A military dictionary (part 5 of 8)

MEASURE of velocity, in projectiles, and mechanics, the space passed over by a moving body in any given time. The space therefore must be divided into as many equal parts, as the time is conceived to be divided into: the quantity of space answering to such portion of time, is the measure of the velocity.

Measures then are various, according to the different kinds and dimensions of things measured. Hence arise lineal and longitudinal measures for lines or lengths; for square areas; and solid or cubic, for bodies and their capacities: all which again are very different in different countries and ages, and even many of them for different commodities. Hence also arise other divisions, of domestic and foreign, ancient and modern, dry and wet (or liquid) measures, &c.

Long MEASURE. The English standard long measure, or that whereby the quantities of things are ordinarily estimated, is the yard containing three English feet, equal to three Paris feet one inch and ³⁄₁₂ths of an inch, or ⁷⁄₉ths of a Paris ell. Its subdivisions are the foot, span, palm, inch, and barley-corn: its multipliers are the pace, fathom, pole, furlong, and mile.

TABLE, which shews the length in English lines of the several long measures, and the relation of foreign measures to 100 English feet.

LONG MEASURE.

The following examples will shew in what manner the proportion between the long measures of any two given countries may be ascertained.

Examples.

It is required to reduce 100 metres new measure of France into feet of Hamburgh.

The French metre measuring 472,27 English lines, and the Hamburgh foot 135,30, according to the table prefixed, I state the following equation:

100 metres = x 1 metre = 472,27 lines 135,30 lines = 1 foot Result 349,05 feet.

Reduce 100 feet of Hamburgh into metres of France.

100 feet = x 1 foot = 135,30 lines 472,27 lines = 1 metre Result 28,65 metres.

TABLE, which shews the contents in English square feet of the several land measures, and the relations of foreign measures to 100 acres English measure.

LAND MEASURE.

| | Con- | | | tents |Equiv. | |of each|to 100 | |measure|acres. | | -- | -- | | squ. | num. Places. | Measures. | feet.| 100 -----------------+---------------------------+-------+------ Amsterdam |morgen | 87630| 49,71 Basil |juchart | 34368|126,75 Berlin |great morgen | 61182| 71,20 |little morgen | 27531|158,22 Bern |juchart field measure | 28979|150,32 |juchart forest measure | 41729|104,39 Dantzic |morgen | 59927| 72,69 Denmark |tœnde-hart-korn | 118715| 36,69 England |acre | 43560|100, Florence |soccate | 53461| 81,48 France |arpent de Paris | 36865|118,16 |arpent des eaux et forêts| 55071| 79,10 |hectare | 107830| 40,40 Franconia |morgen | 39157|111,25 Geneva |journée | 55707| 80,02 Hamburgh |morgen | 135941| 32,04 Hanover |morgen | 28050|155,29 Ireland |acre | 70560| 61,73 Rhine |morgen land measure | 18354|237,33 |ditto for forests | 24472|178, |ditto for vineyards | 16994|256,32 |thauen | 13767|316,40 |juchart | 9178|474,60 Russia |dessaetina | 124620| 34,95 Saxony |acker | 59450| 73,27 |morgen, Dresden measure | 29725|146,54 Schleswig |pfluge | 190350| 22,88 Scotland |acre | 55354| 78,70 Spain |fanegada | 48215| 90,35 |aranzada | 40514|107,52 Sweden |tuna land measure | 53218| 81,58 Switzerland |fauxe | 70818| 61,51 |morgen | 35409|123,02 Vienna |jochen | 63728| 68,35 Wirtemburg |great morgen | 61182| 71,20 |little morgen | 35849|121,51 Zurich |juchart | 34941|124,67 |ditto for forests | 38823|112,20

The following examples will shew in what manner the proportion between the land measures of any two given countries may be ascertained.

Examples.

It is required to reduce 100 dessaetinas of Russia into fanegadas of Spain.

The dessaetina measuring 124620 square feet of England, and the fanegada 48215, according to the table prefixed, I state the following equation:

100 dessaetinas = x 1 dessaetina = 124620 square feet 48215 square ft. = 1 fanegada Result 258,47 fanegadas.

Reduce 100 fanegadas into dessaetinas.

100 fanegadas = x 1 fanegada = 48215 square feet 124620 square ft. = 1 dessaetina Result 38,69 dessaetinas.

TABLE, which shews the length in English feet of the several itinerary measures, and the relation of those measures to 1 degree of the terrestrial meridian, equal to 364420 English feet.

ITINERARY MEASURE.

| | Length |Equiv. | | of each| to 1 | | measure|degree | | -- | -- | | | num. Places. | Measures. | Feet. | 100 -----------+------------------+--------+------ Arabia |milla | 6441 | 56,58 Brandenburg|meile |34725 | 10,50 Denmark |mil |24704 | 14,75 England |mile by land | 5280 | 69,02 |mile by sea | 6073²⁄₃| 60, |league marine |18221 | 20, Flanders |mille |20587 | 17,70 France |lieue terrestre |14576⁴⁄₅| 25, |lieue moyenne |16398 | 22,22 |lieue de poste |12784 | 28,50 |lieue marine |18221 | 20, |myriametre |32797 | 11,11 Germany |meile |20587 | 17,70 |meile geographical|24294²⁄₃| 15, Hamburgh |meile |24704 | 14,75 Holland |meile |19212 | 18,97 Hungary |meile |27378 | 13,31 India |parasang |12147¹⁄₃| 30, Ireland |mile | 9110¹⁄₂| 40, Italy |milla | 6073²⁄₃| 60, Lithuania |meile |29336 | 12,42 Persia |parasang |16356 | 22,28 Poland |meile |18221 | 20, Portugal |legua |20245⁵⁄₉| 18, Prussia |meile |25409 | 14,34 Russia |werste | 3500 |104,12 Saxony |meile |29700 | 12,27 Scotland |mile | 5952 | 61,23 Silesia |meile |21250 | 17,15 Spain |legua of Castille |21958 | 16,60 |legua juridica |13724 | 26,55 |legua maritima |18221 | 20, |milla maritima | 6073²⁄₃| 60, Sweden |mile |35050 | 10,40 Switzerland|meile |27450 | 13,28 Turkey |berri | 5476 | 66,55

The following example will shew in what manner the proportion between the itinerary measures of any two given countries may be ascertained.

Reduce 1 myriametre new French measure into miles of England.

The length of the myriametre being 32797 English feet, and that of the mile 5280, I state the following equation:

1 myriametre = x 1 myriametre = 32797 feet 5280 feet = 1 mile Result 6,21 miles.

TABLE, which shews the quantity of English cubic inches contained by each of the corn measures, and the relation of foreign measures to 10 quarters Winchester measure.

CORN MEASURE.

[12] The litre, or the unit of French measures of capacity, is therefore equivalent to 61 English cubic inches.

The following examples will shew in what manner the proportion between the measures of any two given countries may be ascertained.

Examples.

It is required to reduce 100 alquiers of Lisbon into fanegas of Cadiz.

The alquier containing 824 cubic inches, and the fanega 3311, according to the table prefixed, I state the following equation:

100 alquiers = x 1 alquier = 824 cubic inches 3311 cubic inches = 1 fanega Result 24,89 fanegas.

Reduce 100 fanegas of Cadiz into alquiers of Lisbon.

100 fanegas = x 1 fanega = 3311 cubic inches 824 cubic inches = 1 alquier Result 401,82 alquiers.

TABLE, which shews the quantity of English cubic inches contained by each of the measures used in the sale of liquids, and the relation of foreign measures to 100 English gallons wine measure.

LIQUID MEASURE.

