X. FOR JEWELLERS, CLOCK AND WATCH MAKERS AND MERCHANTS
By long established custom, watches and the higher grade of clocks form part of the jeweller’s stock, and he sells a few other articles of utility, such as purses and bags, but to all intents and purposes he shares with the artist and art-dealer the distinction of making a living by adding pleasure to the lives of others. The very word “jewelry” carries, in its root form, the idea of joy; and when a Senwosri princess, 43 centuries ago, smiled happily as she raised her brown arms to fasten the clasp of a new necklace, the jeweller of Memphis on the Nile no doubt took his little profit, as the jeweller of Memphis on the Mississippi takes his to-day, all the more gladly for being, in the oriental phrase, a “Distributor of delights.” Sour philosophers have always sneered at women for loving jewels, and most of all for piercing their ears and noses to vary its display, but the nose-ring that overhangs a thick Nubian lip is an expression of the same charming instinct that makes a child diversify the arrangement of her daisychains. And jewelry plays its part in the higher emotions as well as in the pretty vanities; witness the engagement ring, the marriage ring and all the uses, described in the Britannica, of jewels as religious symbols.
[Sidenote: Specimens Reproduced]
The article JEWELRY (Vol. 15, p. 364), by A. H. Smith, the official in charge of the great jewel collection in the British Museum, contains nearly a hundred illustrations, half of them on plate paper, which include examples of every period and every variety of the jeweller’s art, and these, with the illustrations in other articles mentioned in this chapter, are so full of interest to the jeweller’s customers that he ought really to keep his Britannica at his place of business rather than at his house. It is, at any rate, amusing to recall that in a speech made by the Editor-in-chief of the Britannica, on the occasion of a banquet given to celebrate the completion of the new edition, he remarked that when he had chanced to take home the proof sheets of this article, to read them at night, he carefully kept them out of his wife’s sight lest they might suggest too tempting possibilities. The article divides modern jewelry into three classes:
(1) objects in which gems and stones form the principal portions, and in which the work in silver, platinum or gold is really only a means for carrying out the design by fixing the gems or stones in the position arranged by the designer, the metal employed being visible only as a setting;
(2) when gold work plays an important part in the development of the design, being itself ornamented by engraving (now rarely used) or enamelling or both, the stones and gems being arranged in subordination to the gold work in such positions as to give a decorative effect to the whole;
(3) when gold or other metal is alone used, the design being wrought out by hammering in repoussé, casting, engraving, chasing or by the addition of filigree work, or when the surfaces are left absolutely plain but polished and highly finished.
[Sidenote: The “Personal Art” Movement]
The second of these three classes includes the work which has completely revolutionized the theory of design, so far as the best class of trade is concerned, since the Paris International Exposition of 1900 first drew general attention to the exquisite creations of Lalique and his school. L. C. Tiffany, in the United States, and Philippe Wolfers, in Belgium, have done more than any designers other than the French to extend this new movement; but in England, Germany, Austria, Russia and Switzerland there has been a notable increase of individual effort and purpose, and a recognition of the possibilities of personal art as at any rate an important factor in the business. Side by side with this development new standards have been established in mechanical work. “Nearly every kind of gold chain now made is manufactured by machinery, and nothing like the beauty of design or perfection of workmanship could be obtained by hand at, probably, any cost.” The article, equivalent in length to about 35 pages of this Guide, contains a full review, amplified by the results of the most recent excavations (some of them undertaken expressly for the archaeological purposes of this edition of the Britannica) of the history of jewelry, Egyptian, Assyrian, Mycenean, Greek, Etruscan, Roman, Merovingian, Oriental and Renaissance.
[Sidenote: Rings for Love and Murder]
RING (Vol. 23, p. 349), of which Prof. Middleton, long art director of the South Kensington Museum, is the chief contributor, is another copiously illustrated article. Among the curious items of information it contains, there is the unromantic origin of the engagement ring (which may be cited by the jeweller to prove that it should always be a costly one), the ancient Romans regarding it as a pledge to assure the donor’s fulfilment of his promise; the fact that the modern rheumatism ring had its medieval forerunner in the rings, blessed by the sovereign, which were worn as a preservative against cramp; and the description of the old poison rings, which were of two kinds: those merely affording, in the bezel, a secret receptacle so that the poison might be always at hand for suicide, and those provided with a hollow point to which, on touching a spring, the venom ran as in a snake’s fang, so that the murderer could give a fatal scratch while shaking hands with his victim. BROOCH (Vol. 4, p. 641) traces, with many illustrations of typical specimens, the “fibula” or safety pin from its origin in Central Europe during the Bronze Age, through the modifications which introduced the bow shape, providing space for thicker folds of cloth, to the modern ornament. The long brooch is not a new fashion, for silver brooches no less than 15 inches in length have been found in Viking hoards of the 7th, 8th and 9th centuries. EAR-RING (Vol. 8, p. 798) describes ear “ornaments” of the most grotesque size. In Borneo the hole in the ear lobe is stretched to a calibre of 3¾ inches, but the Masai tribes in equatorial Africa far outdo this, stretching the lobes, year after year, until they can wear stone ear-plugs weighing 2 lbs. 14 ozs. each, with a diameter of 4½ inches; and they thus achieve the supreme elegance of making the two long flaps of flesh meet above their heads. It is also curious to note the custom of some oriental tribes of wearing one ear-ring only. BRACELET (Vol. 4, p. 359) describes the three distinct models worn by the Israelites, all of which the Authorized Version calls “bracelet,” although the original Hebrew has separate names for them. Armlets have always been conspicuous in the regalia of Eastern kings, and the pair captured at Delhi and taken to Persia by Nadir Shah in 1739 contain jewels valued at more than $5,000,000, including the famous “Sea of Light” diamond, which, although it weighs only 186 carats as against the 516½ of the largest fraction into which the Cullinan stone was cut, is unique as possessing the finest lustre of any known specimen. The 24 plate illustrations in the article SCANDINAVIAN CIVILIZATION (Vol. 24, p. 287), by Miss B. S. Phillpotts, show some exquisite designs of clasps, collars and pins exhumed in Denmark, Norway and Sweden, and supposed by some authorities to antedate the oldest Egyptian jewelry.
[Sidenote: Precious Metals]
The article GOLD (Vol. 12, p. 192) is a thorough workshop treatise, as well as a detailed study of existing mines and of the influence their production exerts upon the “price,” if it can be so called, of a metal which is its own standard of value. SILVER (Vol. 25, p. 112) and PLATINUM (Vol. 21, p. 805) are treated with similar comprehensiveness. The articles ALLOYS (Vol. 1, p. 704), ASSAYING (Vol. 2, p. 776), METAL (Vol. 18, p. 198), METALLOGRAPHY (Vol. 18, p. 202), and METALLURGY (Vol. 18, p. 203), all by noted authorities, are full of information useful to the jeweller. METAL-WORK (Vol. 18, p. 205), fully illustrated, incidentally touches upon the art of the silver- and gold-smith; and this branch of the subject is also treated in such articles as PLATE (Vol. 21, p. 789), with over 30 typical illustrations—a most interesting historical account, by several well-known experts, of works in gold and silver which belong to any class other than those of personal ornament and coins; and DRINKING VESSELS (Vol. 8, p. 580), illustrated, by Dr. Charles H. Read of the British Museum, which discusses gold and silver cups. Mention must also be made of the description of American work in precious metals before the time of Christopher Columbus, in the section Archaeology of the article AMERICA (Vol. 1, p. 812), by the late Dr. O. T. Mason, of the National Museum, Washington; also of MEXICO, Ancient Civilization (Vol. 18, p. 335), by the famous ethnologists, Dr. E. B. Tylor of Oxford and Dr. Walter Lehmann, of the Royal Ethnographical Museum, Munich; EGYPT, Ancient Art (Vol. 9, p. 73), by W. M. Flinders Petrie; GREEK ART (Vol. 12, p. 470), illustrated, by Dr. Percy Gardner, of Oxford; ROMAN ART, Work in Precious Metals (Vol. 23, p. 483), illustrated, by H. Stuart Jones, director of the British School at Rome; JAPAN, Art, Sculpture and Carving (Vol. 15, p. 176), by Capt. Frank Brinkley, author of A History of the Japanese People; and CHINA, Bronzes (Vol. 6, p. 215), by C. J. Holmes, formerly Slade professor of fine art at Oxford.
FILIGREE (Vol. 10, p. 343) describes the delicate jewel work of twisted gold and silver threads, and also the “granulated” work which consists of minute globules of gold soldered to form patterns on a metal surface. In India the filigree worker has retained the patterns used by the ancient Greeks and works in the same way they did. Wandering workmen are given so much gold, coined or rough. This is weighed, heated and beaten into wire, and worked in the courtyard or on the verandah of the customer’s house. The worker reweighs the complete work when finished and is paid at a specified rate for his labor. Repoussé (Vol. 23, p. 108), by M. H. Spielmann, editor Magazine of Art; CHASING (Vol. 5, p. 956) and INLAYING (Vol. 14, p. 574) are other articles dealing with certain processes in jewel work. The jeweller also must not overlook two superb articles, MEDAL (Vol. 18, p. 1), illustrated, by M. H. Spielmann, and NUMISMATICS (Vol. 19, p. 869), which is by three specialists, and is most fully illustrated by designs inviting practical use. ENAMEL (Vol. 9, p. 362), illustrated, by Alexander Fisher, author of The Art of Enamelling on Metals, goes very fully and practically into this interesting subject, which is further discussed in JAPAN, Cloisonné Enamel (Vol. 15, p. 189). MOSAIC (Vol. 18, p. 883), illustrated, by Professor Middleton and H. Stuart Jones, deals in part with the ornamentation of jewelry by this method. In BRAZING and SOLDERING (Vol. 4, p. 463) the composition of silver solder used for jewelry is described, and in CEMENT there is an account of Jeweller’s or Armenian Cement (Vol. 5, p. 659).
[Sidenote: Precious Stones]
The article GEM treats the subject in two sections, of which the first (Vol. 11, p. 560), by F. W. Rudler, of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, deals with Mineralogy and General Properties. Here are discussed hardness, specific gravity, crystaline forms and cleavage, colour, refraction, chemical composition, etc., and there is an interesting section on superstitions in regard to gems, the medical and magical powers with which they were reputed to be endowed. These beliefs are very remarkable, and it has even been suggested by archaeologists that jewelry did not have its origin so much in a love for personal decoration, as in the belief that the objects used possessed magical virtue. The article MINERALOGY (Vol. 18, p. 509), by L. J. Spencer, of the British Museum, and editor of the Mineralogical Magazine, will be found especially valuable for reference in the workshop. It gives, among other things, the scale of hardness, and nomenclature and classification of minerals. The crystal formation of gems as well as their optical properties—characteristics by which the genuineness of precious stones may be tested—are discussed and explained in the article CRYSTALLOGRAPHY (Vol. 7, p. 569), with over 100 illustrations, also by L. J. Spencer. The cutting of gem stones is treated under LAPIDARY AND GEM CUTTING (Vol. 16, p. 195), by Dr. George F. Kunz, the famous gem expert to Tiffany & Co., New York,—an article of uncommon historical interest and practical value, in which diamond cutting is considered at much length.
The second section of the article GEM, Gems in Art (Vol. 11, p. 562), by Dr. A. S. Murray, the famous British archaeologist, and A. H. Smith, gives an account of precious stones engraved with designs. The illustrations show more than 90 examples, including Cretan and Mycenaean intaglios, Greek, Phœnician and Etruscan scarabs and scarabæoids, cameos, seals, Oriental, Christian, and modern gems. This subject is further discussed in separate articles, such as SCARAB (Vol. 24, p. 301), by Dr. F. Ll. Griffith, the Egyptologist, an account of the designs which, originating in Egypt during the Fourth Dynasty, have exercised a lasting influence on the design and shape of gems; CAMEO (Vol. 5, p. 104), INTAGLIO (Vol. 14, p. 680), SEALS (Vol. 24, p. 539), illustrated, by Sir E. Maunde Thompson, formerly principal librarian, British Museum, as well as in the articles on ancient and Oriental civilizations, already mentioned.
[Sidenote: Synthetic Stones]
The artificial duplication of certain gems by chemical processes which yield products identical in composition and physical properties with the natural stones is a subject of growing importance to the jeweller, and the latest developments are described in GEM, ARTIFICIAL (Vol. 11, p. 569), by Sir William Crookes. This famous chemist and authority on precious stones does not hesitate to declare that although the artificial diamonds so far produced have been microscopic in size, scientists have now found the right method and that “there is no reason to doubt that, working on a larger scale, larger diamonds will result.” The artificial production of rubies, sapphires, Oriental emeralds, amethysts, topazes and zircons is also discussed. Descriptions of the several gem stones are found under their respective headings, for example DIAMOND (Vol. 8, p. 158), illustrated, by H. A. Miers, principal of the University of London, and former editor of the Mineralogical Magazine. Here are given its scientific characters, its uses (especially for faceting softer precious stones), distribution, and mining, and the wonderful history of the most famous diamonds of the world. RUBY (Vol. 23, p. 812), the most valued of gem stones, is often called “Oriental ruby” to distinguish it from SPINEL (Vol. 25, p. 684), an aluminate stone of inferior hardness, density and value. It is interesting to note that many historic stones described as monster rubies were really spinels. The great ruby set in the Maltese Cross in front of the Imperial State Crown of England is a spinel. SAPPHIRE (Vol. 24, p. 201) was known to the Greeks as “hyacinthus,” and the present name was formerly applied to lapis lazuli. ASTERIA or STAR STONE (Vol. 2, p. 792) tells how the luminous star comes to be seen in sapphires, rubies and topazes. The name EMERALD (Vol. 9, p. 332) is used for a number of stones, of which the most valued is not a true emerald at all; see CORUNDUM (Vol. 7, p. 207). The same is true of the TOPAZ (Vol. 27, p. 48), the more prized Oriental topaz being a yellow corundum, harder and denser than the stone from which it takes its name. “Scotch” or “Spanish” topazes are yellow or smoke-tinted quartz, or cairngorm. The AMETHYST (Vol. 1, p. 852) is violet or purple quartz, and the sapphire of a purple colour is often called an Oriental amethyst. The many varieties of the beautiful ZIRCON (Vol. 28, p. 989), such as HYACINTH (Vol. 14, p. 25) and JARGOON (Vol. 15, p. 276) are carefully described and distinguished. These valuable articles on the precious stones have been contributed by F. W. Rudler, of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. PEARL (Vol. 21, p. 24) discusses the results of the latest researches on the cause of pearl formation, and gives a graphic account of pearl-fishing.
[Sidenote: Semi-Precious Stones]
The material in the Britannica on the semi-precious stones is as complete. There are many articles, specified in the list at the end of this chapter. ALEXANDRITE (Vol. 1, p. 576) is remarkable for its property of appearing dark green by daylight, and red by candle-light, which makes it especially popular in Russia where green and red are the military colors; CHRYSOBERYL (Vol. 6, p. 320), of which alexandrite is a variety; CHRYSOLITE (Vol. 6, p, 320), often mistaken for chrysoberyl; PERIDOT (Vol. 21, p. 147), like chrysolite, a variety of olivine; BERYL (Vol. 3, p. 817), much prized by the ancients as a gem stone, and of which the EMERALD (see above) and the AQUAMARINE (Vol. 2, p. 237) are the chief “precious” varieties; TOURMALINE (Vol. 27, p 103), the remarkable stone of as much interest to the physicist as to the jeweller, on account of its optical and electrical properties; and RUBELLITE (Vol. 23, p. 804), its much prized red variety GARNET (Vol. 11, p. 470), together with ALMANDINE (Vol. 1, p. 712), which, when cut with a convex face is known as carbuncle; CINNAMON-STONE (Vol. 6, p. 376), the light red garnet, so easily mistaken for a variety of zircon (the article tells how to distinguish them); DEMANTOID (Vol. 7, p. 979), the green garnet from the Urals, and PYROPE (Vol. 22, p. 695), usually known as Bohemian garnet; JADE (Vol. 15, p. 122), which occupies in China the highest place as a jewel, and whose many varieties are here clearly distinguished; JET (Vol. 15, p. 358); HAEMATITE (Vol. 12, p. 804); MOONSTONE (Vol. 18, p. 807); CAT’S-EYE (Vol. 5, p. 537), a term applied to several distinct minerals of which CROCIDOLITE (Vol. 7, p. 477) has recently become very popular; OPAL (Vol. 20, p. 120), an article in which the brilliant flashes of colour in this stone are explained; QUARTZ (Vol. 22, p. 715), with its many ornamental varieties such as AGATE (Vol. 1, p. 368), AMETHYST (Vol. 1, p. 852), AVENTURINE (Vol. 3, p. 54), BLOODSTONE (Vol. 4, p. 85), CAIRNGORM (Vol. 4, p. 952), CARNELIAN (Vol. 5, p. 365), CHALCEDONY (Vol. 5, p. 803), CHRYSOPRASE (Vol. 6, p. 320), HELIOTROPE (Vol. 13, p. 232), MOCHA STONE (Vol. 18, p. 637), ONYX (Vol. 20, p. 118), ROCK-CRYSTAL (Vol. 23, p. 433), SARD (Vol. 24, p. 209), and SARDONYX (Vol. 24, p. 2.18).
[Sidenote: Watches and Clocks]
The article WATCH (Vol. 28, p. 362), illustrated, by Lord Grimthorpe, the great authority on watches and clocks, and Sir H. H. Cunynghame, vice-president of the British Institute of Electrical Engineers, is full of interest. There is a very valuable historical account beginning with the invention of portable time pieces in the 15th century. The parts of a modern watch are described, with details as to the mainspring, different types of escapement, the balance-wheel and hair-spring, compensation adjustments and secondary compensation. Methods of correcting temperature errors are discussed, and a simple means for demagnetizing a watch which has been near a dynamo is given. The proper materials used for jewelled bearings are described in the articles DIAMOND, CORUNDUM, etc. LUBRICANTS (Vol. 17, p. 88) contains a valuable paragraph on the properties and preparation of the fluid oils used on the spindles of watches and clocks.
