reader will doubtless make excursions into other parts of the books for more detailed accounts, but he has always this main article to guide him. He will go to the article on HERODOTUS (Vol. 13, p. 381), the traveler, by Canon George Rawlinson, the great Oriental archaeologist, and the Rev. E. M. Walker of Oxford University; and to the story of PYTHEAS (Vol. 22, p. 703), the Greek navigator who brought the first definite news of northwestern Europe to the Mediterranean world, by Sir Edward H. Bunbury, author of A History of Ancient Geography, and Dr. C. R. Beazley of the University of Birmingham. Other stories of exploration and adventure are: VIKING (Vol. 28, p. 62), by Charles F. Keary, author of The Vikings in Western Christendom; LEIF ERICSSON (Vol. 16, p. 396), the first European to set foot on the American continent, by Prof. C. R. Beazley; VINLAND (Vol. 28, p. 98), with all the latest known facts of Leif’s discovery, by Prof. J. E. Olson of the University of Wisconsin; the marvelous career of the great Venetian discoverer, POLO, MARCO (Vol. 22, p. 7), boldest of medieval travelers, by Sir Henry Yule, author of The Book of Ser Marco Polo, and Prof. C. R. Beazley; HENRY OF PORTUGAL (the Navigator) (Vol. 13, p. 296); DIAZ DE NOVAES (Vol. 8, p. 172); COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER (Vol. 6, p. 741)—all of these by Professor Beazley; [Sidenote: America—Its Discoverers and Conquerors] GAMA, VASCO DA (Vol. 11, p. 433), who discovered the Cape route to India; PINZON (Vol. 21, p. 631); VESPUCCI, AMERIGO (Vol. 27, p. 1053), by Professor Beazley; BALBOA, VASCO NUÑEZ DE (Vol. 3, p. 241), discoverer of the Pacific Ocean; CABOT (Vol. 4, p. 921), by H. P. Biggar, author of The Voyages of the Cabots to Greenland; MAGELLAN, FERDINAND (Vol. 17, p. 302), the first circumnavigator of the globe, by Professor Beazley; SOTO, FERDINANDO DE (Vol. 25, p. 435), wrongly called the discoverer of the Mississippi; PERU, History (Vol. 21, p. 274), by Sir Clements R. Markham, author of Travels in Peru and India, a full account of Pizarro’s conquest; CORTES, HERNAN (Vol. 7, p. 205), a concise and able description of the conquest of Mexico; CARTIER, JACQUES (Vol. 5, p. 433), which tells of the discovery of the St. Lawrence; HUDSON, HENRY (Vol. 13, p. 849); BAFFIN, WILLIAM (Vol. 3, p. 192); LA SALLE (Vol. 16, p. 230), by C. C. Whinery, assistant editor of the Encyclopaedia Britannica; [Sidenote: Great Voyages] CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE (Vol. 5, p. 830), by Dr. N. E. Dionne, author of Life of Samuel Champlain, etc.; DRAKE, SIR FRANCIS (Vol. 8, p. 473); BUCCANEERS (Vol. 4, p. 709), by David Hannay, a stirring account of the piratical adventurers of different nationalities who united against Spain in the 17th century, and COOK, JAMES (Vol. 7, p. 71), by Professor Beazley.

[Sidenote: Modern Exploration]

The story of geographical discovery and exploration is continued in such articles as AMERICA, General Historical Sketch (Vol. 1, p. 806), by David Hannay; AFRICA, History: Exploration and Survey since 1875 (Vol. 1, pp. 331 and 352), by F. R. Cana, author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union; ASIA, Exploration (Vol. 2, p. 738), by Col. Sir Thomas H. Holdich, formerly superintendent of the Frontier Surveys of India; AUSTRALIA, Discovery and Exploration (Vol. 2, p. 958); and POLAR REGIONS (Vol. 21, p. 938), by Dr. Fridtjof Nansen, the Arctic explorer, and Dr. H. R. Mill, which gives a brilliant survey of all the attempts to conquer the frozen world. In connection with these articles should be read the full and interesting biographies of the great modern explorers such as BAKER, SIR SAMUEL WHITE (Vol. 3, p. 227); BURTON, SIR RICHARD F. (Vol. 4, p. 864), by Dr. Stanley Lane-Poole; LIVINGSTONE, DAVID (Vol. 16, p. 813), by John Scott Keltie, secretary of the Royal Geographical Society; STANLEY, SIR HENRY MORTON (Vol. 25, p. 779), by F. R. Cana; EMIN PASHA (Vol. 9, p. 340); SPEKE, JOHN H. (Vol. 25, p. 633); PARRY, SIR WILLIAM EDWARD (Vol. 20, p. 865); FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN (Vol. 11, p. 30); KANE, ELISHA KENT (Vol. 15, p. 650); NORDENSKIÖLD, NILS ADOLF ERIK (Vol. 19, p. 740); NANSEN, FRIDTJOF (Vol. 19, p. 162); PEARY, ROBERT EDWIN (Vol. 21, p. 30). See the chapter on Geography in this Guide.

[Sidenote: A Complete History of the World]

A strong taste for history is often found in children, and the new Britannica is, among other things, a complete history of the world, by the greatest historians of the present day. In respect to the treatment and arrangement of the historical section there are many things that make it especially adapted for young people’s reading. In the first place the great episodes of history, such as FRENCH REVOLUTION, RENAISSANCE, REFORMATION, MIDDLE AGES, and CRUSADES, are discussed in separate articles. Also every battle, siege, campaign, or war of importance has its article, apart from its treatment in the histories of countries. The historical articles in the new Britannica will send those a little older to other articles dealing with government, and thus help them to cope intelligently with the social and civic problems of the age—in other words, enable them to become the best kind of citizens. The chapter in this Guide headed Questions of the Day covers this ground; and see the chapters on History.

A child is naturally curious to know about mountains, rivers, caverns, the causes of rain, dew and wind. Just as this encyclopaedia shows itself the best of instructors in regard to the plant and animal world, so with natural phenomena it serves to bring the child into close, sympathetic touch with the truths of science.

[Sidenote: Physical Geography made Interesting]

The principles of physical geography are clearly explained in GEOGRAPHY, Principles of (Vol. 11, p. 630), by Dr. H. R. Mill; and when these are learned young people will turn with eager interest to such articles as ALPS (Vol. 1, p. 737), partly by W. A. B. Coolidge, author of The Alps in Nature and in History; ANDES (Vol. 1, p. 960); APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS (Vol. 2, p. 207), by Dr. Arthur C. Spencer, geologist to the Geological Survey of the United States; HIMALAYA (Vol. 13, p. 470); VOLCANO (Vol, 28, p. 178), by F. W. Rudler, of the Museum of Practical Geology, London; VESUVIUS (Vol. 27, p. 1063), by Sir Archibald Geikie and Dr. Thomas Ashby; EARTHQUAKE (Vol. 8, p. 817), by F. W. Rudler and Dr. John Milne, author of Earthquakes, etc.; GEYSER (Vol. 11, p. 913); CAVE (Vol. 5, p. 573), by Dr. William Boyd Dawkins, author of Cave Hunting, etc.; MAMMOTH CAVE (Vol. 17, p. 531), by Rev. Horace C. Hovey, author of Celebrated American Caverns, etc.; LURAY CAVERN (Vol. 17, p. 127), also by Dr. Hovey; GRAND CANYON (Vol. 12, p. 347), by R. S. Tarr, late professor of physical geography, Cornell University; GREAT SALT LAKE (Vol. 12, p. 421); YOSEMITE (Vol. 28, p. 937), by Dr. John Muir, president of the American Alpine Club, and author of The Mountains of California; YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK (Vol. 28, p. 912); GLACIER (Vol. 12, p. 60), by Rev. E. C. Spicer, of Oxford University; NIAGARA (Vol. 19, p. 634), by Dr. G. K. Gilbert, author of Niagara Falls and their History; MISSISSIPPI RIVER (Vol. 18, p. 604); AMAZON (Vol. 1, p. 783), by Col. George E. Church, the famous American explorer of the Amazon; ORINOCO (Vol. 20, p. 275), also by Colonel Church; RHINE (Vol. 23, p. 240), by Dr. J. F. Muirhead, editor of many of Baedeker’s Guide Books, and Philip A. Ashworth; NILE (Vol. 19, p. 692), by F. R. Cana and Sir W. E. Garstin, governing director, Suez Canal Co.; NIGER (Vol. 19, p. 674) and CONGO (Vol. 6, p. 914), by F. R. Cana; YANGTSZE-KIANG (Vol. 28, p. 903), by George Jamieson, formerly British consul-general at Shanghai; DESERT (Vol. 8, p. 92), by Dr. H. N. Dickson, professor of geography, University College, Reading; SAHARA (Vol. 23, p. 1004), by Edward Heawood, librarian of the Royal Geographical Society, London, and F. R. Cana. There are also separate articles on the oceans and large lakes.

Astronomy is a science which is peculiarly attractive to children, since it arouses the imagination and makes a strong appeal to their delight in all that is marvelous. There are 277 astronomical articles in the new Encyclopaedia Britannica to which the classified list in the Index Volume (Vol. 29, p. 888) is the key.

[Sidenote: Readings in Astronomy]

In the preceding chapter are mentioned a few articles which will serve for the beginning of an acquaintance with astronomy. When a child has learned to know the zodiacal constellations he will certainly want to read ZODIAC (Vol. 28, p. 993), by Agnes M. Clerke, author of A History of Astronomy in the 19th Century, for the story of the signs and what they meant to the nations of past ages. There are separate articles on the principal constellations and stars. ASTROLOGY (Vol. 2, p. 795), by Prof. Morris Jastrow of the University of Pennsylvania, will prove both entertaining and instructive.

Those who wish to know about methods of observation will find the complete story in TELESCOPE (Vol. 26, p. 557), a beautifully illustrated article by H. Dennis Taylor, author of A System of Applied Optics, and Sir David Gill, formerly astronomer royal at the Cape of Good Hope.

[Sidenote: Games and Pastimes]

In the preceding chapter a few articles on games were mentioned as being useful to parents helping very young children to amuse themselves. A little later, the child will be delighted to choose for himself among the 260 articles on sports and pastimes; and the analysis of this department of the Britannica, in Part 6 of this Guide, will then be of service. We may mention here the articles GOLF (Vol. 12, p. 219), by H. G. Hutchinson, golf champion and author of Hints on Golf; LACROSSE (Vol. 16, p. 54); BOWLING (Vol. 4, p. 344); ROWING (Vol. 23, p. 783), by C. M. Pitman, formerly stroke of the Oxford University Eight; MODEL-YACHTING (Vol. 18, p. 640); ANGLING, Methods and Practice (Vol. 2, p. 24); CRICKET (Vol. 7, p. 435); ARCHERY, Pastime of (Vol. 2, p. 364), by the late W. J. Ford. A long list of indoor and out-door games will be found in the classified subject-list (Vol. 29, p. 946).

[Sidenote: Diverting and Profitable Occupations]

The aptitude of children for diverting and often profitable occupations is admirably fostered by the new Britannica through many of its very practical articles. This matter has been discussed in the last chapter. In addition it is worthy of note that an ingenious boy could learn to make and set up a sun-dial with the help of DIAL AND DIALLING (Vol. 8, p. 149), by Hugh Godfray; and could experiment and amuse himself with a CAMERA LUCIDA or a CAMERA OBSCURA (Vol. 5, p. 104), from the articles written by Charles J. Joly, late Astronomer Royal of Ireland; while even a younger child could quickly learn to tie any kind of a knot from KNOT (Vol. 15, p. 871), with 54 illustrations, by P. G. Tait, the famous British physicist. All the crafts that produce objects of household utility are practically taught in articles by experts, so that the Britannica is a complete guide to the use of every kind of tool.

[Sidenote: Reading for Girls]

In the field of girls’ occupations there is in the Britannica much material that serves to give knowledge of the best methods of home making.

A great number of articles for girls’ reading will be found among those named in the chapter For Women.

In these days parents, and especially mothers, are devoting more and more time to the study of child development. The importance and value of intelligent sympathetic guidance in everything a child does—and every active child strives to do something—has been fully realized. The chief problem before the parent is, therefore, to have at hand some ready means of meeting every expression of a child’s interests, every indication of budding talents. A short experience with the new Britannica will show this to be one of its many valuable functions. Children do not need to be driven to the volumes. They need only to be made acquainted with them.

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LXIII. SOME QUESTIONS CHILDREN SOMETIMES ASK, AND SOME QUESTIONS TO ASK CHILDREN

A child gains a great part of its knowledge by asking questions, and he should be encouraged to ask them. But parents often find the child’s questions, even those about the objects he sees every day, so difficult to answer, that he is told “not to bother.” With the new Encyclopaedia Britannica at hand, there is hardly any intelligent question that cannot be answered after a glance at the Index and at the page to which it refers the reader. Again, there is no better way at once of amusing and instructing the child than to ask him questions and help him find his way to the answers. Here are a few questions: some of the kind that a child might ask, and some that may be put to a child. The Britannica supplies interesting answers to all of them, and some of these answers are given here.

What makes people snore?

The answer, found at once by referring to “snoring” in the Index, is that the cause is breathing through the mouth, which makes the soft palate vibrate. When the child is told this, it should also be told what the Britannica says about mouth-breathing being a dangerous habit for children to form, as it often leads to sore throats.

How does one ant tell another to go to work?

By patting it with its feelers. The article ANT, by Professor Carpenter, will supply you with stories to tell children as fascinating as any fairy tale.

What makes the colours of sunset?

Dust. If it were not for the dust floating in the air, we should lose not only the brilliant sunsets but the glorious cloud scenery as well, and there would be no twilight. Furthermore, all the moisture in the air, which now condenses on the particles of floating dust, would settle on our clothes and on the walls of our rooms. You will find many other curious facts in the article DUST, by John Aitken, who invented the machine for counting the particles of dust in the atmosphere.

