XXXI. MUSIC…

XXXI. MUSIC

The general articles on music in the Encyclopaedia Britannica provide an illuminative discussion of broad artistic principles which cannot fail to stimulate the musical sense and perception of the professional or the amateur. The technical and critical treatment of the subject was directed by Donald F. Tovey, composer, pianist, and author of Essays in Musical Analysis; and no one could be better fitted for the work of organizing this department of the Britannica. He was assisted by W. H. Hadow, the well-known musical writer and composer, J. A. Fuller Maitland, musical critic of The Times (London), E. J. Dent, author of Alessandro Scarlatti and His Works, R. H. Legge, principal musical critic on the Daily Telegraph (London), and others; and the section treating of musical instruments was organized and contributed by Miss Kathleen Schlesinger, the greatest living authority on the subject.

In mapping out courses of reading the subject is divided into sections as follows: (1) Evolution, (2) Theory, (3) Musical Forms, (4) Musical Instruments.

The article MUSIC (Vol. 19, p. 72), by Donald Tovey, which contains a masterly account of the development of the art from the earliest time down to the present day, provides the reader with just that general survey which enables him to see the whole picture in perspective. This he will naturally turn to first, but to fill out the picture there are a number of other articles which he will wish to read. In the following scheme the evolution of the art has been sketched in skeleton, so that the student may have before him a guide to the study of any period in which he is specially interested. This outline serves to show how very thoroughly the ground is covered in the new Encyclopaedia Britannica.

(1) EVOLUTION OF MUSIC

Subject for Reading Article

PRE-HARMONIC STAGE Primitive Music. MUSIC (Vol. 19, p. 72).

SONG (Vol. 25, p. 406).

Musical sense first awakened by the DANCE (Vol. 7, p. 795); see also rhythm of the dance. RHYTHM (Vol. 23, p. 278).

Legendary account of the invention DAVID (Vol. 7, p. 859). of music by a Judean.

Hebrew music: setting of the PSALMS, BOOK OF (Vol. 22, p. 539 Psalms. and p. 536).

Suggested Jewish origin of some PLAIN SONG (Vol. 21, p. 706). Gregorian Tunes.

Dawn of modern music in Greece. GREEK LITERATURE (Vol. 12, p. 509). Connection of music with lyric poetry. Terpander of Lesbos (660 B.C.) adds 3 strings to the 4–stringed lyre, giving compass of octave.

Characteristics of Greek music. MUSIC (Vol. 19, p. 73); see also Pythagoras (6th century, B.C.) PYTHAGORAS (Vol. 22, p. 699). fixes the intervals of the harmonic series and of the diatonic scale.

The Greek scale shows a latent LYRE (Vol. 17, p. 178); see also harmonic sense, though octaves ORCHESTRA (Vol. 20, p. 168); only allowed. AULOS (Vol. 2, p. 917); CITHARA (Vol. 6, p. 395).

HARMONY (Vol. 13, p. 1).

Pitch in Greek music. PITCH, MUSICAL (Vol. 21, p. 661).

Other primitive systems without CHINA, Literature (Vol. 6, p. 228 influence on modern music. and p. 215).

Chinese adopted Pythagorean system; a lost art recovered in 3rd century, A.D.

Indian music—Scale of 22 intervals. SANSKRIT (Vol. 24, p. 181).

Siamese music: 7 tone scale; SIAM (Vol. 25, p. 5). orchestras perform in unison.

The music of the North American INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN (Vol. 14, Indian. p. 470).

Biographies of musicians of the primitive, non-harmonic, period in the Britannica are: TERPANDER, 7th century B.C.; PYTHAGORAS, 6th century B.C.; ARISTOXENUS, 4th century; ALYPIUS, 3rd century B.C.; ARISTIDES, QUINTILIANUS, 3rd century.

HARMONIC ORIGINS

The Greeks found that by doubling the melody at the octave a greater sonority resulted. It was a great step from this to the discovery that two separate tunes could be combined which should be satisfying to the ear. With this discovery modern harmony may be said to have begun.

Subject Article

Awakening of the harmonic sense. MUSIC (Vol. 19, p. 74); HARMONY (Vol. 13, p. 1).

The Grecian modes modified into the PLAIN SONG (Vol. 21, p. 705); see ecclesiastical by Ambrose in the also AMBROSE (Vol. 1, p. 798), 4th century. and GREGORY (Vol. 12, p. 567).

Following Hucbald, “beatus Guido GUIDO OF AREZZO (Vol. 12, p. 687); inventor musicae” in the 11th see also HUCBALD (Vol. 13, p. century, invents names for the 847). notes and improves system of notation.

The Troubadour becomes a learned ADAM DE LA HALE, 13th century (Vol. musician in the 13th century. 1, p. 171); MACHAUT (Vol. 17, p. 233).

After Dunstable of England and DES PRÉS, JOSQUIN (Vol. 8, p. 103); Dufay of the Netherlands had see also BINCHOIS, EGIDIUS (Vol. invented counterpoint comes the 3, p. 948). first great composer, heralding the advent of the “Golden Age.”

THE GOLDEN AGE

[Sidenote: The First Great Climax]

Composers were not long content with the simple combination of two tunes. They soon found that three tunes so treated afforded a yet richer texture, and the extension to the elaborate polyphony of 16th century choral music was an inevitable step. An elaborate system of prohibitions, based on the limitations of the human voice, and the difficulty of attacking certain intervals, shackled the composer at every turn and formed the basis of theories of counterpoint which endured almost to our time. Despite the restrictions imposed by their rules, the structure raised by the great composers of the first half of the 16th century was of amazing richness and complexity.

Subject of Reading Article

The Riot of Choral Polyphony in the MUSIC, The Golden Age (Vol. 19, 16th century. p. 75); see also HARMONY (Vol. 13, p. 2); INSTRUMENTATION, Vocal Styles of 16th Century (Vol. 14, p. 651).

Musical forms brought to great CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS, Canonic Forms perfection in this period those and Devices, Counterpoint on a in which texture holds first Canto Fermo (Vol. 7, p. 42); see place. also MASS, Polyphonic Masses (Vol. 17, p. 849); MADRIGAL (Vol. 17, p. 295); MOTET (Vol. 18, p. 905).

Leaders of musical thought in the LASSO, Orlando (Vol. 16, p. 237); “Golden Age.” TALLIS, T. (Vol. 26, p. 377); PALESTRINA (Vol. 20, p. 627).

[Sidenote: Composer of the Golden Age]

Composers of the “Golden Age,” following the polyphonic tradition of the early 16th century, biographies of whom appear in the Britannica, are: Netherlandish: ARCADELT, JACOB, 1514–1556; LASSO, ORLANDO, c. 1530–1594; German: FINCK, HERMANN, 1527–1558; ECCARD, JOHANN, 1553–1611; AICHINGER, GREGOR, leader of Reformation church music, c. 1565–1628; French: GOUDIMEL, C., c. 1510–1572; English: WILBYE, JOHN, 16th century, famous for his madrigals; MERBECK, JOHN, d. 1585; BENNETT, JOHN, d.c. 1614; BATESON, T., d. 1630, a composer of madrigals; TALLIS, T., c. 1515–1585, “father of English cathedral music”; FARRANT, R., c. 1530–1581; BYRD, WM., 1543–1623; MORLEY, T., 1557–1603; GIBBONS, ORLANDO, 1583–1625; Italian: ANIMUCCIA, GIOVANNI, c. 1490–1571; ZARLINO, GIOSEFFO, 1517–1590, fixed the diatonic scale as now accepted; PALESTRINA, GIOVANNI PIERLUIGI DA, 1526–1594; BANCHIERE, ADRIANO, c. 1557–1634, fought against monodist revolt—see below; ANERIO (brothers), c. 1560–1620; ARTUSI, G. M., 16th century, opposed Monteverdi’s innovations—see below; Spanish: VICTORIA, TOMMASSO L. DA, c. 1540–1613.

THE FIRST ROMANTIC MOVEMENT

The last word in polyphony seemed to have been said by such masters as Orlando Lasso, and Palestrina, and a change into new paths was inevitable. Moreover, men’s minds were craving something more directly stimulating than the passionless web of ecclesiastical polyphony, which was the glory of the 16th century. Freedom was sought from the conventions of modal counterpoint. The monodist revolt was the result.

Subject Article

Revolt against the overelaboration MUSIC, The Monodic Revolution of texture. (Vol. 19, p. 76); HARMONY, Modern Harmony (Vol. 13, p. 4).

Prominence given to solo part SONG (Vol. 25, p. 406); ARIA (Vol. rather than to choral effect 2, p. 489). leads to development of the aria.

The leader in the new paths, the MONTEVERDE, CLAUDIO (Vol. 18, p. pioneer of modern harmony. 778).

The first oratorio (1600). ORATORIO (Vol. 20, p. 161); see also CAVALIERE, EMILIO DEL (Vol. 5, p. 563).

The first opera (1600). OPERA (Vol. 20, p. 121); see also PERI, JACOPO (Vol. 21, p. 144).

The monodic impulse synchronizes VIOLIN (Vol. 28, p. 103); see also with the startling development of AMATI (Vol. 1, p. 783); GUARNIERI the violin family by the Cremona (Vol. 12, p. 660); STRADIVARI makers. (Vol. 25, p. 977).

[Sidenote: Famous Monodists]

Among distinguished composers of this period and school are: English: BULL, JOHN, c. 1562–1628; FORD, THOMAS, b. 1580; LAWES, HENRY, 1595–1662; Italian: CAVALIERE, E. DEL, c. 1550–1602; PERI, JACOPO, b. 1561; GABRIELE, GIOVANNI, 1557–c. 1612, early experimenter in chromatic harmony; CACCINI, GIULIO, 1558–1615; MONTEVERDE, CLAUDIO, 1567–1643; ALLEGRI, GREGORIO, c. 1570–1652; FRESCOBALDI, GIROLAMO, 1583–1644, famous also as a teacher; AGOSTINO, P., 1593–1639; CAVALLI, F., 1596–1676, popularized opera; CARISSIMI, G., c. 1604–1674, popularized oratorio; ROSSI, LUIGI DE. All the above have separate articles assigned to them in the Britannica.

THE 17th CENTURY AND AFTER

[Sidenote: The Second Great Climax]

Those who revolted from the traditions of the polyphonic school went, as was inevitable, too far. A reaction was equally inevitable, for the language of the new music was unformed and was in danger of being stereotyped into the emptiest of formulas. The welding of the old and new ideas was all that was needed to prepare the way for the colossal achievement of a Bach or a Beethoven. It was a busy period when the rules of counterpoint were reviewed and revised, when theories of harmony as a distinct science took shape. But, save for the work of such men as Purcell, the Englishman (Vol. 22, p. 658), born 100 years before his time, the 17th century was mainly one of preparation. The next great climax came in the first half of the 18th century.

Subject Article

The renascence of texture, the MUSIC (Vol. 19, p. 77); HARMONY welding of polyphony and monody. (Vol. 13, p. 4).

Publication in 1715 of the famous FUX, JOHANN JOSEPH (Vol. 11, p. Gradus ad Parnassum, the first 375). complete theory of counterpoint.

The first systematic theory of RAMEAU, J. P. (Vol. 22, p. 874). harmony published in 1722.

The second great climax in music. MUSIC, Bach and Handel (Vol. 19, p. 78).

The achievement of Johann Sebastian BACH, J. S. (Vol. 3, p. 124); see Bach. also CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS (Vol. 7, p. 41); CONCERTO (Vol. 6, p. 825); OVERTURE (Vol. 20, p. 384); SUITE (Vol. 26, p. 51); ORATORIO (Vol. 20, p. 161); CANTATA (Vol. 5, p. 209); MASS, Lutheran Masses (Vol. 17, p. 850); VARIATIONS (Vol. 27, p. 912); INSTRUMENTATION, Decoration and Orchestral Schemes (Vol. 14, p. 651 and p. 655).

[Sidenote: 17th and 18th Century Composers]

Composers of the period who have separate notices in the Britannica are: Italian: CESTI, M. A., c. 1620–1669; COLONNA, GIOVANNI P., c. 1637–1695; PASQUINI, B., 1637–1710; STRADELLA, ALESSANDRO, 1645–1682; CORELLI, ARCANGELO, 1653–1713, first classic of the violin; STEFFANI, A., 1653–1728; SCARLATTI, ALESSANDRO, 1659–1725, largely created language of modern music; PITONI, G. O., 1657–1743; LOTTI, ANTONIO, c. 1667–1740; CLARI, G. C. M., c. 1669–1745; BONONCINI, G. B., c. 1672–1750; ALBINONI, T., c. 1674–1745; ASTORGA, EMANUELE D’, 1681–1736; DURANTE, FRANCESCO, 1684–1755; MARCELLO, B., 1686–1739; VINCI, LEONARDO, 1690–1730; LEO, LEONARDO, 1694–1744; LOGROSCINO, NICOLA, c. 1700–1763; PERGOLESI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, 1710–1736; ALBERTI, DOMENICO, c. 1710–1740; French: CAMBERT, R., 1628–1677; LULLY, JEAN-BAPTISTE, c. 1623–1687, inventor of the classical French opera style; English: LOCKE, MATTHEW, c. 1630–1677; BLOW, JOHN, 1648–1708; PURCELL, HENRY, 1658–1695; CROFT, WILLIAM, 1678–1727; HANDEL, GEORGE FREDERICK, 1685–1759; GREENE, MAURICE, 1695–1755; German: BACH, JOHANN SEBASTIAN, 1685–1750; HASSE, JOHANN A., 1699–1783; EBERLIN, J. E., 1702–1762.

THE RISE OF THE SONATA

[Sidenote: The Third Great Climax]

Bach, like Palestrina, seemed to have closed a period; and for nearly a hundred years after his death his influence on the course of musical development was astonishingly small. Again men sought new channels of expression and found them in instrumental music. But a structure less loosely knit than the suite form was needed if the new ideas were to be adequately stated, and the sonata grew into being, a form which has sufficed to this day as a medium for the noblest thoughts of the great composers. The 18th century saw, too, the reform of the opera by Gluck, a great development of orchestral resources, and the rise of the string quartette in chamber music.

Subject Article

The new language: evolution of the MUSIC (Vol. 19, p. 79); SONATA, sonata from the suite. Sonata Style (Vol. 25, p. 394); see also SCARLETTI, DOMINICO (Vol. 24, p. 302); and BACH, K. P. E. (Vol. 3, p. 130).

Reform of the opera. OPERA (Vol. 20, p. 123); see also GLUCK (Vol. 12, p. 138); PICCINNI (Vol. 21, p. 579); MOZART (Vol. 18, p. 951).

The rise of the symphony and the MUSIC, The Symphonic Classes string quartette, development of (Vol. 19, p. 78); SONATA FORMS the sonata. (Vol. 25, p. 395); SYMPHONY (Vol. 26, p. 290); see also HAYDN (Vol. 13, p. 110).

The growth of the orchestra. INSTRUMENTATION, Symphonic (Vol. 14, p. 652); see also HAYDN (Vol. 13, p. 110).

The third great climax. The BEETHOVEN, L. VON (Vol. 3, p. 644); perfection of the sonata form. see also SONATA FORMS (Vol. 25, p. 397); INSTRUMENTATION (Vol. 14, p. 653); VARIATIONS (Vol. 27, p. 913); MASS (Vol. 17, p. 850).

Biographies of the following composers of the period appear in the Britannica: German and Austrian: BACH, KARL PHILIPP EMANUEL, 1714–1788; GLUCK, C. W., 1714–1787; HILLER, J. A., 1728–1804; HAYDN, FRANZ JOSEPH, 1732–1809; DITTERSDORF, KARL DITTERS VON, 1739–1799; WINTER, P., c. 1755–1825; MOZART, WOLFGANG AMADEUS, 1756–1791; HIMMEL, F. H., 1765–1814; BEETHOVEN, LUDWIG VAN, 1770–1827; French: GOSSEC, F. J., 1734–1829; GRETRY, A. E. M., 1741–1813; MEHUL, ETIENNE H., 1763–1817; LESUEUR, JEAN FRANÇOIS, c. 1763–1837; BOIELDIEU, F. A., 1775–1834; English: ARNE, T. A., 1710–1778, preserved English tradition in face of Handelian obsession; BOYCE, WILLIAM, 1710–1779; JACKSON, W., 1730–1803; BATTISHILL, J., 1738–1801; ARNOLD, S., 1740–1802; DIBDIN, C., 1745–1814; SHIELD, W., 1748–1829; STORACE, S., 1763–1796; ATTWOOD, T., 1765–1838; WESLEY, SAMUEL, 1766–1837, father of modern organ playing; Italian: SCARLATTI, DOMENICO, 1685–1757; MARTINI, G. B., 1706–1784; GALUPPI, BALDASSARE, 1706–1785; JOMMELLI, N., 1714–1774; GUGLIELMI, P., 1727–1804; PICCINNI, N., 1728–1800; SARTI, GIUSEPPE, 1729–1802; SACCHINI, A. M. G., 1734–1786; PAISIELLO, G., 1741–1816; BOCCHERINI, LUIGI, 1743–1805, last real master of suite form; CIMAROSA, D., 1749–1801; SALIERI, A., 1750–1825; CHERUBINI, 1760–1842; PAER, F., 1771–1839.

NEW PATHS

Early in the 19th century the wave of romanticism broke over Europe. The effect on music was not nearly so violent as was the monodic revolt of the 16th–17th centuries, since the resources and technique of the art had now been developed; but it was nevertheless striking and showed itself in several directions, but mainly in two: lyrical and dramatic. The short compositions of Field, Schumann, and Chopin, and the development of the art song are instances of the former; the whole range of programme music, of which the symphonic poem is the prototype, is evidence of the latter; while in opera the reforms started by Gluck were carried to their logical conclusion by Wagner. Two other movements are also significant; the return to Bach and a recognition of his amazing modernity, and the pronounced revival of national characteristics in music, as shown particularly in the new English, Russian, and Bohemian Schools.

Subject Article

The Romantic Period. MUSIC, From Beethoven to Wagner (Vol. 19, p. 79).

The Romantic in opera. WEBER, CARL MARIA F. E. VON (Vol. 28, p. 455); SONG (Vol. 25, p. 409).

The first great lyrical song SCHUBERT, FRANZ PETER (Vol. 24, p. writer. 379); SONG (Vol. 25, p. 409).

The Romantic in the symphony. PROGRAMME MUSIC (Vol. 22, p. 424); see also BERLIOZ, HECTOR (Vol. 3, p. 791).

The rediscovery of Bach. BACH, J. S. (Vol. 2, p. 124); MENDELSSOHN (Vol. 18, pp. 121–124).

Development of song forms. SONG (Vol. 25, p. 410); see also SCHUMANN, ROBERT (Vol. 24, p. 384); WOLF, HUGO (Vol. 28, p. 771); BRAHMS, J. (Vol. 4, p. 390).

Discontent with the sonata form. SYMPHONIC POEM (Vol. 26, p. 289); LISZT, F. (Vol. 16, p. 780).

Gluck’s idea realised; union of MUSIC (Vol. 19, p. 80); OPERAS, music Leit-Motif with drama. (Vol. 20, p. 125); WAGNER, W. RICHARD (Vol. 28, p. 236).

The last of the royal line of BRAHMS, JOHANNES (Vol. 4, p. 389); German composers shows vitality SONATA FORMS, _Sonata since of the sonata form. Beethoven_ (Vol. 25, p. 398).

Modern Tendencies. MUSIC (Vol. 19, p. 82); see also STRAUSS, RICHARD (Vol. 25, p. 1003); DEBUSSY, ACHILLE (Vol. 7, p. 906).

Composers of this period, who have had separate articles assigned to them in the Britannica, follow: the growth of national schools will be noted.

[Sidenote: 19th Century Composers]

German and Austrian: GANSBACHER, J. B., 1778–1844; KREUTZER, K., 1780–1849; SPOHR, LUDWIG, 1784–1859; WEBER, CARL MARIA F. E. VON, 1786–1886; MEYERBEER, G., 1791–1863; HAUPTMANN, M., 1792–1868; LÖWE, J. K. G., 1796–1869; SCHUBERT, FRANZ PETER, 1797–1828; LORTZING, G. A., 1801–1851; STRAUSS, JOHANN, 1804–1849, king of valse composers; MENDELSSOHN-BARTHOLDY, J. L. F., 1809–1847; NICOLAI, OTTO, 1810–1849; SCHUMANN, ROBERT ALEXANDER, 1810–1856; HILLER, F., 1811–1885; WAGNER, RICHARD, 1813–1883; HELLER, STEPHEN, 1815–1888; FRANZ, ROBERT, 1815–1892, song composer; ABT, FRANZ, 1819–1885, art folk-song; SUPPE, F. VON, 1820–1895; RAFF, J. J., 1822–1882; CORNELIUS, CARL AUGUST PETER, 1824–1874, song writer; BRUCKNER, ANTON, 1824–1896, Wagnerian symphonist; REINECKE, C. H. C., 1824–1910; LASSEN, EDUARD, 1830–1904; JOACHIM, JOSEPH, 1831–1907; BRAHMS, JOHANNES, 1833–1897; BRUCH, MAX, b. 1838; RHEINBERGER, J. G., 1839–1901; GOETZ, HERMANN, 1840–1876; NESZLER, V., 1841–1890: HUMPERDINCK, E., b. 1854; WOLF, HUGO, 1860–1903; STRAUSS, RICHARD, b. 1864.