The article CLOCK (Vol. 6, p. 536) is by the same distinguished authorities as WATCH, with an additional section on Decorative Aspects (p. 552), by James Penderel-Brodhurst. It is equivalent to 55 pages of this Guide and is fully illustrated. Among the topics considered are the earliest clocks and their gradual improvement; the essential components of a clock; the mechanics of the pendulum; methods of compensation, including the use of the new nickel-steel alloy—described in the article INVAR (Vol. 14, p. 717)—the barometrical error, and methods of counteraction; suspension of pendulums; balance, anchor, dead, pinwheel, detached or free, and gravity escapements; the remontoire systems for abolishing errors in the force driving the escapement; testing of clocks; clock wheels; striking mechanism; the watchman’s clock, church and turret clocks, electrical clocks, miscellaneous clocks, including magical clocks and other curious designs. The section on Decorative Aspects tells about styles of cases and mountings, the origin and development of the “grandfather” clock, etc. In connection with long-period clocks, attention should be given to the new and ingenious, if not commercially practical, device invented by the Hon. R. J. Strutt. Electrified particles emitted by a radioactive substance separate two strips of gold leaf, and these, falling together after the charge has been conducted away upon contact with metal, are extended again, the process being constantly repeated. If some way could be found to utilize this motion to work an escapement, we should have a clock that would go on indefinitely, since 1000 years must elapse before even half the small amount of radium used has disappeared. A description of this so-called “radium” clock will be found in PERPETUAL MOTION (Vol. 21, p. 181).
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ARTICLES IN THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA OF SPECIAL INTEREST TO MANUFACTURERS OF AND DEALERS IN JEWELRY, CLOCKS, AND WATCHES
Agate Aigrette Aiguillette Albite Alexandrite Alloys Almandine Amazon-stone Amber America, Archaeology Amethyst Andalusite Anhydrite Apatite Apostle Spoons Aquamarine Arabesque Arts and Crafts Assaying Asteria, or Star-stone Aventurine Axinite Azurite Bead Benitoite Beryl Beryllonite Biddery Bloodstone Bort Bracelet Brazing and Soldering Britain, Ornaments Bronzite Brooch Cairngorm Cameo Campani-Alimenis, M. Carbonado Carnelian Cat’s-eye Cellini, Benvenuto Cement Chain Chalcedony Chasing Chessylite China, Art Chrysoberyl Chrysolite Chrysoprase Cinnamon-stone Clock Collar Congreve, Sir William Coral Corundum Costume Cressent, Charles Crocidolite Cross Crown Crystallography Cyanite Demantoid Diallage Diamond Dioptase Drinking Vessels Dumortierite Ear-ring Egypt, Ancient Art Electroplating Emerald Emery Enamel Epidote Euclase Felspar Filigree Finiguerra, Maso Fluorescence Fluor-spar Franklin, Benjamin Galileo Galilei Garnet Gem Gem, Artificial Gold Gold beating Göthite Gouthière, Pierre Greek Art Grimthorpe, 1st Baron Haematite Hiddenite Hyacinth, or Jacinth Hypersthene Inlaying Intaglio Invar Iolite Ivory Jade Japan, Art Jargoon Jasper Jet Jewelry Knighthood and Chivalry Kunzite Labradorite Lapidary and Gem Cutting Lapis Lazuli Leucite Line-engraving Lubricants Malachite Marot, Daniel Meissonier, J. A. Medal Metal Metallography Metallurgy Metal-Work Mexico, Ancient Civilization Microcline Mineral Deposits Mineralogy Miniature Mint Mocha-stone Monogram Monteith Moonstone Morel-Ladeuil, Léonard Mosaic Nepheline Niello Numismatics Oligoclase Olivine Onyx Opal Orthoclase Palladium Paste Pearl Peridot Perpetual Motion Phenacite Phosphorescence Plagioclase Plate Plated Ware Platinum Pollaiuolo Prehnite Pyrope Pyroxene Quartz Regalia Repoussé Ring Rock-crystal Roman Art Rubellite Ruby Sapphire Sard Sardonyx Scandinavian Civilization Scarab Seals Sheffield Plate Silver Sphene Spinel Spodumene Staurolite Sunstone Tassie, James Tiffany, C. L. Time, Measurement of Time, Standard Topaz Tourmaline Turquoise Variscite Vesuvianite Watch Weighing Machines Weights and Measures Wyon, Thomas Zircon Zoisite
XI. FOR MERCHANTS AND MANUFACTURERS OF ELECTRICAL MACHINERY AND SUPPLIES
[Sidenote: Construction and Operation]
Electrical machinery and supplies include three main groups of appliances: The apparatus by which electricity is originally generated; the apparatus by which current is transmitted and, if necessary, modified before it is used; and the infinitely various appliances for its final employment. In connection with any one of the latter, information may be needed as to its structure and its mechanical or electrochemical method of operation, or as to its uses, and in the treatment of these two aspects of a vast number of subjects the advantages of the encyclopaedic plan of the Britannica are obvious. One article will explain the method by which the same principles are applied to a number of different machines. Another article will deal with a group of appliances all used for similar purposes; and a reference to the Index of 500,000 entries (Vol. 29) will at once guide the reader who turns to the name of any electrical appliance to either kind of information he desires at the moment, whether he wants to know how the machine is made and operated, or what kind of work it does and how efficiently it does it.
The reader to whom this chapter is addressed is already familiar with the general subject of electricity, but he may at any moment desire to review or to supplement his general knowledge in connection with some new appliance which, for the first time, applies to commercial use one of the many and intricate laws of electrical vibration. The whole subject of the nature and action of electricity is outlined in the article ELECTRICITY (Vol. 9, p. 179), by Prof. J. A. Fleming, of the University of London, one of the world’s foremost authorities. In a space equivalent to hardly more than 30 pages of this Guide, the field covered in detail by many other articles is so concisely and clearly surveyed that you get a complete view of the theoretical and practical developments by which electrical science and industry have reached their present position. The same contributor then considers ELECTROSTATICS (Vol. 9, p. 240) and ELECTROKINETICS (Vol. 9, p. 210); and, in CONDUCTION, ELECTRIC (Vol. 6, p. 855), deals with metallic, non-metallic, dielectric and gaseous conductors. One section of this article is by Sir J. J. Thomson, winner, in 1906, of the Nobel Prize for Physics. The form in which metal is chiefly employed for the conduction of electricity is the subject of a separate article, WIRE (Vol. 28, p. 738); and the articles on the individual metals deal with their electrical properties.
[Sidenote: Batteries and Dynamos]
The whole subject of the chemical production of electricity is discussed in ELECTROLYSIS (Vol. 9, p. 217), by W. C. D. Whetham, of the technical staff of Cambridge University. BATTERY (Vol. 3, p. 531), fully illustrated, deals with all the forms of primary battery, and ACCUMULATOR (Vol. 1, p. 126), also illustrated, by Walter Hibbert, of the London Polytechnic, with all the secondary types. The alkaline accumulators, of which the Edison apparatus is a well known type, are the subject of a special section. Turning to mechanically produced electricity, the first article to read is ELECTROMAGNETISM (Vol. 9, p. 226). This brings you naturally to the article DYNAMO (Vol. 8, p. 764), by C. C. Hawkins, author of one of the best practical text-books on the subject. This copiously illustrated article, in length equivalent to 50 pages of this Guide, discusses continuous current dynamos, lap-winding, commutators, field-magnets, forgings and castings for magnets, air-gaps, armature cores, carbon brushes, cooling surfaces and alternators.
Having thus covered the subject of obtaining current, the group of articles next to be considered is that dealing with its measurement and the examination of resistances. The general article UNITS, PHYSICAL (Vol. 27, p. 740), contains a section on electrical units. Then come POTENTIOMETER (Vol. 22, p. 205); METER, ELECTRIC (Vol. 18, p. 291); VOLTMETER (Vol. 28, p. 206), illustrated; AMPEREMETER (Vol. 1, p. 879), illustrated; OHMMETER (Vol. 20, p. 34); WATTMETER (Vol. 28, p. 419); GALVANOMETER (Vol. 11, p. 428), illustrated; ELECTROMETER (Vol. 9, p. 234), illustrated; ELECTROSCOPE (Vol. 9, p. 239), illustrated; WHEATSTONE’S BRIDGE (Vol. 28, p. 584), illustrated; and OSCILLOGRAPH (Vol. 20, p. 347), illustrated.
[Sidenote: Lighting Appliances]
The commercial supply of current is covered by a series of articles of which the first to be read is ELECTRICITY SUPPLY (Vol. 9, p. 193), to which Emile Garcke, the famous electrical engineer, contributes a section. POWER TRANSMISSION, Electrical (Vol. 22, p. 233), is by Louis Bell, chief engineer of the General Electric Co., Boston; and contains full details as to the use of both two-phase and three-phase generators in transmission. INDUCTION COIL (Vol. 14, p. 502) and TRANSFORMERS (Vol. 27, p. 173) are both fully illustrated. LIGHTING, Electric (Vol. 16, p. 659) deals with arc, incandescent and vapour lamps, and with wiring. The section on household work gives excellent practical information about the best arrangements of lights. A special class of electric light supplies is discussed in LIGHTHOUSE (Vol. 16, p. 627), by W. T. Douglass, who erected the new Eddystone and the Bishop’s Rock lights, and by N. G. Gedye, another practical expert.
The appliances used to convert current back again into the mechanical energy from which it had been derived are described in the article MOTORS, ELECTRIC (Vol. 18, p. 910). This article divides continuous current motors into five classes: Separately excited; series-wound constant current; series-wound constant potential; series-wound interdependent current and potential; and shunt-wound constant potential. Alternating current motors are similarly classified as Synchronous constant potential; induction-polyphase constant potential; induction monophase constant potential; repulsion commutating, and series-commutating.
[Sidenote: Trolley Cars and Railroads]
Machinery for applying electric power to transportation, both for trolley cars and heavy railroad traffic, is described in the article TRACTION (Vol. 27, p. 118), by Prof. Louis Duncan, who designed the first electric locomotives employed with large loads—those introduced in 1895 by the Baltimore & Ohio R.R. for its track in the tunnel under Baltimore. The article gives, with many mechanical diagrams, accounts of the appliances by which the current is taken from trolley wires, conduits and third rails, and of the types of motors and controllers employed. CRANE (Vol. 7, p. 368), by Walter Pitt, describes the peculiar type of “crane-rated” motor, by the aid of which steam and hydraulic cranes can be displaced. The electric furnaces used for the reduction of ores and for manufacturing processes in which exceptionally high temperatures are required, are treated in ELECTROMETALLURGY (Vol. 9, p. 232), by W. G. M’Millan, lecturer on metallurgy at Mason College, Birmingham. Electric machinery for the refining of metals is dealt with in the article ELECTROCHEMISTRY (Vol. 9, p. 208). Under SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS (Vol. 26, p. 133) there is a description of the apparatus used for cautery and for illuminating parts of the interior of the body. The appliances used in ELECTROTHERAPEUTICS are dealt with under that heading (Vol. 9, p. 249). Information as to other medical and surgical apparatus will be found under RÖNTGEN RAYS (Vol. 23, p. 694), X-RAY TREATMENT (Vol. 28, p. 887), by Dr. H. L. Jones, of St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, London; and FLUORESCENCE (Vol. 10, p. 575), by Prof. J. R. Cotter, of Trinity College, Dublin.
[Sidenote: Telegraph and Telephone]
TELEGRAPH (Vol. 26, p. 510), equivalent in length to 70 pages of this Guide, and fully illustrated, is by a number of contributors, and discusses both land lines and submarine cables. The section on instruments, by H. R. Kempe, electrician to the General Post Office, London, includes a full description of the transmitters and receivers employed in the various systems of wireless telegraphy. TELEPHONE (Vol. 26, p. 547) deals with the fixed and portable instruments, the batteries and switchboards, the new automatic exchange “selectors,” and with special applications of the microphone.
A number of other electric appliances are discussed in separate articles, such as BELL (Vol. 3, p. 692), by H. M. Ross, in which burglar alarm devices are described; and VENTILATION, Fan (Vol. 27, p. 1011), by James Bartlett; while sparking plugs and other ignition appliances are treated under OIL ENGINE (Vol. 20, p. 35).
There are also a number of appliances used mostly in experimental and educational work. Such, for instance, are ELECTRICAL OR ELECTROSTATIC MACHINE (Vol. 9, p. 176), with many illustrations; ELECTROPHORUS (Vol. 9, p. 237), and LEYDEN JAR (Vol. 16, p. 528).
The metals, chemicals and other materials sold by dealers in electrical supplies, and their properties and uses, are described in COPPER (Vol. 7, p. 102), ZINC (Vol. 28, p. 981), LEAD (Vol. 16, p. 314), SULPHURIC ACID (Vol. 26, p. 65), SODIUM, Compounds (Vol. 25, p. 341); CHROMIUM (Vol. 6, p. 296); NITROGEN, Compounds (Vol. 19, p. 715); SAL AMMONIAC (Vol. 24, p. 59), BICHROMATES AND CHROMATES (Vol. 3, p. 912), CARBON (Vol. 5, p. 305), RUBBER (Vol. 23, p. 795), and GUTTA PERCHA (Vol. 12, p. 743).
The following is a partial list, in alphabetical order, of articles of peculiar interest to dealers in electrical supplies.
Accumulator Amperemeter, or Ammeter Armature Battery Bell Bichromates and Chromates Carbon Chromium Condenser Conductor, Electric Copper Dielectric Dynamo Electricity Electrical, or Electrostatic, Machine Electricity Supply Electrokinetics Electrolysis Electromagnetism Electrometer Electrophorus Electroscope Electrotherapeutics Fluorescence Fuze, or Fuse Galvanometer Gutta Percha Induction Coil Lead Leyden Jar Lighting Meter, Electric Motors, Electric Nitrogen, Compounds Ohmmeter Oil Engine Oscillograph Potentiometer Power Transmission Röntgen Rays, Apparatus Rubber Sal Ammoniac Sodium, Compounds Sulphuric Acid Surgical Instruments Telegraph Telephone Thermometry, Electrical Traction, Electric Tramway Transformers Units, Physical Vacuum Tube Ventilation Voltmeter Wattmeter Wheatstone’s Bridge Wire Zinc
XII. FOR MERCHANTS AND MANUFACTURERS OF CHEMICALS AND DRUGS
[Sidenote: A Factor in All Industries]
The chemical and drug industry is not only in itself an enormous business, but it supplies essential materials for almost every branch of manufacturing. Chemical products are employed in our buildings, our clothing, our food; we come into the world and go out of the world with the odour of chemicals about us. The manufacturer or dealer cannot analyze all the influences that affect his market, and when he tries, as he must, to consider the future of the trade, to reckon with the channels of demand that will arise in the course of new applications of chemical products, he is facing all the problems of all the industries.
The variety of raw materials from which chemical products are derived, and the activity with which new sources are discovered and developed, are almost as bewildering. Only a century has passed since coal-tar was first distilled, and to-day no chemist would venture to fix the limits of its industrial possibilities. Electrolysis has been in use since 1804, and yet the future of the world’s wheat supply probably depends upon processes, as yet hardly beyond the experimental stage, of utilizing atmospheric nitrogen.
In connection with so comprehensive an industry, the uses of the Britannica are so manifold that this whole Guide might be devoted to them. Articles on every manufacturing process touch upon the use of chemicals. The articles on countries, states and cities are full of relevant information; and there is hardly a scientific article that would not be helpful. But the 40 general articles on chemistry, the 350 on chemical compounds, and the 75 on manufactured products call most immediately for attention; and, with the aid of other chapters in the Guide, the reader who desires to go further will easily find his way.
[Sidenote: Articles on Chemicals]
The article CHEMISTRY (Vol. 6, p. 33), equivalent to 135 pages of this Guide, is divided into 6 sections. The first, History, traces the general trend of the science from its infancy to the foundations of the modern theory. The second section, Principles, treats of nomenclature, formulæ, chemical equations and chemical changes. It provides a brief but complete introduction to the terminology and methods of the chemist, and there is not a line in it which will not prove of value in some way or other to the chemical manufacturer. Sections 3 and 4 are devoted to Inorganic and Organic Chemistry, giving a history of the subjects and the principles underlying the structure of compounds, with cross references to all articles dealing with their preparation and properties. Sections 5 and 6 deal, respectively, with Analytical and Physical Chemistry.
Dr. Walter Nernst, professor of physical chemistry, University of Berlin, is the author of CHEMICAL ACTION (Vol. 6, p. 26), which deals specifically with the nature of chemical forces and deduces the laws of chemical statics and kinetics. Of interest and importance in connection with the manufacture of chemicals is SOLUTION (Vol. 25, p. 368), by W. C. D. Whetham, of Cambridge University, author of Theory of Solution, etc. Another theoretical article which will be found widely useful is THERMOCHEMISTRY (Vol. 26, p. 804), by Prof. James Walker, of Edinburgh University. For further details see the chapter on CHEMISTRY in this Guide.
[Sidenote: Manufacture of Chemicals]
It is possible here to mention only a small amount of the material dealing with the manufacture of chemicals. At the end of this chapter there is a fuller alphabetical list. It may be noted, however, that the articles on the elements, metallic and non-metallic, give much consideration to their compounds, how these are made and how used in the arts and in medicine. But in addition to this there are many noteworthy contributions dealing with chemical manufacture. For instance, ALKALI MANUFACTURE (Vol. 1, p. 674), by Dr. Georg Lunge, professor of technical chemistry, Zurich Polytechnic, 11 pages in length and with 10 illustrations. The chief processes described are the Leblanc, ammonia-soda, and electrolytic, together with others dependent upon them. The facts about the manufacture of the carbonate, hydrate, and sulphate of soda, chlorine, hydrochloric acid, etc., are fully given. POTASSIUM (Vol. 22, p. 197) treats of the commercial compounds of this metal in the same manner. NITROGEN (Vol. 19, p. 714) explains the new process for the commercial manufacture of nitric acid from atmospheric air—a matter of enormous industrial importance—and also the conversion of nitrogen into ammonia, which has been done successfully only within the past few years.
The manufacture of chemical products by the use of electricity is the subject of ELECTROCHEMISTRY (Vol. 9, p. 208), and a still larger field is covered by ELECTROMETALLURGY (Vol. 9, p. 232). Both of these valuable articles are by W. G. M‘Millan, formerly secretary of the Institute of Electrical Engineers of Great Britain. SULPHURIC ACID (Vol. 26, p. 65), illustrated, by Dr. Lunge, describes the properties, reactions and manufacture of the most important of all chemicals, including the more modern contact processes.
