XIX. FOR MARINE TRANSPORTATION MEN
[Sidenote: Problems of the Near Future]
The immediate future of marine commerce cannot fail to be very greatly affected by changed conditions. No one believes that England, Germany, France, Russia, Austria, Japan and China will be able, before the middle of the century, to establish a stable adjustment of the international difficulties which surround them. No one knows what changes the Panama Canal may make in the movement of freights within the first ten years of its operation. No one knows to what industry the United States may next apply the methods by which the country has created the age of steel.
Coal and the steam engine may both, within a few years, be displaced as factors in marine transportation. Sweeping tariff changes in the United States, in Great Britain and in Germany may vitally affect the movement of freights. Transatlantic passenger traffic, not only a huge business in itself, but also important, so long as it is sea-borne, in its effects upon transatlantic freights, may become aerial instead of marine.
[Sidenote: Technical Subjects]
Confronted by the approach of a period so full of changes, the uttermost alertness of outlook is merely elementary prudence on the part of everyone engaged in the business of marine transportation; and the new Britannica reviews all the many fields of knowledge which are of importance in this connection. It supplies technical information regarding the construction of ships, the management of shipping lines, marine engines of every kind, shipboard and waterside appliances for the handling of cargo, the development of harbours and the dredging and embankment of rivers, the building of docks, warehouses and dry docks, ship canals and canal locks, navigation, lighthouses, lightships, buoys, lanes of traffic, marine insurance, cold transport—every conceivable subject with which shipping men are concerned. Articles by contributors in twenty different countries, deal with all the world’s ports, industries, exports, imports and shipping. The financial and legal aspects of the business are exhaustively covered. Tariffs, legislation affecting marine transportation, and such questions of international policy as the command of the sea, the right of search, and the position of neutrals in wartime are discussed by the highest authorities.
In addition to all this, the Britannica articles on these and similar subjects contain historical sections which, in conjunction with the articles on the history of all countries, show how past changes, as sweeping as these which are now anticipated, have affected commerce. Whether your present position—or the position you are endeavouring to make for yourself—in relation to shipping is such that this coming period of transition promises to affect you favourably or unfavourably, you need to be forewarned and forearmed, prepared to keep what you have or get what you want.
[Sidenote: An Outline of Sea Trade]
A course of reading should always begin with the study of general principles, in order that in your subsequent and more detailed examination of the field, the relative importance of each fact that you master may be appreciated. The Britannica provides, in the article COMMERCE (Vol. 6, p. 766), a bird’s-eye view of the whole subject of marine transportation. The article would not fill more than 16 pages of this Guide; you can read it (and digest it as you read it, so clear is it) in an hour, and yet it will give you such a grasp of the whole science—for it is a science—of international trade that you will spend another hour in assorting and classifying, in your own mind, a mass of impressions you had received before, at school or in the course of casual reading, impressions which have not been so useful to you as they should have been because they had not been systematically arranged. There is no text book in existence which outlines the subject so fully and clearly as does this one brief article—about one five-thousandth part of the total contents of the Britannica.
This article will arouse your interest in the direct relation between commerce, past, present and future, and the progress of civilization. You will realize that the man who has any part in the vast shifting of cargoes from one part of the world to another is distributing ideas and ideals and ambitions as well as commodities, and in the article CIVILIZATION (Vol. 6, p. 403), by Dr. Henry Smith Williams, editor of The Historians’ History of the World, you will see how harbours receive and send on to the inlands the influences as well as the manufactures of the more advanced communities.
From these articles you should turn to the three great articles which deal with the methods by which these wonderful results are accomplished. These three are SHIP, SHIPBUILDING and SHIPPING, all in volume 24, and equivalent to about 420 or 425 pages of this Guide. These three articles contain hundreds of illustrations, more than forty being full page plates. They are by the most eminent authorities. Sir Philip Watts, director of naval construction for the British Navy, designer of the Dreadnoughts and the Super-Dreadnoughts of the British Navy, as well as of the “Mauretania” and the “Lusitania,” chairman of the Federation of Shipbuilders, and naval architect and director of the warshipbuilding department of Armstrong, Whitworth & Co., Ltd., wrote the articles SHIPBUILDING and SHIP (except the history of ships before the invention of steamships, which is by Edmund Warre, provost of Eton, well-known as a writer on nautical history). The article SHIPPING is by Douglas Owen, lecturer at the Royal Naval War College and author of Ports and Docks.
In brief, these three articles in length, contents,—both text and illustrations,—and authorship, make up a remarkable book on the subject, valuable either as a text-book or a work of reference for the ship builder, the marine engineer or the student of shipping.
[Sidenote: Story of the Ship]
Taking the articles separately, the article SHIP begins with a section of nearly 10,000 words on the early development of ships. It suggests that shells floating on the water or the nautilus may first have suggested the use of a hollowed tree-trunk for transportation—the first boat or “ship” (the word comes from the same root as “scoop”) as distinct from a raft. The evolution of boat building is traced,—from dug-out to bark- or skin-covered frame, built like modern racing-shells sometimes ribs first and then skin laid on and sometimes shell first and then ribs inserted. In spite of the great length of the period during which such boats were used—of course they are still used by more primitive peoples,—it is interesting to notice that there were local variations which never became general, such as the outrigger and weather platform, used in the South Pacific and not found elsewhere.
Egyptian vessels we may study in the excellent early tomb-paintings still preserved, and one of these shows a ship, not a canoe or large boat, such as was in use from 3000–1000 B. C., fitted with oars and a mast in two pieces which could be lowered and laid along a high spardeck.
The Phoenicians did more than the Egyptians to develop ship and navigation, and a Phoenician galley of the 8th century B. C. is shown in an Assyrian wall painting. The Phoenicians probably sailed out of the Mediterranean, to Britain for tin, or even around Africa.
Greek ships and shipbuilding we know from a full and varied national literature, from the figures on coins and vases, and from the discovery in 1834 at the Peiraeus, the port of Athens, of records of Athenian dockyard superintendents for several years between 373 and 324 B.C. We have besides descriptions, partly technical, showing the point of view of the engineer or architect, written by Roman authors. The article gives a critical account of the Greek types of vessels. The growth of Roman shipping seems to have been due primarily to political reasons and to have advanced slowly but surely,—practical devices being introduced to solve special difficulties in a field and on an element where the Romans were far from being at home. A five-tiered Carthaginian galley which had drifted ashore served the Romans as a model for their first war-ship, and with crews taught to row in a framework set up on dry land they manned a fleet which was launched in sixty days from the time that the trees were felled.
[Sidenote: Mast and Sail]
Passing quickly over the remainder of the earlier period, which the reader will find treated in full in the article SHIP, he should notice that the sailing vessel came into use gradually for merchant use, but that galleys (propelled by oars) were long the only type for warships. There were some galleys even in the Spanish Armada of 1588. In the meantime the invention of gunpowder and the development of artillery brought about changes in size and in form, with a notable tendency to more masts and a greater spread of sail. The discoveries of the 15th and 16th centuries and especially the consequent expansion of trade in the 17th century, all tended to increase the size and efficiency of sailing ships. The end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century marked the highest point in the development of American sailing ships. “The Americans with their fast-sailing ‘clippers’ taught the English builders a lesson, showing that increased length in proportion to beam gave greater speed, while permitting the use of lighter rigging in proportion to tonnage, and the employment of smaller crews. The English shipyards were for a long time unequal to the task of producing vessels capable of competing with those of their American rivals, and their trade suffered accordingly. But after the repeal of the Navigation Laws in 1850, things improved and we find clippers from Aberdeen and the Clyde beginning to hold their own on the long voyages to China and elsewhere.”
The revolution in marine transportation by the introduction of steam is summed up by Sir Philip Watts as follows:
Before steam was applied to the propulsion of ships, the voyage from Great Britain to America lasted for some weeks; at the beginning of the 20th century the time had been reduced to about six days, and in 1910 the fastest vessels could do it in four and a half days. Similarly, the voyage to Australia, which took about thirteen weeks, had been reduced to thirty days or less. The fastest of the sailing tea-clippers required about three months to bring the early teas from China to Great Britain; in 1910 they were brought to London by the ordinary P. & O. service in five weeks. Atlantic liners now run between England and America which maintain speeds of 25 and 26 knots over the whole course, as compared with about 12 knots before the introduction of steam.
[Sidenote: Iron Hulls]
The introduction of iron for wood began about the same time as the substitution of steam for sails, and there was even more prejudice against it. This was due not merely to the sentiment attaching to the oaken timbers that typified “hearts of oak,” or to the “Wooden Walls of England.” In all seriousness it was objected that iron would not float! It was feared that iron bottoms would be more easily perforated when ships grounded; but this was found not to be the case when construction was careful. It was proved that fouling of iron bottoms from weeds and barnacles might be remedied by frequent cleaning and repainting. The most serious objection against iron was that it affected the compass; but in 1839 Sir G. B. Airy laid down rules for the correction of compass errors due to iron in construction. But even to-day wood is preferred for the construction of ships for scientific expeditions to the Polar regions where the slightest disturbance of the compass is to be avoided. Iron and steel (first used in shipbuilding to any extent in 1870–75) have three advantages over wooden ships: less weight; greater durability; greater ease in securing the necessary general and local strengths. But while iron was coming into use largely because it is more durable, there was a great increase in the durability of wooden ships, due to the improved knowledge of wood-preservation. At the end of the 18th century 15 or 20 years was the average life of a wooden ship; but there are several instances of ships built in the first decade of the 19th century—or even earlier—which were still in commission at the beginning of the 20th century.
[Sidenote: Early Steamships]
Full details are given in regard to the first ships used for canal and river navigation in Great Britain and the United States; the comparatively rapid adoption of steam vessels on the Irish and English channels; and the first steamships to make long trips—the American-built “Savannah” which crossed the Atlantic in 1819 in 25 days using steam only a part of the time, the “Enterprise” which went from London to Calcutta in 1825 in 103 days (64 under steam), the “Sirius,” the “Great Western,” etc. All these were propelled by paddle-wheels. Jet propulsion had been suggested by Benjamin Franklin in 1775 and was tried several times with some success. But the greater success of the screw-propeller, perfected by Colonel John Stevens and Captain John Ericsson, soon caused jet-propulsion to be abandoned. The screw-propeller made possible—and was quickly followed by—great improvements in engines; the gearing used with paddles was soon given up for direct-acting engines—compound about 1854, triple-expansion in 1874.
Statistics of shipping for all countries are given in tables and diagrams equivalent to 18 or 20 pages of this Guide.
A brief summary outline of the remainder of this article SHIP is all that can be given here.
Merchant Vessels
Sailing Ships
Barges, Smacks or Cutters, Schooners, Brigs and Brigantines
Steamships
Types: Turtle-back, etc. Cargo Ships: Modern Developments, Great Lake Freighters, Oil Tank Steamers, Motor Tank Vessels. Passenger Steamers: Ferries, River and Sound, Cross-Channel, Ocean Liners (Atlantic: Canadian, Emigrant Vessels, Liners on other Routes; Pacific Liners). Special Vessels (Dredge, Train Ferries, Ice Breakers, Surveying Vessels, Lightships, Coastguard and Fishery Cruisers, Salvage and Fire Vessels, Lifeboats, Yachts). Propulsion by Electricity, by Naphtha Engines, by Internal Combustion Engines
War Vessels
Battleships and Armour Protection; Sir E. J. Reed and the British Navy Turret Ships; American Monitor; Sir Nathaniel Barnaby in England; the work of Sir W. H. White; Development from 1885 to 1902; The “Dreadnought” type—in England, United States, Germany, France, Japan, Russia, Italy, Austria, Brazil, Argentina, etc., with Table, “Development of Some of the Leading Features of Notable Armored Battleships from 1860 to 1910.”
Cruisers, Second-Class Cruisers, Third-Class, Armored Cruisers, Dreadnought Cruisers, Cruisers in Different Navies
Gunboats and Torpedo Craft and Torpedo-boat Destroyers
Submarines: American experiments in the 18th Century; inventions of Holland and Nordenfeldt; the Goubet System in France; Submarines in different navies.
[Sidenote: History of Shipping]
The article SHIPPING (Vol. 24, p. 983) is devoted to the history and practice of maritime transportation. It outlines the early period of trade, and the contest for trade among Spain, Portugal, the Netherlands and England, especially in the period after the discovery of America, when the prizes of commerce became suddenly so much richer. The Navigation Act of 1651, confining the trade between England and her colonies and the British coasting trade to English ships, was followed by a rapid growth of English shipping. The tonnage doubled between 1666 and 1688. In the 18th century and into the 19th, the history of shipping was primarily a contest for trade between France and England, finally won by the latter. The 19th century, as has already been seen in the article SHIP, was marked by the adoption of steam as a motive power. The struggle for supremacy in the Atlantic trade and in commerce with China and the Far East between the United States and Great Britain was won by the latter largely for this reason—the American ship-builders clung to the sailing clipper too long—and they were too slow in adopting iron instead of wooden hulls. The American Civil War was an additional set-back to American commerce. Other great factors during the last 50 years in the development of shipping, treated in the article, may be catalogued here:
The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869.
Improved apparatus for fire prevention.
Refrigerating machinery, making possible the shipment of meats and other foods.
Germany’s merchant marine.
Japanese merchant vessels.
French efforts to get trade.
The shipping combine of 1902.
“Liners” and “Tramps.”
The freight rate question and increased tonnage.
Special passenger transport: tourists, emigrants, etc.
[Sidenote: Instructions for the Ship-Builder]
The third of the main articles is SHIPBUILDING (Vol. 24, p. 922) by Sir Philip Watts. The article is equivalent to 200 pages of this Guide, and the illustrations include more than 120 working drawings. A brief outline of the article is all that can be given here.
Stability: Equilibrium, Stability of Equilibrium, Transverse Stability, Small Inclinations, Metacentric Heights, Inclining Experiment, Large Inclinations, Curves of Stability, Effect of Freeboard, Effect of Beam, Effect of Position on Centre of Gravity, Geometrical Properties, Dynamical Stability, Sailing Ships, Longitudinal Stability, Stability when Damaged, Stability in any Direction.
Rolling of Ships: Unresisted Rolling—Froude’s Theory, Resisted Rolling, Methods of Reducing Rolling (Bilge-Keels, Water Chambers, Gyroscope).
Resistance: Components of Force, Wake, Frictional Resistance, Law of Comparison, Model Experiments, Experimental Results.
Propulsion: Experimental Results, Cavitation.
Strength: Longitudinal Bending, Transverse Bending.
Steering: Nature of Forces when Turning, Heel when Turning, Types of Rudders, Experimental Results.
Process of Design
Registration Societies Board of Trade Supervision Load line and Freeboard Loading of Grain and Timber
Ship-yard Work
Structural Parts Materials Cranes and Gantries
Course of Construction
Models Laying-off Sheer Drawing Fairing the Body Contracted Method of Fairing Fairing the End Stern Mould Displacement Calculation Frame Lines Cant Frames Double Canted Frame Swell for Propeller Shaft Mould for Boss Frame Casting Shaft Struts Sight Edges in Body Plan Inner Bottom Inner Surface of Frames Outside Double Bottom Deck Lines Framing and Plating behind
Armour
Laying off Armour of a Warship Order of Work Keel Transverse Frames Scrive-Board Shoring Ribbands Deck Beams Longitudinals Bilge Keel Drawings Laying Keel Blocks Keels and Frames Shell or Outside Plating
Structural Arrangements
Longitudinal System as used in New London, Conn.; Great Lake steamer; British cargo steamer; Atlantic liner; Differences between war and merchant ships; Auxiliary Machinery.
[Sidenote: A Dictionary of Ships and Shipping]
The student should read the article NAVY AND NAVIES (Vol. 19, p. 299) and refer to the Chapter For Naval Officers.
The following is a partial list of the articles in the Britannica of particular value to the marine transportation man.