French: AUBER, D. F. E., 1782–1871; HEROLD, L. J. F., 1791–1833; HALEVY, J. F. F. E., 1799–1862; BERLIOZ, HECTOR, 1803–1869; DAVID, F., 1810–1876; THOMAS, C. L. AMBROISE, 1811–1896; GOUNOD, C. F., 1818–1893; OFFENBACH, J., 1819–1880; FRANCK, CESAR, 1822–1890, founder of Modern French School; LALO, E., 1823–1892; REYER, E., b. 1823; LECOCQ, A. C., b. 1832; BENOIT, P. L. L., 1834–1901; SAINT-SAËNS, CHARLES CAMILLE, b. 1835; DUBOIS, F. C. T., b. 1837; BIZET, GEORGES, 1838–1875; JONCIERES, V., 1839–1903; CHABRIER, A. E., 1841–1894; AUDRAN, E., 1842–1901; MASSENET, J. E. F., 1842–1912; FAURE, GABRIEL, b., 1845; WIDOR, CHARLES MARIE, b. 1845; GODARD, BENJAMIN L. P., 1849–1895; PLANQUETTE, R., b. 1850; D’INDY,. P. M. T. V., b. 1851; MESSAGER, A. C. P., b. 1853; BRUNEAU, ALFRED, b. 1857; CHAMINADE, CÉCILE, b. 1861; BEMBERG, HERMAN, b. 1861; DEBUSSY, CLAUDE ACHILLES, b. 1862.

Belgian: The violinist YSAYE, b. 1858.

Italian: SPONTANI, G. L. P., 1774–1851; ROSSINI, G. A., 1792–1868; DONIZETTI, G., 1798–1848; BELLINI, V., 1801–1835; VERDI, GIUSEPPE, 1813–1901; PONCHIELLI, AMILCARE, 1834–1886, on whom have modelled themselves, Mascagni, Leoncavallo, etc.; BOITO, ARRIGO, b. 1842; SGAMBATI, G., b. 1843; LEONCAVALLO, R., b. 1858; PUCCINI, G., b. 1858; MASCAGNI, P., b. 1863.

British: HORSLEY, WM., 1774–1858; SMART, SIR GEORGE T., 1776–1867; BISHOP, SIR H. R., 1786–1855; PEARSALL, R. L. DE, 1795–1856; FIELD, JOHN, 1782–1837, inventor of the nocturne; GOSS, SIR JOHN, 1800–1880; HATTON, J. L., 1800–1886; BARNETT, J., 1802–1890; BENEDICT, SIR JULIUS, 1804–1885; BALFE, M. W., 1808–1870; WESLEY, S. S., 1810–1876; HULLAH, JOHN P., 1812–1884; MACFARREN, SIR G. A., 1813–1887; WALLACE, WM. V., 1814–1865; PIERSON, H. H., 1815–1873; BENNETT, SIR WM. STERNDALE, 1816–1875; OUSELEY, SIR F. A. G., 1825–1889; BACHE, F. E., 1833–1858; CLAY, F., 1838–1889; BARNBY, SIR J., 1838–1896; STAINER, SIR JOHN, 1840–1901; SULLIVAN, SIR ARTHUR S., 1842–1900; CELLIER, ALFRED, 1844–1891; MACKENZIE, SIR A. C., b. 1847; PARRY, SIR C. HUBERT H., b. 1848, on whom fell the mantle of Purcell; THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING, 1850–1892; COWEN, F. J., b. 1852; STANFORD, SIR CHARLES VILLIERS, b. 1852; ELGAR, SIR EDWARD, b. 1857; MACCUNN, HAMISH, b. 1868.

Bohemian: SMETANA, F., 1824–1884, founder of modern Bohemian School; DVOŘÁK, ANTON, 1841–1904.

Hungarian: GUNG’L, JOSEF, 1810–1889; LISZT, FRANZ, 1811–1886; GOLDMARK, KARL, b. 1832; PADEREWSKI, I. J., b. 1860.

Polish: CHOPIN, FREDERIC FRANÇOIS, 1810–1849; MOSZKOWSKI, MORITZ, b. 1854.

Russian: GLINKA, M. IVANOVICH, 1803–1857, founder of national school; DARGOMIJSKY, A. SERGEIVICH, 1813–1869; RUBINSTEIN, ANTON, 1829–1894; BORODIN, A. PORFYRIEVICH, 1834–1887; MOUSSORGSKY, M. PETROVICH, 1835–1881; BALAKIREV, M. ALEXEIVICH, b. 1836; TSCHAIKOVSKY, PETER ILICH, 1840–1893; RIMSKY-KORSAKOV, N. ANDREIEVICH, 1844–1908; GLAZUNOV, A. CONSTANTINOVICH, b. 1865.

Norwegian: The violinist BULL, OLE, 1810–1880; KJERULF, HALFDAN, 1815–1868; SVENDSEN, J. S., b. 1840; GRIEG, EDVARD HAGERUP, 1843–1907.

Danish: GADE, NIELS W., 1817–1890.

Sweden: WENNERBERT, G., 1817–1901, song writer.

American: EMMETT, D. D., started “negro minstrels,” 1815–1904; FOSTER, STEPHEN C., 1826–1864, song writer; EICHBERG, JULIUS, 1824–1893, founded Boston Conservatory of Music; BUCK, DUDLEY, 1839–1909; MACDOWELL, EDWARD ALEXANDER, 1861–1908. For notices of other modern composers and their tendencies—see MUSIC, Recent Music (Vol. 19, p. 82).

[Sidenote: Musical Historians]

Famous musical historians and writers on music, whose biographies are in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, are: ARISTOXENUS, 4th century B.C.; PRAETORIUS, M., 1571–1621; PERUSCH, J. C., 1667–1752; BARNARD, JOHN, 17th century; HAWKINS, SIR JOHN, 1710–1789; GERBERT, M., 1720–1793; BURNEY, CH., 1726–1814; GERBER, 1746–1819; FORKEL, J. N., 1749–1818; BAINI, G., 1775–1844; NOVELLO, V., 1781–1861; CALLCOTT, J. W., 1766–1821; FETIS, F. J., 1784–1871; CHORLEY, H. F., 1808–1872; CHAPPELL, WM., 1809–1888; DWIGHT, JOHN S., 1813–1893; AMBROS, A. W., 1816–1876; GROVE, SIR GEORGE, 1820–1900.

(2) THEORETICAL ARTICLES

“In the beginning,” said Hans von Bülow, “was rhythm,” and as RHYTHM (Vol. 23, p. 277) is the skeleton of every musical phrase and formula, the interesting article by Donald Tovey on rhythm in music may well serve as an introduction to the other subjects in this section. Passing to the elements, the articles SOUND, Diatonic Scale (Vol. 25, p. 448) and PLAIN SONG (Vol. 21, p. 705) should be read. In the former article the physical basis of the modern scale is determined, while in the latter an account is given of the modes which for centuries were the vehicles of musical expression. In the article MUSICAL NOTATION (Vol. 19, p. 86) the steps by which the present system of recording music was reached are noted, and in PITCH, MUSICAL (Vol. 21, p. 660), the whole of this interesting and vexed subject is reviewed by Alfred J. Hipkins, a high authority, formerly hon. curator of the Royal College of Music. The article MELODY (Vol. 18, p. 96) contains in addition to a discussion of the terms a series of useful definitions (e.g., conjunct and disjunct motion) and several musical examples. This brings us to the main articles of this section—COUNTERPOINT (Vol. 7, p. 315), HARMONY (Vol. 13, p. 1) and INSTRUMENTATION (Vol. 14, p. 651). All are by Donald Tovey and all are brilliant. In particular the article HARMONY deserves the most careful study, especially interesting being the sections Tonality and Key-relationship. The article on counterpoint is mainly a definition of the principles involved and is introductory both to Harmony and to Contrapuntal Forms. In INSTRUMENTATION the question of colour is discussed from the historical and aesthetic aspects, accompanied by valuable analysis of the colour schemes of various composers from the choral writers of the “Golden Age” down to Wagner and Richard Strauss.

[Sidenote: Theorists]

Famous theorists who have helped to establish the grammar of music are the following: TERPANDER, 7th century B.C., founder of Greek music (Vol. 26, p. 647); PYTHAGORAS, 6th century, B.C., said to have discovered numerical relation governing the harmonic series (Vol. 22, p. 699); ALYPIUS, 3rd century B.C. (Vol. 1, p. 776); ARISTIDES, QUINTILIANUS, 3rd century A.D.; HUCBALD, c. 840–930, inventor of new notation (Vol. 13, p. 847); GUIDO OF AREZZO, c. 995–1050, “Beatus Guido, inventor musicae,” (Vol. 12, p. 687); AGRICOLA, MARTIN, c. 1500–1556; ZARLINO, G., 1517–1590, fixed the diatonic scale; ARTUSI, G. M., 16th century, opposed monodist revolt; FUX, J. J., wrote the famous Gradus ad Parnassum, RAMEAU, J. P., 1683–1764, to whom the first systematic theory of harmony is due; ALBRECHTSBERGER, J. G., 1736–1809, the teacher of Beethoven; REICHA, A. J., 1770–1836; RICHTER, E. F. E., 1808–1879; CURWEN, J., 1817–1880, inventor of tonic sol-fa system; BERLIOZ HECTOR, whose text book on instrumentation is classic. On all these separate articles will be found in the Britannica.

(3) MUSICAL FORMS

[Sidenote: Contrapuntal Forms]

In making a detailed study of any particular form, reference should be made to the critical sections of the biographies of those masters who have done most towards its development. As has been seen in the historical section of this chapter, the CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS (Vol. 7, p. 41) were the first to attain to a high standard of organization in the hands of such masters as ORLANDO LASSO (Vol. 16, p. 237) and PALESTRINA (Vol. 20, p. 627). The articles MASS (Vol. 17, p. 849), MOTET (Vol. 18, p. 905), MADRIGAL (Vol. 17, p. 295), CANON (Vol. 5, p. 190), CHORALE (Vol. 6, p. 269), cover the ground of early choral music. In tracing their development reference should be made to the articles on BACH, J. S. (Vol. 3, p. 127), BEETHOVEN (Vol. 3, p. 649), BRAHMS (Vol. 4, p. 390). ORATORIO (Vol. 20, p. 161) and CANTATA (Vol. 5, p. 209) had their beginning in the work of the followers of Monteverde in the early 17th century, and their development may be traced in the work of CAVALIERE (Vol. 5, p. 563), CARISSIMI (Vol. 5, p. 338), PURCELL (Vol. 22, p. 658), BACH (Vol. 3, p. 127), HANDEL (Vol. 2, p. 912), BRAHMS (Vol. 4 p. 390), CÉSAR FRANCK (Vol. 11, p. 3), and SIR C. HUBERT PARRY (Vol. 20, p. 865).

[Sidenote: Suite and Sonata]

In instrumental music, the SUITE (Vol. 26, p. 51), of which BOCCHERINI (Vol. 4, p. 105) was the last master, most nearly foreshadowed the Sonata (SONATA FORMS, Vol. 25, p. 394), and together they tell the tale of the development of absolute music up to modern experiments in the more elastic SYMPHONIC POEM (Vol. 26, p. 289) of which LISZT (Vol. 16, p. 780) was the first to see the possibilities. In addition to the articles SONATA and SONATA FORMS the reader should carefully study that part of the article BEETHOVEN beginning on page 647 of Vol. 3; also the article HARMONY, Key Relationships (Vol. 13, p. 5) which contains analyses of several striking key systems, and further reference should also be made to the articles VARIATIONS (Vol. 27, p. 912), SYMPHONY (Vol. 26, p. 290).

[Sidenote: Programme Music]

To the Romantic movement of the early part of the 19th century may be traced the attempt to escape from the apparent restrictions of the Sonata Form, and SCHUMANN’S (Vol. 24, p. 384) many Fantasie-Stücke and CHOPIN’S lyrical compositions (Vol. 6, p. 268) are prototypes in little of the tendencies of the time. On a larger canvas are the Ton-dramen of Liszt and the symphonic poems and the elaborate programme music of modern composers such as RICHARD STRAUSS (Vol. 25, p. 1003); and though BRAHMS (Vol. 4, p. 389) showed clearly enough that the classical sonata form was a framework sufficiently elastic to hold the most elaborate and modern ideas, the direction in which music has tended is towards the Symphonic Poem in which, by such devices as the transformation of themes and the Leitmotif (OPERA, Vol. 20, p. 125) a still greater elasticity is sought in form with a greater continuity of idea in substance. See PROGRAMME MUSIC (Vol. 22, p. 424).

[Sidenote: Opera]

Supplementing the article OPERA (Vol. 20, p. 121) are several which should be consulted. ARIA (Vol. 2, p. 489), OVERTURE (Vol. 20, p. 384), and especially GLUCK (Vol. 12, p. 139), MOZART (Vol. 18, p. 951), WEBER (Vol. 28, p. 457), and WAGNER (Vol. 28, p. 237). These, with the biographical notices of operatic composers, which include almost every Italian composer from the days of PERI (Vol. 21, p. 144), and French composers from LULLY (Vol. 17, p. 121), give a mass of information bearing on the development of this popular form.

[Sidenote: Song]

SONG (Vol. 25, p. 400), the oldest of art forms, and almost the last to be rescued from the too narrow formalism of which the classical ARIA (Vol. 2, p. 489) is the beautiful example, is so much the most generally popular that the article on it in the Britannica will probably be more widely read than any other on musical subjects. Written by W. A. J. Ford, a scholarly musician and teacher of singing at the Royal College of Music (London), it provides a brilliant survey of the evolution of the song from its earliest beginnings. In connection with it the reader will find much to interest him in the biographical notices of two famous troubadours of the 13th and 14th centuries, ADAM DE LA HALE (Vol. 1, p. 171) and MACHAUT, G. DE (Vol. 17, p. 233); of MONTEVERDE (Vol. 18, p. 778), the pioneer of the monodist revolt at the end of the 16th century, of SCARLATTI, ALESSANDRO (Vol. 24, p. 302), 17th century, who perfected the aria form, of PURCELL, HENRY (Vol. 22, p. 658), the great English composer of the 17th century, of JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH (Vol. 3, p. 126) 18th century, of SCHUBERT (Vol. 24, p. 380), the creator of the modern song, of SCHUMANN (Vol. 24, p. 384) who brought a yet greater intimacy into the form, of HUGO WOLF (Vol. 28, p. 771), the most clairvoyant of song writers, of SIR HUBERT PARRY (Vol. 20, p. 865), and SIR CHARLES VILLIERS STANFORD (Vol. 25, p. 773), who have respectively done the best modern work in the English and Irish tradition, and of the American MACDOWELL (Vol. 17, p. 214). Reference should also be made to the articles MELODY (Vol. 18, p. 96), ACCOMPANIMENT (Vol. 1, p. 122), RHYTHM (Vol. 23, p. 277). Suggestive also are the articles BALLADS (Vol. 3, p. 264), POETRY (Vol. 21, p. 889). On the technique of singing the article VOICE (Vol. 28, p. 172) by Dr. J. G. McKendrick, will be found very helpful, especially the section on the Physiology of Voice Production.

(4) MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

One branch of the subject yet remains, that of musical instruments. Here the editor of the Britannica had the advantage of the assistance of Miss Kathleen Schlesinger (author of The Instruments of the Orchestra, and the greatest authority on the subject), who contributed practically all of the articles in the book on musical instruments. A list of them is given below, classified under their most convenient groupings. From these articles in the Encyclopaedia Britannica the reader will get a full account of every known musical instrument whether modern or ancient, with its compass, and scale, and of its connection with other instruments of the same class; so that the evolution of every type is clearly brought out. As a preliminary to a general study of the subject, the articles ORCHESTRA (Vol. 20, p. 168), and INSTRUMENTATION (Vol. 14, p. 651) may conveniently be read. In the former Miss Schlesinger gives a summary of the development of the various classes of instruments and of their concerted use. In the article INSTRUMENTATION, on the other hand, Donald Tovey illustrates the principles which govern their use. This article closes with an interesting survey of the orchestral schemes at different periods in the history of the art. The following classified list of separate articles on musical instruments in the Britannica, shows how very completely this work covers the field:

=Stringed Instruments= (Vol. 25, p. 1038).

Strings Plucked by Fingers or Plectrum: ASOR; BALALAIKA; BANJO; BARBITON; CHELYS; CITHARA; CITOLE; CITTERN; EPIGONION; GUITAR; HARP; HARP-LUTE; KINNOR; KISSAR; LUTE; LYRE; MANDOLINE; NANGA; PANDURA; PSALTERY; REBAB; ROTTA; SAMBUCA; THEORBO; TRIGONON; ZITHER. Strings Set in Vibration by Friction of the Bow: CROWD; DOUBLE BASS; FIDDLE; GEIGE; GUITAR-FIDDLE; GUSLA; NAIL VIOLIN; PHILOMEL; RAVANASTRON; REBAB; REBEC; TROMBA MARINA; VIELLE; VIOL; VIOLA; VIOLIN; VIOLONCELLO. Strings Struck by Hammers or Tangents: CLAVECIN; CLAVICEMBALO; CLAVICHORD; CLAVICYTHERIUM; DULCIMER; HARMONICHORD; HARPSICHORD; PIANOFORTE; SPINET; VIRGINAL. Strings Set in Vibration by Friction of a Wheel: HURDY-GURDY; ORGANISTRUM. Strings Set in Vibration by the Wind: AEOLIAN HARP. Appliances: BOW; MONOCHORD; MUTE; MOUTHPIECE; KEYBOARD; SORDINO.

=Wind Instruments= (mouth blown) (Vol. 28, p. 709.)

Wood Wind.

The Pipe Class: EUNUCH FLUTE; FIFE; FLAGEOLET; FLUTE; NAY; PICCOLO; PIPE AND TABOR; RECORDER; SYRINX. Single Reed Class (cylindrical bore): REED INSTRUMENTS; ARGHOUL; AULOS; BASS CLARINET; BASSET HORN; BATYPHONE; CLARINET; PEDAL CLARINET. Double Reed Class (conical bore): REED INSTRUMENTS; AULOS; BASSOON; BOMBARD; CONTRAFAGOTTO; COR ANGLAIS; OBOE; POMMER; SHAWM; CLARINA; HOLZTROMPETE; CROMORNE; RACKETT; SAXOPHONE; SORDINO; TIBIA. To reed instruments also belong the Bagpipe Class: ASKAULES; BAGPIPE; BINIOU; CHORUS; DRONE; PLATERSPIEL; SYMPHONIA.

Brass Wind.

BOMBARDON; BUCCINA; BUGLE; CORNET; EUPHONIUM; HELICON; HORN; LITUUS; OPHICLEIDE; SACKBUT; SAXHORN; SERPENT; TROMBONE; TRUMPET; TUBA; to which may be added, though not of brass or metal: ALPENHORN; OLIPHANT; SHOFAR; see also MOUTHPIECE; MUTE; VALVES.

=Wind Instruments= (mechanically blown).

ACCORDION; BARREL-ORGAN; CONCERTINA; HARMONIUM; ORCHESTRION; ORGAN; PHYSHARMONICA; PORTATIVE ORGAN; POSITIVE ORGAN; REGAL; to which, though mouth blown, may be added CHENG. See also FREE REED VIBRATION; KEYBOARD.

=Instruments of Percussion.=

Sounding a Sensible Note: BELL; BUMBULUM; CARILLON; GLOCKENSPIEL; GONG; HARMONICA; JEWS’ HARP; MUSICAL BOX; PARSIFAL BELL-INSTRUMENT; XYLOPHONE. Not Sounding a Sensible Note: CASTANETS; CYMBALS; CHINESE PAVILLON; DRUM; KETTLE DRUM; NACAIRE; SISTRUM; TAMBOURINE; TIMBREL; TOM-TOM; TRIANGLE; TYMPANON.

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XXXII. THE FINE ARTS: GENERAL AND INTRODUCTORY

The art-student and every other reader interested in the fine arts will find in the Britannica the material for courses of reading of very great range and of the utmost interest and value—whether he wishes to study theory, practice or history.

