XXV. FOR PHYSICIANS, SURGEONS AND DENTISTS
The Britannica adds so largely to medical literature that, in outlining the services which the work can render to those engaged in the prevention and treatment of disease, it is desirable to define the limits, rather than to insist upon the extent, of the plan adopted by the technical assistant editors to whom the Editor-in-chief entrusted the control of this important part of the undertaking. It is true that the 644 medical articles, many of which might be described as books in themselves, cover the whole field of anatomy, physiology, pathology, therapeutics, surgery, pharmacology, medical education, medical jurisprudence and medical biography. It is also true that the writers who sign these articles are specialists of world-wide authority, and that the total number of words and illustrations in these articles is as great as would be required for a complete encyclopaedic hand-book of medical science. But, notwithstanding all this wealth of matter and of international collaboration, the Britannica does not profess to take the place of the elementary working library in daily use by every professional man. “Working library” is, however, an elastic term, and it is used here to mean only the handbooks which constitute an irreducible minimum, the few without which no beginner would venture to establish himself in practice. Certain manuals are, to the practitioner, what mathematical tables are to the engineer; and it is not the function of the Britannica to duplicate what the practitioner already possesses, nor yet, for example, to include a pharmacopoeia in a book used by the general public.
[Sidenote: The Encyclopaedic Method]
On the other hand, no professional man restricts himself a day longer than he must to the bare modicum of medical literature with which he may have been forced, at first, to do his best; and when he can add anything to it, there is nothing he will use so often, or find so helpful, as the Britannica. It may be well to define in general, its professional uses, before dealing in detail with the articles included in this course of reading.
(1) The system of technical collaboration is, in the Britannica, organized and coördinated with a completeness which gives the medical articles an authority and impartiality often lacking in isolated treatises. The contributors were selected with a view to their recognized ability only, whereas the publication of medical works is too often an outcome of the writer’s ambitions, which, however legitimate they may be, are no proof of his capacity.
(2) The Britannica articles were written for the sole purpose of being used in their present form. A great part of current medical literature originates in lectures to students, and retains too much of its first form to be satisfactory to the professional man.
(3) The articles are all based upon an original and recent survey of knowledge, and thus contain information which cannot be found in reprints of standard medical works insufficiently brought up to date by additions to earlier editions.
(4) In relation to statistics, to administrative and legislative provisions regarding public health, to hospitals and other public institutions, the broadly international character of the Britannica, with its contributions from twenty different countries, gives a scope which the private writer cannot attain.
(5) The great number of biographies of physicians, surgeons and men who devote themselves exclusively to research, gives professional men access to information which they cannot elsewhere obtain.
(6) Chemistry, bacteriology, general biology, botany, psychology and other sciences allied to the more immediate field of medicine are fully treated by specialists of the highest authority.
(7) Apart from the definite occupational diseases (fully discussed in the Britannica), there is often a relation between the pathological results of overwork and the routine of the patient’s business life. Every branch of industry and commerce is treated in detail in the Britannica, and the insight which the physician may thus gain will often be of service to him.
(8) The Britannica not only enlarges the medical library of the practitioner, but gives him, and the members of his family, the use of the only complete library of general information.
[Sidenote: Scope of the Medical Section]
Specifically, the medical and surgical section of the Britannica comprises 3 general articles, constituting broad systematic surveys of the various provinces of the subject: 103 articles on anatomy and physiology, which are partly surgical; 265 articles on pathology; 75 on pharmacology; 21 on public health, in addition to the articles on dentistry and on veterinary science, and 170 biographies. But this comprehensive scheme does not by any means include all the material of value to the medical man. The sister sciences of chemistry, physics, biology, botany, zoology and psychology, have much to offer him. A consultation of the list appended to this section will show how the needs of the physician and surgeon are served by the Encyclopaedia. It must suffice here to call attention briefly to some of the more important contributions.
Taking up, first, the more general articles, there is MEDICINE (Vol. 18, p. 41) containing about 35,000 words. This deals with the history and development of the science. Dr. J. F. Payne of the Royal College of Physicians, London, traces its history from the earliest known times to the middle of the 19th century; and Sir T. C. Allbutt, professor of physic in Cambridge University, completes this review with a section on Modern Progress (p. 55). Of high practical value is MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE or FORENSIC MEDICINE (Vol. 16, p. 25), by H. H. Littlejohn, professor of forensic medicine, University of Edinburgh, and T. A. Ingram. This deals solely with that branch of the science which has to do with the application of medical knowledge to certain questions of civil and criminal law. There are discussions of questions affecting the civil or social rights of individuals, and injuries to the person, the function of the physician in questions of mutilation, homicide, infanticide, poisoning, etc. MEDICAL EDUCATION (Vol. 18, p. 23) is a useful reference article by Sir John Batty Tuke, Dr. W. H. Howell, dean of the medical faculty, Johns Hopkins University, and Dr. H. L. Hennessy, furnishing data on the educational qualifications necessary to the practice of medicine in Europe and America.
[Sidenote: Anatomy, Embryology, and Physiology]
Dr. Frederick G. Parsons, vice-president of the Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland, lecturer on Anatomy at St. Thomas’s Hospital, London, contributes the general article ANATOMY (Vol. 1, p. 920) which goes deeply into its history, and has further sections on Modern Human Anatomy (Anthropotomy) and Anatomy, Superficial and Artistic. This noted authority also writes detailed and fully illustrated articles on the anatomy and embryology of the BRAIN (Vol. 4, p. 392); HEART (Vol. 13, p. 129); EYE (Vol. 10, p. 91); EAR (Vol. 8, 791); OLFACTORY SYSTEM (Vol. 20, p. 77); LYMPHATIC SYSTEM (Vol. 17, p. 166); VASCULAR SYSTEM (Vol. 27, p. 926); NERVOUS SYSTEM (Vol. 19, p. 400); MUSCULAR SYSTEM (Vol. 19, p. 51); REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM (Vol. 23, p. 129); and RESPIRATORY SYSTEM (Vol. 23, p. 184) and on the SKELETON (Vol. 25, p. 169); SKIN AND EXOSKELETON (Vol. 25, p. 188); SKULL (Vol. 25, p. 196); JOINTS (Vol. 15, p. 483); and NERVE (Vol. 19, p. 394). Another valuable anatomical article is CONNECTIVE TISSUES (Vol. 6, p. 958), by Dr. T. G. Brodie of the University of Toronto. Prof. Adam Sedgwick writes a most excellent general and historical account of EMBRYOLOGY (Vol. 9, p. 314); and Dr. Hans A. E. Driesch of Heidelberg University adds to it a section Physiology of Development (p. 329), treating of the laws that govern the development of the organism. The general article PHYSIOLOGY (Vol. 21, p. 554) is from the pen of the celebrated Prof. Max Verworn of the University of Bonn, and to this there are closely linked, according to the new plan of the Britannica, extensive and detailed accounts of the physiology of the BRAIN (Vol. 4, p. 403); SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM (Vol. 26, p. 287); SPINAL CORD (Vol. 25, p. 672); MUSCLE AND NERVE (Vol. 19, p. 44); RESPIRATORY SYSTEM (Vol. 23, p. 187); VASCULAR SYSTEM (Vol. 27, p. 929); ALIMENTARY CANAL (Vol. 1, p. 663); BLOOD (Vol. 4, p. 77), etc., by noted specialists, including Dr. Charles S. Sherrington, professor of physiology in the University of Liverpool, Dr. J. S. Haldane of Oxford University, Dr. L. E. Hill, lecturer on physiology at the London Hospital, Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell, and Dr. T. G. Brodie of the University of Toronto.
[Sidenote: Articles on Pathology]
Drs. D. J. Hamilton and Richard Muir are the authors of a brilliant summary of the whole subject of PATHOLOGY (Vol. 20, p. 913) with over 50 illustrations, including coloured plates. The whole story of the elevation of the science dealing with the theory and causation of disease from a mere philosophical abstraction to one of the natural sciences is admirably told. For the pathological details of various diseases and groups of diseases the reader is referred to PARASITIC DISEASES (Vol. 20, p. 770), fully illustrated, by Dr. G. Sims Woodhead, professor of pathology, Cambridge University, one of the notable contributions to the Britannica; METABOLIC DISEASES (Vol. 18, p. 195), by Prof. D. N. Paton of Edinburgh University; DIGESTIVE ORGANS, Pathology (Vol. 8, p. 262) by Dr. A. L. Gillespie of Edinburgh and M. Fisher; KIDNEY DISEASES (Vol. 15, p. 784), by Dr. J. R. Bradford of University College Hospital, London, and Dr. Edmund Owen, the famous English surgeon; BLADDER AND PROSTATE DISEASES (Vol. 4, p. 27); VENEREAL DISEASES (Vol. 27, p. 983)—these two also by Dr. Owen; SKIN DISEASES (Vol. 25, p. 190); INSANITY (Vol. 14, p. 597), by Sir John Batty Tuke, president of the Neurological Society of the United Kingdom, and medical director of the New Staughton Hall Asylum, Edinburgh, Dr. J. Macpherson, and Dr. L. C. Bruce, author of Studies in Clinical Psychiatry,—for this article the noted American specialist Dr. Frederick Peterson has written a section on Hospital Treatment of the insane; NEUROPATHOLOGY (Vol. 19, p. 429), fully illustrated, by Dr. F. W. Mott, the distinguished pathologist to the London County Asylums, and editor of the Archives of Neurology; RESPIRATORY SYSTEM, Pathology (Vol. 23, p. 195), by Dr. Thomas Harris, author of numerous articles on this subject, and Dr. H. L. Hennessy; BLOOD, Pathology (Vol. 4, p. 82), by Dr. G. L. Gulland of Edinburgh; HEART, DISEASE (Vol. 13, p. 132), by Sir J. F. H. Broadbent, author of Heart Disease and Aneurysm, etc.; EYE, Diseases (Vol. 10, p. 94), by Dr. George A. Berry, hon. surgeon oculist to his Majesty George V; VISION, Errors of Refraction and Accommodation (Vol. 28, p. 142), by Dr. Ernest Clark of the Central London Ophthalmic Hospital; EAR, Diseases of (Vol. 8, p. 794), by Dr. E. C. Baber, late senior surgeon, Brighton and Sussex Throat and Ear Hospital.
Dr. Harriet L. Hennessy is the author of GYNAECOLOGY (Vol. 12, p. 764).
For more specific details there is the complete list of articles on different diseases and ailments under their common names. This includes veterinary diseases, to which branch of medicine an admirable introduction is furnished by VETERINARY SCIENCE (Vol. 28, p. 2), by Drs. George Fleming and James MacQueen. In the articles on diseases there will be found accounts of the latest methods of diagnosis and treatment, as, for example, the Calmette eye-test in tubercular diseases, serum treatment and its latest developments, vaccine therapy, etc.
[Sidenote: Therapeutics]
The general article THERAPEUTICS (Vol. 26, p. 793), by Dr. Sir Lauder Brunton, consulting physician to St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, London, author of Modern Therapeutics, etc., not only discusses both rational and empirical therapeutics, but, taking up the different parts of the body considers in detail the therapeutic measures most commonly employed in the treatment of disease. The subjects of ELECTROTHERAPEUTICS (Vol. 9, p. 249); BATHS (Vol. 3, p. 514); BALNEOTHERAPEUTICS (Vol. 3, p. 284); HYDROPATHY (Vol. 14, p. 165); AEROTHERAPEUTICS (Vol. 1, p. 270); MASSAGE (Vol. 17, p. 863) and X-RAY TREATMENT (Vol. 28, p. 887) have separate articles devoted to them. The last is by Dr. H. L. Jones, clinical lecturer on medical electricity at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, London.
In connection with the subject of therapeutics, mention must be made of PHARMACOLOGY (Vol. 21, p. 347), by Professor Stockman of the University of Glasgow, in which will be found an interesting history of drugs, and a classification into 28 groups with a description of the effect of each remedy. To this valuable material Dr. H. L. Hennessy has added a section, Terminology in Therapeutics (p. 352)—a general explanation of the common names used in the classification of drugs. The list at the end of this chapter indicates the separate articles on drugs and on materials from which the principal drugs are obtained.
[Sidenote: Surgery]
Dr. Charles Creighton of King’s College, Cambridge, writes on the history of SURGERY (Vol. 26, p. 125) and the famous English Surgeon, Dr. Edmund Owen the section Modern Practice of Surgery (p. 129) in which are discussed antiseptic and aseptic surgery, drainage tubes, bloodless operations, Röntgen rays, use of radium, etc. The article SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPLIANCES (Vol. 26, p. 132) is fully illustrated. Dr. Owen also contributes articles on the surgery of the different organs, the article BONE, Diseases and Injuries (Vol. 4, p. 200) and many accounts of diseases and disorders that come within the province of the surgeon, such as APPENDICITIS (Vol. 2, p. 217); PERITONITIS (Vol. 21, p. 171); HERNIA (Vol. 13, p. 372); FISTULA (Vol. 10, p. 438); VARICOSE VEINS (Vol. 27, p. 920), and HAEMORRHOIDS (Vol. 12, p. 805). Sir Alexander R. Simpson, emeritus professor of midwifery and the diseases of women and children, University of Edinburgh, writes on OBSTETRICS (Vol. 19, p. 962); Dr. Louis Courtauld, formerly research scholar, Middlesex Hospital Cancer Laboratories, on TUMOUR (Vol. 27, p. 370); Dr. Arthur Shadwell, of the Epidemiological Society, on CANCER, with a special account of cancer research; and H. C. Crouch, teacher of anaesthetics at St. Thomas’s Hospital, London, on ANAESTHESIA AND ANAESTHETICS (Vol. 1, p. 907).
[Sidenote: Medical Biographies]
A most interesting, unusual and instructive course of reading on the history and development of medicine may be based on the biographical articles alone. In AESCULAPIUS (Vol. 1, p. 276) we learn how the gods of Greece effected cures. The life story of HIPPOCRATES (Vol. 13, p. 518) is worthy of note, for the “medical art as we now practice it, the character of the physician as we now understand it,” both date from him. For information about the theory that disease originated from an irregular or inharmonious motion of the body corpuscles we turn to ASCLEPIADES (Vol. 2, p. 722). An account of the man “out of whom the greater part of medicine has flowed” is found in GALEN (Vol. 11, p. 398). The biography of the great Arab physician and philosopher AVICENNA (Vol. 3, p. 62) should not be overlooked, nor the story of the revolt of PARACELSUS (Vol. 20, p. 749). Important and interesting, too, are the biographies of HARVEY, WILLIAM (Vol. 13, p. 42); SYDENHAM, THOMAS (Vol. 26, p. 277), the father of English medicine, and HALLER, A. VON (Vol. 12, p. 855), whose work marks the beginning of modern physiology. The work of MORGAGNI (Vol. 18, p. 831) in pathological anatomy marks an epoch in medicine, and the description in CULLEN, WILLIAM (Vol. 7, p. 616) of his new doctrine of “irritability” possesses a distinct interest. The accounts of JENNER, EDWARD (Vol. 15, p. 319), HUNTER, JOHN (Vol. 13, p. 939) and HAHNEMANN, S.C.F. (Vol. 12, p. 819) describe momentous events in the history of medicine at the close of the 18th century, while among the great names of the 19th will be found the chemist PASTEUR (Vol. 20, p. 892), KOCH, ROBERT (Vol. 15, p. 885), LISTER (Vol. 16, p. 777) and VIRCHOW, RUDOLF (Vol. 28, p. 110).
[Sidenote: The Allied Sciences]
It has already been noted that the Britannica will prove an invaluable help to medical specialists in fields of knowledge other than their own. The regret is often expressed by physicians that it is not easy for them to study subjects outside their profession, even when these are closely connected with their work. It is, unfortunately, only too true, that material for such study is not readily available. But with so complete a work of reference at his disposal, and with its highly authentic information skillfully compressed into reasonable space, the medical man now enjoys a magnificent opportunity to obtain a full acquaintance with many subjects that he knows will assist him in the work.