Anchor Ballast Barge Belay Berth Bilge Binnacle Boat Bowline Bumboat Buoy Burgee Cable Cabotage Caique Canoe Capstan Catamaran Cleat Coble Commerce Coracle C. H. Cramp Sir Samuel Cunard Dahabeah Dhow Dinghy John Ericsson Felucca John Fitch Robert Fulton Gimbal Hawser Holystone T. H. Ismay Junk Kayak Keel Lateen Life-saving Service Lighthouse Log Mast Navigation Navigation Laws Oars Pilot Pinnace Pirogue Polacca Poop Pram Proa Punt Quarterdeck Quay Random Rigging Rowlock Rudder Sail, and Sailcloth Sampan Schooner Seamanship Seamen, Laws of Semaphore Ship Shipbuilding Ship Money Shipping Sloop Smack Starboard Steamship Lines Tonnage Trinity House Turbine Wharf Sir William H. White Yawl
XX. FOR ENGINEERS
[Sidenote: What “Engineering” Includes]
The history of a word will sometimes supply the key to the gradual development of an art. “Engineering” was originally used to describe a mere branch of military science, the construction of fortifications and the trenching and sapping needed for their capture. Then about a century and a half ago the use of the phrase “civil engineering” came into use to indicate the broadening of the engineer’s functions to civil pursuits, but even then it served for a long time chiefly to describe surveying, road-making and bridge building. To-day, the specialized knowledge of engineers of one kind or another directs or facilitates every branch of industry. Consider for a moment the handling of iron, which, as the Britannica article IRON AND STEEL shows, has become the most indispensable of all substances save air and water, because we can find no substitute for it that possesses its strength, the hardness and the pliability we can give to it, and its magnetic properties, upon which all our electrical work depends. The mining engineer is concerned with the ore, the mechanical engineer with the machinery employed in its treatment; the transportation of the finished iron or steel depends upon the skill of the engineers who construct railroads and ships; the structural engineer shapes our buildings from the girders and erects them on the sites indicated by the surveying engineer; the sanitary engineer makes them wholesome, and the electrical engineer provides them with the many convenient appliances we need. Various primitive races have believed that the earth is supported upon the back of a tortoise, an elephant, or a fish; but when we begin to look into the origin of the surroundings we have made for ourselves, we cannot carry our examination very far before we find that almost everything we possess begins with a blueprint.
It seems a paradox, and yet it is true, that the more a man’s profession tends to specialization, the more help he can get from the comprehensiveness of the Britannica. He finds it necessary to dig so deep that the shaft he sinks must perforce be of narrow diameter, limiting his daily vision to but a small circle of the broad sky above him. The engineer of each class has his own text books, but at any moment his work may bring him into temporary relation with allied subjects which they do not cover, and in connection with which he may need trustworthy information. There is certainly no other book which surveys so authoritatively and minutely as does the Britannica the whole field of applied science. The services rendered by the 73 engineering experts—German, American, English, French and Italian—who collaborated in the production of the work are not to be measured only by the articles they wrote; for the advice and assistance many of them gave the editors in planning the book as a whole, ensured such treatment as an engineer would desire of many subjects indirectly connected with his work.
[Sidenote: Mathematical Articles]
The engineer will naturally turn first to the mathematical articles, which may be described as text-books of the most concise and useful nature, written by leading mathematicians of the age. ALGEBRA (Vol. 1, p. 599) is by Dr. Sheppard, and G. B. Mathews, formerly professor of mathematics, University College of North Wales; ALGEBRAIC FORMS (Vol. 1, p. 620) by Major P. A. Macmahon, formerly president of the London Mathematical Society; GEOMETRY (Vol. 11, p. 675), Euclidean, Projective, Descriptive, by Dr. Henrici, professor of mathematics, Central Technical College of the City and Guilds of London Institute; Analytical, by E. B. Elliott, Waynflete professor of pure mathematics, Oxford; Line, by B. A. W. Russell, author of Foundations of Geometry, etc., and Dr. A. N. Whitehead of Trinity College, Cambridge; Axioms, by Dr. Whitehead; TRIGONOMETRY (Vol. 27, p. 271) by Dr. E. W. Hobson of Cambridge University; SURVEYING (Vol. 26, p. 142), Geodetic Triangulation, Levelling, Topographical Surveys, and Geographical Surveying, by Sir Thomas Holdich, formerly superintendent of Frontier Surveys, India; Nautical, by Vice-Admiral A. M. Field, R.N., author of Hydrographical Surveying, etc.; GEODESY (Vol. 11, p. 607) by Col. A. R. Clarke of the British ordinance survey, and Prof. F. R. Helmert of the University of Berlin; LOGARITHM (Vol. 16, p. 868) by Dr. J. W. L. Glaisher, editor of the Quarterly Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics; MECHANICS (Vol. 17, p. 955), Statics, Kinetics, by Dr. Horace Lamb, professor of mathematics, University of Manchester; Theory of Structures, Theory of Machines, Applied Dynamics, by Dr. W. J. M. Rankine, late professor of civil engineering, Glasgow University, and W. E. Dalby, professor of civil and mechanical engineering, City and Guilds of London Institute; DYNAMICS (Vol. 8, p. 756) by Professor Lamb; DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Vol. 8, p. 223), by Dr. W. F. Sheppard; INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS (Vol. 14, p. 535) by Dr. A. E. H. Love, secretary of the London Mathematical Society; VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF (Vol. 27, p. 915), by Dr. Love; QUATERNIONS (Vol. 22, p. 718) by Alexander McAulay, professor of mathematics and physics, University of Tasmania; DIAGRAM (Vol. 8, p. 146), by Dr. James Clerk Maxwell, the noted physicist; MENSURATION (Vol. 18, p. 135) by Dr. Sheppard; TABLE, MATHEMATICAL (Vol 26, p. 325), by Dr. J. W. L. Glaisher; UNITS, PHYSICAL (Vol. 27, p. 738), by Dr. J. A Fleming, professor of electrical engineering, University of London; UNITS, DIMENSIONS OF (Vol. 27, p. 736), by Sir Joseph Larmor, secretary of the Royal Society, England; and CALCULATING MACHINES (Vol. 4, p. 972), with 24 illustrations, is by Professor Henrici.
These admirable treatises as well as the article DRAWING, Drawing-Office work (Vol. 8, p. 556), by Joseph G. Horner, will be useful to all engineers, and in the special field of civil engineering the following partial list of articles will convey some idea of the scope of the material to which the professional man has immediate access.
[Sidenote: Articles for Civil Engineers]
BRIDGES (Vol. 4, p. 533), with 72 illustrations, diagrams, etc., is a thorough discussion of the subject by Dr. William C. Unwin, emeritus professor of engineering, Central Technical College, City and Guilds of London Institute, author of Wrought Iron Bridges and Roofs, etc. This article covers the whole theory of bridge design, and describes all the typical structures from the timber Pons Sublicius of ancient Rome, the bridge Horatius defended, to the Manhattan Bridge over the East River at New York. ROADS AND STREETS (Vol. 23, p. 388); RIVER ENGINEERING (Vol. 23, p. 374), with 26 illustrations, by the late L. F. Vernon-Harcourt, professor of civil engineering, University College, London, and author of Rivers and Canals, etc.; JETTY (Vol. 15, p. 359), with 6 illustrations, and PIER (Vol. 21, p. 588), illustrated, also by Prof. Vernon-Harcourt; DREDGE AND DREDGING (Vol. 8, p. 562), with 13 illustrations, by William Hunter, consulting engineer for Waterworks to Crown agents for the Colonies.
HYDRAULICS (Vol. 14, p. 35), with 213 illustrations, is by Prof. W. C. Unwin—an article in which the whole theory and practice of water-power, including discussions of water-motors and turbines, are brought fully up to date by the designer of the first water-motors at Niagara, the section dealing with hydraulic machines occupying 25 pages; HYDROMECHANICS (Vol. 14, p. 115) by Sir Alfred George Greenhill, formerly professor of mathematics in the Ordnance College, Woolwich; VENTILATION (Vol. 27, p. 1008), illustrated, by James Bartlett; WATER SUPPLY (Vol. 28, p. 387), with 20 illustrations, diagrams, and maps, by Dr. G. F. Deacon, formerly engineer-in-chief for the Liverpool Water Supply; AQUEDUCT, Modern Construction (Vol. 2, p. 244), by E. P. Hill; SEWERAGE (Vol. 24, p. 735), with 29 illustrations, by James Bartlett; IRRIGATION (Vol 14, p. 841).
CANAL (Vol. 5, p. 168), by Sir E. Leader Williams, chief engineer of Manchester Ship Canal during construction, is an interesting article. There are also separate articles on great engineering undertakings, such as PANAMA CANAL (Vol. 20, p. 667); MANCHESTER SHIP CANAL (Vol. 17, p. 550) by Sir E. Leader Williams; SUEZ CANAL (Vol. 26, p. 22). It will surprise many readers to learn that the project of a ship canal across Central America was considered as early as 1550, when a book demonstrating its feasibility was published in Portugal. Only a year later the King of Spain was strongly urged, in a memorial presented by De Gomara, the Spanish historian, to undertake the work.
[Sidenote: Railways and Transportation]
TUNNEL (Vol. 27, p. 399), with many plans and illustrations, by H. A. Carson, in charge of designing and constructing the Boston Subway; DOCK (Vol. 8, p. 353), with illustrations and plans; CAISSON (Vol. 4, p. 957); BREAKWATER (Vol. 4, p. 475), with 16 illustrations; HARBOUR (Vol. 12, p. 935), illustrated; RECLAMATION OF LAND (Vol. 22, p. 954), with 13 illustrations. The last five articles are by Professor Vernon-Harcourt; LIGHTHOUSE (Vol. 16, p. 627), with 59 illustrations, by W. T. Douglass, who erected the Eddystone and Bishop Rock Lighthouses, and Nicholas G. Gedye, chief engineer to the Tyne Improvement Commission; SHIPBUILDING (Vol. 24, p. 922), with 125 illustrations—a complete treatise on the subject by Sir Philip Watts, director of naval construction for the British Navy; TRACTION (Vol. 27, p. 119), illustrated, by Prof. Louis Duncan, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; TRAMWAY (Vol. 27, p. 159), illustrated, by Emile Garcke, managing director of the British Electric Traction Co., Ltd.; RAILWAYS (Vol. 22, p. 819), a magnificent composite article, fully illustrated, in which the Introduction and the sections on Construction and Rolling Stock are by H. M. Ross, editor of The Times Engineering Supplement; General Statistics and Financial Organization, by Ray Morris, formerly of the Railway Age Gazette, New York, and author of Railroad Administration; Economics and Legislation, by Arthur T. Hadley, president of Yale University; American Railway Legislation, by Prof. Frank H. Dixon, of Dartmouth College, author of State Railroad Control; Accident Statistics, by B. B. Adams, associate editor, Railway Age Gazette; Intra Urban Railways, by W. B. Parsons, formerly chief engineer, Rapid Transit Commission, New York, and Light Railways, by C. E. Webber of the Royal Engineers, and Emile Garcke. No book on the subject has ever before contained so great a collection of expert knowledge as this article presents.
[Sidenote: Structural Engineering]
In regard to construction, engineers will find most valuable for reference and study the elaborate treatises STRENGTH OF MATERIALS (Vol. 25, p. 1007), with 42 diagrams and illustrations, by Prof. J. A. Ewing, and ELASTICITY (Vol. 9, p. 141), with 32 diagrams, by Prof. A. E. H. Love. Notable articles in this connection are IRON AND STEEL (Vol. 14, p. 801), illustrated, by Dr. H. M. Howe, professor of metallurgy, Columbia University; and STEEL CONSTRUCTION (Vol. 25, p. 861), illustrated. It is interesting to note that early in the 19th century a tall shot-tower was built in New York city by erecting a braced cage of iron and filling in the panels with masonry. STONE (Vol. 25, p. 958); MASONRY (Vol. 17, p. 841), with 18 illustrations; BRICKWORK (Vol. 4, p. 521), with 15 illustrations—these four articles by James Bartlett, lecturer on construction at King’s College, London; CEMENT (Vol. 5, p. 653), illustrated, by Bertram Blount, hon. president, Cement Section of International Association for Testing Materials, Budapest; CONCRETE (Vol. 6, p. 835), with 16 illustrations, by F. E. Wentworth-Shields, dock engineer of the London and South-Western Railway; MORTAR (Vol. 18, p. 875); FOUNDATIONS (Vol. 10, p. 733), with 13 illustrations; TIMBER (Vol. 26, p. 978); ROOFS (Vol. 23, p. 697), with 23 illustrations; SCAFFOLD (Vol. 24, p. 279) illustrated; SHORING (Vol. 24, p. 1004), illustrated—the last six by James Bartlett.
[Sidenote: For the Mechanical Engineer]
The Engineering Section of the new Britannica provides an equal wealth of authentic material for members of other branches of the profession. It is impossible to indicate the exact lines of demarcation between these branches, and many articles are of use to all engineers alike; but in the special field of mechanical engineering there are THERMODYNAMICS (Vol. 26, p. 808) by Dr. H. L. Callendar, professor of physics, Royal College of Science, London; STEAM ENGINE (Vol. 25, p. 818) by Prof. Ewing, more than 30 pages long, with 68 illustrations. This article, with its up-to-date section on turbines, is one of the many in the engineering department of the Britannica which have been said by technical critics to merit separate publication as text-books. But such articles are all the more useful because they form part of one great library of universal knowledge. Other mechanical articles are AIR ENGINE (Vol. 1, p. 443), illustrated, also by Professor Ewing; GAS ENGINE (Vol. 11, p. 495), illustrated, by Dugald Clerk, inventor of the Clerk Cycle Gas Engine; OIL ENGINE (Vol. 20, p. 35), illustrated, also by Dugald Clerk; BOILER (Vol. 4, p. 141), with 20 illustrations, by James T. Milton, chief engineer surveyor to Lloyd’s Registry of Shipping, and Joseph G. Horner, author of Plating and Boiler Making; INJECTOR (Vol. 14, p. 570); WATER MOTORS (Vol. 28, p. 382), illustrated, by T. H. Beare, Regius professor of engineering in the University of Edinburgh; WINDMILL (Vol. 28, p. 710), illustrated, by Professor Unwin; FUEL (Vol. 11, p. 274), illustrated, Solid Fuels by Hilary Bauermann, of the Ordnance College, Woolwich; Liquid Fuel, by Sir James Fortescue-Flannery, formerly president of the Institute of Marine Engineers; Gaseous Fuel, by Dr. Georg Lunge, professor of technical chemistry at the Zurich Polytechnic; GAS, Gas for Fuel and Power (Gas producers) (Vol. 11, p. 490), illustrated, also by Professor Lunge.
POWER TRANSMISSION (Vol. 22, p. 224), illustrated, Mechanical, by Professor Dalby; Hydraulic, by Edward B. Ellington, chief engineer of the General Hydraulic Power Co., Ltd.; Pneumatic, by A. de W. Foote, superintendent of the North Star Mining Co., California; PULLEY (Vol. 22, p. 641), illustrated, by Dr. Ernest G. Coker, professor of mechanical Engineering in the City and Guilds of London Technical College; PUMP (Vol. 22, p. 645), illustrated; BRAKE (Vol. 4, p. 413), illustrated; TOOL (Vol. 27, p. 14), with 79 illustrations, by Joseph G. Horner; CRANES (Vol. 7, p. 368), with 21 illustrations, by Walter Pitt; ELEVATORS (Vol. 9, p. 263), illustrated, by G. F. Zimmer, author of Mechanical Handling of Material; LUBRICANTS (Vol. 17, p. 89) by R. M. Deeley, joint author of Lubrication and Lubricants; PNEUMATIC DESPATCH (Vol. 21, p. 865) by H. R. Kempe, electrician to the General Post Office, London; GYROSCOPE AND GYROSTAT (Vol. 12, p. 769), illustrated, by Sir Alfred Greenhill; MOTOR VEHICLES (Vol. 18, p. 914), with 37 illustrations—Light, by the Hon. C. S. Rolls, late managing director of the Rolls Royce Co., Ltd.; Heavy Commercial Vehicles, by Edward S. Smith, editor of The Commercial Motor; RAILWAYS, Locomotive Power (Vol. 22, p. 842) by Professor W. E. Dalby.