[Sidenote: Theory of Art]

Of course no adequate treatment of the arts, or of any one of them, could logically, much less advantageously, separate theory, practice and history. But the theory of art, though it may be inferred or deduced from many other articles in the book, including those the most devoted to the practical or historical, may best and most directly be studied in three articles, AESTHETICS, ART, and FINE ARTS. Of these, the first, AESTHETICS (Vol. 1, p. 277), equivalent to nearly 40 pages of this Guide, is written by Professor James Sully, late of University College, London, and author of The Human Mind and other psychological studies. It discusses the meaning of beauty and the problem of the nature of pleasure, especially “higher” pleasure, its relation to play, etc. And the article closes with a history of Aesthetic Theories, including those of the following philosophers, on all of whom the student will find separate and elaborate critical biographies in the Britannica: PLATO, who set beauty high, but thought art a mere trick of imitation and wished it be censored rather than encouraged in his model republic; ARISTOTLE, who sets beauty above the useful and necessary, but whose aesthetic seems to be applied to poetry rather than to any other art; the German philosophers, KANT, SCHELLING, HEGEL, SCHOPENHAUER, who so deeply impressed their theories on the literature of their times, etc. The articles ART (Vol. 2, p. 657) and FINE ARTS are both by Sir Sidney Colvin, formerly keeper of prints and drawings, British Museum. The former begins with a contrast between art and nature—the contrast made famous by Pope, by Chaucer, repeatedly by Shakespeare and by Dr. Johnson in his definition of Art as “the power of doing something which is not taught by Nature or by instinct.” This definition is in itself an excellent text for a discourse on the importance in the study of the fine arts of the best literature on the subject. But Sir Sidney Colvin points out that the definition is incomplete, since Art

is a name not only for the power of doing something, but for the exercise of the power; and not only for the exercise of the power, but for the rules according to which it is exercised; and not only for the rules, but for the result. Painting, for instance, is an art, and the word connotes not only the power to paint, but the act of painting; and not only the act, but the laws for performing the act rightly; and not only all these, but the material consequences of the act or the thing painted.

Art is then “Every regulated operation or dexterity by which organized beings pursue ends which they know beforehand, together with the rules and the result of every such operation or dexterity.”

And a consideration of the etymology of the words “Art” and “Kunst” is the basis of a discussion of the relation of Science and Art, which is summed up in these words:

Science consists in knowing, Art consists in doing. What I must do in order to know, is Art subservient to Science: what I must know in order to do, is Science subservient to Art.

After speaking of dancing, music, drawing, painting, sculpture, architecture, poetry, the author says:

Of all these arts, the end is not use, but pleasure, or pleasure before use, or at least pleasure and use conjointly. In modern language, there has grown up a usage which has put them into a class by themselves under the name of the Fine Arts, as distinguished from the Useful or Mechanical Arts. (See AESTHETICS and FINE ARTS.) Nay, more, to them alone is often appropriated the use of the generic word Art.... And further yet, custom has reduced the number which the class-word is meant to include. When Art and the works of Art are now currently spoken of in this sense, not even music or poetry is frequently denoted, but only architecture, sculpture and painting by themselves, or with their subordinate and decorative branches.

[Sidenote: Fine Arts]

The article FINE ARTS (Vol. 10, p. 355; equivalent to 70 pages of this Guide) is divided into the following parts: General Definition, with particular attention to the theory that makes the arts a form of play and to the definitions of Plato and Schiller; Classification—architecture, sculpture, painting, music and poetry classified as “shaping” and “speaking” or as imitative and “non-imitative,” with definitions from the aesthetic or philosophic point of view of sculpture and of painting; and Historical Development, with a criticism of Spencer’s theory of the evolution and gradual separation of the arts and of Taine’s natural history, as well as a critical and illuminating outline history of the arts.

Whether we include under the fine arts music and poetry, or with the more popular usage make the fine arts not five but three, architecture, painting and sculpture, the arts may be studied in the Britannica and there is the basis for this study in this Guide.

Music is the subject of a separate chapter.

Poetry is treated in the chapters on Literature, but it will be well to remind the student of the philosophy of art of the remarkable article POETRY (Vol. 21, p. 877; equivalent to 45 pages in this Guide) by Theodore Watts-Dunton, and of the articles on the different poetic forms, mostly by Edmund Gosse.

Architecture in the Britannica is outlined in this Guide in the chapter For Architects.

The two chapters immediately following this are devoted respectively to Painting, Engraving and Drawing and to Sculpture and the Subsidiary Arts. Of practical value to the art student as an introduction to these two chapters are the articles ART SOCIETIES, by A. C. Robinson Carter, editor of The Year’s Art, and ART TEACHING, by Walter Crane, the English illustrator, who also contributed the article ARTS AND CRAFTS.

For an alphabetical list of articles on the fine arts see the end of the chapter on Sculpture.

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XXXIII. PAINTING, DRAWING, ETC

The article PAINTING (Vol. 20, p. 459; equivalent to 190 pages of this Guide) is an elaborate “key” article which may well be the starting point for more definite study. The art student who actually wishes to paint or draw—as distinct from the student of the history of art—will do well to read first in this great article its third section, The Technique of Painting (pp. 482–497), by Gerard Baldwin Brown, professor of fine art, Edinburgh, and author of The Fine Arts. The main topics in this part of the article are:

The Materials of Painting; The Surfaces Covered by the Painter; Binding Materials or Media; The Processes of Painting, and their Historical Uses; Painting with Coloured Vitreous Pastes (with bibliography)—on this method and on similar processes see the separate articles CERAMICS, with remarkably valuable and beautiful coloured illustrations; MOSAIC; ENAMEL; GLASS, STAINED. The following sections are Fresco Painting (with bibliography)—see Fig. 34, Plate X (facing p. 477); Fresco-Secco (with bibliography); Stereochromy or Water-Glass Painting (with bibliography); Spirit Fresco or the “Gambier Parry” Process, as improved by Professor Church (with bibliography); Oil Processes of Wall Painting; Tempera Painting on Walls; Encaustic Painting on Walls (with bibliography); Encaustic Painting in General (with bibliography); Tempera Painting (with bibliography); Water Colour Painting (with bibliography).

[Sidenote: Drawing and Engraving]

In connection with this part of the article—theoretically before it, perhaps,—the student should read the articles DRAWING and ENGRAVING.

DRAWING (Vol. 8, p. 552), by John R. Fothergill, editor of The Slade, is a peculiarly interesting article in its denial of the possibility of conveying colour by drawing or monochrome, in its tracing the development of drawing from the “papery” and flat first attempts on early Greek vases to the depth, length and breadth of the later Greeks or of a Michelangelo, for its criticism of the definition of artistic drawing as a process of selection and elimination from the forms of nature, and for its discussion of style or personality in drawing. See also the articles CARICATURE, CARTOON, ILLUSTRATION, POSTER, PLUMBAGO DRAWINGS.

ENGRAVING (Vol. 9, p. 645) is a short outline article to be supplemented by: LINE-ENGRAVING (Vol. 16, p. 721), by Philip Gilbert Hamerton, author of Drawing and Engraving, and more popularly known as the author of The Intellectual Life, Human Intercourse and other essays, and by M. H. Spielmann, formerly editor of the Magazine of Art; WOOD ENGRAVING, by the same authors; MEZZOTINT, by Gerald Philip Robinson, president of the Society of Mezzotint Engravers; and Etching.

Supplementing the section in the article PAINTING on The Technique of Painting are the separate articles: CRAYON, PASTEL, PALETTE; AQUATINT, AQUARELLE, ENCAUSTIC PAINTING, FRESCO, GOUACHE, ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS (with 5 plates), by Sir E. Maunde Thompson, late director British Museum and author of English Illuminated Manuscripts; MINIATURE (with 19 illustrations in halftone), by the same author, and by G. C. Williamson, author of History of Portrait Miniatures, whose articles on the miniature painters the CLOUETS, COSWAY, the HILLIARDS, GEORGE MORLAND, PETER OLIVER, the PETITOTS, PIERRE PRIEUR, JOHN SMART, etc., should also be read; PANORAMA, PASTEL, by M. H. Spielmann, PORTRAITURE, by Sir George Reid, the Scotch artist and late president of the Royal Scottish Academy, PREDELLA, TEMPERA and TRIPTYCH.

[Sidenote: History of Painting]

Although the articles enumerated in the last paragraph have primarily to do with technique, there is in them—especially in such articles as MINIATURE and PORTRAITURE—much historical and critical information. And from them the student may well turn back to the article PAINTING to pursue there those topics which he has not yet covered. These are: Part I.—A Sketch of the Development of the Art (pp. 460–478); Part II.—Schools of Painting, a tabular scheme (pp. 479–481), and Recent Schools of Painting (pp. 497–518), by M. H. Spielmann, for British; Léonce Bénédite, keeper of the Luxembourg Museum, for French; Fernand Khnopff, painter and etcher, for Belgian; Prof. J. C. Van Dyck, Rutgers College, author of History of American Art, for the United States; and Prof. Richard Muther, Breslau University, author of The History of Modern Painting, on Dutch, German, Austrian, Italian, Spanish, Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, Russian and Balkan States.

These parts of the article are illustrated with ten plates containing 36 figures, including four prehistoric incised drawings of animals found in French caves and remarkable for their technical accuracy and life; two paintings, a boar and a bison, reproduced in colours, from the palaeolithic cave of Altamira—see also Plates II and III in the article ARCHAEOLOGY (between pp. 348 and 349, Vol. 2), Figs. 6, 7 and 8 in Plate accompanying ANTHROPOLOGY (opposite p. 118, Vol. 2), and the plates of American antiques in the article AMERICA (Vol. 1, pp. 808–816); an excellent Egyptian drawing of birds; the François vase (Greek); a Pompeian wall painting—see also the reproduction in colours of a wall-painting from a Roman villa in the article MURAL DECORATION (Vol. 20, p. 22); a wall painting from Brunswick cathedral; and typical examples of the work of Hubert van Eyck, Giotto, Lorenzetti, Masaccio, Uccello, Pollaiuolo, Piero della Francesca, Ghirlandajo, Mantegna, Bellini, Giorgione, Michelangelo, Botticelli, Titian, Holbein, Watteau, Gainsborough, Rembrandt, Quintin Matsys, Brouwer, Ruysdael, Turner, Chardin.

“A rough division of the whole history of art into four main periods” gives “first ... the efforts of the older Oriental peoples, best represented by the painting of the Egyptians; the second includes the classical and medieval epochs up to the beginning of the 15th century; the third the 15th and 16th centuries, and the fourth the time from the beginning of the 17th century onward. In the first period the endeavour is after truth of contour, in the second and third after truth of form, in the fourth after truth of space.”

The Egyptian artist was satisfied if he could render with accuracy, and with proper emphasis on what is characteristic, the silhouettes of things in nature regarded as little more than flat objects cut out against a light background. The Greek and the medieval artist realized that objects had three dimensions, and that it was possible on a flat surface to give an indication of the thickness of anything, that is, of its depth away from the spectator, as well as its length and breadth, but they cannot be said to have fully succeeded in the difficult task they set themselves. For this there was needful an efficient knowledge of perspective, and this the 15th century brought with it. During the 15th century the painter fully succeeds in mastering the representation of the third dimension, and during the next he exercises the power thus acquired in perfect freedom, producing some of the most convincing and masterly presentments of solid forms upon a flat surface that the art has to show. During this period, however, and to a more partial extent even in the earlier classical epoch, efforts were being made to widen the horizon of the art and to embrace within the scope of its representations not only solid objects in themselves, but such objects as a whole in space, in due relation to each other and to the universe at large. It was reserved, however, for the masters of the 17th century perfectly to realize this ideal of the art, and in their hands painting as an art of representation is widened out to its fullest possible limits, and the whole of nature in all its aspects becomes for the first time the subject of the picture.

[Sidenote: Early Painting]

Following this classification, the article PAINTING, after commenting on primitive art among bushmen, Eskimo and Australians and on the remarkable cave drawings and paintings of Altamira, Gourdan and Lortet,—even the paintings are thought to be 50,000 years old,—discusses the painting of contour in Egypt and Babylonia, in prehistoric Greece, in ancient Greece and Italy, and in the early Christian and early medieval periods. Of particular interest is the criticism of Greek drawing.

It may be admitted that in many artistic qualities it was beyond praise. In beauty, in grace of line, in composition, we can imagine works of Apelles, of Zeuxis, of Protogenes, excelling even the efforts of the Italian painters, or only matched by the finest designs of a Raphael or a Leonardo.... The facts, however, remain, first, that the Greek pictures about which we chiefly read were of single figures, or subjects of a very limited and compact order, with little variety of planes; and second, that the existing remains of ancient painting are so full of mistakes in perspective that the representation of distance cannot have been a matter to which the artists had really set themselves.... The problem of representing correctly the third dimension of space ... had certainly not been solved.... It is an additional confirmation of this view to find early Christian and early medieval painting confined to the representation of the few near objects which the older Oriental artists had all along envisaged.

For more detailed treatment of this period see the articles: EGYPT, Art and Archaeology (Vol. 9, pp. 65–77), with many illustrations both of painting and sculpture, by Dr. W. M. Flinders Petrie, the eminent Egyptologist; BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA, particularly the two plates of illustrations (opposite pp. 104 and 105, Vol. 3); AEGEAN CIVILIZATION, especially the illustrations (Vol. 1, pp. 246–251); GREEK ART (Vol. 12, pp. 470–492), by Percy Gardner, author of Grammar of Greek Art,—and, mostly by the same author, the articles AGATHARCHUS, PANAENUS, MICON, POLYGNOTUS, PROTOGENES, APELLES, ARISTIDES OF THEBES, PAUSIAS, THEON, ZEUXIS; ROMAN ART (Vol. 23, pp. 474–486), especially Plates V (p. 481) and VI (p. 484); and for the early Christian and early medieval periods such articles as ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS, with illustrations, by Sir E. Maunde Thompson, late director British Museum, and MINIATURE. The reader should also consult the articles CHINA and JAPAN for the section on the art of each of these countries (Vol. 6, pp. 213–216, with two plates, 17 figures; and Vol. 15, pp. 172–190, with eight plates, 30 figures—especially Plates I-IV, pp. 172–177), as Oriental art in general may be said to belong to this phase of effort after truth of contour and of form. See also the separate articles on Japanese artists, mostly by E. F. Strange, author of Japanese Illustration, Hokusai, etc.,—particularly KORIN, UTAMARO, HOKUSAI, HIROSHIGE, and YOSAI.

The first important individual names after those of the Greek painters mentioned above are those of the Proto-Renaissance of the 13th and 14th century.

For Italy see PIETRO CAVALLINI; in Florence, CIMABUE, by W. M. Rossetti, author of Fine Art, Chiefly Contemporary; GIOTTO, by Sir Sidney Colvin, late keeper prints and drawings, British Museum; GADDI, by W. M. Rossetti; ORCAGNA, by the late John Henry Middleton, Slade professor of fine arts, Cambridge, art director South Kensington Museum; SPINELLO ARETINO (Vol. 25, p. 685), and ANGELICO, by W. M. Rossetti; in Siena, SIMONE MARTINI; and for Flanders, the VAN EYCKS (Vol. 10, p. 90), by Sir Joseph Archer Crowe, author with G. B. Cavalcaselle, of Early Flemish Painters, etc.

[Sidenote: 15th Century: Florence]

With the 15th century, and particularly at Florence, begins the third of the four periods in the evolution of painting. “The father of modern painting is the Florentine Masaccio”: see the article on him (Vol. 17, p. 833), by W. M. Rossetti, who says “he led the way in representing the objects of nature correctly, with action, liveliness and relief.... All the greatest artists of Italy, through studying the Brancacci chapel, became his champions and disciples.” For the other great Florentine names of the century see the articles: MASOLINO DA PANICALE, by Rossetti; BRUNELLESCHI, architect, student of perspective, and, with Masolino, master of Masaccio; the two earlier LIPPI, by Rossetti; BOTTICELLI, by Sir Sidney Colvin; GOZZOLI, by Rossetti; ROSSELLI; PIERO DI COSIMO (Vol. 21, p. 950); CASTAGNO; BALDOVINETTI, by Sir Sidney Colvin; POLLAIUOLO; GHIRLANDAJO, father and son, by W. M. Rossetti; and, marking the perfection of art on the formal side, BARTOLOMMEO, and Rossetti’s article, ANDREA DEL SARTO (Vol. 1, p. 969).

[Sidenote: 15th Century: Other Parts of Italy]

As for the remainder of Italy, Sienese art declines in this century, but there is an advance in Northern Italy and in Umbria. See the articles: FRANCESCHI, by Rossetti, MELOZZO, “the first who practised foreshortening with much success,” and SIGNORELLI; Raphael’s master, PERUGINO, by Rossetti; MANTEGNA, by the same author; LORENZO COSTA; FRANCIA, by Rossetti; and at Venice, GENTILE, the VIVARINI, ANTONELLO DA MESSINA, CARPACCIO, the BELLINI (Vol. 3, p. 700), by Sir Sidney Colvin.

[Sidenote: 15th and 16th Centuries: Northern Europe]

In Germany and the Low Countries the art of the 15th and 16th centuries may be traced in the articles: for Germany—SCHONGAUER; DÜRER, by Sir Sidney Colvin; GRÜN; the HOLBEINS and CRANACH, by Sir Joseph Archer Crowe; BURGKMAIR; GRÜNEWALD; and for the Low Countries—ROGER VAN DER WEYDEN; his greater pupil MEMLINC, by Sir J. A. Crowe and P. G. Konody, art critic of the Observer and Daily Mail; GOES; GERARD DAVID, by P. G. Konody; LUCAS VAN LEYDEN (Vol. 17, p. 93); HEEMSKERK; MATSYS; BREUGHEL; MABUSE, by Sir J. A. Crowe; FLORIS; MORO; and BRIL.

[Sidenote: 16th Century: Italian Masters]

Roughly contemporary with Dürer and Holbein the younger were the even greater masters of Italian painting. See the articles: for Florence—LEONARDO DA VINCI (Vol. 16, p. 444, equivalent to 35 pages of this Guide), and MICHELANGELO (Vol. 18, p. 362), both by Sir Sidney Colvin, and VASARI, painter and biographer of painters; for Rome—RAPHAEL SANZIO (Vol. 22, p. 900, with 7 cuts), by the late Prof. John Henry Middleton, and GIULIO ROMANO, by W. M. Rossetti; for North Italy—LUINI, CORREGGIO, PARMIGIANO, and MORONI, all by Rossetti, and MORETTO; and for Venice—GIORGIONE, by Sir Sidney Colvin; LOTTO and PALMA, TITIAN, TINTORETTO, and PAUL VERONESE (Vol. 20, p. 965), all by W. M. Rossetti.

We have now come to modern times so far as painting is concerned. The article PAINTING says:

[Sidenote: The Fourth Period: 17th Century and After]

By the 17th century the development of painting had passed through all its stages, and the picture was no longer a mere silhouette or a transcript of objects against a flat background, but rather an enchanted mirror of the world, in which might be reflected space beyond space in infinite recession. With this transformation of the picture there was connected a complete change in the relation of the artist to nature. Throughout all the earlier epochs of the art the painter had concerned himself not with nature as a whole, but with certain selected aspects of nature that furnished him with his recognized subjects. These subjects were selected on account of their intrinsic beauty or importance, and as representing intrinsic worth they claimed to be delineated in the clearest and most substantial fashion. In the 17th century, not only was the world as a whole brought within the artist’s view, but it presented itself as worthy in every part of his most reverent attention. In other words, the art of the 17th century, and of the modern epoch in general, is democratic, and refuses to acknowledge that difference in artistic value among the aspects of nature which was at the basis of the essentially aristocratic art of the Greeks and Italians.... The artist who was the first to demonstrate convincingly this principle of modern painting was Rembrandt.... Rembrandt in his later work attended to the pictorial effect alone, and practically annulled the objects by reducing them to pure tone and color. Things are not there at all, but only the semblance or effect, or “impression” of things. Breadth is in this way combined with the most delicate variety, and a new form of painting, now called “impressionism,” has come into being.

See: RUBENS, by Henri Hymans, author of Rubens: sa vie et son œuvre, and P. G. Konody; REMBRANDT, by John Forbes White and P. G. Konody; and FRANS HALS, by P. G. Konody. These were the leaders of the great 17th century school—the Dutch. For the more immediate followers of Rembrandt see the articles: DOUW, EECKHOUT, FLINCK, MAES, HOOCH, MEER. For Rubens’ great pupil and rival and his successors, the articles VAN DYCK and TENIERS, both by Henri Hymans and P. G. Konody, SNYDERS and the great animal painter FYT. See BROUWER for Hals’ pupil and assistant. For the genre painters, the articles: TER BORCH, METSU, STEEN, WOUWERMANN, and the OSTADE family, by Sir J. A. Crowe and P. G. Konody. On the landscapists see the articles: KONINCK, GOYEN, NEER, by Sir J. A. Crowe and P. G. Konody; RUYSDAEL, HOBBEMA, by Sir J. A. Crowe, and BERCHEM; and, for animal and landscape, A. VANDEVELDE, CUYP, by Sir J. A. Crowe, and POTTER, by P. G. Konody. The other important articles for the Dutch school of the 17th century are: HEEM, HEDA, HONDECOETER, WEENIX and HUYSUM, painters of still life, etc.; W. VANDEVELDE and BACKHUYSEN, marine painters; and at the close of the period, or marking its decline, MIERIS and NETSCHER.

In the article on PAINTING this summary follows the outline of the general development of painting through the 17th century:

[Sidenote: Kinds of Painting]

The fact that the Dutch painters have left us masterpieces in so many different walks of painting, makes it convenient that we should add here some brief notes on characteristic modern phases of the art on which they stamped the impress of their genius. The normal subject for the artist, as we have seen, up to the 17th century, was the figure-subject, generally in some connexion with religion. The Egyptian portrayed the men and women of his time, but the pictures, through their connexion with the sepulchre, had a quasi-religious significance.