It would be impossible to name all the articles here, but the alphabetical list at the end of this chapter includes them, and the attention of the physician and surgeon is directed to BACTERIOLOGY (Vol. 3, p. 156), by the late Prof. H. M. Ward of Cambridge and Prof. V. H. Blackman of the University of Leeds, and especially the section Pathological Importance (p. 171), which Prof. Robert Muir of Glasgow University has written; BIOLOGY (Vol. 3, p. 954), a classic article by the late Professor Huxley, revised and brought up-to-date by Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell; HEREDITY (Vol. 13, p. 350), also by Dr. Mitchell; MENDELISM (Vol. 18, p. 115), a brilliant study of the foundations of an exact knowledge of the physiological process of heredity, by Prof. R. C. Punnett of Cambridge; EVOLUTION (Vol. 10, p. 22) and LONGEVITY (Vol. 16, p. 974), both by Dr. Mitchell; NUTRITION (Vol. 19, p. 921), by Prof. D. N. Paton and Dr. E. P. Cathcart of Glasgow University; DIETETICS (Vol. 8, p. 214), by the world-famous authority on this subject, the late Prof. W. O. Atwater, and R. D. Milner, formerly of the U. S. Dept, of Agriculture; VEGETARIANISM (Vol. 27, p. 967), by Dr. Josiah Oldfield, senior physician to the Lady Margaret Fruitarian Hospital, Bromley; CLIMATE in the Treatment of Disease (Vol. 6, p. 526); ACCLIMATIZATION (Vol. 1, p. 114), by the renowned scientist, Dr. A. Russel Wallace; a very complete and up-to-date article on VIVISECTION (Vol. 28, p. 153), by Dr. Stephen Paget; PSYCHOLOGY (Vol. 22, p. 547), by Prof. James Ward of Cambridge; PSYCHICAL RESEARCH (Vol. 22, p. 544), by Andrew Lang, which is the key to a series of 25 remarkably interesting articles covering the entire subject; HYPNOTISM (Vol. 14, p. 201); FAITH HEALING (Vol. 10, p. 135); SUGGESTION (Vol. 26, p. 48); PHRENOLOGY (Vol. 21, p. 534), by Professor Macalister of Cambridge; TEMPERANCE (Vol. 26, p. 578), by Dr. Arthur Shadwell; MICROSCOPE (Vol. 18, p. 392); BLINDNESS, Causes and Prevention (Vol. 4, p. 60), by Sir Francis J. Cambell, principal Royal Normal College for the Blind, London; DEAF AND DUMB (Vol. 7, p. 880), by Rev. A. H. Payne, formerly of the National Deaf Mute College, Washington.
The subject of DENTISTRY (Vol. 8, p. 50) is covered by the highest American authority, Dr. Edward C. Kirk, of the University of Pennsylvania, and a full account of the anatomy of the teeth will be found under TEETH (Vol. 26, p. 499), by Dr. F. G. Parsons. It is, however, in connection with bacteriology, chemistry, metallurgy, mechanics and other subjects with which the dentist is concerned, rather than in connection with the technics of his profession, that he will desire to make use of the Britannica.
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ARTICLES IN THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA OF SPECIAL INTEREST AND IMPORTANCE TO MEMBERS OF THE MEDICAL PROFESSION
Abano, Pietro d’. Abattoir Abdomen Abercrombie, J. Abercromby, D. Abercromby, P. Abernethy, J. Abortion Abscess Abscission Abu-l-qasim Acclimatization Acetic Acid Ackermann, J. C. G. Acland, Sir H. W. Acne Aconite Acromegaly Acron Actinomycosis Acupressure Acupuncture Adam’s Apple Addison’s Disease Adenoids Adolescence Adulteration Aegineta, Paulus Aerotherapeutics Aesculapius Aetius Agnew, David Hayes Ague Ala Albumin, or Albumen Albuminuria Alcohol Aldehydes Alexander of Tralles Alienist Alimentary Canal Aloe Alum Amaurosis Ambulance Amman, J. C. Amman, Paul Ammonia Amuck, Running Amyl Nitrite Anabolism Anaemia Anaesthesia and Anaesthetics Anatomy Anderson, Elizabeth G. Anel, Dominique Aneurysm, or Aneurism Angina Pectoris Animal Heat Anise Ankle Ankylosis Ankylostomiasis Anodyne Anthrax Antipyrine Antiseptics Aphasia Aphemia Apnoea Aponeurosis Apophysis Apoplexy Apothecary Appendicitis Apyrexia Araroba Powder Aretaeus Arm Arnica Arnott, Neil Arrowroot Arsenic Arteries Arthritis Articulation Arytenoid Asafetida Ascites Asclepiades Aselli, or Asselio, Gasparo Asphyxia Asthma Astruc, Jean Athetosis Athletic Sports Atrophy Aurelianus Caelius Auscultation Autopsy Avenzoar Baby-farming Bacteriology Baldinger, E. G. Baldness Balneotherapeutics Balsam Barthez, P. J. Bartholinus, Gaspard Baths Beddoes, Thomas Bedlam, or Bethelem Hospital Bedsore Bell, Sir Charles Bell, John Belladonna Bellini, Lorenzo Bence-Jones, Henry Bennett, John Hughes Benzoic Acid Benzoin Beri-Beri Bernard, Claude Bert, P. Bhang Bibirine Bichat, M. F. X. Bilharziosis Billroth, A. C. T. Biology Bismuth Blackwater Fever Bladder Bladder and Prostate Diseases Blane, Sir Gilbert Blindness Blister Blood Blood-letting Boerhaave, Hermann Boil Bone Borax Borelli, G. A. Boric, or Boracic Acid Bow-leg Boyer, Alexis Brain Brasdor, Pierre Breast Bright’s Disease Brocklesby, Richard Brodie, Sir B. C. Bromine Bronchiectasis Bronchitis Bronchotomy Broussais, F. J. V. Brown, John Brown-Séquard, C. E. Bunion Burdon-Sanderson, Sir John S. Burns and Scalds Busk, George Cabanis, P. J. G. Caesarean Section Caffeine Caisson Disease Cajuput Oil Calabar Bean Caldani, L. M. A. Calomel Camphors Cancer, or Carcinoma Cantharides Capsicum Carbolic Acid, or Phenol Carbonic Acid Carbuncle Cartilage Carus, K. G. Castor Oil Catabolism Catalepsy Catarrh Catechu Caul Caustic Cephalic Index Chadwick, Sir Edwin Chamomile Charcot, Jean Martin Charity and Charities Chemistry Cheselden, William Chicken-pox Chilblains Chirurgeon Chloral Chlorates Chloroform Cholera Christison, Sir Robert Cinchona Clark, Sir Andrew Clark, Sir James Clay, Charles Cleft Palate and Hare-Lip Climacteric Climate Clinic Clot, A. B. Club-foot Coal-tar Coca, or Cuca Cocaine Cock, Edward Cod-Liver Oil Coelom and Serous Membranes Colchicum Colic Collodion Colon Colt’s Foot Coma Combe, Andrew Connective Tissues Connor, Bernard Conolly, John Constipation Convulsions Cooper, Sir Astley P. Copaiba Corn Cornaro, Luigi Coroner Corpulence Corrosive Sublimate Craniometry Cramp Crèche Cremation Creosote Cretinism Croton Oil Croup Cruveilhier, Jean Cubebs Cullen, William Cupping Curling, T. B. Dandelion Death Delirium Dengue Dentistry Desault, P. J. Dextrine Diabetes Diaphoretics Diaphragm Diarrhoea Dietary Dietetics Digestive Organs Digitalis Dilatation Dill Diphtheria Dipsomania Disinfectants Diuretics Dropsy Drowning and Life Saving Drug Drunkenness DuBois-Reymond, Emil Duchenne, G. B. A. Ductless Glands Dupuytren, G., baron Dwarf Dysentery Dyspepsia Ear Eczema Elaterium Elbow Electrocution Electrotherapeutics Elephantiasis Elixir Elliotson, John Embalming Embryology Emetics Emphysema Empyema Enteritis Epilepsy Epistaxis Epithelial, Endothelial and Glandular Tissues Epsom Salts Equilibrium Ergot, or Spurred Rye Erichsen, Sir John E. Erysipelas Esmarch, J. F. A. von Esquirol, J. E. D. Ether Ethyl Chloride Ettmüller, Michael Eucalyptus Eugenics Eugenol Euphorbium Evolution Excretion Extract Eye Fabricius, Hieronymus Face Faith Healing Fallopius, or Fallopio, Gabriello Fusel Oil Fauces Favus Fayrer, Sir Joseph Fergusson, Sir William Fermentation Fernel, Jean François Feuchtersleben, E. von Fever Fibrin Filariasis Finger Fistula Flint, Austin Floyer, Sir John Food Foot Foot-and-mouth Disease Forbes, Sir John Formalin, or Formaldehyde Formic Acid Forster, John C. Foster, Sir Michael Fothergill, John Foundling Hospitals Fracastoro, Girolamo Freind, John Friendly Societies Frostbite Fructose, or Fruit Sugar Fumigation Galangal Galbanum Galen Gall Gallic Acid Galvani, Luigi Gamboge Gangrene Gastric Ulcer Gastritis Gelsemium Giant Ginseng Glanders, or Farcy Glauber’s Salt Glycerin, or Glycerol Goitre Good, John Mason Goodsir, John Gout Gräfe, Albrecht von Gräfe, K. F. von Graham, Sylvester Guaco, Huaco, or Guao Guaiacum Guarana Guinea-worm Gull, Sir William W. Gymnastics Gynaecology Haematocele Haemophilia Haemorrhage Haemorrhoids Hahnemann, S. C. F. Hall, Marshall Haller, Albrecht von Hallucination Hammer-toe Hand Hart, Earnest Abraham Hartshorn, Spirits of Harvey, William Hashish Hawkins, Caesar Henry Hay Fever Head Health Heart Heberden, William Heel Henle, F. G. J. Hernia Herpes Hewett, Sir Prescott G. Hilton, John Hinton, James Hip Hippocrates Hippuric Acid Hoffmann, Friedrich Holland, Sir Henry Homoeopathy Hop Horehound Hospital Hufeland, C. W. Humane Society, Royal Hunger and Thirst Hunter, John Hunter, William Hutchinson, Sir J. Hydrastine Hydrocele Hydrocephalus Hydrochloric Acid Hydropathy Hydrophobia, or Rabies Hygiene Hypertrophy Hypnotism Hypochondriasis Hysteria Iatrochemistry Ibn Usaibi’a Icthyosis Illegitimacy Imbecile Incubation and Incubators Infancy Influenza Insanity Insomnia Intestinal Obstruction Intestine Intoxication Iodine Iodoform Ipecacuanha Iron Israeli, Isaac ben Solomon Jaborandi Jalap Jaundice Jaw Jenner, Edward Jenner, Sir William Joints Kala-Azar Kámalá Kidney Diseases Kino Kitazato, Shibasaburo Knee Koch, Robert Kousso Lactic Acid Langenbeck, B. R. K. von Lanolin Largus, Scribonius Laryngitis Laudanum Lead Poisoning Leg Leontiasis Ossea Leprosy Lethargy Lichen Life Ligament Linacre, or Lynaker, Thomas Ling, Per Henrik Linseed Lip Liquorice Lister, Joseph Lister, Baron Liston, Robert Lithium Litmus Liver Lobe Lobelia Locomotor Ataxia Longevity Lumbago Lung Lupus Lycanthropy Lymphatic System Lymph and Lymph Formation MacCormac, Sir William Mackenzie, Sir Morell Magnesium Malaria Malta, or Mediterranean, Fever Mammary Gland Marshall, John Massage Matrix Mead, Richard Measles Medical Education Medical Jurisprudence Medicine Mendelism Ménière’s Disease Meningitis Mercury Mesmer, F. A. Metabolic Diseases Metabolism Microscope Midwife Milk Mineral Waters Mitchell, Silas Weir Monster Morphine Mortification Mott, Valentine Mouth and Salivary Glands Mumps Murrain Muscle and Nerve Muscular System Mushroom Mustard Mutilation Myelitis Myxoedema Naevus Narcotics Navel Necrosis Nepenthes Nerve Nervous System Nettlerash, or Urticaria Neuralgia Neurasthenia Neuritis Neuropathology Nicotine Nightingale, Florence Nitroglycerin Nose Nosology Nostalgia Nursing Nutrition Nux Vomica Obstetrics Oesophagus Officinal Oils Old-age Pensions Olfactory System Ophthalmology Opium Orfila, M. J. B. Osteology Ovariotomy Oxalic Acid Oxygen Ozone Paget, Sir James Pain Palate Pancreas Paracelsus Paraldehyde Paralysis, or Palsy Paranoia Parasitic Diseases Parasitism Paré, Ambroise Pasteur, Louis Pathology Pediculosis, or Phthiriasis Pellagra Pelvis Pemphigus Pennyroyal Pepper, William Peppermint Pepsin Peritonitis Perspiration Phagocytosis Pharmacology Pharmacopoeia Pharmacy Pharyngitis Pharynx Phenacetin Phlebitis Phosphorus Phrenology Phthisis Physiology Picrotoxin Pinel, Philippe Pinto Piperazin Pitcairne, Archibald Pityriasis Versicolor Placenta Plague Pleurisy, or Pleuritis Pleuro-pneumonia, or Lung-plague Pneumonia Podophyllin Poison Polypus Possession Potassium Pott, Percivall Poultice Pringle, Sir John Prognosis Protoplasm Pruritus Prussic Acid Psoriasis Psorospermiasis Psychical Research Psychology Ptomaine Poisoning Puberty Public Health, Law of Puerperal Fever Pulse Purpura Pyrocatechin Quain, Sir Richard Quarantine Quassia Quinine Quinsy Radcliffe, John Radioactivity Radium Raynaud’s Disease Relapsing Fever Reproductive System Resorcin Respiratory System Rhamnus Purshiana Rhatany, or Krameria Root Rheumatism Rheumatoid Arthritis Rhubarb Rickets Rinderpest Ringworm Rokitansky, C. von Röntgen Rays Rush, Benjamin Saccharin St. Vitus Dance, or Chorea Sal-ammoniac Salep Salicin, Salicinum Salicylic Acid Salt Sanatorium Sandalwood Sandarach Santonin Sarsaparilla Savory, Sir William S. Scabies, or Itch Scalp Scarlet Fever, or Scarlatina Sciatica Scrofula, or Struma Scurvy, or Scorbutus Sea-sickness Seborrhoea Semmelweiss, I. P. Senega Senna Sepsis Serenus, Sammonicus Sewerage Shock, or Collapse Shoulder Sibbald, Sir Robert Simon, Sir John Simpson, Sir James Y. Sinew Skeleton Skin and Exoskeleton Skin Diseases Skull Slaughter-house Sleep Sleeping-sickness Sloane, Sir Hans Smallpox Smith, T. S. Sneezing Sodium Somnambulism Soranus Spikenard, or Nard Spinal Cord Spirits Spleen Sprue Squill Stammering, or Stuttering Starvation Stethoscope Stomach Stramonium Strophanthus Strychnine Sugar Suggestion Suicide Sulphonal Sulphur Sumbul, or Sumbal Sunstroke Supra-renal Extract Surgery Surgical Instruments and Appliances Sweating-sickness Sweetbread Sydenham, Thomas Syme, James Sympathetic System Syncope Tagliacozzi, Gasparo Tannic Acid Tapeworms Tar Taraxacum Tartar Tartaric Acid Teeth Temperance Terpenes Tetanus Therapeutics Thompson, Sir Henry Thorax Throat Thymol Thyroid Tincture Tongue Tonsillitis Toxicology Tracheotomy Trachoma Trance Trichinosis Tuberculosis Tumour Typhoid Fever Typhus Fever Ulcer Upas Urea Urethane Uric Acid Urinary System Urotropin Vaccination Valerian Variation and Selection Varicose Veins Vascular System Vaseline Vegetarianism Veins Venereal Diseases Verdigris Veronal Veterinary Science Viburnum Vivisection Voice Wakley, Thomas Wart Water-supply Weights and Measures Wells, Sir Thomas S. Whitlow Whooping-cough Willis, Thomas Wilson, Sir W. J. E. Windpipe Wine Wintergreen Witch-hazel Wound Wrist Wry-neck X-Ray Treatment Yaws Yellow Fever Zinc Zymotic Diseases
XXVI. FOR LAWYERS
In the days when Marshall and Story, on the bench of the Supreme Court at Washington, were listening to Webster’s thunder; when Chancellor Kent was scrutinizing precedents in New York, and Rufus Choate quoting Justinian at Salem, success at the bar depended upon elaborate rhetoric and a close study of the Reports. To-day, sound advice is in greater demand than brilliant oratory, and questions of fact are, as a rule, more important and more perplexing than questions of law.
The Britannica is the one great Digest of Facts. Its articles cover all scientific, industrial, commercial and financial subjects. Fifteen hundred of the world’s foremost specialists, chosen from twenty different countries, deal not only with all knowledge, but with the practical application of knowledge in the laboratory, the machine shop, in the mine, on the ship’s deck and in the ship’s engine-room, in the railroad office and on the railroad line. Bankers and engineers, builders and contractors, physicians and surgeons and manufacturers of every kind describe the work which they have themselves successfully done. They explain to the lawyer the details of his client’s own business, which the client is almost always incapable of explaining. They enable the lawyer to test his client’s knowledge and his client’s good faith. They show the lawyer what he has to hope or to dread from expert evidence.