[Sidenote: For the Electrical Engineer]
The key article describing the general principles of electrical engineering is ELECTRICITY SUPPLY (Vol. 9, p. 192), illustrated, by Emile Garcke, but at the immediate service of the electrical engineer there also stand DYNAMO (Vol. 8, p. 764), with 42 illustrations, by C. C. Hawkins, author of The Dynamo; POWER TRANSMISSION, Electrical (Vol. 22, p. 233) by Dr. Louis Bell, chief engineer, Electric Power Transmission Dept., General Electric Co.; CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC (Vol. 6, p. 855), Conduction in Solids by Professor Fleming; in Liquids, by W. C. D. Whetham; in Gases, by Sir J. J. Thomson, a Nobel prize-winner and professor of experimental physics at Cambridge; ELECTROLYSIS (Vol. 9, p. 217) by W. C. D. Whetham; ELECTROKINETICS (Vol. 9, p. 210), illustrated; ELECTROSTATICS (Vol. 9, p. 240); ELECTROMAGNETISM (Vol. 9, p. 226), illustrated; UNITS, PHYSICAL, Electrical Units (Vols. 27, p. 740); GALVANOMETER (Vol. 11, p. 428), illustrated; ELECTROMETER (Vol. 9, p. 234), illustrated; AMPEREMETER (Vol. 1, p. 879), illustrated; VOLTMETER (Vol. 28, p. 206), illustrated; OHMMETER (Vol. 20, p. 34), illustrated; WATTMETER (Vol. 28, p. 419)—all of these by Professor Fleming; POTENTIOMETER (Vol. 22, p. 205); ACCUMULATOR (Vol. 1, p. 126), with 24 illustrations and diagrams, by Walter Hibbert, of the London Polytechnic; TRANSFORMERS (Vol. 27, p. 173), with 15 illustrations and diagrams, and WHEATSTONE’S BRIDGE (Vol. 28, p. 584), illustrated, by Professor Fleming; MOTORS, ELECTRIC (Vol. 18, p. 910), by Dr. Louis Bell; METER, ELECTRIC, (Vol. 18, p. 291), by Professor Fleming; LIGHTING, Electric (Vol. 16, p. 659), with 16 illustrations, by Professor Fleming, and a chapter on its commercial aspects, methods of charging, wiring of houses, testing meters, etc., by Emile Garcke; TELEGRAPH (Vol. 26, p. 510), fully illustrated, Land and Submarine Telegraphy, by H. R. Kempe; Wireless Telegraphy, by Professor Fleming, and Commercial Aspects, by Emile Garcke; TELEPHONE (Vol. 26, p. 547), illustrated, by H. R. Kempe and Emile Garcke; TRACTION, Electric (Vol. 27, p. 120), illustrated, by Professor Duncan. An admirable historical sketch of electricity will be found in ELECTRICITY (Vol. 9, p. 179), by Professor Fleming, which contains also an account of the development of electric theory.
[Sidenote: American Practice in Mining]
It is typical of the policy pursued in making the new Britannica that the Editor placed the mining section in the hands of American experts, since they are universally regarded as the best in the world. This entire section is a worthy monument to American learning and practice.
The key-article MINING (Vol. 18, p. 528), fully illustrated, is by Dr. Henry Smith Munroe, professor of mining in Columbia University. This covers every branch of the subject, but further discussion of its special phases is continued in MINERAL DEPOSITS (Vol. 18, p. 504) by Dr. James F. Kemp, professor of geology, Columbia University; QUARRYING (Vol. 22, p. 712) by Dr. F. J. H. Merrill, formerly state geologist of New York; ORE-DRESSING (Vol. 20, p. 238), illustrated, by Dr. R. H. Richards, professor of mining and metallurgy, Massachusetts Institute of Technology; SHAFT-SINKING (Vol. 24, p. 766), illustrated; BORING (Vol. 4, p. 251), illustrated; BLASTING (Vol. 4, p. 44), illustrated—the last three by Robert Peele, professor of mining in Columbia University.
[Sidenote: The Metallurgical Section]
METALLURGY (Vol. 18, p. 203) describes in outline the general sequence of operations. ASSAYING (Vol. 18, p. 776) is by Andrew A. Blair, formerly chief chemist U. S. Geological Survey. See also METAL (Vol. 18, p. 198). METALOGRAPHY (Vol. 18, p. 202), illustrated, is an account of the new and important method of microscopical examination of alloys and metals by Sir William Chandler Roberts-Austen; and Francis H. Neville. ALLOYS (Vol. 1, p. 704), with unique photomicrographs of alloys and metals, is also by the authors of the article METALLOGRAPHY. ANNEALING, HARDENING AND TEMPERING (Vol. 2, p. 70), illustrated, is by Joseph G. Horner, who also writes FORGING (Vol. 10, p. 663), which has 19 illustrations, FOUNDING (Vol. 10, p. 743), with 11 illustrations, and ROLLING-MILL (Vol. 23, p. 468), with 8 illustrations. The material on FUEL has already been mentioned. FURNACE (Vol. 11, p. 358) describes and illustrates all the latest designs. WELDING (Vol. 28, p. 501) is by J. G. Horner and Elihu Thomson, who writes on his own invention, Electric Welding.
The mining engineer or metallurgist will have in the new Britannica constantly at his elbow a complete series of articles dealing with the mining and metallurgy of all minerals and metals. Professor Howe’s exhaustive article IRON AND STEEL has already been noted in another part of this chapter. A few of the other important articles are COPPER (Vol. 7, p. 103); GOLD (Vol. 12, p. 192); SILVER (Vol. 25, p. 112); LEAD (Vol. 16, p. 314); TIN (Vol. 26, p. 995); ZINC (Vol. 28, p. 981); MANGANESE (Vol. 17, p. 569); ALUMINUM (Vol. 1, p. 767) by E. J. Ristori, member of Council, Institute of Metals. SAFETY-LAMP (Vol. 23, p. 998) is written by Hilary Bauermann. The latest mining statistics of all countries are to be found under their respective headings.
[Sidenote: Biographies of Engineers]
Military men are familiar with the lives and deeds of great soldiers; lovers of art and literature know something of the careers of their favorites; but as a rule the engineer knows little or nothing about the lives of the great ornaments of his profession, the splendid heroes of peace who have done much more than the soldier and the artist to create the world of to-day. The reason for this is that engineering biographies are very scarce, and in this connection the new Britannica fills a positive gap in the engineer’s library. There are considerably more than 100 biographies of great engineers, living and dead, written in the most interesting fashion by authoritative contributors. Among these articles are WATT, JAMES (Vol. 28, p. 414) by Professor Ewing; ARKWRIGHT, SIR RICHARD (Vol. 2, p. 556); STEPHENSON, GEORGE (Vol. 25, p. 888); BESSEMER, SIR HENRY (Vol. 3, p. 823); WHITWORTH, SIR JOSEPH (Vol. 28, p. 616); RENNIE, JOHN (Vol. 23, p. 101); LESSEPS, FERDINAND DE (Vol. 16, p. 494) by Henri G. S. A. de Blowitz; EADS, JAMES B. (Vol. 8, p. 789); EDISON, THOMAS A. (Vol. 8, p. 946); ERICSSON, JOHN (Vol. 9, p. 740); MAXIM, SIR HIRAM (Vol. 17, p. 918); ROEBLING, JOHN A. (Vol. 23, p. 450); SIEMENS, SIR WILLIAM (Vol. 25, p. 47) by Professor Ewing; TELFORD, THOMAS (Vol. 26, p. 573); MCADAM, JOHN L. (Vol. 17, p. 190), and TREVITHICK, RICHARD (Vol. 27, p. 256).
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL ARTICLES IN THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA OF SPECIAL INTEREST TO ENGINEERS
Aberration Abrasion Abscissa Absorption of Light Acceleration Accumulator Achromatism Acoustics Actinometer Adhesion Adjutage Adze Aeronautics Aether, or Ether Aggregation Agonic Lines Air Engine Algebra Algebraic Forms Aliquot Alloys Aluminium Amicable Numbers Amperemeter, or Ammeter Anchor Angle Annealing, Hardening and Tempering Anthracite Anvil Aperture Aqueduct Archimedes, Screw of Architecture Arkwright, Sir Richard Armature Armour Plates Armstrong, 1st Baron Artesian Wells Assaying Atmospheric Electricity Atmospheric Railway Auger Autoclave Awl Axe Axis Axle
Baird, James Baker, Sir Benjamin Ballast Ballistics Balloon Banket Barker’s Mill Barometer Barometric Light Battery Bazalgette, Sir Joseph William Bearings Bell, Henry Bellows and Blowing Machines Bench-mark Berlin Berthon, Edward Lyon Berthoud, Ferdinand Bessel Function Bessemer, Sir Henry Bicycle Bidder, George Parker Biddery Binocular Instrument Binomial Biquadratic Bisectrix Blasting Bloom Bogie Boiler Boring Boulton, Matthew Brachistochrone Bradawl Brake Bramah, Joseph Brass Brassey, Thomas Brazing and Soldering Breakwater Brick Brickwork Bridges Bridgewater, 3rd Duke of Bright, Sir Charles Brindley, James Bronze Bronzing Brown, Sir John Brunel, I. K. Brunel, Sir Marc Buoy Building Burns, Sir George Bush
Cab Cable Caisson Caisson Disease Calculating Machines Caledonian Canal Calorescence Calorimetry Camera Lucida Camera Obscura Camus, F. J. des Canal Cantilever Capillary Action Car Cardioid Carnegie, Andrew Carpentry, Cart Cartwright, Edmund Cash Register Catenary Causeway Caustic Cautley, Sir Proby Thomas Cement Chain Chappe, Claude Chart Chisel Chronograph Chubb, Charles Cinematograph Circle Cissoid Clark, Josiah Latimer Clock Coal Cockerill, W. (and J.) Cofferdam Cold Colour Combinational Analysis Compass Conchoid Concrete Condensation of Gases Conduction, Electric Conduction of Heat Cone Congreve, Sir William Conic Section Conoid Continued Fractions Contour, Contour-line Conveyors Coode, Sir John Copper Copying Machines Cordite Corning, Erastus Coxwell, Henry Tracey Cramp, Charles Henry Cranes Crank Crompton, Samuel Cube Cubitt, Thomas Cubitt, Sir William Cunard, Sir Samuel Curricle Curve Cycloid Cyclometer Cylinder
Damascening or Damaskeening Damask Steel or Damascus Steel Density Destructors Determinant Diagonal Diagram Diamagnetism Diameter Dielectric Differences, Calculus of Differential Equation Diffraction of Light Diffusion Dimension Dispersion Divers and Diving Apparatus Dock Dodecahedron Drawing Dredge and Dredging Drill Drummond, Thomas Dry Rot Dupuy de Lôme, S.C.H.L. Dynamics Dynamite Dynamo Dynamometer
Eads, James Buchanan Earth Currents Earth, Figure of the Edison, Thomas Alva Elasticity Electrical, or Electrostatic Machine Electricity Electricity Supply Electric Waves Electrochemistry Electrokinetics Electrolysis Electromagnetism Electrometallurgy Electrometer Electron Electroplating Electroscope Electrostatics Electrotyping Electrum Elevators, Lifts or Hoists Ellipse Ellipsoid Embankment Employers’ Liability Energetics Energy Engine Engineering Epicycloid Equation Ericsson, John Evans, Oliver Explosives
Fairbairn, Sir William Felloe Ferguson, James Figurate Numbers File Filter Finlay, Sir George Fire and Fire Extinction Firebrick Firth, Mark Fitch, John Flight and Flying Flume Flux Focus Folium Forging Fortification and Siegecraft Fossick Foundations Founding Fourier’s Series Fowler, John Fowler, Sir John Friction Frustum Fuel Fulton, Robert Function Furnace Fusible Metal Fusion Fuze, or Fuse
Galvanized Iron Galvanometer Gas Engine Gatling, Richard Jordan Gauge, or Gage Geodesy Geoid Geometrical Continuity Geometry Gimlet Girard, Philippe Henri de Glazing Gnomon Gold Gooch, Sir Daniel Goodyear, Charles Gouge Graduation Gramophone Graphical Methods Gravitation Greathead, James Henry Grimthorpe, 1st Baron Groups, Theory of Guncotton Gyroscope and Gyrostat Gunpowder
Hachure Hammer Harbour Harmonic Harmonic Analysis Harrison, John Hartley, Sir Charles Augustus Hawkshaw, Sir John Hawksley, Thomas Hawser Heat Heathcoat, John Heating Heliostat Hodgkinson, Eaton Hodograph Holden, Sir Isaac Horse-Power Hose-pipe Hydraulics Hydrodynamics Hydrography Hydromechanics Hydrometer Hydrostatics Hyperbola Hypsometer Hysteresis
Icosahedron Illumination Inclinometer Induction Coil Infinitesimal Calculus Ingot Injector Interference of Light Interpolation Invar Inversion Involution Iron and Steel Irrigation Ismay, Thomas Henry
Jacquard, Joseph Marie Jenkin, H. C. F. Jetty Joinery Joints Joist
Kaleidoscope Kiln Kinematics Kinetics Kingsford, W. Knife Knot Krupp, Alfred
Labour Legislation Ladder Lamp Lantern Lath Lathe Latitude Latten Lead Lemniscate Lens Lesseps, Ferdinand de Lever Leyden Jar, or Condenser Life-boat Light Lighthouse Lighting Lightning Conductor Limaçon Lindley, William Line Liquid Gases Lock Locus Logarithm Logocyclic Curve, Strophoid, or Foliate Longitude Loxodrome Lubricants Lubrication
Magic Square Magnetism Magnetism, Terrestrial Magnetograph Magnetometer Magneto-Optics Manchester Ship Canal Manganese Manometer Map Masham, Baron Masonry Mathematics Matter Maxima and Minima Maxim, Sir Hiram McAdam, John Loudon McCormick, Cyrus Hall Mechanics Mensuration Meridian Metal Metallography Metallurgy Meter, Electric Metric System Microscope Mill Mineral Deposits Mining Mirror Model Molecule Mortar Mortise, or Mortice Motion, Laws of Motors, Electric Motor Vehicles Murdock, William Myddelton, Sir Hugh
Nasmyth, James Navigation Newcomen, Thomas Nitro-glycerine Nixon, John Noble, Sir Andrew Number Numbers, Partition of Numeral
Objective, or Object Glass Octahedron Ohmmeter Oil Engine Optics Ordinate Ore Dressing Oscillograph Oval
Painter-work Palanquin Palmer, Sir Charles Mark Panama Canal Pantograph Parabola Parachute Parallel Motion Pedometer Perkins, Jacob Permeability, Magnetic Permeameter Perpetual Motion, or Perpetuum Mobile Perspective Phonograph Photography Photometry Physics Pier Piston Plaster-work Pneumatic Despatch Pneumatics Polarity Polarization of Light Pole, William Polygon Polygonal Numbers Polyhedral Numbers Polyhedron Porism Potentiometer Power Transmission Prism Probability Projection Prony, G. C. F. M. R. de Pulley Pump Pyrometer
Quadratrix Quarrying Quaternions
Radiation, Theory of Radiometer Rafter Railways Random Rankine, W. J. M. Rawlinson, Sir Robert Reclamation of Land Reflection of Light Refraction Refrigerating and Ice Making Reid, Sir Robert G. Rennie, John River Engineering Rivet Roads and Streets Roebling, J. A. Rolling-mill Roofs Roulette
Safes, Strong-rooms and Vaults Safety-lamp Saw Scaffold, Scaffolding Scantling Schichau, Ferdinand Science Scissors Screw Semaphore Seppings, Sir Robert Series Serpentine Sewerage Sewing Machines Sextant Shadoof Shadow Shaft-sinking Shears Ship Shipbuilding Shoring Shovel Shuttle Siemens, Sir William (Karl Wilhelm) Sieve Signal Silver Siphon, or Syphon Sleeper Sleigh, Sled, or Sledge Smeaton, John Smoke Solder Sound Sounding Spade Spectroscopy Speculum Sphere Spherical Harmonics Spheroid Sphereometer Spiral Starley, James Statics Steel Construction Steam Engine Stephenson, George Stephenson, Robert Stereoscope Stevenson, Robert Stone Strength of Materials Strutt, Jedediah Stucco Suez Canal Sun Copying, or Photo Copying Surface Surveying
Table, Mathematical Tacheometry Tangye, Sir Richard Technical Education Telegraph Telephone Telford, Thomas Tetrahedron Theodolite Thermodynamics Thermoelectricity Thermometry Thomas, Sidney Gilchrist Tide Timber Time, Measurement of Time, Standard Tin Tin-plate and Terne-plate Tire Tongs Tool Topography Traction Tramway Transformers Tredgold, Thomas Trevithick, Richard Triangle Tricycle Trigonometry Trisectrix Trumpet, Speaking and Hearing Tube Tunnel Turbine Tweezers Typewriter
Units, Dimensions of Units, Physical
Vacuum Tube Valve Vaporization Variations, of Calculus Vector Analysis Ventilation Vernier Vision Voltmeter
Wagon or Waggon Water Motors Water Supply Watt, James Wattmeter Wave Wedge Weighing Machines Weights and Measures Weir Welding Well Wheatstone’s Bridge White, Sir William H. Whitney, Eli Whitworth, Sir Joseph Wilkinson, John Windmill Witch of Agnesi
Zero Zinc
XXI. FOR PRINTERS, BINDERS AND PAPER-MAKERS AND ALL WHO LOVE BOOKS
[Sidenote: From Manuscript to Book]
[Sidenote: Supply and Demand Interacting]
“An author, even an immortal genius, is, from the economic point of view, a producer of raw material,” says the Britannica article PUBLISHING, and from the educational point of view, his product, until it has undergone the industrial and commercial processes of reduplication and distribution, is as undeveloped as the seed lying hidden in the winter soil. The history of civilization might, indeed, be divided into four stages: the period before writing; the period before printing, when libraries of manuscripts were almost exclusively the property of kings and priests; the period of costly, hand-printed books; and the period of the power-press, which began less than a hundred years ago. Of these four periods, the first is almost unimaginable. You are sometimes brought into contact with absolutely illiterate people. But they live in shadow, not in total darkness; they get the diffused light of our age of culture. The second period, the era of books in manuscript we can, however, to some extent reconstruct; and by one fantastic supposition we can even bring it into the focus of our 20th century. Let it be assumed that for some reason the printing of the new Britannica had been enjoined by the law courts, but that the original typoscript was available for consultation—say in a public library at New York or Chicago. Instead of your 29 volumes, weighing only 80 lbs. and occupying only about two cubic feet of space, the walls of a large room would be lined with partitioned shelves on which the 300,000 typed sheets and the 7,000 illustrations, on cardboard, would be ranged. What a mob of students there would be, waiting their turns to read the 40,000 articles, what a mass of notebooks would be filled each day! The impossibility of accomplishing, without the use of printing, all that the Britannica does, will present itself very forcibly to your mind, in another aspect, if you try to imagine 1,500 separate audiences, assembled each day to listen to lectures by the 1,500 contributors to the book. Any attempt to imagine the Britannica doing its work in any way but the way in which it does makes you realize, too, that if it were not for modern methods of spreading knowledge, there would be no such system of assembling and co-ordinating knowledge as finds its fullest development in the Britannica. It is not only for commercial reasons that the demand must be sufficient to justify the supply; the 1,500 specialists who laid aside their usual work in order to write these articles would never have combined their efforts if this vast public of all educated English speaking people were not to have been enabled to avail themselves of the result.