How does the brightness of moonlight compare with that of sunlight?

Most people would guess that sunlight is twenty, or, at most, fifty times as strong; yet it is really half a million times stronger. The article MOON, by Dr. Simon Newcomb, is full of such curious information and of delightful pictures.

Why did the Israelites in bondage need straw to put in their bricks, although we do not use it in ours?

The article BRICK tells you that their bricks were made of Nile mud, which would not bind without something to hold it together.

When sea-water freezes, does the salt go into the ice?

Only one-fifth of it, the article ICE says.

Are you sure you like the taste of vanilla?

This is an excellent puzzle to put to a bright child. The curious answer, found in the article TASTE, is that vanilla, like onions and some other substances which we think have strong flavors, really has no taste at all. We smell them as we eat them, and therefore we imagine we taste them. This you can prove to a child by blindfolding it, while its nose is firmly closed, holding a slice of onion and a slice of apple near its open mouth, and touching its tongue first with one and then with the other.

What is a beaver’s favourite food?

Of all unlikely things—water-lilies! This, and other things that will delight children, you will find in the article BEAVER, by Richard Lydekker, the famous naturalist.

Why is it harder to guess the width of a river than to guess the width of a field as wide?

The article VISION will tell you.

Why are new-born babies’ eyes often slate-blue, for a time?

The article EYE will tell you.

Why is not spiders’ silk manufactured?

Unfortunately, although the silk is of the finest quality, quite equal to the silkworm’s, the spiders are such fierce cannibals that each one would have to be kept in a separate box, and this would make the silk too costly. The article SPIDERS, by R. I. Pocock, superintendent of the London Zoological Gardens, also tells you how spiders make their way through the air to islands in the sea; how the wolf-spider builds a nest with a hinged door, and how the common pond-spider builds his thimble-shaped house under water and fills it with air by swimming down to it, time after time, on each trip taking down a tiny bubble of air.

Why do not animals that sleep all through the winter starve to death?

Because they live on the fat they have put on during the summer, as the article HIBERNATION explains.

Why could not the Norsemen who visited America in the 11th century found permanent settlements?

The natives were hostile and the Norsemen had no firearms. The wonderful story of the first voyages to America is told in the article VINLAND.

How can you tell how far away a flash of lightning is?

Sound travels so much more slowly than light does, that if the flash is a mile away you see it five seconds before you hear the report; so by counting the seconds you can measure the distance. The Index, under “Lightning: distance” refers you to the article SOUND, by Professor Poynting.

Why does your hair stand on end when you are frightened?

The article SKIN, by Professor Parsons, will tell you about this curious action of the muscles.

Why do we count by tens?

Because people began by counting on their fingers and thumbs, and when they got to ten they had to begin again. Some tribes used to make twenty their basis for counting, adding in their toes. The article ARITHMETIC tells you this; and a newspaper critic said of this article that he was amazed to find it one of the most readable things in the Britannica. The truth is that there are no subjects that are dull in themselves. There is a dull way of treating them, and there is also the Britannica way, which is to show you how things came to be as they are. That is why children are delighted when “Britannica time” comes, the hour when the parent sits down by the bookcase and tells them true stories out of the volumes and shows them the exquisite pictures.

Are men or women oftener stammerers?

The article STAMMERING, which tells you that men are much oftener afflicted than women, is one that all parents should read. If a child’s speech is carefully watched, the first trouble of this kind may sometimes be checked before it becomes a habit.

Why does a room look smaller with red than with violet wall-paper?

Read the article VISION and you will understand this and many other curious facts about the way our eyes do their work. Furthermore, you will be reminded that slight defects in a child’s sight should be noticed and treated by an oculist before permanent harm has been done.

Why is winter colder than summer?

Simply because the sun’s rays, coming aslant instead of from overhead, travel through more miles of air and are thus robbed of much of their heat before they reach us. The polar regions actually get more hours of sunlight in a year than we get in the United States, more even than there are at the equator, but the sun is never high above the horizon at the poles.

Can a snake cross a frozen pond?

No, nor move on any other smooth surface, as the article SNAKES shows.

How long was Abraham Lincoln at school?

Less than a year in all, as shown by the article LINCOLN, ABRAHAM, by J. G. Nicolay (Lincoln’s private secretary) and C. C. Whinery. But although he could not get much teaching, he read over and over again every book he could get hold of.

Here are a few questions without the answers; but the numbers after each question show the volume and page of the Britannica where each answer can be found:

What makes blood clot? (Vol. 4, p. 81.)

Are there any red-haired human races? (Vol. 12, p. 823.)

Why does a cut apple turn brown? (Vol. 21, p. 756.)

What makes negroes black? (Vol. 25, p. 190.)

Are men or women oftener colour-blind? (Vol. 28, p. 139.)

Why do stars twinkle? (Vol. 23, p. 29.)

What happens in your throat when you sob? (Vol. 23, p. 195.)

What change in water, as it freezes, makes ice float? (Vol. 14, p. 227).

Why is the shadow cast by an electric light sharper-edged than the shadow cast by the sun? (Vol. 24, p. 758).

Why does fright make people faint? (Vol. 27, p. 942).

What makes the beautiful “ice-flowers” on a frosted window-pane? (Vol. 14, p. 226).

How do trappers prepare valuable fur-skins so as to preserve them until they get to market?

The skins are simply dried in the air, as stated in the article Fur, which was written by the head of a great wholesale fur business.

How does the amount of air in a room spoiled by an ordinary gas-burner, or a small reading-lamp, compare with the amount spoiled by a man’s breathing?

The gas burner or the lamp spoils four times as much air, as shown in the article VENTILATION.

What part of your weight is blood?

One-twentieth. (Vol. 27, p. 939).

What domestic animal is oftenest born with only one eye?

The pig. (Vol. 18, p. 743).

Which covers the more space, the United States (without Alaska) or Europe?

Europe. (Vol. 27, p. 612, and Vol. 9, p. 907.)

If you looked at the moon all night every night, how soon would you have seen all its surface?

Never. Four-tenths of it can never be seen from the earth. (Vol. 18, p. 803.)

What was the great difference between the destruction of Pompeii and that of Herculaneum?

Pompeii was covered by ashes and Herculaneum by mud. (Vol. 22, p. 50, and Vol. 13, p. 342.)

Why do not high mountains, where more snow falls than melts, keep growing higher?

Because pressure forces the snow, changed into ice, to descend in the form of glaciers, as explained in the article GLACIER.

Who wrote to George Washington, on behalf of a number of officers in the United States army, asking him to make himself king of the United States?

Col. Lewis Nicola. The article WASHINGTON, GEORGE, by Professor MacDonald of Brown University, gives you the words of Washington’s indignant reply.

How deep has anyone ever dived in diver’s dress?

The article DIVERS tells you: 210 feet.

In baseball, how is a fielding-record calculated?

To get the fielder’s average, you divide the number of chances he has made the most of by the total number of chances he has had. (Vol. 3, p. 461.)

How tall must a giant be?

Seven feet, to be properly called a giant. (Vol. 18, p. 741).

Where were the first lighthouses built?

In lower Egypt, as stated in the article LIGHTHOUSE, which describes all the great lighthouses and gives pictures of the towers and of the wonderful lamps.

When ships are going through the Panama Canal, from the Atlantic to the Pacific, will they be heading to the eastward or to the westward?

Oddly enough, to the eastward; for the Isthmus curves so, just where the canal line lies, that the Pacific end is much to the eastward of the Atlantic end. You can see this plainly on the detailed map in the article PANAMA CANAL.

Why does a tame rabbit die if it is held erect for half an hour?

Because the muscles of its abdomen are so weak that they cannot act as a belt, as our muscles do, and all the rabbit’s blood settles below the heart. (Vol. 27, p. 942.)

For what price was Manhattan Island bought from the Indians in 1626?

For $24 worth of goods, as shown in the article NEW YORK.

Why do people, when they are in the polar regions, seldom catch cold?

Because colds are caused by microbes and there are very few microbes in places so far from any masses of people, as you can see from the article CLIMATE.

If North America were spread out on the surface of the moon, what share of the moon’s surface would it cover?

About four-sevenths. (Vol. 18, p. 805, and Vol. 19, p. 764.)

Which is the greater: the highest mountain’s height or the deepest sea’s depth?

The sea’s depth, which is 31,614 feet; while Mt. Everest is 29,002 feet high. (Vol. 19, p. 973, and Vol. 10, p. 7.)

Of what use are the hairs on a caterpillar?

Like the bristles on a dog-collar, they keep an enemy from biting him. (Vol. 6, p. 733.)

Why do you twist yourself into an uncomfortable position when you have a pain?

Because instinct teaches you that discomfort will help you by partially taking your attention away from the pain. (Vol. 22, p. 587.)

What warm-blooded creature has the longest average life?

Man, except possibly the whale; but not the elephant, as is generally believed. The article LONGEVITY tells how long all kinds of animals live.

What mistake about American history is caused in our minds by the celebration of the Fourth of July?

The belief that the Declaration of Independence was signed on the 4th of July. Congress did not order it to be engrossed for signature until July 19th. The article INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF, also shows that the most important day was July 2nd, when Congress adopted the Resolution of Independence.

If you look up the answers to these questions, in the Britannica, you will incidentally learn, from the articles to which you turn, a great many things that will be of practical use to you in every-day life. For whether you turn to the volumes because you want only a single fact, or because you want to learn all about some important subject—or even because you merely want to pass a pleasant hour—you always get from them far more than you had hoped to find.

PART IV READINGS ON QUESTIONS OF THE DAY WHICH RELATE TO THE DUTIES OF AMERICAN CITIZENSHIP AND TO CURRENT POLITICS

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LXIV. QUESTIONS OF THE DAY

[Sidenote: An Intimate Book]

The old idea of an encyclopaedia as a remote book, distant from every-day needs and the real public questions of the day, and to be consulted only for information about ancient history and medieval philosophy, was a wrong one. It was wrong in theory, if an encyclopaedia is to be a live and valuable book. And it was wrong in practice. It is not the case with the new Britannica. For the Britannica is full of information about current public questions; and even its treatment of the past, remote or near, is from a fresh and modern view-point, and is of the utmost value as throwing the light of history on the problems of modern politics and every-day life. The spirit of to-day is an intensely wide-awake and inquisitive one, and people are no longer willing to believe that “whatever is, is right”—much less that a thing is right because it has been, no matter how long. Indeed the very phrase “has been” as now used in the vernacular implies the outworn, the discarded. The Britannica, a book for intimate use on the questions of the day, is a record of what is, as well as of what has been, and of the great changes, the constant flux, of the past and of the present.

[Sidenote: Sociology]

One of our symptoms of health is the development of a social sense, or, better, a social conscience. This is due in no small degree to the work of Herbert Spencer in founding a new science, called by him Sociology. For an inspiring and stimulating starting-point for the study in the Britannica of the great social and political questions of the day let the reader study the article SOCIOLOGY (Vol. 25, p. 322), by Benjamin Kidd, who wrote Social Evolution, and Principles of Western Civilization.

[Sidenote: Education]

Evolution, sociology, Spencerian psychology and the closer relation of the state to the individual are all important factors in the educational changes of the last few years; and their study is indispensable to a clear understanding of the great questions of education. A more concrete study may be based on the article EDUCATION (Vol. 8, p. 951) and particularly the part on education in the United States by Nicholas Murray Butler, president of Columbia University. An elaborate course of reading on education is given in another chapter of this Guide For Teachers. But it may be well to call attention here to the fact that there are in the articles on individual states sections on the educational system of each state; and in the separate articles on each city similar descriptions of schools in those cities; and also that either in the article on the city or town in which it is situated, or in a separate article there is an estimate, a description, and a historical sketch of each of the great universities and colleges of the country. This information is not merely of value if one wishes to understand in a general way the trend of education, but of particular interest to one who is choosing the school best adapted to a special need. In the same way there are articles on other great educational institutions—for example a general article on MUSEUMS OF SCIENCE (Vol. 19, p. 64) and one on LIBRARIES (Vol. 16, p. 545), as well as articles on such special institutions as the Smithsonian, or treatment of them in the article on the places where the institution is—as in the article on Washington for the Library of Congress, the article on New York City for the Metropolitan Museum, etc.

[Sidenote: Defectives and Their Training]

But government, particularly in America, besides taking a direct interest and responsibility in the education of its youth, has begun within the last few years to assume the task of uplifting those of its citizens who are below the normal. Modern methods of dealing with criminals and of caring for defectives and the insane are based on a principle entirely different from that which obtained 50, or even 20, years ago. The whole article Insanity (Vol. 14, p. 597) might well be read as a preliminary to a study of this topic, since it treats of idiocy and imbecility as well as of the more violent forms of mental disorder, and since it treats them all as forms of disease—the basis of the modern method of treatment which has substituted the hospital and the school for the mere place of detention. In particular, however, the last part of this article dealing with Hospital Treatment should be studied. It is by Dr. Frederick Peterson, the American specialist, and it describes the improved conditions of modern asylums. “Physical restraint is no longer practised.... The general progress of medical science in all directions has been manifested in the department of psychiatry by improved methods of treatment, in the way of sleep-producing and alleviating drugs, dietetics, physical culture, hydrotherapy and the like. There are few asylums now without pathological and clinical laboratories.... The colony scheme has been successfully adopted by the state of New York at the Craig Colony for Epileptics at Sonyea and elsewhere.... Many asylums have, as it were, thrown off detached cottages for the better care of certain patients.... But the ideal system is that of the psychopathic hospital and the colony for the insane.” It is with the “colony” plan that Dr. Peterson’s name is intimately connected, especially in New York state. In the Britannica article on New York state there is a full treatment (Vol. 19, p. 601) of the state’s charitable institutions, including its hospitals for the insane, the Craig Colony already mentioned, the Letchworth Village custodial asylum for epileptics and feeble-minded, and other institutions of the same kind. And in the same way the system in each state is described in the separate article on that state with special attention to the peculiar features in its administration of its hospitals and schools for insane and imbeciles.

