XXXVIII. ENGLISH LITERATURE
On English literature, with its vastly longer history and greater volume, there is much more matter in the Britannica than on American literature—or of course any other national literature. The key article is ENGLISH LITERATURE (Vol. 9, p. 607; equivalent to 120 pages of this Guide), and an excellent outline for the study of this subject may be based on this article which should be supplemented by the sections on Literature in the articles SCOTLAND, CANADA, etc. A combination of these with special articles may be arranged as follows:
[Sidenote: Anglo-Saxon]
On the period before Chaucer—the first part of the article ENGLISH LITERATURE (Vol. 9, p. 607), by Henry Bradley, joint-editor of The New English Dictionary, etc.; the same author’s BEOWULF (Vol. 3, p. 758), CÆDMON (Vol. 4, p. 934) and CYNEWULF (Vol. 7, p. 690), ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE (Vol. 2, p. 34), and ALFRED THE GREAT (Vol. 1, p. 582), both by the Rev. Charles Plummer, author of Life and Times of Alfred the Great, etc.; DAN MICHEL OF NORTHGATE (Vol. 18, p. 371); ANGLO-NORMAN LITERATURE (Vol. 2, p. 31), by Prof. L. M. Brandin, University of London; ANCREN RIWLE (Vol. 1, p. 952); ORM (Vol. 20, p. 293), by Henry Bradley; LAYAMON (Vol. 16, p. 311), by the late Prof. W. W. Skeat of Cambridge; HAVELOK THE DANE (Vol. 13, p. 80); ROMANCE, ARTHURIAN ROMANCE, etc.
[Sidenote: Chaucer]
On the period from Chaucer to the Renaissance, see the second part of the article ENGLISH LITERATURE (Vol. 9, p. 611), by Prof. J. M. Manly, University of Chicago, author of The Language of Chaucer’s Legend of Good Women; THE PEARL (Vol. 21, p. 27), by Prof. Israel Gollancz, King’s College, London, editor of the Temple Shakespeare, etc.; LANGLAND (Vol. 16, p. 174); JOHN GOWER (Vol. 12, p. 298), by G. C. Macaulay, editor of Gower’s works; GEOFFREY CHAUCER (Vol. 6, p. 13), by A. W. Pollard, chief-editor of the “Globe” Chaucer; JOHN LYDGATE, (Vol. 17, p. 156), by Frederick J. Snell, author of The Age of Chaucer; THOMAS OCCLEVE (Vol. 19, p. 966), by W. S. McCormick, formerly professor of English, University College, Dundee; STEPHEN HAWES (Vol. 13, p. 93); JOHN SKELTON (Vol. 25, p. 184); JULIANA BERNERS (Vol. 3, p. 801); THOMAS OF ERCELDOUNE (Vol. 26, p. 865); JOHN BARBOUR (Vol. 3, p. 389), by Professor George Gregory Smith, Queen’s University, Belfast; ANDREW OF WYNTOUN (Vol. 28, p. 873); HARRY THE MINSTREL (Vol. 13, p. 29); JOHN WYCLIFFE (Vol. 28, p. 866), by Reginald Lane Poole, author of Wycliffe and Movements for Reform, and W. Alison Phillips; REGINALD PECOCK (Vol. 21, p. 33); SIR JOHN FORTESCUE (Vol. 10, p. 678), by P. C. Yorke; WILLIAM CAXTON (Vol. 5, p. 587).
The English versions of the Bible are dealt with in the chapter of this Guide on Bible Study; but the article BIBLE, ENGLISH (Vol. 3, p. 894), by Canon Henson of Westminster Abbey and Anna C. Paues, lecturer in Germanic philology at Newnham College, should be read in connection with the study of this and earlier periods of English literature.
[Sidenote: Elizabethan Literature]
[Sidenote: Spenser]
On English literature in the Elizabethan age read part 3 of the article ENGLISH LITERATURE (Vol. 9, p. 616), by Prof. Oliver Elton, University of Liverpool; also SIR THOMAS MORE (Vol. 18, p. 822), by Mark Pattison, the essayist and student of the Renaissance; WILLIAM TYNDALE (Vol. 27, p. 498); ROGER ASCHAM (Vol. 2, p. 720), by A. F. Leach, author of English Schools at the Reformation, etc.; WILLIAM DUNBAR (Vol. 8, p. 668), by Prof. G. Gregory Smith; SIR THOMAS HOBY (Vol. 13, p. 553); RAPHAEL HOLINSHED (Vol. 13, p. 584); JOHN FOXE (Vol. 10, p. 770); SIR THOMAS NORTH (Vol. 19, p. 759); SIR THOMAS WYAT (Vol. 28, p. 861); EARL OF SURREY (Vol. 26, p. 138); GEORGE GASCOIGNE (Vol. 11, p. 493); NICHOLAS UDAL (Vol. 27, p. 554), by A. F. Leach; EDMUND SPENSER (Vol. 25, p. 639,) by the late Professor William Minto of Aberdeen, and F. J. Snell, author of The Age of Chaucer, etc.; SIR PHILIP SIDNEY (Vol. 25, p. 43); JOHN LYLY (Vol. 17, p. 159), by Mrs. Humphry Ward; EUPHUISM (Vol. 9, p. 898); MICHAEL DRAYTON (Vol. 8, p. 557), and SAMUEL DANIEL (Vol. 7, p. 808), all by Edmund Gosse; WILLIAM WARNER (Vol. 28, p. 327); EDWARD FAIRFAX (Vol. 10, p. 130); SIR JOHN HARINGTON (Vol. 12, p. 952); GILES and PHINEAS FLETCHER (Vol. 10, p. 498); THOMAS WATSON (Vol. 28, p. 413), by E. Gosse; THOMAS LODGE (Vol. 16, p. 860), by Prof. A. W. Ward, Cambridge; THOMAS CAMPION (Vol. 5, p. 137), by P. Vivian, editor of Campion; NICHOLAS BRETON (Vol. 4, p. 501); ROBERT SOUTHWELL (Vol. 25, p. 517); the metaphysical poets, JOHN DONNE (Vol. 8, p. 417), GEORGE HERBERT (Vol. 13, p. 339), RICHARD CRASHAW (Vol. 7, p. 379), ABRAHAM COWLEY (Vol. 7, p. 347), THOMAS TRAHERNE (Vol. 27, p. 155), and HENRY VAUGHAN (Vol. 27, p. 955); WILLIAM BROWNE (Vol. 4, p. 667); GEORGE WITHER (Vol. 28, p. 758); WILLIAM DRUMMOND of Hawthornden (Vol. 8, p. 600); ROBERT HERRICK (Vol. 13, p. 389), by E. Gosse; RICHARD LOVELACE (Vol. 17, p. 71); SIR JOHN SUCKLING (Vol. 26, p. 7); ANDREW MARVELL (Vol. 17, p. 805); EDMUND WALLER (Vol. 28, p. 282), by E. Gosse; and JOHN MILTON (Vol. 18, p. 480), in great part by David Masson, late professor at Edinburgh University.
[Sidenote: The Drama]
[Sidenote: Shakespeare]
Elizabethan drama—particularly Shakespeare—deserves a separate paragraph, especially as its treatment in the Britannica is so full. Read in the article ENGLISH LITERATURE, pp. 622–626; in the article DRAMA, by Prof. A. W. Ward, Cambridge, pp. 520–524 of Volume 8; and the articles: JOHN LYLY (Vol. 17, p. 159), by Mrs. Humphry Ward; THOMAS KYD (Vol. 15, p. 958), by E. Gosse; GEORGE PEELE (Vol. 21, p. 44); ROBERT GREENE (Vol. 12, p. 539), by A. W. Ward; CHRISTOPHER MARLOWE (Vol. 17, p. 741), by A. C. Swinburne and Thomas Seccombe, author of The Age of Johnson, etc.; and above all SHAKESPEARE (Vol. 24, p. 772; equivalent to 80 pages of this Guide), containing a biography and sketches of the different works by E. K. Chambers, editor of the “Red Letter Shakespeare” and author of The Medieval Stage, with a discussion of the portraits of Shakespeare (20 of which are reproduced), by M. H. Spielmann, formerly editor of the Magazine of Art, and of the Shakespeare-Bacon controversy by Hugh Chisholm, editor-in chief of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, and an elaborate, classified bibliography by H. R. Tedder, librarian of the Athenaeum Club, London. In his discussion of the Baconian theory of the authorship of the plays Mr. Chisholm says:
“No such idea seems to have occurred to anybody till the middle of the 19th century.... The most competent special students of Shakespeare, however they may differ as to details, and also the most authoritative special students of Bacon, are unanimous in upholding the traditional view.” And he adds that as regards the effort to account for the positive contemporary evidence in favour of the identification of the man Shakespeare with the author of Shakespeare’s works, “it is highly significant that it was not attempted or thought of for centuries.” See also: HAMLET (Vol. 12, p. 894) for earlier treatment of the legend, and MACBETH (Vol. 17, p. 197) for the historical basis of the play.
For the other dramatists of the time see the articles BEN JONSON (Vol. 15, p. 502), by A. W. Ward; GEORGE CHAPMAN (Vol. 5, p. 852), JOHN WEBSTER (Vol. 28, p. 462), CYRIL TOURNEUR (Vol. 27, p. 106), and BEAUMONT AND FLETCHER (Vol. 3, p. 592), all by A. C. Swinburne; THOMAS DEKKER (Vol. 7, p. 939), by William Minto and R. B. McKerrow; THOMAS HEYWOOD (Vol. 13, p. 439); THOMAS MIDDLETON (Vol. 18, p. 416); JOHN MARSTON (Vol. 17, p. 776); PHILIP MASSINGER (Vol. 17, p. 868); JOHN FORD (Vol. 10, p. 641), by A. W. Ward; JAMES SHIRLEY (Vol. 24, p. 990).
[Sidenote: 16th and 17th Century Prose]
For Elizabethan prose writers not already mentioned, see: the translators, JOHN BOURCHIER, LORD BARON BERNERS (Vol. 3, p. 800), PHILEMON HOLLAND (Vol. 13, p. 587) and GIOVANNI FLORIO (Vol. 10, p. 546); and the philosophers and essayists, RICHARD HOOKER (Vol. 13, p. 672), by T. F. Henderson, FRANCIS BACON, (Vol. 3, p. 135; equivalent to 55 pages of this Guide), by Robert Adamson and J. M. Mitchell, THOMAS HOBBES (Vol. 13, p. 545), by G. Croom Robertson, biographer of Hobbes, SIR THOMAS BROWNE (Vol. 4, p. 666), IZAAK WALTON (Vol. 28, p. 300), ROBERT BURTON (Vol. 4, p. 865), JEREMY TAYLOR (Vol. 26, p. 469), THOMAS FULLER (Vol. 11, p. 296), WILLIAM CHILLINGWORTH (Vol. 6, p. 162), JOHN HALES (Vol. 12, p. 834), RALPH CUDWORTH (Vol. 7, p. 612), by Henry Sturt, author of Personal Idealism, etc.; the historian CLARENDON (Vol. 6, p. 428), by P. C. Yorke; and the letter-writer JAMES HOWELL (Vol. 13, p. 838).
[Sidenote: Dryden]
[Sidenote: Pepys]
On the Restoration period—from 1660 to 1700—see Professor Elton’s chapter (Vol. 9, pp. 628–631) in the article ENGLISH LITERATURE; and the articles: JOHN DRYDEN (Vol. 8, p. 609), by William Minto and Margaret Bryant; SAMUEL BUTLER (Vol. 4, p. 885), SIR ISAAC NEWTON (Vol. 19, p. 583), by H. M. Taylor, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge; ISAAC BARROW (Vol. 3, p. 440), JOHN RAY (Vol. 22, p. 931), by Prof. D. Wentworth Thompson, University College, Dundee; JOSEPH GLANVILL (Vol. 12, p. 77), THOMAS BURNET (Vol. 4, p. 853), JOHN TILLOTSON (Vol. 26, p. 976), SIR WILLIAM TEMPLE (Vol. 26, p. 602), by G. W. Prothero, editor The Quarterly Review and joint-editor Cambridge Modern History, MARQUESS HALIFAX (Vol. 12, p. 839), by P. C. Yorke; ROBERT SOUTH (Vol. 25, p. 463), WILLIAM SHERLOCK (Vol. 24, p. 850), RICHARD BAXTER (Vol. 3, p. 551), JOHN HOWE (Vol. 13, p. 835), GEORGE FOX (Vol. 10, p. 765), JOHN BUNYAN (Vol. 4, p. 803), by Lord Macaulay; 2ND EARL OF ROCHESTER (Vol. 23, p. 427), SIR WILLIAM DAVENANT (Vol. 7, p. 851), NAHUM TATE (Vol. 26, p. 449), THOMAS OTWAY (Vol. 20, p. 376), NATHANIEL LEE (Vol. 16, p. 361), Watts-Dunton’s article WILLIAM WYCHERLEY (Vol. 28, p. 863), and the two great diarists JOHN EVELYN (Vol. 10, p. 5) and SAMUEL PEPYS (Vol. 21, p. 130), by D. Hannay.
[Sidenote: Addison, Steele and Swift]
[Sidenote: Pope]
[Sidenote: Burns]
[Sidenote: The Novel]
On the 18th century literature see the chapter in the article ENGLISH LITERATURE (Vol. 9, pp. 631–636), by Thomas Seccombe, author of The Age of Johnson, etc.; and the articles: JOHN LOCKE (Vol. 16, p. 844), by Prof. Alexander Campbell Fraser, Edinburgh; JOSEPH ADDISON (Vol. 1, p. 184), by William Spalding and Austin Dobson; SIR RICHARD STEELE (Vol. 25, p. 865), by William Minto and Austin Dobson; JONATHAN SWIFT (Vol. 26, p. 224), by Richard Garnett and Thomas Seccombe; JOHN ARBUTHNOT (Vol. 2, p. 339), BERNARD DE MANDEVILLE (Vol. 17, p. 559), by J. M. Mitchell; BOLINGBROKE (Vol. 4, p. 161), by P. C. Yorke; ALEXANDER POPE (Vol. 22, p. 82), by William Minto and Margaret Bryant; MATTHEW PRIOR (Vol. 22, p. 359), by Austin Dobson; JOHN GAY (Vol. 11, p. 540), THOMAS PARNELL (Vol. 20, p. 859), MARK AKENSIDE (Vol. 1, p. 454), JAMES THOMSON (Vol. 26, p. 871) and THOMAS GRAY (Vol. 12, p. 392), both by D. C. Tovey, editor of Gray’s Letters; WILLIAM COLLINS (Vol. 6, p. 692), by Edmund Gosse; CHRISTOPHER SMART (Vol. 25, p. 249), WILLIAM COWPER (Vol. 7, p. 349) and GEORGE CRABBE (Vol. 7, p. 358), by Clement K. Shorter, editor of The Sphere, WILLIAM BLAKE (Vol. 4, p. 36), by J. W. Comyns-Carr, author of Essays on Art; WILLIAM SHENSTONE (Vol. 24, p. 839), THOMAS CHATTERTON (Vol. 6, p. 10), THOMAS PERCY (Vol. 21, p. 136), THOMAS WARTON (Vol. 28, p. 337), ROBERT BURNS (Vol. 4, p. 856), by John Nichol, the biographer of Burns, Byron and Carlyle; among the prose writers, forerunners of the novel, DANIEL DEFOE (Vol. 7, p. 927), SAMUEL RICHARDSON (Vol. 23, p. 300) and HENRY FIELDING (Vol. 10, p. 324), both by Austin Dobson, TOBIAS SMOLLETT (Vol. 25, p. 278), by Thomas Seccombe, and LAURENCE STERNE (Vol. 25, p. 901), by William Minto and Austin Dobson; the other great prose writers of the age, [Sidenote: Johnson] SAMUEL JOHNSON (Vol. 15, p. 463), by Lord Macaulay and Thomas Seccombe, [Sidenote: Goldsmith] OLIVER GOLDSMITH (Vol. 12, p. 214), by Lord Macaulay and Austin Dobson, LORD CHESTERFIELD (Vol. 6, p. 109), by Austin Dobson, and HORATIO WALPOLE (Vol. 28, p. 288), by W. P. Courtney; in a lesser group, JAMES BOSWELL (Vol. 4, p. 297), by Thomas Seccombe, FRANCES D’ARBLAY, “Fanny Burney” (Vol. 7, p. 826), HESTER LYNCH PIOZZI (Vol. 21, p. 632), GILBERT WHITE (Vol. 28, p. 599); [Sidenote: History] the historians DAVID HUME (Vol. 13, p. 876), by Robert Adamson and J. M. Mitchell, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (Vol. 23, p. 406) and EDWARD GIBBON (Vol. 11, p. 927), by Prof. J. B. Bury, editor of The Decline and Fall; and the philosophers, JOSEPH BUTLER (Vol. 4, p. 882), by Robert Adamson and A. J. Grieve, Yorkshire United Independent College, [Sidenote: Philosophy] WILLIAM PALEY (Vol. 20, p. 628), BERKELEY (Vol. 3, p. 779), by Robert Adamson and J. M. Mitchell, THOMAS REID (Vol. 23, p. 51), by Prof. A. Seth Pringle-Pattison, Edinburgh, DAVID HARTLEY (Vol. 13, p. 35), ABRAHAM TUCKER (Vol. 27, p. 361), THOMAS PAINE (Vol. 20, p. 456), JOSEPH PRIESTLY (Vol. 22, p. 322), RICHARD PRICE (Vol. 22, p. 314), by J. M. Mitchell; WILLIAM GODWIN (Vol. 12, p. 177), [Sidenote: Politics] SIR JAMES MACKINTOSH (Vol. 17, p. 259), EDMUND BURKE (Vol. 4, p. 824), by John Morley, and “JUNIUS” (Vol. 15, p. 557),—see also SIR PHILIP FRANCIS (Vol. 10, p. 941).
[Sidenote: Lake Poets]
[Sidenote: Byron]
[Sidenote: Criticism]
[Sidenote: History]
For the 19th century see the last section of the article ENGLISH LITERATURE (Vol. 9, pp. 636–645), by Thomas Seccombe; and the articles: WILLIAM WORDSWORTH (Vol. 28, p. 826), by William Minto and Hugh Chisholm; S. T. COLERIDGE (Vol. 6, p. 678), by J. Mackinnon Robertson, author of Modern Humanists, etc., Hugh Chisholm, and the Very Rev. George David Boyle; CHARLES LAMB (Vol. 16, p. 104), by E. V. Lucas, editor of Lamb; WILLIAM HAZLITT (Vol. 13, p. 119), LEIGH HUNT (Vol. 13, p. 934); DE QUINCEY (Vol. 8, p. 61), by J. Ritchie Findlay, author of Personal Recollections of De Quincey; KEATS (Vol. 15, p. 708), by A. C. Swinburne and Margaret Bryant; THOMAS LOVELL BEDDOES (Vol. 3, p. 614), THOMAS HOOD (Vol. 13, p. 666), LANDOR (Vol. 16, p. 161), by A. C. Swinburne; SHELLEY (Vol. 24, p. 827), by W. M. Rossetti; SOUTHEY (Vol. 25, p. 511), CAMPBELL (Vol. 5, p. 130), THOMAS MOORE (Vol. 18, p. 810), LORD BYRON (Vol. 4, p. 897), by E. Hartley Coleridge, editor of Byron’s Poems; FRANCIS JEFFREY (Vol. 15, p. 307), SYDNEY SMITH (Vol. 25, p. 268), J. G. LOCKHART (Vol. 16, p. 853), WILLIAM GIFFORD (Vol. 12, p. 5), BENTHAM (Vol. 3, p. 747), by Dr. T. E. Holland, formerly professor of international law, Oxford, MALTHUS (Vol. 17, p. 515), HENRY HALLAM (Vol. 12, p. 851), by Lord Lochee of Gowrie; WILLIAM ROSCOE (Vol. 23, p. 726), by W. E. A. Axon, Manchester Libraries; LINGARD (Vol. 16, p. 728), HENRY HART MILMAN (Vol. 18, p. 476), MACAULAY (Vol. 17, p. 193), by Mark Pattison; THIRLWALL (Vol. 26, p. 851), WILLIAM MITFORD (Vol. 18, p. 620), GROTE (Vol. 12, p. 619), by J. M. Mitchell, edition of Grote’s Greece, JAMES MILL (Vol. 18, p. 453), SIR WILLIAM NAPIER (Vol. 19, p. 175), WILLIAM COBBETT (Vol. 6, p. 606), SIR WALTER SCOTT (Vol. 24, p. 469), by William Minto; [Sidenote: Fiction] LEVER (Vol. 16, pp. 508–510), MARRYAT (Vol. 17, p. 759), BULWER LYTTON (Vol. 17, p. 185), by Arthur Waugh; BEACONSFIELD (Vol. 3, p. 563), by Frederick Greenwood; JANE AUSTEN (Vol. 2, p. 936), by E. V. Lucas; MARIA EDGEWORTH (Vol. 8, p. 934), HARRIET MARTINEAU (Vol. 17, p. 796), MARY RUSSELL MITFORD (Vol. 18, p. 619), ELIZABETH CLEGHORN GASKELL (Vol. 11, p. 501) and the BRONTËS (Vol. 4, p. 637), by C. K. Shorter; THOMAS LOVE PEACOCK (Vol. 21, p. 21), by Richard Garnett; GEORGE MEREDITH (Vol. 18, p. 160), by Hugh Chisholm; [Sidenote: Tennyson, Browning and Carlyle] TENNYSON (Vol. 26, p. 630), by E. Gosse; ELIZABETH BARRETT BROWNING (Vol. 4, p. 668), by Alice Meynell; ROBERT BROWNING (Vol. 4, p. 670) and CARLYLE (Vol. 5, p. 349), both by Sir Leslie Stephen; CHARLES READ (Vol. 22, p. 938), DICKENS (Vol. 8, p. 178), by Thomas Seccombe; [Sidenote: Victorian Novelists] THACKERAY (Vol. 26, p. 716), by W. H. Pollock; GEORGE ELIOT (Vol. 9, p. 275), by Mrs. Craigie (“John Oliver Hobbes”); ANTHONY TROLLOPE (Vol. 27, p. 301), WILKIE COLLINS (Vol. 6, p. 693), CHARLES and HENRY KINGSLEY (Vol. 15, p. 817); HERBERT SPENCER (Vol. 25, p. 634), by F. C. S. Schiller, author of Studies in Humanism, etc.; [Sidenote: Natural Science] JOHN STUART MILL (Vol. 18, p. 454), by William Minto and J. M. Mitchell; CHARLES DARWIN (Vol. 7, p. 840), by Prof. E. B. Poulton, Oxford; HUXLEY (Vol. 14, p. 17), by Sir W. T. Thiselton-Dyer; J. R. GREEN (Vol. 12, p. 534), [Sidenote: History] WILLIAM STUBBS (Vol. 25, p. 1048), E. A. FREEMAN (Vol. 11, p. 79) and J. A. FROUDE (Vol. 11, p. 252), all by William Hunt, formerly president Royal Historical Society; LECKY (Vol. 16, p. 354), BUCKLE (Vol. 4, p. 732), MAINE (Vol. 17, p. 432), by Sir Frederick Pollock; GEORGE BORROW (Vol. 4, p. 275), by Theodore Watts-Dunton; [Sidenote: Arnold] EDWARD FITZGERALD (Vol. 10, p. 443), by E. Gosse; MATTHEW ARNOLD (Vol. 2, p. 635), by Theodore Watts-Dunton and Sir Joshua Girling Fitch; [Sidenote: Ruskin] JOHN RUSKIN (Vol. 23, p. 858), by Frederic Harrison; DANTE GABRIEL ROSSETTI (Vol. 23, p. 747), by Theodore Watts-Dunton and F. G. Stephens, formerly art-critic of the Athenaeum; SWINBURNE (Vol. 26, p. 234), by E. Gosse; WILLIAM MORRIS (Vol. 18, p. 871), JOHN ADDINGTON SYMONDS (Vol. 26, p. 286) and WALTER PATER (Vol. 20, p. 910) all by Arthur Waugh; [Sidenote: Oxford Movement] NEWMAN (Vol. 19, p. 517), by Arthur Wollaston Hutton, biographer of Manning; JOHN KEBLE (Vol. 15, p. 710), EDWARD BOUVERIE PUSEY (Vol. 22, p. 667), RICHARD JEFFERIES (Vol. 15, p. 300), by Sir Walter Besant, biographer of Jeffries; THOMAS HARDY (Vol. 12, p. 946), by Arthur Symons; ROBERT STEVENSON (Vol. 25, p. 907), by E. Gosse; and among later names—the historians LORD ACTON (Vol. 1, p. 159), by Hugh Chisholm, [Sidenote: History] MANDELL CREIGHTON (Vol. 7, p. 401), MORLEY (Vol. 18, p. 841), BRYCE (Vol. 4, p. 699) and BURY (Vol. 4, p. 867); the novelists WILLIAM BLACK (Vol. 4, p. 19), BLACKMORE (Vol. 4, p. 24), M. E. BRADDON (Vol. 4, p. 369), MRS. HUMPHRY WARD (Vol. 28, p. 320), MARIE CORELLI (Vol. 7, p. 143), HALL CAINE (Vol. 4, p. 949), GEORGE GISSING (Vol. 12, p. 52), GEORGE MOORE (Vol. 18, p. 808), H. G. WELLS (Vol. 28, p. 514), WILLIAM DE MORGAN (Vol. 8, p. 10), [Sidenote: Fiction] RUDYARD KIPLING (Vol. 15, p. 825), by W. Price James, author of Romantic Professions, etc.; the critics and essayists WALTER BAGEHOT (Vol. 3, p. 198), by Richard Garnett, STOPFORD A. BROOK (Vol. 4, p. 645), MARK PATTISON (Vol. 20, p. 937), [Sidenote: Essays and Criticism] LESLIE STEPHEN (Vol. 25, p. 885), by Thomas Seccombe, H. D. TRAILL (Vol. 27, p. 155), GEORGE SAINTSBURY (Vol. 24, p. 45), SIDNEY COLVIN (Vol. 6, p. 748), WATTS-DUNTON (Vol. 28, p. 422), R. C. JEBB (Vol. 15, p. 299), F. W. H. MYERS (Vol. 19, p. 111), EDWARD DOWDEN (Vol. 8, p. 456), WILLIAM ARCHER (Vol. 2, p. 362), RICHARD GARNETT (Vol. 11, p. 471), EDMUND GOSSE (Vol. 12, p. 268), ANDREW LANG (Vol. 16, p. 171), G. K. CHESTERTON (Vol. 6, p. 111), ARTHUR SYMONS (Vol. 26, p. 287),—a list in which it is interesting to note how many are contributors to the Encyclopaedia Britannica; of poets, [Sidenote: Recent Poetry] ROBERT BRIDGES (Vol. 4, p. 532), so recently named poet-laureate, his predecessor ALFRED AUSTIN (Vol. 2, p. 938), WILLIAM WATSON (Vol. 28, p. 414), by W. Price James, W. B. YEATS (Vol. 28, p. 909), WILLIAM SHARP, “Fiona Macleod” (Vol. 24, p. 811), FRANCIS THOMPSON (Vol. 26, p. 869), JOHN DAVIDSON (Vol. 7, p. 863), SIR W. S. GILBERT (Vol. 12, p. 9), by Thomas Seccombe; OWEN SEAMAN (Vol. 24, p. 543), LAURENCE BINYON (Vol. 3, p. 952), H. J. NEWBOLT (Vol. 19, p. 463), STEPHEN PHILLIPS (Vol. 21, p. 407), ALICE MEYNELL (Vol. 18, p. 350); and of the younger dramatists, [Sidenote: Modern Drama] OSCAR WILDE (Vol. 28, p. 632), by Hugh Chisholm, SIR A. W. PINERO (Vol. 21, p. 625), A. H. JONES (Vol. 15, p. 498), J. M. BARRIE (Vol. 3, p. 435), by W. Price James; G. BERNARD SHAW (Vol. 24, p. 812),—and see also under DRAMA (Vol. 8, especially pp. 534–538).
XXXIX. GERMAN LITERATURE
The article in the Britannica on German Literature (Vol. 11, p. 783; equivalent to 55 pages of this Guide) is by Professor John George Robertson, University of London, author of History of German Literature. This article is divided into six sections, and following this scheme the course of reading below is divided into six parts, in connection with each of which the reader should first peruse the correspondingly numbered section in the article GERMAN LITERATURE.