[Sidenote: Drugs, Origin and Manufacture]
As a key to the subject of the origin and manufacture of drugs, the article PHARMACOLOGY (Vol. 21, p. 347), by Dr. Ralph Stockman, professor of materia medica and therapeutics in the University of Glasgow, presents a great amount of interesting and valuable information on the action of chemical substances (apart from foods) on all kinds of animals, from bacteria up to man. A short history of pharmacology is given and a large part of the article concerns the action of drugs. There is also a classification of drugs according to the latest and most scientific methods into twenty-eight groups, describing the effects of each group. An appendix to the article, by Dr. H. L. Hennessy, is entitled Terminology in Therapeutics, and is a general explanation of the common names used in the therapeutic classification of drugs.
Since therapeutics is concerned with the remedial power of drugs and the conditions under which they are to be used, the article THERAPEUTICS (Vol. 26, p. 793), by Dr. Sir Lauder Brunton, of St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, London, and author of the well-known treatise, Modern Therapeutics, should not be overlooked, nor POISON (Vol. 21, p. 893), by Dr. Sir Thomas Stevenson, lecturer on chemistry and forensic medicine at Guy’s Hospital, London, wherein all poisons are classified and their antidotes are indicated.
PHARMACY (Vol. 21, p. 355), by E. M. Holmes, of the Pharmaceutical Museum, London, is largely historical in its nature, and yields much interesting and valuable information about the pharmacist. We learn that an Egyptian papyrus of the date 2300 B.C. gives direction as to the preparation of prescriptions, and that diachylon plaster, invented by Menecrates in A.D. 1, is used for the same purposes to-day. A great deal of curious knowledge about ancient remedies, such as the thigh bone of a hanged man, moss grown on a human skull, the ashes of the head of a coal-black cat, etc., renders this article especially entertaining. PHARMACOPŒIA (Vol. 21, p. 353), also by Mr. Holmes, tells about the pharmacopœias in use in different countries, the standardization of drugs, etc.
In the list at the end of this chapter are noted the numerous separate articles on drugs, their preparation and use that appear in the Britannica. Mention should be made of the articles on the elements, such as IRON (Vol. 14, p. 799), ARSENIC (Vol. 2, p. 653), MERCURY (Vol. 18, p. 158), IODINE (Vol. 14, p. 725), BROMINE (Vol. 4, p. 633), SODIUM (Vol. 25, p. 343), POTASSIUM (Vol. 22, p. 200), MAGNESIUM (Vol. 17, p. 321), BISMUTH (Vol. 4, p. 11). Separate sections dealing with pharmacology are found in the articles on very many plants, such as ALOE (Vol. 1, p. 720), ANISE (Vol. 2, p. 55), ARROWROOT (Vol. 2, p. 649), Iceland Moss (Vol. 14, p. 241), CINCHONA (Vol. 6, p. 369), COCA (Vol. 6, p. 614), COLCHICUM (Vol. 6, p. 661), DANDELION (Vol. 7, p. 801), HOP (Vol. 13, p. 678), HOREHOUND (Vol. 13, p. 692), LOBELIA (Vol. 16, p. 837), MINT (Vol. 18, p. 557), MUSTARD (Vol. 19, p. 97), PEPPERMINT (Vol. 21, p. 128), etc.
[Sidenote: Biographies of Eminent Scientists]
The scientific biographies include not a few subjects which will be of interest, owing to familiarity with the names, to those engaged in the chemical and drug business. Among these are LISTER, BARON JOSEPH L. (Vol. 16, p. 777), to whose work and teaching the present importance of the manufacture of antiseptics is largely due; PASTEUR, LOUIS (Vol. 20, p. 892); CURIE, PIERRE, and MME. MARIE CURIE (Vol. 7, p. 644), the physicists who first announced the existence of radium; LIEBIG, BARON J. VON (Vol. 16, p. 590), the great physiological chemist; LUNGE, GEORG (Vol. 17, p. 126), the noted expert in technical chemistry, already mentioned as a contributor to the Britannica, and GLAUBER, J. R. (Vol. 12, p. 114), the German chemist who made a living chiefly by the sale of secret chemical and medicinal preparations.
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ARTICLES IN THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA OF SPECIAL INTEREST TO THOSE ENGAGED IN THE MANUFACTURE AND SALE OF CHEMICALS AND DRUGS
Abel, Sir Frederick A. Acacia Acenaphthene Acetic Acid Aceto-Acetic Ester Acetone Acetophenone Acetylene Achard, F. C. Acid Acid Amides Aconite Acorus Calamus Acridine Adenine Adipocere Affinity, Chemical Albumin, or Albumen Alcohol Alcohols Aldehydes Alembic Algaroth, Powder of Alizarin Alkahest Alkali Alkali Manufacture Alkaline Earths Alkaloid Alkanet Allantoin Alloxan Alloxantin Allyl Alcohol Almond Aloe Alum Aluminium Amidines Amines Ammonia Ammoniacum Amygdalin Amyl Alcohols Amyl Nitrite Anaesthesia and Anaesthetics Analysis Anatto Andrews, Thomas Angelica Aniline Animé Anise Anthracene Anthraquinone Antimony Antipyrine Antiseptics Apothecary Araroba Powder Archil Argol Aristolochia Arnica Arrowroot Arsenic Asafetida Asparagine Aspen Asphodel Azo Compounds Azoximes Baeyer, Adolf von Balard, Antoine J. Balsam Barium Base Baumé, Antoine Bdellium Becher, J. J. Bell, Jacob Belladonna Benzaldehyde Benzine Benzidine Benzoic Acid Benzoin Benzophenone Benzyl Alcohol Berberine Bergman, Torbern Olof Berthelot, M. P. E. Berthollet, C. L. Beryllium, or Glucinum Berzelius, J. J. Betaine Betel Nut Bhang Bibirine or Bebeerine Bichromates and Chromates Bismuth Bittern Black, Joseph Borage Borax Boric Acid or Boracic Acid Boron Boussingault, J. B. J. D. Brande, William Thomas Bromine Brown, S. M. Brucine Buchu Bunsen, P. W. von Butyl Alcohols Butyric Acid Cadmium Caesium Caffeine Cajuput Oil Calabar Bean Calcium Calomel Calvert, F. Crace Camphors Cannizzaro, Stanislao Cantharides Capsicum Capsule Caraway Carbazol Carbide Carbohydrate Carbolic Acid Carbon Carbonates Carbon Bisulphide Carbonic Acid Cardamon Carvacrol Cassia Castor Oil Catalysis Catechu Caustic Cavendish, Henry Cayenne Pepper Cellulose Cerium Chamomile, or Camomile Flowers Charcoal Chemical Action Chemistry Chevreul, M. F. Chloral Chlorates Chlorine Chloroform Chlorpicrin Chromium Chrysene Cimicifuga Cinchona Cinnamic Acid Cinnamon Cinnolin Citric Acid Clark, Thomas Cloves Coal-tar Cobalt Coca, or Cuca Cocaine Coco-nut Palm Cod-liver Oil Colchicum Colcothar Collodion Colocynth Colt’s-Foot Columbium Combustion Condenser Conine Copaiba Copal Copper Copperas Coriander Corrosive Sublimate Coumarin Coumarones Creosote Cresols Crookes, Sir William Crotonic Acid Croton Oil Crystallization Cubebs Cumin Curie, Pierre Cyanamide Cyanic Acid and Cyanates Cyanide Cyanogen Cytisine Dalton, John Dammar Dandelion Daniell, John F. Davy, Sir Humphry Decolourizing Depilatory Dessication Dewar, Sir James Dextrine Diazo Compounds Didymium Digitalis Dill Diphenyl Disinfectants Distillation Dividivi Döbereiner, J. W. Dragon’s Blood Drug Dulong, Pierre Louis Dumas, J. B. A. Durene Earth Ecgonine Elaterium Elecampine Electrochemistry Electrolysis Electrometallurgy Element Elixir Elm Epsom Salts Equivalent Erbium Erdmann, Otto Linné Ergot, or Spurred Rye Erythrite Esters Ether Ethers Ethyl Ethyl Chloride Ethylene Eucalyptus Eugenol Euphorbium Eupion Europium Fehling, Hermann von Fennel Fenugreek Fig Filter Fir Fischer, Emil Fittig, Rudolf Flamel, Nicolas Flavin Fluoranthene Fluorene Fluorescein Fluorine Formalin, or Formaldehyde Formic Acid Formula Fourcroy, A. F., Comte de Foxglove Frankland, Sir Edward Frémy, Edmond Fresenius, Karl R. Friedel, Charles Fructose, or Fruit-sugar Fuchs, Johann N. von Fulminic Acid Fumaric and Maleic Acids Fumitory Furazanes Furfurane Fusel Oil Gadolinium Galangal Galbanum Gallic Acid Gallium Gamboge Gannal, J. N. Garlic Gay-Lussac, J. L. Geber Gelatin Gelsemium Gentian
Geoffroy, E. F. Gerhardt, Charles F. Germanium Gibbs, Oliver Wolcott Gilbert, Sir Joseph H. Ginger Ginseng Gladstone, John Hall Glaser, Christopher Glauber, Johann R. Glauber’s Salt Glucinum Glucose Glucoside Glutaric Acid Glycerin, or Glycerol Glycols Gmelin (family) Gold Graham, Thomas Grains of Paradise Greenheart Guaco, Huaco or Guao Guaiacum Guanidine Guarana Guelder Rose Guimet, Jean B. Gum Guyton de Morveau, Baron Harcourt, W. Vernon Hartshorn, Spirits of Hashish Hellebore Helmont, Jean B. van Hemp Henbane Henna Henry, William Herb Hippuric Acid Hofmann, A. W. von Homberg, William Homoeopathy Hop Horehound Houseleek Hydantoin Hydracrylic Acid Hydrastine Hydrate Hydrazine Hydrazone Hydrocarbon Hydrochloric Acid Hydrogen Hydroxylamine Hyposulphite of Soda Hyssop Iatrochemistry Iceland Moss Imidazoles, or Glyoxalines Indazoles Indene Indicator Indigo Indium Indole Indulines Inulin Iodine Iodoform Ipecacuanha Iron Isatin Isomerism Isoxazoles Jaborandi Jalap Juniper Kámalá Kekulé, F. August Kelp Kermes Ketenes Ketones Kino Klaproth, M. H. Kolbe, A. W. Hermann Kopp, Hermann F. M. Kousso Kunkel, or Kunckel von Lowenstjern, J. Lactic Acid Lactones Laevulinic Acid Lanolin Lanthanum Laudanum Lavender Lavoisier, A. L. Lead Le Blanc, Nicolas Lemery, Nicolas Lemon Liebig, Baron J. von Lime Linseed Liquorice Lister, Baron Lithium Litmus Lobelia Lunge, Georg Madder Magnesium Magnus, H. G. Malic Acid Mallow Malonic Acid Malt Mammee Apple Mandelic Acid Mandrake Manganese Mangosteen Manna Marggraf, Andreas S. Marignac, Jean C. G. de Mastic Mayow, John Medical Jurisprudence Medicine Mellitic Acid Mandeléeff, Dmitri I. Mercaptans Mercury Mesoxalic Acid Methyl Alcohol Meyer, J. Lothar Meyer, Victor Microcosmic Salt Mineral Waters Mint Mitscherlich, E. Mohr, K. Friedrich Moissan, Henri Molybdenum Mond, Ludwig Morphine Mucic Acid Murexide Murray, John Musk Muspratt, J. and J. S. Mustard Mustard Oils Myrrh Myrtle Naphtha Naphthalene Naphthols Naphthylamines Nepenthes Newlands, John A. R. Nickel Nightshade Niobium Nitre Nitric Acid Nitrobenzene Nitro Compounds Nitrogen Nitroglycerin Nobel, Alfred B. Nux Vomica Officinal Oils Olefine Oleic Acid Opium Orcin Orpiment Orris-root Oxalic Acid Oxazoles Oxide Oximes Oxygen Oxyhydrogen Flame Palladium Palmitic Acid Paraffin Paraldehyde Pasteur, Louis Pelouze, T. Jules Pennyroyal Peppermint Pepsin Perfumery Perkin, Sir W. H. Pettenkofer, Max J. von Pharmacology Pharmacopoeia Pharmacy Phenacetin Phenanthrene Phenazine Phenol Phenolphthalein Phosphates Phosphorus Phthalazines Phthalic Acids Picene Picric Acid Picrotoxin Pilocarpine Pimento Pine Piperazin Piperine Piperonal Platinum Plattner, K. F. Podophyllin Poison Polymethylenes Pomade Potashes Potassium Priestley, Joseph Primuline Propiolic Acid Propyl Alcohols Proust, Joseph Louis Prout, William Prussic Acid Pumice Purin Purslane Pyrazines Pyrazoles Pyrene Pyrethrum Pyridine Pyrimidines Pyrocatechin Pyrogallol Pyrones Pyrophorous Pyrrol Pyruvic Acid Quassia Quercitron Quinazolines Quinine Quinoline Quinones Quinoxalines Radium Ramsay, Sir William Raoult, François M. Rare Earths Regnault, H. V. Resorcin Retene Rhamnus Purshiana Rhatany, or Krameria Root Rhodium Rhubarb Richter, J. B. Roebuck, John Roscoe, Sir H. E. Rose Rouelle, G. F. Rouge Rubidium Ruthenium Saccharic Acid Saccharin Safflower Saffron Safranine Sainte-Claire Deville, E. H. Sal Ammoniac Salep Salicin, Salicinum Saliscylic Salt Saltpetre Samarium Sandalwood Sandarach Santonin Sarsaparilla Scammony Scandium Scheele, K. W. Schlippe’s Salt Schönbein, C. F. Schützenberger, P. Senega Senna Sesame Silica Silicon Silliman, Benjamin Silver Snake-root Soap Soap-bark Sodium Solution Spectroscopy Spikenard, or Nard Spirits Sponges Squill Stahl, G. E. Stas, J. S. Stearic Acid Sterochemistry Stero-isomerism Stoichometry Stramonium Strontium Strophanthus Strychnine Styrolene Succinic Acid Sugar Sulphonal Sulphonic Acids Sulphur Sulphuric Acid Sumbul, or Sumbal Supra-renal extract Talc Tamarisk Tannin or Tannic Acid Tantalum Tar Taraxacum Tartar Tartaric Acid Tellurium Tennant, Charles Tennant, Smithson Terbium Terpenes Tetrazines Tetrazoles Thénard, L. J. Therapeutics Thermochemistry Thiazines Thiazoles Thiophen Thomsen, Julius Thomson, Thomas Thorium Thymol Thyroid Tin Tincture Titanium Toilet Powders Toluene Tonqua Bean Tooth Powders and Pastes Triazines Triazoles Triphenylmethane Trophine Tungsten Turmeric Upas Uranium Urea, or Carbamide Urethane Urotropin Valency Valerian Valeric Acid Vanadium Vanilla Van’t Hoff, J. H. Vaseline Vauquelin, L. N. Veratrum Veronal Viburnum Vitriol Weighing Machines Weights and Measures Weldon, Walter Wenzel, K. F. Williamson, A. W. Wine Wintergreen Winter’s Bark Wislicenus, J. Witch-hazel Wöhler, Friedrich Wollaston, W. H. Wormwood Wurtz, C. A. Xanthic Acid Xanthone Xylene Yew Young, James Ytterbium Yttrium Zinc Zirconium
XIII. FOR MERCHANTS AND MANUFACTURERS OF FOOD PRODUCTS
The manufacturer of or dealer in food products must of necessity be interested in questions of transportation by land and sea, of taxation, of agriculture, stock-raising and fishing, for example. For all such subjects as these he is referred to other chapters of this Guide. Here he will find only the chief articles on the subjects most closely related to the study of food products. But on these he may glean a wealth of information that will be of greatest value to him, and from them he can turn readily and with profit to a survey of the larger area covered by other chapters.
As a general introduction to the subject the student should read DIETETICS (Vol. 8, p. 214), by the late Dr. W. O. Atwater, who was in charge of the Nutrition Investigation of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, and R. D. Milner, also of that Department. This article deals with the composition and nutritive values of foods, their fuel value, quantities of nutriments needed, hygienic and pecuniary economy of foods (with tables showing the percentage composition of common food materials), conditions of digestibility, and other matters of equal importance. NUTRITION (Vol. 19, p. 920), by Prof. D. N. Paton and Dr. E. P. Cathcart, both of the University of Glasgow, discusses more particularly digestion and the utilization of the different food constituents.
[Sidenote: Food Preservation]
After establishing the value and relative importance of the various substances used as food, it is of great interest to everyone in the business to consider the subject of FOOD PRESERVATION (Vol. 10, p. 612), an article by Otto Hehner, formerly president of the Society of Public Analysts, in which there are separate sections on Preservation by Heat (which includes all canning processes); by Chemicals; by Drying; by Refrigeration; by Pickling. The sterilization of milk, condensed milk and milk powder all fall within the scope of this article. The preservation of food by cold is described in fuller detail in the article REFRIGERATING AND ICE MAKING (Vol. 23, p. 30), by T. B. Lightfoot, author of the standard technical book on that subject. Among the separate articles on preservative materials are VINEGAR (Vol. 28, p. 96), ACETIC ACID (Vol. 1, p. 135), CITRIC ACID (Vol. 6, p. 397), OILS (Vol. 20, p. 43), SALT (Vol. 24, p. 87), SALTPETRE (Vol. 24, p. 93), SUGAR (Vol. 26, p. 32), BORAX (Vol. 4, p. 243), FORMALIN OR FORMALDEHYDE (Vol. 10, p. 667), BENZOIC ACID (Vol. 3, p. 756), SALICYLIC ACID (Vol. 24, p. 69), SULPHUR, Compounds (Vol. 26, p. 63), ALCOHOL (Vol. 1, p. 525).