[Sidenote: The Volumes as Used by Lawyers]
In a mining town in Alaska, where the workmen were mostly Servians, a lawyer recently had an unusual case. The Servians had a church, which in the absence of the Servian priest, was in the charge of a father or “papa” of the Russian orthodox church, and he tried to exclude from their church the entire congregation because they disobeyed him. The lawyer brought into court the Encyclopaedia Britannica to prove the independence of the Servian Church from the authority of the Russian Church. The Britannica was recognized as an authority by the court, and the Servian congregation won its suit for the use of its church building.
A Buffalo lawyer in a recent letter to the publishers of the Britannica told of his being retained in a case involving the qualities of materials used in the construction of automatic car couplers. He read many technical works to get information on this subject, but “the article that to me was most instructive was that on IRON AND STEEL in the Encyclopaedia Britannica.” He adds, “In my opinion the work is invaluable to any person who desires the means of handy reference to, and accurate information on, any topic.” Similar testimony from lawyers all over the world to the usefulness of the Britannica could be adduced in great volume.
A brief reference to the different parts of this Guide will show in a general way the contents and value of the Britannica in the many fields in which an attorney may need, in connection with the preparation of a case, immediate and authoritative information on subjects not purely legal.
But on legal topics, also, the lawyer or the law student will find much valuable information.
[Sidenote: American Law]
He should read the stimulating and suggestive article on AMERICAN LAW (Vol. 1, p. 828), by Simeon E. Baldwin, governor of Connecticut, professor of constitutional and private international law at Yale, and formerly chief justice of the Supreme Court of Errors, Connecticut. Governor Baldwin’s article points out the general identity of origin of American and English law, with the important exception of territory formerly French or Spanish,—particularly Louisiana,—a point on which the reader will find fuller information in the articles LOUISIANA (Vol. 17, p. 57) and EDWARD LIVINGSTON (Vol. 16, p. 811). Besides he calls attention to the fact that the state and not the nation is for the most part the legislative unit and the legislative authority. And this leads to a consideration of the great part played in American jurisprudence by the Civil War and the consequent changes in the Federal Constitution, especially the Fourteenth Amendment, which has been the basis of so many recent cases in the Supreme Court and has “readjusted and reset the whole system of the American law of personal rights” by transferring final jurisdiction from state to Federal courts.
Within the Southern states the Reconstruction period affected local law in various ways: by putting political power into the hands of outsiders (“carpet baggers,” etc.), by the social revolution consequent on the abolition of slavery, and by the commercial assimilation of the South to the North.
Governor Baldwin points out that the judicial department has been made partly administrative by the artificial distribution under most state constitutions of governmental powers into executive, legislative and judicial, overlooking the administrative, and making the courts the interpreters of statutes and giving to them the power of deciding whether or not statutes are constitutional.
That the police powers of the states are more and more liberally interpreted by the Federal Supreme Court is an interesting tendency, especially when the student remembers that in the last year or so certain states (notably Washington, c. 74, Laws 1911, Compensation of Injured Workmen) have definitely stated the police power as the basis of acts which the state supreme court might otherwise have declared unconstitutional as depriving of property without due process of law.
The article on American law is supplemented:
(a) in a general way by the valuable contribution of James Bryce (author of The American Commonwealth, and late British ambassador to the United States) on the Constitution and Government of the United States and of the states (Vol. 27, p. 646—an article which would fill about 50 pages of this Guide).
[Sidenote: State Statutes]
(b) more particularly, under the articles on the separate states (as well as on Alaska, Hawaii, Philippines and Porto Rico), by the description of the state or local constitution with an outline of characteristic and peculiar statutes. For instance, in the article ALABAMA (Vol. 1, p. 459), the first in the Britannica on a separate state of the Union, there is a general sketch of the constitution and government with particular attention to these points: term of judiciary, 6 years; legislative sessions, quadrennial; law against lobbying; executive may not succeed himself; sheriffs whose prisoners are lynched may be impeached; grandfather clause, practically disfranchising the negro—with a summary of Giles v. Harris, 189 U. S. 474; Jim Crow law; disfranchisement for vote-buying or selling; Australian ballot law; anti-pass law; freight rebate law; homestead exemptions; wife’s earnings separate property; women and child labour laws; peonage; liquor laws.
(c) by special articles, such as HOMESTEAD AND EXEMPTION LAWS (Vol. 13, p. 639), ORIGINAL PACKAGE (Vol. 20, p. 273) and INTERSTATE COMMERCE (Vol. 14, p. 711; equal to about 10 pages of this Guide), by Prof. Frank A. Fetter of Princeton (formerly Cornell), which deal with purely American legal topics.
(d) by legal sections in general economic articles, for instance: in RAILWAYS, the section on American Legislation, by Prof. F. H. Dixon of Dartmouth, author of State Railroad Control; in TRUSTS, by Prof. J. W. Jenks, the great American authority on the subject; in EMPLOYERS’ LIABILITY; in TRADE UNIONS and in STRIKES AND LOCKOUTS, both by Carroll D. Wright, late U. S. Commissioner of Labor; BANKRUPTCY, by Edward Manson, author of Law of Bankruptcy; and in INSURANCE (Vol. 14, especially p. 662 c).
(e) by general legal articles like: COMMON LAW; CRIMINAL LAW, by W. F. Craies, editor of Archbold On Criminal Pleading; LIQUOR LAWS, by Arthur Shadwell, author of Drink, Temperance and Legislation; MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE, by H. H. Littlejohn, professor of forensic medicine in the University of Edinburgh; MILITARY LAW, by Sir John Scott, former deputy judge-advocate-general, British Army; NAVIGATION LAWS, by James Williams, of Lincoln College, Oxford; PRESS LAWS; SEAMEN, LAWS, RELATING TO, etc.
and (f) by sections and paragraphs on American law in hundreds of articles on legal topics—for list see below.
[Sidenote: Biographies of Lawyers]
The following list of American jurists does not include all American lawyers about whom there are separate articles in the Britannica, but will serve to suggest a brief course of biographical readings which the lawyer could not duplicate even in a special and expensive work on the American bar:
SAMUEL SEWALL (Vol. 24, p. 733) JOHN RUTLEDGE (Vol. 23, p. 945) SAMUEL CHASE (Vol. 5, p. 956) FRANCIS DANA (Vol. 7, p. 792) JOHN LOWELL (Vol. 17, p. 76) OLIVER ELLSWORTH (Vol. 9, p. 294) JOHN JAY (Vol. 15, p. 294) ROBERT R. LIVINGSTON (Vol. 16, p. 812) LUTHER MARTIN (Vol. 17, p. 794) THEOPHILUS PARSONS (Vol. 20, p. 868) JOHN MARSHALL (Vol. 17, p. 770) EDMUND RANDOLPH (Vol. 22, p. 886) JAMES KENT (Vol. 15, p. 735) EDWARD LIVINGSTON (Vol. 16, p. 811) BUSHROD WASHINGTON (Vol. 28, p. 344) ROGER BROOKE TANEY (Vol. 26, p. 396) SAMUEL HOAR (Vol. 13, p. 542) HORACE BINNEY (Vol. 3, p. 949) JAMES WILSON (Vol. 28, p. 693) WILLIAM PINKNEY (Vol. 21, p. 627) LEMUEL SHAW (Vol. 24, p. 813) DANIEL WEBSTER (Vol. 28, p. 459) SIMON GREENLEAF (Vol. 12, p. 548) HENRY WHEATON (Vol. 28, p. 583) RICHARD RUSH (Vol. 23, p. 857) JOHN BOUVIER (Vol. 4, p. 336) JOSEPH STORY (Vol. 25, p. 969) LEVI WOODBURY (Vol. 28, p. 790) JAMES HALL (Vol. 12, p. 847) REVERDY JOHNSON (Vol. 15, p. 462) HUGH S. LEGARÉ (Vol. 16, p. 373) RUFUS CHOATE (Vol. 6, p. 258) BENJAMIN F. BUTLER (Vol. 4, p. 881) DAVID DUDLEY FIELD (Vol. 10, p. 321) S. P. CHASE (Vol. 5, p. 955) JOHN J. CRITTENDEN (Vol. 7, p. 471) HAMILTON FISH (Vol. 10, p. 427) BENJAMIN R. CURTIS (Vol. 7, p. 652) J. S. BLACK (Vol. 4, p. 18) JUDAH P. BENJAMIN (Vol. 3, p. 739) JOHN Y. MASON (Vol. 17, p. 840) GEORGE TICKNOR CURTIS (Vol. 7, p. 651) R. H. DANA (Vol. 7, p. 792) SAMUEL J. TILDEN (Vol. 26, p. 970) SAMUEL F. MILLER (Vol. 18, p. 464). STEPHEN J. FIELD (Vol. 10, p. 322) W. M. EVARTS (Vol. 10, p. 4) FRANCIS WHARTON (Vol. 28, p. 575) MORRISON R. WAITE (Vol. 28, p. 246) T. W. DWIGHT (Vol. 8, p. 741) E. J. PHELPS (Vol. 21, p. 363) STANLEY MATTHEWS (Vol. 17, p. 899) L. Q. C. LAMAR (Vol. 16, p. 100) C. C. LANGDELL (Vol. 16, p. 172) D. W. VOORHEES (Vol. 28, p. 211) T. F. BAYARD (Vol. 3, p. 554) HORACE GRAY (Vol. 12, p. 391) JOSEPH HODGES CHOATE (Vol. 6, p. 258) MELVILLE W. FULLER (Vol. 11, p. 296) WAYNE MACVEAGH (Vol. 17, p. 269) JOHN MARSHALL HARLAN (Vol. 12, p. 954) RICHARD OLNEY (Vol. 20, p. 91) CUSHMAN K. DAVIS (Vol. 7, p. 866) OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES (Vol. 13, p. 616) DAVID BENNETT HILL (Vol. 13, p. 464) ELIHU ROOT (Vol. 23, p. 711) PHILANDER C. KNOX (Vol. 15, p. 882)
Of great value to the student of law, as widening his scope, would be a course of more general reading. This should include:
(a) the articles LAW, JURISPRUDENCE and COMPARATIVE JURISPRUDENCE, by Paul Vinogradoff, Corpus professor of jurisprudence at Oxford.
(b) articles on national and other legal systems, such as
ENGLISH LAW, History, by the late Frederick W. Maitland, Downing professor of English law at Cambridge.
ANGLO-SAXON LAW, by Paul Vinogradoff.
GERMANIC LAWS, EARLY, by Professor Christian Pfister, of the Sorbonne.
CODE NAPOLÉON, by Jean Paul Esmein, professor of law in the University of Paris, and ROMAN LAW, probably one of the most remarkable articles in the new edition and of the utmost importance (as in a less degree are the articles CODE and CODE NAPOLÉON) to the student of civil law. It is based on the well-known article contributed to the Ninth Edition of the Britannica by James Muirhead, professor of civil law, Edinburgh; but the article is actually the work of the reviser, Henry Goudy, regius professor of civil law, Oxford, and it may well be called the best present treatment of the subject. The article is a brief text-book in itself, containing matter equivalent in length to nearly 200 pages of this Guide. The treatment is historical, beginning with the almost mythical regal period and throwing light on the laws before the XII Tables, but this does not mean that the later period, legally more important, is not treated with proper fullness so that the practical as well as the theoretical is considered.
[Sidenote: Some Legal Systems]
Slightly remoter systems are the subjects of separate articles: SALIC LAW, by Professor Pfister of the Sorbonne; BREHON LAWS, by Lawrence Ginnell, M. P., author of a monograph on the subject; WELSH LAWS; an elaborate article on the little-known subject GREEK LAW, by John Edwin Sandys of Cambridge, author of History of Classical Scholarship; INDIAN LAW, by Sir William Markby, reader in Indian Law at Oxford, formerly judge of the High Court of Calcutta; MAHOMMEDAN LAW (a subject no longer alien to the American because of the large number of Mahommedans in the Philippines), by D. B. Macdonald, professor in Hartford Theological Seminary, and author of Development of Muslim Theology; and BABYLONIAN LAW (by C. H. W. Johns, Master of St. Catharine’s, Cambridge, author of The Oldest Code of Laws, etc.), containing a summary of the famous code of King Khammurabi.
The following list does not include the biographies of lawyers and is not a complete list of all topics pertaining to law in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, but it will give some idea of the scope of the legal department of the work.