[Sidenote: Old High German]
I. The Old High German Period, 750–1050:—the articles ULFILAS (Vol. 27, p. 565), by Charles Anderson Scott, author of Ulfilas, Apostle of the Goths; HELIAND (Vol. 13, p. 221), by Henry Bradley, author of The Story of the Goths; EINHARD (Vol. 9, p. 134), by A. W. Holland; NOTKER (Vol. 19, p. 824) and HROSVITHA (Vol. 13, p. 842), by A. W. Ward—and see Prof. Ward on the medieval drama in the article DRAMA (Vol. 8, especially p. 497).
[Sidenote: Middle Period]
II. The Middle High German Period, 1050–1350:—the articles ROMANCE (Vol. 23, p. 500), by George Saintsbury; WALTHARIUS (Vol. 28, p. 298), NIBELUNGENLIED (Vol. 19, pp. 637–640), GUDRUN (Vol. 12, p. 668), DIETRICH OF BERN (Vol. 8, p. 221), ORTNIT (Vol. 20, p. 341), WOLFDIETRICH (Vol. 28, p. 772), HELDENBUCH (Vol. 13, p. 218), LAY OF HILDEBRAND (Vol. 13, p. 460), by J. G. Robertson; RUODLIEB (Vol. 23, p. 854), ARTHURIAN LEGEND (Vol. 2, p. 684), PERCEVAL (Vol. 21, p. 132), and TRISTAN (Vol. 27, pp. 292–294), by J. L. Weston, author of Legends of the Wagner Drama; HARTMANN VON AUE (Vol. 13, p. 37), GOTTFRIED VON STRASSBURG (Vol. 12, p. 277), WOLFRAM VON ESCHENBACH (Vol. 28, p. 775), by J. L. Weston; WALTHER VON DER VOGELWEIDE (Vol. 28, p. 299), MINNESINGERS (Vol. 18, p. 547), FREIDANK (Vol. 11, p. 94), CONRAD OF WÜRZBURG (Vol. 6, p. 968).
[Sidenote: 14th and 15th Centuries]
III. The Transition Period, 1350–1600:—the articles FRAUENLOB (Vol. 11, p. 42), REYNARD THE FOX (Vol. 23, p. 226), SEBASTIAN BRANT (Vol. 4, p. 431), MAXIMILIAN I. (Vol. 17, p. 922), by A. W. Holland; MEISTERSINGER (Vol. 18, p. 86) and EULENSPIEGEL (Vol. 9, p. 887), by J. G. Robertson; HANS SACHS (Vol. 23, p. 972), TAULER (Vol. 26, p. 452), GEILER VON KAISERBERG (Vol. 11, p. 553), ERASMUS (Vol. 9, p. 727), by Mark Pattison and P. S. Allen, editor of the Oxford Erasmus; REUCHLIN (Vol. 23, p. 204), by W. Robertson Smith; ULRICH VON HUTTEN (Vol. 14, p. 14), by the Very Rev. G. W. Kitchin, Dean of Durham; MARTIN LUTHER (Vol. 17, p. 133), by Dr. T. M. Lindsay, author of A History of the Reformation; ERASMUS ALBERUS (Vol. 1, p. 504), THOMAS MURNER (Vol. 19, p. 37), JOHANN FISCHART (Vol. 10, p. 425), PHILIPP NIKODEMUS FRISCHLIN (Vol. 11, p. 232), JÖRG WICKRAM (Vol. 28, p. 619), AYRER (Vol. 3, p. 74), FAUST (Vol. 10, p. 210).
[Sidenote: Renaissance]
IV. The Renaissance, 1600–1740:—the articles PAUL GERHARDT (Vol. 11, p. 768), JAKOB BOEHME (Vol. 4, p. 113), GEORG RUDOLF WECKHERLIN (Vol. 28, p. 464), MARTIN OPITZ (Vol. 20, p. 129), GEORG PHILIPP HARSDÖRFFER (Vol. 13, p. 29), SIMON DACH (Vol. 7, p. 726), PAUL FLEMING (Vol. 10, p. 494), von LOGAU (Vol. 16, p. 877), ABRAHAM A SANCTA CLARA (Vol. 1, p. 72), JOHANN VON RIST (Vol. 23, p. 366), ANDREAS GRYPHIUS (Vol. 12, p. 642), MOSCHEROSCH (Vol. 18, p. 890), GRIMMELSHAUSEN (Vol. 12, p. 603), PUFENDORF (Vol. 22, p. 634), THOMASIUS (Vol. 26, p. 868), CHRISTIAN WOLFF (Vol. 28, p. 774), by Andrew Seth Pringle-Pattison; LEIBNITZ (Vol. 16, p. 385), by Prof. W. R. Sorley, Cambridge; SPENER (Vol. 25, p. 638), von CANITZ (Vol. 5, p. 183), JOHANN CHRISTIAN GÜNTHER (Vol. 12, p. 730), B. H. BROCKES (Vol. 4, p. 624), and, the dictator of the pseudo-classic age, GOTTSCHED (Vol. 12, p. 279).
[Sidenote: Classical Period]
V. The Classical Period of Modern German Literature, 1740–1832:—the articles J. J. BODMER (Vol. 4, p. 111), GELLERT (Vol. 11, p. 558), RABENER (Vol. 22, p. 773), J. ELIAS SCHLEGEL (Vol. 24, p. 329), KLOPSTOCK (Vol. 15, p. 848), LAVATER (Vol. 16, p. 291), GERSTENBERG (Vol. 11, p. 907), GLEIM (Vol. 12, p. 118), GÖTZ (Vol. 12, p. 289), Uz (Vol. 27, p. 828), RAMLER (Vol. 22, p. 876), HAGEDORN (Vol. 12, p. 813), ALBRECHT VON HALLER (Vol. 12, p. 855), E. C. VON KLEIST (Vol. 15, p. 846), LESSING (Vol. 16, pp. 496–499), by James Sime, author of A History of Germany, and J. G. Robertson, and Lessing’s associates—WINCKELMANN (Vol. 28, p. 707), by James Sime and J. M. Mitchell, MOSES MENDELSSOHN (Vol. 18, p. 120), by Israel Abrahams, author of A Short History of Jewish Literature, and C. F. NICOLAI (Vol. 19, p. 662)—; WIELAND (Vol. 28, p. 621), by J. G. Robertson; M. A. VON THÜMMEL (Vol. 26, p. 898), A. VON KNIGGE (Vol. 15, p. 850), MUSÄUS (Vol. 19, p. 43), BASEDOW (Vol. 3, p. 461), PESTALOZZI (Vol. 21, p. 284), HAMANN (Vol. 12, p. 869).
[Sidenote: Sturm und Drang]
On the Sturm und Drang period, the articles HERDER (Vol. 13, p. 347), the STOLBERGS (Vol. 25, p. 953), J. H. VOSS (Vol. 28, p. 215), HÖLTY (Vol. 13, p. 620), BÜRGER (Vol. 4, p. 812), M. CLAUDIUS (Vol. 6, p. 466),—all of the Göttingen school; GOETHE (Vol. 12, p. 182), by J. G. Robertson; his imitators and followers, J. M. R. LENZ (Vol. 16, p. 431), KLINGER (Vol. 15, p. 846), FRIEDRICH (“Maler”) MÜLLER (Vol. 18, p. 961), HEINSE (Vol. 13, p. 216), K. P. MORITZ (Vol. 18, p. 838); the great dramatist of the late Sturm und Drang, SCHILLER (Vol. 24, p. 324), by J. G. Robertson; A. W. IFFLAND (Vol. 14, p. 291), F. JACOBI (Vol. 15, p. 115).
On the classical period proper, the latter part of the article on Goethe and Schiller, IMMANUEL KANT (Vol. 15, p. 662), and J. G. FICHTE (Vol. 10, p. 313), both by Robert Adamson; the historians SCHLOSSER (Vol. 24, p. 342), MÖSER (Vol. 18, p. 895), and JOHANNES VON MÜLLER (Vol. 18, p. 962), by W. A. B. Coolidge; the scientists J. G. A. FORSTER (Vol. 10, p. 674), ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT (Vol. 13, p. 873), by Agnes Mary Clerke, and KARL WILHELM VON HUMBOLDT (Vol. 13, p. 875), by Archibald Henry Sayce; the dramatist KOTZEBUE (Vol. 15, p. 919); the novelist RICHTER, “Jean Paul” (Vol. 23, p. 313); and the poet MATTHISSON (Vol. 17, p. 901).
[Sidenote: Romanticism]
On the romantic school: the articles on the founders, AUGUST WILHELM SCHLEGEL and FRIEDRICH SCHLEGEL (Vol. 24, p. 328 and 329), TIECK (Vol. 26, p. 962), HÖLDERLIN (Vol. 13, p. 583), and NOVALIS (Vol. 19, p. 829); in the second Romantic school, the more realistic Heidelbergers KLEMENS BRENTANO (Vol. 4, p. 496), L. A. VON ARNIM (Vol. 2, p. 630), J. J. VON GÖRRES (Vol. 12, p. 260), and, owing much to the interest in folk-literature of the Heidelbergers, the brothers GRIMM (Vol. 12, pp. 600–602), by Dr. Henry Sweet of the University of Oxford, CHAMISSO (Vol. 5, p. 825); the patriot poets KÖRNER (Vol. 15, p. 913) and ARNDT (Vol. 2, p. 627); the North Germans KLEIST (Vol. 15, p. 846), ZACHARIAS WERNER (Vol. 28, p. 523), FOUQUÉ (Vol. 10, p. 749), E. T. W. HOFFMAN (Vol. 13, p. 561), EICHENDORFF (Vol. 9, p. 131), and RÜCKERT (Vol. 23, p. 813) and WILHELM MÜLLER (Vol. 18, p. 963), who, like Byron, found romance, one in the Orient and the other in Greek struggles for liberty; and, of the Swabian school, UHLAND (Vol. 27, p. 563), KERNER (Vol. 15, p. 757), HAUFF (Vol. 13, p. 65), and MÖRIKE (Vol. 18, p. 837); and the philosopher SCHELLING (Vol. 24, p. 316).
[Sidenote: 1832–1870]
VI. Literature since Goethe, 1832 onwards:—Read G. W. F. HEGEL (Vol. 13, p. 200, by the late Prof. William Wallace of Oxford and Prof. J. H. Muirhead, University of Birmingham), Schelling’s successor as a philosophic force in Germany; the articles on the “Young Germans” HEINE (Vol. 13, p. 213), by J. Walter Ferrier and J. G. Robertson; BÖRNE (Vol. 4, p. 255), GUTZKOW (Vol. 12, p. 744) and LAUBE (Vol. 16, p. 276); and the historians and philosophers D. F. STRAUSS (Vol. 25, p. 1002), GERVINUS (Vol. 11, p. 908), W. MENZEL (Vol. 18, p. 147) and FEUERBACH (Vol. 10, p. 303); the dramatists—some more closely connected with the preceding period,—GRABBE (Vol. 12, p. 306) and GRILLPARZER (Vol. 12, p. 596), IMMERMANN (Vol. 14, p. 335) and PLATEN-HALLERMUND (Vol. 21, p. 804), HOLTEI (Vol. 13, p. 619), RAUPACH (Vol. 22, p. 921) and MÜLLNER (Vol. 18, p. 965), and, in Austria, besides Grillparzer, COLLIN (Vol. 6, p. 690), MÜNCH-BELLINGHAUSEN, “Friedrich Halm” (Vol. 19, p. 2), BAUERNFELD (Vol. 3, p. 538) and RAIMUND (Vol. 22, p. 861); the novelists WILLIBALD ALEXIS (Vol. 1, p. 576), HAUFF (Vol. 13, p. 65) and ZSCHOKKE (Vol. 28, p. 1046); and such poets of the ’30 and the ’48 as HERWEGH (Vol. 13, p. 405), FREILIGRATH (Vol. 11, p. 94), DINGELSTEDT (Vol. 8, p. 275), HOFFMANN VON FALLERSLEBEN (Vol. 13, p. 561), and, in Austria, a little earlier, AUERSPERG, “Anastasius Grün” (Vol. 2, p. 900); and the possibly greater poets who were less interested in politics, GEIBEL (Vol. 11, p. 550), LENAU (Vol. 16, p. 417), STRACHWITZ (Vol. 25, p. 976), and DROSTE-HÜLSHOFF (Vol. 8, p. 591).
On the mid-century period:—the articles on SCHOPENHAUER (Vol. 24, p. 372, by Prof. Wallace),—the philosopher of the new age; the natural scientists VOGT (Vol. 28, p. 172), and BÜCHNER (Vol. 4, p. 719); the fiction writers SPIELHAGEN (Vol. 25, p. 667), GUSTAV FREYTAG (Vol. 11, p. 212), EBERS (Vol. 8, p. 841), DAHN (Vol. 7, p. 734), “CHARLES SEALSFIELD” (Vol. 24, p. 543), GERSTÄCKER (Vol. 11, p. 906), STORM (Vol. 25, p. 968), GOTTFRIED KELLER (Vol. 15, p. 718); and, among those who portrayed peasant and provincial life, BITZIUS, “Jeremias Gotthelf” (Vol. 4, p. 15), AUERBACH (Vol. 2, p. 899), STIFTER (Vol. 25, p. 915), FRITZ REUTER (Vol. 23, p. 210); the dramatists HEBBEL (Vol. 13, p. 165) and OTTO LUDWIG (Vol. 17, p. 114); in the Munich School, BODENSTEDT (Vol. 4, p. 109), SCHEFFEL (Vol. 24, p. 315), BAUMBACH (Vol. 3, p. 539), HAMERLING (Vol. 12, p. 876), HEYSE (Vol. 13, p. 438); and the Platt-Deutsch poet KLAUS GROTH (Vol. 12, p. 621).
[Sidenote: Since 1870]
On the period since 1870, see the articles LASSALLE (Vol. 16, p. 235, by Thomas Kirkup, author of An Inquiry into Socialism) and MARX (Vol. 17, p. 807, by Eduard Bernstein, Socialist deputy on the Reichstag) for new economic views; and LOTZE (Vol. 17, p. 23), by J. T. Merz, author of European Thought in the XIXth Century, and Henry Sturt, author of Personal Idealism, and EDUARD VON HARTMANN (Vol. 13, p. 36) for philosophical compromises between science and metaphysics and between pessimism and idealism; the dramatists ANZENGRUBER (Vol. 2, p. 158), PAUL LINDAU (Vol. 16, p. 717), and, composer and dramatist, RICHARD WAGNER (Vol. 28, p. 236), by W. S. Rockstro, author of A Great History of Music, and D. F. Tovey, author of Essays in Musical Analysis; the historians SYBEL (Vol. 26, p. 275), TREITSCHKE (Vol. 27, p. 238), RANKE (Vol. 22, p. 893), MOMMSEN (Vol. 18, p. 683) and BURCKHARDT (Vol. 4, p. 809); and Burckhardt’s friend, the early friend of Wagner and the type of a new spirit in German letters, NIETZSCHE (Vol. 19, p. 672), by F. C. S. Schiller, Oxford, author of Studies in Humanism.
The most important names of the last few years are SUDERMANN (Vol. 26, p. 20) and HAUPTMANN (Vol. 13, p. 68). See, besides, the articles on WILHELM JENSEN (Vol. 15, p. 321), WILHELM RAABE (Vol. 22, p. 765), W. BUSCH (Vol. 4, p. 869), PETER ROSEGGER (Vol. 23, p. 734), FONTANE (Vol. 10, p. 608), EBNER-ESCHENBACH (Vol. 8, p. 843), FRANZOS (Vol. 11, p. 38), K. F. MEYER (Vol. 18, p. 349), RICHARD VOSS (Vol. 28, p. 215), ERNST VON WILDENBRUCH (Vol. 28, p. 633), and for modern German drama, in the article DRAMA (Vol. 8, especially pp. 535–536).
XL. GREEK LITERATURE
In the article LITERATURE in the Britannica, by Professor James Fitzmaurice-Kelly, himself a specialist in Spanish literature, are these sentences:
The evolution of literature is completed in Greece, and there its subdivisions may best be studied. Epic poetry is represented by the Homeric cycle, lyric poetry by Tyrtaeus, dramatic poetry by Aeschylus, history by Herodotus, oratory by Pericles, philosophy by Plato, and criticism by Zoilus, the earliest of slashing reviewers; and in each department there is a long succession of illustrative names. Roughly speaking, all subsequent literature is imitative.
[Sidenote: The Main Article]
This testimony to the importance of Greek literature is all the more weighty as coming from one whose own field of criticism is in Romantic literature. The authority with which such an important subject as Greek literature is treated in the Britannica will be apparent to any classical student who notes the names of the contributors of the articles mentioned in the following course of reading. The key article GREEK LITERATURE (Vol. 12, p. 507; equivalent to 65 pages of this Guide) is divided into three sections: Ancient (p. 507), Byzantine (p. 516) and Modern (p. 524). The second section, by Prof. Karl Krumbacher of Munich, author of Geschichte der byzantinischen Literatur, and the third, by J. D. Bourchier, correspondent of The Times (London) in South-Eastern Europe, need not be dwelt upon here. To the ordinary student, in spite of the increasing interest shown in Byzantine and modern Hellenic literature, “Greek literature” must mean the literature of ancient Greece, and for him the first part of the article will be the foundation of his study of the subject. This section of the article is by the late Sir Richard C. Jebb, professor of Greek at Glasgow and then at Cambridge, known as the biographer of Bentley, as the author of an excellent brief history of Greek literature, and as an authority on subdivisions of that subject so diverse as rhetoric and oratory on the one side and lyric and dramatic poetry on the other.
Jebb’s article divides ancient Greek literature into three periods: Early, including epic, elegiac, iambic and lyric poetry and coming down to 475 B.C.; Attic, 475–300 B.C., including tragic and comic drama and historical, oratorical and philosophical prose; and Decadence—Alexandrian, 300–146 B.C., and Greco-Roman, 146 B.C.–529 A.D.
[Sidenote: Epic]
In the first of these periods the student should supplement Professor Jebb’s treatment in the article GREEK LITERATURE by the following articles: EPIC POETRY (Vol. 9, p. 681), a general sketch of the form by Edmund Gosse; HOMER (Vol. 13, p. 626; equivalent to 40 pages of this Guide), by the late Prof. David Binning Monro of Oriel College, Oxford, editor of Homer and author of Grammar of the Homeric Dialect,—and on the “Homeric question” see also the articles ARISTARCHUS and F. A. WOLF; HESIOD (Vol. 13, p. 407), by James Davies, formerly head master Ludlow Grammar School, and John Henry Freese, formerly fellow St. John’s, Cambridge; CYCLE (Vol. 7, p. 682; last part of the article); and the cyclic poets, STASINUS, ARCTINUS, LESCHES, and CREOPHYLUS.
[Sidenote: Elegy]
For the elegy see Edmund Gosse’s article ELEGY; and on the Greek elegists, the articles CALLINUS and TYRTÆUS for martial poetry, MIMNERMUS for melancholy verse, SOLON for political and ethical poetry, THEOGNIS and PHOCYLIDES for the gnomic elegy, and XENOPHANES for the use of the measure in didactic philosophical verse. On iambic verse and its Greek writers before the time of the drama see: IAMBIC, ARCHILOCHUS, SIMONIDES OF AMORGOS, and HIPPONAX.
[Sidenote: Lyric Poetry]
The third poetic form of the period, one which unfortunately has come down to us only in tantalizingly brief fragments—comparable to the quotations illustrating word-usage in our dictionaries—is the lyric. On this see the general article LYRICAL POETRY, by Edmund Gosse, on this form in different literatures, and the sketches of the Greek lyrists the Aeolians ALCAEUS (see also the article ALCAICS) and SAPPHO, by Prof. John Arthur Platt, University College, London; PRAXILLA and ERINNA, Sappho’s rivals as lyric poetesses; the Ionian ANACREON (see also the article ANACREONTICS, by Edmund Gosse); the Dorian ALCMAN; STESICHORUS, ARION and IBYCUS; SIMONIDES, who may be called Panhellenic; PINDAR (Vol. 21, p. 617; equivalent to 10 pages of this Guide, by Sir R. C. Jebb), the only Greek lyrist whose work has come down to us in any considerable quantity, and whose poems are such remarkable examples of metrical structure; BACCHYLIDES (Vol. 3, p. 121; equivalent to 9 pages of this Guide; also by Sir R. C. Jebb, who was one of the first editors), Pindar’s rival, whose poems until a few years ago were known to us only by brief quotations by grammarians, but who had the good luck to survive in papyrus lately found in Egypt; and TIMOTHEUS of Miletus, of whose “Persians” a valuable fragment was found in 1903 in what seems to be the oldest papyrus in existence.
[Sidenote: Attic Literature]
[Sidenote: Comedy]
The Attic period has two important developments—the drama, tragic and comic, and the beginnings of a Greek prose. For the drama read the part of Prof. A. W. Ward’s article DRAMA dealing with the Greek period (Vol. 8, pp. 488–493), and the article COMEDY; and the articles on the great dramatists:—the tragedians THESPIS, CHOERILUS, PHRYNICHUS and PRATINAS in the earlier period; AESCHYLUS (Vol. 1, p. 272; equivalent to 12 pages of this Guide), by Arthur Sidgwick, fellow of Corpus Christi, Oxford, and editor of the Oxford text of Aeschylus; SOPHOCLES (Vol. 25, p. 424; equivalent to 12 pages of this Guide), by Lewis Campbell, editor and translator of this poet; and EURIPIDES (Vol. 9, p. 901; equivalent to 15 pages of this Guide), in the main by Sir R. C. Jebb; and the comic poets,—the Sicilian EPICHARMUS; the representatives of the Attic Old Comedy, CRATINUS, CRATES, PHERECRATES, EUPOLIS, PHRYNICHUS (not to be confused with the tragic poet of that name), MAGNES, PLATO (to be distinguished from the philosopher),—all these known to us only by allusions and chance quotations—and ARISTOPHANES (Vol. 2, p. 499; equivalent to 7 pages of this Guide, by Sir R. C. Jebb), the only Greek poet of whom we have complete plays and probably the greatest of the writers of Greek comedy; the names—they are little more—of EUBULUS, ANTIPHANES, ALEXIS in the Middle Comedy; and in the New Comedy or third period, PHILEMON, MENANDER (by J. H. Freese), who was so highly esteemed and so constantly pilfered from by the Roman comic writers, and of whose plays large fragments have been found in the last few years; DIPHILUS, APOLLODORUS of Carystus, POSIDIPPUS, RHINTHON and SOTADES.
[Sidenote: History]
The prose of the Attic period we may divide roughly into history, oratory and philosophy. On the historians read LOGOGRAPHI, GREECE, Ancient History, “Authorities” (Vol. 12, p. 454), with criticism of the historical accuracy of Herodotus, Thucydides, Diodorus, Plutarch, Xenophon, etc., HECATAEUS of Miletus, HERODOTUS (Vol. 13, p. 381; equivalent to 10 pages of this Guide), by the historian George Rawlinson and E. M. Walker, librarian of Queen’s College, Oxford; THUCYDIDES (Vol. 26, p. 893; equivalent to 10 pages of the Guide), by Sir R. C. Jebb, and Malcolm Mitchell, editor of Grote’s Greece; XENOPHON (Vol. 28, p. 885; equivalent to 7 pages in this Guide), by E. M. Walker and J. H. Freese; CTESIAS, PHILISTUS, THEOPOMPUS, and TIMAEUS.
[Sidenote: Oratory]
On Attic orators read ANDOCIDES, LYSIAS, ISOCRATES, ISAEUS, ANTIPHON, DEMOSTHENES, AESCHINES, HYPEREIDES,—most of these articles being by Sir R. C. Jebb, who was particularly versed in this branch of Greek literature. The special student of the orators should read also the articles GREEK LAW (Vol. 12, p. 501; equivalent to 15 pages in this Guide), by Prof. J. E. Sandys of Cambridge, author of A History of Classical Scholarship, etc.; SOPHISTS (Vol. 25, p. 418, equivalent to 20 pages of this Guide), by Prof. Henry Jackson of Cambridge, a well-known writer on Greek philosophy, and RHETORIC (Vol. 23, p. 233), by Sir R. C. Jebb.
On Greek philosophical writing see the articles PHERECYDES of Syros, ANAXIMENES of Miletus, ANAXIMANDER, and the names great not only in Greek thought and literature but in the world’s—PLATO (Vol. 21, p. 808; equivalent to about 50 pages of this Guide), by Lewis Campbell, editor and critic of many of the Platonic dialogues, and ARISTOTLE (Vol. 2, p. 501; equivalent to 70 pages of this Guide), by Prof. Thomas Case, Oxford, author of Physical Realism, etc. For a fuller guide to Greek philosophy see the chapter in this Guide on Philosophy.
[Sidenote: Decadence]
The third period of classical Greek literature was one of Greek thought in unGreek surroundings—see the article HELLENISM, by E. R. Bevan, author of The House of Seleucus, etc.,—and this came to its first and finest flower in Alexandria, in Egypt, under the Ptolemies—see the article ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL, especially that part of it dealing with Literature (Vol. 1, p. 573). On the writers of the Alexandrian period see: for poetry, PHILETAS, HERMESIANAX, ASCLEPIADES of Samos, and the comic poets SOTADES and RHINTHON, already mentioned; HERODAS, by W. G. Headlam, editor of Herodas; the idyllist THEOCRITUS (Vol. 26, p. 760), by A. C. Clark, fellow of Queen’s, Oxford; Theocritus’s followers BION and MOSCHUS; the mythologist CALLIMACHUS, who influenced Catullus as much as Theocritus did the young Virgil; the didactic poet ARATUS, whom Cicero translated into Latin and whom Virgil imitated in his Georgics; the epic APOLLONIUS of Rhodes, and the late tragedian LYCOPHRON; and for prose the critic ARISTARCHUS.
In the Greco-Roman period, following the Alexandrian the principal articles for the student are: the historians POLYBIUS and DIODORUS SICULUS, the satirist LUCIAN, the later historians DIONYSIUS HALICARNASSENSIS, DIO CASSIUS, ARRIAN, APPIAN, HERODIAN, EUSEBIUS, ZOSIMUS, the biographers PLUTARCH, DIOGENES LAERTIUS, PHILOSTRATUS, the rhetoricians LONGINUS and DIO CHRYSOSTOM, and the emperor philosopher MARCUS AURELIUS and his forerunner the “slave philosopher” EPICTETUS.
Possibly the most typical output of the later Greek age is the matchless collection of short poems known to us as “the Greek Anthology”; on this see the articles EPIGRAM and ANTHOLOGY.
XLI. BIBLE STUDY
It is impossible for the student to consider the subject of Bible Study without being impressed by the immense labour and the profound scholarship which have been devoted to the interpretation and discussion of Scripture. Continued investigation has solved many difficulties, but has also vastly increased the mass of evidences and conjectures which must be weighed in connection with any doubtful passages. The Britannica tells us, for example, (Vol. 3, pp. 903, 904) that the translators of the King James’s version spent only two years and nine months over their task, while the work on the Revised Version took eleven years for the New Testament and fourteen for the Old Testament.
[Sidenote: The Bible as a Focus of Thought]
It is equally true that all the time which learned men have given to translating and elucidating the text seems nothing when it is compared with the time that mankind at large have spent in reading it. But the Britannica mentions a report of the great English Bible Society, the “British and Foreign,” in which the copies circulated by it are totalled at more than 198 million, and, for the American Bible Society and its federated associations, it gives a total of more than 84 million copies (Vol. 3, p. 907). It has often been said that the English Bible is the only example of a translation that became more famous than the original, and it is as true that no other translation has been the source of so many secondary translations, for versions in no less than 530 distinct languages and dialects have been derived from the English text. It is interesting to note, although in this case the English version has certainly nothing to do with the matter, that “in Italy, by a departure from the traditional policy of the Roman Church, the newly formed, ‘Pious Society of St. Jerome for the Dissemination of the Holy Gospels’ issued in 1901, from the Vatican press, a new Italian version of the Four Gospels and Acts,” and sold 400,000 copies at 4 cents each.
As a sort of threshold-study, it will be well to consider three topics: Hebrew Literature, Hebrew Religion and Biblical History.
[Sidenote: Preliminaries]
HEBREW LITERATURE (Vol. 13, p. 169), by Dr. Arthur Cowley, of the Bodleian Library, Oxford, points out that the term “Hebrew Literature” is loosely used of “all works written in Hebrew characters, whether the language be Aramaic, Arabic, or even some vernacular not related to Hebrew;” and that “this literature begins with, as it is almost entirely based upon, the Old Testament.” This article on Hebrew Literature may be supplemented by the following articles:
TARGUM, by John Frederick Stenning, lecturer in Aramaic at Oxford.
HALAKHA │by Israel Abrahams, reader in │ Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature, │ Cambridge. QARAITES │ „ ───────────────────────────────────┼─────────────────────────────────── TALMUD │by Stanley Arthur Cook, lecturer in │ Hebrew and Syriac, Cambridge. MIDRASH │ „
SEADIAH, by Dr. Arthur Cowley.