[Sidenote: The Blind]

There has been a similar change in the education of the blind and the deaf—or rather education is now provided for these classes, whereas they formerly received none at all. And this education is coming under state control and, once under governmental supervision, is being transferred from departments in charge of penal or charitable institutions to the department of public schools. For the most striking instances of what has been accomplished by improved systems of training under private supervision see the articles on SAMUEL GRIDLEY HOWE (Vol. 13, p. 837), the great teacher of the blind at the Perkins Institution for the Blind in Boston; on his blind and deaf pupil, LAURA BRIDGMAN (Vol. 4, p. 559), and on HELEN ADAMS KELLER (Vol. 15, p. 718), another and even more remarkable blind and deaf student, whose education, coming as a product of a new sociology, has made her a most efficient social helper and social worker.

From these articles the student should go to Blindness (Vol. 4, p. 59), by Sir Francis J. Campbell, principal of the Royal Normal College for the Blind, Norwood, London; an article equivalent in length to 40 pages of this Guide. Its author, the founder of the college, is himself a blind man, who, born in Tennessee, in 1832, and educated at the Nashville school, and afterwards in music at Leipzig and Berlin, had from 1858 to 1869 been associated with Dr. Howe at the Perkins Institution, Boston, and was knighted in 1909 for his services to the education of the blind. The part of his article dealing with the education of the blind is, therefore, doubly valuable and interesting. The main topics with which it deals are: early training—other senses of the blind not naturally sharper than those of the seeing, but developed by cultivation of hearing and touch from early childhood; physical training to increase the average of vitality; mental training; early manual training; choice of occupation; piano-forte tuning; musical training; deaf-mutes should not be educated with the blind as their needs are so different; blind boys and blind girls should not be taught together, as coeducation promotes intermarriage, which is a calamity. The remainder of the article deals with types and books for the blind, appliances for educational work, employment, and biographical matter, with a list of prominent blind people. See also, for literary men who were blind, the articles on JOHN MILTON, WILLIAM H. PRESCOTT, and PHILIP BOURKE MARSTON.

[Sidenote: The Deaf]

DEAF AND DUMB (Vol. 7, p. 880) is by the Rev. Arnold Hill Payne, chaplain to the Oxford Diocesan Mission to the deaf and dumb, late normal fellow of the National Deaf Mute College, Washington, D. C., and author of many books on the subject. He points out the mistaken use of the word “dumb”—“In the case of the deaf and dumb, as these words are generally understood, dumbness is merely the result of ignorance in the use of the voice, this ignorance being due to deafness.” After discussing causes of deafness, the condition of the deaf in childhood, their natural language, which the contributor thinks is “sign” rather than purely oral, and their social status, he deals with education of the deaf, giving an elaborate historical account including the “oral” revival in Germany and the work in the United States of Dr. Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet—see also the separate article on him and his two sons (Vol. 11, p. 416)—and of the National Deaf-Mute College at Washington, D. C. (on which see also the article WASHINGTON, D. C.). This interesting article closes with a section on the blind-deaf, telling the story of several remarkable cases in England less well-known and more recent than Laura Bridgman or Helen Keller.

[Sidenote: Psychology]

This chapter began with a reference to the article on SOCIOLOGY with the recommendation that it be used as a basis for the study of present-day problems. The reader will often have heard vague allusions to sociology, and his reading this article in the Britannica will certainly sharpen and define his own idea of the meaning and the value of the science. Has he not heard much oftener of psychology, and heard it mentioned as if it were some sort of magic spell to charm away many of the difficulties of our modern complex world? But has he a full comprehension of the meaning of psychology and of the knowledge newly gained in regard to the “psychology of the senses”? The corrective for any vagueness of ideas about psychology is best found in the article PSYCHOLOGY (Vol. 22, p. 547) by Professor James Ward, whose articles for the Britannica have been reprinted and used as text-books in schools and colleges all over the country. Put in a few words, the lesson of psychology is that the senses, sensations, thoughts and feelings, which, even when they are our own, we too often speak of as if they were things apart and independent, are subject to certain natural laws in much the same way as are the forces treated by the science of physics. The reader who would study the subject of psychology in the Britannica should make use of the analysis of many articles in the chapter in this Guide For Teachers.

[Sidenote: Crime]

As with general education, special education of defectives, state training of feeble-minded, and restraint of the insane, so with the state’s attitude toward the criminal there has been in recent years a great change which is still working toward full fruition, so that prison administration, children’s courts, delinquency, probation, etc., are live topics of interest.

Just as the whole new science of sociology was based by Spencer on biology and on the Darwinian theory of evolution, so in this field of delinquency a “science” has been devised called criminology by its “inventor” Cesare Lombroso. The article LOMBROSO (Vol. 16, p. 936) in the Britannica criticizes his theories as showing “an exaggerated tendency to refer all mental facts to biological causes.” His theory of a criminal type points to a “practical reform ... a classification of offenders, so that the born criminal may receive a different kind of punishment from the offender who is tempted into crime.” The article CRIMINOLOGY (Vol. 7, p. 464), by Major Arthur Griffiths, Inspector of Prisons, should be read carefully. It lists the supposed criminal traits as follows:

Various brain and cerebral anomalies; receding foreheads; massive jaws, prognathous chins; skulls without symmetry; ears long, large and projecting; noses rectilinear, wrinkles strongly marked, even in the young and in both sexes, hair abundant on the head, scanty on the cheeks and chin; eyes feline, fixed, cold, glassy, ferocious; bad repellent faces.... Other peculiarities are:—great width of the extended arms, extraordinary ape-like agility; left-handedness as well as ambi-dexterism; obtuse sense of smell, taste and sometimes of hearing, although the eyesight is superior to that of normal people.... So much for the anatomical and physiological peculiarities of the criminal. There remain the psychological or mental characteristics, so far as they have been observed. Moral insensibility is attributed to him, a dull conscience that never pricks and a general freedom from remorse. He is said to be generally lacking in intelligence, hence his stupidity, the want of proper precautions, both before and after an offence, which leads so often to his detection and capture. His vanity is strongly marked and shown in the pride taken in infamous achievements rather than personal appearance.

Although Major Griffiths thinks that criminality is oftener due to environment than to congenital defects, he closes his article with this estimate of what has been accomplished by Lombroso and his followers:

The criminologists have strengthened the hands of administrators, have emphasized the paramount importance of child-rescue and judicious direction of adults, have held the balance between penal methods, advocating the moralizing effect of open-air labour as opposed to prolonged isolation, and have insisted upon the desirability of indefinite detention for all who have obstinately determined to wage perpetual war against society by the persistent perpetration of crime.

The article CRIME (Vol. 7, p. 447) is full of interesting statistics and facts. It tells us that “the growth of criminals is greatly stimulated where people are badly fed, morally and physically unhealthy, infected with any forms of disease and vice,” and after proving by the records of various countries that men everywhere are more addicted to crime than are women, ends with this statement: “It has been well said that women are less criminal according to the figures, because when a woman wants a crime committed she can generally find a man to do it for her.”

Other important articles on the subject are DEPORTATION (Vol. 8, p. 56) and PRISON (Vol. 22, p. 361). For English prison reforms, see also the article on JOHN HOWARD and that on ELIZABETH FRY, with an outline of the growth in Pennsylvania and New York (Auburn and Sing Sing), of the method of solitary confinement and of its adoption in England, and of the development in New York (see also the article on ELMIRA for the work of Zebulon R. Brockway), and in Massachusetts (Concord), of distinct and different treatment for first offenders.

[Sidenote: Children’s Courts]

JUVENILE OFFENDERS (Vol. 15, p. 613) describes the work of Charles Dickens and others in England, the reform in Europe and in the United States; the philanthropic criminal code proposed by EDWARD LIVINGSTON (see the biographical article, Vol. 16, p. 811); the Randall’s Island House of Refuge, the Elmira (N. Y.) Reformatory, the reformatory for women at Sherborn, Massachusetts, and the George Junior Republic at Freeville, New York, and its offshoots—see also the separate article GEORGE JUNIOR REPUBLIC (Vol. 11, p. 749); and the Borstal scheme, a modification of the American state reformatory system adopted in England in 1902.

CHILDREN’S COURTS (Vol. 6, p. 140) calls attention to the origin of these tribunals in the United States, in Massachusetts and Illinois, and their success in Chicago, Indianapolis, Denver and Washington, leading to their adoption in England; see also the article PROBATION (Vol. 22, p. 404) in general and, for particular and local methods, the articles on BIRMINGHAM (Vol. 3, p. 985), BOSTON (Vol. 4, p. 294), CHICAGO (Vol. 6, p. 124), COLORADO (Vol. 6, p. 722), EGYPT (Vol. 9, p. 29), ILLINOIS (Vol. 14, p. 308), and UTAH (Vol. 27, p. 818). The articles on individual states also contain detailed information about local penal institutions of all kinds.

The reader should also study the articles POLICE (Vol. 21, p. 978), FINGER PRINTS (Vol. 10, p. 376), IDENTIFICATION (Vol. 14, p. 287), PUNISHMENT (Vol. 22, p. 653), CAPITAL PUNISHMENT (Vol. 5, p. 279), GUILLOTINE (Vol. 12, p. 694), HANGING (Vol. 12, p. 917), and ELECTROCUTION (Vol. 9, p. 210), the last by Professor Edward Anthony Spitzka, the American authority on the subject. In the article on Utah, already mentioned, the reader will find that “a person sentenced to death may choose one of two methods of execution—hanging or shooting.”

[Sidenote: Alcohol]

If a respectable citizen of a century ago could return to earth he could not fail to be greatly surprised at dinner, whether in a private home or in a hotel, to see how much less alcoholic beverages are used, how much lighter they are, and how much more common are other drinks. If he “returned” to certain parts of the United States he would find that he could get no alcohol except on a doctor’s prescription stating the reason why the patient needed it, and he would learn that such a prescription could be filled only once, and then only by a registered pharmacist of good character. No matter to what place he came back, he would find a constant interference with or supervision of the manufacture, sale and consumption of alcoholic liquors on the part of the government. He would probably wonder why the state should interfere with private and personal liberty in such matters. We have already pointed out that the state now does interfere, and that this is one of the distinguishing marks of the government of the day. For information on this particular form of interference, its prevalence, its necessity, and its advisability, the student may confidently turn to the Britannica. The hygienic side of the question is outlined in the chapter of this Guide on Health and Disease. The social or sociological side claims our attention here. Read the article DRUNKENNESS (Vol. 8, p. 601), and for the relation between alcohol and mental disease, the section Toxic Insanity (Vol. 14, p. 609) in the article on INSANITY already mentioned, and also NEUROPATHOLOGY (Vol. 19, p. 429); then the article INEBRIETY, LAW OF (Vol. 14, p. 409); that on LIQUOR LAWS (Vol. 16, p. 759), with a special section referring to the United States, which deals with local prohibition, state prohibition, public dispensaries, and taxation; and for a general and elaborate summary of the whole question the article TEMPERANCE (Vol. 26, p. 578) equivalent to about 50 pages of this Guide, by Dr. Arthur Shadwell, author of Drink, Temperance and Legislation. In the section on the Use and Abuse of Alcohol Dr. Shadwell summarizes the results of modern scientific investigation of the abuse in its bearings upon crime, poverty, insanity, mortality, longevity, and heredity.

In such articles as those on THEOBALD MATHEW (“Father Mathew”) (Vol. 17, p. 886), NEAL DOW (Vol. 8, p. 456), JOHN B. GOUGH (Vol. 12, p. 282), and FRANCES E. WILLARD (Vol. 28, p. 658) the reader will find biographies relating to the temperance movement; and in the separate articles on states there is information about state prohibition, local option, and the state dispensary system.

[Sidenote: Heredity and Eugenics]

Dr. Shadwell’s remarks on the relation of alcoholism to heredity may remind us that the very word “heredity” would seem strange to the typical man of a century ago, whose return to life we have imagined. We should be no more shocked by the occasional crudeness of his intimate and excited phraseology than he would be at our frankness in discussing even in mixed company such subjects as birth, reproduction, sexual morality, the social evil and the white slave trade. The growth of interest in these topics may be traced in part to Darwin, Huxley and Mendel, to what they did to make biology a science. Read in the Britannica the interesting story, in the article MENDELISM (Vol. 18, p. 115), of the investigations of Gregor Mendel, Abbot of Brünn, in his cloister garden, in crossing peas and classifying the inheritance of peculiarities. Then read the articles HEREDITY (Vol. 13, p. 530), by Prof. Chalmers Mitchell, and HYBRIDISM (Vol. 14, p. 26), by the same contributor, and turn to the articles EUGENICS (Vol. 9, p. 855) and SIR FRANCIS GALTON (Vol. 11, p. 427), for an account of the attempt to found a practical science to improve the breed of men.

Especially within the last few years has the public conscience been aroused on the white slave traffic and prostitution, both in Great Britain and the United States, and particularly in the great cities, where this form of vice, if left under the jurisdiction of the police, gives rise to a singularly dangerous form of corruption and to the general disrepute of the defenders of public safety. The many important aspects of the subject, which need not be rehearsed here, are to be found in Dr. Shadwell’s article PROSTITUTION (Vol. 22, p. 457) and Dr. Edmund Owen’s article VENEREAL DISEASES (Vol. 27, p. 983).

One of the remedies most commonly suggested for the evils of prostitution in general and of the white slave trade in particular is a minimum wage. Dr. Shadwell’s article on prostitution gives “excessively laborious and ill-paid work” as only one of many secondary causes for women’s taking to a life of evil repute. Indolence, love of excitement, dislike of restraint, and abnormal sexual appetite, he counts as primary causes; and among secondary causes he names the difficulty of finding employment; harsh treatment at home, promiscuous living among the overcrowded poor; overcrowding in factories; the example of luxury, self-indulgence and loose manners set by the wealthy; demoralizing literature and amusements; and the arts of profligate men. But the subject of wages is an important one in itself, and as an introduction to the study of the labour question, it may well be taken up here, even if the efficacy of minimum-wage laws, or of any legislation, in producing a higher sexual morality has been exaggerated.

