A military dictionary (part 7 of 8)
SERGENT d’armes, Fr. During the old monarchy of France, particularly in the reign of Philip Augustus, a guard was composed of firm trusty men for the safety of the king. This guard was called Sergens d’armes, from the Latin words servientes armorum. The company of the Sergens d’armes was composed of one hundred and fifty, or two hundred men. The number was reduced by Philip de Valois to one hundred. Charles V. during the regency broke the company, keeping only six men of that description round his person; and Charles VI. had only eight, half of whom did duty alternately every month. With us the serjeant at arms is a person appointed to attend a public body, arrest traitors, and persons offending.
SEPADAR, Ind. An officer of the rank of brigadier-general.
SEPAHI, Ind. A feudatory chief, or military tenant; a soldier. See SEPOYS.
SEPHARRY, Ind. Afternoon.
SEPOYS, Ind. derived from the Persian Spahi. Natives who have inlisted themselves into the service of the East India Company, and are attached to the infantry. These troops have both native and European commissioned and non-commissioned officers; but the Europeans at all times command. The Sepahis make excellent soldiers, are remarkably clean, and feel a natural predilection for arms. See SPAHI.
SERAKHUR, Ind. SERANG, Native non-commissioned officers who are employed in the artillery, and on board ships of war. In the artillery the title answers to that of serjeant; in the naval service to that of boatswain.
SERASKUR, Ind. This word is sometimes written Seraskier, and signifies the commander in chief of a Turkish army.
SERDANS. Colonels in the Turkish Service are so called.
SERGENT, Fr. See SERGEANT or SERJEANT.
SERGENT noble, Fr. A post of honor which existed during the first periods of the French monarchy. The French compiler, from whose work we have occasionally translated much matter relative to the military history, &c. of France, has the following passage concerning the term itself. We shall give his meaning literally:--“This term does not come from serviens, as I have imagined in common with many other etymologists. Monsieur Beneton, in his Histoire de la Guerre, says, that the serjeant who seemed to think he could trace the origin of his title in the Latin word Serviens, was a gentleman by birth, who during the prevalence of military fiefs, was liable to do military service, in consequence of the feodal tenure, called Fief de Sergenterie, by which he held his land. His superior officer was called Suzerain, the functions of whose situation corresponded with those of a modern adjutant. It was the business of the Sergent Noble, or gentleman serjeant, to assemble all the vassals of the Suzerain, for the purpose of incorporating them under one standard, and of rendering them fit for war.
SERGENT de bande, Fr. Serjeant in the common acceptation of the term. The etymology of this word is different from that of Sergent Noble. It evidently comes from the French Serregens, or men that close or lock up, the same as serrefiles; shewing that this non-commissioned officer was placed to take charge of the rear files, whilst the commissioned one was in the front. It was his business to see that the rear conformed itself to the orders which were given in the front; to make the files lock up and dress, &c.
SERGENT de bataille, Fr. Field Serjeant. This was an appointment of considerable trust in the old French armies. The sergens de bataille held commands, and did the duty of modern inspectors. They ranked next to a field marshal, or marechal de bataille. The sergens de bataille, or field serjeants, existed under Francis the First. But these field serjeants were only at that time sergens de bandes, or train serjeants. There were likewise, under the same king, sergens generaux de bataille, general field serjeants. These were officers of rank, and did the duty of a modern major general.
There were also officers of the same description in the reign of Henry IV. This appointment appears to have been dropped after the peace of the Pyrenees. The author of the Histoire de la Milice Francaise, observes, that the appointment and duty of the different officers, called marshals, or field serjeants, varied according to the will and pleasure of the French kings, and their war-ministers. He agrees with us, that the situation of field serjeant was originally of great consequence, but that it gradually declined, and was eventually made subservient to a superior officer, who was called Marechal de bataille, or field-marshal, whose duties corresponded with those of the French adjutant-general in the present times.
There have been officers of the same denomination both in Spain and Germany, who did the duty of Maréchaux de Camp; another term, we presume, for field marshal. But the general field serjeants in those countries were divided into two classes; one class was confined, in its functions, to the infantry, and the other to the cavalry; and both acted independently of one another; whereas in France they acted together.
According to the present establishment of the French army, there is a serjeant major belonging to each company. The sergens majors d’un régiment, or d’une place of the old French service, were what are now simply called majors, majors of regiments, or town majors. The senior serjeant of every company is called serjeant major in the French army at this time. In the British army the serjeant major is the head of the non-commissioned officers, and though sometimes attached to a company, is generally a detached staff officer. See SERJEANT MAJOR.
SERGENTER, Fr. A word frequently used by the French in a figurative sense, signifying to press, to importune. On n’aime pointe à être sergenté; one does not like to be pressed; or as we familiarly say, to be dragooned into a thing.
SERHUD, Ind. A boundary, or frontier.
SERGEANT, SERJEANT, SERGENT, Fr. in war, is a non-commissioned or inferior officer in a company or troop, and appointed to see discipline observed; to teach the private men their exercise; and to order, and form ranks, files, &c. He receives the orders from the serjeant-major, which he communicates to his officers. Each company has generally four serjeants.
SERJEANT-Major. The serjeant-major is the first non-commissioned officer in the regiment after the quarter-master in the English army. He is, in fact, an assistant to the adjutant.
It is his peculiar duty to be perfect master of every thing which relates to drills; and it is always expected, that he should set an example to the rest of the non-commissioned officers, by his manly, soldier-like, and zealous activity.
He must be thoroughly acquainted with all the details which regard the interior management and the discipline of a regiment. For this purpose he must be a good penman, and must keep regular returns of the serjeants and corporals, with the dates of their appointments, as well as the roster for their duties, and rosters of privates orderly duty and commands, as far as relates to the number which each troop or company is to furnish. He is in every respect responsible for the accuracy of these details. He must look well to the appearance of the men, and order such to drill as he sees awkward, slovenly, or in any way irregular. If it be meant as a punishment, he specifies the time for which they are sent to drill: if only for awkwardness, they remain there until their faults are removed.
When he has occasion to put a non-commissioned officer in arrest, he must report him to the adjutant.
It is the duty of the serjeant-major, under the direction of the adjutant, to drill every young officer who comes into the regiment in the manual and marching exercises: he is likewise to instruct him in the slow and quick marches, in wheeling, &c.
He reports regularly to the adjutant the exact state of the awkward drill, &c.
It is scarcely necessary to observe in this place, that the good or bad appearance of a regiment, with or without arms, depends greatly upon the skill and activity of the serjeant major; and that he has every inducement to look forward to promotion.
Quarter-master SERJEANT. A non-commissioned officer who acts under the quarter-master of a regiment; he ought to be a steady man, a good accountant, and to be well acquainted with the resources of a country town or village.
Pay-SERJEANT. An honest, steady, non-commissioned officer, (who is a good accountant, and writes well) that is selected by the captain of a company in the infantry, to pay the men, give out rations, and to account weekly to him, or to his subaltern, (as the case may be) for all disbursements. He likewise keeps a regular state of the necessaries of the men, and assists in making up the monthly abstract for pay, allowances, &c.
Covering SERJEANT. A non-commissioned officer who during the exercise of a battalion, regularly stands or moves behind each officer, commanding or acting with a platoon or company. When the ranks take open order, and the officers move in front, the covering serjeants replace their leaders; and when the ranks are closed, they fall back in their rear.
Drill SERJEANT. An expert and active non-commissioned officer, who, under the immediate direction of the serjeant major, instructs the raw recruits of a regiment in the first principles of military exercise. When awkward or ill-behaved men are sent to drill, they are usually placed under the care of the drill serjeant. This non-commissioned officer will do well to bear constantly in mind the following observations from page 135, Vol I. of the Règlemens pour l’Infanterie Prusienne.
“In teaching young recruits their first duties, the greatest caution must be observed not to give them a disgust to the service, by harsh treatment, angry and impatient words, and much less by blows. The utmost mildness must, on the contrary, be shewn, in order to endear the service to them; and the several parts of exercise must be taught them by degrees; so that they become insensibly acquainted with the whole of the discipline, without having been disgusted in the acquirement. Rustics and strangers must be used with extreme lenity.”
The principle of kind conduct is not less worthy of the officers of a free nation like the United States; a generous but firm conduct is always better calculated to assure good discipline, than violence or brutality. Men learn sooner, learn better, and like what they learn when treated as men, not as brutes. There yet prevails too much of the barbarity of the British and German systems in the American army.
Lance SERJEANT. A corporal who acts as serjeant in a company, but only receives the pay of corporal.
White SERJEANT. A term of just ridicule, which is applied to those ladies who, taking advantage of the uxoriousness of their husbands, and neglect their household concerns, to interfere in military matters.
SERMENT, Fr. Oath.
Prêter SERMENT, Fr. To take an oath.
SERPE, Fr. A billhook.
SERPE d’armes, Fr. An offensive weapon; so called from its resemblance to a hedging bill.
SERPENTEAU, Fr. A round iron circle, with small spikes, and squibs attached to them. It is frequently used in the attack and defence of a breach. It likewise means a fusee, which is filled with gunpowder, and is bent in such a manner, that when it takes fire, it obtains a circular rapid motion, and throws out sparks of light in various directions.
SERPENTEAUX et serpenteaux brochettes, Fr. A species of lardon or fusee, which is garnished or loaded upon a stick or spit that is a third of the length of the cartridge.
SERPENTIN, Fr. The cock of a musquet or firelock.
SERRE-File, Fr. The last rank of a battalion, by which its depth is ascertained, and which always forms its rear. When ranks are doubled, the battalion resumes its natural formation by means of the serre-files. Serre-file literally signifies a bringer up.
SERRE demi File, Fr. That rank in a battalion which determines the half of its depth, and which marches before the demi-file. Thus a battalion standing six deep, has its serre-demi file in the third rank, which determines its depth.
Capitaine de SERRE-File, Fr. The officer who commands a rear guard when a regiment is on its march.
SERRER, Fr. To close up. Serrez vos rangs. Take close order.
SERRER la bride, Fr. To pull in the bridle.
SERRURE, Fr. A lock.
SERRURIER, Fr. A locksmith.
SERVANS d’armes, or Chevaliers Servans, Fr. Persons belonging to the third class of the order of Malta are so called. They are not noblemen, although they wear the sword and the cross.
To SERVE, (Servir, Fr.) In a military sense, to do duty as an officer or soldier.
To SERVE a piece. In the artillery, to load and fire with promptitude and correctness. The French use the term in the same sense, viz. L’artillerie fut bien servie à ce siege. The artillery was well served at this siege.
SERVICE, (Service, Fr.) In a general sense of the word, as far as it relates to war, every species of military duty which is done by an inferior under the influence and command of a superior. It likewise means exploit, achievement. It also points out the particular profession to which a man belongs, as land service, sea service, and the degree of knowlege which he may have acquired by practice, viz. He has seen a great deal of service.
SERVICE likewise means the period during which a man has done duty, or followed the military profession in an active manner.
To see SERVICE. To be in actual contact with an enemy.
To be on SERVICE. To be doing actual duty with a corps or detachment.
To enter into the SERVICE. To receive a commission in the army. The individual must be recommended to the commander in chief, or to the secretary at war, (as the case may be) stating him to be fully qualified to hold that situation.
To retire from the SERVICE. To quit the army, or resign.
No officer can resign his commission, or retire from the service, without having previously obtained permission through the commander in chief, or the secretary at war, as the case may be.
To retire from the SERVICE, keeping one’s rank. It has sometimes happened, that an officer has obtained permission to quit the army, keeping his rank. By which means he has been enabled to return into the service, and to take advantage of his original standing. A very meritorious officer, of high rank at present, was permitted to retire in this manner. There have been instances of officers retiring not only with their rank, but with a certain allowance from the regiment.
Infantry SERVICE. Service done by foot soldiers.
Cavalry SERVICE. Service done by soldiers on horseback.
Faire son SERVICE, Fr. To do one’s duty.
Etre de SERVICE, Fr. To be on duty.
Etre de SERVICE, chez le roi. To do duty at the palace.
Service likewise means tour of duty, or routine of service.
SERVICE de l’infanterie en marche, Fr. The regular duties, or routine of service which an infantry regiment goes through when it receives orders to march. These are, the general, la génêrale ou le premier. The assembly, l’assemblée. The troop, le drapeau ou le dernier.
SERVICE des places, Fr. The regular duty, or routine of service, which is performed in fortified towns or places. Of this description are garrison duties. See l’Essai sur la science de la guerre par Mons. le baron D’Espagnac, tom. iii. p. 355, and les Elémens Militaires, tom. ii. p. 116, where specific regulations on this head may be seen. We likewise recommend to the perusal of every engineer and artillery officer, a late valuable publication, entitled Essai Générale de Fortification et d’Attaque et Defence des places.
SERVICE de campagne, Fr. Field duties: This subject has been ably treated by several French writers, and among others by the author of les Elemens Militaires, tom. ii. p. 1, &c. and in tom. iv. p. 68, &c.
A letter of SERVICE. See LETTER.
Home SERVICE. In a military sense, the duty which is done within the limits of the United States. This term is frequently used to distinguish such troops as are not liable to serve beyond specified limits, from those that have been raised for general service; as the militia in the several stares of the union.
Foreign SERVICE. Military duty, or service done abroad.
Secret SERVICE. Any service performed by an individual, in a clandestine secret manner. It likewise means intelligence, or information given by spies when countries are engaged in war, for which they receive pecuniary compensation.
Secret SERVICE money. The reward, or compensation which is given for secret intelligence.
SERVICEABLE, capable of performing all necessary military duty.
SERVICES. Pecuniary disbursements, or payments which are made for military purposes.
SERVIR le canon, Fr. To serve the cannon.
SERVIR l’artillerie, Fr. To serve the artillery.
To SET a sentry, (Poser une sentinelle, Fr.) To place a soldier at any particular spot for its security.
To SET on, (Attaquer, Fr.) To attack.
To SET at defiance, (defier, Fr.) To defy; to dare to combat, &c.
To SET up. To make a man fit for military movements and parade, according to the old and ridiculous method of military instruction; by which a man was placed in stiff and awkward attitudes, with the notion of making him supple and active! But that excess of setting up which stiffens the person, and tends to throw the body backward instead of forward, is contrary to every true principle of movement, and must, therefore, be most carefully avoided. By the new principles nature is consulted, and instead of teaching one man awkward positions, fifty or an hundred are taught at once to move in an easy and natural manner.
SETENDY, Ind. The militia.
SETTER, in gunnery, a round stick to drive fuzes, or any other compositions, into cases made of paper.
SHAFT-rings. See RINGS.
SEUIL, Fr. A threshold.
SEUIL d’ecluse, Fr. A thick piece of wood which is laid cross-ways between two stakes at the bottom of the water, for the purpose of supporting the flood-gate.
SEUIL de pont levis. A thick piece of wood with a groove, which is fixed on the edge of the counterscarp of a fosse or ditch, in order to bear the weight or pressure of the draw-bridge, when it is lowered. It is likewise called sommier, a summer or principal beam.
SEWER. In military architecture, a drain, conduit, or conveyance, for carrying off water, foliage, &c. It is necessary that every building have conveniencies for discharging its refuse water, and other useless and offensive matters. These are obtained by digging and laying sewers and drains at proper depths, and with the necessary outlets: the great care is, that they be large enough; that they be placed sufficiently deep, and have a proper descent; that they be well arched over, and have so free a passage, that there be no danger of their choaking up; the cleaning them being a work of trouble and expence.
Instead of making the bottom of the sewer a flat floor, it should be in the form of an inverted arch, answering in part to the sweep of the arch above. Every one knows that the freest passage is through circular channels; and these might easily be constructed so as to wear that form; they would resemble so many water-pipes of a circular base, and there would be no danger of their filling up. The perpendicular walls would not retain any thing, because there are no angles in their joining; and the bottom being round and free, all would run off. These circular sewers are with us called culverts.
SEX-angled, having six angles.
SEXTANT, (Sextant, Fr.) In mathematics, an instrument which serves to measure angles. It is the segment of a circle, or an arch of 60 degrees, which makes the sixth part of a circle.
SEYMAR-Bassy, or first lieutenant general of the Janizaries. An officer among the Turks who not only commands the Janizaries that are called Seymenis, but when the Aga, (which signifies chief guardian, and Aga-si, chief or guardian of) takes the field, who further takes the title of Kaymekan, or his lieutenant at Constantinople. He is authorised to put his own seal upon the different dispatches which he sends, and takes rank of all the sardars or colonels in his jurisdiction. He is likewise entrusted with the entire direction and management of all that concerns or relates to the interior government of the Janizaries.
SHAKEE, Ind. A small coin, of the value of about three-pence.
SHAKER, Ind. A city.
SHAIT, Ind. Bridge, embankment.
SHAFT, an arrow; a missive weapon.
SHAFT, in mining; a narrow, deep perpendicular pit.
SHAFTS of a carriage, are two poles joined together with cross bars, by which the hind horse guides the carriage, and supports the fore part of the shafts; the hind part turning round an iron bolt.
SHAFT-bars, are two pieces of wood to fasten the hind ends of the shafts together, into which they are pinned with wooden pins.
SHALLIE, Ind. The same as batty, which signifies rice in the husk.
SHAMROCK. The Irish word for trefoil, clover, or three leafed grass. It is worn by the Irish in their hats on the 17th of March, St. Patrick’s day.
SHANK. The long part of any instrument.
SHAROCK, Ind. A silver coin, equal in value to about one shilling.
SHAUMIARIS, Ind. A canopy of cotton cloth.
SHAW, Ind. A king.
SHAWZADA, Ind. The king’s son.
SHEED, Ind. A witness.
SHEICK. A chief of a tribe among the Arabs. Mr. Morier, in his account of a campaign with the Ottoman army, relates that in 1800, a fanatic sheick, who pretended to be inspired, headed the Fellahs, (the lowest class of inhabitants are so called among the Arabs) of the district of Demanhour, and caused a detachment of 80 Frenchmen to be put to death in the night; this was effected by first securing the sentinel.
SHELLS, in gunnery, are hollow iron balls to throw out of mortars or howitzers with a fuze hole of about an inch diameter, to load them with powder, and to receive the fuze: the bottom, or part opposite the fuze, is made heavier than the rest, that the fuze may fall uppermost; but in small elevations this is not always the case, nor is it necessary; for, let it fall as it will, the fuze sets fire to the powder within, which bursts the shell, and causes great devastation. The shells had much better be made of an equal thickness, for then they burst into more pieces.
The following shells may also be fired from guns.
Hand grenades from 6 Prs. 4²⁄₅ shells 12 Prs. 5¹⁄₂ shells 24 Prs. 8 inch 68 Pr. carronades.
Shells may likewise be thrown from guns to short distances, in case of necessity, though the bore be not of a diameter sufficient to admit the shell. For this purpose the gun may be elevated to any degree that will retain the shell upon its muzzle, which may be assisted by a small line going from the ears of the shell round the neck of the gun. To produce a greater effect, the space between the shell and the charge may be filled with wads or other substance.
Shells for Mortars and Howitzers--Their Dimensions, Weight, &c.
+---------+-----------------+-------+--------+--------+ | | | | Powder | | | | | | con- | Powder | | | | | tained | for + | | | Diam- | in | burst- | | Kind. | Weight. | eter. | Shells.| ing. | +---------+-----------------+-------+--------+--------+ | |Ct. qr. lbs. oz.|Inches.|lbs. oz.|lbs. oz.| |13 inch. | 1 3 2 | 12³⁄₄ | 10 4 | 6 12 | |10 -- | 3 9 | 9³⁄₄ | 4 5 | 2 10 | | 8 -- | 1 11¹⁄₂ | 7³⁄₄ | 2 12 | 1 14 | | 5¹⁄₂ -- | 15¹⁄₄ | 5¹⁄₄ | 1 | 12 | | 4²⁄₅ -- | 8 | 4¹⁄₅ | 7 | 5 | |H. Gren.{| 3 11 | 3·49 | | | | {| 1 13 | 2·77 | | 1 | | | | | | | +---------+-----------------+-------+--------+--------+
+---------+---------------+-------+ | | Diameter of | | | | Fuze Hole. | Thick-| | +-------+-------+ ness | | | Out- | In- | of | | Kind. | side. | side. | Metal.| +---------+-------+-------+-------+ | |Inches.|Inches.|Inches.| |13 inch. | 1·837 | 1·696 | 2·05 | |10 -- | 1·57 | 1·45 | 1·575| | 8 -- | 1·219 | 1·127 | 1·2 | | 5¹⁄₂ -- | 0·894 | ·826 | 0·822| | 4²⁄₅ -- | 0·832 | ·769 | 0·653| |H. Gren.{| | | | | {| | | | | | | | | +---------+-------+-------+-------+
To find the weight of a shell of iron.
Take ⁹⁄₆₄ of the difference of the cubes of the external and internal diameters for the weight of the shell.
To find how much powder will fill a shell.
Divide the cube of the internal diameter of the shell in inches by 57·3, for the pounds of powder.
To find the size of a shell to contain a given weight of powder.
Multiply the pounds of powder by 3.75, and the cube root of the product will be the diameter in inches.
To find the weight of a SHELL. Rule.
Double the difference of diameters of the shell and hollow sphere, and 7 times the result gives the weight in pounds, cutting off the two right hand figures of whole numbers.
Example. Let the diameter of the shell be 13 inches, and that of the hollow sphere 9·5. Then the cube of 13 is 2197, and that of 9·5, is 857·357; the difference is 1339·625, its double is 2679·25, which multiplied by 7, gives 18754·625; and cutting off two places in whole numbers, the result is 187 lb. or 1 cwt. 2 qrs. 21 lb. the weight of the shell.
French Shells, in French weights and measures.
+-------+-------+-------+--------+--------+-------------------+------+ | | | | Powder | | | | | | | | con- | Powder | Diameter of Fuze |Thick-| | | | | tained | for | Hole. | ness | | | | Diam- | in | burst- +---------+---------+ of | | Kind. |Weight.| eter. | Shells.| ing. | Outside.| Inside. |Metal.| +-------+-------+-------+--------+--------+---------+---------+------+ | | lbs. |Inches.|lbs. oz.|lbs. oz.|Lines Po.|Lines Po.|Lines.| |12 inch| 150 | 12 | 17 | 5 | 15 9 | 15 | 16 | |10 ----| 100 | 10 | 10 | 3 | 15 9 | 15 | 16 | | 8 ----| 43 | 8 | 4 1 | 1 | 12 | 11 | 10 | | 6 ----| 23 | 6 | 2 8 | 12 | 11 | 10 6 | 10 | +-------+-------+-------+--------+--------+---------+---------+------+
Dimensions of shells for guns and carronades made with an equal thickness of metal.
+--------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ | Kind. | 42 Pr.| 32 | 24 | 18 | 12 | +--------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ | |Inches.|Inches.|Inches.|Inches.|Inches.| | {Diameter of{Exterior| 6·684 | 6·105 | 5·547 | 5·04 | 4·4 | | {the shell {Interior| 4·404 | 4·005 | 3·767 | 3·4 | 2·8 | | {Thickness of | | | | | | |Guns.{metal | 1·14 | 1·05 | 0·89 | 0·82 | 0·8 | | {Diameter of{Exterior| 0·892 | 0·894 | 0·894 | 0·832 | 0·832 | | {fuze hole {Interior| 0·826 | 0·826 | 0·826 | ·769 | ·769 | | {Powder for | | | | | | | {bursting oz.| 14 | 11 | 12 | 9 | 5¹⁄₂ | | +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ | {Diameter of{Exterior| 6·64 | 6·05 | 5·48 | 4·935 | 4·295 | | {shell {Interior| 4·36 | 3·95 | 3·48 | 3·235 | 2·695 | |Car- {Thickness of | | | | | | |ron- {metal | 1·14 | 1·05 | 1· | ·85 | 0·8 | |ades.{Shell’s weight lbs.| | 22 | | 12 | | | {Contains powder oz.| | 12¹⁄₂ | | 9 | | | {Powder for | | | | | | | {bursting oz.| | 10 | | 7 | | +--------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
Shells are likewise sometimes quilted into grape. See the word SHOT.
For the method of proving shells, see PROOF.
The Germans do not name their shells from the diameter of the bore which receives them, but from the weight of a stone ball that fits the same bore as the shell. Thus, a 7lb. howitzer admits a stone ball of that weight; the shell for this weighs 15 lb. and answers to the English 5¹⁄₂ inch. The 30 lb. howitzer shell weighs 60 lb. and is rather more than 8 inches in diameter.
Shells were, till lately, made thicker at the bottom than at the fuze hole; but are now cast of the same thickness throughout, and are found to burst into a greater number of pieces in consequence.
Message-SHELLS, are nothing more than howitz shells, in the inside of which a letter, or other papers, are put; the fuze hole is stopt up with wood or cork, and the shells are fired out of a royal or howitz, either into a garrison or camp. It is supposed that the person to whom the letter is sent, knows the time, and accordingly appoints a guard to look out for its arrival.
SHELL. A particular part of a sword, which serves as a shield to the hand when it grasps the hilt. The British regulation sword, which is directed to be worn in a cross belt, has its shell so constructed that one side can fall down, by which means the hilt hangs more conveniently.
SHELL. A short jacket without arms, which was worn by light dragoons, and in some instances by the infantry, before the new regulations took place, respecting the clothing of the British army. At the commencement of the present war, some militia colonels derived no inconsiderable emolument from this mode of dress.
SHERISCHER-war, Ind. A word which corresponds with Saturday.
SHERISTA, Ind. An office; a registry; serishtadar, a linguist or secretary.
To SHIFT. In a military sense, to change place or station. Hence, to shift quarters. In the exercise, &c. of a battalion, officers commanding divisions are, upon particular occasions, such as marching past, &c. to shift from the right to the left, to conduct the heads of files, or the pivot flanks, in column or echellon. Whenever officers shift, they must pass briskly by the rear, and never along the front of the division. The covering serjeants always move with them.
The SHILLINGS. A phrase in familiar use among British army brokers, to express a certain profit or per centage which they gain in the sale, purchase, and exchange of commissions. The regulated price of a company in any regiment of foot being 1500_l._ only, that sum can be lodged at an agent’s, or a banker’s; but if the company be what is called in the market, the broker who transacts the business, receives one shilling in the pound, and in order to produce this premium, the purchaser gives 1500 guineas, out of which the shillings amounting to 75_l._ are paid to the broker, leaving the nett regulation untouched.
Head-quarter SHIP. The ship on which the commander in chief of an expedition is embarked, and from which signals are made for the commanding officers, adjutants, &c. of corps, to attend.
Hospital SHIP. The ship in which the sick and wounded soldiers, &c. are taken care of on expeditions, and during sea voyages.
Prison SHIP. A ship appropriated for the reception of prisoners of war, &c.
SHOCCA, Ind. Any letter written by the king.
SNOOKREWAR, Ind. A word which corresponds with Friday.
SHOOTING. See GUNNERY and PROJECTILE.
SHORTEN your bridle. A word of command used in cavalry, viz.
1st. Seize the upper end of the reins of the bridle, which is to lie on the right side of the horse, with the right hand.
2d. Bring it up as high as your chin, keeping your right elbow on a level with the shoulder.
3d. Slip your left hand along the reins of the bridle, and take hold of the loop or button, which is near the upper end of the reins.
4th. Slip the loop down with the left hand as low as the pommel of the saddle.
5th. Bring the right hand down with life on the right holster-cap, quitting the reins of the bridle with both hands.
SHORT-roll. See SIGNALS.
SHOT. A denomination given to all kinds of balls used for artillery and fire-arms; those for cannon being of iron, and those for guns and pistols, &c. of lead.
Grape Chain Case SHOT. See LABORATORY.
To find the weight of an iron Shot whose diameter is given; and the contrary. Rule. Double the cube of the diameter in inches, and multiply it by 7; so will the product (rejecting the 2 last or right hand figures) be the weight in pounds.
Example. What is the weight of an iron shot of 7 inches diameter. The cube of 7 is 343, which doubled is 686, and this multiplied by 7 produces 4802, which with the right hand figures rejected, gives 48 pounds, the weight required.
N. B. This rule is sufficiently exact for practical uses.
To find the diameter of the Shot, when the weight is given. Rule. Multiply the cube root of the weight in pounds by 1.923, and the product is the diameter in inches.
Example. What is the diameter of an iron shot of 52 pounds? The cube root of 52 is 3.732, which multiplied by 1.923 gives 7.177 inches, the diameter required.
Rule by logarithms.
To ¹⁄₃d of the log. of 52 0.572001 Add the constant log. 0.283979 And the sum is the log. of the diameter 7.177 0.855980
To find the diameter of a SHOT, from the impression or cavity it makes by striking a brass gun, or other object. Rule. Divide the square of the radius of the cavity by the depth of it, and add the quotient to the depth; so will the sum be the diameter of the shot required.
Example. A shot having struck upon a brass gun, made a cavity of 1.49 inches deep, and 4.94 inches diameter; what was the size of the shot? The radius of the cavity is 2.47, and its square is 6.1009, which divided by the depth 1.49, the quotient is 4.1, to which adding 1.49, the sum 5.59 inches is the diameter required, answering to a 24 pounder.
SHOT.--Rules for finding the number in any pile.
Triangular pile.
Multiply the base by the base + 1, this product by the base + 2, and divide by 6.
Square pile.
Multiply the bottom row by the bottom row + 1, and this product by twice the bottom row + 2, and divide by 6.
Rectangular piles.
Multiply the breadth of the base by itself + 1, and this product by 3 times the difference between the length and breadth of the base, added to twice the breadth + 1, and divide by 6.
Incomplete piles.
Incomplete piles being only frustrums, wanting a similar small pile on the top, compute first the whole pile as if complete, and also the small pile wanting at top; and then subtract the one number from the other.
Rules for finding the dimensions and weight of shot.
The weight and dimensions of shot or shells might be found by means of their specific gravities; (see the word GRAVITY,) but they may be found still easier, by means of the experimented weight of a ball of a given size, from the known proportion of similar figures, namely, as the cubes of their diameters.
1st. To find the weight of an iron ball from its diameter.--An iron ball of 4 inches diameter weighs 9 lb. and the weights being as the cubes of their diameters, it will be as 64, (the cube of 4,) is to 9, so is the cube of the diameter of any other ball to its weight.
2d. To find the weight of a leaden ball. A leaden ball of 4¹⁄₄ inches diameter weighs 17 lb. therefore, as the cube of 4¹⁄₄ is to 17, (as 9 to 2 nearly,) so is the cube of the diameter of any leaden ball to its weight.
3d. To find the diameter of an iron ball. Multiply the weight by 7¹⁄₉ and the cube root of the product will be the diameter.
4th. To find the diameter of a leaden ball. Multiply the weight by 9, and divide the product by 2; and take the cube root of the quotient for the diameter.
Table of diameters of English iron round shot.
+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ |Kind | 68 | 42 | 32 | 24 | 18 | 12 | 9 | 6 | 3 | 1 | +------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ |Inches|8· |6·684|6·105|5·547|5·040|4·403|4·000|3·498|2·775|1·92 | +------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | Diameter of French iron round shot in English inches. | +------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ |Kind | 36 | 24 | 16 | 12 | 8 | 4 | +------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+ |Inches| 6·648 | 5·808 | 5·074 | 4·610 | 4·027 | 3·196 | +------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+
Table of grape shot, for sea and land service.
-----------+-------------+------------ | |Total weight | Weight of |of the grape Kind. | each shot. | complete. -----------+-------------+------------ |lbs. oz. |lbs. oz. 42 pounders| 4 0 | 46 6 32 ---- | 3 0 | 34 1 24 ---- | 2 0 | 25 5 18 ---- | 1 8 | 19 15¹⁄₂ 12 ---- | 1 0 | 10 15 9 ---- | 0 13 | 7 6 6 ---- | 0 8 | 5 8¹⁄₂ 4 ---- | 0 6 | 3 14¹⁄₂ 3 ---- | 0 0 | 2 10¹⁄₂ ¹⁄₂ ---- | 0 ³⁄₄ lead| 8³⁄₄ -----------+-------------+------------
Table of English case shot for different services.
-----+------------------------+------------------------------- | Sea service. | Carronades. +------+------+----------+--------+------+------+-------- | | | Weight | | | |Weight |Weight|Number| of | |Weight|Number| of | of | in | each | | of | in |each | each | each | case | | each | each | case Kind.| shot.| case.| filled. | Kind. | shot.| case.|filled. -----+------+------+----------+--------+------+------+-------- Pr. | oz. | No. |lbs. oz. | Pr. | oz. | No. |lbs oz. 32 | 8 | 70 | 33 8 | 68 | 8 | 90 | 46 2 24 | 8 | 42 | 22 15 | 42 | 8 | 66 | 32 8 18 | 6 | 42 | 15 8 | 32 | 8 | 40 | 21 4 12 | 4 | 42 | 11 5 | 24 | 8 | 32 | 16 1 9 | 3 | 44 | 8 9 | 18 | 6 | 31 | 12 2 6 | 2 | 40 | 5 2 | 12 | 4 | 32 | 8 2 4 | 2 | 28 | 4 -- +--------+------+------+-------- 3 | 2 | 20 | 2 15 | 1 | 1¹⁄₄ | 12 | 1 2¹⁄₄| Tier shot for field service. -----+------+------+----------+--------+------+------+-------- | | oz. | No. |lbs. oz. Common land service. |12 pr.} | 18 | 15 | 18 8 |Med. } | 6!!!| 42 | 17 11 -----+------+------+----------+6 pr. }| 8- | 15 | 9 -- Pr. | oz. | No. |lbs. oz. |Med. }| 3- | 42 | 8 14 24 | 4 | 84 | 21 11 |3 pr. } | 4- | 15 | 4 10 12 | 2 | 84 | 12 1 |Med. } | 1- | 42 | 4 6 6 | 1¹⁄₂ | 55 | 5 10¹⁄₂|12 pr. }| 14 | 12 | 14 14 3 | 1¹⁄₄ | 52 | 2 14 |light }| 6 | 34 | 14 11 | | | |6 pr. } | 8- | 12 | 7 3 | | | |light } | 3- | 34 | 7 7 | | | |3 Pr. }| 4- | 12 | 3 10 | | | |light }| 1- | 34 | 3 11 -----+------+------+----------+--------+------+------+--------
Table of case shot.--Continued.
----------------------------+---------------------- For mortars | Howitzers. -----+------+------+--------+------+------+-------- |Weight|No. of| Weight |Weight|No. of| Weight | of | shot | of | of | shot | of | each | in | case | each | in | case Kind.| shot.| each.| filled.| shot.| each.| filled. -----+------+------+--------+------+------+-------- In. | oz. | No. |lbs. oz.| oz. | No. |lbs. oz. 10 | 8 | 170 | 91 8 | -- | -- | -- -- 8 | 6 | 90 | 38 4 | 6 | 90 | 38 8 5¹⁄₂| 3 | 55 | 12 6 | 3 | 55 | 12 8 4 | 2 | 55 | 8 1 | 2 | 55 | 8 2 -----+------+------+--------+------+------+--------
Small shells, as 4²⁄₅ inches, and hand grenades were quilted into grape for 13 inch mortars at Gibraltar. The fuzes were turned inwards next the iron tompion, and leaders of quick match for communicating fire to the fuzes were introduced through holes made in the wooden bottom, and placed as near the fuzes as possible in the centre of the grape. These answered very well for short ranges.
Hot Shot.--The powder for firing with hot shot must be in strong flannel cartridges, without any holes, lest some grains should remain in the bore, in putting the cartridge home. Over the powder must be rammed a good dry wad, then a damp one, and then the hot shot; and if the gun lays at a depression, there must be a wad over the shot, which may be rammed home. If the above precautions be attended to, the gun may be pointed after being loaded, without the smallest danger, as it is well known that the shot will grow cold in the gun, without burning more than a few threads of the wads next it. This is not the mode usually taught of loading with hot shot, but is that which was practised during the siege of Gibraltar. Mr. Durtubie proposes putting the shot when heated, into a tin cannister, as an effectual method of preventing accidents.
The grates usually made for heating shot will generally make them red hot in three-fourths of an hour.
SHOULDER. The upper part of the blade of a sword is so called. The shoulders of regimental sword-blades, for the infantry, should be one inch broad at least.
SHOULDER of a bastion. In fortification. See EPAULE.
SHOULDER-belt, so called because it hangs over the shoulder, to carry the bayonet or sword: it is made of strong leather.
To SHOULDER. In a military sense; to lay on the shoulder, or to rest any thing against it. Hence to shoulder a musquet.
SHOULDER arms. A word of command which is used in the manual exercise. See MANUAL.
Right SHOULDERS forward. Left SHOULDERS forward. Two terms of command in the British service, when a column of march (in order to follow the windings of its route) changes its direction in general, less than the quarter of the circle. This is a clumsy translation of the line of science, or oblique facing of the French system; the proper word of command is half or quarter face to the right or left.
SHROF, Ind. A banker; a moneychanger, or one who keeps a shop for the accommodation of the public in pecuniary matters, and who derives considerable advantage from the circulating medium of other people’s property.
SHROFFING, Ind. The act of examining and sorting money.
SHUMSERTREEPUT, Ind. Avowal, acknowlegement, confession.
To SHUT. To close; to make not open.
SHUT pans. A word of command used in the inspection of arms. Place the inside of your fingers against the back part of the hammer, and bring it briskly to in one motion. In opening pans, you place the thumb against the inside of the hammer.
SHUTERNAUL, Ind. A sort of arquebuss, which is fixed upon the back of a camel.
SICK and hurt. A board so called, to which the agents, commissaries, &c. belonging to the several military hospitals in Great Britain, are responsible.
SIDE-pieces, of gun-carriages. See CARRIAGES.
SIDE-straps, in a field carriage, are flat iron bands which go round the side-pieces, in those places where the wood is cut across the grain, to strengthen them near the centre and the trail.
SIEGE, (Siege, Fr.) The position which an army takes, or its encampment before a fortified town, or place, for the purpose of reducing it. The term comes from siege, which signifies seat, chair, &c. Hence; to sit down before a place, signifies in a military sense, to chuse a position from which you may commence the necessary operations to attack and get possession of it. The French use the word generally as we do.
To undertake the SIEGE of a town. Entreprendre le siege d’une Ville. To invest it, to form lines of circumvallation, to open trenches, &c.
To lay SIEGE to a town, (faire le siége d’une ville, Fr.) To draw your forces round a town, for the purpose of attacking it.
To carry on a SIEGE, (continuer un siége, Fr.) To persevere by regular approaches, &c. in gaining ground upon the garrison.
To lay close SIEGE, (presser le siége, Fr.) To approach close to the walls for the purpose of making a breach and storming, or of starving out the garrison. For a full and scientific explanation of the different methods, which are adapted in modern times, for the attack or defence of places, particularly of sieges, see Essai General de Fortification, d’attaque et defense de places, tom. 1, page 61, &c. &c.
SIEGE brusque, Fr. An expression used among the French, to signify the prompt and immediate movement of a besieging army, against a fortified town or place, without waiting for the regular formation of lines, &c. In this case the troops make a vigorous attack upon all the outworks, and endeavour to make a lodgment upon the counterscarp. When they have succeeded, they instantly throw up temporary lines, &c. behind them, in order to secure a retreat, should the garrison force them to quit their ground.
SIEGE, in the art of war, is to surround a fortified place with an army, and approach it by passages made in the ground, so as to be covered against the fire of the place.
The first operation of a siege is investing. The body of troops investing a town should, at least, be as strong again as the garrison: so as to be able to divide itself into several parties, in order to take possession of all the avenues leading to the place. By day they should keep themselves out of cannon shot: but as soon as it is dusk they must approach much nearer, the better to be able to support each other, and to straiten the town.
General phrases and terms used at a SIEGE are, viz.
To besiege a place. See SIEGE.
To accelerate the SIEGE, (Presser le Siege, Fr.) is when an army can approach so near the place as the covert-way, without breaking ground, under favor of some hollow roads, rising grounds, or cavities, and there begin their work.
An attack, is when the besieging army can approach the town so near as to take it, without making any considerable works.
To form the SIEGE, or lay siege to a place, (Mettre le Siege à une place, Fr.) there must be an army sufficient to furnish five or six reliefs for the trenches, pioneers, guards, convoys, escorts, &c. and artillery, with all the apparatus thereto belonging; magazines furnished with a sufficient quantity of all kinds of warlike stores; and a general hospital, with physicians, surgeons, medicines, &c.
To raise a SIEGE, (Lever le Siege, Fr.) is to give over the attack of a place, quit the works thrown up against it, and the posts formed about it. If there be no reason to fear a sally from the place, the siege may be raised in the day-time. The artillery and ammunition must have a strong rear guard, lest the besieged should attempt to charge the rear: if there be any fear of an enemy in front, this order must be altered discretionally, as safety and the nature of the country will admit.
To turn a SIEGE into a blockade, (Convertir le Siege en blocus, Fr.) is to give over the attack, and endeavor to take it by famine; for which purpose all the avenues, gates, and streams, leading into the place, are so well guarded, that no succor can get in to its relief.
To insult a work, to attack it in a sudden and unexpected manner, with small arms, or sword in hand.
Surprise, is the taking a place by stratagem or treason.
To escalade a place, is to approach it secretly, then to place ladders against the wall, or rampart, for the troops to mount and get into it that way.
To petard a place, is privately to approach the gate and fix a petard to it, so as to break it open for the troops to enter.
Line of circumvallation, is a kind of fortification, consisting of a parapet, or breast-work, and a ditch before it, to cover the besiegers against any attempt of the enemy in the field.
Line of countervallation, is a breast-work, with a ditch before it, to cover the besiegers against any sally from the garrison, in the same manner that the line of circumvallation serves to protect them in the field.
Lines, are works made to cover an army, so as to command a part of the country, with a breast-work and a ditch before it.
Retrenchment, a work made round the camp of an army, to cover it against any surprise.
Line of counter-approach, a trench which the besieged make from the covert-way to the right and left of the besiegers attacks, in order to scour their works. This line must be perfectly enfiladed from the covert-way and the half-moon, &c. that it may be of no service to the enemy, in case he gets possession of it.
Batteries at a siege, cannot be erected till the trench is advanced within reach of the cannon of the place; that is, within what is generally understood to be a point-blank range, which is reckoned about 300 toises, or 1800 feet.
Cannon is made use of at a siege for two different purposes; the first to drive away the enemy from their defences; and the second, to dismount their guns. To produce these two effects, the batteries should not be above the mean reach of cannon-shot from the place: therefore there is no possibility of constructing them, till the first parallel is formed; and as the distance of the first parallel from the second is generally 300 toises, the batteries must be on this line, or beyond it, nearer the town.
The construction of batteries belongs to the officers of the royal artillery, who generally consult with the engineer that has the direction of the siege, as well about their situation as about the number of their guns and mortars. They must be parallel to the works of the town which they are to batter. It is customary to place the mortar-batteries and gun-batteries side by side, and in the same line, to the end that they may batter the same parts. The use of both is to demolish the enemy’s works, to dismount their guns, to penetrate into their powder magazines, and to drive the besieged from their works and defences; as also to ruin and destroy the principal buildings, by setting fire to the town; and to fatigue and distress the inhabitants in such a manner, that they shall press the garrison to surrender.
To sally at a siege, is to go privately out of a besieged town, fall suddenly upon the besiegers, and destroy part of their works, spike their cannon, and do every other possible damage.
A sally, a secret movement which is made out of a besieged town or place, by a chosen body of troops, for the purpose of destroying an enemy’s out-works, &c. Sallies are seldom made when the garrison is weak; for although they molest the enemy, and keep him on the alert, yet the chance of losing men renders it prudent to keep within the works.
Saps in a siege, are trenches made under cover from the fire of the place, behind a mantlet or stuffed gabion: they are generally ten or twelve feet broad.--This work differs from the trenches, in as much as the latter are made uncovered. The sap has also less breadth; but when it is as wide as the trench, it bears the same name. There are various sorts of saps, viz.
Single sap, is that which is made on one side only, or, which is the same thing, has only one parapet.
Double Sap, has a parapet on each side, and is carried on wherever its two sides are seen from the place.
Flying sap, is that in which the besiegers do not give themselves the trouble of filling the gabions with earth: it is made where the workmen are not much exposed, and in order to accelerate the approaches.
Sap-faggots, are a kind of fascines, but only three feet long, and about six inches in diameter.
Saucissons, are another species of fascines, from 12 to 19 feet long, and from 8 to 10 inches in diameter, and are used in making batteries, and repairing the breaches.
Sortie. See SALLY.
Tail, or rear of the trench, (Queue de la tranche, Fr.) is the first work the besiegers make when they open the trenches.
Tambour, is a kind of traverse, at the upper end of the trench or opening made in the glacis to communicate with the arrows. This work hinders the besiegers from being masters of the arrow, or discovering the inside of the place of arms belonging to the covert-way.
Traverse, in a siege, a kind of retrenchment which is made in the dry ditch, to defend the passage over it.
Trenches, are passages or turnings dug in the earth, in order to approach a place without being seen from its defences.
Wool-packs, used in a siege, differ from sand-bags, in this only, that they are much larger, and, instead of earth, they are filled with wool. They are used in making lodgments in places where there is but little earth, and for other similar purposes. They are about five feet high, and 15 inches in diameter.
Rear of an attack, is the place where the attack begins.
Front, or head of an attack, that part next to the place.
Mantlets, are wooden fences, rolling upon wheels, of two feet diameter; the body of the axle-tree is about four or five inches square, and four or five feet long; to which is fixed a pole of eight or ten feet long, by two spars; upon the axle-tree is fixed a wooden parapet, three feet high made of three-inch planks, and four feet long, joined with dowel-pins, and two cross-bars: this parapet leans somewhat towards the pole, and is supported by a brace, one end of which is fixed to the pole, and the other to the upper part of the parapet. Mantlets are used to cover the sappers in front against musquet shot.
Maxims in SIEGES are, 1st. The approaches should be made without being seen from the town, either directly, obliquely, or in the flank.
2. No more works should be made than are necessary for approaching the place without being seen; i. e. the besiegers should carry on their approaches the shortest way possible, consistent with being covered against the enemy’s fire.
3. All the parts of the trenches should mutually support each other; and those which are farthest advanced, should be distant from those that defend them above 120 or 130 toises, that is, within musquet shot.
4. The parallels, or places of arms the most distant from the town, should have a greater extent than those which are the nearest, that the besiegers may be able to take the enemy in flank, should he resolve to attack the nearest parallels.
5. The trench should be opened or begun as near as possible to the place, without exposing the troops too much, in order to accelerate and diminish the operations of the siege.
6. Care should be taken to join the attacks; that is, they should have communications, to the end that they may be able to support each other.
7. Never to advance a work, unless it be well supported; and for this reason, in the interval between the 2d and 3d place of arms, the besiegers should make, on both sides of the trenches, smaller places of arms, extending 40 or 50 toises in length, parallel to the others, and constructed in the same manner, which will serve to lodge the soldiers in, who are to protect the works designed to reach the third place of arms.
8. Take care to place the batteries of cannon in the continuation of the faces of the parts attacked, in order to silence their fire; and to the end that the approaches, being protected, may advance with great safety and expedition.
9. For this reason the besiegers shall always embrace the whole front attacked, in order to have as much space as is requisite to place the batteries on the produced faces of the works attacked.
10. Do not begin the attack with works that lie close to one another, or with rentrant angles, which would expose the attack to the cross fire of the enemy.
Stores required for a month’s SIEGE are as follows:
Powder, as the garrison is more or less strong 8 or 900,000 lb. Shot{for battering pieces 6000 {of a lesser sort 20,000 Battering cannon 80 Cannons of a lesser sort 40 Small field-pieces for defending the lines 20 Mortars for throwing{shells 24 {stones 12 Shells for mortars 15 or 16,000 Hand-grenades 40,000 Leaden bullets 180,000 Matches in braces 10,000 Flints for musquets, best sort 100,000 Platforms complete for guns 100 Platforms for mortars 60 {carriages for guns 60 Spare{mortar-beds 60 {spunges, rammers, and ladles, in sets 20 Tools to work in trenches 40,000
Several hand-jacks, gins, sling-carts, travelling forges, and other engines proper to raise and carry heavy burdens; spare timber, and all sorts of miner’s tools, mantlets, stuffed gabions, fascines, pickets, and gabions.
SIENS, Fr. The plural of sien, his, her’s or one’s own. This word is used among the French, to signify the same as gens, men, people, soldiers; viz. ce général fut abandonné par les siens. That general was abandoned by his own soldiers.
SIEVE, an instrument, which by means of hair, lawn, or wire, is capable of separating the fine from the coarse parts of any powder. See GUNPOWDER, LABORATORY, &c.
SIFFLEMENT, Fr. Literally means the noise of a whistle. It is used to express the sound which a ball or bullet makes when it cuts the air; as sifflement des armes à feu. The whistling or whizzing noise of fire arms.
SIES or SHIAS, Ind. A tribe of people in the N. West of India.
SIFFLET, Fr. A whistle. The French make use of the whistle on board their ships in the same manner as we do. It answers the same purpose at sea, that the drum and trumpet do on shore. The boatswain’s whistle pipes all hands up, as occasion requires in a ship: and the drum and trumpet collect troops together, in camp, garrison, or elsewhere.
SIG, an old Saxon word, importing victory.
SIGHT, (La Mire, Fr.) a small piece of brass or iron which is fixed near to the muzzle of a musquet or pistol, to serve as a point of direction, and to assist the eye in levelling.
SIGN, a sensible mark or character, denoting something absent or invisible. As the trace of a foot, the hand-writing or mark of a man; also the subscription of one’s name.
SIGN Manual. The king’s signature is so called. All commissions in the regular army of Great Britain, army warrants, &c. bear the sign manual. The appointments of officers in the volunteers have been so distinguished during the present war. Adjutants only in the militia have their commissions signed by the king; those of the field officers, captains, and subalterns, &c. are signed by the lords lieutenants of counties, or by their deputies for the time being, sanctioned by a previous intimation from the secretary of state, that the king does not disapprove of the names which have been laid before him.
SIGNAL, (Signal, Fr.) Any sign made by sea or land, for sailing, marching, fighting, &c. Signals are likewise given by the short and long rolls of the drum, during the exercise of a battalion.
SIGNAL, in the art of war, a certain sign agreed upon for the conveying intelligence, where the voice cannot reach. Signals are frequently given for the beginning of a battle, or an attack, usually with drums and trumpets, and sometimes with sky-rockets, &c.
SIGNAL of attack or assault, (Signal d’une attaque, ou d’un assaut, Fr.) This signal may be given in various ways. By the discharge of a lighted shell, by sky-rockets, by colors displayed from a conspicuous spot, &c. In 1747 marshal Lowendal made use of lighted shells or bombs, when he laid siege to the town of Bergen-op-zoom. During the consternation of the inhabitants, which was excited by a continual discharge of these signal shells, the grenadiers entered a practicable breach, and took the town by storm.
SIGNAL-flags in ancient military history, was a gilded shield hung out of the admiral’s gallery; it was sometimes a red garment or banner. During the elevation of this the fight continues, and by its depression or inclination towards the right or left, the rest of the ships were directed how to attack their enemies, or retreat from them.
SIGNALS made by the colors of an army, (Signaux des enseignes, Fr.) The ancients had recourse to all the various methods which could be used by signals, to express the particular situation of affairs, and to indicate measures that should be adopted. If, during an engagement, victory seemed inclined more to one side than another, the colors belonging to the victorious party were instantly bent towards its yielding antagonist. This signal was conspicuous to the men, and excited them to fresh efforts. They imbibed the most lively hopes of success, and eagerly pressed forward to reap the advantages of bravery and good conduct.
When an army was hard pressed by its enemy, the colors of the former were raised high in the air, and were kept in a perpetual flutter and agitation, for the purpose of conveying to the soldiers, that the issue of the battle was still doubtful, and that nothing but courage and perseverance could determine the victory. If, in the heat of action, any particular regiment seemed to waver and give way, so as to cause an apprehension that it might finally be broken, its colors were instantly snatched out of the bearer’s hands by the general or commanding officer, and thrown into the thickest of the enemy. It frequently happened that the men who were upon the point of yielding ground and flying, received a fresh impulse from this act, rallied, and by a desperate effort of courage recovered the colors, and restored the day. This method of re-animating their legions was generally resorted to by the Romans. We have had instances in modern times, where the fortune of the day has been wholly decided by some sudden and unexpected act of an individual. In the reign of Louis XIV. a private soldier threw his hat into the midst of the enemy during a hard fought and doubtful battle, expressing thereby that fresh succours were arrived to strengthen the French army. This circumstance, so apparently trifling, produced the desired effect. It threw the enemy into confusion, gave the French fresh spirits, and finally determined the victory in their favor. We read of various instances in which signals have been used to express the personal danger of a king or general, who was fighting at the head of a select body of men. The knowlege of the critical position in which their leader stood, excited fresh courage in the rest of the troops, and drove them to acts of the greatest intrepidity. In the course of the present war some examples of the same sort might be adduced, both on the side of Austria, and on that of France. The bridge of Lodi, the passage of the Tagliamento, &c. would illustrate any observations we could make upon the subject.
Nor are the advantages which arise from the use of signals confined to these particular cases. Various circumstances grow out of the desultory nature of military operations, to render flags of communication indispensibly necessary. The vast scope which is given to modern tactics, makes it impossible that the human eye or voice should take in all the critical manœuvres or evolutions which occur, when an extended line is actually engaged. The right wing may be giving way while the left is gaining ground, and the centre might be in danger while the two flanks were rapidly advancing with apparent security against the enemy. Under these circumstances a general, by means of communicating signals, might be enabled to provide for every contingency, without losing time by sending his orders verbally. Although signal flags, in modern engagements, have been generally laid aside, their use has been acknowleged in the adoption of warlike instruments, which, by the variety of their sounds, convey the necessary directions to an engaging army.
The ancients had signals which they called mute signals, (signaux muets.) These consisted in certain actions or signs that were made by a general; such as waving the hand, brandishing a stick or sword, or by exhibiting to view any part of his dress, accoutrements, &c. Instances of the same kind have occurred among the moderns. Under this denomination may likewise be classed the different signals which are made for the movement, marching, and manœuvring of troops in and out of quarters. When troops are scattered or separated from one another, it is usual to communicate by means of fires lighted upon eminences during the night, and by smoke during the day.
In former times large pieces of wood were hung above the towers of cities or castles, which, by being drawn up or lowered, gave intelligence of what passed. This method has been succeeded by the invention of telegraphs, which answer every purpose of communication, when they can be established through an extent of country. At the battle of Fleurus, the French employed balloons, to which cords were attached, able officers elevated in the air sent down, by the cords, an account of the movements of the Austrians, a signal thus conveyed enabled Jourdan to direct a tremendous battalion fire, and a heavy charge of cavalry, by which the battle was decided. Besides those signals, there are others which may be called vocal and demi-vocal. The vocal signals are those of the human voice, which consist in the necessary precautions that are adopted to prevent a guard or post from being surprised, to enounce words of command in action, &c. Of the first description are paroles and countersigns, which are exchanged between those to whom they are intrusted, and which are frequently altered, during the day and night, to prevent the enemy from receiving any information by means of spies. The demi-vocal signals are conveyed by military instruments; the different soundings of which indicate, instantaneously, whether an army is to halt or to advance, whether troops are to continue in the pursuit of an enemy, or to retreat.