MAIMONIDES, by Herbert Loewe, curator of Oriental Literature, Cambridge.
[Sidenote: Hebrew Religion]
Quite as important is the article HEBREW RELIGION (Vol. 13, p. 176), by the Rev. Dr. Owen Charles Whitehouse of Christ’s and Cheshunt Colleges, Cambridge. His treatment of the subject is comparative and historical. There is an interesting summary of what is known and may be inferred about pre-Mosaic religion; and it is important to notice that the author does not consider that the plural Elohim used in certain Old Testament passages to mean “God” is to be understood as “a comprehensive expression for the multitude of gods embraced in the One God of Old Testament religion,” but explains the plural as one “of majesty” like the “we” of royalty. Blood-offerings and magic charms against demons and jinns may be assumed as belonging to the early Hebrew religion as to the later Arabian period before Mahomet. Dr. Whitehouse thinks that there is little or no trace of totemism but possibly some of ancestor-worship in the Jews’ religion.
Among the many articles supplementing this general treatment of Hebrew religion the following are possibly the most important:
CIRCUMCISION, by Israel Abrahams.
TERAPHIM, by W. Robertson Smith and G. H. Box, formerly lecturer in theology, Oxford.
BAAL, by W. Robertson Smith and Stanley Arthur Cook, editor for Palestine Exploration Fund.
CALF, THE GOLDEN, by S. A. Cook.
HIGH PLACES.
FEASTS AND FESTIVALS.
PASSOVER, by Dr. Joseph Jacobs of the Jewish Theological Seminary of New York City.
PENTECOST, by Dr. O. C. Whitehouse.
ARK, by Stanley Arthur Cook.
TABERNACLE and TEMPLE, by Dr. Archibald R. S. Kennedy, professor of Hebrew and Semitic languages, Edinburgh.
EPHOD, by S. A. Cook.
URIM AND THUMMIM, by G. H. Box.
PROPHET, by W. Robertson Smith, Owen Charles Whitehouse, Adolf Harnack of Berlin, and Professor A. C. McGiffert of Union Theological Seminary, New York.
JEHOVAH, by George Foot Moore, professor of history of religion, Harvard.
MESSIAH, by W. Robertson Smith and O. C. Whitehouse.
ESCHATOLOGY, by Dr. A. E. Garvie, principal of New College, Hampstead.
ANGEL, by William Henry Bennett, professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges, London.
[Sidenote: Biblical History]
The third topic is history and for this the student should read the article JEWS (Vol. 15, p. 371), especially the part on Old Testament History, by S. A. Cook; the article PALESTINE, Physical Features, by R. A. S. Macalister, director of excavations for the Palestine Exploration Fund, Old Testament History, by S. A. Cook, especially the treatment of Biblical Religion (pp. 610–611 of Vol. 20); CANAAN, by Dr. Thomas Kelly Cheyne, formerly Oriel professor of interpretation of Scripture, Oxford; HITTITES, by D. G. Hogarth, keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.
[Sidenote: The Article Bible]
But of course the central article for the Bible student is the article BIBLE (Vol. 3, p. 849), which is divided into two main parts—Old Testament and New Testament, each of these being divided in turn into five parts: Canon, Texts and Versions, Textual Criticism, Higher Criticism, and Chronology. This logical arrangement greatly enhances the value of the article, which is in itself an excellent summary of the subject written by the following authorities: Dr. Samuel Rolles Driver, professor of Hebrew, Oxford, on Old Testament canon and chronology; John Frederick Stenning, dean of Wadham College, Oxford, and lecturer in Aramaic, on Old Testament texts and versions; Dr. George Buchanan Gray, professor of Hebrew and Old Testament exegesis, Mansfield College, Oxford, on Old Testament textual and higher criticism; Dr. William Sanday, professor of Divinity and canon of Christ Church, Oxford, on New Testament canon; the Rev. Kirsopp Lake, author of The Text of the New Testament, etc., and professor of New Testament exegesis at Leiden, on New Testament texts and versions and textual criticism; Dr. Francis Crawford Burkitt, professor of divinity, Cambridge, and author of The Gospel History and its Transmission, etc., on New Testament higher criticism; and Cuthbert Hamilton Turner, of Magdalen College, Oxford, on New Testament chronology.
The article BIBLE, ENGLISH (Vol. 3, p. 894), by Anna C. Paues, author of A Fourteenth Century Biblical Version, and Canon Henson of Westminster Abbey (on the Revised Version) is accompanied by a plate with fac-similes of several early English Bibles and is besides of special value as giving quotations from different versions in Anglo-Saxon and later English. The article BIBLE SOCIETIES (Vol. 3, p. 905), by the Rev. Thomas Herbert Darlow, literary superintendent of the British and Foreign Bible Society, will also be of value to the student.
[Sidenote: Inspiration]
One other general article should be studied before the articles on different books of the Bible are taken up. This is—INSPIRATION (Vol. 14, p. 645), by Dr. Alfred Ernest Garvie, author of Studies in the Inner Life of Jesus; it outlines the principal theories of inspiration—
(1) Mechanical dictation or verbal inspiration;
(2) Dynamic influence or degrees of inspiration;
(3) Essential inspiration, distinguishing matters of doctrine and conduct from the remaining contents of Scripture;
(4) Vital inspiration, emphasizing religious and moral life.
[Sidenote: The Hexateuch]
A course of study in the books of the Bible may well start with the outline in the article BIBLE, especially pages 851–854 for the Old Testament. For the Hexateuch the student should read first the brief article HEXATEUCH; then what there is under BIBLE on pp. 851–852 of Vol. 3; then under JEWS for the early period; and then the articles:
GENESIS, by S. A. Cook; and the subsidiary articles: COSMOGONY, EDEN, PARADISE, ADAM, EVE, ABEL, CAIN, ENOCH, LAMECH, NOAH, DELUGE, ARARAT, ARK, BABEL, CANAAN, GENEALOGY, NIMROD, HAM, SHEM, JAPHETH, ABRAHAM, BEERSHEBA, MELCHIZEDEK, ISAAC, MIDIAN, ABIMELECH, ISHMAEL, ESAU, JACOB, JACOB’S WELL, BETHEL, ISRAEL, SIMEON, SHECHEM, REUBEN, ISSACHAR, ZEBULUN, DAN, NAPHTALI, ASHER, GAD, MANASSEH, JOSEPH, BENJAMIN, LOT, MOAB, AMMONITES, GOSHEN, etc.
EXODUS, BOOK OF, by John Frederick Stenning, and EXODUS by S. A. Cook; and the articles MOSES, AARON, RAMESES, PITHOM, AMALEKITES, JETHRO, PASSOVER, SINAI, HOREB, DECALOGUE, SABBATH, CALF (GOLDEN), TABERNACLE, ARK, URIM AND THUMMIM.
LEVITICUS, by J. F. Stenning and LEVITES, by S. A. Cook; and SACRIFICE, ATONEMENT AND DAY OF ATONEMENT, MOLOCH, PENTECOST.
NUMBERS, by Dr. James Alexander Paterson, professor of Hebrew, New College, Edinburgh; and the articles BALAAM, HEBRON.
DEUTERONOMY, by Dr. Paterson, and the articles EZRA, NEHEMIAH, and JOSIAH.
JOSHUA, by S. A. Cook, and the articles AMALEKITES, GIBEONITES, HIVITES, PHILISTINES, GEZER, JUDAH, CALEB, SHECHEM.
JUDGES, BOOK OF, by S. A. Cook, and the articles, OTHNIEL, EHUD, DEBORAH, GIBEON, ABIMELECH, JEPHTHAH, SHIBBOLETH, SAMSON, EPHOD, TERAPHIM, MICAH (of Ephraim).
SAMUEL, BOOKS OF, and SAMUEL, by S. A. Cook; and the articles ELI, SHILOH, ARK, SAUL, JONATHAN, DAVID, GOLIATH, AHITHOPHEL, JASHAR, ABSALOM, JERAHMEEL, KENITES.
KINGS, BOOKS OF, by S. A. Cook; and the articles DAVID, ADONIJAH, SOLOMON, TEMPLE, JERUSALEM, ABIATHAR, JOAB, EPHRAIM, JEROBOAM, REHOBOAM, ASA, OMRI, AHAB, JEHOSHAPHAT, JEHORAM, ATHALIAH, AHAZIAH, ELIJAH, CARMEL, JORDAN, ELISHA, JEHU, RECHABITES, JOASH, AZARIAH, HOSEA, UZZIAH, AHAZ, ISAIAH, HEZEKIAH, MANASSEH, JOSIAH, JEHOIACHIN, SAMARIA.
CHRONICLES, by W. Robertson Smith and S. A. Cook; and the articles ABSALOM, DAVID, UZZIAH, JUBILEES, MIDRASH, LEVITES and many mentioned above under SAMUEL and KINGS.
EZRA AND NEHEMIAH, BOOKS OF, by S. A. Cook; the article EZRA; and, as the books are to be grouped with CHRONICLES, that article and DEUTERONOMY, and the article SAMARITANS and those on the two “apocryphal” books, EZRA, THIRD BOOK OF, and EZRA, FOURTH BOOK OF, by Dr. Robert Henry Charles, lecturer in Biblical studies, Oxford. See also SYNAGOGUE.
[Sidenote: The Prophets]
For the prophetical books the article PROPHET as an introduction, and then:
ISAIAH, by T. K. Cheyne; and, for outline, under BIBLE, Vol. 3, p. 853; and EMMANUEL (on chap. 7) and MESSIAH and ATONEMENT (on chap. 53).
JEREMIAH, by T. K. Cheyne; and the articles BARUCH, ZEDEKIAH, NEBUCHADREZZAR, EDOM, AMMONITES, MOAB.
LAMENTATIONS, by the Rev. Charles James Ball, lecturer in ASSYRIOLOGY, Oxford, with peculiarly valuable information about poetical structure and acrostic verse, some suggested emendations of the text, and a summary of the arguments in regard to the authorship.
EZEKIEL, by Professor C. H. Toy of Harvard University; and the articles ZEDEKIAH, and, for certain literary forms, ALLEGORY and PARABLE.
[Sidenote: Minor Prophets]
The Minor Prophets: see Vol. 3, p. 853; Vol. 22, p. 443; Vol. 13, p. 183.
HOSEA, by W. Robertson Smith and the Rev. Henry Wheeler Robinson, professor of church history, Rawdon College, Leeds; articles BAAL, CALF (GOLDEN), etc.
JOEL, by W. Robertson Smith and T. K. Cheyne; and ESCHATOLOGY, etc.
AMOS, by T. K. Cheyne; JEROBOAM, etc.
OBADIAH, by W. Robertson Smith and H. W. Robinson; and EDOM, ESCHATOLOGY, etc.
JONAH, by T. K. Cheyne; and the article NINEVEH, and, for an explanation of the “great fish,” COSMOGONY.
MICAH, by W. Robertson Smith and H. W. Robinson; and SAMARIA, HIGH PLACE, MESSIAH, ESCHATOLOGY.
NAHUM, by G. H. Box; NINEVEH, etc.
HABAKKUK, by H. W. Robinson; CHALDAEAN, etc.
ZEPHANIAH, by S. A. Cook; and BAAL, MOLOCH, COSTUME, Oriental (Vol. 7, p. 226 sq., for chap. 1, v. 8), etc.
HAGGAI, by W. Robertson Smith and Dr. A. J. Grieve, professor at the United Independent College, Bradford; and the article TEMPLE.
ZECHARIAH, by Julius Wellhausen, professor at Göttingen, and H. W. Robinson; and the articles ANGEL, TEMPLE, MESSIAH, ZION, JAPHETH and IONIANS (for “Javan” of chap. 9, v. 13).
MALACHI, by W. Robertson Smith and H. W. Robinson.
[Sidenote: Psalms]
PSALMS is by W. Robertson Smith and Dr. Robert Hatch Kennett, Canon of Ely and professor of Hebrew, Cambridge; read the articles HALLEL, DAVID, SOLOMON, TEMPLE, LEVITES (for Levitical Psalms), ASAPH, CHRONICLES, EZRA, PSALTERY, LITURGY, the section of Hebrew Hymnody in, and the whole article HYMNS; BIBLE, ENGLISH, for the version of the Psalms in the English Prayer Book from the Great Bible; and, for Psalms 9, 10, 25, 34, 37, 111, 112, 119 and 145, and the article ACROSTIC. See also R. H. Charles’s article on the apocryphal book, SOLOMON, PSALMS OF.
[Sidenote: Wisdom Literature]
The student should read the article WISDOM LITERATURE, by Prof. C. H. Toy of Harvard as an introduction to PROVERBS, JOB and ECCLESIASTES (and to the apocryphal WISDOM, BOOK OF—see article by Professor Toy; ECCLESIASTICUS,—see article by William Emery Barnes, Hulsean professor of Divinity, Cambridge; TOBIT,—see article by St. George Stock, lecturer University of Birmingham; and 4th MACCABEES—see the article MACCABEES, by Dr. William Fairweather, editor of Maccabees in the “Cambridge Bible for Schools.”)
PROVERBS, BOOK OF, by C. H. Toy; and the articles SOLOMON, PROVERB and, for other famous collections, PUBLILIUS, ERASMUS, etc.
JOB, by Dr. Andrew B. Davidson, late professor of Oriental languages, New College, Edinburgh, and author of a Commentary on Job, and Prof. C. H. Toy; and the articles DEVIL (for the meaning of “Satan” in chap. 1, v. 6); SABAEANS, UZ, BEHEMOTH, etc.
ECCLESIASTES, by Professor Toy; the articles PESSIMISM, ESCHATOLOGY, SADDUCEES.
CANTICLES, by W. Robertson Smith and H. W. Robinson.
[Sidenote: Other Old Testament Books]
ESTHER, by T. K. Cheyne and, on the “additions,” Dr. Robert Henry Charles, Grinfield lecturer, Oxford; and the articles AHASUERUS, SUSA, COSMOGONY, PURIM.
RUTH, by W. Robertson Smith and S. A. Cook; and the articles BETHLEHEM, CALEB, and, for the marriage custom underlying the story, the article on LEVIRATE.
DANIEL, by John Dyneley Prince, professor of Semitic languages, Columbia University, and, for the “additions,” Susannah, Bel and the Dragon, and The Song of the Three Children, the Rev. Dr. Robert Henry Charles; the article SEMITIC LANGUAGES for the Aramaic of chapters 2 (from verse 4) to 7; ANGELS, GABRIEL, MICHAEL; CHALDAEAN and CHALDEE; BELSHAZZAR; APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE (for chapters 7–12).
[Sidenote: Apocrypha]
Before passing to the New Testament the student should read the article APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE, by Robert Henry Charles; and the articles on the separate books: EZRA, THIRD BOOK OF (1 Esdras) and EZRA, FOURTH BOOK (or APOCALYPSE), both by Robert Henry Charles; JUDITH, by the same scholar; ECCLESIASTICUS, by Dr. W. E. Barnes; BARUCH, by R. H. Charles; TOBIT, by St. George Stock; JEREMY, EPISTLE OF, by R. H. Charles; MACCABEES, BOOKS OF, and MACCABEES, by the Rev. Dr. William Fairweather; MANASSES, PRAYER OF, by R. H. Charles, and MANASSEH; and WISDOM, BOOK OF, by C. H. Toy.
[Sidenote: New Testament]
The general articles preliminary to a study of the New Testament are:—besides the part of the article BIBLE dealing with New Testament, Canon, Criticism, Text, Chronology, etc.—the following:
MESSIAH, by W. Robertson Smith and Dr. Owen Charles Whitehouse, lecturer in Hebrew, Cheshunt College, Cambridge.
JESUS CHRIST, by the Very Rev. Dr. Joseph Armitage Robinson, dean of Westminster, constituting a critical outline of the gospel story.
CHRISTIANITY, by Dr. George William Knox, late professor of philosophy and history of religion, Union Theological Seminary, New York City.
In outlining a course of study on the New Testament, the order of the books as printed in English Bibles will not be followed absolutely. Here, as in studying the Old Testament, a rearrangement may be worth while for topical study.
[Sidenote: The Gospels]
But first the student should read the article GOSPEL, by the Rev. Dr. Vincent Henry Stanton, professor of divinity, Cambridge, and author of The Gospels as Historical Documents, etc.; and the article by Dr. Kirsopp Lake on TATIAN the compiler of the Diatessaron or “Gospel of the Four Gospels.”
For the gospel story the student should read the following separate articles:
JOHN THE BAPTIST, HEROD ANTIPAS, SALOME, JOSEPH (Vol. 15, p. 513, col. 2), MARY, IMMACULATE CONCEPTION, BETHLEHEM, NAZARETH, NAZARENES, EBIONITES, GALILEE, CAPERNAUM, CANA, JORDAN, PETER, ANDREW, JAMES, JOHN, PHILIP, BARTHOLOMEW, THOMAS, MATTHEW, JUDAS, DEMONOLOGY, POSSESSION, EXORCISM, MIRACLE, MARY MAGDALENE, NATHANAEL, PHARISEES, SADDUCEES, SABBATH, PASSOVER, EUCHARIST, PARABLE, CAESAREA PHILIPPI, JUDAEA, JERUSALEM, BETHANY, OLIVES, MOUNT OF; GETHSEMANE, PILATE, CALVARY, JOSEPH OF ARIMATHAEA.
In studying the separate Gospels, let the reader follow the order suggested in the articles GOSPEL and JESUS CHRIST.
First he should study the article MARK, GOSPEL OF, by Dr. Stanton; the article on ST. MARK, by Dr. James Vernon Bartlett, professor of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford, and, for a summary of the points in the Marcan or Galilean narrative as contrasted with the Jerusalem narrative in regard to the betrayal of Jesus and the period immediately following, the article on ST. PETER by Dr. Kirsopp Lake.
MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF ST., by Dr. Vincent H. Stanton, and MATTHEW, by Dr. J. V. Bartlett; with particular attention to the paragraph on additions to Mark’s narrative in Vol. 15, p. 355, and to the stress on the Messianic character, the mention of the church and of St. Peter as the Rock in chapter 16.
LUKE, GOSPEL OF ST., by Dr. Stanton, and the biographical sketch of LUKE, by Dr. Bartlett; and the paragraph on Luke’s additions to Mark’s narrative in Vol. 15, p. 356. This is the universal gospel, just as Mark’s was for extra-Palestinian use and Matthew’s particularly for the Jew, as is shown by the incidents of Zaccheus and of the Samaritan leper; and Renan’s characterization of the gospel of the one evangelist who was not a Jew, “the most beautiful book in the world,” is quoted twice in the Britannica.
JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST., and JOHN (the Apostle), both by Baron Friedrich von Hügel, author of The Mystical Element of Religion: the paragraph on the distinctive elements of John’s gospel (in Vol. 15, p. 357), such as the story of John the Baptist (see the article on this “forerunner,” by G. H. Box, late lecturer in theology, Oxford); the philosophical prologue (see the article LOGOS, by the late Rev. Dr. Stewart Dingwall Fordyce Salmon, professor of systematic theology, United Free Church College, Aberdeen, and the Rev. A. J. Grieve, professor of New Testament and church history, Yorkshire United Independent College, Bradford); the Judean scene as contrasted with the predominance of Galilee and Samaria in the other three (synoptic) gospels, and the prominence given to great abstract ideas and symbols—the Light of the World, the Living Bread, the Only-Begotten, the Re-Birth, Eternal Life, the Way, the Truth, and the Life, Water and Wine, the Paraclete, and the refrain and variations on the theme of Love.
Before studying the articles dealing with the book of ACTS, let the reader consult Dr. Garvie’s article MIRACLE, for a study of the supernatural and particularly for a development of the argument for miracles from “the congruity of the miracle with divine truth and grace”; the miracles of Jesus, and of the apostles, consist in “the relief of need, the removal of suffering, the recovery of health and strength.”
[Sidenote: Acts]
The article ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, by Dr. J. Vernon Bartlett, should be supplemented by referring again to the article LUKE, and the student should call to mind that the probable author was not a Jew, was a personal friend and traveling companion of both Paul and Peter, and was a physician, a trained scientific observer, as can be seen not only from his descriptions of disease, but from his accuracy in geographical, meteorological and other matters. The importance of the testimony of the physician to the miracles of the apostles is brought out (p. 164, top of column 2) in the article on the book. For the study of ACTS, besides the article on the book, read the following separate articles:
LUKE, PETER, JOHN, JUDAS, ACELDAMA, MATTHIAS, PENTECOST, TONGUES, GIFT OF; ANANIAS, GAMALIEL, STEPHEN, SIMON MAGUS, PHILIP, PAUL, JOPPA, ANTIOCH, HEROD, BARNABAS, ICONIUM, LYCAONIA, MARK, TIMOTHY, SILAS, PHILIPPI, THESSALONICA, ATHENS, AREOPAGUS, CORINTH, AQUILA, APOLLOS, EPHESUS, FELIX, ANANIAS, AGRIPPA.
[Sidenote: St. Paul]
For a study of the book of Acts, which was probably written before any one of the Gospels, one will need constantly to refer in the Britannica to the article on PAUL, THE APOSTLE (Vol. 20, p. 938), by Dr. J. Vernon Bartlett. This article, equivalent to 55 pages in this Guide, is so important that it will be well to outline it here. After an introduction, in which Paul’s attitude toward Jewish legalism is made an explanation of the superficially obvious contrast between Jesus and Paul, there is a biographical sketch: Paul of Tarsus, a Roman citizen with Roman name, talking Latin and not a narrow, one-sided Jew; his Jewish training; in Jerusalem, under Gamaliel (see the article GAMALIEL); first impressions as to Jesus, and Saul as persecutor; the vision at Damascus and its spiritual content; his new theory of the law and its universal value; Christology of Paul,—his deep insight into Jesus’s character; Paul’s theology rooted in experience; his early apostolate; his first missionary journey; the issue of Gentile Christianity raised; Paul’s conciliatory spirit; Peter’s visit to Antioch; Paul’s protest; the second mission tour; Paul in Europe—Athens, Corinth, etc.; first missionary letters; as an ethical teacher; Paul, the Law, the Spirit; later travels; later letters; Paulinism—its Christocentric character; apparent contrasts and contradictions between Paul’s gospel and Jesus’s gospel—one seen through the eyes of a conscious sinner, the other the sinless consciousness of the Saviour; Paul’s position between Judaeo-Christianity and Gnosticism—see also the article GNOSTICISM, by Wilhelm Bousset, professor of New Testament exegesis, Göttingen.
[Sidenote: The Pauline Epistles]
In general on the Pauline epistles the student should not only read this article PAUL, but should turn again to the treatment of New Testament canon in the article BIBLE (Vol. 3, pp. 872–873), and should look over the first part of the article JESUS CHRIST which finds in 1st Thessalonians the earliest extant document of Christianity. Then let him read the articles:
THESSALONIANS, EPISTLES TO THE, by the Rev. James Everett Frame, professor of Biblical theology, Union Theological Seminary, New York City. See also in the article PAUL (Vol. 20, pp. 945–946) for Paul at Thessalonica, and the articles ESCHATOLOGY and APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE for the doctrine of the “second coming” or “Parousia,” especially in 2 Thess., chap. 2.
CORINTHIANS, EPISTLES TO THE, by the Rev. Dr. James Hardy Ropes, professor of New Testament criticism and interpretation, Harvard; and the articles CORINTH, APOLLOS, PETER, ASCETICISM, FASTING, EUCHARIST (1 Cor., chap. 11, vs. 23 sqq. is the oldest extant account of the Lord’s Supper), TITUS.
GALATIANS, EPISTLE TO THE, by the Rev. Dr. James Moffatt, author of The Historical New Testament: and the articles GALATIA (for the “South Galatian” theory), ANTINOMIANISM (for Christianity vs. legalism).
ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE, by Dr. Moffatt; and the article HEBREW RELIGION for the covenant which Paul here presents as one of faith and not of the law.
EPHESIANS, EPISTLE TO THE, by Prof. J. H. Ropes, pointing out that the theme is “the unity of mankind in Christ and hence the unity and divinity of the Church of Christ”; the article EPHESUS; the articles on COLOSSIANS and on 1st PETER for textual criticism; the article MARRIAGE for Paul’s influence (Eph. ch. 5, v. 23–32) on the Church’s attitude toward marriage; and the article GNOSTICISM for the tendency in the church which Paul attacked in this epistle and in Colossians.
COLOSSIANS, by Prof. J. E. Frame; the article COLOSSAE; ANGEL (on chap. 2, v. 18); ASCETICISM (on chap. 2, v. 16).
PHILEMON, EPISTLE TO, by Dr. Moffatt; the article SLAVERY, Rome (Vol. 25, p. 218) for the status of a runaway like Onesimus.
PHILIPPIANS, EPISTLE TO THE, by Dr. Moffatt; the article PHILIPPI; ANTINOMIANISM (on the beginning of chap. 3); and on the Kenosis or emptying of self of Christ in Phil. 2, 7, see the article on CHARLES GORE (Vol. 2, p. 255), and in the article THEOLOGY the discussion in column 1 of p. 781 (Vol. 26).
TIMOTHY, FIRST EPISTLE TO; and TIMOTHY, SECOND EPISTLE TO, by Dr. Moffatt; the article TIMOTHY; the articles MARRIAGE and CELIBACY (on 1 Tim. 4, 3); FASTING, the article GNOSTICISM (for the “knowledge falsely so-called” of 1 Tim. 6, 20), and the article PASTORAL EPISTLES on these letters and on that to Titus. The article TITUS has much important criticism on Timothy.
TITUS, THE EPISTLE TO, by Dr. Moffatt; the articles BISHOP and PRESBYTER, etc.
HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE, by Dr. J. Vernon Bartlett; and, on authorship, the articles PAUL, BARNABAS, APOLLOS, LUKE, CLEMENT, STEPHEN; and the articles CLEMENTINE LITERATURE, HEBREW RELIGION, TEMPLE, ATONEMENT AND DAY OF ATONEMENT, ANGEL, MOSES, PRIEST, AARON, MELCHIZEDEK, SACRIFICE, MESSIAH.
[Sidenote: The Other Epistles]
Before turning to the articles on the other books of the New Testament, let the student read a part of the article THEOLOGY, by the Rev. Dr. Robert Mackintosh of the Lancashire Independent College, Manchester, with special attention to the paragraphs (end of p. 773 and p. 774, Vol. 26) on Jewish theology, St. Paul and contents of the New Testament. Here “Paulinism” is shown not merely in the Pauline writings but in the Acts, in 1st Peter (“good independent Paulinism”), and even in the Apocalypse, at least as regards the atonement and Christology. “The Johannine Gospel and Epistles are later than Paulinism, and presuppose its leading or less startling positions.” And the same article (p. 783) after pointing out that Luther and the evangelical revival “went back to St. Paul” asks “can Christianity not dig deeper by going back to Jesus?” The writer also suggests that the German school of Ritschl in “not idolizing Paulinism” have “idolized Luther.”
The other principal topics to be studied are:
JAMES, EPISTLE OF, by the Rev. Dr. Benjamin Wisner Bacon, professor of New Testament criticism and exegesis, Yale; the article on JAMES by the Rev. Dr. George Milligan, Professor of divinity and Biblical criticism, Glasgow; and the articles REVELATION, CLEMENT, HERMAS, etc., for the question of date and relation with other writings; WISDOM LITERATURE, for earlier writings on the “Wisdom” and proverbial expressions of chapter 3; MATTHEW, for a similar view of the gospel and the Church; and on “Justification,” vol. 20, p. 954, in article PAUL.
PETER, EPISTLES OF, by Dr. Kirsopp Lake; the article on ST. PETER, by the same scholar. For a date earlier than that of the Epistle of James, see the article on that book. See also ROMANS and POLYCARP to supplement what is here said of the relations of 1st Peter to these writings; and ESCHATOLOGY on the expected “second coming” of 2nd Peter, chapter 3, vs. 1–13, and JUDE, EPISTLE OF, on its relation to this book.
JUDE, EPISTLE OF, by Prof. B. W. Bacon of Yale; the article on HEGESIPPUS, the authority for the little we know of Jude; the articles ESCHATOLOGY (for “the last time” of verse 18), ANGEL (for vs. 6, 9), MICHAEL, and especially the articles APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE; MOSES, ASSUMPTION OF; and ENOCH, BOOK OF, for the allusions in verses 9 and 14.
Under the head of Johannine are grouped, besides the fourth gospel, the three epistles of John and the Revelation. On these see:
[Sidenote: Johannine Writings]
JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF, by Dr. Moffatt, and the article on St. John in regard to authorship, which may more probably be assigned to John the presbyter; and the articles ANTICHRIST (on 1 John, 2, 22), GNOSTICISM (for chap. 3, vs. 4–7), etc.