Portraiture is differentiated from this kind of subject-picture through stages which it would be interesting to trace, but the portrait, though secular, is always treated in such a way as to exalt or dignify the sitter. Another kind of figure-piece, also differentiated by degrees from the subject-picture of the loftier kind, is the so-called Genre Painting, in which the human actors and their goings-on are in themselves indifferent, trivial, or mean, and even repellent; and in which, accordingly, intrinsic interest of subject has disappeared to be replaced by an artistic interest of a different kind. Landscape, in modern times so important a branch of painting, is also an outcome of the traditional figure-piece, for at first it is nothing but a background to a scene in which human figures are prominent. Marine Painting is a branch of landscape art differentiated from this, but supplied at first in the same way with figure-interest. The origin of Animal Painting is to be sought partly in figure-pieces, where, as in Egypt and Assyria, animals play a part in scenes of human life, and partly in landscapes, in which cattle, &c., are introduced to enliven the foreground. The Hunting Picture, combining a treatment of figures and animals in action with landscape of a picturesque character, gives an artist like Rubens a welcome opportunity, and the picture of Dead Game may be regarded as its offshoot. This brings us to the important class of Still-life Painting, the relation of which to the figure-piece can be traced through the genre picture and the portrait.

The article then proceeds to sketch the history and development of different kinds of painting:

Portraiture:

It is Gentile and Giovanni Bellini ... who may be regarded as the fathers of modern portrait painting. Venetian art was always more secular in spirit than that of the rest of Italy, and Venetian portraits were abundant.... Some of the finest portraits in the world are the work of the great Venetians of the 16th century, for they combine pictorial quality with an air of easy greatness which later painters find it hard to impart to their creations. Though greatly damaged, Titian’s equestrian portrait of Charles V. at Madrid (fig. 26, Plate VIII.) is one of the very finest of existing works of the kind. It is somewhat remarkable that of the other Italian painters who executed portraits the most successful was the idealist Raphael, whose papal portraits of Julius II. and Leo X. are masterpieces of firm and accurate delineation. Leonardo’s “Monna Lisa” is a study rather than a portrait proper.

The realistic vein, which, as we have seen, runs through northern painting, explains to some extent the extraordinary merit in portraiture of Holbein, who represents the culmination of the efforts in this direction of masters like Jan van Eyck and Dürer.... Frans Hals of Haarlem, one of the most brilliant painters of the impressionist school that he did much to found, achieved remarkable success in the artistic grouping of a number of portraits.... As portraitists the other great 17th-century masters fall into two sets, Rembrandt and Velazquez contrasting with Rubens and his pupil Van Dyck.... In the 18th century, though France produced some good limners and Spain Goya, yet on the whole England was the home of the best portraiture. Van Dyck had been in the service of Charles I., and foreign representatives of his style carried on afterwards the tradition of his essentially courtly art, but there existed at the same time a line of native British portraitists of whom the latest and best was Hogarth. One special form of portraiture, the miniature (q.v.), has been characteristically English throughout....

Genre:

Probably the most excellent painters of genre are Ter Borch, Metsu and Brouwer, the two first painters of the life of the upper classes, the last of peasant existence in some of its most unlovely aspects. The pictures of Brouwer are among the most instructive documents of modern painting.... He is best represented in the Munich Pinacotek, from which has been selected fig. 30, Plate IX. Hardly less admirable are Teniers in Flanders; De Hooch, Ver Meer of Delft, Jan Steen, A. van Ostade, in Holland, while in more modern times Hogarth, Chardin, Sir David Wilkie, Meissonier, and a host of others carry the tradition of the work down to our own day (see Table VIII.)....

Landscape and Marine Painting:

Several of the Dutch masters, even before the time of Rembrandt, excelled in the truthful rendering of the scenes and objects of their own simple but eminently paintable country; but it was Rembrandt, with his pupil, de Koningk, and his rival in this department Jacob Ruysdael, who were the first to show how a perfectly natural and unconventional rendering of a stretch of country under a broad expanse of sky might be raised by poetry and ideal feeling to the rank of one of the world’s masterpieces of painting. Great as was Rembrandt in what Bode has called “the landscape of feeling,” the “Haarlem from the Dunes” of Ruysdael (fig. 31, Plate IX.) with some others of this artist’s acknowledged successes, surpass even his achievement.... Among Turner’s chief titles to honour is the fact that he portrayed the sea in all its moods with a knowledge and sympathy that give him a place alone among painters of marine....

Animal Painting:

In Holland, in the 17th century, the animal nature presented itself under the more contemplative aspect of the ruminants in the lush water-meadows. True to their principle of doing everything they attempt in the best possible way, the Dutch paint horses (Cuyp, Wouwerman) and cattle (Cuyp, Adrian Vandevelde, Paul Potter) with canonical perfection, while Hondekoeter delineates live cocks and hens, and Weenix dead hares and moor-fowl, in a way that makes us feel that the last word on such themes has been spoken. There is a large white turkey by Hondekoeter in which the truth of mass and of texture in the full soft plumage is combined with a delicacy in the detail of the airy filaments, that is the despair of the most accomplished modern executant.

But animals have been treated more nobly than when shown in Flemish agitation or in Dutch phlegmatic calm. Leonardo da Vinci was specially famed for his horses, which he may have treated with something of the majesty of Pheidias....

Still-Life Painting:

There is no finer Rembrandt for pictorial quality than the picture in the Louvre representing the carcase of a flayed ox in a flesher’s booth. As illustrating the principle of modern painting this form of the graphic art has a value and importance which in itself it could hardly claim.... The way was prepared for it as has been noticed, by the minute and forcible rendering of accessory objects in the figure-pieces and portraits of the early Flemish masters, of Dürer, and above all of Holbein. The painting of flower and fruit pieces without figure interest by Jan Breughel the younger, who was born in 1601, represents a stage onward, and contemporary with him were several other Dutch and Flemish specialists in this department, among whom Jan David de Heem, born 1603, and the rather older Willem Klaasz Heda may be mentioned. Their subjects sometimes took the form of a luncheon table with vessels, plate, fruit and other eatables; at other times of groups of costly vessels of gold, silver and glass, or of articles used in art or science, such as musical instruments and the like; and it is especially to be noted that the handling stops always short of any illusive reproduction of the actual textures of the objects, while at the same time the differing surfaces of stuffs and metal and glass, of smooth-rinded apples and gnarled lemons, are all most justly rendered.... In this form of painting the French 18th-century artist Chardin, whose impasto was fuller, whose colouring more juicy than those of the Dutch, has achieved imperishable fame (see fig. 33, Plate X.); and the modern French, who understand better than others the technical business of painting, have carried on the fine tradition which has culminated in the work of Vollon. The Germans have also painted still-life to good result, but the comparative weakness in technique of British painters has kept them in this department rather in the background.

[Sidenote: National Schools of Painting]

The history of painting since the 17th century may best be studied in the Britannica in the order in which “recent schools” are treated (Vol. 20, pp. 497–518), and this plan will be followed here in a brief outline, giving only a few out of many articles for each country.

[Sidenote: British]

British art in the 17th and 18th centuries is dependent largely on foreign and particularly Flemish influences—Van Dyck in especial. See Rossetti’s articles on LELY and KNELLER, who, like Holbein and Van Dyck, were importations, but, unlike them, were pretty thoroughly Anglicized. For the first purely English painter see Austin Dobson’s article HOGARTH (Vol. 13, p. 566). For “the most prominent figure in the English school of painting” whose Discourses largely affected English notions of aesthetics, see SIR JOSHUA REYNOLDS; also the article on his rival GEORGE ROMNEY. And read Rossetti’s article GAINSBOROUGH; and those on the portrait painters RAEBURN and SIR THOMAS LAWRENCE. On the Norwich school of landscapists see the articles CROME, COTMAN and GEORGE VINCENT. For foreign influences on landscape painting see RICHARD WILSON (Vol. 28, p. 695) for French influence, and JOHN CONSTABLE (Vol. 6, p. 982), by C. J. Holmes, author of Constable and His Influence on Landscape Painting, for German. With the article on the greatest of English landscapists J. M. W. TURNER (Vol. 27, p. 474), by Sir George Reid, the student should read Frederic Harrison’s article on JOHN RUSKIN, himself an exquisite draughtsman, although unable to compose a picture, whose championship of Turner and general theories of art so strongly influenced British painting. See also the articles on the subject painter THOMAS STOTHARD and the landscapist GIRTIN; and on the genre painters, SIR DAVID WILKIE, by J. Miller Gray, late curator of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery, MULREADY, WILLIAM COLLINS, and FRITH. See the article WILLIAM BLAKE, by J. W. Comyns-Carr, author of Essays on Art, for an appreciation of that remarkable genius, who in his combination of painting and poetry may be reckoned a forerunner of the Pre-Raphaelites. On the P. R. Brotherhood see the articles: D. G. ROSSETTI, by F. G. Stephens, former art-critic to the Athenaeum and, for Rossetti’s literary work, Theodore Watts-Dunton; SIR J. E. MILLAIS and W. HOLMAN HUNT, by Cosmo Monkhouse, the poet and critic; and FORD MADOX BROWN, by W. M. Rossetti, himself a member of the Brotherhood—see the article on ROSSETTI. Of much the same school were several later men. See, for instance, the articles: LORD LEIGHTON, by Cosmo Monkhouse; WILLIAM MORRIS, by Arthur Waugh; BURNE-JONES, by Lawrence Binyon, poet and author of monographs on Blake, Crome, etc.; GEORGE FREDERICK WATTS, by Malcolm Bell, biographer of Burne-Jones; WALTER CRANE. On the “Newlyn” school, see the article NEWLYN; on the etchers, WHISTLER, by Frederick Wedmore, author of Whistler’s Etchings, and WILLIAM STRANG and SIR F. S. HADEN, by Sir Charles Holroyd, artist and critic; on figure painters, SIR JOHN GILBERT, ALBERT MOORE, JOHN PETTIE, G. H. BOUGHTON, ALMA-TADEMA, SIR E. J. POYNTER and SIR W. B. RICHMOND; for painters of sentiment, MARCUS STONE, SIR LUKE FILDES and SIR HUBERT VON HERKOMER; among portrait painters, J. J. SHANNON, and C. W. FURSE; the decorator FRANK BRANGWYN; the realistic landscapists, H. W. B. DAVIS, DAVID MURRAY, SIR E. A. WATERLOW, VICAT COLE; the more imaginative and romantic painters of landscape, ALFRED W. HUNT, CECIL GORDON LAWSON, JOHN LINNELL, G. H. MASON, FREDERICK WALKER, SIR ALFRED EAST, J. BUXTON KNIGHT, GEORGE CLAUSEN; the “subjective landscapist” B. W. LEADER; the marine painters HENRY MOORE, C. NAPIER HEMY, JAMES CLARKE HOOK; the animal-painters BRETON, RIVIERE, J. M. SWAN, and, for the earlier period, LANDSEER; the Scottish artists ORCHARDSON, by Sir Walter Armstrong, director of National Gallery of Ireland; JOHN PETTIE, THOMAS FAED, DAVID MURRAY, ARTHUR MELVILLE, JOHN LAVERY, ROBERT BROUGH, SIR JAMES GUTHRIE, and SIR GEORGE REID, of whom we have already spoken as a contributor to the Britannica; and the water colorists SIR JOHN GILBERT, by F. G. Stephens, former art critic of the Athenaeum, HENRY MOORE, ALBERT MOORE, GEORGE CLAUSEN, E. J. GREGORY, BIRKET FOSTER, HAAG, KATE GREENAWAY, by M. H. Spielmann, biographer of Kate Greenaway. On English illustrators, besides those already named, Hogarth and Blake notably, see the articles THOMAS BEWICK, BARTOLOZZI, FLAXMAN, by Sir Sidney Colvin, CATTERMOLE, SAMUEL PROUT, JAMES WARD, GILLRAY, BUNBURY, ROWLANDSON, CRUIKSHANK, JOHN LEECH, RICHARD DOYLE, TENNIEL, SIR JOHN GILBERT, AUBREY BEARDSLEY, by E. F. Strange, THOMAS CRESWICK, DU MAURIER, C. S. KEENE, FREDERICK WALKER, G. J. PINWELL, R. CALDECOTT, HARRY FURNISS, SIR F. C. GOULD, E. LINLEY SAMBOURNE, PHIL MAY, LEONARD RAVEN-HILL.

[Sidenote: French]

On French painting of the 17th century read: on landscape, POUSSIN, and CLAUDE OF LORRAINE (Vol. 6, p. 463), by W. M. Rossetti; the historical and religious painters LE BRUN and LE SUEUR; and the portraitist PHILIPPE DE CHAMPAIGNE. For the 18th century: the articles WATTEAU and FRAGONARD, by P. G. Konody; FRANÇOIS BOUCHER, LANCRET, VERNET the eldest, RIGAUD, CHARDIN, and GREUZE, by Lady Dilke, author of French Painters of the 18th Century.

In the 19th century came a classical reaction: see the article on its leader JACQUES LOUIS DAVID and his pupils and imitators J. B. REGNAULT, GIRODET, BARON GUÉRIN, PRUD’HON; then a mediate movement, on which see INGRES, by Lady Dilke, and GROS; and then a Romantic revolt—see DELACROIX, GÉRICAULT, ISABEY. Other important names are ZIEM, MEISSONIER and ROSE BONHEUR, both by Henri Frantz of the Gazette des Beaux Arts, CABANEL, BAUDRY, GÉRÔME, BOUGUEREAU, BENJAMIN CONSTANT, CORMON, BONNAT and HENNER. On the Barbizon school, see the articles BARBIZON, THEODORE ROUSSEAU, DAUBIGNY, COROT, and DIAZ, by D. Croal Thomson, author of The Barbizon School, J. F. MILLET, by Lady Dilke; DUPRÉ, FRANÇAIS and HARPIGNIES. Ranking with Corot and Millet in influence is COURBET; see the article on Courbet, by Henri Frantz of the Paris Gazette des Beaux Arts, and on Courbet’s followers, LEGROS, FANTIN-LATOUR, RIBOT, by Frederick Wedmore, CAROLUS-DURAN. Contrasted with these nature-lovers are the more mystic MOREAU, RICARD, DELAUNAY, FROMENTIN and CAZIN.

The later names we may classify: the decorative painter—PUVIS DE CHAVANNES, by Henri Frantz; the impressionists—see the article IMPRESSIONISM (Vol. 14, pp. 343–346), by D. S. MacColl, keeper of the Tate Gallery, and author of Nineteenth Century Art, and in the article PAINTING the discussion on pp. 473–474 of Vol. 20—MANET, by Henri Frantz, MONET, DEGAS, RENOIR; the plein-airists JULES BRETON, BASTIEN-LEPAGE, by Henri Frantz; ROLL, GERVEX; the symbolist GUSTAVE MOREAU; the military painters ALPHONSE DE NEUVILLE and DETAILLE; and the “neo-evangelist” CAZIN.

[Sidenote: Belgium and Holland]

The art of Belgium and Holland in the 19th century is to be studied in Prof. Muther’s sections on these two countries (pp. 506–509) in the article PAINTING, and in such separate articles as LEYS, ALFRED STEVENS (to be distinguished from the English sculptor), BRAEKELEER, WILLEMS, CLAYS, PORTAELS, WAUTERS, CONSTANTIN MEUNIER, VERLAT, the DE VRIENDTS, KHNOPFF, already mentioned as a critic and a contributor to the Britannica,—all these are Belgians; and, in Holland, ISRAËLS, MARIS, MAUVE.

[Sidenote: Germany]

Going back to the close of the 18th century for German painters influenced by Winckelmann, the important articles are MENGS and CARSTENS. See OVERBECK, by J. Beavington Atkinson for the German “pre-Raphaelite” movement—and the articles, PETER VON CORNELIUS, by W. Cave Thomas, author of Mural or Monumental Education; the SCHADOWS, by J. B. Atkinson; VEIT, and SCHNORR. The other more important names before 1870 are: BETHEL, SCHWIND, ACHENBACH and PRELLER. The glorification of the Empire and of Prussia is the theme of the new historical school: see particularly MENZEL. The study of the old masters is to be seen in KAULBACH and LENBACH. Among the members of a more modern school are: LIEBERMANN, KALCKREUTH, KELLER, UHDE; of another reaction, FEUERBACH, THOMA, and BÖCKLIN, by Henri Frantz; and of a sculptural order Klinger and Stuck.

[Sidenote: Austria-Hungary]

As for Austria-Hungary, we may here mention only three articles: MAKART, PETTEKOFEN, and MUNKACSY, by E. F. Strange.

[Sidenote: Italy]

In Italy since the great days of the 17th century, we may mention TIEPOLO, CANALE and GUARDI before the 19th century, and in that era SEGANTINI, GIOVANNI COSTA, and MUZZIOLI.

[Sidenote: Spain]

The art of Spain has not been touched heretofore in this summary. For the 16th century see the articles COELLO, BECERRA, VINCENTE JOANES, NAVARRETE, EL GRECO; and for the 17th, the Spanish century, HERRERA, his great pupil VELAZQUEZ, by J. Forbes White and P. G. Konody; CANO, and ZURBARAN and MURILLO, both by W. M. Rossetti. In the 18th century the only great Spanish artist was GOYA Y LUCIENTES, painter and etcher. On the 19th century see: FORTUNY, by Alfred Lys Baldry, art critic of the London Globe; PRADILLA; BENLLIURE Y GIL; SOROLLA Y BASTIDA; MADRAZO Y KUNT; ZULOAGA.

[Sidenote: Other European Countries]

To the other countries of Europe, fully as their painting is treated in the Britannica, we can devote little space here. It may suffice to mention the Norwegian HANS DAHL and the Russians REPIN and VERESCHAGIN.

[Sidenote: The United States]

On painting in the United States, see the section in the article PAINTING, by Prof. J. C. Van Dyke of Rutgers College (Vol. 20, pp. 518–519); and the articles J. S. COPLEY, BENJAMIN WEST, JOHN TRUMBULL, GILBERT STUART, JOHN VANDERLYN, WASHINGTON ALLSTON, REMBRANDT PEALE, J. W. JARVIS, THOMAS SULLY, THOMAS COLE, ASHER B. DURAND, J. F. KENSETT, F. E. CHURCH, CHESTER HARDING, HENRY INMAN, WILLIAM PAGE, G. P. A. HEALY, DANIEL HUNTINGTON, W. S. MOUNT, W. M. HUNT, JOHN LA FARGE, GEORGE FULLER, EASTMAN JOHNSON, ELIHU VEDDER, LEONARD OCHTMAN, WINSLOW HOMER, A. H. WYANT, GEORGE INNESS, HOMER D. MARTIN, SWAIN GIFFORD, the MORANS, JERVIS MCENTEE, D. W. TRYON, ALBERT BIERSTADT, W. H. BEARD, BLASHFIELD, J. W. ALEXANDER, W. M. CHASE, DUVENECK, CECILIA BEAUX, W. H. LOW, H. S. MOWBRAY, H. O. TANNER, E. C. TARBELL, R. W. VONNOH,—and the Americans who have made their home and their fame in Europe, like WHISTLER, SARGENT, E. A. ABBEY and J. J. SHANNON, and those whose work is Continental, or even purely Parisian in tone, like W. T. DANNAT, GEORGE HITCHCOCK, GARI MELCHERS, C. S. PEARCE, E. L. WEEKS and WALTER GAY. On illustrators, see the articles: HOWARD PYLE, FREDERICK REMINGTON, C. S. REINHART, W. T. SMEDLEY, ROBERT BLUM, CHARLES DANA GIBSON, W. HAMILTON GIBSON, the wood-engraver TIMOTHY COLE, the etcher JOSEPH PENNELL; and for caricature the article THOMAS NAST and the section on the United States in M. H. Spielmann’s article CARICATURE (Vol. 5, pp. 334–335).

For a fuller list of articles on painting, drawing, engraving, etc., with articles on sculpture, see the end of the next chapter Sculpture.

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XXXIV. SCULPTURE

[Sidenote: The Main Article]

The Britannica article SCULPTURE (Vol. 24, p. 488; equivalent to 90 pages of this Guide) is a complete treatise on the technique and history of this branch of art by J. H. Middleton, late professor of Fine Art, Cambridge, M. H. Spielmann, former editor of the Magazine of Art, P. G. Konody, art critic of the Observer and Daily Mail, and, for French sculpture, Léonce Bénédite, keeper of the Luxembourg Museum and author of Histoire des Beaux Arts. It is illustrated with 10 full page plates as follows: I and II. Medieval, etc., with examples of the work of Jacopo della Quercia, Donatello (2), Andrea Pisano, Michelangelo, Verrocchio and Leopardo, Luca della Robbia, Benvenuto Cellini, Peter Vischer, Bernini, Goujon, Canova, Houdon, Coysevox; III. IV. V. Modern British—Alfred Stevens, Sir George Frampton, Lord Leighton, Harry Bates, H. H. Armstead, G. F. Watts (2), A. Gilbert, F. W. Pomeroy, E. Onslow Ford, W. Hamo Thornycroft (2), Alfred Drury, F. Derwent Wood, Bertram Mackennal, Albert Toft, Havard Thomas, W. Goscombe John, W. R. Colton (2), Sir Charles Lawes-Wittewronge, Sir J. Edgar Boehm, Thomas Brock; VI. American—J. Q. A. Ward, D. C. French and E. C. Potter, Augustus St. Gaudens, Frederick MacMonnies; VII. VIII. and IX. Modern French—Falguière, Barrias, Delaplanche, Idrac, Becquer, L. Gérôme, Marqueste, Longepied, Frémiet, Guillaume, Puech, Saint-Marceaux, Mercié, Rodin, Michel, Dalou, Aubé, Chapu, Bloche, Gardet, Bartholomé; and X. Other Foreign Countries—Sinding, Begas, Ximenes, Querol, Antokolski, Lambeaux, Meunier.