| | Contents| Equiv. | | of each | to 100 | | measure |gallons | | -- | -- | | cubic | num. Places. | Measures. | in. | 100 ----------------------+----------------------+---------+------- Alicante |cantara | 622 | 37,14 Altona |tonne of 32 stubgens | 7067 | 3,27 Amsterdam |steken | 1160 | 19,91 |virtel | 442¹⁄₂ | 52,20 |stoopen | 145 |159,31 |mingel | 72¹⁄₂ |318,62 Ancona |boccale | 87 |265,51 Antwerp |stoopen | 192¹⁄₄ |120,15 Arragon |cantara | 585 | 39,49 Augsburg |maas | 90¹⁄₃ |255,72 Barcelona |carga wine measure | 7599 | 3,04 |carga oil measure | 7394 | 3,12 Bari |salm oil measure |10086 | 2,29 Basil |pot new measure | 76¹⁄₅ |303,15 Berlin |nass or maas | 70¹⁄₂ |329,41 Bern |maas | 100¹⁄₂ |229,85 Bologna |corba | 4450 | 5,13 Bordeaux |velte | 453 | 51, Bremen |stubgen | 193¹⁄₂ |119,38 Breslaw |quart | 42¹⁄₃ |545,67 Brunswick |stubgen | 223³⁄₄ |103,24 Cadiz |see Spain | | Canary Islands |pipa |26794 | ,86 Canea |miscala oil measure | 686 | 33,67 Cassel |viertel | 499¹⁄₂ | 46,25 Cognac |velte | 447¹⁄₂ | 51,62 Cologne |viertel | 365 | 63,29 Constantinople |almud | 319¹⁄₄ | 72,36 Dantzic |stof wine measure | 104³⁄₅ |220,84 |stof beer measure | 140¹⁄₄ |164,70 Denmark |ahm | 9128 | 2,53 |kanne wine measure | 117³⁄₄ |196,18 |tœnde beer measure | 8011 | 2,88 |tœnde pitch measure | 7067 | 3,27 Dijon |quartaut | 6176 | 3,74 Dresden |anker regular measure | 2055 | 11,24 |tonne beer measure | 5993 | 3,85 |kanen great measure | 85³⁄₈ |269,79 |kanen small measure | 57 |405,27 Dunkirk |pot | 138 |167,39 England |gallon wine measure | 231 |100, |gallon beer measure | 282 | 81,91 Ferrara |secchia | 624 | 37,02 Florence |barile oil measure | 1940 | 11,91 |barile wine measure | 2425 |953 |fiascho | 121 |190,90 |boccale | 60¹⁄₂ |381,80 France |hectolitre | 6100 | 3,79 |litre | 61 |378,69 Francfort on the Maine|viertel | 450 | 51,33 Gallipoli |salma | 9392 | 2,46 Geneva |pot | 58 |398,27 Genoa |rubbo oil measure | 521 | 44,34 |pinta wine measure | 105 |220, Gotha |stubgen | 206³⁄₄ |111,73 Hamburgh |viertel | 442 | 52,26 |stubgen | 221 |104,52 |kanne | 110¹⁄₂ |209,05 |tonne beer measure |10594 | 2,18 |tonne fish oil measure| 7062 | 3,27 Hanover |stubgen | 237 | 97,47 |tonne beer measure | 6163 | 3,75 |tonne honey measure | 6044 | 3,82 Heidelberg |viertel | 562¹⁄₄ | 41,08 Hungaria |eimer | 4470 | 5,17 Königsberg |stof | 87¹⁄₂ |264, Leghorn |barile oil measure | 1940 | 11,91 |barile wine measure | 2425 | 9,53 |fiascho | 121 |190,90 |boccale | 60¹⁄₂ |381,80 Leipsic |eimer | 4625 | 5,00 |kanne | 73²⁄₅ |314,71 Lisle |lot | 128 |180,47 Lisbon |almude | 1040 | 22,21 |alquier | 520 | 44,42 |canhada | 86²⁄₃ |266,54 Lubec |stubgen | 220³⁄₄ |104,65 Lucca |copa oil measure | 6088 | 3,79 Lyons |pot | 58¹⁄₁₀|397,62 Majorca |cortan oil measure | 251⁵⁄₈ | 91,80 Malaga |arroba | 947 | 24,39 Mantua |moggio oil measure | 6789 | 3,40 Marseilles |millerolle | 3640 | 6,35 |scandal | 910 | 25,38 Massa |barile oil measure | 2160 | 10,69 Mentz |maass | 113³⁄₄ |203,08 Messina |salma wine measure | 5270 | 4,38 |caffise oil measure | 527 | 43,83 Minorca |quartillo | 349¹⁄₂ | 66,09 Montpellier |pot wine measure | 64¹⁄₈ |360,23 |pot oil measure | 71³⁄₈ |323,64 Naples |stara oil measure | 3407 | 6,78 |barile wine measure | 2541 | 9,09 Narva |stof | 78³⁄₅ |293,90 Nice |rubbo oil measure | 515 | 44,85 North |barrel pitch measure | 7067 | 3,27 Nuremberg |maas tavern measure | 60¹⁄₂ |381,81 Oneglia |barile oil measure | 3783 | 6,11 Oporto |aliquer | 675³⁄₄ | 34,18 |canhade | 112⁵⁄₈ |205,10 Osnaburg |kanne | 74³⁄₈ |310,58 Ovieda |quartillo | 34¹⁄₂ |669,56 Paris |setier | 464⁴⁄₅ | 49,70 |pinte | 58¹⁄₁₀|397,62 |litre new measure | 61 |378,69 Pernau |stof | 78³⁄₅ |293,90 Pola |salma | 9196 | 2,51 Prague |pint | 116 |199,14 Puglia |staja | 940 | 24,57 Ratisbon |viertel | 216¹⁄₂ |106,70 Revel |stof | 72¹⁄₂ |318,62 Riga |stof | 75 | 308, Rochelle |velt | 447¹⁄₂ | 51,62 Rome |boccale | 79⁴⁄₅ |289,47 Rotterdam |stoopen | 156 |148,08 Russia |wedra | 751 | 30,76 |kruska | 93⁷⁄₈ |246,07 Saragossa |cantara | 584 | 39,55 Schafhausen |maas | 79⁴⁄₅ |289,47 Scotland |pint old measure | 103²⁄₅ |223,40 Sicily |caffise | 695 | 33,24 Spain |moyo wine measure |15152 | 1,52 |cantara ditto | 947 | 24,39 |azumbre ditto | 118³⁄₈ |195,14 |quartillo ditto | 29³⁄₅ |780,40 |arroba oil measure | 740 | 31,22 |quartilla ditto | 185 |124,86 |libra ditto | 29³⁄₅ |780,40 Stettin |nœssel | 44³⁄₄ |516,20 Stralsund |stubgen | 237 | 97,47 Strasburg |schoppen | 29³⁄₅ |780,40 Sweden |kanna | 159⁵⁄₈ |144,71 Toulon |millerolle | 3927 | 5,88 Trieste |orna oil measure | 4003 | 5,77 |barile wine measure | 4158 | 5,56 Tripoli |mataro | 1375 | 16,80 Tunis |mataro oil measure | 1155 | 20, |mataro wine measure | 577¹⁄₂ | 40, Turin |pint | 95¹⁄₂ |241,89 Valencia |cantara | 775⁵⁄₈ | 29,78 Venice |miro oil measure | 962 | 24, |secchia wine measure | 602¹⁄₄ | 38,36 Verona |basso | 275³⁄₄ | 83,77 Vienna |eimer | 3614 | 6,39 |maas | 90¹⁄₃ |255,72 Zell |stubgen | 237 | 97,47 Zurich |maas | 111¹⁄₄ |207,64

The following examples will shew in what manner the proportion between the liquid measures of any two given countries may be ascertained.

Examples.

Let it be required to reduce 100 litres new French measure into Spanish quartillos wine measure.

The French litre measuring internally 61 English cubic inches, and the Spanish quartillo 29³⁄₅, according to the table prefixed, I state the following equation:

100 litres = x 1 litre = 61 cubic inches 29³⁄₅ cubic inches = 1 quartillo Result 206,08 quartillos.

Reduce 100 quartillos wine measure of Spain into litres new measure of France.

100 quartillos = x 1 quartillo = 29³⁄₅ cubic inches 61 cubic inches = 1 litre Result 48,52 litres.

TABLE, which shews the length in English lines of each of the measures used in the sale of cloths, linens, and silk stuffs, and the relation of foreign measures to 100 yards and 100 ells English measure.

CLOTH MEASURE.