REVELATION, BOOK OF, by the Rev. Dr. Robert Henry Charles, lecturer in Biblical studies, Oxford. This book, and this article, should be studied in connection with the article, also by Dr. Charles, on APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE, and the canonical apocalyptic passages in Mark 13, Mathew 24, Luke 21 and 2nd Thessalonians 2, as well as the extra-canonical apocalypses described in APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE and in the separate articles ISAIAH, ASCENSION OF, and HERMAS, SHEPHERD OF. Besides see the articles ESCHATOLOGY, MILLENIUM. The student should read the article NERO, even if “666” does not certainly refer to him, and the articles DOMITIAN and VESPASIAN on the possibility that one of them may have been “the beast that was and is not, ... himself also an eighth” (see footnote on p. 220, Vol. 23).
[Sidenote: Apocryphal Literature]
As an epilogue the student should read the articles APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE, both of the Old and New Testament periods, by Dr. Charles and at least the first part, by Dr. A. C. McGiffert of Union Theological Seminary, New York City, of the article CHURCH HISTORY.
[Sidenote: A Biblical Encyclopaedia]
The study outline sketched in this chapter will give the student some idea of the possibilities of the Britannica in helping him. The list of articles dealing with the Bible on pp. 944–945 of the Index (Vol. 29) will show that in the Britannica there is an adequate and excellent encyclopaedia of the Bible or text-book of Bible Study.
XLII. HISTORY, INTRODUCTORY AND GENERAL
When you turn to the new Britannica to study history, you naturally expect to learn a great deal that will be new to you. But you can anticipate something more and better than that. You will find a great deal that is new to everyone, even to those who have been reading history for years. For the contributors to the work, in making a completely fresh survey of the whole field of human knowledge, were helping one another to obtain new light upon the history of even the earliest periods. As all the articles were completed before a single volume was printed, there was such an opportunity for comparison and revision as has never before existed. When research upon one subject had disclosed new evidence that was of value in relation to another subject, the contributors and editors could co-operate as fully as if they had all been assembled in a great international congress. And the result of this collaboration is that the publication of the new Britannica does more, at one stroke, to advance historical knowledge, to solve historical doubts, and to correct historical mistakes than is done by isolated historians in the course of a generation.
[Sidenote: Authority]
With this idea of combined effort clearly before you, consider for a moment the accumulated individual authority of such individual specialists as those who deal with history in the Britannica. There are, to name only a few, the Germans Eduard Meyer and Schiemann of Berlin, Hashagen of Bonn, von Pastor of Innsbruck, Pauli of Göttingen, Keutgen of Hamburg, and Count Lützow; Frenchmen like Mgr. Duchesne, Luchaire, Valois, Anchel, Halphen, Babelon and Bémont; the Italians Villari, Barnabei and Balzani; the Canadians Doughty, Grant, Dionne and Wrong; among Americans, J. H. Robinson, W. A. Dunning, H. L. Osgood, C. H. Hayes, G. W. Botsford, and J. T. Shotwell of Columbia; President Emeritus Charles W. Eliot, and Drs. Edward Channing, F. J. Turner and Charles Gross of Harvard; Drs. A. D. Morse, R. B. Richardson and Preserved Smith of Amherst; Dr. T. F. Collier of Williams; Professors William Graham Sumner, G. Burton Adams and J. C. Schwab of Yale; Prof. Grant Showerman of Wisconsin; Prof. William MacDonald of Brown; Profs. Fleming and Scroggs of Louisiana; Dr. McMaster of Pennsylvania; Prof. I. J. Cox of Cincinnati; the late Alexander Johnston of Princeton; Prof. W. Roy Smith of Bryn Mawr; Henry Cabot Lodge, Carl Schurz and James Ford Rhodes; and—to mention only a few English names—S. R. Gardiner, Edward Freeman, Thomas Hodgkin, James Bryce, James Gairdner, J. D. Bury, C. W. C. Oman, A. F. Pollard, J. H. Round, H. W. C. Davis, Osmund Airy, G. W. Prothero, John Morley, Reginald Lane Poole, J. Holland Rose, F. J. Haverfield, W. Alison Phillips, Sir Donald Mackenzie Wallace, R. Nisbet Bain, W. Warde Fowler, J. L. Myres, J. S. Reid, W. J. Brodribb and H. F. Pelham.
So much for the quality of the historical matter in the Britannica. The quantity is equally remarkable.
If the history in the Britannica was printed in the usual volumes on heavy paper, containing 100,000 words to a volume, it would fill about 70 such volumes, or, say, four good-sized shelves in an ordinary “unit” bookcase.
[Sidenote: Method of Treatment]
Every country and every event from the earliest syllable of recorded time receives its proper treatment. Under such circumstances it is obvious that in the limits of this Guide it would not be possible to give outlines of courses of historical readings for all nations and periods. Such readings in history alone would more than fill this whole Guide. But the information is all in the Britannica, and what has been said above will give the reader some notion of the authority of the articles written by natives of nearly every civilized country in the world, and some idea of the scope of treatment. The character of the subject matter of history and the method of treatment in the Britannica combine to make minute outlines less necessary for historical study than for the pursuit of a course in almost any other subject. The Britannica, the student will quickly see, contains in each instance a “key” article on the history of each nation—either as a separate article, like ENGLISH HISTORY or ROMAN HISTORY or as a historical section of the article on the country—for instance, in the article GREECE there is a “sub-article,” so to say, on history (Vol. 12, pp. 440–470), and in the article UNITED STATES a sub-article on American history (Vol. 27, pp. 663–735). The student of any country’s history should read first such an article or sub-article, so that he will get a big outline view of the subject, and then use it as a basis or starting point for further reading, looking up in the Index volume the important topics mentioned in the main article. These will be:
(1) Articles on the history of parts of the country he is studying—states, provinces, counties, kingdoms, duchies, cities and towns.
(2) Biographies of rulers, statesmen, soldiers, reformers, etc.
(3) Articles on wars and battles, each under its proper heading.
(4) Articles on movements and changes, sometimes of national, sometimes of international importance, the Renaissance, political parties, economic, political and religious revolutions, the Crusades, etc.
(5) Articles on churches, sects and denominations of historical importance in the country under consideration.
But although it is impossible to give in this Guide complete courses of reading for the history of all countries, it is possible and desirable to give it in cases where it would be most useful to the greatest number of readers.
The following chapter is an outline course of study in the History of the United States, which is given in some detail, because it has a peculiar interest to Americans.
Next is given an outline of a course of reading in Canadian and then in English History, then in French History, and then in the History of the countries of the Far East, India, China and Japan. These will show the reader how fully and authoritatively the history of countries, whether near or distant, is given in the Britannica; and if he wishes to pursue his studies into the record of other countries, it is certain that with these for an example, and with the aid of the Index, he will have no trouble in so doing.
XLIII. AMERICAN HISTORY
The plan adopted in most of the chapters of this Guide is to give a separate account of each of the more important articles on the subject to which the chapter is devoted. But in the case of American history, the articles are so numerous, and are so accurately dovetailed to make a continuous story, that the reader’s convenience has been better served by reversing this process, and grouping the articles under the periods with which they deal. The reader is thus enabled to turn at once to any one of the outstanding episodes of the story, and to find explicit references to those parts of the Britannica in which the narrative is continued from one article to another. The summary has been put in the form of a table, in order that its contents may more easily be surveyed. There is a much fuller summary, in narrative form, in the Britannica itself in the historical portion of the article UNITED STATES (Vol. 27, pp. 663–735). This is the most complete condensed history of the country that has ever been written. It is not quite so long as this entire Guide; but from each of its 412 sections the reader can turn to articles describing in detail the events consecutively outlined.
It has been taken for granted that the reader will recognize the natural connection between this and other chapters of the Guide. For example, no attempt has been made in this chapter to indicate the articles, elsewhere described, which discuss the history of American industries and commerce, railroads and shipping, finance and economics, art and literature. Again, the particular history of a city, town, or river may be of the greatest interest in itself, although the events with which its name is associated were not so typical of any period as to give the article a place in the present chapter. Similarly, the numerous and elaborate American biographies are represented, in this chapter, only by the names of the foremost statesmen and soldiers of the periods included in the table. In short, the articles named are so few, in proportion to all those which directly relate to American history, that the general effect is to make the space which the Britannica devotes to the subject seem less than it really is. But it is not the purpose of this Guide to impress upon the reader the magnitude of the volumes he is using. In that respect the Britannica speaks for itself. The table instances a few of the main topics of American history, in order to show the reader how he may plan fuller courses of reading by combining other articles on the principle indicated by these illustrations.
The left hand columns present a brief outline of the main periods and aspects of American history. The right hand columns give the titles of the articles to be read, the page numbers as well as the volume numbers (so that when the reference is to only one section of a long article the reader can find it at once) and the names of the contributors.
Topics for Reading Articles
The Aborigines.
Where did they come from, and when? AMERICA, Ethnology and Their food, tools, clothing and Archaeology (Vol. 1, p. 810, customs. How they carried on fully illustrated), by Otis their wars. Their practical Tufton Mason, late curator, knowledge and religion. What the Department of Anthropology, white man has learned from the National Museum, Washington; Indians. Over 1000 languages and author of Primitive Travel and dialects in America. Transportation, etc.
INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN (Vol. 14, p. 452), by Dr. A. F. Chamberlain, professor of anthropology, Clark University.
Evidence of Asiatic origin. A state ARCHAEOLOGY (Vol. 2, p. 349), by of culture in Mexico and Peru, Dr. Charles H. Read, keeper of “which in some respects must have British and Medieval Antiquities put the Spaniards to shame.” and Ethnography, British Museum.
The fascinating story of the MEXICO, Ancient History and Aztecs. Did the Asiatic peoples Civilization (Vol. 18, p. 329), make voyages to America long by Dr. E. B. Tylor, professor of before Columbus? anthropology at Oxford; author of Methods and Results in Mexican Research.
The splendid past of Central CENTRAL AMERICA, Archaeology of America. What was accomplished (Vol. 5, p. 677), by Dr. Walter during the 500 years of Mayan Lehmann, Royal Ethnographical culture. An interesting calendar. Museum, Munich.
First Voyages of Discovery.
The Northmen first Europeans to VINLAND (Vol. 28, p. 98), by Julius reach American continent, about E. Olson, professor of 1000 A.D. The story of the Scandinavian languages, Icelandic sagas. Was Vinland Nova University of Wisconsin, editor Scotia? of Voyages of the Northmen, etc.
The accident of Leif’s discovery of LEIF ERICSSON (Vol. 16, p. 396), by the American continent. Dr. C. R. Beazley, professor of modern history in the University of Birmingham, author of The Dawn of Modern Geography.
The first colonizer (A.D. 1002). THORFINN KARLSEFNI (Vol. 26, p. Fate of the colony. The hostile 878), by Dr. C. R. Beazley, Skraelings. author of The Dawn of Modern Geography, etc.
Columbus and His Successors.
Treaty of Tordesillas (1494). AMERICA, General Historical Sketch (Vol. 1, p. 806), by David Hannay, author of A Short History of the Royal Navy.
Columbus thinks he discovers Asia. COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER (Vol. 6, p. His voyages and colonies 741), by Dr. C. R. Beazley, (1492–1504). author of The Dawn of Modern Geography, etc.
Discovery of the Mainland (1497). CABOT, JOHN (Vol. 4, p. 921), by Henry P. Biggar, author of The Voyage of the Cabots to Greenland.
How the New World received its VESPUCCI, AMERIGO (Vol. 27, p. name. The beginning of free-lance 1053), by Dr. C. R. Beazley, expeditions. The mystery of the author of The Dawn of Modern voyage of 1497. Geography, etc.
The Discovery of the Pacific BALBOA, VASCO NUÑEZ DE (Vol. 3, p. (1513). 241).
The existence of a new continent MAGELLAN, FERDINAND (Vol. 17, p. distinct from Asia revealed to 302), by Dr. C. R. Beazley, the world. First circumnavigation author of _The Dawn of Modern of the globe. The Pacific Ocean Geography_, etc. named (1520).
PACIFIC OCEAN, History (Vol. 20, p. 438).
The Conquest of Mexico (1519–1521). CORTES, HERNAN (Vol. 7, p. 205). “The Descendant of the Sun.” Discovery of Lower California. Ingratitude of Charles V.
CALIFORNIA, LOWER (Vol. 5, p. 21).
Exploration of Guatemala and SOTO, FERDINANDO DE (Vol. 25, p. Yucatan (1528), and the 435). Mississippi (1541).
France attacks Spain in the New LAS CASAS, BARTOLOMÉ DE (Vol. 16, World. p. 232).
Discovery of the St. Lawrence CARTIER, JACQUES (Vol. 5, p. 433), (1534). How Canada got its name. by H. P. Biggar, author of The Early Canadian History. Voyage of the Cabots to Greenland.
CANADA, History (Vol. 5, p. 156), by Dr. George McKinnon Wrong, University of Toronto.
Foundation of Quebec (1608). CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE (Vol. 5, p. Discovery of Lake Champlain 830), by Prof. Narcisse E. (1609). Champlain assists Dionne, Librarian of the Algonquins and Hurons against the Legislature of the Province of Iroquois. The beginning of the Quebec, author of Life of Samuel murderous conflicts between the de Champlain, Founder of Quebec, French and the Iroquois. etc.
The Fortunes of New France. FRONTENAC (Vol. 11, p. 249), by Dr. Colonial Expansion. Horrors of Arthur G. Doughty, Dominion Indian Warfare. archivist of Canada, author of The Cradle of New France, etc.
Louisiana in possession of France LA SALLE, RENÉ ROBERT, SIEUR DE (1682). Discovery of the Ohio (Vol. 16, p. 230), by Charles C. River. Whinery, assistant editor, Encyclopaedia Britannica.
The first English colony (1583) NEWFOUNDLAND, History (Vol. 19, unsuccessful. p. 482), by Beckles Willson, author of The Romance of Canada, etc.
The persistent efforts of Raleigh NORTH CAROLINA, History (Vol. 19, (1584–1587). First English child p. 775). born in America (Aug. 15, 1587).
NORTH CAROLINA, History (Vol. 19, p. 775).
RALEIGH, SIR WALTER (Vol. 22, p. 869), by David Hannay, author of Short History of the Royal Navy.
The first permanent English VIRGINIA, History (Vol. 28, p. settlement (1607). 122).
JAMESTOWN (Vol. 15, p. 148).
_Colonial Expansion and Development of Imperial Control._
The Thirteen Original Colonies, UNITED STATES, History (Vol. 27, their Founders and Leaders, and p. 663), by Dr. Herbert L. their early Struggles. Osgood, professor of history, Columbia University, author of The American Colonies in the 17th Century, etc.
Virginia. VIRGINIA (Vol. 28, p. 122).
JAMESTOWN (Vol. 15, p. 148).
SMITH, JOHN (Vol. 25, p. 264).
GOSNOLD, BARTHOLOMEW (Vol. 12, p. 265).
BERKELEY, SIR WILLIAM (Vol. 3, p. 781).
BLAIR, JAMES (Vol. 4, p. 34).
SPOTSWOOD, ALEXANDER (Vol. 25, p. 735).
North Carolina. NORTH CAROLINA (Vol. 19, p. 775).
South Carolina. SOUTH CAROLINA (Vol. 25, p. 503).
New England. NEW ENGLAND (Vol. 19, p. 476).
Massachusetts. MASSACHUSETTS (Vol. 17, p. 858).
PLYMOUTH, MASS. (Vol. 21, p. 863).
BRADFORD, WILLIAM (Vol. 4, p. 370).
STANDISH, MILES (Vol. 25, p. 772)
ALDEN, JOHN (Vol. 1, p. 533).
WINSLOW, EDWARD (Vol. 28, p. 733).
ENDECOTT, JOHN (Vol. 9, p. 382).
SALEM (Vol. 24, p. 62).
WINTHROP, JOHN (Vol. 28, p. 736).
BOSTON, MASS. (Vol. 4, p. 290).
IPSWICH, MASS. (Vol. 14, p. 739).
VANE, SIR HENRY (Vol. 27, p. 892).
HUTCHINSON, ANNE (Vol. 14, p. 12).
Maine (a part of Massachusetts). MAINE (Vol. 17, p. 439).
POPHAM, SIR JOHN (Vol. 22, p. 88).
GORGES, SIR FERDINANDO (Vol. 12, p. 256).
PORTLAND, ME. (Vol. 22, p. 120).
Rhode Island. RHODE ISLAND (Vol. 23, p. 251).
WILLIAMS, ROGER (Vol. 28, p. 682).
PROVIDENCE (Vol. 22, p. 512).
New Hampshire. NEW HAMPSHIRE (Vol. 19, p. 496).
PORTSMOUTH, N. H. (Vol. 22, p. 132).
Connecticut. CONNECTICUT (Vol. 6, p. 954).
HOOKER, THOMAS (Vol. 13, p. 674).
NEW HAVEN (Vol. 19, p. 499).
EATON, THEOPHILUS (Vol. 8, p. 838).
HARTFORD (Vol. 13, p. 33).
Vermont. VERMONT (Vol. 27, p. 1028).
Indian Wars in New England. PEQUOT (Vol. 21, p. 132).
PHILIP, KING (Vol. 21, p. 389).
New York. NEW YORK (Vol. 19, p. 603).
HUDSON, HENRY (Vol. 13, p. 849).
IROQUOIS (Vol. 14, p. 839).
NEW YORK (CITY) (Vol. 19, p. 620).
ALBANY (Vol. 1, p. 490).
STATEN ISLAND (Vol. 25, p. 802).
LONG ISLAND (Vol. 16, p. 982).
STUYVESANT, PETER (Vol. 25, p. 1055).
New Jersey. NEW JERSEY (Vol. 19, p. 508).
CARTERET, SIR GEORGE (Vol. 5, p. 413).
ANDROS, SIR EDMUND (Vol. 2, p. 1).
ELIZABETH, N. J. (Vol. 9, p. 287).
Delaware. DELAWARE (Vol. 7, p. 949).
LEWES (Vol. 16, p. 522).
NEW CASTLE (Vol. 19, p. 472).
WILMINGTON (Vol. 28, p. 690).
Pennsylvania. PENNSYLVANIA (Vol. 21, p. 111).
PENN, WILLIAM (Vol. 21, p. 99), by Osmund Airy, author of Charles II, editor of the Lauderdale Papers, etc.
FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF (Vol. 11, p. 227).
PHILADELPHIA (Vol. 21, p. 372).
Maryland. MARYLAND (Vol. 17, p. 831), by N. D. Mereness, Ph.D., author of Maryland as a Proprietary Province.
BALTIMORE, GEORGE CALVERT, 1st Baron (Vol. 3, p. 288).
BALTIMORE (Vol. 3, p. 290).
MASON AND DIXON LINE (Vol. 17, p. 841).
Georgia. GEORGIA (Vol. 11, p. 755).
OGLETHORPE, JAMES EDWARD (Vol. 20, p. 24).
SAVANNAH (Vol. 24, p. 240).
The French and Indian Wars.
Struggle of the British and the UNITED STATES, History, The French in America. Pressure of Struggle with the French British on the French “paper (1690–1760) (Vol. 27, p. 670), by barriers.” Old-World quarrel Prof. H. L. Osgood, Columbia carried into the New World. University.
CANADA, History (Vol. 5, p. 156), by Prof. G. M. Wrong, author of A Canadian Manor and Its Seigneurs, etc.
Capture of Louisburg, 1745. LOUISBURG (Vol. 17, p. 52).
Albany Congress of 1754. ALBANY, N. Y. (Vol. 1, p. 490).
The Continental Contest of which SEVEN YEARS’ WAR (Vol. 24, p. 715), the French and Indian Wars were a by Col. F. N. Maude, author of part. War and the World’s Policy, and David Hannay, author of Short History of the Royal Navy.
Western Campaigns. In Pennsylvania PITTSBURG (Vol. 21, p. 680). and Virginia.
BRADDOCK, EDWARD (Vol. 4, p. 369).
PONTIAC (Vol. 22, p. 65).
DINWIDDIE, ROBERT (Vol. 8, p. 278).
SHIRLEY, WILLIAM (Vol. 24, p. 991).
The New York Frontier and Fighting TICONDEROGA (Vol. 26, p. 937). there.
GEORGE, LAKE (Vol. 11, p. 748).
NIAGARA, FORT (Vol. 19, p. 634).
JOHNSON, SIR WILLIAM (Vol. 15, p. 472).
The Campaign against Quebec and its QUEBEC (Vol. 22, p. 728). Capture by the British.
WOLFE, JAMES (Vol. 28, p. 773).
MONTCALM (Vol. 18, p. 761).
_Colonization on the Pacific Coast._
Spanish Government in California. CALIFORNIA, History (Vol. 5, p. Rule of the Missions. “A complete 17). failure save in the acquisition of material wealth.”
The Spaniards neglect northwestern OREGON, History (Vol. 20, p. America. 247).
British Traders seize the HUDSON’S BAY COMPANY (Vol. 13, p. opportunity. 852).
_The Colonial Revolt and Events Leading up to It._
(1763–1783). UNITED STATES, History (Vol. 27, p. 672), by Prof. H. L. Osgood, Columbia University.
Immediate Causes:
The Stamp Act (1765). STAMP (Vol. 25, p. 772).
Boston Massacre and Boston Tea BOSTON (Vol. 4, p. 296); Party. HUTCHINSON, THOMAS (Vol. 14, p. 13).
Suffolk Resolves. MILTON, MASS. (Vol. 18, p. 492).
Mecklenburg Resolutions and NORTH CAROLINA (Vol. 19, p. 776). “Declaration,” May, 1775.
Virginia leaders decide on VIRGINIA, History (Vol. 28, p. independence to secure foreign 123). assistance.
The Leaders of Public Opinion:
Virginia. HENRY, PATRICK (Vol. 13, p. 300), by N. D. Mereness, author of Maryland, a Proprietary Province.
WASHINGTON, GEORGE (Vol. 28, p. 344), by Prof. William MacDonald, Brown University.
LEE, RICHARD HENRY (Vol. 16, p. 362).
Massachusetts. OTIS, JAMES (Vol. 20, p. 366).
ADAMS, SAMUEL (Vol. 1, p. 180), by Prof. Edward Channing, Harvard.
ADAMS, JOHN (Vol. 1, p. 176).
New Hampshire. LANGDON, JOHN (Vol. 16, p. 172).
Pennsylvania. DICKINSON, JOHN (Vol. 8, p. 184).
FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN (Vol. 11, p. 24), by Richard Webster.
New York. HAMILTON, ALEXANDER (Vol. 12, p. 881), by Dr. F. S. Philbrick and Hugh Chisholm, editor-in-chief Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Conservative Leaders. LOYALISTS, or TORIES (Vol. 17, p. 79).
GALLOWAY, JOSEPH (Vol. 11, p. 421).
SEABURY, SAMUEL (Vol. 24, p. 531).
TRYON, WILLIAM (Vol. 27, p. 340).
JOHNSON, SIR WILLIAM and SIR JOHN (Vol. 15, p. 472).
Why did not the Canadians revolt? QUEBEC ACT (Vol. 22, p. 729).
Declaration of Independence.
Resolution of Independence adopted INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF (Vol. July 2. 14, p. 372), by Dr. F. S. Philbrick.
Jefferson’s Declaration adopted July 4. Most of the signatures affixed Aug. 2. One not until 1781.
Some of the “Signers”:
Virginia. JEFFERSON, THOMAS (Vol. 15, p. 301), by Dr. F. S. Philbrick.
LEE, RICHARD HENRY (Vol. 16, p. 362).
LEE, FRANCIS LIGHTFOOT (Vol. 16, p. 362).
Massachusetts. HANCOCK, JOHN (Vol. 12, p. 908).
ADAMS, SAMUEL (Vol. 1, p. 180), by Prof. Edward Channing.
ADAMS, JOHN (Vol. 1, p. 176), by Prof. Edward Channing.
PAINE, ROBERT TREAT (Vol. 20, p. 456).
GERRY, ELBRIDGE (Vol. 11, p. 903).
New York. LIVINGSTON, PHILIP (Vol. 16, p. 813).
Pennsylvania. MORRIS, ROBERT (Vol. 18, p. 871).
RUSH, BENJAMIN (Vol. 23, p. 857).
FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN (Vol. 11, p. 24).
WILSON, JAMES (Vol. 28, p. 693).
New Jersey. WITHERSPOON, JOHN (Vol. 28, p. 759).
HOPKINSON, FRANCIS (Vol. 13, p. 685).
Connecticut. SHERMAN, ROGER (Vol. 24, p. 851).
WOLCOTT, OLIVER (Vol. 28, p. 770).
Rhode Island. ELLERY, WILLIAM (Vol. 9, p. 290).
Maryland. CARROLL, CHARLES (Vol. 5, p. 409).
South Carolina. MIDDLETON, ARTHUR (Vol. 18, p. 415).
RUTLEDGE, EDWARD (Vol. 23, p. 945).
English Opinion and Policy. GEORGE III (Vol. 11, p. 740), by Dr. S. R. Gardiner, author of History of England.
GUILFORD, FREDERICK NORTH, 2nd Earl (Lord North) (Vol. 12, p. 691).
“Conciliation.” BURKE, EDMUND (Vol. 4, p. 824), by John Morley (Viscount Morley of Blackburn).
CHATHAM, EARL OF (Pitt) (Vol. 6, p. 1).
FOX, CHARLES JAMES (Vol. 10, p. 761), by David Hannay.
American Foreign Agents and their FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN (Vol. 11, p. work, especially in France, 24). during the war.
DEANE, SILAS (Vol. 7, p. 898).
LEE, ARTHUR (Vol. 16, p. 360).
JAY, JOHN (Vol. 15, p. 294).
The War for Independence.
General outline. AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE (Vol. 1, p. 842), by Prof. Harry Phelps Johnston, New York University, author of Loyalist History of the Revolution, and, for naval affairs, by David Hannay, author of A Short History of the Royal Navy.
American Leaders REVERE, PAUL (Vol. 23, p. 223).
In early fighting in Massachusetts WARREN, JOSEPH (Vol. 28, p. 330).
PUTNAM, ISRAEL (Vol. 22, p. 670).
WASHINGTON, GEORGE (Vol. 28, p. 344), by Prof. William MacDonald, Brown University.
On the border and in Canada ALLEN, ETHAN (Vol. 1, p. 691).
MONTGOMERY, RICHARD (Vol. 18, p. 784).
ARNOLD, BENEDICT (Vol. 2, p. 633).
SCHUYLER, PHILIP JOHN (Vol. 24, p. 387).
In the Middle States WASHINGTON, GEORGE (Vol. 28, p. 344), by Prof. William MacDonald, Brown University.
STIRLING, WILLIAM ALEXANDER, EARL OF (Vol. 25, p. 925).
KNOX, HENRY (Vol. 15, p. 878).
STARK, JOHN (Vol. 25, p. 798).
WAYNE, ANTHONY (Vol. 28, p. 432).
GATES, HORATIO (Vol. 11, p. 529).
BENEDICT, ARNOLD (Vol. 2, p. 633).
SULLIVAN, JOHN (Vol. 26, p. 57).
In the South MOULTRIE, WILLIAM (Vol. 18, p. 935).
MORGAN, DANIEL (Vol. 18, p. 833).
MARION, FRANCIS (Vol. 17, p. 722).
PICKENS, ANDREW (Vol. 21, p. 582).
SUMTER, THOMAS (Vol. 26, p. 85).
SHELBY, ISAAC (Vol. 24, p. 826).
GATES, HORATIO (Vol. 11, p. 529).
LEE, HENRY (Vol. 16, p. 361).
GREENE, NATHANIEL (Vol. 12, p. 588).
In the Northwest CLARK, GEORGE ROGERS (Vol. 6, p. 442).
On Sea JONES, JOHN PAUL (Vol. 15, p. 499).
HOPKINS, ESEK (Vol. 13, p. 684).
Foreign Officers in the War
French LAFAYETTE (Vol. 16, p. 65).
ROCHAMBEAU (Vol. 23, p. 425).
GRASSE, COMTE DE (Vol. 12, p. 369).
ESTAING, C. H. D’ (Vol. 9, p. 789).
Polish KOSCIUSZKO (Vol. 15, p. 914).
PULASKI (Vol. 22, p. 640).
German STEUBEN (Vol. 25, p. 904).
KALB, JOHANN (Vol. 15, p. 639).
English Leaders
On land HOWE, WILLIAM (Vol. 13, p. 839).
CLINTON, SIR HENRY (Vol. 6, p. 529).
BURGOYNE, JOHN (Vol. 4, p. 819).