The demi-vocal signals, directed to be observed in the British service, as far as regards the manœuvring of corps, &c. consist of signals for the government of light infantry, and of cavalry regiments, squadrons, or troops: the latter are properly called soundings. Rifle or light infantry signals are to give notice--to advance; to retreat; to halt; to cease firing; to assemble, or call in all parties. Those signals should be always considered as fixed and determined ones, and are never to be changed. The bugle horn of each company should make himself perfect master of them. All signals are to be repeated; and all those signals which are made from the line or column, are to convey the intention of the commanding officer of the line to the officer commanding the light infantry, who will communicate them to the several companies or detachments either by word or signal.
SIGNAL-staff. In matters of military parade it is usual to fix a flag, somewhat larger than a camp color, to point out the spot where the general or officer commanding takes his station in front or a line. This is called the signal staff.
SIGURGHAL, Ind. A feudal tenure.
SIGUETTE, Fr. The same as cavesson, a sort of noseband, sometimes made of iron, and sometimes of leather, or wood; sometimes flat, and sometimes hollow or twisted; which is put upon the nose of a horse, to forward the suppling and breaking of him.
SILENCE, (Silence, Fr.) This word is used by the French as a caution to soldiers to prepare for any part of the military duty or exercise. The French have likewise another term which corresponds with our word attention. See GARDE. We use Attention in both instances.
SILHATARIS, Fr. See SPAHIS.
SILLAGE, Fr. The wake of a ship; the trace which a vessel leaves astern when she moves forward.
SILLON, in fortification, is a work raised in the middle of a ditch, to defend it when it is too wide. It has no particular form, and is sometimes made with little bastions, half-moons, and redans, which are lower than the works of the place, but higher than the covert way. It is more frequently called envelope, which see.
SIMILAR polygons, are such as have their angles severally equal, and the sides about those angles proportional.
To SIMPLIFY. This word has been adopted amongst men of business and arrangement, from the French simplifier, which means to relate the bare matter of fact. This signification likewise reaches every species of analysis, &c. Thus the advantage of the new manual over the old, is owing to the reduction of the latter into fewer motions and words of command, by which that exercise has been considerably simplified. The oblique facings, under the denomination of quarter facings, half facings, of single files; the half wheelings, quarter wheelings, and half quarter wheelings of sections, platoons, divisions, and battalions, are all more simple in the new discipline than the methods of the old.
SINE. In geometry, a right sine, is a right line drawn from one end of an arch perpendicularly upon the diameter drawn from the other end of the arch.
SINES. See table of Natural Sines, at the end of the word GUNNERY.
SINGE, Fr. An instrument so called. See PENTAGRAPH.
SINGLE combat, a contest in which not more than two are engaged.
SINUS, Fr. See LINE for its geometrical acceptation.
SINUS, in English, signifies a bay of the sea, an opening of the land; any fold or opening.
SINUSOIDE, Fr. A geometrical curve, which has been imagined by Monsieur Belidor, for the purpose of balancing or preserving the equipoise of a drawbridge. See Science des Ingénieurs, liv. iv. See likewise the specific construction of this curve as explained by the marquis de l’Hopital, in a book intitled, Acta Eruditorum, published at Leipsic in 1695; and demonstrated by M. Bernouilli, who discovered that this curve was nothing more than the epicycloid, which see.
SIPHON, (Syphon, likewise Ciphon, Fr.) In hydraulics, a crooked tube, one leg or branch whereof is longer than the other. It is used in the raising of fluids, emptying of vessels, and in various hydrostatical experiments.
SIRKAR, Ind. The government.
SIROC. From Sirius, the dog-star. The wind, which we call south-east, is so called in Italy.
To SIT. In a military sense, to take a stationary position; as, To sit before a fortified place; to lie encamped for the purpose of besieging it. The French use the word asseoir as an active verb with respect to military matters, viz. asseoir un camp, to pitch a camp. Il assit son camp hors de la portée du canon de la ville; he pitched his camp out of the range of the town’s cannon.
SIXAIN. Sixth, Sexagena, in war, an ancient order of battle, wherein six battalions being ranged in one line, the second and fifth were made to advance, to form the van guard; the first and sixth to retire to form the rear guard; the third and fourth remaining to form the main corps. The word is derived from the French, which signifies the same thing. The sixain order of battle may be formed with all the battalions whose number is produced by the number six. Twelve battalions, for instance, may be ranged in order of battle, by forming two sixains, and eighteen battalions, ditto by forming three sixains, and so on progressively.
To SIZE. In a military sense to take the height of men for the purpose of placing them in military array, and of rendering their relative statures more effective. In all infantry regiments the sizing begins from flanks to centre, the tallest men being placed upon the right and left of the several companies in the front rank, and the shortest in the centre and rear ranks. By the old cavalry discipline the flank troops of a squadron must be sized in the following manner: That of the right flank, from right to left; that of the left flank, from left to right; the centre one from centre to flanks; the tallest man must, of course, be always in the part where the sizing begins, excepting the corporals, one of whom must be on each flank of the front rank of the troop, covered by a clever soldier in the rear rank. If there be only two troops in a squadron, they size the right from the left, and the left from the right flank. The modern practice now is to size all troops from the centre, beginning by sizing from the right, doubling and countermarching a rank.
SKEAN, Celtic. A knife. This word is sometimes written skeen, or skeine. It signifies a weapon, in the shape of a small sword or knife, which was anciently worn by the Irish.
SKELETON. This word is frequently applied to regiments that are extremely reduced in their number of men. Thus a British regiment that went out to St. Domingo 1000 strong, and returned to England with 20 or 30 men only, was called a skeleton regiment.
SKELETON plan. See OUTLINE.
SKETCH. See ditto.
SKILL. Knowlege in any particular art. As
Military SKILL. M. Belleisle, the French general, after the example of Xenophon, the Greek, undertook in the month of December 1742, to withdraw the French army from Prague, where it was at that time shut up, and to march over the enemy’s country, through a road of 38 leagues, upwards of 124 English miles, covered with ice, and over mountains whose precipices were concealed under the snow, having, besides, an army of between eighteen and twenty thousand men, under the command of prince Lobkowitz, to fight with. For the particulars of this famous retreat, which in count Turpin’s words, deserves to be written by Xenophon himself. See page 2, vol. I. of his Art of War.
SKINS. Sheep skins are made use of to cover the mortars or howitzers between firing, to prevent any wet or dampness getting into them.
SKIRMISH, in war, a loose, desultory kind of combat, or encounter, in presence of two armies, between small parties who advance from the main body for that purpose, and invite to a general fight.
SKIRMISHERS. Detached parties of light troops sent out in front of a battalion, &c. riflemen.
SKIRT. In a general acceptation, edge, border, extreme part. As the skirt of a country, the skirts of a wood.
SKY-ROCKET. See ROCKET.
SLASH, a cut; a wound; also a cut in cloth. It is used to express the pieces of tape or worsted lace which are upon the arms of non-commissioned officers and corporals, to distinguish them from the privates.
SLASHED, cut in stripes or lines. Hence slashed sleeves and pockets, which are peculiar to the British cavalry, when the officers or men wear long coats.
SLASHERS. A nickname which was given during the American war to the British 28th regiment of foot, and which took its origin from the following circumstance: One Walker, a magistrate in Canada, having, during a severe winter, with great inhumanity, refused to give comfortable billets to the women belonging to the 28th, and some of them having perished in consequence of the inclemency of the season, so great was the resentment of the corps, that some officers dressed themselves like savages, entered his house whilst he was sitting with his family, danced round the table, and suddenly pulling him back upon his chair, cut off both his ears. They instantly disappeared. The deed was not discovered until after their departure. From this circumstance, and in consequence of various intrepid actions which the 28th performed during the course of the war, the men obtained the name of slashers.
SLATE, in military architecture, a kind of bluish fossile stone, very soft when dug out of the quarry, and therefore easily slit or sawed into thin long squares, to serve instead of tiles for the covering of all kinds of military buildings, &c.
SLAUGHTER, destruction by the sword, bayonet, and firearms.
SLEDGE, or sledge-hammer, a large iron-headed hammer.
SLEEPERS, the undermost timbers of a gun or mortar-battery. See PLATFORM.
SLEETS, are the parts of a mortar going from the chamber to the trunnions, to strengthen that part.
SLING, a leathern strap which is attached to a musquet, and serves to hang it across the soldier’s back as occasion may require.
Gun-SLING, or Belt. Although this useful article owes its invention to the ingenuity of an individual for the convenience of sportsmen, it may nevertheless be adapted with so much facility to military purposes, that a description of it cannot be thought superfluous.
The gun sling or belt is made in the following manner:--
The sling consists of three straps of leather, viz. one four feet six inches long, with the breadth agreeable to order. It is pointed and punched at one end, and has a buckle and loop at the other, which serve to shorten or lengthen it as the size of the person may require; another about twelve inches long, and three quarters of an inch wide, with a hook fixed at one end, the first being sewed ten inches from the pointed end of the belt. This strap being hooked up to either of the hooks in the main sling, forms a loop or bearing strap for the barrel of the musquet; and a third three quarters of an inch wide, and about six inches long, with an inch ring at one end, through which the belt is passed. This ring runs conveniently up and down the belt, and fully answers every purpose for which it was designed. A hook is sewed at the other end of this strap; the strap being lapped round the small part of the stock of the musquet, and the hook, fastened to the ring, they together form a loop or bearing strap for the butt. By these means, in addition to the strap round the barrel as already mentioned, the musquet or rifle can be conveniently carried, on foot or horseback, without the assistance of either hand. The musquet being released from these restraints, and the hook fixed to the strap, with the ring, being hooked to a small eye that is fixed just before the guard, the whole is carried with very little assistance from either hand, and is instantly brought to a firing position. The next position is by hooking the same hook to an eye that is fixed to the stock, about seven inches behind the guard; the barrel being at the same time supported by the strap, which is hooked to the main belt. The musquet is thus carried without the assistance of either hand; and if there be occasion to fire at a moment’s notice, you have only to draw out the top hook.
SLING. A missive weapon made by a strap and two strings; the stone is lodged in the strap, and thrown by loosing one of the strings.
SLING likewise means a kind of hanging bandage, in which a wounded limb is sustained.
To SLING, to hang loosely by means of the strap belonging to a firelock.
SLING your firelocks. A word of command formerly used in the exercise of British grenadiers.
1st. Bring the sling with the left hand opposite to the right shoulder, and the firelock with the right hand opposite the left shoulder, by crossing both hands at the same time, bringing the left hand within the right, keeping the muzzle upright, the barrel to the left, and the right hand just under the left elbow.
2d. Bend the firelock back, and bring the sling over your head, placing it just above your right shoulder.
3d. Draw the sling with your left hand, and let go the firelock with the right at the same time, that it may hang by the sling on the right shoulder, the muzzle upwards, dropping both hands down by your sides at the same time.
Handle your SLINGS. 1st. Seize the sling with both hands at the same time, taking hold of it with the right hand about the middle, and as low as you can reach, without bending your body.
2d. With the left hand bring the butt forwards, slipping your left elbow under the firelock, by bringing it between the firelock and the sling; taking hold of the firelock at the same time with the left hand, letting the stock lie between the thumb and fore finger, the butt end pointing a little to the left with the barrel upwards.
3d. Bring the firelock to lie on the left shoulder, and the sling on the right, the barrel upwards, and the butt end pointing directly to the front, keeping the firelock to a true level.
SLOPE Arms, a word of command by which the musquet rests upon the shoulder with the butt advanced. In long marches soldiers are sometimes permitted to slope arms. In all other instances it is strictly forbidden.
SLOPING Swords, a position of the sword among cavalry, when the back of the blade rests on the hollow of the right shoulder, the hilt advanced.
SLOPS. See NECESSARIES.
SLOW time. See the time of slow marching.
SLUGS. Cylindric, or cubical pieces of metal, used as shot for guns.
SLUICE-gate, a water-gate, by which a place may be inundated, or the water excluded at pleasure.
SLUICES, in military architecture, are made for various purposes; such as to make rivers navigable; to join one river to another, which is higher or lower, by means of a canal; to form inundations upon particular occasions, or to drain spots of ground that are overflowed by high tides; they are also made in fortresses, to keep up the water in one part of the ditches, whilst the other is dry; and to raise an inundation about the place when there is any apprehension of being attacked.
SLUICES are made different ways, according to the uses for which they are intended: when they serve for navigation, they are shut with two gates presenting an angle towards the stream; when they are made near the sea, two pair of gates are made, the one pair to keep the water out, and the other in, as occasion may require: in this case, the gates towards the sea present an angle that way, and the others the contrary way. The space inclosed by these gates is called chamber.
When sluices are made in the ditches of a fortress to keep up the water in some parts, instead of gates, shutters are made, so as to slide up and down in grooves; and when they are made to raise an inundation, they are then shut by means of square timbers let down into cullises, so as to lie close and firm. Particular care must be taken in the building of a sluice, to lay the foundation in the securest manner; that is, to lay the timber, grates, and floors, in such a form, that the weather cannot penetrate through any part, otherwise it will undermine the work, and blow it up, as it has sometimes happened: lastly, to make the gates of a proper strength in order to support the pressure of the water, and yet to use no more timber than what is necessary. Those who wish to be thoroughly acquainted with this kind of work, may meet with satisfaction in L’Architecture Hydraulique, par M. Belidor; or in Mr. Millar’s Practical Fortification.
SMALL arms, musquets, fusils, carabines, pistols, &c.
SNAFFLE, a bridle without a curb bit.
SNICK and SNEE, a combat with knives, such as the Dutch carry.
SOBRIETY. General temperance. In a military consideration, abstinence from an inordinate use of strong liquors. However frequent the deviations from this great and uncommon virtue may be found among soldiers, nothing can excuse or exculpate an officer who should so far forget himself, especially upon service, as to give the least countenance to such excesses, even by an occasional, much less by an habitual dereliction of this estimable quality. Sobriety keeps the head cool, strengthens the nerves, and renders moderate abilities equal to great exertions. Drunkenness, on the contrary, unfits the man for the common functions of life, and makes an officer not only contemptible to his soldiers, and dangerous to the cause he has engaged to fight for, but an indirect spur to the enterprise of an enemy, who will soon know how to take advantage of his vice and weakness.
SOC, Fr. A machine made of leather, which is fixed near the stirrup, to receive the end of the standard staff in cavalry regiments. It is likewise called braïer, and is used by the persons who carry the colors either in infantry or cavalry regiments. In the former instance it is fixed to a leathern belt that comes over the shoulder or that is fixed to the waist.
SOCKET, generally means any hollow pipe that receives something inserted.
SOCKET of a bayonet. The round hollow part near the bent or heel of a bayonet, into which the muzzle of a firearm is received when the bayonet is fixed.
SODS, pieces of turf with which works are faced.
SOVAN, or Savan, Ind. The seventh month. It in some degree corresponds with July and August.
SOL, Fr. Soil; ground.
SOLAKS. Bowmen or archers belonging to the personal guard of the grand signor. They are always selected from the most expert bowmen that are among the janizaries. Their only arms are, the sabre, bow, and arrows.
SOLBATU, Fr. In farriery, surbated.
SOLDAN. This word is pronounced Soudan. It was formerly given to a general who commanded the califf’s army. Saladin, a general under Naradin, king of Damas, having killed the califf Kaym, usurped the throne, and assumed the title in 1146; so that he became the first Soldan of Egypt.
SOLDAT, Fr. See SOLDIER.
SOLDAT d’ordonnance à l’armée, Fr. An orderly man.
SOLDATESQUE, Fr. A substantive of the collective feminine gender, which signifies private soldiers, viz.
La Bourgeoisie était exposée aux insultes de la soldatesque; the citizens were exposed to the insults of the soldiery. La soldatesque s’est révoltée contre les officiers; the soldiers revolted or mutinied against the officers.
SOLDATESQUE is likewise used as an adjective, viz. Des mœurs soldatesque; the ways or manners of a private soldier. Une dispute soldatesque; a military broil or a dispute among private soldiers. We have an adjective which is derived from the same source, namely, soldier-like, but which is only taken in a good sense with us, as soldier-like conduct, soldier-like behaviour; unsoldier-like being the opposite.
SOLDATS étrangers ou Mercénaires, Fr. Foreign or mercenary troops.
SOLDATS de Marine, Fr. Marines, or soldiers, who do duty on board ships of war.
SOLDATS Gardiens, Fr. A description of invalid soldiers, so called during the French monarchy. They were stationed at the sea-ports. There were 300 at Toulon, ditto at Rochefort and Brest, and fifty at Havre-de-Grace. There were besides 300 in each of the first three ports, who received half-pay.
SOLDE, Fr. The pay and subsistence, &c. which are issued to officers and soldiers are so called.
Demie SOLDE, Fr. Half pay. The French likewise say--à demie paye--On half-pay.
SOLDIER, A piece of money; the pay of a soldier. Dr. Johnson derives the word from solidarius, low Latin of solidus. We conceive it to be immediately taken from the French soldat, which comes from the Latin solidarius Veget. A soldier in pay--a solido quem meretur. Some again trace both the English and French word to the Italian Soldato, and others to the German Soldat. Sola in German signifies pay. So that originally soldier meant only one who listed himself to serve a prince or state, in consideration of certain daily pay.
SOLDIER now generally signifies any military man.
Private SOLDIER, a man in the ranks; one under the degree of a corporal; as distinct from the commanders.
A real SOLDIER, a term among military men to mark out one who knows and does his duty.
No SOLDIER. An expression of familiar currency in the British service. It is sometimes used as a term of reproach, and sometimes of harmless irony; as “you are a dirty fellow and no soldier.”
Citizen SOLDIER, (Soldat citoyen, Fr.) In a general acceptation of the term, a citizen soldier signifies any man who is armed for the support and vindication of his country’s rights.
A Brother SOLDIER. A term of affection which is commonly used in the British service by one who serves under the same banners, and fights for the same cause with another. In a more extensive signification, it means any military man with respect to another.
SOLDIER of Fortune, (Soldat de Fortune, Fr.) During the frequent wars which occurred in Italy, before the military profession became so generally prevalent in Europe, it was usual for men of enterprise and reputation to offer their services to the different states that were engaged. They were originally called Condottieri, or leaders of reputation. They afterwards extended their services, and under the title of soldiers of fortune sought for employment in every country or state that would pay them.
SOLDIER’S Friend. A term in the military service which is generally applied to such officers as pay the strictest attention to their men; granting them seasonable indulgences without injuring the service; seeing their wants relieved; and, above all things, having them punctually paid and regularly settled with. There is much confidence in the multitude when they are justly dealt by, and every soldier fights well under the guidance of a soldier’s friend!
SOLDIER Officer. A term generally used among naval men to signify any officer belonging to the land service.
SOLDIERSHIP, (Metier de soldat, Fr.) The profession, character, and qualities of a military man.
SOLDIERY. Body of military men; soldiers collectively. Soldiers are properly the land forces of a nation or state. It is in the power of the legislature to fix the establishment according to the exigency of the times.
SOLDURIERS, Fr. A term anciently used among the French, to signify those persons who attached themselves to some particular general or military knight, whose fortunes they followed, in consequence of being paid and supported by him.
SOLEIL, Fr. Sun.
SOLEIL fixe, Fr. An artificial fire-work, so disposed, that when it takes fire, it emits a brilliant light from a fixed centre, and resembles the sun at mid day.
SOLEIL tournant et courant sur une corde, Fr. An artificial fire-work made in the shape of the sun, which is so contrived, that it moves in full illumination, either backward or forward, along a rope.
SOLEIL montant, Fr. An artificial fire-work, so called from its ascending in full illumination, and scattering fire in various directions by a desultory movement. It is likewise called tourbillon de feu; a whirlwind of fire.
SOLEIL tournant et girandole, Fr. An artificial fire-work, which, when set fire to, resembles a sun moving round its axis, and exhibiting the figure of a girandole.
SOLID, (Solide, Fr.) that body which has all the geometrical dimensions.
SOLID Bastion. See FORTIFICATION.
SOLIDAIRE, Fr. Consolidated.--An old French legal term, but now generally used to signify a concentration of good qualities, &c. Thus the French convention declared--Que les armées étoient solidaires de gloire; that the armies had consolidated their glory; meaning thereby, that the victories of one part of the army had been added to the account of the rest.
SOLIDITY, (Solidite, Fr.) Firmness; density; compactness.
SOLIVE, Fr. A joist.
SOLIVE likewise signifies a measure in carpentry. It is supposed to be equal to three cubic feet. So that the solive in France is to the measure of wood-work, what the cubic toise is to the measure of earth, or brick-work. The solive is divided into six French feet which are called pieds de solive. The foot into 12 inches, called pouces de solive; and the inch into 12 lines, which are called lignes de solive. In order to form a correct idea of the solive, with regard to all parts or proportions, it must be considered as a parallelepipede, whose base is a rectangle containing 12 inches in breadth, to six in height, and a toise in length, the solive being equal to 3 cubic feet.
SOLIVEAU, Fr. A small joist; a rafter.
SOLSTICE, (Solstice, Fr.) The point beyond which the sun does not go; the tropical point, the point at which the day is longest in summer, or shortest in winter. It is taken of itself commonly for the summer solstice.
The Summer SOLSTICE, (le Solstice d’ete, Fr.) Is when the sun is in the tropic of cancer, and gives us the longest day.
The Winter SOLSTICE, is when the sun is in the tropic of capricorn, and gives us the shortest day. There is not any solstice under the equator, there being, in that quarter, without variation, equal day and equal night.
SOLUTION, (Solution, Fr.) Resolution of a doubt; removal of any intellectual difficulty.
SOMACHE, Fr. Brackish, salt. The mixture of sea and river water is so called, as eau somache.
SOME-war, Ind. Monday.
SOMMERS, in an ammunition waggon, are the upper sides, supported by the staves entered into them with one of their ends, and the other into the side pieces.
SOMMIER d’un Port levis, Fr. See SEUIL DE PONT LEVIS.
SONAILLER, Fr. A term used among the drivers of mules, to signify the leading animal that has a bell tied to his neck, which they call sonaille.
SONDE, Fr. Sounding lead, probe, any instrument used to ascertain the nature of soil, &c.
SONDER, Fr. To sound, to throw out the lead.
SONNANT, Fr. A participle which is frequently used by the French, to express a specific period of time, or the nature of any thing.
A five heures SONNANTES, Fr. At five o’clock precisely, or as the clock strikes five.
Argent SONNANT, Fr. Hard cash. This term was in familiar use at the commencement of the French revolution, when it was found expedient to pay a select body of troops, called the gendarmes, in ready money, whilst the aggregate of the nation took paper currency or assignats.
SOODER, Ind. The fourth or lowest of the original tribes of Hindoos, as they come from the feet of Brama, which signifies subjection. They are obliged to labor, and to serve when called upon.
SOOKRBAR, Ind. Friday.
SOORETHAUL, Ind. Statement of a case.
SORDET, SORDINE, The small pipe or mouth piece of a trumpet.
SORN, a servile tenure in Scotland, by which a chieftain might, with his followers, live upon his tenants at free quarters.
SORTIES, in a siege, parties that sally out of a town secretly to annoy the besiegers, and retard their operations.
SOUDOYES, Fr. From Soudoyer. To keep in pay. This name was originally given to a body of men who inlisted themselves under Philip Augustus of France, on condition that they should receive a certain daily pay in the way of subsistence. Froissart calls all soldiers, who are paid for doing duty, or for going to war, soudoyes,
SOUFLE, Fr. The wind of a cannon.
SOUFLER les canons, Fr. To scale pieces of ordnance. This is done by means of a moderate charge of gunpowder, for the purpose of cleaning them.
SOUFLURE, Fr. A cavity or hole, which is frequently occasioned when pieces of metal have been forged in too intense a fire. Cannon balls lose their required weight by flaws of this sort.
SOUFRE, Fr. See SULPHUR.
SOUGARDE, Fr. Guard, throat-band of a gun. A semi-circular piece of brass which ts fixed beneath the trigger of a musquet, to prevent it from going off by accident.
SOUGARDES. See DECHARGEURS.
SOUGORGE, Fr. Throat-band of a bridle.
SOUKARS, Ind. A general name for bankers.
SOULEVEMENT, Fr. Insurrection, revolt.
SOULEVER, Fr. To stir up, to excite to insurrection.
Se SOULEVER, Fr. To rise, to revolt, to mutiny; l’armee s’est soulevee contre son general; the army rose, or mutinied against its general.
SOUMETTRE, Fr. (As an active verb) to subdue, to overcome, to reduce to subjection.
Se SOUMETTRE, Fr. To submit oneself. To yield.
SOUMISSION, Fr. Submission.
SOUMIS, ise, Fr. In fortification; to lie under, to be commanded. Thus one work is said to be commanded, ou être soumis, when it is lower than another. The same signification holds good with respect to heights or elevations.
SOUND. Any thing audible; noise; that which is perceived by the ear. The experiments are numerous by which it has been found, that sound is audible to the distance of 50, 60, or 80 miles; but Dr. Hearne, physician to the king of Sweden, tells us, that at the bombardment of Holmia, in 1658, the sound was heard 30 Swedish miles, which make 180 of ours: and in the fight between England and Holland in 1672, the noise of the guns was heard even in Wales, which cannot be less than 200 miles.
The velocity of sound is 380 yards, or 1142 feet in a second of time, as found by very accurate experiment. The exactness of measuring distances by sound, has been sufficiently proved by measuring the same distances by trigonometry.
The medium velocity of sound is nearly at the rate of a mile, or 5280 feet in 4²⁄₃ seconds; or a league in 14 seconds; or 13 miles in one minute. But sea miles are to land miles nearly as 7 to 6: therefore sound moves over a sea mile in 5³⁄₄ seconds nearly; or a sea league in 16 seconds.
Sound flies 1142 feet in one second.
It is a common observation, that persons in good health have about 75 pulsations at the wrist in a minute, consequently in 75 pulsations sound flies about 13 land miles, or 11¹⁄₇ sea miles, which is about 1 land mile in 6 pulsations, and 1 sea mile in 7 pulses, or a league in 20 pulses.
The velocity of sound does not very much vary, whether it goes with the wind or against it. As sound moves vastly swifter than the wind, the acceleration it can thereby receive can be but inconsiderable; and the chief effect we can perceive from the wind is, that the sound will be carried to a greater distance by it. Sound will be louder in proportion to the condension of the air. Water is one of the greatest conductors of sound; it can be heard nearly twice as far as on land.
SOUND, (Sonde, Fr.) An instrument used by surgeons in probing.
To SOUND. To betoken or direct by a sound; as to sound the retreat. Hence
SOUNDINGS. Signals made by any kind of instruments.
Trumpet SOUNDINGS, practised by cavalry regiments, viz. for duty.
1. Revillé. 2. Stable call. For stable duties. 3. Boots and saddles.}When to turn out on horseback for a march, 4. To horse. }exercise, or other duty. 5. Draw swords. }These soundings begin at the instants of drawing 6. Return swords.}the sword from, and returning it to the scabbard. 7. Parade march. 8. Parade call. For assembling on foot. 9. Officers call. 10. Serjeants call. 11. Trumpeters call. 12. Orders. 13. Dinner call. For men, and for officers. 14. Watering call. To turn out in watering order. 15. Setting the watch.
These duty soundings, according to situation, are given by one trumpet, or by the whole of the quarter, regiment, or camp.
For exercise.
16. March. The squadron, regiment, or line being halted, the trumpet of the commander will accompany the word, the ---- will advance; and at the word march, the whole will move at a walk.
17. Trot. 18. Gallop. 19. Charge. When the body is marching at a walk, on the signal to trot, the whole instantly receive the word trot, and change pace immediately. The same is to be observed from the trot to the light gallop, and from the gallop to the charge. During the charge itself, the trumpets of all the squadrons that are charging, may sound.
20. Halt. The whole halt on the word of command. After the halt of a retreating body, the proper command will bring it to its proper front.
21. Retreat. The signal of retreat, (which will be often preceded by that of halt) is a general caution for the several words of execution to be given.
22. Rally. The signal to rally, may be continued as long as it is necessary, and be repeated by the trumpets of such parts of the body, as are concerned in the operation, till the end is answered.
These signals are given by the chief commander only of the whole body that is exercised, whether of a squadron, regiment, brigade, or a line: they are not repeated by other commanders; they are addressed as cautions to the commanding officers of the parts of such body, not to the men; nor is any movement, or alteration of movement, to take place, but in consequence of the words, march, trot, gallop, &c. &c. rapidly and loudly repeated, the instant the trumpet caution is given.
The signals of movement are so short, that the words of execution may nearly coincide with them.
These signals for quick movement, may in regular exercise be given by a person who at the instant of giving them is stationary; but if he leads the body in motion, it is evident that in the gallop, the charge, and the halt, the voice and the eye, can only determine, and regulate.
23. Turn out skirmishers. This signal is made by the commander of the whole, if the whole is concerned, otherwise by the commander of such part only as is to execute; if one, or two squadrons only, the voice will suffice. It may be a signal for pursuers after a charge.
24. Call in skirmishers. This signal is made by the commander of the whole, and repeated by the commander of the detachments; is for the skirmishers to join their detachments; or it may originally come from the commander of the detachments. On the signal to rally, the whole join the bodies they were detached from.
25. Skirmishers cease firing. This signal is made by the commander of the whole, and repeated (or originally made) by the commander of the supporting detachments, from which the skirmishers are advanced.
Bugle Horn SOUNDINGS, are different calls which are made by the bugle horn for duty and exercise. The following constitute the principal ones. See Am. Mil. Lib.
1st. For duty.
1. Revillé. {These soundings are different in their 2. Rouse, or turn out.{notes from those of the trumpet, but may be 3. Dinner call. {used under the same circumstances. 4. Setting the watch. {
2d. For exercise.
5. March. } 6. Trot. } 7. Gallop. } 8. Charge. }These soundings exactly the same as 9. Halt. }those of the trumpet, in the place of 10. Retreat. }which the bugle horn may be 11. Rally. }occasionally substituted. 12. Turn out skirmishers. } 13. Skirmishers cease firing.} 14. Call in skirmishers. }
These signals, of the trumpet, and bugle horn, are meant in aid of the voice, but are by no means to be substituted for, or prevent the ordered words of execution.
The trumpet is always to be considered as the principal military instrument for these soundings, and particularly belongs to the line; the bugle horn to riflemen and detached parties.
SOUPAPE, Fr. Sucker of a pump.
SOURA, Ind. A division; as that of chapter.
SOURD, e. Fr. Literally means deaf, dull. It is variously applied by the French--viz.
Lanterne Sourde, Fr. A dark lantern.
Lime Sourde, Fr. A file which is made in such a manner, that you may separate pieces of iron without making any noise in the operation. It is likewise used in a figurative sense--to signify a person who says little, but is always meditating something mischievous or injurious to others.
The French likewise say, sourdes pratiques, pratiques sourdes; secret or underhand practices; sourdes menees, menees sourdes, secret or underhand ways. These terms are always used in a bad sense. In mathematics, the French call those quantities, quantites sourdes, which are incommensurable, that is, which cannot be exactly expressed, either by whole numbers or by fractions. Thus the square root, or racine carree, of two is a quantite sourde.
SOURDINE, Fr. A little pipe, a mute. It likewise means a small spring, which is fixed in a dumb repeater. The French make use of this word in a figurative sense, to signify, literally, without noise. Les ennemis ont délogé à la sourdine, the enemy decamped privately, and without noise.
SOURIS, Fr. Literally a mouse. For its application in fortification, see PAS DE SOURIS. It is likewise used to express a want of expedients or resources in critical moments, and the consequent danger of being caught in the snare one is endeavoring to avoid--La souris qui n’a qu’un trou est bientôt prise, the mouse that has only one hole to run to, is soon caught.
SOUS, Fr. A proposition which is used to denote the state or condition of one thing with respect to another which is above it, viz.
SOUS-tangente, Fr. Sub-tangent.
SOUS-lieutenant, Fr. Sub-lieutenant.
SOUSIGNER, Fr. To undersign.
SOUSIGNE, ée, Fr. The undersigned.
La SOUTE, Fr. The powder or bread room.
SOUTENIR, Fr. In exercise and evolution to turn upon the left foot in proportion as any given line bears towards the fixed point upon which it is directed to rest; The point on which the soldier turns is called the pivot, Le pivot.
SOUTENIR, Fr. To maintain; as soutenir le combat, to maintain the fight.
SOUTENIR le feu de l’ennemi, Fr. To stand the enemy’s fire.
SOUTENIR le siege, Fr. To hold out in a besieged place.
SOUTERRAINS, Fr. Subterraneous passages, lodgments, &c. that are bomb-proof.
SOUVERAIN, Fr. Sovereign. The person in whom sovereignty is vested.
SOUVERAINETE. Sovereignty; supremacy; highest place; supreme power.
SOW, in ancient military history, a kind of covered shed, fixed on wheels, under which the besiegers filled up and passed the ditch, sapped or mined the wall, and sometimes worked a kind of ram. It had its name from its being used for rooting up the earth like a swine, or because the soldiers therein were like pigs under a sow.
SOWAR, Ind. A horseman.
SOWARRY, Ind. A retinue, cavalcade; the English residents in India say, such a man travels with a large sowarry, meaning a great number of followers.
SOWGUND, Ind. An oath.
SPADE, (Beche, Fr.) an instrument for digging. See INTRENCHING TOOLS, MINING, &c.
SPADROON, a sword much lighter than a broadsword, and made both to cut and thrust.
SPADROON Guard, a guard sometimes used with the cut and thrust sword, and also with the broadsword. It consists in dropping the point towards the right from the outside guard, till it comes under your adversary’s blade, the edge being upwards, and your wrist at the same time raised.
SPAHI, Persian. A soldier or military man, whence the common Hindustan term SEPAHI, corrupted by the English into Sepcy.
SPAHI. An upper garment made of blue cloth, which is worn by the Janizaries, in the same manner that we wear a loose great coat or surtout.
SPAHIS. A corps of Turkish cavalry, which is kept in pay by the grand signor. The Spahis do not possess any lands as the Zaims and Timariots are allowed to do. This corps is composed of twelve or fifteen thousand men, and consists of the Silbataris, whose standard or cornet is yellow, and of the Spahis-Glanis, who have a red one. When the troops were first formed, the latter acted as servants or batmen to the former: they became a separate class or troop in consequence of their superior conduct on service, and were distinguished in this manner:--They are armed with a sabre and a lance, which they call Misra. They likewise make use of a long dart or javelin, called a Gerie, with an iron ferrel at one end, which they throw at the enemy with surprising skill; and if they should happen to miss their aim, they can instantly bend from their saddles, and catch it up, whilst the horse is on full gallop. Others again are armed with bows and arrows, and some have pistols and carbines. When the grand signor takes the field in person, he generally makes a present of five thousand aspres to each Spahi. This bounty is called Sadach akchiasi, or gift to enable each man to purchase bows and arrows.
When the Spahis take the field, they march in rear of their standard; but they do not observe any particular order of route. They divide themselves, on the contrary, into small bodies, and advance in the most desultory manner.
Besides these two troops of Spahis, there are four others in the Turkish service, which are only called upon under circumstances of extreme pressure and emergency. The first is called Sag-Vlesigi; the standard is red and white. The second is named Sol-Vlesigi; the standard is white and yellow. The third is styled Sag-Gureba, the standard is green: and the fourth, Sol-Gureba; the standard is white. All these Spahis receive a daily pay of twelve to twenty aspres; and they are subject to every species of duty. Those are Spahis, called Timars, or Timariots. See TIMARIOTS.
SPANNER, the lock of a fusil or carabine.
SPATTERDASHES, a kind of covering for the legs of soldiers, made of cloth, or coarse linen waxed over, and buttoned tight: by which the wet is kept off, now called long gaiters.
SPATTS, a small sort of spatterdashes, that reach only a little above the ancle, called also half gaiters.
SPEAKING Trumpet, a trumpet by which the voice may be carried to a great distance. It was formerly used in large armies; and even so late as the siege of Gibraltar, when general Elliot, (afterwards Lord Heathfield) caused the brigade words of command to be given by means of this instrument.
SPEAR, a lance, or long weapon with a sharp point, formerly used as a manual, or missive weapon. See LANCE.
To SPEND. This term is used at sea of a mast of a ship; when it is broken down by foul weather, it is said to be spent. It is sometimes used in military matters to express the consumption of any thing: as to spend all your ammunition.
SPENT Ball, (Boulet mort, Balle morte, Fr.) A cannon or musquet ball, &c. is said to be spent, when it reaches an object without sufficient force to pass through it, or otherwise wound, than by a contusion. Spent balls, however, are frequently fatal in their effects, especially when they hit any of the noble parts. It is on occasions of this sort, that the activity and skill of a field or ambulating surgeon, are indispensibly necessary; for which reason a sufficient number of these useful attendants upon an army, ought always to accompany the different battalions that go into action. The French pay the strictest attention to this branch of the service. Their flying hospitals are not only well supplied with all the requisites for so important an establishment, but every dependent part is equally well provided.
SPHERE, SPHERICAL, a round body of which the centre is at the same distance from every point of the circumference; as is the case with Shots, Shells, &c.
SPHERES d’artifice, Fr. Iron hoops with matches, steeped in combustible matter, fixed round them. When there is only one hoop it is called Circle d’artifice; when there are two or three, one within the other, the assemblage of them is called sphere d’artifice, from its resemblance to that figure.
SPHERICAL. Round.
SPHEROID, an oblong body, approaching the form of a sphere.
SPIES, SPIALS, in war, are persons employed to give intelligence of what the enemy is doing. They should be well paid: who pays them ill, is never well served. They should never be known to any but the general who employs them, nor should they know one another. When they propose any thing very material, their persons, or their wives and children, should be secured and kept as hostages for their fidelity. If they are apprehended, they immediately suffer death.
SPIES are found in the cabinets of princes, in the closets of ministers, amongst the officers of an army, and in the councils of generals; in towns belonging to the enemy, and in monasteries. The greatest generals strongly recommend them, whatever expence they may occasion; and indeed a commander had better be in want of many particulars, however necessary, than be destitute of spies. Nothing should be spared to procure them; and even the promises made to them should be observed with the most inviolable integrity. By making a proper use of these necessary creatures, the most secret designs of an enemy may be discovered, the positions his armies are to take, the stations of his fleets, and even the manner in which the former is to be secured by masked batteries, or the latter be kept firm with chain moorings; as was the case off Boulogne in 1800.
To SPIKE a gun. This term is chiefly used at sea, and signifies to fasten a quoin with spikes to the deck, close to the breech of the carriages of the great guns, so that they may keep firm and close to the sides of the ship, and not break loose when the ship rolls. It is likewise used in military matters to signify the choaking up the touch-hole of a piece of ordnance, so as to render it useless. See TO NAIL.
SPIKES, in gunnery. See HAND-SPIKES.
SPIN, or to spin hay, is to twist it up in ropes, very hard, for an expedition; by which means it is less bulky, and less troublesome for the cavalry to carry behind them. An expert horseman can spin five days forage into a very narrow compass.
SPIRAL, (Spirale, Fr.) In architecture, a curve that ascends winding about a cone or spire, so that all the points thereof continually approach the axis.
SPIRAL Line, (Ligne spirale, Fr.) A curve line, which makes a circular movement like a screw, perpetually diverging or going off from its centre.
SPIRAL, SPIRE, a line drawn progressively round the same axis, with a distance between each circle; as the thread of a screw. See SCREW.
SPOKES, the bars of a wheel that pass from the nave to the felly.
SPONTOON, is a spear formerly used instead of a half-pike, by officers of infantry; when the spontoon was planted, the regiment halted; when pointed forwards, the regiment marched; and when pointed backwards, the regiment retreated.
To SPRAWL, to widen out in an irregular and unsoldier-like manner. This term is chiefly applicable to the cavalry.
SPRAWLING. Loose, unconnected, wide of each other.
A SPRAWLING charge, a loose and irregular movement of cavalry, instead of a close, compact, forward attack.
To SPRING. To give vent to any combustible matter upon which gunpowder principally acts by the power of explosion. Hence to spring globes of compression, &c. The latter are frequently used for the same purposes that skyrockets, &c. are, viz. to serve as signals when any sudden attack is to be made.
SPRING, in a general acceptation, an elastic body; a body which when bent, or distorted, has the power of restoring itself to its former state. It is in general a piece of tempered metal, which by means of its elastic force, is useful in several machines to give them motion. In a gun lock the springs are distinguished by various appellations according to their several uses, viz.
Cear and Cear SPRING. The cear is a piece of hardened iron or steel in a gun lock, which moves on a pivot, and the point of which is received in a notch cut in the tumbler, and the other end is acted upon by the trigger.
The cear spring is a small spring, which throws the cear into the notch cut in the tumbler of a gun-cock, when the piece is at half cock or full cock.
Feather SPRING. The spring of a gun lock beneath the foot of the hammer; called likewise hammer-spring.
Main SPRING. The spring in a gun lock which operates on the tumbler, and gives force to the cock.
To SPRING, in a military sense, to step forward with a certain degree of elasticity.
SPRING up. A word of command, which has been occasionally used when sections double up. It signifies, indeed, the same as double up, and is sometimes used singly, as Spring! particularly to light infantry men.
To SPRING the firelock. To bring it briskly up to any ordered position; to the recover, for instance.
SPUNGE, (ecouvillon, arroussement, griffon, Fr.) A long staff with a roll at one end, covered with a sheep’s skin, of the bigness of the bore of a gun, to scour it after firing; and to prevent any sparks from remaining. It is sometimes called Merkin, from its artificial texture of hair at the end of the staff.
Pyrotechnical SPUNGES. Spunges which constitute the black match or tinder that is brought from Germany, for striking fire with a flint and steel. These spunges are made of the large mushroom, or fungous excrescences which grow upon old oaks, ash trees, firs, &c. These are steeped in water, boiled and beaten, and then put in a strong lye made of saltpetre, and afterwards dried in an oven.
To SPUNGE the gun, (écouvillonner le canon, Fr.) To cool and cleanse the bore of a piece of ordnance by means of a wet spunge which is fixed to the end of a long pole.
SPURS, in old fortifications, are walls that cross a part of the rampart, and join to the town wall.
SPURS, instruments fixed to the heels of horsemen, with which they can at pleasure, goad the horse to action.
SQUAD. A diminutive of squadron. It is used in military matters to express any small number of men, horse or foot, that are collected together for the purposes of drill, &c.
To SQUAD. To divide a troop or company into certain parts, in order to drill the men separately, or in small bodies, or to put them under the direction and care of some steady corporal, or lance corporal. In every well regulated troop or company, the men are squadded in such a manner, that the most minute concern with respect to the interior economy can be instantly accounted for. The following distinct instructions have appeared in print. We quote them the more readily because they not only coincide with our own ideas on the subject, but seem perfectly calculated to preserve good order and discipline. They relate chiefly to the cavalry, but are equally applicable to infantry corps.
Each troop, it is observed, ought to be divided into two squads when under forty. Into three or four when above, according to the number, with an equal proportion of non-commissioned officers in each; and when the eldest is on duty, the charge of the squad falls on the next in the squad, and so on. First the stables must be divided as equally as possible into these divisions, and the men must belong to the same squad that their horses do: so that the foot and horse billets, and those for the married men’s rooms of a squad, go together. The squads must be as distinct and separate as possible; in short as much so as two troops are, never crossing each other. The stables must likewise be squadded entire; that is, no one stable should be allotted to two separate squads; for which reason, the proportion of numbers in each squad cannot always be exactly equal. The squad is entirely in charge of its own serjeant, or, in his absence, of the corporal who commands it, with relation to every quarter and stable duty, parades on foot and horseback. The quarter-master, in the cavalry, has, of course, the general inspection of the whole.
When a corporal has charge of a squad, he must not look after his own horse at such times as interfere with his squad duty: he can generally manage to do it at the morning stable, and in the evening he can get him done before the regular hour. On a march, or after a field day, he cannot do it so conveniently, and of course orders another man to do it. When a detachment of an absent troop is in a quarter, it must be attached to a particular troop, whichever may be judged most convenient. It must be considered as a separate and distinct squad, quartered by itself, (as far as it can be, consistent with the proper quartering of its recruits) and under the command of its own non-commissioned officer, unless the troop to which it belongs cannot spare a non-commissioned officer with it; in which case it must be given in charge to a non-commissioned officer of the troop to which it is attached.
The same rules for squadding hold good on a march, and in all situations whatever; and the list of quarters must be made out accordingly.
The non-commissioned officers must always be kept to the same squad, as nearly as they can be. The policy of this instruction is obvious, as they will thereby be made acquainted with the character of every man in the squad.
Recruits should always be quartered and squadded with old soldiers who are known to be steady and well behaved; and those men that are at all irregular in their conduct, must be separated and distributed in squads which are composed of good old soldiers.
Awkward SQUAD. The awkward squad consists not only of recruits at drill, but of formed soldiers that are ordered to exercise with them, in consequence of some irregularity under arms.
SQUADRON. A body of cavalry, composed of two troops. The number is not fixed, but is generally from 100 to 250 men.
SQUARE, (Carré, Fr.) A figure with right angles, and equal sides.
The SQUARE. A particular formation into which troops are thrown on critical occasions; particularly to resist the charge of cavalry.
Solid SQUARE, is a body of foot, where both ranks and files are equal. It was formerly held in great esteem; but when the prince of Nassau introduced the hollow square, this was soon neglected.
Hollow SQUARE, is a body of foot drawn up, with an empty space in the centre, for the colors, drums, and baggage, facing every way to resist the charge of the horse.
Oblong SQUARE. A square which is not at right angles, but represents the figure of an oblong, whose sides are unequal. Thus, as eight companies of equal numbers would form a perfect square, ten make an oblong.
Perfect SQUARE. A square whose sides are equal and at right angles.
The perfect square, in the formation of troops, seems best calculated for military movements and arrangements. Battalions, for instance, which are composed of eight companies, with one hundred rank and file in each, are equal to every species of disposition. It is upon this principle, we presume, that the French have distributed their infantry. British regiments, on the contrary, consist of eight companies, one of which is grenadiers and the other of light infantry, and are so composed that no square of this kind can be formed. This is manifestly a defect in their system. It is, indeed, remedied by the grenadier and light infantry companies being occasionally detached, or cast into separate battalions; so that the remaining companies, by being told off, may be brought to eight equal parts. Tacticians will perhaps agree with us, that it would be better to have every regiment composed of ten companies, flanked by a subdivision of grenadiers, the whole being so equalized as to produce four equal sides. In this case, the light companies should be formed into separate bodies of chasseurs or riflemen, after the manner of the French.
Shakspeare uses the word square to signify squadrons; but it is now obsolete.
SQUARE root. In geometry, the square root of any number is that which multiplied by itself, produces the square; thus 4 is the square root of 16.
SQUARE number. In arithmetic, is when another number, called its root, can be found, which multiplied by itself produces the square; thus 16 is the square number of 4, and 9 the square of 3.
SQUELETTE, Fr. literally means a skeleton. It is used by the French, as by us, to signify the remnant, or incomplete state of a regiment, viz. La squelette d’un regiment; The skeleton of a regiment.
SQUELETTE, Fr. likewise means the skeleton state of a ship, or a ship upon the stocks, and which has only her ribs and first timbers laid in. So that squelette among the French will apply either to the first organization or arrangement of parts belonging to a work or establishment, before it is completed, or to the remnant of such a work or establishment, after it has been completed. In the first sense of the word cadre, frame, outline, &c. bears the construction of squelette among the French, as, cadre d’un corps. When the British expedition to Quiberon was planned, there were several cadres of this description. They consisted of French noblemen and gentlemen who were to organize the Chouans, and receive appointments according to their several ranks, &c. &c.
SQUIRE. An attendant on a warrior was formerly so called. See ARMIGER.
STABLE horse, Ind. That part of the late Tippoo Sultaun’s cavalry, which was best armed, accoutred, and most regularly disciplined.
STADIUM, (Stadion, Fr.) An ancient Greek long measure, containing 125 geometrical paces, or 625 Roman feet, corresponding to our furlong. This word is formed from the Greek term, which signifies station. It is said that Hercules after running that distance at one breath, stood still. The Greeks measured all their distances by stadia. The Romans had, likewise, their stadia, derived from the Greek, by which they measured distances. The stadium of Rome contained 620 geometrical paces. Eight stadia make one Italian mile.
STADION, among the Greeks signified also a space of enclosed or open ground, containing that measure, where the public races were run.
STAFF, in military affairs, consists of a quarter-master general, adjutant-general, majors of brigade, aids-de-camp, &c. The general staff properly exists only in time of war. See QUARTER-MASTER GENERAL, &c.
Regimental STAFF, are, the adjutant, quarter-master, chaplain, and surgeon, &c.
STAFF of command. See BATTOON.
The STAFF, on British home service, consists in general of
One general commanding a district.
One lieutenant-general.
One major-general.
One adjutant general.
One quarter-master general.
One deputy adjutant, and quarter-master general.
One engineer.
One assistant adjutant, and quarter-master general.
The regulated number of aids-de-camp and brigade majors:
One commissary general.
Deputy commissaries general, assistant commissaries general, according to circumstances.
One inspector general of hospitals.
Physicians, surgeon and apothecary, mates.
The British staff in India consists of a general staff, station staff, cantonment, and garrison staff; and an hospital staff. The staff in Great Britain is comprehended under general staff, garrison staff, district staff, and staff belonging to the cavalry depot at Maidstone, and the general infantry one in the Isle of Wight. There is likewise an hospital staff. For an account of staffs in general see Am. Mil. Lib.
The staff of the French has been the main spring of their tactics, and no army can be effective without a good staff.
STAFF, the same as baton; from whence those officers in the suite of generals, and not attached to regiments, are called the staff, a baton being formerly the insignia of office; which is now supplied by other devices, as facings, feathers, and so forth.
Hammer STALL. A piece of leather, which is made to cover the upper part of the lock belonging to a musquet. It is useful in wet weather.
STAMP duties. Imposts laid upon paper in England, that is used for legal or commercial purposes. Proceedings of courts-martial, whether copies or originals, are not chargeable with stamp-duties; nor are the receipts given by officers for their respective pay or allowances.
STAND. The act of opposing; thus troops that do not yield or give way are said to make a stand.
To STAND the enemy’s fire; to remain with steady firmness in orderly array, without being discomposed by the shot, &c. of an opposing enemy.
To STAND. To have an erect position. Every recruit should be taught to hold his body in such a manner, that he feels himself firm and steady upon whatever ground he may be placed for the purposes of exercise or parade. See POSITION WITHOUT ARMS.
To STAND well under arms. To be so perfectly master of the firelock as not to be embarrassed, or to be rendered unsteady by its weight, but to be able to preserve a correct relative position of the body through all the changes of the manual and platoon, &c. and during the prescribed movements in parade and field exercises. See POSITION WITH ARMS.
To STAND at ease. To be allowed a certain indulgence with regard to bodily position, with or without arms. See EASE. It is likewise a word of command, as Stand at--Ease.
STAND fast. This term is frequently used as a caution to some particular part of a line or column. In the first of the nineteen manœuvres, for instance, the grenadiers are directed to stand fast, while the remaining companies march from their alignement to form close column behind them. When a battalion, drawn up in line, is to move forward in front of its original position from the right, left, or centre, the named division, subdivision, or section, stands fast, and the remaining ones, which have been wheeled backward into column, march towards the inward flank of the standing division, subdivision, or section. On the first of the moving bodies arriving at the inward pivot of the standing one, the latter receives the word march, and the former wheels into the ground. The rest successively do the same. By this method the leading division is spared the trouble of wheeling back and returning again to its original ground.
STANDARD, that which is the test or criterion of other things.
STANDARD. A measure by which men enlisted into the British service have the regulated height ascertained.
According to the British regulations and orders published in 1799, the standard for men raised for the heavy cavalry shall be five feet seven inches, and for the light cavalry and infantry five feet five inches; but no recruits are to be taken, even of those sizes, who exceed 35 years of age, or who are not stout and well made. Lads between 16 and 18 years of age, who are well limbed, and likely to grow, may be taken as low as five feet six inches for the heavy cavalry, and as low as five feet four inches for the light cavalry and infantry. In those regiments which are specially authorised to enlist boys, healthy lads, under 16 years of age, who are likely to grow, may be taken as low as five feet one inch. It will be recollected, that this standard is for men inlisted during a war; when regiments are put upon the peace establishment a higher standard is resorted to. Thus by a letter dated 28th January, 1802, it is directed, that the standard for the infantry of the line shall be five feet seven inches; that no man shall be inlisted who is above 25 years of age; but growing lads from 17 to 19 years of age, shall be taken as low as five feet five inches.
STANDARD, in war, a sort of banner or flag, borne as a signal for the joining together of the several troops belonging to the same body.
The standard is usually a piece of silk 1¹⁄₂ feet square, on which is embroidered arms, device, or cypher, of the country. It is fixed on a lance eight or nine feet long, and carried in the centre of the first rank of a squadron of horse, by the coronet.
STANDARDS belonging to the cavalry. Standards are posted in the following manner:
The first with the right squadron.
The second with the left; and the third with the centre.
In advancing to the front on foot, the advanced standards and their serjeants must not slacken their pace, or deviate from right to left, as the lieutenant-colonel or leading officer may happen to do, but if he be in their way, they must call to him, because they alone regulate the march.
The standards must always be brought to the parade by a troop, viz. by that which has its private parade nearest to head-quarters. They must be accompanied by as many trumpeters as can conveniently assemble with that troop. Swords must be drawn, and the march sounded. The cornets parade, of course, with that troop to receive the standards. The standards are received by the regiment or squadron at open ranks, with swords drawn, officers saluting, and the march sounding by the remaining trumpets. They must march off from head-quarters, and be lodged with the same form.
STANDARD bearer, he who carries the standard; a cornet, ensign, &c.
STANDARD-Hill, a hill in England so called because William the conqueror set up his standard on it, before he joined battle with Harold.
STANDING. Settled, established, not temporary.
STANDING army. An army which is quartered upon a country, and is liable to every species of duty, without any limitation being fixed to its service. The life and foot guards form a part of the standing army of Great Britain. The militia, but not the volunteers, may be partially considered as such: the adjutant, non-commissioned officers, and drummers being in constant pay, and a third of the quota of men, together with all the officers, being called out once a year to be exercised for 28 days.
STANDING. Rank; condition. It likewise signifies length of time. As, such an officer is of very old standing in the army.
STAPLES, are loops of iron, or bars pointed and bent so as to be driven in at both ends.
STAR-chamber. A chamber in Westminster so called from its roof being painted with gilt stars. It has been rendered proverbially odious to the English nation, on account of the encroachments which were made upon the constitution of the country during the reign of Charles the first.