The industrial arts which make it possible to produce books swiftly and to sell them at low prices are obviously subjects of interest not only to those who do the producing and selling, but to all who profit by the use of books. And, as the articles mentioned in this chapter show, these arts are in themselves among the most ingenious and curious of all processes; so that in a double sense they merit the attention of everyone to whom the chapters on Literature in this Guide would appeal. As the warp of cloth carries the weft, so the raw material of printers’ paper and printers’ ink carries the “raw material” of the writer’s thoughts.
The article on PAPER (Vol. 20, p. 725) is equivalent to 35 pages of this Guide and is illustrated with 15 diagrams. The article is divided into three parts: History, by Sir Edward Maunde Thompson, director of the British Museum; Manufacture, by J. W. Wyatt, author of The Art of Making Paper; and India Paper, by W. E. Garrett Fisher.
[Sidenote: History of Paper]
The history of paper, like that of so many other great inventions, dates back to an early period in China; and, as is the case with almost every great contribution to civilization which came from China, paper came to the Western world only after many years and only by chance. In the 8th century of the Christian era, when paper had been made in China for 1000 years, some Chinese paper-makers were taken captives in Samarkand by Arabs, who thus learned the methods of its manufacture. The Arabs and the Persians used linen as a base for the paper instead of the cotton the Chinese used; and the name “paper” was transferred from the Egyptian rush and the writing material made from its fibres to the new product. Paper was manufactured in Europe first by the Moors in Spain at Xativa, Valencia and Toledo in the 12th century; and into Italy also it seems to have been brought by the Arab occupation of Sicily. Among other interesting points in regard to the history of paper are: water-marks as a sign of age; old papers; variation in prices of paper; blotting-paper, wrapping paper, etc. The articles PAPYRUS (Vol. 20, p. 743) and PARCHMENT (Vol. 20, p. 798), both by Maunde Thompson, deal with these earlier writing materials. PALIMPSEST (Vol. 20, p. 633) describes the processes by which writings which have been scraped or washed from sheets of vellum, so that the material might be used again, can sometimes be chemically restored and deciphered.
[Sidenote: Paper Manufacture]
In taking up the study of paper manufacture, the first article to be read is FIBRES by C. F. Cross, the well-known analytical and consulting chemist, and especially the section in it on Paper-making (Vol. 10, p. 312). This describes the treatment of cotton and flax for writing and drawing papers, wood pulp, esparto, cellulose and cereal straws for printing-paper, etc. See also the article CELLULOSE (Vol. 5, p. 606) by C. F. Cross. The section on Manufacture in the article PAPER, already mentioned, should next be read. Here it is stated that rags, linen or cotton, were the principal materials used for paper in Europe until the middle of the 19th century; and then when prices rose, because the necessarily inelastic supply was no longer sufficient, esparto-grass, wood and straw began to be used as substitutes. The change from hand-making to machinery began in France in 1798 and was accomplished in England in 1803, with the result that hand-made paper is now used only where great durability is the chief requisite, as for bank-notes and drawing paper.
Actual paper manufacture may be divided into two processes: the preliminary cleaning and reduction to pulp; and the methods of converting pulp to paper—including beating, sizing, colouring, making the sheet or web, surfacing, cutting, etc. Reduction to pulp is described in the treatment of esparto, straw and wood, and there are cuts showing rag-boiler, rag-breaking engine, esparto boiler, press-pâte or half-stuff machine, esparto bleaching and beating plant, and the Porion evaporator and the Yaryan multiple-effect evaporator for soda recovery.
Paper-making proper, after the pulp has been prepared, is next described. The first process is beating; and besides the esparto bleaching and beating plant, described under bleaching, there are drawings of the Taylor and Jordan beaters and a description of them and of the Kingsland beater. Sizing, loading and colouring are then explained. The other main topics of the section on manufacture are: hand manufacture (with two illustrations), paper machine, with pictures of the paper machine, of the dandy roll, of super-calender and of reel paper cutters, and paragraphs on straining, forming the sheet, shake, water marking and couching, pressing and drying, surfacing, machine power, tub-sizing, glazing or surfacing for better grades, cutting, sheeting, sizes (with table), standards of quality, the paper trade, and a list of the best books on paper.
[Sidenote: India Paper]
The article PAPER closes with a brief history and description of India paper, which is of particular interest because of the adoption and successful use of this paper in the new Encyclopaedia Britannica. In this true India paper, “the material used is chiefly rag,” but “the extraordinary properties of this paper are due to the peculiar care necessary in the treatment of the fibres, which are specially beaten in the beating engine.” The first India paper was brought to England from the Far East in 1841 by an Oxford graduate, and the name India was used merely to express this Oriental origin, as in “Indian ink” or in the name “Indians” as applied to the American aborigines when their home was thought to be a part of the East. Just where the paper came from is not known. It was given to the Oxford University Press and was used in printing a very small English Bible in 1842. This book was only one-third the usual thickness, and attracted much attention by its lightness and by the opacity of the thin tough paper.
In 1874 a copy of this Bible fell into the hands of Henry Frowde, and experiments were instituted at the Oxford University paper mills at Wolvercote with the object of producing similar paper. On the 24th of August 1875 an impression of the Bible, similar in all respects to that of 1842, was placed on sale by the Oxford University Press. The feat of compression was regarded as astounding, the demand was enormous, and in a very short time 250,000 copies of this “Oxford India paper Bible” had been sold. Many other editions of the Bible, besides other books, were printed on the Oxford India paper, and the marvels of compression accomplished by its use created great interest at the Paris Exhibition of 1900. Its strength was as remarkable as its lightness; volumes of 1500 pages were suspended for several months by a single leaf, as thin as tissue; and, when they were examined at the close of the exhibition, it was found that the leaf had not started, the paper had not stretched, and the volume closed as well as ever. The paper, when subjected to severe rubbing, instead of breaking into holes like ordinary printing paper, assumed a texture resembling chamois leather, and a strip 3 in. wide was found able to support a weight of 28 lb. without yielding. The success of the Oxford India paper led to similar experiments by other manufacturers, and there were, in 1910, nine mills (two each in England, Germany and Italy, one each in France, Holland and Belgium) in which India paper was being produced. India paper is mostly made upon a Fourdrinier machine in continuous lengths, in contradistinction to a hand-made paper, which cannot be made of a greater size than the frame employed in its production.
In addition to technical information in regard to paper the student of the manufacture of books must know something about ink.
[Sidenote: Ink]
The necessary information he will find in the article INK (Vol. 14, p. 571) with special descriptions of writing inks, tannin inks, China or Indian ink, logwood ink, aniline ink, copying ink, red and blue ink, marking ink, gold and silver inks, indelible or incorrodible ink, sympathetic ink, and, of the most importance for our present purpose, printing inks.
The process of putting ink on paper is a subject which in the Britannica takes much more ink and paper than the subject of ink or of paper.
[Sidenote: Printing]
This topic is treated in two main articles: one dealing with type and the other with presses. The former, TYPOGRAPHY (Vol. 27, p. 509), is a good sized treatise in itself, being equivalent to more than 135 pages of this Guide. It is divided into two parts: The History of Typography, by John Henry Hessels, author of Gutenberg: an Historical Investigation; and Modern Practical Typography, by John Southward, author of A Dictionary of Typography and its Accessory Arts, and Hugh Munro Ross, editor of The (London) Times Engineering Supplement.
The former part of the article, and the longer, is a very important and elaborate contribution to the knowledge of early printing. On these first developments the student should read the same writer’s article GUTENBERG (Vol. 12, p. 739) and should notice the great difficulty surrounding the whole question of the “invention,” obscured by the fact that so many of the documents on Gutenberg exist only in copies, while others seem to be forgeries by two librarians of the city of Mainz who were eager to prove the claims of their fellow citizen Gutenberg to be the inventor of printing with movable metal types. See also Mr. Hessel’s article on JOHANN FUST (Vol. 11, p. 373). The honour of the invention of typography, Mr. Hessels decides, belongs to Lorens Janszoon Coster of Haarlem and its date was somewhere between 1440 and 1446. In Mexico printing was established in 1544, in Manila in 1590, and in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1638 or 1639. The early printers had only a few types of each character in a fount, and they printed books, even small quartos, page by page.
This whole treatment of the history of typography is too elaborate to be summarized here, but it is interesting to note that the article gives information about the history of the earliest types—Gothic, Bastard Italian, Roman, Burgundian, etc., with fac-similes of 13 different and characteristic faces between 1445 and 1479; and of different styles and alphabets—Italic, Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, Syriac, Armenian, Ethiopic, Coptic, Samaritan, Slavonic, Russian, Etruscan, Runic, Gothic, Scandinavian, Anglo-Saxon, Irish, Music, Characters for the Blind, Initials, Ornaments and Flowers.
[Sidenote: Practical Typography]
The second part of the article TYPOGRAPHY, on Modern Practical Typography, will be of more value, probably, to most students of printing and book-making. It deals with the following topics:—
Material characteristics of Type. Fount may consist of 275 “sorts” or characters. Numbers of sorts vary with different languages—and with different styles and writers; Dickens draws heavily on vowels, Macaulay on consonants. Bill of type or scheme—how computed.
Logotypes or word character as distinct from letters.
Parts of a type—face, stem, serif, beard, shoulder, shank, belly, back, counter, nick, kern, feet, burr and batter.
Species of letter—short, ascending, descending, long, superior, inferior, fat-faced, lean-faced, bastard.
Sizes: classification by names and by point-system.
Varieties of face: Roman, sanserifs or grotesques; black; script; old style; Caslon; influence of William Morris and the Kelmscott Press; Vale Press.
Manufacture of type: type metal; punch, drive and matrix (with illustrations); type-casting—by hand and machine; inventions of Bruce, Barth, Wicks, with description and picture of the Wicks rotary type-casting machine.
Type-setting by hand. Type case, with illustration. Composition, justifying. Imposition. Signatures. Forme, quoin, side-stick, foot-stick, shooting-stick. Distributing.
Type-setting by machine. Linotype and Monotype. Earlier machines—the Paige (in which Mark Twain lost a fortune). Distributing machines—Delcambre, Fraser, Empire, Dow, Thorne, Simplex (with cut). Linotype—with diagrams and description. Monotype (the machine used for the Encyclopaedia Britannica) with illustrations of perforated strip.
Electrotyping and Stereotyping. Shells. Turtle, Flong. Wood’s Autoplate process. See also the articles ELECTROTYPING (Vol. 9, p. 252) and ELECTROPLATING (Vol. 9, p. 237).
The reader should next turn to the articles ENGRAVING (Vol. 9, p. 645), LINE-ENGRAVING (Vol. 16, p. 721), WOOD-ENGRAVING (Vol. 28, p. 798)—special reference to America where this method is still used for some book and magazine illustration—to LITHOGRAPHY (Vol. 16, p. 785) including offset printing; and PROCESS (Vol. 22, p. 408), for further information in regard to “printing” apart from (and before) actual press work. The last-named of these articles is by Edwin Bale, art director of Cassell & Company, Ltd.; it would occupy about 20 pages of this Guide; and it is illustrated by a plate showing the three-colour process. The article describes:
(1)—relief processes, line blocks, swelled gelatin process, typographic etching, halftone processes, three colour blocks, colour filters;
(2)—intaglio processes, monotype, electrotype, steel-facing, blanketing, changes in machinery;
(3)—planographic processes, including woodburytype, stannotype, collotype or phototype, heliotype and photolithography. In relation to lithography there is further information in the biographical sketch of Senefelder, its inventor.
[Sidenote: Press-Work]
The article PRINTING (Vol. 22, p. 350) deals entirely with the subject of press-work, thus using printing in the narrower and more correct sense of the word. In length this article is equivalent to 25 pages of this Guide; and it contains 9 illustrations of presses. The article is by C. T. Jacobi, author of Printing, and The Printer’s Handbook of Trade Recipes. The article gives a history of the printing press, which was practically unchanged for a century and a half, until the Dutch map-maker Blaeu greatly simplified it. The first important metal press—earlier ones were of wood—was invented by Lord Stanhope nearly two hundred years later. It had greater power with smaller expenditure of labour, and its workings, as well as that of the Blaeu press, and of the Albion, which was used by William Morris at Kelmscott, may be readily understood from the illustrations in the article. Another hand press is the Columbian, invented in 1816 by a Philadelphian, George Clymer, and still in use for heavy hand work. Power presses began to be made at the end of the 18th century, but the presses invented by William Nicholson (1790) and Friedrich König (adopted by the London Times in 1814) printed only on one side at a time, as did the “double platen” machine of a little later date. The cylindrical eight feeder built by Augustus Applegath in 1848 for the London Times and the Hoe Type Revolving Machine are described in the section on the history of power presses, which closes with the story of Bullock’s machine (1865) for printing from a continuous web of paper.
[Sidenote: Modern Presses]
The closing section of the article on printing is devoted to a description of modern presses. It opens with a list of the principal types of presses still in use, which are classified under the following seven heads:—
(1)—iron hand-presses like the Albion or Columbian, for proof-pulling or limited editions;
(2)—small platen machines for job or commercial work;
(3)—single cylinder machines (“Wharfedales”) printing one side only;
(4)—perfecting machines, usually two cylinder, printing both sides, but with two distinct operations;
(5)—two-revolution machines with one cylinder;
(6)—two-colour machines, with one cylinder usually, but two printing surfaces and two sets of inking apparatus;
(7)—rotary machines for printing from curved plates upon an endless web of paper—principally for newspapers or periodical work.