[Sidenote: Other General Articles]

This article opens with an account of technical methods of sculpture which should be supplemented by other articles, which deal also with history and criticism: WOOD-CARVING (Vols. 28, p. 791), by Franklyn Arden Crallan, author of Gothic Wood-carving, with four plates and with descriptions not merely of Gothic and Renaissance work in Europe, but of Coptic, Mahommedan, Persian, Indian and Burmese, Chinese and Japanese, and the carving done by savage races; IVORY (Vol. 15, especially pp. 95–98, with 5 illustrations), by A. Maskell, author of Ivories; CHRYSELEPHANTINE; METAL-WORK (Vol. 18, p. 205), (with 9 text cuts and 2 full page plates), by Prof. J. H. Middleton, Cambridge, and John Starkie Gardner, author of Armour in England and Iron Work; GEM (Vol. 11, p. 560; with 2 full page plates containing 76 illustrations, mostly of antique gems, besides 10 cuts in the text) by Alexander Stuart Murray, author of History of Greek Sculpture, Terra Cotta Sarcophagi, etc., and Arthur Hamilton Smith, keeper of Greek and Roman Antiquities, British Museum; CAMEO; INTAGLIO; SEALS (Vol. 24, p. 539; with 9 illustrations), by Sir E. Maunde Thompson, late director British Museum; NUMISMATICS (Vol. 19, p. 869; equivalent to 120 pages of this Guide; with 6 plates—20 Greek coins, 27 Greek and Roman coins, 23 Roman and Medieval coins, 22 Oriental coins, 8 modern coins and medals, and 4 Italian medals—and 11 cuts illustrating modern coins) by Reginald Stuart Poole, formerly keeper department coins and medals, British Museum, Herbert Appold Grueber, keeper of the same department in 1906–1912, and George Francis Hill, assistant keeper of this department; MEDAL (Vol. 18, especially pp. 1 and 2, with 2 plates, showing 32 medals), by M. H. Spielmann; TERRA COTTA (Vol. 26, p. 652, with 2 plates, 12 illustrations), by William Burton, author of English Stoneware and Earthenware and H. Beauchamp Walters, assistant keeper Greek and Roman antiquities, British Museum; PLATE (Vol. 21, p. 789; with 31 illustrations), by H. R. H. Hall, author of The Oldest Civilization of Greece, H. Stuart Jones, author of The Roman Empire, and E. Alfred Jones, author of Old English Gold Plate, etc.; ALTO-RELIEVO; BASSO-RELIEVO; RELIEF and REPOUSSÉ, by M. H. Spielmann; WAX FIGURES; EFFIGIES, MONUMENTAL, by the late Charles Boutell, author of A Manual of British Archaeology, and M. H. Spielmann.

[Sidenote: History of Sculpture]

Early sculpture is separately treated. For “Classical” sculpture see the articles GREEK ART by Percy Gardner and ROMAN ART by H. Stuart Jones, both elaborately illustrated and devoting particular attention to statuary, plate; etc. See also the illustrations in the articles mentioned in the last paragraph,—especially GEM, NUMISMATICS, TERRA COTTA; and those in the article ARCHITECTURE and subsidiary articles mentioned in the chapter of this Guide For the Architect. And on Greek art see the article PERGAMUM and the sketches of the great sculptors of Greece:

AGASIAS AGESANDER AGORACRITUS ALCAMENES ANTENOR APOLLONIUS OF TRALLES ARCHERMUS BATHYCLES BOETHUS BRYAXIS BUPALUS AND ATHENIS BUTADES CALAMIS CALLIMACHUS CANACHUS CEPHISODOTUS CHARES CRESILAS CRITIUS AND NESIOTES DAMOPHON DEMETRIUS DIPOENUS AND SCYLLIS ENDOEUS EUTYCHIDES LEOCHARES LYSIPPUS LYSISTRATUS MYRON ONATAS PAEONIUS PASITELES PHEIDIAS POLYCLITUS PRAXIAS AND ANDROSTHENES PRAXITELES RHOECUS SCOPAS SILANION STRONGYLION THRASYMEDES TIMOTHEUS

See also the article BYZANTINE ART; and for sculpture elsewhere the sections Art in the articles EGYPT, CHINA, JAPAN.

[Sidenote: Medieval]

For medieval sculpture, almost entirely an adjunct to architecture and particularly ecclesiastical architecture, see, besides the treatment in the historical part of the article SCULPTURE (pp. 490–496), the articles ARCHITECTURE and EFFIGIES, MONUMENTAL, comparing with the latter the article BRASSES, MONUMENTAL (with 13 illustrations).

[Sidenote: Renaissance]

The close of the medieval period and the beginning of the more individualistic Renaissance are marked by the occurrence of the names of great individual artists, whose biographies are the best summary of the sculpture of the period.

See on Italy: the articles NICCOLA PISANO (Vol. 20, p. 648); VITTORE PISANO (Vol. 20, p. 649); ANDREA PISANO (Vol. 20, p. 647) and the article immediately following on his son, GIOVANNI PISANO; each of these four with an illustration; VITTORE PISANO or Pisanello; AGOSTINO and AGNOLO DA SIENA (Vol. 1, p. 381); ORCAGNA, “the last great master of the Gothic period,” by J. H. Middleton; DELLA QUERCIA, who “heralds ... the boldest and most original achievements of two generations hence,” by E. T. Strange, assistant keeper, South Kensington; GHIBERTI, “the first of the great sculptors of the Renaissance”; DONATELLO, by P. G Konody; MICHELOZZO; DELLA ROBBIA family (with 3 illustrations), by J. H. Middleton and William Burton, author of English Stoneware and Earthenware; LEONARDO, by Sir Sidney Colvin; VERROCCHIO, by J. H. Middleton; LEOPARDO; POLLAIUOLO; MICHELANGELO, by Sir Sidney Colvin; BANDINELLI; AMMANATI; and in the 16th century period of decline GIOVANNI DA BOLOGNA, LOMBARDO family, CELLINI, by W. M. Rossetti and E. Alfred Jones, author of Old English Gold Plate, etc.

On the Renaissance in France: JEAN GOUJON, SARRAZIN.

—In Germany: VEIT STOSS, ADAM KRAFFT, the VISCHERS.

—In England: the Italian TORRIGIANO.

—In Spain: ALONZO CANO, MONTAÑES, PEDRO DE MENA, ZARCILLO.

[Sidenote: 17th and 18th Century]

Some of the names just mentioned are those of 17th century artists. But the rococo character of the period is best seen in Italy: see the articles BERNINI, ALGARDI, and, for France, GIRARDON and PUGET. With the 18th century came a classical revival for which the great names are CANOVA and THORWALDSEN: see the articles on these sculptors, that on Canova being by W. M. Rossetti. See also the articles on Thorwaldsen’s followers, SERGEL, BYSTRÖM and FOGELBERG. The more important articles on French sculpture in this period are PIGALLE and HOUDON, the latter known to Americans by his portraits of our Revolutionary worthies. For English sculpture in the 17th and 18th centuries see: NICHOLAS STONE, ROUBILIAC, by M. H. Spielmann, SCHEEMAKERS, NOLLEKENS, JOHN BACON, and, possibly most important, JOHN FLAXMAN, by Sir Sidney Colvin. For Germany: ANDREAS SCHLÜTER.

[Sidenote: 19th Century and Modern Schools]

On the 19th century in Germany see the articles: SCHADOW, RAUCH, RIETSCHEL, DANNECKER, SCHWANTHALER, and marking a sharp reaction, REINHOLD BEGAS, and the younger men, known also as painters, FRANZ STUCK and MAX KLINGER.

On modern British sculpture see the articles: JOHN GIBSON, E. H. BAILY, THOMAS BANKS, SIR RICHARD WESTMACOTT, and ALFRED STEVENS; and, for the last thirty years, JULES DALOU, LORD LEIGHTON, better known as a painter, E. ONSLOW FORD and ALFRED GILBERT, the most influential and important factors in the awakening, and THOMAS WOOLNER, MAROCHETTI, SIR EDWIN LANDSEER, SIR J. E. BOEHM, J. H. FOLEY, H. H. ARMSTEAD, THOMAS BROCK, W. HAMO THORNYCROFT, JOHN M. SWAN, HARRY BATES, G. F. WATTS. Scores of others are criticized and their work summarized on pp. 501–508 in the article SCULPTURE.

[Sidenote: France]

The 19th century in France opened with a pseudo-Roman school, and among the names of this period are PRADIER, RUDE, P. J. DAVID, ETEX, and CARPEAUX and BARYE, by Henri Frantz, who mark a transition. For the more modern period see GUILLAUME, DUBOIS, FALGUIÈRE, MERCIÉ, FRÉMIET, GUSTAVE CRAUCK, DALOU, RODIN.

[Sidenote: Other European Countries]

In addition to the discussion of modern Belgian sculptors in the section on Belgium of the article SCULPTURE there are separate articles on PAUL DE VIGNE, VAN DER STAPPEN, JEF LAMBEAUX, JULIEN DILLENS, and CONSTANTIN MEUNIER. For Italian sculpture in the 19th century see BARTOLINI, and the summary in the article SCULPTURE (Vol. 24, p. 513). Separate articles on Spanish sculptors are JOSE ALVAREZ and MANUEL ALVAREZ.

[Sidenote: American Sculpture]

In the United States there was little sculpture of native origin, and virtually none of the slightest merit, before the 19th century. The following list of articles in rough chronological order will supplement the outline in the article SCULPTURE (Vol. 24, p. 516): HORATIO GREENOUGH, HIRAM POWERS, THOMAS CRAWFORD, HENRY KIRKE BROWN, WILLIAM RIMMER, E. D. PALMER, THOMAS BALL, L. W. VOLK, HARRIET G. HOSMER, J. Q. A. WARD, LAUNT THOMPSON, LARKIN G. MEAD, G. E. BISSELL, OLIN L. WARNER, W. R. O’DONOVAN, JONATHAN S. HARTLEY, AUGUSTUS SAINT-GAUDENS, D. C. FRENCH, J. J. BOYLE, C. H. NIEHAUS, LORADO TAFT, W. O. PARTRIDGE, CYRUS E. DALLIN, A. P. PROCTOR, CHARLES GRAFLY, F. W. MACMONNIES, GEORGE GRAY BARNARD, P. W. BARTLETT, HERMON A. MACNEIL, KARL BITTER, BORGLUM.

[Sidenote: Summary]

This chapter, and the one before, outline courses on these arts in the Britannica, but there are many articles on these topics to which no reference has been made in these pages. It may, therefore, be interesting to the student of these forms of art to have before him a list, fairly complete, of articles in the Britannica dealing with painting and sculpture. The following is such a list in alphabetical arrangement. The student should remember that the absence from the list—or from any similar list in the Guide—of a topic on which he wishes information does not mean that there is no information on the subject in the Britannica, but merely that there may be no separate article on the subject. In such cases let him turn to the general index (Vol. 29).

LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL ARTICLES DEALING WITH THE FINE ARTS

Abati, N. Abbey, E. A. Abildgaard, N. A. Achenbach, Andreas Acroliths Adam, L. S. Adams, Herbert Aertszen, Pieter Aetion Agasias Agatharchus Ageladas Agesander Agoracritus Agostino and Agnolo da Siena Agricola, C. L. Aikman, William Albani, Francesco Albertinelli Mariotto Alcamenes Aldegrever, Heinrich Alexander, Francis Alexander, John White Alfani, Domenico Algardi, Alessandro Allan, David Allan, Sir William Allori, Alessandro Allston, Washington Alma-Tadema, Sir L. Altdorfer, Albrecht Alto-Relievo Alvarez, Don José Alvarez, Don Manuel Amalteo, Pomponio Amman, Jost Ammanati, Bartolomeo Amsler, Samuel Andrea del Sarto Andreani, Andrea Andrieu, Bertrand Angelico, Fra Anguier, François and Michel Angussola, Sophonisba Anichini, Luigi Anna, Baldasarre Ansdell, Richard Antenor Antiphilus Antonello da Messina Apelles Apollodorus Apollonius of Tralles Appiani, Andrea Aquarelle Aquatint Archermus Aristides of Thebes Armstead, H. H. Asper, Hans Asselyn, Hans Audran (family) Bacon, John Backhuysen, Ludolf Badalocchio, Sisto Baer, William Jacob Bagnacavallo, B. Baily, E. H. Baldinucci, Filippo Baldovinetti, Alessio Ball, Thomas Bandinelli, B. Banks, Thomas Barbieri, G. F. Barbizon Barnard, G. G. Barocci, Federigo Barry, James Bartels, Hans von Bartlett, P. W. Bartolini, Lorenzo Bartolommeo di Pagholo, Fra Bartolozzi, Francesco Barye, A. L. Bassano, Jacopo da Ponte Basso-Relievo Bastien-Lepage, Jules Bates, Harry Bathycles Batoni, P. G. Baudry, P. J. A. Beard, William H. Beardsley, Aubrey V. Beaux, Cecilia Beccafumi, Domenico di Pace Becerra, Gaspar Beck, David Beckwith, J. C. Beechey, Sir William Begas, Karl Begas, Reinhold Bellini (family) Bellows, Albert F. Benlliure y Gil, José Benson, F. W. Berchem, Nicolaas Bernini, G. L. Besnard, P. A. Beverley, W. R. Bewick, Thomas Bierstadt, Albert Bissell, G. E. Bitter, K. T. F. Blackburn, Jonathan Blake, William Blakelock, R. A. Blanche, J. E. Blashfield, E. H. Bloemaert, Abraham Bloemen, J. F. van Blum, R. F. Böcklin, Arnold Boehm, Sir J. E. Boethus Bologna, Giovanni Bone, Henry Bonfigli, Benedetto Bonheur, Rosa Bonnat, L. J. F. Bordone, Paris Borglum, S. H. Borgognone, Ambrogio Bosch, Jerom Bossi, Giuseppe Botticelli, Sandro Bouchardon, Edme Boudin, François Boudin, Eugène Boughton, G. H. Bouguereau, A. W. Boulanger (family) Boulogne Boursse, Esaias Boyle, John J. Bracquemond, Felix Bradford, William Braekeleer, H. J. A. de Brangwyn, Frank Brascassat, J. R. Bredael, J. F. van Breton, Jules A. A. L. Breughel, Pieter Bridgman, F. A. Brierly, Sir O. W. Bril, Paul Briosco, Andrea Brock, Thomas Bronzino, Il Brough, Robert Brouwer, Adrian Brown, Ford Madox Brown, Henry Kirke Brown, John George Browne, Hablôt Knight Brush, G. de Forest Bry, T. (Dirk) de Bryaxis Bunbury, H. W. Bupalus and Athenis Burckhardt, Jakob Burgkmair, Hans Burne-Jones, Sir E. B. Burton, Sir F. W. Busch, Wilhelm Butadeo Byström, Johan Niklas Cabanel, Alexandre Calamis Calcar (Kalcker), de Caldecott, Randolph Callcott, Sir A. W. Callimachus Callot, Jacques Calvart, Denis Calvert (3 artists) Cambiasi, Luca Camphausen, Wilhelm Camphuysen, D. R. Campi, Guilio Camuccini, Vincenzo Canachus Canale, A. (Canaletto) Canini, G. A. Cano, Alonzo Canova, Antonio Cantarini, Simone Caracci, Lodovico, Agostino and Annibale Caran d’Ache Caravaggio, M. A. da Caravaggio, P. C. da Carducci, Bartolommeo Caricature Carolus-Duran Carpaccio, Vittorio Carpeaux, J. B. Carpi, Girolamo da Carpi, Ugo da Carstens, A. J. Cartoon Carving Cassana, Niccolo Castagno, Andrea del Castello, Bernardo Castello, G. B. Castello, Valerio Castiglione, G. B. Cattermole, George Cavallini, Pietro Cavedone, Jacopo Cazin, J. C. Cephisodotus Cesari, Giuseppe Cespedes, Pablo de Chalmers, G. P. Chambers, George Champaigne, Philippe de Chantrey, Sir F. L. Chardin, J. S. Chares Charlet, N. T. Chase, W. M. Chassériau, Theodore Chiaroscuro Chodowiecki, D. N. Chryselephantine Church, F. E. Cibber, C. G. Cicognara, Count Leopoldo Cignani, Carlo Cigoli, L. C. da Cimabue, Giovanni Cimon of Cleonae Cipriani, G. B. Civerchio, Vincenzo Clarke, T. S. Claude of Lorraine Clausen, George Clays, Paul Jean Clouet, François Clouet, Jean Clovio, G. G. Cockx, Hieronymus Coello, A. S. Cole, Thomas Cole, Timothy Cole, Vicat Colin, Alexandre Collaert, Hans Collins, William Colman, Samuel Colman, Sidney Conca, Sebastiano Conder, Charles Constable, John Constant, Benjamin Conway, Sir W. Martin Cooper, Abraham Cooper, Alexander Cooper, Samuel Cooper, Thomas Sidney Copley, John Singleton Coques (Cocx), Gonzales Corenzio, Belisario Cormon, Fernand Cornelius, P. von Corot, J. B. C. Correggio Cort, Cornelius Costa, Giovanni Costa, Lorenzo Cosway, Richard Cotman, J. S. Cottet, Charles Courbet, Gustave Courtois, Jacques and Guillaume Cousin, Jean Cousins, Samuel Coustou (family) Couture, Thomas Cox, David Cox, Kenyon Coxcie, Michael Coypel Coysevox, C. A. Cranach, Lucas Crane, Walter Crauck, Gustave Crawford, Thomas Crayer, Gaspard de Crayon Credi, Lorenzo di Cresilas Crespi, Daniele Crespi, Giovanni B. Crespi, Giuseppe M. Creswick, Thomas Critius and Nesiotes Crivelli, Carlo Crome, John Cropsey, J. F. Crowe, Sir J. A. Cruikshank, George Cuyp Dahl, Hans Dahl, J. C. Dahl, Michael Dallin, Cyrus E. Dalou, Jules Damophon Danby, Francis Daniell, Thomas Dannat, William T. Dannecker, J. H. von Daubigny, C. F. Daumier, Honoré David, Gerard David, J. L. David, Pierre Jean Davis, C. H. Davis, H. W. B. De Camp, Joseph Decamps, A. G. Degas, H. G. E. De Haas, M. F. H. De Keyser, Thomas Delacroix, F. V. E. Delaroche, H. (Paul) Delaunay, Elie Della Bella, Stefano Della Colle, Raffaellino Della Quercia, Jacopo Della Robbia De Loutherbourg, P. J. Demetrius Desiderio da Settignano Detaille, J. B. E. Dewing, T. W. De Wint, Peter Diamante, Fra Diaz, N. V. Dielmann, Frederick Diepenbeck, A. van Dies, C. A. Dietrich, C. W. E. Dillens, Julien Dipoenus and Scyllis Dobson, William Dolci, Carlo Domenichino, Zampieri Donatello Doré, L. A. Gustave Douw, Gerhard Downman, John Doyen, G. F. Doyle, Richard Drawing Drouais, J. G. Dubois, Paul Du Maurier, G. L. P. B. Dumont (family) Dumont, François Duncan, Thomas Dupré, Jules Durand, Asher Brown Dürer, Albrecht Duveneck, Frank Dyce, William Eakins, Thomas Earle, Ralph Earlom, Richard East, Alfred Eastlake, Sir C. L. Eaton, Wyatt Eckersberg, Kristoffer Edelinck, Gerard Eeckhout, G. van den Effigies, Monumental Egg, A. L. Encaustic Painting Endoeus Engleheart, George Engraving Enneking, J. J. Etching Etex, Antoine Etty, William Euphranor Euphronius Eupompus Eutychides Everdingen, Allart van Eyck, Van Faed, Thomas Faithorne, William Falcone, Aniello Falconet, E. M. Falguière, J. A. J. Fantin-Latour, I. H. T. Farinato, Paolo Feltre, Morto da Fernow, K. L. Ferrari, Gaudenzio Ferri, Ciro Feuerbach, Anselm Fielding, A. V. Copley Fildes, Sir Luke Finden, William Fiorenzo di Lorenzo Fiorillo, J. D. Fisher, Alvan Flandrin, J. Hippolyte Flaxman, John Flinck, Govert Floris, Frans Fontana, Lavinia Fontana, Prospero Fogelberg, B. E. Foley, J. H. Foppa, Vincenzo Forain, J. L. Ford, E. Onslow Forster, François Fortuny, M. J. M. B. Foster, M. Birket Foucquet, Jean Fragonard, J. H. Français, F. L. Franceschi, Piero de’ Franceschini, Baldassare Francia Franciabigio Franck Francken (family) Frèmiet, Emmanuel French, Daniel C. Frère, P. E. Fresco Fresnoy, C. A. du Frith, W. P. Fromentin, Eugène Frost, W. E. Fruytiers, Philip Führich, Joseph von Fuller, George Furniss, Harry Furse, C. W. Fuseli, Henry Fyt, Johannes Gaddi (family) Gainsborough, Thomas Gallait, Louis Gauermann, Friedrich Gaul, G. W. Gavarni Gay, Walter Geddes, Andrew Geikie, Walter Genelli, G. B. Genga, Girolamo Gentile da Fabriano Gentileschi, Artemisia and Orazio de’ Gérard, Baron F. Gérard, J. I. I. Géricault, J. L. A. T. Gérôme, Jean Léon Gervex, Henri Ghiberti, Lorenzo Ghirlandajo, Domenico Ghirlandajo, Ridolfo Gibson, C. Dana Gibson, John Gibson, W. H. Gifford, R. S. Gifford, S. R. Gilbert, Alfred Gilbert, Sir John Gillot, Claude Gillray, James Giordano, Luca Giorgione Giottino Giotto Girardon, François Girodet de Roussy, A. L. Girtin, Thomas Giulio Romano Giunta Pisano Giusto da Guanto Gleyre, M. C. G. Goes, Hugo van der Goldschmidt, Hermann Goltzius, Hendrik Gordon, Sir J. W. Gouache Goujon, Jean Gould, Sir F. C. Goya y Lucientes, F. Goyen, J. J. Van Gozzoli, Benozzo Grafly, Charles Granet, F. M. Grant, Sir Francis Gray, Henry Peters Greco, El Green, Valentine Greenaway, Kate Greenough, Horatio Gregory, Edward John Greuze, J. B. Grimaldi, G. F. Grisaille Gros, Antoine Jean Grün, Hans Baldung Grünewald, Mathias Guardi, Francesco Guariento (Guerriero) Guérin, J. B. P. Guérin, P. N. Guido of Siena Guido Reni Guillaume, J. B. C. E. Guthrie, Sir James Haag, Carl Haden, Sir F. Seymour Hals, Frans Hamerton, P. G. Hamon, Jean Louis Harding, Chester Harding, J. D. Harpignies, Henri Harrison, T. A. Hart, William Hartley, Jonathan S. Harvey, Sir George Hassam, Childe Haydon, B. R. Hayter, Sir George Head, Sir E. W. Healy, G. P. A. Heda, Willem Claasz Heem, Jan Davidsz van Heemskerk, M. J. Heim, F. J. Helst, B. van der Hemy, C. Napier Hennequin, P. A. Henner, J. J. Henry, E. L. Herkomer, Sir H. von Herlen, Fritz Herrera, Francisco Hersent, Louis Hess (family) Heusch, Willem Heyden, Jan van der Hildebrandt, Eduard Hildebrandt, Theodor Hilliard, Lawrence Hilliard, Nicholas Hilton, William Hiroshige Hitchcock, George Hobbema, Meyndert Hoefnagel, Joris Hogarth, William Hokusai Holbein, Hans (elder) Holbein, Hans (younger) Holl, Frank Hollar, Wenzel Holroyd, Sir Charles Homer, Winslow Hondecoeter, M. d’ Hone, Nathaniel Honthorst, Gerard van Hooch, Pieter de Hoogstraten, S. D. van Hook, James Clarke Hoppner, John Horsley, J. C. Hoskins, John Hosmer, Harriet G. Hotho, Heinrich G. Houbraken, Jacobus Houdon, J. A. Hovenden, Thomas Huchtenburg (family) Humphry, Ozias Hunt, Alfred William Hunt, William Henry Hunt, William Holman Hunt, William Morris Huntington, Daniel Hurlstone, F. Y. Huysmans (family) Huysum, Jan van Illuminated MSS. Illustration Impressionism Ingham, C. C. Ingres, J. A. D. Inman, Henry Inness, George Isabey, Jean Baptiste Israëls, Josef Ivory Jackson, Mason Jameson, George Janssen, Cornelius Janssens, V. H. Janssens van Nuyssen, Abraham Jarvis, J. W. Joanes, Vicente Johnson, Eastman Jordaens, Jacob Jouvenet, Jean Kalckreuth, Leopold von Kauffmann, Angelica Kaulbach, Wilhelm von Kay, John Keene, C. S. Keller, Albert Kensett, J. F. Khnopff, F. E. J. M. Klinger, Max Kneller, Sir Godfrey Knight, D. R. Knight, John Buxton Koninck, Philip de Korin, Ogata Krafft, Adam Kyosai, Sho-fu Laer, Pieter van La Farge, John Lafosse, Charles de Lagrenée, L. J. F. Lahire, Laurent de Lambeaux, Jef Lancret, Nicolas Landon, C. P. Landseer, Sir E. H. Lantara, S. M. Lanzi, Luigi Largillière, Nicolas Lathrop, Francis La Tour, Quentin de Lavery, John Lawrence, Sir Thomas Lawson, Cecil Gordon Leader, B. W. Léandre, C. L. Lear, Edward LeBrun, Charles Leech, John Legros, Alphonse Leighton, Baron Frederick Lejeune, Baron L. F. Lely, Sir Peter Lemoyne, J. B. 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Smirke, Robert Smith, Colvin Smith, John Raphael Smybert, John Snyders, Franz Sodoma, Il Solario, Antonio Sorolla y Bastida, J. Spagna, Lo Spinello, Aretino Stanfield, W. C. Stannard, Joseph Stark, James Steen, Jan Havicksz Steer, P. Wilson Stevens, Alfred Stevens, Alfred Stewart, Julius L. Stillman, W. J. Stone, Frank Stone, Marcus Stone, Nicholas Stoss, Veit Stothard, C. A. Stothard, Thomas Strang, William Strange, Sir Robert Strongylion Stuart, Gilbert Stuck, Franz Subleyras, Pierre Sully, Thomas Swan, J. M. Taft, Lorado Tait, A. F. Tanner, H. O. Tarbell, Edmund C. Tempera Teniers (family) Tenniel, Sir John Ter Borch, Gerard Terra Cotta Thayer, Abbott H. Theon of Samos Thoma, Hans Thompson, Launt Thomson, John Thornhill, Sir James Thornycroft, W. Hamo Thorwaldsen, Bertel Thrasymedes Tiepolo, G. B. Tiffany, L. C. Timanthes Timomachus Timotheus Tintoretto Tisio, Benvenuto Tissot, J. J. J. Titian Torrigiano, Pietre Triptych Troy, J. F. de Troyon, Constant Trumbull, John Tryon, D. W. 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A. von West, Benjamin Westall, Richard Westmacott, Sir R. Wheatley, Francis Whistler, J. A. McN. White, Robert Wiles, I. R. Wilkie, Sir David Willems, F. J. M. Willette, L. A. Willmore, J. T. Wilson, Richard Wohlgemuth, Michael Wolf, Joseph Woodbury, C. H. Wood Carving Wood Engraving Woollett, William Woolner, Thomas Wouwerman, Philip Wright, Joseph Wyant, A. H. Wylie, Robert Yosai Zarcillo y Alcaraz, F. Zeuxis Ziem, F. F. G. P. Zoffany, Johann Zuccarelli, Francesco Zuccaro, Taddeo Zuccaro, Federigo Zuloaga, Ignacio Zurbaran, Francisco