| | Length|Equiv.|Equiv. | |of each|to 100|to 100 | |measure| yards| ells | | -- | -- | -- | | lines | num. | num. Places. | Measures. | 100. | 100 | 100 ----------------------+-------------------------+-------+------+------ Abbeville |aune | 558,25| 77,38| 96,73 Aix la Chapelle |elle | 315,35|137, |171,25 Aleppo |pike | 319,40|135,25|169,06 Alexandria |pike | 319,60|135,17|168,96 Algiers |pike long measure | 294,05|146,91|183,64 |pike short measure | 220,53|195,89|244,86 Alicante |vara | 399,20|108,22|135,27 Altona |elle | 270,60|159,64|199,50 |elle Brabant measure | 326,54|132,30|165,37 Amberg |elle | 394,40|109,58|136,91 Amsterdam |elle | 326, |132,51|165,64 Ancona |braccio | 303,40|142,38|177,98 Anspach |elle | 289,80|149,07|186,34 Antwerp |aune long measure | 327,90|131,75|164,69 |aune short measure | 323,25|133,64|167,05 Archangel |archine | 336, |128,57|160,71 Arragon |vara | 364,13|118,64|148,30 Arras |aune | 329,65|131,05|163,81 Augsburg |elle long measure | 287,85|150,08|187,60 |elle short measure | 279,75|154,42|193,02 Avigon |canne | 918,80| 47,02| 58,77 |aune | 551,20| 78,37| 97,96 Basil |aune | 556,80| 77,58| 96,98 Bamberg |elle | 344,65|125,35|156,69 Barcelona |cana | 727,45| 59,39| 74,23 Bayreuth |elle | 283,60|152,33|190,41 Batavia |covid | 237,60|181,82|227,27 Bautzen |elle | 272, |158,82|198,53 Bayonne |aune | 417,40|103,50|129,38 Bengal |covid | 108, |400, |500, Bergamo |braccio | 309,50|139,58|174,47 Bergen |elle | 296,45|145,72|182,15 Berg-op-Zoom |elle | 327,07|132,08|165,10 Berlin |elle | 314,90|137,19|171,48 Bern |elle | 255,80|168,89|211,10 Bielefeld |elle | 276,25|156,38|195,47 Bilboa |vara | 395,25|109,30|136,62 Bologne |braccio for silk stuffs | 281,25|153,60|192, |braccio for cloths | 299,90|144,05|180,06 Bolzano |elle | 373,20|115,75|144,69 |braccio | 259,60|166,40|208, Bombay |cuz | 336, |128,57|160,71 |heat | 216, |200, |250, Bordeaux |aune | 562,51| 76,80| 96, Brabant |aune | 326,54|132,30|165,37 Breda |elle | 327,07|132,08|165,10 Bremen |elle | 273,15|158,15|197,69 Brescia |braccio | 221,06|195,42|244,28 Breslaw |elle | 259,65|166,38|207,97 |elle Silesia measure | 272, |158,82|198,53 Bretagne |aune | 636,25| 67,90| 84,87 Bruges |aune | 327,90|131,75|164,69 |aune for linens | 342,40|126,17|157,71 Brunswick |elle | 269,55|160,27|200,33 Brussels |aune long measure | 327,90|131,75|164,69 |aune short measure | 323,25|133,64|167,05 Burgos |vara | 395,25|109,30|136,62 Cadiz |vara | 395,25|109,30|136,62 |ana Brabant measure | 327,90|131,75|164,69 Caën |aune | 558,25| 77,38| 96,73 Cagliari |raso | 259,20|166,66|208,33 Cairo |pike | 319,60|135,17|168,96 Calais |aune | 558,25| 77,38| 96,73 Calicut |covid | 216, |200, |250, |guz | 338,40|127,66|159,57 Cambrai |aune | 338,35|127,68|159,60 Canary Islands |vara | 406,20|106,35|132,94 Candia |pike | 301, |143,52|179,40 Canton |covid | 175,50|240,15|307,70 Carthagena |vara | 395,25|109,30|136,62 Cassel |elle | 265, |163, |203,75 Castille |vara | 395,25|109,30|136,62 Chambery |raso | 271,35|159,20|199, China |covid | 175,50|246,15|307,70 Christiania |elle | 296,45|145,72|182,15 Coblentz |elle | 263,55|163,91|204,84 Coburg |elle | 276,90|156, |195, Cologne |elle long measure | 328,15|131,65|164,56 |elle short measure | 271,15|159,32|199,15 Constance |elle long measure | 351,05|123,06|153,82 |elle short measure | 326,33|132,38|165,48 Constantinople |pike long measure | 316, |136,70|170,88 |pike short measure | 306, |141,18|176,47 Copenhagen |alen | 296,45|145,72|182,15 Corfu |pike | 271, |159,41|199,26 Corsica |palmo | 118,15|365,64|457,05 Cracow |elle | 291,40|148,25|185,32 Cremona |braccio | 290,50|148,70|185,93 Cyprus |pike | 317,15|136,21|170,26 Damascus |pike | 274,85|157,17|196,47 Dantzic |elle | 271, |159,41|199,26 Delft |elle | 326, |132,51|165,64 Denmark |alen | 296,45|145,72|182,15 Dresden |elle | 267,30|161,61|202,02 Dublin |yard | 432, |100, |125, |ell | 540, | 80, |100, Dunkirk |aune | 319,40|135,25|169,06 Dusseldorf |elle | 254,80|169,54|211,93 Elbing |elle | 266,88|161,87|202,34 Embden |elle | 316,60|136,45|170,56 England |yard | 432, |100, |125, |elle | 540, | 80, |100, Erfurt |elle long measure | 259,60|166,40|208, |elle short measure | 190,70|226,53|283,17 Erlang |elle | 311,50|138,62|173,35 Fermo |braccio | 310, |139,35|174,20 Ferrara |braccio for cloths | 316, |136,70|170,88 |braccio for silk stuffs | 297, |145,45|181,82 Flensburg |elle | 270,60|159,64|199,50 Florence |braccio for cloths | 278,90|154,90|193,62 |braccio for silk stuffs | 274,85|157,17|196,47 Forli |braccio | 290,50|148,70|185,93 France |aune of 528 lines | 562,51| 76,80| 96, |netre | 472,27| 91,47|114,34 Francfort on the Maine|elle | 254,80|169,54|211,93 |elle Brabant measure | 326,54|132,30|165,37 |aune of Paris | 561,27| 76,97| 96,21 Francfort on the Oder |elle | 313,33|137,87|172,34 Freyberg |elle | 267,60|161,43|201,79 Gand |aune | 327,90|131,75|164,69 |aune for linens | 342,40|126,17|157,71 Geneva |aune | 540,13| 79,98| 99,97 |aune of France | 562,51| 76,80| 96, Genoa |canna of 10¹⁄₂ palmi |1245,10| 34,70| 43,37 |canna of 10 palmi |1185,80| 36,43| 45,54 |canna of 9 palmi |1067,20| 40,48| 50,60 |braccio | 276,70|156,13|195,16 |palmo | 118,58|364,32|455,40 Gibraltar |vara | 395,25|109,30|136,62 Glatz |elle | 276,80|150,07|195,08 Gombroon |gueze | 464,52| 93, |116,25 Gorlitz |elle | 266,25|169,90|212,37 Gottenburg |alle | 280,40|154,06|192,58 Gottingen |elle | 274,85|157,17|196,47 Guastalla |braccio | 321,85|134,22|167,78 Gueldres |elle | 313,22|137,92|172,40 Guinea |jactam |1728, | 25, | 31,25 Halle |elle long measure | 314,90|137,19|171,48 |elle short measure | 269,75|160,15|200,18 Hamburgh |elle | 270,60|159,64|199,50 |elle Brabant measure | 326,54|132,30|165,37 Hanover |elle | 274,85|157,17|196,47 Harburg |elle | 274,85|157,17|196,47 Harlem |elle | 343,70|125,69|157,11 Havre de Grace |aune | 558,25| 77,38| 96,73 Hague |elle | 326, |132,51|165,64 Heidelberg |elle | 394,25|109,57|136,97 Hildesheim |elle | 264,53|163,30|204,13 Hirchsberg |elle | 272, |158,82|198,53 Hoff |elle | 301, |143,52|179,40 Jagerndorf |elle | 268,50|160,90|201,12 Japan |inck | 897,60| 48,13| 60,16 Java |covid | 237,60|181,82|227,27 Jerusalem |pike | 324, |133,33|166,67 Ingolstadt |elle | 376,07|114,87|143,59 Inspruck |elle | 371,30|116,35|145,23 Kiel |elle | 271,70|159, |198,75 Kintzingen |elle | 281,60|153,41|191,76 Konigsberg |elle | 314,90|137,19|171,48 Krems |elle | 353,25|122,29|152,87 Lauban |elle | 266,25|169,90|212,37 Leghorn |canna for cloths |1115,60| 38,72| 48,40 |braccio | 278,90|154,90|193,62 |palmo | 139,45|309,80|387,24 |canna for silk stuffs |1099,40| 39,29| 49,12 |braccio | 274,85|157,17|196,47 |palmo | 137,42|314,34|392,94 Leipsic |elle | 267, |161,80|202,25 Leutkirch |elle | 331,87|130,17|162,72 Leyden |elle | 322,60|133,91|167,39 Liebau |elle | 267, |161,80|202,25 Liege |elle | 260,50|165,84|207,30 Lisbon |vara | 517,80| 83,43|104,29 |covado | 319,85|135,06|168,83 |palmo craveiro | 106,62|405,17|506,47 |palmo menor | 103,56|417,15|521,44 Lisle |aune | 332,40|129,96|162,45 London |yard | 432, |100, |125, |ell | 540, | 80, |100, Louvain |aune long measure | 327,90|131,75|164,69 |aune short measure | 323,25|133,64|167,05 Lubec |elle | 272,50|158,52|198,16 Lucca |braccio for cloths | 285,84|151,13|188,92 |braccio for silk stuffs | 273,25|158,10|197,62 Lunenburg |elle | 274,85|157,17|196,47 Lyons |aune | 552,70| 78,16| 97,70 Madeira |vara | 517,80| 83,43|104,29 Madras |covid | 216, |200, |250, Madrid |vara | 395,25|109,30|136,62 Magdeburg |elle | 314,90|137,19|171,48 Mahon |cana | 756, | 57,14| 71,43 Majorca |cana | 810, | 53,33| 66,66 Malaga |vara | 395,25|109,30|136,62 Malines |aune | 323,25|133,64|167,05 Malta |canna |1058,40| 40,82| 51,02 Manheim |elle | 263,45|163,98|204,97 Mantua |braccio | 219,70|196,63|245,79 Marseilles |canne | 948,20| 45,56| 56,95 |aune | 552,60| 78,18| 97,72 Mastrick |elle | 322,80|133,83|167,28 Mecca |covid | 324, |133,33|166,66 Memel |elle | 271, |159,41|199,26 Memmingen |elle | 331,33|130,38|162,98 Mentz |elle | 259,20|166,66|208,33 Messina |canna | 918,72| 47,02| 58,77 |palmo | 114,84|376,18|470,22 Middelburg |elle | 326, |132,51|165,64 Milan |braccio for cloths | 319,40|135,25|169,06 |braccio for silk stuffs | 253,34|170,52|213,15 Minden |elle | 273,40|158, |197,50 Minorca |cana | 756, | 57,14| 71,43 Mocha |guz | 300, |144, |180, |covid | 216, |200, |250, Modena |braccio | 302,35|142,88|178,60 Montpellier |canne | 946, | 45,66| 57,08 Morea |pike | 216, |200, |250, Morlaix |aune | 636,25| 67,90| 84,87 Morocco |covado | 238,10|181,44|226,80 Munich |elle | 394,30|109,56|136,95 Munster |elle | 381,80|113,15|141,43 Munden |elle | 276,15|156,44|195,55 Namur |elle | 313,22|137,92|172,40 Nantes |aune of Bretagne | 636,25| 67,90| 84,87 Naples |canna | 996,32| 43,36| 54,20 |palmo | 124,54|346,88|433,60 Narva |elle | 279,66|154,47|193,09 |archine | 336, |128,57|160,71 Naumburg |elle | 267, |161,80|202,25 Negropont |pike | 291, |148,45|185,57 Neufchatel |elle | 525,45| 82,22|102,77 Nice |raso | 259,20|166,66|208,33 |palmo | 124,65|346,57|433,21 Nienburg |elle | 274,85|157,17|196,47 Nimeguen |elle | 313,22|137,92|172,40 Nordlingen |elle | 288,40|149,80|187,24 Norway |elle | 296,45|145,72|182,15 Nuremberg |elle | 311,50|138,68|173,35 Oporto |vara | 517,80| 83,43|104,29 |covado | 313,62|137,75|172,18 |palmo craveiro | 104,54|413,25|516,54 |palmo menor | 103,56|417,50|521,44 Oran |vara | 395,25|109,30|136,62 |pike for cloths | 324, |133,33|166,66 Osnabruck |elle | 275,50|156,80|196, |elle for linens | 284,20|152, |190, Ostend |aune | 330,25|130,81|163,51 Osterode |elle | 274,85|157,17|196,47 Oudenard |elle | 315,35|137, |171,25 Oviedo |vara | 407,50|106,02|132,52 Paderborn |elle | 254,80|169,54|211,93 Padua |braccio | 316,75|136,38|170,48 Palermo |canna | 918,72| 47,02| 58,77 |palmo | 114,84|376,18|470,22 Paris |aune of 528 lines | 562,51| 76,80| 96, |aune of 526⁵⁄₆ lines | 561,27| 76,97| 96,21 |aune of 524 lines | 558,25| 77,38| 96,73 |metre | 472,27| 91,47|114,34 Parma |braccio | 258,15|167,35|209,19 Patras |pike for cloths and | | | |linens | 324, |133,33|166,66 |pike for silk stuffs | 300, |144, |180, Pekin |peking | 168,33|256,64|320,80 Pernau |elle | 259,10|166,73|208,41 Persia |gueze | 297,50|145,21|181,52 |gueze monkelse | 446,40| 96,77|120,97 Perugia |braccio | 305,34|141,48|176,85 Piedmont |raso | 281,25|153,60|192, Pisa |palmo | 140,95|306,50|383,12 Placentia |braccio | 306,30|141,04|176,30 Poland |elle | 291,40|148,25|185,32 Pondicherry |covid | 216, |200, |250, Pontremoli |braccio | 326,10|132,47|165,59 Posen |elle | 269, |160,59|200,74 Prague |elle | 279, |154,84|193,55 Presburg |elle | 263,60|163,89|204,86 Queda |covid | 216, |200, |250, Ragusa |ana | 242,40|178,22|222,78 Ratisbon |elle | 383, |112,80|141, Ratzeburg |elle | 274,85|157,17|196,47 Ravenna |braccio | 317,50|136,06|170,08 Ravensburg |elle | 324,60|133,08|166,36 Reccanati |braccio | 314,20|137,50|171,87 Reggio |braccio | 250,20|172,66|215,82 Revel |elle | 252,80|170,88|213,60 Rhodes |pike | 357, |121, |151,25 Riga |elle | 258,90|166,86|208,57 Rimini |braccio | 302,35|142,88|178,60 Rochelle |aune | 558,25| 77,38| 96,73 Rome |canna for linens | 987, | 43,77| 54,71 |braccio ditto | 299,80|144,10|180,12 |canna for cloths and | | | |silk stuffs | 939,66| 45,97| 57,47 |braccio | 400,50|107,86|134,83 Rostock |elle | 273,15|158,15|197,69 Rotenburg |elle | 276,90|156, |195, Rotterdam |elle | 326, |132,51|165,64 Rouen |aune for cloths | 549,75| 78,58| 98,23 |aune for linens | 659,68| 65,49| 81,86 Roveredo |braccio for cloths | 299,90|144,05|180,06 |braccio for silk stuffs | 351,80|122,80|153,50 Ruremonde |elle | 324, |133,33|166,66 Russia |archine | 336, |128,57|160,71 Saltzburg |elle for silk stuffs | 379,15|113,94|142,42 |elle for cloths | 474,95| 90,96|113,70 Sayd |pike | 285,50|151,31|189,14 St. Gall |elle for cloths | 291, |1?8,45|185,57 |elle for linens | 378,30|114,20|142,75 St. Malo |anne | 636,25| 67,90| 84,87 St. Petersburg |archine | 336, |128,57|160,71 St. Sebastian |vara | 395,25|109,30|136,62 Saragossa |cana | 978,40| 44,15| 55,19 Sardinia |raso | 259,20|166,66|208,33 |palmo | 118,58|364,32|455,40 Schafhausen |elle | 285, |151,58|189,47 Schweinfurt |elle | 275,50|156,80|196, Scio |pike long measure | 324, |133,33|166,66 |pike short measure | 311,80|138,55|173,19 Scotland |ell old measure | 446,40| 96,77|120,96 Seville |vara | 395,25|109,30|136,62 Siam |ken | 453,85| 95,18|118,98 |covid | 216, |200, |250, Sicily |canna | 918,72| 47,02| 58,77 |palmo | 114,84|376,18|470,22 Sienna |braccio for linens | 283,50|152,38|190,48 |braccio for cloths | 178,35|242,22|302,78 Silesia |elle | 272, |158,82|198,53 Smyrna |pike | 324, |133,33|166,66 Soleure |elle | 259,60|166,40|208, Spain |vara | 295,25|109,30|136,62 Stade |elle | 274,85|157,17|196,47 Stettin |elle | 307,36|140,55|175,69 Stockholm |elle | 280,40|154,06|192,58 Stralsund |elle | 274,85|157,17|196,47 Strasburg |elle | 562,51| 76,80| 96, |brache | 254,60|169,68|212,10 Surat |guz | 336, |128,57|160,75 |cobit | 216, |200, |250, Sweden |elle | 280,40|154,06|192,58 Teneriff |vara | 395,25|109,30|136,62 Thorn |elle | 269, |160,59|200,74 Toledo |vara | 395,25|109,30|136,62 Tortosa |cana | 751,75| 57,46| 71,83 Toulon |canne | 915,80| 47,17| 58,96 Toulouse |canne | 859,75| 50,25| 62,81 Tournai |aune | 292,45|147,72|184,65 Trente |elle for cloths | 319,60|135,17|168,96 |elle for silk stuffs | 289, |149,48|186,85 Treves |elle | 263,60|163,89|204,86 Trevigo |braccio | 316,75|136,38|170,48 Trieste |elle for cloths | 319,20|135,34|169,17 |elle for silk stuffs | 302,55|142,78|178,48 Tripoli in Barbary |pike | 260,90|165,58|206,98 Tripoli in Syria |pike | 324, |133,33|166,66 Troppau |elle | 268,50|160,90|201,12 Troyes |aune | 374,70|115,29|144,12 Tunis |pike for cloths | 317,80|135,93|169,92 |pike for silk stuffs | 297,93|145, |181,25 |pike for linens | 223,40|193,38|241,72 Turkey |pike long measure | 316, |136,70|170,88 |pike short measure | 306, |141,18|176,47 Turin |raso | 284,90|151,63|189,54 Ulm |elle | 268,50|160,90|201,12 Valencia |vara | 428,20|100,88|120,10 Valenciennes |aune | 311,10|138,86|173,58 Venice |braccio for cloths | 314,90|137,19|171,48 |braccio for silk stuffs | 296,40|145,75|182,18 Verden |elle | 274,85|157,17|196,47 Verona |braccio | 296,40|145,75|182,18 Vicenza |braccio | 323,45|133,56|166,95 Vienna |elle | 367, |117,71|147,14 Waldenburg |elle | 272, |158,82|198,53 Warendorf |elle | 276,25|156,38|195,47 Warsaw |elle | 291,40|148,25|185,32 Windesheim |elle | 311,50|138,68|173,35 Wirtemburg |elle | 318, |135,85|169,81 Wismar |elle | 275,30|156,92|196,15 Wurtzburg |elle | 274,10|157,60|197, Xativa |vara | 420,50|102,73|128,42 Ypres |aune | 330,25|130,81|163,51 Zell |elle | 274,85|157,17|196,47 Zittau |elle | 269,10|160,54|200,67 Zurich |elle | 283,40|152,43|190,54