[Sidenote: Adulteration]
The objections to the use of some of these chemicals are discussed in ADULTERATION (Vol. 1, p. 218), by Otto Hehner. This article is about as long as 50 pages of this Guide. There is an interesting historical introduction, from which we learn that the first legal statute in which the adulteration of food is noticed dates from the reign of King John in England (1203). There is an elaborate account of all the subsequent legislation in Great Britain, the United States, and Germany. The effects upon digestion of the chemical preservatives mentioned above are shown in the light of the very latest investigations. There is a section on colouring matter in food, with information about harmless and harmful dyes; and the last part of the article considers adulteration as recently applied to the more important articles of food, such as milk (with tests for borax and formaldehyde), cream, butter, cheese, lard, oils, flour and bread, sugar, marmalade and jams, tea, coffee, cocoa and chocolate, wine, beer, spirits, non-alcoholic drinks, and vinegar.
The properties of adulterants and colouring matters are described in separate articles, such as GLUCOSE (Vol. 12, p. 141); SACCHARIN (Vol. 23, p. 970); PARAFFIN (Vol. 20, p. 752), which is sometimes added to coffee when it is roasted; ALUM (Vol. 1, p. 766), often used with weak and unstable flours in bread making, and unwholesome, although not strictly speaking an adulterant; SAGO (Vol. 23, p. 1003) and ARROWROOT (Vol. 2, p. 649), which provide adulterants of cocoa; CHICORY (Vol. 6, p. 131), which many consumers insist upon using in their coffee; COPPER, Compounds (Vol. 7, p. 109), which describes the copper salts used for colouring canned vegetables; ANATTO (Vol. 1, p. 943) and TURMERIC (Vol. 27, p. 474), two harmless vegetable colouring matters, much employed; and ANILINE (Vol. 2, p. 47). A full list of the various other colouring matters will be found in the article DYEING (Vol. 8, p. 744).
Another group of articles will be found particularly useful in connection with the manufacture of certain classes of food products. Among these are FERMENTATION (Vol. 10, p. 275), by J. L. Baker, the noted English analytical and consulting chemist; FUNGI (Vol. 11, p. 333), illustrated, with its information about molds; BACTERIOLOGY (Vol. 3, p. 156), illustrated, especially for the material relating to the nature of toxins (p. 174)—both of these articles by the late Professor Ward of Cambridge and Professor Blackman of the University of Leeds; MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE, Food Poisoning (Vol. 18, p. 29), by Prof. H. H. Littlejohn, of the University of Edinburgh, and T. A. Ingram; and POISON (Vol. 21, p. 893), by the late Dr. Sir Thomas Stevenson, of Guy’s Hospital, London.
The diseases of animals which affect meat are described in the article VETERINARY SCIENCE (Vol. 28, p. 2), by George Fleming, author of Animal Plagues, and Prof. John MacQueen of the London Veterinary College, which contains sections on diseases of cattle, sheep and pigs as well as on the principal parasites of domestic animals; and there are separate articles on ANTHRAX (Vol. 2, p. 106); FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE (Vol. 10, p. 617), PLEURO-PNEUMONIA, or LUNG PLAGUE (Vol. 21, p. 838), and RINDERPEST (Vol. 23, p. 348).
[Sidenote: Special Foods]
The article FLOUR AND FLOUR MANUFACTURE (Vol. 10, p. 548), by George F. Zimmer, not only describes the processes of milling and of dressing and bleaching the flour, but also gives the history of milling from the earliest times, and deals with the special customs of different countries. There is a very full article BREAD (Vol. 4, p. 465), by the same contributor. It is not generally known that there are in existence remains of cakes made by the Swiss lake-dwellers in the Stone Age. The author says that, in all probability, they were baked on hot stones. The machine bakeries of the present day are described; and there are sections on sanitation of bakehouses, quality, flavour and colour of flour, baking powders, methods of dough making (the ferment-and-dough, the sponge-and-dough, and other systems), leavened, unleavened and aerated bread, and the recently invented Apostolov process, which among other advantages, permits the utilization of about 87½% of the wheat berry in bread making. A complete modern bread-making plant is described, together with the latest types of machine kneaders, dough dividers and mixers, and baking ovens. There are also articles on BISCUIT (Vol. 3, p. 992), MACARONI (Vol. 17, p. 192), VERMICELLI (Vol. 27, p. 1024), and GLUTEN (Vol. 12, p. 145).
The article STARCH (Vol. 25, p. 794) treats of the manufacture of this most important alimentary substance. The materials from which the chief food starches are made are described in MAIZE (Vol. 7, p. 448), ARROWROOT (Vol. 2, p. 649), with illustrations showing the appearance under the microscope of the substances which pass commercially under the name of arrowroot or farina; SAGO (Vol. 23, p. 1003), TAPIOCA (Vol. 26, p. 413), and CASSAVA (Vol. 5, p. 457). OAT (Vol. 19, p. 938) has information about the manufacture of oatmeal.
The article SUGAR (Vol. 26, p. 35) is by two practical experts, Alfred and Valentine W. Chapman. It deals with the chemistry, manufacture, history and statistics of this important food product as well as with the cultivation of the sugar cane and beet.
Among articles on the products in the manufacture of which sugar is employed is JAMS AND JELLIES (Vol. 15, p. 150), by Otto Hehner. The author points out many things of interest, for example why starch-glucose is an ingredient and not an adulterant of these products, and he shows the baselessness of the prejudice against the use of beet sugar in their manufacture. The manufacturer of jellies and preserves will find separate articles on all the fruits employed, and other information in GELATIN (Vol. 11, p. 554); in IRISH MOSS (Vol. 14, p. 795) as to the properties of vegetable gelatin; and in ISINGLASS (Vol. 14, p. 872), which, besides its gelatinous qualities, possesses the property of clarifying wines, beers, and other liquids. CONFECTIONERY (Vol. 6, p. 898) describes an important industry—which until the middle of the 19th century was part of the druggist’s business. See also CHOCOLATE (Vol. 6, p. 259) and JUJUBE (Vol. 15, p. 546).
SALT (Vol. 24, p. 87) covers the manufacture of salt very fully. It is curious to note that the termination “wich” in English place-names points to localities of ancient salt manufacture, for “wich” is an old English word meaning saltspring. This article contains an interesting section on the Ancient History and Religious Symbolism of salt (p. 90), by the late Dr. William Robertson Smith. The preservative qualities of salt were held to make it a peculiarly fitting symbol of any enduring compact, and in more than one part of the world cakes of salt have been used as money.
[Sidenote: Dairy Products]
Butter and cheese manufacture fall under the article DAIRY AND DAIRY FARMING (Vol. 7, p. 737), illustrated, by the late Dr. William Fream, of Edinburgh University. There are sections on Milk Production; Cheese and Cheesemaking, including Canadian and American factory practice and the Babcock and Russell investigations in Wisconsin which have opened up a new field for commercial exploitation (the varieties of English, French, German, and Italian cheeses being also described); Butter and Butter-making, Dairy Factories, Adulteration of Dairy Produce; The Milk Trade, American Dairying, etc. MARGARINE, the “perfectly wholesome butter substitute” is the subject of a separate article (Vol. 17, p. 704).
There is an article on LARD (Vol. 16, p. 214), showing what real leaf lard is, and how the term is applied in commerce. OILS (Vol. 20, p. 43), by Dr. Julius Lewkowitsch, author of Chemical Technology and Analysis of Oils, Fats, and Waxes, deals with the fixed oils and fats, and essential, etheral or volatile oils. Some of these are among the most important articles of food, and the oil and fat industry may be considered as old as the human race itself. The three processes of oil extraction are described, also refining and bleaching, methods of testing, etc. A list of all oils and fats, including those that are edible, is given. For the chief oils used as food see OLIVE (Vol. 20, p. 85), COTTON, Cotton-seed (Vol. 7, p. 260), SESAME (Vol. 24, p. 701), SUNFLOWER (Vol. 26, p. 102), POPPY OIL (Vol. 22, p. 91).
Other articles on foods deal with the preparation for the market of such products as GINGER (Vol. 12, p. 27), MUSTARD (Vol. 19, p. 97), PEPPER (Vol. 21, p. 127), with the different varieties distinguished, CAYENNE PEPPER (Vol. 5, p. 589), VINEGAR (Vol. 28, p. 96), PIMENTO (Vol. 21, p. 614), CLOVES (Vol. 6, p. 562), CINNAMON (Vol. 6, p. 376), CURRY (Vol. 7, p. 649), CAVIARE (Vol. 5, p. 582), from which we learn that the finer grades rarely find their way out of Russia; KETCHUP (Vol. 15, p. 761), CHUTNEY (Vol. 6, p. 350), PICKLE (Vol. 21, p. 584), VANILLA (Vol. 27, p. 894), RAISIN (Vol. 22, p. 864), CURRANT (Vol. 7, p. 648), PRUNE (Vol. 22, p. 518), FIG (Vol. 10, p. 332), and GUAVA (Vol. 12, p. 665).
[Sidenote: Beverages, Tea and Coffee]
The same completeness is displayed in the Britannica articles on beverages. TEA (Vol. 26, p. 476), by John McEwan, has an admirable historical introduction. It was not until the middle of the 17th century that the English began to use tea. It is a curious fact that whereas 35 years ago China practically supplied the world with tea, to-day Russia alone takes half of her export. The reason for this is explained. The characteristics of all varieties of tea are given and the main facts about the cultivation and manufacture. Tea Adulteration and Effects on Health are other sections of this valuable article.
COFFEE (Vol. 6, p. 646) is treated in very similar fashion by A. B. Rendle and W. G. Freeman. This beverage, in spite of fierce religious opposition, became the national beverage of the Arabians, and finally appeared in Europe in the 17th century. The physiological action of coffee has a section all to itself. Coffee consumption, roasting and adulteration are also discussed. It is of interest to note that while one branch of the Anglo-Saxon race, namely the people of the United States, is near the head of the list of coffee consumers, others, especially Great Britain, Canada and Australia “are almost at the foot, using only about 1 lb. of coffee per head each year.” In the United States “the average consumption per head is about 11 or 12 lbs. per annum.”
COCOA (Vol. 6, p. 628) is an interesting and valuable article on “the food of the gods”—the great beverage and dietary substance which America has given the world. Modern lovers of chocolate as a beverage (which is the same as cocoa save that the fat has not been extracted) will envy the digestive powers of the Emperor Montezuma of Mexico who had, each day, 50 jars of chocolate prepared for his personal consumption.
BEER (Vol. 3, p. 642), by Dr. Philip Schidrowitz, member of the Institute of Brewery Council, confines itself to the history of this important beverage, the chemical composition of beers of different types, and information in regard to production and consumption. In BREWING (Vol. 4, p. 506) this same author enters very fully into the manufacturing operations. The English and foreign systems are described and there are many illustrations. It is curious to note that Pliny, who is the earliest writer to mention beer, describes it as scorned by the Romans, who looked upon it as only fit for barbarians, and he thought it a more sinful drink than wine. “So exquisite,” he says, “is the cunning of mankind in gratifying their vicious appetites, that they have invented a method to make water itself produce intoxication.” The section on Brewing Chemistry is very valuable. In connection with Brewing there is an article on MALT (Vol. 17, p. 499), illustrated and very complete in its treatment, by Arthur R. Ling, editor Journal of the Institute of Brewing, and one on HOP (Vol. 13, p. 677), by the late Dr. Wm. Fream. Dr. Schidrowitz also contributes the article WINE (Vol. 28, p. 716). The art of wine-making is thoroughly described, and there are most interesting sections on the wines of France, Spain, Portugal, Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary, United States, classifying the different varieties and affording a full survey of the industry.
SPIRITS (Vol. 25, p. 694), illustrated, and also by Dr. Schidrowitz, is a general article covering the subject of the distillation of fermented saccharine and starchy liquids. The account is both historical and technical, and there are separate and more specific articles on BRANDY (Vol. 4, p. 428), RUM (Vol. 23, p. 825), ARRACK (Vol. 2, p. 642), WHISKY (Vol. 28, p. 591), in which the difference between three main types—Scotch, Irish and American—is carefully explained; VODKA (Vol. 28, p. 170), GIN (Vol. 12, p. 26). The many flavoured and sweetened forms of alcohol are described in the article LIQUEURS (Vol. 16, p. 744), where we also learn the difference between a “cordial” and a “liqueur.” There are separate articles on ABSINTHE (Vol. 1, p. 75), BENEDICTINE (Vol. 3, p. 721), CHARTREUSE (Vol. 5, p. 954), CURAÇOA (Vol. 7, p. 636), KIRSCH (Vol. 15, p. 834), and VERMOUTH (Vol. 27, p. 1029).
MINERAL WATERS (Vol. 18, p. 517) classifies all the great springs according to their mineral constituents, and discusses the effects upon digestion of their use, and their value in medical treatment.
The appended list includes a large number of articles of interest to the food producers, including chemical compounds and flavouring extracts.
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ARTICLES IN THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA OF SPECIAL INTEREST TO THOSE ENGAGED IN THE MANUFACTURE OR SALE OF FOOD PRODUCTS
Absinthe Acetic Acid Acorus Calamus Adulteration Aerated Waters Alcohol Aldehydes Ale Almond Alum Anatto Anchovy Angelica Aniline Anise Anthrax Apple Apricot Arrack Arrowroot Artichoke Asparagus Aspic Avocado Pear Bacon Bacteriology Bael Fruit Banana Bannock Barley Barm Bean Bee, Bee-keeping Beef Beer Beet Benedictine Benzoic Acid Bilberry, or Whortleberry Biltong Birch Biscuit Bisque Bitters Blackberry Bohea Boletus Borax Brandy Brazil Nut Bread Bread Fruit Brewing Buckwheat Butter Butter-nut Cabbage Caffeine Candle Capers Caraway Cardamon Carrot Cassava Cassia Cattle Caviare Cayenne Pepper Celery Chanterelle Chartreuse Chasse Cheese Cherry Chestnut Chicory Chive Chocolate Chupatty Chutney Cider Cinnamon Citric Acid Citron Claret Cloves Cocoa Coco-nut Palm Cod Coffee Confectionery Cookery Copper Cotton Crab Cranberry Cucumber Curaçoa Currant Curry Date Palm Dietary Dietetics Dyeing Eel Enzyme Esters Extract Fennel Fenugreek Fermentation Fig Fisheries Flour and Flour Manufacture Food Food Preservation Foot and Mouth Disease Formalin, or Formaldehyde Fructose Fruit Fruit and Flower Farming Fungi Furfurane Garlic Gelatin Gentian Ghee Gin Ginger Glucose Gluten Gooseberry Grain Trade Ground Nut Gumbo Guava Haddock Herring Hippocras Honey Hop Horseradish Huckleberry Hyssop Indian Corn Iris Irish Moss Isinglass Jams and Jellies Jujube Juniper Junket Kava Ketchup Kipper Kirsch Koumiss Kvass, or Kwass Lactic Acid Lard Lemon Lentil Liqueurs Loaf Lobster Macaroni Mackerel Maize Malmsey Malt Maple Marchpane Margarine Marmalade Maté Meal Mealie Meat Medical Jurisprudence Medlar Melon Milk Mineral Waters Mint Molasses Mulberry Mulligatawny Mushroom Mustard Nasturtium Negus Nut Nutmeg Nutrition Oat Oils Okra Oleic Acid Olive Onion Orange Oyster Palmitic Acid Paraffin Pea Peach Pear Pemmican Pepper Pepsin Perry Pickle Pig Pilchard Pimento Pine-apple Pistachio-nut Plants, Pathology Pleuro Pneumonia Plum Poison Pomegranate Poppy Oil Potato Poultry and Poultry Farming Prune Pudding Puff-ball Pulque Pumpkin Punch Quince Radish Raisin Raspberry Ratafia Rice Rinderpest Rum Rye Saccharin Sago Saké Salicylic Acid Salmon Salsify Salt Saltpetre Scone Sea Kale Sesame Shaddock Sheep Sherbet Sherry Shrimp Sorghum Spirits Sprat Starch Steak Stearic Acid Strawberry Sturgeon Suet Sugar Sulphur Sunflower Syrup Tamarind Tapioca Tart Tea Terpenes Thyme Tomato Treacle Trichinosis Truffle Tunny Turmeric Vanilla Venison Vermicelli Vermouth Veterinary Science Vine Vinegar Vodka Walnut Wheat Whisky Wine Wintergreen Wormwood Yeast
XIV. FOR INSURANCE MEN
For the insurance man, whether veteran or tyro, the new ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA has much of value and importance, and it has it in quickly available form so that the desired information may be readily found, whether the experienced student wants an authoritative statement on a difficult point, or the beginner wishes an outline course of the subject. This availability, whether for the expert or the novice, is secured by the Index (the 29th volume), which guides the reader immediately to desired information, if he does not find it in the alphabetically arranged articles in the body of the book upon first turning up the article in which he expects the subject to be treated.
To be more concrete—if you want to know something about insurance, turn first to the article INSURANCE in Volume 14, beginning on p. 656. You find an elaborate article, which would occupy about 75 pages if printed in type and on a page like this Guide.
In other encyclopaedias you would have no clue to the whereabouts of any information about insurance except what would be given in the article INSURANCE or in articles to which it might refer you in that article. For anything else you would have to guess how the editor’s mind had worked to find where in the book he had put other information about insurance; and to guess how each contributor’s mental processes have been related to his interest in insurance so that you might know whether in some article, on a topic apparently not related to insurance at all, the contributor had put in some interesting and important fact about insurance.
But in the Britannica you have one entire volume, the 29th, which was made for the sole purpose of increasing the practical efficiency of the other 28 volumes. Under the heading Insurance in this index, you will find references to many articles and cross references to Title Insurance and to Title Guarantee Companies.
Apart from the fact that he has the initial assurance that what he gets from the Britannica in the first place is fuller and better than he would get from another work of reference, what are the advantages offered by the index in this particular instance?
First: Instead of having a reference to volume 14 only he has references to volumes 2, 3, 4, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27 and 28,—nineteen volumes in all,—say a gain of 1800% in efficiency.
Second: Instead of having one article Insurance to refer to, he has reference to specific information in the following articles:
Annuity, Austria, Average, Barratry, Bonus, Employers’ Liability, Fire and Fire Extinction, Friendly Societies, Gaming and Wagering, Guarantee, Income Tax, Infanticide, Japan, Land Registration, Lloyds, Mensuration, Novation, Old Age Pensions, Post Office, Probability, Shipbuilding, Socialism, Switzerland, Title Guarantee Companies, Tontine, Underwriter, Unemployment, Warranty.