ANDRÉ, JOHN (Vol. 1, p. 968).
CORNWALLIS, CHARLES (Vol. 7, p. 183).
TARLETON, SIR BANASTRE (Vol. 26, p. 428).
On sea HASTINGS, MARQUESS OF (Lord Rawdon) (Vol. 13, p. 53).
HOWE, RICHARD (Vol. 13, p. 836).
RODNEY, GEORGE BRYDGES (Vol. 23, p. 447).
BYRON, JOHN (Vol. 4, p. 906).
The Principal Engagements of the War, Separately Treated
Around Boston LEXINGTON (Vol. 16, p. 527).
CONCORD (Vol. 6, p. 830).
BUNKER HILL (Vol. 4, p. 798).
BOSTON (Vol. 4, p. 296).
Canada and the Border TICONDEROGA (Vol. 26, p. 938).
CROWN POINT (Vol. 7, p. 519).
QUEBEC (Vol. 22, p. 728).
Middle States LONG ISLAND (Vol. 16, p. 984), by C. F. Atkinson, author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour.
NEW YORK CITY (Vol. 19, p. 622).
TRENTON AND PRINCETON (Vol. 27, p. 252).
BRANDYWINE (Vol. 4, p. 430).
GERMANTOWN (Vol. 11, p. 804).
SARATOGA (Vol. 24, p. 205).
BENNINGTON (Vol. 3, p. 743).
VALLEY FORGE (Vol. 27, p. 864).
MONMOUTH (Vol. 18, p. 727).
STONY POINT (Vol. 25, p. 966).
WEST POINT (Vol. 28, p. 559).
South CHARLESTON (Vol. 5, p. 944).
CAMDEN (Vol. 5, p. 102).
KING’S MOUNTAIN (Vol. 15, p. 819).
EUTAWVILLE (Vol. 9, p. 957).
YORKTOWN (Vol. 28, p. 936).
Governmental History.
First attempts at Confederation UNITED STATES, History (Vol. 27, (1776–1789). Article of p. 681), by Prof. H. L. Osgood, Confederation (1777–1781). Columbia University.
Difficulties of ratification. MARYLAND (Vol. 17, p. 832), by Dr. N. D. Mereness, author of Maryland, a Proprietary Province.
Necessity for centralization seen HAMILTON, ALEXANDER (Vol. 12, p. (1779–1780). 880), by Dr. F. S. Philbrick and Hugh Chisholm, editor 11th Edition Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Recognition of the United States. FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN (Vol. 11, p. Treaty of Versailles (Sept. 27), by Richard Webster. 1783).
ADAMS, JOHN (Vol. 1, p. 176), by Dr. Edward Channing, Harvard University.
JAY, JOHN (Vol. 15, p. 294).
LAURENS, HENRY (Vol. 16, p. 284).
Struggle for National Government. UNITED STATES, History (Vol. 27, The Critical Period. p. 684), by Dr. Alexander Government found impossible under Johnston, late professor of the articles (1783–1789). history, Princeton University, and C. C. Whinery, assistant editor, Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Territorial cessions and JEFFERSON, THOMAS (Vol. 15, p. government. Ordinance of 1787. 303), by Dr. F. S. Philbrick.
Roundabout origin of the MADISON, JAMES (Vol. 17, p. 285). Constitutional Conventions:
Alexandria (1785). ALEXANDRIA, VA. (Vol. 1, p. 572).
Annapolis (1786). ANNAPOLIS, VA. (Vol. 2, p. 63).
Philadelphia (1787). PHILADELPHIA, History (Vol. 21, p. 372).
The three plans:
Virginia RANDOLPH, EDMUND J. (Vol. 22, p. 886).
Pinckney PINCKNEY, CHARLES C. (Vol. 21, p. 616).
New Jersey (Paterson) NEW JERSEY (Vol. 19, p. 512).
Struggle over State Representation. MORRIS, GOUVERNEUR (Vol. 18, p. 869).
Origin of the Senate, Connecticut CONNECTICUT, History (Vol. 6, p. compromise. 956).
Opposition and Ratification. HENRY, PATRICK (Vol. 13, p. 300).
HAMILTON, ALEXANDER (Vol. 12, p. 880), by Dr. F. S. Philbrick and Hugh Chisholm.
MADISON, JAMES (Vol. 17, p. 286).
JAY, JOHN (Vol. 15, p. 294).
Federalists and Anti-Federalists. FEDERALIST PARTY (Vol. 10, p. 235).
ANTI-FEDERALISTS (Vol. 2, p. 124).
Government Under the Constitution.
The form of Government established UNITED STATES, Constitution and by the Constitution. Government (Vol. 27, p. 646), by Hon. James Bryce, British Ambassador at Washington, and author of The American Commonwealth.
Washington as President WASHINGTON, GEORGE (Vol. 28, p. (1789–1797). 347), by Dr. William MacDonald, professor of American History, Brown University.
Development of Democracy UNITED STATES, History (Vol. 27, (1789–1801). p. 688), by Prof. Alexander Johnston and C. C. Whinery.
Constitution finally ratified by NORTH CAROLINA (Vol. 19, p. 777). all the States.
RHODE ISLAND (Vol. 23, p. 252).
The first Tariff act, 1789, a TARIFF (Vol. 26, p. 425), by Dr. F. moderate protective measure. W. Taussig, professor Harvard University, author of Principles of Economics, etc.
Admission of new States, Vermont VERMONT (Vol. 27, p. 1028). and Kentucky.
KENTUCKY (Vol. 15, p. 746).
Hamilton’s efforts for strength and HAMILTON, ALEXANDER (Vol. 12, p. stability. His tendency towards 881), by Dr. F. S. Philbrick and Aristocracy. Opposition of Hugh Chisholm, editor-in-chief Jefferson. Encyclopaedia Britannica.
JEFFERSON, THOMAS (Vol. 15, p. 303), by Dr. F. S. Philbrick.
Excise troubles (1794). First WHISKY INSURRECTION (Vol. 28, p. employment by the Federal 592). Executive of power to enforce Federal laws within the States.
GALLATIN, ALBERT (Vol. 11, p. 414), by Henry Cabot Lodge, U. S. Senator from Massachusetts, biographer of Washington, Webster, etc.
Jay’s treaty with England (1794). JAY, JOHN (Vol. 15, p. 294). Its defects.
Presidency of John Adams. Alien and ADAMS, JOHN (Vol. 1, p. 176), by Sedition Laws. Prof. Edward Channing of Harvard.
Organization of Navy Department NAVY AND NAVIES, The United (1798). States (Vol. 19, p. 308), by David Hannay.
ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION (Vol. 1, p. 201), by the late Rear-Admiral William T. Sampson, U. S. Navy.
Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. VIRGINIA (Vol. 28, p. 124).
KENTUCKY (Vol. 15, p. 746).
Part in them taken by Jefferson and MADISON, JAMES (Vol. 17, p. 286). Madison.
Idea of Secession present from the SECESSION (Vol. 24, p. 568), by Dr. beginning. Early threats. Walter L. Fleming, professor Louisiana State University.
Invention of cotton gin (1793) and WHITNEY, ELI (Vol. 28, p. 611). its far-reaching consequences, introducing a commercial element into slavery.
Democracy and Nationality UNITED STATES, History (Vol. 27, (1801–1829). p. 692), by Prof. Alexander Johnston and C. C. Whinery.
Election of Jefferson (1800). The DEMOCRATIC PARTY (Vol. 8, p. 2). Democratic Party called by Jefferson the Republican Party, later and officially the Democratic-Republican, and later still simply the Democratic Party.
STATE RIGHTS (Vol. 25, p. 802).
The acquisition of Louisiana LOUISIANA PURCHASE (Vol. 17, p. (1803). 62).
The Lewis-Clark expedition (1804); LEWIS, MERIWETHER (Vol. 16, p. a basis for future acquisition of 523). territory in the far west.
CLARK, WILLIAM (Vol. 6, p. 442).
OREGON, History (Vol. 20, p. 248).
War with the Barbary pirates PIRATE AND PIRACY, History (Vol. (1805). These robbers first 21, p. 638), by D. Hannay, author checked by the little American of Short History of the Royal navy. Navy. EATON, WILLIAM (Vol. 8, p. 839).
War with Barbary Pirates. DERNA (Vol. 8, p. 74), by D. G. Hogarth.
HULL, ISAAC (Vol. 13, p. 869).
Expedition of Aaron Burr BURR, AARON (Vol. 4, p. 862). (1806–1807).
WILKINSON, JAMES (Vol. 28, p. 647), by Dr. Isaac Joslin Cox, professor of history, University of Cincinnati.
Election of Madison (1808). MADISON, JAMES (Vol. 17, p. 284).
Difficulties with Great Britain. SEARCH, or VISIT AND SEARCH (Vol. Restrictions of Commerce and 24, p. 560), by Sir Thomas right of search. Barclay, author of Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy.
The War of 1812.
Military and naval events. AMERICAN WAR OF 1812 (Vol. 1, p. 847), by David Hannay, author of Short History of the Royal Navy.
Principal engagements and Strategic Points.
In the Northwest MACKINAC ISLAND (Vol. 17, p. 255).
DETROIT (Vol. 8, p. 116).
MICHIGAN (Vol. 18, p. 376).
TORONTO (Vol. 27, p. 53).
SACKETT’S HARBOR (Vol. 23, p. 974).
PLATTSBURG (Vol. 21, p. 825).
CHAMPLAIN (Vol. 5, p. 831).
NIAGARA, FORT (Vol. 19, p. 635).
In the East WASHINGTON (Vol. 28, p. 352).
BALTIMORE (Vol. 3, p. 290).
In the Southwest NEW ORLEANS (Vol. 19, p. 531).
Principal Leaders in the War on Land and on Sea.
American RODGERS, JOHN (Vol. 23, p. 447).
DECATUR, STEPHEN (Vol. 7, p. 910).
HULL, ISAAC (Vol. 13, p. 869).
BAINBRIDGE, WILLIAM (Vol. 3, p. 223).
PORTER, DAVID (Vol. 22, p. 113).
CHAUNCEY, ISAAC (Vol. 6, p. 18).
PERRY, OLIVER HAZARD (Vol. 21, p. 185).
BROWN, JACOB (Vol. 4, p. 659).
SCOTT, WINFIELD (Vol. 24, p. 475).
JACKSON, ANDREW (Vol. 15, p. 107).
On the other side BROCK, SIR ISAAC (Vol. 4, p. 623).
ROSS, ROBERT (Vol. 23, p. 740).
BROKE, SIR P. B. V. (Vol. 4, p. 628).
TECUMSEH (Vol. 26, p. 499).
Weakness of Madison’s MADISON, JAMES (Vol. 17, p. 286). Administration.
Opposition to the war in New HARTFORD (Vol. 13, p. 33). England: The Hartford Convention.
After the War.
Reaction against Federalist party FEDERALIST PARTY (Vol. 10, p. 235).
Acquisition of Florida (1819) FLORIDA, History (Vol. 10, p. 545).
Bank of the United States (1816). BANKS AND BANKING, United States (Vol. 3, p. 345), by Charles A. Conant, author of The History of Modern Banks.
Tariff revision (1816–1828). TARIFF (Vol. 26, p. 425), by Prof. F. W. Taussig, Harvard, author of Tariff History of the United States, etc.
“The American System”—Clay’s name PROTECTION (Vol. 22, p. 465), by for the combination of protective Dr. Edmund J. James, president of tariff and internal improvements University of Illinois, author of begun by Dallas and carried on by History of American Tariff himself and the Whig and Legislation. Republican parties.
DALLAS, A. J. (Vol. 7, p. 768).
CLAY, HENRY (Vol. 6, p. 471), by Carl Schurz, biographer of Clay.
The Monroe Doctrine (1823). MONROE, JAMES (Vol. 18, p. 736).
The first weighty international MONROE DOCTRINE (Vol. 18, p. 738), action of the Government—warning by Dr. Theodore S. Woolsey, to European states at instance of professor of International Law, England. Yale University.
Admission of new States:
Indiana (1816) INDIANA, History (Vol. 14, p. 425).
Mississippi (1817) MISSISSIPPI, History (Vol. 18, p. 602).
Illinois (1818) ILLINOIS, History (Vol. 14, p. 309).
Alabama (1819) ALABAMA, History (Vol. 1, p. 462).
Maine (1820) MAINE, History (Vol. 17, p. 439).
Missouri (1821) MISSOURI, History (Vol. 18, p. 613).
Fixing the Northwest Boundary: OREGON, History (Vol. 20, p. Agreements with Great Britain 248). (1818 and 1827) and with Russia (1825).
A nationalizing element in the WHIG PARTY (Vol. 28, p. 589), by Republican Party fostered by Dr. Anson D. Morse, professor of commercial and manufacturing history, Amherst College. elements in the East fuses with broad constructionists to form new party (National Republican, later the Whig) under J. Q. Adams and Clay (1824).
ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY (Vol. 1, p. 178), by Prof. Edward Channing, Harvard University.
CLAY, HENRY (Vol. 6, p. 470), by Carl Schurz, author of Life of Henry Clay.
ANTI-MASONIC PARTY (Vol. 2, p. 127).
Jackson and the Democratic Party. DEMOCRATIC PARTY (Vol. 8, p. 2).
The “power of the people” CRAWFORD, W. H. (Vol. 6, p. 386). established.
Free vs. Slave States. MISSOURI COMPROMISE (Vol. 18, p. 614), by Prof. William Roy Smith, Bryn Mawr College.
Beginning of a sectional struggle, MISSOURI, History (Vol. 18, p. which Clay and others tried to 613). compromise (1820).
_Industrial Development and UNITED STATES, History (Vol. 27, Sectional Divergence._ p. 697), by Prof. Alexander Johnston and C. C. Whinery.
Tendencies to Disunion (1829–1851).
“The reign of Andrew Jackson” JACKSON, ANDREW (Vol. 15, p. 107), (1829–1837). by the late Prof. William G. Sumner, Yale University, author of Life of Andrew Jackson, etc.
The Kitchen Cabinet and the Cabinet GREEN, DUFF (Vol. 12, p. 534). Crisis.
EATON, MARGARET O’NEILL (“Peggy O’Neill”) (Vol. 8, p. 838).
Jackson and the Bank. BANKS AND BANKING, United States (Vol. 3, p. 346), by C. A. Conant, author of History of Modern Banks of Issue.
The new school of leaders.
Jackson’s lieutenant and successor. VAN BUREN, MARTIN (Vol. 27, p. 881), by Prof. William MacDonald, Brown University.
Van Buren’s lieutenant in New York. MARCY, W. L. (Vol. 17, p. 696).
The Jacksonian leader in the BENTON, T. H. (Vol. 3, p. 753). Senate.
Jackson’s War Secretary, 1831–36. CASS, LEWIS (Vol. 5, p. 455).
Jackson’s Attorney-General, TANEY, R. B. (Vol. 26, p. 396). Treasurer, and (1835) Chief Justice.
Jackson’s Secretary of State LIVINGSTON, EDWARD (Vol. 16, p. (1831–33), who drafted the 811). anti-nullification proclamation.
Georgia and the Cherokees. GEORGIA, History (Vol. 11, p. Opposition in the South to the 756). Protective System. Tariff of 1832.
TARIFF, United States (Vol. 26, p. 425), by Prof. F. W. Taussig, Harvard University, author of Tariff History of the United States.
Rise and fall of doctrine of CALHOUN, JOHN C. (Vol. 5, p. 1), by Nullification (1830). Hon. Henry A. M. Smith, U. S. District Judge, South Carolina.
SOUTH CAROLINA, History (Vol. 25, p. 504).
Nullification not original with NULLIFICATION (Vol. 19, p. 846), by Calhoun. Prof. Walter L. Fleming, Louisiana State University.
The debate in the U. S. Senate on WEBSTER, DANIEL (Vol. 28, p. 461), nullification—Webster and Hayne. by Everett P. Wheeler, author of Daniel Webster, etc.
HAYNE, ROBERT YOUNG (Vol. 13, p. 114).
Compromise Tariff of 1833. TARIFF (Vol. 26, p. 425), by Prof. F. W. Taussig, Harvard, author of Tariff History of the United States.
Beginning of abolitionist movement SLAVERY, United States (Vol. 25, (1831). The “Liberator.” p. 225), by Dr. J. K. Ingram.
Foundation of American Anti-Slavery LUNDY, BENJAMIN (Vol. 17, p. 124). Society (1831). Its leaders.
GARRISON, W. L. (Vol. 11, p. 477).
Dissent from this view and PHILLIPS, WENDELL (Vol. 21, p. formation of anti-slavery 407), by Thomas Wentworth political party (1840). Higginson, author of History of the United States.
LIBERTY PARTY (Vol. 16, p. 543).
BIRNEY, JAMES G. (Vol. 3, p. 988).
SMITH, GERRIT (Vol. 25, p. 261).
“Dorr’s Rebellion.” RHODE ISLAND (Vol. 23, p. 252).
Seminole War (1835–1842). OSCEOLA (Vol. 20, p. 346).
Texas independent of Mexico (1836). TEXAS, History (Vol. 26, p. 692).
HOUSTON, SAM (Vol. 13, p. 828).
Admission of Texas (1845). SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS (Vol. 24, p. 126).
AUSTIN, S. F. (Vol. 2, p. 940).
CROCKETT, DAVID (Vol. 7, p. 477).
Polk’s Administration. POLK, J. K. (Vol. 21, p. 983), by Prof. W. R. Smith, Bryn Mawr College.
War with Mexico (1846–1848). TAYLOR, ZACHARY (Vol. 26, p. 473), by Prof. Isaac J. Cox, University of Cincinnati.
The Generals and the Fighting. SCOTT, WINFIELD (Vol. 24, p. 475).
SANTA-ANA (Vol. 24, p. 184).
MEXICO, History (Vol. 18, p. 340).
MEXICO CITY (Vol. 18, p. 347).
Wilmot Proviso and similar WILMOT, DAVID (Vol. 28, p. 691). measures.
Cession of California (1848), and CALIFORNIA, History (Vol. 5, p. Discovery of Gold there. 17).
The Gadsden Purchase (1853). GADSDEN, JAMES (Vol. 11, p. 383).
Compromise Measures of 1850. COMPROMISE MEASURES OF 1850 (Vol. 6, p. 813), by Prof. W. R. Smith, Bryn Mawr College.
Opposition in Georgia. GEORGIA (Vol. 11, p. 756).
Fugitive Slave Laws. FUGITIVE SLAVE LAWS (Vol. 11, p. 288).
Various political elements join to FREE SOIL PARTY (Vol. 11, p. 87). oppose introduction of slavery into territories (1847–1848).
Tariff Reduction, Walker Bill of TARIFF (Vol. 26, p. 425), by Prof. 1846. F. W. Taussig, Harvard University.
WALKER, ROBERT JAMES (Vol. 28, p. 273).
Independent Treasury System (1846). POLK, J. K. (Vol. 21, p. 983), by Prof. W. R. Smith, Bryn Mawr.
Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (1850). CLAYTON-BULWER TREATY (Vol. 6, p. 475).
CLAYTON, JOHN M. (Vol. 6, p. 474).
The northern boundary “Fifty-four OREGON, History (Vol. 20, p. forty or fight.” 249).
WASHINGTON, History (Vol. 28, p. 357).
New Leaders in the ’50’s.
Northern anti-slavery men. SUMNER, CHARLES (Vol. 26, p. 81).
SEWARD, WILLIAM H. (Vol. 24, p. 733).
CHASE, SALMON P. (Vol. 5, p. 955).
Southern leaders, protecting DAVIS, JEFFERSON (Vol. 7, p. 867), slavery in the Territories. by Hon. W. W. Henry, late president of the American Historical Association, and Dr. N. D. Mereness.
STEPHENS, A. H. (Vol. 26, p. 887).
Northern “popular sovereignty DOUGLAS, STEPHEN A. (Vol. 8, p. leader.” 446).
Attempt to uphold Fugitive Slave WHIG PARTY (Vol. 28, p. 590), by Law of 1850—a death blow to the Prof. A. D. Morse, Amherst Whig Party. College.
The American or “Know Nothing” KNOW NOTHING PARTY (Vol. 15, p. Party. 877).
Kansas-Nebraska Bill, repealing KANSAS, History (Vol. 15, p. Missouri Compromise. 658).
NEBRASKA, History (Vol. 19, p. 330).
Origin of the Republican Party REPUBLICAN PARTY (Vol. 23, p. 177), (1854). by Prof. A. D. Morse, Amherst College.
Opening of Japan (1854). JAPAN, History (Vol. 15, p. 237), by Capt. Frank Brinkley, late editor of “The Japan Mail”; author of Japan; PERRY, M. C. (Vol. 21, p. 184).
Efforts to obtain Cuba in the BUCHANAN, JAMES (Vol. 4, p. 716). interests of Slavery. The Ostend Manifesto (1854).
The election of 1856. FILLMORE, MILLARD (Vol. 10, p. 344).
FREMONT, JOHN C. (Vol. 11, p. 97).
The Dred Scott decision and its TANEY, ROGER B. (Vol. 26, p. 396). effects (1857).
Lincoln and Douglas debates in LINCOLN, ABRAHAM (Vol. 16, p. 705), Illinois. Senatorial contest by J. G. Nicolay and C. C. (1858). Whinery.
DOUGLAS, S. A. (Vol. 8, p. 446).
FREEPORT, ILL. (Vol. 11, p. 85).
John Brown’s Raid (1859). BROWN, JOHN (Vol. 4, p. 660).
Admission of Minnesota and Oregon. MINNESOTA, History (Vol. 17, p. 553).
OREGON, History (Vol. 20, p. 249).
The Presidential Campaign of 1860. BELL, JOHN (Vol. 3, p. 686).
EVERETT, EDWARD (Vol. 10, p. 8), by Dr. Edward Everett Hale, author of The Man Without a Country, etc.
Lincoln elected with Hannibal LINCOLN, ABRAHAM (Vol. 16, p. 703), Hamlin of Maine as by John G. Nicolay, author (with Vice-President. John Hay) of Abraham Lincoln—a History, and C. C. Whinery, assistant editor, 11th edition, Encyclopaedia Britannica.
HAMLIN, HANNIBAL (Vol. 12, p. 896).
Secession (1860–1861). UNITED STATES, History (Vol. 27, p. 707), by the late Prof. Alexander Johnston of Princeton and C. C. Whinery.
SECESSION (Vol. 24, p. 568), by Prof. W. L. Fleming, Louisiana State University.
STATE RIGHTS (Vol. 25, p. 802).
Organization and administration of CONFEDERATE STATES OF AMERICA (Vol. the Confederacy. 6, p. 899), by Dr. J. C. Schwab, Yale, author of The Confederate States of America.
President DAVIS, JEFFERSON (Vol. 7, p. 867), by Hon. William Wirt Henry and N. D. Mereness.
Vice-President STEPHENS, ALEXANDER H. (Vol. 25, p. 87).
Other leaders and administrators BENJAMIN, JUDAH P. (Vol. 3, p. 739).
REAGAN, JOHN H. (Vol. 22, p. 940).
COBB, HOWELL (Vol. 6, p. 606).
TOOMBS, ROBERT (Vol. 27, p. 47).
VANCE, Z. B. (Vol. 27, p. 882).
Commissioners to Europe YANCEY, WILLIAM LOWNDES (Vol. 28, p. 902).
MASON, JAMES MURRAY (Vol. 17, p. 839).
SLIDELL, JOHN (Vol. 25, p. 241).
Secession by popular vote, May TENNESSEE, History (Vol. 26, p. (1861). 624).
VIRGINIA, History (Vol. 28, p. 124).
The people of Virginia divide the WEST VIRGINIA, History (Vol. 28, State (May, 1861). p. 563).
[Sidenote: Battles and Campaigns]
The main article AMERICAN CIVIL WAR (Vol. 1, p. 818), by Capt. Charles F. Atkinson, author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour, is richly supplemented with detailed accounts of the principal campaigns and battles, and biographies of military leaders on both the Federal and Confederate sides. For battles and campaigns see: CHARLESTON (Vol. 5, p. 944); BULL RUN (Vol. 4, p. 791), with map and description of both famous battles; LEXINGTON, Mo. (Vol. 16, p. 527); SHENANDOAH VALLEY CAMPAIGNS (Vol. 24, p. 834); YORKTOWN (Vol. 28, p. 936); SEVEN DAYS’ BATTLE (Vol. 24, p. 707), both with fine maps, and written by Major George W. Redway, author of The War of Secession; FAIR OAKS (Vol. 10, p. 133); HAMPTON ROADS (Vol. 12, p. 906); DONELSON, FORT (Vol. 8, p. 414); SHILOH, BATTLE OF (Vol. 24, p. 859); CORINTH (Vol. 7, p. 150); NEW MADRID (Vol. 19, p. 516); PERRYVILLE (Vol. 21, p. 185); IUKA (Vol. 15, p. 87); MEMPHIS (Vol. 18, p. 107); NEW ORLEANS (Vol. 19, p. 531); HARPER’S FERRY (Vol. 13, p. 14); ANTIETAM (Vol. 2, p. 124); FREDERICKSBURG (Vol. 11, p. 68); STONE RIVER, BATTLE OF (Vol. 25, p. 966); CHANCELLORSVILLE (Vol. 5, p. 835), see also WILDERNESS (Vol. 28, p. 633); GETTYSBURG (Vol. 11, p. 911), with map; VICKSBURG (Vol. 28, p. 21), with maps; PORT HUDSON (Vol. 22, p. 117); BATON ROUGE (Vol. 3, p. 521); HELENA, ARK. (Vol. 13, p. 219); CHICKAMAUGA CREEK (Vol. 6, p. 130), with map; CHATTANOOGA (Vol. 6, p. 7); KNOXVILLE (Vol. 15, p. 883); RED RIVER (Vol. 22, p. 969); WILDERNESS (Vol. 28, p. 633), with 4 maps, by C. F. Atkinson, author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour; WASHINGTON (Vol. 28, p. 352); MARIETTA, Ga. (Vol. 17, p. 715); ATLANTA (Vol. 2, p. 854); SAVANNAH (Vol. 24, p. 241); MOBILE (Vol. 18, p. 636); GALVESTON (Vol. 11, p. 431); FRANKLIN, Tenn. (Vol. 11, p. 34); NASHVILLE (Vol. 19, p. 247); PETERSBURG (Vol. 21, p. 301), with two maps, by Major G. W. Redway; COLUMBIA, S. C. (Vol. 6, p. 738); APPOMATTOX COURT HOUSE (Vol. 2, p. 226); RICHMOND, Va. (Vol. 23, p. 311).