STAR-fort, in fortification. See FORT and FORTIFICATION.
STATE. Condition of any thing; as a weekly state of a regiment, &c.
STATE of a detachment. The difference between the state of a corps or detachment, and a mere return of the same, consists in this, that the former comprehends the specific casualties, &c. that have occurred; whereas the latter gives an abstract account of the officers and men in a more general and comprehensive manner. The word state is likewise used to express the condition of every thing belonging to the equipment of a regiment; as, state of arms, accoutrements, &c.
STATICS, (Statique, Fr.) A branch of mathematics, which considers weight or gravity, and the motion of bodies arising therefrom. Those who define mechanics to be the science of motion make statics a member thereof, viz. That part which considers the motions of bodies arising from gravity. Others again say, that statics should be the doctrine or theory of motion, and mechanics the application thereof to machines.
STATION, in geometry, a place pitched upon to make an observation, take an angle, or the like.
STATION. See POST.
STATIQUE, Fr. See STATICS.
STATISTICS. According to the author of a late work, statistics are that comprehensive part of municipal philosophy, which states and defines the situation, strength, and resources of a nation. They constitute a kind of political abstract, by which the statesman may be enabled to calculate his finances, as well as guide the economy of his government; and they are equally useful in ascertaining the military resources of a country.
STAVES, round and flat, used in ammunition and other waggons or carts, are round and flat sticks between the sommers and side-pieces, also in common and scaling ladders.
STAYS, in truck carriages, are the irons which are fixed one end under the fore axle-tree, and the other to the side-pieces, in the form of an S.
STEED. A horse either for state or war.
STEEL, particularly applied, it means weapon or armor.
STEGANOGRAPHY, the art of secret writing, or of writing in cyphers, known only to persons corresponding, and much used in war.
STENOGRAPHY, (Sténographie, Fr.) See STEREOGRAPHY.
STEP, (Pas, Fr.) Progression by one removal of the foot. It likewise signifies pace.
To STEP. To move forward or backward, by a single change of the place of the foot.
To STEP out. To lengthen your pace.
To STEP short, is to diminish or slacken your pace. On the word, step short, the foot advancing will finish its pace, and afterwards each man will step as far as the ball of his toe, and no further, until the word forward be given, when the usual pace of 24 inches is to be taken. This step is useful when a momentary retardment of either a battalion in line, or of a division in column, shall be required. See Am. Mil. Lib.
To STEP out, is to lengthen the step to 30 inches, by leaning forward a little, but without altering the cadence. It is also called the charging step, or accelerated pace. This step is necessary when a temporary exertion in line and to the front, is required; and is applied both to ordinary and quick time.
These phrases are frequently used in military movements, when it is found necessary to gain ground in front, or to give the rear of a column &c. time to acquire its proper distance. The officer who leads a head division should be particularly attentive, when he is ordered to step out or step short, especially in the different wheelings, not to lose the precise moment when either may be thought expedient; and in marching in open column, every successive officer should watch the seasonable moment, after a wheel, of preserving his relative distance.
To STEP off, in a military sense, to take a prescribed pace from a halted position, in ordinary or quick time, in conformity to some given word of command or signal.
STEPPING off to music. In stepping off to music, or to the tap of the drum, it will be recollected, that the word of command is the signal to lift up the left foot, and that it comes down, or is planted, the instant the tap is given, or the music completes its first bar, so that the time must be invariably marked with the left foot, and not by the right, as has been practised by the British guards and the artillery, until a recent regulation.
Balancing STEP. A step so called from the body being balanced upon one leg, in order to render it firm and steady in military movements, &c. Men at the drill should be frequently exercised in this step. The manner in which it is executed is as follows:
At the word march, the left foot is advanced firmly, but without a jirk, the body is kept perfectly erect, the knee straight, the toe pointed out, the shoulders square to the front, and the whole weight of the body bearing on the right foot. Great care must be taken that the foot is thrown straight forwards, and that the shoulders do not go with it. When the men have remained in this position just long enough to make them perfectly steady, the word right, must be given. Upon which the left foot is planted firm, the body quite steady, and whole weight rests à plomb upon the left foot; the right foot is of course advanced as the left foot was before, and so on, the feet being thrown forward, alternately, at the words Right, Left. The drill serjeant or corporal must see, that the toe of each man comes rather first to the ground, that he rests on the flat of the foot that is planted, and by no means on the heel, that both knees are straight, and that his arms are kept close to his side without constraint.
When a recruit has been rendered tolerably steady in this step, he must be made to stand on one leg, and move the other to front and rear gently; he must then bring that leg to the ground, and do the same with the other. He must be frequently practised in this until he becomes quite steady on his legs, and has acquired a free motion from his hips without working his body.
Lock STEP. See LOCK.
The side or closing STEP. A step which is taken in order to gain ground to the right or left, without altering the front of the battalion, or of closing it to its centre, whenever a chasm occurs in the line after it has wheeled from column, &c. This step is performed from the halt, in ordinary time, by the following words of command:--
Mark time.
Side step to the right--March.
Side step to the left--March.
Back STEP, (Pas en arriére, Fr.) A step taken to the rear from any position without any change of aspect. The back step is performed in the ordinary time and six inches pace, from the halt, on a given word of command. It will be generally recollected, that a few paces only of the back step can be necessary at a time.
STEP Back, March, (En arriére, Marche, Fr.) A word of command which is given when one or more men are ordered to take the back step according to regulation.
Quick STEP, a military step, consisting of 24 inches, (of which 108 are to be taken in a minute, making 216 feet in a minute) which constitutes what is now called common time in marching. The command quick march being given with a pause between them, the word mark time, is to be considered as a caution, and the whole are to remain on the ground dressed in ranks, with the feet in motion at quick time; on the word march, they step off with the left feet, keeping the body in the same posture, and the shoulders square to the front; the foot to be lifted off the ground, that it may clear any stones, or other impediments in the way, and to be thrown forward, and placed firm; the whole of the sole to touch the ground, and not the heel alone: the knees are not to be bent, neither are they to be stiffened, so as to occasion fatigue or constraint. These instructions can only be complied with by means of a sedulous attention not only in the instructor at the drill, but by a constant application of that solid principle which directs, that all movements of the legs should come from the haunches. The knees, indeed, must bend, and the fore parts of the feet must unavoidably be lifted up, but both these natural actions may be done in so correct and quick a manner, that they will scarcely be perceptible. The elasticity of the instep, if properly managed, will always give a firmness to the tread. The arms are to hang with ease down the outside of the thigh; and a very small motion may be occasionally permitted, to prevent constraint. The head is to be kept to the front, the body to be well up, and the utmost steadiness to be preserved. The quick step is the pace to be used in all filings of divisions from line into column, or from column into line; and by battalion columns of manœuvre, when they change position, independently of each other. It must always be used in the column of march of small bodies, when the route is smooth, or the ground unembarrassed, and no obstacles occur; but in a long march in line of a considerable body, it is not to be required; otherwise fatigue must arise to the soldier, and more time will be lost by hurry, and inaccuracy (the natural consequence of hurry) than is attempted to be gained by quickness.
Quickest STEP, (Pas accelere, Fr.) A step measuring 24 inches, which indicates quickest time, or wheeling march, and of which 130, making 260 feet, should be taken in a minute.
This step is applied chiefly to the purpose of wheeling, and is the rate at which all bodies accomplish their wheels; the outward file stepping 24 inches, whether the wheel is from line into column, during the march in column, or from column into line. In this time also, and by this step, should divisions double, and move up, when they pass obstacles in line; or when in the column of march, the front of divisions is increased, or diminished.
To STEP between. To interfere.
To STEP forth or forward. To take an active part in any thing. Thus, when the circle was formed, the grenadiers stepped forward to beg off their comrade, &c. The officers stepped forward, and remonstrated against their colonel.
STEP is likewise figuratively used to signify promotion. As the next step from a lieutenancy is a troop or company, and from that to a majority; except in the British guards, who have the exclusive privilege of going over this intermediate rank, and stepping into a lieutenant-colonelcy at once.
To STEP over. To rise above another. This term is generally used in a bad sense. As, young men of interest and connection frequently step over old soldiers.
STEWARD. One who manages the affairs of others. In all well conducted messes belonging to military corps, certain officers are named to act as stewards, for some specific period. These act conjointly with the treasurer and pay master for the good of the whole.
STERE, Fr. A measure for firewood, which has been adopted by the French, since the revolution. The stere is equal to the cubic metre. It is used instead of the voie, and is about half of that measure. The Corde, in decimals, answers 3,335 steres.
STEREOGRAPHY. The art of drawing the forms of solids upon a plane.
STEREOMETRY. The art of measuring all sorts of solid bodies.
STICK. The same as Baton, an instrument of dignity, which is occasionally carried by persons and officers in high situations, particularly by such as are in waiting near the royal person.
STICKLER. A sidesman to fencers: or second to a duellist.
STILETTO. A small dagger, with a round blade, and sharp point.
STINKPOT. A firework made of offensive combustibles, which is used at sieges, &c. See LABORATORY.
STIRRUPS. Iron hoops suspended by straps to each side of the saddle, in which the horseman sets his feet in mounting or riding.
STOCCADO. A push or thrust with a rapier.
STOLE. See ORDER OF THE STOLE.
STOCK. The wooden part of a musquet or pistol.
STOCK. A part of an officer’s dress, which consists generally of black silk or velvet, and is worn round the neck instead of a neckcloth. The soldier’s stock is of black ribbed leather, and is part of his small mounting. Red stocks were formerly worn in the British guards; they are still so in some Prussian regiments.
STOCK Purse. A certain saving which is made in a corps, and which is applied to regimental purposes. In some corps this fund is so honestly managed, that, without encroaching upon the public, the most beneficial effects are produced: in others again, it is so mysteriously handled between commanding officers and paymasters, that it becomes a perpetual source of discontent and jealousy.
STOMPER, Fr. To sketch out a design, or to draw with colors that have been pounded into dust. Instead of the pencil or crayon, a roll of paper which is dipped into the colored dust, serves to put on the different colors.
STONES, in military architecture, may be distinguished into two sorts; that is, into hard and soft: hard stone is that which is exposed to the open air, such as rocks, and which lie loose upon the surface of the earth: the soft stone is that which is found in quarries, and underground. It is undoubtedly true that the hardest stones make the most durable works; but as there is seldom a sufficient quantity to build the whole fortification, the best serve in the facings of the work, in the foundations, and where the works are exposed to the violence of the waves.
The stones of some quarries are very soft, and easily worked, when first cut out; but, when exposed for some time to the open air, become very hard and durable.
As there is undoubtedly a kind of sap in stones as well as in timber, by which the same sort of stone, taken out of the same quarry, at one season, will moulder away in a few winters, but, when dug out in another season, will resist the weather for many ages: stones should always be dug in the spring, that they may have time to dry before the cold weather comes in; for the heat of the sun will extract the greatest part of the moisture, which otherwise expands in frosty weather, and causes the stone to splinter, although it be otherwise hard and good.
As stones lie in the quarries in horizontal beds or strata, (that is, they cleave in that direction) and have likewise a breaking vein, which is perpendicular to the former; both these directions must be observed in cleaving, as well as in raising them out of their beds. Stones that will not easily cleave must be blown up by gunpowder.
Marble, is of various sorts and colors; the most beautiful of which is exported from Italy. The marble found in England is mostly blackish, and so very hard and difficult to polish, that very little use is made of it, except to burn and make lime. The American marbles are various, and every day produces new discoveries of marbles of the most beautiful colors.
Fire-STONE, or Soap Stone, serves chiefly for chimneys, hearths, ovens, furnaces, and stoves; being a dry, porous, gritty stone, which bears the heat without breaking: on account of this quality, it is called fire-stone.
Purbeck-STONE, is a hard, greyish stone, and serves chiefly for paving, coping of walls, and for all such other uses where strength is required, it being the most hard and durable stone.
Rag-STONE, is of a bluish color, and commonly used in paving: but there is a stone called Kentish rag, that is very useful in building: it splits very easily, and yet is very hard.
Free-STONE, more generally called Portland stone: it is a fine whitish stone, without any veins. This stone is very soft when it comes out of the quarry, is easy to be worked, and becomes very hard in time. Hence it is very fit for military works.
Gypsum, is a clear whitish stone, not unlike coarse marble. It is plentiful in some parts of Italy; in France; and very abundant in Nova Scotia, whence it has been lately imported to a vast amount to be pulverised for manure; it is to be had in great abundance in Scotland, and makes the very best lime.
Whin, or Aberdeen whin, is of a greyish color, intermixed with veins, not unlike coarse marble. This stone is the fittest of any for military works: because it withstands the weather, and the violence of the waves, better than any stone found in England.
STOPPAGES, in the British service, deductions from a soldier’s pay, the better to provide him with necessaries, &c. A soldier should never be put under a greater weekly stoppage from his pay, than what will afterwards leave him a sufficiency for messing.
There shall be stopped out of the pay of an artillery soldier, (beer money included) the sum of 5 shillings and one penny per week, to be applied towards the expence of his mess, (including vegetables &c.) A sum not exceeding one shilling and six pence per week shall be retained for necessaries, to be accounted for, as usual, monthly. The remainder, amounting to 3_s._ 10³⁄₄_d._ per week, shall be paid to the soldier, subject to the accustomed deduction for washing, &c. or articles for cleaning his clothes and appointments. Stoppages for rations for man and horse. See the word RATION.
STOPPAGE, for the subsistence of the sick in the British army. In the regulations for the better management of the sick in regimental hospitals, it is particularly laid down, under the head subsistence, page 16, that sufficient funds should be established for the support of the sick without any additional charge to government; and at the same time, that the sick soldier should be provided with every reasonable comfort and indulgence that can be afforded. The sum of four shillings per week from the pay of each soldier will, under proper regulations, and with strict economy, be sufficient for this purpose; which sum is to be retained by the paymaster of the regiment.
The sick are to be furnished with bread made of the finest wheat flour, and fresh meat, perfectly good and wholesome.
That the greatest economy may be used in laying out the money for the sick, every article ought to be purchased by the surgeon, who is required to keep a book, in which he is to enter the amount of the weekly consumption of each man according to the diet table; and this book, with the diet table, is to be laid before the commanding officer and paymaster every week to be examined and signed by each; and it is of the utmost importance to the welfare of the service, that every commanding officer, and every regimental paymaster, should superintend the expenditure.
STOPPER. A piece of wood or cork, made to fit the bore of a musquet barrel, which soldiers use in wet weather; and on other occasions, when the piece is not loaded, to prevent moisture and dust from getting into the barrel.
STORE-keeper, in war time, must take care of the stores in the magazines, such as the provisions, forage, &c. receive the same from contractors, and deliver them out to the troops. He has several clerks under him, appointed to the different departments, of provisions, hay, straw, oats, &c. In time of peace he has charge of all the public stores, belonging both to land and sea service.
STOREHOUSE. See MAGAZINE.
STORES, Military, are provisions, forage, arms, clothing, ammunition, &c.
Medical STORES on board transports.--Certain articles of diet which are put on board each transport, are so called. These are to be considered as intended solely for the use of the sick, or convalescents; they are to remain in the charge of the master of the transport, and only to be issued upon demand in writing made by the surgeon from time to time as he shall judge proper; or, when there is no surgeon, upon demand of the commanding officer. And the surgeon or commanding officer is to give the master at the end of the voyage, a certificate that his demands for the said medical stores have been made only upon proper occasions, and have not been expended for any other use, than that of the sick, or convalescent.
To STORM, in military matters, to make a violent assault on any fortified place, or works.
STORMING party. A select body of men, consisting generally of the grenadiers, who first enter the breach, &c.
STRAGGLERS. Men who wander from the line of march. It is the business of the rear guard to pick up all stragglers, &c.
STRAPONTIN, Fr. A sort of hammock which is used in hot countries, &c. See HAMMOCK.
STRATAGEM, in war, any scheme or plan for the deceiving and surprising an army, or any body of men. See SURPRISE.
STRATAGEMS in war, (Stratagêmes de guerre, Fr.) Certain feints which are resorted to by able generals, &c. to cover their real designs during the operations of a campaign. It is impossible to lay down any specific rules on this head, as every general, according to the capacity and activity of his mind, makes use of the various means and expedients which grow out of times, circumstances, and occasions. It has been asserted by some writers, that all sorts of stratagems, even those which are connected with treachery may be adopted for the accomplishment of any design. This maxim is, however, strongly combated against by those who have written upon the law of nations. Probity, in fact, and elevation of mind, (which are superior to the pitiful measures of treacherous affiliation or intercourse,) should always bear the ascendancy in human actions. There are stratagems which may be practised and carried on, without the least deviation from honor and good faith. Many distinguished generals have had recourse to these; but none ever succeeded so well as Hannibal. Wishing to cross the river Rhone, and being in want of almost every article that was necessary to effect the passage in the presence of an enemy who was diligently watching his motions, he caused him to imagine that it was his intention to keep the ground he occupied. He ordered large fires to be lighted up in different quarters of his camp, and directed some of his troops to shout and make loud noises, as if they were perfectly stationary. During this apparent state of inactivity, he broke up his camp, marched up the river side, and crossed it at a place where it was least expected he would make the attempt.
General Washington executed a similar stratagem with success on the British at Trenton; and a very memorable stratagem in baking bread at King’s bridge and amusing the British at New York, while he made forced marches with his army for Yorktown, to capture Cornwallis.
Among other good qualities which are indispensibly necessary in an able general, that of knowing how to conceal a projected march, and to anticipate the motions of an enemy, is not the least important.
The army under the command of the duke of Saxe-Weimar, having laid siege to Brisac in 1638, the imperialists went to the relief of that place. The duke, on receiving intelligence of their approach, instantly marched against them, with a body of forces composed of Swedes and French allies. The imperialists, who had advanced by rapid marches, had gained possession of an eminence by means of which they would have enjoyed all the advantages of local superiority, had not the count de Guebriant, who was then a lieutenant-general in the Swedish service, suggested a stratagem to dislodge the enemy. The plan was adopted, and it succeeded to the full extent of his design.
The drums and trumpets of the different corps were collected together, and stationed in a neighboring wood, so as to draw the whole of the enemy’s attention away from the quarter proposed to be carried. The imperialists being naturally led to believe, from the noise and concurrence of so many military instruments, that they were going to be attacked from that quarter, beat to arms, and left their position in complete order of battle. They had scarcely quitted the eminence, before the duke of Saxe-Weimar appeared in their rear, took possession of the ground which they had so imprudently abandoned, and became master of all the advantages which his enemy would otherwise have enjoyed. An interesting account of this ingenious manœuvre may be found in the History of Le Marechal de Guebriant.
Stratagems of this description have been frequently used by the French during the present war, particularly in Italy. Stratagems, in fact, constitute one of the principal branches in the art of war. They have been practised in all ages by the most able generals, and have contributed in a great degree, to their military reputation. Virgil, in his Æneid, book II. says--
Dolus an virtus, quis in hoste requirat.
The history of France abounds with instances in which stratagems of every kind have been successfully practised.--It seems the peculiar talent of the inhabitants of that country to derive advantages from well concerted feints, &c. in war, and to secure their victories more by science than by downright hardihood.
It has been wisely observed, by a French writer, under the article of Stratagêmes de guerre, that a general who is defeated in a general action, may attribute his failure to fortune, although it is universally acknowleged, that chance or fortune has a very trifling share indeed in pitched battles, while art and science regulate the different movements, and finally determine their issue. Whoever, therefore, suffers himself to be surprised by his enemy, cannot be said to stand wholly exculpated from ignorance or neglect, since it must have been in his power to have avoided the snares laid for him, by means of vigilant spies, and unremitting attention. This remark appears to us not only to be generally correct, but it seems more immediately applicable to all generals that have secret service money at command. The influence of that commodity, (upon which no embargo can be laid) will be felt in every garrison, town, or sea-port; and those who have the management of it must be dull indeed, if they do not feel their way into the secret preparations of an enemy, before they hazard an attack against him.
Besides the different stratagems which may be used by an able general, to bring about the overthrow of the whole or part of an army, by leading it into an ambuscade, there are various ones which may be practised against a fortified place. To effect the latter purpose, you may contrive to get soldiers in disguise through the gates at unguarded hours; to introduce them through subterraneous passages, or by any other means that may offer. Before any attempt of this sort is made, every part of the fortifications should be narrowly reconnoitred, and as much knowlege be obtained of the interior situation of the place as can be procured by means of good spies, or from deserters. You must, above all things, be well assured, that the garrison does not strict duty; that the different guards are negligently attended to; that the soldiers who compose them are in the habits of drinking or gaming; that their officers miss their rounds, or go them without system or regularity; that the gates are ill guarded, and the avenues to them ill watched; and that there are certain places or entrances which are not watched at all; for it would be impossible to surprize any place that has been regularly fortified, while the garrison did its duty.
If it should appear practicable to surprise a town by taking advantage of the negligence of the sentries, &c. at some particular gate, previous means must be taken to introduce some soldiers dressed like market women, or in the garb of some religious order. You may then contrive to get a waggon or cart, seemingly loaded with hay or straw, but with soldiers concealed beneath it, so placed in the entrance of the gate that it will serve as an obstacle when it may be found necessary to shut it. In order to do this effectually, let a pin be taken out, so that the wheel comes off, or the axle tree gets broken. The instant this is done, the soldiers who had entered the town in disguise must join the drivers, the men that have been concealed in the waggon get out, and the whole must rush upon the port-guard. While this happens, the troops that have been placed in ambush round the fortifications, will advance with promptitude and firmness, and endeavor to get possession of the town before a sufficient force can be collected to repel the attack. In the year 1789, a rabble from Courtray took advantage of the carelessness of the imperial troops who were in garrison at Gand, in Flanders, and by seizing upon the gate and port-guard, brought about a temporary rebellion in the country. This indeed was done without stratagem; but the circumstance proves, that when the centries of a fortified place are negligent in their duty, a surprise is always practicable. We are precluded by the limits of our undertaking from going more fully into this important branch of military science. Several treatises have been written on the subject. Among others one appeared in 1756, intitled Stratagêmes de Guerre, illustrating from history the various stratagems which had been practised by some of the ablest generals during a long period of time down to the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. It was published by M. Carlet de la Rousiere, an officer in the French service, and acting engineer in the isles of France and Bourbon. It contains much curious matter. See Am. Mil. Lib.
STRATAGEM and force united. Count Turpin, page 43, vol. I. in his essay on the Art of War, judiciously remarks, that when an enemy, superior in force, is in possession of a pass, from which he cannot be dislodged but by art, stratagem and force should be blended together as often as possible. Onosander, the Greek general, set fire to a wood which was at the foot of a mountain in the enemy’s possession, and which he wanted to go over; the flames and smoke forced the enemy to abandon it, and leave the passage free for him.
STRATARITHMOMETRY. In war, the art of drawing up an army, or any part of it, in any given geometrical figure; and of expressing the number of men contained in such a figure, as they stand in order of battle, either at hand, or at any distance assigned.
STRAW. According to the British regulations, published by authority in 1799, relative to the forage, &c. which troops are to receive in the home encampments, it is directed, that straw is to be allowed at the rate of one truss of 36 pounds to each paillasse for two men, being a full bedding; at the expiration of sixteen days to be refreshed with half a truss to each paillasse; at the expiration of 32 days to be removed, and a fresh bedding of one truss is to be given, and so on every succeeding period of sixteen and thirty-two days.
For the sick, in the hospital, the straw is to be changed as often as it may be deemed necessary.
Two trusses per troop or company are to be allowed for batmen, or servants, not soldiers; and three trusses per troop or company for the washerwomen, to be changed every sixteen days, not having paillasses.
Thirty trusses of straw per troop or company are allowed on first taking the field for thatching the women’s huts.
Regiments, not having paillasses, are allowed straw at the following rates:
On taking the field, two trusses of 36 pounds each to every five men, at the end of eight days to be refreshed by one truss, and at the end of eight days more to be refreshed again by the same quantity. At the end of twenty-four days the whole to be removed, and an entire new bedding to be given, and refreshed as before, viz. two trusses for every five men.
Four pounds of straw are to be added to the ration forage for the cavalry and artillery horses only.
Six pounds of straw are to be allowed to the general officers and staff, in addition to the prescribed ration of forage. See REGULATIONS.
STRAW. For straw! is a word of command in the British service, to dismiss the soldiers when they have stacked their arms, so that they may be ready on the first signal given.
STREAKS, are the iron bands on the outside of the wheel to bind the fellies strongly together.
STREAK-nails, are those driven through the streaks into the fellies.
STREET. See ENCAMPMENT.
STREET-firing. See FIRING.
STRELITZ. A Russian word, whose plural number is strelitzy, derived from strelai, an arrow, in the same language. An ancient militia, which was formerly kept in pay among the Muscovites both in time of peace and in time of war, was so called. The men who composed it always served on foot, and were originally armed, as their name indicates, with bows and arrows. They afterwards received musquets or firelocks, and laid aside the bow and arrow. The rest of the Russian army, which was only called together in cases of emergency, retained the bows, arrows, and lances; with which each soldier armed himself according to his own particular whim or notion.
In the remote periods of the Russian empire, the strelitzy were the only regular body of troops that formed any part of the standing army of that country. It consisted of twenty or twenty-four thousand men, who enjoyed a multiplicity of privileges and immunities, and were quartered in one of the suburbs of Moscow, which is still called Strelitzkaia Slaboda. From the latitude allowed them, and the peculiar indulgencies which these soldiers enjoyed, they might be well compared to the Prætorian bands under the first Roman emperors, and, in some degree, to the Janizaries of Constantinople. They frequently mutinied like the latter, and interfered in the management of public affairs. Their last revolt, however, was fatal to them. It happened in 1698, during the absence of the Czar Peter the first, who on his return into Russia, broke the whole corps, erased its name from the list of military establishments, and put his troops upon the same footing that those of the rest of Europe were.
The established pay of a strelitz was seven rubles, and twelve combs and bushels of grain every year.
Grain, even in these days, is given as a necessary ration to a Russian soldier, which he bakes or roasts upon thin plates of iron, and then reduces to meal, making therewith a sort of dough, called Toloqueno. Every man always carries a good portion of this subsistence about him, to which he adds a small cruet of vinegar. By soaking this meal in water mixed with a little vinegar, he contrives to make a sort of soup or broth, which the Russians, who are fond of acids, find extremely palatable; and by giving it the consistency of dough, it serves for bread and meat. When the Russian soldier can procure a few greens, such as cabbage, &c. to mix with his toloqueno, he makes a complete meal, which he calls Chety. A tcharotcheka, or small glass of brandy, makes up the measure of a full repast. It must be acknowleged, that where soldiers can be brought to satisfy the cravings of nature in this economical manner, great advantages must be derived, especially in long marches through an uncultivated or desert country. We cannot, however, recommend its adoption except in cases of urgent necessity, and on services where there might be a possibility of absolute want, from the destruction or poverty of a country into which an army marches. The fare itself is not calculated to add vigor and activity to the body, or to keep alive that promptitude and fire which are required in military operations.
STRENGTH. This word may be variously understood in military matters, viz.
STRENGTH. Fortification; fortress; stronghold. It likewise signifies armament; power; force. In all returns which are made of corps, strength implies the number of men that are borne upon the establishment, in contradistinction to effective force, which means the number fit for service. Hence, the strength of a battalion, troop, or company, &c. The allowance for the repair of arms, &c. is issued according to the return which is made, not of the effective force, but of the established strength of a troop or company.
STRICT. Exact, severe, rigorous; the contrary to mild, indulgent. Hence, a strict officer. It is sometimes used in a bad sense, to signify a petulant, troublesome commander.
To STRIKE. This word is variously used in military phraseology, viz.
To STRIKE at. To attack; to endeavor to destroy, directly or indirectly.
To STRIKE off. To erase; to blot out; as to strike off the list of the army. This can only be done by the order of the president of the United States.
To STRIKE a tent. In castrametation, to loosen the cords of a tent which has been regularly pitched, and to have it ready, in a few minutes, to throw upon a bat-horse or baggage waggon.
To STRIKE terror into an enemy. To cause alarm and apprehension in him; to make him dread the effects of superior skill and valor.
To STRIKE a blow. To make some decisive effort.
To STRIKE the colors. This is properly a naval term, but it may be applied to military matters on some occasions. Thus at the battle of Fontenoy, when the British had driven the French out of the field, Louis XV. who was upon an eminence in the neighborhood with his guards, &c. ordered the royal standard to be struck, from a full persuasion that the day was lost.
STRIPE. Dr. Johnson calls a stripe a lineary variation of color. Regimental sword knots are directed to be made of blue with silver or gold in stripes.
STRUCTURE, (Structure, Fr.) The manner in which any thing is built. Une édifice de belle structure. An edifice which is built in a handsome manner.
To STRUGGLE with or against. To make extraordinary exertion in direct contest with an enemy, or against superior forces.
STUC, Fr. Stucco, gypsum or plaster of Paris.
STUCCO. A sort of fine white mortar or composition, which is made of lime mixed with gypsum or lime. It is used for the outward covering of all sorts of works, and when it is perfectly dry, it has the appearance of the finest polished stone.
STUCATEURS, Fr. The men employed at stucco work.
SUB. A familiar abbreviation which is used in the British army to signify subaltern.
SUB-brigadier. An officer in the British horse-guards, who ranks as cornet.
SUB-lieutenant. An officer in the British regiments of artillery and fuzileers, where they have no ensigns; and is the same as second lieutenant.
SUBA, or Soobah, Ind. A province.
SUBADAR, Ind. The governor of a province. It likewise signifies a black officer, who ranks as captain in the English East India company’s troops; but ceases to have any command when an European officer is present.
SUBADARY, Ind. The appointment or office of a subadar.
SUBALTERNS, (Officiers subalternes, Fr.) Subaltern officers. This word is used among the French, as with us, to signify all officers of a certain inferior degree, viz. Les subalternes, the subalterns. The term is commonly applied in a regiment to the officers below the rank of captain, in relation to that officer; but, strictly, every officer is subaltern to the grades above him, as the captain is subaltern to the major, and so upward.
SUBDIVISION. The half of a division. Thus if a company forms a division, divided it forms two subdivisions. In the British organization, two companies added together make a grand division; except the flank companies, which constitute grand divisions of themselves; but in actual service, according to the best modern principles, the division is not limited to any given number, but must depend on the strength of the force, and the skill and discretion of the officer.
DIVISION, in the French system, is also applied in the same manner as the term brigade in the English; the French division consists of several regiments, three or more, up to seven or eight; the general of division is of the same rank as the major general in the British establishment.
SUBDUR, Ind. Chief.
SUBJECT, (Sujet, Fr.) One who lives under the dominion of another. It is only used in the first instance, as no one can be the subject of a secondary power, although he is bound to obey his orders. Thus soldiers are obliged to submit to the orders of a general, but they are not his subjects. The French make the same distinction.
SUBORDINATION. A perfect submission to the orders of superiors; a perfect dependence, regulated by the rights and duties of every military man, from the soldier to the general. Subordination should shew the spirit of the chief in all the members; and this single idea, which is manifest to the dullest apprehension, suffices to shew its importance. Without subordination it is impossible that a corps can support itself; that its motions can be directed, order established, or the service carried on. In effect, it is subordination that gives a soul and harmony to the service: it adds strength to authority, and merit to obedience; and while it secures the efficacy of command, reflects honor upon its execution. It is subordination which prevents every disorder, and procures every advantage to an army.
SUBSIDIARY troops. Troops of one nation assisting those of another for a given sum or subsidy.
To SUBSIST. In a military sense, to give pay or allowance, &c. to soldiers; as a captain of the light company will subsist 20 men belonging to other companies, for so many days during the march. The French do not use the term in the same sense.
SUBSISTANCE des piéces, Fr. This term is used among the French to signify the pay or allowance which is given to the officer, bombardier, and men belonging to the train of artillery who serve the batteries.
SUBSISTENCE, (Subsistance, Fr.) in a military sense of the word may be divided into two sorts, viz. That species of subsistence which is found in the adjacent country: such as forage, and frequently corn that is distributed in parcels; and that which is provided at a distance, and regularly supplied by means of a well-conducted commissariat. The latter consists chiefly of meat, bread, beer, &c. To these may be added wood or coals, and straw, which are always wanted in an army. Every general will take proper precautions to have his men well supplied with these first necessaries in life. Baron d’Espagnac has written at large upon this important subject. See Elemens Militaires, tom. i. page 162; and that writer’s Suite de l’essai sur la science de la Guerre, tom. i. page 246.
Subsistence likewise means pay or allowance.
SUBSTITUTE in the militia. A person who voluntarily serves in the room of another.
SUBSTITUTION, Fr. An algebraical term used by the French, signifying to substitute in an equation any quantity in the room of another, which is equal to it, but which is differently expressed.
SUBTANGENT, in any curve, is the line which determines the intersection of the tangent in the axis prolonged.
SUBTENSE, (Soutendante, Fr.) A geometrical term signifying the base of an angle, that is to say, a strait line opposite to an angle, which is supposed to be drawn from the two extremes of the section that measures it. Likewise the chord of an arch; that which is extended under any thing.
SUBURBS, (Fauxbourgs, Fr.) Buildings without the walls of a city.
SUCCESSION of rank. Relative gradation according to the dates of commissions, or the regulations established.
SUCCOUR, in war. Assistance in men, stores, or ammunition.
SUD, Fr. This word is variously used by the French. It signifies in the sea language the south wind and the southern regions; and it signifies in an absolute sense, one of the four cardinal winds which blows from the south. Hence Le Sud, the south wind. Sud est ou sud ouest, south east or south west.
SUISSES, Fr. The Swiss soldiers who were in the pay of France previous to the 10th of August 1792, were generally so called. It was also a general term to signify stipendiary troops. Hence point d’argent, point de suisses! which agrees with our cant phrase--No pay, no soldier.
SUITE, or SERIES, Fr. This term signifies generally any regular collection and successive distribution of things.
Officiers à la SUITE, Fr. Supernumerary officers attached to a regiment, &c. during the monarchy of France, who were not required to do duty with it.
SULPHUR, or brimstone, a volcanic mineral essential in making gunpowder and artificial fire-works.
SULTAN or SULTAUN, Ind. King. The title which was assumed by Tippoo Saib, chief of the Mysore country. Hence called Tippoo Sultaun.
SULTAN shirki, Ind. King of the east.
SULTAUNUT, Ind. The decorations or appendages annexed to royalty.
SUMMONS. The act of demanding the surrender of a place, or body of men.
SUMNUTCHEER, Ind. A word, among others, which signifies Saturday.
SUMOODER, Ind. The sea or main ocean.
SUMPTER. See BAT-HORSE.
SUN, Ind. The year.
SUNAUT, Ind. Old rupees on which a discount is allowed. Hence Sunaut Rupees.
SUNEEBAR, Ind. Another word for Saturday.
SUNEECHUR, Ind. A word likewise meaning Saturday.
SUNNUD, Ind. A charter, grant, or patent, from any man in authority. When it was given by the mogul, it obtained the appellation of Firmaun.
SUNNUD dewauny, Ind. A grant or instrument in writing, which entitles a person to hold land in India.
SUNSET. See RETREAT BEATING.
SUNSET. The time at which the evening gun fires, and the retreat is beat in camp, or quarters, &c. When troops are embarked on board transports, the men parade at half an hour before sunset, quite clean as to their persons.
SUPERANNUATED, (Suranné-ée, Fr.) In a military sense, rendered unfit for service through old age.
SUPERFICIES, (Superficie, Fr.) Outline; exterior surface; extent without depth. The curved superficies are divided into two sorts, viz. the convex and concave.
SUPERINTENDANT, (Surintendant, Fr.) A person appointed to take charge of any particular district or department. Hence, military superintendant.
SUPERIOR officer. Any officer of higher rank, or who has priority in the same rank, by the date of his commission, &c.
SUPERNUMERARY, (Surnumeraire, Fr.) Beyond a fixed or stated number. In a strict military sense it means the officers and non-commissioned officers that are attached to a regiment or battalion for the purpose of supplying the places of such as fall in action, and for the better management of the rear ranks when the front is advancing or engaged.
Supernumerary officers and non-commissioned officers must always divide their ground equally in the rear of the division they belong to, and pay the strictest attention to the orders which are issued for its exercise or movement.
If an officer is killed or wounded in action, the first supernumerary officer of the division takes the command, and so on to the quarter-master and serjeants.
To SUPERSEDE, (Remplacer, Fr.) See TO RESPITE.
To be SUPERSEDED, (Etre remplacé, Fr.) Both these terms are used by the French in the same military sense that we employ them, viz. to be deprived of rank and pay for some offence, and to have others put in one’s stead.
SUPPLEANT, Fr. A substitute. Any person named to do the functions of another.
SUPPLEMENT. Addition; augmentation, in case of deficiency.
SUPPLEMENT of an arch. In geometry or trigonometry, the number of degrees which it wants of being an entire semicircle; as complement signifies what an arch wants of being a quadrant.
SUPPLEMENT d’un angle, Fr. Supplement of an angle. The number of degrees which are wanting in an angle to constitute or make up two angles.
SUPPLEMENT, Fr. A certain pecuniary allowance, over and above the ordinary pay or subsistence, which was given by the king to officers belonging to the old French service.
SUPPLEMENTAL, SUPPLEMENTARY, (Supplementaire, Fr.) Additional; such as fills up what is wanting.
SUPPLY. Relief of want; making up of deficiencies. A fresh supply of troops, ammunition, &c.
To SUPPLY. To makeup deficiencies. To aid; to assist; to relieve with something wanted. To fill any room made vacant. Thus, covering serjeants supply the places of officers when they step out of the ranks, or are killed in action.
To SUPPORT. To aid, to assist; it likewise signifies to preserve untarnished, viz. To support the ancient character of the corps.
Well SUPPORTED. Well aided, well assisted. It likewise signifies well kept up, as a well supported fire from the batteries; a well supported fire of musquetry.
SURAPAN, Ind. An honorary dress, which is given to an inferior by a superior.
SURAT Haal, Ind. A state or representation of the case.
SURCINGLE. A girth with which the saddle or any other burden is bound upon a horse.
SURFACE, in fortification, is that part of the side which is terminated by the flank prolonged, and the angle of the nearest bastion: the double of this line with the curtain is equal to the exterior side.
SURGEON, (Chirurgien, Fr.) A staff officer, who is chief of the medical department in each regiment or hospital, &c.
SURGEON-general. The first or senior surgeon of an army.
Particular instructions to the regimental surgeons of the line in the British service.
Each regimental surgeon of the line, when provided with a chest of medicines, is required half yearly to make a return to the inspector of regimental hospitals, (under cover to the secretary at war,) of the medicines used by him during the preceding six months, and what remain; and this return must be accompanied by an affidavit taken before a magistrate, that none of the medicines have, to his knowlege, been converted to private purposes, or applied to any use but that of the regiment, or some other military service; for which he must produce the special orders of the commanding officer, or of the inspector of regimental hospitals.
Should a regiment of the line be placed in an unhealthy situation; or, from any prevailing disease, should the surgeon’s stock of a particular medicine be exhausted before the next yearly supply becomes due, he is to apply to the inspector of regimental hospitals, (under cover to the secretary at war) for a fresh supply; the existence of such cause for the extraordinary consumption of the medicines to be certified by the commanding officer.
If a medical officer of the line desires to use a medicine not in the dispensatory, he must procure it at his own expence.
Whenever wine is necessary for the sick of a regiment of the line, a return of the consumption thereof is to be made weekly to the inspector of regimental hospitals.
The medical and hospital expences of regiments of the line, and of their respective detachments, are to be inserted in the public accounts of the respective corps.
Every regimental surgeon is to make a report to the inspector of regimental hospitals, of the situation, size, rent, &c. of the hospital he proposes to hire; and unless on very pressing emergencies, no engagement is to be entered into without the permission of that officer, to whom is to be transmitted half yearly, viz. June 24th and December 24th, an abstract of the regimental hospital contingent expences, approved by the commanding officer of the regiment, accompanied with regular vouchers signed and certified by the paymaster.
When a soldier is punished, it is the duty of the regimental surgeon to attend at the execution of the sentence, and to see that the life of the culprit is not endangered by excessive rigor. He is, in fact, paramount to the commanding officer on this occasion, and ought to interfere whenever his judgment dictates. If any commanding officer should be hardy enough to continue the chastisement in spite of the surgeon’s interposition, the responsibility will then rest with him.
Assistant SURGEON. The person who acts immediately under the regimental surgeon. In the regulations for improving the situation of British regimental surgeons and mates, which took place in 1796, it is expressed, that surgeon’s mates in future are to be stiled assistant surgeons, and to be appointed by commission from the king, or by generals authorised by him. For further particulars respecting surgeons and assistant surgeons, see Military Finance, page 46.
Veterinary SURGEON. See VETERINARY.
SURINTENDANT des Fortifications, Fr. A place of great trust and considerable importance during the old French government. It was his duty to submit plans of places that were to be fortified, or of others that wanted repairing, to give in estimates of the expences that would attend the works, and to state to the directors the degrees of skill and activity which he had discovered in the different engineers who acted under him. He likewise communicated with the king on every weighty branch of ordnance. His allowance was fifty thousand livres per annum, out of which he gave six thousand livres, or 1200 dolls. to a first clerk, who received the like sum from the king for under-clerks and stationary.
SURINTENDANT général des poudres et salpêtres de France, Fr. Superintendant general of powder and saltpetre magazines of France. An appointment in the old French artillery, which was created in 1634, and paid the Paulette.
SURMENER, Fr. To founder. A term in the French manege, signifying to over-ride or over-work a horse. Hence, un chéval surmené. A jaded horse, or one spoiled by too much work.
Les SURPENTES, Fr. The slings or straps used in the artillery.
To SURPRISE, (Surprendre, Fr.) in war, to fall on an enemy unexpectedly, in marching through narrow and difficult passes, when one part has passed, so as not easily to come to the succour of the other; as in the passage of rivers, woods, enclosures, &c. A place is surprised by drains, casemates, or the issues of rivers or canals; by the encumbering the bridge or gate, by waggons meeting and stopping each other; sending soldiers into the place, under pretence of being deserters, who, on entering, surprise the guard; being sustained by troops in ambush near the place, to whom they give entrance, and thereby seize it. Soldiers dressed like peasants, merchants, Jews, priests, or women, are sometimes employed for this purpose. The enemy sometimes send in their soldiers, as if they were yours coming from the hospitals, &c. they also dress their soldiers in your regimentals, who, presenting themselves at your gate as such, are immediately admitted, seize the guard, and become masters of the place. Sometimes houses are set on fire, and whilst the garrison comes out to extinguish it, troops who lay in ambush march in, and surprise the place. Officers commanding guards at the principal gates are lured out under various pretences; matters being so contrived that a party seize the gate in coming in with them. Sometimes an alarm is given at one side of the garrison, whilst you enter secretly at the other, which at that time is too often neglected.
SURPRISES, (Surprises, Fr.) In a military sense, may apply either to those measures which are adopted by one army in the field to surprise another, or to those which are followed in the attack of fortified places. The French make a distinction between surprises de campagne, and surprises des places, or the surprises which are practised against an army in the field, and those which are executed against fortified towns or places. What has been said under the article Stratagems of War, will equally apply to the latter system.
When it is found expedient to attempt a surprise in the field, a sufficient number of men must be collected for the purpose, not only of advancing with confidence against the enemy, but of being able to make good a retreat, should he prove stronger than was suspected. The troops that are selected for this duty should be remarkable for their fidelity, and be able to undergo the greatest fatigue. Intelligent and faithful guides must be distributed among the different troops and companies, in order to keep up the continuity of the march, and put those of the rear in the right paths, should they have deviated from the direct route or line of march.
If the detachment or corps, that is entrusted with the secret expedition or surprise, be marched out of an entrenched camp, proper precautions must be taken, to prevent any intercourse between the enemy and persons employed to send or give intelligence. To do this effectually, the instant the rear guard has left the camp, the gates must be shut, and the strictest orders be issued to prevent spies or deserters from stealing out. Small parties of cavalry and riflemen must likewise be sent forward, to scour the roads, and to pick up stragglers. Care is taken to have it understood by the people of the country, that these parties are detached, for no other purpose than to escort some waggons, which are expected for the use of the army, to parley, or apparently to execute some business that can neither create jealousy, nor give uneasiness.
About an hour after, it must be proclaimed, in and about the camp and adjacent country, that no officer, soldier, sutler, or inhabitant of the villages, &c. shall on any account go more than one quarter of a league from the army. Small scouring parties, with the provost marshal’s field patroles, must be distributed beyond these limits, in order to pick up stragglers, and to search their persons lest they should be the bearers of letters, &c. A great number of small ambuscades must be laid along the leading avenues between the enemy’s camp and your own. If, notwithstanding all these precautions, you should learn, that the enemy has gained some information respecting your movement, a report must be instantly spread to make him imagine, that you have some other design in contemplation.
If, during the night, or in the course of the day, small reconnoitring parties, belonging to the enemy, should be discovered upon the road, or about it, one half of your patrole or scouring detachment, must be placed in ambush along one side of the road, in order to take them in the rear, whilst the other half attacks them in front, and by thus surrounding them, prevents any intelligence from being carried to the enemy.
When such parties consist of a regular advanced detachment from the enemy’s forces, that challenges you on your approach, your out-scouts must instantly give the name of the power or general against whose troops you are marching, or make them imagine, that you are returning from some secret expedition which had been undertaken in his favor, or that you came out of a neighboring state. As you draw near, proper measures must be adopted to get upon its flanks, so as ultimately to surround the whole guard, and to prevent any information from being forwarded to the main body of the enemy. This operation cannot fail of success, if you act with promptitude; and most especially if you can get possession of the enemy’s watchword or countersign.
Such are the leading precautions to be observed at the first outset of an army, whose design is to surprise its enemy. But these are not all. A perfect knowlege of his position must have been likewise acquired; correct descriptions of all the posts and stations, local as well as artificial advantages, must likewise have been given in, with a special account of the bridges, fords, &c. the state of his provisions, and of the general’s head-quarters.
If it be your design to surprise any strong holds, or particular posts, to fall suddenly upon some detached generals, or to carry the head-quarters themselves, you must be made thoroughly acquainted with all the intricacies of ground about them, with the number of men which may be opposed against you; and, when you have gained the necessary information respecting these matters, particularly the latter, you must assemble a body of active and zealous troops, whose number shall be one third at least greater than that of the enemy, to execute your plan.
When your project has been completed, you must call your men together. For in all expeditions of this sort, desultory operations are unavoidably necessary, and the troops employed upon them, must be dispersed. Should any be found absent at the roll-calling of the different companies or detachments, it may reasonably be presumed, that they are engaged in pillaging the place they entered. In which case you must set fire to the houses, if you cannot withdraw the free-booters by any other method. Strict orders should be given out, that no soldier or follower of the army shall move before the detachment returns to the main body, after having effected the surprise, or remain behind when it marches off. It frequently happens, that a few irregular soldiers, &c. will avail themselves of the confusion of the moment, to conceal the property that may have fallen into the hands of the detachment, and thereby to avoid sharing it with their comrades. Patroles must be sent out of the camp, and be posted along the road or roads that lead to the place which has been surprised, with strict injunctions to stop all stragglers; and the quarter and rear-guards of the camp itself must see, that none enter before the detachment is regularly marched in. When any are found guilty of this unmilitary practice, they must not only be stripped of their booty, but they must also be severely punished for the sake of example. If there should not be a sufficient number of waggons to bring off the wounded, the cavalry must dismount, and the wounded be put upon their horses. But if it be found expedient to make use of the horse, you must then convey the disabled in the best manner you can, by taking all the horses, &c. which may have been found in the place you have surprised.
After a surprise has been accomplished, the troops employed upon that service, must, if possible, be marched back to head-quarters, by a different road to the one they took in advancing against the enemy. For it would be extremely impolitic to expose them even though their number were a third greater than that of the enemy, to a second action; under the manifest disadvantages of being fatigued with the march, and the attack they had just made, and of being encumbered with the booty, &c. of the place they had surprised. Their retreat must be effected through the shortest way back. But if there should be the least ground to apprehend, that any attempt might be made by the enemy to cut them off, the first movement must be upon the same road they came, and when the night approaches, the troops must be suddenly countermarched, in order to take a different road, and to avoid any ambush that might be laid by the enemy.
Under these circumstances, every measure must be embraced to deceive the enemy. Some prisoners may be suffered to escape, before the troops have been countermarched, in order to give false information; some mules or horses may be left on the road, and small parties of drummers, &c. be detached forward to keep beating along the first road, as if the whole body were marching that way. Fires may also be lighted by patroles sent forward for the purpose. Among other means, which may be resorted to, to induce the enemy to believe that the original line of march has been continued, that of sending horses and men forward to mislead them by their footsteps is not the worst imagined.
It is more than probable, that if the retreat be made during the night, and through an enclosed or intersected country, the enemy will scarcely run the risk of pursuing, lest ambuscades should be formed to surprise him on his march.
If, notwithstanding all your precautions, the enemy should get intelligence of what has happened, and in consequence thereof he should have time to collect his forces together in order to attack you in your retreat; under these circumstances a position must be taken that is best suited to the kind of troops you have with you, and to their effective number.
If there be a ford, a bridge, or a defile, near to the ground you have taken up, which the enemy must unavoidably pass, the greatest expedition must be made to get beyond the obstacle, so as to have it securely in your rear. Should the obstacle be upon either of your flanks, a detachment must be posted there to keep the enemy in check, while your main body continues on its march. If you cannot conveniently send forward your booty, for fear of weakening your forces, it must be placed in such a manner as not to be in the way when you find it necessary to engage the enemy.
As soon as the enemy approaches, the whole body must be halted, and the proper dispositions be made for battle. The guard that is entrusted with the care of the prisoners, must instantly strip them of their swords, bayonets, and of every offensive weapon, (supposing them to have had permission to wear them) and must order them to sit down, threatening to shoot or cut down the first man that should presume to stir. On this account, the men who compose the guard, should always be ready to do their duty upon the least symptom of irregularity. A small cavalry detachment is usually employed upon this service, as it would not be in the power of the infantry to act with so much promptitude and activity. Before the troops are ranged in order of battle, directions must be given for every soldier to take off his knapsack, or havre-sack; for if the men were allowed to retain this load of baggage and booty, it would not be in their power to act.
History furnishes us with various instances in which fortified places, strong holds, and gates, have been surprised. There are others again in which surprises have been practised with success by means of spies, and of secret intercourse with one or more of the party against whom you are engaged. In 1707 several Miquelets disguised themselves as peasants, entered Balvastro, and remained concealed in the houses of some of the inhabitants, who supplied them with arms to enable them to attack the gate of Monsons, in order to co-operate with a detachment which was advancing towards that quarter for the purpose of surprising the place. But they did not succeed; for two regiments which lay in the town to guard the hospitals and magazines belonging to the army, instantly flew to arms, marched against the detachment, and forced them to retreat. Had the latter been superior in force, it is more than probable, that the stratagem used by the Miquelets, and seconded by the treachery of the inhabitants, would have amply succeeded. In 1580, count Egmont surprised Courtray, by ordering a number of determined good soldiers to get into the town à la débandade, and to remain concealed in the houses of the Roman catholics. See Stratagemes de Guerre, page 164, &c. &c. For various interesting particulars that regard the article we have been cursorily discussing, we refer our reader to La Suite de l’essai sur la science de la guerre, tom. iii. page 259; and tom. iv. page 87. Likewise Les Œuvres Militaires, tom. ii. page 69; and to the Stratagemes de Guerre, page 173.
To prevent a SURPRISE. Turpin in his Art of War, observes, that it is not sufficient for the security of the quarters, that they are well distributed, that the guards of horse are posted on the outside, and guards of foot on the inside, and that patroles also are added to them; detachments must be sent out in advance of the guards, in order to make discoveries.
A quarter should never be imagined to be totally secure, whilst there are only guards before it: it would not be difficult for the enemy to come close up to them, particularly if the country is enclosed, either during the day or night; and if it is an open country, in the night time only.
Detachments in advance of the quarters are absolutely necessary, even when there are guards; they should be increased according to the number of the troops, and in proportion to the extent of country to be guarded.
These detachments should march separately in the front, and they should occupy as much country as possible upon the flanks; they must march upon the roads leading to the enemy. In the day time, they must scour the hedges, thickets, and woods, the villages, the hollows, and every sort of place that may serve for an ambuscade: in the night time, they must draw near the quarter, and remain at the distance of at least four hundred paces, and even further if the country is open. In the night, detachments must march very leisurely, not advancing, but crossing each other; and beside the word given out in orders, they will have another particular one to recognize each other. Every now and then they must stop and listen, in order to discover, whether they can hear any thing. The officers commanding the detachments should avoid fighting till the last extremity; they should constantly bear in mind, that the sole purpose of their being ordered to advance, is to preserve the quarters from a surprise.
These detachments should not continue out above six or eight hours, and consequently should never dismount. If there are any hussars in the quarters, they should be employed in these detachments preferably to any other troops, as they are better calculated to scour a country than heavy cavalry, or even dragoons; their horses being more in wind and less liable to be fatigued. It is, besides, the sort of war which is natural to hussars.
As soon as these detachments are returned, others should be sent out for the same purpose, as the quarters should never be uncovered in front. If these detachments hear any thing in the night, the commanding officer should send to discover what it is, and must afterwards convince himself of the truth of it: if it should be occasioned by troops, he will directly send an hussar to the commanding officer of one of the guards, if there are any in the front of the quarters; but if not, then to the commandant of the first quarter, who will apprise the general. He must conceal himself in some place, from whence, without being discovered, he will with greater ease be able to form a judgment of what is marching towards him; and when he shall be more confirmed that they are enemies, he will send a second hussar to give notice to the first post, who will inform the general; and will always continue to observe their motions by marching either on their flank, or before them. See Am. Mil. Lib.
To SURRENDER, (Rendre, Fr.) To give up a town, post, or other fortification, agreeably to articles, &c.
To SURRENDER, (Se rendre, Fr.) To lay down your arms, and give yourself up as a prisoner of war.
SURRENDER, (Reddition, Fr.) The act of giving up. As the surrender of a town or garrison.
SURRENDER of general Burgoyne, 17th October, 1777, at Saratoga.
SURRENDER of general Cornwallis 19th October, 1779, at Yorktown.
To SURROUND. In fortification, to invest. In tactics, to outflank and cut off the means of retreating.
SURROUNDED. Inclosed; invested. A town is said to be surrounded when its principal outlets are blocked up; and an army, when its flanks are turned, and its retreat cut off.
SURSOLID. The fourth multiplication or power of any number whatever taken as the root.
SURVEILLANCE, Fr. Inspection; superintendance; the act of watching. The substantive is new among the French, and comes from Surveiller, to watch.
SURVEY. A survey is an examination of any place or stores, &c. to ascertain their fitness for the purposes of war, &c.