[Sidenote: Wages and Labour]

Read the article WAGES (Vol. 28, p. 229, equivalent to 20 pages of this Guide), by Joseph Shield Nicholson, professor of political economy at Edinburgh University. The difficulty of an exact definition, and, specifically, of one that distinguishes between “wages” and “profits,” leads the author to adopt as the best the definition of Gen. Francis A. Walker, the American economist, “the reward of those who are employed in production with a view to the profit of their employers and are paid at stipulated rates.” The distinction between a nominal and real wage is based on the difference between the money value and the purchasing value of the wage as affected by variation in the cost of living. Irregularity of employment and other elements of uncertainty, such as liability to accident or to occupational diseases, are factors to be considered in estimating real wages. Professor Nicholson discusses the wage-fund theory, corrects it by Adam Smith’s observation that wages are paid from the product of labour; and treats “relative” wages, the state-regulation of wages (which he does not consider feasible); poor relief in aid of wages; factory legislation; trade unions; the effects of machinery on wages; and the progress of the working-classes.

[Sidenote: Labour Legislation]

The subject of factory legislation brings us back to the general topic of “state interference with private matters” as the old school of political scientists would have called it. Two treatises in the Britannica are important for the study of this subject—the general article LABOUR LEGISLATION (Vol. 16, p. 7), equivalent to 70 pages of this Guide, by Adelaide Mary Anderson, principal lady inspector of factories to the British Home Office, and Carroll D. Wright, late U. S. Commissioner of Labor; and the article EMPLOYERS’ LIABILITY AND WORKMEN’S COMPENSATION (Vol. 9, p. 356), which is of peculiar interest now that in the United States recent laws in regard to employers’ liability and workmen’s compensation have shown a change in legislative theory and practice. Statutes of this kind have been passed by the legislatures of several states where nothing of the sort would have been attempted a generation ago, although legislatures have always been readier than courts to approve radical laws, and have been far more readily influenced by popular sentiment. After their passage they have in some states been held unconstitutional, and in other states the highest court has recognized them as valid; the decisions perhaps depending to some extent on the attitude of the court toward the opposed claims of capital and labour. Here as elsewhere the student should remember that much information of a local character is to be found in the articles on different states of the Union. The article LABOR DAY (Vol. 16, p. 6) describes an official recognition of the claims of labour in the United States.

[Sidenote: Organized Labour]

On labour organizations and their work see the articles: TRADE UNIONS (Vol. 27, p. 140), and particularly the section Economic Effects of Trade Unionism, and the section on trade unions in the United States, by Carroll D. Wright, late U. S. Commissioner of Labor, who deals with such topics as railway brotherhoods, national unions, the “International,” Knights of Labor, American Railway Union, federations of labour, especially the American Federation of Labor, and estimated strength of trade unions. For the earlier history of trade unions or similar organizations see TRADE ORGANIZATION (Vol. 27, p. 135), GILDS (Vol. 12, p. 14), LIVERY COMPANIES (Vol. 16, p. 809), and APPRENTICESHIP (Vol. 2, p. 228).

STRIKES AND LOCK OUTS, particularly the sections Economic Effects (Vol. 25, p. 1028), Important British Strikes and Lock Outs (p. 1029), and on strikes in the United States (p. 1033),—the last by Dr. Carroll D. Wright, who describes, among others, the Homestead strike of 1892, the Pullman strike of 1894, the steel strike of 1901, and the coal strike of 1902. For these and other strikes see the local articles on such storm-centres as Homestead, Pullman, Leadville, Cripple Creek, Chicago.

See also BOYCOTT (Vol. 4, p. 353); and INJUNCTION (Vol. 14, p. 570), and, for a “classic” use of the injunction against boycott, the article on WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT (Vol. 26, p. 354);

ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION (Vol. 2, p. 331) for attempts by the state to regulate the relations of capital and labour at variance.

Related topics which have not been analyzed here will be found in the articles UNEMPLOYMENT (Vol. 27, p. 578), LABOUR EXCHANGE (Vol. 16, p. 7), and VAGRANCY (Vol. 27, p. 837).

[Sidenote: Immigration]

Closely connected with the American labour problems, since growing American industries demand a supply of workmen that cannot be filled by natural increase in the population, is the question of immigration. The article MIGRATION (Vol. 18, p. 427) is divided into two parts, the second dealing with migration in zoology. The first section, dealing with emigration and immigration and internal migration of populations, is for the most part by Richmond Mayo-Smith, late professor of political economy and social science in Columbia University, New York City. It is appropriate that the subject should be treated by an American and with special attention to the United States, since this country owes its origin to an immigration three centuries ago; as the presence of many recent immigrants puts a strain on our powers of assimilation and gives rise to other serious problems; and as internal migrations are markedly affecting social conditions. In a preliminary historical sketch the author deals with: prehistoric migrations in search of booty, through the desire of the stronger to take possession of the lands of the weaker, or by pressure of population on the food supply; Greek and Roman colonization; the German conquest; minor migratory movements such as the introduction of Flemish weavers to England and the forced migration of the Huguenots from France; the great colonization period after the discovery of America; and modern migration—characterized by its magnitude, by the change of the emigrant’s political allegiance, and by the circumstance that it is a movement of “individuals seeking their own good without state direction or aid.” In a statistical discussion of immigration to the United States (Vol. 18, p. 430) there is much valuable information. “At first the Irish and Germans were most prominent. Of later years, the Italians, Czechs, Hungarians and Russians were numerously represented.” Immigration to other countries, especially Canada and South America; the balance of migration and temporary emigration; and the effects of migration on the country “from which” and the country “to which”—are topics considered in the article, which also discusses the restriction of immigration. As to Asiatic immigration see CALIFORNIA (especially p. 20, Vol. 5), SAN FRANCISCO (p. 148, Vol. 24), and COOLIE (Vol. 7, p. 77). See also the article UNITED STATES, section Population and Social Conditions (p. 634, Vol. 27), and, in separate articles on states and larger cities of the United States, the analysis of foreign-born population, that of foreign parentage, etc. For instance, in the article MASSACHUSETTS (Vol. 17, p. 854), there is a most interesting account of the varying sources of immigration and of the replacing of Irish labour by Canadians and Italians. Boston is the second immigrant port of the country. A large part of the transatlantic immigrants pass speedily to permanent homes in the West, but by far the greater part of the Canadian influx remains there.

The article on NEW YORK CITY (p. 617 of Vol. 19) remarks that

there are in New York City more Germans than in any city of Germany, save Berlin, and more Irish than in Dublin. There are many well-defined foreign communities in the city, such as “Little Italy” about Mulberry Street, “Chinatown” on Mott, Pell and Doyers Streets, the Hebrew quarter on the upper Bowery and east of it, a “German Colony” east of Second Avenue below Fourteenth Street, French quarters south of Washington Square about Bleecker Street and on the West Side between Twentieth and Thirty-fourth Streets; a Russian quarter near East Broadway, a “Greek Colony” about Sixth Avenue in the 40’s, and negro quarters on Thompson Street and on the West Side in the 50’s, and there are equally well-defined Armenian and Arab quarters.

Chicago, as the article on that city shows, is the second largest Bohemian city in the world, the third Swedish, the fourth Norwegian, the fifth Polish and the fifth German.

[Sidenote: Negro Problem]

The Southern states of the Union, though they have much less immigration than the North or West, have a population problem that is even more difficult in some respects—that of the negro. Many immigrant elements are readily “amalgamated” or assimilated into the native local population—by marriage, by trade, and indeed even by physical environment. It seems certain, for instance, that the physical type of the children of Italian or Hebrew immigrants in New York City is different from that of their parents and more like a local type, even in such respects as the shape and contour of the head and its ratio of length to breadth. But the negro does not assimilate physically or, to any considerable degree, mentally; and the communities in America in which he is most plentiful are so far from eager to assimilate him that they socially and politically isolate him. The reader should go to the article NEGRO (Vol. 19, p. 344), in which there is a general study of the race by T. Athol Joyce, assistant in the Department of Ethnography, British Museum, and a section on Negroes in the United States by Dr. Walter Francis Willcox, late chief statistician U. S. Census Bureau and professor of social science and statistics, Cornell University. The magnitude of the negro problem may be deduced from Professor Willcox’s remark that the present number of negroes in the United States “is greater than the total population of the United States was in 1820, and nearly as great as the population of Norway, Sweden and Denmark.” Birth and mortality statistics in regard to negroes show that they are increasing much less rapidly than whites; but it must be remembered that there is an absolute increase, that there is no prospect of the negro problem being solved by the dying out of the race, and that even the fact that negroes constitute a smaller proportion of the population than formerly does not greatly affect the problem. There is also much relevant information of value in the articles on the Southern states, particularly in the sections on population, education and government; and as to education see the articles TUSKEGEE (Vol. 27, p. 487), BOOKER T. WASHINGTON (Vol. 28, p. 344) and S. C. ARMSTRONG (Vol. 2, p. 591). See also the article LYNCH LAW (Vol. 17, p. 169) by Prof. W. L. Fleming of the Louisiana State University.

[Sidenote: Trusts]

There is a very close relation between the economic problems connected with labour and those which have to do with capital and especially with capital in its organized and monopolistic forms. A monopoly of the supply, sale, or manufacture of any class of goods was, especially in England under the Tudors and Stuarts, a crown grant; and the theory of patent and copyright law is based on such grants, as is shown in the articles MONOPOLY (Vol. 18, p. 733), LETTERS PATENT (Vol. 16, p. 501), and PATENTS (Vol. 20, p. 903). On the modern monopoly which, far from being cherished by government, is constantly being regulated, checked or “crushed,” see the article TRUSTS (Vol. 22, p. 334) by Prof. J. W. Jenks, formerly of Cornell and now of New York University, whose treatment is from the American point of view—the problem is peculiarly an American one—but with sections on European experience, including paragraphs on Great Britain, Germany, France and Austria.

Among the questions answered by this article—questions that are continually presenting themselves to the mind of every intelligent citizen, but that are seldom lucidly answered even by the most intelligent—are:

What are trusts? Why are they formed?

Why were they not formed before the latter years of the 19th century?

Why can combination be successfully applied in some industries and not in others? Why do some industries thrive better under competition than under combination? Why are some combinations bound to fail?

In what respect has the trust advantages over the individual competitor?

How do trusts benefit by protective tariffs and by discrimination in rates of transportation?

What has been the history of trusts in Europe?

The question of most interest to the ordinary person is: Do trusts raise prices? To this the Encyclopaedia Britannica answers: “Experience seems to show, beyond question, that whenever the combinations are powerful enough to secure a monopolistic control it has usually been the policy to increase the prices above those which obtained during the period of competition preceding the formation of the combination.” Besides this increased price, the evils of combinations are: loss to investors through promotion and speculation by directors; loss to wage-earners, corruption of legislatures, and the suppression of independent activity.

The most obvious remedies are “more rigid laws with reference to the methods of incorporation and to the responsibility of directors to stockholders and to the public,” greater publicity and closer government inspection, and the abolition of special favours granted by government and shipping companies.

[Sidenote: Government Control]

For American legislation in regard to trusts see the article INTERSTATE COMMERCE (Vol. 14, p. 711), equivalent to 10 pages of this Guide, by Prof. Frank A. Fetter, formerly of Cornell and now of Princeton University. This article shows the constitutional basis for action by the Federal government and the power given to Congress to regulate commerce among the several states; and it describes the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887, amended in 1903 by the Elkins Act, and the Sherman Anti-Trust Act of 1890. See also in the article UNITED STATES, the section History, §§ 353, 357, 396 (pp. 725, 726, 733 of Vol. 27).

But although there have been great changes in the relation of government to the individual in his private and business life, the extent of practical government control is still much less than many theorists would like to see. It is true that in many countries of Europe railways are owned and operated by the state—see p. 826 of Vol. 22, in the article RAILWAYS. See also the article NEW ZEALAND and the summary of conditions there (p. 307, Vol. 25), in part as follows:

The government owns not only the railways, but two-thirds of the whole land, letting it on long leases. It sets a limit to large estates. It levies a progressive income-tax and land tax. It has a labour department, strict factory acts and a law of compulsory arbitration in labour disputes (1895). There are old-age pensions (1898), government insurance of life (1871) and against fire (1905). Women have the suffrage, and, partly in consequence, the restriction of the liquor traffic is severe. There is a protective tariff, and Oriental labour is excluded. The success of the experiment is not yet beyond doubt; compulsory arbitration, for example, did not work with perfect smoothness, and was amended in 1908.... It is fair to add that the experiment is probably on too small a scale to show what might happen in larger countries. New Zealand has only 100,000 sq. m. of territory and about one million of inhabitants, mainly rural and of picked quality. The conditions of combined isolation and security are not easily obtained elsewhere. The action of the state has been in the great majority of instances rather regulative than constructive.

[Sidenote: Socialism, etc.]

But in general governments have extended their control more or less along the conventional lines of law and legislative theory, and have not undertaken ownership and operation—even in New Zealand, as we have just seen, public action being “rather regulative than constructive.” See the general article SOCIALISM (Vol. 25, p. 310) and biographies of those connected with the Socialist movement, such as Marx, Lassalle, Robert Owen, Rodbertus, Bebel, Liebknecht, Jaures, Ballance, William Morris, Edward Bellamy, and Henry George. On communism, see the article on that subject, the biographies of Owen, Saint-Simon, Fourier, Cabet, etc., and descriptions of the more important American communistic experiments in the articles on Brook Farm, Shakers, Amana, Nauvoo, Harmony, Oneida Community, Hopedale, etc. For communism merely as a business scheme see the article CO-OPERATION (Vol. 7, p. 82) and the biographies of Raiffeisen and Schulze-Delitzsch.