That is, to 28 new articles,—say 2800% additional gain.
Observe, too, that this is a gain that cannot be expressed in figures. The index references are classified. First there is a main head Insurance; then subheads, Fire, Life, Marine, Title, Workmen’s; and under the subheads special topics arranged alphabetically.
In brief, the Index facilitates and accelerates reference to anything in the Britannica that bears on any desired topic.
The article INSURANCE opens with a definition of that word and with drawing a distinction between it and “assurance.” The general history of insurance traces marine insurance back to Greek commerce in the 4th century B.C., but shows that modern methods of marine insurance were unknown until the 14th century; that fire insurance dates from the 17th century and especially from the Great Fire of London in 1666; and that, although there were a few instances of life insurance in the 16th and 17th centuries, it did not become a regular business until the 18th century and was not widely extended until the 19th century. Separate sections of the article deal with Casualty (or accident) and Miscellaneous Insurance, Fire Insurance, Life Insurance, British Post Office Insurance, and Marine Insurance.
The section on British Post-Office Insurance will give to the American insurance man a knowledge of this innovation in the post-office to which the American post-office seems to be tending, if one may judge by the introduction of postal savings-banks and the adoption of the parcels-post system.
In the same way the article OLD AGE PENSIONS will make you acquainted with another radical measure which has been adopted in Great Britain, Germany, France, Denmark, Victoria and notably New Zealand, with fuller description in the article NEW ZEALAND. The importance of the subject to the American insurance man lies in the fact that similar schemes are under consideration or actual operation in Massachusetts, New Jersey, and other states of the United States. In the same way the article on EMPLOYERS LIABILITY and WORKMEN’S INSURANCE will give him a wider grasp of the subject of state insurance, mandatory or elective, for workmen.
The principal articles on insurance topics have already been mentioned. It is to be noted, however, that the actuary will find important information in the mathematical articles MENSURATION and PROBABILITY; that the article FRIENDLY SOCIETIES is supplemented by such special articles as FREE MASONRY, B’NAI BRITH, BUILDING SOCIETIES, BURIAL SOCIETIES, ODD FELLOWS, etc.
In the Classified List of Articles in the Index Volume the student of insurance will find on page 893 a list of articles in the field of economics and social science, many of which will bear more or less directly on the subject. Among these articles and sub-articles are:
Abandonment Accident Actuary Annuity Assets Austria Average Baby-Farming Barratry Boarding-out System Bonus Bounty Casualty Insurance Census Charity Co-insurance Combination Communism Conflict of Insurance Laws Co-operation Emigration Employers’ Liability Eugenics Fire and Fire Extinction Fire Insurance Foundling Hospitals F. P. A. Liabilities Friendly Societies Gaming and Wagering General Guarantee Halley’s Table Housing Illegitimacy Income Tax Industrial Insurance Infanticide Insurance Interest factor Japan Labour Legislation Land Registration Liability Life Insurance Lloyd’s Maritime Insurance Mendicancy Mensuration Mutual Insurance Mortality Rates Negative Values Net Liability Net Premium Non-forfeiture Northampton Table Novation Old Age Pensions Pauperism Pawnbroking Policy Poor Law Population Post Office Premium Probability Production Profit Sharing Rates of Mortality Reserve Salvage Selection Shipbuilding Socialism Social Settlements Subrogation Suicide Sumptuary Laws Surplus Surrender Values Switzerland Tariff Taxation of Insurance Title Guarantee Companies Tontine Trade Unions Tramp Trusts Underwriter Unemployment Usury Wages Warranty Wealth
XV. FOR ARCHITECTS
Although architecture is more and more coming to be recognized as one of the fine arts, it is at the same time so largely practical and utilitarian that its theory and methods may to a great extent be gathered from systematic reading. In the article Fine Arts in the Britannica, by Sir Sidney Colvin, it is well said that “The original or rudimentary type of the architect, considered not as a mere builder but as an artist, is the savage, who, when his tribe had taken to live in tents or huts instead of caves, first arranged the skins and timbers of his tent or hut in one way because it pleased his eye, rather than in some other way which was as good for shelter.” Whether the architect wishes to learn how the eye may be pleased, to study critically the history of architecture, or, like the less imaginative savage who failed of being the first inspired architect, to consider comfort and shelter rather than beauty and charm, he will find much to help him in the Britannica. If his interest is chiefly practical, he should consult the chapter For Builders in this Guide.
The architect should read first—and he will constantly be referring to it afterwards—the article ARCHITECTURE (Vol. 2, p. 369), equivalent in length to 235 pages of this Guide and illustrated by 140 figures, about one-third of which are photogravures. The article is historical in the main and a brief outline of it is as follows:—
Egyptian Assyrian Persian Greek Parthian Sassanian Etruscan Roman Byzantine Early Christian Coptic Church in Egypt Romanesque and Gothic in Italy France Spain England Germany Belgium and Holland Renaissance: Introduction Italy France Spain England Germany Belgium and Holland Mahommedan Modern Classical Revival in British Architecture Classical Revival in Germany French Classicism Barry’s “Commonsense” Style Gothic Revival in England Gothic Revival in France Queen Anne Style “Free Classic” Style Arts allied to Architecture Craftsmanship Ideal Architecture in United States (Figures 97, 98, 99, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138) English Churches English Public Buildings English Domestic and Street Architecture Recent French Architecture Germany Other Countries
The part of the article dealing with Modern Architecture is by H. H. Statham author of a well-known book on the subject. Earlier sections are by R. Phené Spiers, late master of the Royal Academy’s Architectural School, with sections on the Romanesque and Gothic in France by W. R. Lethaby, principal of the Central (London County) School of Arts and Crafts.
Before continuing his more systematic historical readings the student may well read the article HOUSE (Vol. 13, p. 810), illustrated with 12 figures (3 plates), including four particularly fine examples of “half timbered buildings,” and one English house, the Jew’s House at Lincoln, dating from the 12th century. An interesting article on MURAL DECORATION (Vol. 19, p. 16) is by a remarkably distinguished trio: William Morris, poet, craftsman and painter, John Henry Middleton, late Slade professor of fine art, Cambridge, and Walter Crane, the well-known illustrator and decorator. This is illustrated with 16 figures in black and white and with a reproduction in colours of a wall-painting from a Roman villa of the early Empire. The article deals with: reliefs in marble and stone; marble veneer; glazed bricks or tiles; hard stucco; sgraffito; stamped leather; painted cloth; printed hangings and wall-papers; and painting.
If the student of architecture would know about the buildings of prehistoric times, in which there was little architecture in the sense of a fine art, he should read the articles ARCHAEOLOGY, (Vol. 2, p. 344), LAKE DWELLINGS (Vol. 16, p. 91), STONEHENGE (Vol. 25, p. 961) and STONE MONUMENTS, PRIMITIVE (Vol. 25, p. 962),—the last two of particular interest to the building engineer because it is so puzzling a problem how these great blocks could have been brought such distances and set in place without modern appliances.
[Sidenote: Early Oriental Architecture]
Engineering problems will be the most interesting in a large part of the student’s reading about Egyptian architecture. Supplementing the 4,000 or 5,000 words on this subject under ARCHITECTURE, accompanied by seven illustrations, there is much information in the articles EGYPT (Vol. 9, p. 21); ABYDOS (Vol. 1, p. 81) and KARNAK (Vol. 15, p. 680); and in the articles PYRAMID (Vol. 22, p. 683), (by W. M. Flinders Petrie) and SPHINX (Vol. 25, p. 662) by Francis Llewellyn Griffith, another well-known Egyptologist. In the former article the author points out that the outside and inside work on all the pyramids was excellent and that the casings were not a mere veneer but were “of massive blocks, usually greater in thickness than in height, and in some cases (as at South Dahshur) reminding the observer of horizontal leaves with sloping edges.” The massive character of the roofing of the sepulchral chambers is indicated by Prof. Petrie’s estimate that “in Pepi’s pyramid it is of three layers of stone beams, each deeper than their breadth, resting one on another, the thirty stones weighing more than 30 tons each.” But neither Stonehenge nor the pyramid was really an engineering problem. Here, and as in all his studies of early architecture, artist or engineer will find religion and worship the aim and the reason of the building even more, if that is possible, than in the great European cathedrals of comparatively recent times.
In the article BABYLONIA and ASSYRIA there is a brief section (Vol. 3, p. 108) on Art, supplementing the treatment under ARCHITECTURE. It is interesting to note that even in Assyria architecture was trammelled, reactionary, governed by Babylonian styles and using brick and clay because Babylon did, although there was stone in Assyria, and none in Babylonia; and keeping the heavy brick platform foundation which the Babylonian architects had adopted because of the marshy character of their country, although there was no need of such construction in Assyria. Here too the function of architecture was largely as an aid to religion: as shown in the article NIPPUR (Vol. 19, p. 707), with its description of the “ziggurat” or artificial mountain in the shrine, built probably 40 or 45 centuries B. C. One temple was 272 ft. square, with seven storeys, each smaller than the one below and thus surrounded by a terrace, each dedicated to a planet, each coloured a separate tint, the first probably 45 ft. high, and the total height 160 ft.
In Assyria great palaces of the 9th, 8th and 7th centuries B. C. have been found, and these are probably the earliest large buildings of any architectural importance not religious in their purpose; but this distinction must not be carried too far, for the king was sacrosanct, half priest and half god, and his palace was a shrine.
[Sidenote: Greece and Rome]
Although the main treatment of Greek and Roman architecture is in the article ARCHITECTURE, the student should read the articles GREEK ART (Vol. 12, p. 470; equivalent to 70 pages in this Guide; written by Percy Gardner, author of Grammar of Greek Art) and ROMAN ART (Vol. 23, p. 474; equivalent to 40 pages of this Guide; written by H. Stuart Jones, director of the British School at Rome). The article on GREEK ART contains 82 illustrations, many of them halftones. It makes clear the dependence of the other fine arts in Greece on architecture—and on religion—in showing that the greatest sculptures were adjuncts to temples, and (p. 471–472) in a discussion of the architecture of Greek temples calls attention to four basal principles of Greek architecture:
(1) Each member of the building has one function and only one, and this function controls even the decoration of that member. Pillars support architraves; their perpendicular flutings emphasize this. Moulding at a column’s base suggests the support of a great weight.
(2) Simple and natural relations prevailed between various members of a construction.
(3) Rigidity of simple lines is avoided; scarcely any outline is actually straight. Columns are not equidistant.
(4) Elaborate decoration is reserved for those parts of the temple which have, or seem to have, no strain laid upon them.
The article TEMPLE (Vol. 26, p. 603) gives plans and general information about Greek and Roman sacred architecture, as well as Hebrew, Egyptian and Assyrian temples; and the reader should study the article PARTHENON (Vol. 20, p. 869) and the diagram in that article, and the article PERGAMUM (Vol. 21, p. 142) and the two plates which accompany it.
The article ROMAN ART (Vol. 23, p. 474) is probably the first brief and authoritative treatment of a topic long overshadowed in popular interest by the earlier art of Greece and the later art of Italy. It begins with a history of recent research. Architecture, pre-eminently the most Roman of the arts as combining utility with beauty, is outlined (pp. 476–477 especially) and the main point in regard to Roman architecture is brought out as follows: “the specific achievement of the Roman architect was the artistic application of a new set of principles—those which are expressed in the arch, the vault and the dome,” as contrasted with the rectilinear buildings of the Greeks. The arch, particularly the triumphal arch, is specifically a Roman product and is specifically Roman besides in being an expression of reverence for governmental authority,—which, it should, however, be remembered, cannot be separated from religion. Among the most important of Roman sculptures and particularly reliefs are those of the arches, described in the articles ARCH (Vol. 2, p. 342) and TRIUMPHAL ARCH (Vol. 27, p. 297), the latter with eight figures. The part of the article AQUEDUCT which deals with Roman aqueducts (Vol. 2, pp. 241–243, with 2 plates, 6 illustrations) will interest the architect as well as the contractor or engineer. And he should read the article on the Roman architect and writer on architecture, VITRUVIUS (Vol. 28, p. 150), whose book so strongly affected the Renaissance.
Before taking up modern architecture as distinguished from ancient, the student will do well to examine the architecture of some more remote peoples—for instance,
Aztec (Vol. 5, p. 441 and p. 677) Abyssinian (Vol. 12, p. 232) Hittite (Vol. 13, p. 537) Indian (Vol. 14, p. 428, with 4 plates) Japanese (Vol. 15, pp. 181–182) Chinese (Vol. 6, p. 214) Byzantine (Vol. 4, p. 906, with 2 plates), and the article CONSTANTINOPLE (Vol. 7, p. 3)
[Sidenote: Modern Architecture]
The last topic will serve as a transition to the modern architecture of Europe, especially because the influence of the Byzantine was so strong in the early church.
The study of the Italian Romanesque and Gothic in an elaborate section of ARCHITECTURE (Vol. 2, p. 391) may well be supplemented by reading the articles on the Italian cities in which this art is preserved. The following list is roughly chronological, the cities named first being those in which there are the oldest churches.
RAVENNA, PISA and VENICE, for Byzantine Romanesque. ───────────────────────────────────┬─────────────────────────────────── MILAN │for Lombard Romanesque PAVIA │ „ BRESCIA │ „ BERGAMO │ „ PIACENZA │ „ PARMA │ „ MODENA │ „ ───────────────────────────────────┼─────────────────────────────────── BARI │for Southern Romanesque MOLFETTA │ „ ───────────────────────────────────┼─────────────────────────────────── PALERMO │for Sicilian Romanesque MESSINA │ „ MONREALE │ „ CEFALU │ „ ───────────────────────────────────┴─────────────────────────────────── WÜRZBURG, for Romanesque in Germany ───────────────────────────────────┬─────────────────────────────────── GENOA │for Italian Gothic ASSISI │ „ ORVIETO │ „ VERONA │ „ PERUGIA │ „ SIENA │ „
In the same way, for Gothic in other countries, the student should read:
AIX-LA-CHAPELLE │for French Gothic LE PUY │ „ ANGOULÊME │ „ ARLES │ „ NIMES │ „ ST. DENIS │ „ NOYON │ „ SENLIS │ „ SENS │ „ REIMS │ „ LE MANS │ „ ───────────────────────────────────┼─────────────────────────────────── OVIEDO │for Spanish Gothic LEON │ „ AVILA │ „ SEGOVIA │ „ LERIDA │ „ TOLEDO │ „ BURGOS │ „ SEVILLE │ „ SALAMANCA │ „ ───────────────────────────────────┼─────────────────────────────────── DURHAM │for English Gothic LINCOLN │ „ SALISBURY │ „ GLOUCESTER, etc. │ „ ───────────────────────────────────┼─────────────────────────────────── AIX │for German Gothic MAINZ │ „ WORMS │ „ SPIRES │ „ COLOGNE │ „ ───────────────────────────────────┴─────────────────────────────────── TOURNAI, LOUVAIN, etc., for Belgian,
and in general, the articles CATHEDRAL, NAVE, AISLE, CHOIR, APSE, CHEVET, LADY-CHAPEL, VAULT, FLYING BUTTRESS, PINNACLE, CLERESTORY and TRIFORIUM. The article Cathedral has plans of Canterbury, Salisbury, Durham, Ely, Chartres, Sens and Angoulême and a perspective of Amiens cathedral.
In the same way the student of the Renaissance architecture may supplement the section in the article ARCHITECTURE (p. 408, etc.) by reference to the articles on the cities in which the great Renaissance buildings stand. But now “the career of the individual has to be taken into consideration,” so true is it that the Renaissance in architecture as in scholarship was intensely individualistic. The article ARCHITECTURE points this out and in this section is largely biographical in its treatment. The reader should study the following separate articles also
For Italian Renaissance
FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI FLORENCE LEONE BATTISTA ALBERTI MICHELOZZO DI BARTOLOMMEO BRAMANTE ROME (for St. Peters: see Fig. 51 in ARCHITECTURE) BORGOGNONE BACCIO D’AGNOLO SANGALLO POLLAIULO MICHELANGELO JACOPO SANSOVINO MICHELE SANMICHELE ANDREA PALLADIO BAROCCHIO DA VIGNOLA GALEAZZO ALESSI LOMBARDO DOMENICO FONTANA BALDASSARE PERUZZI
The French Renaissance
For this period, less individual than in Italy, the reader will find it best to study the geographical articles. Let him read
BLOIS (noting Plate VIII, fig. 84, in the article ARCHITECTURE) TOURS CHAMBORD ORLEANS CHENONCEAUX FONTAINEBLEAU PARIS
Spanish Renaissance
GRANADA VALLADOLID SARAGOSSA MALAGA SALAMANCA (Plate V., fig. 73 in Architecture) SEVILLE (Plate V., fig. 74 in Architecture) ESCORIAL (with plan) MADRID (Palacio Royal)
English Renaissance
JOHN THORPE INIGO JONES SIR CHRISTOPHER WREN ST. PAUL’S CATHEDRAL (see Fig. 53 in ARCHITECTURE) GREENWICH (for Hospital) NICHOLAS HAWKSMOOR SIR JOHN VANBRUGH DEAN HENRY ALDRICH GEORGE AND JAMES DANCE WILLIAM KENT ROBERT ADAM SIR WILLIAM CHAMBERS
German Renaissance
ROTHENBURG (town-hall) AUGSBURG (town-hall) HEIDELBERG (see Plate VII in ARCHITECTURE)
Renaissance in Belgium and Holland
ANTWERP AMSTERDAM ROTTERDAM HAARLEM
On Mahommedan Architecture the student should read not only the section (Vol. 2, pp. 422–427) in the article ARCHITECTURE, with eight illustrations, but the separate articles
INDIAN ARCHITECTURE (with 4 plates, 17 figures) MOSQUE (with 3 diagrams) MINARET CAIRO CONSTANTINOPLE DAMASCUS JERUSALEM MECCA KAIRAWAN CORDOVA ALHAMBRA TABRIZ ISFAHAN
On the more recent period, the 19th century, roughly, the student should supplement the last part of the article ARCHITECTURE by reading the following articles
For the Classical Revival in the British Isles
DUBLIN (see also Fig. 85 in ARCHITECTURE) EDINBURGH SIR JOHN SOANE
English Gothic Revival
A. W. N. PUGIN SIR GEORGE GILBERT SCOTT GEORGE S. STREET WILLIAM BUTTERFIELD JOHN LOUGHBOROUGH PEARSON ALFRED WATERHOUSE
France (Figs. 122–129 in article ARCHITECTURE)
L. P. BALTARD J. L. C. GARNIER
The Last 50 Years
GEORGE FREDERICK BODLEY │England R. NORMAN SHAW │ „ WILLIAM MORRIS │ „ HARVEY L. ELMES │ „ CHARLES R. COCKERELL │ „ LIVERPOOL (and Fig. 86 in │ „ ARCHITECTURE) │ ───────────────────────────────────┼─────────────────────────────────── H. H. RICHARDSON │United States (and see Plates XV │ and XVI, and Figs. 97, 98, 99 in │ article ARCHITECTURE) RICHARD M. HUNT │ „ CHARLES F. MCKIM │ „ STANFORD WHITE │ „ WILLIAM R. MEAD │ „ RUSSELL STURGIS │ „ STEEL CONSTRUCTION │ „
Classical Revival in Germany
KARL FRIEDRICH SCHINKEL BERLIN (and Fig. 87 in ARCHITECTURE) POTSDAM (and Fig. 88 in ARCHITECTURE) MUNICH (and Fig. 89 in ARCHITECTURE) GOTTFRIED SEMPER
French Classicism
ADOLPHE THEODORE BRONGNIART JACQUES IGNACE HITTORFF (Plate XII in ARCHITECTURE)
English “Commonsense”
SIR CHARLES BARRY HALIFAX (Fig. 90 in ARCHITECTURE) WESTMINSTER (Houses of Parliament; see Fig. 91 in ARCHITECTURE) BUDAPEST (Fig. 92 in ARCHITECTURE)
The sections of the article ARCHITECTURE dealing with France and Germany in the last two generations may best be supplemented by a study of the articles PARIS, BERLIN, VIENNA, and BUDAPEST.