SURVEYING. In military mathematics, the art or act of measuring lands; that is, of taking the dimensions of any tract of ground, laying down the same in a map or drawing, and finding the content or area thereof.
Surveying, called also geodæsia, is a very ancient art; it is even held to have been the first or primitive part of geometry, and that which gave occasion to, and laid the foundation of all the rest.
Surveying consists of three parts: the first is the taking of the necessary measures, and making the most necessary observations, on the ground itself: the second is, the laying down of these measures and observations on paper: and the third, the finding the area or quantity of ground there laid down. The first is what we properly call surveying; the second we call plotting, protracting, or mapping; and the third casting up.
The first, again, consists of two parts, viz. the making of observations for the angles, and the taking of measures for the distances. The former of these is performed by someone or other of the following instruments, viz. the theodolite, circumferenter, semi-circle, plain table, or compass. The latter is performed by means either of the chain, or perambulator.
The second branch of surveying is performed by means of the protractor, and plotting scale. The third, by reducing the several divisions, inclosures, &c. into triangles, squares, trapeziums, parallelograms, &c. but especially triangles; and finding the areas or contents or these several figures. See American Mil. Lib.
SURVEYOR of the Ordnance. See ORDNANCE.
SUSBANDE, Fr. The iron band or plate which covers the trunnion belonging to a piece of ordnance, or to a mortar, when either is fixed upon its carriage.
SUSPECT, Fr. A term adopted by the modern French to signify any person suspected of being an enemy, or indifferent to the cause of the revolution. Hence--Classe des suspects, Fr. The list of the suspected. Reputé suspect, Fr. Looked upon as a suspected person.
To SUSPEND, (Suspendre, Fr.) In a military sense to delay, to protract. Hence to suspend hostilities. It is likewise used to express the act of depriving an officer of rank and pay, in consequence of some offence. This sometimes happens by the sentence of a general court-martial, or by the summary order of the president through the secretary at war. In both cases it is usual for the commanding officer of the regiment to report him to the general of the district, by whom he is again reported to the commander in chief through the adjutant-general. He is then directed, by letter to the commanding officer of the regiment, to be suspended agreeably to the nature of the transgression. In a trifling case, he is only suspended from pay, and is respited accordingly upon the next muster roll for the government of the regimental agent. But when the offence is aggravated by palpable neglect, or obstinacy in not sending a satisfactory reason for his absence, (which can only be done by vouchers from the medical board, &c.) he is suspended from both rank and pay. So that to be suspended is either partially or generally to be deprived of the advantages of a military appointment.
To SUSPEND hostilities. To cease attacking one another.
SUSPENSION of Arms. A short truce that contending parties agree on, in order to bury their dead without danger or molestation; to wait for succours; or to receive instructions from a superior authority.
SUSPENSION, as a military punishment, was probably intended to operate as pecuniary fining does in that of the common law; but (to use Mr. Sullivan’s words, in his treatise on martial law) it can neither be considered as deprivation or degradation. It does not divest an officer of his military character, though it puts him under a temporary incapacity to exercise the duties of his station: he still possesses his rank, though he does not reap any immediate advantage from it: It, in fact, may be looked upon and considered as borrowed from the ecclesiastical system of jurisdiction, which admitted suspension as a minor excommunication.
One stubborn difficulty, however, seems to present itself from suspension; and that is the article of pay and allowance. For if an officer shall have been suspended from the exercise of the authority annexed to his rank, and to have the pay of his allowance also suspended, he certainly seems warranted to plead such suspension in bar to the proceedings of a court-martial; there being always an implied contract between a soldier and his employer, that in consideration of certain pay and advantages granted by the one, the other shall submit to military discipline; and the obligation being mutual, when one fails in the performance of his part, he frees the other from the observance of his; therefore, when the pay and other advantages are suspended by the employer, the subjection to military discipline would seem also suspended. But this difficulty is easily removed, from the circumstances of the officer so suspended, still holding his commission; and from his submitting himself to the punishment which hath been inflicted on his transgression. The latitude of this principle hath even been seen to go farther, and under the sanction of such authority, that (since his majesty hath been graciously pleased to direct, in cases of doubt, members of a court-martial shall be guided by their consciences, the best of their understandings, and the custom of war in the like cases) it may be said to establish a precedent, which may with safety be appealed to. We here allude to the trial of lord George Sackville, who, at the time he was put upon the judgment of a general court-martial, had (so dear are the honor and reputation of a soldier) neither military employ nor commission under his majesty; and yet he was deemed entitled to an awful and solemn investigation of his conduct; application, indeed, having been previously made in his name, and he having declared himself willing to abide by the decision of the court. In a word, then, it may, without risking too much, be asserted, that an officer under suspension may be considered as strictly amenable to martial law for any trespass or transgression he shall commit. The same writer observes, in a preceding page, that suspension is a specific punishment, for a specific crime; but it is a punishment which does not free a man from his military obligations. On the contrary, he still is considered as in the service; he holds his commission, and at the expiration of the term of suspension, becomes a perfect man again. If therefore during the continuance of this chastisement, he should attempt to go over to the enemy, to desert, or hold treasonable correspondence, he certainly is, in such cases, to be dealt with according to martial law. Pages 86, 87, and 88, Thoughts on Martial Law.
The late Mr. Tytler, deputy judge advocate of North Britain, who has published an essay on military law, quotes the case of lord George Sackville, when he treats of officers under suspension, and agrees in every point with the author just referred to. Suspension, he observes, though it has the effect of depriving an officer for the time of his rank and pay, and putting a stop to the ordinary discharge of his military duties, does not void his commission, annihilate the military character, or dissolve that connection which exists between him and the sovereign, of whom he is a servant, He retains his commission, and is at all times liable to a call to duty, which would take off the suspension. See Essay on Military Law, pages 131, 132.
SUSTAIN. To sustain is to aid, succour, or support, any body of men in action, or defence.
SUTLER and Victualler maybe considered as synonimous terms as far as they relate to military matters; most especially when an army lies encamped, or rather takes the field. A sutler may be considered as one who follows the camp, and sells all sorts of provisions to the soldiers. There are also sutlers in garrison towns, who serve the soldiery, and are subject to military regulations.
Among the French, according to the present establishment of their army, a sutler is a soldier or inferior officer, who is authorised to follow head quarters, and to be constantly with the corps to which he is attached. He is permitted to sell the necessaries of life to the soldiers, and under certain restrictions, to deal in wines and spirituous liquors.
The sutlers are usually chosen from the regiments to which they belong, and are subordinate to the quarter-masters, after they have been appointed by the regimental committee or council of administration. They receive a licence enabling them to sell and buy, which licence must be approved of by the chief of the etat major, or staff of the division, in which the corps is stationed, or under which it acts.
The sutlers attending head-quarters are licensed by the quarter-master general. In order to distinguish them from adventitious travellers or pedlars, &c. it is wisely recommended by Paul Thiebault, author of a treatise upon the duties of an etat major, or staff in general, that they should have a particular number, which is to be engraved upon a tin plate, and constantly worn by them, as a mark of their being licensed by the quarter-master general.
When an army moves, the sutlers accompany the baggage. As many irregularities must naturally grow out of this necessary evil, the conduct of sutlers ought, at all times, to be narrowly watched, and severe penalties to be announced in general orders for every instance of unlawful depredation among the inhabitants, or of disorder in their booths. It is the duty of the piquet, at night, to be particularly watchful on this ground.
SUTURE. A manner of sewing or stitching, particularly of stitching wounds.
SWALLOW’S-tail. In fortification, an out-work, differing from a single tenaille, as its sides are not parallel, like those of a tenaille; but if prolonged, would meet and form an angle on the middle of the curtain; and its head or front composed of faces, forming a reentering angle. This work is extraordinarily well flanked, and defended by the works of the place, which discover all the length of its long sides, &c.
SWAMMIES, Ind. Pagan gods or idols.
SWAMP. See MARSH.
SWAY. The swing or sweep of a weapon. Likewise power, as military sway.
SWEEP-bar, of a waggon, is that which is fixed on the hind part of the fore guide, and passes under the hind pole, which slides upon it.
SWEEPING. A word which is peculiarly attached to one of the sections or clauses in the articles of war. Hence, Sweeping Clause.
SWEEPING Clause or Section. This comprehensive clause states, that all crimes not capital, and all disorders and neglects, which officers and soldiers may be guilty of, to the prejudice of good order and military discipline, though not specified in any of the foregoing rules and articles, are to be taken cognizance of by a general or regimental court-martial, according to the nature and degree of the offence, and to be punished at their discretion.
This wisely imagined clause serves as a check to the paltry tricks and subterfuges, which are sometimes resorted to by men who are not thoroughly soldiers. It frequently happens, even among officers, that the service is hurt and embarrassed by the ingenuity of evasive characters, who think they are safe, provided they do not glaringly transgress specific rules and regulations. Another advantage is likewise derived from this clause: It enables officers at a court-martial, in cases where the offence is manifestly felt but cannot be brought under any specific article, to do justice to the service by punishing the delinquent under an indisputable clause.
To SWINDLE, (Escroquer, Fr.) A cant word signifying to cheat; to impose upon the credulity of mankind, and thereby defraud the unwary, by false pretences, fictitious assumptions, &c. This criminal and unmanly practice oftentimes proves successful under the garb of a military dress and character, and sometimes under that of holy orders. The records of Bow-street are filled with pseudo-majors, captains, parsons, &c.
SWINDLER, (Escroc, Fr.) A sharper; a cheat. This word is evidently taken from the German Schwindler, which, we presume, comes from Schwindel, giddiness of thought; giddy pate. See J. J. Eschenburg’s English and German Dictionary, Part II. Page 197. With us, however, it signifies a person who is more than thoughtless or giddy. We affix to the term the character of premeditated imposition; so that a swindler comes under the criminal code, and may be prosecuted accordingly. Swindlers almost always assume a military name. Perhaps the army might, in some degree, be rescued from these pretenders, were it ordered that no officer shall appear with any military badge unless he be regimentally dressed; and that when so dressed, he shall have the number of his regiment marked upon the button of his hat, &c.
SWING-tree of a waggon. The bar placed across the foreguide, to which the traces are fastened.
SWIVEL, (Pierrier, Fr.) A small piece of ordnance which turns on a pivot or swivel.
SWIVELS, (Tourniquets de fer, Fr.) commonly called Loop and Swivel, and Guard and Swivel. Two iron rings attached to a musquet, through which the sling passes.
SWORD. A weapon used either in cutting or thrusting. The usual weapon of fights hand to hand. It also signifies, figuratively, destruction by war; as fire and sword; à feu et à sang, Fr.
Broad SWORD. The Spanish and Scots kind, sometimes called a Back Sword, as having but one edge: it is basket handled, and three feet two inches long.
Regulation SWORD. The sword which is worn by British officers may be properly called a long cut and thrust. It is a manifest imitation of the Austrian sword, and has been introduced this war. It is not however, so conveniently used by the British as it is by the Austrians. The latter have it girded round their waists, so that it hangs without any embarrassment to the wearer close to the left hip or thigh; whereas with the British it is suspended in an awkward diagonal manner from a cross belt over the loins, and is scarcely visible in front, except occasionally, when it is drawn, or gets between the officer’s legs, and sometimes trips him up when off duty. We could exemplify our ideas upon this subject by various known occurrences, such as the sword being suspended so much out of the grasp of the wearer, that his right hand has appeared to run after the hilt, which has as constantly evaded its reach by the left side bearing it off, in proportion as the right turned towards it; by officers being reduced to the necessity of applying to their serjeants, &c. to draw their swords, &c. but it is not our wish to turn any regulation into ridicule. It is, however, our duty, and the duty of all men who write for the public, to point out practical inconveniences, &c. Perhaps it may not be thought superfluous on this occasion to remark, that the sword ought not to be considered as a mere weapon of offence or defence in an officer’s hand; for unless that officer should be singly engaged, which scarcely ever happens upon service, the very notion of personal safety will take his mind off the superior duty of attending to his men. Officers, in fact, should always bear in mind, that they are cardinal points which direct others. Their whole attention should consequently be paid to their men, and not the slightest idea must interfere with respect to themselves. We are therefore convinced, with due deference to the superior judgment of others, that the swords of infantry officers, and of the staff in general, should be for service, sufficiently long to dress the leading files, &c. and extremely portable. Every officer ought to know the use of his sword, and there should be a fencing-master, or drill swordsman, for every company in the service, who should be armed with sabres or good cut and thrusts.
Position of the SWORD at open Order. When an officer stands or marches in front of his company, &c. the position of the sword is diagonal across the chest, with the edge upward. At close order, or when the officer is on the flank of his company, &c. the hilt is close to the right thigh, and the blade in the hollow of the right shoulder, with the edge to the front. When mounted, he carries it diagonally across the bridle hand.
When troops or squadrons of cavalry advance:--In the walk, the sword is carried with the blade resting on the right arm; in the trot and gallop, the right hand must be steadied on the right thigh, the point of the sword rather inclining forward; and in the charge, the hand is lifted, and the sword is carried rather forward, and crossways in front of the head, with the edge outwards. See Am. Mil. Lib.
SWORDSMAN, (Homme d’épée, Fr.); This word was formerly used to signify a soldier, a fighting man. But at present it generally means a person versed in the art of fencing. Hence a good swordsman. The French use the terms Bretteur and Bretailleur. The former is more immediately applicable to a man who wears a sword and piques himself upon the exercise of it: the latter means a person who frequents fencing schools, and often exercises himself in that art.
SWORDED. Girt with a sword.
SWORD-player. A gladiator; one who fences publicly.
SWORD-belt. A belt made of leather, which hangs over the right shoulder of an officer, by which his sword is suspended on the left side.
SWORD-bearer, (Porte épée, Fr.) One who wears a sword. It also signifies a public officer.
SWORD-cutler, (Fourbisseur, Fr.) One who makes swords.
SWORD-knot, (Nœud d’épée, Fr.) A ribband tied to the hilt of a sword. All officers should wear sword-knots of a peculiar color and make. They are made of blue silk and gold or silver.
SYCOPHANT. A dirty, mean, groveling creature that sometimes finds its way into the army, and gets to the ear of a superior officer, for the purpose of undermining the good opinion which honest valor and open manhood may have obtained.
SYEF, Ind. A long sword.
SYEF-ul Mulk, Ind. The sword of the kingdom.
SYMBOL. In a military sense, badge. Every regiment in the British service has its peculiar badge.
SYMBOLE, Fr. The French make use of this word in the same sense that they apply Enseigne. Symbole means with them, in a military sense, what badge does with us.
SYMMETRY, (Symmetrie, Fr.) A word derived from the Greek. True symmetry consists in a due proportion, or in the relation of equality in the height, length, and breadth of the parts, which are required to make a beautiful whole, or in an uniformity of the parts with respect to the whole.
SYRTES or sables mouvans, Fr. Quicksands.
SYSTEM, (Systeme, Fr.) A scheme which reduces many things to regular dependence or co-operation. This word is frequently applied to some particular mode of drilling and exercising men to fit them for manœuvres and evolutions. Hence the Prussian system, the Austrian system, the new or mathematical system, &c.
Military SYSTEM. Specific rules and regulations for the government of an army in the field, or in quarters, &c.
SYSTEMS, (Systemes, Fr.) In fortification, a particular arrangement or disposition of the different parts which compose the circumference of a town or fortified place, according to the original idea or invention of an engineer. The systems best known under this head, and most followed, are those of Vauban, Cohorn, De Ville, Pagan, &c. See FORTIFICATION.
T.
T. The form of a subterraneous arrangement in mining; so called from its resemblance to that letter.
TABAC, Fr. Tobacco. During the monarchy of France there was a specific allowance made of tobacco to the cavalry and infantry, when they were in camp, quarters, or garrison. They were likewise supplied by the captains of troops or companies, with a certain quantity whilst on the march from one province or quarter to another.
TABARD, TABELD, A herald’s coat.
TABLE, in military affairs, a kind of register to set down the dimensions of carriages for guns, mortars, &c. also for the practice of artillery, charges of mines, &c.
TABLE des officiers généraux et principaux, Fr. Mess or table as directed to be kept for the general and other superior officers of the old French army.
The only military table which is regulated in Great Britain, is at the Horse Guards; and that is charged to the extraordinaries of the army. Good order and discipline are intimately connected with a system of messing. This truth holds good with respect to the soldier, and a regulation is the consequence of its propriety. With regard to the officers it is well known, that in corps where they do not mess, perpetual bickerings among themselves, and occasional obstacles to the service, occur.
The French regulation took place on the 1st of April 1705, and was again renewed, with additional clauses, on the 20th of January 1741, on the 1st of December 1746, on the 17th of February 1753, and on the 9th of March 1757. The curious are referred to a French publication, intitled Elemens Militaires.
Before the abolition of the French monarchy, it was usual for officers belonging to the line in that service, to mess together according to their several ranks; the colonel excepted, who had a private table to which he occasionally invited the officers of the corps. A regular roster was kept for this purpose. The lieutenant-colonel and major uniformly messed with the captains; the different tables were generally composed of eight or ten officers of the same rank. The lieutenants dined together; so did the sub-lieutenants; each paying towards the mess in proportion to the receipt of daily subsistence.
TABLE de capitaine de vaisseau, Fr. A mess or table which was regularly provided at the public expence, for the superior officers who served on board.
TABLE d’hote, Fr. An ordinary.
Tenir TABLE ouverte, Fr. To keep open house.
TABLE en saille, Fr. In architecture, a table which juts out of the facing of a wall, or of a pedestal.
TABLE fouillee, Fr. That which instead of being saliant is indented: it is commonly adorned with a border.
TABLE d’attente, Fr. See RUSTICATED TABLE.
Crowned TABLE. In architecture, one which is covered with a cornice, and in which is cut a basso relievo; or a piece of black marble incrustated for an inscription.
Razed TABLE. In architecture, an embossment in a frontispiece for the putting an inscription, or other ornament in sculpture.
Rusticated TABLE. In architecture, one which is picked, whose surface appears rough, as in grottoes.
TABLE. In literature, an index, a repertory, at the beginning or end of a book to direct the reader to any passage in it.
The Round TABLE. A table to distinguish military merit, which was first invented by king Arthur, who succeeded his father Uther Pendragon, king of the Britons, who was brother to Aurelius Ambrosius, and third son of Constantine. Arthur was the 11th king of England, from the departure of the Romans, and was crowned about the year 516.
Having expelled the Saxons out of England, conquered Norway, Scotland, and the greatest part of France, (where at Paris he was crowned) this monarch returned to his native country, and lived in so great renown, that many princes and knights came from all parts to his court, to give proof of their valor in the exercise of arms. Upon this he erected a fraternity of knights, which consisted of twenty-four, of whom he was the chief; and for the avoiding controversies about precedency, he caused a round table to be made, from whence they were denominated Knights of the Round Table. This table, according to tradition, hangs up in the castle at Winchester, where they used to meet at Whitsuntide.
TABLE de marbre, Fr. A marble table. During the monarchy of France, there were two courts of jurisdictions, which were called Tables de Marbre, or marble tables; one was that of the constable, and the Maréchaussée or police of France; and the other that which gave directions for the general clearing of the forests, and the purifying of stagnant waters. They are so called from the meeting being held round a large marble table.
TABLEAU, Fr. A description, a catalogue. It likewise signifies a chimney-piece.
TABLETTE, Fr. A flat thin stone, which is used to cover the outside of a wall belonging to a terrace, or the border of a bason, &c.
TABLIER, Fr. Apron. It likewise signifies an outside cover made for ornament, or to prevent any thing from being damaged by the weather. In the old French army the kettle drums had two of these aprons or covers; one made of damask or sattin, on which were embroidered the arms of the king, or of the general to whom they belonged, and the other of black leather.
TABLIER de pont levis, Fr. That part of a draw-bridge, which is raised for the purpose of shutting a gate, and to prevent access to it, and upon which persons pass when the bridge is let down.
TABLOUINS, Fr. A word used in the artillery. The thick boards or planks that constitute the platform upon which cannon is mounted in battery.
TABOUR, TABOURET, TABOURINE, TABRET. A small drum, beat with one stick to accompany a pipe. It was anciently used in war.
TACHE, Fr. properly means job, or a regular rate for labor. Workmen are thus hired and paid by the day or by the lump.
TACKLE. The weapon or arrow shot from a bow, was so called by the ancient Welsh.
TACKLES are more particularly used for small ropes running in pullies, the better to manage all kinds of ordnance. See GIN.
TACTICS. A word derived from the Greek, signifying order. Tactics consist of a knowlege of order, disposition, and formation, according to the exigency of circumstances in warlike operations. These dispositions are severally made, or one disposition follows another by means of manœuvres and evolutions. Hence the necessity of paying the greatest attention to the first principles of military art; and hence the absurdity and ignorance of some men, who would pass for great and able tacticians, without having grounded themselves in the elements of their professions. As well might a person assume the character of a complete arithmetician under a total ignorance of the first rules.
General tactics are a combination or union of first orders, out of which others grow of a more extensive and complicated nature, to suit the particular kind of contest or battle which is to be given, or supported. Let it not, however, be inferred from this, that evolutions or movements and tactics are one and the same. They are, but there is still a discernable difference between each of them.
Tactics (or as the French say, La Tactique, tactical art) may be comprehended under order and disposition: an evolution is the movement which is made by one corps among a larger number of corps, and eventually leads to order. Manœuvres consist of the various evolutions which several corps of a line pursue to accomplish the same object. The higher branches of tactics, or la grande tactique, should be thoroughly understood by all general officers; it is sufficient for inferior officers and soldiers to be acquainted with evolutions. Not that the latter are not to be known by general officers, but that having already acquired a full knowlege of them, they ought to direct their attention more immediately to the former; carefully retaining at the same time a clear apprehension of every species of military detail, and thereby obviating the many inconveniences and embarrassments which occur from orders being awkwardly expressed to the staff, and of course ill understood by the inferior officer. It may be laid down as a certain rule, that unless a general officer make himself acquainted with particular movements and dispositions, and preserve the necessary recollections, it is morally impossible for him to be clear and correct in his general arrangements. Of all mechanical operations, founded upon given principles, the art of war is certainly the most compendious, the most enlarged, and the most capable of infinite variety. Almost every other science and art are comprehended in it; and it should be the constant object, the chief study, and the ultimate end of a general’s reflections. He must not be satisfied with a limited conception of its various branches; he should go deeply into all its parts, be aware of its manifold changes, and know how to adapt movements and dispositions to circumstances and places.
It will be of little use to a general to have formed vast projects, if, when they are to be executed, there should be a deficiency of ground: if the general movements of the army should be embarrassed by the irregularity of some particular corps, by their overlapping each other, &c. and if through the tardiness of a manœuvre, an enemy should have time to render his plan abortive by more prompt evolutions. A good general must be aware of all these contingencies, by making himself thoroughly master of tactics.
The Prussian tactics under Frederic the Great, had for their principal object to concentrate forces, and thereby choose the most suitable points to attack an enemy, not at one and the same time, but one after another; the tactics which have been uniformly pursued by the French, since the commencement of their revolution, have been founded upon the same principles: as well as to apply the method to several points, and to attack all points with divided forces, at one and the same time.
TACTICS of Europe. The following observations respecting the tactics of Europe, may be useful to those who have not the Am. Mil. Lib.
In the time of the Romans, the Gauls and other nations on the continent fought in the phalanx order; it is this order which still prevails through all Europe, except that it has been till lately deficient in the advantages and utility which Polybius ascribes to it, and is injured, by defects unknown in the ancient phalanx.
In Turenne’s days, troops were ranged 8 deep, both in France and Germany. Thirty years after, in the time of Puysegur, the ranks were reduced to 5: in the next Flanders war to 4; and immediately after to 3, which continues to be the order of the French armies; the ranks of light troops only are reduced to 2.
This part of the progression from 8 to 3 being known, we easily conceive how the files of the phalanx had been diminished from 16 to 8 in the ages preceding Turenne. It is to be presumed, that this depth was considered as superfluous, and it was judged necessary to diminish it, in order to extend the front. However, the motive is of very little consequence, since we are now reduced to three ranks; let us see what qualities of the phalanx have been preserved, and what might have been added thereto.
To shew that the defects of the phalanx were preferred in Europe, we suppose two bodies of troops, one of eight thousand men, ranged as a phalanx, sixteen deep; the other a regiment of three battalions, consisting only of fifteen hundred men, drawn up in three lines, after the same manner. Those two bodies shall be perfectly equal and alike in extent of front, and shall differ in nothing but in the depth of their files: the inconveniences and defects, therefore, occasioned by the length of the fronts are equal in both troops, though their numbers are very different; hence it follows, that, in Europe, the essential defects of the phalanx were preserved and its advantages lost.
Let the files of this body of eight thousand, be afterwards divided, and let it be reduced to three in depth, its front will then be found five times more extensive, and its depth five times less: we may, therefore, conclude, that the defects of the phalanx were evidently multiplied in the discipline of Europe, at the expence of its advantages, which consisted in the depth of its files.
The progress which has taken place in the artillery, has contributed greatly to this revolution. As cannon multiplied, it was necessary to avoid its effects; and the method of avoiding, or at least of lessening them, was to diminish the depth of the files.
The musquet, likewise, has a great share in the alteration; the half-pike was entirely laid aside for the bayonet; and in order to have no fire unemployed, it was thought necessary to put it in the power of every soldier to make use of his firelock.
Those are, we think, the two principal causes of the little solidity, or depth given to the battalion.
Thus the defects of the phalanx were multiplied in the European discipline, and its advantages and perfections injudiciously diminished. The system of Prussia, made some alterations, but with every other power until the French revived the principles of the phalanx in their columns of attack, the system was much inferior to the phalanx, and had nothing but the single effect of fire-arms to counterbalance all its advantages. The effect, however, of fire-arms is a partial power, and does not originally belong to the manner of disciplining troops, the sole aim of which, should be to employ man’s natural action. It is man, therefore, and not his fire, which is to be considered as the principal agent; and from hence the European systems before the French revolution were very much inferior to the phalanx, and still more to the Roman arrangement, which so far surpassed that of Greece.
The light troops of both those people were much heavier than modern battalions, and had more power and solidity for a shock or conflict. However, the Roman discipline, notwithstanding its superiority, is not calculated for our times; because, as we are obliged to engage first at a distance, ours, by its cannon, would destroy the Roman order of battle in a very short time, and would be exposed to a loss much less considerable itself, supposing even the artillery was equal on both sides; we should then, in order to perfect our arrangements, endeavor to procure them all the advantageous qualities of the legionary regulations, as the only means of giving them the superiority.
Many people are of opinion, that we now imitate the Romans, and that we give battle according to their system, because our troops are drawn up in lines, some of which are full, and others vacant. But it is shewn, that three battalions have the same front, and the same inconveniences that eight thousand men ranged in the phalanx order. Our lines are formed by brigades, regiments, or battalions, and the distance of one corps from the other is equal to the front of one of those corps: so that those lines, both full and vacant, are composed of detachments equal in front; each has a phalanx of six, eight, or twelve thousand men. This order of battle consequently, can be no more at most than a kind of medium between those of Greece and Rome.
TACTICS of Bonaparte. It is well known that the greater part of the victories of Bonaparte may be imputed to the admirable system adopted by this general; a system which, however often repeated, has still been attended with the same success--a system, to which the established tactics have as yet applied no remedy, or rather, to which the confirmed habits of men, educated in the ancient system, are as unwilling as unable to accommodate themselves.
The minor discipline is his great secret; the simple methods of the first drills, are merely facings and wheelings in a discretionary order, all his rules, are like general principles, the results of which may be produced by a different process of the same elements. All his movements are at rapid time; and the rotation of evolutions, though laid down in regulation, is not pursued in practice, the soldier is taught not so much how to execute a set of movements, as how to perform any that the variety of ground and the incidents of action, never twice alike, call for. These are the elementary rules, on which the system is founded.
His system of action is comprehended in the following principles:
1st. To select some partial point of attack, most frequently the enemy’s centre, but occasionally one or other of the wings--and then, strengthening that part of his own army which is opposed to the point of attack, by drafts from the other divisions, to bear down upon the point of attack, with the advantage of numbers, and consequently of greater physical force.
2d. To counteract the effect of the weakness of the other divisions, by assigning them a defensive part only; a purpose which evidently requires a less power than is necessary to attack.
2. By some advantage of position. This is either natural, as a strong position properly so called, or relative, as where the weaker divisions are so placed as either to be protected by the stronger, or, in case of dispersion, to be enabled to fall in with the main body.
3d. The necessary, the inevitable effects of this system are--
That the part of the enemy, which is the point of attack, is almost invariably broken, driven back, in a word, defeated.
That, in the mean time, the weaker divisions of the army which attack, according to this system, are either enabled to maintain their ground, against the strongest wings of the enemy, or they are repulsed.
That, if the divisions maintain the ground, the defeat of their enemy is certain, complete, and irrecoverable.
The main body of the attacking army, having driven before it the point of attack, has now become the rear of those other divisions of the enemy which are contending with its own divisions. The divisions of the enemy are thus between two bodies. The divisions they are in the act of attacking, and the victorious main body, which, having accomplished its own part, is hastening to the relief of its divisions.
That, on the other hand, if the weaker divisions of the attacking army, (attacking according to the system) should happen to be dispersed; confident of their final victory, they exert themselves like conquerors, with the spirit of hope, and courage of assured victory. They dispute the ground, retreat inch by inch, and, if they cannot prevent, still protract their defeat, till the victorious main body shall come to their aid.
Finally, and indeed, most materially, though the weaker divisions of the attacking army should be absolutely defeated, the victorious main body cannot but necessarily recover every thing. The divisions of the enemy, which have succeeded in defeating the divisions of the attacking army, must be equally dispersed by pursuit, as the defeated divisions by defeat. It is, indeed, an essential part of this system, to contrive that they should so be dispersed, by the scattered flight of the divisions defeated. By this means the victorious main body, formed by the exactest discipline to keep their ranks, returning from their pursuit at the word of command, and in the very moment of opportunity have an easy conquest over scattered divisions, which are thus likewise under the circumstance of being placed between two fires.
Such is the celebrated system. Three singular inferences must be deduced from it:--
That, where an army attacks according to this system, the defeat of one part of the army of its enemy is the defeat of the whole.
That the defeat of the smaller divisions by the defending army, is no defeat at all; the defeat, or at least, repulse of these divisions, being one of the means of the victory of the attaching army.
That it is the event of the main attack, and not the repulse or even defeat of the subordinate and merely defensive divisions that should decide the victory.
Maritime TACTICS, or manœuvres, &c. at sea. Like those practised on land may be considered under two heads. The first contains what the French term historique or detail, in which are included the orders and signals directed to be observed by fleets going into action; together with a specific account of the different manœuvres which have been executed in the principal engagements. The second comprehends a knowlege of the rates of ships, and of the method of constructing them.
The vessels of the ancients made their way by means of sails and oars. The rows of oars were proportioned to the different sizes, from what was called unus-ramus, which was the smallest, and had only one row; to the quinque-rami, which had five rows.
The particular method in which these ships were constructed, as well as of the arrangements that were made within, in order that a sufficient number of rowers might be commodiously placed to work them, is not perfectly known to the moderns; nor have the ancients left us documents sufficiently clear and accurate on that head.
With respect to naval tactics, or the art of fighting at sea, it is confessedly less ancient than tactics on shore, or what is generally called land service. Mankind were accustomed to contend for the possession of territory long before they determined on, or even dreamed of, making the sea a theatre of war and bloodshed.
Setting aside the many fabulous accounts which are extant concerning naval tactics, we shall remain satisfied with what has been transmitted to us by the Roman writers of the Vth and VIth centuries of that republic. We shall there find specific details of the different manœuvres which were practised at sea during the Punic war. In those times naval armaments began to be regularly fitted out; ships of different forms and sizes were constructed, and certain offensive and defensive machines, that served as a species of artillery, were placed upon them. They had already been drawn out according to system; being divided into certain proportions which were then called divisions, but are now named squadrons; and the persons who commanded them, exerted all their skill and genius to gain advantages over their enemies, by opportunely getting to windward, by seizing the favorable occurrence of the tide, or by mooring in advantageous situations.
At the battle of Actium, Augustus finding himself inferior to Mark Antony in the number of his ships, had the sagacity to draw up his line of battle along the entrance of the gulph of Ambracia, and thereby to make up for his deficiency. This naval manœuvre, as well as that of getting to windward of the enemy, in order to bear down upon him with more certainty and effect, exists to the present day.
We act precisely upon the same principles in both cases, by which the ancients were governed, with the additional advantage, in fighting to windward, of covering the enemy’s line with smoke from the discharge of ordnance and fire-arms. The French call this being in possession of the closest line--Occuper la ligne du plus prés.
In those times, ships were boarded much sooner than they are at present. Most engagements at sea are now determined by cannon shot. Among the ancients, when two ships endeavored to board each other, the rowers drew in their oars, to prevent them from being broken in the shock.
The manœuvre which was practised on this occasion, was for the ship that got to windward of its adversary, to run upon its side, with the prow, which being armed with a long sharp piece of iron, made so deep an impression in it, that the ship thus attacked, generally sunk. The voyages which were afterwards made on the ocean, rendered it necessary to construct ships that carried more sail, and were double decked; and since the invention of gunpowder, tiers of guns have been substituted in the room of rows of oars.
On the decline and fall of the Roman empire, the Saracens got the ascendancy in naval tactics. They took advantage of this superiority, and extended their conquests on all sides. The whole extent of coast belonging to the Mediterranean, together with the adjacent islands, fell under their dominion. Mankind are indebted to them for considerable improvements in naval tactics.
It was only under Charlemagne that the Europeans may be said to have first paid any great attention to their navy. That monarch kept up a regular intercourse with the caliphs of the East; and having just grounds to apprehend an invasion from the Normans, he constructed vessels for the defence of his coasts.
During the reign of the first French kings, belonging to the third race, naval tactics were little attended to, on account of the small extent of maritime coast which France possessed at that period. It was only in the days of Louis the Younger, and of Louis, surnamed the Saint, that we discover any traces of a considerable fleet; especially during the crusades.
Under Charles the Vth, and his successor Charles the VIth, the French got possession of several sea-ports, and had command of a long line of coast. Yet neither they nor the English, with whom they were frequently at war, had at that period any thing like the fleets which are fitted out now.
The discovery of America by Columbus, and the more lucrative possession of the East Indies, induced the principal states of Europe to encrease their naval establishments, for the purpose of settling colonies, and of bringing home, without the danger of molestation, or piracy, the wealth and produce of the Eastern and Western worlds.
The French marine was far from being contemptible under Francis the first; but it grew into considerable reputation during the administration of cardinal Richelieu, in the reign of Louis the XIIIth; and continued so until the battle of La Hogue. From that epoch it began to decline; while the English, on the other hand, not only kept up the reputation they had acquired under Cromwell and his predecessors, but rendered themselves so thoroughly skilled in naval tactics, that they have remained masters of the sea to this day. In corroboration of what we have advanced, we refer our readers to a history of the Sovereignty of the Ocean, by the American editor of this work.
TACTIQUE Maritime, Fr. Naval tactics, or sea manœuvres, &c. See NAVAL TACTICS.
TAGBEERE, Ind. Dismission.
TAIGAU, Ind. A sabre.
TAIL of the trenches. The post where the besiegers begin to break ground, and cover themselves from the fire of the place, in advancing the lines of approach.
TAILLE du soldat, Fr. The size, height, and stature most proper for a soldier.
TAILLER, Fr. To cut. Tailler en pièces, to cut to pieces.
TAILLOIR, Fr. Trencher. It likewise signifies in architecture a square piece of stone, or wood which is placed above the capital.
To TAKE. This verb, as Dr. Johnson observes, like prendre in French, is used with endless multiplicity of relations. Its uses are so numerous, that they cannot easily be exemplified; and its references to the words governed by it so general and lax, that they can hardly be explained by any succedaneous terms. But commonly that is hardest to explain which least wants explanation. We shall content ourselves with giving a few general terms, in which the verb take is used with respect to military matters.
To TAKE. To make prisoner.
To TAKE advantage of. To avail oneself of any peculiar event or opening, whereby an enemy may be overcome, viz.--He took advantage of the debaucheries which were daily committed in the enemy’s camp, to surprise the army.
To TAKE ground to the right or left. To extend a line towards either of those directions.
To TAKE up quarters. To occupy locally; to go into cantonments, barracks, &c. To become stationary for more or less time.
To TAKE up the gauntlet. The correlative to throw down the gauntlet. To accept a challenge.
To TAKE up arms. To embody and troop together for offensive or defensive purposes. We likewise say, to take arms.
To TAKE down. To minute; to commit to paper what is spoken or given orally. Hence to take down his words.
To TAKE the field. To encamp. It likewise means generally to move with troops in military order.
To TAKE in. A low phrase, signifying to cheat, to gull. Officers, especially the junior classes, are frequently taken in.
To TAKE oath. To swear.
To TAKE up. To seize; to catch; to arrest; as to take up a deserter.
To TAKE on. An expression in familiar use among soldiers that have enlisted for a limited period, to signify an extension of service by taking a fresh bounty.
To TAKE. To adopt any particular formation:
Rear ranks take open order Rear ranks take close order Words of command which are used in the discipline of troops. For the manner in which they are executed see ORDER.
To TAKE cognisance. To investigate with judicial authority.
TALC, (Talc, Fr.) In natural history, a shining, squamous, fissile species of stone, easily separable into thin lamina or scales, improperly called Isinglass.
There are two kinds of talc, viz. the white talc of Venice, and the red talc of Muscovy.
TALE. Information; disclosure of any thing secret.
TALE, Ind. An Indian coin equal to six shillings and eight pence.
TALEBEARER. One who gives officious or malignant intelligence. With respect to the interior economy of military life, a talebearer is the most dangerous creature that could insinuate itself among honorable men; and however acceptable domestic information may sometimes seem to narrow minds, it will be found even by those who countenance the thing, that such means of getting at the private sentiments of others, not only defeat their own ends, but ultimately destroy every species of regimental harmony. The only way to secure a corps from this insidious evil, is for commanding officers to treat those with contempt, who would endeavor to obtain their countenance by such base and unofficer-like conduct. For it is a known axiom, that if there were no listeners, there would be no reporters.
TALENT. Count Turpin, in his essay on the Art of War, makes the following distinction between genius and talent:--Talent remains hidden for want of occasions to shew itself; genius breaks through all obstacles: genius is the contriver, talent the workman in military affairs. Talent is properly that knowlege acquired by study and labor, and ability to apply it; genius takes, as by intuition, a glance of whatever it is occupied on, and comprehends at once without labor the true character of the subject; genius must however not be devoid of acquired knowlege.
TALK. The Indian tribes of the United States, on public occasions, such as treaties, depute persons to deliver discourses to those with whom they treat, and those discourses are called TALKS: they often abound with eloquence.
To TALK. To make use of the powers of speech. Officers and soldiers are strictly forbidden to talk under arms.
TALLOW. A well known name for the fat of animals. It is used as a combustible in the composition of fireworks. See LABORATORY.
TALON, Fr. In architecture, an ornamental moulding, which is concave below and convex above.
TALON renversé, Fr. An ornamental moulding which is concave above. This word is likewise applied to many other things, as the upper part of a scythe, &c. the end of a pike, &c.
TALON d’un cheval, Fr. A horse’s heel, of the hind part of his hoof. Talon literally means heel.
TALOOK, Ind. A farm under rent; or a number of farms or villages let out to one chief.
TALOOKDAR, Ind. The head of a village under a superior.
TALPATCHES, Fr. A nickname which is given to the foot soldiers in Hungary. It is derived from TALP, which, in the Hungarian language, signifies sole of a shoe, and plainly proves, from the ridicule attached to it, that the Hungarians would rather serve on horseback than on foot. All persons are strictly forbidden to call them by this name.
TALUS, Fr. This word is sometimes written Talut. For its signification see FORTIFICATION.
TALUTED, from taluter, is sloped or graduated from a given height to a less.
TALUTER, Fr. To give a slope to any thing in fortification.
TAMBOUR, in fortification, is a kind of work formed of pallisades, or pieces of wood, 10 feet long and 6 inches thick, planted close together, and driven 2 or 3 feet into the ground; so that when finished, it may have the appearance of a square redoubt cut in two. Loopholes are made 6 feet from the ground, and 3 feet asunder, about 8 inches long, 2 inches wide within and 6 without. Behind is a scaffold 2 feet high, for the soldiers to stand upon. They are frequently made in the place of arms of the covert-way, at the saliant angles, in the gorges, half-moons, and ravelins, &c.
TAMBOURS, in fortification, solid pieces of earth which are made in that part of the covert way that is joined to the parapet, and lies close to the traverses, being only 3 feet distant from them. They serve to prevent the covert-way from being enfiladed, and obstruct the enemy’s view towards the traverses. When tambours are made in the covert-way, they answer the same purposes that works en cremaillére would.
Tambour likewise means, in fortification, a single or isolated traverse, which serves to close up that part of the covert-way where a communication might have been made in the glacis for the purpose of going to some detached work.
TAMBOUR also signifies, both in French and English, a little box of timber-work covered with a cieling, within side the porch of certain churches, both to prevent the view of persons passing by, and to keep off the wind, &c. by means of folding doors. In many instances it is the same as porch.
TAMBOUR, Fr. See DRUM.
Marcher TAMBOURS battans et drapeaux flottans. To march with drums beating and colors flying.
TAMBOUR, Fr. See DRUMMER. We frequently use the word Drum in the same sense that the French do, viz. to signify drummer. We likewise say fife for fifer; as, one drum and one fife to each company.
TAMBOUR major, Fr. Drum major.
Batteries de TAMBOUR, Fr. The different beats of the drum. The principal beats among the French are--La générale, the general; L’assemblée, the assembly; Le dernier, the last beat; Le drapeau, the troop; Aux champs, to the field; La marche, the march; La diane, the reveille; L’alarme, to arms, or the alarm; La chamade, the parley; L’appel, the roll or call; La fascine ou brelogue, the workman’s call. Le ban et la rétraite.
Aux champs, ou le premier, is beat when any particular corps of infantry is ordered to march; but if the order should extend to a whole army, it is then called La générale, the general. They do not make this distinction in the British service, but omit the premier or first beat when one regiment, detachment, or company, marches out of a camp or garrison where there are other troops.
Le second, ou l’assemblée, is to give notice that the colors are to be sent for.
La marche is beat when troops march off their parade.
Battre la charge, ou battre la guerre. To beat the charge, or the point of war. This occurs when troops advance against an enemy. This beat may be conceived by repeating in seconds of time the sound--bom! bom! bom! bom! Battre la rétraite is to beat the retreat, to cease firing, or to withdraw after the battle. It is likewise used in garrisons to warn soldiers to retire to their quarters.
Battre la fricassée. To beat the long roll. A beat which is practised to call soldiers suddenly together.
Battre la diane. To beat the reveille. This is done in a camp or garrison at break of day. When an army besieges a town, the reveille is confined to those troops belonging to the infantry that have mounted guard, particularly in the trenches; and it is then followed by the discharge of those pieces of ordnance which had ceased firing on account of the darkness of the night, that prevented their being properly pointed against the enemy’s works.
TAMBOUR de basque, Fr. A tabor.
TAMBOUR battant, Fr. Drums beating.
Sortir TAMBOUR battant, enseignes deployées, Fr. To go out drums beating and colors flying.
TAMBOUR in architecture. A term applied to the Corinthian and composite capitals, as bearing some resemblance to a drum, which the French call Tambour.
TAMBOUR likewise denotes a round course of stone, several whereof form the shaft of a column not so high as a diameter.
Un TAMBOURIN, Fr. A timbrel.
TAMBOURINE. A drum, somewhat resembling the tabor, but played in our military bands without either stick or pipe.
TAMIS, Fr. A sieve.
TAMPIONS, or TOMBIONS, are wooden cylinders to put into the mouth of the guns, howitzers, and mortars, in travelling, to prevent the dust or wet from getting in. They are fastened round the muzzle of the guns, &c. by leather collars.
They are sometimes used to put into the chambers of mortars, over the powder, when the chamber is not full.
TAMPIONS, in sea-service artillery, are the iron bottoms to which the grape-shot are fixed, the dimensions of which are as follows, viz.
Diameter.
42 pounders, 6⁶⁄₁₀ths inches. 32 ditto 6 24 ditto 5⁴⁄₁₀ths 18 ditto 4⁹⁄₁₀ths 12 ditto 4³⁄₁₀ths 9 ditto 3⁹⁄₁₀ths 6 ditto 6³⁄₄ths 4 ditto 2⁹⁄₁₀ths 1¹⁄₂ ditto 2¹⁄₁₀th ¹⁄₂ ditto 1⁴⁄₁₀ths
TAMPON, Fr. A wooden peg or instrument which is used to plug up cartridges, petards, &c. A stopper.
TAMPONS, Fr. In mason-work are wooden pegs by which beams and boards for floors are fastened together.
TAMPONS, Fr. Flat pieces of iron, copper, or wood, which are used by the French on board their men of war, to stop up holes that are made by cannon-balls during a naval engagement.
TAMPONS de canon, Fr. The apron made of cork or lead, which is put over the vent of any piece of ordnance.
TANGENT, (Tangente, Fr.) In trigonometry, is a right line raised perpendicularly on the extreme of the diameter, and continued to a point, where it is cut by a secant, that is, by a line drawn from the centre, through the extremity of the arch, whereof it is the tangent.
TANGENT. See GUNNERY.
TANGENT scale.--·21 of an inch is the tangent of 1 degree to every foot of a gun’s length, from the base ring to the swell of the muzzle: Therefore, if the distance in feet, between these two points be multiplied by ·21, the product will be the tangent of 1 degree; from which the dispart being subtracted, will give the length of the tangent scale above the base ring for one degree of elevation for that particular gun. If the scale is to be applied to the quarter sight of the gun, of course the dispart need not be subtracted.
Tangent of one degree to the following British ordnance.
----------------+--------+---------+-------- | | Tangent,| | Length.| 1°. |Dispart. ----------------+--------+---------+-------- |Ft. In. | In. | In. 12 pr. medium | 6 6 | 1·365 | 1·475 12 pr. light | 5 -- | 1·05 | 1· 6 pr. heavy | 7 -- | 1·47 | 1·32 6 pr. light | 5 -- | 1·05 | 1· 3 pr. heavy | 6 -- | 1·26 | 1·08 10 inch howitzer| 3 11¹⁄₂| ·84 | -- 8 do. howitzer | 3 1 | ·64 | -- 5¹⁄₂ do. light | 2 2³⁄₄| ·47 | -- 4²⁄₅ do. | 1 10 | ·384 | -- ----------------+--------+---------+--------
Tangent of one degree to the following French guns.
-------+---------------------+--------------------- | Siege. | Field. +----------+----------+----------+---------- | Tangent | | Tangent | Kind. | of 1°. | Dispart. | of 1°. | Dispart. -------+----------+----------+----------+---------- |in. li. p.|in. li. p.|in. li. p.|in. li. p. 24 pr. | 2 1 5 | 1 2 4 | -- | -- 16 -- | 2 - - | 1 1 - | -- | -- 12 -- | 1 10 6 | 1 - - | 1 4 - | 1 3 2 8 -- | 1 8 3 | 1 - - | 1 2 ¹⁄₂| 1 2 - 4 -- | -- | -- | 1 - - | 1 - - 6 in.}| -- | -- | 0 5 6 | -- how’r.}| | | | -------+----------+----------+----------+----------
As the French tangent scales are marked off in inches and lines, the above dimensions are given in the same, for the more ready turning the French elevations into degrees, and thereby comparing their ranges with the English.
TANK, Ind. A pond or pool of water. A reservoir to preserve the water that falls in the rainy season.
TANNADAR, Ind. A commander of a small fort, or custom house.
TAP. A gentle blow, as a tap of the drum.
TAPABORD, Fr. A sort of cap or slouched hat made in the English fashion which the French sailors wear. Its sides hang over the shoulders, and shield them from rain in wet weather. It likewise signifies a riding-cap, a montero.
TAPE-cul, Fr. That part of a swipe or swinging gate which serves to raise and let down a draw-bridge.
TAPE-cul, Fr. A falling gate.
En TAPINOIS, Fr. Slyly, secretly.
Se TAPIR, Fr. To lie squat.
TAPIS, Fr. This word literally means carpet, and is used by the French in a figurative sense, viz.
Amuser le TAPIS, Fr. To trifle.
Mettre une affaire sur le TAPIS, Fr. To open any particular transaction, to move a business.
La TAPE, le TAPON, ou TAMPON, Fr. The tampion.
TAPER ou TAMPONNER un Canon, Fr. To put in the tampion. Détaper un Canon, Fr. To take out the tampion.
TAPPEE, Ind. The post letter carrier on the coast of Coromandel. An express.
TAPROBANE, Ind. The ancient name for the island of Ceylon. It is derived from tapoo an island, and bany, a ferry.
TAP-TOO. TAT-TOO. See DRUM.
TAR. A kind of liquid pitch used in the composition of some sorts of fireworks.
TAR and FEATHERS. A method of punishment invented in the American revolution, which consisted in pouring a bucket of tar over the head of the culprit, and loosing a bag of feathers over it. See the poem of M‘Fingal.
TARANTHE, Fr. A thick iron peg which is used to turn the screw in a press.
TARAU, Fr. An instrument which is used in making the nut of a screw. It is a round piece of steel with a spiral shape.
TARAUDER, Fr. To make a hole like that which is effected by the operation of the Tarau.
TARE, Fr. A word adopted by the French from the English term Tar.
TAREAU, Fr. A screw-tap.
TARGE, Fr. See TARGET. It is generally pronounced Targue, from whence is derived the figurative expression Se targuer, to plume one’s-self, or to be self-sufficient. Le poltron se targue du courage de son père--The coward plumes himself upon the courage which his father possessed.
TARGET, a sort of shield, being originally made of leather, wrought out of the back of an ox’s hide.
TARGET, is also a mark for the artillery, &c. to fire at in their practice.
TARIERE, Fr. Auger, wimble, gimlet. The French make a distinction with respect to the gender of this word. When they express a large sized auger or wimble, they say, Un gros Tarière, making it masculine, and when they mean a small sized one, they say, Une petite tarière, making it feminine.
TARIERE, Fr. Likewise signifies a miner’s tool with which he bores into the earth. It is used to force a lighted match into the chamber of a countermine, and to make it explode.
TARPAULINGS, are made of strong canvas, thoroughly tarred and cut into different sizes, according to their several uses in the field; such as to cover the powder-waggons and tumbrels (carrying ammunition) from rain: each field-piece has likewise one to secure the ammunition-boxes.
To be TARRED. A cant word used among soldiers to signify the punishment which privates undergo among themselves, when they have been tried and sentenced by their own comrades.
TARTARES, Fr. A word used in the French army to distinguish officers’ servants and batmen from the soldiers that serve in the ranks. Tartare likewise means a groom.
TARTARS, (Tartares, Fr.) Asiatics, whose principal arms are the bow and arrow, and sabre or pike. Some few have firelocks and pistols.
Calmuc TARTARS. A free people inhabiting the borders of the Caspian Sea, and the banks of the river Wolga. They are under the immediate protection of Russia, and in consideration of the security they enjoy, they are obliged to serve when called upon. They consist of wandering hordes, live in tents, and are armed with bows and arrows. Some have rifle guns, with one or two pistols. But they are extremely cruel, and worse disciplined than the Cossacks.
TARTES, Fr. Bogs.
TAS, Fr. A heap. When the works of a fortification are lined with turf and fascines, &c. small beds of earth are previously prepared and laid one over another, till the necessary thickness is obtained; when completed it is called Tas de gazon ou de placage. A heap of turf or a placage, which see. Tas is likewise used in a sense of contempt to signify a croud--Un tas de fainéans. A heap or croud of parasites.
Un TAS de mensonges. A heap of lies.
TASA, Ind. A kind of drum, formed from a semisphere of copper, hollowed out and covered with goat skin. It is hung before from the shoulders, and beat with two rattans.
TAS de charge, Fr. An arch made in a particular manner. It is generally found in Gothic buildings.
TASSEAU, Fr. A small anvil. It likewise signifies a bracket.
TASSES. Armor for the thighs, so called.
TASSETTE, Fr. A tass in armor.
TATTEE, Ind. A bamboo frame; which encloses an herb called jawassea or kuskus. Frames of this sort are made to put to the different openings of a room; they are shaped like a sash, and one being laid on a floor and covered with the kuskus grass, the other is laid upon it, and the two are tied together at the angles, which correspond with the panes; by throwing water against them, the hottest wind in passing through becomes cool, and the air is made fragrant by the kuskus.
TAUGOUR, Fr. A small lever which is used for various purposes.
TAUPINS, Francs-Taupins, Fr. A name which was formerly given to a body of free-archers, or Francs-archers, in France. This body consisting chiefly of countrymen and rustics, they were probably so called from taupe, a mole; of which there are great quantities in the fields. Taupin likewise signifies swarthy.
TAX. A tribute or duty rated on land, &c.
TE, Fr. A term used among miners to express a figure which greatly resembles the letter T, and which consists of a certain arrangement and disposition of the furnaces, chambers, or lodgments that are made under any particular part of a fortification, in order to blow it up. The Té has four lodgments; the double Té has eight; and the triple Té has twelve.
TECHNICAL, (Technique, Fr.) All terms, or words which have been invented for the purpose of expressing particular arts, are called technical.
Mots TECHNIQUES, Fr. Technical words.
TE DEUM. As far as it concerns military matters, is a religious hymn sung in thanksgiving for any victory obtained.
TEEP, Ind. A contract or note of hand.
TEFTERDAR Effendi. The commissary general is so called among the Turks.
TEINT, Teinte, Fr. In painting, an artificial or compound color, or the several colors which are used in a picture, considered as more or less, high or bright, or deep or thin, or weakened, &c.; to give the proper relievo, or softness, or distance, &c. of several objects.
TEINT, which is used to draw a plan, Teinte dont on se sert pour lever un plan, Fr. Teint, in a general acceptation of the word, means any shade that is given to an object which is raised from the canvas, paper, &c. and placed in perspective.
TELAMONES. A term used in ancient architecture, to express the figures of men supporting entablatures, and other projections, the same as Cariatides.
TELESCOPE, (Télescope, Fr.) An optical instrument, composed of lenses, by means of which remote objects appear as if near at hand. The telescope was invented by Galilæo.
TELINGHI, Ind. The mountaineers on the Coromandel coast are denominated Telinghis; which is also the name of their nation, language or dialect.
To TELL off. A term used in military formations, to designate the relative proportions of any given body of men. Thus a battalion may be told off into wings, grand divisions, divisions, companies, platoons, half platoons, sub-divisions, and sections. It is the peculiar duty of every adjutant, and serjeant major to be particularly expert at telling off. Squadrons of horse are told off by half squadrons, divisions, sub-divisions, ranks of threes, and files right and left. But all troops, whether infantry or cavalry, should be accustomed to tell themselves off; that is to move off at the word of command, without delaying to be told off. The skilful officer will understand this, the unskilful cannot.