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XXXV. LANGUAGE AND WRITING

[Sidenote: Evolution]

One of the most interesting subjects of scientific study developed during the last century is that of primitive culture and the gradual advancement of primitive man from a state of savagery to comparative civilization. For this study there are no historical documents in the ordinary use of the words “historical” and “document.” The story must be arrived at by analysis, deduction, even by guess-work, supplementing the studies of travelers among tribes which now are in the lowest stages of development and farthest from civilization, and therefore most resemble our remotest human ancestors. Almost the very earliest of writers on evolution, the Roman poet LUCRETIUS (Vol. 17, p. 107), who died in 55 B.C., sketched general outlines of the development of this primitive civilization in much the same way as do modern ethnologists. But his description was imaginary and was fashioned to fit his and Epicurus’s evolutionary theories.

The article CIVILIZATION (Vol. 6, p. 403) in the Britannica makes the development of speech the mark of the first period when mankind was in the lower stages of savagery. “Our ancestors of this epoch inhabited a necessarily restricted tropical territory and subsisted upon raw nuts and fruit.” The next higher period in the progress of civilization began with the knowledge of the use of fire (p. 404).

This wonderful discovery enabled the developing race to extend its habitat almost indefinitely, and to include flesh, and in particular fish, in its regular dietary. Man could now leave the forests and wander along the shores and rivers, migrating to climates less enervating than those to which he had previously been confined. Doubtless he became an expert fisher, but he was as yet poorly equipped for hunting.... Primitive races of Australia and Polynesia had not advanced beyond this middle status of savagery when they were discovered a few generations ago.

The next great ethnical discovery was that of the bow and arrow, a truly wonderful instrument.

The possessor of this device could bring down the fleetest animal and could defend himself against the most predatory. He could provide himself not only with food, but with materials for clothing and for tent-making, and thus could migrate at will back from the seas and large rivers.... The meat diet, now for the first time freely available, probably contributed, along with the stimulating climate, to increase the physical vigour and courage of this highest savage, thus urging him along the paths of progress. Nevertheless, many tribes came thus far, and no further, as witness the Athapascans of the Hudson’s Bay Territory and the Indians of the valley of the Columbia.

After the use of fire and the discovery of the bow and arrow came the invention of pottery, the domestication of animals, and the smelting of iron, all successive stages in man’s history which “in their relation to the sum of human progress, transcend in relative importance all his subsequent works,”—and this is even truer if there is included in this period the development of a system of writing, which may be reckoned either the end of the primitive period or the beginning of the period of civilization proper. These two great steps in the story of civilization, language and writing, are closely connected in our minds, though so far separated in time of origin; and their story as told in the Britannica by the world’s greatest authorities, English, American, German, French, Italian, Danish, etc., is an interesting one for the general reader, while the articles are invaluable to the specialist in linguistic study.

[Sidenote: Philology]

The starting point for a course of reading is the article PHILOLOGY (Vol. 21, p. 414; equivalent to 80 pages in this Guide), of which the first part, a general treatment, is by the greatest of American philologists, William Dwight Whitney, editor-in-chief of The Century Dictionary, and author of Life and Growth of Language, one of the most important scientific contributions to the subject. The second part, on the comparative philology of the Indo-European languages, is by Prof. Eduard Sievers of Leipzig and Prof. Peter Giles of Cambridge. Both these names are well known to students of the subject, the former as that of the author of numerous valuable works on Germanic phonetics and metric, and the latter as a writer on Greek language and as the author of A Short Manual of Comparative Philology.

The article begins with a definition of “philology,” the science of language, and of “comparative philology,” the comparison of one language with another, in order to bring out their relationships, their structures, and their histories. Prof. Whitney shows how much the recent development of linguistic science owes to the general scientific movement of the age. “No one,” he says, “however ingenious and entertaining his speculations, will cast any real light on the earliest history of speech.” But he notes the obvious analogy between speech and writing, and he puts stress on the “sociality” of man as the prime factor in his development of speech. Other topics in this part of the article are:

Instrumentalities of expression—gesture, grimace, and voice; “language” means “tonguiness”—a mute would call it “handiness”; advantages of voice over gesture.

Imitation as a factor in development of language and of writing; onomatopoetic origin of words.

Development of sign-making: “Among the animals of highest intelligence that associate with man and learn something of his ways, a certain amount of sign-making expressly for communication is not to be denied; the dog that barks at a door because he knows that somebody will come and let him in is an instance of it; perhaps, in wild life, the throwing out of sentinel birds from a flock, whose warning cry shall advertise their fellows of the threat of danger, is as near an approach to it as is anywhere made.”

Brute speech and human speech: “Those who put forward language as the distinction between man and the lower animals, and those who look upon our language as the same in kind with the means of communication of the lower animals, only much more complete and perfect, fail alike to comprehend the true nature of language, and are alike wrong in their arguments and conclusions. No addition to or multiplication of brute speech would make anything like human speech; the two are separated by a step which no animal below man has ever taken; and, on the other hand, language is only the most conspicuous among those institutions the development of which has constituted human progress.”

Language and culture: “Differences of language, down to the possession of language at all, are differences only in respect to education and culture.”

Development of language signs: the beginning slow, acceleration cumulative.

The root-stage: first signs must have been “integral, significant in their entirety, not divisible into parts.”

Earliest phonetic forms: the simplest syllabic combination a single consonant with a following vowel. See the article HAWAII (Vol. 13, p. 88) for a similar language even now in existence: “Every syllable is open, ending in a vowel sound, and short sentences may be constructed wholly of vocalic sounds.”

Character of early speech: “first language-signs must have denoted those physical acts and qualities which are directly apprehensible by the senses.... We are still all the time drawing figurative comparisons between material and moral things and processes, and calling the latter by the names of the former.”

Development of language as illustrated in Indo-European speech.

Laws of growth and change: internal growth by multiplication of meanings; phonetic change—the principle of economy (euphony); borrowing and mixing of vocabularies.

Classification of languages by structural types: isolating (Chinese); agglutinative (Turkish, etc.); inflective (Indo-European); or—a more elaborate classification:

[Sidenote: Indo-European Languages]

Indo-European: on which see part II of the article PHILOLOGY and the article INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES (Vol. 14, p. 495; equivalent to 20 pages of this Guide), by Prof. Peter Giles,—especially interesting for the attempt on a linguistic basis to reconstruct the original civilization and to discover the home of the ancestors of this language-stock which now occupies nearly all of Europe and is so intimately connected with the civilization of the last 2500 years. See:

GREEK LANGUAGE (Vol. 12, p. 496), by Professor Giles, and articles HOMER (Vol. 13, p. 626); DORIANS (Vol. 8, p. 423), etc.; but the main treatment of different Greek dialects is in the article GREEK LANGUAGE (Vol. 12, p. 496), to which the student should refer for Arcadian and Cyprian, Aeolic, Ionic-Attic, and Doric dialects.

LATIN LANGUAGE (Vol. 16, p. 244), by Dr. A. S. Wilkins, late professor of Latin, Owens College, Manchester, and Dr. Robert S. Conway, professor of Latin, University of Manchester, with a peculiarly valuable summary of The Language as Recorded, which is a linguistic critique of the style and vocabulary of the great Roman authors and a comparison (p. 253) of Latin and Greek prose. And see the articles on the dialects of ancient Italy: ITALY, Ancient Languages and People; ETRURIA, Language; LIGURIA, Philology; SICULI; POMPEII, Oscan Inscriptions; SABINI; FALISCI; VOLSCI; OSCA LINGUA; IGUVIUM; BRUTII; UMBRIA; PICENUM; SAMNITES, etc., by Prof. Conway, which will serve the student as a foundation for this subject, with more recent revision of all that is known than there is in Prof. Conway’s books, in the works of C. D. Buck, or in other authorities.

[Sidenote: Romance Languages]

For the descendants of Latin, the article ROMANCE LANGUAGES (Vol. 23, p. 504), by Dr. Wilhelm Meyer-Lübke, Professor of romance philology in the University of Vienna; and the following separate articles:

ITALIAN LANGUAGE (Vol. 14, p. 888), by Graziadio I. Ascoli, professor of comparative grammar at the University of Milan, and Carlo Salvioni, professor of Romance languages in the same university, with a valuable summary of the dialects of modern Italy.

FRENCH LANGUAGE (Vol. 11, p. 103), by Henry Nicol and Paul Meyer, professor at the Collège de France; particularly interesting because treated comparatively with constant reference to English and French influence on English.

PROVENÇAL LANGUAGES (Vol. 22, p. 491), by Prof. Paul Meyer.

SPAIN: Language (Vol. 25, p. 573), by Alfred Morel-Fatio, professor of Romance languages at the Collège de France, and James Fitzmaurice-Kelly, professor of Spanish, Liverpool University; describing the Catalan as well as the Castilian and the Portuguese.

RUMANIA: Language (Vol. 23, p. 843).

[Sidenote: Teutonic Languages]

The general articles SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES (Vol. 24, p. 291), by Dr. Adolf Noreen, professor in the University of Upsala, with sections on Icelandic, Norwegian or Norse, Swedish, and Danish, and the Scandinavian dialects; and TEUTONIC LANGUAGES (Vol. 26, p. 673), by Hector Munro Chadwick, Librarian of Clare College, Cambridge.

More in detail on the Teutonic languages are the articles:

ENGLISH LANGUAGE (Vol. 9, pp. 587–600; equivalent to 45 pages of this Guide), by Sir James A. H. Murray, editor-in-chief of the (Oxford) New English Dictionary, and Miss Hilda Mary R. Murray, lecturer on English at the Royal Holloway College.

DUTCH LANGUAGE (Vol. 8, p. 717), by Prof. Johann Hendrik Gallée of the University of Utrecht.

GERMAN LANGUAGE (Vol. 11, p. 777), Dr. Robert Priebsch, professor of German philology, University of London, which deals with modern and ancient, new, middle, and old, high and low German.

For Indo-Iranian languages, see:

[Sidenote: Persia and India]

PERSIA: Language and Literature (Vol. 21, p. 246), by Dr. Hermann Ethé, professor of Oriental languages, University College, Wales, dealing with Zend, and Old, Middle and New Persian and modern dialects of Persian.

INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES (Vol. 14, p. 487), by George Abraham Grierson, formerly in charge of the Linguistic survey of India, who treats in this article the relations of Pisaca, Prakrit and Sanskrit, and contributes the separate articles PISACA LANGUAGES, PRAKRIT, BENGALI, BIHARI, GUJARATI AND RAJASTHANI, HINDOSTANI, KASHMIRI, and MARATHI. More important than these minor dialects are SANSKRIT LANGUAGE (Vol. 24, p. 156), by Dr. Julius Eggeling, professor of Sanskrit, Edinburgh University,—an article equivalent in length to 90 pages of this Guide; and PALI (Vol. 20, p. 630), by Prof. T. W. Rhys Davids of Manchester University, president of the Pali Text Society.

ARMENIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE (Vol. 2, p. 571), by Dr. F. C. Conybeare, author of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle, etc.

LITHUANIANS AND LETTS, Language and Literature (Vol. 16, p. 790); SLAVS: Language (Vol. 25, p. 233), by Ellis Hovell Minns, Lecturer in palaeography, Cambridge, with a table of alphabets; and supplementary information in the articles RUSSIA, BULGARIA, SERVIA, POLAND, BOHEMIA, CROATIA-SLAVONIA, SLOVAKS, SLOVENES, SORBS, KASHUBES, POLABS.

ALBANIA, LANGUAGE (Vol. 1, p. 485), by J. D. Bourchier, correspondent of The Times (London) in South-eastern Europe.

[Sidenote: Semitic]

The material on the Semitic group is principally in the article SEMITIC LANGUAGES (Vol. 24, p. 617), by Theodor Nöldeke, late professor of Oriental languages at Strassburg. This article deals with:

Assyrian—see also CUNEIFORM (Vol. 7, p. 629);

Hebrew—see also HEBREW LANGUAGE (Vol. 13, p. 167), by Arthur Ernest Cowley, sub-librarian of the Bodleian, Oxford;

Phoenician—see also PHOENICIA (Vol. 21, p. 449), by the Rev. Dr. George Albert Cook, author of Text Book of North-Semitic Inscriptions, etc.;

Aramaic—and see the separate article ARAMAIC LANGUAGES (Vol. 2, p. 317);

Arabic, Sabaean, Mahri and Socotri, Ethiopic, Tigre and Tigrina, Amharic, Harari and Gurague.

And see the article SYRIAC LANGUAGE (Vol. 26, p. 309), by Norman McLean, lecturer in Aramaic, Cambridge.

[Sidenote: Hamitic]

The article HAMITIC LANGUAGES (Vol. 12, p. 893) is by Dr. W. Max Müller, professor in the Reformed Episcopal Seminary, Philadelphia. See also the article EGYPT, Language and Writing (Vol. 9, p. 57), by Dr. Francis Llewelyn Griffith, reader in Egyptology, Oxford; and the articles: ETHIOPIA (Vol. 9, p. 845), by Dr. D. S. Margoliouth, professor of Arabic, Oxford; BERBER, Language (Vol. 3, p. 766) and KABYLES (Vol. 15, p. 625) for the Libyan group of the Hamitic languages.

[Sidenote: Other Tongues]

On the mono-syllabic languages see CHINA, Language (Vol. 6, p. 216), by Dr. H. A. Giles, professor of Chinese, Cambridge, and Lionel Giles, assistant Oriental Department, British Museum;

JAPAN, Language (Vol. 15, p. 167), by Captain Frank Brinkley, late editor of the Japan Mail; and

TIBETO-BURMAN LANGUAGES (Vol. 26, p. 928), by Dr. Sten Konow, professor in the University of Christiania.

The article URAL-ALTAIC (Vol. 27, p. 784), by Dr. Augustus Henry Keane, late professor of Hindustani, University College, London, gives a general account of the relationship of Turkish, Finno-Ugrian, Mongol and Manchu; and is supplemented by the articles TURKS, Language (Vol. 27, p. 472), by Sir Charles Eliot, vice-chancellor of Sheffield University; FINNO-UGRIAN (Vol. 10, p. 388), on language of Finns, Lapps and Samoyedes, HUNGARY Language (Vol. 13, p. 924), on Magyar, both by Sir Charles Eliot; and MONGOLS, Language (Vol. 18, p. 719), by Dr. Bernhard Jülg, late professor at Innsbruck.