The following examples will shew in what manner the proportion between the measures of any two given countries may be ascertained.

Examples.

Let it be required to reduce 100 archines of Russia into varas of Spain.

The archine measuring 336 English lines, and the vara 395,25, according to the table prefixed, I state the following equation:

100 archines = x 1 archine = 336 lines 395,25 lines = 1 vara Result 85,01 varas.

Reduce 100 varas into archines.

100 varas = x 1 vara = 395,25 lines 336 lines = 1 archine Result 117,63 archines.

English Long MEASURE.

|inch | +-----+ | 3|palm | +-----+-----+ | 9| 3|span| +-----+-----+----+ | 12| 4|1¹⁄₄|foot | +-----+-----+----+-----+ | 18| 6| 2| 1¹⁄₂|cubit| +-----+-----+----+-----+----++ | 36| 12| 4| 3| 2|yard| +-----+-----+----+-----+----+----+ | 45| 15| 5| 3³⁄₄|2¹⁄₂|1¹⁄₄|ell | +-----+-----+----+-----+----+----+----+ | 60| 20|6²⁄₃| 5|3¹⁄₂|1³⁄₄|1¹⁄₄|pace | +-----+-----+----+-----+----+----+----+-----+ | 72| 24| 8| 6| 4| 2|1³⁄₄| 1¹⁄₅|fathom| +-----+-----+----+-----+----+----+----+-----+----+-+ | 198| 66| 22|16¹⁄₂| 11|5¹⁄₂| 4|3¹⁄₁₀|2³⁄₄|pole| +-----+-----+----+-----+----+----+----+-----+----+---++ | 7920| 2640| 880| 660| 440| 220| 176| 132| 110| 40|furlong| +-----+-----+----+-----+----+----+----+-----+----+---+-+-----+ |63360|21120|7040| 5280|3520|1760|1408| 1056| 880|320|8|mile | +-----+-----+----+-----+----+----+----+-----+----+---+-+-----+

Jewish Long or Itinerary MEASURE.

Eng. feet. miles. paces. dec. |cubit 0 0 1.824 +-----+ | 400|stadium 0 145 4.6 +-----+---+ | 2000| 5|Sab. day’s journey 0 729 3.0 +-----+---+--+ | 4000| 10| 2|eastern mile 1 403 1.0 +-----+---+--+--+ |12000| 30| 6| 3|parasang 4 153 3.0 +-----+---+--+--+-+ |96000|240|48|24|8|a day’s journey 33 172 4.0 +-----+---+--+--+-+

Roman long MEASURE, reduced to English.

Eng. dec. paces. ft. inch |digitus transversus 0 0 0.725¹⁄₄ +-----+ | 1³⁄₄|uncia 0 0 0.967 +-----+-----+ | 4| 3|palmus minor 0 0 2.901 +-----+-----+-----+ | 16| 12| 4|pes 0 0 11.604 +-----+-----+-----+----+ | 20| 15| 5|1¹⁄₄|palmipes 0 1 2.505 +-----+-----+-----+----+----+ | 24| 18| 6|1¹⁄₂|1¹⁄₅|cubitus 0 1 5.406 +-----+-----+-----+----+----+-------+ | 40| 30| 10|2¹⁄₂| 2| 1²⁄₃|gradus 0 1 5.01 +-----+-----+-----+----+----+-------+----+ | 80| 60| 20| 5| 4| 3¹⁄₂| 2|passus 0 4 10.02 +-----+-----+-----+----+----+-------+----+----+ |10000| 7500| 2500| 625| 500| 416²⁄₃| 250| 215|sta- 120 4 4.5 | | | | | | | | |dium +-----+-----+-----+----+----+-------+----+----+-+ |80000|60000|20000|5000|4000|3333¹⁄₃|2000|1000|8|mil- 967 0 0 | | | | | | | | | |liare +-----+-----+-----+----+----+-------+----+----+-+-----

English square or superficial MEASURES, are raised from the yard of 36 inches multiplied into itself; and this producing 1296 square inches in the square yard, the divisions of this are square feet and inches, and the multipliers, poles, roods, and acres.

English square MEASURE.

|inches +-------+ | 144|feet +-------+--------+ | 1296| 9 |yards +-------+--------+-------+ | 3600| 25 | 2 |paces +-------+--------+-------+-------+ | 39204| 272¹⁄₄| 30¹⁄₄| 10,89|poles +-------+--------+-------+-------+---+ |1568160|10890 |1210 | 435,6 | 40|roods +-------+--------+-------+-------+---+-+ |6272640|43560 |4840 |1743,6 |160|4|acres +-------+--------+-------+-------+---+-+-----

Long Measure.

12 Inches make 1 Foot. 3 Feet ---- 1 Yard. 5¹⁄₂ Yards ---- 1 Pole, or perch. 40 Poles ---- 1 Furlong. 8 Furlongs ---- 1 Mile. 4 Inches ---- 1 Hand. 6 Feet ---- 1 Fathom, or toise. 3 Miles ---- 1 League. 60 Nautical, or geographical miles, or 69¹⁄₂ statute miles ---- 1 Degree.

Square Measure.

144 Square inches make 1 Square foot. 9 Square feet ---- 1 Square yard. 30¹⁄₄ Square yards ---- 1 Square pole. 40 Square poles ---- 1 Square rood. 4 Square roods ---- 1 Square acre.

Solid, or Cubic Measure.

1728 Cubic in. make 1 Cubic foot. 27 Cubic feet ---- 1 Cubic yard. 251 Cubic in. ---- 1 Gal. wine measure. 281 do. ---- 1 Gal. beer measure. 168³⁄₅ do. ---- 1 Gal. dry measure.

Dry Measure.

8 Pints make 1 Gallon. 2 Gallons ---- 1 Peck. 4 Pecks ---- 1 Bushel. 4 Bushels ---- 1 Coom. 2 Cooms ---- 1 Quarter. 5 Quarters ---- 1 Wey. 2 Weys ---- 1 Last.

Avoirdupois Weight.

16 Drams make 1 Ounce. 16 Ounces ---- 1 Pound. 28 Pounds ---- ¹⁄₄ of a Hundred. 4 Quarters ---- 1 Hundred. 20 Hundred ---- 1 Ton. 14 Pounds ---- 1 Stone.

French square MEASURES, are regulated by 12 square lines in the inch square, 12 inches in the foot, 22 feet in the perch, and 100 perches in the arpent or acre.