[Sidenote: Finance]

We have now run through the more strikingly novel public questions of the day, and we come next to questions which have been long discussed and longer recognized as being within the sphere of government. The one of these that is most intimately connected with the economic problems we have just been discussing is the subject of public finance and revenue. On this read the articles FINANCE (Vol. 10, p. 374), TAXATION (Vol. 26, p. 458), and NATIONAL DEBT (Vol. 19, p. 266); and, on American public finance, see Vol. 27, p. 654; on Congressional legislation and finance, p. 661 of the same volume; for a general and statistical treatment of American finance, the sections headed Finance in each article dealing with a state of the Union, the articles GOLD (Vol. 12, p. 192), SILVER (Vol. 25, p. 112), and BIMETALLISM (Vol. 3, p. 946), and the biographies of ROBERT MORRIS (Vol. 18, p. 871), ALEXANDER HAMILTON (Vol. 12, p. 880), and JAY COOKE (Vol. 7, p. 73).

[Sidenote: Tariff]

Of perennial interest in the field of public finance is the question of tariff reform. This is true both in the United States and in the United Kingdom, but strangely enough “tariff reform” is used with absolutely opposite meanings in the two countries. Tariff reform in England is linked with Imperialism and means the introduction of higher tariffs for protection of colonial as well as British industries. In the United States the typical tariff reformer is usually an opponent of Imperialism (which, of course, does not mean the same thing in the two countries), and tariff reform here involves lowering duties, doing away with protection, and, in short, adopting approximately the very system now in vogue in the United Kingdom, and the very system that the followers of Joseph Chamberlain wish to replace with something not entirely unlike the American protective system as it has been since the Civil War. On this subject see the article TARIFF (Vol. 26, p. 422), by the American economist, F. W. Taussig, professor at Harvard, the articles PROTECTION (Vol. 22, p. 464), by E. J. James, president of the University of Illinois, and author of the History of American Tariff Legislation, and FREE TRADE (Vol. 11, p. 88), by the Venerable Dr. William Cunningham, Archdeacon of Ely, and author of The Growth of English Industry and Commerce; the biographies of ALEXANDER HAMILTON (Vol. 12, p. 880), and HENRY CLAY (Vol. 6, p. 470), for the foundation of American protection; and the articles on H. C. CAREY (Vol. 5, p. 329), FRIEDRICH LIST (Vol. 16, p. 776), and WILLIAM MCKINLEY (Vol. 17, p. 256) for the principal exponents, theoretical and practical, outside of Great Britain, of protection; the lives of RICHARD COBDEN (Vol. 6, p. 607) and JOHN BRIGHT (Vol. 4, p. 567) and the article CORN-LAWS (Vol. 7, p. 174) for the genesis of free trade in Great Britain; and the article on JOSEPH CHAMBERLAIN (in particular pp. 816–817 of Vol. 5) for English tariff reform in politics.

[Sidenote: Banking Laws]

Another topic in public finance of great interest at the present moment is the banking laws,—the interference of government with banking and similar business. Local regulations in regard to banking will be found in sections on legislation and finance in articles on each of the states of the Union. The article OKLAHOMA (Vol. 20, p. 57), for example, contains the following summary of the first radical state enactment—constitutional in this case,—providing bank guarantees:

The unique feature of the banking system (with amendments adopted by the second legislature becoming effective on the 11th of June, 1909) is a fund for the guaranty of deposits. The state banking board levies against the capital stock of each state bank and trust company, organized or existing, under the laws of the state to create a fund equal to 5% of average daily deposits other than the deposits of state funds properly secured. One-fifth of this fund is payable the first year and one-twentieth each year thereafter; 1% of the increase in average deposits is collected each year. Emergency assessments, not to exceed 2%, may be made whenever necessary to pay in full the depositors in an insolvent bank; if the guaranty fund is impaired to such a degree that it is not made up by the 2% emergency assessment, the state banking board issues certificates of indebtedness which draw 6% interest and which are paid out of the assessment. Any national bank may secure its depositors in this manner if it so desires. The bank guarantee law was held to be valid by the United States Supreme Court in 1908, after the attorney-general of the United States had decided that it was illegal.

More general treatment is to be found in the articles BANKS AND BANKING (Vol. 3, p. 334), SAVINGS BANKS (Vol. 24, p. 243) and TRUST COMPANY (Vol. 27, p. 329); and see further the articles listed in the chapter in this Guide For Bankers and Financiers.

[Sidenote: Insurance]

Another sphere of private finance over which government restriction and regulation has been greatly extended during the last few years, is insurance. The entire subject of insurance is, moreover, of interest not merely to the citizen as a member of the body politic but to the individual as the head of a family and as an investor for his own protection in old age. To every one, therefore, the article INSURANCE (Vol. 14, p. 656) will be of the utmost value, by reason of its rare combination of interest and authority. For a full analysis of this article and of related topics see the chapter in this Guide For the Insurance Man.

[Sidenote: Legislation and Courts]

Much of the earlier part of the present chapter has been devoted to the rapid extension of governmental control, regulation and supervision through legislation. Interesting and novel though this is, it is far less important for an intelligent comprehension of government than is a careful study of the foundations and principles of legislation. Only the specialist will wish to pursue a complete course in political science, but every well-informed citizen of the United States should study the general powers and functions of national and state legislatures and courts. This material is given briefly, lucidly and critically by the Hon. James Bryce, late British Ambassador to the United States, former President of the British Board of Trade, and author of The American Commonwealth, in the section Constitution and Government, article UNITED STATES (Vol. 27, pp. 646–658). Part of this section deals with the governments of the states, as to which there is also special information in the section on government of the article on each state. Regarding city governments similar sections will be found in the articles on the larger cities. For a full analysis and a list of articles see the chapter For Lawyers in this Guide. Constitutional restrictions of all delegated powers must be continually kept in mind in the study of the action of legislatures and courts, and of the questions that arise in regard to legislation or to court decisions. Although the legislature represents the people more or less directly—the lower house being commonly called the House of Representatives—and so has delegated to it from the people the power of making laws, still, in the Federal and state constitutions (except those of a very recent date) there is a system of checks on every delegated power. The result is that an act passed by Congress does not become law without the approval of the president, nor, in most states, a local statute without that of the governor, and—more important—is not a valid law if the highest Federal Court (or, if it be a state enactment, the highest state court) holds it contrary to the terms of the constitution. [Sidenote: The System of Checks] For a summary of the historical arguments for this system of checks see the section on the Constitution (Vol. 27, p. 686), in the article UNITED STATES and such biographical articles as JAMES MADISON (Vol. 17, p. 284); ALEXANDER HAMILTON (Vol. 12, p. 880), and GOUVERNEUR MORRIS (Vol. 18, p. 869). The working of this system in nation and state has been greatly affected by the distinction between the legislators’ mandate and that of the judge. Legislators have shorter terms of service than judges, and especially judges of the higher courts, and so may be said to be in much closer and more constant contact with the people; and the legislator is bound by what he thinks the people need and want,—something that is continually changing. On the other hand, the judge is bound by the written law, unchanged and unchangeable except by constitutional amendments or slightly varying interpretation of the constitution. The result has been dissatisfaction with the courts and with legislatures. The definite expression of this dissatisfaction is in constitutional amendments or in new constitutions, adopted in order that future action of the courts may more nearly accord with the present sentiment of the people. The story of the constitution of each state in the Union is told, with a summary of important constitutional changes, in the section on government of each article on a separate state. In his analysis of the state constitutions, Mr. Bryce says (Vol. 27, p. 647):

[Sidenote: Initiative, Referendum and Recall]

Comparing the old constitutions with the new ones, it may be said that the note of those enacted in the first thirty or forty years of the republic was their jealousy of executive power and their careful safeguarding of the rights of the citizen; that of the second period, from 1820 to the Civil War (1861–65), the democratization of the suffrage of institutions generally; that of the third period (since the war to the present day), a disposition to limit the powers and check the action of the legislature, and to commit power to the hands of the whole people voting at the polls.

And at the close of his treatment of local government in the United States, the same authority writes (Vol. 27, p. 651):

Several state constitutions now contain provisions enabling a prescribed number (or proportion) of the voters in a state or city to submit a proposition to all the registered voters of the state (or city) for their approval. If carried, it takes effect as a law. This is the Initiative. These constitutions also allow a prescribed number of voters to demand that a law passed by the state legislature, or an ordinance passed by the municipal authority, be submitted to all the voters for their approval. If rejected by them, it falls to the ground. This is the Referendum. Some cities also provide in their charters that an official, including the mayor or a member of the council, may be displaced from office if, at a special election held on the demand of a prescribed number of the city voters, he does not receive the largest number of votes cast. This is the Recall. All these three institutions are in operation in some Western states and are spreading to some of the Eastern cities. Their working is observed with lively interest, for they carry the principle of direct popular sovereignty to lengths unprecedented except in Switzerland. But it is not merely to the faith of the Western Americans in the people that their introduction is due. Quite as much must be ascribed to the want of faith in the legislature of states and cities, which are deemed too liable to be influenced by selfish corporations.

In connection with the above reference to the referendum and initiative in Switzerland, see the description of the Swiss system of continuous control by the electors (Vol. 26, p. 243).

On previous experience, outside the United States, with the referendum and the initiative, see the article REFERENDUM (Vol. 23, p. 1), by the Rev. Dr. W. A. B. Coolidge, an American whose life has been chiefly spent in, and devoted to the study of, Switzerland, where the system was evolved. In the United States the system was first tried in Oregon, and the student should read the description in the article OREGON of the legislative department (Vol. 20, p. 246), which also deals with the recall of officers. See also under OKLAHOMA (Vol. 20, p. 59), and the articles on SOUTH DAKOTA and LOS ANGELES.

[Sidenote: Suffrage]

On suffrage in the United States see p. 647 of Vol. 27, describing the requirements in different states and pointing out that “by the Federal Constitution state suffrage is also the suffrage for Federal elections, viz. elections of representatives in Congress and of presidential electors.” On representation see the passage on p. 653 of Vol. 27, a portion of which has been quoted above; and on representation in state legislatures see p. 647 of Vol. 27 and consult the articles on the separate states, where in the sections headed Government there is also supplementary information about election and ballot laws. It is interesting to note, in the articles on Mississippi, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Louisiana and Oklahoma, that these states have practically disfranchised the negro. For a concrete instance of the awkward working of the electoral college, in the choice of the president in 1876, see the article ELECTORAL COMMISSION (Vol. 9, p. 172). On the position of aliens see the articles ALLEGIANCE (Vol. 1, p. 689) and NATURALIZATION (Vol. 19, p. 275); and articles on various states. In the article OREGON, for instance (Vol. 20, p. 245), the reader will find that “the constitution provides that no Chinaman, not a resident of the state at the time of the adoption of the constitution, shall ever hold any real estate or mining claim, or work any mining claim in the state.”

See also, on the whole subject, the articles BALLOT (Vol. 3, p. 279); VOTE (Vol. 28, p. 216); VOTING MACHINES (Vol. 28, p. 217); ELECTION (Vol. 9, p. 169); REPRESENTATION (Vol. 23, especially pp. 112–116, for proportional voting, second choice voting, etc.), and WOMEN (Vol. 28, p. 782) for the history of the woman’s suffrage movement. In that connection it is curious to note in this article (p. 787) that, owing to an oversight in the wording of the first constitution of New Jersey, women could vote in that state from 1776 to 1807. For any thorough knowledge of practical, as contrasted with theoretical representative government in the United States, the student should read what Mr. Bryce has to say about Party Government (Vol. 27, p. 658–660); a large part of the article on the history of the United States after the adoption of the Constitution (Vol. 27, pp. 688–735); articles on the great parties, FEDERALIST (Vol. 10, p. 235), DEMOCRATIC (Vol. 8, p. 2), and REPUBLICAN (Vol. 23, p. 177); and the lives of the great party leaders from Hamilton and Jefferson to McKinley, Roosevelt, Bryan and Woodrow Wilson. A fuller outline for the study of United States history will be found in another chapter of this Guide, on History of the United States.

[Sidenote: Municipal Government]

But the Federal government and even the state governments do not touch any one of us so closely as does the local government of our city and township; and Mr. Bryce gives (Vol. 27, p. 650) a valuable criticism of the American system of local government,—which, in some cities, indeed, seems a lack of system in the business sense of that word, and a control of the government by political parties prone to corruption, bribery and the granting of special privilege. Mr. Bryce dwells on the over-developed power of the state in legislating for the cities or other minor governmental units, and the consequent activity of local city interests in state and national politics, but he also points to the growing tendency of the states to permit cities to enact their own charters. The movement to take the city government out of politics has reached its greatest force—and its greatest success—in government by commission.

In 1902 the city of Galveston, in Texas, adopted a new form of municipal government by vesting all powers in a commission of five persons, elected by the citizens on a “general ticket,” one of whom is mayor and head of the commission, while each of the others has charge of a department of municipal administration. A similar plan, differing in some details, was subsequently introduced in the city of Des Moines, in Iowa; and the success which has attended this new departure in both cities has led to its adoption in many others, especially, but not exclusively, in the Western states.

For a fuller account see the articles on GALVESTON and DES MOINES, where, as in other articles on towns and cities, there is a summary of their government and particularly of the distinctive features of local administration.