The following is a brief alphabetical list of architectural articles and topics in the Britannica, including topics for the builder and contractor.
Abacus Abated Abbey Abutment Acroterium Adam, Robert Aedicula Aisle Aiwan Leone Battista Alberti Alcove Galeazzo Alessi Alley Almery Almonry Almshouse Alure Ambo Ambulatory Amphiprostyle Amphitheatre Andron Angel-lights Antae Ante-chapel Ante-choir Ante-fixae Anthemion Apophyge Apollodorus of Damascus Apse Apteral Aqueduct Araeostyle Araeosystyle Arcade Arch Architrave Archivolt Arcosolium Arena Arris Ashlar Astragal Astylar Atrium Attic Attic Base Baccio d’Agnolo Back-choir Bailey Balcony Ball-flower L. P. Baltard Balustrade Banker-marks Baptistery Barbican Bargeboard Giacomo Barocchio Bartizan Base Basement Basilica Batement-lights Baths Batter Battlement Bay Bed-mould Belfry Bell-cot Belvedere Bema Bench-table Bevel Bezantée Sir A. W. Blomfield G. W. Bodley Bonding Giuseppi Bonomi Francesco Borromini Bowtell Bracket Bramante Brattishing Sir Reginald Bray Brick, and Brickwork Bridges Broach Sir I. M. Brunel Filippo Brunelleschi Building Charles Bulfinch Bungalow William Butterfield Buttress Cable moulding Luigi Cagnola Caissons Camber Campanile N. le Camus de Mézières Canal Canalis Cancelli Candelabrum Canephorae Canopy Cantilever Foundations Capital Carpentry Cartouche Caryatides Casement Castle Cathedral Cathetus Cauliculus Cavaedium Cavea Cavetto Ceiling Cella Cements Chalcidicum Sir William Chambers Chamfer Chancel Chapter-house Charnel-house Chateau Chersiphron Chevet Chevron Chimney Chimney-piece Choir Chresmographion Cinque Cento Cleithral Clerestory Cloaca Cloister C. R. Cockerell Coenaculum Coffer, and Coffer Dams Cogging Colonnade Placido Columbani Column Compluvium Composite Order Compound pier Conch Concrete, Concrete Piers, etc. Consisterium Construction Coping Corbel Corbie Cornice Counterfort Coursed Rubble Cramps Crenelle Crest Crocket Crossing Cross springer Crypt Crypto-porticus Cubicle Cuneus Cupola Curvilinear Cusp François de Cuvilles Cyclopean Masonry Cyclostyle Cyma Cyrto-style Cyzicenus Daedalus Dais Dance (family) Decastyle Decorated Period Dentil Diaconicon Diastyle Diaulos Diazomata Dikka Dinocrates Dipteral Philibert De l’Orme Discharging Arch Distyle Docks Dodecastyle Dog-tooth Dome Donjon Door Doorway Dormer Dormitory Dosseret Dovetail Dowels Drafted masonry Dredging Dripstone Dromos Dungeon Early English Period Eaves Echinus Eiffel Tower Elevator Elizabethan Style H. L. Elmes James Elmes Embrasure Engaged Column Entablature Entasis Ephebeum Epi Epinaos Epistyle Estrade Eupalinus Eustyle Exedra Extrados Façade Facing Fan Vault Femerell Fenestration Feretory James Fergusson Festoon Fillet Finial Flamboyant Style Flèche Floor Flue Flying Buttress Pierre F. L. Fontaine Domenico Fontana Footing Foot-stall Formeret Foundation Fountain Charles Fowler Frater Freestone Fret Frieze Frigidarium Frontispiece Gable Gablets Galilee Gallery Gargoyle J. L. C. Garnier Garret Garretting Gate Gatehouse Gazebo Girder Glazing Glyph Glyptothek Godroon Gothic Grange Granite Griffe Groin C. G. Guarini Guilloche Gutta Gutter Joseph Gwilt Gynaeceum Hagioscope Half-timber Work Hall Halving Hammerbeam Roof J. A. Hansom Nicholas Hawksmoor Heating K. A. von Heideloff Helix Hemicycle Herring-bone Hexastyle Hip-knob Hipped roof Hippodamus Hippodrome J. I. Hittorff Hôtel-de-Ville Hôtel-Dieu Hot-water Heating and Supply House Hypaethros Hypocaust Hypostyle Hypotrachelium Ichnography Iconostasis Ictinus Imbrex Impluvium Impost In-antis Indian Architecture Intercolumniation Interlaced arches Intrados Jacobean Style Jamb Jesse Joinery Joints Joggles Inigo Jones Owen Jones Jubé Keel-moulding Keep Keystone Label Labrum Laconicum Lacunar Lady-Chapel Lancet Lantern Lanterns of the Dead Lectern Libon Lighting Lightning Conductor Limestone Lintel Loft Louver (Louvre) Lucarne Lunette C. F. McKim Machicolation Maksoora Manor-house Marble Mastaba Mausoleum Megaron Merlon Meshrebiya Meta Metope Mezzanine Mihrab Minaret Minbar Minster Modillion Module Monotriglyph Mortar Mortice Mosque Mouldings Moving Stairs Mullion Mural Decoration Mutule Narthex Nave W. E. Nesfield Newel Niche Notching Nymphaeum Obelisk Octastyle Odeum Oecus Ogee Ogive Oillets Order Ordinance Oriel Orientation Orthostatae Orthostyle Oubliette Ovolo Pagoda Painter-work Palace Palaestra Andrea Palladio Palladian Panel Pantheon Parament Parapet Parascenium Parclose Pargetting John Henry Parker Parquetry Parthenon Parvis Patera Patio Pavement Pavilion J. L. Pearson Paruzzi Pedestal Pediment Pendant Pendentive Pergamum Peripteral Peristyle Perpendicular Period Perpent Stones Perron Philon Piazza Pier Pilaster Pile Foundations Pillar Pinacotheca Pinnacle Piscina Plan Planceer Plaster Plinth Podium Poppy Heads Porch Porticullis Portico Postern Presbytery Prick Posts Propylaea Proscenium Prostyle Prothesis Pseudo-dipteral Pseudo-peripteral Pteron Philon A. W. N. Pugin Pulpit Purlin Pycnostyle Pyramid Pyramidion Pythis Quadriga Quatrefoil Quoins Rag-stone Random Rear vault Refectory Regula Reredos Respond Rib George Richardson H. H. Richardson Thomas Rickman River Engineering Road Rood Rough Cast Rubble Rustication Sacristy Saddle Sangallo (family) Sanmichele Scabbling Scaffold Scamilli impares K. F. Schinkel Sir G. G. Scott Scotia Sedilia Gottfried Semper Sepulchre, Easter Severy Sewerage Sexpartite vault Shaft R. Norman Shaw Shoring Sill Skeleton Construction Slaking Slip Joints Slype Sir John Soane Soffit Solar (Soller) Sommer Spandril Sphaeristerium Spina Spire Spire light Springer Squinch Squint Stag Bars Stage Stained Glass Staircase Stairn Stall Stanchion Steam-Heating Steel Construction Steeple Stele Stereobate Stillicidium Stilted Stoa Stone, Stone Wash Storey G. E. Street Russell Sturgis Style Stylobate Bartolommeo Suardi Sudatorium Surbase Surveying Suspensura Systyle Tabernacle Tablinum Tabularium Taenia Talar Talus Tambour Taper Tas-de-charge Tegula Telamones Temenos Temple Tenon Tepidarium Terminal Figures Terrace Tessellated Tetrastoön Tetrastyle Thatch Theatre Thesaurus Tholobate Tholos John Thorpe Timber Sir William Tite Toran Torus Tower Trabeated Tracery Trachelium Transept Transom Transverse Rib Trapezophoron Trefoil Trial Boring Tribune Triforium Triglyph Triumphal arch Tudor flower Tudor period Tunnel Tunnel-vault Turning-piece Turret Under-croft Vane Vault Ventilation Verandah Verge Vesica Piscis Vestibule Vignette Villa Viollet-le-Duc Vitruvius Volute Voussoir Wall, and Walling, and Wall Coverings Alfred Waterhouse Water Spray Ventilation Wattle and dab Wedging Well Foundations Wind braces Window Sir Christopher Wren James Wyatt Xystus
XVI. FOR BUILDERS AND CONTRACTORS
[Sidenote: The Builder’s Problems]
The rapid increase in population, and especially in its density, the congestion in great cities, with the consequent building up of suburbs; and the equally rapid upward tendency in the scale of comfort, are factors of modern civilization which make the work of the builder and contractor increasingly complex. The good builder is probably much commoner than ever before, in spite of the popular impression that building materials are poorer and that construction work is more often “scamped” than they used to be. Increased transportation facilities make the builder much less dependent on local and often inadequate materials. And there has been a change in the theory and practice of government: the old easy-going policy has been abandoned, and new laws, strictly enforced, have resulted in such inspection and control of building operations as would have seemed tyranny to the builder of a generation ago and as make modern buildings, especially in cities, much safer than ever before. Insurance companies have done much to the same end.
There is a general prejudice against the modern builder on the part of the temperamental “praiser of the past.” Occasionally similar complaints are made even against the builders of the past. Kipling sings:
Who shall doubt the secret hid Under Cheops’ pyramid Was that a contractor did Cheops out of several millions? Or that Joseph’s sudden rise To Comptroller of Supplies Was a fraud of monstrous size On King Pharaoh’s swart civilians?
The mere duration of the pyramids, undamaged except by the hand of man, is an answer to such a charge; and in the Britannica article PYRAMID the reader will find (Vol. 22, p. 683) that even where the hidden material was rubbly or of mud bricks, “the casings were not a mere veneer, but were of massive blocks, usually greater in thickness than in height”—in other words, that the construction was of the best character.
But the builder must be a far better-informed man under present conditions than ever before. To give him the necessary information there is a large and growing literature ranging from builders’ and contractors’ pocket manuals to special periodicals. This literature is expensive, and like all special literature puts the intending purchaser in a difficult position, for if he buys it all, he must pay much more than the returns from his purchase warrant, and he will then have to read it all and use his own judgment in deciding what is best. If he does not buy all, he must be an expert, not merely in every branch of his business but in the bibliography of his business, to make a wise selection,—and if he is sufficiently expert for this he will probably need no such library. But he will find, to a remarkable degree, the best of all that there is in such special literature in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, with the strongest assurance of its being authoritative, and with the certainty that for an outlay, small in comparison with what he would make for such special information elsewhere, he will get the guidance that he needs for his work and also information as excellent on any other subject that he or any member of his family may wish to pursue.
The key or foundation article for the builder or contractor is BUILDING (Vol. 4, p. 762), by James Bartlett, lecturer on construction, etc., King’s College, London, who has contributed other articles on related topics. The article deals with:
The relation of building to architecture and with building laws and special types of plans according to local governmental requirements
The conditions necessary for a successful building, namely—ease of access, good light, good service, pleasing environment and approaches, minimum cost with true economy, and, for office buildings, ease of arrangement to suit tenants
Construction, its general principles
Materials of construction, especially stone and brick
Particular objects of construction
Foundation walls
Footings to walls
General procedure for an intended building
Builder’s sphere
American building acts
Fire-resisting construction.
This general article is supplemented by the following articles:
FOUNDATION, containing 13 diagrams and paragraphs on: load on foundation; trial boring; construction; types—concrete piers, pile foundations, concrete piles, plank foundations, caissons, well foundations, coffer dams, dock foundations, cantilever foundations, building on sand (at Cape Henlopen, Delaware)
CAISSON
MASONRY, with 18 diagrams, and with special treatment of tools, including hammers, mallets, saws, chisels, setting tools, hoisting appliances; of seasoning stone; of setting stones; of use of mortar; of bonding; slip joints; footings; walling; random; coursed rubble, ashlar, etc.; backing to stone work; pointing and stonewash. There is also a brief vocabulary of technical terms and a discussion of methods of facing; joints; cramps; dowels; joggles; stone arches; tracery and carving; and the articles ASHLAR, RAG-STONE, RANDOM
CEMENT, with 3 figures; description and analysis of Pozzuolanic and Portland cement; mixing; loading of kilns; types of kilns; cement clinker; testing; hydraulic lime; Roman cement; natural cements; Passow cement; uses of hydraulic cement; calcium sulphate cements
CONCRETE, with 16 illustrations and paragraphs on constituents; proportions; mixing; moulds; depositing; strength; durability; convenience and appearance; resistance to fire; cost; artificial stones; steel concrete, including columns, piles, beams, floor slabs, etc.; concrete arches
MORTAR, with sections on slaking; hardening; magnesia in mortar; strengths; adhesion, decay, effects of salt and frost; legal restrictions; limes and cements for mortar
LIME
BRICK, with sections on brick-clays and brick-making
BRICKWORK, with 15 diagrams; sections on hollow walls; materials and labor; varieties of bricks; strength of brickwork; mortar; pointing; footing; binding; prevention of damp; arches and plates; chimneys and flues; brick paving
BASEMENT
HOUSE, with 17 illustrations
BUNGALOW
CARPENTRY, with 36 diagrams showing joints, notching, cogging, dovetail, housing, halving, mortise, tenons, wedging, dowelling, turning-piece, lintel, floors, strutting, partition, half timber construction, braced frame; and descriptive text on these and other topics
STEEL CONSTRUCTION, with 4 illustrations; sections on skeleton and steel-cage construction; local laws; protection from corrosion; columns; girders; floors; windbracing; materials; floor-filling; partitions; time and cost of construction
STONE, with sections on constitution, colour, testing, preservatives, natural bed, seasoning, varieties, artificial stone
MARBLE, a descriptive article, about 4000 words long
GRANITE, with descriptions and analyses of typical granites
LIMESTONE, about 2500 words
TIMBER, with paragraphs on: felling timber, conversion of timber—with diagram of bastard and quarter sawing; seasoning; defects; decay; preservation of timber; varieties, with description of the principal coniferous and hard woods—and separate articles on PINE, FIR, LARCH, CEDAR, BIRCH, BEECH, CHESTNUT, WALNUT, ELM, TEAK, MAHOGANY, MAPLE, etc.
HALF-TIMBER WORK
CHIMNEY-PIECE
SCAFFOLD, with 4 figures; sections on bricklayers’ and masons’ scaffolds, material, erection, gantries, derrick towers, cradles, chimney scaffolds, accidents
SHORING, with 8 figures; sections on raking shores; braces, horizontal or flying shores; needle, vertical and dead, shoring; rules and sizes for all shores
STAIRCASE, divided into architecture and construction, the latter having 4 diagrams, description of dog-legged or newel stair, open newel stair, geometrical stair, circular stair, spiral stairs; a defining vocabulary of technical terms; concrete and stone; moving inclines; local building laws
BALUSTER
BALUSTRADE
ELEVATOR, with 3 illustrations; paragraphs on history; construction, essentials of design; safety devices; traveling staircases; freight elevators
PARQUETRY
CEILING
ROOFS, with 23 figures and two plates; with sections on forms of roof, trusses, open timber roofs, mansards; iron roofs, covering materials—felt corrugated iron, zinc, lead, copper, “tin,” slate, tiles, miscellaneous—weight of roofs, building laws; and separate articles on SLATE, TILE, TIN, TIN PLATE, etc.
PLASTER WORK, with paragraphs on lathing, metal lathing, limes, hair, substitutes for hair, sand, external work, rough stucco, roughcast or pebble-dash, sgraffito, internal work, three coats, moulding, cracks, slabs, fibrous plaster.
JOINERY, with 13 illustrations, and treating such topics as: tools and materials; joints, mitre, dovetail, etc.; warping; moulding; flooring, including wood block and parquet; skirting, dados; picture rails; windows, bay windows; shutters; shop-fronts; doors; church work; ironmongery, including hinges, locks, etc.
DOOR
DOORWAY
CASEMENT
WINDOWS
GLAZING
STAINED GLASS
WALL COVERINGS, with sections on marble wall-lining, mosaic, tiles, metal sheeting, tapestry, wall-papers—and see MURAL DECORATION.
PAINTER-WORK, dealing with paint bases, vehicles, thinners, driers, pigments, enamel, paints, woodwork paints, varnish, gums, French polishes, putty, tools, workmanship, graining, marbling, painting on plaster and on iron, repainting on old work, blistering and cracking, distemper, gilding, etc.