French liquid MEASURES. At Paris, and in a great part of the kingdom, the smallest measure is the possou, which contains six cubic inches; 2 possous make the demi-septier; 2 demi-septiers the chopine; 2 chopines a pint; 2 pints a quart or pot; 4 quarts the gallon, or septier of estimation; 36 septiers the muid; which is subdivided into 2 demi-muids, 4 quarter muids, and 8 half quarter muids. The queue in Orleans, Blois, &c. contains a Paris muid and a half. The tun used at Bayonne and Bourdeaux, consists of 4 bariques, and equal to 3 Paris muids; at Orleans to 2: so that the first tun contains 864 pint, and the second 576. The demi-queue in Champagne, 96 quarts; the pipe in Anjou and Poictou, 2 bussards, equal to a demi-queues of Orleans, &c. or a muid and a half of Paris. The millerolle used in Provence, contains 66 Paris pints; and the poincon at Nantz, in Touraine, and the Blessois, equal to half the Orleans tun. The poincou at Paris is the same with the demi-queue.

French Weights and Measures.

The toise is commonly used in France for military purposes, and is divided into 6 feet: each foot 12 inches; each inch 12 lines; each line 12 points. The pace is usually reckoned at 2¹⁄₂ feet.

Poids de Marc, ou de Paris.

24 Grains make 1 Den’r. 3 Den’rs. ---- 1 Gros. 8 Gros ---- 1 Ounce. 8 Ounces ---- 1 Marc. 2 Marcs ---- 1 Pound.

The French have lately formed an entire new system of weights and measures: the following short account of them, and their proportion to the old weights and measures of France, and those of English standard, is extracted from Nicholson’s Natural Philosophy.

+------------------+-----------------+-------------------------------+ |Proportions of the|First part of the| | |measures of each |name which indi- | | |species to its |cates the propor-| | |principal measure |tion to the prin-|PRINCIPAL MEASURES, OR UNITIES.| |or unity. |cipal measure or +---------------+---------------+ | |unity. |Length. |Capacity. | +------------------+-----------------+---------------+---------------+ |10,000 |Myria} | | | | 1,000 |Kilo } | | | | 100 |Hecto} | | | | 10 |Deca } | | | | 0 |---- } |Metre. |Litre. | | 0.1 |Deci } | | | | 0.01 |Centi} | | | | 0.001 |Milli} | | | +------------------------------------+---------------+---------------+ |Proportion of the principal measures|10,000,000th |A Decimetre | |between themselves, and the length |part of the |cube. | |of the Meridian. |dist. from the | | | |Pole to the | | | |Equator. | | +------------------------------------+---------------+---------------+ |Value of the principal measures in |3 feet 11 lines|1 pint and ¹⁄₂₀| |the ancient French measures. |and ¹⁄₂ nearly.|or 1 litron and| | | |¹⁄₄ nearly. | | | | | +------------------------------------+---------------+---------------+ |Value in English measures. |Inches 39·383. |61.083 inch, | | | |which is more | | | |than the wine | | | |and less than | | | |the beer quart.| +------------------------------------+---------------+---------------+

+------------------+-----------------+-------------------------------+ |Proportions of the|First part of the| | |measures of each |name which indi- | | |species to its |cates the propor-| | |principal measure |tion to the prin-|PRINCIPAL MEASURES, OR UNITIES.| |or unity. |cipal measure or +---------------+---------------+ | |unity. |Weight. |Agrarian. | +------------------+-----------------+---------------+---------------+ |10,000 |Myria} | | | | 1,000 |Kilo } | | | | 100 |Hecto} | | | | 10 |Deca } | | | | 0 |---- } |Gramme. |Are. | | 0.1 |Deci } | | | | 0.01 |Centi} | | | | 0.001 |Milli} | | | +------------------------------------+---------------+---------------+ |Proportion of the principal measures|Weight of a |100 square | |between themselves, and the length |centimetre cube|metres. | |of the Meridian. |of distilled | | | |Water. | | | | | | +------------------------------------+---------------+---------------+ |Value of the principal measures in |18 grains and |Two square | |the ancient French measures. |841,000 parts. |perches des | | | |eaux et foret. | | | | | +------------------------------------+---------------+---------------+ |Value in English measures. |22·966 grains. |11·968 square | | | |yards. | | | | | | | | | | | | | +------------------------------------+---------------+---------------+

+------------------+-----------------+---------------+ |Proportions of the|First part of the| PRINCIPAL | |measures of each |name which indi- | MEASURES, | |species to its |cates the propor-| OR | |principal measure |tion to the prin-| UNITIES. | |or unity. |cipal measure or +---------------+ | |unity. |For Firewood. | +------------------+-----------------+---------------+ |10,000 |Myria} | | | 1,000 |Kilo } | | | 100 |Hecto} | | | 10 |Deca } | | | 0 |---- } |Stere. | | 0.1 |Deci } | | | 0.01 |Centi} | | | 0.001 |Milli} | | +------------------------------------+---------------+ |Proportion of the principal measures|One cubic | |between themselves, and the length |metre. | |of the Meridian. | | | | | | | | +------------------------------------+---------------+ |Value of the principal measures in |1 demi voie or | |the ancient French measures. |¹⁄₄ of a cord | | |des eaux et | | |foret. | +------------------------------------+---------------+ |Value in English measures. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | +------------------------------------+---------------+

By the new metrical system of the French, the geometrical circle used in astronomical, geographical, and topographical calculations, is divided instead of 360, into 400 equal parts, which are called grades: each grade is divided into 100 equal parts which are called minutes of grades: and each minute into 100 seconds, of grades. The proportion of the new to the old degree is 0.9; and the next proportion or minute is 54′ of the old division; and the new second is 32″.4 of the ancient.

Reduction of the old French Weights and measures to English; and the contrary.

1st. To reduce English Avoirdupois to Paris weight:

The avoirdupois pound of 16} ounces, or 7000 troy grains} = 8538 Paris grains The ounce = 533.6250}

2d. To reduce Paris running feet or inches into English,} multiply by }1.065977 ---- English running feet or inches into Paris divide by }

3d. To reduce Paris cubic feet or inches into English, } multiply by }1.211278 ---- English cubic feet or inches into Paris, divide by }

4th. To reduce the Paris pint to the English, multiply by}2.0171082 ---- To reduce the English pint to the Paris, divide by }

German MEASURES. The Rhinland rood is the measure commonly used in Germany and Holland, and in most of the northern states, for all military purposes.

It is divided into 12 feet. The Rhinland rood is sometimes divided into tenths, or decimal feet, and the pace is made equal to 2 decimal feet, or ²⁄₁₀ of a rood.

Proportions between the English Weights and Measures, and those of the principal Places in Europe.

-----------+-------+-------- |Foot in|Pound in Places. | Parts.| Parts. -----------+-------+-------- London | 1000 | 100 Paris | 1068 | 108 Amsterdam | 942 | 93 Rhinland | 1033 | 96 Antwerp | 946 | 98 Lovaine | 958 | 98 Middleburgh| 991 | 98 Strasburgh | 920 | 93 Bremen | 964 | 94 Cologne | 954 | 97 Frankfort | 948 | 93 Leipsig | -- | 117 Hamburg | -- | 95 Venice | 1153 | 151 Prague | 1026 | 106 Copenhagen | 965 | 94 Nuremburgh | 1006 | 94 Bavaria | 954 | 40 Vienna | 1053 | 83 Madrid | 1001 | 99 Toledo | 899 | 100 Bologne | 1204 | 127 Naples | 861 | -- Florence | -- | 123 Genoa | -- | 142 Mantua | 1569 | 143 Turin | 1062 | -- Dantzig | 944 | 119 -----------+-------+--------

Cubical MEASURES, or measures of capacity for liquors. English liquid measures were originally raised from troy weight, it being ordained that pounds troy of wheat, gathered from the middle of the ear, and well dried, should weigh a gallon of wine measure; yet a new weight, viz. the avoirdupois weight, had been introduced, to which a second standard gallon was adjusted, exceeding the former in the proportion of the avoirdupois weight to the troy weight. From this latter standard were raised two measures, the one for ale, the other for beer.

The sealed gallon at Guildhall, London, which is the English standard for wine, spirits, oil, &c. is supposed to contain 231 cubic inches; yet by actual experiment made in 1688, before the lord mayor and commissioners of excise, it only contains 224 cubic inches. It was however agreed to continue the common supposed contents of 231: hence, as 12 : 231 ∷ 14¹²⁄₂₀ : 281¹⁄₂ the cubic inches in an ale gallon; but in effect, the ale quart contains 70¹⁄₂ cubic inches; on which principles the ale and beer gallon will be 282 cubic inches.

Dry MEASURE, is different from both the ale and wine measure, being nearly a mean between both.

According to a British act of parliament, passed in 1697, every round bushel with a plain and even bottom, being 18¹⁄₂ inches throughout, and eight inches deep, is to be accounted a legal Winchester bushel, according to the standard in the exchequer; consequently a corn gallon will contain 268.8 inches, as in the following table.

|inches +------+ | 2688|gallons +------+--+ | 5376| 2|pecks +------+--+-----+ | 21504| 8| 4¹⁄₂|bushels +------+--+-----+-+ |172032|64|32 |8|quarters +------+--+-----+-+--------

Winchester Measure.

2 Pints make 1 Quart. 4 Quarts ---- 1 Gallon. 9 Gallons ---- 1 Firkin. 2 Firkins, or 18 Gallon ---- 1 Kilderkin. 2 Kilderkins, or 36 Gallons ---- 1 Barrel. 1 Barrel and half, or 54 Gallons ---- 1 Hogshead. 2 Hogsheads or 3 barrels, or 108 Gallons ---- 1 Butt. 2 Butts, or 216 Gallons ---- 1 Tun.

Table Cloth Measure.

2 Inches and a Quarter make 1 Nail. 4 Nails ---- ¹⁄₄ of a Yard. 4 Quarters ---- 1 Yard. ³⁄₄ of a Yard ---- 1 Ell Flemish. 5 Quarters, or 1 Yard 1 Quarter ---- 1 Ell English. 6 Quarters ---- 1 French Ell.

MEASURE of wood for firing, is the cord, being four feet high, as many broad, and the length of the wood is as by law established, it is divided into two half cords.

MEASURE for horses, is the hand, which by statute contains 4 inches.

Powder MEASURES, made of copper, holding from an ounce to 12 pounds, are very convenient in a siege, when guns or mortars are to be loaded with loose powder, especially in ricochet-firing, &c.

The French recommend measures that are made of block tin, such as are used for measuring out salt, viz. 1 ounce, 2, 3, 4, 8, which make the half pound; and lastly, of 16, which make the pound. These quantities answer every sort of ordnance.

Diameters and Heights of Cylindric Powder Measures, holding from 1 to 15 Ounces.