[Sidenote: International Relations]

What we have said, up to this point, has all dealt with our country as a self-contained unit—except that we have touched on tariffs and on immigration and on the treatment of aliens. In the article ALIEN (Vol. 1, p. 662) the reader will find the sentence: “In the United States the separate state laws largely determine the status of an alien, but subject to Federal treaties.” And Mr. Bryce (Vol. 27, p. 652) characterizes some of the powers allotted to the national government “which relate to its action in the international sphere.” See particularly Mr. Bryce’s remarks (Vol. 27, p. 656) on the powers of the president:

In time of war or of public disturbance, however, the domestic authority of the president expands rapidly. This was markedly the case during the Civil War. As commander-in-chief of the army and navy, and as ‘charged with the faithful execution of all laws,’ he is likely to assume, and would indeed be expected to assume, all the powers which the emergency requires. In ordinary times the president may be almost compared to the managing clerk in a large business establishment, whose chief function is to select his subordinates, the policy of the concern being in the hands of the board of directors. But when foreign affairs reach a critical stage, or when disorders within the Union require Federal intervention, immense responsibility is then thrown on one who is both commander-in-chief of the army and the head of the civil executive. In no European country is there any personage to whom the president can be said to correspond. He may have to exert more authority, even if he enjoys less dignity, than a European king. He has powers which are in ordinary times narrower than those of a European prime minister; but these powers are more secure, for instead of depending on the pleasure of a parliamentary majority, they run on to the end of his term.

In this connection you should read the articles INTERNATIONAL LAW and INTERNATIONAL LAW (PRIVATE), TREATIES, PEACE, PEACE CONFERENCES, PAN-AMERICAN CONFERENCES and ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL; the last showing plainly how large a part the United States has played in promoting better international feeling throughout the world.

Such articles as these tell how peace has changed from a purely negative condition to a positive subject of international regulation and an object of active political effort. They answer the following concrete questions on the subject:

What was the earliest plan of peace known to history? What were the Pax Romana, the “Truce of God,” the “Grand Design” of Henry IV, and other schemes for the preservation of peace?

What was the greatest deliberate effort ever made to secure the peace of the world?

What has been done by the two Hague Conferences, and when will the next one be held?

How far can disarmament be carried out?

What standing-peace agreements have been executed?

What is the history of popular effort for international peace, and what peace societies exist to-day?

What are the present recognized limitations of international arbitration?

What are the first steps toward an era of universal peace?

What has been accomplished by the Pan-American Conferences?

[Sidenote: International Affairs]

On international affairs of to-day in which the United States has a special interest there is a wealth of information in the Britannica. The first topic that will naturally present itself to the mind of the reader is the Panama canal. On this see the article PANAMA CANAL (Vol. 20, p. 666), with a large-scale map, a history of the project and a description of the engineering features; and on the politics, national and international, of the question of building the canal, the articles COLOMBIA, PANAMA, ROOSEVELT, UNITED STATES, History (Vol. 27, pp. 730 and 732), JOHN HAY, and PAUNCEFOTE.

Our relations with Colombia in connection with the canal will naturally lead the student to a general consideration of the relation of the United States with the Latin-American countries. Here the most interesting factor is the Monroe Doctrine, which has been characterized “as one of the things that every one knows about but that few can explain.” Read the article MONROE DOCTRINE (Vol. 18, p. 738), by Dr. T. S. Woolsey, Professor of international law, Yale University; the article JAMES MONROE (Vol. 18, p. 736), and, in the article UNITED STATES, History § 156 (Vol. 27, p. 695).

A second topic in the story of Latin-America and the United States is Cuba; and this part of the story has probably never been told as accurately and interestingly as in the articles CUBA (Vol. 7, p. 594), and HAVANA (Vol. 13, p. 76) in the Britannica, both by Dr. F. S. Philbrick.

American relations with the Orient is a third subject of importance in the foreign affairs of the United States; and in this subject the most interesting topic is Chinese and Japanese exclusion. On this see the articles CALIFORNIA, SAN FRANCISCO, COOLIE, and UNITED STATES, History § 339 (Vol. 27, p. 723). At the end of the article JAPAN (Vol. 15, p. 156) there is a section on The Claims of Japan, by Baron Dairoku Kikuchi, which is of great interest in this connection.

[Sidenote: Sea-Power]

The place of the United States as a world power, we are proud to say, depends little on its army or navy—because of its enormous latent strength, its commanding geographical position, etc. But the comparatively greater importance of navy over army is now admitted by nearly every serious thinker—it was the concrete lesson of the Spanish-American War of 1898 as it was the point of the valuable historical essays on sea-power written before and since that war by the American naval officer, Rear-Admiral A. T. Mahan. The American navy and the navies of the world are matters of interest to every one—and like all matters of importance they are to be found treated in the Britannica.

In general see the elaborate articles NAVY (Vol. 19, p. 299); SEA-POWER (Vol. 25, p. 548); and SEA, COMMAND OF THE (Vol. 24, p. 529); and for a detailed course of reading on naval history and theory see the chapter in this Guide For Naval Officers.

[Sidenote: The Greater United States]

The topics just discussed will serve as an introduction to the study of the Imperial United States, which may be pursued in the articles ALASKA, HAWAII, PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, PORTO RICO, GUAM and CUBA, and the articles on the towns and cities in the outlying possessions.

The result of reading these articles will be a determination to know more about your country, to master its history, its industries and its commerce as well as its political conditions.

Spotted a typo or a problem in this chapter? Tell us

LXV. FOR WOMEN

It would be absurd, in the full stream of the 20th century, to imagine that any of the articles in the new edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica can be either beyond the comprehension of women or unlikely to interest women. And since any method of selection is also a method of elimination, it may be illogical to suggest that any one class of articles especially merits their attention. But the difficulty is purely formal. For perhaps the greatest victory of the feminist movement lies in the demonstrated proposition that women can, in one field after another, establish their equality with men, without losing any of their superiority in the exercise of those arts to which they were formerly restricted. And this chapter, therefore, after describing the articles which relate to the present political and economic position of women, naturally turns to subjects such as domestic science and the adornment of the home, which in all ages and all countries have been considered to be the special province of women.

[Sidenote: Women Contributors]

If the question of women’s ability to do a full share of the world’s work any longer admitted of argument, there would be no more vivid way of coming to an appreciation of the versatility and range as well as the high quality of women’s intellectual capacity than by looking at the contributions by women to the Britannica itself. First in mass, and first in practical value as because it vastly increases the usefulness of the entire book, is the Index volume with its 975 pages, its 500,000 index entries, its classified list of articles covering nearly 70 pages and its list of contributors and their principal signed articles. This volume was the work of a large and carefully organized staff under the supervision of Miss Janet Hogarth (now Mrs. W. L. Courtney). The following is a partial alphabetical list of women contributors to the Britannica with the more important articles they wrote:

Contributors Articles

Adelaide Mary Anderson (Principal LABOUR LEGISLATION (in part). Lady Inspector of Factories, British Home Office).

Gertrude Atherton (Author of REZÁNOV. Rezánov, The Tower of Ivory, etc.).

Mary Bateson (Late Fellow of BOROUGH ENGLISH. Newnham College, Cambridge; Author of Borough Customs, etc.).

Gertrude Bell (Author of _The DRUSES (in part). Desert and the Sown_).

Isabella Bird Bishop (Author of KOREA (in part). Korea and her Neighbours, etc.).

Lady Broome (Author of _Station WESTERN AUSTRALIA, History. Life in New Zealand_).

Margaret Bryant ALEXANDER THE GREAT, Legends; CAESAR, Medieval Legends; CHARLEMAGNE, Legends; VIRGIL, the Virgil Legend; etc.

Agnes Muriel Clay (Joint Editor of AGRARIAN LAWS (in part); Sources of Roman History). CENTUMVIRI; CURIA; DECURIO; MUNICIPIUM; PATRON AND CLIENT (in part); SENATE.

Agnes M. Clerke (Hon. Member Royal ASTRONOMY, History; BRAHE, TYCHO; Astronomical Society, Author of COPERNICUS; FLAMSTEED; HALLEY; History of Astronomy, etc.). HUYGENS; KEPLER; ZODIAC; etc.

Mrs. Craigie (“John Oliver Hobbes”) GEORGE ELIOT. (Author of _The School for Saints_, etc.).

Lady Dilke (Author of French GREUZE; INGRES; MILLET, J. F. Painters, etc.).

Mme. Duclaux (Author of _Life of RENAN. Renan_, etc.).

Lady Eastlake (Author of _Five GIBSON, JOHN. Great Painters_, etc.).

Lady Gomme (Author of _Traditional CHILDREN’S GAMES. Games of Great Britain_, etc.).

Dr. Harriet L. Hennessy, L.R.C.S.I. GYNAECOLOGY; INFANCY; INTESTINAL OBSTRUCTION; MEDICAL EDUCATION, U. S. A. (in part); RESPIRATORY SYSTEM, Pathology (in part); TUBERCULOSIS, etc.

Lady Huggins (Author, with Sir ARMILLA; ASTROLABE. William Huggins, of _Atlas of Representative Stellar Spectra_, etc.).

Lady Lugard (Author of _A Tropical BRITISH EMPIRE; BAUCHI; BORNU; Dependency_, etc.). KANO; KATAGUM; NASSARAWA; NIGERIA; RHODES, CECIL; SOKOTO; ZARIA.

Kate A. Meakin MOROCCO (in part); TETUAN; SUS.

Alice Meynell (Author of _The BROWNING, ELIZABETH BARRETT. Rhythm of Life_, etc.).

Hilda M. R. Murray (Lecturer on ENGLISH LANGUAGE (in part). English, Royal Holloway College).

Mrs. H. O. O’Neill (Formerly Fellow PECKHAM, JOHN; PREBENDARY; PRELATE; of Manchester University). PRIOR; PROCURATOR; VICAR.

Dr. Anna C. Paues (Author of _A ENGLISH BIBLE (in part). Fourteenth Century Biblical Version_, etc.).

Mrs. W. Alison Phillips (Associate LOUIS XVIII; MARIE ANTOINETTE, etc. of Bedford College, London).

Bertha S. Phillpotts (Formerly GERMANY, Archaeology; NORWAY, Librarian of Girton College, Early History; SCANDINAVIAN Cambridge). CIVILIZATION.

Kathleen Schlesinger (Author of BAGPIPE; BUGLE; DRUM; HARP; HORN; _The Instruments of the ORGAN, Ancient History; Orchestra_, etc.). PIANOFORTE (in part); SPINET; TIMBREL; VIOL; etc.

Mrs. Henry Sidgwick (Hon. Secretary SPIRITUALISM. to the Society for Psychical Research, late Principal of Newnham College).

Mrs. Alec. Tweedie (Author of DIAZ, PORFIRIO. Porfirio Diaz).

Mme. Villari (English translator of SAVONAROLA. works of Prof. Villari).

Mrs. Humphry Ward (Author of LYLY. Robert Elsmere, etc.).

Lady Welby (Author of _What is SIGNIFICS. Meaning?_ etc.).

Jessie L. Weston (Author of KING ARTHUR; ARTHURIAN LEGEND; THE Arthurian Romances, etc.). HOLY GRAIL; GUENEVERE; LANCELOT; MALORY, SIR THOMAS; MAP, WALTER; MERLIN; PERCEVAL; THE ROUND TABLE; TRISTAN; ESCHENBACH, WOLFRAM VON.

Alice Zimmern (Author of _The MARY CARPENTER. Renaissance of Girls’ Education_, etc.).

This remarkable list shows that women have contributed to the Britannica on subjects so varied as astronomy, medieval literature, medicine, sociology, linguistics, literary biography, art criticism, law and politics, political science and sociology, musical instruments, education, the Bible and ecclesiastical history, and philosophy.

[Sidenote: Woman’s Advance]

It may be noted as indicating the advance of women during the last century and a half that in the first edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, which was published in 1771, the article on women consisted of the following eight words “WOMAN,—the female of man—see HOMO.” In the present 11th edition, published nearly a century and a half later, one single article entitled WOMEN in volume 28, beginning on page 782, is equivalent in its contents to 22 pages of this Guide.

What woman has accomplished in scholarship, literature, art and science has been done very largely in the last hundred years. In authorship and, to a greater degree, on the stage her activity dates back a little further. In Shakespeare’s time all women’s parts on the stage were taken by boys. In fact as the Britannica tells us (Vol. 8, p. 521) in the days of Queen Elizabeth and Shakespeare “No woman might appear at a playhouse, unless masked.”

It is only in comparatively recent times that the real “emancipation” of woman began; and this explains why the list of women famous in history is so much longer than any of the other lists given in this part of the Guide. Through earlier periods women attained power only by birth, by marriage, or by being “queens uncrowned,” but none the less powerful on that account, like Aspasia, Nell Gwyn, Jane Shore and the Pompadour.

There can be no question that during most of the world’s history, woman’s only place was in the home. And it is certain that no matter how far her emancipation may be carried the home will be a sphere for her. Her relation to her husband and her children, her right to a share of his property and of theirs—and to her own—as now more liberally granted and interpreted by law, are outlined in the Britannica. The status of women in early times is described in the article in the Britannica on women. It is, with variations in different places, everywhere a story of dependence. Even in Roman law a woman was completely dependent. If married she and her property passed into the power of her husband; if unmarried she was (unless a vestal virgin) under the perpetual tutelage of her father during his life, and after his death of her agnates, that is, of those of kinsmen by blood or adoption who would have been under the power of the common ancestor had he lived. Under English civil law a girl can contract a valid marriage at 12, a boy at 14. Under the common law “the father was entitled as against the mother to the custody of a legitimate child up to the age of sixteen, and could only forfeit such right by misconduct.” But the Court of Chancery sometimes “took a less rigid view of the paternal rights and looked more to the interest of the child, and consequently in some cases to the extension of the mother’s right at common law. Legislation has tended in the same direction.” In England women are still under two remarkable disabilities: “the exclusion of female heirs from intestate succession unless in the absence of a male heir; and the fact that a husband could obtain a divorce for the adultery of his wife, while a wife could only obtain it for her husband’s adultery if coupled with some other cause, such as cruelty or desertion.”