TEMOIN, Fr. A witness. It likewise signifies the second in a duel.
TEMOINS, Fr. In civil and military architecture, are pieces of earth left standing as marks or witnesses in the fosses of places which the workmen are emptying, that they may know exactly how many cubical fathoms of earth have been carried.
TEMPER. A state of steel or other metal, that best fits it for the use to which it is to be applied. Thus, the blade of a sword should be so tempered as to admit of considerable flexure without breaking, yet so elastic as to return to its shape, on the pressure being removed.
To TEMPER. In a military sense, to form metals to a proper degree of hardness.
TEMPEST, (Tempête, Fr.) According to Dr. Johnson, the utmost violence of the wind: the names by which the wind is called according to the gradual increase of its force seem to be, a breeze; a gust; a gale; a storm; a tempest.
TENABLE, (Tenable, Fr.) Such as may be maintained against opposition; such as may be held against attacks.
TENAILLE, Fr. (This word literally means shears.) A military evolution which was performed in the times of the ancients.
A phalanx, attacked by a lozenge or triangular wedge, bent its right and left forward by a half-quarter wheel each wing on their common centre; and when they found themselves opposite the sides of the enemy’s arrangement, they each marched on their own side, perpendicular to their line; by which means they both inclosed and attacked the enemy together, at the same time, while the head was engaged and at blows with the centre of the phalanx that had kept its ground. Such is the description authors have left us of the design and effects of this manœuvre.
The tenaille had considerable advantage over the triangular wedge; but, according to Chevalier Folard, it was not equally efficacious against the column. The latter could alter the direction of its march, and fall upon one of the wings, whether in motion or not, or detach the section of the tail or rear to take its wings in flank, while it was occupied in making the quarter conversion. The column and tenaille were formed for acting against each other, and could only be victorious over one another by the superior abilities of their commander. However, the column was always exposed to less danger than the tenaille, for the latter could not pursue the column without changing its order; whereas the column must destroy, and in a manner annihilate the tenaille, in case it should once break it.
The tenaille is unquestionably an excellent manœuvre, and strictly conformable to a very wise maxim, which directs us to multiply our strength and efforts as much as possible against one point. It is sometimes made use of in war without being sensible of its advantages; turning a flank with a longer line, is in fact the tenaille. This, however, does not hinder the manœuvre from being well performed; for the nature of ground not being level like a sheet of paper, the commander in ranging his troops, according to the advantages of the situation, does not form a perfect tenaille, such as may be drawn or sketched out, but one of an irregular kind, which produces the same effects; and this is what should be sought on all occasions. This order is also called a potence.
TENAILLES, in fortification, are low works made in the ditch before the curtains. There are three sorts: viz. the first are the faces of the bastions produced till they meet, but much lower; the second have faces, flanks, and a curtain; and the third have only faces and flanks.
Single TENAILLE, (Tenaille simple, Fr.) is a work whose front is advanced towards the country, having two faces, forming a re-entering angle: its two long sides terminate on the counterscarp, opposite to the angle of the shoulder.
Double TENAILLE (Tenaille double, ou flanquée, Fr.) is a work whose front, having 4 faces, forms 2 re-entering, and 3 salient angles: its long sides are likewise parallel, and terminate on the counterscarp, opposite to the angle of the shoulder. Both the single and double tenailles have this fault, viz. that they are not flanked or defended at the re-entering angle, because the height of the parapet hinders the soldiers from discovering before that angle. Therefore tenailles should only be made when there is not room enough to make horn-works. The ramparts, parapets, ditches, covert-way, and glacis of tenailles, are the same with other out-works.
TENAILLE of a place, is what is comprehended between the points of two neighboring bastions; as the faces, flanks, and curtains. Hence it is said, the enemy attacked the whole tenaille of a place, when they made two attacks on the faces of the two bastions.
TENAILLES, Fr. Pincers, nippers, sheers, tenails.
TENAILLER, Fr. To tear off the flesh with red hot pincers. This punishment existed in civilized Europe, until the French revolution.
TENAILLON, Fr. This is sometimes called among the French grande lunette. It is a work composed of two parts, each of which covers the faces of the half-moon; in whose front the tenaillon is constructed.
Un TENAILLON, Fr. A little tenaille. See FORTIFICATION.
TENDELET, Fr. An awning; such as is used on board of ship, and over carriages, in hot countries.
TENDRE, Fr. To stretch; to spread. This word has various significations in the French language. In military matters, it is common to say,
TENDRE un piège à quelqu’un, Fr. To lay a snare for any body.
TENDRE une marquise, une tente, Fr. To pitch a marquee, a tent.
TENIR, Fr. To hold, to keep, &c.
TENIR tête à quelqu’un, Fr. To cope with any body.
Se TENIR, Fr. To remain; to stay; to hold fast.
Se TENIR bien à cheval, Fr. To sit well on horseback, to have a good seat.
TENON, (Tenon, Fr.) Any thing that holds or keeps fast; that part of a frame work which is cut to fit a mortise.
TENON d’arquebuse, Fr. Loop of a gun.
TENT, (Tente, Fr.) This word is originally derived from the Latin tendo, I stretch; whence tendre, to stretch. A soldier’s moveable lodging place, commonly made of canvas, and extended upon poles.
The sizes of the officers tents are not fixed; some regiments have them of one size, and some another. A captain’s tent and marquee should be 10¹⁄₂ feet broad, 14 deep, and 8 high: those of the subalterns are a foot less: the major’s and lieutenant-colonel’s, a foot larger; and the colonel’s 2 feet larger.
The subalterns lie two in a tent, those of engineers but one.
The tents of private men should be 6¹⁄₂ feet square, 6 feet high, and hold 5 soldiers each.
The tents for the horse seven feet broad, and 9 feet deep: they hold likewise 5 men and their horse accoutrements.
Common Infantry TENT. Length of ridge pole is 7 feet; length of standards 6 feet. They hold only 5 men each. Weight complete 27 lbs. Great alterations have taken place in tents since the French revolution.
Bell TENT. This was the name of a small tent that was formerly in use, also called a tent of arms, being used only for holding arms in the front of the line; the use of it is now exploded; and the form being given to those now used for infantry or cavalry; weight, complete with poles, 43 lbs. length of pole 9 feet, contain 12 men each, require 40 pegs.
Marquee. Weight complete, 1 cwt. 17 lbs. ridge pole 9 feet; standard 8 feet.
Round TENT. A circular tent which contains 12 men; the weight complete, with poles, 43 lbs. Length of pole 10 feet.
Hospital TENT. A large commodious tent, which is appropriated for the sick. It sometimes happens, that when a contagious disorder breaks out in a camp, or in barracks, the persons infected are removed from the hospital and lodged in a tent, which is pitched for that purpose in the neighborhood. It is usual for the commanding officer of the regiment to order one or more sentries to be furnished to the regimental hospital, and the same to the hospital tent, which sentries are directed to permit no person to enter but those concerned in the hospital, the staffs and officers of the regiment. They are to be particularly careful in preventing liquor, or any thing improper, from being carried into the hospital; nor are they to permit any patient to go out (to the necessary excepted) without a ticket of leave from the attending surgeon.
Laboratory TENT, in artillery, a large tent which is sometimes carried to the field for the convenience of fire-workers and bombardiers. The weight complete, with poles, pins, &c. 3 cwt. 24 lbs. length of ridge pole 18 feet, length of poles 14¹⁄₂ feet.
TENT bedstead. A small portable bedstead, so contrived as to correspond with the shape of an officer’s tent.
TENT-Pins, pieces of wood, which are indented at the top, and made sharp at the bottom, to keep the cords of a tent or marquee firm to the earth. There are four large ones which serve for the weather cords.
TENT-Poles. The poles upon which a tent or marquee is supported.
TENT walls. See WALL.
TENT likewise means lint to put in a wound.
TENTED. Having tents pitched on it. Hence “the tented field.”
TERRAIN, Fr. This word is sometimes written terrein, and signifies, generally, any space or extent of ground.
Gagner du TERRAIN peu-à-peu, Fr. To gain ground little by little.
Perdre du TERRAIN, Fr. To lose ground.
Menager son TERRAIN, Fr. To make the most of your ground. It is likewise used in a figurative sense, viz. Un homme est fort quand il est sur son terrain, Fr. A man always speaks with great confidence when he is thoroughly master of the subject.
TERRAIN du camp, Fr. The ground within the lines of encampment.
Lever le TERRAIN, Fr. To reconnoitre, to take a survey of ground.
Chicaner le TERRAIN, Fr. To dispute the ground; to fight it inch by inch.
Tenir un grand TERRAIN, Fr. To take up much ground.
TERRASS. See MORTAR.
TERRASSE, Fr. Terrace, platform.
Contre-TERRASSE, Fr. A terrace that is raised above another.
TERRASSER, Fr. To throw down, to rout completely.
TERRASSIER, Fr. This word is used among the French not only to signify the person who undertakes to see heaps of earth removed, &c. for any specific purpose, but likewise the man who actually carries it.
TERRE, la TERRE, Fr. Earth, the earth.
TERRE-PLEIN, Fr. See FORTIFICATION.
TERRER, se Terrer, Fr. To hide under ground. The French say, des gens de guerre se sont bien terres; meaning thereby, that they had thrown up entrenchments with earth, so as to be covered from the enemy’s fire. Terrer une artifice, to cover the head of any fire-work with earth.
TERRES-Amendees, Fr. Earths that have been used in the cleansing of saltpetre. Saltpetre-men call these earths Terres reanimees.
TERREUR, Fr. Fear, apprehension.
TERREUR panique, Fr. See PANIC.
TERTIATE, in gunnery, is to examine the thickness of the metal of a piece of artillery, in order to judge of its strength. This is usually done with a pair of calliper compasses.
TERTIATING a piece of ordnance, is to find whether it has its due thickness, at the vent, trunnions, and neck; if the trunnions and neck are in their due order, and the chase straight, &c.
TERTRE, Fr. A small rising ground that stands unconnected with any other.
TESSONS, Fr. Potsherds.
TESTAMENT Militaire, Fr. Among the French, a will which is made in the presence of two witnesses only, and is not committed to paper.
TESTIMONY. Verbal declaration given upon oath or honor before any court martial. The testimony of a witness should neither be influenced nor interrupted, and the precise words used by him should be written down in the proceedings without any alteration.
TESTUDO, in the military art of the ancients, was a kind of cover or screen, which the soldiers of each company made themselves of their bucklers, by holding them up over their heads, and standing close to each other. This expedient served to shelter them from darts, stones, &c. thrown upon them, especially those from above, when they went to the assault.
TESTUDO, was also a kind of large wooden tower, which moved on several wheels, and was covered with bullocks’ hides: it served to shelter the soldiers when they approached the walls to mine them, or to batter them with rams.
TETE, Fr. Head.
TETE du Camp, Fr. The head of the camp, or the front ground which looks towards the country; and where troops bivouac.
TETE de la Sappe, Fr. Head of the sap.
TETE de Chevalement, Fr. A cross beam which lies upon two upright stays, and supports any part of a wall, &c. whilst it is in repair.
Faire (ou tenir) TETE à quelqu’un, Fr. To oppose a person; to keep him at bay.
Avoir quelqu’un en tête, Fr. To have any person opposed to one, viz. Turenne avoit en Tête Montecuculli; Turenne was opposed by Montecuculli.
TETES, Fr. In the plural number, are the same as men or lives, viz. La prise d’une place a coute bien des Tetes. The reduction or taking of a place has cost many lives or men.
Avoir la Tete de tout, Fr. To be the most advanced.
TETE de Pont, Fr. That part of a bridge which is on the enemy’s side. When the bridge is fortified on both sides, the French say, Les deux tetes de pont.
TETE de Porc, Fr. This word means literally a hog’s head. It is used to denote a military arrangement of the triangular kind. Those mentioned under the term wedge, were composed of ranks, greater one than another, in a regular progression from the incisive angle to the base. The tete de porc was formed of small bodies ranged in lines in the same sense, and in the same progression as the ranks in the preceding wedges; that is to say, a small body (probably square) was placed at the head, another of the same size was posted behind it, having two others, one on its right, the other on its left, both extending the full length of their front beyond the wings of the first. Behind those three, five others were ranged in the same order, and so on successively until all were placed.
This arrangement is equal to the former (viz. that of the wedge) with regard to defects; as to advantages it has but one only, which will never be of weight enough to gain it any degree of reputation; it is this, that being composed of small bodies, each having its leader or commander, all the different parts are more or less capable of defence should they be attacked at the time they are forming or dividing; and if the enemy attempted to form the Tenaille, they might detach some of those small bodies to interrupt their motions, or to attack them in flank.
This disposition corresponds with the movement by echellons from the centre, or both wings thrown back; it is in the modern mode a most imposing and important disposition, where the force that uses it is inferior in number, and well disciplined to rapid evolution.
TETHER. A string by which horses are held from pasturing too wide. We say, figuratively, to go the length of one’s tether; to speak or act with as much freedom as circumstances will admit.
TETRAEDRON, (Tetraëdre, Fr.) In geometry, one of the five regular bodies. It is a pyramid which is terminated by four equilateral triangles, that are equal to each other; in the same manner that the tetragon is a recontilineal figure of four equal sides, which has four right angles.
TETRAGONAL. Square, having equal sides and angles.
TETRARCH. A Roman governor of the fourth part of a province.
TEUTONIC, (Teutonique, Fr.) See ORDERS.
TEVEEL, Ind. The treasury.
TEVEELDAR, Ind. The treasurer.
THANE. An ancient military title of honor, now obsolete.
To THANK. In military matters, to make honorable mention of a person or persons for having behaved gallantly in an action, or otherwise rendered a public service.
To be THANKED. To receive a public testimony of good conduct. Officers, &c. are generally thanked in public orders.
THANKS. Public acknowlegements for gallant actions.
Vote of THANKS. It has been customary in all civilized countries for the legislature to pay a public tribute of applause to those warriors who have fought their country’s battles with success, and have otherwise distinguished themselves by particular feats of gallantry and good conduct. The French, during the progress of their revolution, have had frequent recourse to this mode of adding new zeal and fresh courage to their armies, and of expressing national gratitude.
THEATRE of war. Any extent of country in which war is carried on may be so called. The French say Théatre de la guerre. It signifies the same with us as seat of war. According to Turpin, page 21, in his essay on the Art of War, there are but three sorts of countries which may become the theatre of war; an open country divided by rivers, a woody, or a mountainous one. The dispositions for a march must of course be varied as the situation of places differ.
THEODOLITE. A mathematical instrument useful to engineers and artillerists, in taking heights and distances.
THEOREM, (Théoreme, Fr.) In mathematics, a proposition which is purely speculative and tends to the discovery of some hidden truth.
An universal THEOREM, in mathematics, is one that extends universally to any quantity without restriction; as that the rectangle of the sum, and difference of any two quantities, is equal to the difference of their squares.
A particular THEOREM is when it extends only to a particular quantity.
A negative THEOREM is one that demonstrates the impossibilities of an assertion, as that the sum of two biquadrate numbers cannot make a square.
A local THEOREM. That which relates to surface; as the triangles of the same base and altitude are equal.
THEORETICAL, (Théorique, Fr.) What appertains to theory.
THEORY, (Théorie, Fr.) The speculative part of any particular science, in which truths are demonstrated without being practically followed. Or more distinctly; a theory is an opinion formed in the mind, that certain effects must arise from certain combinations of matters or circumstances; the matters or circumstances being known, the result or consequence not yet demonstrated by experiment.
School of THEORY. In order to secure to the army intelligent and well informed officers, it has been wisely suggested, that there should be a school of military theory in each regiment. The persons selected for this purpose are to pass an examination before competent persons, whenever the vicinity of regimental quarters will allow them to attend.
Order of MARIA THERESA. A military order of knighthood, which was founded and established by the house of Austria on the 18th of June, 1757, and was distinguished by the name of the reigning queen and empress, being called the Imperial Military Order of Maria Theresa.
THERMES, Fr. Small barges or boats in which persons formerly bathed.
THERMOMETER, (Thermometre, Fr.) An instrument for measuring the heat of the air, or of any matter.
THERMOSCOPE, (Thermoscope, Fr.) An instrument by which the degrees of heat are discovered; a thermometer.
THIEF. Any person that robs another. The character of a thief is of so foul a cast in a military life, that the least imputation of dishonesty incapacitates either officer or soldier from remaining in the service.
Soldier’s THIGH. A well-known part of the human frame which takes its peculiar military application from the notorious poverty of army men in general. Hence, Soldier’s Thigh figuratively means an empty purse, or, speaking familiarly, a pair of breeches that fit close and look smooth, because the pockets have nothing in them.
THILL. The shafts of a waggon; hence, the horse which goes between the shafts is called the thill horse, or thiller.
To THIN. To make less numerous. As to thin the ranks by a heavy discharge of ordnance and firearms.
THIRTEEN. A shilling is so called in Ireland; thirteen pence of that country’s currency being only equal to twelve pence English.
THREE DEEP. Soldiers drawn up in three ranks, consisting of front, centre, and rear, are said to be three deep. It is the fundamental order of the infantry, in which they should always form and act in close order, and for which all their operations and movements are calculated.
THREES. A term used in the telling off in squadron, because the front of three horses in rank, is equal to the length of one horse from head to tail.
Ranks by threes. Each half squadron is told off by threes. See CAVALRY, Mil. Library.
To THROW. To force any thing from one place to another; thus artillerists say, to throw a shot or shell, or so many shot or shells were thrown.
THRUST. Hostile attack with any pointed weapon, as in fencing. When one party makes a push with his sword to wound his adversary with the point it is called a thrust.
THUMBSTALL. A piece of leather which every careful soldier carries with him to secure the lock of his musquet from moisture.
THUNDERING-legion, was a legion in the Roman army consisting of Christian soldiers, who, in the expedition of the emperor Marcus Aurelius against the Sarmatæ, Quadi, and Marcomanni, saved the whole army, then ready to perish from thirst, by procuring, by their prayers, a very plentiful shower thereon, and at the same time a furious storm of hail, mixed with lightning and thunderbolts, on the enemy.
This is the account commonly given by ecclesiastical historians, and the whole history is engraven in bass-relievos on the Antonine column.
TIDEGATE. See SLUICE-GATE.
TIERCE. A thrust in fencing, delivered at the outside of the body over the arm.
TILE, TYLE, in military building, a sort of thin, factitious, laminated brick, used on the roofs of houses; or more property a kind of clayey earth, kneaded and moulded of a just thickness, dried and burnt in a kiln, like a brick, and used in the covering and paving of different kinds of military and other buildings. The best brick earth should only be made into tiles.
The tiles for all sorts of uses may now be comprised under 7 heads, viz. 1. The plain-tile, for covering of houses, which is flat and thin. 2. The plain-tile, for paving, which is also flat, but thicker; and its size 9, 10, or 12 inches. 3. The pan-tile, which is also used for covering of buildings, and is hollow, and crooked, or bent, somewhat in the manner of an S. 4. The Dutch glazed pan-tile. 5. The English glazed pan-tile. 6. The gutter-tile, which is made with a kind of wings. 7. The hip, ridge, or corner-tile.
Plain-TILES, are best when they are firmest, soundest, and strongest. Some are duskier, and others ruddier, in color. The dusky-colored are generally the strongest. These tiles are not laid in mortar, but pointed only in the inside.
Paving-TILES, are made of a more sandy earth than the common or plain-tiles: the materials for these last must be absolutely clay, but for the others a kind of loam is used. These are made thicker and larger than the common roof-tiles; and, when care has been taken in the choice of the earth, and the management of the fire, they are very regular and beautiful.
Pan-TILES, when of the best kind, are made of an earth not much unlike that of the paving-tiles, and often of the same; but the best sort of all is a pale-colored loam that is less sandy; they have about the same degree of fire given them in the baking, and they come out nearly of the same color. These tiles are laid in mortar, because the roof being very flat, and many of them warped in the burning, will not cover the building so well as that no water can pass between them.
Dutch glazed Pan-TILES, get the addition of glazing in the fire. Many kinds of earthly matter running into a glassy substance in great heat, is a great advantage to them, preserving them much longer than the common pan-tiles, so that they are very well worth the additional charge that attends the using them.
English glazed Pan-TILES, are in general not so good as the Dutch ones under that denomination; but the process is nearly the same.
Dutch TILES, for chimnies, are of a kind very different from all the rest. They are made of a whitish earth, glazed and painted with various figures, such as birds, flowers, or landscapes, in blue or purple color; and sometimes quite white: they are about 6.5 inches each way, and three quarters or an inch thick. They are seldom used at present.
Gutter-TILES, are made of the same earth as the common pan-tiles, and only differ from them in shape; but it is adviseable that particular care be taken in tempering and working the earth for these, for none are more liable to accidents. The edges of these tiles are turned up at the larger ends for about 4 inches. They are seldom used where lead is to be had.
Hip or Corner-TILES, are at first made flat like pan-tiles of a quadrangular figure, whose two sides are right lines, and the ends arches of circles; the upper end concave, and the lower convex; the latter being about 7 times as broad as the other: they are about 10.5 inches long; but before they are burnt are bent upon a mould in the form of a ridge-tile, having a hole at the narrow end, to nail them on the hip corner of the roof.
Ridge-TILES are used to cover the ridges of houses, and are made in the form of a semi-cylindrical surface, about 13 inches in length, and of the same thickness as plain-tiles; their breadth at the outside measures about 16 inches.
TILLAC, Fr. The same as pont, which signifies the deck of a ship.
Franc-TILLAC, Fr. The lower deck.
TILT, a thrust, or fight with rapiers; also an old military game. See TOURNAMENT.
TILTER, one who fights or contests in a tournament.
TIMBALE, Fr. A brass kettle-drum, such as is used by European cavalry. French soldiers say figuratively, Faire bouillir la timbale; to make the pot boil.
TIMARIOT, a Turkish soldier who has a certain allowance made him, for which he is not only obliged to arm, clothe, and accoutre himself, but he must likewise provide a certain number of militia-men. The allowance is called Timar.
The Timariots are under the immediate command of the Sangiack or Bey, according to their particular distribution. When the Timariots belonging to Natolia, do not join the standard, they forfeit a whole year’s allowance, which is deposited in a chest or stock-purse called mankafat. But the Timariots in Europe or Turkey, are not liable to this fine. When they refuse to serve, they are suspended for two years. The income of a Timariot amounts to five thousand aspres, and the Timariots of Hungary have six thousand. When an Hungarian Timariot dies, the Bashaw of Buda has the power of dividing his property into two parts, which is placed to the account of the Ottoman government, and enables it to pay two soldiers.
There are different classes among the Timariots. Some are called Ikmalers, some Isels, and others Bernobets.
The Ikmalers are in possession of that species of Timar which cannot be divided for the benefit of government after the decease of the individual.
The Isels are subject to a division of property among two or three persons, at the will of the Porte.
The Bernobets are in possession of that kind of Timar which may become the property of three or four individuals who serve together, or relieve each other alternately, on condition that the one who takes the field enjoys the whole benefit of the Timar during his stay with the army. There are many of this kind in Natolia. Every thing which appertains to the Turkish cavalry, known by the name of Topachly, and which is regularly clothed, armed, accoutred, and paid by certain officers, belonging to the Ottoman empire, out of revenues called maly-mukata, may be ascertained and known under the several appellations of Timariots, Zaims, Begliers, and Beglierbeys.
TIMARS, certain revenues, in Turkey, growing out of lands which originally belonged to Christian clergy and nobility, and which the sultans seized, when they conquered the countries they inhabited.
By means of these Timars and Ziamets the Grand Signor is enabled to support the greatest part of his cavalry.
The Timars differ in value. The richest, however, do not exceed twenty thousand aspres annually, which may be considered as equal to about three hundred and fifty dollars; and the Ziamets receive full as much. Those who are entitled to Timars, are called Timariots, and those who have Ziamets are named Zaims.
TIMBER, in military architecture, includes all kinds of felled and seasoned wood used in the several parts of building, &c.
Oak, of all the different kinds of timber known for building, is preferred by the European nations; because, when well seasoned and dry, it is very tough and hard: it does not split so easy as other timber, and bears a much greater weight than any other. When it is used under cover, it never perishes, no more than in water; on the contrary, the older it grows the harder it becomes; and when it is exposed to the weather, it exceeds all other timbers for durability. English oak is said to be the best, American the next, then Norway, and lastly Germany. But there are various kinds of American oaks.
Elm, if felled between November and February, is all spine, or heart, and no sap, and is of singular use in places where it is always wet or dry. It is very tough and pliable; it is easily worked, and does not readily split: it bears driving of bolts and nails into it better than any other wood; for which reason it is prepared for artillery uses.
Beech is likewise a very useful wood; it is very tough and white when young, and of great strength, but liable to warp very much when exposed to the weather, and to be worm eaten when used within doors. It is frequently used for axle-trees, fellies, and all kinds of wheelwright work: but where it is kept constantly wet, and free from air, it will outlast oak.
Ash. Its use is almost universal. It serves in buildings, or for any other uses where it is skreened from the weather: hand-spikes and oars are chiefly made of it; and indeed it is the wood that is most fit for this, or any other purpose, which requires toughness and pliability.
Fir, commonly known by the name of pine is much used in building, especially within doors. It wants but little seasoning, and is much stronger while the resinous particles are not exhausted, than when it is very dry: it will last long under water.
Chesnut-tree, especially wild chesnut, is by many esteemed to be as good as oak.
But the best of all timber for shipbuilding is the Teak of Asia; it endures water four times as long as oak, is much more easily wrought; iron spikes drove into it do not rust.
There are many other kinds of wood, used in military works, not mentioned here.
Preserving of TIMBER. When boards, &c. are dried, seasoned, and fixed in their places, care is to be taken to defend and preserve them: to which the smearing them with linseed oil, tar, or the like oleaginous matter, contributes much.
The Dutch preserve their gates, portcullices, draw-bridges, sluices, &c. by coating them over with a mixture of pitch and tar, whereon they strew small pieces of cockle and other shells, beaten almost to powder, and mixed with sea sand, which incrusts and arms it wonderfully against wind and weather.
Seasoning of TIMBER. As soon as felled, it should be laid in some dry airy place, but out of reach of too much wind or sun, which, in excess, will subject it to crack and fly. It is not to be set upright, but laid along, one tree upon another, only with some short blocks between, to give it the better airing, and prevent it becoming mouldy, which will rot the surface and produce mushrooms on it. Some persons daub the trees all over with cow-dung, which occasions their drying equally, and prevents their cracking, as they are otherwise very apt to do.
Some recommend the burying timber in the earth, as the best method of seasoning it; and others have found it a fine preservative to bury their timber under the wheat in their granaries; but this cannot be made a general practice. In Norway they season their deal planks, by laying them in salt water for three or four days, when new sawed, and drying them in the sun: this is found a great advantage to them; but neither this, nor any thing else, can prevent their shrinking.
Timber should always be seasoned, when it is intended for piles and other pieces that are to stand under the earth or water. The Venetians first found out this method; and the way they do it is this: they put the piece to be seasoned in a strong and violent flame, turning it continually round by means of an engine, taking it out when it is every where covered with a black coaly crust: by this means the internal part of the wood is so hardened, that neither earth nor water can damage it for a long time after.
TIME. The measure of duration, by which soldiers regulate the cadence of a march: as slow, ordinary, or quick, and quickest time or step, which see.
TIME, in manœuvring. That necessary interval betwixt each motion in the manual exercise, as well as in every movement the army or any body of men make.
TIME, in fencing. There are three kinds of time; that of the sword, that of the foot, and that of the whole body. All the times that are perceived out of their measure, are only to be considered as appels or feints to deceive and amuse the enemy.
TIME thrust, in fencing. A thrust given upon any opening which may occur by an inaccurate or wide motion of your adversary, when changing his guard, &c.
TIMING, is the accurate and critical throwing in of a cut or thrust upon any opening that may occur as your adversary changes his position.
TIMON, Fr. Shafts of a cart, coach-pole.
TIMONIER, Fr. This word is frequently used as a sea term by the French, and signifies helmsman, or steersman, from Timon, which is applied to the part of the helm he holds.
TIN tubes. See TUBES and LABORATORY.
TINDALS, Ind. Native officers employed in the artillery, and in ships.
TIR, Fr. In artillery. A term used to express the explosion or discharge of any firearm in any given direction. Un bon, un mauvais tir, a good, a bad shot; or a shot well or ill directed.
La theorie du TIR, Fr. The theory or art of firing.
TIR perpendiculaire, Fr. A shot made in a perpendicular direction.
TIR oblique, Fr. An oblique shot.
TIR à ricochet, Fr. A ricochet shot.
TIR rasant, Fr. A grazing shot; or shot made rasant. See FORTIFICATION.
TIR plongeant, Fr. A downward or plunging shot.
TIR fichant, Fr. A shot made fichant. See FORTIFICATION.
La justesse du TIR, Fr. The true direction of a shot. The French say, ce fusil n’a pas le tir juste, this musquet has not a true direction, or its shot diverges from the point levelled at.
TIRAILLER, Fr. To pester, to annoy. Hence the word Tirailleur.
TIRAILLEUR. A soldier who fires as he pleases; a rifleman.
TIRAILLEURS are likewise skirmishers or marksmen, advanced in front to annoy the enemy, and draw off his attention; or they are left behind to amuse and stop his progress in the pursuit; a column of infantry is often ordered to act as tirailleurs.
TIRE, are great guns, shot, shells, &c. placed in a regular form. See PILES.
TIRE-balle, Fr. An instrument used by surgeons to extract musquet-balls.
TIRE-bourre, Fr. In artillery, a wad-hook. It likewise signifies a worm to draw the charge out of a musquet.
TIRE-fond, Fr. An instrument which is used among the French to fix a petard. It likewise means a surgeon’s tenebra or piercer.
TIRE ligne, Fr. An instrument used in drawing lines.
TIRE-ployer, Fr. To discharge; to unload.
TIRER, Fr. To shoot, to fire.
TIRER à boulets rouges, Fr. To fire with red hot shot.
TIRER des armes à feu. To fire any species of firearm. There is a curious and well written passage on this subject in the Supplement aux reveries de M. le Maréchal de Saxe, page 76.
TIRER le canon, Fr. To fire or discharge pieces of ordnance.
TIRER likewise means to move towards any place, viz. Après la battaille gagnee, l’armee tira vers un tel lieu; after the battle had been won, the army moved towards such a quarter.
TIRER dix ou douze pieds d’eau, Fr. To draw ten or twelve feet water.
TIRER à la mer, Fr. To put off to sea.
TIREUR, Fr. A game keeper, a shooter.
TIREUR d’arc, Fr. A bowman, an archer.
TIREUR d’armes, Fr. A fencing-master.
TYROLIANS. A body of sharp shooters in the Austrian service. They take their name from the Tyrol, a country formerly belonging to Germany, about 150 miles long, and 120 broad. It is wholly mountainous, and was part of the hereditary dominions of the house of Austria; but having been twice conquered by the French, part has been irrevocably ceded to Bavaria in 1809, the rest is incorporated with the kingdom of Italy.
TOCSIN, Fr. An alarm bell.
TOHIE, Ind. A canoe.
TOISE, in military mensuration, is a French measure, containing 6 feet, or a fathom: a square toise is 36 square feet, and a cubical toise is 216 feet.
These two measures correspond in the division of the feet; but these divisions being unequal, it is necessary to observe, that the proportion of the yard, as fixed by the Royal Society at London, to the half toise as fixed by the Royal Academy at Paris, is as 36 to 38.355.
TOISE carree, Fr. Any square extent, having six feet in every sense.
TOISE cube, Fr. Any substance having 6 feet in length, 6 ditto in breadth, and 6 in depth.
TOISE, Fr. This word is used in the masculine gender, and signifies, in mathematics, the science or art of measuring surfaces and solids, and of reducing the measure by accurate calculation.
Une affaire TOISEE, Fr. A familiar phrase signifying, the thing is done, all over.
TOISER, Fr. To measure by the toise.
TOISER, Fr. In a military sense, to take the height of a man, as, toiser un soldat, to take the height of a soldier. The French likewise say in a figurative sense, toiser son homme, to examine one’s man with great attention, in order to find out his merits, or good qualities.
TOISEUR, Fr. A person employed among the French in the constructing and repairing of fortifications.
TOISEUR, Fr. A measurer.
TOISON d’or. Fr. The golden fleece.
La TOISON, Fr. The order of the Golden Fleece is so called.
TOKERY, Ind. A basket made with cane.
TOLE, Fr. Iron beat into thin plates.
TOMAN, Ind. Ten thousand men.
TOMAND, Ind. Equal to something more than three guineas.
TOMBER, Fr. To fall. Le vent tombe, the wind falls. Tomber entre les mains des ennemis, to fall into the hands of enemies.
TOMBIE, Ind. A wind instrument made in the shape of a globe.
TOMPION. See TAMPION.
TAMSOOK Hazin Zaminee, Ind. A security for personal appearance.
TOMTOM, Ind. A small drum made in the shape of a tambourine.
TONDIN, Fr. A term in architecture which is seldom used. It is the same as the astragal or fillet which goes round the base of pillars.
TONG. See TENAILLE.
TONGS of a waggon, a piece of wood fixed between the middle of the hind ends of the shafts, mortised into the fore cross-bar, and let into the hind cross-bar.
TONGUE of a sword. That part of the blade on which the gripe, shell, and pummel are fixed.
A triangular TONGUE. The bayonet figuratively so called from its shape.
TONNAGE, Fr. A word adopted from the English.
TONNAGE. A custom or impost due for merchandize brought or carried in tons from or to other nations after a certain rate in every ton.
TONNAGE. The usual method of finding the tonnage of any ship is by the following rule:--Multiply the length of the keel by the breadth of the beam, and that product by half the breadth of the beam; and divide the last product by 94, and the quotient will be the tonnage.
Ship’s keel 72 feet: breadth of beam 24 feet.
72 × 24 × 12 ------------ = 220·6 tonnage. 94
The tonnage of goods and stores is taken sometimes by weight and sometimes by measurement; and that method is allowed to the vessel which yields the most tonnage. In tonnage by weight 20 cwt. make 1 ton. In tonnage by measurement 40 cubic feet equal 1 ton. All carriages, or other stores to be measured for tonnage, are taken to pieces and packed in the manner which will occupy the least room on board ship. All ordnance, whether brass or iron, is taken in tonnage by its actual weight. Musquet cartridges in barrels or boxes, all ammunition in boxes, and other articles of great weight, are taken in tonnage according to their actual weight.
The following is the tonnage required for some of the most material ordnance stores by the British usage.
TONNAGE OF ORDNANCE.
Kinds. No. T. ct. qr. {Pole 264 -- 10 0 Axes, complete with handles{Pick 100 -- 9 0 {Felling 176 -- 14 0 Barrows--Wheel, packed 20 2 2 0 Do. unpacked 7 1 0 0 Hand, single 20 0 18 0 Budge barrels 32 1 0 0 Bricks 1000 2 5 0 Buckets of leather 20 0 2 0 Pontoon & carriage complete, with its appurtenances 11 0 0 Carbines.--A chest with 25 stand is 11 feet cubic Carriages.--Standing 42 prs. 1 13 0 32 prs. 1 10 0 Howitzer 10 in. 1 10 0 24 prs. 1 9 3 18 prs. } 1 7 0 Howitzer 8 inch.} 12 prs. 1 4 0 9 prs. 1 3 0 6 prs. 1 0 0 4 prs. 0 17 0 {24 prs. 5 10 0 Carriages.--Travelling, {12 prs. 4 10 2 complete with limber boxes,{ 9 prs. 4 7 2 ladles, sponges and rammers{ 6 prs. 3 7 2 { 3 prs. 2 19 0 Medium {24 prs.} 2 9 2 {12 prs.} 6 pr. light, with ammunition boxes} 2 3 0 5¹⁄₂ inch howitzer, Do. } 5¹⁄₂ inch howitzer of 10 cwt.}Carriages{ 3 2 0 8 inch howitzer } { 3 7 2 Sling cart complete 3 0 2 Forage cart, with limber 4 0 0 Ammunition waggon 4 18 1 Gravel cart 2 16 2 Duke of Richmond’s close bodied waggon 5 0 0 Road waggon, with upright sides 7 10 0 Gin; triangle 0 14 0 Grate for heating shot 0 4 2 Handspikes 120 1 0 0 Handcrow levers, of 5 feet 120 1 0 0 Handscrews, large 15 1 0 0 small 17 1 0 6 Helves, pick or felling 300 0 14 0 Do. sledge 300 1 0 0 Do. pinmaul 360 1 0 0 Junk 20 cwt. 1 5 0 Linstocks, with cocks 600 1 0 0 without cocks 1000 1 0 0 Musquets.--A chest with 25 is 16 feet. Do. with 20 is 11 feet. Match 6 cwt. 1 14 0 Powder{11 whole barrels 1 0 0 {22 half do. 1 0 0 Pitch or tar.--1 barrel is 7 feet. Pistols.--A chest with 50 or 60 = 10 feet. Park pickets 40 0 9 1 Pikes 280 1 0 0 Sheep skins 12 dozen 1 1 0 Shovels}of iron {100 1 0 0 Spades } {184 1 0 0 Shovels, shod with iron 138 1 0 0 Sand bags{Bushel 500 0 12 0 Bales {Half do. 500 0 7 1 {2 bushel 250 0 8 1
The following is the tonnage allowed in the British service to the military officers of the ordnance embarked for foreign service, for their camp equipage and baggage:
For a field officer 5 tons For a captain 3 do. For a subaltern 1¹⁄₂ do.
TONNE, Fr. A tun. It likewise signifies a large cask or vessel which is used for stores and ammunition.
TONNEAUX Meutriers, Fr. Casks which are bound together with ropes, or circled round by iron hoops, and are filled with gunpowder, pebbles, &c. The particular method in which these casks are prepared may be seen in Tom. II. page 218, Des Œuvres Militaires.
TOOKSOWARS, Ind. The vizir’s body of cavalry.
TOOLS, used in war, are of many denominations and uses, as laboratory tools, mining tools, artificers tools, &c. which see.
TOPARCH, (Toparque, Fr.) The principal man in a place.
TOPARCHY, (Toparchie, Fr.) Superintendence; command in a district.
TOPAS, Ind. This name was originally given by the natives of India to a native Portuguese soldier, on account of his wearing a hat; contra-distinguished from the Hindus and Mahomedans who wear turbans.
TOPE, Ind. A small wood or grove.
TOPE, Ind. A gun.
TOPEE, Ind. A hat.
TOPEE Walla, Ind. A person who wears a hat.
TOPEKHANA, Ind. The place where guns are kept; the arsenal.
TOPGI-Bachi. Grand master of the Turkish artillery. This appointment is one of the most important situations in the gift of the Porte. It is generally bestowed upon a relation to the Grand Signor, or upon a favorite to the Grand Visier.
The name is derived from tope, which, in the Turkish language, signifies cannon, and from Bach, which means lord, chief or commandant.
The person next in command to the Topgi-Bachi is called Dukigi-Bachi, or master of the Topgis, who are both cannonneers and founders. The latter are paid every month by a commissary of their own, whom they call Kiatib.
TOPGIS, sometimes written Topchis. A name generally used among the Turks to signify all persons employed in the casting of cannon, and who are afterwards appointed to the guns. It is here necessary to observe, that on account of the vast extent of the Ottoman empire, the Turks do not attach much heavy ordnance to their armies, especially when they carry on their operations from one frontier to another. This is owing to the scarcity of draught-horses, and to the natural obstacles of the country. So that they seldom carry into the field guns above eight or twelve-pounders.
But when it is their design to form any considerable siege, they load camels with all the materials requisite for casting cannon. A certain number of Topgis accompany them, and the instant the army takes up its quarters near to the spot where the attack is to be made, they set to work and cast pieces of ordnance of every species of calibre or bore.
The Turkish cannon is extremely beautiful and well cast. The ornamental parts consist of plants, fruits, &c. for it is expressly forbidden in the Koran to give the representation of any human figure upon fire-arms, particularly upon pieces of ordnance; the Turks being taught to believe that God would order the workman to give it life, or would condemn him to eternal punishment.
The Turks are very awkward in constructing platforms for their batteries, and are almost ignorant of the art of pointing their pieces. From a consciousness of their deficiency on this head, they encourage Christian artillerymen and engineers to come amongst them; but until the year 1798, they seldom viewed them but with a jealous eye, and always gave the preference to renegadoes. General Koehler, with a few British officers belonging to the train, joined their army in 1800 for the purpose of acting against Egypt.
TOPIKHANNAH, Ind. A house for keeping guns, an arsenal, armory.
TOPOGRAPHER. A person skilled in viewing, measuring, and describing ground.
TOPOGRAPHICAL ENGINEERS. A body of military men which are now become essential in war.
TOPOGRAPHICAL DEPOT. The following short sketch of the only institution of this kind which is peculiar to France, will explain its nature and origin. Louvois minister of Louis XIV. in 1668 undertook to reform all the departments of government; and the war department among the rest. His death interrupted his design which was nevertheless afterwards pursued upon the peace of Utrecht in 1713: when all the military papers were classed, under different heads, and tables of contents to each prepared, amounting to 2700 volumes. These papers embraced all military subjects from 1631 to that time.
In 1696 a corps called “engineers of camps and armies” was instituted; who in 1726 were called “geographical engineers” employed with the staff in drawing plans, &c. But their drawings were used only in the camp, until 1744, when d’Argenson improved the corps and established them at Versailles. It was from this depot that Voltaire obtained all the materials which render his concise sketches of history more accurate and preferable to any other, who has not made use of his materials.
In the seven years war, the Hotel de la Guerre was erected at Versailles, it was completed in 1760. Berthier who was the intimate friend of marshal Saxe was appointed chief geographical engineer; and he collected a vast body of charts, drawings, and topographical sketches on the Rhine, Hesse, Westphalia, Hanover, &c.
But some idea of former insufficiency may be had from the following anecdote taken from memoirs of marshal Rochambeau (the same who served with Washington) published at Paris in 1809: the marshal was an officer under marshal Richelieu at the attack on Minorca during the seven years war, which he thus describes--“When the marshal left Versailles to proceed on the expedition, there could be found only one plan very old of Port Mahon, in the military depot, and this was merely a draft of Fort St. Philip. M. de Valliere, a minister of that day, who was much better adapted to be a man-midwife than a chief of the war depot, was consulted, and said that 24 pieces of heavy ordnance and 15 mortars would be sufficient to lay the place in ashes. At Toulon, Richelieu had some discourse with a captain of a merchant ship who had been prisoner at Port Mahon, who said the duke’s plan of St. Philip was no more like it than the Bastile. This intelligence induced the duke to take 14 pieces of artillery and 7 mortars more. But what was our astonishment when on the first sight of Fort St. Philip we discovered works bristled with arms and fortifications presenting 140 embrasures with their tompions out.”
There can be no greater ignorance than this in military affairs, excepting the ignorance of the British at Walcheren in 1809, who did not know that the channel which formerly made Cadsand an island, and separated it from the continent, had been filled up and become terra firma for 25 years preceding.
By an arret of 1769 the topographical board was again revived, but fell into neglect. St. Germain made them one corps with the engineers; but they were again separated in 1777. M. de Vault who had been the soul of the institution for 40 years, ever since 1750, died in 1790, he had digested all the materials of the wars down to the year 1763 in a military historical manner, they amounted to 125 volumes. It came under the care of his colleague M. Beaudoin, who died, and was succeeded by general Mathieu Dumas, until the revolution; when the war depot in 1791 was removed to Paris for safety and for use. Colon, Desdorides, Lacuer, and Carnot, were active in it; Carnot for his own advantage and convenience formed out of this a private topographical cabinet, to which may be attributed the developement of those grand combinations, which put fourteen armies in motion and maintained their co-operation in a manner which has astonished mankind, and laid the foundation for those congenial achievements which have since subverted all previous axioms in tactics and prostrated and encircled Europe.
But the want of topographers being so much felt in the early campaigns of the revolution no doubt stimulated Carnot to render it perfect. Accordingly the corps was new organized, three companies were formed, and each composed of 12 artists and a considerable number of pupils or assistants to each. These were employed on the topography of Bavaria, Suabia, &c. the materials collected in Italy, Piedmont, Spain, Naples, Egypt, and St. Domingo. The grand map of France by Cassini; the chart by Ferraris of the Netherlands, and Piedmont by Borgonio, were engraved under the inspection of this corps. During the war all topographical materials were collected with zeal. General Dupont (who has been since made prisoner in Spain) considerably improved and enriched it; Ernout who was lately commander of one of the French W. I. islands, was for a time at the head of this depot; its organization was completed in 1795. General Clarke, having been educated in this corps, was placed at the head of it in the year 1800. A library was established and 8000 volumes appropriate to the subject added by him. In 1801 it was enriched with all that the campaigns of Bonaparte procured.
But the most important of its works was a plan of France upon a combined projection of 4 points of view taken on the banks of the Rhine, 24 topographical engineers under Franchot the astronomer accomplished this. The organization was further improved on a project of general Clarke; general Andreossi afterwards succeeded, and under his care numerous charts were engraved and published.
The following is an abstract of the contents of the depot. 2700 volumes ancient archives; 8000 select additional volumes; 900 rolls of modern topographical plans; 131 volumes and 78 rolls modern narrative, each of which is composed of at least 50 individual memoirs; 4700 engraved maps; 7400 manuscript plans of battles, marches, encampments, &c.
It furnished to the army before 1804, engraved maps 7278; manuscript plans and drawings 207; 61 atlases, and upwards of 600 narrative memoirs.
In the early formation of this and other scientific establishments, in the talents which directed and the liberality that provided them, we see one of the real causes why France is superior in war to all other nations.
TOPOGRAPHY. In military history, a description or draught of some particular place, or small tract of land, as that of a fortification, city, manor or tenement, garden, house, castle, fort, or the like; such as engineers set out in their drawings, for the information of their prince or general. Hence a topographical chart--Carte Topographique.
TOPSYTURVY. Upsidedown, or, as our old authors more properly wrote it, (to use Mr. Tooke’s words in his Diversions of Purley,) Up so down; bottom upward. It corresponds with the French term, Sans dessus dessous; without top or bottom: i. e. a situation of confusion, in which you cannot discern the top from the bottom, or say which is the top and which the bottom. When a battalion is so awkwardly managed, either through the ignorance of the chief who gives the several words of command, or through the dullness of the officers and soldiers who are to execute them, that the grenadiers get where the light infantry should stand, and the rest of the companies out of their proper fronts and positions, such a battalion may be said to be topsyturvy. There is a sea-phrase in familiar use among the military, which means the same thing, viz. to capsize, renverser. Chavirer quelque chose, comme une embarcation, &c. To turn upside down, as to capsize a piece of ordnance. Hence, figuratively, to capsize a battalion, which means the same as to club a battalion. See TO CLUB.
TOQUE, Fr. A velvet cap with the sides turned up, and flat at the top. The Cent Suisses, or the French king’s Swiss body guard, wore the toque during the French monarchy.
TOR. A tower or turret.
TORCHES, (Torches, Fr.) In military matters, are lights used at sieges, &c. They are generally made of thick ropes, &c.
TORCHIS, Fr. Mud-clay, with which cottager’s huts, &c. are made in most countries.
TORE, Fr. See TORUS.
TORUS. In architecture, a large round moulding used in the bases of columns.
TORLAQUI. A sort of priest in Turkey.
TORNADO. A Portuguese word which is used on the southern coasts of Africa, to express furious whirlwinds that are often fatal to mariners and seamen. Dr. Johnson calls it generally, a hurricane; a whirlwind.
TORPEDO. A military machine for defence, invented by Mr. Robert Fulton, an American; there are various kinds adapted to positions and methods of defence or attack; the machine is a case of copper, oblong, and containing 100 lbs. or more of powder; to the end of the case is a kind of lock about the size of a parlor door brass lock, inside of which are clock works so formed as to be set to any number of seconds or minutes required, which being expired, the gunpowder in the case is exploded, and all above is torn to pieces by the explosion.
TORSE, Fr. This word means literally, twisted. In architecture it signifies a pillar, the body of which, or the part between the base and the capitals is surrounded with concave and convex circular lines.
TORTOISE. See TESTUDO.
TORTS, Fr. See WRONGS.
TORTUE, Fr. Literally means tortoise. It likewise signifies the testudo, or tortoise, a warlike machine which was used among the ancients.
TORTUE d’hommes, Fr. A particular formation which was formerly adopted by the besieged when they made a sortie.
TORTUE de Mer, Fr. A sort of vessel which has its deck raised in such a manner, that it resembles the roof of a house, beneath which soldiers and passengers may conveniently stand or sit with their baggage in bad weather.
TOSHA Khanna, Ind. Store-room, wardrobe.
TOSTE, Fr. A rowing bench in a boat. It is likewise called Toste de Chaloupe.
TOUCH-HOLE. The vent through which the fire is conveyed to the powder in the chamber of a gun.
TOUR, Fr. Turn. This word is likewise used by the English in military matters, as tour of duty.
TOUR à feu, Fr. A light house.
TOUR de bâton, Fr. By-profits. See BATON.
TOURNAMENT. From the old French word tournoi, which is derived From tourner, to turn. An exercise of mock battle formerly practised, wherein princes and gentlemen afforded specimens of their dexterity and courage in public places, by entering the lists and encountering all opposers. They were well mounted on horseback, clad in armor, and accoutred with lance and sword; first tilted at one another, and then drew their swords and fought hand to hand.
These exercises being designed to make the persons, who practised them, expert in the art of war, and also to entertain the court, the arms were in a great measure rendered so far innocuous that they could not kill the combatants. For this purpose the points of the lances and swords were broken off; but notwithstanding this precaution, frequent mischief occurred. In consequence of which the Pope prohibited all sorts of tournaments, under pain of excommunication.
Tournaments had their origin from the ancient gladiatory combats, and not from the usage of the northern people, as is commonly believed. In Cicero’s time they were called by the Greek name Anabatis; because their helmet in a great measure obstructed their seeing.
TOURNEE, Fr. A circuitous journey made for the purpose of inspection, &c.
Le Général fit une TOURNEE pour examiner les avant postes. The general went round to examine the outposts.
TOURNE à gauche, Fr. A tool used by carpenters, masons, and other artizans, in turning screws, saws, &c.
TOURNER, Fr. To turn. In military matters it signifies to get upon the flank or in the rear of any object you propose to attack.
TOURNER un ouvrage, Fr. In fortification, to turn a work. This is effected by cutting off its communication with the main body of the place, and taking possession of the gorge. Tourner le flanc, to turn the flank. Tourner l’aile droite ou l’aile gauche, to turn the right or left wing. Tourner un poste, une montagne, to get into the rear of a post, mountain, &c.
TOURNIQUET, Fr. A turnstile. It likewise signifies a swivel or iron ring.
TOURNIQUET, Fr. Among artificers, a species of firework composed of two fusees, which, when set fire to, produces the same effect as the Soleil Tournant.
TOURNIQUET, (Tourniquet, Fr.) In surgery, an instrument made of rollers, compresses, screws, &c. for compressing any wounded part so as to stop hæmorrhages.
The common Tourniquet is very simple, consisting only of a roller, which, with the help of a small stick, serves to stop the effusion of blood from large arteries, in amputation, by forcibly tying up the limb. The things required in this operation are, a roller of a thumb’s breadth, and of an ell in length; a small cylindrical stick, a conglomerated bandage, two fingers thick and four long; some compresses of a good length, and about three or four fingers breadth, to surround the legs and arms, and a square piece of strong paper or leather, about four fingers wide. By the British regulations published in 1799, for the better management of the sick in regimental hospitals, every surgeon and assistant surgeon is directed to have, among other surgical instruments, a certain number of tourniquets; and serjeants, &c. are to be taught the method of using it.
In May, 1798, two tourniquets were directed to be sent to each English regiment, the rest are to be made by the men of the regiment; and besides one to each person who will be taught the use of it, it is necessary to have four for every hundred men.
The non-commissioned officers, band, and drummers of every regiment, are to be taught the manner of applying it according to instructions sent down from the surgeon general’s department.
TOURNOIS, Fr. Tournament.
TOURS Mobiles, Fr. Moveable towers. These were made use of in remote ages; and although the invention of them has been attributed by some to the Greeks and by others to the Romans, it does not belong to either; for we read of moveable towers in Ezekiel. The curious may derive much information on this head from the Chevalier Folard in his translation of Polybius, page 536, tom. ii. See MOVEABLE TOWERS.
TOURS bastionnees, Fr. See TOWER BASTIONS.
TOURS isolees, Fr. Detached towers; such as are made in forts, or stand upon the coast to serve for lighthouses.
TOURS terrieres, Fr. Large pieces of wood which are used in mechanical operations to convey or remove heavy burthens.
La TOURBE menue, Fr. The common people, the rabble.
TOURBILLON, Fr. Whirlwind, vortex. The French likewise call a water-spout by this name.
TOURBILLON de feu, Fr. See SOLEIL MONTANT.
TOURELLE, Fr. A turret.
TOURILLON, Fr. A sort of pivot upon which several machines, such as draw-bridges, &c. are made to turn.
TOURILLONS. See TRUNNIONS.
TOURMENTE, Fr. A violent storm.
TOURTEAU Goudronné, Fr. Old rope which is untwisted, steeped in pitch or tar, and afterwards left to dry. It is used in fosses and other places during a siege. The French make the Tourteau Goudronné in the following manner.--Take 12 pounds of tar or pitch, 6 ditto of tallow or grease, which put to 3 pints of linseed oil, and boil the whole together. You then take old matches, or twisted pieces of rope of any length you want, and let them soak in the boiling liquor. If you wish to prevent them from burning too fast, add six pounds of rosin and two of turpentine.
TOUT le monde haute, Fr. A French word of command at sea which corresponds with our sea phrase, Pipe! all hands up.
TOUT le monde bas, Fr. A French word of command at sea which corresponds with Pipe! all hands down.
TOUTE volee, Fr. Random shot.
Tirer a toute volee. To fire at random.
TOWER, (Tour, Fr.) Any high building raised above another, consisting of several stories, usually of a round form, though sometimes square or polygonal; a fortress, a citadel. Towers are built for fortresses, prisons, &c. as the tower of the Bastille, which was destroyed by the inhabitants of Paris in 1789.
The TOWER of London, commonly called the Tower. A building with five small turrets at different angles above it, situated on the banks of the river Thames.
The Tower of London is not only a citadel to defend and command the city, river, &c. but it is also a royal palace, where the kings of England with their courts have sometimes lodged; a royal arsenal, wherein are stored arms and ammunition for 60,000 soldiers; a treasury for the jewels and ornaments of the crown; a mint for coining money; the archives wherein are preserved all the ancient records of the courts of Westminster, &c. and the chief prison for state delinquents. The officers belonging to the Tower of London consist of
per ann. 1 constable and chief governor at 1000 0 0 1 lieutenant governor, at 700 0 0 1 deputy lieutenant, at 365 0 0 1 major, at 182 10 0 1 chaplain, at 121 13 4 1 gentleman porter, at 84 0 8 1 gentleman gaoler, at 70 0 0 1 physician, at 182 10 0 1 surgeon, at 45 12 6 1 apothecary, 1 yeoman porter
TOWER-bastions, in fortification, are small towers made in the form of bastions, by M. Vauban, in his second and third method; with rooms or cellars underneath to place men and guns in them.