Abandonment Abatement Abdication Abduction Abettor Abeyance Abjuration Abode Abrogation Abscond Abstract of Title Acceptance Acceptilation Access Accession Accessory Accommodation Bill Accomplice Accord Accountant-General Accretion Accumulation Accusation Acknowledgment Act Action Act of Parliament Act of Petition Address, The Ademption Adjournment Adjudication Adjustment Administration Administrator Admiralty, High Court Admiralty Jurisdiction Admission Adoption Adscript Adultery Advancement Adventure Advocate Advocates, Faculty of Advowson Affidavit Affiliation Affinity Affray Affreightment Age Agent Agistment Agnates Alabama Arbitration Alderman Alias Alibi Alien Alienation Aliment Alimony Allegiance Alliance Allocatur Allodium Allonge Allotment Allowance Alluvion Ambiguity Amendment Amercement American Law Amicus Curiae Amnesty Amortization Analyst Ancient Lights Angary Anglo-Saxon Law Annates Annexation Annoy Answer Apology Appanage Apparitor Appeal Appearance Appointment, Power of Apportionment Apportionment Bill Appraiser Appropriation Appurtenances Aram, Eugene Arbitration Arbitration, International Arches, Court of Aristocracy Arraignment Array Arrest Arrestment Arrondissment Arson Art and Part Articles of Association Assault Assembly, Unlawful Assessment Assessor Assets Assignment, Assignation, Assignee Assize Associate Assumpsit Asylum, Right of Attachment Attainder Attaint, Writ of Attempt Attestation Attorney Attorney-General Attornment Auctions Audience Autocracy Autonomy Average Avizandum Award Babylonian Law Back-bond Bail Bailiff and Bailie Bailment Ballot Bank Holidays Bankruptcy Banns of Marriage Bar, The Bargain and Sale Barmote Court Barratry Barrington, George Base fee Basilica Basoche Bastard Bastinado Baylo Beadle Beheading Belligerency Bench Benefice Beneficiary Bequest Bering Sea Arbitration Bet and Betting Betterment Bigamy Bill Bill of Exchange Bill of Sale Birth Blackmail Black Rod Blanch Fee, or Blanch Holding Blasphemy Blinding Blockade Blue-book Boarding-house Bocland Body-snatching Boiling to Death Bona Fide Bond Boot Borough Borough English Bottomry Bound, or Boundary Brachylogus Branding Branks Brawling Breach Brehon Laws Breviary of Alaric Bribery Brief Britton Burgage Burgess Burglary Burial and Burial Acts Burke, William Burning to Death By-law Cabinet Cadastre Camera Cangue Canon Law Canton Capital Punishment Capitulary Capitulation Caption Captive Capture Cargo Carrier Case Casus Belli Caucus Caveat Cemetery Cessio Bonorum Cestui, Cestuy Challenge Chamberlain Chambers Champerty, or Champarty Chance-medley Chancery Chantage Chargé d’affaires Charging Order Charter Chartered Companies Charter-Party Chattel Cheating Children, Law relating to Children’s Courts Chiltern Hundreds Chose Church Rate Churchwarden Churchyard Cinque Ports Circuit Citation Citizen City Civil Law Civil List Civil Service Clergy, Benefit of Clerk Closure Code Code Napoléon Codicil Coercion Cognizance Coif Coinage Offences Collateral Collusion Colony Comity Commercial Court Commercial Law Commission Commissioner Commitment Common Law Common Lodging-House Common Pleas, Court of Commons Commonwealth Company Compensation Compromise Comptroller Compurgation Conacre Concert Conditional Fee Conditional Limitation Confarreatio Confession and Avoidance Confiscation Congé d’Elire Congress Conjugal Rights Conquest Consanguinity, or Kindred Conseil de famille Conservator Consideration Consignment Consistory Courts Consolidation Acts Consort Conspiracy Constable Constituency Constitution and Constitutional Law Consul Consulate of the Sea Contempt of Court Contraband Contract Contumacy Conversion Conveyancing Convoy Coparcenary Copyhold Copyright Co-respondent Coroner Corporal Punishment Corporation Corpse Corrupt Practices Costs Counsel and Counsellor Counterfeiting County County Court Court Court Baron Court Leet Court-martial Covenant Coverture Covin Credentials Crime Criminal Law Criminology Crimp Crown Debt Crown Land Cruelty Culprit Curator Curtesy Curtilage Custom Customary Freehold Custos Rotulorum Cy-près Damages Day Death Debentures Debt Declaration Declaration of Paris Declarator Decree De Donis Conditionalibus Deed Defamation Default Defeasance Defence Defendant Del Credere Demesne Demise Democracy Demurrage Demurrer Denizen Deodand Department Deportation or Transportation Deposit Deputy Derelict Desertion Detainer Detinue Digest Dilapidation Diligence Diplomacy Directors Disability Discharge Disclaimer Discovery Disorderly House Dissolution Distress District Divorce Doctors’ Commons Document Domestic Relations Domicile Donatio Mortis Causa Dower Dowry Dragoman Drawing and Quartering Droit Duke of Exeter’s Daughter Durbar Duress Earl Marshal Earnest Easement Eavesdrip Ecclesiastical Commissioners Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction Ecclesiastical Law Edict Ejectment Election Elections Electrocution Elegit Embargo Embassy Embezzlement Emblements Embracery Eminent Domain Emperor Enclave English Law Englishry Entail Envoy Equity Error Escheat Estate Estate and House Agents Estate Duty Estoppel Estovers Estreat Evidence Execution Executors and Administrators Exequatur Exhumation Exile Expatriation Expert Express Expropriation Expulsion Extenuating Circumstances Exterritoriality Extortion Extradition Factor Faculty False Pretences Faubourg Federal Government Fee Felo De Se Felony Feoffment Ferry Fetters and Handcuffs Feu Fictions Fiduciary Fieri Facias Fine Finger Prints Fishery, Law of Fixtures Fiat Fleet Prison Fleta Flotsam, Jetsam and Ligan Foreclosure Foreign Office Foreshore Forest Laws Forfeiture Forgery Franchise Frank-almoign Frank-marriage Fraud Freebench Freehold Freeman Freight Fuero Gallows, or Gibbet Game Laws Gaming and Wagering Garnish Garrote Gavelkind Geneva Convention Germanic Laws, Early Gift Glebe Goodwill Government Grant Gravamen Greek Law Gross Ground Rent Guarantee Guardian Guerrilla Guillotine Habeas Corpus Hanging Hanaper Handwriting Haro, Clameur de Hegemony Heir Heirloom Hereditament Heriot Heritable Jurisdictions High Seas Highway Hinterland Hire-Purchase Agreement Hiring Holiday Homage Home Office Homicide Horning, Letters of Hotch-pot Household, Royal Hue and Cry Hundred Husband and Wife Hypothec Identification Ignoramus Ignorance Immunity Impeachment Impotence Impressment Incendiarism Incest Inclosure Incorporation Indemnity Indenture Indian Law Indictment Indorsement Inebriety, Law of Infamy Infant Infanticide In Forma Pauperis Information Informer Inheritance Inhibition Initials Injunction Inn and Innkeeper Inns of Court Innuendo Inquest Insanity Instalment Instrument Intent Interdiction Interesse Termini Interest International Law Interpellation Interpleader Interpretation Interstate Commerce Intestacy Intransigent Inventory I. O. U. Jactitation Joinder Joint Jointure Jougs, Juggs, or Joggs Judge Judge-Advocate-General Judgment Judgment Debtor Judgment Summons Judicature Acts Jurat Jurisdiction Jurisprudence Jurisprudence, Comparative Jury Jus primae noctis Jus Relictae Justice Justice of the Peace Justiciary, High Court Justification Juvenile Offenders Ketch, John Kidnapping King’s Bench, Court of Knight-Service Knout Kurbash Laches Lading, Bill of Landlord and Tenant Land Registration Lapse Larceny Law Law Merchant Lease Legacy Legation Legitim Legitimacy and Legitimation Lesion Letters Patent Libel and Slander Liberty Licence Lien Limitation, Statutes of Liquidation Liquor Laws Local Government Local Government Board Lodger and Lodgings Lord Advocate Lord Chamberlain Lord Chief Justice Lord Great Chamberlain Lord High Chancellor Lord High Constable Lord High Steward Lord High Treasurer Lord Justice Clerk Lord Justice-General Lord Keeper of the Great Seal Lord President of the Council Lords Justices of Appeal Lords of Appeal Lord Steward Lost Property Lotteries Lynch Law Magistrate Mahommedan Law Maiden Maiming Maintenance Majority Mandamus, Writ of Mandarin Mandate Manifest Manor Mansion Manslaughter Man-traps Mare Clausum and Mare Liberum Maritime Territory Marriage Marshalsea Martial Law Master and Servant Master of the Horse Master of the Rolls Maxims, Legal Mayhem Mayor Mediation Medical Jurisprudence Meeting Memorandum of Association Merger Mesne Messuage Military Law Ministry Miscarriage Misdemeanour Misprision Mistake Monarchy Monition Mortgage Mortmain Motion Multiplepoinding Municipality Muniment Murder Mutiny Nationality Naturalization Navigation Laws Negligence Negotiable Instrument Neutrality Next Friend Nisi Prius Noise Nolle Prosequi Nonconformity, Law relating to Nonfeasance, Misfeasance, Malfeasance Nonsuit North Sea Fisheries Convention Notary or Notary Public Notice Novation Nuisance Nullification Oath Obiter Dictum Obligation Obscenity Office Oligarchy Ordeal Order in Council Ordinance Ordinary Original Package Ouster Outlawry Overt Act Oyer and Terminer Pacific Blockade Pandects Paraphernalia Pardon Parish Parlement Parliament Parricide Parson Partition Partnership Party Wall Passport Patents Patents of Precedence Patron and Client Paymaster-General Payment Payment of Members Peace Peace, Breach of Peace Conferences Peine forte et dure Peerage Penalty Penology Pension Perjury Perpetuity Person, Offences against the Personal Property Personation Petition Picketing Pillory Pirate and Piracy Plaintiff Pleading Plebiscite Pledge Plurality Plutocracy Police Police Courts Posse Comitatus Possession Post & Postal Service Potwalloper Power of Attorney Praemunire Preamble Prerogative Prerogative Courts Prescription Press Laws Prime Minister Primogeniture Principal and Agent Prison Privateer Privilege Privy Council Privy Purse Privy Seal Prize or Prize of War Probate Probation Procedure Process Procès-verbal Proclamation Proctor Procuration Procurator Profanity Prohibition Promoter Property Prorogation Prosecution Prospectus Protectorate Provisional Order Provost Proxy Public House Puisne Purchase Quantum Meruit Quarantine Quare Impedit Quarter Sessions Queen Anne’s Bounty Quorum Quo Warranto Rack Ragman Rolls Raid Rape Rate Real Property Rebellion Receipt Receiver Recess Recidivism Recognizance Record Recorder Reeve Referee Referendum and Initiative Refresher Regent Register Registration Release Remainder, Reversion Remand Remembrancer Rent Repairs Repeal Replevin Representation Reprieve Reprisals Request, Letters of Requests, Court of Rescue Reservation Residence Resident Residue Respite Respondent Restraint Retainer Reward Ridings Riot Robbery Roman Law Rundale Sacrilege Salary Sale of Goods Salic Law and other Frankish Laws Salvage Sanction Satisfaction Scandal Scavenger’s Daughter Schedule Scire Facias Scot and Lot Scrip Scrutiny Sea Laws Seamen, Laws relating to Search or Visit and Search Secession Secret Secretary of State Security Sederunt, Act of Sedition Seduction Seignory or Seigniory Seisin Senate Sentence Sequestration Sergeant-at-Law Serjeanty Servitude Session Set-off Settlement Sexton Share Shelley’s Case, Rule in Sheppard, John (Jack) Sheriff Shire Sign Manual, Royal Simony Slander Socage Soke Solicitor Solicitor-General Sovereignty Speaker Specification Specific Performance Spheres of Influence Spring-gun Spy State State, Great Officers of State Rights State Trials Statute Stipend Stocks Stocks and Shares Stolen Goods Subinfeudation Succession Succession Duty Suffrage Summary Jurisdiction Summons Sunday Superannuation Supercargo Supply Supreme Court of Judicature Surety Surrender Surrogate Suzerainty Swearing Syndic Syndicate Taille Tally Tanistry Tenant Tenant-right Tenement Tenure Term Theatre Theft Thegn Threat Tichborne Claimant Ticket-of-leave Time Tipstaff Tithes Tithing Toleration Toll Tort Torture Town Trade, Board of Transfer Tread-mill Treason Treasure Trove Treasury Treaties Trespass Trial Tribute Trover Truck Trust and Trustees Turpin, Richard Twelve Tables Udal Ukaz or Ukase Ultimatum Underwriter University Courts Uses Valuation and Valuers Venue Verdict Vestry Veto Vicar Vice-Chancellor Viceroy Vidocq, F. E. Vigilance Committee Vizier Vote and Voting Voucher Wager Wainewright, T. G. War, Laws of Warden Warrant Warrant of Attorney Warranty Warren Waste Water Rights Waters, Territorial Welsh Laws Wergild Westminster Statutes Wheel, Breaking on the Whig and Tory Whip Whipping or Flogging Wild, Jonathan Will or Testament Witness Woolsack Works and Public Buildings, Board of Wreck Writ Writers to the Signet
XXVII. FOR BANKERS AND FINANCIERS
[Sidenote: Social History]
Of all classes of business men, bankers and financiers study most closely the general tendencies of public opinion and the general course of industrial and commercial development. Each day’s financial news reports a position which has been reached in the path of a movement of which the origin and earlier course—and therefore the direction—must be sought in the record of past months and years, and sometimes in the record of a past century. But the banker who turns to the standard histories in his library with the desire to trace the course of any gradual and long-continued development is generally disappointed. It is only of late that historical investigation has been directed to social and commercial activities rather than to politics and wars. Yet the history of civilization may be said to lie in the course of finance and commerce much more than in party strife and in civil and international wars. For the latter always arrest for the moment, even if they ultimately further, the progress of civilization.
[Sidenote: International Finance]
The new Britannica has been called “the most comprehensive of all surveys of past and present civilization,” and its treatment of finance and commerce possesses a breadth and sweep directly due to the international character of the book. The American financier knows that under existing conditions he must take into account the laws and usages of foreign countries in regard to banking, currency, taxation, stock exchange transactions, corporations and all the other methods and appliances used in dealing with money and credit. The Britannica could not have covered this broad field authoritatively if its articles had all been written by Americans instead of being contributed, as they are, by specialists of twenty countries. And the very first step, in examining any question of American finance, may be to consider what has been done abroad. For example, there has been adopted in Louisiana a system of rural credit such as was strongly urged, for more general use, during President Taft’s administration. That would seem to be purely a matter of internal policy. But for a description of the actual working of such a system, the sources of information are in the Britannica article RAIFFEISEN (Vol. 22, p. 817), the German banker who perfected the system of agrarian credits, in the article SCHULZE-DELITZSCH (Vol. 24, p. 383), the Saxon economist who founded the German central bureau of co-operative societies, and in the article CO-OPERATION (Vol. 7, p. 82), where the Danish system of financing farmers is described and compared with the German and French methods.
Systematic reading in the Britannica on financial subjects should begin with the article FINANCE (Vol. 10, p. 347, equivalent to 20 pages of this Guide), by C. F. Bastable, professor of political economy in the University of Dublin, whose books on economics have been largely read in the United States. This article deals with state revenue and expenditure, or public finance, after pointing out the prevailing looseness in the use of the word finance. It is interesting to know that “in the later middle ages, especially in Germany, the word finance acquired the sense of usurious or oppressive dealing with money and capital.” So long ago did an unpopular meaning attach to a term connected with “big business.” The same is true of the word usury, which originally meant use, or interest; and the Britannica in an article on USURY (Vol. 27, p. 811) says “usury, if used in the old sense of the term could embrace a multitude of modes of receiving interest upon capital to which not the slightest moral taint is attached.” In each case there may have been some reason besides chance for the development of the unpleasant meaning, and it has always been the custom of the spendthrift and the gambler to make the wrong use of words as well as of business methods. But what we call public finance was a century ago called political economy, “political” being used strictly to apply to the state, and “economy” in its original sense of housekeeping or house-rule. The word “economy” has thus become broader, as the word “usury” has become narrower, in significance.
[Sidenote: Early Economics]
It is curious to see how one page after another of the historical section of this article describes theories of finance which are to-day propounded by popular agitators as if they were absolutely new and not only describes them but shows how they were tried and how they failed. The eastern empires taxed land produce, usually to the extent of one fourth or one fifth (two tithes). In Athens, under a more elaborate system, the state owned and administered agricultural land and silver mines, and yet this state ownership, instead of making for democratic equality, resulted in too rigid a separation of classes; and the Athenian attempt to surtax the rich citizens in order to defray the cost of public games and theatrical performances and to equip ships (in this case a close parallel to certain recent German legislation) led, as class taxation always does, to ingenious evasions and, in the end, increased the power it sought to restrict.
In Rome, home taxes were suspended as soon as conquests brought tribute from Spain and Africa. But taxes were always the curse of the provinces, and the vexatious method of the tax “may be regarded as an additional tax.” “The defects of the financial organization were a serious influence in the complex of causes that brought about the fall of the Republic.” The early Empire took its revenues from public lands, from monopolies, from the land tax, from customs, and from taxes on inheritances (5%), sales (10%) and the purchase of slaves (40%). There was no just distribution of taxation among the territorial divisions, and the burden fell too much upon the actual workers and their employers. In the kingdoms which succeeded the Empire after its fall, Roman customs survived in finance, as in all departments of government; and there was a want of coherent policy until the time of Charlemagne, when centralization produced a better system. But scientific taxation did not really exist until, in the 15th century, under Charles VII, the first French standing army was created, and its needs led to a new and more intelligent system. In England, the co-ordination and control of public revenue and expenditure was similarly due to the growth of the navy. Since then the tendency has been to include taxes in general categories; the need for national credit has developed a system of national debts; and expenditures and receipts are now governed by legislative sanction. Local finance has been revolutionized by modern business methods, too slowly adopted it is true, and by the gradual change from private to public control of water supply, lighting and transportation.
[Sidenote: Taxation and Tariff]
The articles TAXATION, NATIONAL DEBT and TARIFF should be read after this article on public finance. TAXATION (Vol. 26, p. 458; equivalent to 25 pages of this Guide), by Sir Robert Giffen, formerly Controller-General of the British Board of Trade, classifies taxes, points out that direct and indirect taxes are not intrinsically different and that such a classification is merely a matter of convenience, and the article proceeds to describe the principal taxes. It should be supplemented by reading the sections on finance in the articles on various countries and especially by the article ENGLISH FINANCE (Vol. 9, p. 458; equivalent to 25 pages in this Guide), the section on Finance in the article UNITED STATES (Vol. 27, p. 660) and similar sections in the articles on each of the states of the Union. These articles give definite information about public debts, national or state, but the student should read carefully the main treatment in the article NATIONAL DEBT (Vol. 19, p. 266). The articles TARIFF (Vol. 26, p. 422), by Prof. F. W. Taussig of Harvard, author of The Tariff History of the United States; PROTECTION (Vol. 22, p. 464), by Edmund Janes James, president of the University of Illinois and author of the well-known History of American Tariff Legislation; and FREE TRADE (Vol. 11, p. 88), by William Cunningham, author of Growth of English Industry and Commerce, will be of great interest. The student should read besides the sketches in the Britannica of HENRY CLAY (Vol. 6, p. 470), by Carl Schurz, of WILLIAM MCKINLEY (Vol. 17, p. 256), ROGER Q. MILLS (Vol. 18, p. 475), and of other American tariff-leaders, and, for the tariff reform movement in England, the articles on JOSEPH CHAMBERLAIN (Vol. 5, p. 813) and ARTHUR J. BALFOUR (Vol. 3, p. 250). Before turning from public to private finance the reader should study the articles EXCHEQUER (Vol. 10, p. 54) and TREASURY (Vol. 27, p. 228).
[Sidenote: Private Finance]
For what may be called private finance, the student should turn first to the article BANKS AND BANKING (Vol. 3, p. 334; equivalent to nearly 60 pages in this Guide), by Sir R. H. I. Palgrave, director of Barclay & Co., Ltd., Bankers; Charles A. Conant, author of The Principles of Money and Banking; and Sir J. R. Paget, author of the Law of Banking. Further information on the early history of banking in the United States will be found in the historical section of the article UNITED STATES (Vol. 27, especially p. 697), and in the article ANDREW JACKSON (Vol. 15, p. 107) by Prof. W. G. Sumner of Yale.