+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ |Ounces| 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | +------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | 0 | 0 |1·256|1·583|1·811|1·994|2·148| +------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | 1 |2·706|2·793|2·876|2·953|3·027|3·098| +------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

Diameters and Heights of Cylindric Powder Measures, holding from 1 to 15 Pounds.

+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ |Pounds| 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | +------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | 0 | 0 |3·165|3·988|4·565|5·024|5·412| +------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | 1 |6·890|7·039|7·245|7·442|7·628|7·805| +------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

The above are in inches and decimals.

MEASURE-angle, a brass instrument to measure angles, either saliant or rentrant, for exactly ascertaining the number of degrees and minutes, to delineate them on paper.

MEASURING, MENSURATION, in military mathematics, the assuming any certain quantity, and expressing the proportion of other similar quantities to the same; or the determining, by a certain known measure, the precise extent, quantity, or capacity of any thing.

MEASURING, in general, constitutes the practical part of geometry; and from the various subjects which it embraces, it acquires various names, and constitutes various arts, viz.

LONGIMETRY, ALTIMETRY, LEVELLING, GEODESIA, or SURVEYING, STEREOMETRY, SUPERFICIES, and SOLIDS, &c. which see.

MEASURING. See CHAIN.

MECHANICS, a mixed mathematical science, which considers motion and moving powers, their nature and laws, with the effects thereof, in machines, &c. The word is derived from the Greek. That part which considers motion arising from gravity, is sometimes called statics, in contradistinction from that part which considers the mechanical powers and their application, properly called mechanics: it is, in fine, the geometry of motion.

MECHANICS. The whole momentum or quantity of force of a moving body, is the result of the quantity of matter, multiplied by the velocity with which it is moved; and when the product arising from the multiplication of the particular quantities of matter in any two bodies, by their respective velocities are equal, their momentum will be so too. Upon this easy principle depends the whole of mechanics; and it holds universally true, that when two bodies are suspended on any machine, so as to act contrary to each other; if the machine be put in motion, and the perpendicular ascent of one body multiplied into its weight, be equal to the perpendicular descent of the other, multiplied into its weight, those bodies, how unequal soever in their weights, will balance each other in all situations: for, as the whole ascent of the one is performed in the same time as the whole descent of the other, their respective velocities must be as the spaces they move through; and the excess of weight in one is compensated by the excess of velocity in the other. Upon this principle it is easy to compute the power of any engine, either simple or compound; for it is only finding how much swifter the power moves than the weight does, (i. e. how much further in the same time,) and just so much is the power increased by the help of the engine.

The simple machines usually called mechanic powers, are six in number, viz. the lever, the wheel and axle, the pulley, the inclined plane, the wedge, and the screw.

There are four kinds of levers: 1st, where the prop is placed between the weight and the power. 2d, where the prop is at one end of the lever, the power at the other, and the weight between them. 3d, where the prop is at one end, the weight at the other, and the power applied between them. 4th, the bended lever, which differs from the first in form, but not in property.

In the first and 2d kind, the advantage gained by the lever, is as the distance of the power from the prop, to the distance of the weight from the prop. In the 3d kind, that there may be a balance between the power and the weight, the intensity of the power must exceed the intensity of the weight, just as much as the distance of the weight from the prop exceeds the distance of the power from the prop. As this kind of lever is disadvantageous to the moving power, it is seldom used.

Wheel and axle. Here the velocity of the power is to the velocity of the weight, as the circumference of the wheel is to the circumference of the axle.

Pulley. A single pulley, that only turns on its axis, and does not move out of its place, serves only to change the direction of the power, but gives no mechanical advantage. The advantage gained in this machine, is always as twice the number of moveable pullies; without taking any notice of the fixed pullies necessary to compose the system of pullies.

Inclined plane. The advantage gained by the inclined plane, is as great as its length exceeds its perpendicular height. The force wherewith a rolling body descends upon an inclined plane, is to the force of its absolute gravity, as the height of the plane is to its length.

Wedge. This may be considered as two equally inclined planes, joined together at their bases. When the wood does not cleave at any distance before the wedge, there will be an equilibrium between the power impelling the wedge, and the resistance of the wood acting against its two sides; when the power is to the resistance, as half the thickness of the wedge at the back, is to the length of either of its sides; because the resistance then acts perpendicular to the sides of the wedge: but when the resistance on both sides acts parallel to the back, the power that balances the resistance on both sides will be, as the length of the whole back of the wedge is to double its perpendicular height. When the wood cleaves at any distance before the wedge, (as it generally does) the power impelling the wedge will be to the resistance of the wood, as half the length of the back is to the length of either of the sides of the cleft, estimated from the top, or acting part of the wedge.

Screw. Here the advantage gained is as much as the circumference of a circle described by the handle of the winch, exceeds the interval or distance between the spirals of the screw.

There are few compound engines, but what, on account of the friction of parts against one another, will require a third part more power to work them when loaded, than what is required to constitute a balance between the power and the weight.

MECHANICAL, something relating to mechanics.

MECHANICAL philosophy, that which explains the phenomena of nature, and the operations of corporeal things, on the principles of mechanics; namely, the motion, gravity, figure, arrangement, &c. of the parts which compose natural bodies.

MECHANICAL powers. When two heavy bodies or weights are made by any contrivance to act against each other, so as mutually to prevent each other, from being put into motion by gravity, they are said to be in equilibrio. The same expression is used with respect to other forces, which mutually prevent each other from producing motion.

Any force may be compared with gravity, considered as a standard. Weight is the action of gravity on a given mass. Whatever therefore is proved concerning the weights of bodies will be true in like circumstances of other forces.

Weights are supposed to act in lines of direction parallel to each other. In fact, these lines are directed to the centre of the earth, but the angle formed between any two of them within the space occupied by a mechanical engine is so small, that the largest and most accurate astronomical instruments are scarcely capable of exhibiting it.

The simplest of those instruments, by means of which weights or forces are made to act in opposition to each other, are usually termed mechanical powers. Their names are, the lever, the axis or axle, and wheel, the pully or tackle, the inclined plane, the wedge, and the screw.

Of the Lever.

The lever is defined to be a moveable and inflexible line, acted upon by three forces, the middle one of which is contrary in direction to the other two.

One of these forces is usually produced by the re-action of a fixed body, called the fulcrum.

If two contrary forces be applied to a lever at unequal distances from the fulcrum, they will equiponderate when the forces are to each other in the reciprocal proportion of their distances. For, by the resolution of force it appears, that if two contrary forces be applied to a straight lever, at distances from the fulcrum in the reciprocal proportion of their quantities, and in directions always parallel to each other, the lever will remain at rest in any position.

Since of the three forces which act on the lever, the two which are applied at the extremes, are always in a contrary direction to that which is applied in the space between them: this last force will sustain the effects of the other two; or, in other words, if the fulcrum be placed between the weights, it will be acted upon by their difference.

On the principle of the lever are made, scales for weighing different quantities of various kinds of things; the steelyard, which answers the same purpose by a single weight, removed to different distances from the fulcrum on a graduated arm, according as the body to be weighed is more or less in quantity; and the bent lever balance, which, by the revolution of a fixed weight, increasing in power as it ascends in the arc of a circle, indicates the weight of the counterpoise.

On this principle also, depend the motions of animals; the overcoming or lifting great weights by means of iron levers, called crows; the action of nutcrackers, pincers, and many other instruments of the same nature.

Of the Axis or Axle, and Wheel, and of the Pulley or Tackle.

The axis and wheel may be considered as a lever, one of the forces being applied at the circumference of the axis, and the other at the circumference of the wheel, the central line of the axis being as it were the fulcrum.

For if the semidiameter of the axis, be to the semidiameter of the wheel, reciprocally as the power of A is to the power B, the first of which is applied in the direction of a tangent of the axis, and the other in the direction of the tangent of the wheel, they will be in equilibrium.

To this power may be referred the capstan or crane, by which weights are raised; the winch and barrel, for drawing water, and numberless other machines on the same principle.

The pully is likewise explained on the same principle of the lever. Suppose the line A. C. to be a lever, whose arms A. B. and B. C. are equidistant from the fulcrum B. consequently the two equal powers E. and F. applied in the directions of the tangents to the circle in which the extremities are moveable, will be in equilibrium, and the fulcrum B. will sustain both forces.

But, suppose the fulcrum is at C. then a given force at E. will sustain in equilibrium a double force at F. for in that proportion reciprocally are their distances from the fulcrum. Whence it appears, that considering E. as a force, and F. as a weight to be raised, no increase of power is gained, when the pulley is fixed, but that a double increase of power is gained, when the pulley moves with the weight.

A combination of pullies is called a tackle, and a box containing one or more pullies, is called a block.

This is a tackle composed of four pullies, two of which are in the fixed block A. and the other two in the block B. that moves with the weight F. Now, because the rope is equally stretched throughout, each lower pulley will be acted upon by an equal part of the weight; and because in each pully that moves with the weight a double increase of power is gained; the force by which F. may be sustained will be equal to half the weight divided by the number of lower pullies: that is, as twice the number of lower pullies is to one, so is the weight suspending force.

But if the extremity of the rope C. be affixed to the lower block, it will sustain half as much as a pulley; consequently the analogy will then be, as twice the number of lower pullies, more 2 is to 1, so is the weight suspended to the suspending force.

The pulley or tackle is of such general utility, that it would seem unnecessary to point out any particular instance.

Of the inclined Plane, and of the Wedge.

The inclined plane has in its effects a near analogy to the lever; and the forces by which the same weight tends downwards in the directions of various planes, will be as the sines of their inclinations.

The wedge is composed of two inclined planes joined together at their common bases, in the direction of which the power is impressed.

This instrument is generally used in splitting wood, and was formerly applied in engines for stamping watch plates. The force impressed is commonly a blow, which is found to be much more effectual than a weight or pressure. This may be accounted for on the principles which obtain when resisting bodies are penetrated, as if the mass and velocity vary, the depths to which the impinging body penetrates will be in the compound ratio of the masses and the squares of the velocities.

All cutting instruments may be referred to the wedge. A chizel, or an axe, is a simple wedge; a saw is a number of chizels fixed in a line: a knife may be considered as a simple wedge, when employed in splitting; but if attention be paid to the edge, it is found to be a fine saw, as is evident from the much greater effect all knives produce by a drawing stroke, than what would have followed from a direct action of the edge.

Of the Screw, and of mechanical Engines, in general.

The screw is composed of two parts, one of which is called the screw, and consists of a spiral protuberance, called the thread, which is wound round a cylinder; and the other called the nut, is perforated to the dimensions of the cylinder, and in the internal cavity is cut a spiral groove adapted to receive the thread.