SEWERAGE
LIGHTING, with sections on oil, gas and electric lighting
LIGHTNING CONDUCTOR
HEATING, with sections on open fires, closed stoves, gas fires, electrical heating, oil stoves, low pressure hot water, high pressure hot water, steam heating, hot water supply, safety valves, geysers, incrustation, Lockport central steam supply
VENTILATION, with sections on rate of air consumption, ventilation of buildings, with table; chimney draught; other outlets; inlets; window and door ventilation; arrangements in barracks, in public buildings, exhaust cowls; extraction of vitiated air; fans; water spray ventilation; extraction by hot-air shaft; measurement of air; systems in public buildings
Both the builder and contractor will find valuable information to govern their financial relations with their clients in the article BUILDING SOCIETIES, of which the American part is by Carroll D. Wright, late United States Commissioner of Labor.
The contractor will find the following articles of importance to him, in addition to those of more particular interest for the builder:
SURVEYING GEODESY BRIDGES CANTILEVER CAISSON COFFERDAM RIVER ENGINEERING HARBOUR DIVERS AND DIVING APPARATUS DOCKS DREDGES BREAKWATER TUNNEL CANAL ROAD LIGHTHOUSE IRRIGATION RECLAMATION OF LAND
and the article RAILWAY, with the other articles on railway construction listed in the chapter For Railroad Men in this Guide.
For an alphabetical list of the principal articles and topics of interest to builders and contractors, see the end of the chapter For Architects in this Guide.
XVII. FOR DECORATORS AND DESIGNERS
[Sidenote: All the Arts in One]
The decorator and designer is a specialist in his purposes rather than in his methods, and his taste and judgment must be based upon a wide range of information. His selection and combination of decorative factors call for a knowledge of architectural design, of painting, sculpture, furniture, textiles, pottery, enamels, embroideries, laces and all the other arts, crafts and products that contribute to the perfecting of “the house beautiful.” The variety of the materials at his command offers him infinite possibilities of successful achievement, and as many temptations to incoherence and exuberance. The highest success in decoration can be attained only when the designer possesses the resources of all these arts and crafts, and failure perhaps comes oftenest through too exclusive a use of one medium of expression because it is the one with which the designer feels he can most competently deal. The ideal should be not only to employ, but to enlarge, the scope of every contributory medium of form or colour, as Wagner found new possibilities in the use of every musical instrument in one orchestra. This practical usefulness of versatility is clearly indicated in one of the articles, characteristic of the Britannica, where one great expert writes about the work of another. William Morris and Walter Crane have been the leaders of the modern revival of artistic interest in the daily accessories of life; and Crane in the Britannica (Vol. 2, p. 701) says of Morris that his influence is to be attributed to his having “personally mastered the working details and handling of each craft he took up in turn, as well as to his power of inspiring his helpers and followers. He was painter, designer, scribe, illuminator, wood-engraver, dyer, weaver and, finally, printer and paper-maker; and, having effectively mastered these crafts he could effectively direct and criticize the work of others.” Obviously, few men can afford to devote forty years, as Morris did, to the close study and actual practice of all these pursuits, and still fewer could hope to develop so many manual dexterities. But any earnest student can become a competent critic in all these varied fields, and can retain an equal appreciation of all the materials and methods employed, if he will enlarge and refresh his knowledge by constant reading of the best authorities. The comprehensiveness of the Britannica makes it, for such purposes, invaluable to the designer and decorator, no matter how many technical books his working library may contain.
[Sidenote: The Influence of Architecture]
Since harmony of proportion, the essence of architecture, is also the primary law of interior decoration, the reader of the present chapter may well begin his reading with a number of the articles described in the chapter For Architects, of which only those dwelling most upon the use of ornament and colour need be separately mentioned in this connection. The article ARCHITECTURE (Vol. 2, p. 369) is by R. Phené Spiers, formerly master of the Architectural School of the English Royal Academy, with sections on special periods and schools of architecture by other famous authorities. Oriental architecture, with its elaboration of detail, is peculiarly suggestive to the decorator, who may be surprised to find, in the Britannica, treatises so highly specialized as INDIAN ARCHITECTURE (Vol. 14, p. 428), by Dr. James Burgess, editor of the standard book on the subject, the History of Indian Architecture; the architectural part of CHINA, Art (Vol. 6, p. 214), by Lawrence Binyon, whose work in the great British Museum collection has made his reputation as one of the foremost modern critics; and JAPAN, Art (Vol. 15, p. 181), by Capt. Frank Brinkley, whose many years of study in Japan have given him an exceptional mastery of the subject. Among other articles dealing with the decorative aspects of architecture are ORDER (Vol. 20, p. 176), CAPITAL (Vol. 5, p. 275), and HOUSE (Vol. 13, p. 810), with its exquisite full page plates.
[Sidenote: Design and Mural Painting]
The article DESIGN (Vol. 8, p. 95), by W. R. Lethaby, principal of the Central School of Arts and Crafts, London, contains a passage which the decorator may well bear in mind when he has to contend against the typical client’s unreasoning demand for the sensationalism which, for the moment, is accepted as an evidence of originality, but is always the cause of subsequent dissatisfaction and complaint. “Modern use has tended to associate design with the word ‘original’ in the sense of new or abnormal. The end of design, however, is properly utility, fitness and delight. If a discovery, it should be a discovery of what seems inevitable, an inspiration arising out of the conditions, and parallel to invention in the sciences.” These fifty words are but a millionth part of the contents of the Britannica; but alone they show that the work can practically serve the designer. MURAL DECORATION (Vol. 19, p. 16), with its delightful reproduction in colour of a wall painting preserved in the National Museum at Rome, and its other illustrations, is by William Morris and Walter Crane, with a section on classical wall paintings by Prof. J. H. Middleton, Slade professor of fine art at Cambridge University. The “furnishing” point of view is considered under other headings (see below). Here the distinguished contributors give an interesting account of marble and stone reliefs, the oldest method of wall decoration; marble veneer, especially appropriate to 14th and 15th century Italian style; wall-linings of glazed brick or tiles; coverings of hard stucco; the recently revived sgraffito method; stamped leather, much used in rooms of the 16th–18th century period; painted cloth; printed hangings and wall-papers, of great antiquity among the Hindus and Chinese but not common in Europe until the 18th century; wall-painting, with description of the characteristic schemes of mural art in ancient and modern times, and methods of execution.
In further connection with this subject the reader should turn to EGYPT, Art and Archaeology (Vol. 9, p. 65), by the noted Egyptologist, W. M. Flinders Petrie; GREEK ART (Vol. 12, p. 470), by Percy Gardner; ROMAN ART (Vol. 23, p. 474), by H. Stuart Jones; PAINTING (Vol. 20, p. 459), by Prof. G. B. Brown, of Edinburgh University, and other authorities; SCULPTURE (Vol. 24, p. 488), by Professor Middleton and other authorities; MOSAIC (Vol. 18, p. 883), by Professor Middleton and H. Stuart Jones, with a practical section on Modern Mosaic (p. 888), by Sir William Blake Richmond, noted for his accomplishments in decorative art. All of these articles are richly illustrated. See further, the chapters on Fine Arts, Painting and Sculpture.
[Sidenote: The Wall and the Floor]
WALL-COVERINGS (Vol. 28, p. 279), by James Bartlett, of Kings College, London, deals with the subject in its practical relation to house furnishing, with reference to the conditions of the room, the use to which it is to be put, its lighting aspect, and its outlook. There is much information about the employment of marble, mosaic, tiles, metal sheeting, tapestry, and wall-papers; and separate articles will be found on the following materials: MARBLE (Vol. 17, p. 676), by J. S. Flett; TILE, Wall and Floor (Vol. 26, p. 971), illustrated, by William Burton; LEATHER (Vol. 16, p. 330), illustrated, by Dr. J. G. Parker; TAPESTRY (Vol. 26, p. 403), by A. S. Cole, an admirable historical account, fully illustrated, and giving information on varieties of design, indications of date, the marks of makers, modern tapestry weaving, etc. BAYEUX TAPESTRY (Vol. 3, p. 555) is an interesting historical account by the antiquarian, J. H. Round, of this venerable relic executed by order of the half-brother of William the Conqueror; it is illustrated with two plates containing 11 views of the tapestry.
In the matter of Floor-coverings there are the articles FLOOR-CLOTH (Vol. 10, p. 527), PARQUETRY (Vol. 20, p. 861), and CARPET (Vol. 5, p. 392), illustrated, by A. S. Cole, devoted to descriptions of carpets and rugs as designed and manufactured in Europe and Oriental countries.
[Sidenote: Furniture]
The next group of topics begins with the article FURNITURE (Vol. 11, p. 363) with 36 illustrations by J. G. Penderel-Brodhurst. The classified Table of Articles in the Britannica (Vol. 29, p. 888) indicates over 75 articles on separate pieces of furniture, but in this general treatise we have a concise history, describing periods and styles, with many interesting facts about the origin and use of different pieces of furniture from the earliest time to the “art nouveau” of very recent date. Some of the noteworthy separate articles, which have been written by Mr. Penderel-Brodhurst, are CHAIR (Vol. 5, p. 801); DESK (Vol. 8, p. 95); TABLE (Vol. 26, p. 325), and BED (Vol. 3, p. 612). See also MARQUETRY (Vol. 17, p. 751). For those who wish to preserve unity of style in furnishing a room, these articles will prove of the highest value. A full list is appended to this chapter; and the reader should consult the chapter in this Guide For the Manufacturer of Furniture.
[Sidenote: Textile Fabrics]
The decorator and designer must be familiar with all manner of fabrics, and the Britannica contains an immense fund of information in regard to the nature, manufacture and use of textiles. For purposes of study a beginning would perhaps here be made with the article Weaving, which is in two parts. The first, Industrial Technicology and Machinery (Vol. 28, p. 440) with 28 illustrations, is by T. W. Fox, professor of textiles in the University of Manchester. Very useful will be found the classification of weaving schemes into groups, from which we learn the distinctive weaves of plain cloth, twills, satins, damasks, compound cloths, repps, piled fabrics, chenille, velvets and plushes, gauze, etc. All weaving machinery is described. The second part, Archaeology and Art, is written by A. S. Cole. It is a most interesting and valuable account of the origin of various textiles, and the periods to which they are appropriate. There are many illustrations of typical designs of silk, brocade and flax weavings.
The investigation of woven fabrics reveals the fact that the almost endless variety of effects obtained is due in part only to the method of weaving. Consequently, it is necessary for the student, in order to acquire an expert knowledge of the character and effect on any textile product which he wishes to employ, to have access to the information in the articles BLEACHING (Vol. 4, p. 49) illustrated; MERCERIZING (Vol. 18, p. 150); DYEING (Vol. 8, p. 744) illustrated, and with an elaborate classification of colouring matters—acid, direct, and developed colours; FINISHING (Vol. 10, p. 378) illustrated, and TEXTILE PRINTING (Vol. 26, p. 694), illustrated. The fact that this fine series of articles has been prepared by Dr. Edmund Knecht, professor of technological chemistry, University of Manchester, assisted by noted authorities like the late J. J. Hummel, professor of dyeing, University of Leeds, and A. S. Cole, is a guarantee of their great interest and value.
In the matter of the fabrics themselves, under COTTON, Cotton Goods and Yarn (Vol. 7, p. 275) will be found descriptions of many cotton fabrics, and see also SILK (Vol. 25, p. 96) illustrated, by Arthur Mellor and other authorities; WOOL, WORSTED, AND WOOLEN MANUFACTURES (Vol. 28, p. 805) illustrated, by Prof. A. F. Barker of Bradford Technical College; LINEN AND LINEN MANUFACTURES (Vol. 16, p. 724) by Thomas Woodhouse, head of the weaving and textile designing department, Technical College, Dundee. Those who desire a closer scientific knowledge of fibres may obtain it from FIBRES (Vol. 10, p. 309), illustrated, by the well-known English analytical chemist, C. F. Cross. There are separate articles on BROCADE (Vol. 4, p. 620); MUSLIN (Vol. 19, p. 93); CANVAS (Vol. 5, p. 223); CHINTZ (Vol. 6, p. 235); CRETONNE (Vol. 7, p. 431); GAUZE (Vol. 11, p. 357) and other textiles. A full list of these materials is appended.
The article LACE (Vol. 16, p. 37) is one of the most notable contributions to the Britannica. It is written by A. S. Cole, author of Embroidery and Lace, Ancient Needle Point and Pillow Lace, etc., and has over 60 illustrations. A full history of lacemaking is given, and the article is of the highest interest throughout. There exists no better manual on the subject than this, and the pictures alone will enable the student to distinguish the different varieties. EMBROIDERY (Vol. 9, p. 309) by A. F. Kendrick, keeper of the Victoria and Albert Museum, and A. S. Cole, has 18 illustrations and describes the characteristics of the art as practised by different nationalities. GOLD AND SILVER THREAD (Vol. 12, p. 200), also by A. S. Cole, is a general and historical account of the gold and silver strips, threads and gimp used in connection with varieties of weaving, embroidery and twisting and with plaiting or lace-work.
[Sidenote: Arts and Crafts]
Before taking up the specific objects of art used in interior decoration and furnishing, attention must be called to the many articles of great value to those engaged in all arts and crafts-work whose success depends upon a sound knowledge of methods and the principle of design. In ARTS AND CRAFTS (Vol. 2, p. 700) Mr. Walter Crane gives an account of the recent movement in the arts of decorative design and handicraft that has for its object the adornment of the house. Handicraft workers will find valuable material, discussing designs, methods and tools, in NEEDLEWORK (Vol. 19, p. 339); WOOD-CARVING (Vol. 28, p. 791) fully illustrated, by F. A. Crallan, author of Gothic Wood-carving; CARVING AND GILDING (Vol. 5, p. 438); METAL-WORK (Vol. 18, p. 205) illustrated, by Professor Middleton of Cambridge University, with sections on Modern Art Metal-work by John S. Gardner, and on Industrial Metal Work by J. G. Horner, author of Practical Metal Turning; MEDAL (Vol. 18, p. 1) illustrated, by M. H. Spielmann, formerly editor of The Magazine of Art; GLASS, STAINED (Vol. 12, p. 105) illustrated, by Lewis Foreman Day, late vice-president of the Society of Arts; SPINNING (Vol. 25, p. 685) by Professor Fox; BASKET (Vol. 3, p. 481) with an account of the basket-making industry and methods employed, by Thomas Okey, examiner in basket-work for the City of London Guilds and Institute; EMBOSSING (Vol. 9, p. 308); CHASING (Vol. 5, p. 956); REPOUSSÉ (Vol. 23, p. 108); ENAMEL (Vol. 9, p. 362) a very complete historical and technical article, fully illustrated, by Alexander Fisher, author of The Art of Enamelling on Metals; JAPAN, Cloisonné Enamel (Vol. 15, p. 189); INLAYING (Vol. 14, p. 574). Much knowledge about primitive shapes and designs may be obtained from ARCHAEOLOGY (Vol. 2, p. 344) by Dr. Charles H. Read of the British Museum, AEGEAN CIVILIZATION (Vol. 1, p. 245) by D. G. Hogarth, the explorer, SCANDINAVIAN CIVILIZATION (Vol. 24, p. 287), and AMERICA, Archaeology (Vol. 1, p. 810) by the late O. T. Mason, of the National Museum, Washington. These articles are beautifully illustrated.
[Sidenote: Portable Ornaments]
Some of the articles on art objects have already been mentioned; in addition to them there is CERAMICS (Vol. 5, p. 703), equivalent to 133 pages of this Guide, with over 100 illustrations including 10 full-page plates, six of which are colour. This magnificent article is the joint contribution of six special authorities and describes the art of pottery and porcelain manufacture, potter’s marks, etc., in all countries and at all periods, with the exception of Japanese ceramics, for which see JAPAN, Art, Ceramics (Vol. 15, p. 183). GLASS (Vol. 12, p. 86) has a section on the History of Glass Manufacture (p. 97) in which glassware from the primitive vessels of ancient Egypt to modern wares is discussed and illustrated. The authors of this valuable account are Alexander Nesbitt, who wrote the descriptive catalogue of glass vessels for the South Kensington Museum, and H. J. Powell, of the Whitefriars Glass Works, London. PLATE (Vol. 21, p. 789) illustrated, is the joint product of H. Stuart Jones, formerly director of the British School at Rome; H. R. H. Hall, of the British Museum, and E. Alfred Jones, author of Old English Gold Plate. It contains unusually full information about hall-marks. There are also separate articles on PEWTER (Vol. 21, p. 338) and SHEFFIELD PLATE (Vol. 24, p. 824) by Malcolm Bell, author of Pewter Plate, etc.
CLOCK has a section Decorative Aspects (Vol. 6, p. 552), by J. G. Penderel-Brodhurst. FAN (Vol. 10, p. 168) by the late J. H. Pollen, author of Ancient and Modern Furniture and Woodwork, devotes special attention to styles of fan painting. IVORY has a well-illustrated section on Ivory Sculpture and the Decorative Arts (Vol. 15, p. 95) by A. O. Maskell, author of Ivories, etc. MIRROR (Vol. 18, p. 575); FRAME (Vol. 10, p. 773), and SCREEN (Vol. 24, p. 477) are likewise useful articles for the decorator and furnisher. TERRACOTTA (Vol. 26, p. 653) illustrated, by H. B. Walters of the British Museum, and William Burton, deals with the use of this material in architecture and sculpture, describes its manufacture, and contains an historical and critical discussion of subjects and types. BYZANTINE ART by W. R. Lethaby contains a section, Metal Work, Ivories, and Textiles (Vol. 4, p. 910).
The subject of LACQUER (Vol. 16, p. 53) is further treated under JAPAN, Lacquer (Vol. 15, p. 188), a part of a very elaborate discussion of all forms of Japanese art, including especially Painting and Engraving (Vol. 15, p. 172), which, as well as CHINA, Art (Vol. 6, p. 213), will be referred to constantly by all who are interested in Oriental handiwork and design.
[Sidenote: Biographies]
A great number of the biographies in the Britannica will possess much interest for the decorator and designer. Some of the noteworthy names of modern times are MORRIS, WILLIAM (Vol. 18, p. 871); CRANE, WALTER (Vol. 7, p. 366); TIFFANY, LOUIS C. (Vol. 26, p. 966); LA FARGE, JOHN (Vol. 16, p. 64); RICHMOND, SIR WILLIAM BLAKE (Vol. 23, p. 307); CHIPPENDALE, THOMAS (Vol. 6, p. 237); HEPPLEWHITE, GEORGE (Vol. 13, p. 305); SHERATON, THOMAS (Vol. 24, p. 841); GIBBONS, GRINLING (Vol. 11, p. 936).