[Sidenote: Currency]
Next in his course of reading, he should study the article MONEY (Vol. 18, p. 694; equivalent to 45 pages in this Guide), by C. F. Bastable. This deals with: the functions and varieties of money, including coined money and all else that can take its place in facilitating exchange, in estimating comparative values, as a standard of value or of deferred payments, as a store of value; the determining causes of the value of money and of the quantity of money required by a country, the credit theory, early forms of currency—greenstones, ochre, shells, furs, oxen, grain; metals as money; coinage and state control; representative money, and credit as money; economic aspects of the production and consumption of precious metals; review of the history of some important currencies—Greek, Roman, medieval, English and French coinages are treated in the article NUMISMATICS (Vol. 19, pp. 869–911, equivalent to 135 pages of this Guide, with 6 plates and 11 other text illustrations); which discusses such questions as the constitution of money; typical currency systems; statistics of production of gold and silver since the discovery of America, and coinage systems. Other relevant articles are BIMETALLISM, and MONETARY CONFERENCES for the relation of the metals; and the articles GOLD, SILVER, SEIGNIORAGE, DEMONETIZATION, GRESHAM’S LAW, TOKEN MONEY and GREENBACKS. In the article on the GEORGE JUNIOR REPUBLIC (Vol. 11, p. 749), the “children’s state” at Freeville, N. Y., the student will find an interesting proof of the relation of “token” to “real” money. “The government issued its own currency in tin and later in aluminium and ‘American’ money could not be passed within the 48 acres of the Republic until 1906, when depreciation forced the Republic’s coinage out of use and ‘American’ coin was made legal tender.”
[Sidenote: Banking]
For information as to the methods of financial business the reader should study the articles SAVINGS BANKS (Vol. 24, p. 243) by Sir G. C. T. Bartley, founder of the National Penny Bank, and Bradford Rhodes, founder of the 34th St. National Bank, N. Y. FRIENDLY SOCIETIES (Vol. 11, p. 217); TRUST COMPANY (Vol. 27, p. 329), by Charles A. Conant, author of The Principles of Money and Banking; CLEARING HOUSE (Vol. 6, p. 476); LETTER OF CREDIT (Vol. 16, p. 501); STOCK EXCHANGE (Vol. 25, p. 930); BILL OF EXCHANGE (Vol. 3, p. 940); EXCHANGE (Vol. 10, p. 50); FUTURES (Vol. 11, p. 375); TIME BARGAINS (Vol. 26, p. 988); MARKET (Vol. 17, p. 731), by Wynnard Hooper, financial editor of The Times, London, with sections on Movements of Prices, Cycles, Tendency to Equilibrium, Disturbance of Equilibrium, Future Delivery, Corners, Money Market, The Great Banks, Foreign Loans, and Discount Houses; CONSOLS (Vol. 6, p. 979); COUPON (Vol. 7, p. 318); DIVIDEND (Vol. 8, p. 331); and PREMIUM (Vol. 22, p. 279).
Information on distinctive banking and business laws in the separate states will be found in the section on finance of the article on each state. For instance in the article OKLAHOMA (Vol. 20, p. 60) there is a summary of the bank deposit guaranty fund.
For insurance see the chapter in this Guide For Insurance Men.
[Sidenote: Lives of Financiers]
In financial biography, as in history, theory and practice, the Britannica is valuable because of its full, clear and authoritative treatment. The student will find articles on great financiers, such as the Astors, the Vanderbilts, the Barings, the Rothschilds, James Law, George Peabody, James Fisk, Jay Gould, E. H. Harriman, James J. Hill, J. P. Morgan; and on great authors on the subjects of economics and finance,—for instance, Malthus, Adam Smith, Walter Bagehot, Ricardo, Roscher, Boehm von Bawerk, Thorold Rogers, H. C. Carey, E. R. A. Seligman, F. A. Walker, J. W. Jenks, F. W. Taussig, Richmond Mayo-Smith and A. T. Hadley.
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ARTICLES IN THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA OF INTEREST TO BANKERS
Account Accountants Achenwall, Gottfried Adams, Henry Carter Agio Aguado, A. M. Alcavala Aldrich, N. W. Allport, Sir J. J. Alstromer, Jonas Amortization Angel Anna Annuity Arbitrage Armour, P. L. Ashley, W. J. Assignats Astor, John Jacob (and family) Atkinson, Edward Attwood, Thomas Audit and Auditor Backwardation Bagehot, Walter Balance of Trade Bank Notes Bank Rate Banks and Banking Barbon, Nicholas Baring (family) Barter Bastiat, Frédéric Bates, Joshua Baudrillart, H. J. L. Bawbee Baxter, Robert Dudley Bemis, E. W. Bezant Biddle, Nicholas Bill of Exchange Bimetallism Blanqui, J. A. Bliss, C. N. Block, Maurice Bodin, Jean Bodle Boehm von Bawerk Boisguilbert, Sieur de Book-keeping Bourse Breaking Bulk Brentano, L. J. Broker Bucketshop Budget Bullion Buying in Cairnes, John Elliott Call Capital Carey, Henry Charles Carli-Rubbi Carrying-over Cash Chase, S. P. Cheque, or Check Chevalier, Michel Child, Sir Josiah Circular Note Claflin, H. B. Clark, John Bates Clearing House Cohn, Gustav Coin Coeur, Jacques Colston, Edward Combination Commerce Commercial Treaties Consols Contango Cooke, Jay Co-operation Cooper, Peter Cossa, Luigi Coulisse Coupon Courcelle-Seneuil, J. G. Cournot, A. Coutts, Thomas Cover Credit Crédit Foncier Crockford, William Crore Crown (coin) Cunningham, William Custom Duties Custom House Davenant, Charles Decker, Sir Matthew Decimal Coinage Delessert, J. P. B. Delfico, Melchiorre Demonetization Dewey, Davis Rich Dime Discount Distribution Dividend Dock Warrant Dollar Drawback Drexel, A. J. Ducat Ely, Richard Theodore Engel, Ernst English Finance Exchange Exchequer Excise Farr, William Farrer, Baron Farthing Florin Field, Cyrus West Fisk, James Fix, Theodore Fouquet, Nicolas Franc Free Trade Friendly Societies Futures Gabelle Gallatin, Albert Ganilh, Charles Garnier, C. J. Garnier, Marquis Genovesi, Antonio George, Henry Giffen, Sir Robert Gilds Gilbart, James William Gioja, Melchiorre Girard, Stephen Goldsmid (family) Gould, Jay (and family) Grain Trade Greenbacks Gresham, Sir Thomas Gresham’s Law Groat Guinea Gurney (family) Hadley, A. T. Hamilton, Alexander Hamilton, Robert Hanna, M. A. Harriman, Edward H. Haxthausen, L. von Hermann, F. B. W. von Hill, James J. Horner, Francis Horton, Samuel Dana Hudson, George Hufeland, Gottlieb Income Tax Ingram, J. K. Insurance Invoice Jakob, L. H. von Jenks, J. W. Jesup, M. K. Jevons, William S. Jones, Richard Kay, Joseph Laing, Samuel Lakh Laveleye, E. L. V. de Law, John Lawrence, Amos Le Play, P. G. Frédéric Leroy-Beaulieu, P. P. Leslie, Thomas E. C. Letter of Credit Levasseur, Pierre Emile Levi, Leone Lingen, Baron Lipton, Sir T. J. Lira List, Friedrich Lloyd’s M’Culloch, John R. Mackay, John William Macleod, Henry Dunning Making-up Price Malthus, Thomas Robert Mark Market Marshall, Alfred Marx, Heinrich Karl Mayo-Smith, Richmond Mint Mohur Moidore Monopoly Monetary Conferences (International) Money Money-lending Moon, Sir Richard Moratorium Morgan, John Pierpont Morris, Robert Morton, L. P. Mun, Thomas National Debt Newmarch, William North, Sir Dudley Octroi Overstone, 1st baron Par Paterson, William Pauperism Pawnbroking Peabody, George Pender, Sir John Penny Penrhyn, 2nd baron Peseta Petty, Sir William Picayune Pistole Poll-tax Pound Premium Price, Bonamy Production Profit-sharing Protection Proudhon, P. J. Pyx Quesnay, François Raiffeisen, F. W. Rau, Karl Heinrich Rebate Reciprocity Revenue Ricardo, David Rockefeller, J. D. Rodbertus, K. J. Rogers, James Edwin Roscher, W. G. F. Rothschild (family) Royalty Rupee Sadler, Michael Thomas Sage, Russell Saint-Simon, Comte de Savings Banks Say, Jean Baptiste Say, Leon Schäffle, A. E. F. Schmoller, Gustav Schulze-Delitzsch, F. H. Seigniorage Seligman, E. R. A. Senior, Nassau William Sequin Shekel Shell-money Sherman, John Shilling Slater, John Fox Smith, Adam Sou Sovereign (coin) Spreckels, Claus Stag Stamp Standards Department Sterling Steuart, Sir J. D. Stewart, A. T. Stock Exchange Sumner, W. G. Tael Tariff Taxation Taussig, Frank William Thornton, Henry Thornton, W. T. Time Bargains Title Guarantee Companies Token Money Tonnage and Poundage Tontine Tooke, Thomas Torrens, Robert Torrens, William Torrens M’Cullagh Trusts Trust Company Tucker, Josiah Vanderbilt, Cornelius (and family) Wagner, Adolf Wages Walker, Francis Amasa Walras, M. E. L. Wanamaker, John Watkin, Sir E. W. Wealth Wells, David Ames Window Tax Wolowski, L. F. M. R. Wright, Carroll D. Zollverein
XXVIII. FOR CIVIL SERVICE MEN AND WOMEN AND STUDENTS PREPARING FOR SERVICE EXAMINATIONS
Federal, state and municipal civil service includes so many specialized branches that a number of the chapters in Part 1 of this Guide, devoted to courses of reading adapted to various occupations (such as For Teachers, For Engineers, For Builders and Contractors) will supply useful indications. Part 2 of the Guide, containing classified courses of educational reading, will point to articles especially serviceable to those who are preparing for examinations and, for that reason, desire to review the ground they covered at school or college.
Part 4 of the Guide, with its special references to the subjects to which administration and legislation are chiefly directed, should be carefully examined. There the reader will find lists of articles dealing with schools and institutions; the defective classes; crime and alcohol; revenue and finance; ballot representation and suffrage; trusts, competition, co-operation and socialism; labour and immigration; legislation and the administration of justice; foreign relations and the expansion of the United States.
[Sidenote: International Comparisons]
The present chapter, in order that repetition may be avoided, deals only with the aspects of federal, state and municipal government which are most closely related to civil service organization. The article CIVIL SERVICE (Vol. 6, p. 412) devotes nearly as much space to the British as to the American service, and its information as to British organization, examinations, salaries and pensions will greatly interest those to whom the details needed for an international comparison have not been elsewhere accessible. Until 1855 all British appointments were by nomination; and although the service was quite free from the abominable system of secretly taxing salaries in order to support party funds, that was about all that can be said for it. There was hardly a pretense of selection for merit. Influential families and the relatives and personal friends of ministers of state and of ladies whom kings delighted to honor monopolized the appointments. Many posts were pure sinecures, and in many others the work was done by a substitute to whom the nominee paid less than half the salary or fees he received. Under George III the system was at its worst, and the discontent that was aroused in the American colonies by the maladministration of colonial affairs was “one of the efficient causes of the American revolution.” The reforms begun in 1855 had by 1870 been so successful that since then open competition has been the general rule; and where nomination is still required, as in the Foreign Office and the Education Department, searching examinations must be passed. Women are employed in the post-office, board of agriculture, customs, India office, department of agriculture, local government board and home office (factory inspectors, etc.). The age for compulsory retirement is 65, but the commissioners may prolong this five years in exceptional cases. Subjects of examinations, salaries and pensions are described in the article. Since 1859 there has been a superannuation pension of ¹⁰⁄₆₀ of the annual salary and emoluments to any one serving 10 years and less than 11, and an additional sixtieth for each year’s service more than ten.
[Sidenote: Civil Service in the United States]
In the same article there is an historical treatment of civil service in the United States and of its gradual reform and extension since 1883. This may well be supplemented by a study of the American party system of government and of the “spoils system” under which party loyalty and personal service to a party machine became the test of a candidate’s fitness for office. For this the student should refer to the section (Vol. 27, p. 646) on Constitution and Government, of the article UNITED STATES, written by James Bryce, author of The American Commonwealth and formerly British ambassador to the United States; see p. 658–659, especially. There is also much information in the section History of the same article, especially paragraphs 168, 169 (p. 697) on the beginnings of the spoils system in Jackson’s time, paragraph 333 (p. 722) on the beginnings of reform under Hayes, and paragraph 343 (p. 724) on Cleveland and civil service reform, etc.; and biographies of Andrew Jackson, W. L. Marcy and Martin Van Buren (for the spoils system) and of George William Curtis, E. L. Godkin, Carl Schurz, R. B. Hayes, Grover Cleveland, Benjamin Harrison, William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt.
Information in regard to the civil service systems of states and cities may be found in separate state and city articles,—in addition to the material on state and city systems in the articles already mentioned.
[Sidenote: “General Information” Papers]
The wide-awake student who has read this far in this chapter and has referred to the articles mentioned in the Britannica, will now be saying to himself: “There is evidently much valuable information in the encyclopaedia about the history and status of civil service reform, and this seems as full and complete for the United States as for Great Britain. If other topics are as fully treated in the Britannica, it will be invaluable to me in preparation for general information papers for civil service examinations.” And he will be right. For instance, the government employe must know more about the government and its machinery and history than does the average “man in the street”,—and he can learn this from the Britannica.
As has already been pointed out, the main treatment of the government of the United States in the Britannica is by James Bryce. This means that it is authoritative and that it is interesting and that in both these qualities it is far superior to the usual text book of “civics” or “civil government.” It occupies pp. 646–661 of volume 27, and is equivalent to about 50 pages of this Guide—so that it is more than a bare outline. And it is followed by a valuable bibliography of the subject to guide the student to the best books on any special topic which he may wish to pursue further.
But this is far from being all the information in the Britannica on the subject. The contribution of Mr. Bryce is only a part of the article UNITED STATES. The entire article would take up nearly 400 pages if printed in the style of this Guide. It treats the physical geography, geology, climate, fauna and flora, population, industries and commerce, government, finance, army and history of the country—the equivalent of 225 pages of this Guide is devoted to History alone. All parts of this article contain valuable information about the country; and this article is supplemented by hundreds of others:—
(a) Articles on each of the states, arranged much as in the article UNITED STATES with sections on history and government serving as an authoritative summary of the salient facts, and making up a complete course on state “civics,” government and history;
(b) Articles on cities and towns with similar treatment of the distinctive elements in the government of each, and of the main points in their history;
(c) Separate articles on the important rivers, lakes, mountains and other topics in physical geography;
(d) Separate articles on topics in American history and government: such as NULLIFICATION, STATE RIGHTS, FUGITIVE SLAVE LAWS, ELECTORAL COMMISSION; and
(e) Biographies of great Americans, famous in war, politics, administration, business, science, art, religion,—in short all fields of activity.
In brief, whether for an examination on general information, on civics, on history, or on the special branch of the civil service to which the student wishes to be appointed, no book will give as valuable and complete information as the Britannica.
XXIX. FOR ARMY OFFICERS
[Sidenote: A New Departure]
It is often said of an article in the Britannica that it is “the last word on the subject,” so thoroughly has the authority of the book been recognized. This is quite as true of military articles as of those in any other field; but of the military articles it may also be said that they are the first word. Of course, there have been, in previous editions of the Britannica and, to a less degree in minor works of general reference, articles on military history and biography. But in the new Britannica, for the first time, all branches of military knowledge are included, and the spirit of the entire treatment is comparative and critical. The military student will find a discussion not merely of Napoleon’s influence on army organization or Frederick’s influence on cavalry (in the articles on these two leaders), but also of the influence of army organization on Napoleon (in the articles on the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Campaigns), and of cavalry drill on the peculiar generalship of Frederick (in such articles as Seven Years’ War, on Hohenfriedberg, and on Rossbach). Put more concretely, the novelty consists in the inclusion of articles on wars, campaigns and battles, chosen because of their importance in military as well as in political history, and treated from the point of view of the military critic and with particular attention to the lessons they contain for the modern army officer. The care with which the battles and campaigns of the American Civil War are analyzed and criticized will be of singularly great interest to the American soldier, who will immediately notice among the contributors to the military department of the Britannica such names as those of Capt. C. F. Atkinson, author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour, Major G. W. Redway, author of Fredericksburg: A Study in War, Col. G. F. R. Henderson, author of Stonewall Jackson and the American Civil War, and Col. F. N. Maude, lecturer in military history, University of Manchester.