These seven classes are next described in detail and the article illustrates them all. A cut of an Albion press is given in an early part of the article, and the other six presses shown in the cuts are:
The Golding jobber platen machine
Payne & Sons’ Wharfedale stop-cylinder machine
Dryden & Foord’s perfecting machine
The Miehle two-revolution cylinder machine
Payne & Sons’ two-colour single cylinder machine
Hoe’s double-octuple rotary machine
The article closes with a discussion of the following very practical topics: the preparation or “make ready” for printing; recent development in printing with cross references to the article PROCESS; and a paragraph on the management of a printing house.
[Sidenote: Proof-Reading]
From this closing paragraph and the article on PRINTING, the student is referred to the article PROOF-READING (Vol. 22, p. 438) which is by John A. Black, head press reader of the 10th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, and John Randall, sub-editor of the Athenaeum and of Notes and Queries and former secretary of the London Association of Correctors of the Press, so that this article, like all the other articles on the subject of book-making, is written by eminent practical authorities on the subject.
[Sidenote: Bookbinding]
The same is true of the article BOOKBINDING (Vol. 4, p. 216), which naturally follows in a systematic course of study. This is by Cyril J. H. Davenport, assistant keeper of books in the British Museum and author of History of the Book, etc. This article is illustrated with 14 figures, including 8 in halftone, showing typical fine bindings. The other illustrations show machines and processes used in binding. Besides a historical sketch of book-binding the article treats of the following topics:
Modern methods and modern binding designers; machine binding, machine sewing, rounding and backing, casing, wiring, and blocking. A case-making machine, a casing-in machine and a blocking machine are shown in the illustrations.
A bookbinder or a student of the subject will find a great deal of very valuable information elsewhere in the book, particularly in the article LEATHER (Vol. 16, p. 330) by Dr. J. Gordon Parker, principal of the Leathersellers Technical College, London, and author of Leather for Libraries, etc. The article occupies the equivalent of 55 pages of this Guide; and the possessor of the Britannica will be interested to know that the leather bindings used for its volumes were all made according to specifications drawn up by Dr. Parker, the greatest authority in the world on tanning, curing and dyeing leather for book-bindings.
[Sidenote: Publishing and Book-Selling]
The last stages in getting the author’s raw material “from him to the ultimate consumer” are those in which the publisher and bookseller play their part; and for a description of their functions the student should refer to the articles on publishing and book-selling in the Britannica. The article PUBLISHING (Vol. 22, p. 628) explains that publishing and book-selling were for a long time carried on together since “booksellers were the first publishers of printed books, as they had previously been the agents for the production and exchange of authentic manuscript copies.” The separation of publishing from book-selling is due to “the tendency of every composite business to break up, as it expands, into specialized departments.” As publishers became a separate class the work of their literary assistants also broke up into specialized departments—proof-reading and the reading of manuscripts submitted by authors—or the work of printers’ readers and publishers’ readers.
The importance of the work of the publisher’s reader is dwelt upon in this article which sketches besides the growth of the Society of Authors in England and of the formation there of the Publishers’ Association and the Booksellers’ Association. The article also outlines the methods of publishing in the United States and gives particular prominence to the effect on the British market of the introduction of American books and of American book-selling methods.
[Sidenote: Historical and Miscellaneous Articles]
Among other articles of interest to the manufacturer of books are the following: BOOK (Vol. 4, p. 214) by Alfred William Pollard, assistant keeper of books in the British Museum, gives a general historical description of books and in particular calls attention to the great change in book-prices in the last thirty years. “About 1894 the number of medium-priced books was greatly increased in England by the substitution of single-volume novels at 6s. each (subject to discount) for the three-volume editions at 31s. 6d.... The preposterous price of 10s. 6d. a volume had been adopted during the first popularity of the Waverley Novels and had continued in force for the greater part of the century.” To-day, well printed copies of these novels sell for 1s. in England and for 35 cents in the United States.
It may be added that one of the most striking lessons to be learned from the Britannica, in relation to the improvements and economies effected by the application of the most modern processes to the manufacture of books, is supplied by the consideration of the Britannica itself. The extent of the composition and machinery involved, the accuracy of the proof-reading, the novel employment—upon a large scale—of India paper and flexible bindings, the beauty of the illustrations, and, above all, the low price at which the product is sold, form a combination of the very latest perfections of every department of the industry.
Read too BOOK-COLLECTING (Vol. 4, p. 221) also by A. W. Pollard; the article BOOK PLATES (Vol. 4, p. 230) by Egerton Castle, illustrated with ten cuts of book plates (which are so well chosen that book plate collectors have not infrequently asked the publishers of the Encyclopaedia Britannica for extra copies so that they might include them in their collections); the article BOOKCASE (Vol. 4, p. 221) from which the reader may be surprised to learn that “the whole construction and arrangement of bookcases was learnedly discussed in the light of experience by W. E. Gladstone in the Nineteenth Century for March 1890;” and the article BIBLIOGRAPHY AND BIBLIOLOGY (Vol. 3, p. 908) by A. W. Pollard, supplemented by the article INCUNABULA (Vol. 14, p. 369).
The following alphabetical list of articles and sections of articles, although it does not profess to be complete, will give the student some idea of the large number of topics connected with the general subject of the manufacture of books:
Albion Press Aniline Ink Applegath, Augustus Autoplate Process Backing Barth, Henry Bastard Letter Batter Bibliography and Bibliology Bill of Type Binding Black Type Blaeu Press Blanketing Bleaching Blocking Blue Ink Boiling Book Book-Binding Bookcase Book-collecting Book-Plates Bookselling Bourgeois Breaking Brevier Bruce, David Burr Case-making Machine Casing Casing-in machine Caslon Type Casting Cellulose China Ink Chinese Paper-makers Chiswick Press Clymer, George Collotype Colour Filters Colour Process Columbian Press Composition Copying Ink Coster Couching Cutter Dandy Roll Delcambre Machine Distributing Distributing Machines Dow Machine Drive Drying Electroplating Electrotyping Empire Machine English Type Engraving Esparto Evaporator Face Flong Forme Fount Fraser Machine Fust Glazing Golding Machine Gold Ink Goodson Gutenberg Half Stuff Half-tone Heliotype Hoe, Robert Imposition Incunabula Indelible Ink Indian Ink India Paper Ink Intaglio Process Italic Type Jordan Beaters Justifying Kelmscott Press Kern Kingsland Beater König, Friedrich Lanston Monotype Leather Line-Engraving Linotype Lithography Logwood Ink Machine Presses Marking Ink Matrices Miehle Press Minion Monoline Monotype Morris, William Nicholson, William Nick Nonpareil Octuple Rotary Machine Off-set Printing Old-style Type Paige Composing Machine Paper Papyrus Parchment Pearl (type) Perfecting Machine Photolithography Phototype Pica Planographic Process Platen Point System Porion Evaporator Power Presses Pressing Press Plate Press-work Primer Price of Paper Printing Printing Ink Process Proof-reading Publishing Pulp Punch Quality, Standards of Paper Rag Red Ink Reel Paper Cutter Relief Process Roman Type Rotary Presses Rounding Ruby Scheme of Type Senefelder Serif Sewing Shake Sheeting Shells Signature Silver Ink Simplex Machine Sizes of Paper Sizing Soda Recovery Stanhope Press Stannotype Steel-facing Stem Stereotyping Straining Super Calender Surfacing Swelled Gelatin Process Sympathetic Ink Tachytype Tannin Ink Thorne Machine Three Colour Process Tub-sizing Turtle Type-case Typograph Typography Vale Press Water mark Wharfedale Presses Wicks, Frederick Wiring Woodbury Process Wood Engraving Wood’s Autoplate Writing Ink Yaryan Evaporator
XXII. FOR JOURNALISTS AND AUTHORS
[Sidenote: The Development of Style]
No writer can consider the use he will make of the tools of his trade—and the Britannica is certainly the chief among them—unless he has very definite views as to the particular kind of work he is trying to do. Where writing is regarded as a business, the art of writing is the art of being read, and the art of being read lies, nowadays, in convincing the reader that you have something fresh to say, rather than in arousing his admiration of your way of saying it. Writing is none the less one of the fine arts: the modern writer must form his style with the utmost care, and always guard himself against the temptation to relax his standards. But the juggling with words, the “rhythmical sequences of recurring consonants,” the musical prose in which sounds are adjusted as artfully as in verse, presuppose readers to whom these elaborations are delightful. Such readers are rare, to-day. Thirty or forty years ago it was a matter of course, in thousands of homes, for some one member of the household to read aloud to the others. The custom has almost disappeared, and there has been a change in public taste, due, perhaps, in great measure to a change in the pace at which people read. A book does not “last” as it did. Newspaper reading has trained the eye and the mind to swifter consumption. The modern professional writer adapts himself to the existing conditions. He knows that those who ride in automobiles do not peer under tufts of leaves to look for roadside violets. But he also knows that they want a straight, smooth road. He endeavors to write as concisely as possible, yet to write so clearly that every point he makes is made once for all; and he can work fully as hard, and apply talents fully as great, in forming a style that pleases by its simple directness—or, better, that pleases because the reader does not think of it as “style,”—as if he were aiming at the most elaborate ornament.
[Sidenote: “Vitalized Observation”]
In developing the power of clear and concise statement, the first essential is to form the habit of getting your “something to say” absolutely plain to your own mind before you attempt to say it. A writer deliberately strives to be wordy and vague when he is trying to misrepresent facts, and it is impossible, when he is groping for his facts, that he should avoid wordiness and vagueness. The Britannica article on Rudyard Kipling speaks of his “powers of observation vitalized by imagination.” It would be difficult to find a phrase more tersely describing the ideal equipment of a writer, and Kipling’s observation is rapid observation amplified by deliberate investigation. He gets a swift impression of the complex framework of a ship or of the intricate machinery of a locomotive, and then, before he writes “The Ship that Found Herself” or “.007,” he makes as elaborate a technical study as if he were writing an engineering article instead of a story. His imagination so vitalizes the result that when you read the story, although it describes beams and valves you never saw, you recognize the accuracy of his technical description as you recognize, in an art gallery, the fidelity of a portrait, although you never saw the person portrayed. In using the Britannica, the investigation by which you amplify your personal observation helps you in four ways. First, you correct your facts if they need correction. Whatever your subject may be, you find information so authoritative that you cannot question it. Second, you amplify your own observations; you discover the underlying causes and relations of the events or opinions you are about to discuss. Third, the reading by which you have, consciously or unconsciously, been influenced in forming your style, is rendered more profitable and stimulating by your study of the Britannica articles in which the work of all the world’s great writers, past and present, is analyzed by the most brilliant critics. [Sidenote: Models of Style] Fourth, you have in the Britannica itself such examples of scholarly, forcible, compacted English as cannot often be found in contemporary books. It is not within the province of this Guide to institute detailed comparisons between these articles by the leading literary men of the day and other writings from the same pens. But the reader will discover for himself that the editorial policy which demanded rigorous concision has stimulated, not hampered, the distinguished writers whose Britannica articles are, in case after case, the best of their productions.
[Sidenote: Practical Tests]
The foregoing summary of the uses of the Britannica to writers is based upon reviews of the work which have appeared in the daily and weekly press; and it may be supplemented by brief extracts from one or two letters to the publishers, written by men whose reputations give their opinions great weight. In one of these Horace White, formerly editor of the Evening Post of New York, spoke highly of the practical utility of the Britannica. Joseph Pulitzer, of the New York World, shortly before his death wrote: “I want to thank you for the intellectual pleasure I enjoyed this winter in examining this extraordinary production. I have already distributed a dozen sets in America as presents among editors and my children. [He afterwards ordered six more sets.] The work is a liberal education.” John Habberton wrote: “The new edition of the Britannica has already cost me hundreds of hours that I should have given to my work, but I do not regret the outlay, for I have been richly repaid. There never was a handier book for a desk or a more readable one.”
It is not only true that no ordinary library would supply the information to be found in the Britannica, but it is as true, and as relevant, that no ordinary library presents information in a form as stimulating to the writer who uses books as the tools of his trade. The editor-in-chief of the Britannica had all the world’s greatest experts in all fields of human knowledge and endeavour to choose from. He chose in each instance the expert whose knowledge was so thorough, and whose correlation of his special knowledge with related branches was so complete, that his articles are not merely “last word” information but interesting and alive. You may remember the new interest you felt in natural science when you first read an essay by Huxley, because he had the power of creating enthusiasm. It is a justifiable figure of speech to say that, in this sense, the Britannica has been written by Huxleys. Perhaps you have ransacked a public library for some out-of-the-way fact and finally found it, in skeleton form, and in crabbed German, in Meyer or Brockhaus or some other German encyclopaedia. Or did your search end by finding the fact in Larousse or La Grande Encyclopédie, in some clever phrase, so brilliantly written, so strikingly put, that it was the phrase and not the fact that you had got—and you felt that the Frenchman had hidden the fact, if he ever had had it, in his epigram? You may have wished, then, for a third type of encyclopaedia which should be “German-thorough” and “French-interesting.” Such a combination is the Britannica,—more authoritative, more up-to-date, more interesting, than any other book.
[Sidenote: The Journalist’s Needs]
A newspaper man, reporter or editor, must be informed at a moment’s notice on any one of so large a number and so wide a range of topics that the best library of reference obtainable can be none too good for him. This is especially true of the man on the smaller newspaper which does not have the luxury of specialists on its editorial staff, or of many reporters dividing among them the work of gathering news on such lines that each may work in a field with which he is intimately acquainted and in which he is particularly versed. And the rural newspaper is, besides, further from good public libraries and financially less able to have a large office library. The authority, the scope, the interest and the convenience of the Britannica make it just the book to fill these varied needs of the newspaper man. If he has to write a “murder story” in which some unusual poison has been used, he can find a full description of the origin, the use, the action and the tests of the drug by turning to the Britannica—instead of hunting for (and then through) a text book on medicine. And if, on the same day, or the next, he must write an editorial on the tariff, he will find in the article TARIFF, in the articles FREE TRADE and PROTECTION, and in that part of the article UNITED STATES which deals with the country’s economic history, the information that he wants; and he can get it quickly, and can be sure of its being authoritative.
If the Britannica is evidently the work of reference for the writer, how is he to use it?
It has already been suggested that he will find authoritative and recent information on any topic connected with the subject on which he is writing. It would be interesting to see—or at least to imagine—how largely the Britannica might be used as a source for fiction. A novelist with an appetite for human documents like Balzac’s or like that of Charles Reade—with his many albums full of newspaper clippings,—could satisfy himself with the Britannica, taking his characters “from life” in its biographical and historical articles and his setting from its geographical articles.
[Sidenote: Literary Criticism]
It has already been suggested that the writer will find in the Britannica the clearness and conciseness of style which he cannot but wish to attain in his own work. Here he has the writings of great masters of English. He may remember Robert Louis Stevenson’s story of how he played “the sedulous ape” to the great stylists; and in the Britannica he can read not only an excellent sketch of Stevenson by Edmund Gosse, his friend and a well-known essayist, but Stevenson’s own article on Béranger. He may read Matthew Arnold on Sainte-Beuve; Walter Besant on Froissart and on Richard Jefferies; John Burroughs on Walt Whitman; G. W. Cable on William Cullen Bryant; Edmund Kerchever Chambers on Shakespeare: Ernest Hartley Coleridge on Byron; Sidney Colvin on Giotto, Leonardo, etc.; Austin Dobson on Fielding, Hogarth, Richardson, etc.; Henry van Dyke on Emerson; John Fiske on Francis Parkman; Richard Garnett on T. L. Peacock and on Satire; Israel Gollancz on “The Pearl”; Edmund Gosse on many literary genres, on Ibsen, etc.; Edward Everett Hale on James Freeman Clarke and on Edward Everett; Frederic Harrison on Ruskin; W. E. Henley on James Fenimore Cooper; William Price James on Barrie, Henley and Kipling; Prince Karageorgevitch on Marie Bashkirtseff; Stanley Lane-Poole on Richard Burton; Andrew Lang on Ballads, Molière, etc.; Henry Cabot Lodge on Albert Gallatin; E. V. Lucas on Jane Austen and Charles Lamb; Lord Macaulay on Bunyan, Goldsmith, Johnson and Pitt; David Masson on Milton; Brander Matthews on Mark Twain; Alice Meynell on Mrs. Browning; William Minto on Dryden, Pope, Spenser and Wordsworth; John Nichol on Robert Burns; Charles Eliot Norton on George William Curtis; Mark Pattison on Casaubon, Erasmus, Macaulay and Thomas More; W. H. Pollock on Thackeray and de Musset; Quiller-Couch on Thomas Edward Brown; Whitelaw Reid on Greeley; C. F. Richardson on Bronson Alcott and John Fiske; W. M. Rossetti on Shelley; Viscount St. Cyres on Fénelon and Madame Guyon; Saintsbury on French literature, Balzac, Montaigne, Rabelais, etc.; Carl Schurz on Henry Clay; H. E. Scudder on Lowell and Harriet Beecher Stowe; Thomas Seccombe on Boswell, Dickens, Charles Lever, etc.; William Sharp (“Fiona McLeod”) on Thoreau; Clement Shorter on the Brontës, Crabbe, Cowper and Mrs. Gaskell; W. W. Skeat on Layamon; E. C. Stedman on Whittier; Sir Leslie Stephen on Browning and Carlyle; Richard Henry Stoddard on Hawthorne; Swinburne on Beaumont and Fletcher, Congreve, Hugo, Landor, Marlowe, Mary, Queen of Scots; John Addington Symonds on the Renaissance, Machiavelli, Tasso, etc.; Arthur Symons on Hardy, Mallarmé, Verlaine; W. P. Trent on Sidney Lanier; A. W. Ward on Drama; Mrs. Humphry Ward on Lyly; Theodore Watts-Dunton on Poetry, Sonnet, Borrow, Wycherley, Matthew Arnold; Arthur Waugh on William Morris, Walter Pater; and G. E. Woodberry on American Literature.