[Sidenote: Union Generals]
On the leaders on both sides see the biographical articles: MCCLELLAN, GEORGE BRINTON (Vol. 17, p. 201); HALLECK, HENRY WAGER (Vol. 12, p. 854); GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON (Vol. 12, p. 355), by John Fiske and Capt. C. F. Atkinson; DIX, JOHN ADAMS (Vol. 8, p. 346); MCDOWELL, IRVIN (Vol. 17, p. 214); BURNSIDE, AMBROSE EVERETT (Vol. 4, p. 861); HOOKER, JOSEPH (Vol. 13, p. 671); MEADE, GEORGE GORDON (Vol. 17, p. 945); POPE, JOHN (Vol. 22, p. 87); BUELL, DON CARLOS (Vol. 4, p. 751); ROSECRANS, WILLIAM STARKE (Vol. 23, p. 734); SHERMAN, WILLIAM TECUMSEH (Vol. 24, p. 851); THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (Vol. 26, p. 866); MACPHERSON, JAMES BIRDSEYE (Vol. 17, p. 268); SHERIDAN, PHILIP HENRY (Vol. 24, p. 847); SLOCUM, HENRY WARNER (Vol. 25, p. 243); BUTLER, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (Vol. 4, p. 881); HANCOCK, WINFIELD SCOTT (Vol. 12, p. 909); HUMPHREYS, ANDREW ATKINSON (Vol. 13, p. 891); SEDGWICK, JOHN (Vol. 24, p. 578); REYNOLDS, JOHN FULTON (Vol. 23, p. 226); WARREN, GOUVERNEUR KEMBLE (Vol. 28, p. 329); HOWARD, OLIVER OTIS (Vol. 13, p. 833); DOUBLEDAY, ABNER (Vol. 8, p. 441); SICKLES, DANIEL EDGAR (Vol. 25, p. 36); SCHURZ, CARL (Vol. 24, p. 386); DEVENS, CHARLES (Vol. 8, p. 120); BUTTERFIELD, DANIEL (Vol. 4, p. 890); PORTER, HORACE (Vol. 22, p. 116); FRANKLIN, WILLIAM BUEL (Vol. 11, p. 33); PORTER, FITZ-JOHN (Vol. 22, p. 115); SHIELDS, JAMES (Vol. 24, p. 856); HUNT, HENRY JACKSON (Vol. 13, p. 934); COUCH, DARIUS NASH (Vol. 7, p. 307); COX, JACOB DOLSON (Vol. 7, p. 352); MEAGHER, THOMAS FRANCIS (Vol. 17, p. 946); SUMNER, EDWIN VOSE (Vol. 26, p. 83); SIGEL, FRANZ (Vol. 25, p. 60); KEARNY, PHILIP (Vol. 15, p. 707); SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (Vol. 25, p. 259); SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (Vol. 25, p. 271); CRITTENDEN, THOMAS LEONIDAS (Vol. 7, p. 471); MCCLERNAND, JOHN ALEXANDER (Vol. 17, p. 202); SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (Vol. 25, p. 259); GARFIELD, JAMES ABRAM (Vol. 11, p. 464); WALLACE, LEWIS (Vol. 28, p. 276); BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (Vol. 3, p. 333); WASHBURN, CADWALADER COLDEN (Vol. 28, p. 344); LOGAN, JOHN ALEXANDER (Vol. 16, p. 866); PALMER, JOHN MCAULEY (Vol. 20, p. 645); MCCOOK, ALEXANDER MCDOWELL, MCCOOK, DANIEL, and MCCOOK, JOHN JAMES (Vol. 17, p. 205); SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS, and SMITH, GILES ALEXANDER (Vol. 25, p. 267); BLAIR, FRANCIS PRESTON (Vol. 4, p. 34); SCHOFIELD, JOHN MCALLISTER (Vol. 24, p. 345); NEWTON, JOHN (Vol. 19, p. 592); MILES, NELSON A. (Vol. 18, p. 442); MERRITT, WESLEY (Vol. 18, p. 173); CUSTER, GEORGE ARMSTRONG (Vol. 7, p. 668); STONEMAN, GEORGE (Vol. 25, p. 962); WILSON, JAMES HARRISON (Vol. 28, p. 695); TRACY, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (Vol. 27, p. 127); LYON, NATHANIEL (Vol. 17, p. 173); FARRAGUT, DAVID GLASGOW (Vol. 10, p. 187); PORTER, DAVID DIXON (Vol. 22, p. 113); FOOTE, ANDREW HULL (Vol. 10, p. 625); CUSHING, WILLIAM BARKER (Vol. 7, p. 667).
[Sidenote: Confederate Generals]
And, for Confederate leaders: LEE, ROBERT EDWARD (Vol. 16, p. 362); JACKSON, THOMAS JONATHAN, “STONEWALL” (Vol. 15, p. 110); LONGSTREET, JAMES (Vol. 16, p. 985); JOHNSTON, ALBERT SIDNEY (Vol. 15, p. 472); JOHNSTON, JOSEPH EGGLESTON (Vol. 15, p. 474); BEAUREGARD, PIERRE G. T. (Vol. 3, p. 599); BRAGG, BRAXTON (Vol. 4, p. 376); HOOD, JOHN BELL (Vol. 13, p. 665); POLK, LEONIDAS (Vol. 21, p. 984); HARDEE, WILLIAM JOSEPH (Vol. 12, p. 941); HILL, AMBROSE POWELL (Vol. 13, p. 463); HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (Vol. 13, p. 464); EWELL, RICHARD STODDERT (Vol. 10, p. 40); EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (Vol. 8, p. 797); ANDERSON, RICHARD HENRY (Vol. 1, p. 960); FLOYD, JOHN BUCHANAN (Vol. 10, p. 573); BUCKNER, SIMON BOLIVAR (Vol. 4, p. 732); CRITTENDEN, GEORGE BIBB (Vol. 7, p. 471); BRECKINRIDGE, JOHN CABELL (Vol. 4, p. 483); SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (Vol. 25, p. 260); LEE, STEPHEN DILL (Vol. 16, p. 364); VAN DORN, EARL (Vol. 27, p. 887); ASHBY, TURNER (Vol. 2, p. 730); STUART, JAMES EWELL BROWN (Vol. 25, p. 1047); HAMPTON, WADE (Vol. 12, p. 905); LEE, FITZHUGH (Vol. 16, p. 360); WHEELER, JOSEPH (Vol. 28, p. 586); FORREST, NATHAN BEDFORD (Vol. 10, p. 673); MORGAN, JOHN HUNT (Vol. 18, p. 834); MOSBY, JOHN SINGLETON (Vol. 18, p. 890); WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (Vol. 28, p. 751).
Topics for Reading Articles
_Political History During the Civil War._
Paper money (1862). GREENBACKS (Vol. 12, p. 537).
Public lands given to settlers at HOMESTEAD AND EXEMPTION LAWS (Vol. reduced rates (1862), and granted 13, p. 639), by Dr. N. D. to agricultural colleges (1862). Mereness.
MORRILL, J. S. (Vol. 18, p. 869).
War Tariffs (1862–1864). TARIFF, United States (Vol. 26, p. 425), by Prof. F. W. Taussig, Harvard, author of Tariff History of the United States.
Establishment of National Banking BANKS AND BANKING, United States System (1862–1865). (Vol. 3, p. 347), by Charles A. Conant, author of Banks of Issue.
Emancipation (1863). LINCOLN, ABRAHAM (Vol. 16, p. 707), by J. G. Nicolay, biographer of Lincoln, and C. C. Whinery, assistant editor, Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Second election of Lincoln (1864). MCCLELLAN, G. B. (Vol. 17, p. 201).
Opposition to the War in the North. KNIGHTS OF THE GOLDEN CIRCLE (Vol. 15, p. 868), by Prof. W. L. Fleming, Louisiana State University.
VALLANDIGHAM, C. L. (Vol. 27, p. 862).
COPPERHEADS (Vol. 7, p. 110).
The War Governors of the Northern ANDREW, JOHN A. (Vol. 1, p. 973). States.
CURTIN, A. G. (Vol. 7, p. 651).
MORGAN, E. D. (Vol. 18, p. 833).
SEYMOUR, HORATIO (Vol. 24, p. 755).
MORTON, OLIVER P. (Vol. 18, p. 882).
YATES, RICHARD (Vol. 28, p. 908).
Assassination of Lincoln (1865). LINCOLN, ABRAHAM (Vol. 16, p. 709), by J. G. Nicolay and C. C. Whinery.
The Reconstruction Period. UNITED STATES, History (Vol. 27, p. 711), by Dr. Frederick J. Turner, professor of history, Harvard University.
Organizing the negroes into a FREEDMEN’S BUREAU (Vol. 11, p. 75), political party. by Prof. W. L. Fleming.
HOWARD, O. O. (Vol. 13, p. 833).
Opposition to Reconstruction KU KLUX KLAN (Vol. 15, p. 942), by Measures (1865–1876). Prof. W. L. Fleming.
Thirteenth, Fourteenth and UNITED STATES, Constitution and Fifteenth Amendments. Government (Vol. 27, pp. 647, 658, etc.), by James Bryce, author of The American Commonwealth.
Character of Reconstruction See under History in articles on Government. Southern States.
“Scalawags” and “Carpet Baggers.” CARPET BAGGER (Vol. 5, p. 397).
Johnson’s Policy: his impeachment. JOHNSON, ANDREW (Vol. 15, p. 461).
IMPEACHMENT (Vol. 14, p. 340).
The Legal Tenders. MCCULLOCH, HUGH (Vol. 17, p. 207).
Grant’s two administrations GRANT, U. S. (Vol. 12, p. 357), by (1869–1877). Dr. John Fiske, author of American Political Ideas, etc., and C. F. Atkinson, author of Wilderness and Cold Harbour, etc.
Beginning of Woman’s Suffrage WOMAN (Vol. 28, p. 788). (1869).
Black Friday (1869). GOULD, JAY (Vol. 12, p. 284).
FISK, JAMES (Vol. 10, p. 437).
The Alabama Claims, Treaty of “ALABAMA” ARBITRATION (Vol. 1, p. Washington (1871). 464), by Montague H. Crackanthorpe.
The “Virginius” Affair (1873). SANTIAGO DE CUBA (Vol. 24, p. 193).
The Panic of 1873 and the Inflation GREENBACKS (Vol. 12, p. 536). Bill (1874).
Political unrest in the West FARMERS’ MOVEMENT (Vol. 10, p. (1873–1874). 181).
Railway abuses. The greatest CRÉDIT MOBILIER OF AMERICA (Vol. 7, American political scandal. p. 391).
War with the Sioux. Custer massacre CUSTER, GEORGE A. (Vol. 7, p. 668). (1876).
The Hayes-Tilden Contest (1876). ELECTORAL COMMISSION (Vol. 9, p. 172).
TILDEN, S. J. (Vol. 26, p. 970).
Withdrawal of Federal troops from HAYES, R. B. (Vol. 13, p. 112), by the South. Carl Schurz.
Civil Service Reform. SCHURZ, CARL (Vol. 24, p. 386).
GODKIN, E. L. (Vol. 12, p. 174).
Monetary Question—Bland-Allison Act ALLISON, W. B. (Vol. 1, p. 696). (1878).
Republicans regain control of CONKLING, ROSCOE (Vol. 6, p. 950). Congress.
Factions in Republican Party. PLATT, T. C. (Vol. 21, p. 825).
Assassination of Garfield. GARFIELD, JAMES A. (Vol. 11, p. 465), by Prof. John B. McMaster, University of Pennsylvania, author of _A History of the People of the United States_.
Succession of the Vice-President. ARTHUR, C. A. (Vol. 2, p. 683).
Anti-Polygamy Act (1882). MORMONS (Vol. 18, p. 846).
UTAH (Vol. 27, p. 818).
Triumph of Civil Service Reform CIVIL SERVICE, United States (1883). (Vol. 6, p. 414).
Tariff revision (1883). TARIFF (Vol. 26, p. 426), by Prof. F. W. Taussig, Harvard University, author of Tariff History of the United States.
The Presidential campaign of 1884. BLAINE, JAMES G. (Vol. 4, p. 32), First election of Grover by Charles Emory Smith, late Cleveland. editor Albany Journal and Philadelphia Press, and Postmaster-General of the United States.
CLEVELAND, GROVER (Vol. 6, p. 501), by Horace White, formerly editor The Evening Post, New York; author of The Tariff Question.
Party Breaks. MUGWUMP (Vol. 18, p. 956).
Increasing problems of Interstate INTERSTATE COMMERCE (Vol. 14, p. Commerce. Federal legislation 711), by Prof. Frank A. Fetter, (1887) on interstate commerce. Princeton University, author of The Principles of Economics.
Labor combinations, social unrest. TRADE UNIONS, United States (Vol. 27, p. 150), by Carroll D. Wright, late U. S. Commissioner of Labor.
STRIKES AND LOCKOUTS, United States (Vol. 25, p. 1033), by Carroll D. Wright.
Republican success in 1888. HARRISON, BENJAMIN (Vol. 13, p. Benjamin Harrison, president. 22), by Hon. J. W. Foster, formerly U. S. Secretary of State.
Republican policy in Congress. REED, THOMAS B. (Vol. 22, p. 973).
American control in Samoa (1889). SAMOA, History (Vol. 24, p. 116).
Republican and Democratic Tariffs: TARIFF, United States (Vol. 26, Mills Bill (1888), McKinley Act p. 426), by Prof. F. W. Taussig. (1890).
MILLS, R. Q. (Vol. 18, p. 475).
MCKINLEY, WILLIAM (Vol. 17, p. 256).
States powerless to arrest the TRUSTS (Vol. 27, p. 334), by Prof. progress of Industrial J. W. Jenks, professor of Economy Combinations. Federal and Government, New York legislation. Sherman Anti-Trust University, special investigator Law (1890). of Trusts for U. S. Government.
Party disruption over free coinage SHERMAN, JOHN (Vol. 24, p. 850), by of silver. Sherman Silver Prof. W. A. Dunning, Columbia Purchase Act (1890). University, author of Essays on Civil War and Reconstruction, etc.
BIMETALLISM (Vol. 3, p. 946), by C. F. Bastable, Dublin University, author of Public Finance.
Opening of Indian Lands OKLAHOMA, History (Vol. 20, p. (1889–1898). Formation of 60). Oklahoma.
Beginning of restriction of Negro UNITED STATES, Constitution and suffrage (1890), and adoption of Government (Vol. 27, p. 647), by grandfather clauses in Hon. James Bryce. Sections on constitutions of Southern states. Government of articles MISSISSIPPI, VIRGINIA, NORTH CAROLINA, GEORGIA, ALABAMA, LOUISIANA and OKLAHOMA.
The campaign of 1892.
The candidates. HARRISON, BENJAMIN (Vol. 13, p. 22), by J. W. Foster, late U. S. Secretary of State.
Second election of Cleveland. WEAVER, JAMES B. (Vol. 28, p. 439).
Panic of 1893. CLEVELAND, GROVER (Vol. 6, p. 502), by Horace White, late editor of The New York Evening Post.
Wilson Tariff (1894). TARIFF, United States (Vol. 26, p. 426), by Prof. F. W. Taussig.
Venezuela Boundary Question (1895). CLEVELAND, GROVER (Vol. 6, p. 503), by Horace White.
New phase of Monroe Doctrine. OLNEY, RICHARD (Vol. 20, p. 91).
The issues of 1896. McKinley’s MCKINLEY, WILLIAM (Vol. 17, p. election. 257).
Republicans and Gold Standard. HANNA, M. A. (Vol. 12, p. 919).
Democrats and Silver. BRYAN, WILLIAM J. (Vol. 9, p. 697).
Gold Democrats. PALMER, J. M. (Vol. 20, p. 645).
BUCKNER, S. B. (Vol. 4, p. 732).
The Dingley Tariff (1897). TARIFF, United States (Vol. 26, p. 427), by Prof. F. W. Taussig.
Annexation of Hawaii and events HAWAII, History (Vol. 13, p. 91). leading to it (1898).
War with Spain (1898). SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR OF 1898 (Vol. 25, p. 594).
Treaty of Paris (1898). The United PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, History (Vol. States finds itself “in a 21, p. 399), by Prof. Hiram position of increased importance Bingham, Yale University. and prestige among the nations of the world.”
PORTO RICO, History (Vol. 22, p. 126).
Regeneration of Cuba (1898–1909). CUBA, History (Vol. 7, p. 604), by F. S. Philbrick.
Initiative and Referendum first SOUTH DAKOTA, History (Vol. 25, adopted (1898). p. 508).
UNITED STATES, Constitution and Government (Vol. 27, p. 651), by Hon. James Bryce, author of The American Commonwealth.
Discovery of gold in Alaska. ALASKA (Vol. 1, p. 475).
Conservation of National Resources, FOREST AND FORESTRY, United a new policy. States (Vol. 10, p. 651), by Gifford Pinchot, formerly chief of the Forestry Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
Assassination of McKinley. The ROOSEVELT, THEODORE (Vol. 23, p. Roosevelt Administration 707), by Lawrence F. Abbott, (1901–1909). president of “The Outlook Company.”
Isthmian Canal. PANAMA (Vol. 20, p. 666).
PANAMA CANAL (Vol. 20, p. 666).
Panic of 1907. BANKS AND BANKING (Vol. 3, p. 348), by Charles A. Conant, author of A History of Modern Banks of Issue.
Elkins Law. RAILWAYS, American Legislation (Vol. 22, p. 829).
Eastern Policy. HAY, JOHN (Vol. 13, p. 105).
ROOT, ELIHU (Vol. 23, p. 711).
This sketch of American History closes with the inauguration of President Roosevelt, for the questions that have arisen since that date are questions into which current politics enter, and these are treated in the chapter of this Guide on Questions of the Day. Here we need only say that throughout his study of American history the reader will constantly—and easily—find many more articles bearing on the subject than are mentioned in the outline given above. In particular let him note:
—that there are many biographies of figures prominent in nation and state not mentioned above;
—that in each article devoted to a state there is a section on history, which has a double value, as giving the outline of the state’s history and as showing its part in the history of the nation;
—and that there is in articles on cities and towns a great deal of important information of historical value, sometimes merely local, but oftener bearing on the history of state or nation, or both.
XLIV. CANADIAN HISTORY
[Sidenote: “Young” Rivers and Lakes]
All the world thinks of Canada as the youngest of countries, for the extraordinary rapidity with which her western territory has been developed within recent years surpasses every other record of agricultural expansion. But in order to realize how young Canada is, in another sense, one must examine the less familiar facts of her geological history. “The innumerable lakes and waterfalls,” says the Britannica (Vol. 5, p. 143), prove “that the rivers have not been long at work,” and that the country owes its contours to comparatively recent geological action. “In many cases the lakes of Canada simply spill over, at the lowest point, from one basin into the next below, since in so young a country there has not yet been time for the rivers to have carved wide valleys.... Thousands of these lakes have been mapped; and every new survey brings to light small lakes hitherto unknown to the white man.... For the great extent of lake-filled country there is no comparison” in any part of the world. And because the rivers have not yet worn their beds to an even slope, there are waterfalls enough to provide unlimited horse power; so that the natural advantages of Canada invite manufacturing just as the fertility of her soil invites agriculture.
The geographical and geological portions of the article CANADA (Vol. 5, p. 142) must be carefully read in order that the significance of the historical account of the country may be fully grasped; and the same is true of those parts of the article which deal with agriculture and with the commerce of which the first developments were associated with early exploration. There is ample and authoritative information on all these subjects in the article, which is equivalent in length to 85 pages of this Guide. The sections and their contributors are: Geography, by Prof. A. P. Coleman, Toronto University; Population, Commerce, etc., by Prof. W. L. Grant, Queens University, Kingston; Agriculture, by E. H. Godfrey, editor of Census and Statistics Office, Department of Agriculture, Ottawa; History—to the Federation by G. M. Wrong, University of Toronto, and after the Federation by G. R. Parkin, author of Imperial Federation and Life of Sir John Macdonald, etc., and Literature—English-Canadian, by L. J. Burpee, author of The Search for the Western Sea, and French-Canadian by William Wood, author of The Fight for Canada.
[Sidenote: Exploration and Settlement]
On the early history of Canada the student should compare what is given in this Guide on the early history of America in general and especially the following articles: LEIF ERICSSON (Vol. 16, p. 396); VINLAND (Vol. 28, p. 98), by Prof. Julius Emil Olson, University of Wisconsin; JOHN CABOT (Vol. 4, p. 921); and JACQUES CARTIER (Vol. 5, p. 433), both by H. P. Biggar, author of The Voyages of the Cabots to Greenland; SAMUEL DE CHAMPLAIN (Vol. 5, p. 830), by N. E. Dionne, librarian of the Legislature of the Province of Quebec and biographer of Champlain; JACQUES MARQUETTE (Vol. 17, p. 752); SIEUR DE LA SALLE (Vol. 16, p. 230), by Charles C. Whinery, assistant-editor Encyclopaedia Britannica; FRONTENAC (Vol. 11, p. 249), by A. G. Doughty, Dominion archivist of Canada; LOUISBURG; DETROIT; SAULT STE. MARIE; MACKINAC ISLAND; PITTSBURG; NOVA SCOTIA, History; SEVEN YEARS’ WAR (Vol. 24, especially page 722); QUEBEC; MONTCALM and WOLFE.
[Sidenote: The War Periods]
The close of the Seven Years’ War saw New France ceded to Great Britain. On English rule down to Canadian Federation, the student should consult the following articles: QUEBEC ACT; JAMES MURRAY; AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE—and particularly the articles on MONTGOMERY and ARNOLD, leaders in the nearly successful attempt of the Americans to capture Canada, and that on the 1st Baron DORCHESTER, the British defender of Quebec; JOHN GRAVES SIMCOE; LOYALISTS—and the articles NEW BRUNSWICK and ONTARIO, both regions largely influenced by the settlement there of these Loyalists; AMERICAN WAR OF 1812—and especially the articles ISAAC BROCK, by Prof. W. L. Grant, Queens University, Kingston; ERIE, OLIVER H. PERRY, SACKETT’S HARBOR, TECUMSEH, LAKE CHAMPLAIN (Vol. 5, p. 830); FORT NIAGARA (Vol. 19, p. 634); JOHN STRACHAN; PAPINEAU and W. L. MACKENZIE for the two revolts of 1837; LORD DURHAM; LORD SYDENHAM; ROBERT BALDWIN and SIR LOUIS LAFONTAINE, heads of the first Liberal administrations; EARL ELGIN (Vol. 9, p. 268); SIR A. A. DORION; JOHN SANDFIELD MACDONALD, “the Ishmael of Parliament”; SIR JOHN BEVERLEY ROBINSON, head of the Tory “Family Compact”; and, for Irish-American outrages on the Canadian border, the article FENIANS.
[Sidenote: Federation and Since]
On the period since federation (1867), see the article FEDERAL GOVERNMENT (Vol. 10, p. 233) for a general description of this form of administration; the articles NOVA SCOTIA, ALFRED GILPIN JONES and JOSEPH HOWE, for local opposition to federation; SIR CHARLES TUPPER, who alone in the delegation from Nova Scotia favoured federation; THOMAS D’ARCY MCGEE (by A. G. Doughty), a prominent opponent of Fenianism who was assassinated by a Fenian; the articles HUDSON’S BAY COMPANY and SIR G. E. CARTIER, by Prof. W. L. Grant, Queens University, Kingston, for the extinction of the Hudson’s Bay Company claims and the transfer of its territories to the government; LOUIS RIEL for the Red River Rebellion; PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND for its entrance into the Dominion; GEORGE BROWN, a prominent advocate of federation, by Prof. Grant; GEORGE MONRO GRANT, author of Ocean to Ocean; SIR JOHN MACDONALD, by G. R. Parkin, author of Imperial Federation, and biographer of Macdonald; SIR FRANCIS HINCKS and SIR ALEXANDER GALT, financiers; SIR HUGH ALLAN and SIR DAVID MACPHERSON, for the Canadian Pacific Railway question; Lord Dufferin; Alexander Mackenzie, head of a Liberal government from 1873 to 1878 when SIR JOHN MACDONALD returned to power on a platform calling for protection of Canadian industries; GEORGE TAYLOR DENISON, founder of the “Canada First” party; SIR SAMUEL LEONARD TILLEY, Macdonald’s minister of finance, who was principally responsible for the tariff of 1879; Sir Louis Henry Davies, Liberal politician and jurist; Lord Strathcona, by Prof. W. L. Grant, BARON MOUNTSTEPHEN, SIR WILLIAM C. VAN HORNE and SIR SANDFORD FLEMING for the completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway; LOUIS RIEL for the Second Riel Rebellion; SIR JOHN THOMPSON; GEORGE EULAS FOSTER; SIR H. G. JOLY DE LOTBINIÈRE; HONORÉ MERCIER, the French leader of Quebec; S. N. PARENT; SIR MACKENZIE BOWELL, premier in 1894–1896; his successor, Sir Charles Tupper; EDWARD BLAKE, a Liberal leader who in 1892 left Canadian politics to take a seat in the British House of Commons; SIR OLIVER MOWAT, Blake’s successor as premier of Ontario; GEORGE WILLIAM ROSS; SIR DANIEL WILSON, educational reformer, by Professor Grant; SIR WILFRID LAURIER (by J. S. Willison, author of Sir W. Laurier and the Liberal Party: A Political History), the great Liberal leader of the last decade, and Laurier’s ministers of finance, Sir Richard John Cartwright and W. S. Fielding, and his minister of militia SIR FREDERICK WILLIAM BORDEN; SIR WILLIAM MULOCK; and ROBERT L. BORDEN, long leader of the Conservative opposition and premier in 1911.
XLV. ENGLISH, SCOTCH AND IRISH HISTORY
[Sidenote: The British Empire]
The student of English history in the Britannica may well begin with the summary view in the article BRITISH EMPIRE (Vol. 4, p. 606), equivalent to 30 pages of this Guide, by Lady Lugard, wife of the British explorer and colonial administrator, Sir Frederick Lugard, herself an authority on colonial subjects and well-known as colonial editor of the Times of London. On pp. 608–610 there is a chronological list of the acquisitions of the Empire, and nothing will surprise the reader more than the comparative recentness of the movement by which two small islands have expanded into an empire covering nearly one-fourth of the earth’s land surface. Except for the Channel Islands, the Isle of Man, and “the nominal possession of Newfoundland by Sir Humphrey Gilbert in 1583, all the territorial acquisitions of the Empire have been made in the 17th and subsequent centuries.” On each of the localities mentioned in this imposing list the reader will find a separate article in its proper alphabetical place in the Encyclopaedia Britannica dealing with geography, government and history. Here it will be possible only to call attention to articles on the more important branches of the subject.
[Sidenote: Early Britain]
On the early inhabitants of the islands and on British archaeology, read the elaborate article CELT (Vol. 5, p. 611; equivalent to 135 pages of this Guide), by Prof. William Ridgeway, Cambridge, author of The Oldest Irish Epic, and E. C. Quiggin, lecturer in Celtic, Cambridge,—with particularly full treatment of Celtic languages and literatures,—Gaulish, Irish, Scottish, Gaelic, Manx, Welsh, Breton and Cornish; and the article BRITAIN (Vol. 4, p. 583; equivalent to 40 pages of this Guide), which is illustrated by a map of Roman Britain and plans of Roman remains. The treatment of pre-Roman and Roman Britain is by Professor F. J. Haverfield of Oxford; and later Britain is described by Hector Munro Chadwick, librarian of Clare College, Cambridge, and author of Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions.
Then read:
WALES, History (Vol. 28, pp. 261–268), by Herbert Murray Vaughan, Keble College, Oxford.
[Sidenote: Scottish History]
SCOTLAND, Political History (Vol. 24, pp. 429–457), by Andrew Lang, author of History of Scotland from the Roman Occupation; and, among many other articles, SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF, (Vol. 24, 460), by the Rev. Dr. Allan Menzies, St. Mary’s College, St. Andrews, and such biographies as: MALCOLM III. (Canmore); ALEXANDER I, II AND III (Vol. 1, p. 563); WILLIAM THE LION (Vol. 28, p. 665); WALLACE, SIR WILLIAM (Vol. 28, p. 277), by A. F. Hutchinson, late rector of the High School, Stirling; ROBERT I, THE BRUCE (Vol. 23, p. 395); DAVID I AND II (Vol. 8, p. 859); JAMES I, II, III, IV AND V (Vol. 15, p. 139); MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS (Vol. 17, p. 817), a striking biography by the poet and essayist Algernon Charles Swinburne, author of the tragedies Chastelard, Bothwell and Mary Stuart; BOTHWELL (Vol. 4, p. 303), by P. C. Yorke; RIZZIO (Vol. 23, p. 388); DARNLEY (Vol. 7, p. 836), and see also the article CASKET LETTERS (Vol. 5, p. 449), an examination of the evidence in this mystery by Andrew Lang; MAR (Vol. 17, p. 666); KNOX, JOHN (Vol. 15, p. 878), by Dr. Alexander Taylor Innes, author of JOHN KNOX and Studies in Scottish History; GOWRIE (Vol. 12, p. 301), by R. J. McNeill, late editor St. James’s Gazette; and JAMES I of England—VI of Scotland (Vol. 15, p. 136); and for the later period see ENGLISH HISTORY to supplement Andrew Lang’s account of the period since the Union under SCOTLAND, History.
[Sidenote: Irish History]
IRELAND, History (Vol. 14, p. 756), by Prof. E. C. Quiggin, of Cambridge, on the early period, and Richard Bagwell, commissioner of national education for Ireland and author of Ireland under the Tudors, Ireland under the Stuarts, etc.; and to supplement this general treatment such separate articles as ST. PATRICK (Vol. 20, p. 933) and ST. COLUMBA (Vol. 6, p. 737), both by Dr. E. C. Quiggin; ST. BRENDAN (Vol. 4, p. 495); BRIAN (Vol. 4, p. 515); BREHON LAWS (Vol. 4, p. 488), by Laurence Ginnell, M. P. for North Westmeath and author of Land and Liberty, etc.; O’NEILL family (Vol. 20, p. 107) and O’DONNELL family (Vol. 20, p. 6), by R. J. McNeill; FITZGERALD family (Vol. 10, p. 441), by J. H. Round, author of Feudal England, etc.; TYRONE, earls of (Vol. 27, p. 549); TYRCONNELL (Vol. 27, p. 548); ST. LEGER, SIR ANTHONY (Vol. 24, p. 23), by R. J. McNeill; DESMOND (Vol. 8, p. 98); BUTLER family (Vol. 4, p. 879), by Oswald Barron, editor of The Ancestor; DROGHEDA (Vol. 8, p. 587); PEEP-OF-DAY BOYS (Vol. 21, p. 45); ORANGEMEN (Vol. 20, p. 160); FLOOD, HENRY (Vol. 10, p. 525); GRATTAN, HENRY (Vol. 12, p. 379); TONE, T. WOLFE (Vol. 27, p. 2) and EMMET, ROBERT and THOMAS A. (Vol. 9, pp. 342–343), all by R. J. McNeill; O’CONNELL, DANIEL (Vol. 19, p. 990), by the late William O’Connor Morris, author of Irish History, etc.; FENIANS (Vol. 10, p. 254), by R. J. McNeill; BUTT, ISAAC (Vol. 4, p. 889); PARNELL, C. S. (Vol. 20, p. 854), by James R. Thursfield, author of Peel, etc.; DAVITT, MICHAEL (Vol. 7, p. 870); BOYCOTT (Vol. 4, p. 353); DILLON, JOHN (Vol. 8, p. 273); PLUNKETT, SIR HORACE CURZON (Vol. 21, p. 857); REDMOND, JOHN E. (Vol. 22, p. 968); and many articles on Irish towns and counties, and, on Home Rule and recent political questions, the biographies of English viceroys, premiers and chief secretaries, and the latter part of the article ENGLISH HISTORY.