[Sidenote: Army]
The best starting point for a study of military affairs in the Britannica is the article ARMY (Vol. 2, p. 592; equivalent to more than 100 pages of this Guide). This “key” article may be outlined as follows:
General History
Early Armies—Egypt (chariots, infantry, archers). Babylon and Assyria (horsemen, charioteers, etc.). Persian, largely cavalry; the first “organized” army. Greece,—compulsory service; citizen militia; heavy infantry the strong arm; phalanx, the Greek formation. Sparta,—a nation in arms. Greek mercenaries. Epaminondas and Thebes—new phalanx tactics, “oblique order”; development of cavalry. Alexander and Macedon—a modified Theban system. Carthage—mercenary troops led by great generals, with modification of phalanx for greater elasticity. Rome—army under the Republic; its characteristics; under the Empire; see also separate article ROMAN ARMY (Vol. 23, p. 471), by Professor F. J. Haverfield of Oxford. The Dark Ages, the Byzantines, and the development of Feudalism. Medieval Mercenaries. Infantry in Feudal Times. The Crusades. The Period of Transition (1290–1490), development of English archers and of professional soldiery,—condottieri, Swiss, Landsknechts. The Spanish army: “at the disposal of its sovereign, trained to the due professional standard and organized in the best way found by experience.” The Sixteenth Century—rise of the heavy cavalry armed with pistols, and fall of the pikemen. Dutch System—attention to minute detail; William the Silent and Maurice of Nassau. Thirty Years’ War—the Werbe-system, small standing army to be increased by levy at time of need. The Swedish Army—conscription and feudal indelta; Gustavus. The English Civil War—real national armies; Cromwell and the “New Model” only an incident without influence on army organization. Standing Armies. French pre-eminence after Rocroi. Small field armies, well-fed and sheltered for economy’s sake. 18th Century organization: “linear” formation and its negative results. Frederick the Great: the art of war a formal science. The French Revolution: a “nation in arms,” a war-machine more powerful than Frederick’s. The conscription in France. Napoleon—his attempt to make a dynastic army out of the “nation in arms.” The Grande Armée of 1805–1806; development of artillery; the army corps. The Wars of Liberation: new Prussian army; excellent Austrian organization. Armies of 1815–1870. American Civil War,—its slow decision. Contrast between French and Prussian staff systems in 1870. Modern Developments: German model followed slavishly except in Great Britain and the United States.
Present Day Armies: The general accounts of existing armies, and of the past organizations of each country, are supplemented by detailed information in the articles on different countries. Especial attention should be given to the military information in the article on Japan. Army Systems: Compulsory Service; Conscription; Voluntary Service; Militia.
Army Organization
The three chief arms—their relative importance: proportion on peace footing—5 or 6 guns per 1000 men, 16 cavalry soldiers to 1000 men of other arms; proportion in war—Russian (1905) 3½ guns per 1000 men of other arms, 60 cavalry to 1000 infantry; Japanese (1905), 2½ field guns per 1000 men, 37 cavalry to 1000 infantry. Command: Brigade; Division; Army Corps, its constitution; Army; Chief Command of group of armies; chief of general staff and his relations to commander-in-chief—for example, von Moltke and King William. Branches of Administration—war office and general staff.
Table: Comparative strength of Various Armies.
British Army, Indian Army, Canadian Forces. Austrian Army. French Army. German Army. Italian Army. Russian Army. Spanish Army. Turkish Army. United States Army. Armies of minor countries.
Bibliography (2000 words)
[Sidenote: Theory and Practice]
Next in order the student should turn to the article WAR (Vol. 28, p. 305; equivalent to 40 pages of this Guide), by Col. G. F. R. Henderson, well known for his books on the American Civil War (Fredericksburg, Stonewall Jackson, etc.), with a section on Laws of War, by Sir Thomas Barclay. Col. Henderson’s article lays down important general principles. An analysis of modern conditions shows that improved methods of communication have made war a much speedier process, in which the victorious general cannot make mistakes at the outset. That intellect and education count for more than stamina and courage was the lesson of the Franco-Prussian War—a lesson learned by the Prussians before that war. Modern war is a science and the amateur has little chance; in this respect things have changed. “It is impossible to doubt that had the Boers of 1899 possessed a staff of trained strategists, they would have shaken the British Empire to its foundations.” There must be a concert between diplomacy and strategy. Civilian war ministers cannot solve strategic problems. The greater deadliness of modern warfare, and the greater moral effect of being under fire call for better foresight, strategy and morale. The relation of army and navy is discussed and the new doctrine of “sea-power” explained. (See the chapter For Naval Officers in this Guide). The remaining topics in the article are: weakness of allied armies; railways and sea as lines of operation; amphibious power; value of unprofessional troops and the need of professional leaders.
[Sidenote: Arms of Service]
In the articles INFANTRY (Vol. 14, p. 517; 2 plates; equivalent to 35 pages of this Guide) and ARTILLERY (Vol. 2, p. 685; 2 plates; equivalent to 30 pages of this Guide), both by Capt. Atkinson, and in the article CAVALRY (Vol. 5, p. 563; illustrated with 2 plates and 1 cut; in length equivalent to 30 pages of this Guide), by Col. F. N. Maude, the student will find an elaborate treatment of the history, organization and tactics (especially since 1870) of each of these arms. For details of their organization and equipment he should read the articles ENGINEERS, STAFF, MOUNTED INFANTRY, SUPPLY AND TRANSPORT (MILITARY), OFFICERS, AMBULANCE, FORTIFICATION, MACHINE GUNS, COAST DEFENCE, ORDNANCE, BALLISTICS, SIGHTS, RIFLE, GUN, PISTOL, EXPLOSIVE, GUNPOWDER, GUNCOTTON, CORDITE and NITRO-GLYCERINE. In many geographical articles there are descriptions of the world’s great fortifications, e. g., Paris, Antwerp, and Verdun. Other topics of a more miscellaneous character are covered by the articles ARMY SIGNALLING, PIGEON POST, SIGNALS, WAR GAME, MANOEUVRES, KITE, etc.
The military use of aeroplanes and balloons is very fully shown in the articles FLIGHT and AERONAUTICS.
[Sidenote: Strategy and Tactics]
Before taking up a systematic course in military history, there are two general articles that the military student should read: TACTICS (Vol. 26, p. 347; equivalent in length to 20 pages of this Guide), by Maj. Neill Malcolm, editor of the Science of War; and STRATEGY (Vol. 25, p. 986; equivalent to 35 pages of this Guide), by Col. F. N. Maude. The former article should be compared with the sections on tactics in the articles INFANTRY, CAVALRY and ARTILLERY. Major Malcolm makes much of the continuity of military history, comparing Metaurus and Ramillies with the fighting in Manchuria, and Wellington at Maya with Oyama in his contest with Kuropatkin. The mistakes that have been made once should not be made again; at least the careful student of tactical history may see to it that if they are repeated, it is done by his opponent and not by himself. Modern tactics are different from ancient because of greater fire-power and improved methods of transportation. Cavalry tactics are in an uncertain condition; there is no recent practice to serve as a guide, since neither in South Africa in the Boer war nor in Manchuria during the Russo-Japanese conflict was cavalry much used. Infantry must co-operate to make artillery bombardment effective. An interesting discussion of offensive and defensive fighting is summed up in the words “To the true general the purely defensive battle is unknown” and as evidence are adduced Wellington at Salamanca and Oyama at Sha-ho. Oyama’s victory in the latter battle, it is pointed out, shows the increased ease of the process of envelopment, which has resulted in discarding corps artillery in favour of divisional artillery. The importance—and the possibility—of the counter stroke; the danger of using for the relief of one’s own troops forces which might better be launched at the enemy’s weakest spot; and the similar unwisdom of any negative tactics, adopted to avoid loss, as in “holding attacks”—are the other principal points made in the article.
The article STRATEGY should be read in conjunction with the articles ARMY and WAR. It is impossible to summarize or outline it here, but it is worth noting that the article closes with a definition and discussion of the following terms: Base; Line of Communication; Line of Operations; Exterior Lines; Obstacles.
[Sidenote: Military History and Criticism]
For a reasoned history of warfare in more detail than has been given in the general articles already alluded to, the reader will find some outline like the following valuable, the arrangement being roughly chronological and all words in Italics being titles of articles in the Britannica.
Marathon; Darius; Miltiades; Herodotus.
Thermopylae; Leonidas; Salamis.
Peloponnesian War; Pericles; Cleon; Pylos; Brasidas; Alcibiades; Critias; Thucydides; Xenophon.
Epaminondas; Mantineia.
Philip II of Macedon; Olynthus; Chaeroneia; Alexander the Great; Arrian.
Pyrrhus.
Roman Army; Caudine Forks; Punic Wars; Carthage; Hanno; Hannibal; Hasdrubal; Mago; Trasimene; Fabius (Cunctator); Cannae; Scipio Africanus; Scipio Aemilianus; Aemilius Paulus; Perseus; Marius; Jugurtha; Sulla; Sertorius; Pompey; Caesar; Antonius (Mark Antony).
Charles Martel.
Charlemagne.
William I (of England); Hastings; Standard, Battle of.
Crusades (equivalent to 90 pages of this Guide); Godfrey of Bouillon; Raymund of Toulouse; Richard I (of England); Philip II (of France); Saladin; Henry VI (Roman Emperor); Baldwin I; Frederick II; Louis IX (of France).
Bouvines.
Bannockburn; Robert Bruce.
Hundred Years’ War; Philip VI; Edward III; Crécy; John of Bohemia; Edward (the Black Prince); Calais; Poitiers; John II (of France); Lancaster, House of (for John of Gaunt); Bertrand Du Guesclin; Henry V (of England); Agincourt; Joan of Arc; 1st Duke of Bedford (John Plantagenet); Count of Dunois.
Wars of the Roses; St. Albans; Towton; Earl of Warwick (Richard Neville); Edward IV.
Ravenna, battle of; Bayard (the chevalier); Gaston de Foix; Pescara; Navarro; Marignan; Francis I (of France).
Flodden; James IV (of Scotland); Norfolk, 3rd Duke.
St. Quentin (1557); Coligny; Montmorency (constable); Emmanuel Philibert.
Alva; William the Silent (Vol. 28, p. 672); Maurice of Nassau; Farnese (duke of Parma).
Thirty Years’ War; Maximilian I (of Bavaria); Frederick V (elector palatinate; Vol. 11, p. 59); Mansfeld; Tilly; Wallenstein; Gustavus Adolphus; Breitenfeld; Lützen; Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar; duc de Rohan; Frederick Henry; Gallas; Banér; Piccolomini; Turenne; Torstensson; Condé; Freiburg; Mercy; Nördlingen; Wrangel (1613–1676); Fronde.
Great Rebellion (English Civil Wars of 1642–52); Charles I (of England); Prince Rupert; Essex (2nd Earl, Vol. 9, p. 782); Edgehill; John Hotham; Baron Hopton; Sir William Waller; Duke of Newcastle (1592–1676); Fairfax of Cameron (2nd and 3rd Barons); Sir Bevil Grenville; Oliver Cromwell; Manchester, 2nd Earl of (Vol. 17, p. 543); Marston Moor; Leven; Skippon; Argyll, 8th Earl; Montrose; Lord Newark; Goring; Naseby; John Lambert; Charles Fleetwood; Dunbar; Thomas Harrison.
Dutch Wars; Louis XIV; Condé; Frederick William of Brandenburg; Turenne; Montecucculi; William III (of England); Duke of Luxembourg; Charles of Lorraine (Vol. 17, p. 11).
Vauban.
Grand Alliance, War of; Catinat; Luxembourg; Vauban; Fleurus; Louvois; Duc de Boufflers; Coehoorn; William III of England; Steenkirk; Neerwinden; Villeroi.
Spanish Succession; Marlborough; Eugene of Savoy; Villars; Peterborough; Ruvigny; Catinat; Vendôme; Blenheim; Ramillies; Oudenarde; Malplaquet; Berwick.
Polish Succession War.
Austrian Succession; Frederick the Great; Count von Schwerin; L. A. Khevenhüller; Duc de Broglie; Traun; Charles (of Lorraine; Vol. 5, p. 936); Seckendorf; George II (of England); Noailles; Conti (Vol. 7, p. 28); Hohenfriedberg; Fontenoy; comte de Saxe (marshal); Duke of Cumberland; Ligonier; Belle-Isle.
Seven Years’ War (with 5 diagrams): Frederick the Great; Clive; Amherst; Wolfe; comte de Lally; Montcalm; Count von Browne; Ferdinand (of Brunswick); Daun; Zieten; F. E. J. Keith; Seydlitz; Rossbach; Soubise (1715–1787); Leuthen; Loudon; Kunersdorf; Finck; Minden; Sackville, 1st Viscount; Granby.
American War of Independence; Lexington; Concord; Bunker Hill; Joseph Warren; Israel Putnam; Thomas Gage; William Howe; Ethan Allen; Ticonderoga; George Washington; Benedict Arnold; Richard Montgomery; Long Island; Rufus Putnam; _William Alexander_; Trenton and Princeton; Henry Knox; Brandywine; Germantown; Burgoyne; Bennington; John Stark; Saratoga; George Rogers Clark; Sir Henry Clinton; Monmouth; _John Sullivan_; Anthony Wayne; William Moultrie; Charleston (S. C.); Francis Marion; Thomas Sumter; Andrew Pickens; Horatio Gates; Nathanael Greene; Cornwallis; Kalb; Camden; King’s Mountain; Daniel Morgan; Henry Lee; Tarleton; Eutawville; Lafayette; Yorktown.
French Revolutionary Wars (with 6 diagrams); Dumouriez; Kellerman (1735–1820); Custine; Jemappes; Gribeauval; Neerwinden (1793); Clerfayt; Vendée; L. N. M. Carnot; Jourdan; Wattignies; Joubert; _Frederick Augustus, Duke of York_; Souham; Moreau; Kray von Krajova; Vandamme; Pichegru; Marceau; Charles, archduke of Austria (Vol. 5, p. 935); Masséna; Napoleon; Augereau; Serurier; Joubert; Sir W. Sidney Smith; Kléber; Alexandria; Oudinot; Suvarov; Borodino; Macdonald; Marengo; Murat; Lannes; Berthier; Bautzen.
Napoleonic Campaigns (9 diagrams; and see, on p. 233 of Vol. 19, “The Military Character of Napoleon”); Napoleon; Wrede; Murat; Charles XIV (Bernadotte); Marmont; Davout; Ney; Lannes; Soult; Berthier; Angereau; Dupont de l’Etang; Austerlitz; Kutusov; Hohenlohe (Vol. 13, p. 572); Blücher; Lasalle; Massenbach; Kalckreuth; Scharnhorst; Lefebvre-Desnoëttes; Count von Bennigsen; Eylau; Friedland; Grouchy; Mortier; Senarmont; Oudinot; Massena; Aspern-Essling; Charles, archduke of Austria; Bellegarde; Wagram; Beauharnais; Macdonald; Jerome Bonaparte (Vol. 4, p. 195); Barclay de Tolly; Bagration; Victor-Perrin; Yorck von Wartenburg; Lauriston; Wittgenstein; Bautzen; Schwarzenberg; Gouvion St. Cyr; Dresden (battle).
Peninsular War; Junot; Murat; Dupont de l’Etang; Moncey; Palafox y Melzi; Wellington; Sir John Moore; Sir David Baird; Talavera; Suchet; Sebastiani; Foy; Lord Hill; _Lord Lynedoch_; W. C. Beresford; Salamanca; Clausel; O’Donnell; Vitoria; Sir William Napier.
American War of 1812; Isaac Brock; Dearborn; Baltimore; Washington; New Orleans; Andrew Jackson; Jacob Brown; James Wilkinson; and for sea-fighting the titles in the chapter of this Guide: For Naval Officers.
Waterloo Campaign (with 3 maps); Napoleon; Murat; Schwarzenberg; Barclay de Tolly; Wellington; Blücher; _Lord Hill_; Anglesey; D’Erlon; Gneisenau; Gérard; Grouchy; Vandamme; Thielmann; Bülow (1755–1816); Ney; Exelmans; Pajol; Picton.
Greek Independence; Ypsilanti; Mavrocordato; Coraës; Dundonald; Sir Richard Church.
Russo-Turkish Wars (1828–29); Paskevich; Diebitsch (1877–78); Osman; Skobelev; Plevna (with diagram); Todleben; Shipka Pass.