The more you know of the subjects or authors in this list the more likely you will be to say what a Western professor of theology said, in reviewing the articles in the Britannica dealing with the Bible: “They are the very authorities that I would have chosen to write these articles!”
But the Britannica will serve the professional author in other ways than by giving him information in special fields and by keeping before him admirable models of style. He might well follow any of the courses suggested in the chapter on Literature in this Guide; and if he will read the articles on great authors written by great authors, already mentioned, he will have a doubly valuable course in biographical criticism by the ablest of literary critics.
Any newspaper writer or contributor to the periodical press should read such articles as:
[Sidenote: Newspapers and Magazines]
NEWSPAPERS (Vol. 19, p. 544; equivalent to 125 pages of this Guide), by Hugh Chisholm, editor-in-chief of the Britannica, with sections on the price of newspapers by Lord Northcliffe, on illustrated papers by Clement Shorter, general information on American newspapers, and an elaborate historical account of British, American and foreign newspapers.
PERIODICALS (Vol. 21, p. 151; equivalent to 40 pages in this Guide), by Henry Richard Tedder, librarian of the Athenaeum Club of London, treats the subject under the heads: British, United States, Canada, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand, West Indies and British Crown Colonies, India and Ceylon, France, Germany, Austria, Italy, Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Spain, Portugal, Greece, Russia, and other Countries.
SOCIETIES, LEARNED (Vol. 25, p. 309), also by H. R. Tedder, deals with the publications of such societies and classifies them (with geographical sub-classification for each head) under Science Generally, Mathematics, Astronomy, Physics, Chemistry, Geology, Mineralogy and Palaeontology, Meteorology, Microscopy, Botany and Horticulture, Zoology, Anthropology, Sociology, Medicine and Surgery, Engineering and Architecture, Naval and Military Science, Agriculture and Trades, Literature, History and Archaeology, and Geography.
Local information in regard to newspapers and journalism will be found in separate local articles. Thus under Boston, Philadelphia, New York City, New Orleans, San Francisco, etc., there is valuable information in regard to these cities as literary centers and about their principal periodical publications, including newspapers; and in the articles on smaller cities, such as Albany and Springfield, Mass., there are valuable historical sketches of the local press of each.
[Sidenote: Literary Biographies]
The newspaper man should read the biographies of great American printers and editors: WILLIAM BRADFORD (Vol. 4, p. 370); BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (Vol. 11, p. 24; equivalent to 20 pages of this Guide); ISAIAH THOMAS (Vol. 26, p. 867); NOAH WEBSTER (Vol. 28, p. 463); WILLIAM CULLEN BRYANT (Vol. 4, p. 698); JAMES G. BIRNEY (Vol. 3, p. 988); GAMALIEL BAILEY (Vol. 3, p. 217); W. L. GARRISON (Vol. 11, p. 477); JAMES GORDON BENNETT (Vol. 3, p. 740); THURLOW WEED (Vol. 28, p. 466); GIDEON WELLES (Vol. 28, p. 506); JOHN BIGELOW (Vol. 3, p. 922); HORACE GREELEY (Vol. 12, p. 531); HENRY J. RAYMOND (Vol. 22, p. 933); GEORGE RIPLEY (Vol. 23, p. 363); C. A. DANA (Vol. 7, p. 791); GEORGE WILLIAM CURTIS (Vol. 7, p. 652); CARL SCHURZ (Vol. 24, p. 386); SAMUEL BOWLES (Vol. 4, p. 344); JOSEPH R. HAWLEY (Vol. 13, p. 101); WHITELAW REID (Vol. 23, p. 52); GEORGE W. CHILDS (Vol. 6, p. 141); E. L. GODKIN (Vol. 12, p. 174); and HENRY WATTERSON (Vol. 28, p. 418).
The reading of these biographies will give the student many interesting starting-points for studies in American politics, economics, literature, reform movements as widely separated as abolition and the introduction of the merit system into the civil service. The author should also read the article AMERICAN LITERATURE (Vol. 1, p. 831; equivalent to 35 pages of this Guide), by Professor G. E. Woodberry, and, if his field is that of the publicist, he should read the article on the history of the UNITED STATES (Vol. 27, p. 663), equivalent to 225 pages of this Guide; and the allied articles to which he is referred from that.
The advertising writer will find a valuable and stimulating article on ADVERTISEMENT (Vol. 1, p. 235, equivalent to 20 pages in this Guide), which gives a history of the subject, deals with posters and signs, circulars, periodical advertising, and legal regulation and taxation. For a full list of articles of particular usefulness for the author, see the chapter Literature in this Guide. The following brief list may serve as the basis for a preliminary course of reading.
Alliteration Ana Anecdote Anthology Anticlimax Antithesis Aphorism Apologue Apophthegm Archaism Assonance Bathos Belles-Lettres Biography Book Book-Collecting Bookselling Burlesque Comedy Criticism Dialogue Drama Elegy Encyclopaedia Epic Poetry Epigram Epilogue Epistle Essay Euphemism Fable Feuilleton Gazette Humour Hyperbole Idyll Impromptu Index Irony Lampoon Laureate Legend Libraries Limerick Litotes Lyrical Poetry Manuscript Melodrama Metaphor Metonymy Metre Monologue National Anthems Newspapers Novel Ode Pamphlets Parable Paradox Paraphrase Parody Pasquinade Periodicals Philippics Plagiarism Pleonasm Poetry Proof-Reading Prose Prosody Proverb Psalm Pseudonym Pun Quatrain Quotation Reporting Rhetoric Rhyme Rhythm Romance Saga Satire Song Sonnet Squib Stanza Style Tale Tract Treatise Verse
XXIII. FOR TEACHERS
[Sidenote: The Teacher’s “Factor of Safety”]
Every teacher has one pupil who tries harder than any of the others to absorb knowledge, and yet is never content with the progress made, who knows how hard the teacher works, and yet is never satisfied with the teacher—and that pupil is the teacher’s self. For every other learner there is a limit to the amount of knowledge to be acquired, but in the case of the teacher a “standard” is supposed to indicate no more than an indispensable minimum. When you are trying to make your pupils master a text-book, the volume seems to contain a most stupendous mass of learning, and when one of them asks you a question about the subject with which the text-book deals, that particular point is sure to be one that the text-book does not cover. What engineers call the “factor of safety,” the margin by which the strength of materials must exceed the stress it is expected to encounter, is, for the teacher, incalculable. It is, of course, a favorite pastime of parents to send a child to school primed with some question “to ask Teacher,” selecting an enigma that has been for centuries a battle-ground for scholars or scientists. And, apart from these malicious pitfalls, children themselves seem, quite innocently, to hit upon questions of extraordinary difficulty. A rebuff, a careless response, or, worst of all, an ingenious evasion of the issue, is fatal to the teacher’s authority and influence. “Ask me that again, to-morrow morning,” is the phrase with which a conscientious teacher often meets such a contingency. And then how a fagged brain is tormented that evening, how the few books available (and they are likely to be a very few if there is no public library at hand) are searched in vain! That is not all. If it be true that the teacher is the most diligent, yet always the least satisfied, of all the teacher’s pupils, it is equally true that many of the most puzzling questions with which the teacher is confronted arise in the teacher’s own mind.
[Sidenote: Answers to All Questions]
The question-answering power of the Britannica is therefore of cardinal importance to the teacher, and is to be considered not only in connection with the use of the work for reference, but also in the selection of such courses of reading as may be expected to supply information of the kind that questions most often demand. And this question-answering power lies in three characteristics of the work, and may be measured by the extent to which the three are found in it: broad scope, unimpeachable authority and convenient arrangement. Its scope covers the whole range of human knowledge, everything that mankind has achieved, attempted, believed or studied. Its authority is doubly vouchsafed. The fact that the Britannica is published by the University of Cambridge (England), one of the world’s oldest and most famous seats of learning, in itself gives such a guarantee as no other Encyclopaedia has ever offered, and the assurance thus given may be regarded as showing, chiefly, that there are no errors of omission, for against the existence of the errors of commission there is a further guarantee. The articles are signed by 1,500 contributors, including the foremost specialists in every department of knowledge. Among this army of collaborators, chosen from twenty countries, there are no less than 704 members of the staffs of 146 universities and colleges. This means that by means of the Britannica the youngest teacher in the most isolated village is brought into stimulating contact with the great leaders of the teaching profession. Its arrangement gives it the advantages of a universal library, providing the varied courses of reading outlined in this Guide, and those also of a work of reference which yields an immediate answer to every conceivable question. The index of 500,000 entries instantly leads the enquirer to any item of information in the 40,000 articles. No teacher could hope to form, in the course of a lifetime, a collection of separate books which would contain anywhere near as much information.
[Sidenote: A Library of Text-Books]
In another relation, the Britannica is of daily service to anyone engaged in educational work. It has already been remarked that the teacher needs a “factor of safety,” a reserve of knowledge beyond that which is directly called for in the ordinary routine of the class room. But in the very course of that routine, there is also a need for co-ordinated knowledge, presented in a form available for use in teaching, of a more advanced kind than that in the text-books with which pupils are provided. And the Britannica is, in itself, a vast collection of text-books.
Professor Shotwell, of Columbia University, recently wrote to the publishers a letter in which he said: “I shall use the articles in the Encyclopaedia Britannica which deal with industrial processes as a substitute for a text-book in one of my courses in Social and Industrial History and have especially in mind the splendid treatment of the cotton industry by Professor S. J. Chapman and others.” A large number of Britannica articles have, by permission, been reprinted, word for word, for use as text-books; and it is impossible to say how many have been paraphrased, and, in a form less clear and vivid than the originals, similarly employed. The writers of the Britannica have, among them, done so large a share of the world’s recent work in research and criticism, that no one who is engaged in writing a text-book or in preparing a course of lectures should fail to use the work as a check to test the completeness and the accuracy of independent investigation.
Fortunately, the system of monthly payments has enabled teachers to purchase the Britannica to an extent which, in view of their limited resources, is a striking evidence of their earnest desire to perfect their professional equipment. In some cases two and even three teachers have combined their efforts in order that they might jointly possess the work. But whatever may be the difficulties to be overcome, it is certain that the Britannica is, for the teacher, an instrument as directly productive as a technical library is for a doctor or a lawyer.
A professor in an eastern college wrote to the publishers: “It has become ‘the collection of books’ which Carlyle might term ‘the true university’”; and the practical head of a business school in Pennsylvania says: “By its purchase, I have secured access to a university education.” A well known professor of German calls it “a Hausschatz of amazing richness and variety,” and adds: “I hope you will not be sued at law for an attempt to monopolize the market for profitable and entertaining literature.” The president of a southern university wrote: “It is the first book to consult, the one book to own, if you can own but one.” And a Harvard professor says: “I have been particularly interested in some of the recent phases of European history. Concerning some movements, about which it is as yet extremely difficult to find material in books, I have found the Encyclopaedia most useful.” A teacher in a theological seminary exclaims: “What a university of solid training it would be for a young student, if he would spend an hour each day reading the work, volume by volume, and including all the articles except those of a technical nature belonging to other departments than his own!”
This is what teachers have said of the value to them of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Specialists in school-hygiene and school librarians have also noted the advantage of the light, handy volumes printed on India paper—one weighs no more than two monthly magazines—, which may be easily held at the proper angle for eye-focus on a large page.
The teacher will find in this Guide valuable suggestions about particular subjects which he may wish to teach or study,—such as history, literature, language and biology. In this chapter we suggest a general course.
[Sidenote: The Theory of Education]
Let him begin with the article EDUCATION (Vol. 8, p. 951), which is the equivalent in length of 120 pages of the size and type of this Guide, and of which the first part is by James Welton, professor of education in the University of Leeds and author of Logical Bases of Education, etc., the sections on national systems by G. B. M. Coore, assistant secretary of the London Board of Education, and that on the United States by Nicholas Murray Butler, president of Columbia University. This valuable article begins with a discussion of the meaning of the term “Education,” excludes John Stuart Mill’s extension to everything which “helps to shape the human being,” and narrows the meaning to definitely personal work,—the true “working” definition for the practical teacher.
The section on educational theory might equally well be styled a sketch of the history of education and will prove valuable to the teacher preparing for a licence-examination in this subject or for a normal training course. It discusses old Greek education with special attention to Spartan practice, Plato’s theory and Aristotle’s, and the gradual change from the point of view of the city-state to Hellenistic cosmopolitanism. The older Roman education, practical and given by father to son, is contrasted with the later Hellenized training, largely by Greek slaves, largely rhetorical and largely summed up in Quintilian’s Institutio. The contest between the pagan system and Christianity is shown to have culminated in monasticism; and barbarian inroads stifled classical culture until the Carolingian revival under Alcuin in the 8th century and the scholastic revival (11th to 13th centuries) of Abelard, Aquinas and Arabic workings over of Aristotle. Scholastic education is considered especially in relation to the first great European universities and the schools of the Dominicans, Franciscans and Brethren of the Common Life, and in contrast to chivalry, the education of feudalism. The Renaissance is treated at greater length, and this is followed by sections on the influence of the Reformation on education, and the consequent growth of Jesuit schools. The keynote of the story thereafter is reform,—the movement away from the classics, toward natural science, and, especially after the French Revolution, by means of new methods and theories, notably those of Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Froebel and Herbart.
The remainder of the article EDUCATION deals with national systems of education: French, German, Swiss, Belgian, Dutch, Scotch, Irish, English, Welsh and American, with an excellent bibliography. These, and other, national systems are also treated from another point of view in the articles on the separate countries.
[Sidenote: Articles on Great Schools]
The article EDUCATION should naturally be followed by a study of the article UNIVERSITIES (Vol. 27, p. 748—about 100 pages, if printed in the style of this Guide) by James Bass Mullinger (author of the History of Cambridge, The Schools of Charles the Great, etc.) and, for American universities, by Daniel Coit Gilman, late president of Johns Hopkins University; and by a reading of articles on the great universities, as for instance, Oxford, Cambridge, Aberdeen, Glasgow, St. Andrews, Dublin, Harvard, Yale, Columbia, Cornell, Princeton, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Wisconsin, California, Leland Stanford, Jr., etc. The student should then turn to the article SCHOOLS (Vol. 24, p. 359; equivalent to about 40 pages of this Guide) by Arthur Francis Leach, author of English Schools at the Reformation, who gives a summary of what is known of Greek, Roman and English schools.
Then,—to supplement these general articles,—he should read—
On Greek education:
PLATO (Vol. 21, p. 808), especially p. 812 (on Meno) and 818 (on the Republic).
ARISTOTLE (Vol. 2, p. 501).
SPARTA (Vol. 25, p. 609, particularly p. 611).
On Roman education:
CATO (Vol. 5, p. 535).
QUINTILIAN (Vol. 22, p. 761).
On early Christian education:
CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA (Vol. 6, p. 487, particularly p. 488, on the Paedagogus).