ENGLISH HISTORY
On English history the student will find the Britannica particularly valuable. The article ENGLISH HISTORY (Vol. 9, pp. 466–587), is itself equivalent to about 380 pages of this Guide, and carries the story through 13 centuries. This great article—a text-book of the subject in scope and power—is written by: Prof. C. W. C. Oman, Oxford, author of England before the Norman Conquest, etc., dealing with the period down to the time of Elizabeth; Prof. A. F. Pollard, University of London, assistant editor Dictionary of National Biography, for the Reformation and the reign of Elizabeth, 1528–1603; Samuel Rawson Gardiner, best known as the historian of the Puritan Revolution, who deals with the period from 1603 to 1793; W. Alison Phillips, author of MODERN EUROPE, on the years 1793 to 1837; and Hugh Chisholm, editor-in-chief of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, for the period since the accession of Queen Victoria. And the article closes with a critical estimate of Sources and Writers of English History, by Prof. Albert Frederick Pollard, University of London.
For the period from 600 to 1066 read: Part 1 of ENGLISH HISTORY (Vol. 8, pp. 466–474); and the separate articles:
[Sidenote: Anglo-Saxon Period]
For the introduction of Christianity and the “Kingdoms”—AUGUSTINE (Vol. 2, p. 910); AETHELBERHT (Vol. 1, p. 289); EDWIN (Vol. 9, p. 7), by F. G. M. Beck, of Clare College, Cambridge; ANGLO-SAXONS (Vol. 2, p. 38), by H. M. Chadwick; BRITAIN, Anglo-Saxon (Vol. 4, pp. 589–595) and ANGLI (Vol. 2, p. 18) and JUTES (Vol. 15, p. 609), by the same author; SAXONS (Vol. 24, p. 264); NORTHUMBRIA (Vol. 19, p. 793); BERNICIA (Vol. 3, p. 802); DEIRA (Vol. 7, p. 933); EAST ANGLIA (Vol. 8, p. 827); WESSEX (Vol. 28, p. 534); MERCIA (Vol. 18, p. 151); SUSSEX, KINGDOM of (Vol. 26, p. 168), and KENT (Vol. 15, p. 735), ECGBERT (Vol. 8, p. 869); AETHELWULF (Vol. 1, p. 292).
On the Danish invasions and the Anglo-Saxon period, VIKING (Vol. 28, pp. 62–66), by C. F. Keary, author of The Vikings in Western Europe; ÆTHELBALD (Vol. 1, p. 289), ÆTHELBERHT (Vol. 1, p. 289) and ÆTHELRED I (Vol. 1, p. 290); ALFRED THE GREAT (Vol. 1, p. 582), by Charles Plummer, biographer of Alfred; DANELAGH (Vol. 7, p. 803), by Prof, Allen Mawer of Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne; EDWARD “THE ELDER” (Vol. 8, p. 989), ÆTHELSTAN (Vol. 1, p. 291), EDMUND I (Vol. 8, p. 948), EDGAR (Vol. 8, p. 933), all by Prof. Mawer; ST. DUNSTAN (Vol. 8, p. 684), ÆTHELRED II “the Unready” (Vol. 1, p. 290), by Rev. C. Stanley Phillips, King’s College, Cambridge; SWEYN I (Vol. 26, p. 224), by R. Nisbet Bain of the British Museum; DANEGELD (Vol. 7, p. 803); CANUTE (Vol. 5, p. 221), by R. Nisbet Bain; EDMUND “Ironside” (Vol. 8, p. 948), by Rev. C. Stanley Phillips; HAROLD I (Vol. 13, p. 11); HARDICANUTE (Vol. 12, p. 942); EDWARD “the Confessor” (Vol. 8, p. 990), by Rev. C. Stanley Phillips; HAROLD II (Vol. 13, p. 11).
For the Norman Conquest and the Norman and Angevin kings the student should read the second section of the article ENGLISH HISTORY (Vol. 9, pp. 474–486) and, at least, the following important articles:
[Sidenote: William the Conqueror William Rufus Henry I Stephen and Matilda Henry II]
WILLIAM I, “The Conqueror” (Vol. 28, p. 659), by H. W. Carless Davis of Oxford, author of England under the Normans and Angevins; HEREWARD (Vol. 13, p. 363), by J. H. Round, author of Feudal England, etc.; FEUDALISM (Vol. 10, p. 297), by Prof. George Burton Adams, Yale University, author of Political History of England, 1066–1216, etc.; DOMESDAY BOOK (Vol. 8, p. 398), by J. H. Round; WILLIAM II, “Rufus” (Vol. 28, p. 661) and LANFRANC (Vol. 16, p. 169), both by H. W. Carless Davis; ANSELM (Vol. 2, p. 81); HENRY I (Vol. 13, p. 279), STEPHEN (Vol. 25, p. 881), MATILDA (Vol. 17, p. 888), HENRY II (Vol. 13, p. 281), BECKET, THOMAS (Vol. 3, p. 608), RICHARD I, “Coeur de Lion” (Vol. 23, p. 294), all by H. W. Carless Davis.
[Sidenote: John Henry III Edward I to III]
In connection with the third section of the article ENGLISH HISTORY dealing with the struggle for constitutional liberty from 1199 to 1337 (Vol. 9, pp. 486–501) the following supplementary articles are among the many to which the student should turn: JOHN (Vol. 15, p. 439), and LANGTON, STEPHEN (Vol. 16, p. 178), both by H. W. Carless Davis; MAGNA CARTA (Vol. 16, p. 314), by A. W. Holland, late scholar of St. John’s, Oxford; HENRY III (Vol. 13, p. 282), PEMBROKE (Vol. 21, p. 78), MONTFORT, SIMON DE (Vol. 18, p. 781), EVESHAM (Vol. 10, p. 10); EDWARD I (Vol. 8, p. 991–993), by Prof. T. F. Tout, University of Manchester, author of Edward I; MORTMAIN (Vol. 18, p. 880); WESTMINSTER, STATUTES OF (Vol. 28, p. 551); EDWARD II (Vol. 8, p. 993); LANCASTER, HENRY and THOMAS, EARLS OF (Vol. 16, pp. 144 and 148); DESPENSER, HUGH LE (Vol. 8, p. 101); MORTIMER family (Vol. 18, p. 879); and EDWARD III (Vol. 8, p. 994).
[Sidenote: Richard II Henry IV to VI]
On the Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453) and contemporary history, see the section in ENGLISH HISTORY (Vol. 8, pp. 501–516); the article HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR (Vol. 13, p. 893), by Jules Viard, archivist of the National Archives, Paris; SLUYS, BATTLE OF (Vol. 25, p. 246), by D. Hannay, author of Short History of the Royal Navy; CRÉCY (Vol. 7, p. 389); POITIERS, BATTLE OF (Vol. 21, p. 898); EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE (Vol. 8, p. 999), by Prof. Tout; WYCLIFFE (Vol. 28, p. 866), by R. Lane Poole, author of Wycliffe and Movements for Reform, and W. Alison Phillips, author of Modern Europe, etc.; LANCASTER, JOHN OF GAUNT, DUKE OF (Vol. 16, p. 146), by C. Lethbridge Kingsford, biographer of Henry V; RICHARD II (Vol. 23, p. 295), also by C. L. Kingsford; TYLER, WAT (Vol. 27, p. 495); BALL, JOHN (Vol. 3, p. 263); LOLLARDS (Vol. 16, p. 929), by Dr. T. M. Lindsay, author of History of the Reformation; GLOUCESTER, THOMAS, DUKE OF (Vol. 12, p. 130); NORFOLK, THOMAS MOWBRAY, DUKE OF (Vol. 19, p. 742); HENRY IV (Vol. 13, p. 283), by C. L. Kingsford; GLENDOWER, OWEN (Vol. 12, p. 120); NORTHUMBERLAND (Vol. 19, p. 787); HENRY V (Vol. 13, p. 284) and OLDCASTLE, SIR JOHN (Vol. 20, p. 66), by C. L. Kingsford; AGINCOURT (Vol. 1, p. 375); HENRY VI (Vol. 13, p. 285) and GLOUCESTER, HUMPHREY, DUKE OF (Vol. 12, p. 129), both by C. L. Kingsford; BEDFORD JOHN, DUKE OF (Vol. 3, p. 616); JOAN OF ARC (Vol. 15, p. 520), by Prof. J. T. Shotwell of Columbia University and Hugh Chisholm, editor-in-chief of the Encyclopaedia Britannica; BEAUFORT family (Vol. 3, p. 585); CADE, JOHN (Vol. 4, p. 927).
[Sidenote: Edward IV and V Richard III Henry VII]
On the fifth period of English history, read section 5, The Wars of the Roses (1453–1497) in the article ENGLISH HISTORY (Vol. 9, pp. 516–525); the separate article, ROSES, WARS OF THE (Vol. 23, p. 735); and the articles: YORK, HOUSE OF (Vol. 28, p. 924), and LANCASTER, HOUSE OF (Vol. 16, p. 143), both by James Gairdner, author of The Houses of Lancaster and York, etc.; YORK, RICHARD, DUKE OF (Vol. 28, p. 926), WARWICK, RICHARD NEVILLE, EARL OF (Vol. 28, p. 339), EDWARD IV (Vol. 8, p. 996), MARGARET OF ANJOU (Vol. 17, p. 702), CLARENCE, GEORGE, DUKE OF (Vol. 6, p. 428), EDWARD V (Vol. 8, p. 996), RICHARD III (Vol. 23, p. 296), and BUCKINGHAM, HENRY STAFFORD, 2ND DUKE OF (Vol. 4, p. 726), all by C. L. Kingsford; HENRY VII (Vol. 13, p. 286), by James Gairdner, author of The Houses of Lancaster and York, and biographer of Henry VII; WARBECK, PERKIN (Vol. 28, p. 316).
[Sidenote: Henry VIII Edward VI Mary Elizabeth]
The sixth section of the article ENGLISH HISTORY, dealing with the years 1497–1528 (Vol. 9, pp. 525–530), should be supplemented by the latter part of James Gairdner’s article on HENRY VII and by the articles: REFORMATION (Vol. 23, p. 4), by Prof. James Harvey Robinson, Columbia University, author of History of Western Europe, etc.; HENRY VIII (Vol. 13, p. 287) and FOX, RICHARD (Vol. 10, p. 766), both by Prof. A. F Pollard; WOLSEY, THOMAS (Vol. 28, p 779); CATHERINE OF ARAGON (Vol. 5 p. 529) and BOLEYN, ANNE (Vol. 4, p. 159), by P. C. Yorke, Oxford; CROMWELL THOMAS (Vol. 7, p. 499); CRANMER THOMAS (Vol. 7, p. 375); FISHER, JOHN (Vol. 10, p. 427), by Rev. E. L. Taunton, author of The English Black Monks of St. Benedict, etc.; MORE, SIR THOMAS (Vol. 18, p. 822), by Mark Pattison, late rector of Lincoln College, Oxford; HOWARD, CATHERINE (Vol. 13, p. 832); PARR, CATHERINE (Vol. 20, p. 861); NORFOLK, THOMAS HOWARD, 3RD DUKE OF (Vol. 19, p. 743); ASKEW, ANNE (Vol. 2, p. 762), by A. F. Pollard; EDWARD VI (Vol. 8, p. 996); SOMERSET, EDWARD SEYMOUR, DUKE OF (Vol. 25, p. 386); NORTHUMBERLAND, JOHN DUDLEY, EARL OF WARWICK, AND DUKE OF (Vol. 19, p. 788); GREY, LADY JANE (Vol. 12, p. 590); MARY I (Vol. 17, p. 814) and GARDINER, STEPHEN (Vol. 11, p. 460), both by James Gairdner; WYAT, SIR THOMAS (Vol. 28, p. 862); POLE, CARDINAL (Vol. 21, p. 974), by E. L. Taunton; RIDLEY, NICHOLAS (Vol. 23, p. 320); LATIMER, HUGH (Vol. 16, p. 242), by T. F. Henderson, author of Mary Queen of Scots and the Casket Letters; ELIZABETH (Vol. 9, p. 282); MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS (Vol. 17, p. 817), by A. C. Swinburne; NORFOLK, THOMAS HOWARD, 4TH DUKE OF (Vol. 19, p. 744); ARMADA (Vol. 2, p. 560); HAWKINS, SIR RICHARD (Vol. 13, p. 99); DRAKE, SIR FRANCIS (Vol. 8, p. 473); RALEIGH, SIR WALTER (Vol. 22, p. 869); LEICESTER, ROBERT DUDLEY, EARL OF (Vol. 16, p. 390); ESSEX, ROBERT DEVEREUX, EARL OF (Vol. 9, p. 782); BACON, FRANCIS (Vol. 3, p. 135), by Prof. Robert Adamson of Glasgow, and J. Malcolm Mitchell, University of London; BURGHLEY, WILLIAM CECIL, BARON (Vol. 4, p. 816); and—for this whole period the article ENGLAND, CHURCH OF (Vol. 9, especially pp. 447–448), by William Hunt, author of History of the English Church.
[Sidenote: James I Charles I The Commonwealth Charles II James II]
The seventh part of the article ENGLISH HISTORY (Vol. 9, pp. 535–542) deals with the Stuart Monarchy, the Great Rebellion and the Restoration (1603–1689). From the great wealth of supplementary material in the Britannica on this interesting period, at least the following articles should be selected: STEWART or STUART family (Vol. 12, p. 911); JAMES I (Vol. 15, p. 136); GUNPOWDER PLOT (Vol. 12, p. 727); BIBLE, ENGLISH (Vol. 3, p. 894); SALISBURY, ROBERT CECIL, 1ST EARL OF (Vol. 24, p. 76); BUCKINGHAM, GEORGE VILLIERS, 1ST DUKE OF (Vol. 4, p. 722); THIRTY YEARS’ WAR (Vol. 26, p. 852); CHARLES I (Vol. 5, p. 906) and LAUD, WILLIAM (Vol. 16, p. 276), both by P. Chesney York; SHIP-MONEY (Vol. 24, p. 982); HAMPDEN, JOHN (Vol. 12, p. 900); PYM, JOHN (Vol. 22, p. 680) and STRAFFORD, THOMAS WENTWORTH, EARL OF (Vol. 25, p. 978), both by P. C. Yorke; GREAT REBELLION (Vol. 12, p. 403); CROMWELL, OLIVER (Vol. 7, p. 487), by P. C. Yorke, C. F. Atkinson and R. J. McNeill; Cromwell, Richard (Vol. 7, p. 498); for the military operations of the Great Rebellion, the articles listed under that heading in the chapter of this Guide entitled For Army Officers; MONK, GEORGE (Vol. 18, p. 723); CHARLES II, (Vol. 5, p. 912); CLARENDON, EDWARD HYDE, 1ST EARL OF (Vol. 6, p. 428); BUCKINGHAM, GEORGE VILLIERS, 2ND DUKE OF (Vol. 4, p. 724); CLEVELAND, DUCHESS OF (Vol. 6, p. 500); PORTSMOUTH, DUCHESS OF (Vol. 22, p. 131); GWYN, NELL (Vol. 12, p. 750); LAUDERDALE, DUKE OF (Vol. 16, p. 279); SHAFTESBURY, 1ST EARL (Vol. 24, p. 760) by Osmund Airy, biographer of Charles II; DUTCH WARS (Vol. 9, p. 729); TEST ACTS (Vol. 26, p. 665); JAMES II (Vol. 15, p. 138); ARGYLL, 9TH EARL OF (Vol. 2, p. 484); MONMOUTH, DUKE OF (Vol. 18, p. 725); TYRCONNELL (Vol. 27, p. 548).
[Sidenote: William and Mary; Anne]
On the Revolution and the age of Anne (1689–1714) see the article ENGLISH HISTORY (Vol. 9, pp. 542–544), and WILLIAM III. (Vol. 28, p. 662); MARY II. (Vol. 17, p. 816); BURNET, GILBERT (Vol. 4, p. 851); GRAND ALLIANCE (Vol. 12, p. 342), and for additional military articles the chapter For Army Officers in this Guide; ANNE (Vol. 2, p. 65); MARLBOROUGH, 1ST DUKE OF (Vol. 17, p. 737), by W. Prideaux Courtney; MASHAM, LADY (Vol. 17, p. 836); GODOLPHIN (Vol. 12, p. 174); SOMERS (Vol. 25, p. 384); HALIFAX, 1ST MARQUESS OF (Vol. 12, p. 839); OXFORD, 1ST EARL (Vol. 20, p. 403); BOLINGBROKE, VISCOUNT (Vol. 4, p. 161); SHREWSBURY, DUKE OF (Vol. 24, p. 1016).
[Sidenote: George I to IV William IV]
The part of the article ENGLISH HISTORY dealing with the Hanoverian Kings, 1714–1793 (Vol. 9, pp. 544–551) and that on the Revolutionary epoch, the reaction and the triumph of reform, 1793–1837 (pp. 551–558) are respectively by S. R. Gardiner and W. Alison Phillips. They should be supplemented by S. R. Gardiner’s articles on the four Georges (Vol. 11, pp. 737–745); SOUTH SEA BUBBLE (Vol. 25, p. 515); STANHOPE, 1ST EARL (Vol. 25, p. 773); WALPOLE, HORATIO (Vol. 28, p. 288); WHIG AND TORY (Vol. 28, p. 588); TOWNSHEND, CHARLES (Vol. 27, p. 111); CAROLINE (Vol. 5, p. 380); PELHAM, HENRY (Vol. 21, p. 67); CHARLES EDWARD, “the Young Pretender” (Vol. 5, p. 940), by H. M. Vaughan, author of The Last of the Royal Stuarts; METHODISM (Vol. 18, p. 293); WESLEY, JOHN (Vol. 28, p. 527); NEWCASTLE, THOMAS PELHAM HOLLES, DUKE OF (Vol. 19, p. 471); CHATHAM, WILLIAM PITT, 1ST EARL OF (Vol. 6, p. 1); SEVEN YEARS’ WAR (Vol. 24, p. 715) and, for engagements and commanders in the war, see the chapter in this Guide For Army Officers; INDIA, History (Vol. 14, especially pp. 407–409); CANADA, History (Vol. 5, especially p. 158); BUTE, 3RD EARL OF (Vol. 4, p. 877); GRENVILLE, GEORGE (Vol. 12, p. 580); ROCKINGHAM, MARQUESS OF (Vol. 23, p. 434); GUILFORD, 2ND EARL, Lord North (Vol. 12, p. 691); WILKES, JOHN (Vol. 28, p. 642); BURKE, EDMUND (Vol. 4, p. 824), by John Morley; FOX, CHARLES JAMES (Vol. 10, p. 761); GORDON, LORD GEORGE (Vol. 12, p. 253); LANSDOWNE, MARQUESS OF, Lord Shelburne (Vol. 16, p. 184); PORTLAND, 3RD DUKE (Vol. 22, p. 119); PITT, WILLIAM (Vol. 21, p. 667); FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS (Vol. 11, p. 171), NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS (Vol. 19, p. 216) and, for leaders and engagements in these wars, in the Peninsular War, and in the American War for Independence, see the chapter in this Guide For Army Officers; CAROLINE AMELIA AUGUSTA (Vol. 5, p. 380); WELLESLEY, MARQUESS (Vol. 28, p. 506); LONDONDERRY, MARQUESS OF, Castlereagh (Vol. 16, p. 969); CANNING, GEORGE (Vol. 5, p. 186); CORN LAWS (Vol. 7, p. 174); COBBETT, WILLIAM (Vol. 6, p. 606); WELLINGTON, DUKE OF (Vol. 28, p. 507); WILLIAM IV. (Vol. 28, p. 664); GREY, 2ND EARL (Vol. 12, p. 586); BROUGHAM, LORD (Vol. 4, p. 652); PARLIAMENT (Vol. 20, especially p. 843); MELBOURNE, 2ND VISCOUNT (Vol. 18, p. 90); PEEL, SIR ROBERT (Vol. 21, p. 40).
[Sidenote: Victoria]
On the reign of Victoria the section of the article ENGLISH HISTORY (Vol. 9, pp. 558–582) gives a very full treatment, which should be supplemented by the study of such articles as: VICTORIA (Vol. 28, p. 28), by Hugh Chisholm, editor-in-chief of the Encyclopaedia Britannica; ALBERT (Vol. 1, p. 495), by the same author; PALMERSTON (Vol. 20, p. 645); RUSSELL, 1ST EARL (Vol. 23, p. 863); O’BRIEN, WILLIAM SMITH (Vol. 19, p. 953); CHARTISM (Vol. 5, p. 953); DERBY, 14TH EARL (Vol. 8, p. 66); CRIMEAN WAR (Vol. 7, p. 450); “ALABAMA” ARBITRATION (Vol. 1, p. 464); BRIGHT, JOHN (Vol. 4, p. 567); COBDEN, RICHARD (Vol. 6, p. 607); BEACONSFIELD (Vol. 3, p. 563); GLADSTONE, W. E. (Vol. 12, p. 66), by G. W. E. Russell, biographer of Gladstone; SALISBURY (Vol. 24, p. 72); TRANSVAAL, History (Vol. 27, p. 193); PARNELL, C. S. (Vol. 20, p. 854); GORDON, C. G. (Vol. 11, p. 249); ROSEBERY (Vol. 23, p. 731); RHODES, C. J. (Vol. 23, p. 254).
[Sidenote: Edward VII George V]
For the years since Victoria’s death see the articles: EDWARD VII. (Vol. 8, p. 997) and GEORGE V. (Vol. 11, p. 745), and the articles on recent political leaders: BALFOUR (Vol. 3, p. 250); CHAMBERLAIN (Vol. 5, p. 813); CAMPBELL-BANNERMAN (Vol. 5, p. 131); ASQUITH (Vol. 2, p. 769); and LLOYD GEORGE (Vol. 16, p. 832); and on the reform of the House of Lords PARLIAMENT (Vol. 20, especially pp. 845–847) and REPRESENTATION (Vol. 23, especially pp. 111–113).
XLVI. FRENCH HISTORY
The article FRANCE in the Encyclopaedia Britannica includes a section on History (Vol. 10, pp. 801–906) equivalent to 320 pages of this Guide, of which the first part, down to 1870, is by Paul Wiriath, director of the École Supérieure Pratique de Commerce et d’Industrie, Paris, and the part since 1870 is by J. E. C. Bodley, author of France, etc. Opposite page 802 are four coloured historical maps showing France at the end of the 10th, 13th and 14th centuries, and the changes in the eastern frontier from 1598 to 1789. The historical part of the article closes with a historiographic section, or critical summary of French historical writing, by Charles Bémont of the University of Paris.
Supplementing this main treatment, see:
[Sidenote: Early History of France]
On prehistoric and Roman France, GAUL (Vol. 11, p. 533), by Prof. F. J. Haverfield, Oxford, the well-known authority on Roman occupation of Britain and Gaul; BIBRACTE, ALESIA, ITIUS PORTUS, DRUIDISM, and, on Caesar’s campaigns, CAESAR, JULIUS; and, on Roman remains, ARLES, NÎMES, ORANGE, ARCHITECTURE, AQUEDUCT, and AMPHITHEATRE.
On the Franks, the articles FRANKS (Vol. 11, p. 35) and SALIC LAW (Vol. 24, p. 68), by Prof. Christian Pfister of the Sorbonne; and the articles, AUSTRASIA, MEROVINGIANS, CHILDERIC, CLOVIS, CHILDEBERT, CLOTAIRE, SIGEBERT, CHARIBERT, GUNTRAM, FREDEGOND, BRUNHILDA, CLOTAIRE II, DAGOBERT, PIPPIN I, II and III, EBROIN, CAROLINGIANS, CHARLES MARTEL (Vol. 5, p. 942), CARLOMAN, CHILDERIC; CHARLEMAGNE, ROLAND, EINHARD, ALCUIN; LOUIS I “the Pious,” LOTHAIR (Vol. 17, p. 17); CHARLES II “the Bald” (Vol. 5, p. 897); FEUDALISM; LOUIS II and III; CHARLES III “the Fat” (Vol. 5, p. 898); ODO; LOUIS IV (Vol. 17, p. 35), by Dr. René Poupardin, secretary of the École des Charles; LOTHAIR (Vol. 17, p. 18); BRUNO; LOUIS V.
[Sidenote: Medieval France]
For the Capetian period, the articles CAPET (Vol. 5, p. 251); ROBERT “the Strong” (Vol. 23, p. 402); HUGH “the Great” (Vol. 13, p. 857); HUGH CAPET (Vol. 13, p. 858); ROBERT “the Pious” (Vol. 23, p. 399); HENRY I (Vol. 13, p. 290); PHILIP I (Vol. 21, p. 378); LOUIS VI (Vol. 17, p. 35), by Prof. J. T. Shotwell, Columbia University; Prof. Shotwell’s article on LOUIS VII; SUGER; ELEANOR OF AQUITAINE (Vol. 9, p. 168); PHILIP AUGUSTUS (Vol. 21, p. 378); INGEBORG; ALBIGENSES; and for French and English relations, RICHARD I and JOHN of England; LOUIS VIII; BLANCHE OF CASTILE (Vol. 4, p. 40); Prof. Shotwell’s article on LOUIS IX “St. Louis”; and the article CRUSADES; PHILIP III “the Bold” (Vol. 21, p. 381); PHILIP IV; BONIFACE VIII; SAISSET; NOGARET; TEMPLARS; LOUIS X; PHILIP V and CHARLES IV.
For the Valois line and the history of the period (1328–1498), the article HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR; SLUYS; CRÉCY; and for detail of the war the articles under that head in the chapter For the Army Officer in this Guide; and PHILIP VI (Vol. 21, p. 383); FLANDERS; ARTEVELDE (Jacob and Philip van); DAUPHINÉ; DAUPHIN; GABELLE; JOHN II (Vol. 15, p. 441); POITIERS; MARCEL; LE COQ; STATES GENERAL; CHARLES II of Navarre (Vol. 5, p. 924); CHARLES V (Vol. 5, p. 917); JACQUERIE; DU GUESCLIN; CHARLES VI; ARMAGNAC; ISABELLA of Bavaria (Vol. 14, p. 860); BENEDICT XIII (Vol. 3, p. 718); JOHN “the Fearless” (Vol. 15, p. 445); AGINCOURT; CHARLES VII; ARTHUR III of Brittany (Vol. 2, p. 682); JOAN OF ARC; COEUR; AGNES SOREL (Vol. 25, p. 432); BRÉZÉ; PRAGUERIE; LOUIS XI; BALUE; LE DAIM; LIÈGE, History; CHARLES “the Bold” of Burgundy (Vol. 5, p. 932); CHARLES VIII; ANNE of France (Vol. 2, p. 70); ANNE of Brittany (Vol. 2, p. 69).
[Sidenote: 16th Century]
For the years, 1498–1589, and the Orleans dynasty, LOUIS XII and AMBOISE, by Prof. Jules Isaac of the Lyons Lycée; MARY (Vol. 17, p. 824); FRANCIS I (Vol. 10, p. 934), by Prof. Isaac; LOUISE OF SAVOY; MARIGNANO; PAVIA; MARGUERITE D’ANGOULÊME (Vol. 17, p. 706); ÉTAMPES (Vol. 9, p. 803); DU PRAT, ANNE DE MONTMORENCY (Vol. 18, p. 787); HENRY II (Vol. 13, p. 291); DIANE DE POITIERS; CATHERINE DE’ MEDICI; FRANCIS II; GUISE (Vol. 12, p. 699); L’HÔPITAL; CONDÉ; AMBOISE; ROMORANTIN; HUGUENOTS; CHARLES IX; COLIGNY; SAINT ANDRÉ; ST. BARTHOLOMEW; HENRY III.