Martello TOWER. See TOURS MOBILES
Moveable TOWERS, in ancient military history, were three stories high, built with large beams, each tower was placed on 4 wheels or trucks, and towards the town covered with boiled leather, to guard it from fire, and to resist the darts: on each story 100 archers were posted. They were pushed with the force of men to the city wall. From these the soldiers, placed in the different stages, made such vigorous discharges that none of the garrison dared to shew themselves on the rampart.
TOWN. Any walled collection of houses.
TOWN-Adjutant. An assistant to the town-major. See ADJUTANT.
TOWN-Major. An officer constantly employed about the governor or officer commanding a garrison, &c. He issues the orders to the troops, and reads the common orders to fresh troops when they arrive. He commands according to the rank he had in the army; but if he never had any other commission than that of town or fort-major, he is to command as youngest captain. See MAJOR.
TRABAND. A trusty brave soldier in the Swiss infantry, whose particular duty was to guard the colors and the captain who led them. He was armed with a sword and a halbert, the blade of which was shaped like a pertuisan. He generally wore the colonel’s livery, and was excused all the duties of a centry. His pay was eight deniers more than the daily subsistence of the company.
TRABEA, Trabee, Fr. A white gown bordered with purple, and adorned with clavi or trabeæ of scarlet. See Kennett’s R. A. page 313.
TRACER, Fr. To trace.
TRACES. The harness by which beasts of draught are enabled to move bodies to which they are yoked.
TRAHISON, Fr. Treason.
Haute TRAHISON, Fr. High treason.
Tuer en TRAHISON, Fr. To kill in a treacherous manner.
TRAIL. In gunnery. The end of a travelling carriage, opposite to the wheels, and upon which the carriage slides when unlimbered or upon the battery. See CARRIAGES.
To TRAIL, literally means to draw along the ground. In military matters it signifies, to carry the firelock in an oblique forward position, with the butt just above the ground. Hence Trail Arms, a word of command for that purpose.
TRAINE, Fr. A term known among French sailors and soldiers at sea, to signify a thin rope or rather packthread, to which they tie their linen; leaving it to float or be dragged through the waves until it is clean.
TRAIN, (Train, Fr.) In a military sense, all the necessary apparatus, implements of war, such as cannon, &c. that are required at a siege or in the field.
TRAIN of Artillery, (Traine d’artillerie, Fr.) in a general sense, means the regiment of artillery; it also includes the great guns and other pieces of ordnance belonging to an army in the field. See ARTILLERY.
TRAIN, (Trainee, Fr.) In mining. A line of gunpowder laid to give fire to a quantity thereof, which has been lodged for the purpose of blowing up earth, works, buildings, &c.
TRAIN, is also used to denote the attendants, of a prince or general, upon many occasions.
TRAIN-bands, or trained bands, a name formerly given to the militia of England.
TRAINEAUX, Fr. Several pieces of wood made in the form of a large sledge upon which pieces of ordnance and stores, &c. are conveyed to the rampart, and brought from one place to another.
TRAINEURS, Fr. Men who on a march lag behind, and thereby occasion a loose and unconnected appearance in the line of march. It is the duty of the rear guard to pick up all stragglers, and to report them to head-quarters.
TRAINEUR d’epee. A parasite; a man who has never done a day’s duty, but wears a sword and looks big.
TRAITS, Fr. Drag-ropes, &c. used in the artillery.
TRAJECTORY line, is the curved line formed by the shot after the explosion to the end of its career.
TRAJET. See FERRY.
TRAMONTANE, Fr. The north wind in the Mediterranean is so termed by the French. It is so called, because it blows beyond the hills that are near Rome and Florence.
TRANCHANT, Fr. Cutting.
Une epee à deux TRANCHANS, Fr. A two-edged sword.
TRANCHEE, Fr. See TRENCH.
TRANCHEE double, Fr. A double trench, one side of which serves as a traverse to the other; by which means they are mutually covered from a reverse or enfilade filing.
TRANCHEE a crochet, Fr. A bending trench, or one in the shape of a hook. This species of trench is found where the line turns, at the extremities of the places of arms, and at the ends of the cavaliers.
TRANCHEE directe, Fr. A trench which is carried, or run out in a strait forward direction, and which serves to shut up any spot from whence you might be enfiladed.
TRANSFERS. Soldiers taken out of one troop or company and placed in another are so called.
TRANSFIXED. An ancient term used to express the state of being desperately wounded by some pointed instrument, as being run through by a spear, javelin or bayonet; pierced through so that the weapon is fixed in another body.
TRANSOMS. In artillery. Pieces of wood which join the cheeks of gun-carriages; there is but one in a truck-carriage, placed under the trunnion-holes; and four in a wheel-carriage, the trail, the centre, the bed, and the breast transoms.
TRANSOM-plates, with hooks.--There is one on each side of the side-pieces, against each end of the transom, the bed-transom excepted, fastened by two transom-bolts.
TRANSOM-bolt, with bars. They serve to tie the side-pieces to the transom.
TRANSPIRATION, Fr. This word is used by the French in hydraulics, to signify the oozing of water through the pores of the earth. It often happens, in digging a canal through sandy ground, that the transpirations or oozings, are so plentiful as not to leave water enough for the intended purposes of navigation. This occurred at New-Brisac, when a canal was dug in order to convey materials for its fortifications. The waters having been let in, the whole body was absorbed in the space of twenty-four hours. This evil or inconvenience can, however, be remedied; as may be seen in the fourth volume of Belidor’s Architecture Hydraulique.
TRANSPORT. A vessel in which soldiers are conveyed on the sea. See EMBARKATION.
TRANSPORT-Board. An English office established in 1794, which has the entire arrangement of the transport service, and of prisoners of war, in conjunction with the sick and hurt board. It consists of five commissioners, who are captains in the navy, and a secretary.
TRANSPORTER, Fr. To transfer, to remove, to change the situation of any thing.
TRANSPORTER les files et les rangs d’un bataillon dans les evolutions, Fr. To change files or ranks in military evolutions. To countermarch any given number of men so as to place the right where the left stood, and make the front rank take the ground that was occupied by rear, with a different aspect. See COUNTERMARCH.
When the countermarch is effected on the centre, or by a central conversion, the French distinguish, and use the phrase--Faire le moulinet; from the similarity of movement round a central point; moulinet signifying capstan, turn-stile, &c.
TRANSPOSER les files d’un bataillon dans les évolutions, Fr. To change the relative position of files in a battalion, that is, to countermarch the whole so as to make the natural front stand where the rear did, and to place those on the left that originally stood on the right.
TRAP. See AMBUSH, STRATAGEM, &c.
TRAPE, Fr. A falling door.
TRAPEZE, Fr. See TRAPEZIUM.
TRAPEZOID, (Trapezoide, Fr.) A figure in geometry which is formed by the circumvolution of a trapezium, in the same manner that a cylinder is by that of a parallelogram.
TRAPEZIUM. A quadrilateral or square figure whose four sides and angles are unequal, and no sides are parallel.
TRAPPINGS. See HOUSINGS.
TRATTES, Fr. The Several beams and long pieces of wood which support the body of a windmill.
TRAVADE, Fr. A whirlwind; violent squall accompanied by thunder and lightening.
TRAVAILLER, Fr. To work. In mechanics; to warp, to open, &c. The French say, Ce bois travaille; this wood warps--Ce mur travaille; this wall gives way, &c.
TRAVAILLER, a la journee, Fr. To work by the day--A la piece, by the piece:--à la tâche, by the measure:--En bloc et en tâche, by the great, by the lump.
TRAVAILLER à Toise, Fr. To work by the toise. Works in fortification are generally done by this measure.
TRAVAILLER par epaulees, Fr. To execute a work with intervals of labor.
TRAVAILLER les esprits des soldats. To work upon the minds of the soldiery. To excite them to insurrection.
TRAVAILLER un pays. To feel the pulse of a country by working upon the minds of the inhabitants; to excite them to support any particular cause.
TRAVAILLEURS, Fr. Literally, workmen. In military matters, pioneers and soldiers employed in fatigue duties.
TRAVAILLEURS, à la tranchee, Fr. A detachment, consisting of a given number of men from each battalion, which is employed in the trenches. The soldiers who are sent upon this duty have only spades and pick-axes, and the officers who command them wear their swords.
TRAVAISON, Fr. Entablature.
TRAVAUX Militaires, Fr. See MILITARY WORKS.
TRAVAUX avances, Fr. Advanced works or outworks. The same as pieces detachees, or dehors. See DEHORS.
TRAVEE, Fr. A bay of joists. A scaffold.
TRAVELLING forge. See FORGE.
TRAVERS, Fr. A rope which is used to fasten cannon on their carriages, &c. and which serves for various other purposes.
TRAVERSEE, Fr. Passage; short trip by sea.
TRAVERSE. In fortification, is a parapet made across the covert-way, opposite to the salient angles of the works, near the place of arms, to prevent being enfiladed. Traverses are 18 feet thick, and as high as the ridge of the glacis. There are also traverses made by caponiers; but then they are called tambours.
To TRAVERSE, a gun, or mortar, is to bring it about to right or left with hand-spikes, till it is pointed exact to the object.
TRAVERSIER, Fr. A passage boat, &c. It likewise means a wind that blows into port; also a pontoon.
TRAVERSINES, Fr. Pieces of wood which are laid cross-ways in a dyke.
TRAVERSING-plates, in gun carriages, are two thin iron plates, nailed on the hind part of a truck carriage of guns, where the hand-spike is used to traverse the gun.
TRAVERSING, in fencing, is the change of ground made by moving to right or left round the circle of defence.
TRAVONS, Fr. The large main beams in a wooden bridge, which support the joists, &c. They are likewise called sommiers.
TRAVESTISEMENT, Fr. Disguise. In the old French service, it was ordained, that no dragoon or foot soldier should change his uniform or regimentals whilst in garrison, nor within the boundaries of it. Every infraction of this order was punished with three months imprisonment.
TRAUMATIC. Vulnerary; useful to wounds; as Traumatic decoction.
TREACHERY. Perfidy; breach of faith.
TREASON. Disloyalty; treachery; perfidious dealing.
High TREASON. An offence against the security of the commonwealth, or of the sovereignty. It is a capital crime, and subjects the offender not only to loss of life, but also to forfeiture of all he may possess.
TRECHETOR, TRECHEUR, One who betrays a place, or body of men. An obsolete word.
TREFLE, Fr. Trefoil. A term used in mining, from the similarity of the figure to trefoil. The simple trefle has only two lodgments; the double trefle four; and the triple one six.
TREILLAGE, Fr. Any assemblage of wood which is laid cross-ways. Of which description are the palisadoes, &c. in gardens
TREILLIS, Fr. A general term for iron grating, &c. Such as is used for prisons.
TREILLIS, Fr. The method that is used in copying plans, &c. It consists of a certain arrangement of strait lines, which being measured at equal distances from one another, and crossed from right to left, represents a quantity of small equal squares. This arrangement or disposition of lines is used by painters, engravers, and engineers, in taking accurate copies of plans, &c. and is called by the French Treillis.
TREILLISER. To trellis. To furnish with a trellis.
TREMEAU, Fr. An ancient term in fortification. See MORTAR.
TRENCHANT. Sharp or cutting.
TRENCHES, in a siege, are ditches made by the besiegers, that they may approach more securely to the place attacked; on which account they are also called lines of approach. The tail of the trench is the place where it was begun, and its head is the place where it ends.
Trenches are also made to guard an encampment.
The trenches are usually opened or begun in the night time, sometimes within musquet shot, and sometimes within half or whole cannon shot of the place; generally about 800 toises. They are carried on in winding lines, nearly parallel to the works, so as not to be in view of the enemy, nor exposed to the enemy’s shot.
The workmen employed in the trenches are always supported by a number of troops to defend them against the sallies of the besieged. The pioneers, and other workmen, sometimes work on their knees, and are usually covered with mantlets or saucissons; and the troops who support them lie flat on their faces, in order to avoid the enemy’s shot. On the angles or sides of the trench, there are lodgments, or epaulements, in form of traverses, the better to hinder the sallies of the garrison, and to favor the advancement of the trenches, and to sustain the workmen.
The platforms for the batteries are made behind the trenches; the first at a good distance, to be used only against the sallies of the garrison. As the approaches advance, the batteries are brought nearer, to ruin the defences of the place, and dismount the artillery of the besieged. The breach batteries are made when the trenches are advanced near the covert-way.
If there are two attacks, it will be necessary to have lines of communication, or boyaus, between the two, with places of arms at convenient distances. The trenches are 6 or 7 feet high with the parapet, which is 5 feet thick, with banquettes for the soldiers to mount upon.
The approaches at a siege are generally carried on upon the capitals of the works attacked; because the capitals produced are, of all other situations in the front of a work, the least exposed to the fire of either the cannon or musquetry; and are the least in the line of fire between the besieged and besieger’s batteries. But if, from particular circumstances, these or other advantages do not attend the approaches upon the capitals, they are by no means to be preferred to other positions.
The trenches of communication, or zig-zags, are 3 feet deep, 10 feet wide at bottom, and 13 feet at top, having a berm of one foot, beyond which the earth is thrown to form a parapet.
The parallels or places of arms of the trenches are 3 feet deep, 12 feet wide at bottom, and 17 or 18 feet wide at top, having a banquette of about 3 feet wide, with a slope of nearly as much. See SAP.
The first night of opening the trenches, the greatest exertions are made to take advantage of the enemy’s ignorance as to the side of attack; and they are generally carried on as far in advance as the first parallel, and even sometimes to the completion of that work. The workmen set out on this duty, each with a fascine of 6 feet, a pick axe, and a shovel; and the fascines being laid so as to lap one foot over each other, leave 5 feet of trench for each man to dig.
The usual method of directing the trenches or zig-zags is, by observing during the day some near object in a line with the salient parts of the work, and which may serve as a direction in the night; or if the night be not very dark, the angles of the works may be seen above the horizon; but as both these methods are subject to uncertainty, the following is proposed to answer every case:--Having laid down the plan of attack, the exact positions of the flanked angles of the works of the front attacked, and particularly of those most extended to the right and left; marked on the plan the point of commencement for the first portions of zig-zag, the point where it crosses the capital, 2nd the point to which it extends on the other side of the capital: this last point will be the commencement of the second branch: then mark off the point where this branch crosses the capital, and its extent on the other side; and this will give the commencement of the third branch; and so on for the others. Thus provided with a plan ready marked off, it will be very easy, even in the darkest night, to lay down the points where the zig-zags are to cross the capital, and the points to which they are to be produced beyond them. The first parallel is generally run about 600 yards from the place, and of such extent as to embrace the prolongation of the faces of all the works which fire upon the trenches; and each end has a return of about 30 or 40 yards.
The second parallel is constructed upon the same principles, and of the same extent as the first, at the distance of about 300 yards from the salient angles of the covert-way. This parallel is usually formed of gabions; each workman carrying a gabion, a fascine, a shovel, and a pick axe. After this the trenches are carried on by sap.
The half parallels are about 140 or 150 yards from the covert-way, and extend sufficiently on each side to embrace the prolongation of the branches of the covert-way.
The third parallel must not be nearer than the foot of the glacis, or it will mask the ricochet batteries. It is generally made rather wider than the other parallels.
Cavaliers of the trenches must not be nearer than 28 yards from the covert-way, or they will be liable to be annoyed by hand grenades.
Returns of a TRENCH, are the elbows and turnings, which form the lines of approach, and are made, as near as can be, parallel to the place, to prevent their being enfiladed.
To mount the TRENCHES, is to mount guard in the trenches, which is generally done in the night.
To relieve the TRENCHES, is to relieve the guard of the trenches.
To scour the TRENCHES, is to make a vigorous sally upon the guard of the trenches, force them to give way, and quit their ground, drive away the workmen, break down the parapet, fill up the trench, and spike their cannon.
Counter-TRENCHES, are trenches made against the besiegers; which consequently have their parapets turned against the enemy’s approaches, and are enfiladed from the several parts of the place, on purpose to render them useless to the enemy, if they should chance to become masters of them; but they should not be enfiladed, or commanded by any height in the enemy’s possession.
To open the TRENCHES, is to break ground for the purpose of carrying on approaches towards a besieged place.
TRENTE-six mois, Fr. Thirty-six months. A sea phrase. By this term was understood among the French, before the revolution, Un Engagé, a person who hired himself for that period to another, on condition that the latter defrayed his passage to the East Indies; after the expiration of which term the former was at liberty to settle in that country.
TREPAN, Fr. An instrument which is used to find out the quality of any ground into which beams or sticks are to be driven. Also an instrument used in surgery.
TREPIGNER, Fr.. To clatter. In horsemanship it is used to describe the action of a horse who beats the dust with his fore-feet in managing, without embracing the vault; who makes his motions and time short and near the ground, without being put upon his haunches. This defect is usually occasioned by a weakness in the shoulders.
TRESOR, Fr. The military chest.
TRESORIER, Fr. Paymaster. There were formerly on the French military establishment two classes of paymasters, viz. Trésoriers de l’ordinaire, et trésoriers de l’extraordinaire, paymasters or treasurers for the ordinary expences of the service, and ditto for the extraordinary. The latter were accountable to government for a just distribution of stores and provisions, and gave in their estimates and vouchers to the comptroller general’s office in Paris. These were formerly called Clercs du trésor ou payeurs, clerks attached to the military chest or paymasters. They were partly the same as our paymasters and commissaries-general on service.
During the monarchy in France there were several treasurers or paymasters-general in ordinary belonging to the army, who had their several departments, viz.
TRESORIERS de la gendarmerie et des troupes de la maison du roi, Fr. Treasurers or paymasters attached to the gens d’armes and the king’s household.
TRESORIERS de l’extraordinaire des guerres, Fr. Treasurers or paymasters of the extraordinaries of the army.
TRESORIERS des Maréchaussées de France, Fr. Treasurers or paymasters of the marshalsey or armed police of France.
TRESORIERS payeurs des troupes, Fr. Treasurers or paymasters-general of the forces.
TRESORIERS des gratifications, Fr. Treasurers or paymasters of compensations, gratuities, &c.
TRESORIERS de la prévôté de l’Hotel, Fr. Treasurers or paymasters of the provost-marshal’s department at the hotel or town hall in Paris.
Le TRESORIER général de l’artillerie, Fr. The treasurer or paymaster-general of the artillery.
Le TRESORIER général des fortifications, Fr. The treasurer or paymaster-general of fortifications.
All these treasurers or paymasters were subject to their several comptrollers of accounts, and their issues, &c. were audited accordingly. There were likewise provincial or subordinate paymasters of the extraordinaries of the army. They were appointed by the treasurers or paymasters-general, and resided in the different departments and general districts of the kingdom. These appointments fell, of course, at the revolution, and they have since been replaced by a more simple and economical consolidation. The artillery has still its separate treasurer or paymaster. The district paymasters, which have been established in Great Britain, &c. during the present war, seem manifestly to have taken their origin from the old French arrangement.
TREVET. Any thing that stands upon three legs. An iron instrument to set a pot or saucepan on over the fire. It is likewise used in field-ovens.
TREUIL, Fr. A roll, an axle-tree, &c.
TRIAIRES, Fr. See TRIARII.
TRIAL. Test, examination, experiment. It is in the power of the president to dismiss an officer from the regular, militia, or volunteer service, without any species of investigation or trial. See COURTS MARTIAL, &c.
TRIANGLE, (Triangle, Fr.) The triangle may be considered as the most simple of all figures. It is composed of three lines and three angles, and is either plain or spherical.
A plain TRIANGLE is one that is contained under three right lines.
A spherical TRIANGLE is a triangle that is contained under three arches of a great circle or sphere.
A right-angled TRIANGLE is one which has one right angle.
An acute-angled TRIANGLE is one that has all its angles acute.
An obtuse-angled TRIANGLE is that which has one obtuse angle.
An oblique-angled TRIANGLE is a triangle that is not right angled.
An equilated TRIANGLE is one whose sides are all equal.
An isosceles TRIANGLE, An equilegged TRIANGLE, A triangle that has only two legs or sides equal.
A scalenus TRIANGLE. One that has not two sides equal.
Similar TRIANGLES are such as have all their three angles respectively equal to one another.
TRIANGLE. The psaltery of the Scriptures. A small triangular piece of metal, which is used in military bands, emitting a sharp reverberating sound in concord with the rest of the music.
TRIANGLE likewise means a wooden instrument consisting of three poles which are fastened at top in such a manner, that they may spread at bottom in a triangular form, and by means of spikes affixed to each pole, remain firm in the earth. An iron bar, breast high, goes across one side of the triangle. The triangles are used in the British army for the purpose of inflicting the barbarous and unmilitary punishment of whipping; a usage which is rendered the more odious by a comparison of the valor and discipline of the French, who do not allow of any such punishments. To the shame of the United States, the practice is tolerated even by law at this moment!
Shake the TRIANGLE. A phrase in the British army, applied to the condition of a man who is whipped with corded lashes on the bare back till he falls into convulsions; when he is said to shake the triangle. Where such barbarity is the costume it is not surprising that they are always beaten in the field.
TRIANON, Fr. A generical French term signifying any pavilion that stands in a park, and is unconnected with the castle or main building. Of this description was the French queen’s petit trianon in the neighborhood of Versailles.
TRIARII. Soldiers so called among the Romans. According to Kennett, the Triarii were commonly veterans, or hardy old soldiers, of long experience and approved valor. They had their name from their position, being marshalled in the third place, as the main strength and hopes of their party. They were armed with a pike, a shield, a helmet, and a cuirass. They are sometimes called Pilatii, from their weapon the Pila. See Kennett’s Roman Ant. p. 190. They were likewise stiled Tiertiarii. A certain number of these veterans was always distributed in each cohort.
Polybius, in his 6th book, classes the Roman troops under four different heads; the first he calls Pilati or Velites, light-armed men, selected from the lower order of the people, and generally composed of the youngest men in the army. The second class, consisting of pikemen, Hastati, were more advanced in age, and had more experience. The third class, called Principes, were still older, and more warlike than the second.
The fourth class consisted of the oldest, most experienced, and bravest soldiers. These were always posted in the third rank, as a reserve, to support the others in case they gave way. Hence their appellation of triarii or tiertiarii; and hence the Roman proverb, Ad triarium ventum est, signifying thereby, that the last efforts were being made. The triarii were likewise named post signani, from being posted in the rear of the princeps who carried the standard in a legion.
TRIBUNE, (Tribun, Fr.) A title which was originally given to certain Roman magistrates, who were established for the specific purpose of maintaining the rights of the tribes or mass of the people, in opposition to the possible encroachments of the aristocracy or patricians, on which account they were stiled the tribunes of the people, les tribuns du peuple. The number, at first, was limited to two; but they were subsequently augmented to ten. There were likewise military tribunes, tribuns militaires. These held commands of considerable extent in the Roman armies.
TRIBUNATE, (Tribunat, Fr.) The office of tribune.
TRICKER, TRIGGER, (Deténte, Fr.) The catch, which being pulled, disengages the cock of a gun-lock, that it may strike fire.
Hair TRIGGER, (détente à cheveux, Fr.) The hair trigger is generally used for rifles, when there is a great nicety required in shooting. The difference between a hair-trigger and a common trigger is this--the hair-trigger, when set, lets off the cock by the slightest touch, whereas the common trigger requires a considerable degree of force, and consequently is longer in its operation.
TRICOISSES, Fr. Pincers used by farriers.
TRICOT, Fr. A cudgel.
TRICOLORE, Fr. Three-colored. Hence the tricolor-cockade, which was adopted by the French at the commencement of their revolution. It consists of sky-blue, pink, and white and was emblematical of the three estates, nobility, clergy, and people. The armies still wear the tricolor, although the first order, or the nobility, was abolished 10th of August, 1792; however, Bonaparte has re-established a new nobility, and a new device on his standards, which is an eagle; conformable to his peculiar interests or policy.
TRIER, Fr. To pick and chuse. Hence, trier les plus beaux soldats, to pick out the finest soldiers. Triage is used as the substantive, signifying the act of picking and chusing.
TRIGON, a triangle. Hence,
TRIGONOMETRY, (Trigonométrie, Fr.) The art of measuring triangles, or of calculating the sides of any triangle sought. This is either plain or spherical.
TRILATERAL. Having three sides.
TRIMESTRE, Fr. A space of three months.
TRINGLE. In architecture, a name common to several little square members or ornaments, as reglets, listels, and platbands. It is more particularly used for a little member fixed exactly over every triglyph, under the platband of the architrave; from whence hang down the guttæ or pendent drops.
TRINGLE, Fr. A wooden rule.
TRINGLER, Fr. To draw a strait line upon wood by means of a stretched piece of packthread, or cord that is chalked.
TRINOME, Fr. A word used among the French, in algebra, to express any quantity which is produced by the addition of three numbers or quantities that are incommensurable.
TRINOMIAL, or TRINOMIAL root, in mathematics, is a root consisting of three parts, connected together by the signs + or -, as x + y + z, or x - y - z.
TRINQUET, Fr. A word used in the Levant to signify the mizen or foremast of a ship.
TRINQUETTE, Fr. A sail used on board the ships in the Levant, which is of a triangular shape.
TRIOMPHE, Fr. See TRIUMPH.
Arc de TRIOMPHE, Fr. A triumphal arch.
TRIPASTE, Fr. A machine which consists of three pullies, and is used in raising of heavy weights.
TRIQUE, Fr. A large cudgel.
TRIQUE-BAL, Fr. A sling cart or machine which is used to convey pieces of ordnance from one quarter to another.
TRIREME, Fr. A galley with three benches for rowers.
TRISECTION, (Trisection, Fr.) The division of a thing into three. The term is chiefly used in geometry for the partition of an angle into three equal parts.
The trisection of an angle geometrically, is one of those great problems whose solution has been so much sought by mathematicians; being in this respect on a footing with the quadrature of the circle, and the duplicature of the cube angle.
TRIUMPH. A solemnity practised by the ancient Romans, to do honor to a victorious general.
There were two sorts of triumphs, the greater and the lesser, particularly called ovation; of these the triumph was by much the more splendid procession. None were capable of this honor but the dictator, consuls, and prætors; though there are examples to the contrary, as particularly in Pompey the Great, who had a triumph decreed him when he was only a Roman knight, and had not yet reached the senatorial age.
The triumph was the most pompous show among the ancients: authors usually attribute its invention to Bacchus, and tell us, that he first triumphed upon the conquest of the Indies; and yet this ceremony was only in use among the Romans. The Grecians had a custom which resembled the Roman triumph; for the conquerors used to make a procession through the middle of their city, crowned with garlands, repeating hymns and songs, and brandishing their spears: their captives were also led by them, and all their spoils exposed to public view. The order of a Roman triumph was chiefly thus: the senate having decreed the general a triumph, and appointed a day, they went out of the city gate and marched in order with him through the city. The cavalcade was led up by the musicians, who had crowns on their heads; and after them came several chariots with plans and maps of the cities and countries subdued, done in relievo: they were followed by the spoils taken from the enemy; their horses, arms, gold, silver, machines, tents, &c. After these came the kings, princes, or generals subdued, loaded with chains, and followed by mimics or buffoons, who exulted over their misfortunes. Next came the officers of the conquering troops, with crowns on their heads. Then appeared the triumphal chariot, in which was the conqueror, richly clad in a purple robe, embroidered with gold, setting forth his glorious atchievements. His buskins were beset with pearl, and he wore a crown, which at first was only laurel, but afterwards gold; one hand held a laurel branch, the other a truncheon. His children were sometimes at his feet, and sometimes on the chariot-horses. As the triumphal chariot passed along, the people strewed flowers before it. The music played in praise of the conqueror, amidst the loud acclamations of the people, crying, to triumph. The chariot was followed by the senate clad in white robes; and the senate by such citizens as had been set at liberty or ransomed. The procession was closed by the sacrifices, and their officers and utensils, with a white ox led along for the chief victim. In the mean time all the temples were open, and the altars were loaded with offerings and incense; games and combats were celebrated in the public places, and rejoicings appeared every where.
TRIUMVIRI, or TRESVIRI CAPITALES. Men employed among the ancient Romans to preserve the public peace, &c. For particulars, see Kennett’s Roman Antiquities, page 121. They likewise signify the three persons, Cæsar, Crassus, and Pompey, who seized on the government of the republic, and divided it among them. Hence,
TRIUMVIRATE (Triumvirat, Fr.) An absolute government administered by three persons with equal authority. There are two triumvirates particularly recorded in history: Pompey, Cæsar, and Crassus, who had all served the republic as generals of marked reputation, in the first instance; and Augustus, Mark Antony, and Lepidus, in the second.
TROCHLEA. One of the mechanical powers usually called a pulley.
TROCHOID, in mathematics. The same as cycloid.
TROCHOLIQUE, Fr. A name used among the French for that branch of mathematics which treats of circular movements.
TROMBE, Fr. A water-spout. It is likewise called Siphon or Syphon.
TROMPE, Fr. In architecture; an arch which grows wider towards the top.
TROMPES, Fr. In artificial fireworks; a collection of pots à feu, or fire-pots so arranged, that upon the first being inflamed, a ready communication takes place with the rest, and the explosion is successively effected.
TROMPETTE, Fr. This word, which signifies trumpet, is applied by the French, not only to the instrument, but to the man who blows it; in the same manner that we say fifes and drums, for fifers and drummers; but we do not say trumpet for trumpeter. Trompette, when used in this sense, is of the masculine gender.
TROMPETTE sonnante, Fr. With sound of trumpet, or trumpet sounding.
TROMPETTE parlante, Fr. A speaking trumpet. This instrument is generally used at sea; and owes its invention to an Englishman.
Deloger sans TROMPETTE, Fr. To steal away, to take French leave.
TROMPILLON, Fr. The diminutive of trompe. A term used in architecture, which owes its origin to the resemblance that exists between the wide part of a trumpet, and the arch or vault so called.
TROOP, in cavalry. A certain number of men on horseback who form a component part of a squadron. It is the same, with respect to formation, as company in the infantry. When a troop dismounts and acts on foot, it is still called a troop.
TROOP. A certain beat of the drum. See DRUM.
To TROOP the colors. See COLORS.
TROOPS. The same as copiæ in Latin. Any collective body of soldiers.
Heavy TROOPS. Soldiers armed and accoutred for the purpose of acting together, in line, &c.
Light TROOPS, (Troupes legères, Fr.) Hussars, light horse, mounted riflemen, light infantry are so called, in opposition to cavalry or heavy horse. Skirmishing is solely the business of light horse, who, according to count Turpin, should be constantly exposed as the forlorn hope of the army; or as troops whose duty it is to be continually watchful for its repose and security.
When the light horse compose an advanced camp, the men should keep their horses constantly saddled; it being only an indulgence to allow those off duty to have their horses unsaddled. It is very true, that a camp of cavalry cannot be managed after the same manner; but then cavalry is seldom so situated as to be attacked, or to attack every day, which is the real business of light horse. They should serve as vedets to the whole army, in order to prevent the enemy from approaching it; whereas cavalry should never be employed, but in the greatest operations; and on occasions which are to decide the fate of a campaign.
Light troops, according to the same writer, are employed to gain intelligence concerning the enemy, to learn whether he hath decamped, whether he hath built any bridges, and other things of the same nature, of which the general must necessarily be informed, and should have a day fixed for this return. There are other detachments, which should be sent out under intelligent officers, and which should never lose sight of the enemy, in order to send in daily intelligence, to attack small convoys and baggage, to pick up marauders, and harrass the advanced guards. There should not be any time fixed for the return of these detachments, neither should they be confined to particular places; they should, however, return to the camp at the expiration of eight or ten days at farthest. The inconvenience, arising from confining these detachments to a particular time, would perhaps be, that the very day appointed for their return, would be that on which they might have the fairest opportunity of learning intelligence of the enemy: consequently their being forced to return, would defeat the objects for which they were sent out. See page 122, vol. II. of Count Turpin’s Art of War. See Am. Mil. Lib.
Light TROOPS have been sometimes called irregulars, as they act in detached and loose bodies. The tirailleurs, Tyrolians, Yagers, sharp-shooters, and the Chasseurs a cheval et a pied, to which the French owe so much during the whole course of their stupendous revolution, were of this description. What was called advancing en masse, by the French, was nothing more than very large bodies of irregulars (or light troops), which covered the country, in the front of their armies, like an inundation. To their irregulars, and to their light artillery are the French indebted for most of the victories they have gained. The troops stiled in France chasseurs, are, more or less, to be met with in every service in Europe, except the British. The Austrians have many regiments of them; the Prussians have them attached, in a certain proportion, to each corps; but the French, seeing the good effect of these irregulars, have brought them more into the field than all the combined powers together.
The operations in the spring of 1794, were in an open country near Cambray; the French then felt the superiority of the enemy’s cavalry; and saw that the irregulars, with which the French army abounded, were useless, and would continue so, unless they could force the British to make war in an enclosed country; and this they effected by obliging them to return into Flanders, to protect their magazines, and cover their communication with them. That country is much inclosed; and there all the irregulars could act. From that hour the British constantly lost ground, holding only those points they thought proper to cover with works; and in the short space of a few weeks, it may be said in a few days, those armies which had been acting offensively, were actually obliged to act defensively. Was that army diminished by slaughter or sickness? No: but the French armies, it is said, were increased: true; and with what? Irregulars: requisition men or volunteers; first without discipline, but not without ardor to fight: and from the moment the British commenced their sad retreat from Tournay, till they arrived near Breda, nothing was to be seen but the French irregular troops, that is tirailleurs or riflemen.
TROOPER, (Cavalier, Fr.) A horse soldier. According to Dr. Johnson, a trooper fights only on horseback; a dragoon marches on horseback, but fights either as a horseman or footman. There is no such thing as a trooper in the British service. The Blues were the last corps that deserved that appellation; but they now act, like the rest of the cavalry, on foot.
TROPHEE, Fr. See TROPHY.
Faire TROPHEE, Fr. To glory in.
TROPHY. Something taken from an enemy, and shewn or treasured up in proof of victory. Among the ancients, it consisted of a pile or heap of arms of a vanquished enemy, raised by the conqueror in the most eminent part of the field of battle.
The trophies were usually dedicated to some of the gods, especially to Jupiter. The name of the deity to whom they were inscribed, was generally mentioned, as was that also of the conqueror. The spoils were first hung upon the trunk of a tree; but instead of trees, succeeding ages erected pillars of stone or brass, to perpetuate the memory of their victories. To demolish a trophy was looked upon as a sacrilege, because they were all consecrated to some deity.
TROPHY-money. Certain money annually raised in several countries towards providing artillery harness, and maintaining the militia.
TROPIQUE, Fr. Tropic. It is likewise used as an adjective, and signifies tropical.
Baptême du TROPIQUE, Fr. The ceremony which is performed when a person crosses the line for the first time.
TROSSERS, TROUSE, TROWSERS, kind of breeches reaching down to the ankles, worn by some regiments of infantry and light cavalry. See PANTALOON.
TROTTOIR, Fr. Footway. It more properly means a raised pavement on the sides of a street or bridge, for the convenience of foot passengers.
TROU, Fr. A hole.
TROU de mineur, Fr. A lodgement which is made for the safety and convenience of a miner, when he first begins his operation.
TROU de loup. A cone reversed. Diameter of the base 4 feet 6 inches: depth 6 feet; picket 6 feet long, and from 4 to 5 inches square; contain ³⁄₄ of a cubic fathom of earth, and are usually placed 2 in 3 fathoms.
TROUBLESOME, from the verb to trouble. Importunate, teazing, full of molestation. This word is frequently misapplied in military matters. Many officers who have the public service of their country at heart, are improperly called troublesome, because they will not add, by negligence or connivance, to the too frequent abuses which exist in the interior economy of military establishment.
TROUGH. A hollow wooden vessel to knead bread in. It is used among the utensils of field bakery.
TROUPES, Fr. Troops, forces.
TROUPES legeres, Fr. Light troops.
TROUS-DE-LOUP, in field fortifications, are round holes, about 6 feet deep, and pointed at the bottom, with a stake placed in the middle. They are frequently dug round a redoubt, to obstruct the enemy’s approach. They are circular at the top, of about 4¹⁄₂ feet diameter.
TROUSSE, Fr. A quiver. It also signifies any bundle of things tied together, viz. Une trousse de foin, a bundle of hay. See TRUSS.
TROUSSEAU, Fr. A long piece of wood in the shape of a cane, that is, having one end smaller than the other, which is used in foundries to make cannon-moulds.
TROUSSEPAS, Fr. A sort of iron spade which is used in cutting turf.
TRUCE, (Treve, Fr.) A suspension of arms, or a cessation of hostilities, between two armies, in order to settle articles of peace, bury the dead, &c.
TRUCK. Wooden wheels for the carriage of cannon, &c.
TRUCKS of a ship-carriage, are wheels made of one piece of wood, from 12 to 19 inches diameter; and their thickness is always equal to the calibre of the gun.
The trucks of garrison-carriages are sometimes made of cast iron.
A truck-carriage goes upon four trucks of 24 inches diameter; has two flat side pieces of ten inches broad, and serves to carry guns, ammunition boxes, or any other weights, from the store houses to the water side, or to any small distance.
To TRUCKLE. This word is adopted from the trucklebed, which is a low mean bed that can be pushed under another. Hence,
To TRUCKLE TO. To submit to; to allow the superiority of another.
TRUEBORN. According to Dr. Johnson, having a right by birth to any title.
TRUELLE, Fr. A trowel.
TRULL. A vagrant strumpet; or one that has promiscuous dealings upon the road or elsewhere, with men of all descriptions. Hence, a soldier’s trull. In every well regulated camp and garrison the utmost precaution should be taken, to prevent these wretches from having the least intercourse with the soldiery. Notwithstanding the presumed, or reputed immorality of the French nation, the strictest regard was paid to the character and health of their armies. During the monarchy, prostitutes were publicly exposed upon a wooden horse. See CHEVAL DE BOIS.
TRUMEAU, Fr. In architecture, the space in a wall which is between two windows. It also signifies a pier-glass.
TRUMPET, or Trump. A wind instrument made of brass or silver, with a mouth piece to take out and put in at pleasure. Each troop of cavalry has one.
TRUMPETER. The soldier who sounds the trumpet.
TRUMPET Soundings. See SOUNDINGS.
TRUNCHEON. A club; a cudgel; also a staff of command. The truncheon was for several ages the sign of office; generals were presented with the truncheon as the sign of investiture with command; and all those officers who belonged to the suite of the general, and were not attached to regiments, carried a truncheon or staff, whence the name of officers of the staff. See BATOON.
To TRUNCHEON. To beat with a truncheon. Dr. Johnson has quoted a passage out of Shakespeare, which is extremely apposite to those blustering imposing characters that sometimes annoy public places, and commit swindling acts of depredation under the assumed title of captain. Captain! thou abominable cheater! if captains were of my mind, they would truncheon you out of taking their names upon you before you earned them!
TRUNCHEONEER. One armed with a truncheon.
TRUNNIONS, in guns. Two cylindric pieces of metal in a gun, mortar, or howitzer, which project from pieces of ordnance, and by which they are supported upon their carriages. See CANNON.
TRUNNION-plates, are two plates in travelling carriages, mortars, and howitzers, which cover the upper parts of the side-pieces, and go under the trunnions. The French have made improvements on this article; they have two pair of trunnion plates; one pair, in which the gun is placed for action; the gun is removed into the other for travelling; and are so denominated. See Am. Mil. Lib.
TRUSQUINS, Fr. Tools made use of by carpenters and joiners. They are called trusquins d’assemblage, and trusquins à longue pointe.
TRUSS. A bundle; as a bundle of hay or straw. Any thing thrust close together. Trusses of this description have been sometimes used in military affairs. The men carrying them in front for the purpose of deadening shot.
TRUSS of forage, is as much as a trooper can carry on his horse’s crupper. See SPUN HAY.
To TRUST. To give credit to, on promise of payment. No soldier shall be liable to be arrested for a sum under 20_l._ and then an oath of the debt must be made before a magistrate.
TRUSTY. Honest; faithful; true; fit to be trusted. This word is used in the preamble of military commissions, &c. viz. To our trusty and well beloved.
TUBE, Fr. A pipe, a siphon. It is particularly applied to optical instruments.
TUBES of tin plates are the best for service. Tubes must pass through a guage of ²⁄₁₀ of an inch diameter. The composition is mealed powder, mixt up stiff with spirits of wine. They are made up in bundles of 100 each.
Length of tin tubes.
-------+------------------------------------------------- | Kind of Ordnance. +------+-------+------+---------+--------+-------- | | | | | Land | Sea Length.|Heavy.|Medium.|Light.|Howitzer.|Mortars.|Mortars. -------+------+-------+------+---------+--------+-------- Inches.| Pr. | Pr. | Pr. | Inch. | Inch. | In. 12·2 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 13 8·8 | 24 | 24 | -- | -- | -- | -- 8·2 | 18 | 18 | -- | -- | -- | -- 7·75 | 12 | 12 | -- | -- | 13 | 10 6·8 | 9 | 9 | -- | -- | -- | -- 6·5 | 6 | -- | 24 | 8 | 10 | -- 5·9 | 3 | 6 | 12 | 5¹⁄₂ | -- | -- 5·0 | -- | -- | -- | -- | 8 | -- 4·75 | 1¹⁄₂| 1¹⁄₂| 6 | -- | -- | -- 4·2 | -- | -- | -- | 4²⁄₅ | 5¹⁄₂ | -- 3·6 | - | -- | -- | -- | 4²⁄₅ | -- -------+------+-------+------+---------+--------+--------
If tin tubes get damaged by wet, the composition may be cleared out of them, and they may be fresh filled. If spirits of wine cannot be had, good rum or brandy will answer the purpose.
TUCDUMMA, Ind. An account which is closed, after it has been examined.
TUCK. A long narrow sword.
TUDESQUE, Fr. Teutonic; Germanic.
TUERIE, Fr. Slaughter; massacre.
TUF. A soft sandy stone which answers two purposes, either to build upon or to build with. It is likewise tufeau. The French say, figuratively, C’est un homme de tuf--He is a man of no depth or profound knowlege.
TUG, Fr. A Turkish term for tail; a sort of standard called so by the Turks. It consists of a horse’s tail which is fixed to a long pole or half pike, by means of a gold button. The origin of this standard is curious. It is said, that the Christians having given battle to the Turks, the latter were broken, and in the midst of their confusion lost their grand standard. The Turkish general, being extremely agitated at the untoward circumstances which happened, most especially by the loss of the great standard, cut off a horse’s tail with his sabre, fixed it to a half pike, and holding it in his hand, rode furiously towards the fugitives and exclaimed--Here is the great standard; let those who love me, follow into action! This produced the desired effect. The Turks rallied with redoubled courage, rushed into the thickest of the enemy, and not only gained the victory, but recovered their standard. Other writers assert, that six thousand Turks having been taken prisoners during a general engagement, contrived to escape from their guard or escort, and afterwards fought so gallantly, that they regained another battle; that in order to recognize one another, they cut off a horse’s tail which they carried as a standard; that when they joined the Ottoman army, they still made use of the tug or tail; that the Turks, in consequence of the victory which was obtained under this new standard, looked upon it as a happy omen; and that since that period they have always fought under it as their banner, and the signal of success.
Whatever may have been the origin, it is certain, that when the Grand Signor takes the field in person, seven of these tails are always carried before him; and when he is in camp, they are planted in front of his tent.
The Grand Visier is entitled to three of these tails.
The three principal bashaws of the empire, (viz. those of Bagdad, Grand Cairo, and Breda,) have the grand signor’s permission to use this mark of distinction, throughout the whole extent of their jurisdiction.
Those bashaws that are not visiers, have the privilege of having two tails.
The beys, who are subordinate to the bashaws, have only one.
In the bas-relievo which is under the tomb-stone of John Casimir, king of Poland, in the abbey church of St. Germain des Prés de Paris, that monarch is represented at the head of his cavalry, with a horse’s tail or tug for its standard.
TUGPINS, are the iron pins which pass through the fore end of the shafts of the army carts, to fasten the draught chains for the fore horses.
TUILE, Fr. A tile.
TUILE creuse, Fr. A gutter tile.
TUILE de petit moule, Fr. A tile measuring about ten inches in length, and six in breadth. About 300 cover a square toise.
TUILE de grand moule, Fr. A tile measuring about 13 inches in length, and about eight and a half in breadth. One thousand are sufficient to cover seven toises.
TUILEAU, Fr. Shard of a tile.
TUILERIE, Fr. Tile kiln.
TUILERIES, Fr. The gardens, belonging to the ci-devant royal palace in Paris, are so called, from the spot having originally been used for tile-kilns.
TUKKEKYAH, Ind. Carpenters.
TUKNAR JUMMA, Ind. Money brought more than once to account.
TULUBANA, Ind. A fee, taken by Peons when placed as guards over any person.
TULLUB, Ind. This word literally means a demand; but it also signifies wages, pay.
TULLUB chitty, Ind. A summons for pay.
TULWAR, Ind. A sword.
TUMBRELS, (Tombereaux, Fr.) Covered carts, which carry ammunition for cannon, tools for the pioneers, miners, and artificers; and sometimes the money of the army.
TUMSOOK, Ind. A bond.
TUNKAW, Ind. An assignment.
TUNES, Fr. Small twigs which are inlaced, or twisted across, around several stakes planted in the earth, and which serve to keep the fascines together.
TUNIC, (Tunique, Fr.) A coat with short sleeves above the elbow; a tunic. It derives its name from the Latin word Tunica, a close coat, which was the common garment worn within doors by itself, and abroad under the gown. It was distinguished by different names among the Romans, corresponding with the several classes of the people that were clothed according to their rank in life. See Kennett’s Roman Antiquities, p. 311, &c.
This sort of clothing is still worn in the east, and was prevalent among the French after their return from the crusades to the Holy Land. They adopted it from the Saracens, and seemed ambitious of appearing in a garb which bore testimony to their feats of valor. These tunics, which were converted into a sort of uniform, obtained the name of Saladines among the French, in compliment to the emperor Saladin. Hence too the origin of Salade, which not only signified the armor that was worn beneath the tunic or saladine, but also the light helmet of that name.
TUNIQUE, Fr. Among the French signifies likewise a particular dress which was worn by the kings, under their robes of state at a coronation.
TUNTUNGI-Bashi. A Turkish term signifying master of the pipes, a situation under the pacha.
TUQUE, Fr. A tarpaulin.
TURBAN, TURBANT, TURBAND, (Turban, Fr.) A cover consisting of several folds of white muslin, &c. which was worn by the Turks and other oriental nations. The blacks belonging to the different bands that are attached to British regiments likewise wear turbans, ornamented with fictitious pearls and feathers. Those of the foot guards are particularly gorgeous. The French say familiarly Prendre le Turban, to turn Turk.
The great Turk bears over his arms a turban enriched with pearls and diamonds, under two coronets. The first, which is made of pyramidical points, is heightened up with large pearls, and the uppermost is surmounted with crescents.
Green TURBAN. A turban worn by the immediate descendants of Mahomed, and by the idiots or saints in Turkey.
White TURBAN. A turban generally worn by the inhabitants of the East.
Yellow TURBAN. A turban worn by the Polygars who are chiefs of mountainous or woodland districts in the East Indies. By the last accounts from India, this turban has been adopted by the revolted natives of that part of the globe, as a signal of national coincidence and national understanding. The Polygars are in possession of very extensive tracts of country, particularly among the woods and mountains, and are likely to be extremely troublesome to the British. For an interesting account of them see Orme’s History of the Carnatic, pages 386, 390, 396, 420, &c.
TURCIE, Fr. Mole; pier; dyke.
TURK, (Turc, Fr.) The following account of the Turks has been given by a modern French writer:--“The Turks are a nation that is naturally warlike, whose armies are commanded by experienced generals, and are composed of bold and executive soldiers. They owe their knowlege of war, and their experience in tactics to three national causes, two of which do credit to their intellects. In the first place, they become enured to arms, from being bred to the profession from their earliest infancy: in the second, they are promoted upon the sole ground of merit, and by an uninterrupted gradation of rank: and in the third, they possess all the opportunities of learning the military art that constant practice and habitual warfare can afford. They are naturally robust, and constitutionally courageous, full of activity, and not at all enervated by the debaucheries of Europe, or the effeminacy of the East. Their predilection for war and enterprise, grows out of the recollection of past victories, and is strengthened by the two most powerful incentives to human daring, viz. reward and punishment; the first of which is extremely attractive, because it is extremely great, and the other equally deterring, because it is rigorous in the extreme. Add to these the strong influence of a religion, which holds out everlasting happiness and seats near Mahomed in heaven, to all who die fighting for their country on the field of battle; and which further teaches them most implicitly to believe, that every Turk has written upon his forehead his fatal moment, with the kind of death he must submit to, and that nothing human can alter his destiny. When any thing is to be put into execution, the order they receive is absolute, free from every species of intervention or control, and emanating from one independent authority. The power which is entrusted to their generals (like that of the Romans to their dictators) is brief and comprehensive, viz.--“Promote the interests of your country or your sovereign.” See Essai sur la Science de la Guerre, tom. i. p. 207.
Such is the character of the Turks, as detailed by their old allies the French. How far it corresponds with reality, especially in regard to military knowlege, we must leave to future historians to determine; observing at the same time, that a few sparks of British valor and perseverance have contributed more to the preservation of the Ottoman empire, during the present war, than all the fantastic images, or well-devised hypocrisies of Mahomed could have done. Our brave countrymen, on their return from Egypt, will probably be enabled to give a more faithful and correct account of their characters as soldiers.
TURMA. A troop of cavalry among the ancient Romans. The horse required to every legion was three hundred, divided into ten turmæ or troops, thirty to a troop, every troop making three decuriæ, or squads. See Kennett, R. A. p. 192.
TURNCOAT. A renegade, a deserter; one who abandons his party.
TURNOVER. A piece of white linen which is worn by the soldiers belonging to the British cavalry over their stocks, about half an inch deep.
To TURN out. To bring forward, to exhibit; as, to turn out the guard; to turn out so many men for service.
To TURN in. To withdraw; to order under cover; as, to turn in the guard.
TURNPIKE, (Barriere, Fr.) An obstacle placed across a road to prevent travellers, waggons, &c. from passing without paying an established toll. British officers and soldiers regimentally dressed, and on duty, pass through turnpikes gratis.
TURNPIKE is also used in the military art, for a beam stuck full of spikes, to be placed in a gap, a breach, or at the entrance of a camp, to keep off the enemy. It may be considered as a sort of cheval de frize.
TURPENTINE. A very combustible resin, much used in the composition of fire-works. All resins are discriminated from gums, by being soluble in oil but not in water; gums the contrary.
TURRET. A small tower.
Moveable TURRETS. See TOWERS.
TUSSULDAR, Ind. The East India company’s collector of the kistybundy.
TUYAU, Fr. Any pipe, &c. of lead, or gutter, or canal, made of burnt clay, &c. which serves to carry off the water from the roof of a house.
TUYAU de cheminee, Fr. The cylindrical conduit which receives and lets out the smoke at the top of a chimney.
TUYAUX de descente, Fr. The pipes which convey the water downwards.
TYMPAN, (Tympan, Fr.) In architecture, the area of a pediment, being that part which is on a level with the naked part of the frize. Or it is the space included between the three cornices of a triangular pediment, or the two cornices of a circular one.
TYMPAN of an arch, is the triangular space or table in the corners or sides of the arch, usually hollowed and enriched, sometimes with branches of laurel, olive-tree, or oak, or with trophies, &c. Sometimes with flying figures, as fame, victory, &c. or sitting figures, as the cardinal virtues.
TYMPANUM. A drum, a musical instrument which the ancients used, and which consisted of a thin piece of leather or skin, stretched upon a circle of wood or iron, and beat with the hand. Hence the origin of our drum.
TYMPANUM. In mechanics, a kind of wheel placed round an axis or cylindrical beam, on the top of which are two levers, or fixed staves, for the more easy turning the axis about, in order to raise a weight required. It is also used for any hollow wheel, wherein one or more persons or animals, such as horses, dogs, &c. walk to turn it. This wheel is found in cranes, calenders, &c.
V.
VACANCY, (vacance, Fr.) State of an office or commission to which no one is appointed.
VACANT, (Vacant, e. Fr.) Empty; not filled.
VACANT Companies, (Compagnies vacantes, Fr.) Companies to the permanent command of which no person is appointed.
Emplois-VACANS, Fr. During the French monarchy, seniority of rank or standing did not give the right of promotion. It belonged solely to the king to appoint and nominate all persons to vacant commissions or employments. No other rule can be consistent with the efficiency of a military institution; rotation should be considered only as a contingency, which is only admitted, not permanently established; as no institution so much calls for merit and application to study, as the military profession; merit alone should be the foundation of promotion; then all would endeavor to acquire knowlege; where rotation exists there is no incitement. In the American army, no attention is paid to merit; there is, therefore, very little study.
VACCINE pock, a disease which has been found to affect the cow on the teat or udder, which arises in pustules resembling small pox; it has been found that this is a perfect preventive of small pox and is now growing into use against prejudice among all civilized nations. All armies should undergo the vaccine inoculation, to prevent the ravages of small pox; one half of the American army that went against Quebec in 1775 was swept off by small pox.
VAGUE-Mestre, Fr. See WAGGON-MASTER.
VAISSEAU, Fr. Ship.
VAISSEAU du premier rang, Fr. A first rate.
VAISSEAU du second rang, Fr. A second rate.
VAISSEAU de guerre, Fr. A man of war.
VAISSEAU Marchand, Fr. A merchant-man.
VAISSELLE d’Argent, Fr. Silver utensils; plate. We have already remarked under Table d’Officiers, that during the old government of France, it was strictly forbidden to use any other plate than silver goblets, spoons, and forks.
VAIVODE, Fr. An old Sclavonian word, which signifies prince or general. This title was formerly given to the sovereign princes of Wallachia, Moldavia, and Transylvania.
VAJIB UL ARZEE, Ind. A petition, memorial, or proposal to a superior.
VAKEEL, Ind. An agent--deputy--attorney--a subordinate envoy or ambassador.
VAKIAS, Ind. A weight nearly equal to a pound. It also signifies a measure.
VAKILIT, Ind. The first office in the empire.
VALET, Fr. An instrument which is used by carpenters to keep boards, that have been glued, close together.
VALETS de l’Armee, Fr. Officers’ servants; they are likewise called by the French, Tartares. In the American army, waiters.
Valets d’Artillerie, Fr. Men attached to the guns on board ships of war, for the purpose of assisting the regular cannoneers. In the American service they are classed by numbers and called, first, second, or third AIDS.
Valet à Patin, Fr. An instrument which is used by surgeons--A small pincer to rake up the arteries when it is found necessary to make a ligature.