AUGUSTINE (Vol. 2, p. 907) and JEROME (Vol. 15, p. 326), with especial attention to their early pagan education and their attitude toward it as Christians.
AMBROSE (Vol. 1, p. 798).
MARTIANUS CAPELLA (Vol. 5, p. 249).
BOETIUS (Vol. 4, p. 116).
CASSIODORUS (Vol. 5, p. 459).
ISIDORE (Vol. 14, p. 871).
ST. GREGORY (Vol. 12, p. 566).
BEDE (Vol. 3, p. 615).
MONASTICISM (Vol. 18, p. 687).
On the Carolingian revival:
ALCUIN (Vol. 1, p. 529).
ANGILBERT (Vol. 2, p. 9).
CHARLEMAGNE (Vol. 5, p. 891, especially p. 894).
FRANCE (Vol. 10, p. 810).
On the Scholastic revival:
SCHOLASTICISM (Vol. 24, p. 346).
ABELARD (Vol. 1, p. 40).
JOHN OF SALISBURY (Vol. 15, p. 449).
ALBERTUS MAGNUS (Vol 1, p. 504).
GROSSETESTE (Vol. 12, p. 617).
THOMAS AQUINAS (Vol. 2, p. 250).
ROGER BACON (Vol. 3, p. 153).
On the Renaissance:
RENAISSANCE (Vol. 23, p. 83).
DANTE (Vol. 7, p. 810).
PETRARCH (Vol. 21, p. 310).
BOCCACIO (Vol. 4, p. 102).
MANUEL CHRYSOLARAS (Vol. 6, p. 320).
MANUTIUS (Vol. 17, p. 624).
THOMAS MORE (Vol. 18, p. 822).
ERASMUS (Vol. 9, p. 727).
JOHN COLET (Vol. 6, p. 681).
THOMAS LINACRE (Vol. 16, p. 701).
On the Reformation period and Counter-Reformation:
REFORMATION (Vol. 23, p. 4).
MELANCTHON (Vol. 18, p. 88).
LUTHER (Vol. 17, p. 133).
TROTZENDORFF (Vol. 27, p. 308).
REUCHLIN (Vol. 23, p. 204).
ASCHAM (Vol. 2, p. 720).
RABELAIS (Vol. 22, p. 769).
JESUITS (Vol. 15, p. 337), especially p. 342.
LA SALLE (Vol. 16, p. 231).
On the Modern period:
COMENIUS (Vol. 6, p. 759).
ROUSSEAU (Vol. 23, p. 775).
VOLTAIRE (Vol. 28, p. 199).
PESTALOZZI (Vol. 21, p. 284).
FROEBEL (Vol. 11, p. 238).
HERBART (Vol. 13, p. 335).
WILHELM VON HUMBOLDT (Vol. 13, p. 875).
ANDREW BELL (Vol. 3, p. 684).
JOSEPH LANCASTER (Vol. 16, p. 147).
SIR JOHN FITCH (Vol. 10, p. 438).
JAMES BLAIR (Vol. 4, p. 34).
T. H. GALLAUDET (Vol. 11, p. 416).
F. A. P. BARNARD (Vol. 3, p. 409).
HENRY BARNARD (Vol. 3, p. 410).
HORACE MANN (Vol. 17, p. 587).
MARK HOPKINS (Vol. 13, p. 684).
WILLIAM T. HARRIS (Vol. 13, p. 21).
JUSTIN S. MORRILL (Vol. 18, p. 869).
ALEXANDER MELVILLE BELL (Vol. 3, p. 684).
S. C. ARMSTRONG (Vol. 2, p. 591).
BOOKER T. WASHINGTON (Vol. 28, p. 344).
CO-EDUCATION (Vol. 6, p. 637).
BLINDNESS (Vol. 4, p. 66).
DEAF AND DUMB (Vol. 7, p. 887).
INFANT SCHOOLS (Vol. 14, p. 533).
KINDERGARTEN (Vol. 15, p. 802).
MUSEUMS OF ART (Vol. 19, p. 60).
MUSEUMS OF SCIENCE (Vol. 19, p. 64).
POLYTECHNIC (Vol. 22, p. 38).
TECHNICAL EDUCATION (Vol. 26, p. 487), an elaborate article, about 40 pages in the form of this Guide, by Sir Philip Magnus, author of Industrial Education, member of the Royal Commission on technical instruction (1881–1884) and, in 1907, president of the education section of the British Association.
[Sidenote: The Study of Psychology]
Of equal importance with this course on the history of education, for the student taking the licence-examination or for a teacher taking an examination for a higher grade licence or a principalship, is a course in Psychology in the Britannica. This will be found largely in the great article on PSYCHOLOGY (Vol. 22, p. 547; equivalent in length to 200 pages of this Guide) by James Ward. The systematic treatment of the subject in this article is particularly valuable to the teacher, whether the object desired is to review the entire subject, sharpening one’s impressions from a longer course of reading; to get a general grounding in the subject—for which a careful study of this one article will suffice; or to make one’s self more certain of his comprehension of any part of the subject. It is not practicable to give an outline of this article here, but a few of its special topics are listed below:
General analysis of the subject
Attention Theory of presentations Sensation Perception Imagination or Ideation Mental Association Reminiscence and Expectation Experimental Investigations on Memory and Association Feeling Emotion and Emotional Action Intellection Self-Consciousness Relation of Body and Mind Comparative Psychology
Besides the general article with its systematic summary of the subject, the Britannica contains many briefer articles on special topics, so that the teacher will find not only an excellent text-book of the subject in Prof. Ward’s article, but also an elaborate dictionary or encyclopaedia of psychological terms or topics. Among the topics treated in this “Dictionary of Psychology” are:
AFFECTION APPERCEPTION ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS ATTENTION CATEGORY COGNITION CONCEPT CONNOTATION DEDUCTION DEFINITION DENOTATION DREAM EXTENSION HEARING IDEA IMAGINATION IMITATION IMMORTALITY INDIVIDUALISM INDUCTION INSTINCT INTELLECT INTROSPECTION INTUITION MNEMONICS MOTIVE NOÜMENON OBJECT, SUBJECT PARALLELISM PERCEPTION PERSONALITY PHENOMENON PLEASURE PSYCHOPHYSICS RECEPT RELATIVITY REMINISCENCE RETRO-COGNITION SELF SENSATIONALISM SMELL SUGGESTION TASTE TOUCH VISION WEBER’S LAW WILL
Furthermore, the teacher will find the Britannica a valuable biographical dictionary. This he will already have realized, if he has looked up the biographical articles mentioned in connection with the history of education. The following is a brief outline course in psychological biography:
Adamson, Robert Aristotle Bain, Alexander Baldwin, James Mark Beneke, F. E. Berkeley, George Clifford, Wm. K. Democritus Epicurus Fechner, G. F. Geulincx, Arnold Hamilton, William Hartley, David Helmholtz, Herman von Herbart, Johann F. Hobbes, Thomas Höffding, Harold Hume, David Hucheson, Francis James, William Kant, Immanuel Ladd, G. T. Lange, F. A. Leibnitz, G. W. Lewes, George Henry Locke, John Lotze, R. H. Mill, James Mill, J. S. Müller, Johannes Peter Münsterberg, Hugo Reid, Thomas Ribot, T. A. Spencer, Herbert Sully, James Ward, James Wundt, W. M.
XXIV. FOR MINISTERS
[Sidenote: The Great Preachers]
The minister or candidate for the ministry will find a valuable course of reading laid out for him in this Guide under the heading Bible Study, and it might be said with little exaggeration that any systematic course of reading in the Encyclopaedia Britannica should add to the efficiency and power of one who would be an ideal pastor. If the schools of the Middle Ages could truly call all the arts and sciences hand-maids and helpers to Theology, much more truly, in the present age, should the minister, in order that he may minister truly, know not merely the history of the Bible and of the Church, the results of modern criticism, and of comparative religion and folk-lore, but, almost as fully, general history, literature, philosophy, psychology, education, something of the fine arts, much of law and political science, and still more of social science and economics. In a period of specialization he cannot afford to be a specialist—or, it might be nearer the truth to say that, like every other true specialist, he must make all knowledge, all the circle of the sciences, tributary to his specialty, which is the knowledge and the improvement of the human soul. The suggestions that follow must necessarily be fragmentary, and should be considered as including merely a few topics not covered in the chapter on Bible Study nor in the other courses which, as has just been suggested, a minister might profitably pursue.
The article SERMON (Vol. 24, p. 673) is by Edmund Gosse, librarian of the House of Lords, biographer of John Donne, Jeremy Taylor and Dr. Thomas Browne. The writer is especially conversant with the English literature of the 17th century, in the middle of which, to quote his article, “the sermon became one of the most highly-cultivated forms of intellectual entertainment in Great Britain, and when the theatres were closed at the Commonwealth it grew to be the only public form of eloquence.”
Each name on the following list of great preachers is accompanied by volume and page reference to the biographical sketch in the Britannica, containing criticism of the preacher and a bibliography of his works and of works about him, so that the articles supply the basis for a study of the world’s great preachers.
British. JOHN WYCLIFFE (Vol. 28, p. 868) JOHN FISHER (Vol. 10, p. 427) HUGH LATIMER (Vol. 16, p. 242) JOHN KNOX (Vol. 15, p. 878) RICHARD HOOKER (Vol. 13, p. 672) JOHN DONNE (Vol. 8, p. 417) JOSEPH HALL (Vol. 12, p. 847) JOHN HALES (Vol. 12, p. 834) EDMUND CALAMY (Vol. 4, p. 967) BENJAMIN WHICHCOTE (Vol. 28, p. 587) THOMAS ADAMS (Vol. 1, p. 180) RICHARD BAXTER (Vol. 3, p. 551) THOMAS MANTON (Vol. 17, p. 607) JOHN OWEN (Vol. 20, p. 392) RALPH CUDWORTH (Vol. 7, p. 612) ROBERT LEIGHTON (Vol. 16, p. 398) JEREMY TAYLOR (Vol. 26, p. 469) ISAAC BARROW (Vol. 3, p. 440) ROBERT SOUTH (Vol. 25, p. 463) JOHN TILLOTSON (Vol. 26, p. 976) EDWARD STILLINGFLEET (Vol. 25, p. 921) BENJAMIN HOADLY (Vol. 13, p. 542) JOSEPH BUTLER (Vol. 4, p. 882) THOMAS BOSTON (Vol. 4, p. 289) JOHN WESLEY (Vol. 28, p. 527) GEORGE WHITEFIELD (Vol. 28, p. 603) THOMAS CHALMERS (Vol. 5, p. 809) EDWARD IRVING (Vol. 14, p, 854) CHARLES HADDON SPURGEON (Vol. 25, p. 742) EDWARD BOUVERIE PUSEY (Vol. 22, p. 667) JOHN KEBLE (Vol. 15, p. 710) JOHN HENRY NEWMAN (Vol. 19, p. 517) HENRY EDWARD MANNING (Vol. 17, p. 589) JOHN CLIFFORD (Vol. 6, p. 507) GEORGE MÜLLER (Vol. 18, p. 961) FREDERICK TEMPLE (Vol. 26, p. 600) ARCHIBALD CAMPBELL TAIT (Vol. 26, p. 363) BENJAMIN JOWETT (Vol. 15, p. 527) ARTHUR PENRHYN STANLEY (Vol. 25, p. 777) J. F. D. MAURICE (Vol. 17, p. 910) HUGH PRICE HUGHES (Vol. 13, p. 860) ANDREW M. FAIRBAIRN (Vol. 10, p. 129) NORMAN MACLEOD (Vol. 17, p. 262)
American. COTTON MATHER (Vol. 17, p. 883) INCREASE MATHER (Vol. 17, p. 884) RICHARD MATHER (Vol. 17, p. 885) JONATHAN EDWARDS (Vol. 9, p. 2) JOHN CARROLL (Vol. 5, p. 409) J. L. A. M. L. DE CHEVERUS (Vol. 6, p. 114) S. W. G. BRUTÉ (Vol. 4, p. 695) JOHN WITHERSPOON (Vol. 28, p. 759) JOHN WOOLMAN (Vol. 28, p. 817) SAMUEL SEABURY (Vol. 24, p. 531) FRANCIS ASBURY (Vol. 2, p. 715) PETER CARTWRIGHT (Vol. 5, p. 435) MATTHEW SIMPSON (Vol. 25, p. 135) DEMETRIUS A. GALLITZIN (Vol. 11, p. 421) ALEXANDER CAMPBELL (Vol. 5, p. 127) JOHN WINEBRENNER (Vol. 28, p. 729) WILLIAM A. MUHLENBERG (Vol. 18, p. 957) WILLIAM ELLERY CHANNING (Vol. 5, p. 843) G. W. DOANE (Vol. 8, p. 349) EDWARD PAYSON (Vol. 21, p. 2) ADONIRAM JUDSON (Vol. 15, p. 543) JOHN HUGHES (Vol. 13, p. 860) ARCHIBALD ALEXANDER (Vol. 1, p. 564) MOSES STUART (Vol. 25, p. 1048) NATHANIEL W. TAYLOR (Vol. 26, p. 472) LEONARD BACON (Vol. 3, p. 152) JAMES FREEMAN CLARKE (Vol. 6, p. 444) HENRY WARD BEECHER (Vol. 3, p. 639) HOSEA BALLOU (Vol. 3, p. 282) HORACE BUSHNELL (Vol. 4, p. 873) PHILLIPS BROOKS (Vol. 4, p. 649) EDWARD EVERETT HALE (Vol. 12, p. 832) R. S. STORRS (Vol. 25, p. 969) CHARLES FORCE DEEMS (Vol. 7, p. 921) EDWARDS AMASA PARK (Vol. 20, p. 825) DAVID SWING (Vol. 26, p. 237) MICHAEL AUGUSTINE CORRIGAN (Vol. 7, p. 197) JAMES GIBBONS (Vol. 11, p. 936) T. DEWITT TALMAGE (Vol. 26, p. 380) ISAAC T. HECKER (Vol. 13, p. 194) ROBERT COLLYER (Vol. 6, p. 694) HENRY C. MCCOOK (Vol. 17, p. 205) JOHN FLETCHER HURST (Vol. 13, p. 960) DWIGHT L. MOODY (Vol. 18, p. 802) WASHINGTON GLADDEN (Vol. 12, p. 63) JOHN IRELAND (Vol. 14, p. 742) JOHN JOSEPH KEANE (Vol. 15, p. 706) MINOT J. SAVAGE (Vol. 24, p. 239) REUBEN ARCHER TORREY (Vol. 27, p. 61)
French. JOHN GERSON (Vol. 11, p. 904) JOHN CALVIN (Vol. 5, p. 71) THEODORE BEZA (Vol. 3, p. 839) ST. FRANCIS OF SALES (Vol. 10, p. 940) J. B. BOSSUET (Vol. 4, p. 287) LOUIS BOURDALOUS (Vol. 4, p. 329) ESPRIT FLÉCHIER (Vol. 10, p. 491) JULES MASCARON (Vol. 17, p. 836) JEAN BAPTISTE MASSILLON (Vol. 17, p. 867) JEAN SIFFREIN MAURY (Vol. 17, p. 915)
These lists could easily be made longer and fuller, but the articles mentioned give such a view of the great preachers of the world as cannot fail to stimulate any minister. Supplementing what has been said above about the necessity of the minister’s being a well-rounded man, it may be worth while to notice that Donne and Keble and, in a less degree, Doane and Muhlenberg, were poets as well as preachers; that Cudworth was known as the founder of the Cambridge Platonists, and Jowett as the translator of Plato, Barrow as a mathematician, second, in his day, only to Isaac Newton, Edward Everett Hale as an essayist and writer of short stories, and McCook as a great naturalist.
The minister will find the Britannica an excellent encyclopaedia of comparative religion and of church history, with the newest and most authoritative information on any subject in this field. For a brief outline course in these topics let him read:
The article RELIGION (Vol. 23, p. 61; equivalent to 50 pages of this Guide), by Dr. Joseph Estlin Carpenter, principal of Manchester College, Oxford, and Robert R. Marett, fellow and tutor of Exeter College, Oxford, author of the Threshold of Religion and contributor to the Britannica of articles on PRAYER, RITUAL, etc. This article is made up of: a general introduction sketching the history of the study of religions, especially in the last century, and concluding that “the origin of religion can never be determined archaeologically or historically; it must be sought conjecturally through psychology”; a section on primitive religion, which is a remarkable summary of all that is known of this subject; and a section on the higher religions which discusses developments of animism, transition to polytheism, polytheism, the order of nature (a half-way stage to monotheism), monotheism, classification of religions, revelation, ethics and eschatology and bibliography.