Crimean War (with 2 diagrams): Gorchakov; Hess; Raglan; Saint Arnaud; Canrobert; Pelissier; Menshikov (1787–1869); Bosquet; Todleben; Alma; Balaklava; Scarlett; Cardigan; Inkerman; Sir George Brown; Sir George Cathcart; Kinglake.
Italian Wars (1848–1870); Radetzky; Charles Albert of Sardinia (Vol. 5, p. 938); Durando; Pepe; Victor Emmanuel; Pelissier; Canrobert; La Marmora; Napoleon III; Forey; MacMahon; Bazaine; Wimpffen; Benedek; Niel; Custozza; Cialdini.
American Civil War; Bull Run; McDowell; Beauregard; J. E. Johnston; R. E. Lee; Rosecrans; Lexington, Mo.; Fremont; Nathaniel Lyon; F. P. Blair, Jr.; Pope; Burnside; B. F. Butler; McClellan; A. S. Johnston; G. H. Thomas; U. S. Grant; C. F. Smith; Lew Wallace; McClernand; Halleck; O. M. Mitchel; Shiloh; N. P. Banks; T. J. (Stonewall) Jackson; Shenandoah; Fair Oaks; Seven Days; A. P. Hill; D. H. Hill; J. E. B. Stuart; Braxton Bragg; Longstreet; Bull Run (second battle); Ewell; Sigel; Hooker; Kearny; Fitz-John Porter; Antietam; E. V. Sumner; Hood; Burnside; Van Dorn; Fredericksburg; W. B. Franklin; John F. Reynolds; D. N. Couch; Stone River; Hardee; A. McD. McCook; T. L. Crittenden; G. H. Thomas; J. C. Breckinridge; McPherson; Chancellorsville; T. F. Meagher; Meade; Gettysburg; O. O. Howard; Doubleday; Early; Hancock; Sickles; Vicksburg; J. H. Morgan; Chickamauga; N. B. Forrest; Chattanooga; Sheridan; Wilderness (4 diagrams); Fitz-Hugh Lee; J. H. Wilson; G. K. Warren; John Sedgwick; Merritt; R. H. Anderson; Spottsylvania; Cold Harbor; Petersburg; Shenandoah Valley; Cedar Creek; W. T. Sherman; Marietta; Atlanta; Slocum; Schofield; Joseph Wheeler; J. A. Logan; Nashville; Richmond; Appomatox Court-House; Durham, N. C.
Seven Weeks’ War (with 2 diagrams): William I (of Germany); Moltke; Benedek; Frederick III (of Germany); Frederick Charles (of Prussia; Vol. 11, p. 61); Steinmetz; Blumenthal; Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen (Vol. 13, p. 573b); Goeben; and see Italian Wars above.
Franco-German War; Napoleon III; Niel; Moltke; William I (of Germany); Steinmetz; Frossard; MacMahon; Wörth (with plan); Bazaine; Metz (2 plans); Alvensleben; Canrobert; Bourbaki; Leboeuf; Manteuffel; Caprivi; Prince Frederick Charles; Sedan (with plan); Vinoy; Wimpffen; Gallifet; Werder; Gambetta; Freycinet; Aurelle de Paladines; Orleans; Bourbaki; Le Mans; Chanzy; Faidherbe; Belfort; Clinchant; Paris.
Servo-Bulgarian War; Alexander of Bulgaria (Vol. 1, p. 544); Milan of Servia.
Greco-Turkish War; Edhem Pasha.
Spanish-American War; Joseph Wheeler; F. V. Greene; Roosevelt; Miles.
Transvaal (Vol. 27, pp. 203 sqq. for Boer War of 1899–1902); Kruger; Cronje; P. J. Joubert; Sir George White; Buller; Lord Roberts; Lord Kitchener; J. H. De la Rey; Christian DeWet; Louis Botha.
Russo-Japanese War (with 4 diagrams); Kuroki; Kuropatkin; Inouye; Oku; Nozu; Oyama.
[Sidenote: A Military Encyclopaedia]
The military student will see from what has already been said that the Britannica is not merely a general work of reference but a valuable aid in the study of military history, biography, theory, practice and phraseology. The following alphabetical list names only the chief of the articles in the Britannica which make it a military cyclopaedia. As has been noticed above, many articles are special treatises in themselves dealing with many related topics, and—for instance—articles on wars or campaigns contain elaborate descriptions of separate battles. Many topics are treated in the Britannica, even if they are not in the following list, and their whereabouts may be readily learned by turning to the Index volume.
Abatis Accoutrement Acinaces Adjutant Adjutant-general Adye, Sir John Miller Aelian (Aelianus Tacticus) Aemilius, Paulus Aeneas Tacticus Aeronautics Agincourt, Battle of Aide-de-camp Albert, Charles, of Sardinia Alcibiades Alexander Alexander the Great Alexander, William Alexander of Bulgaria Alexandria Alignment Allan, Ethan Alma Alva Alvensleben Ambush Ammunition American Civil War American War of 1812 American War of Independence Amherst Anderson, R. H. Anglesey Antietam Antonius (Mark Antony) Antwerp Archery Argyll, 8th Earl Armet Arms and Armour Army Army Corps Army Signalling Arnold, Benedict Arquebus Arrian Arsenal Artillery Asclepiodotus Aspern-Essling Assegai Atlanta Augereau Augsburg, War of the League of Augustus, Frederick, Duke of York Aurelle de Paladines Austerlitz Austrian Succession, War of the Aventail or Avantaille Bagration Bailey Baird, Sir David Balaklava Baldwin I Ballistics Bandolier Banér Banks, N. P. Bannockburn Barbette Barclay de Tolly Barracks Barricade Basinet Bastion Batta Battalion Battering Ram Battle Bautzen Bayonet Bazaine Bayard (the Chevalier) Beauharnais Beauregard Bedford, 1st Duke of Belfort Bellegarde Belle-Isle Benedek Bennigsen, Count von Bennington Beresford, W. C. Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar Berthier Berwick Bivouac Blair, F. P., Jr. Blenheim Blockhouse Blücher Blumenthal Blunderbuss Bomb Bombardier Bombardment Bonaparte, Jerome Borodino Bosquet Botha Boufflers, Duc de Boulevard Bourbaki Bouvines Bragg, Braxton Brandywine Brasidas Breckinridge, J. C. Breitenfeld Brevet Brialmont, H. A. Brigade Brigandine Benedetto Brin Bronsart von Schellendorf, Paul Brown, Sir George Brown, Jacob Brown Bess Browne, Count von Bruce, Robert Bullet Buller Bull Run Bull Run (second battle) Bülow, Dietrich Heinrich Bunker Hill Burgonet, or Burganet Burgoyne Burnside Busby Butler, B. F. Cadet Cadre Caesar Calais Caliver Caltrop Camden Camp Campaign Canadian Forces Cannac Cannon Canrobert Canteen Cantonment Capitulation Caponier Caprivi Captain Carabiniers Carbine Cardigan Carnot, L. N. M. Carronade Carthage Cartridge Carrington, H. B. Casemate Case-Shot Cashier Castle Catapult Cathcart, Sir George Catinat Caudine Forks Cavalry Cedar Creek, Va. Chaeroneia Chancellorsville Chanzy Chaplain Charlemagne Charles, Archduke of Austria Charles I (of England) Charles XIV (Bernadotte) Charles Martel Charleston, S. C. Chassepot Chattanooga, Tenn. Chesney, C. C. Chesney, Sir G. T. Chevaux-de-frise Church, Sir Richard Chickamauga Creek Cialdini Circumvallation, Lines of Clark, George Rogers Clausel Clausewitz, Karl von Claymore Cleon Clerfayt Clinchant Clinton, Sir Henry Clive Coast Defence Coastguard Coehoorn Cold Harbor Coligny Colonel Colours, Military Colour-sergeant Commander Commandeer Commando Commissariat Concord Condé Condottiere Conscription Conti Coraés Cordite Cormontaingne, Louis de Cornwallis Corporal Corps Couch, D. N. Counterscarp Countersign Court Marshal Cox, J. D. Crécy Crimean War Crilias Crittenden, T. L. Cromwell, Oliver Cronje Crusades Cuirass Cuirassiers Cumberland, Duke of Custine Custozza Cutlass Dagger Dannewerk Darius Daun Davout Dearborn Defile Depot D’Erlon De la Rey Devolution, War of De Wet Diebitsch Dirk Division Dodge, Theodore A. Donelson, Fort Doubleday Dragoon Dresden Du Guesclin, Bertrand Dumouriez Dunbar Dundonald Dunes Dunois, Count of Dupont de l’Etang Düppel Durando Dutch Wars Early Echelon Edgehill Edhem Pasha Edward (the Black Prince) Edward III Edward IV Emmanuel Philibert Emmanuel, Victor Enceinte Enfilade Engineers, Military Ensign Epaminondas Epaulette Essex Eugene of Savoy Eutawville Ewell Exelmans Explosives Eylau Fabius (Cunctator) Faidherbe Fairfax of Cameron Fair Oaks, Va. Farnese (Duke of Parma) Fascine Ferdinand (of Brunswick) Filibuster Finck Fleetwood, Charles Fleurus Flodden Flying Flying Column Foix, Gaston de Folard, Jean Charles Fontenoy Forey Forlorn Hope Forrest, N. B. Fortification and Siegecraft Foy Francis I (of France) Franco-German War Franklin, W. B. Frederick II Frederick III (of Germany) Frederick V Frederick Charles (of Prussia) Frederick Henry Frederick the Great Frederick William of Brandenburg Fredericksburg, Va. Freiburg im Breisgau Fremont, J. C. French Revolutionary Wars Freycinet Friedland Frigate Fronde Frossard Fugleman Fusilier Gabion Gage, Thomas Gallas Galliffet Gambetta Garrison Gates, Horatio Gauntlet General George II of England Gerard Germantown Gettysburg Gingall or Jingal Glacis Gneisenau Godfrey of Bouillon Goeben Gorchakov Gorget Goring Gouvion St. Cyr Granby Grand Alliance, War of the Grant, U. S. Grape Great Rebellion Greco-Turkish War Greek Fire Greek Independence, War of Greene, F. V. Greene, Nathanael Grenade Grenadier Grenville, Sir Bevil Gribeauval Grouchy Guards and Household Troops Guardship Guibert, Comte de Guichard, Karl Gottlieb Gun Guncotton Gunner Gunpowder Gun-Room Gustavus Adolphus Halbert Halleck, H. W. Hamley, Sir Edward Hancock Hannibal Hanno Hardee Harper’s Ferry, W. Va. Harrison, Thomas Hasdrubal Hastings Haversack Heliograph Helmet Henderson, G. F. R. Henry V (of England) Henry VI (Roman Emperor) Herodotus Herrings, Battle of the Hess Hill, A. P. Hill, D. H. Hill, Lord Rowland Hohenfriedberg Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen Holster Hood Hooker Hopton, Baron Hostage Hotham, John Howard, O. O. Howe, William Howitzer Hull, William Hundred Years’ War Hussar Infantry Inkerman Inouye Isly Italian Wars Jackson, Andrew Jackson, T. J. (“Stonewall”) James IV (of Scotland) Japan, Army Jemappes Joan of Arc John of Bohemia John II of France Johnston, A. S. Johnston, J. E. Jomini, Baron A. H. Joubert, P. J. Jourdan Jugurtha Junot Kalb Kalckreuth Kearny Keith, F. E. J. Kellermann Khaki Khevenhüller, L. A. Kinglake King’s Mountain Kitchener, Lord Kite Kléber Knobkerrie Knox, Henry Kray von Krajova Kriegspiel Kruger Kunersdorf Kuroki Kuropatkin Kutusov Laager Lafayette Lally, Comte de Lambert, John La Marmora Lancaster, House of Lance Landsknecht Landsturm Landwehr Langlois, H. Lannes Lasalle Lauriston Leboeuf Lee, Fitz-Hugh Lee, Henry Lee, R. E. Lefebvre-Desnoëttes Legion Leipzig Le Mans Leonidas Leuthen Leven Lexington Ligonier Linstock Logan, J. A. Long Island, N. Y. Longstreet Lorraine, Charles of Loudon Louis IX (of France) Louis XIV Louvois Lützen Luxembourg Luxembourg, Duke of Lord Lynedoch Lyon, Nathaniel McClellan McClernand McCook, A. McD. Macdonald McDowell McPherson Macedon Machine Gun MacMahon Mago Major Malleson, George Bruce Malplaquet Mameluke Manchester, 2d Earl of Military Manoeuvres Mansfeld Manteuffel Mantineia Marathon Marceau March Marengo Marietta, Ga. Marignan Marion, Francis Marius Marlborough Marmont Marston Moor Martello Tower Martial Law Martinet Masséna Massenbach Massinissa Matross Maurice of Nassau Mavrocordato Maximilian I (of Bavaria) Meade Meagher, T. F. Menshikov Mercenary Mercy Merritt Metz Meuse Line Milan of Servia Miles Military Law Militia Miltiades Minden Minute Men Mitchel, O. M. Moat Moltke Moncey Monmouth Montalembert Montcalm Montecucculi Montgomery, Richard Montmorency (constable) Montrose Moore, Sir John Moreau Morgan, Daniel Morgan, J. H. Morion Mortier Moselle Line Moultrie, William Mounted Infantry Murat Musket Muster Mutiny Napier, Sir William Napoleon Napoleonic Campaigns Napoleon III Naseby Nashville Navarro Needle-gun Neerwinden Newark, Lord Newcastle, Duke of New Orleans Ney Niel Nitro-glycerine Noailles Nördlingen Norfolk, 3rd Duke Nozu O’Donnell, H. J. Officers Oku Olynthus Onosander Ordnance Orleans Osman Oudenarde Oudinot Oyama Pajol Palafox y Melzi Panoply Parade Parados Parallels Paris Parole Partisan Paskevich Pasley, Sir C. W. Patrol Pavis, or Pavise Pelissier Peloponnesian War Peninsular War Pericles Perseus Pescara Petard Peterborough Petersburg Campaign Petronel Petty-Officer Phalanx Philip II (of Macedon) Philip II (of France) Philip VI Piccolomini Pichegru Pickens, Andrew Picket Picton Pigeon Post Pike Pistol Platoon Pneumatic Gun Poitiers Polish Succession, War of the Polyaenus Pompey Poniard Pontoon Pope Porter, Fitz-John Press Gang Propellants Punic Wars Purser Putnam, Israel Putnam, Rufus Pylos Pyrrhus Quadrilateral Quiver Radetzky Raglan Ramillies Range-finder, Telemeter or Position-finder Rapier Rapparee Ravenna Raymund of Toulouse Razzia Reconnaissance Redan Redoubt Regiment Retrenchment Réveillé Reynolds, John F. Richard I (of England) Ricochet Richmond Rifle Roberts, Lord Rocket Rohan, duc de Roosevelt Ropes, J. C. Rosecrans Roses, Wars of the Rossbach Rupert, Prince Russo-Japanese War Russo-Turkish Wars Rüstow, Friedrich W. Ruvigny Sackville, 1st Viscount Saint Arnaud St. Quentin Salade, Sallet or Salet Saladin Salamanca Salamis Saratoga, Battles of Saxe, Comte de (marshal) Scabbard Scarlett Scharnhorst Schiavone Schofield Schwarzenberg Schwerin, Count von Scimitar Scipio Aemilianus Scipio Africanus Scout Sebastiani Seckendorf Sedan Sedgwick, John Senarmont Sentinel or Sentry Sepoy Serjeant Sertorius Servo-Bulgarian War Sérurier Seven Days’ Battle Seven Weeks’ War Seven Years’ War Seydlitz Shenandoah Valley Campaign Sheridan Sherman, W. T. Shield Shiloh Shipka Pass Sickles Siege Sigel Sights Signal Silesian Wars Sirdar Skippon Skobelev Sling Slocum Smith, C. F. Smith, Sir W. Sidney Soubise Souham Soult Sowar Spahis Spanish-American War Spanish Succession, War of The Spear Spontoon Spottsylvania Spur Spy Squadron Staff, military Standard, Battle of Stark, John Steenkirk Steinmetz Stiletto Stone River Stony Point Strategy Strelitz Stuart, J. E. B. Suchet Sulla Sullivan, John Sumner, E. V. Sumter, Thomas Supply and Transport (Military) Sutler Suvarov Swold Sword Tactics Talavera de la Reina Target Tarleton Tattoo Thermopylae Thielmann Thirty Years’ War Thomas, G. H. Thucydides Ticonderoga, N. Y. Tilly Todleben Torstensson Towton Transvaal Trasimene Traun Traverse Trébuchet Trenton and Princeton Troop Turenne Ulan Uniforms Vandamme Van Dorn Vauban Vedette Vegetius Vendée Vendôme Verdun Verdy du Vernois Veteran Vexillum Vicksburg Victor-Perrin Villars Villeroi Vinoy Visor Vitoria Volunteers Wagram Wallace, Lewis Waller, Sir William Wallenstein Ward Room War Game Warrant Officer Warren, G. K. Warren, Joseph Warwick, Earl of Washington, George Waterloo Campaign Wattignies Wayne, Anthony Weapon Wellington Werder Wheeler, Joseph White, Sir George Wilderness, Va. Wilkinson, James William the Silent William I (of England) William III (of England) William I (of Germany) Wilson, J. H. Wimpffen Wittgenstein Wolfe Wood, Sir H. E. Worth Wrangel Wrede Xenophon Yataghan Yeomanry Yorck von Wartenburg Yorktown, Va. Ypsilanti Zieten Zouave
XXX. FOR NAVAL OFFICERS
The scope of a naval officer’s professional interests is so broad that the present chapter of this Guide could not, without duplicating other chapters, indicate all the aspects of the Britannica with which he is directly concerned. And he will find that his use of the Britannica is simplified by the subdivisions about to be specified, which virtually present his subjects under four different heads. Of course he may be called upon, in the exercise of his duties, simultaneously to think and to act in all his capacities, to concentrate upon the swift solution of one problem his knowledge of warfare, of shipbuilding, of navigation and of mechanical engineering; but his reading upon these topics naturally divides itself into these four parts.