[Sidenote: The Legal Status of American Women]

In the United States the legal and political status of woman varies largely with the laws of the different states. For example, as is well known, in certain states women have the same right as men to the ballot. Wyoming (1869) and Colorado (1893) were the first women’s suffrage states. In more than half the states, roughly everywhere except in the South and a few eastern states, she has the right to vote for the members of school boards and has a general school suffrage. In Louisiana since 1898 women tax-payers may vote on questions of tax levies. As regards property rights, in the state of New York, a woman in possession of property, who marries, has the unqualified use, irrespective of the wishes of her husband, of her property. That is, she owns and can spend as she pleases the whole of the income of her property, while, on the other hand, her husband is compelled by law to give her a certain proportion of his income. In other states, Mississippi, notably, the laws as regard property of married women are precisely the same as that for married men. If the husband is compelled to give a certain proportion of his income to his wife, she is compelled to give the same proportion of her income to him. This is true in several states, Michigan, for example, except that married women cannot usually convey property without the husband’s permission. In the state of New York a married woman making her will has a right to dispose of her property as she pleases; whereas in other states, Missouri for instance, the law prescribes that at least one-half shall go to her husband, if there are no children. In other words, in no two states of the Union is the legal and political status of woman the same. It is often important, and in these days always a matter of interest, for a woman to know just what her legal position is in the state in which she lives. This information the Britannica gives.

What a mother can do for her children she may learn from the Britannica articles indicated in the chapters of this Guide For Children and in the chapter For Teachers. Similarly she will find assistance in choosing, building or furnishing a house from the chapters For Builders and Architects, For Designers, For Manufacturers of Furniture, etc.

Such articles as LACE, EMBROIDERY, CARPETS, TAPESTRY, FURNITURE, PAINTING, SCULPTURE, JEWELRY, PLATE, particularly as they are all remarkably well illustrated, will be of great value either for the general formation of taste or for giving definite information about a particular style. For the adornment of “the House Beautiful” the Britannica is, however, valuable not merely because of the information it contains. The set on India paper, compact, slender and graceful, handsomely bound in leather, and contained in one of the “period” bookcases designed especially for the books, is in itself an adornment and an ornament for any library or drawing room. For the country home with flower or vegetable gardens the article HORTICULTURE (Vol. 13, p. 741) will be found full of helpful information, both in its general treatment, and in the gardeners’ calendar for the United States, which tells in the most practical fashion what to do each month in the garden.

[Sidenote: Home Making]

For the transformation of a house, well-situated, well-built, well-furnished, well-decorated into a home,—for home-making,—any course of study in the Britannica should be helpful to a woman, by broadening her sympathies and her knowledge and by making a more interesting and better-informed companion to her husband, a more competent hostess to his and her guests, and a wiser mother to her children. But home-making is an art and not a science—or, if the modern woman will forgive the use of so old-fashioned a phrase, it is a spiritual grace rather than an intellectual achievement—and even a Guide to readings in the Britannica cannot give an exact formula for it.

[Sidenote: Domestic Science]

But there is a science whose field is the home and whose formulas are definite, and this “domestic science” may be learned from the Britannica. Of primary interest is the article DIETETICS (Vol. 8, p. 214), equivalent in length to 25 pages of this Guide. It is by the late Dr. Wilbur Olin Atwater, professor of chemistry, Wesleyan University, Middletown, Connecticut, who was special agent of the U. S. Department of Agriculture in charge of nutrition investigations, and R. D. Milner, formerly of the same Department. It contains 6 valuable tables: I. Percentage Composition of some Common Food Materials (64 in all); II. Digestibility (or Availability) of Nutrients in Different Classes of Food Materials (22 in all); III. Estimates of Heats of Combustion and of Fuel Value of Nutrients in Ordinary Mixed Diet; IV. Quantities of Available Nutrients and Energy in Daily Food Consumption of Persons in Different Circumstances; V. Standards for Dietaries—Available Nutrients and Energy per Man per Day; and VI. Amounts of Nutrients and Energy Furnished for one Shilling in Food Materials at Ordinary Prices (22 food materials, at 44 different prices). The topics of the article are:

Food and its functions—refuse, water, mineral matter, protein, including albuminoids and gelatinoids, fats, carbohydrates.

Conversion of food into body-material and of food and body-material into heat, muscular energy, etc., with results obtained from Dr. Atwater’s famous experiments with men in the “respiration calorimeter,” from measurement and analysis of food and drink, and from measurement of energy expended as heat and as external muscular work.

Composition of food materials.

Digestibility or availability of foods.

Full value of food.

Food consumption.

Quantities of nutrients needed—tentative estimates of the average daily amounts required.

Hygienic economy of food: Eat what agrees with you and use foods which give needed nutriment, but do not burden the body with superfluous material. The importance of good cooking, neatness and cleanliness.

Pecuniary economy of food.

Read also the article NUTRITION (Vol. 19, p. 920, equivalent to 25 pages of this Guide), by Dr. D. N. Paton, professor of physiology, University of Glasgow, and Dr. E. P. Cathcart, lecturer in chemical physiology, University of Glasgow. This article considers “the mode of digestion, the utilization and the elimination of the end products of the three great constituents, proteins, carbohydrates and fats,” discussing in detail:

Chemistry of Digestion—digestion in the mouth, stomach and the intestines; bile.

Mode of Formation of Digestive Secretions—the salivary and gastric glands, secretion in the pancreas, intestinal juice.

Mechanism of the Alimentary Canal—mastication, swallowing, stomach movements, intestinal movements, etc.

Absorption by the mouth, stomach and intestines.

Changes in the cells—proteins, carbohydrates, fats, fasting, muscular work, internal secretions, pancreas.

Excretion—urea, ammonia, sulphur, phosphorus, etc.

[Sidenote: Cookery]

There is much very practical information for the housewife in the article COOKERY (Vol. 7, p. 74), besides the interesting historical sketch. Cookery, says this article, as an art “is only remotely connected with the mere necessities of nutrition or the science of dietetics. Mere hunger, though the best sauce, will not produce cookery, which is the art of sauces.” Oriental, Greek and Roman cookery, at least as we know them from literature, aimed at luxury, rich and rare foods, cost and show. After the Renaissance, the history of modern cookery began with Italy, and from Italy Catherine de’ Medici brought “Italian cooks to Paris and introduced there a cultured simplicity which was unknown in France before.” Forks and spoons were “Italian neatnesses” unknown in England until the early part of the 17th century; their use “marked an epoch in the progress of dining, and consequently of cookery.” French cookery advanced under Louis XIV and XV; received an apparent set back from the French Revolution—which, however, marked the rise of Parisian restaurants; but revived with brilliancy early in the 19th century, so that now “French cooking is admittedly the ideal of culinary art, directly we leave the plain roast and boiled. And the spread of cosmopolitan hotels and restaurants over England, America and the European continent, has largely accustomed the whole civilized world to the Parisian type.”

The article closes with eminently useful “notes on broiling, roasting, baking, boiling, stewing and frying.”

The article FOOD (Vol. 10, p. 611) describes particularly the best foods for infants and children; foods for adults are treated in NUTRITION, DIETETICS, already mentioned, and in the article VEGETARIANISM (Vol. 27, p. 967). Other articles of importance to the cook are:

FOOD PRESERVATION (Vol. 10, p. 612), by Otto Hehner, English public analyst, formerly president of the Society of Public Analysts; and the same authority’s article on ADULTERATION (Vol. 1, p. 218), which deals with legislation against adulteration, and discusses arsenic in foods, preservatives such as formaldehyde and salicylic acid, boracic preservatives,—colouring matter in food, metallic impurities; American laws against adulteration; German laws; particular articles adulterated—milk, condensed milk, cream, butter, margarine, cheese, lard, oils, flour and bread, sugar, marmalade, jams, tea, coffee, chocolate, cocoa, wine, beer, non-alcoholic drinks, vinegar, spirits, drugs. See the chapter For Manufacturers of Foods.

The following is an alphabetical list of the principal articles on foods and beverages:

Absinthe Aerated Waters Ale Arrack Aspic Bacon Bannock Barm Beef Beer Benedictine Biltong Biscuit Bitters Bohea Brandy Bread Brewing Butter Calipash and Calipee Caudle Caviare, or Caviar Chartreuse Chasse Cheese Chocolate Chupatty Chutney Cider Claret Confectionery Cookery Couscous Curaçoa Curry Food Preservation Ghee Gin Gravy Haggis Hippocras Jams and Jellies Junket Kava (Cava, or Ava) Kedgeree Ketchup Kirsch Koumiss Kvass, or Kwass Lard Liqueurs Loaf Macaroni Malmsey Malt Marchpane, or Marzipan Margarine Marmalade Mate Mead Mealie Meat Milk Molasses Mulligatawny Negus Omelette Pemmican Perry Pilau Porridge Pudding Pulque Punch Raisin Ratafia Rum Saké Salad Scone Sherbet Sherry Spirits Steak Suet Syrup Tapioca Tart Tea Toast Treacle Venison Vermicelli Vermouth Vinegar Vodka Whisky Wine Yeast

[Sidenote: Costume and Ornament]

Turning sharply from the useful to the ornamental—from the kitchen to the boudoir—the woman who uses the Britannica will find in it not merely the interesting information to which clues are given in the chapter for the jeweller and in the section on embroidery (Ch. 66) but many other articles about costume and dress, with illustrations which make the text far clearer and more valuable. With the constant turns of Fashion’s wheel, dress, and especially women’s dress, is always reverting to an earlier style or to a more primitive and semi-barbaric style of the present day—now Empire styles, Robespierre collars, close-fitting gowns of the pseudo-Greek style of the Napoleonic era, and now a quasi-folk style, Bulgarian, or Oriental, and again a hint of the ecclesiastical surplice, dalmatic, stole, or collar. The result is that the study of the styles of the past, especially when properly illustrated, may be not only interesting but actually valuable to a woman planning a new gown or a “novel” ornament for head or throat.

The article COSTUME (Vol. 7, p. 224), equivalent in length to 80 pages of this Guide, is written by T. A. Joyce of the Department of Ethnography, British Museum; by Stanley Arthur Cook, editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund, on Egyptian and Semitic costume; by Henry Stuart Jones, late director of the British School at Rome, on Aegean, Greek and Roman costume; by Oswald Barron, late editor of the Ancestor, on medieval and modern costume; and by W. Alison Phillips, author of Modern Europe, etc. Its 51 illustrations are chosen with great care from original sources, tombs, wall-paintings, seals, statues and statuettes, brasses, and portraits of many periods, and they are supplemented by illustrations in other articles:—AEGEAN CIVILIZATION (Vol. 1, p. 245), see Plate III, Fig. 7 and Plate IV, Fig. 7, for multiple or flounced skirts and basques—like those of the early ’80’s—with short overskirt scalloped high on either side; GREEK ART, Figs. 2, 3, 21, 40, 42, 75; TERRACOTTA (Vol. 26, p. 653), see both plates and especially Fig. 4 of Tanagra and other figurines; ROMAN ART (Vol. 23, p. 474), see Figs. 11, 12, 16, 24, 28; BRASSES, MONUMENTAL (Vol. 4, p. 434), see all illustrations; ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS (Vol. 14, p. 312), see Plates III and V; PAINTING (Vol. 20, p. 459), see Figs. 7, 10, 11, 14, 25, 27; LACE (Vol. 16, p. 37), see Figs. 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 18, 33; MINIATURES (Vol. 18, p. 523), see both plates. One of the most interesting sources for the text of the article COSTUME is in the writings of satirists, who from period to period have praised the simplicity and frugality of the preceding generation and bewailed the extravagance in style and material of dress during the satirists’ own day.

Besides this general article on costume there is special treatment of Chinese costume in the article CHINA (Vol. 6, p. 173) and a section on costume in the article INDIA (Vol. 14, p. 417), equivalent to 18 pages of this Guide, written by Col. Charles Grant, formerly inspector of military education in India, illustrated with 16 pen-and-ink drawings by J. Lockwood Kipling, who is best-known to most people as the father of Rudyard Kipling, and the illustrator of Kim, his son’s story of native life in India. On Celtic dress see the article CLAN (Vol. 6, p. 421); on that of the Hittites the article HITTITES (Vol. 13, p. 537); on modern Egyptian the article EGYPT (Vol. 9, p. 31), on Persian, the article PERSIA (Vol. 21, p. 193), etc.

And see the following articles on costume and similar topics:

Aigrette Aiguillette Apron Backscratcher Baldric Bandana, or Bandanna Beard Beaver Blouse Bonnet Braid Burnous Buskin Caftan Chape Chatelaine Costume Cravat Crinoline Cuff Cummerbund Depilatory Dolman Doublet Dress Farthingale Frock Gaberdine Girdle Glove Golosh, or Galosh Gown Haik Hat Hood Hose Jerkin Kaross Kilt Kohl Mantle Mitten Moccasin Moustache Muff Parasol Patten Pelisse Peruke Petticoat Plaid Pomade Pomander Poncho Puttee Queue Razor Robes Sandal Scarf Shampoo Shirt Sleeve Snowshoes Sombrero Sporran Stockings Tabard Tarbush Toilet Towel Trousers Tunic Turban Veil Whisker Wig

[Sidenote: Biographical Study]

A study of the lives of great women will interest any one, and if this study is pursued by means of the Britannica the reader will have the double advantage of getting full and authoritative material presented in the most attractive and excellent style. From the lists that follow of articles on women in the Britannica, interesting groups may easily be chosen, such as:

Famous American Women:—ANNE HUTCHINSON, ALICE AND PHOEBE CARY, MARGARET O’NEILL EATON, MARGARET FULLER, the GRIMKÉ sisters, HARRIET BEECHER STOWE.

Women of Ancient Times:—ACCA LARENTIA, LUCRETIA, AGRIPPINA, ARTEMISIA, ASPASIA, CLEOPATRA, CORNELIA, FAUSTINA, MESSALLINA, VIRGINIA, ERINNA, CORINNA, SAPPHO, HYPATIA, ZENOBIA.