Another class of articles comprises ANCESTOR WORSHIP, ANIMAL WORSHIP, ANIMISM, FETISHISM, FOLKLORE, MAGIC, MYTHOLOGY, PRAYER, RITUAL, SACRIFICE, SERPENT-WORSHIP, TOTEMISM and TREE-WORSHIP, written by such authorities as N. W. Thomas, author of Kinship and Marriage in Australia, etc., Andrew Lang, Stanley Arthur Cooke and R. R. Marett.
Certain primitive religions are separately treated, as in the article INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN (Vol. 14, especially pages 471–473), by A. F. Chamberlain, assistant professor of anthropology, Clark University, Worcester; in the article AUSTRALIA (Vol. 2, especially p. 957); in the article Hawaii (Vol. 13, pages 87, 88).
On higher religions there are the following separate articles (among many):
BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN RELIGION, by Morris Jastrow of the University of Pennsylvania; and the articles ANAI, ISHTAR, EA, MARDUK, ASSUR and GILGAMESH,—all by the same author and all of particular value as throwing sidelights on Hebrew Religion.
EGYPT (Vol. 9, pp. 48–56), by Allan H. Gardiner, editor of the New (Berlin) Hieroglyphic Dictionary.
HEBREW RELIGION (Vol. 13, p. 176; equivalent to 40 pages of this Guide), by Dr. Owen Charles Whitehouse, professor of Hebrew, Cheshunt College, Cambridge; and the articles Hebrew Literature, Jews, etc.
BRAHMANISM (Vol. 4, p. 381) and HINDUISM (Vol. 13, p. 501), by Julius Eggeling, Professor of Sanskrit, Edinburgh.
BUDDHISM, BUDDHA and LAMAISM, by T. W. Rhys Davids, author of Buddhist India, etc.
CONFUCIUS, by James Legge, author of The Religions of China.
SIKHISM, by Max Macauliffe, whose book The Sikh Religion is accepted by the Sikhs as authoritative.
ZOROASTER, by Karl Geldner, professor at Marburg, and the article PARSEES.
MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION (Vol. 17, p. 417; equivalent to 45 pages in this Guide), by G. W. Thatcher, warden of Camden College, Sydney.
MAHOMET, by D. S. Margoliouth, Laudian professor of Arabic, Oxford; MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS and MAHOMMEDAN LAWS, by D. S. Macdonald, professor of Semitic languages, Hartford Theological Seminary.
BÁBIISM, by E. G. Browne, professor of Arabic, Cambridge, and author of History of the Báb.
GREEK RELIGION (Vol. 12, p. 527), by L. R. Farnell, fellow of Exeter College, Oxford, author of Cults of the Greek States; and such articles as DEMETER, HECATE, HERA, HERMES, HESTIA, NIKE, PHOEBUS, THEMIS and ZEUS.
ROMAN RELIGION (Vol. 23, p. 577), by Cyril Bailey, fellow of Balliol College, Oxford, and author of The Religion of Ancient Rome; and such articles as ANNA PERENNA, ARVAL BROTHERS, BONA DEA, CONCORDIA, FAMA, FAUNUS, JUNO and JUPITER; and the valuable articles on Eastern cults in Rome, GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS, ATTIS, MITHRAS, etc., by Professor Grant Showerman of the University of Wisconsin.
CHRISTIANITY (Vol. 6, p. 280; equivalent to 35 pages of this Guide), by G. W. Knox, professor of philosophy and history of religion, Union Theological Seminary, New York; JESUS CHRIST (Vol. 15, p. 348; equivalent to 35 pages of this Guide), by the Very Rev. Joseph Armitage Robinson, Dean of Westminster; GOSPEL (Vol. 12, p. 265), by Rev. V. H. Stanton, Ely professor of divinity, Cambridge; articles on the separate gospels; PAUL THE APOSTLE (Vol. 20, p. 938), by the Rev. James Vernon Bartlett, professor of church history, Mansfield College, Oxford.
ON CHURCH HISTORY there is an excellent key article in volume 6 (p. 331; equivalent to 45 pages of this Guide). It begins with an outline of the work of the great church historians and divides the subject into three parts: first, up to 590 B.C.,—this part and the general introduction are by A. C. McGiffert, professor of church history in Union Theological Seminary, New York City; second, the Church in the Middle Ages, by Albert Hauck, professor of church history at Leipzig; and The Modern Church, by W. Alison Phillips, author of Modern Europe. This sketch may be filled in by reference to the following articles (among many):
ABYSSINIAN CHURCH ARMENIAN CHURCH ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH PAPACY ORTHODOX EASTERN CHURCH REFORMATION ENGLAND, CHURCH OF IRELAND, CHURCH OF SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH IN LUTHERANS BAPTISTS PRESBYTERIANISM CAMERONIANS CONGREGATIONALISM METHODISM FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF CALVINISTIC METHODISTS DISCIPLES OF CHRIST GERMAN BAPTIST BRETHREN MENNONITES MORAVIAN BRETHREN DOUKHOBORS GERMAN CATHOLICS OLD CATHOLICS UNITED BRETHREN UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH
A brief course in theology and dogma is contained in the following articles:
THEOLOGY (Vol. 26, p. 772; equivalent to 45 pages in this Guide), by the Rev. Dr. Robert Mackintosh of Lancashire Independent College, Manchester.
ATONEMENT BAPTISM CONFESSION CONFIRMATION CONVERSION DOGMATIC THEOLOGY ESCHATOLOGY EUCHARIST EXCOMMUNICATION GRACE IMMACULATE CONCEPTION INFALLIBILITY INSPIRATION PENANCE PREDESTINATION PURGATORY SIN TRANSUBSTANTIATION WORSHIP
On Religious Orders:
ABBEY FRIARS MONASTICISM MONK NUN SISTERHOODS
and see also the names of different orders and hundreds of biographical articles on saints and heretics, preachers and theologians.
The following alphabetical list includes only a part of the articles in the Britannica on religious topics; but it will serve to show the value of the book to a clergyman in his own field:
Abbess Abbey Abbot Abbreviators Abecedarians Abgar Ablution Abrahamites Absolution Abstemii Abyssinian Church Acephali Acerra Acoemeti Acolyte Adamites Adiaphorists Adoptianism Advent Adventists, Second Advocatus Diaboli Agape Agapemonites Agapetae Agapetus Agnoetae Agnosticism Agnus Dei Agrapha Alb Albigenses Allah All Saints All Souls Day Allocution Almoner Almuce Altar Ambrosians Ambrosiaster Amen Amice Amora Ampulla Anabaptists Anathema Angel Angelus Anglican Communion Anglo-Israelite Theory Annates Annunciation Anthropomorphism Antichrist Antinomians Antitype Apocalypse, Knights of Apologetics Apostasy Apostle Apostolic Canons Apostolic Fathers Apostolical Constitutions Apostolici Apotactites Apotheosis Aquarii Arabici Archbishop Archdeacon Arches, Court of Archimandrite Archpriest Aristides, Apology of Arius Ark Armenian Church Artemon Asaph Ascension, Feast of Asceticism Ascitans Ash-Wednesday Asperges Assassins Assumption, Feast of Asterius of Cappadocia Atheism Athos, Mount Atonement Attrition Augsburg, Confession of Augustinians Augustinians Canons Augustinian Hermits Autocephalous Auto da Fé Auxentius of Cappadocia Azan Azymites Bábiism Babylonian Captivity Bagimond’s Roll Bairam Bambino, Il Bangorian Controversy Baphomet Baptism Baptists Basel, Confession of Basel, Council of Basilian Monks Beatification Beguines Benedictines Benediction Benedictus Bethlehemites Bible Christians Bidding-Prayer Biretta Bishop Black Veil Bogomils Bollandists Boy’s Brigade Breviary Bridgebuilding Brotherhood Bridgittines Brothers of Common Life Cadi Calf, The Golden Calvary Calvinistic Ministers Camaldulians Cameronians Candlemas Canon Canoness Canon Law Canonization Capuchins Cardinal Carmathians Carmelites Carnival Carthage, Synods of Carthusians Cassock Catechism Catechumen Cathars Catholic Catholic Apostolic Church Celestines Celibacy Cenobites Cerdonians Chalcedon, Council of Chaldee Chalice Chambre Ardente Chant Chantry Chapel Chapter Chaplain Chasuble Chiliasm Chimere Chrism Christ Christadelphians Christian Catholic Church Christian Connection Christian Endeavour Societies Christianity Christian Science Christmas Church Church Army Church Congress Church History Churching of Women Churchwarden Ciborium Cistercians Clares, Poor Clergy Clerk Clementine Literature Cluny Cohen Commendation Common Order, Book of Conclave Concord, Book of Concordat Confession Confessional Confessor Confirmation Confirmation of Bishops Congregation Congregationalism Consistory Consistory Courts Constance, Council of Constantinople, Councils of Consuetudinary Convent Conversion Convocation Cope Copts Corban Corporal Corpus Christi, Feast of Council Cowl Cowley Fathers Creatianism and Traducianism Credence Creeds Cross and Crucifixion Crozier Culdees Curia Romana Curate Cyprus, Church of Dalmatic Davidists Deacon Deaconess Dean Decretals Dedication Deism Dervish Devil Didache, The Diocese Diognetus, Epistle to Dionysius Areopagiticus Diptych Dirge Disciples of Christ Dispensation Dissenter Docetae Dogma Dogmatic Theology Dominicans Donation of Constantine Donatists Dort, Synod of Dossal Doukhobors Doxology Easter Ebionites Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction Ecclesiastical Commissioners Elder Elvira, Synod of Ember Days Encyclical Energia England, Church of Enthusiasm Ephesus, Council of Ephod Epiphany, Feast of Episcopacy Eschatology Essenes Establishment Eucharist Evangelical Alliance Evangelical Association Evangelical Church Conference Evangelical Union Exarch Excommunication Exorcist Extreme Unction Fakir Faldstool Familists Fasting Fathers of the Church Feasts and Festivals Febronianism Ferrara-Florence, Council of Flagellants Font Franciscans Frankincense Fraticelli Free Baptists, or Freewill Baptists Free Church of England Free Church of Scotland Free Church Federation Friars Friends, Society of Gallicanism Gaon German Baptist Brethren, or German Brethren (U. S. A.) German Catholics German Evangelical Synod of North America Ghazi Giaour Glasites Glory Gnosticism Golden Rose Good Friday Grace Gradual Grandmontines Great Awakening Gustavus Adolphus Union Habdala Haggada Hagiology Hajj Halakha Halfway Covenant Halisah Hallel Hanukkah Haptara Harem Hebrew Religion Heidelberg Catechism Helvetic Confessions Hemerobaptists Heresy Hermas, Shepherd of Hermeneutics Hermit Hesychasts Hierarchy Hieronymites High Place Hippolytus, The Canons of Holy Holy Water Holy Week Homiletics Homily Hospice Houri Hours, Canonical Housel Humanitarians Humiliati Hussites Hymns Hypostasis Iblis Icon Iconoclasts Ignorantines Illuminati Image Imam Imitation of Christ, The Immaculate Conception Immortality In Coena Domini Incumbent Independents Index Librorum Prohibitorum Indulgence Indult Infallibility Innocents’ Day Inquisition, The Inspiration Installation Institutional Church Interim Interdict Investiture Ireland, Church of Islam Jacobite Church Jansenism Jehovah Jerahmeel Jerusalem, Synod of Jesuati Jesuits Jesus Christ Jews Jihad Jubilee, Year Jubilee, Year of Ka’ba Kabbalah Kermesse Keswick Convention Kismet Koran Koreshan Ecclesia, The Kosher or Kasher Kyrie Labour Church, The Lamb Lambeth Conferences Laodicea, Synod of Lateran Councils Laud Lavabo Lay Laymen, Houses of Lazarites Lazarus, St., Order of Lection, Lectionary Lector Legate Lent Libellatici Liber Diurnus Liber Pontificalis Libertines Lights, Ceremonial use of Limbus Limina Apostolorum Lincoln Judgment, The Litany Liturgy Logia Low Churchman Low Sunday Lutheran Luther League Lyons, Councils of Mahdi Mahommedan Institutions Mahommedan Law Mahommedan Religion Mandaeans Manichaeism Maniple Manse Marabout Marburg, Colloquy of Marcion and the Marcionite Church Maronites Marprelate Controversy Martyr Martyrology Matins Maundy Thursday Maurists Mechitharists Melchites Mendicant Movement and Orders Mennonites Messiah Methodism Methodist New Connexion Metropolitan Midrash Millennium Minister Miracle Miserere Missal Missions Mitre Moderator Monarchianism Monasticism Monk Monophysites Monothelites Monsignor Monstrance Montanism Moravian Brethren Mormons Morse Mortuary Mozarab Muckers Mufti Mysticism Mythology Nazarenes Necrology Neo-Caesarea, Synod of Neophyte Nestorians New Jerusalem Church New Year’s Day Nicaea, Councils of Nîmes, Councils of Nonconformist Nosairis Novice Nun Nuncio Oblation Oecumenical Offertory Official Old Catholics Olivetans Ophites Oratory Oratory of St. Philip Neri, Congregation of the Order, Holy Orphrey Orthodox Eastern Church Pallium or Pall Palm Sunday Pantheism Party Royal Passion Week Pastoral Letter Pastoral Staff Patarenes Paten Patriarch Patron Paulicians Pax Pectoral Peculiar Peculiar People Pelagius Penance Penitential Penitentiary Pentecost Peter’s Pence Pew Philadelphians Phylactery Piarists Pietism Pilgrim Pilgrimage Pirke Aboth Pisa, Council of Pistoia, Synod of Plymouth Brethren Poissy, Colloquy of Pope Prayer, Book of Common Prayers for the Dead Preaching Prebendary Precentor Preconization Predestination Prelate Premonstratensians Presbyter Presbyterianism Primate Primitive Methodist Church Prior Procession Procession Path Prolocutor Proselyte Protestant Protestant Episcopal Church Protestantenverein Provision Purgatory Purim Puritanism Qaraites Quakers Quietism Rabbi Ramadan Ranters Rawendis Rector Recusant Reformed Churches Reformed Church in America (Dutch) Reformed Church in U. S. A. (German) Reformed Episcopal Church Regium Donum Regular Relics Religion Remonstrants Requiem Reredos Retable Reverend Ritual River Brethren Robber, Synod Rochet Rogation Days Roman Catholic Church Rood Rosary Rota, Court of Rubric Rum Sabbation Sabians Sacerdotalism Sacrament Sacramentals Sacramentarians Sacrarium Sacred Heart Saint John of Jerusalem Salvation Army Saragossa, Councils of Sardica, Council of Schism Scillitan Martyrs Scotland, Church of Scotland, Episcopal Church in Sect Secular See Sepulchre, Canons Regular of the Holy Servites Sexton Shakers Shiites Shrine Shrove Tuesday Silvestrines Sin Sion College Sisterhoods Skoptsi Soutane Spanish Reformed Church Sponsor Stations of the Cross Stigmatization Stole Suffragan Sufiism Sunnites Supererogation Superintendent Surplice Syllabus Symbol Synagogue Synagogue, United Synazarium Syncellus Synedrium Synod Talmud Tanna Targum Templars Tenebræ Tertiaries Testamentum Domini Tetragrammaton Teutonic Order Theism Theocracy Theology Theosophy Therapeutae Thurible Tiara Tithes Toledo, Councils of Tonsure Transubstantiation Trappists Trent, Council of Trinitarians Trinity Sunday Tunicle Ulema Ultramontanism Unction Unitarianism United Brethren in Christ United Free Church of Scotland United Methodist Church United Methodist Free Churches United Presbyterian Church Universalist Church Ursulines Vallombrosians Vatican, Council of Venerable Verger Vespers Vestments Viaticum Vicar Vienne, Council of Vigil Wahhabis Waldenses Wesleyan Methodist Church Westminister Synods Whitsunday, or Pentecost Worship Yezidis Young Men’s Christian Association Zenana