On the non-Aryan languages of Southern Africa see the article TAMILS (Vol. 26, p. 388), by Dr. Reinhold Rost, late secretary of the Royal Asiatic Society.

For languages of Malay-Polynesia and other Oceanic peoples see MALAYS, Language (Vol. 17, p. 477), by Sir Hugh Charles Clifford, colonial secretary of Ceylon, and joint-author of A Dictionary of the Malay Language; and the articles POLYNESIA, SAMOA, JAVA, HAWAII, etc.

On the Caucasian language see GEORGIA (Vol. 11, p. 758) and CAUCASIA (Vol. 5, p. 546).

On other European languages see BASQUES (Vol. 3, p. 485), by the late Rev. Wentworth Webster, author of Basque Legends, and Julien Vinson, author of LE BASQUE ET LES LANGUES MEXICAINES; and for the Etruscan language ETRURIA (Vol. 9, p. 854), by Professor R. S. Conway.

On African languages see BANTU LANGUAGES (Vol. 3, p. 356), by Sir H. H. Johnston; BUSHMEN (Vol. 41, p. 871) and HOTTENTOTS (Vol. 13, p. 805); and, for the intermediate group, the article HAUSA (Vol. 13, p. 69).

On the languages of the North American Indians see the article INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN (especially p. 457 of Vol. 14), by Dr. A. F. Chamberlain, professor of anthropology, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts.

[Sidenote: Alphabet]

This list of articles will serve the student as a guide for the purely linguistic articles. Besides the general treatment in the article PHILOLOGY from which we started, he should read articles on such general subjects as PHONETICS (Vol. 21, p. 458), by Dr. Henry Sweet, author of A Primer of Phonetics, A History of English Sounds since the Earliest Period, etc. This leads to a study of the article ALPHABET (Vol. 1, p. 723), equivalent to 30 pages of this Guide, written by Professor Peter Giles of Cambridge and illustrated with a plate and various fac-similes of early alphabets. This article is supplemented by Professor Giles’s articles on all the letters of the alphabet, which deal with the history and form of the symbol, the character of the sound it stands for and, particularly, the development and change of the sound in English and its dialects. For instance the article on the letter N describes four different sounds, of which there are two in English—usually distinguished as n and ng; explains that in the early Indo-European language some n’s and m’s could sometimes be pronounced as vowels; describes the opposite process, the nasalization of vowels, especially in French; and closes by saying: “It is possible to nasalize some consonants as well as vowels; nasalized spirants play an important part in the so-called Yankee pronunciation of Americans.”

[Sidenote: Artificial Languages]

From alphabets the student may well turn to ideal languages in the article UNIVERSAL LANGUAGES (Vol. 27, p. 746), by Professor Henry Sweet, which criticizes Volapük and Esperanto and the Idiom Neutral as being unscientific, not really international—even from a European point of view, and still less when one considers the growing importance of Japan and China in world-trade and world-history. Their being based on national languages Dr. Sweet thinks is a disadvantage. But in their comparative success he sees proof that a universal language is possible. See also Prof. Sweet’s separate articles VOLAPÜK (Vol. 28, p. 178) and ESPERANTO (Vol. 9, p. 773).

[Sidenote: Writing]

The article WRITING (Vol. 28, p. 852) deals, chiefly from the anthropological standpoint, with primitive attempts to record ideas in an intelligible form, for example with “knot-signs,” “message-sticks,” picture-writing and the like. The needs, which led to the invention of these primitive forms of writing, were: mnemonic, recalling that something is to be done at a certain time—the primitive “tickler” was a knotted string or thong, like our knotted handkerchief as a reminder, and these knot-strings were finally used for elementary accountings, commercial or chronological, like the use of the abacus in little shops, or of the similar system in scoring games of pool; to communicate with some one at a distance, for which marked or notched sticks, engraved or coloured pebbles, wampum belts, etc., were used; and, third, to distinguish one’s own property or handicraft whence cattle-brands, trade-marks, etc. In Assyria, Egypt and China picture-writing developed into conventional signs: on these see EGYPT (Vol. 9, p. 60), and CHINA (Vol. 6, p. 218). All of these are of great interest to the general reader, but the article CUNEIFORM (Vol. 7, p. 629) by Dr. R. W. Rogers, professor of Hebrew and Old Testament exegesis, Drew Theological Seminary, Madison, New Jersey, has the sort of entertainment in it that there is in a good detective story, since it tells how the meaning of the mysterious wedge-shaped inscriptions on the rocks at Mount Rachmet in Persia was discovered.

The subject of writing is treated, also, in the articles:

INSCRIPTIONS (Vol. 14, p. 618); Semitic, aside from the Cuneiform, by Arthur Ernest Cowley, sub-librarian of the Bodleian, Oxford; Indian inscriptions, by John Faithfull Fleet, author of Inscriptions of the Early Gupta Kings, etc.; Greek, by Edward Lee Hicks, Bishop of Lincoln, author of Manual of Greek Historical Inscriptions, etc., and George Francis Hill, author of Sources for Greek History, etc.; and Latin, by Emil Hübner, late professor of classical philology at Berlin, author of Romische Epigraphik, etc., and Dr. W. M. Lindsay, of the University of St. Andrews, author of The Latin Language, etc.

PALAEOGRAPHY (Vol. 20, p. 556), equivalent to 75 pages of this Guide, by Sir Edward Maunde Thompson, late librarian of the British Museum and author of Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography, etc. The article is illustrated with 50 fac-similes of typical handwritings.

MANUSCRIPT (Vol. 17, p. 618), equivalent to 20 pages of this Guide, by the same author, with a description of the various forms of manuscripts, of the mechanical arrangement of writing in MSS., and of writing implements and inks. See, also, ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS, PAPYRUS, PAPER and other articles mentioned in the chapter in this Guide For Printers.

[Sidenote: Text Criticism]

The student of language and literature and of writing will also find much valuable information in the article TEXTUAL CRITICISM (Vol. 26, p. 708), equivalent to 25 pages of this Guide, by Professor J. P. Postgate of the University of Liverpool, well-known to Latinists as the brilliant editor of Tibullus and Propertius. The article gives examples of the classes of errors occurring in texts and the methods of restoring true readings—largely of course by conjecture—and illustrates such errors and their correction by the very poorly printed first editions of the English poet Shelley.

In the study of language and writing as in courses on other sciences and arts, the reader will find an additional interest in supplementing general and abstract articles by biographical sketches of the great men in the science.

The following is a partial list of the articles in the Britannica on great philologists:

Aasen, Ivar Adelung, J. C. Ahrens, F. H. L. Ascoli, G. I. Baehr, J. C. F. Baiter, J. G. Bake, Jan Barth, Kaspar von Benfey, Theodor Bennett, Charles E. Bentley, Richard Bernhardy, Gottfried Bhau Daji Blass, Friedrich Bleek, W. H. I. Bloomfield, Maurice Böhtlingk, Otto von Bopp, Franz Bosworth, Joseph Bréal, M. J. A. Brown, Francis Bücheler, Franz Buck, C. D. Bugge, Sophus Burmann Burnell, A. C. Burnouf, Eugène Buttmann, Philipp Karl Carey, William Casaubon Caspari, K. P. Castell, Edmund Castiglione, Count Castrén, M. A. Childers, R. C. Cleynaerts, Nicolas Cobet, C. G. Conington, John Cook, A. S. Corssen, W. P. Cotgrave, Randle Creuzer, G. F. Csoma de Körös, A. Darmesteter, J. Delius, N. Diez, F. C. Döbrowsky, J. Döderlein, J. C. W. L. Donaldson, J. W. Drisler, Henry Dunash Ebel, H. W. Egger, Emile Elias, Levita Ellis, A. J. Ellis, Robinson Erasmus Erpenius, Thomas Ettmüller, E. M. L. Facciolati, J. Fairuzabadi Fleckeisen, C. F. W. A. Fleischer, Heinrich L. Flügel, G. L. Flügel, J. G. Forcellini, Egidio Freund, Wilhelm Freytag, G. W. F. Furnivall, F. J. Fürst, Julius Gabelentz, H. C. von der Gaisford, Thomas Gayangos y Arce, P. de Gildersleeve, B. L. Goeje, M. J. de Goldstücker, T. Goldziher, Ignaz Golius, Jacobus Goodwin, W. W. Greenough, J. B. Grimm, J. L. C. Grimm, W. C. Gudeman, Alfred Gutschmid, Baron von Hadley, James Hagen, F. H. von der Haldeman, S. S. Hale, W. G. Halhed, N. B. Hall, Fitzedward Hall, Isaac Hollister Hasden, B. P. Haug, Martin Haupt, Moritz Henry, Victor Herbelot de Molainville, B. d’ Hervás y Panduro, L. Hoffmann, J. J. Hopkins, E. W. Hottinger, J. H. Hübner, Emil Humboldt, K. W. von Ingram, James Jauhari Jawaliqi Jirecek, Josef Jonah, Rabbi Jones, Sir William Karajich, V. S. Kern, J. H. Khalil ibn Ahmad, Kimbi (family) Klaproth, H. J. Kuhn, F. F. A. Lachmann, Karl Lanman, C. R. Lassen, Christian Legge, James Leitner, G. W. Liddell, H. G. Littré, M. P. E. Ludolf, Hiob Madvig, J. N. Malan, S. C. March, F. A. Max Müller, F. Mayor, J. E. B. Ménant, Joachim Meyer, P. H. Mezzofanti, Giuseppe C. Miklosich, Franz von Mohl, Julius von Monier-Williams, Sir M. Morris, Richard Munro, D. B. Murray, Sir James Nettleship, Henry Nöldeke, Theodor Oppert, Julius Paley, F. A. Paris, B. P. G. Peerlkamp, P. H. Peile, John Petrarch Poggio Politian Porson, Richard Pott, A. F. Quatremère, E. M. Rask, R. C. Reiske, J. J. Reland, Adrian Rémusat, J. P. A. Ribbeck, Otto Rieu, C. P. H. Ritsche, F. W. Rutherford, W. G. Sale, George Salesbury, William Sanders, Daniel Sayce, A. H. Schafarik, P. J. Scheler, J. A. W. Schiefner, F. A. Schleicher, August Schultens (family) Scott, Robert Sellar, W. Y. Skeat, W. W. Taylor, Isaac Ten Brink, B. E. K. Teuffel, W. S. Thorpe, Benjamin Wailly, N. F. de Walker, John Warren, Minton Webster, Noah Whitney, W. D. Wilkins, Sir Charles Wordsworth, Christopher Zarncke, F. K. T.

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XXXVI. LITERATURE, INTRODUCTORY AND GENERAL

[Sidenote: Contributors]

The student of literature, like the student of painting, finds it as necessary to examine the great examples of the art as to study the laws which guide the artist, for the history of their development, and he will find that the articles which discuss literature in the Britannica are themselves literature, models of the form of artistic expression which they describe. A list of these contributors who deal with literary topics might, indeed, easily be mistaken for a list of such articles on the great contemporary writers as the student would most desire to read. Among these contributors are, for example: Edmund Gosse, Theodore Watts-Dunton, Swinburne, A. C. Benson, John Morley, Austin Dobson, Arthur Symons, J. Addington Symonds, Frederic Harrison, Walter Besant, William Sharp (“Fiona Macleod”), Professor George Saintsbury, Sir Arthur T. Quiller-Couch (“Q”), William Archer, Israel Gollancz, Robert Louis Stevenson, Andrew Lang, Sir Leslie Stephen, E. V. Lucas, Arthur Waugh, Mrs. Craigie (“John Oliver Hobbes”), Alice Meynell, Mrs. Humphry Ward, and—among American names,—George E. Woodberry, Henry Van Dyke, Edward Everett Hale, T. W. Higginson, Brander Matthews, W. P. Trent, Charles Eliot Norton, Charles William Eliot, George W. Cable, Lyman Abbott, Edmund Clarence Stedman, John Burroughs, Thomas Davidson, Horace E. Scudder, and Charles F. Richardson.

Before discussing the articles in which these and many other distinguished contributors deal with various aspects of literature, attention may be directed to the treatment of religious literature in the Britannica. The Bible is the subject of a separate chapter in this Guide on Bible Study, to which the reader is also referred for the whole literature of Biblical criticism. Religious literature based upon the Bible is discussed in the articles LITURGY (Vol. 16, p. 795), by the Rev. F. E. Warren; SERMON (Vol. 24, p. 673), by Edmund Gosse, and HYMNS (Vol. 14, p. 181), by Lord Selborne, equivalent to 35 pages of this Guide. The medieval miracle plays and mysteries, presenting incidents from Scripture, are described in the section on the Medieval Drama (Vol. 8, p. 497) of the article DRAMA. On the literature of other religions, see the chapter For Ministers.

[Sidenote: General Articles]

The student of literature in general may begin his course of reading with the article LITERATURE (Vol. 16, p. 783), a concise critical summary by Dr. James Fitzmaurice-Kelly, professor of Spanish language and literature, Liverpool University, best known as the editor of Cervantes. Read, after the article LITERATURE, the same contributor’s article TRANSLATION (Vol. 27, p. 183). The student who does not wish to approach literature from the philosophic side need not read the articles AESTHETICS and FINE ARTS; but even such a one should read the article STYLE (Vol. 25, p. 1055), by Edmund Gosse, essayist, poet, biographer and librarian of the House of Lords, and the article PROSE (Vol. 22, p. 450), by the same contributor.

There is a well-known and perfectly authentic anecdote of Edmund Gosse’s predecessor as librarian of the House of Lords, who was once asked in the course of a newspaper symposium on education, “What were the principal factors in your education?” He replied by putting second only to his university training “the articles in the Encyclopaedia Britannica and in the Athenaeum by Theodore Watts-Dunton.” Certainly the student will be well repaid by repeated study and analysis of Watts-Dunton’s article POETRY (Vol. 21, p. 877; equivalent to 45 pages of this Guide). The same author’s articles SONNET (Vol. 25, p. 414), MATTHEW ARNOLD (Vol. 2, p. 635), and WYCHERLEY (Vol. 28, p. 863) should be studied with the article POETRY as supplementing his literary philosophy.

The greatest of literary forms is amply represented by the space and the authority given to it in the Britannica. The article DRAMA (Vol. 8, p. 475; equivalent to 225 pages of this Guide) is mainly the work of Prof. A. W. Ward, master of Peterhouse, Cambridge, editor of the Cambridge History of English Literature and of the Cambridge Modern History; but some parts of the article are by William Archer, the dramatic critic, and by Auguste Filon (“Pierre Sandrié”). This elaborate article should be supplemented by the short article COMEDY (Vol. 6, p. 759) and by the biographical and critical sketches of the great dramatists.

Among the many other articles in the Britannica on the forms of literature are: SATIRE (Vol. 24, p. 228), by Richard Garnett, late librarian British Museum, with which the student may well combine the articles HUMOUR and IRONY, the articles BALLADE, BALLADS (Lang), BUCOLICS, PASTORAL, CENTO, CHANT ROYAL (with Gosse’s first English chant royal, “The Praise of Dionysus,” transcribed in full), DESCRIPTIVE POETRY, ELEGY, EPIC POETRY, EPITHALAMIUM, HEROIC VERSE, IDYL, LIMERICK, LYRICAL POETRY, MACARONICS, NATIONAL ANTHEMS, ODE, OTTAVA RIMA, PANTUN, RIME ROYAL, RONDEAU, RONDEL, SESTETT, SESTINA, SONG, TRIOLET, VERS DE SOCIÉTÉ, VILANELLE, VIRELAY, and—a few of the prose forms, BIOGRAPHY, CONTE, CRITICISM, EPISTLE, ESSAY, EUPHUISM, NOVEL, PAMPHLET, PICARESQUE NOVEL, ROMANCE, TALE, TRACT,—nearly all these being by Edmund Gosse. Two articles of the utmost importance are DICTIONARY and ENCYCLOPAEDIA. Read the general article RHETORIC.

[Sidenote: Periodical Publications]

Periodical publications, especially those in the English and French languages, have contained a great part of the best literary criticism of miscellaneous essays published since the first French review appeared in 1665 and since the first English review, consisting wholly of original matter, was established in London in 1710. The latter was indebted to France not only for its model, but for its editor, who was a French Protestant refugee. Benjamin Franklin founded the first American monthly, the Philadelphian General Magazine in 1741. The article PERIODICALS (Vol. 21, p. 151), by H. R. Tedder, librarian of the Athenaeum Club, London, contains separate sections on the reviews and magazines of England, the United States, Canada, South Africa, West India and the British Crown Colonies, India and Ceylon, France, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Italy, Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Spain, Portugal, Greece, Russia, Bohemia, Hungary and Japan.

NEWSPAPERS (Vol. 19, p. 544), equivalent to 140 pages of this Guide, is an article in which the student will find a full account of the most fertile, if not the most studied, form of modern literature in all parts of the world. See also the chapter in this Guide For Journalists and Authors.

The reader should note that of the many articles on literary forms and rhetorical figures, only a few are given above, but they are listed more fully in the Index Volume, p. 929, where there are more than 350 such titles. He must remember also that there are more than 3,000 biographical and critical articles on authors in different languages and different periods. The following are “key” articles on national literatures:

[Sidenote: National Literatures]

ENGLISH LITERATURE, by Henry Bradley, joint-editor of the New English Dictionary; Prof. J. M. Manly, University of Chicago; Prof. Oliver Elton, University of Liverpool; Thomas Seccombe, author of The Age of Johnson.

AMERICAN LITERATURE, by G. E. Woodberry, formerly professor in Columbia University.

GERMAN LITERATURE, by Prof. J. G. Robertson, University of London, author of History of German Literature.

DUTCH LITERATURE │by Edmund Gosse. FLEMISH LITERATURE │ „ WALLOONS, Literature │ „ BELGIUM, Literature │ „ DENMARK, Literature │ „ SWEDEN, Literature │ „ NORWAY, Literature │ „

ICELAND, Literature, Classic, by Prof. Frederick York Powell of Oxford; Recent, by Sigfús Blöndal, librarian of Copenhagen University.

FRENCH LITERATURE, by George Saintsbury.

PROVENÇAL LITERATURE, by Paul Meyer, Director of the École des Chartes, Paris, and Prof. Hermann Oelsner, Oxford, author of a History of Provençal Literature.

ANGLO-NORMAN LITERATURE, by Prof. Louis Brandin of the University of London.

SPAIN, Literature, by Prof. J. Fitzmaurice-Kelly of the University of Liverpool, and A. Morel-Fatio, author of L’Espagne au XVIe et au XVIIe siècles.

PORTUGAL, Literature, by Edgar Prestage, editor of Letters of a Portuguese Nun, etc.

ITALIAN LITERATURE, by Prof. Hermann Oelsner, Oxford, and Prof. Adolfo Bartoli of the University of Florence, author of Storia della letteratura Italiana.

SWITZERLAND, Literature, by Prof. W. A. B. Coolidge.

HUNGARY, Literature, by Emil Reich, author of Hungarian Literature, and E. Dundas Butler, author of Hungarian Poems and Fables for English Readers, etc.

POLAND, Literature, by W. R. Morfill, late professor of Slavonic Languages, Oxford, author of Slavonic Literature, etc.

RUSSIA, Literature, also by Prof. Morfill.

ARABIA, Literature, by the late Prof. M. J. de Goeje, University of Leiden, and the Rev. G. W. Thatcher, warden of Camden College, Sydney, N. S. W.

PERSIA, Literature, by Prof. Karl Geldner, Marburg University, and Prof. Hermann Ethé, University College, Wales.

CHINA, Literature, by H. A. Giles, professor of Chinese, Oxford.

JAPAN, Literature, by Capt. Brinkley.

HEBREW LITERATURE, by Arthur Cowley, sub-librarian of the Bodleian, Oxford.

ARMENIAN LITERATURE, by F. C. Conybeare, author of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle.

SYRIAC LITERATURE, by Norman McLean, lecturer in Aramaic, Cambridge.

HINDOSTANI LITERATURE, by Sir Charles James Lyall.

SANSKRIT, Literature, by Prof. Julius Eggeling, Edinburgh.

CLASSICS, by Dr. J. E. Sandys, Cambridge, author of History of Classical Scholarship.

GREEK LITERATURE: Ancient, by Sir R. C. Jebb, author of Companion to Greek Studies; Byzantine, by Prof. Karl Krumbacher, editor of Byzantinische Zeitschrift and Byzantinisches Archiv; and Modern, by J. D. Bourchier, correspondent of The Times (London) in South-Eastern Europe.

LATIN LITERATURE, by Prof. A. S. Wilkins, of Owens College, Manchester, and Prof. R. S. Conway, of the University of Manchester.

CELT, Literature, to which W. J. Gruffydd, lecturer in Celtic, University College, Cardiff, contributes the section on Welsh literature; and E. C. Quiggin, lecturer in Celtic, Cambridge, contributes the sections on Irish, Manx, Breton and Cornish literatures.