VALIANT, VALOROUS, personally brave, fearless of danger in war, &c.
VALLEY, (Val, Fr.) A hollow space of ground, generally between hills.
VALOR, (Valeur, Fr.) Courage, bravery, intrepidity. A generous quality, which, far from assuming brutality and violence, with-holds the fury of the soldier, protects helpless women, innocent infants, and hoary age. Nothing which is incapable of resistance, can ever be the object whereon true valor would exercise its prowess. Courage is that grandeur of soul, which prompts us to sacrifice all personal advantages, and even the preservation of our beings, to a love of our country and its liberty. The exercise of this determined courage in the profession of arms, is called valor. It is composed of bravery, reason, and force: by bravery we understand that lively ardor which fires us for the combat; reason points out to us the method of conducting it with justice and prudence; and force is necessary for the execution. It is bravery which animates the heart, reason springs from the soul, and force depends upon the body; without bravery we fear obstacles, danger, and death; without reason, courage would have no legitimate view; and without force it would be useless: these three qualities should concur to form the true military valor.
Dr. Johnson defines valor, bravery, and courage almost as synonymous terms. Mr. Addison distinguishes between that sort of courage which springs, by instinct, from the soul, and from that which originates in a sense of duty, and is strengthened by reflexion. Count Turpin, on the other hand, establishes a wide difference between bravery and courage, which he makes two terms. In page 5, of the preliminary discourse to his Essay on the Art of War, he has the following passage:
“Is the officer--speaking of the requisite qualifications in a general--who loves his duty, and who would make himself master of it, under no obligation to ascertain what qualifications his station requires? That he ought to have such or such a quality, under such or such a circumstance? That here only bravery is necessary, there only courage? And that he is not always obliged to have both at the same time?”
These two qualities, which are often confounded in the same subject, merit a particular distinction; they are not so closely united, but that one may be found without the other. Courage seems fittest for a general, and for all those who command; bravery more necessary for a soldier, and for all those who receive orders; bravery is in the blood; courage in the soul; the first is a kind of instinct, the second a virtue; the one is an impulse almost mechanical, the other a noble and a sublime conception. A man is brave at a particular time, and according to circumstances; but he has a courage at all times, and upon all occasions: bravery is impetuous, in as much as it is less the result of reflexion; courage, on the contrary, in proportion as it grows out of reason, becomes more or less intrepid. Bravery is inspired by the force of example, by insensibility of danger, and by the mingled fury of conflict and action; courage is infused by the love of our duty, the desire of glory, and by the zeal we feel to serve our country: courage depends on reason, but bravery on the constitution. Achilles, such as Horace describes him from Homer, implacable, cruel, despising every law except that of the strongest! presents nothing to the idea, but the hardiness of a gladiator. But the Roman general, whose death would have occasioned the ruin of the army, the great Scipio, when covered by the bucklers of three soldiers, to avoid a shower of arrows, which the enemy directed against him, approaches in safety the walls he besieged, and standing only a spectator of the action, exhibits the picture of true courage, whilst he contents himself with giving the necessary orders. Bravery again, is involuntary, and does not depend wholly upon ourselves; whereas courage (as Seneca observes) may be acquired by education; provided nature has sown the first seeds of it. Cicero, sheltering himself from the hatred of Cataline, undoubtedly wanted bravery; but certainly he possessed an elevated firmness of mind (which is in reality courage) when he disclosed the conspiracy of that traitor to the senate, and pointed out all his accomplices; or when he pleaded for Deiotarus against Cæsar, his friend and his judge.
Coolness is the effect of courage, which knows its danger, but makes no other use of that knowlege, than to give directions with greater certainty; courage is always master of itself, provided against all accidents, and regulated by existing circumstances; never confounded by any danger, so as to lose sight of the motions of the enemy, or of the means by which he may be most effectually opposed:
The chevalier Folard makes the following remarks upon this quality of the mind and heart. He says, in his notes on Polybius, there are various kinds of that species of courage, intrepidity, or strength of soul, which no circumstances can vanquish, and no events can shake. I do not know whether a quality, so diversified in its nature, can be found united in the same person to the full extent of its activity. We generally, discover that some men possess a larger proportion of it than others.
In order to form a correct opinion of its existence in the human character, we should find out some individual who had acted through all the vicissitudes of life, and had uniformly discovered the same firmness of mind and intrepidity of heart. But where shall we pick out a character of this sort? Life is too short for the full exercise of its various powers, and were it of a longer date, the circumscribed faculties of man render the research useless. I do not believe it possible to point out an individual who, free from the natural weaknesses that are attached to our constitution, has in adversity as well as prosperity been equally firm, and equally determined throughout all the changes to which military operations are unavoidably subject.
This intrepidity and strength of mind, have been peculiarly visible on manifold occasions in some extraordinary characters, who have been equally remarkable on others for weakness and pusillanimity. We have seen them bold to the full extent of hardihood during a succession of triumphs; we have then beheld them shamefully agitated under a temporary reverse of fortune, and we have again seen them recover their wonted energy on the first favorable opportunity. These opposite qualities succeed one another; and we see boldness and timidity occupy by turns the same man, so as to produce, according to circumstances, the utmost solicitude and caution in some instances, and the greatest courage, firmness, and decision in others, during the prosecution of a war.
These fluctuations of the human character may be traced, almost every day, in a certain description of generals. When they are reduced to defensive operations, their understanding becomes perplexed; they know not how to act, and not only omit to make use of favorable opportunities themselves, but unwittingly afford them to their enemies; whilst, on the other hand, in offensive war, their genius expands itself into a variety of expedients; they create occasions that did not seem to exist, turn them to account, and finally succeed. Thus we see united in the same men, promptitude, vigor, and enterprize in one species of warfare; and timidity, doubt, and consternation in another.
I have known, says Folard, generals of marked intrepidity, (who in trifling matters have discovered a solicitude that approaches to a want of manliness) conceive projects of vast extent, that were full of intricate developements, and chequered by incertitude; and I have seen them conquer the greatest obstacles by their courage and good conduct.
Human nature is so strangely constituted, that whilst one man will rush into danger, as if attracted by blood and devastation, another will not have firmness enough to stand his ground, and face the coming evil. He, who in the hour of battle would give fresh courage to his troops, by being the foremost to advance, has been known to turn pale in the very trench where a soldier’s boy or woman has sat undisturbed selling spirits and provisions, or has been discovered to tremble when the signal for storming was given. The very man that would courageously lead his troop into action, or would prove the most expert marksman in the world, were he directed to practise in the front of a whole line, has been known to shrink at a single combat, and would rather rush headlong into a guarded breach, than measure swords or point a pistol with an antagonist. Another again, whom no danger could affect in public contests or in private feuds, when visited by sickness is full of apprehension, has recourse to physic, and in proportion as his malady increases, grows timid, scrupulous, and unhappy. It sometimes happens, on the other hand, though rarely, that the rankest coward will he peaceably in bed amidst all the surrounding terrors of dissolution, and will even smile as his agony approaches.
I have seen, continues the same author, (and daily experience confirms his observation) one of the bravest officers in the world, suddenly turn pale in a thunderstorm, and even so far give way to his fears, as to hide himself in a cellar. One man possesses what the French so forcibly stile une valeur journalière, a sort of ephemeral courage, or what depends upon the influence of the moment; to-day he is as bold as Achilles; to-morrow he sinks into the degraded character of Thersites.
It is related of general Cadwallader, a man of unconquerable intrepidity in the field, that he trembled at the sight of a cat. The editor of this work had a friend, a lieutenant Muloch, in the Bengal army, a man of tried valor whose antipathy was of this singular kind, that he could not eat if there was a shoulder of mutton on the table; at a card party at Lady Oakley’s, at Madras, a shoulder of mutton was, without his knowlege, placed under his chair, the effect was, he fell from his chair in a state of convulsion from which he did not recover for several hours. The great Condé laughed at a man who said he never felt the sensation of fear, by asking him “have you never snuffed a candle with your naked fingers?” Going into action one of his friends observed to him, “My prince you tremble.” He replied, “My body trembles for the danger into which my soul will lead me.” The peculiarities of this celebrated hero were, that he was always affected in his nerves by any surprize, but never lost his presence of mind; some of his friends attempted to surprize him in his tent, and in Austrian uniform made their way to his bed side and awoke him with their noise; he turned round and observed, “If you had excited an emotion of fear in me I should instantly put you to death.” Count Turpin, in his Art of War, appears to think that valor which unites deliberation and prudence is preferable to mere muscular bravery. The French pay more attention to the former than the latter, they always reward bravery but prefer valor. Mere animal courage is not sufficient for them, and speaking of those who possess bravery without discretion, they treat it as if mere animal bravery was common to all men, but valor or discrimination rare; hence they say of a merely brave man--Il est brave comme mon épée, mais general ****--namely a brainless part of the body.
These changes in the character and constitution which are so visible in individuals, may be traced in their influence over whole nations, with little or no deviation. The Persian cavalry still maintains its ancient reputation for valor, and is still dreaded by the Turks. Tacitus relates, that the Sarmatian horse was invincible, but when the men were dismounted, nothing could be more miserably defective in all the requisites of war. Their whole dependence was on their cavalry, and, as far as we are enabled to judge, the same partial quality exists to this day.
The French, until the present revolution, seemed to have preserved the character and disposition of the ancient Gauls. They went with more alacrity into action, and met death, at first sight, with more valor, than they discovered firmness and resolution to wait patiently for its approach. Hurry and agitation appeared more congenial to their minds, than calmness and composure.
In order to conquer, it was found necessary, by their ablest generals, to make them attack and insult their enemy. They grew impatient in slow operations, and gradually became less capable of meeting their antagonists in proportion to the time they were restrained from coming to action. Their whole history, indeed, is a continued proof of the justness of this observation; and although their character seems to have undergone considerable changes since their revolution, they have still retained so much of the original cast, as to shew more promptitude in offensive, than steadiness and perseverance in defensive operations. Not that they are deficient in the latter, but that the former quality has been more brilliantly successful. To the first they owe their stupendous triumphs under Bonaparte; but they have again been rendered almost equally conspicuous by their conduct in the second under general Moreau, in his celebrated retreat from the Black Forest. But, alas! of what avail is the courage of the multitude, if the generality of their leaders are deficient in those indispensible qualities by which French officers have acquired the greatest reputation. It is like a torch in the hands of a fool or madman, who would as soon lead an enthusiast to a precipice, as he would shew him the paths he ought to tread.
VALUE, in a general acceptation of the term, signifies the rate at which any thing is estimated.
VAN. The front of an army, the first line; or leading column.
VAN-guard. That part of the army which marches in the front. See GUARD.
VANCOURIER. See AVANT COURIER.
VANNE, Fr. A floodgate.
VANTAIL, Fr. Leaf of a folding door.
VANT-bras. Armor for the arm.
Droits de VARECH, Fr. The right to salvage. A term used in Normandy. Varech likewise signifies any vessel under water.
VARLOPE, Fr. A carpenter’s large plane.
VARSA, Ind. The rainy season.
VASANT, Ind. The mild season or spring.
VASSALS. They who in the feudal system were obliged to attend their lord in war, as a tenure by which they held their lands, &c.
VEDETTE, (Vedette, Fr.) in war, a centinel on horseback, with his horse’s head towards the place whence any danger is to be feared, and his carabine advanced, with the butt end against his right thigh. Vedettes are generally posted at the avenues, and on all the rising grounds, to guard the several passages when an enemy is encamped.
The Vedettes to the out-posts should always be double, for the following reasons: first, that whenever they make any discovery, one may be detached to the commanding officer of the out-posts; secondly, that they may keep each other watchful; and thirdly, that the vigilance of both may render it impossible for any thing to come near them without being seen. They should be at no greater distance from their detachments than 80 or 100 paces.
For particular instructions relative to the posting of Vedettes, see a treatise on the duties of an officer in the field, by baron Gross; Am. Mil. Lib.
VEKILCHARES. A word used among the Turks, which signifies the same as Fourrier in the French, and corresponds with quartermaster.
VELITES. Roman soldiers, who were commonly some of the Tiros, or young soldiers of mean condition, and lightly armed. They had their name, a volando, from flying, or a velocitate, from swiftness. They seem not to have acted in distinct bodies or companies, but to have hovered in loose order before the army. Kennett’s R. A. page 190. Their arms consisted of a sword and javelin, and they had a shield or buckler which was sufficiently large to cover its man, being round and measuring three feet and a half in diameter.
They generally wore wolf’s skins, or some other indifferent ornament upon their heads, to distinguish them during an action. Their javelins were a sort of dart, the wood of which measured three cubits in length, and was about the thickness of a finger. The point was about a hand’s full breadth in length, and was so thin and brittle, that it snapped off the instant it reached or penetrated its object, so that the enemy could not return it. It was distinguished in this particular from other darts and javelins.
VELOCITY. The quickness of motion with which bodies are moved from one place to another.
Initial velocity of military projectiles, as ascertained by the experiments with the Ballistic pendulum at Woolwich, in 1788, 1789, and 1790. These experiments were made with shot of equal diameters, powder of equal strength, and under a mean height of the barometer; and shew,
1. That there is very little difference in the velocities of shot fired from guns of the same length, but of unequal weights; the advantage being sometimes in favor of one and sometimes of the other.
2. That velocities arising from firing with different quantities of powder, are nearly in the proportion of the square roots of the quantities or weights of powder.
3. That the velocities decrease as the distances increase, arising from the resistance of the air, which opposes the progress of the shot, in a proportion somewhat higher than the squares of the velocities throughout; and only to a small variation.
4. That very little advantage is gained in point of range, by increasing the charge more than is necessary to attain the object, the velocities given by large charges being very soon reduced to those by moderate charges: those for instance given by half the shot’s weight are reduced to an equality with those by one third, after passing through a space of only 200 feet.
5. That very little advantage is also gained by increasing the length of guns; the velocity given by long guns of 22 calibres length of bore, being reduced to an equality with those of the short guns of 15¹⁄₂ calibres with similar charges, after passing through the spaces as follows:
With ¹⁄₂ the shot’s weight 285 feet ¹⁄₃ Do. 200 ¹⁄₄ Do. 150 ¹⁄₆ Do. 115
6. That the resistance of the air against balls of different diameters with equal velocities, is very nearly in the proportion of the square of their diameters; or as their surfaces.
7. That the velocity is not affected by compressing the charge more or less; or by heating the piece in different degrees.
8. That a very great increase of velocity arises from a decrease of windage; it appearing, that with the established windage of ¹⁄₂₀ between ¹⁄₃ and ¹⁄₄ of the force is lost.
9. It also appeared, that by firing the charge in different parts; by varying the weight of the gun to lessen the recoil; or even by stopping the recoil entirely, no sensible change is produced in the velocity of the ball.
10. That though the velocity of the shot is increased only to a certain point peculiar to each gun, (a further increase of powder, producing a diminished velocity) yet the recoil of the gun is always increased by the increase of charge.
11. Velocity of a light 6 Pr.--length, 4 feet 8 inches; charge, ¹⁄₃ the weight of the shot; 1558 feet per second.--6 Prs. heavy; 6 feet 8 inches; charge ¹⁄₃ = 1673 feet.
Velocity of a light 3 Pr. length, 3 feet 4 inches, charge ¹⁄₂--1371 feet per second.
Do. Heavy 3 Pr. length, 5 feet 9¹⁄₂ inches, charge ¹⁄₃ the shot--1584 feet.
Velocity of French Ordnance.
24 Pr. charge 8 lbs. the eprovette mortar giving 125 fathoms, the initial velocity is 1425 feet per second; with the eprovette at 90 = 1209 feet; with a charge of 12 lbs. and the eprovette at 125° the initial velocity will be 1530.
Charge. Eprovette. Velocity. 16 pr. 5 lbs. 125 1415 16 pr. 8 do. 1510 12 pr. 4 do.} { 1520 8 pr. 2¹⁄₂ do.} long { 1418 8 pr. 3 do.} guns { 1460 4 pr. 1 do.} { 1335 4 pr. 1¹⁄₂ do.} { 1508 12 pr. 4 do. }field { 1442 8 pr. 2¹⁄₂ do. }guns { 1422 4 pr. 1¹⁄₂ do. } { 1446 8 inch how’r. 1 do. 390 8 inch how’r. 1 2 oz. do. 516 6 inch how’r. 1 do. 532 6 inch how’r. 1 12 oz. do. 704
VENT, (Lumière, Fr.) in artillery, or, as it is vulgarly called, the touch-hole, is the opening through which the fire is conveyed to the powder that composes the charge.
As the placing the vents in mortars, howitzers, and guns in the best manner, is so very delicate a point, and about which both authors and practitioners differ, we will advance what the result of experiments has demonstrated. The most common method is to place the vent about a quarter of an inch from the bottom of the chamber or bore; though we have seen many half an inch, and some an inch from the bottom. It has always been imagined, that if the vent was to come out in the middle of the charge, the powder would be inflamed in less time than in any other case, and consequently produce the greatest range; because, if a tube be filled with powder, and lighted in the centre, the powder will be burnt in half the time it would be, were it lighted at one end. This gave a grounded supposition, that the greater the quantity of powder which burnt before the shot or shell was sensibly moved from its place, the greater force it would receive. To determine this, the king of Prussia, in 1765, ordered that a light three pounder should be cast, with three shifting vents, one at the centre of the charge, one at the bottom, and the other at an equal distance from the bottom and centre one; so that when one was used, the others were effectually stopped. The gun weighed 2 cwt. 1 qr. 20 lb.; its length was 3 feet 3 inches, and the bottom of the bore quite flat. It was loaded each time with one fourth of the shot’s weight; and it was found, that when the lowest or bottom vent was used, the shot went farthest, and the ranges of the others diminished in proportion as they were distant from the bottom. The piece was elevated to 1 degree 30 minutes.
In 1766 the same monarch caused several experiments to be tried with three small mortars of equal size and dimensions, but of different forms in their chambers; each of which held seven ounces and a half of powder. From these experiments it appeared, that the concave chamber produced the greatest ranges, and that the bottom of the chamber is the best place for vents, having in that place the greatest effect.
The vents of English guns are all ²⁄₁₀ of an inch diameter. See remark 9 of the article VELOCITY.
VENT-field, is the part of a gun or howitz between the breech mouldings and the astragal.
VENT-astragal, that part of a gun or howitzer which determines the vent-field.
VENT, Fr. That vacancy which is occasioned by the difference between the calibre of a piece of ordnance, and the diameter of its ball. See WINDAGE.
VENT, Fr. Wind. The French use this word in various senses.
VENT d’un boulet de canon, Fr. The wind of a cannon ball.
Coup de VENT, Fr. Heavy weather; a squall.
VENT reglé, Fr. A regular wind; such as the trade-wind.
Avoir du VENT, Fr. In farriery; to be pursy.
VENTS alizes, Fr. Trade winds.
VENTAIL. That part of a helmet which is made to lift up.
VENTOUSES, Fr. Air-holes, ventilators.
VENTRE, Fr. Belly; womb. When a piece of ordnance is off its carriage, and lies on the ground, it is said, among the French, to be upon its belly--etre sur le ventre.
Se coucher VENTRE à terre. To lie down flat on your face. Le capitaine ordonna à ses soldats de se coucher ventre à terre. The captain ordered his men to lie on their bellies. This frequently occurs in action, when any part of the line or detached body is so posted as to be within reach of the enemy’s cannon, and not sufficiently near to make use of its own musquetry.
Demander pardon VENTRE à terre. To ask pardon in the most abject position.
VERANDA, Ind. The covering of houses, being extended beyond the main wall of building, by means of a slanting roof, forming external rooms or passages; a colonade; balcony; gallery.
VERBAL orders. Instructions given by word of mouth, which, when communicated through an official channel, are to be considered as equally binding with written ones.
VERBAL, Fr. Verbal; given by word of mouth.
Procès VERBAL, Fr. A verbal deposition.
VERD, Fr. Green. This word is sometimes used in a figurative sense by the French, viz.
Homme VERD or VERT, Fr. A resolute man.
Tête VERTE, Fr. A giddy thoughtless fellow.
VERD pour les chevaux, Fr. Green forage or grass. In the ancien regime of France, the cavalry and dragoon horses, when quartered in a flat country, were allowed to be thirty days at grass; the particular period was left to the discretion of the commanding officers. The term was sometimes extended to forty days, without any deduction being made for the ten days; by means of which an emolument accrued to the captains of troops, not only from the horses which were actually sent to grass, but likewise for those that were returned as such.
VERDIGREASE, (Verd-de-Gris, Fr.) A kind of rust of copper, which is of great use among painters. It is also taken medicinally.
VERGE, Fr. A yard; a measure; a switch, &c.
VERGE Rhinlandique, Fr. The Rhinland rod; a measure which is equal to two French toises, or to 12 French feet. It is often used by Dutch engineers, in the measuring of works in a fortification.
VERGE d’or, Fr. The same as arbalete, arbalestrille, or Jacob’s staff; in astronomy, a beam of light.
VERGES, Fr. Rods.
Passer par les VERGES, Fr. A punishment which was formerly practised among the French. The same as running the gauntlet. See PUNITIONS CORPORELLES.
VERGES, Fr. Twigs or branches measuring from ten to twelve feet in length, which are used in making fascines.
VERNIS, Fr. Varnish.
VEROLE, Fr. Great pox, which see. Notwithstanding the prevalence of this disorder in France, and throughout Europe, it is reckoned so dreadful a visitation, that the French have a familiar proverb which says, Si tu ne crains pas Dieu, au moins crains la verole; if thou art not afraid of God, dread, at least, the pox. Vaccine should be introduced in all armies.
VERRE pour prendre hauteur, Fr. A thick colored glass, through which an observation is taken of the sun.
VERRE pilé, Fr. Broken pieces of glass, which are sometimes used in artificial fire-works.
VERRIN, Fr. A machine which is used to raise large weights; such as cannon, &c.
VERROU, Fr. A bolt.
VERSER, Fr. To spill, to shed.
VERSER son sang pour la patrie, Fr. To shed one’s blood for the country.
VERTICAL, (vertical, Fr.) Perpendicular.
VERTICAL point, (point vertical, Fr.) A term used in astronomy, to express an imaginary point in the heavens, which is supposed to fall perpendicularly upon our heads.
VESTIBULE, Fr. Porch; entry; hall.
VESTIBULE, (vestibule, Fr.) In fortification, is that space or covered ground which is in front of guard houses, and is generally supported by pillars. In a more general sense, any large open space before the door or entrance of a house. Daviler derives the word from vestes and ambulo, by reason people there begin to let their trains fall. It is properly the outer hall in which persons were accustomed to take off their outer garments or great coats.
VETERAN, (veteran, Fr.) This word comes from the Latin veteranus, a soldier in the Roman militia, who was grown old in the service, or who had made a certain number of campaigns, and on that account was entitled to certain benefits and privileges.
Twenty years service were sufficient to entitle a man to the benefit of a veteran. These privileges consisted in being absolved from the military oath, in being excused all the duties and functions of a soldier, and in being allowed a certain salary or appointment.
A French soldier is entitled to the honorable name of veteran, after he has served twenty-four years, without any break in his service,
VETERANCE, Fr. The state, condition of an old soldier.
Lettre de VETERANCE, Fr. The document or letter which enables an old soldier to claim the rights and privileges of a veteran.
VETERINAIRE, Fr. See VETERINARY.
Ecole VETERINAIRE, Fr. Veterinary school.
VETERINARIAN, (Veterinarius, Lat.) One skilled in the diseases of cattle; a farrier, or horse doctor.
VETERINARY, Appertaining to the science of taking care of cattle.
VETERINARY surgeon. The surgeon appointed to take care of the horses in a cavalry or dragoon regiment is so called. He is subordinate and accountable to the veterinary college.
VETILLES, Fr. This word literally signifies trifles. In artificial fire-works they are small serpentine compositions, confined within a single roll of paper. They have generally three lines in diameter.
VEXATIOUS and groundless. Charges of accusation, and appeals for redress of wrongs are so called, when the persons who make them cannot substantiate their subject matter. Officers, non-commissioned officers, and soldiers are liable to be punished at the discretion of a general court martial for vexatious conduct. Charges are sometimes peremptorily dismissed, without permitting them to stand the investigation of a court martial, when they appear vexatious and frivolous.
UGHUN, or Aughun, Ind. A month which partly corresponds with November; it follows Katik.
VIANDE, Fr. Meat; animal food. In the old regime every French soldier was allowed half a pound of meat per day.
M. de Louvois, who was minister of war under the old government of France, formed a plan, recommending, that a quantity of dried meat, reduced to powder, should be distributed to troops on service. He took the idea from a custom which is prevalent in the East. He did not, however, live to fulfil his intentions, although he had already constructed copper ovens that were large enough to contain eight bullocks. Very excellent broth can be made of this powder; one ounce of which boiled in water, will supply a sufficient quantity for four men; and one pound of fresh meat gives one ounce of powder; so that, according to the inventor’s assertion, there is a saving of one pound. The portable soup-balls which are sold for sea use, are of the same nature.
VIBRATION. See PENDULUM.
VICE-ADMIRAL, (vice-amiral, Fr.) A naval officer of the second rank; who takes rank with generals of horse. Louis XIV. who endeavored to establish a French navy in 1669, created two vice-admirals of the fleet, whom he called vice-admiral of the east, and vice-admiral of the west.
VICTOR. A conqueror; generally applied to the chief officer of a successful army.
VICTORY, (victoire, Fr.) The overthrow or defeat of an enemy in war, combat, duel, or the like.
VICTUAILLES, Fr. The provisions which are embarked on board ships of war are so called by the French.
VICTUAILLEUR, Fr. Victualler.
VICTUALS. Food or sustenance allowed to the troops, under certain regulations, whether on shore or embarked in transports.
VICTUALLERS. See SUTLERS.
VIEUX corps, Fr. A term used among the French before the revolution, to distinguish certain old regiments. There were six of this description, viz. Picardy, Piedmont, Navarre, Champagne, Normandy, and the marine corps. The three first were formed in 1562, and that of Champagne in 1575. They were then called Les vieilles bandes; the ancient or old bands; and before that period, each was known by the name of its colonel.
Les petits VIEUX corps, Fr. La Tour du Pin, Bourbonnois, Auvergne, Belsunce, Meilly, and the regiment du Roi, or the king’s own, were so called during the French monarchy. All the other regiments ranked according to the several dates of their creation, and the officers took precedence in consequence of it.
VIEW of a place. The view of a place is said to be taken when the general, accompanied by an engineer, reconnoitres it, that is, rides round the place, observing its situation, with the nature of the country about it; as hills, valleys, rivers, marshes, woods, hedges, &c.; thence to judge of the most convenient place for opening the trenches and carrying on the approaches; to find out proper places for encamping the army, and for the park of artillery.
To VIEW. See To RECONNOITRE. See Am. Mil. Lib.
VIF, Fr. This word is frequently used among the French to signify the core, or inside of any thing--viz:
VIF d’un arbre, Fr. The inside of a tree.
VIF d’une pierre, Fr. The inside of a stone.
VIF de l’eau, Fr. High water.
VIGIER, Fr. To keep watch.
VIGIER une flotte de vaisseaux marchands, Fr. To convoy a fleet of merchantmen.
VIGIES, Fr. A term given to certain rocks under water near the Azores. Vigie likewise signifies a watch, or centinel on board a ship; but it is chiefly used among the Spaniards in South America.
VIGILANT, (vigilant, Fr.) Watchful, attentive.
VIGOROUS, (vigoreux, Fr.) Strong, brisk, active, resolute.
VIGOTE, Fr. A model by which the calibres of pieces of ordnance are ascertained, in order to pick out appropriate bullets. This model consists of a plate of sheet iron in which there are holes of different sizes, according to the several calibres of cannon.
VILBREQUIN, Fr. A wimble.
VILLE, Fr. See TOWN.
VIN, Fr. Wine.
VINCIBLE. Conquerable; in a state to be defeated.
VINDAS, Fr. See WINDLASS.
VINEGAR, (Vinaigre, Fr.) Vinegar is frequently used in the artillery to cool pieces of ordnance. Two pints of vinegar to four of water is the usual mixture for this purpose.
VINTAINE, Fr. A small rope which masons use to prevent stones from hitting against a wall when they draw them up.
VIOLENCE. Force, attack, assault.
VIRAGO. A female warrior; a scold.
VIRER, Fr. To change, to turn round. This word is used figuratively by the French, viz. Tourner et virer; to beat about the bush; as Tourner et virer quel-qu’un, in an active sense, to pump another.
VIREVAU, Fr. A draw-beam, a capstan.
VIRE-VOLTE, Fr. A quick turning about. It is a term of the manege.
VIROLE, Fr. A ferrule; verrel.
VIS, Fr. Screw, vice, spindle-tree.
VISIER, VIZIER, VIZIR, (Visir, Fr.) An officer or dignity in the Ottoman Empire; whereof there are two kinds, the first called by the Turks Vizir Azem, or grand Vizir, first created in 1370 by Amurath the First, in order to ease himself of the chief and weightier affairs of the government. The grand Vizir possesses great powers, especially with regard to military affairs. The orders he issues are so thoroughly discretional, that when he quits Constantinople to join the army, he does not even communicate his intentions to the sultan. This system entirely differs from that which is followed by European generals. When the latter take the field, they proceed upon plans that have been previously digested; and although they may occasionally change their dispositions, yet they never deviate from the essential and governing principles.
The grand Vizir, on the contrary, not only makes the arrangements according to his own judgment, but he even changes an operation that has been previously ordered by the sultan, if, on his arrival at the spot, he should think it expedient to employ the troops in a different way. This absolute power is not, however, without its risk; for if the grand Vizir should fail in his enterprize, it is more than probable that the sultan will cause him to be beheaded: a punishment which has long been familiar to the Turks, from the arbitrary manner in which it is practised, and the frequency of its occurrence.
When the Turks engage an enemy, the grand Vizir generally remains with the reserve, and seldom mingles with the main body, which is soon converted into a mob of desperate combatants. The war which had been carried into Egypt, bid fair to change the whole system of Turkish tactics.
VIZIER Nawab of Oude, the prime minister of the Mogul empire; he became sovereign of Oude and Lucknow; he was deposed by the British in 1795, and the sovereignty assumed by the British government.
VISIERE, Fr. The sight, which is fixed on the barrel of a musquet or firelock.
To VISIT, (Visiter, Fr.) To go to any place, as quarters, barracks, hospital, &c. for the purpose of noticing whether the orders or regulations which have been issued respecting it, are observed.
VISITE des Postes, Fr. The act of visiting posts, &c.
Faire la VISITE, Fr. To visit, to inspect.
VISITEUR, Fr. The person who visits or goes the rounds.
VISITING Officer. He whose duty it is to visit the guards, barracks, messes, hospital, &c. See ORDERLY OFFICER.
VISOR, VIZARD, That part of the helmet which covered the face.
VITAL AIR, or azote and oxygene, now properly called nitrogene gas; the cause of the rapid ignition of gunpowder, is the expansion of the air or oxygene which it contains.
VITCHOURA, Fr. A furred coat.
VITESSE, Fr. Dispatch; promptitude of action.
VITONIERES, Fr. Limber holes.
VIVANDIERS, Fr. Victuallers, sutlers, &c.
VIVAT, Fr. A familiar exclamation, which is used not only by the French, but by the Dutch, Germans--it comes from the Latin, and signifies literally, May he live!
VIVE le Roi! Fr. Long live the king!
VIVE la Republique! Fr. Long live the republic!
Qui vive? Fr. A military phrase which is used in challenging--Who comes there?
VIVRE, vivres, Fr. Food, provisions, subsistence. In the Dictionnaire Militaire, vol. iii. page 525, is an interesting account of the manner in which troops were subsisted during the first years of the French monarchy.
VIVRES et leur distribution chez les Turcs, Fr. The kind of provisions, &c. and the manner in which they are distributed among the Turks. The food or provisions for the Turkish soldiery form an immediate part of the military baggage.
The government supplies flour, bread, biscuit, rice, bulgur or peeled barley, butter, mutton, and beef, and grain for the horses, which is almost wholly barley.
The bread is generally moist, not having been leavened, and is almost always ready to mould. On which account the Armenians, who are the bakers, bake every day in ovens that have been constructed under ground for the use of the army. When there is not sufficient time to bake bread, biscuit is distributed among the men.
The ration of bread for each soldier consists of one hundred drams per day, or fifty drams of biscuit, sixty of beef or mutton, twenty-five of butter to bake the peeled barley in, and fifty of rice. The rice is given on Friday every week, on which day they likewise receive a ration of fifty drams of bulgur mixed with butter, as an extraordinary allowance, making a kind of water-gruel.
These provisions are distributed in two different quarters. The meat is given out at the government butchery, where a certain number of Armenians, Greeks, and Jews regularly attend. Each company sends a head cook, who goes with a cart and receives the allowance from a sort of quarter-master serjeant, who is in waiting with a regular return of what is wanted for each oda.
This person is stiled among the Turks Meidan Chiaous. He stands upon a spot of ground which is more elevated than the rest, and receives the allowance due to his district.
The distribution of bread, &c. is made within the precincts of the Tefterdar-Bascy, where the Vekil-karet attends as director or superintendant of stores and provisions, and by whose order they are delivered.
When the allowance is brought to the oda or company, the Vekil-karet, a sort of quarter-master, sees it regularly measured out, and if any portions be deficient, he takes note of the same, in order to have them replaced for the benefit of the company. The remainder is then given to the head cook, who divides it into two meals, one for eleven o’clock in the morning, and the other for seven in the evening.
These two meals consist of boiled or stewed meat, mixed with rice, and seasoned with pepper and salt; water-gruel being regularly made for each man on Friday.
There are six kitchen boys or quateri attached to each oda, by which they are paid a certain subsistence. On solemn occasions, and on festival days, the quateri are dressed in long gowns made of skins, with borders to them; they likewise wear a large knife with an encrusted silver handle, which hangs at their side. They serve up the victuals in two copper vessels, that are laid upon a table covered with a skin, round which seven or eight persons may be seated.
VIVRIERS, Fr. Clerks and other persons employed by the commissary-general, or contractor for stores and provisions.
Mons. Dupré D’Aulnay, in a work entitled Traité des Subsistances Militaires, has suggested the establishment of a regular corps of Vivriers or persons whose sole duty should be to attend to the subsistence of an army, in the field as well as in garrison. His reasoning upon this subject is very acute, full of good sense, and seems calculated to produce that system of economy and wholesome distribution, that, to this day, are so manifestly wanted in all military arrangements.
VIZ, Ind. A small coin; it is also a weight equal to about three pounds; but differs much in value according to place.
VIZARUT, Ind. The office of Vizier.
VIZIER, Ind. Prime minister.
ULANS, Fr. This word is sometimes written Hulans. A certain description of militia among the modern Tartars was so called. They formerly did duty in Poland and Lithuania, and served as light cavalry.
It is not exactly known at what epoch the Tartars first came into Poland and Lithuania. Dlugossus, in his history of Poland, book XI. page 243, relates, that there were troops or companies of Tartars attached to the army which was under the command of Alexander Witholde, grand duke of Lithuania. Heidenstein, in his account of Poland, Rer. Polonic., page 152, makes mention of a corps of Tartars belonging to the army which Stephen Bathori, king of Poland, carried into the field when he fought the Russians. This corps, according to the same author, was headed by one Ulan, who said he was descended from the princes of Tartary.
Although the origin of the word Ulan, as far as it regards the modern militia so called, does not appear to be indisputably ascertained, it is nevertheless well proved, that besides the Tartar chief under Stephen Bathori, the person, who in the reign of Augustus the II. formed the first pulk, or regiment of that description, was not only called Ulan himself, but likewise gave the name to the whole body under his command. This chief is mentioned in the records of the military institution of Poland in 1717. He was then colonel or commandant of the first pulk, or king’s regiment, and there were three captains under him of the same name, viz:--Joseph Ulan, David Ulan, and Cimbey Ulan. In 1744, one of these was captain of a company of Ulans in Bohemia, and was afterwards colonel of a corps of the same description in Poland. He is likewise said to have been descended from the Tartar princes. It is, however, left undecided, whether Ulan be the name of a particular family, or a term given to distinguish some post of honor; or again, whether it barely signify a certain class of turbulent haughty soldiers, such as the Streletz of Russia, or the Janizaries of Constantinople.
If there be any thing which can make us question the authenticity or probability of this account, it is the passage we find in the book already quoted--viz: Dlugossus, where he says liv. XIII. page 403, that in 1467 an ambassador from Tartary had arrived at Petrigkow to announce to king Casimir, that, after the death of Ecziger his son Nordowlad, had ascended the throne of Tartary with the unanimous consent and concurrence of all the princes and Ulans. Quitting the etymology of the word, and leaving the original name to the determination of wise and scientific men, we shall confine our present researches to the modern establishment of the Ulans; which, by the best accounts, we find to have happened in 1717.
It is acknowleged by all writers, that the Ulans are a militia, and not a particular nation or class of people; their origin, in this particular, resembles that of the Cossacks. When Augustus II. in 1717 altered the military establishment of Poland, he formed two regiments of Ulans; one consisting of six hundred men, which had already existed, and was called the king’s pulk, and the other of four hundred men, which was given to the great general of the republic.
Augustus III. on his accession to the throne, took both these regiments into his own immediate pay, and afterwards augmented the establishment by raising several other pulks or corps of this description. The Ulans are mounted on Polish or Tartar horses, and do the same duty that is allotted to hussars; with this essential difference, that they are better armed and accoutred, and that their horses excel those of the hussars in strength and swiftness, although they are mostly of the same size. The Ulans have frequently distinguished themselves on service, particularly in Bohemia.
Their principal weapon is a lance five feet long, at the end of which hangs a silk streamer, that serves to frighten the horse of the Ulan’s opponent, by its fluttering and noise. The lance is suspended on his right side, by means of a belt that is worn across the Ulan’s shoulders, or by a small leather thong which goes round his right arm, the end of the lance resting in a sort of stay that is attached to the stirrup. Before the Ulan takes his aim, he plants his lance upon his foot and throws it with so much dexterity, that he seldom misses his object.
The dress of the Ulan consists of a short jacket, trowsers or pantaloons made like those of the Turks, which reach to the ancle bone, and button above the hips. He wears a belt across his waist. The upper garment is a sort of Turkish robe with small facings, which reaches to the calf of the leg; his head is covered with a Polish cap. The color of the streamer which is fixed to the end of the lance, as well as that of the facings, varies according to the different pulks or regiments which it is meant to distinguish. The Ulan is likewise armed with a sabre, and a brace of pistols which hang from his waistbelt.
As the Ulans consider themselves in the light of free and independent gentlemen, every individual amongst them has one servant, if not two, called pocztowy or pacholeks, whose sole business is to attend to their baggage and horses. When the Ulans take the field, these servants or batmen form a second or detached line, and fight separately from their masters. They are armed with a carbine, which weapon is looked upon with contempt by their masters, and they clothe themselves in the best manner they can.
The Ulans generally engage the enemy in small platoons or squads, after the manner of the hussars; occasionally breaking into the most desultory order. They rally with the greatest skill, and frequently affect to run away for the purpose of inducing their opponents to pursue them loosely: a circumstance which seldom fails to be fatal to the latter, as the instant the pursuers have quitted their main body, the Ulan wheels to the right about, gets the start of him through the activity of his horse, and obtains that advantage, hand to hand, which the other possessed whilst he acted in close order.
The instant the Ulans charge an enemy, their servants or batmen form and stand in squadrons or platoons, in order to afford them, under circumstances of repulse, a temporary shelter behind, and to check the enemy. The batmen belonging to the Ulans are extremely clever in laying ambushes.
The pay of the Ulans in time of peace is very moderate. Poland, before its infamous dismemberment and partition by Russia, Prussia, and Austria, kept a regular establishment of four squadrons and ten companies on foot. These troops were annually supplied with a thousand rations of bread and forage, which quantity was paid them at the rate of 272 florins, Polish money, per ration. The grand duchy of Lithuania subsisted, in the same manner, fifteen other companies of Ulans. The other pulks were paid by the king. The annual pay of the captains was five rations, and that of the subalterns two; that is 1360 florins to the former, and 544 florins to the latter.
In 1743 marshal Saxe, with the approbation and concurrence of the French court, raised a regiment of Ulans, which was attached to the military establishment of that country. This corps consisted of one thousand men, divided into six squadrons, each squadron composed of one hundred and sixty men, eighty of whom were Ulans, and eighty dragoons. So that the regiment consisted of five hundred Ulans, properly so called, armed and accoutred like those in Poland, and the other five hundred were dragoons, without being considered as the servants or batmen of the Ulans; in which instance they differed from the pacholeks of the Polish Ulans. These dragoons were paid by the king; whereas in Poland each Ulan paid his own servant or batman, who looked to him only for clothing, arms, and subsistence. On the death of marshal Saxe, the Ulans in France were reduced; and the dragoons only kept upon the establishment. They were considered as a regiment; being at first given to count de Frise, who was a major-general in the service, and became their colonel, and they remained on that footing until the revolution.
The uniform of the French Ulans consisted of a green coat or cloak, with green breeches, Hungarian half-boots, pinchbeck helmet with a turban twisted round it of Russian leather; the tail or mane of the helmet consisted of horse-hair, which was colored according to the facings of the brigade; their arms were a lance nine feet long, with a floating streamer at the top, a sabre, and a pistol in the waistbelt.
The dragoons were clothed like other regular troops. Their coat was green, with cream-colored facings and scarlet linings; plain brass buttons, and aiguillette or tagged point, made of red worsted; a fawn colored waistcoat, edged round with scarlet; leather breeches; half-boots that were laced up to the calf of the leg; pinchbeck helmet, with a seal skin turban round it, and two rosettes made of pinchbeck; the top was adorned with horse-hair, which hung behind. Their arms consisted of a fusil with a bayonet, which was always fixed; two pistols and a sabre; the horse was covered with a wolf’s skin. The Ulans rode horses which were somewhat lower than those of the dragoons, and were more active.
At the commencement of the French revolution, particularly in 1792 and 1793, the Ulans belonging to the Imperial army that endeavored to penetrate into France, were the terror of the inhabitants all along the frontiers. The excesses which they committed, and the desolation they occasioned, rendered their very name a signal of alarm. They seldom gave quarter, and they never received it.
ULTIMATUM. A term used in negociations to signify the last condition or conditions upon which propositions, that have been mutually exchanged, can be finally ratified.
ULTRAMARINE. From beyond the sea--foreign. It is also the name of a very delicate sky blue powder made from lapis lazuli, and used in the drawing of plans, &c.
ULTRAMONTANE. Derived from the Latin Ultra, beyond, and Mons, mountain. This term is principally used in relation to Italy and France, which are separated by the Alps. According to Bayley, Ultramontanus is a name given by the Italians to all people who live beyond the Alps.
UMBO. The pointed boss or prominent part in the centre of a shield or buckler
UMBRIERE. The visor of a helmet.
UMPIRE. An arbitrator, or a power which interferes for the adjustment of a dispute or contest.
UNARMED. The state of being without armor or weapons.
To UNCASE. In a military sense to display, to exhibit--As to uncase the colors. It is opposed to the word, To Case, which signifies to put up--to enclose.
To UNCOVER. When troops deploy, the different leading companies or divisions, &c. successively uncover those in their rear, by marching out from the light or left of the column.
UNCONDITIONAL. At discretion; not limited by any terms or stipulations.
UNCONQUERED. Not subdued or defeated; in opposition to conquered or defeated.
UNDAUNTED. Not appalled by fear; valiant.
UNDECAGON. A regular polygon of eleven sides or angles.
UNDER. This preposition is variously used in military matters, viz.
UNDER Command, (Sous Ordre, Fr.) In subjection to; liable to be ordered to do any particular duty.
UNDER Cover, (à couvert, à l’abri, Fr.) Shielded, protected, &c. See COVER.
UNDER Arms, (Sous Armes, Fr.) A battalion, troop, or company is said to be under arms when the men are drawn up regularly armed and accoutred, &c.
To UNDERMINE. To dig cavities under any thing, so that it may fall, or be blown up; to excavate.
To UNDERMINE. In a figurative sense, to injure by clandestine means. The discipline of the army may be undermined by secret practices and cabals; the want of a fit capacity at the head of the war office, will operate like the want of brains in the human head; and the most enterprizing officer may be undermined by the insinuations of a cowardly parasite and reporter.
UNDERMINER. A sapper, one who digs a mine.
UNDER-officer. An inferior officer; one in a subordinate situation.
UNDISCIPLINED. Not yet trained to regularity or order; not perfect in exercise or manœuvres.
To UNFIX. In a military sense, to take off, as Unfix Bayonet, on which the soldier disengages the bayonet from his piece, and returns it to the scabbard. The word return, as we have already observed, is sometimes used instead of unfix.--But it is improperly used, although it more immediately corresponds with the French term Remettre.
UNFORTIFIED. Not strengthened or secured by any walls, bulwarks, or fortifications.
UNFURLED. A standard or colors, when expanded and displayed, is said to be unfurled.
UNGENTLEMANLIKE, UNOFFICERLIKE, (Malhonnête, Grossier, Fr.) Not like a gentleman or officer. Conduct unbecoming the character of either is so called. This clause which will be always found to depend on the state of morals and manners, affords a vast latitude to a military court, which, after all, is not more free from prejudice or influence than any other tribunal, though they are both jurors and judges. Officers convicted thereof are to be discharged from the service. See ARTICLES OF WAR.
UNHARNESSED. Disarmed; divested of armor or weapons of offence.
UNHORSED. Thrown from the saddle; dismounted.
UNHOSTILE. Not inimical, or belonging to an enemy.
UNIFORM, (Uniforme, Fr.) This word, though in a military sense it signifies the same as regimental, which is used both as a substantive and an adjective, may nevertheless be considered in a more extensive light. Uniform is applied to the different sorts of clothing by which whole armies are distinguished from one another; whereas regimental means properly the dress of the component parts of some national force. Thus the national uniform of the American army is blue, as is that of the modern French, white of the Austrian, green of the Russian, and red of the British, &c. But in each of these armies there are particular corps which are clothed in other colors, and whose clothing is made in a shape peculiar to themselves. Though generally speaking each has an uniform within itself, yet this uniform, strictly considered, is a regimental.
With respect to the origin of military uniforms, we should make useless enquiries were we to direct our attention to those periods in which the Romans fought covered with metal armor, or with leather which was so dressed and fitted to the body, that the human shape appeared in all its natural formation; nor to those in which the French, almost naked, or at least very lightly clad in thin leather, conquered the ancient Gauls. Better information will be acquired by recurring to the Crusades which were made into Palestine and Constantinople by the Europeans. We shall there find, that the western nations, France, England, &c. first adopted the use of rich garments, which they wore over their armors, and adorned their dresses with furs from Tartary and Russia.
We may then fix the origin of colored dresses to distinguish military corps, &c. in the eleventh century. The Saracens generally wore tunics or close garments under their armor. These garments were made of plain or striped stuffs, and were adopted by the Crusaders under the denomination of coats of arms, Cottes d’armes. We refer our readers for further particulars to the author of a French work, entitled, Traité des marques rationales, and to page 533, tom. iii. du Dictionnaire Militaire; observing, that the uniforms of the French army were not completely settled under the reign of Louis the XIVth, and that the whole has undergone considerable alterations since the present revolution.
UNIFORME des charretiers des vivres, Fr. Uniform of the old French Waggon Corps. It consisted of white sackcloth edged round with blue worsted, with brass buttons, two in front and three upon each sleeve. They wore a dragoon watering cap, with W upon the front fold, and a tuft at the end. The W and the tuft were made of white worsted.
UNIFORMS.--Principal color of the military uniforms of the different powers.
---------------+--------+----------+----------+----------------------- NATIONS. |CAVALRY.| INFANTRY.|ARTILLERY.| REMARKS. ---------------+--------+----------+----------+----------------------- America |Blue |Blue |Blue |Black cockades. Ancient Poland |Blue |Blue |Blue | Anspach |Blue |Blue |Blue | Austria |White |White |Grey | Baden |-- |Blue |-- | Bavaria |-- |White |Grey | Berne |Red |Blue |Blue |Black and red cockades. Brunswick |-- |Blue |-- | Denmark |-- |Red |-- |Black cockades. England |Blue |Red |Blue | France |Blue |Blue |Blue |Blue, red, and white. Hanover |Blue |Red |Mixt Blue |Green cockades. Hesse |White |Blue |Blue | Holland |White |Blue |Blue | Mayence |-- |White |Mixt Blue | Mecklenburg |Blue |Blue |Blue | Nassau |-- |Blue |-- | Palatine |Crimson |Clear Blue|-- | Prussia |White |Blue |Blue |Orag. light blue. Russia |Blue |Green |Green |Black cockades. Sardinia |Blue |Blue |Blue | Saxe Cobourg |-- |Blue |-- | Saxe Gotha |Blue |Blue |Blue | Saxe Heidelberg|-- |Blue |-- | Saxe Memingen |-- |Blue |-- | Saxe Weimer |Blue |Blue |Green | Saxony |White |White |Green |Dragoons red; White | | | |cockades. Spain |Grey |White |Blue |Red and yellow. Sweden |-- |Blue |-- |Yellow cockades. Wurtemburg |-- |Blue |Blue | ---------------+--------+----------+----------+-----------------------
UNIFORMITY. Conformity to one pattern; resemblance of one thing to another.
UNION. The national colors are called the union. When there is a blue field with white stripes, quartered in the angle of the American colors, that is of the colors composed of red and white stripes; that blue field is called the Union; and a small colors of blue with white stars is called an Union JACK.
UNIVERSITY. In a general acceptation of the word, any nursery where youth is instructed in languages, arts, and sciences. It likewise means the whole in general, generality.
To UNSPRING. A word of command formerly used in the exercise of cavalry, now obsolete.
Unspring your carbine. Quit the reins of your bridle, and take hold of the swivel with the left hand, placing the thumb on the spring, and opening it; at the same time take it out of the ring.
UNTENABLE. Not to be held in possession; incapable of being defended.
UNTRAINED. Not disciplined to exercise or manœuvre.
UNVANQUISHED. Not conquered or defeated.
UNWALLED. Being without walls of defence.
UNWARLIKE. Not fit for or used to war.
UNWEAPONED. Not provided with arms of offence.
VOGUE, Fr. The course or way which a galley or ship makes when it is rowed forward.
VOGUER, Fr. To make way upon water either by means of sailing or by oars. It also signifies generally to row.
VOIE, Fr. Way, means, course of communication.
VOILE, Fr. A sail. This word is frequently used by the French to signify the ship itself; as we say, a sail in sight.
VOILE quarrée ou à trait quarrée, Fr. A square sail, such as the main-sail.
VOILE Latine, Voile à tiers-point, ou a Oreille de Liévre, Fr. A triangular-shaped sail, such as is used in the Mediterranean.
Jet de VOILES, Fr. The complete complement of sails for a ship.
Faire VOILE, Fr. To go to sea.
VOITURES, Fr. Carriages, waggons, &c.
VOL, Fr. Theft. The military regulations on this head during the existence of the French monarchy, were extremely rigid and severe.
Whosoever was convicted of having stolen any of the public stores, was sentenced to be strangled; and if any soldier was discovered to have robbed his comrade, either of his necessaries, bread, or subsistence money, he was condemned to death, or to the gallies for life. So nice, indeed, were the French with respect to the honesty of the soldiery in general, that the slightest deviation from it rendered an individual incapable of ever serving again. When the French troops marched through the United States during the revolution so exact was their discipline, that in marching through an orchard loaded with fruit not an apple was touched.
VOLEE, Fr. The vacant cylinder of a cannon, which may be considered to reach from the trunnions to the mouth.
VOLEE et culasse d’une piece, Fr. This term signifies the same as tête et queue d’une piece. The mouth or head and breech of a piece of ordnance.
VOLEE, Fr. Also signifies a cannon shot, as Tirer une volee, to fire a cannon shot.
VOLEE, Fr. See SONNETTE.
VOLET, Fr. A shutter. It likewise means a small sea compass.
VOLLEY. The discharging of a great number of firearms at the same time.
VOLONTAIRES, Fr. See VOLUNTEERS.
VOLONTE, Fr. Will, &c. It likewise signifies readiness to do any thing. Officier, soldat de bonne volonte. An officer, a soldier that is ready to do any sort of duty.
Dernieres VOLONTES, Fr. The last will and testament of a man.
VOLT, (Volte, Fr.) In horsemanship, a bounding turn. It is derived from the Italian word Volta; and according to the Farrier’s Dictionary, is a round or a circular tread; a gate of two treads made by a horse going sideways round a centre; so that these two treads make parallel tracks; the one which is made by the fore feet larger, and the other by the hinder feet smaller; the shoulders bearing outwards, and the croupe approaching towards the centre.
Mettre un cheval sur les VOLTES, Fr. To make a horse turn round, or perform the volts. They likewise say in the manege, demi-volte, half-turn or volt.
VOLTE, Fr. In fencing, a sudden movement or leap, which is made to avoid the thrust of an antagonist.
VOLTE-face, Fr. Right about.
Faire VOLTE-face, Fr. To come to the right about. It is chiefly applicable to a cavalry movement; and sometimes generally used to express any species of facing about, viz. Les ennemis fuirent jusqu’à un certain endroit, ou ils firent volte face; the enemy fled to a certain spot, where they faced about.
VOLTE, is also used as a sea phrase among the French to express the track which a vessel sails; likewise the different movements and tacks that a ship makes in preparing for action.
VOLTER, Fr. In fencing, to volt; to change ground in order to avoid the thrust of an antagonist.
VOLTIGER, Fr. To float; to stream out; to hover about; La cavalrie voltige autour du camp; the cavalry hovers about the camp. It also means, in the manege, to ride a wooden horse for the purpose of acquiring a good seat.
VOLTIGUER, Fr. A vaulter; a jumper; a hoverer; the French have trained their light troops to run, vault, and bear fatigues; these troops act as riflemen on foot or horseback; swim rivers with their arms; and vault behind horsemen to be transported rapidly to some point where it is necessary to make an impression. These corps were formed from an observance of the hardiness and intrepidity of American riflemen, by general Berthier, who served in America with Rochambeau.
VOLUNTEER. In a general acceptation of the word, any one who enters into the service of his own accord. The signification of it is more or less extensive, according to the conditions on which a man voluntarily engages to bear arms.
VOLUNTEERS are also bodies of men who assemble in time of war to defend their respective districts, and this generally without pay.
To VOLUNTEER. To engage in any affair of one’s own accord. Officers and soldiers often volunteer their services on the most desperate occasions; sometimes specifically, and sometimes generally. Hence to volunteer for any particular enterprize, or to volunteer for general service. In some instances soldiers volunteer for a limited period, and within certain boundaries.
Volunteers approach nearer to the regular establishment than the militia.
VOUGE, Fr. A sort of hedging bill. It likewise signifies an axe, which the ancient bowmen of France had fixed to their halberts. It is also called a hunter’s staff.