It would be difficult to enumerate the very many uses to which the screw is applied. It is extremely serviceable in compressing bodies together, as paper, linen, &c. It is the principal organ in all stamping instruments for striking coins, or making impressions on paper, linen, or cards, and is of vast utility to the philosopher, by affording an easy method of measuring or subdividing small spaces. A very ordinary screw will divide an inch into 5,000 parts; but the fine hardened steel screws, that are applied to astronomical instruments, will go much farther.

It is easy to conceive, that when forces applied to mechanical instruments are in equilibrium, if the least addition be made to one of them, it will preponderate and overcome the effort. But the want of a perfect polish or smoothness in the parts of all instruments, and the rigidity of all ropes, which increases with the tension, are great impediments to motion, and in compounded engines are found to diminish about one fourth of the effect of the power.

The properties of all the mechanical powers depending on the laws of motion, and the action or tendency to produce motion of each of the two forces, being applied in directions contrary to each other, the following general rule for finding the proportion of the forces in equilibrium on any machine will require no proof.

If two weights applied to the extremes of any mechanical engine, be to each other in the reciprocal proportion of the velocities resolved into a perpendicular direction, (rejecting the other part) which would be acquired by each when put in motion for the same indefinitely small time, they will be in equilibrio.

Whence it may be observed, that in all contrivances by which power is gained, a proportional loss is suffered in respect of time. If one man by means of a tackle, can raise as much weight, as ten men could by their unassisted strength, he will be ten times as long about it.

It is convenience alone, and not any actual increase of force, which we obtain from mechanics. As may be illustrated by the following example:

Suppose a man at the top of a house draws up ten weights, one at a time, by a single rope, in ten minutes: let him then have a tackle of five lower pullies, and he will draw up the whole ten at once with the same ease as he before raised up one; but in ten times the time, that is, in ten minutes. Thus we see the same work is performed in the same time, whether the tackle be used or not: but the convenience is, that if the whole ten weights be joined into one, they may be raised with the tackle, though it would be impossible to move them by the unassisted strength of one man; or suppose, instead of ten weights, a man draws ten buckets of water from the hold of a ship in ten minutes, and that the ship being leaky, admits an equal quantity in the same time. It is proposed that by means of a tackle, he shall raise a bucket ten times as capacious. With this assistance he performs it, but in as long a time as he required to draw the ten, and therefore is as far from gaining on the water in this latter case as in the former.

Since then no real gain of force is acquired from mechanical contrivances, there is the greatest reason to conclude, that a perpetual motion is not to be obtained. For in all instruments the friction of their parts, and other resistances, destroy a part of the moving force, and at last put an end to the motion.

MECHANICAL, in mathematics, denotes a construction of some problem, by the assistance of instruments, as the duplicature of the cube, and quadrature of the circle, in contradistinction to that which is done in an accurate and geometrical manner.

MECHE, Fr. See MATCH.

MEDECIN, Fr. Physician.

MEDIATOR. Any state or power which interferes to adjust a quarrel between any two or more powers, is called a mediator.

MEDICINE-CHEST, is composed of all sorts of medicines necessary for a campaign, together with such chirurgical instruments as are useful, fitted up in chests, and portable. The army and navy are supplied with these at the expence of government.

Specific regulations have been issued by the war and navy offices, respecting the quantity and quality of the different medicines.

MEDIUM GUARD, a preparatory guard of the broad sword or sabre, which consists in presenting the sword in a perpendicular line with the centre of the opposed object, having the point upwards, the ward iron, and the cutting edge next the object.

MEER BUKSHY, Ind. Chief paymaster.

MEER TOZUK, Ind. A marshal whose business is to preserve order in a procession or line of march, and to report absentees.

MEGGHETERIARQUE, Fr. The commanding officer of a body of men, who formerly did duty at Constantinople, and were called Héteriennes, being composed of soldiers that were enlisted in the allied nations.

MELEE, Fr. a military term, which is used among the French to express the hurry and confusion of a battle; thus, Un Général habile conserve sa tranquillité au milieu du combat, et dans l’horreur de la mêlée:--An able general preserves his presence of mind in the thickest of the battle, and remains calm during the whole of the conflict. Mêlée corresponds with the English expression thick of the fight.

MEMOIRS, in military literature, a species of history, written by persons who had some share in the transactions they relate, answering, in some measure, to what the Romans call commentarii, i. e. commentaries. Hence Cæsar’s Commentaries, or the Memoirs of his Campaigns.

MEMOIR is the title given by military officers to those plans which they offer to their government or commanders on subjects relating to war or military economy.

MEMORIAL, an address to the government on any matter of public service.

BATTALION-MEN. All the soldiers belonging to the different companies of an infantry regiment are so called, except those of the two flank companies.

Camp-Color MEN. Soldiers under the immediate command and direction of the quarter-master of a regiment. Their business is to assist in marking out the lines of an encampment, &c. to carry the camp colors to the field on days of exercise, and fix them occasionally for the purpose of enabling the troops to take up correct points in marching, &c. So that in this respect they frequently, indeed almost always, act as guides, or what the French call Jalonneurs. They are likewise employed in the trenches, and in all fatigue duties.

Drag-rope MEN. In the old artillery exercise, the men attached to light or heavy pieces of ordnance, for the purpose of advancing or retreating in action, were so called; the drag rope being exploded for the bricole, the term is preserved merely for explanation. The French servans à la prolonge are of this description.

MENACE, an hostile threat. Any officer or soldier using menacing words or gestures in presence of a court-martial, or to a superior officer, is punishable for the same.--See the Articles of War.

MENSURATION, in general, denotes the act or art of measuring lines, superficies, and solids.

MENSURATION, in military mathematics, is the art or science which treats of the measure of extension, or the magnitude of figures; and it is, next to arithmetic, a subject of the greatest use and importance, both in affairs that are absolutely necessary in human life, and in every branch of mathematics: a subject by which sciences are established, and commerce is conducted; by whose aid we manage our business, and inform ourselves of the wonderful operations in nature; by which we measure the heavens and the earth, estimate the capacities of all vessels and bulks of all bodies, gauge our liquors, build edifices, measure our lands and the works of artificers, buy and sell an infinite variety of things necessary in life, and are supplied with the means of making the calculations which are necessary for the construction of almost all machines.

It is evident that the close connection of this subject with the affairs of men would very early evince its importance to them; and accordingly the greatest among them have paid the utmost attention to it; and the chief and most essential discoveries in geometry in all ages, have been made in consequence of their efforts in this subject. Socrates thought that the prime use of geometry was to measure the ground, and indeed this business gave name to the subject; and most of the ancients seem to have had no other end besides mensuration in view in all their labored geometrical disquisitions. Euclid’s elements are almost entirely devoted to it; and although there be contained in them many properties of geometrical figures, which may be applied to other purposes, and indeed of which the moderns have made the most material uses in various disquisitions of exceedingly different kinds; notwithstanding this, Euclid himself seems to have adapted them entirely to this purpose: for, if it be considered that his elements contain a continued chain of reasoning, and of truths, of which the former are successively applied to the discovery of the latter, one proposition depending on another, and the succeeding propositions still approximating towards some particular object near the end of each book; and when at the last we find that object to be the quality, proportion or relation between the magnitudes of figures both plane and solid; it is scarcely possible to avoid allowing this to have been Euclid’s grand object. And accordingly he determined the chief properties in the mensuration of rectilineal plane and solid figures; and squared all such planes, and cubed all such solids. The only curve figures which he attempted besides, are the circle and sphere; and when he could not accurately determine their measures, he gave an excellent method of approximating to them, by shewing how in a circle to inscribe a regular polygon which should not touch another circle, concentric with the former, although their circumferences should be ever so near together; and, in like manner, between any two concentric spheres to describe a polyhedron which should not any where touch the inner one: and approximations to their measures are all that have hitherto been given. But although he could not square the circle, nor cube the sphere, he determined the proportion of one circle to another, and of one sphere to another, as well as the proportions of all rectilineal similar figures to one another.

Archimedes took up mensuration where Euclid left it, and carried it a great length. He was the first who squared a curvilineal space, unless Hypocrates must be excepted on account of his lunes. In his times the conic sections were admitted in geometry, and he applied himself closely to the measuring of them as well as other figures. Accordingly he determined the relations of spheres, spheroids, and conoids, to cylinders and cones; and the relations of parabolas to rectilineal planes whose quadratures had long before been determined by Euclid. He hath left us also his attempts upon the circle: he proved that a circle is equal to a right angled triangle, whose base is equal to the circumference, and its altitude equal to the radius; and consequently that its area is found by drawing the radius into half the circumference; and so reduced the quadrature of the circle to the determination of the ratio of the diameter to the circumference; but which however hath not yet been done. Being disappointed of the exact quadrature of the circle, for want of the rectification of its circumference, which all his methods would not effect, he proceeded to assign an useful approximation to it: this he effected by the numerical calculation of the perimeters of the inscribed and circumscribed polygons; from which calculations it appears, that the perimeter of the circumscribed regular polygon of 192 sides is to the diameter in a less ratio than that of 3¹⁄₇ (3¹⁰⁄₇₀) to 1, and that the inscribed polygon of 96 sides is to the diameter in a greater ratio than that of 3¹⁰⁄₇₁ to 1; and consequently much more than the circumference of the circle is to the diameter in a less ratio than that of 3¹⁄₇ to 1, but greater than that of 3¹⁰⁄₇₁ to 1: the first ratio of 3¹⁄₇ to 1, reduced to whole numbers, gives that of 22 to 7, for 3¹⁄₇ : 1 ∷ 22 : 7, which therefore will be nearly the ratio of the circumference to the diameter. From this ratio of the circumference to the diameter he computed the approximate area of the circle, and found it to be to the square of the diameter as 11 to 14. He likewise determined the relation between the circle and elipsis, with that of their similar parts. The hyperbola too in all probability he attempted; but it is not to be supposed, that he met with any success, since approximations to its area are all that can be given by all the methods that have since been invented.

Besides these figures, he hath left us a treatise on the spiral described by a point moving uniformly along a right line, which at the same time moves with an uniform angular motion; and determined the proportion of its area to that of its circumscribed circle, as also the proportion of their sectors.

Throughout the whole works of this great man, which are chiefly on mensuration, he every where discovers the deepest design and finest invention; and seems to have been (with Euclid) exceedingly careful of admitting into his demonstrations nothing but principles perfectly geometrical and unexceptionable: and although his most general method of demonstrating the relations of curved figures to straight ones, be by inscribing polygons in them, yet to determine those relations, he does not increase the number and diminish the magnitude of the sides of the polygon ad infinitum; but from this plain fundamental principle, allowed in Euclid’s elements, viz. that any quantity may be so often multiplied, or added to itself, as that the result shall exceed any proposed finite quantity of the same kind, he proves that to deny his figures to have the proposed relations, would involve an absurdity.