[Sidenote: Bibliography]

This list of the literatures of many tongues, from each of which translations have added to the common stock accessible even to those who can read with ease only one language, indicates the existence of a bewildering mass of printed matter, and just as each language has its literature—using the word to signify output, so each subject upon which men write has its literature—using the word to signify material for any one branch of study. Bibliographies are the charts by which students are enabled to navigate these vast seas of knowledge. The articles BIBLIOGRAPHY (Vol. 3, p. 908), by A. W. Pollard, assistant librarian of the British Museum, and INDEX (Vol. 14, p. 373) describe the technicalities of cataloguing and classifying books and their contents.

The Britannica is itself the most complete index to the subjects treated by books and the most complete bibliographical manual for the student that could be imagined. The Index of 500,000 entries (Vol. 29) shows to what class any one of half a million facts belongs, by referring to the article in which that fact is treated. At the end of the article a list of the best books on the subject shows the student who desires to specialize just where to go for further details. No less than 203,000 books are included in these lists appended to Britannica articles and many of them are, in themselves, substantial contributions to literature. The Shakespeare bibliography would, for example, fill 30 pages of the size and type of this Guide; the bibliography of English history, by A. F. Pollard, of the University of London, 13 pages, and the bibliography of French history, by Prof. Bémont of the École des Hautes Études, Paris, 8 pages.

A group of articles of great interest to every student of literature deals with the methods and appliances by which writings are preserved and circulated. MANUSCRIPT (Vol. 17, p. 618) is by Sir E. Maunde Thompson, of the British Museum Library; BOOK (Vol. 4, p. 214); BOOK-COLLECTING (Vol. 4, p. 221) and INCUNABULA (Vol. 14, p. 369) are by A. W. Pollard, also of the British Museum Library. LIBRARIES (Vol. 16, p. 545), equivalent to 100 pages of this Guide, is by H. R. Tedder, librarian of the Athenaeum Club, London. The articles on printing, binding, publishing and similar subjects are described in the chapter of this Guide For Printers.

With this chapter to help him the student will have little difficulty in devising his own course of reading in any one literature—starting with the general treatment, going from this to the separate biographies of the great authors mentioned in the general article, and, when there is in the national literature that he is studying some special development of a literary genre, as of the sermon in the 17th or the satire in the 18th century, turning to the article in the Britannica dealing with this form of literature, SATIRE, SERMON, or whatever it may be. For example, what could be more illuminating to the student of 19th century literature than the following passages-disconnected here—from the article SATIRE?

Goethe and Schiller, Scott and Wadsworth, are now at hand, and as imagination gains ground satire declines. Byron, who in the 18th century would have been the greatest of satirists, is hurried by the spirit of his age into passion and description, bequeathing, however, a splendid proof of the possibility of allying satire with sublimity in his Vision of Judgment.... Miss Edgeworth skirts the confines of satire, and Miss Austen seasons her novels with the most exquisite satiric traits. Washington Irving revives the manner of The Spectator, and Tieck brings irony and persiflage to the discussion of critical problems.... In all the characteristics of his genius Thackeray is thoroughly English, and the faults and follies he chastises are those especially characteristic of British society. Good sense and the perception of the ridiculous are amalgamated in him; his satire is a thoroughly British article, a little over-solid, a little wanting in finish, but honest, weighty and durable. Posterity must go to him for the humours of the age of Victoria, as they go to Addison for those of Anne’s.... In Heine the satiric spirit, long confined to established literary forms, seems to obtain unrestrained freedom to wander where it will, nor have the ancient models been followed since by any considerable satirist except the Italian Giusti. The machinery employed by Moore was indeed transplanted to America by James Russell Lowell, whose Biglow Papers represent perhaps the highest moral level yet attained by satire.

In no age was the spirit of satire so generally diffused as in the 19th century, but many of its eminent writers, while bordering on the domains of satire, escape the definition of satirist. The term cannot be properly applied to Dickens, the keen observer of the oddities of human life; or to George Eliot, the critic of its emptiness when not inspired by a worthy purpose; or to Balzac, the painter of French society; or to Trollope, the mirror of the middle classes of England. If Sartor Resartus could be regarded as a satire, Carlyle would rank among the first of satirists; but the satire, though very obvious, rather accompanies than inspires the composition.

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XXXVII. AMERICAN LITERATURE

The list in the preceding chapter of the key articles dealing with national literatures shows that the Britannica separately treats the literary products of some 30 countries. To outline 30 courses of reading, mentioning the 3,000 critical and biographical articles, would make this Guide unwieldy. On pp. 929–937 of Vol. 29 the reader will find classified lists of these articles, and only four groups are selected here for detailed treatment: those on American, English, German and Greek literature. The main article in the literature of each of the other countries indicates the characteristic forms, the typical works of the leading writers discussed in special articles, so that courses of reading as systematic as these four can easily be planned for other countries by the reader.

Topic of Study Article and Contributor

General Summary of the subject, AMERICAN LITERATURE (Vol. 1, p. with critical appreciation of 831), by George E. Woodberry, main tendencies and great formerly professor in Columbia authors. University, biographer of Poe and Hawthorne, author of America in Literature, etc.

Colonial Period.

English writers, especially JOHN SMITH (Vol. 25, p. 264), by historical. Prof. Edward Arber, editor of English Garner, etc.

Colonial writers, especially of MASSACHUSETTS, History (Vol. 17, Puritan New England. p. 858); CONNECTICUT, History (Vol. 6, p. 954).

Massachusetts governors and WILLIAM BRADFORD (Vol. 4, p. 370); historical writing. JOHN WINTHROP (Vol. 28, p. 736).

The Clergy as writers of History, JOHN COTTON (Vol. 7, p. 255), by and of Theology of the Puritan Prof. Williston Walker, Yale, School. author of History of the Congregational Churches in the United States; THOMAS HOOKER (Vol. 13, p. 674).

The Mathers. COTTON, INCREASE, and RICHARD MATHER (Vol. 17, p. 883).

Apostle to the Indians. JOHN ELIOT (Vol. 9, p. 278), by Prof. Walker.

Revolt against Puritanism.

Ethical. THOMAS MORTON (Vol. 18, p. 882).

Theological. ROGER WILLIAMS (Vol. 28, p. 682).

New England Verse. MICHAEL WIGGLESWORTH (Vol. 28, p. 626).

The New England Diarist. SAMUEL SEWALL (Vol. 24, p. 733).

The great New England Philosopher JONATHAN EDWARDS (Vol. 9, pp. 3–6), and Theologian; the first by Prof. Harry Norman Gardiner, American author with a lasting editor of Jonathan Edwards—a and European reputation. Retrospect, and Riehard Webster.

Edwards’s contemporaries. CHARLES CHAUNCY (Vol. 6, p. 18).

JONATHAN MAYHEW (Vol. 17, p. 935).

Edwards’s followers,—the New JOSEPH BELLAMY (Vol. 3, p. 694). England theology.

SAMUEL HOPKINS (Vol. 13, p. 685).

The first newspaper in New York. WILLIAM BRADFORD (Vol. 4, p. 370).

A Virginia educator. JAMES BLAIR (Vol. 4, p. 34).

The American Quaker preacher. JOHN WOOLMAN (Vol. 28, p. 817).

A royal governor and historian. THOMAS HUTCHINSON (Vol. 14, p. 13).

A New York statesman and CADWALLADER COLDEN (Vol. 6, p. philosopher. 663).

The first great American figure in BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (Vol. 11, p. 24), secular literature,—essayist, by Richard Webster, late fellow pamphleteer, politician, Princeton University, editorial autobiographer. staff, Encyclopaedia Britannica.

Revolutionary Period.

The patriotic orators and JAMES OTIS (Vol. 20, p. 366). Pamphleteers.

PATRICK HENRY (Vol. 13, p. 300).

JOHN ADAMS (Vol. 1, p. 176).

JOSIAH QUINCY (Vol. 22, p. 753).

JAMES WILSON (Vol. 28, p. 693).

“Common Sense.” THOMAS PAINE (Vol. 20, p. 456).

James Otis’s Sister. MERCY WARREN (Vol. 28, p. 330).

The Declaration of Independence and INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF (Vol. its author. 14, p. 372), and THOMAS JEFFERSON (Vol. 15, p. 301), both by Dr. F. S. Philbrick.

Prominent Patriots in New Jersey. WILLIAM LIVINGSTON (Vol. 16, p. 813).

JOHN WITHERSPOON (Vol. 28, p. 759).

A Connecticut Educator and Patriot. EZRA STILES (Vol. 25, p. 919).

Opponents of Independence. JOSEPH GALLOWAY (Vol. 11, p. 421).

“A Westchester Farmer.” SAMUEL SEABURY (Vol. 24, p. 531).

In Massachusetts. MATHER BYLES (Vol. 4, p. 896).

In Maryland. JONATHAN BOUCHER (Vol. 4, p. 312).

Patriotic Poetry. JOHN TRUMBULL (Vol. 27, p. 324).

The “Hartford Wits.” TIMOTHY DWIGHT (Vol. 8, p. 741).

Satire and Epic. JOEL BARLOW (Vol. 3, p. 406).

“Battle of the Kegs.” FRANCIS HOPKINSON (Vol. 13, p. 685).

A Western Traveler. JONATHAN CARVER (Vol. 5, p. 437).

The National Period.

The Constitution and its JAMES MADISON (Vol. 17, p. 284). Pamphleteers—“The Federalist,” the greatest application of elementary principles of government to practical administration.

ALEXANDER HAMILTON (Vol. 12, p. 880), by Dr. F. S. Philbrick and Hugh Chisholm.

JOHN JAY (Vol. 15, pp. 294–296).

Importance of the early national UNITED STATES, History, §106 period on the development of (Vol. 27, p. 688), by the late American literature. Prof. Alexander Johnson, Princeton, and C. C. Whinery, assistant editor, Encyclopaedia Britannica.

The first professional “man of CHARLES BROCKDEN BROWN (Vol. 4, p. letters.” 657).

First foreign vogue.

Essay and History: “The American WASHINGTON IRVING (Vol. 14, p. Goldsmith.” 856), by Richard Garnett, late librarian British Museum.

Fiction: “The American Scott.” JAMES FENIMORE COOPER (Vol. 7, p. 79), by W. E. Henley, poet, critic and essayist.

Poetry. WILLIAM CULLEN BRYANT (Vol. 4, p. 698), by G. W. Cable.

The Knickerbocker School. NEW YORK CITY, Literature (Vol. 19, p. 615).

New York as a literary centre. JAMES KIRKE PAULDING (Vol. 20, p. 958).

FITZ-GREENE HALLECK (Vol. 12, p. 854).

A Southern novelist and poet. W. G. SIMMS (Vol. 25, p. 123).

Cooper’s successor as novelist of HERMAN MELVILLE (Vol. 18, p. 102). the sea.

Poetesses of the early 19th LYDIA HUNTLEY SIGOURNEY (Vol. 25, century. p. 82).

ALICE AND PHOEBE CARY (Vol. 5, p. 438).

The “Literati.” N. P. WILLIS (Vol. 28, p. 686).

RUFUS WILMOT GRISWOLD (Vol. 12, p. 610).

The short story. EDGAR ALLAN POE (Vol. 21, p. 875), by David Hannay.

Traveler, Translator, Poet. BAYARD TAYLOR (Vol. 26, p. 467).

New England in the 19th century.

Boston and Cambridge. BOSTON (Vol. 4, p. 293).

HARVARD UNIVERSITY (Vol. 13, p. 38).

GEORGE TICKNOR (Vol. 26, p. 936).

History and Scholarship as affected GEORGE BANCROFT (Vol. 3, p. 307), by European contacts. by Prof. W. M. Sloane, Columbia.

EDWARD EVERETT (Vol. 10, p. 8), by Edward Everett Hale.

JARED SPARKS (Vol. 25, p. 608), by Prof. W. L. Corbin, Wells College.

J. G. PALFREY (Vol. 20, p. 629).

W. H. PRESCOTT (Vol. 22, p. 294).

J. L. MOTLEY (Vol. 18, p. 909).

Unitarianism and its Literary HOSEA BALLOU (Vol. 3, p. 282). Leaders, Influencing and Influenced by Transcendentalism.

WILLIAM ELLERY CHANNING (Vol. 5, p. 843), by Richard Webster.

JAMES FREEMAN CLARKE (Vol. 6, p. 444), by E. E. Hale.

THEODORE PARKER (Vol. 20, p. 829).

Transcendentalism and the Concord AMOS BRONSON ALCOTT (Vol. 1, p. School—central figures. 528), by Prof. C. F. Richardson, Dartmouth College.

RALPH WALDO EMERSON (Vol. 9, p. 332), by Prof. Henry Van Dyke, Princeton.

HENRY DAVID THOREAU (Vol. 26, p. 877), by William Sharp (“Fiona Macleod”).

The Dial. MARGARET FULLER (Vol. 11, p. 295).

GEORGE RIPLEY (Vol. 23, p. 363), by Edward Livermore Burlingame, editor of Scribner’s.

Brook Farm. BROOK FARM (Vol. 4, p. 645), by E. L. Burlingame.

The author of “Margaret.” SYLVESTER JUDD (Vol. 15, p. 536).

The great New England Novelist. NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE (Vol. 13, p. 102), by Richard Henry Stoddard, poet and essayist.

The great New England Poet. HENRY WADSWORTH LONGFELLOW (Vol. 16, p. 977), by Thomas Davidson, author of The Philosophical System of Rosmini.

Earlier Romanticism. WASHINGTON ALLSTON (Vol. 1, p. 709).

RICHARD HENRY DANA (Vol. 7, p. 792).

Oratory.

In the North. DANIEL WEBSTER (Vol. 28, p. 459), by Everett P. Wheeler, author of Daniel Webster, etc.

RUFUS CHOATE (Vol. 6, p. 258).

WENDELL PHILLIPS (Vol. 21, p. 407), by Col. T. W. Higginson.

CHARLES SUMNER (Vol. 26, p. 81).

ROBERT CHARLES WINTHROP (Vol. 28, p. 736).

In the South. HENRY CLAY (Vol. 6, p. 470), by Carl Schurz, biographer of Clay.

Other Southern Orators. JOHN C. CALHOUN (Vol. 5, p. 1), by Judge H. A. M. Smith, South Carolina.

ROBERT YOUNG HAYNE (Vol. 13, p. 114).

The Pulpit Orator of the North. HENRY WARD BEECHER (Vol. 3, p. 639), by Dr. Lyman Abbott, editor The Outlook.

The Abolition Novelist, author of HARRIET ELIZABETH BEECHER STOWE Uncle Tom’s Cabin. (Vol. 25, p. 972), by Horace E. Scudder, late editor of the Atlantic Monthly.

Another anti-slavery authoress. LYDIA MARIA CHILD (Vol. 6, p. 135).

The New England Poets prominent in JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER (Vol. 28, the Anti-Slavery Movement. p. 613), by Edmund Clarence Stedman, poet and critic.

JAMES RUSSELL LOWELL (Vol. 17, p. 74), by Horace E. Scudder, biographer of Lowell.

Their Contemporary, the “Autocrat.” OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES (Vol. 13, p. 616), by J. T. Morse, biographer of Holmes.

The American Poet—by the Walt Whitman (Vol. 28, p. 610), by criterion of foreign standards. John Burroughs, author of Whitman, A Study.

Scholarship and criticism in this FRANCIS JAMES CHILD (Vol. 6, p. Period and the Next: the 135). particularly Important Work done by Americans in Grammar, Language, Text Criticism, etc.

CORNELIUS C. FELTON (Vol. 10, p. 246).

GEORGE PERKINS MARSH (Vol. 17, p. 768).

WILLIAM DWIGHT WHITNEY (Vol. 28, p. 611), by Benjamin E. Smith, editor Century Dictionary.

RICHARD GRANT WHITE (Vol. 28, p. 601).

HORACE HOWARD FURNESS (Vol. 11, p. 362).

FRANCIS ANDREW MARCH (Vol. 17, p. 688).

BASIL LANNEAU GILDERSLEEVE (Vol. 12, p. 12).

CHARLES ELIOT NORTON (Vol. 19, p. 797).

The later Poets.

New England. THOMAS BAILEY ALDRICH (Vol. 1, p. 536).

JULIA WARD HOWE (Vol. 13, p. 836).

WILLIAM WETMORE STORY (Vol. 25, p. 970).

New York. EDMUND CLARENCE STEDMAN (Vol. 25, p. 861).

RICHARD HENRY STODDARD (Vol. 25, p. 939).

RICHARD WATSON GILDER (Vol. 12, p. 12).

Pennsylvania. CHARLES GODFREY LELAND (Vol. 16, p. 405).

SILAS WEIR MITCHELL (Vol. 18, p. 618).

The South. SIDNEY LANIER (Vol. 16, p. 181), by Prof. W. P. Trent, Columbia.

The Middle West (especially JOHN HAY (Vol. 13, p. 105). humorous, light and character verse).

EUGENE FIELD (Vol. 10, p. 321).

JAMES WHITCOMB RILEY (Vol. 23, p. 343).

The Far West. FRANCIS BRET HARTE (Vol. 13, p. 31).

JOAQUIN MILLER (Vol. 18, p. 464).

EDWARD ROWLAND SILL (Vol. 25, p. 107).

Later Fiction.

The American Realist. W. D. HOWELLS (Vol. 13, p. 839).

The American Cosmopolite. HENRY JAMES (Vol. 15, p. 143).

Stories of Italy. F. MARION CRAWFORD (Vol. 7, p. 386).

Historical Romance. LEWIS WALLACE (Vol. 28, p. 276).

Humorous Short Story. FRANCIS R. STOCKTON (Vol. 25, p. 938).

Pietistic Novel. E. P. ROE (Vol. 23, p. 449).

J. G. HOLLAND (Vol. 13, p. 587).

The Provincial Types—

Maine. SARAH ORNE JEWETT (Vol. 15, p. 371).

New England. MARY E. WILKINS (Vol. 28, p. 646).

West. EDWARD EGGLESTON (Vol. 9, p. 17).

MARY HALLOCK FOOTE (Vol. 10, p. 625).

FRANCIS BRET HARTE (Vol. 13, p. 31).

South: Tennessee. “CHARLES EGBERT CRADDOCK” (Vol. 7, p. 360).

Kentucky. JAMES LANE ALLEN (Vol. 1, p. 691).

Virginia. THOMAS NELSON PAGE (Vol. 20, p. 450).

New Orleans. GEORGE W. CABLE (Vol. 4, p. 920).

Essayists. THOMAS WENTWORTH HIGGINSON (Vol. 13, p. 455).

EDWARD EVERETT HALE (Vol. 12, p. 832).

CHARLES DUDLEY WARNER (Vol. 28, p. 326).

GEORGE WILLIAM CURTIS (Vol. 7, p. 652), by Charles Eliot Norton.

Humor.

HENRY WHEELER SHAW, “Josh Billings” (Vol. 24, p. 813).

The American “Hood.” JOHN GODFREY SAXE (Vol. 24, p. 258).

“Bill Nye.” EDGAR WILSON NYE (Vol. 19, p. 929).

America’s Great Humorist. MARK TWAIN (Vol. 27, p. 490), by Prof. Brander Matthews, Columbia.

“Uncle Remus.” JOEL CHANDLER HARRIS (Vol. 13, p. 20).

Puck. H. C. BUNNER (Vol. 4, p. 799).

“Mr. Dooley.” FINLEY PETER DUNNE (Vol. 8, p. 682).

History. FRANCIS PARKMAN (Vol. 20, p. 832), by John Fiske.

HERMANN EDUARD VON HOLST (Vol. 28, p. 210).

FRANCIS LIEBER (Vol. 16, p. 590).

C. E. A. GAYARRÉ (Vol. 11, p. 542).

HENRY CHARLES LEA (Vol. 16, p. 314).

Historians. HENRY MARTYN BAIRD (Vol. 3, p. 224).

JOHN FISKE (Vol. 10, p. 437), by Prof. C. F. Richardson, Dartmouth.

JAMES FORD RHODES (Vol. 23, p. 257).

HENRY CABOT LODGE (Vol. 16, p. 860).

JAMES B. MCMASTER (Vol. 17, p. 264).

JAMES SCHOULER (Vol. 24, p. 377).

THEODORE A. DODGE (Vol. 8, p. 369).

JOHN CODMAN ROPES (Vol. 23, p. 718).

ALFRED T. MAHAN (Vol. 17, p. 394).

ALBERT BUSHNELL HART (Vol. 13, p. 30).

HUBERT H. BANCROFT (Vol. 3, p. 309).

THEODORE ROOSEVELT (Vol. 23, p. 711), by Lawrence F. Abbott, New York Outlook.

Newspaper Men. NEWSPAPERS, American (Vol. 19, pp. 566–572).

PERIODICALS, United States (Vol. 21, pp. 154–155).

New York Tribune. HORACE GREELEY (Vol. 12, p. 531), by Whitelaw Reid.

WHITELAW REID (Vol. 23, p. 52).

New York Herald. JAMES GORDON BENNETT (Vol. 3, p. 740).

Springfield Republican. SAMUEL BOWLES (Vol. 4, p. 344).

New York Times. H. J. RAYMOND (Vol. 22, p. 933).

New York Sun. C. A. DANA (Vol. 7, p. 791).

New York Evening Post. EDWIN LAWRENCE GODKIN (Vol. 12, p. 174).

Louisville Courier-Journal. HENRY WATTERSON (Vol. 28, p. 418).

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