Heroines of Fiction in History: compare Kingsley’s Hypatia with the real woman, Ware’s Zenobia with the queen as she is represented by a historian in the Britannica; the women of Dumas and of Scott in their historical novels and their originals as seen in the Britannica, for instance Mary Queen of Scots as portrayed by Sir Walter in The Abbot and by Swinburne in the Britannica, Elizabeth and Amy Robsart in Kenilworth and in the Britannica, Catherine de’ Medici in Chicot the Jester and in fact; or the women of Shakespeare’s historical plays as compared with their true place in history.

Women in American political reform:—AMELIA B. BLOOMER, SUSAN B. ANTHONY, ELIZABETH CADY STANTON, LUCRETIA MOTT and LUCY BLACKWELL STONE.

* * * * *

The following is a partial list of articles in the Britannica dealing with Women, who may, for convenience, be booked under the broad head of History as distinct from Literature, the Arts and Science:—

Acca Larentia Accoramboni, Vittoria Acland, Lady Harriett Adelaide Agnes of Meran Agreda, Abbess of Agrippina d’Aiguillon, Duchesse Albany, Louise, countess of Alice, Princess Amalasuntha Anna Amalia of Saxe-Weimar Anna Leopoldovna Anne of Brittany Anne of Cleves Anne of Denmark Anne of England Anne of France Anne (of Russia) Arria Arsinoë Artemisia Aspasia Barton, Elizabeth Berenice Blanche of Castile Boadicea Boleyn, Anne Borgia, Lucrezia Brunhilda Cappello, Bianca Caroline, Amelia Augusta Caroline of England Castro, Inez de Catherine of Aragon Catherine of Braganza Catherine de’ Medici Catherine I and II (Russia) Catherine of Valois Châteauneuf, La Belle Christina, Maria Christina of Sweden Clarke, Mary Anne Cleveland, Duchess of Cleopatra Clotilda, St. Colonna, Vittoria Corday, Charlotte Cornelia Cornaro, Caterina Diane de France Diane de Poitiers Du Barry Eaton, Margaret O’Neill Eleanor of Aquitaine Elizabeth of Austria Elizabeth (Carmen Sylva) Elizabeth, Electress Palatine Elizabeth of England Elizabeth (princess) Elizabeth of France Elizabeth Petrovna Este, Beatrice d’ Estrées, Gabrielle d’ Etampes, Duchesse d’ Eudocia Eudoxia Eugénie Euphrosyne Elizabeth Farnese Faustina Feuchères, Baronne de Fredegond Gilbert, M. D. E. R. (“Lola Montez”) Godiva Gontaut, Duchesse de Grey, Lady Jane Hachette, Jeanne Henrietta Maria of England Howard, Catherine Ida of Bernicia Irene Isabella of Bavaria Isabella of Castile Isabella of Hainaut Isabella II of Spain Jacoba Joan of Arc Joan (Pope) Joanna the Mad Joanna of Naples Josephine Junot, Laure Kingston, Elizabeth, Duchess of La Fayette, Louise de Lamballe, Princesse de La Sablière, Marguerite de La Vallière, Louise de Lenclos, Ninon de Lennox, Countess of Lisle, Alice Livia Drusilla Longueville, Duchesse de Louise of Prussia Louise of Savoy Lucretia Macdonald, Flora Maintenon, Mme. de Maine, Duchesse du Mailly, Comtesse de Margaret of Austria Margaret of Denmark Margaret Maultasch Margaret (Maid of Norway) Margaret of Scotland, St. Margaret of Scotland Maria Stella Marie Antoinette Marie Leszczynska Marie Louise Marie de’ Medici Marie Amelie Thérèse Marie Thérèse Matilda of Tuscany Mary of Burgundy Mary I and II of England Mary of Lorraine Mary of Modena Mary of Orange Mary, Queen of Scots Masham, Lady Matilda Messallina Mignot, Claudine Marquise de Montespan Marquise de Montesson Montpensier, Duchesse de Octavia Olga Orkney, Countess of Orleans, Henrietta of Parr, Catherine Perrers, Alice Philippa of Hainaut Phryne Pompadour, Marquise de Portsmouth, Duchess of Prie, Marquise de Radegunda, St. Rich, Penelope Robsart, Amy Rosamond (“The Fair”) Rothelin, Marquise de Roxana Semiramis Serres, Olivia Sforza, Caterina Shore, Jane Snell, Hannah Sophia Aleksyeevna Sophia of Hanover Sophia Dorothea of Hanover Sorel, Agnes Stanhope, Lady Hester Stuart, Arabella Swynford, Catherine Talbot, Mary Anne Tanaquil Tarpeia Theodora Theophano Ursins, Princess des Victoria Virginia Walter, Lucy Wilhelmina Zenobia

Quite as long and much more impressive is the list of women who have produced literature—excluding the heroines of mythology and literature—on whom there are separate articles in the Encyclopaedia Britannica.

Ackermann, Louise Adam, Juliette Agoult, Comtesse d’ Aguilar, Grace Aisse, Mlle. Alcott, Louisa May Anna Commena Arnim, Elisabeth von Aulnoy, Baronne d’ Austen, Jane Austin, Sarah Baillie, Lady Grizel Baillie, Joanna Bartauld, Lady Anne Barnard, Anna Letitia Bashkirtseff, Maria Behn, Aphra Bekker, Elizabeth Bernauer, Agnes Berners, Juliana Blamire, Susanna Blessington, Marguerite, Countess of Blind, Mathilde Bosboom-Toussaint, Anna Braddon, Mary Elizabeth Bremer, Frederika Brontë, Charlotte and Emily Brooke, Frances Browning, Elizabeth Barrett Brunton, Mary Burnett, Frances E. Hodgson Carter, Elizabeth Cary, Alice and Phoebe Cenci, Beatrice Centlivre, Susanna Charrière, Agnes de Child, Lydia Maria Cockburn, Alicia Coleridge, Sara Colet, Louise Cook, Eliza Cooke, Rose Terry Corelli, Marie Corinna Cork, Mary, countess of Cottin, Marie Cowley, Hannah Craddock, Charles Egbert Craigie, Pearl (“John Oliver Hobbes”) Craik, Dinah Maria Craven, Pauline D’Arblay, Frances Dashkov, Catherina Deffand, Marquise du Delany, Mary Granville Dickinson, Anna Elizabeth Droste-Hülshoff, Freiin von Duff-Gordon, Lucie Edgeworth, Maria Edgren-Leffler, Anne Charlotte Edwards, Amelia Ann Blandford Eliot, George Engelbrechtsdatter, Dorthe Épinay, Louise d’ Erinna Ewing, Juliana Ferrier, Susan E. Flygare-Carlén, Emilie Foote, Mary Hallock Fuller, Margaret Fullerton, Lady Gaskell, Elizabeth Cleghorn Gay, Marie F. S. Genlis, Comtesse de Girardin, Delphine de Godwin, Mary Wollstonecraft Gore, Catherine G. F. Gyllembourg-Ehrensvärd, Baroness Gyp Hahn-Hahn, Ida von Havergal, Frances Ridley Hamilton, Elizabeth Haywood, Eliza Hemans, Felicia Dorothea Houdetot, Comtesse de Howe, Julia Ward Hrosvitha Hypatia Inchbald, Elizabeth Ingelow, Jean Jackson, Helen Maria (“H. H.”) Jameson, Anna Brownell Jewett, Sarah Orne Kavanagh, Julia Krüdener, Baroness von Lamb, Mary Lazarus, Emma Lee, Sophia Levy, Amy Lewald, Fanny Lyall, Edna Malet, Lucas Marguerite de Valois Marie de France Markham, Mrs. Martineau, Harriet Meynell, Alice C. Mitford, Mary Russell Molesworth, Mary Louise Monk, Maria Montagu, Elizabeth R. Montagu, Mary Wortley More, Hannah Morgan, Lady Sydney Moulton, Louise Chandler Mundt, Klara (Luise Mühlbach) Naden, Constance Nairne, Baroness Negri, Ada Norton, Caroline E. O. Oliphant, Margaret Opie, Amelia Orzeszko, Eliza Ouida Pardoe, Julia Pardo-Bazan, Emilia Philips, Katharine Piozzi, Hester Lynch Pisan, Christine de Ploennies, Luise von Porter, Jane Praxilla Radcliffe, Ann Reeve, Clara Rossetti, Christine Sablé, Marquise de Sand, George Sappho Schelling, Karoline Schreiber, Charlotte Elizabeth Scudéry, Madeleine de Serao, Matilda Sévigné, Marquise de Seward, Anna Sherwood, Mary Martha Sigourney, Lydia H. Smith, Charlotte Southworth, Emma Staal, Baronne de Stael, Mme. de Steele, Flora Annie Stein, Charlotte von Stowe, Harriet Beecher Strickland, Agnes Tautphoeus, Baroness von Taylor, Ann and Jane Thaxter, Celia Tighe, Mary Tucker, Charlotte Maria Ward, Elizabeth Stuart Phelps Ward, Mrs. Humphry Wardlaw, Lady Wiggin, Kate Douglas Wilkins, Mary E. Winchelsea, Countess of Wood, Mrs. Henry Wordsworth, Dorothy Yonge, Charlotte Mary

Although women have appeared on the stage only in the last two centuries the list of actresses and singers on whom there are articles in the Britannica is a long one. A partial list in alphabetical order follows:

Abbott, Emma Abington, Frances Albani, Mme. Albert, Mme. Alboni, Marietta Anderson, Mary Ashwell, Lena Bartet, Jeanne Julia Bernhardt, Sarah Birch-Pfeiffer, Charlotte Bracegirdle, Anne Campbell, Beatrice Stella Calvé, Emma Cary, Anna Louise Celeste, Mme. Chaminade, Cécile Clairon, La Clive, Catherine Coghlan, Rose Cushman, Charlotte Després, Suzanne Drew, Louisa Lane Dumesnil, Marie Duse, Eleanora Elssler, Fanny Farren, Elizabeth Faucit, Helena Félix, Lia Fenton, Lavinia Fiske, Minnie Maddern Gilbert, Ann Grisi, Giulia Guilbert, Yvette Guimard, Marie Madeleine Gwyn, Nell Hading, Jane Horton, Christiana Jordan, Dorothea Keeley, Mary Anne Kellogg, Clara Louise Keene, Laura Klafsky, Katharina Lacy, Harriette Deborah Langtry, Lillie Lecouvreur, Adrienne Lind, Jenny Mara, Gertrude E. Marlowe, Julia Mars, Mlle. Melba Menken, Adah Isaacs Modjeska, Helena Morris, Clara Neilson, Adelaide Nethersole, Olga Nisbett, Louisa C. Nordica, Lilian Oldfield, Anne O’Neill, Eliza Patey, Janet Monach Philips, Adelaide Pope, Jane Porter, Mary Raabe, Hedwig Rachel Raucourt, Mlle. Rehan, Ada Réjane, Gabrielle Ristori, Adelaide Robinson, Mary Sacher, Rosa Sainton-Dobly, C. H. Schröder, Sophie Schröder-Devrient, Wilhelmine Seebach, Marie Siddons, Sarah Smithson, Henrietta C. Sterling, Antoinette Sterling, Fanny Taglioni Tempest, Marie Terry, Ellen Tietjens, Thérèse Verbruggen, Susanna Vestris, Lucia Elizabeth Vincent, Mary Ann Vokes, Rosina Woffington, Peg Yates, Mary Ann

Both in Great Britain and in the United States the great social reform movements of the last century numbered among their most able advocates brilliant and devoted women. This is true of temperance, abolition of slavery, prison reform, the treatment of the insane and defectives, and nearly every branch which this Guide has enumerated, especially in Part 4, where there is a general outline of these reforms. For the part played by women see the biographies of the women just mentioned and, among many others, JANE ADDAMS, CLARA BARTON, BARONESS BURDETT-COUTTS, DOROTHEA LYNDE DIX, EMILY FAITHFUL, ELIZABETH FRY, OCTAVIA and MIRANDA HILL, MARY A. LIVERMORE and LUCRETIA MOTT. More particularly the following list of names of women connected with educational progress will supplement what has been said in the chapter of this Guide For Teachers and in the part of the Guide dealing with advances in education and educational problems in the chapter Questions of the Day:

Astell, Mary Beale, Dorothea Bodichon, Barbara L. S. Brace, Julia Bridgman, Laura Bass, Frances Mary Carpenter, Mary Clough, Anne Jemima Crandall, Prudence Keller, Helen Lyon, Mary Shirreff, Emily Swanwick, Anna

And see also the articles CO-EDUCATION and articles on different colleges for women, e.g., MOUNT HOLYOKE, VASSAR, BRYN MAWR, SMITH, etc. One who wishes to realize the extent of feminine talent or genius should read the lives in the Britannica of the sculptor HARRIET HOSMER and of women painters including CECILIA BEAUX, ROSA BONHEUR, ARTEMISIA GENTILESCHI, KATE GREENWAY, ANGELICA KAUFFMANN, TERESA SCHWARTZE and MME. VIGÉE-LEBRUN. But the reader who is eager rather to know whether woman’s intellectual powers—not her talent and her genius—compare favourably with those of the male, will find material in the biographical sketches of the physicist MME. CURIE; the geologist MARY ANNING; the travelers ISABELLA BIRD BISHOP and ALEXANDRINA TINNÉ; the biologists MARIANNE NORTH and ELEANOR ORMEROD; the American ethnologist ALICE C. FLETCHER; and above all—since mathematics has always been considered above the capacity of women—the mathematicians MARIA GAETANA AGNESI and SOPHIE KOVALEVSKY and the astronomers AGNES MARY CLERKE, MARIA CUNITZ, CAROLINE HERSCHEL, MARIA MITCHELL and MARY SOMERVILLE.

It is pertinent to add that the present 11th edition of the Britannica indicates the advance of women not only by embodying their collaboration to an unprecedented extent and devoting an unprecedented amount of its space to biographies of women, but by the circumstance that it has, to a far larger extent than any previous edition, been purchased by women.

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