[Sidenote: The Bourbons]
For the Bourbon kings, beginning 1589—BOURBON (with genealogical chart); HENRY IV; Duke of MAYENNE; EDICT OF NANTES (Vol. 19, p. 165); SULLY; LOUIS XIII; MARIE DE’ MEDICI; RICHELIEU, by Prof. J. T. Shotwell, Columbia University; CONCINI; LUYNES; CINQUE-MARS; ROHAN; SOUBISE; JANSENISM; THIRTY YEARS’ WAR; and for leaders and engagements in that conflict the titles listed in the chapter in this Guide entitled For Army Officers; LOUIS XIV, by Prof. A. J. Grant of Leeds University; MAZARIN, by Prof. H. Morse Stephens, University of California; MARIE THERÈSE; LA VALLIÈRE; MONTESPAN; MAINTENON; Duc de BEAUFORT; FRONDE; TURENNE; RETZ and LA ROCHEFOUCAULD, by Prof. George Saintsbury of Edinburgh University; FOUQUET; COLBERT, by Prof. J. T. Shotwell, Columbia; CHAMPLAIN; LA SALLE; LOUVOIS; CAMISARDS, by M. Frank Puaux, president of the Socíeté de l’Histoire du Protestantisme Français; JANSENISM, by Viscount St. Cyres; PORT ROYAL; BOSSUET; FENELON; LE TELLIER; GRAND ALLIANCE; and for details of military operations and sketches of commanders the articles enumerated in the chapter in this Guide For Army Officers; LOUIS XV; Philip II, Duke of ORLEANS (Vol. 20, p. 286); FLEURY; AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION and SEVEN YEARS’ WAR and articles under these heads in the chapter in this Guide For Army Officers; CHATEAUROUX; POMPADOUR; DU BARRY; COMTE D’ ARGENSON (Vol. 2, p. 459), CHOISEUL; MAUPEOU; AIGUILLON.
[Sidenote: The Revolution]
On the Revolution and the period immediately before it, the articles LOUIS XVI, by Robert Anchel, archivist to the Department de l’Eure; MARIE ANTOINETTE; BEAUMARCHAIS; MAUREPAS; TURGOT; NECKER; VERGENNES; CALONNE; DIAMOND NECKLACE; LOMÉNIE DE BRIENNE; FRENCH REVOLUTION (Vol. 10, p. 154, equivalent to 58 pages of this Guide), by Prof. F. C. Montague, University College, London; DES MOULINS; MIRABEAU; SIEYÈS; DANTON; ROBESPIERRE; MOUNNIER; LA FAYETTE; MONTMORIN DE SAINT-HÉREM; MARAT; CORDAY; TALLEYRAND; ASSIGNATS; NARBONNE-LARA; JACOBINS; GIRONDISTS; ROLAND; BRISSOT; MOUNTAIN; DIRECTORY; BABEUF; FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS; and for battles and leaders in these wars the articles mentioned under this head in the chapter in this Guide For Army Officers.
[Sidenote: The First Empire]
On the Napoleonic period, the articles by J. Holland Rose, author of Napoleonic Studies, etc., on NAPOLEON (Vol. 19, p. 190)—equivalent to 65 pages of this Guide, and on the principal figures of the Napoleonic period,—for example, BONAPARTE family, FOUCHÉ, GARDANE, JUNOT; the articles NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS, PENINSULAR WAR and WATERLOO and the articles listed under these two heads in the chapter in this Guide For Army Officers.
[Sidenote: The Kingdom Again]
On the Bourbon restoration, LOUIS XVIII; DECAZES; Duc de RICHELIEU (Vol. 23, p. 302); Duc de BERRY; VILLÈLE; CHARLES X (Vol. 5, p. 921); MARTIGNAC; POLIGNAC; MARMONT.
On the revolution of 1830 and the rule of Louis Philippe, the articles LOUIS PHILIPPE (Vol. 17, p. 51); CAVAIGNAC; THIERS; GUIZOT; CONSTANT; CASIMIR PÉRIER; LAFITTE; BARROT; DUPONT DE L’EURE; BERRYER; SAINT-SIMON; FOURIER; LAMENNAIS; LOUIS BLANC; MOLÉ.
[Sidenote: The Second Empire]
On the revolution of 1848 and the second Empire, besides most of the articles in the preceding paragraph, NAPOLEON III, by Albert Thomas, author of The Second Empire; CRÉMIEUX; LEDRU-ROLLIN; CARNOT; GARNIER-PAGÈS; MONTALEMBERT; OLLIVIER; ROUHER; FAVRE; PICARD; CRIMEAN WAR; ITALIAN WARS; FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR; and articles listed under those heads in the chapter in this Guide For Army Officers; EUGÈNIE; MAXIMILIAN of Mexico (Vol. 17, p. 924).
[Sidenote: Modern Times]
On the Third Republic, 1870 and the following years, the story in Vol. 10, pp. 873–904 (equivalent to 100 pages of this Guide) is to be supplemented by the articles THIERS; RÉMUSAT; SIMON; BARTHÉLEMY; BROGLIE; MACMAHON; DUFAURE; GRÈVY; FERRY; GAMBETTA; FREYCINET; CHAMBORD; CLÉMENCEAU; BRISSON; BOULANGER; CARNOT; LOUBET; LESSEPS; CASIMIR-PÉRIER; FAURE; RIBOT; MÉLINE; WALDECK-ROUSSEAU; DREYFUS; DUPUY; RIBOT; GALLIFFET; JAURÈS; MILLERAND; COMBES; DELCASSÉ; ROUVIER; PELLETAN; BRIAND; LEMIRE; FALLIÈRES; POINCARÉ.
XLVII. THE FAR EAST
[Sidenote: Asiatic Characteristics]
An account, in this chapter, of the principal articles dealing with the history of India, China and Japan, will sufficiently indicate to the student the plan adopted in the Britannica’s treatment of all the countries in the far East. But before turning to these three groups of articles, he should read ASIA (Vol. 2, p. 734), which defines the social and economic position of the Orient in general, and gives a survey of the field covered by articles on Eastern countries other than the three dealt with in this chapter. This article, equivalent in length to 65 pages of this Guide, is by Sir Richard Strachey, the famous Indian administrator; Sir Charles Eliot, of the British diplomatic service Sir T. H. Holdich, of the Indian Frontier Survey; and Philip Lake, the Oriental geologist. The general survey of Asiatic characteristics, as revealed by history, with which the historical section (p. 749) of the article begins, is noteworthy in connection with current political questions:
The words “Asiatic” and “oriental” are often used as if they denoted a definite and homogeneous type, but Russians resemble Asiatics in many ways, and Turks, Hindus, Chinese, etc., differ in so many important points that the common substratum is small. It amounts to this, that Asiatics have not the same sentiment of independence and freedom as Europeans. Individuals are thought of as members of a family, state or religion, rather than as entities with a destiny and rights of their own. This leads to autocracy in politics, fatalism in religion, and conservatism in both.
All three of these are certainly conspicuous in the history of the first Eastern country dealt with in this chapter.
INDIA
In the article INDIA (Vol. 14, p. 375), (equivalent to 140 pages of this Guide) there is much of value to the historical student besides the chapter on History (p. 395), which is written by Sir William Wilson Hunter, administrative head of the statistical survey of India and one of the editors of The Imperial Gazetteer of India, and by James Sutherland Cotton, editor of this same Gazetteer. Particularly important are the sections, The People (p. 382), Administration (p. 385), and Indian Costume (p. 417), illustrated from pen-and-ink drawings by J. Lockwood Kipling, known to many as the illustrator of his son’s book Kim. And the student of Oriental history will find it possible to gain a little comprehension—at least—of Oriental ways of thought, Eastern setting and colour, by reading in the Britannica such articles as CASTE (Vol. 5, p. 464), HINDUISM (Vol. 13, p. 501), BRAHMANISM, BRAHMAN and BRAHMANA (Vol. 4, p. 378), all by Prof. Julius Eggeling, Edinburgh; BUDDHA and BUDDHISM (Vol. 4, p. 737), both by Prof. T. W. Rhys Davids of Manchester, author of Sacred Books of the Buddhas, etc.; MAHOMET (Vol. 17, p. 399), by Prof. D. G. Margoliouth, Oxford; MAHOMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS and MAHOMMEDAN LAW (Vol. 17, p. 411), by Prof. D. S. Macdonald, Hartford Theological Seminary, and MAHOMMEDAN RELIGION (Vol. 17, p. 417), by Rev. G. W. Thatcher, Camden College, Sydney, N. S. W.; INDIAN LAW (Vol. 14, p. 434), by Sir William Markby, author of Lectures on English Law, etc.; and ZOROASTER (Vol. 28, p. 1039), by Prof. Karl Geldner, Marburg, and PARSEES (Vol. 20, p. 866). This list of articles subsidiary to the history of India could be prolonged almost indefinitely, but enough has been given to put the student on the track of valuable articles which might otherwise escape his notice.
Before we come to the authentic history of India there is a legendary period, the only historic test for which is the rock inscriptions,—see the article INSCRIPTIONS, Indian (Vol. 14, p. 621), by J. F. Fleet, author of Inscriptions of the Early Gupta Kings. On the earliest literary description of the Aryans in India and their contests with the Dravidians see the article SANSKRIT, Vedic Period (especially p. 161 of Vol. 24, on the Rig Veda)—and in general the articles ARYAN and DRAVIDIAN. An interesting reconstruction of the civilization of the primitive Aryans on the basis of languages will be found in the article INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES (Vol. 14, especially pp. 498–500), by Dr. Peter Giles, Cambridge, author of Manual of Comparative Philology; and this picture of Aryan life before the conquest of India will hold in the main for the earlier period of the Aryans in India.
[Sidenote: Early Buddhism]
With the 6th century we come to the beginning of the Buddhist period. See the article JAINS, the articles on Buddhism already mentioned, and the articles: ASOKA, the great Buddhist emperor and organizer of the faith, whose rock inscriptions throughout India are so valuable as historical records; KANISHKA, the Buddhist king of Kabul and Kashmir; FA-HIEN and HSÜAN TSANG, the Chinese pilgrims of India, who left important records of early Buddhism and of Brahmanism, which was steadily growing in power and strength.
The Hindu period, overlapping the Buddhist, is marked by the beginning of Western influences on India. For the Persians in India see the articles PERSIA (Vol. 21, especially pp. 209–210), DARIUS (Vol. 7, p. 832), and SCYLAX, the Greek who under Darius’s orders explored the course of the Indus. Far more important was the conquest by Alexander the Great and the establishment of the Hellenistic empire of the Seleucids in Syria, Bactria and India: see ALEXANDER THE GREAT (Vol. 1, especially p. 548), NEARCHUS, Alexander’s admiral and navigator, and SELEUCID DYNASTY. The first paramount ruler of India was CHANDRAGUPTA (Vol. 5, p. 839), whom the Greeks called Sandracottus and who crushed the Seleucid power and founded the Maurya dynasty. Of his grandson Asoka we have already spoken in outlining the growth and decline of Buddhism. In this period Greek thought and art influenced India greatly, and in the period immediately following—2nd century B.C.—northwestern India was invaded again by western troops: see DEMETRIUS, EUCRATIDES, MENANDER. The records of the next four centuries are confused and vague; on the invasions from the North, see SAKA and YUE-CHI, by Sir Charles Norton Edgcumbe Eliot.
The Yue-Chi founded the Kushan dynasty, in which the greatest king was KANISHKA (Vol. 15, p. 653), already mentioned as a Buddhist ruler whose policy marked the beginning of the end of Buddhism in India. On the succeeding dynasty see the article GUPTA; and refer again to the article FA-HIEN for the Chinese account of the rule of the second Gupta king, Chandragupta,—on whom in legend see VIKRAMADITYA. On the White Huns and their invasion consult the articles EPHTHALITES and HUNS. On the only other great king of this period, who was paramount monarch of northern India in the first half of the 7th century and whose administration was described by Hsüan-Tsang, see HARSHA. On the principal Deccan dynasties of the Hindu period, see CHALUKYA and RASHTRAKUTA, and the article DECCAN.
[Sidenote: Mahommedans and Moslems]
For a general notion of the Mahommedan period in India the student should read the articles on Mahommedanism already mentioned, and for more definite information about India, the articles on the 11th century invader MAHMUD OF GHAZNI (Vol. 17, p. 397), and on SOMNATH, the temple city which he captured and sacked in 1025. See DECCAN and GUJARAT for the Moslem conquest of these states by Ala-ud-din. For the destruction of the Tughlak dynasty, which followed Ala-ud-din’s successors, see AFGHANISTAN (Vol. 1, especially p. 315) and TIMUR (Vol. 26, p. 994), by Major-General Sir Frederick John Goldsmid. The “last stand made by the national faith in India against conquering Islam” was in VIJAYANAGAR (Vol. 28, p. 62). With the 16th century and the Mogul dynasty, India is quite definitely Moslem: see BABER, HUMAYUN, AKBAR, ABUL FAZL the historian of Akbar’s reign, JAHANGIR, SHAH JAHAN, and AGRA and INDIAN ARCHITECTURE (especially Fig. 17, opposite p. 433, Vol. 14) for the Taj Mahal, the Mausoleum built by Shah Jahan for his wife Mumtäz Mal, and—for the culmination of the Mogul power, the beginning of its decay, and the first sign of Moslem bigotry and intolerance on the part of the Mogul emperors,—AURANGZEB. His attempt to conquer the Mahommedan kings of the Deccan gave the natives an opportunity to regain power: see the article MAHRATTAS, and for the earlier risings of the Mahrattas, SIVAJI. And for the rise of Afghan power under the Durani dynasty and the battle of Panipat in 1761, a crushing defeat for the Mahrattas, see AFGHANISTAN, History (Vol. 1, especially p. 316), and AHMAD SHAH.
On earlier European settlements in India see the article INDIA, History (Vol. 14, p. 404), and more particularly for Portuguese explorations and settlements the articles VASCO DA GAMA (Vol. 11, p. 433), ALBUQUERQUE (Vol. 1, p. 516), and GOA the capitol of Portuguese India, the last article being by K. G. Jayne, author of Vasco da Gama and His Successors: for Dutch rule the article DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY (Vol. 8, p. 716); and for the beginning of British influence in India the articles EAST INDIA COMPANY; SURAT; MADRAS, where the first English fort was built in 1640 and the first grant, except for factory use, was made by the English; BOMBAY, acquired from Portugal in 1661–65; SIR JOHN and SIR JOSIAH CHILD; JOB CHARNOCK, founder of Calcutta, and the article on CALCUTTA.
[Sidenote: The British Conquest]
On British political history in India in the 18th century, see the articles on PONDICHERRY, DUPLEIX, French Governor-General in Pondicherry, his rival CLIVE the founder of the British Empire and of the power of the East India Company in India, EYRE COOTE who took Pondicherry from the French in 1761, SURAJ-UD-DOWLAH and CALCUTTA for the siege of the city and story of the Black Hole, PLASSEY, SHAH ALAM for the massacre of PATNA; and for the period after CLIVE the articles WARREN HASTINGS, MAHRATTAS for the first Mahratta war, HYDER ALI and MYSORE for the first Mysore war; TIPPOO SAHIB and CORNWALLIS for the second Mysore war; TEIGNMOUTH and BENGAL, for the permanent settlement of Bengal under Cornwallis; WELLESLEY and TIPPOO SAHIB and SERINGAPATAM, WELLINGTON and LAKE (Vol. 16, p. 85) for the campaigns against the French and natives during Wellesley’s governor-generalship; LORD MINTO for the years from 1807 to 1813; MARQUESS OF HASTINGS, OCHTERLONY and NEPAL for the war in Nepal; for the wars of 1817 the articles PINDARIS, MAHRATTAS, ELPHINSTONE, SIR JOHN MALCOLM; for the administration (1823–28) of Lord Amherst, the articles AMHERST, BURMESE WARS, BHARATPUR and COMBERMERE; for Bentinck’s rule, the articles BENTINCK, SUTTEE, THUGS by Reinhold Rost, late secretary of the Royal Asiatic Society, and MYSORE; METCALFE, for a view of his short tenure of office; for the stormy period of the ’40’s, AUCKLAND, ELLENBOROUGH, AFGHANISTAN, SIR W. H. MACNAGHTEN, SIR R. H. SALE and SIND; and for the Sikh wars, HARDINGE, PUNJAB, SIKH WARS, RANJIT SINGH, SIR HUGH GOUGH, DALHOUSIE, SIR HENRY LAWRENCE, EDWARDES, BURMESE WARS for the second war of 1852, and OUDH for its annexation; and for the close of the Company’s rule, the articles LORD CANNING, INDIAN MUTINY, DELHI, LORD LAWRENCE, RICHARD BAIRD SMITH, JOHN NICHOLSON, SIR NEVILLE CHAMBERLAIN, CAWNPORE, NANA SAHIB, LUCKNOW, SIR HENRY LAWRENCE, SIR J. E. W. INGLIS, HAVELOCK, J. G. S. NEILL, OUTRAM, Sir Colin Campbell.
On India under the Crown, since 1858, see particularly the articles on the viceroys, CANNING, ELGIN, LAWRENCE, MAYO, NORTHBROOK, LYTTON (see also SHERE ALI and YAKUB KHAN),—RIPON (see also AYUB KHAN, EARL ROBERTS, and ABDUR RAHMAN KHAN), DUFFERIN (see also PANJDEH for the Russian scare of 1885 and BURMA and BURMESE WARS for the dispute with Thebaw), CURZON and KITCHENER, and MINTO.
CHINA
As with India, so with China, the whole of the article in the Britannica is of value to the historical student. The article CHINA (Vol. 6, pp. 166–231) is equivalent to 200 pages of this Guide. The most important part for the student of history is section V. (pp. 188–212) on History: but such parts of the article as Geography, with a coloured map, the People (pp. 171–174), Religion (174–177), Economics (177–181), Government and Administration (181–188), Art (213–216) with illustrations, and Language and Literature (216–231) are all of importance to help get the background that is so baffling to an occidental studying the Far East. As was the case with India, the study of religions is particularly important and besides the section Religion in the article CHINA, the student should turn to the articles LAO-TSZE, the founder of a philosophy debased into Taoism, MENCIUS, and CONFUCIUS, all by the Rev. James Legge, author of The Religions of China, and the editor of The Chinese Classics, and BUDDHISM and LAMAISM, the latter the form of Buddhism in vogue in China,—and he should remember that there are some Mahommedans in China. In connection with the latest developments in Chinese history he should read with great care in the article CHINA, Section IV, Government and Administration, especially p. 184 on the Civil Service, an elaborate merit system.
Section V. of the article CHINA opens with a treatment by Sir Henry Yule, the famous Orientalist, of the European knowledge of China before 1615, particularly “Cathay” and the early explorers of Mongolia, CARPINI (see Vol. 5, p. 397) and RUBRUQUIS (see Vol. 23, pp. 810–812), and of Cathay itself MARCO POLO (see Vol. 22, pp. 7–10). The internal history of China begins (Vol. 6, p. 191) with a discussion of Chinese origins: “anthropological arguments seem to contradict the idea of any connection with Babylonians, Egyptians, Assyrians, or Indians. The earliest hieroglyphics of the Chinese, ascribed by them to the Shang dynasty (second millenium B.C.) betray the Mongol character of the nation that invented them by the decided obliquity of the human eye whenever it appears in an ideograph.... Our standpoint as regards the origin of the Chinese race is, therefore, that of the agnostic.... Their civilization was already old at a time when Britain and Germany were peopled by half-naked barbarians, and the philosophical and ethical principles on which it is based remain, to all appearances, as firmly rooted as ever.” Chinese legendary history goes back to Fu-hi as the “first historical emperor; and they place his lifetime in the years 2852–2738 B.C.” [Sidenote: The First Definite Date] There is much that is purely legendary and mythical in these early records, but with the year 776 B.C. we find a veritable record: in an ode referring to a wicked emperor there is mention of “certain signs showing that Heaven itself is indignant at Yu-wang’s crimes. One of these signs was an eclipse of the sun ... the date and month being clearly stated. This date corresponds exactly with August 29, 776 B.C.; and astronomers have calculated that on that precise date an eclipse of the sun was visible in North China.” It is an interesting coincidence that this earliest sure date in Chinese history is the date of the first Greek Olympiad, from which time was reckoned in the Greek calendar—though there are no certain dates in Greek history until much later. The first outstanding event in the history of China was nearly 20 centuries later—the Mongol invasion; see the articles MONGOLS (Vol. 18, pp. 712–719) and JENGHIZ KHAN (Vol. 15, p. 316), both by Sir Robert K. Douglas, author of The Life of Jenghiz Khan. On the period immediately following see KUBLAI KHAN, for the foundation of the Mongol dynasty, and the section Medieval Cathay (Vol. 6, p. 189) of the article CHINA for early exploration and missionary effort. Mongol rule was broken in the 14th century by the founder of the Ming dynasty. [Sidenote: Foreign Relations] The Portuguese arrival at Canton in 1517 marked the beginning of modern intercourse with Europe; and see the article MATTEO RICCI by Sir Henry Yule, for the first important work of a Christian missionary in China early in the 17th century. Immediately thereafter came the Manchu invasion, on which see the article MANCHURIA, by Sir R. K. Douglas. Trade with Europe on a large scale began in the second half of the 18th century; see the article CANTON. British diplomatic missions for the improvement of the condition of traders in Canton were unsuccessful, but in 1840 the opium war made China feel the weight of Great Britain’s power when Hong Kong was ceded to the English and other ports were opened to trade: see LORD NAPIER, SIR HUGH GOUGH, and HONG-KONG. On the T’ai-p’ing rebellion, the “Arrow” affair, and the second interference of Great Britain with China, see SIR H. S. PARKES, CHARLES GEORGE GORDON (“Chinese Gordon”), EARL OF ELGIN (Vol. 9, p. 268), TSENG KUO-FAN, LI HUNG CHANG. On the Russian boundary disputes of 1858 and 1860 see AMUR and VLADIVOSTOK.
The history of China since 1875 is told pretty completely in the article CHINA, in two sections, the first on 1875–1901 being by Sir Valentine Chirol, author of The Far Eastern Question. But in connection with the general treatment the student should read the articles on KOREA, ANNAM and TONGKING for the earlier efforts to detach from the Chinese empire these quasi-vassals; CHINO-JAPANESE WAR for the military details of the struggle by which Japan got command of the Korean coast-line; MEKONG for the dispute of 1895 with Great Britain; KIAOCHOW BAY, PORT ARTHUR and WEI-HAI-WEI for the seizures of 1897 and 1898 by Germany, Russia and Great Britain respectively; JOHN HAY for America’s part in the Open Door policy; PEKING and TIENTSIN for details added to the general account in the article CHINA, of the “Boxer” rising; MANCHURIA for Russian encroachments before, and JAPAN for Manchuria after the Russo-Japanese War.
JAPAN
[Sidenote: Japanese in America]
The article JAPAN (Vol. 15, p. 156) is equivalent to 370 pages of this Guide,—and is almost entirely the work of Captain Frank Brinkley, editor of the Japan Mail, author of Japan, A History of Japan, An Unabridged Japanese-English Dictionary, etc. The article is divided into 10 parts—Geography, People, Language and Literature, Art, Economic Conditions, Government and Administration, Religion, Foreign Intercourse, Domestic History, and The Claim of Japan; A Japanese View, by Baron Dairoku Kikuchi, in which the president of the Imperial University of Kyoto and of the Imperial Academy of Japan discusses “the ambition of the Japanese people ... to be recognized as an equal by the Great Powers,” their resenting “any discrimination against them as an Asiatic people,” the “misrepresentation, arising from want of proper knowledge of Japanese character and feelings,” that the Japanese immediately after the war with Russia were “ready and eager to fight with the United States”—whereas the Japanese have always regarded the Americans with a special good will, due no doubt to the steady liberal attitude of the American government and people towards Japan and Japanese, and they look upon the idea of war between Japan and the United States as ridiculous.
[Sidenote: Marks of the Race]
Any justifiable discrimination against the Japanese as Asiatics must of course be based upon such characteristics of custom and thought as render Japanese immigration undesirable, and not upon the colour of the Japanese skin or any other peculiarity of appearance. But it is none the less interesting to turn from Baron Dairoku Kikuchi’s argument to Capt. Brinkley’s careful study (p. 164) of the physical characteristics of the Japanese. “The best authorities are agreed that the Japanese do not differ, physically, from their Korean and Chinese neighbors as much as the inhabitants of Northern Europe differ from those of Southern Europe.” Some of the bodily traits which distinguish the Japanese from races of European origin are to be observed “in the eyes, the eyelashes, the cheekbones and the beard.” The eyeball does not differ from that of an occidental, but the eye is less deeply set. The conspicuous peculiarity is that the upper eyelids are much heavier at the inner corners than at the outer, making the eyes apparently oblique; and a fold of the upper lids hangs over the roots of the upper lashes. The lashes, too, are short and scanty, and converge, instead of diverging as they do in occidentals, so that the tips are nearer together than the roots. There is but little hair on the face (except among the Ainus), and it is nearly always straight. The cheekbones are prominent among the lower, rather than the upper classes. The article proceeds to discuss the moral characteristics of the Japanese; attributing to them a degree of frugality and endurance such as to make it virtually impossible for any occidental race, living in reasonable comfort, to compete with Japanese labour.
As in the study of India and China, it will be well for the student of Japanese history to make himself familiar with the Britannica’s full material on native religion: see Vol. 15, p. 222, noting especially that in the section on Shinto it is said: “The grandson of the sun goddess was the first sovereign of Japan, and his descendants have ruled the land in unbroken succession ever since.”
[Sidenote: Foreign intercourse]
In Japanese history two main topics of study present themselves—foreign intercourse and domestic or internal history—the former naturally the more attractive to the foreign student, and of additional interest both because of its picturesque and romantic early detail and by reason of its explaining the sudden emergence of Japan as a power in world politics. Portuguese shipwrecked in Japan in 1542 or 1543 opened the country to Portuguese trade and in 1549 landed the great Jesuit missionary, FRANCISCO DE XAVIER: see the article by K. G. Jayne, author of Vasco da Gama and his Successors. The contest between Spain and Portugal for Eastern trade and between Jesuits and Franciscans for Japanese converts to Christianity and the other factors that resulted in the suppression of Christianity in 1614 and the consequent persecutions of converts and missionaries are told in the article JAPAN—and so also is the story of the foothold that Dutch and English traders got before the Japanese practically excluded them also, as Christians rather than as foreigners or traders. From the middle of the 17th to the beginning of the 19th century Japan was practically untouched by Western civilization. The part of the United States navy in opening the country to trade in 1853 is described in the article JAPAN (pp. 237–238) and in the article MATTHEW CALBRAITH PERRY. The article JAPAN also devotes much space (p. 238) to the work done by another American, Townsend Harris, who was less known than Perry, but who carried through the immensely important first commercial treaty.
[Sidenote: Recent Wars]
The remainder of the story of Japan’s foreign relations is given in the main article JAPAN, but the student should read besides the articles CHINO-JAPANESE WAR, MANCHURIA, and RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR. The last of these would be equivalent to 40 pages of this Guide; it is accompanied by the following plans: General Dispositions after Nanshan, Liao-Yang, Port Arthur, and Mukden: and it is a remarkable critical summary of the military operations of the war. Read also the biographies of KATSURA, KODAMA, KUROKI, NOGI, NOZU, OKUMA, OYAMA, TOGO, YAMAGATA.
[Sidenote: Domestic History]
As for domestic history, it is important to note that early Japanese history is more purely mythical and legendary, and is chronologically untrustworthy for a longer period than is Chinese history. The conventionally accepted date of the establishment of the Empire is 660 B. C.; and from this year all dates are reckoned; but Japanese annals are self-contradictory and are proved faulty by Chinese and Korean records. Even the famed Japanese invasion of Korea in 200 is possibly apocryphal, and there are few trustworthy recorded facts before 400 A.D. or dates before 500 A.D. In the middle of the 6th century Chinese influence, through Korea, became strong, and in 552 Buddhism was introduced from Korea. A century later legislative government and administrative reform began.
On the Japanese feudal system beginning in the 12th century see: the article BUSHIDO; in the article JAPAN the account of the earlier army; and the articles SHOGUN and MIKADO. The more important separate articles for the later period are: TOKUGAWA and ARISUGAWA for the rival families of the 17th–19th centuries; MUTSU HITO; SANJO; OKUBO TOSHIMITSU; SAIGO; MUTSU; IWAKURA MATSUKATA, the financier; KATO; KOMURA; ITO; ENOMOTO; ITAGAKI, “the first to organize and lead a political party in Japan”; INOUYE; OKUMA; YAMAGATA; HAYASHI.