VOUSSOIR or VOUSSURE, Fr. The bending of a vault.
VOUTE, Fr. A vault; an arch.
VOYAGE sur Mer, Fr. A sea voyage. The French call a voyage to the East Indies, Un voyage de long cours.
UP. An adverb frequently used in military phraseology, viz. Up in arms; in a state of insurrection.
To draw UP. To put in regular array, as to draw up a regiment.
VRILLE, Fr. A wimble.
VRILLER, Fr. Among fireworkers, to rise in a spiral manner, as sky-rockets do.
USAAR, Ind. The name of a month, which partly corresponds with June; it follows Jeyt.
To USE. To employ to any particular purpose; to bring into action; as he his choicest troops on that decisive day.
USTENSILES, Fr. The necessary articles which a soldier has a right to be supplied with.
USTENSILES de magazins, Fr. Under this word are comprehended all the various tools, implements, &c. which are required in military magazines and storehouses.
USTENSILES d’un vaisseau, Fr. Every thing which is necessary in the navigation of a ship.
USTENSILES de canon, Fr. Every thing which is required to load and unload a piece of ordnance, viz. the rammer, spunge, priming horn, wedges, &c.
UTENSILS. In a military sense, are necessaries due to every soldier.
In the British service it is directed to be provided for the use of regimental hospitals, that each hospital ought to be furnished with a slipper bath, or bathing tub, two water buckets, one dozen of Osnaburgh towels, one dozen of flannel cloths, half a dozen of large sponges, combs, razors, and soap; two large kettles capable of making soup for 30 men, two large tea kettles, two large tea pots, two sauce pans, 40 tin cans of one pint each, 40 spoons, one dozen of knives and forks, two close stools, two bed-pans, and two urinals.
A regiment, consisting of 1000 men, and provided with three medical persons, ought to be furnished with hospital necessaries and utensils for at least 40 patients. It should be provided with 40 cotton night caps, 40 sets of bedding, in the proportion of four for every hundred men; each set consisting of one paillasse, one straw mattrass, one bolster, three sheets, two blankets, and one rug.
For regiments of a smaller number, the quantity of hospital necessaries will of course be proportionally reduced.
Bakery UTENSILS. The following list of bakery utensils, being the proportion requisite for an army of 36,000 men, has been extracted from the British commissary, to which useful treatise we refer the military reader for a specific description of field ovens, &c. and field bakery, page 16, &c.
12 double iron ovens, 11 feet long, 9 feet diameter, and 3 feet high; 28 troughs and their covers, 16 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 3 feet deep, to kneed the dough.
12 large canvas tents (having double coverings) 32 feet long, and 24 feet wide, to make the bread in.
4 ditto, to cool and deposit the bread in.
2 ditto, to deposit the meal and empty sacks in.
200 boards, 8 feet long, and 1¹⁄₂ feet wide, to carry the bread to the oven and back when baked; 24 small scales to weigh the dough, with weights from half an ounce to 6 lbs.; 24 small lamps for night work; 24 small hatchets; 24 scrapers, to scrape the dough from the troughs; 12 copper kettles, containing each from 10 to 12 pails of water; 12 trevets for ditto; 12 barrels with handles, to carry water, containing each from 6 to 7 pails.
12 pails, to draw water; 24 yokes and hooks, to carry the barrels by hand; 24 iron peles, to shove and draw the bread from the ovens; 24 iron pitchforks, to turn and move the firewood and coals in the ovens; 24 spare handles, 14 feet long, for the peles and pitchforks; 24 rakes, with handles of the same length, to clear away the coals and cinders from the ovens; 4 large scales, to weigh the sacks and barrels of meal, and capable of weighing 500 lb.; 4 triangles for the said scales; to each must be added 500 lb. of weights, 3 of 100 lb. each, 2 of 50 lb. each, and downwards to half a pound.
VULNERABLE. Susceptive of wounds; liable to external injuries; capable of being taken; as, the town is extremely vulnerable in such a quarter. It is also applied to military dispositions, viz. the army was vulnerable in the centre or on the left wing.
An assemblage of men without arms, or with arms but without discipline, or having discipline and arms, without officers are vulnerable.
W.
WAD, (Bourre, Fr.) In gunnery, a substance made of hay or straw, and sometimes of tow rolled up tight in a ball. It serves to be put into a gun after the powder, and rammed home, to prevent the powder from being scattered, which would have no effect if left unconfined.
WAD-mill. A hollow form of wood to make the wads of a proper size.
WAD-hook. A strong iron screw, like those that serve for drawing corks, mounted upon a wooden handle, to draw out the wads, or any part of cartridges, which often remain in guns, and when accumulated stop up the vent.
WADA or WADADARY, Ind. A farm of a district.
WADABUNDY, Ind. Stated periods or dates, on which money is to be paid.
WADADAR, Ind. A government officer, who is responsible for the rents of a zemindary.
WADDING. Oakum, hay or straw, or any other article generally carried along with the guns to be made into wads.
Experiments relative to the effects of WADDING. The quantity of powder requisite to raise a shell weighing 218 lb. clear of the mortar and bed was found to be 4 oz. 2 dr. without any wadding; but with the help of a little wadding, rammed over the powder, 3 oz. 1 dr. were sufficient. The powder, requisite to raise a shell weighing 106 lb. clear of the mortar and bed, was found to be 2 oz. 6 dr. without any wadding; but with wadding, properly rammed over the powder, 2 oz. were found to be sufficient.
To raise a shell of 16 lb. 4 dr. were sufficient without wadding, and only 3 dr. with wadding.
And to raise a shell of 8 lb. 2 dr. were enough without wadding, and 1 dr. two-thirds with wadding.
From the above experiments it may be observed, that the judicious ramming of a little wadding over the powder, adds about ¹⁄₄ part of the whole effect.
WAGGON, in the army, (Chariot, Fr.) is a four-wheel carriage, drawn by four horses, and for sundry uses.
Ammunition-WAGGON. (Chariot d’artillerie, Fr.) A carriage made for transporting all kinds of stores, as also to carry bread, it being lined round in the inside with basket-work. See CAISSON.
WAGGON-Train. The waggons, caissons, carts, &c. provided for the use of an army are so called. One great engine, on which the movements of an army depend, is a proper establishment of waggons. In all wars great abuses have, as well as great ignorance, prevailed in this department.
In the seven years war the British had a general contractor for the waggon train, and his contract was kept up until the year before the peace, when that government bought the train of him. In the American war, waggons were considered almost as a privilege by the departments to which they were attached, until Brook Watson was appointed commissary general, who found it necessary to make great reforms in that branch of the service. The same gentleman, when he went out to the continent of Europe with the duke of York in 1793, made use of the waggons of different contractors: but in the beginning of 1794, an experiment was made by raising a corps called the corps of royal waggoners, and purchasing waggons and horses. Its miserable state became proverbial in the army: it failed completely in every part, and on many occasions, the service suffered very materially in consequence of the abuses of contractors.
The idea of this corps was probably taken from the fine well regulated establishment of the French, from whom the Austrians copied it as a standing establishment, having officers and men trained to the service, and a system improved and perfect.
The British waggon-train was sold, and every purchaser of not less than fifty waggons was admitted to the advantages of a contract for all the waggons he purchased; he was insured the duration of his contract for three months, and was only to deposit one-third of the cost, allowing the remainder to be paid out of his earnings. The form of the contract and the pay of the waggons were previously fixed, and by this mode a most advantageous sale was procured, while a new set of contractors were introduced, with the additional advantage of obliging old contractors to reduce their prices, and to come under the same terms.
The space of ground occupied by a waggon with four horses is about 16 yards; a mile will therefore hold 110 waggons; but allowing a short distance between each waggon in travelling, a mile may be said to contain about 100 waggons. Waggons in convoy may travel from one to two miles per hour, according to the roads and other circumstances. A great object in convoys is to preserve the horses as much as possible from fatigue. For this purpose, if the convoy amounts to many hundred waggons, they must be divided into divisions of not more than 500 each. Should it consist of thousands, it will be advisable to divide them into grand divisions, and then again into subdivisions of 500 each: by this means, and the time of departure being calculated by the following rules, each division may remain at rest, till just before its time of movement; and which will prevent the necessity of the latter part of a large convoy being harassed for a considerable time before its turn to move.
Rule 1. To find the time in which any number of waggons may be driven off: Divide the number of waggons by 100, and multiply by the time of travelling one mile.
Rule 2. To find the time in which any number of waggons will drive over any number of miles: To the time they take in driving off, add the time any one of the waggons takes to travel the distance.
The different divisions of the convoy should be numbered, and obliged each day to change the order of their marching.
WAGGONER, (Charretier, Fr.) One who drives a waggon.
Corps of WAGGONERS, (Corps de Charretiers, Fr.) A body of men employed in the commissariate, so called.
WAGRAM, battle of. Decided the war between France and Austria in 1809.
WAKANAGUR, Ind. A writer of occurrences.
WAINROPE. The large cord with which the load is tied on the waggon.
WAIT. To lie in wait; to lay wait. See AMBUSH.
WALL. A series of brick, stone, or other materials carried upwards and cemented with mortar. When used in the plural number, wall signifies fortification; works built for defence.
To be driven to the WALL, (Etre acculé, Fr.) A figurative term signifying to be so pressed, that you can neither advance nor retreat.
WALLS of a Tent or Marquee. That part of the canvas which is attached to the fly or top by means of hooks and eyes, and which is fixed to the earth with wooden pegs. These walls should be frequently lowered in order to admit fresh air. When there is an hospital tent, this precaution is indispensible, if the weather will permit.
WALLET. See HAVERSACK, KNAPSACK.
WALLOON, Spanish troops from the Netherlands.
WAPENTAKE, (from the Saxon.) The same as what we call a hundred, and more especially used in the northern counties of England beyond the Trent. There have been several conjectures as to the original of the word; one of which is, that anciently musters were made of the armor and weapons of the inhabitants of every hundred; and from those that could not find sufficient pledges of their good abeating, their weapons were taken away; whence it is said Wapentake is derived. Spenser says it was so named, of touching the weapon or spear of their alderman, and swearing to follow him faithfully, and serve their prince truly.
WAR. A contest or difference between princes, states, or large bodies of people, which, not being determinable by the ordinary measures of justice and equity, is referred to the decision of the sword, &c.
It is that important event, for which all military education is designed to prepare the soldier. It is for this that in peace, he receives the indulgence of a subsistence from society; and for this he is gratefully bound to secure the repose of that society from the outrage of an enemy and to guard its possessions from the devastations of invaders.
It would be needless as impossible to show, how often the art of war has accomplished the design of its institution; we shall, however, distinguish those English wars which are remarkable in history.
War with Scotland, 1068. Peace with{ditto, 1113. {France, 1113. War with France, 1116. Peace with{ditto, 1118. {Scotland, 1139. War with France, 1161. Peace with ditto, 1186. War again with France, 1194. Peace with ditto, 1195. {renewed, 1215. {ended, 1216. {with France, 1224. Civil war{ended, 1243. {1262. {ended, 1267. {with France, 1294. {with Scotland, 1296. Peace{with France, 1299. {with Scotland, 1323. {again with Scotland, 1327. War{ended, 1328. {again with Scotland, 1333. {with France, 1339. Peace with France, May 8, 1360. {with France, 1368. War{civil, 1400. {with Scotland, 1400. Peace with France, May 31, 1420. {with France, 1422. War{civil between York and Lancaster, {1452. Peace with France, Oct. 1741. War{civil, 1486. {with France, Oct. 6, 1492. Peace{with ditto, Nov. 3, 1492. {with Scotland, 1502. War{with France, Feb. 4, 1512. {with Scotland, 1513. Peace with France, Aug. 7, 1514. War with{ditto, 1522. {Scotland, 1522. Peace with{France, 1527. {Scotland, 1542. War with Scotland, directly after. Peace with France and Scotland, June 7, 1546. War with{Scotland, 1547. {France, 1549. Peace with both, March 6, 1550. {civil, 1553. War{with France, June 7, 1557. {with Scotland, 1557. Peace with{France, April 2, 1559. {Scotland, 1560. War }with France{1562. Peace} {1564. War with{Scotland, 1570. {Spain, 1588. Peace with ditto, Aug. 18, 1604. War with{Spain, 1624. {France, 1627. Peace with Spain and France, April 14, 1629. War{civil, 1642. {with the Dutch, 1651. Peace with ditto, April 5, 1654. War with Spain, 1655. Peace with Spain, Sept. 10, 1660. War with{France, Jan. 26, 1666. {Denmark, Oct. 19, 1666. Peace with the French, Danes, and Dutch, Aug. 24, 1667. Peace with Spain, Feb. 13, 1668. War with the Algerines, Sept. 6, 1669. Peace with ditto, Nov. 19, 1671. War with the Dutch, March, 1672. Peace with ditto, Feb. 28, 1674. War with France, May 7, 1689. Peace general, Sept. 20, 1697. War with France, May 4, 1702. Peace of Utrecht, March 13, 1713. War with Spain, Dec. 1718. Peace with ditto, 1721. War with{Spain, 1739. {France, March 31, 1744. War with{France, 1756. {Spain, Jan. 4, 1762. Peace with France and Spain, Feb. 10, 1763. War with the caribbs of St. Vincent in 1773. War against America, commenced July 14, 1774. {with France, Feb. 6, 1778. War{with Spain, April 17, 1780. {with Holland, 1780. Peace with America,} France, } Sept. 3, 1783. Spain, } Holland,}
War against France by the English, Prussians, Austrians, and other German powers, in 1793, called the first coalition.
Peace between Prussia and the French Republic, 1795.
Peace between Spain and the French Republic, 1795.
Peace between the French and the Sardinians in 1796.
Peace between the French and the Austrians in 1797.
War between the British and Tippoo Saib in India, in 1797.
War against the French or the second coalition of the Austrians, Russians, Neapolitans, &c. 1798.
War with the Turks, and the invasion of Egypt, in 1798.
Peace between the French and the Russians in 1799.
Peace between the French and Austrians in 1800.
Preliminaries of peace commenced between the French and the Ottoman empire in consequence of the reduction of Egypt by the British forces in 1801.
Preliminaries of peace between France and Great Britain, &c. called the peace of Amiens, 1801.
War renewed against France in 1804 by England.
War renewed by Austria in 1805.
War by Prussia in 1806.
War renewed by Austria in April 1809. See Historical Dictionary of wars, battles, sieges, by the American editor of this work.
There are five different kinds of war, each of which is to be conducted differently the one from the other, viz. the offensive; the defensive; that between equal powers; the auxiliary, which is carried on out of our own territories to succor a state or ally, or to assist a weaker whom a more powerful nation has attacked; and a civil war.
Offensive war must be long meditated on in private before it be openly entered upon; when the success will depend upon two essential points: that the plan be justly formed, and the enterprize conducted with order. It should be well and maturely considered and digested, and with the greatest secrecy, lest, however able the leaders or council may be, some of the precautions necessary to be taken, be discovered. These precautions are infinite both at home and abroad.
Abroad, they consist in alliances and security not to be disturbed in the meditated expedition, foreign levies, and the buying up of warlike ammunition, as well to increase our own stores as to prevent the enemy from getting them.
The precautions at home, consist in providing for the security of our distant frontiers, levying new troops, or augmenting the old ones, with as little noise as possible; furnishing your magazines with ammunition; constructing carriages for artillery and provisions; buying up horses, which should be done as much as possible among your neighbors; both to prevent their furnishing the enemy, and to preserve your own for the cavalry and the particular equipages of the officers.
Defensive war, may be divided into three kinds. It is either a war sustained by a nation, which is suddenly attacked by another who is superior in troops and in means; or a nation makes this sort of war by choice on one side of its frontiers, while it carries on offensive war elsewhere; or it is a war become defensive by the loss of a battle.
A defensive war which a nation attacked by a superior enemy sustains, depends entirely upon the capacity of the general. His particular application should be, to chuse advantageous camps to stop the enemy, without, however, being obliged to fight him; to multiply small advantages; to harass and perplex the enemy in his foraging parties, and to oblige them to do it with great escorts; to attack their convoys; to render the passages of rivers or defiles as difficult to them as possible; to force them to keep together: if they want to attack a town, to throw in succors before it is invested; in short, in the beginning his chief aim should be, to acquire the enemy’s respect by his vigilance and activity, and by forcing him to be circumspect in his marches and manner of encampment, to gain time himself, and make the enemy lose it. An able general, carefully pursuing these maxims, will give courage to his soldiers, and to the inhabitants of the country; he gives time to his government to take proper precautions to resist the enemy who attacks him; and thus changes the nature of this disagreeable and vexatious kind of warfare.
The management of a defensive war requires more military judgment than that of an offensive one.
A war between equal powers, is that in which the neighboring states take no part, so long as the belligerent parties obtain no great advantage, the one over the other. This sort of war never should last long if you want to reap any advantages from it. As to its rules, they are entirely conformable to those already given; but we may look on it as a certain maxim in this sort of war, that the general who is the most active and penetrating, will ever in the end prevail over him, who possesses these qualities in a lesser degree; because, by his activity and penetration, he will multiply small advantages, till at last they procure him a decisive superiority. A general who is continually attentive to procure himself small advantages, ever obtains his end, which is to ruin the enemy’s army; in which case he changes the nature of the war, and makes it offensive; which should ever be the chief object of his prince.
Auxiliary WAR, is that in which a nation succors its neighbors, either in consequence of alliances or engagements entered into with them; or sometimes to prevent their falling under the power of an ambitious prince.
If it is in virtue of treaties, he observes them religiously, in furnishing the number of troops prescribed, and even offering to augment his quota, if required; or in making a diversion by attacking the common enemy, or its allies.
If it is to prevent a neighboring prince from being crushed by a power, who after this conquest may become dangerous to yourself, there are several measures to be taken for your own particular interest. One of the chief is, to exact from those you succor, the possession of some place in security, lest they make their peace without your knowlege, or to your prejudice.
The general, therefore, who is chosen for the command of this auxiliary corps, should have wisdom, penetration, and foresight; wisdom, to preserve a proper discipline in his corps, that the allied prince may have no cause to complain of him; foresight and penetration, to prevent his troops suffering for want of subsistence, or being exposed to the perils of war, but in proportion to their numbers with those of the allied prince; and, finally, that nothing shall pass without his knowlege, which may be prejudicial to his master.
Civil or intestine WAR, is that between subjects of the same realm, or between parties in the same state. In this sense we say, the civil wars of the Romans destroyed the republic; the civil wars of Grenada ruined the power of the Moors in Spain: the civil wars in England began 1641, and ended in the tyrant’s death.
Religious WAR, is war maintained in a state on account of religion, one of the parties refusing to tolerate the other.
Holy WAR, is that species of warfare which was anciently maintained by leagues and crusades, for the recovery of the Holy Land.
Civil and religious WARS are ever unhappy for the states who sustain them. These sorts of war, which the animosity of the different parties, and fanaticism, always carry beyond the bounds of humanity, and the duties of society, have in general, no other rules but those of the offensive and defensive. It has however always been observed, that civil wars form great men and good soldiers; because the rich and poor, citizens and laborers, being equally obliged to fight for their property and preservation, have all an opportunity of learning the art of war. This species of war may likewise be called revolutionary, with the additional circumstance, that in the latter sense it is of a more extensive nature.
WAR of opinion. See OPINION.
Articles of WAR.
SECT. I. Be it enacted by the senate and house of representatives of the United States of America, in Congress assembled, That from and after the passing of this act, the following shall be the rules and articles by which the armies of the United States shall be governed:
Art. 1. Every officer now in the army of the United States, shall, in six months from the passing of this act, and every officer who shall hereafter be appointed, shall before he enters on the duties of his office, subscribe these rules and regulations.
Art. 2. It is earnestly recommended to all officers and soldiers diligently to attend divine service; and all officers who shall behave indecently or irreverently at any place of divine worship, shall, if commissioned officers, be brought before a general court-martial, there to be publicly and severely reprimanded by the president; if non-commissioned officers or soldiers, every person so offending shall, for his first offence, forfeit one sixth of a dollar, to be deducted out of his next pay; for the second offence, he shall not only forfeit a like sum, but be confined twenty-four hours; and for every like offense shall suffer and pay in like manner; which money, so forfeited, shall be applied by the captain or senior officer of the troop or company, to the use of the sick soldiers of the company or troop to which the offender belongs.
Art. 3. Any non-commissioned officer or soldier who shall use any profane oath or execration shall incur the penalties expressed in the foregoing article, and a commissioned officer shall forfeit and pay for each and every such offence one dollar, to be applied as in the preceding article.
Art. 4. Every chaplain commissioned in the army or armies of the United States, who shall absent himself from the duties assigned him (except in cases of sickness or leave of absence) shall, on conviction thereof before a court-martial, be fined not exceeding one month’s pay, besides the loss of his pay during his absence; or be discharged, as the said court-martial shall judge proper.
Art. 5. Any officer or soldier who shall use contemptuous or disrespectful words against the president of the United States, against the vice-president thereof, against the congress of the United States, or against the chief magistrate or legislature of any of the United States in which he may be quartered, if a commissioned officer, shall be cashiered, or otherwise punished as a court-martial shall direct; if a non-commissioned officer or soldier, he shall suffer such punishment as shall be inflicted on him by the sentence of a court-martial.
Art. 6. Any officer or soldier who shall behave himself with contempt or disrespect towards his commanding officer, shall be punished according to the nature of his offence, by the judgment of a court-martial.
Art. 7. Any officer or soldier who shall begin, excite, cause, or join in any mutiny or sedition in any troop or company in the service of the United States, or in any party, post, detachment, or guard, shall suffer death, or such other punishment as by a court-martial shall be inflicted.
Art. 8. Any officer, non-commissioned officer, or soldier, who, being present at any mutiny or sedition, does not use his utmost endeavor to suppress the same, or coming to the knowlege of any intended mutiny, does not without delay, give information thereof to his commanding officer, shall be punished by the sentence of a court-martial with death or otherwise, according to the nature of his offence.
Art. 9. Any officer or soldier who shall strike his superior officer, or draw or lift up any weapon, or offer any violence against him, being in the execution of his office, on any pretence whatsoever, or shall disobey any lawful command of his superior officer, shall suffer death, or such other punishment as shall, according to the nature of his offence, be inflicted upon him by the sentence of a court-martial.
Art. 10. Every non-commissioned officer, or soldier, who shall inlist himself in the service of the United States, shall, at the time of his so inlisting, or within six days afterwards, have the articles for the government of the armies of the United States, read to him, and shall, by the officer who inlisted him, or by the commanding officer of the troop or company into which he was inlisted, be taken before the next justice of the peace, or chief magistrate of any city or town corporate, not being an officer of the army, or where recourse cannot be had to the civil magistrate, before the judge advocate, and, in his presence, shall take the following oath or affirmation: “I A. B. do solemnly swear, or affirm, (as the case may be) that I will bear true allegiance to the United States of America, and that I will serve them honestly and faithfully against all their enemies, or opposers, whatsoever, and observe and obey the orders of the president of the United States, and the orders of the officers appointed over me, according to the rules and articles for the government of the armies of the United States.” Which justice, magistrate, or judge advocate is to give the officer a certificate, signifying that the man inlisted, did take the said oath, or affirmation.
Art. 11. After a non-commissioned officer or soldier, shall have been duly inlisted and sworn, he shall not be dismissed the service without a discharge in writing; and no discharge granted to him shall be sufficient, which is not signed by a field officer of the regiment to which he belongs, or commanding officer, where no field officer of the regiment is present; and no discharge shall be given to a non-commissioned officer or soldier, before his term of service has expired, but by order of the president, the secretary of war, the commanding officer of a department, or the sentence of a general court-martial, nor shall a commissioned officer be discharged the service, but by order of the president of the United States, or by sentence of a general court-martial.
Art. 12. Every colonel, or other officer commanding a regiment, troop, or company, and actually quartered with it, may give furloughs to non-commissioned officers or soldiers, in such numbers, and for so long a time as he shall judge to be most consistent with the good of the service; and a captain or other inferior officer commanding a troop or company, or in any garrison, fort or barrack of the United States, (his field officer being absent), may give furloughs to non-commissioned officers or soldiers, for a time not exceeding twenty days in six months, but not to more than two persons to be absent at the same time, excepting some extraordinary occasion should require it.
Art. 13. At every muster, the commanding officer of each regiment, troop, or company there present, shall give to the commissary of musters, or other officer who musters the said regiment, troop, or company, certificates signed by himself, signifying how long such officers, as shall not appear at the said muster, have been absent, and the reason of their absence. In like manner, the commanding officer of every troop, or company, shall give certificates, signifying the reasons of the absence of the non-commissioned officers and private soldiers, which reasons, and time of absence, shall be inserted in the muster-rolls opposite the name of the respective absent officers and soldiers. The certificates shall, together with the muster-rolls, be remitted by the commissary of musters, or other officer mustering, to the department of war as speedily as the distance of the place will admit.
Art. 14. Every officer who shall be convicted, before a general court-martial, of having signed a false certificate, relating to the absence of either officer or private soldier, or relative to his or their pay, shall be cashiered.
Art. 15. Every officer who shall knowingly make a false muster of manor horse, and every officer or commissary of musters, who shall willingly sign, direct or allow the signing of muster-rolls, wherein such false muster is contained, shall, upon proof made thereof by two witnesses, before a general court-martial, be cashiered, and shall be therefore utterly disabled to have or hold any office or employment in the service of the United States.
Art. 16. Any commissary of musters or other officer, who shall be convicted of having taken money or other thing, by way of gratification, on the mustering any regiment, troop or company, or on the signing muster-rolls, shall be displaced from his office, and shall be thereby utterly disabled to have or hold any office or employment in the service of the United States.
Art. 17. Any officer who shall presume to muster a person as a soldier, who is not a soldier, shall be deemed guilty of having made a false muster, and shall suffer accordingly.
Art. 18. Every officer who shall knowingly make a false return to the department of war, or to any of his superior officers, authorised to call for such returns, of the state of the regiment, troop, or company, or garrison, under his command; or of the arms, ammunition, clothing, or other stores thereunto belonging, shall, on conviction thereof before a court-martial, be cashiered.
Art 19. The commanding officer of every regiment, troop, or independent company, or garrison of the United States, shall, in the beginning of every month, remit through the proper channels, to the department of war, an exact return of the regiment, troop, independent company, or garrison, under his command, specifying the names of officers then absent from their posts, and the reasons for, and the time of their absence. And any officer who shall be convicted of having, through neglect or design, omitted sending such returns, shall be punished according to the nature of his crime, by the judgment of a general court-martial.
Art. 20. All officers and soldiers, who have received pay, or have been duly inlisted in the service of the United States, and shall be convicted of having deserted the same, shall suffer death, or such other punishment as by sentence of a court-martial shall be inflicted.
Art. 21. Any non-commissioned officer or soldier, who shall, without leave from his commanding officer, absent himself from his troop, company, or detachment, shall, upon being convicted thereof, be punished according to the nature of his offence at the discretion of a court-martial.
Art. 22. No non-commissioned officer or soldier, shall inlist himself in any other regiment, troop, or company, without a regular discharge from the regiment, troop, or company, in which he last served, on the penalty of being reputed a deserter, and suffering accordingly. And in case any officer shall knowingly receive and entertain such non-commissioned officer or soldier, or shall not, after his being discovered to be a deserter, immediately confine him, and give notice thereof to the corps in which he last served, the said officer shall by a court-martial be cashiered.
Art. 23. Any officer or soldier, who shall be convicted of having advised or persuaded any other officer or soldier, to desert the service of the United States, shall suffer death, or such other punishment as shall be inflicted upon him by the sentence of a court-martial.
Art. 24. No officer or soldier shall use any reproachful or provoking speeches or gestures to another, upon pain, if an officer, of being put in arrest; if a soldier, confined, and of asking pardon of the party offended, in the presence of his commanding officer.
Art. 25. No officer or soldier shall send a challenge to another officer or soldier, to fight a duel, or accept a challenge, if sent, upon pain, if a commissioned officer, of being cashiered; if a non-commissioned officer or soldier, of suffering corporeal punishment at the discretion of a court-martial.
Art. 26. If any commissioned or non-commissioned officer commanding a guard, shall knowingly or willingly suffer any person whatsoever to go forth to fight a duel, he shall be punished as a challenger; and all seconds, promoters and carriers of challenges, in order to duels, shall be deemed principals, and be punished accordingly. And it shall be the duty of every officer, commanding an army, regiment, company, post, or detachment, who is knowing to a challenge being given, or accepted, by any officer, non-commissioned officer, or soldier, under his command, or has reason to believe the same to be the case, immediately to arrest and bring to trial such offenders.
Art. 27. All officers, of what condition soever, have power to part and quell all quarrels, frays, and disorders, though the persons concerned should belong to another regiment, troop, or company; and either to order officers into arrest, or non-commissioned officers or soldiers into confinement, until their proper superior officers shall be acquainted therewith; and whosoever shall refuse to obey such officer (though of an inferior rank) or shall draw his sword upon him, shall be punished at the discretion of a general court-martial.
Art. 28. Any officer or soldier, who shall upbraid another for refusing a challenge, shall himself be punished as a challenger; and all officers and soldiers are hereby discharged from any disgrace or opinion of disadvantage, which might arise from their having refused to accept of challenges, as they will only have acted in obedience to the laws, and done their duty as good soldiers, who subject themselves to discipline.
Art. 29. No sutler shall be permitted to sell any kind of liquors or victuals, or to keep their houses or shops open for the entertainment of soldiers, after nine at night, or before the beating of the reveilles, or upon Sundays, during divine service or sermon, on the penalty of being dismissed from all future sutling.
Art. 30. All officers commanding in the field, forts, barracks, or garrisons of the United States, are hereby required to see that the persons permitted to sutle, shall supply the soldiers with good and wholesome provision, or other articles, at a reasonable price, as they shall be answerable for their neglect.
Art. 31. No officer commanding in any of the garrisons, forts, or barracks of the United States, shall exact exorbitant prices for houses or stalls let out to sutlers, or connive at the like exactions in others; nor by his own authority, and for his private advantage, lay any duty or imposition upon, or be interested in the sale of any victuals, liquors, or other necessaries of life, brought into the garrison, fort, or barracks, for the use of the soldiers, on the penalty of being discharged from the service.
Art. 32. Every officer commanding in quarters, garrisons, or on the march, shall keep good order, and to the utmost of his power, redress all abuses or disorders, which may be committed by any officer or soldier under his command; if upon complaint made to him of officers or soldiers beating, or otherwise ill treating any person, of disturbing fairs or markets, or of committing any kinds of riots, to the disquieting of the citizens of the United States, he, the said commander, who shall refuse or omit to see justice done to the offender or offenders, and reparation made to the party or parties injured, as far as part of the offender’s pay shall enable him or them, shall, upon proof thereof, be cashiered or punished, as a general court-martial shall direct.
Art. 33. When any commissioned officer or soldier, shall be accused of a capital crime, or of having used violence, or committed any offence against the persons or property of any citizen of any of the United States, such as is punishable by the known laws of the land, the commanding officer, and officers of every regiment, troop, or company, to which the person or persons, so accused, shall belong, are hereby required, upon application duly made by, or in behalf of the party, or parties injured, to use their utmost endeavors to deliver over such accused person or persons, to the civil magistrate, and likewise to be aiding and assisting to the officers of justice, in apprehending and securing the person or persons so accused, in order to bring him or them to trial. If any commanding officer or officers, shall wilfully neglect, or shall refuse, upon the application aforesaid, to deliver over such accused person or persons, to the civil magistrates, or to be aiding and assisting to the officers of justice in apprehending such person or persons, the officer or officers, so offending, shall be cashiered.
Art. 34. If any officer shall think himself wronged by his colonel, or the commanding officer of the regiment, and shall, upon due application being made to him, be refused redress, he may complain to the general, commanding in the state, or territory where such regiment shall be stationed, in order to obtain justice; who is hereby required to examine into the said complaint, and take proper measures for redressing the wrong complained of, and transmit as soon as possible, to the department of war, a true state of such complaint, with the proceedings had thereon.
Art. 35. If any inferior officer, or soldier, shall think himself wronged by his captain, or other officer, he is to complain thereof to the commanding officer of the regiment, who is hereby required to summon a regimental court-martial, for the doing justice to the complainant; from which regimental court-martial, either party may, if he thinks himself still aggrieved, appeal to a general court-martial. But if, upon a second hearing, the appeal shall appear vexatious and groundless, the person, so appealing, shall be punished at the discretion of the said court-martial.
Art. 36. Any commissioned officer, store keeper, or commissary, who shall be convicted, at a general court-martial, of having sold, without a proper order for that purpose, embezzled, misapplied, or wilfully, or through neglect, suffered any of the provisions, forage, arms, clothing, ammunition, or other military stores, belonging to the United States, to be spoiled, or damaged, shall at his own expence, make good the loss or damage, and shall moreover, forfeit all his pay, and be dismissed from the service.
Art. 37. Any non-commissioned officer or soldier, who shall be convicted, at a regimental court-martial, of having sold, or designedly, or through neglect, wasted the ammunition delivered out to him, to be employed in the service of the United States, shall be punished at the discretion of such court.
Art. 38. Every non-commissioned officer or soldier, who shall be convicted before a court-martial, as having sold, lost, or spoiled, through neglect, his horse, arms, clothes, or accoutrements, shall be put under such weekly stoppages (not exceeding the half of his pay) as such court-martial shall judge sufficient for repairing the loss or damage; and shall suffer confinement or such other corporeal punishment as his crime shall deserve.
Art. 39. Every officer, who shall be convicted before a court-martial, of having embezzled, or misapplied any money with which he may have been entrusted, for the payment of the men under his command, or for enlisting men into the service, or for other purposes, if a commissioned officer, shall be cashiered, and compelled to refund the money; if a non-commissioned officer, shall be reduced to the ranks, be put under stoppages until the money be made good, and suffer such corporeal punishment as such court-martial shall direct.
Art. 40. Every captain of a troop, or company, is charged with the arms, accoutrements, ammunition, clothing, or other warlike stores belonging to the troop, or company under his command, which he is to be accountable for to his colonel, in case of their being lost, spoiled, or damaged, not by unavoidable accidents, or on actual service.
Art. 41. All non-commissioned officers and soldiers, who shall be found one mile from the camp, without leave, in writing, from their commanding officer, shall suffer such punishment as shall be inflicted upon them by the sentence of a court-martial.
Art. 42. No officer or soldier, shall lie out of his quarters, garrison, or camp, without leave from his superior officer, upon penalty of being punished according to the nature of his offence, by the sentence of a court-martial.
Art. 43. Every non-commissioned officer and soldier shall retire to his quarters or tent, at the beating of the retreat; in default of which he shall be punished according to the nature of his offence.
Art. 44. No officer, non-commissioned officer or soldier, shall fail in repairing, at the time fixed, to the place of parade, of exercise or other rendezvous, appointed by his commanding officer, if not prevented by sickness, or some other evident necessity; or shall go from the said place of rendezvous, without leave from his commanding officer, before he shall be regularly dismissed or relieved, on the penalty of being punished according to the nature of his offence by the sentence of a court-martial.
Art. 45. Any commissioned officer, who shall be found drunk on his guard, party, or other duty, shall be cashiered. Any non-commissioned officer or soldier so offending, shall suffer such corporeal punishment as shall be inflicted by the sentence of a court-martial.
Art. 46. Any centinel who shall be found sleeping upon his post, or shall leave it before he shall be regularly relieved, shall suffer death, or such other punishment as shall be inflicted by the sentence of a court-martial.
Art. 47. No soldier belonging to any regiment, troop, or company, shall hire another to do his duty for him, or be excused from duty, but in cases of sickness, disability, or leave of absence; and every such soldier found guilty of hiring his duty, as also the party so hired to do another’s duty, shall be punished at the discretion of a regimental court-martial.
Art. 48. And every non-commissioned officer conniving at such hiring of duty aforesaid, shall be reduced; and every commissioned officer, knowing and allowing such ill practices in the service, shall be punished by the judgment of a general court-martial.
Art. 49. Any officer belonging to the service of the United States, who, by discharging of firearms, drawing of swords, beating of drums, or by any other means whatsoever, shall occasion false alarms in camp, garrison, or quarters, shall suffer death, or such other punishment as shall be ordered by the sentence of a general court-martial.
Art. 50. Any officer or soldier, who shall, without urgent necessity, or without the leave of his superior officer, quit his guard, platoon, or division, shall be punished according to the nature of his offence, by the sentence of a court-martial.
Art. 51. No officer or soldier shall do violence to any person who brings provisions or other necessaries to the camp, garrison or quarters, of the forces of the United States, employed in any parts out of the said states, upon pain of death, or such other punishment as a court-martial shall direct.
Art. 52, Any officer or soldier, who shall misbehave himself before the enemy, run away, or shamefully abandon any fort, post, or guard, which he or they may be commanded to defend, or speak words inducing others to do the like; or shall cast away his arms and ammunition, or who shall quit his post or colors to plunder and pillage, every such offender being duly convicted thereof, shall suffer death, or such other punishment as shall be ordered by the sentence of a general court-martial.
Art. 53. Any person belonging to the armies of the United States, who shall make known the watch-word to any person who is not entitled to receive it, according to the rules and discipline of war, or shall presume to give a parole or watch-word, different from what he received, shall suffer death, or such other punishment as shall be ordered by the sentence of a general court-martial.
Art. 54. All officers and soldiers are to behave themselves orderly in quarters, and on their march; and whosoever shall commit any waste, or spoil, either in walks of trees, parks, warrens, fish ponds, houses, or gardens, corn fields, enclosures of meadows, or shall maliciously destroy any property whatsoever, belonging to the inhabitants of the United States, unless by order of the then commander in chief of the armies of the said states, shall (besides such penalties as they are liable to by law,) be punished according to the nature and degree of the offence, by the judgment of a regimental or general court-martial.
Art. 55. Whosoever, belonging to the armies of the United States, employed in foreign parts, shall force a safe-guard, shall suffer death.
Art. 56. Whosoever shall relieve the enemy with money, victuals, or ammunition, or shall knowingly harbor or protect an enemy, shall suffer death, or such other punishment as shall be ordered by the sentence of a court-martial.
Art. 57. Whosoever shall be convicted of holding correspondence with, or giving intelligence to the enemy, either directly or indirectly, shall suffer death, or such other punishment as shall be ordered by the sentence of a court-martial.
Art. 58. All public stores taken in the enemy’s camp, towns, forts, or magazines, whether of artillery, ammunition, clothing, forage, or provisions, shall be secured for the service of the United States; for the neglect of which the commanding officer is to be answerable.
Art. 59. If any commander of any garrison, fortress or post, shall be compelled, by the officers and soldiers under his command, to give up to the enemy, or to abandon it; the commissioned officers, non-commissioned officers, or soldiers, who shall be convicted of having so offended, shall suffer death, or such other punishment as shall be inflicted upon them by the sentence of a court-martial.
Art. 60. All sutlers and retainers to the camp, and all persons whatsoever, serving with the armies of the U. States in the field, though not inlisted soldiers, are to be subject to orders, according to the rules and discipline of war.
Art. 61. Officers having brevets, or commissions, of a prior date to those of the regiment in which they serve, may take place in courts-martial and on detachments, when composed of different corps, according to the ranks given them in their brevets, or dates of their former commissions; but in the regiment, troop, or company, to which such officers belong, they shall do duty and take rank, both in courts-martial and on detachments, which shall be composed only of their own corps, according to the commissions by which they are mustered in the said corps.
Art. 62. If upon marches, guards, or in quarters, different corps of the army shall happen to join, or do duty together, the officer highest in rank of the line of the army, marine corps, or militia, by commission there, on duty, or in quarters, shall command the whole, and give orders for what is needful to the service, unless otherwise specially directed by the president of the U. States, according to the nature of the case.
Art. 63. The functions of the engineers being generally confined to the most elevated branch of military science, they are not to assume, nor are they subject to be ordered on any duty beyond the line of their immediate profession, except by the special order of the president of the U. States; but they are to receive every mark of respect, to which their rank in the army may entitle them, respectively, and are liable to be transferred, at the discretion of the president, from one corps to another, regard being paid to rank.
Art. 64. General courts-martial may consist of any number of commissioned officers, from five to thirteen, inclusively, but they shall not consist of less than thirteen, where that number can be convened, without manifest injury to the service.
Art. 65. Any general officer commanding an army, or colonel commanding a separate department, may appoint general courts-martial, whenever necessary. But no sentence of a court-martial shall be carried into execution until after the whole proceedings shall have been laid before the officer ordering the same, or the officer commanding the troops for the time being; neither shall any sentence of a general court-martial, in time of peace, extending to the loss of life, or the dismission of a commissioned officer, or which shall, either in time of peace or war, respect a general officer, be carried into execution, until after the whole proceedings shall have been transmitted to the secretary of war, to be laid before the president of the U. States, for his confirmation or disapproval, and orders in the case. All other sentences may be confirmed and executed by the officer ordering the court to assemble, or the commanding officer, for the time being, as the case may be.
Art. 66. Every officer commanding a regiment, or corps, may appoint, for his own regiment, or corps, courts-martial, to consist of three commissioned officers, for the trial and punishment of offences, not capital, and decide upon their sentences. For the same purpose, all officers, commanding any of the garrisons, forts, barracks, or other places, where the troops consist of different corps, may assemble courts-martial, to consist of three commissioned officers, and decide upon their sentences.
Art. 67. No garrison, or regimental court-martial shall have the power to try capital cases, or commissioned officers; neither shall they inflict a fine exceeding one month’s pay, nor imprison, nor put to hard labor, any non-commissioned officer or soldier, for a longer time than one month.
Art. 68. Whenever it may be found convenient and necessary to the public service, the officers of the marines shall be associated with the officers of the land forces, for the purpose of holding courts-martial and trying offenders belonging to either; and in such cases the orders of the senior officer of either corps, who may be present and duly authorised, shall be received and obeyed.
Art. 69. The judge advocate, or some person deputed by him, or by the general or officer commanding the army, detachment, or garrison, shall prosecute in the name of the U. States, but shall so far consider himself as counsel for the prisoner, after the said prisoner shall have made his plea, as to object to any leading question to any of the witnesses, or any question to the prisoner, the answer to which might tend to criminate himself; and to administer to each member of the court, before they proceed upon any trial, the following oath, which shall also be taken by all members of the regimental and garrison courts-martial:
“You A. B. do swear that you will well and truly try and determine, according to evidence, the matter now before you, between the United States of America and the prisoner to be tried; and that you will duly administer justice, according to the provisions of ‘An act establishing rules and articles for the government of the armies of the United States,’ without partiality, favor, or affection: and if any doubt shall arise, not explained by said articles, according to your conscience, the best of your understanding, and the custom of war in like cases: and you do further swear, that you will not divulge the sentence of the court until it shall be published by the proper authority: neither will you disclose or discover the vote or opinion of any particular member of the court-martial, unless required to give evidence thereof as a witness, by a court of justice, in a due course of law. So help you God.”
And as soon as the said oath shall have been administered to the respective members, the president of the court shall administer to the judge advocate, or person officiating as such, an oath in the following words:
“You A. B. do swear, that you will not disclose or discover the vote or opinion of any particular member of the court-martial, unless required to give evidence thereof as a witness, by a court of justice in due course of law; nor divulge the sentence of the court to any but the proper authority, until it shall be duly disclosed by the same. So help you God.”
Art. 70. When a prisoner arraigned before a general court-martial shall, from obstinacy and deliberate design, stand mute or answer foreign to the purpose, the court may proceed to trial and judgment as if the prisoner had regularly pleaded not guilty.
Art 71. When a member shall be challenged by a prisoner, he must state his cause of challenge, of which the court shall, after due deliberation, determine the relevancy or validity, and decide accordingly; and no challenge to more than one member at a time shall be received by the court.
Art. 72. All the members of a court-martial are to behave with decency and calmness; and in giving their votes, are to begin with the youngest in commission.
Art. 73. All persons who give evidence before a court-martial, are to be examined on oath or affirmation in the following form:
“You swear or affirm (as the case may be) the evidence you shall give in the cause now in hearing, shall be the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth. So help you God.”
Art. 74. On the trials of cases not capital, before courts-martial, the deposition of witnesses not in the line of staff of the army, may be taken before some justice of the peace, and read in evidence: provided, the prosecutor and the person accused are present at the taking the same, or are duly notified thereof.
Art. 75. No officer shall be tried but by a general court-martial, nor by officers of an inferior rank, if it can be avoided: nor shall any proceedings or trials be carried on excepting between the hours of eight in the morning, and three in the afternoon, excepting in cases, which, in the opinion, of the officer appointing the court-martial, require immediate example.
Art. 76. No person whatsoever shall use any menacing words, signs, or gestures, in presence of a court-martial, or shall cause any disorder or riot, or disturb their proceedings, on the penalty of being punished, at the discretion of the said court-martial.
Art. 77. Whenever any officer shall be charged with a crime, he shall be arrested and confined in his barracks, quarters, or tent, and deprived of his sword, by the commanding officer. And any officer who shall leave his confinement before he shall be set at liberty by his commanding officer, or by a superior officer, shall be cashiered.
Art. 78. Non-commissioned officers and soldiers, charged with crimes, shall be confined, until tried by a court-martial, or released by proper authority.
Art. 79. No officer or soldier who shall be put in arrest, shall continue in confinement more than eight days, or until such time as a court-martial can be assembled.
Art. 80. No officer commanding a guard, or provost marshal, shall refuse to receive or keep any prisoner committed to his charge, by an officer belonging to the forces of the United States; provided the officer committing, shall, at the same time, deliver an account in writing, signed by himself, of the crime with which the said prisoner is charged.
Art. 81. No officer commanding a guard, or provost marshal, shall presume to release any person committed to his charge, without proper authority for so doing, nor shall he suffer any person to escape, on the penalty of being punished for it by the sentence of a court-martial.
Art. 82. Every officer or provost marshal, to whose charge prisoners shall be committed, shall, within twenty four hours after such commitment, or as soon as he shall be relieved from his guard, make report in writing, to the commanding officer, of their names, their crimes, and the names of the officers who committed them, on the penalty of being punished for disobedience or neglect, at the discretion of a court-martial.
Art. 83. Any commissioned officer convicted before a general court-martial of conduct unbecoming an officer and a gentleman, shall be dismissed the service.
Art. 84. In cases where a court-martial may think it proper to sentence a commissioned officer to be suspended from command, they shall have power also to suspend his pay and emoluments for the same time, according to the nature and heinousness of the offence.
Art. 85. In all cases where a commissioned officer is cashiered for cowardice or fraud, it shall be added in the sentence, that the crime, name, and place of abode and punishment of the delinquent, be published in the newspapers in and about the camp, and of the particular state from which the offender came, or where he usually resides, after which it shall be deemed scandalous for an officer to associate with him.
Art. 86. The commanding officer of any post or detachment, in which there shall not be a number of officers adequate to form a general court-martial, shall, in cases which require the cognizance of such a court, report to the commanding officer of the department, who shall order a court to be assembled at the nearest post or detachment, and the party accused, with necessary witnesses, to be transported to the place where the said court shall be assembled.
Art. 87. No person shall be sentenced to suffer death, but by the concurrence of two thirds of the members of a general court-martial, nor except in the cases herein expressly mentioned; nor shall more than fifty lashes be inflicted on any offender, at the discretion of a court-martial; and no officer, non-commissioned officer, soldier, or follower of the army, shall be tried a second time for the same offence.
Art. 88. No person shall be liable to be tried and punished by a general court-martial for any offence which shall appear to have been committed more than two years before the issuing of the order for such trial, unless the person, by reason of having absented himself or some other manifest impediment, shall not have been amenable to justice within that period.
Art. 89. Every officer authorised to order a general court-martial, shall have power to pardon or mitigate any punishment ordered by such court, except the sentence of death, or of cashiering an officer; which, in the cases where he has authority (by article 65) to carry them into execution, he may suspend, until the pleasure of the president of the United States can be known; which suspension, together with copies of the proceedings of the court-martial, the said officer shall immediately transmit to the president, for his determination. And the colonel or commanding officer of the regiment or garrison, where any regimental or garrison court-martial shall be held, may pardon or mitigate any punishment ordered by such court to be inflicted.
Art. 90. Every judge advocate, or person officiating as such, at any general court-martial, shall transmit, with as much expedition as the opportunity of time and distance of place can admit, the original proceedings and sentence of such court-martial, to the secretary of war, which said original proceedings and sentence shall be carefully kept and preserved in the office of said secretary, to the end that the persons entitled thereto may be enabled, upon application to the said office, to obtain copies thereof.
The party tried by any general court-martial shall, upon demand thereof made by himself or by any person or persons in his behalf, be entitled to a copy of the sentence and proceedings of such court-martial.
Art. 91. In cases where the general or commanding officer may order a court of inquiry to examine into the nature of any transaction, accusation, or imputation against any officer or soldier, the said court shall consist of one or more officers, not exceeding three, and a judge advocate, or other suitable person as a recorder, to reduce the proceedings and evidence to writing, all of whom shall be sworn to the faithful performance of their duty. This court shall have the same power to summon witnesses as a court-martial, and to examine them on oath. But they shall not give their opinion on the merits of the case, excepting they shall be thereto specially required. The parties accused shall also be permitted to cross examine and interrogate the witnesses, so as to investigate fully the circumstances in question.
Art. 92. The proceedings of a court of inquiry must be authenticated by the signature of the recorder and the president, and delivered to the commanding officer: and the said proceedings may be admitted as evidence by a court-martial, in cases not capital, or extending to the dismission of an officer, provided that the circumstances are such, that oral testimony cannot be obtained. But as courts of inquiry may be perverted to dishonorable purposes, and may be considered as engines of destruction to military merit, in the hands of weak and envious commandants, they are hereby prohibited, unless directed by the president of the United States, or demanded by the accused.
Art. 93. The judge advocate, or recorder, shall administer to the members the following oath:
“You shall well and truly examine and inquire, according to your evidence, into the matter now before you, without partiality, favor, affection, prejudice, or hope of reward. So help you God.”
After which the president shall administer to the judge advocate, or recorder, the following oath:
“You, A. B. do swear that you will, according to your best abilities, accurately and impartially record the proceedings of the court, and the evidence to be given in the case in hearing. So help you God.”
The witnesses shall take the same oath as witnesses sworn before a court-martial.
Art. 94. When any commissioned officer shall die or be killed in the service of the United States, the major of the regiment, or the officer doing the major’s duty in his absence, or in any post or garrison, the second officer in command, or the assistant military agent, shall immediately secure all his effects or equipage, then in camp or quarters, and shall make an inventory thereof, and forthwith transmit the same to the office of the department of war, to the end that his executors or administrators may receive the same.
Art. 95. When any non-commissioned officer, or soldier, shall die, or be killed in the service of the United States, the then commanding officer of the troop, or company, shall, in the presence of two other commissioned officers, take an account of what effects he died possessed of, above his arms and accoutrements, and transmit the same to the office of the department of war; which said effects are to be accounted for, and paid to the representatives of such deceased non-commissioned officer or soldier. And in case any of the officers, so authorised to take care of the effects of deceased officers and soldiers, should, before they have accounted to their representatives for the same, have occasion to leave the regiment, or post, by preferment, or otherwise, they shall, before they be permitted to quit the same, deposit in the hands of the commanding officer, or of the assistant military agent, all the effects of such deceased non-commissioned officers and soldiers, in order that the same may be secured for, and paid to, their respective representatives.
Art. 96. All officers, conductors, gunners, matrosses, drivers, or other persons whatsoever, receiving pay, or hire, in the service of the artillery, or corps of engineers of the United States, shall be governed by the aforesaid rules and articles, and shall be subject to be tried by courts-martial, in like manner with the officers and soldiers of the other troops in the service of the United States.
Art. 97. The officers and soldiers of any troops, whether militia or others, being mustered and in pay of the U. States, shall, at all times, and in all places, when joined, or acting in conjunction with the regular forces of the U. States, be governed by these rules and articles of war, and shall be subject to be tried by courts-martial, in like manner with the officers and soldiers in the regular forces, save only, that such courts-martial shall be composed entirely of militia officers.
Art. 98. All officers, serving by commission from the authority of any particular state, shall on all detachments, courts-martial, or other duty, wherein they may be employed in conjunction with the regular forces of the U. States, take rank, next after all officers of the like grade in said regular forces, notwithstanding the commissions of such militia or state officers may be elder than the commissions of the officers of the regular forces of the U. States.
Art. 99. All crimes not capital, and all disorders and neglects which officers and soldiers may be guilty of, to the prejudice of good order and military discipline, though not mentioned in the foregoing articles of war, are to be taken cognizance of by a general or regimental court-martial, according to the nature and degree of the offence, and be punished at their discretion.
Art. 100. The president of the United States, shall have power to prescribe the uniform of the army.
Art. 101. The foregoing articles are to be read and published once in every six months, to every garrison, regiment, troop or company, mustered or to be mustered in the service of the U. States, and are to be duly observed and obeyed, by all officers and soldiers who are or shall be in said service.
SECT. II. And be it further enacted, That in time of war, all persons not citizens of, or owing allegiance to the U. States of America, who shall be found lurking as spies, in or about the fortifications or encampments of the armies of the U. States, or any of them, shall suffer death, according to the law and usage of nations, by sentence of a general court-martial.
SECT. III. And be it further enacted, That the rules and regulations, by which the armies of the U. States have heretofore been governed, and the resolves of Congress thereunto annexed, and respecting the same, shall, henceforth be void and of no effect, except so far as may relate to any transactions under them, prior to the promulgation of this act, at the several posts and garrisons respectively, occupied by any part of the army of the U. States. April 10, 1806.
Council of WAR, is an assembly of great officers called by a general, or commander, to deliberate with him on enterprizes and attempts to be made. On some occasions, council of war is also understood of an assembly of officers, sitting in judgment on delinquent soldiers, deserters, coward officers, &c.
WAR. This word is frequently prefixed or attached to things or persons, in order to distinguish their particular state or functions, viz.
WAR establishment. See ESTABLISHMENT.
WAR minister. See SECRETARY.
Secretary at WAR. An efficient character at the head of the war office, with whom all matters belonging to the army rest. See OFFICE.
WAR-Cry, was formerly customary in the armies of most nations, when they were just upon the point of engaging. Sometimes it consisted of tumultuous shouts, or horrid yells, uttered with an intent to strike terror into their adversaries; such as is now used by the Indians in America, called the war-whoop.
WARASDINS, a kind of Sclavonian soldiers, clothed like the Turks, with a sugar-loaf bonnet instead of a hat. Their arms are a fusee and pistols; the butt end of their fusee serves for a spade, when they have occasion to throw up earth.
To WARD. To guard; to watch; to defend; to parry any attack.
WARD. Watch; the act of guarding. A garrison or party stationed for defence of any place; a position of defence, or guard made by a weapon in fencing. That part of a lock, which, corresponding to the proper key, hinders any other from opening it. A district of a town; division of a building, &c. It is also used to denote one under the care and subject to the control of a guardian.
WARDEN. A keeper; a head officer.