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ARTICLES IN THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA OF SPECIAL INTEREST TO THOSE ENGAGED IN DECORATING, DESIGNING, INTERIOR FURNISHING AND ALL FORMS OF ART HANDICRAFT
Abbey, E. A. Acroliths Adam, Robert Aegean Civilization Ainmuller, M. E. Alb Alexander, J. W. Almuce Alto-Relievo America, Archaeology Amice Amphora Andiron Angerstein, J. J. Antimacassar Apostle Spoons Aquarelle Aquatint Arabesque Arch Archaeology Architecture Armoire Art Arts and Crafts Art Teaching Bagging Bahut Baize Ball-flower Baroque Basin-stand Basket Basso-relievo Bead Beaker Bed Bérain, Jean Bezel Biretta Bleaching Blondel, J. F. Blum, R. F. Bombay Furniture Bombazine or Bombasine Bonelace Bonheur du Jour Bookbinding Bookcase Book-plates Boulle, André Charles Box Bracelet Bracket Brasses, Monumental Brazier Brocade Brooch Buckram Buffet Bunting Byzantine Art Cable-moulding Caffieri, Jacques Calender Calico Cambric Cameo Candelabrum Candle Candlestick Canopy Canvas Capital Capronnier, Jean Baptiste Carding Carpet Cartoon Cartouche Carving Carving and Gilding Caryatides Casket Cassock Cassone Ceiling Cellaret Cellini, Benvenuto Ceramics Chair Chandelier Chasing Chasuble Chatelaine Cheese-cloth Cheffonier Chenille Chest Chevron Chimere Chimney-piece China, Art Chintz Chippendale, Thomas Cimabue, Giovanni Cinque Cento Cloth Coffer Column Composite Order Console Cookworthy, William Cope Copeland, Henry Copper Corduroy Corner Copiae Cornice Corregio Cosmati (family) Costume Cotton Cotton Manufacture Cotton-spinning Machinery Cowl Cox, Kenyon Cradle Crane, Walter Crape Crash Cressent, Charles Crest Cretonne Cross Crozat, Pierre Crunden, John Cupboard Curtain Cushion Dais Dalmatic Damascening, or Damaskeening Damask Darly, Matthias Decorated Period Delacroix, F. V. E. Della Robbia Denim Design Desk Diaper Die Dimity Diptych Dog-tooth Domenichino, Zampieri Doulton, Sir Henry Dowlas Drawing Drill Drinking Vessels Duck Dumbwaiter Dwight, John Dyeing Early English Period Ear-ring Egypt, Archaeology Electrolier Electroplating Embossing Embroidery Enamel Encaustic Painting Encoignure Engraving Etagère Etching Faience Fan Felt Fender Festoon Fibres Filigree Fine Arts Finiguerra, Maso Finishing Fireback Fire-irons Flag Flamboyant Style Flannel Flannelette Flock Floor Floorcloth Footman Frame French Polish Fresco Frieze Furniture Fustian Ganté Gargoyle Gauze Gem Gem, Artificial Gesso Ghiberti, Lorenzo Ghirlandajo Gibbons, Grinling Gilding Gillow, Robert Gimp Gingham Giotto Girandole Girdle Glass Glass Cloth Glass, Stained Glue Gobelin Goblet Gold Gold and Silver Thread Goldbeating Gouache Gouthière, Pierre Graffito Grate Greco, El Greek Art Grisaille Grotesque Guéridon Guido Reni Gunny Halfpenny, W. Hallstatt Hamerton, P. G. Hepplewhite, George Heraldry Hessian Hiroshige Hokusai Holland Honeycomb Horn Hosiery House Huckaback Icon Illuminated Manuscripts Illustration Impressionism Ince, William India, Costume Indian Architecture Ingle-work Inlaying Intaglio Iron-work Ivory Jack Jacobean Style Japan, Art Japanning Jewelry Johnson, Thomas Jug Jute Kashi Knitting Lac Lace Lacquer Lacrymatory La Farge, John Lampstand Lantern Lawn Leather Leather, Artificial Lectern Leonardo da Vinci Le Pautre, Jean Line Engraving Linen, and Linen Manufactures Linen-press Lithographing Lock, Matthias Longcloth Lowboy Macabre Majolica Manwaring, Robert Marble Marot, Daniel Marquetry Matting Mayhew, Thomas Mazer Medal Meissonier, J. A. Mercerizing Metal-work Mezzotint Michelangelo Miniature Mirror Mohair Moleskin Monogram Monteith Morel-Ladeuil, L. Mosaic Mouldings Mull Mural Decoration Museums of Art Muslin Nankeen Needlework Net Niello Numismatics Oeben, F. F. Order Ormolu Ornament Osnaburg Ottoman Overdoor Overmantel Padding Pagoda Painting Palissy, Bernard Pantograph Papier Maché Parchment Parquetry Pastel Pearl Pedestal Pediment Pendant Pergolesi, M. A. Perpendicular Period Perugino, Pietro Pewter Photography Phylactery Pigments Plaque Plate Plated Ware Platinum Plumbago Drawings Plush Poplin or Tabinet Poppy-heads Porcelain Portière Poster Pot-hook Prie-Dieu Print Process Puvis de Chavannes, P. C. Raphael Sanzio Relief Rep Repoussé Reredos Ribbons Richmond, Sir W. B. Riesener, J. H. Ring Robes Rococo Roman Art Röntgen, David Rousseau de la Rottiere, J. S. Rubens, Peter Paul Rug Sacking and Sack Manufacture Salt cellar Salver Samovar Sampler Sargent, J. S. Scandinavian Civilization Scarab Scarf Sconce Screen Scrim Sculpture Seals Servan, J. N. Settee Settle Shagreen Shawl Shearer, Thomas Sheffield Plate Sheraton, Thomas Sideboard Silk Silver Sofa Soutane Spinning Spit Spoon Stencil Stole Stool Sun Copying or Photo-Copying Surplice Table Tallboy Tankard Tapestry Tarpaulin Tartan Tassie, James Tazza Tea-caddy Tea-poy Tempera Terracotta Textile-printing Throne Ticking Tiepolo, G. B. Tiffany, C. L. Tile Tintoretto Titian Tool Torchère Torque Tortoiseshell Tracery Tray Triclinium Tripod Triptych Trivet Tudor Period Tulle Twill Uniforms Utamaro Varnish Vase Velvet Velveteen Veneer Vernis Martin Vestments Walker, H. O. Wall-coverings Wardrobe Washstand Wax Figures Weaving Wedgwood, Josiah What-not Window-cornice Window-seat Wine Table Wood-carving Wood Engraving Wyon, Thomas Yarn
XVIII. FOR RAILROAD MEN
There are no less than six distinct classes of articles in the new Encyclopædia Britannica which contain information of peculiar interest to railroad men:—
1. Articles on continents contain authoritative and original accounts of trans-continental routes and traffic. For example the article EUROPE has a table in which the 19 chief avenues of trade are analyzed, showing the direct distance, the distance by sea and the distance by rail from point to point; another table comparing railroad developments in the various parts of Europe, and also an account of the contour of Europe from the railroad man’s point of view, discussing the mountain ranges pierced by tunnels and the passes over which lines have been carried wholly or largely in the open.
[Sidenote: Six Classes of Articles]
2. The articles on separate countries, on the individual states of the Union, and on colonies contain detailed accounts of the railway systems. For example, the article FRANCE describes the six great French railroads, traces their lines and explains the financial system by which they were constructed, the concessions granted to them by the French government, and the extent to which direct state ownership and management has been adopted.
3. The articles on cities show the relation of each centre to the general railroad system of the country and describe the terminals and the methods of urban communication. For example, in the article BERLIN there is an account of the Stadtbahn, carried through the heart of the city, 20 feet above the street, providing for through traffic as well as for suburban service.
4. The maps as well as the many plans of cities, all of which were specially prepared for the Britannica, show much more clearly than does an ordinary atlas, the present development of railroads in all parts of the world.
5. The articles on various branches of engineering and mechanics, described in other chapters of this Guide, are complete treatises on the technical subjects connected with railroad construction and management.
6. The articles devoted exclusively to the subject, of which a brief account is given in the present chapter, are those to which railroad men will naturally first turn.
The key article is RAILWAYS (Vol. 22, p. 819), equivalent in length to more than 120 pages of this Guide. It is written by the foremost authorities on the subject both in the Old World and in the New, including:
[Sidenote: Technical Authorities]
ARTHUR TWINING HADLEY, president of Yale University, and author of Railroad Transportation.
HUGH MUNRO ROSS, author of British Railways and editor of the Engineering Supplement of the London Times.
RAY MORRIS, formerly managing editor of the Railway Age Gazette of New York and author of Railroad Administration.
LT. COL. H. A. YORKE, C.B., chief inspecting officer of railways of the English Board of Trade.
PROF. FRANK HAIGH DIXON, of Dartmouth College, author of State Railroad Control.
BRAMAN BLANCHARD ADAMS, associate editor of New York Railway Age Gazette.
WILLIAM ERNEST DALBY, professor of engineering in the South Kensington Central Technical College, and author of The Balancing of Engines, etc.
WILLIAM BARCLAY PARSONS, formerly chief engineer to the New York City Rapid Transit Commission and advisory engineer of the Royal Commission on London Traffic.
MAJ. GEN. C. E. WEBBER, founder of the Institute of Electrical Engineers.
EMILE GARCKE, managing director of the British Electric Traction Co., Ltd., author of Manual of Electrical Undertakings.
[Sidenote: The Key Article]
The article opens with an introductory historical summary which describes the use of railways or tramways before the invention of the steam locomotive in mining districts in England (just as in the article Mauch Chunk, Vol. 17, p. 903, early mine transportation in America is described) and the way in which their use induced the development of high speed locomotives and how the first American trans-continental railroads were built. The student will find next a section of general statistics of railway mileage for the world, with a summary of American railway building, especially in the Far West since 1896. The following section is on economics and legislation in general, followed by separate treatment of British railway legislation and of American railway legislation. The great problem of government control and operation of railways as practised in various European countries is also discussed and is of interest in connection with contemporary American tendencies. The safety of railway transportation is treated in a section containing in compact form the most valuable classified statistics. A section on Financial Organization compares American and British conditions in a most illuminating way.
Of even greater importance to the technical student are the remaining sections of this great article, namely:
(1) CONSTRUCTION, with subsections on Location, Cuttings and Embankments, Gradients, Curves, Gauge, Permanent Way (including ballast, ties, fish-plates and other rail joints, and rails), Bridges, Rack (or cog) Railways, Cable Railways, Mono-Rail Systems, Switches and Cross-overs, Railway Stations (for passengers and for freight), Round Houses for Locomotives, and Switching Yards. This treatise on construction is equivalent to 22 pages of the type and size of this Guide, and is in itself an adequate brief manual for the use of the construction engineer, with valuable illustrations in the text.
(2) LOCOMOTIVE POWER, including subsections on Fundamental Relations, Methods of Applying Locomotive Power, General Locomotive Efficiency, Analysis of Train Resistance, Vehicle Resistance, Engine Resistance, Maximum Boiler Power, Draught, The Steam Engine, Tractive Force, Engine Efficiency, Piston Speed, Compound Locomotives, Balancing of Locomotives, Classes of Locomotives, Current Developments. This section of the article is a little longer than the preceding,—it would fill 25 pages of this Guide,—and has illustrations, tables, and formulae. It is written by Prof. Dalby, the principal British authority on locomotives.
(3) ROLLING STOCK, dealing with dining, sleeping, passenger and vestibule cars, wood and metal, their heating and lighting and their weight and speed; with freight cars, their weight and speed; and with car-couplers and brakes.
(4) INTRA-URBAN, or city street railways, elevated and underground, by W. B. Parsons, formerly chief engineer of the New York Rapid Transit Commission.
(5) LIGHT RAILWAYS for rural and interurban service and portable railways.
[Sidenote: Other Major Articles]
The next article to be read is Tramway (Vol. 27, p. 159), dealing with the earliest railways used in coal mines, American and English, without locomotive power; and with modern street railways,—surface lines, steam, cable and electric, the last being subdivided into three classes, overhead or trolley, open conduit and closed conduit. The different types of street cars are discussed, and there are summaries of legislation and of commercial results, with general statistics.
The article TRACTION (Vol. 27, p. 118, equivalent to more than 20 pages of this Guide) is by Louis Duncan, formerly head of the department of electrical engineering in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. It deals principally with electric traction and thus supplements the article TRAMWAY. Steam traction, as treated in the section on Locomotive Power in the article RAILWAYS, by Prof. Dalby, may be studied further in the article STEAM-ENGINE (Vol. 25, p. 818), and especially that part of the article which deals with locomotives (§ 104, p. 841).
The civil engineer engaged in railway work will profit by reading, besides the articles already mentioned: Professor W. C. Unwin’s article (Vol. 4, p. 533) on BRIDGES, especially pp. 545 and 547 seq., dealing with railway bridges; and the article TUNNEL (Vol. 27, p. 399), by H. A. Carson, engineer-in-charge of the Boston Subway and of the East Boston Tunnel, which would make about 30 pages if printed in the form of this Guide. This article classifies tunnels into river, mountain and town (subway) tunnels, and gives special information about rail corrosion and ventilation in tunnels.
The equipment engineer will add to the topics already listed (cars, engines, etc.) the article SIGNAL, § Railway Signalling (Vol. 25, p. 73; as long as 15 pages of this Guide), by B. B. Adams, of the Railway Age Gazette, and H. M. Ross, of the London Times Engineering Supplement; and BRAKE (Vol. 4, p. 414).
[Sidenote: Legislation]
On the history of railroading and on statistics there is much information in the Britannica in local articles. It has already been remarked that each article dealing with a state of the United States, or any of the commercial countries of the world, has a section on Communications, giving railway mileage and describing the principal railway lines in the area; and that articles on cities and towns give accurate and minute information about railway service. In pursuing the study of legislation bearing on railways, and especially on rate legislation, the student should read the article INTERSTATE COMMERCE (Vol. 14, p. 711), by Prof. Frank A. Fetter of Princeton University, a part at least of the article TRUSTS (Vol. 27, p. 334), by Prof. J. W. Jenks, of New York University (formerly of Cornell), parts of the article on the history of the United States, in the same volume, especially pp. 315, 316, 353, 367, 394, 395, 396, 406, 407, and, in separate state articles, the sections on laws and history, notably NORTH CAROLINA for the rate cases of 1907 (Vol. 19, p. 778), NEBRASKA for the maximum freight rate of 1893 (Vol. 19, p. 329), WISCONSIN on radical rate legislation and on physical valuation for ad valorem tax of railways (Vol. 28, p. 744).
[Sidenote: Biographies]
The biographical articles in the new Britannica also have much important information for the student of railways.
Among the names of inventors whose lives are outlined are: THOMAS NEWCOMEN (Vol. 19, p. 475), JAMES WATT (Vol. 28, p. 414), MATTHEW BOULTON (Vol. 4, p. 324), GEORGE and ROBERT STEPHENSON (Vol. 25, pp. 888 and 889), RICHARD TREVITHICK (Vol. 27, p. 256), OLIVER EVANS (Vol. 10, p. 2), JOHN ERICSSON (Vol. 9, p. 740), PETER COOPER (Vol. 7, p. 80), and SIR MARC I. BRUNEL (Vol. 4, p. 682); among the names of engineers and railway and bridge builders GEORGE PARKER BIDDER (Vol. 3, p. 918), THOMAS BRASSEY (Vol. 4, p. 435), JOHN COCKERILL (Vol. 6, p. 625), ERASTUS CORNING (Vol. 7, p. 174), JAMES BUCHANAN EADS (Vol. 8, p. 789), SIR WILLIAM FAIRBAIRN (Vol. 19, p. 129), SIR JOHN FOWLER (Vol. 10, p. 761), JAMES HENRY GREATHEAD (Vol. 12, p. 398), SIR JOHN HAWKSHAW (Vol. 13, p. 99), WILLIAM KINGSFORD (Vol. 15, p. 817), SIR ROBERT GILLESPIE REID (Vol. 23, p. 50), JOHN RENNIE (Vol. 23, p. 101), and J. A. ROEBLING (Vol. 23, p. 450); and among railway financiers,—to take only a few American names,—the VANDERBILTS (Vol. 27, p. 885), JAY GOULD (Vol. 12, p. 284), ASA PACKER (Vol. 20, p. 441) and E. H. HARRIMAN (Vol. 13, p. 18).
In such articles as STRIKES AND LOCK OUTS (Vol. 25, p. 1024) and TRADE UNIONS (Vol. 27, p. 140), each with American sections by Carroll D. Wright, late U. S. Commissioner of Labor, the reader will find valuable assistance in studying railway economics as affected by the relations of labour and capital.
For marine transportation see the next chapter in this Guide.
The following is a brief list of articles, and of sections of articles, of interest to all railroad men:
Analysis of Train Resistance Anthracite Atmospheric Railway Ballast Balancing of Locomotives Blasting Bearings Bogie Boiler Boring Brake Brickwork Bridges Cable Railways Caisson Canal Cantilever Car Cement Classes of Locomotives Coal Cog Railways Compound Locomotives Concrete Conveyors Cranes Cross-overs Curves Current Developments Cuttings Dock Draught Dredge Elevators Embankments Engine Engine Efficiency Engine Resistance Felloe Fire brick Fish-plates Foundations Freight Fuel Gauge General Locomotive Efficiency Gradients Horse Power Hydraulics Iron and Steel Location Locomotive Power Maximum Boiler Power Masonry Methods of applying Locomotive Power Monorail Systems Mortar Motors, Electric Oil Engine Permanent Way Pier Piston Speed Rack Railways Rafter Rail Railways Railway Stations River Engineering Roads and Streets Roadbeds Rolling Stock Roof Semaphore Sewerage Shaft Sinking Shoring Shovel Signalling Siphon Sleeper Smoke Steam Engines Steel Construction Stone Strength of Materials Switches (or points) Switching Yards Ties Timber Traction Tractive Force Tramway Tunnels Vehicle Resistance Ventilation Welding