[Sidenote: Three Other Relevant Chapters]
Inasmuch as army officers, even when they are at sea, are passengers, and, save in relation to the discipline of their troops, have nothing to do with the ship’s management, it could not be assumed that the present chapter would appeal to them. But naval officers, when co-operating in a land expedition, need to employ every kind of knowledge that is of use to army officers, and as the chapter For Army Officers in this Guide would therefore in any case be read by them, it has seemed convenient to include in it the description of those articles in the Britannica which deal with war in general.
The chapter For Marine Transportation Men in this Guide is also one to which the naval officer should refer, as it deals with ships and navigation in general. The articles SHIP and SHIPBUILDING mentioned in that chapter are (except for the historical section of the former) by Sir Philip Watts, designer of the British “Dreadnoughts” and “Super-Dreadnoughts;” and the article SHIPPING is by Douglas Owen, of the Royal Naval War College at Portsmouth. Obviously these and many other articles described in that chapter are of the greatest importance to naval officers.
The chapter For Engineers in this Guide describes the articles dealing with steam engines, internal combustion engines, electrical machinery and fuels of all kinds; and it would be a waste of space to repeat in this chapter a summary of the Britannica treatment of these subjects.
All three of the chapters mentioned should therefore be treated as forming constituent parts of the general plan of this present chapter, in which the naval officer will find no repetition of their contents.
[Sidenote: The Key Article]
The article to which he will naturally first turn is NAVY AND NAVIES (Vol. 19, p. 299), by David Hannay, author of A Short History of the Royal Navy. This article is equivalent to 60 pages of this Guide in length. It contains:
Naval Personnel.
Sketches of the Administrative History of navies: Athenian; Roman; Byzantine; Medieval; British, with special attention to the period since the Restoration, and the reforms under James II when Samuel Pepys was secretary;
French—modern navy dating from the time of Richelieu;
Spanish—a great navy without an organization before the 18th century;
Dutch—good seamen and well-fed, led by able admirals, but unorganized, and unimportant after the 17th century;
United States—the first great extra-European power on the sea;
Russian—dating from the reign of Peter the Great, when it was organized and led by foreigners.
The Balance of Navies in History: influence of sea-power—“when Napoleon fell, the navy of Great Britain was not merely the first in the world; it was the only powerful navy in existence.” Modern Rivalry between Italy and Germany (1871), United States (1890), Japan; England and the Dual Alliance—“naval scares” since 1874; British Naval Defence Act of 1889; Russia’s navy crushed (1904); new navies rivalling Great Britain and France,—Italy, Germany, United States, Japan.
Latest developments: “Dreadnoughts”; Building Programmes.
Bibliography (about 1800 words).
Naval Strategy and Tactics.
Historical evolution: inter-relation of the ship’s capacity and armament.
Early history: ramming demanded oars for propulsion; small warships, large fighting crews,—no blockade, short cruises;
Greek and Roman methods: boarding introduced by Romans; “bearding,” that is, fortifying with iron bands across the bows, an early form of armor plate.
Sailing ships: ramming discarded; “line ahead” formation displaces “line abreast”; principles of fighting tactics—order at beginning to be kept throughout, thus no advantage taken of enemy’s disorder; Clerk’s theories (1790–97)—not maximum safety but immediate mêlée the desideratum; Suffren, Rodney and Howe and their disregard of accepted tactics.
Improved shipbuilding and modern times: New problems—steam propulsion, its gain in speed, but its dependence on fuel; fleet in being; risk of transporting troops while enemy is unbeaten; ramming and pell-mell battles forbidden by torpedoes; searchlight as check to torpedoes; failure of attempts to “bottle up” harbours; gun-fire still the great factor; position; speed; submarines still an unknown factor.
Bibliography.
[Sidenote: Naval Administration]
The first part of this article NAVY AND NAVIES should be supplemented by the article ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION (Vol. 1, p. 195), by Admiral Sir R. Vesey Hamilton, and, for the United States, the late Admiral W. T. Sampson. The American part of this article describes the divisions and the working of the Navy Department, its bureaus, judge advocate-general, office of naval intelligence, boards etc.; and there is additional information on the subject in such articles as DOCKYARDS, and UNITED STATES NAVAL ACADEMY.
For the legal side of naval administration the reader should study the article ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION (Vol. 1, p. 205), by Sir Walter Phillimore, former president of the International Law Association (and author of the Britannica article ADMIRALTY, HIGH COURT OF), and, for the United States, by J. Arthur Barrett; and also the general articles INTERNATIONAL LAW (Vol. 14, p. 694), by Sir Thomas Barclay, author of Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy, and INTERNATIONAL LAW, PRIVATE (Vol. 14, p. 701), by Dr. John Westlake, formerly professor of international law, Cambridge University, and member for the United Kingdom of the International (Hague) Court of Arbitration; as well as such special articles as SEARCH (Vol. 24, p. 560), by Sir Thomas Barclay, and SEA LAWS (Vol. 24, p. 535), by Sir Travers Twiss.
[Sidenote: Policy, Strategy, Tactics]
It has already been noticed that the closing part of the article NAVY AND NAVIES dealt with strategy and tactics in a general way. This subject is treated in fuller detail by Admiral Sir Cyprian Bridge, G.C.B. (former Director of Naval Intelligence, British Navy, author of Sea-Power and other Studies) in two articles SEA-POWER (Vol. 24, p. 548) and SEA, COMMAND OF THE (Vol. 24, p. 529). Each of these articles will be of great value and interest to the naval officer as a summary and criticism of the theories of Captain A. T. Mahan and Vice-Admiral P. H. Colomb; and this will be made evident by the brief outline of the two articles which follows.
Article, SEA-POWER—Use of the term to mean (1) a state pre-eminently strong at sea; and (2)—as in this article—the various factors in a state’s naval strength. Thucydides as a forerunner of Mahan; he makes Pericles in comparing Athenian resources with those of her enemies comment on the importance of “sea-power.”
The meaning of sea-power can only be learned historically. Although there have been more land-wars, “the course of history has been profoundly changed more often by contests on the water.” Salamis saved Greece and held back Oriental invasion. The loss of the Peloponnesian War by Athens was due to her weakening sea-power. The First Punic War, Roman rather than Carthaginian control of the Mediterranean, was won by Roman naval predominance. Mahommedan conquest spread west in Africa only with the creation of a navy. The crusades could not have continued had not Mahommedan naval power sunk as the Venetian, Pisan, and Genoese grew. The defeat of Genoa by Venice gave the latter a right to perform the ceremony of “wedding the sea” with a ring as token of “perpetual sway.” Lepanto (1571) the end of Turkish sea-power.
Spanish and Portuguese sea-power crushed by English growth and the loss of the Armada. Early English naval history: the importance of the battle of Dover in 1217. Appearance of standing navies. The New World and its influence on sea-power. The sea-power of the Dutch; its sudden rise; its basis in foreign trade; the Dutch wars with England resulted in England’s becoming the first great naval power, but did not crush the United Provinces because of their sea-power. Torrington and the “Fleet in Being” in 1690. Change in naval operations in 17th century—the scene thereafter in the enemy’s waters, not near the coast of England.
The 18th century. Rise of Russia’s sea-power—an artificial creation. Seven Years’ War and its gains to Great Britain. War of American Independence: British mistakes—the enemy’s coast not considered the frontier. Wars of the French Revolution and Empire: Great Britain’s advantage not in organization, discipline or “science,” but in sea-experience.
The War of 1812. “The British had now to meet the élite of one of the finest communities of seamen ever known.... In any future war British sea-power, great as it may be, should not receive shocks like those that it unquestionably did suffer in 1812.”
Later Manifestations of Sea-Power. American Civil War—“By dominating the rivers the Federals cut the Confederacy asunder; and, by the power they possessed of moving troops by sea at will, perplexed and harassed the defence, and facilitated the occupation of important points.” Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78—Turkish control of Black Sea forced Russians to invade by land through the difficult Balkans. Chilean Civil War of 1891—an army defeated by a navy. Chino-Japanese War of 1894–95—Japanese navy in transport work and in crushing last resistance. Spanish-American War: “Spaniards were defeated by the superiority of the American sea-power.”
Article, SEA, COMMAND OF THE—Sketch of Sovereignty of the Sea; Command different from Sovereignty or Dominion.
Attempts to gain Command: Dutch Wars.
Strategic Command or Control—largely the power of carrying out considerable over-sea expeditions at will. Seeking the enemy’s fleet. Temporary command in smaller operations.
[Sidenote: Special Historical Articles]
As for the army officer, so the Britannica has for the naval officer many separate articles on wars, campaigns, battles, generals, commanders. The following list of articles will serve as a guide to a course of reading constituting a history of naval warfare, furnishing the concrete separate facts on which are based the articles already described.
Ancient History.
Greece: articles Salamis, Themistocles, Xerxes I, Peloponnesian War, Pericles.
Rome: articles Punic Wars, Carthage, Pompey, Actium.
Medieval History.
Crusades; Swold; Dover, Battle of; Sluys, Battle of; Espagnols sur Mer (and article Edward III), Chioggia (and articles Venice and Genoa).
16th Century.
Lepanto (and article Don John of Austria).
Armada (and articles on Howard, Hawkins, Drake, Frobisher, Raleigh, Richard Grenville, and the other heroes of this first bright glow of England’s naval glory).
The Era of Sailing Vessels.
Dutch Wars (and articles Tromp, Robert Blake, Ayscue, De Ruyter, Cornelius De Witt, William Penn, George Monk, Sir John Lawson, James II, Prince Rupert, First Earl of Sandwich, Abraham Duquesne).
Grand Alliance, Naval Operations (and articles Earl of Torrington, and Beachy Head, Battle of; La Hogue, Earl of Oxford [Edward Russell] and Tourville).
Spanish Succession, Naval Operations (and Château-Renault, Benbow, Rooke, Cloudesley Shovel, Duguay-Trouin, Forbin).
Austrian Succession, Naval Operations (and the articles Edward Vernon, Lord Anson, Toulon, Battle of, and Thomas Mathews, marking the official sanction in England of an absurd formal system of tactics).
Seven Years’ War, Naval Operations (and Boscawen, Byng, Hawke, Pocock, Quiberon).
American War of Independence, Naval Operations (and Esek Hopkins, John Paul Jones, Comte d’Estaing, Suffren St. Tropez, Thomas Truxtun, Lord Howe, John Byron, Hotham, Hyde Parker, Rodney, Guichen, Comte de Grasse).
French Revolutionary Wars, Naval Operations (and First of June, Battle of, Howe, Villaret de Joyeuse, Lord Bridport, Lord Hood, Earl of St. Vincent [John Jervis], St. Vincent, Battle of, Lord Keith, Lord Duncan, Nile, Nelson, Sir Thomas Troubridge).
Napoleonic Campaigns, Naval Operations (and Baron de Saumarez, Copenhagen, Battle of, Sir Hyde Parker, Sir Robert Calder, Villeneuve, Trafalgar, Lord Collingwood).
American War of 1812 (and John Rodgers, Isaac Hull, William Bainbridge, Stephen Decatur, David Porter, Oliver Hazard Perry, Sir Philip Broke, Thomas Macdonough).
And Lissa (1811), closely resembling Trafalgar, and Navarino, decisive for Greek Independence.
The Era of Steam.
American Civil War (and Hampton Roads, Andrew Hull Foote, New Madrid, D. G. Farragut, D. D. Porter, W. B. Cushing).
Chile-Peruvian War.
Chilean Civil War.
Chino-Japanese War (and see Ito).
Spanish-American War (and see the articles W. T. Sampson, W. S. Schley, George Dewey, Pascual Cervera y Topete Cervera).
Russo-Japanese War (and Togo, Dogger Bank, Tsushima).
[Sidenote: Armaments]
The subject of armaments is treated in the articles SHIP and SHIPBUILDING (see chapter For Marine Transportation Men), ARMOUR PLATES, with illustrations, by Major William Egerton Edwards, late lecturer at the Royal Naval War College, Greenwich, ORDNANCE, AMMUNITION, TORPEDO, etc.
The following is an alphabetical list of articles in the Britannica of especial interest to naval officers or other students of naval warfare.
Actium Admiral Admiralty Administration Admiralty Jurisdiction American Civil War American War of Independence American War of 1812 Ammunition Anson, Lord Armada Armour Plates Arms and Armour Ayscue Bainbridge, William Beachy Head Benbow Beresford Blake, Robert Boscawen Bridport, Lord Broke, Sir Philip Byng Byron, John Calder, Sir Robert Camperdown Carthage Casemate Case-shot Cervera Château-Renault Chile-Peruvian War Chilean Civil War Chino-Japanese War Chioggia Coaling Stations Coast Defence Coast Guard Codrington Coligny Collingwood, Lord Colomb Commodore Copenhagen, Battle of Crusades Cushing, W. B. Decatur, Stephen d’Estaing De Ruyter De Saumarez, Baron Dewey, George De Witt, Cornelius Dockyards Dogger Bank Dover, Battle of (1217) Drake Duguay-Trouin Duilius Duncan, Lord Duquesne, Abraham Dutch Wars Edward III Espagnols sur Mer Farragut, D. G. Fireship First of June Flagship Fleet Flying Column Foote, Andrew Hull Forbin French Revolutionary Wars Frigate Frobisher Genoa Grand Alliance Grasse, Comte de Grenville, Richard Greek Independence Guardship Perry, Guichen Hampton Roads Hawke Hawkins Hood, Lord Hopkins, Esek Hotham Howard Howe, Lord Hull, Isaac International Law James II Jones, John Paul Keith, Lord La Hogue Lawson, Sir John Lepanto Liner Lissa (1811, 1866) Macdonough, Thomas Madrid, New Mahan Marines Mathews, Thomas Meloria Miaoulis Midshipman Monk, George Napoleonic Campaigns Nauarchia Naucrary Naval Operations Navarino Navy and Navies Nelson Nile, Battle of the Ordnance Oxford, Earl of Parker, Hyde Parker, Sir Hyde Peloponnesian War Penn, William Pepys Pericles Perry, Oliver Hazard Piracy Pocock Pompey Porter, David Porter, D. D. Privateer Punic Wars Quiberon, Battle of Raleigh Range-finder Rodgers, John Rodney Rooke Rupert, Prince Russo-Japanese War Saint-Bon Saint Vincent Saints, Battle of the Salamis Sampson, W. T. Sandwich, 1st Earl of Schley, W. S. Sea, Command of the Sea Laws Seamanship Sea-Power Search Seven Years’ War Ship, Shipbuilding Shovel, Cloudesley Sluys Spanish-American War Spanish Succession Squadron Submarine Mines Suffren, St. Tropez Swold Themistocles Togo Torpedo Torrington Toulon, Battle of Tourville Trafalgar Tromp Troubridge, Sir Thomas Truxtun, Thomas Tsushima U. S. Naval Academy Venice Vernon, Edward Villaret de Joyeuse Villeneuve Xerxes I
PART II COURSES OF EDUCATIONAL READING TO SUPPLEMENT OR TAKE THE PLACE OF SCHOOL OR UNIVERSITY STUDIES