He demonstrated also many properties, particularly in the parabola, by means of certain numerical progressions, whose terms are similar to the inscribed figures: but without considering such series to be continued ad infinitum, and then summing up the terms of such infinite series.

He had another very curious and singular contrivance for determining the measures of figures, in which he proceeds, as it were, mechanically by weighing them.

Several other eminent men among the ancients wrote upon this subject, both before and after Euclid and Archimedes; but their attempts were usually upon particular parts of it, and according to methods not essentially different from theirs. Among these are to be reckoned Thales, Anaxagoras, Pythagoras, Bryson, Antiphon, Hypocrates of Chios, Plato, Apollonius, Philo, and Ptolomy; most of whom wrote of the quadrature of the circle, and those after Archimedes, by his method, usually extended the approximation to a greater degree of accuracy.

Many of the moderns have also prosecuted the same problem of the quadrature of the circle, after the same methods, to greater lengths: such are Viera, and Metius, whose proportion between the diameter and circumference is that of 113 to 355, which is within about ³⁄₁₀₀₀₀₀₀₀ of the true ratio; but above all, Ludolph van Ceulen, who with an amazing degree of industry and patience, by the same methods extended the ratio to 20 places of figures, making it that of 1 to 3.14159265358979323846+.

The first material deviation from the principles used by the ancients in geometrical demonstrations was made by Cavalerius: the sides of their inscribed and circumscribed figures they always supposed of a finite and assignable number and length; he introduced the doctrine of indivisibles, a method which was very general and extensive, and which with great ease and expedition served to measure and compare geometrical figures. Very little new matter however was added to geometry by this method, its facility being its chief advantage. But there was great danger in using it, and it soon led the way to infinitely small elements, and infinitesimals of endless orders; methods which were very useful in solving difficult problems, and in investigating or demonstrating theories that are general and extensive; but sometimes led their incautious followers into errors and mistakes, which occasioned disputes and animosities among them. There were now, however, many excellent things performed in this subject; not only many new things were effected concerning the old figures, but new curves were measured; and for many things which could not be exactly squared or cubed, general and infinite approximating series were assigned, of which the laws of their continuation were manifest, and of some of which the terms were independent on each other. Mr. Wallis, Mr. Huygens, and Mr. James Gregory, performed wonders. Huygens in particular must be admired for his solid, accurate, and very masterly works.

During the preceding state of things several men, whose vanity seemed to have overcome their regard for truth, asserted that they had discovered the quadrature of the circle, and published their attempts in the form of strict geometrical demonstrations, with such assurance and ambiguity as staggered and misled many who could not so well judge for themselves, and perceive the fallacy of their principles and arguments. Among those were Longomontanus, and the celebrated Hobbes, who obstinately refused all conviction of his errors.

The use of infinites was however disliked by several people, particularly by sir Isaac Newton, who among his numerous and great discoveries hath given us that of the method of fluxions; a discovery of the greatest importance both in philosophy and mathematics; it being a method so general and extensive, as to include all investigations concerning magnitude, distance, motion, velocity, time, &c. with wonderful ease and brevity; a method established by its great author upon true and incontestible principles; principles perfectly consistent with those of the ancients, and which were free from the imperfections and absurdities attending some that had lately been introduced by the moderns; he rejected no quantities as infinitely small, nor supposed any parts of curves to coincide with right lines; but proposed it in such a form as admits of a strict geometrical demonstration. Upon the introduction of this method most sciences assumed a different appearance, and the most abstruse problems became easy and familiar to every one; things which before seemed to be insuperable, became easy examples or particular cases of theories still more general and extensive; rectifications, quadratures, cubatures, tangencies, cases de maximis & minimis, and many other subjects, became general problems, and delivered in the form of general theories which included all particular cases: thus, in quadratures, an expression would be investigated which defined the areas of all possible curves whatever, both known and unknown, and which, by proper substitutions, brought out the area for any particular case, either in finite terms, or infinite series, of which any term, or any number of terms could be easily assigned; and the like in other things. And although no curve, whose quadrature was unsuccessfully attempted by the ancients, became by this method perfectly quadrable, there were assigned many general methods of approximating to their areas, of which in all probability the ancients had not the least idea or hope; and innumerable curves were squared which were utterly unknown to them.

The excellency of this method revived some hopes of squaring the circle, and its quadrature was attempted with eagerness. The quadrature of a space was now reduced to the finding of the fluent of a given fluxion; but this problem however was found to be incapable of a general solution in finite terms; the fluxion of every fluent was always assignable, but the reverse of this problem could be effected only in particular cases; among the exceptions, to the great grief of the geometers, was included the case of the circle, with regard to all the forms of fluxions attending it. Another method of obtaining the area was tried: of the quantity expressing the fluxion of any area, in general, could be assigned the fluent in the form of an infinite series, which series therefore defined all areas in general, and which, on substituting for particular cases, was often found to break off and terminate, and so afford an area in finite terms; but here again the case of the circle failed, its area still coming out an infinite series. All hopes of the quadrature of the circle being now at an end, the geometricians employed themselves, in discovering and selecting the best forms of infinite series for determining its area, among which it is evident, that those were to be preferred which were simple, and which would converge quickly; but it generally happened, that these two properties were divided, the same series very rarely including them both: the mathematicians in most parts of Europe were now busy, and many series were assigned on all hands, some admired for their simplicity, and others for their rate of convergency; those which converged the quickest, and were at the same time simplest, which therefore were most useful in computing the area of the circle in numbers, were those in which, besides the radius, the tangent of some certain arc of the circle, was the quantity by whose powers the series converged; and from some of these series the area hath been computed to a very great extent of figures: Mr. Edmund Hally gave a remarkable one from the tangent of 30 degrees, which was rendered famous by the very industrious Mr. Abraham Sharp, who by means of it extended the area of the circle to 72 places of figures, as may be seen in Sherwin’s book of logarithms; but even this was afterwards outdone by Mr. John Machin, who, by means described in professor Hutton’s Mensuration, composed a series so simple, and which converged so quickly, that by it, in a very little time, he extended the quadrature of the circle to 100 places of figures; from which it appears, that if the diameter be 1, the circumference will be 3.1415926535, 8979323846, 2643383279, 5028841971, 6939937510, 5820974944, 5923078164, 0628620899, 8628034825, 3421170679+, and consequently the area will be .7853981633, 9744830961, 5660849819, 857210492, 9234984377, 6455243736, 1480769541, 0157155224, 9657008706, 3355292669+.

From hence it appears, that all or most of the material improvements or inventions in the principles or method of treating of geometry, have been made especially for the improvement of this chief part of it, mensuration, which abundantly shows, what we at first undertook to declare, the dignity of this subject; a subject which, as Dr. Barrow says, after mentioning some other things, “deserves to be more curiously weighed, because from hence a name is imposed upon that mother and mistress of the rest of the mathematical sciences, which is employed about magnitudes, and which is wont to be called geometry (a word taken from ancient use, because it was first applied only to measuring the earth, and fixing the limits of possessions) though the name seemed very ridiculous to Plato, who substitutes in its place that more extensive name of Metrics or Mensuration; and others after him gave it the title of Pantometry, because it teaches the method of measuring all kinds of magnitudes.” See SURVEYING, LEVELLING, and GEOMETRY.

MERHAU, Ind. A deduction or abatement is so called in India.

MERIT. Desert, excellence, deserving honor or reward.

MERIT, Order of, a military distinction given to officers or soldiers, for some signal service: the badge of which is generally expressive of the service. Such was the medal, or order of merit, presented by the Austrian emperor to the officers of the 15th British light dragoons, for their bravery in the affair of Villers en Couché, in 1794.

MERKIN. A mop to clean cannon.

MERLIN. Handspike.

MERLON. See FORTIFICATION.

MESS. It is usual and advantageous to discipline that the officers of a camp or garrison form one or more messes.

MESSENGERS of state in England, are officers under the direction of the secretaries of state, of whom there were 20 always in waiting, who were relieved monthly, and distributed in the following manner: four at court, five at each secretary’s office, two at the third office for North Britain, three at the council office, and one at the lord chamberlain’s office, who attended that office always in readiness to be sent with dispatches, either domestic or foreign; either to apprehend persons accused or suspected of high treason, or other offences against the state, being empowered by warrant from the secretaries; for the safe keeping of which, their houses are made a sort of confinement or prison; and for the maintenance of the prisoners they have a certain allowance from government. The number has been increased with the system of espionage since 1794.

Military MESSENGERS. Confidential persons that are sent to and from head quarters, &c.

MESTRE de CAMP, Fr. The commanding officer of a regiment of cavalry was so called in the old French service. He was distinguished by this appellation on account of there being a colonel-general in the cavalry. The duty of a mestre de camp was principally confined to the following heads:--To see that the troops or companies were kept complete, that the arms were in good state and condition, the horses of a proper size, sound, and well trained. He had likewise the direction of the different guards, &c.

MESTRE de CAMP général, Fr. The next officer in rank, in the old French cavalry service, to the colonel-general. This appointment was created under Henry II. in 1552.

MESTRE de CAMP général des dragons, Fr. An appointment which first took place under Louis the XIVth. in 1684.

MESURES à poudre, Fr. Tin cases or vessels used in the artillery, to measure out gunpowder, according to the size and calibre of each piece of ordnance. See Powder MEASURES.

Over-METAL, (in gunnery,) when the mouth of a piece of ordnance, in disparting it, lies higher than the breech, it is then said to be laid over metal.

Under-METAL, (in gunnery) is when the mouth of a piece of ordnance lies lower than her breech.

Right with METAL, (in gunnery.) When a piece of ordnance lies truly level, point blank, or right with the mark, she is said to lie right with her metal.

Superficies of METALS, (in gunnery.) The surface or outside of a gun.

METIER, Fr. Means, literally, any calling or business. In a military sense, it is peculiarly applicable to those nations which keep up large standing armies, and make war their principal object and pursuit. In speaking of military matters, it is common among the French to say--Guerre sur terre est notre métier; Guerre sur mer est le métier des Anglois--The land service is our peculiar business or calling; the sea service is the peculiar business or calling of the English; meaning thereby to express their reciprocal superiority.

Chevalier Folard gives the following definition relative to the question which is often discussed on the subject of war, namely, whether war be a trade or a science? The English call it a profession. Folard, however, distinguishes it in this manner:--La guerre est un métier pour les ignorans, et une science pour les habiles gens. War in the apprehension, and under the management of ignorant persons, is certainly a mere trade or business, but among able men, it becomes an important branch of science.

METTRE à la main, Fr. To grasp or take hold of any thing.

METTRE l’épée à la main, Fr. To draw swords. Ils mirent l’épée à la main, a figurative expression, signifying, they took their ground, and stood prepared to fight.

METTRE les armes à la main de quelqu’un, Fr. To teach a person the first rudiments of war, or lead him for the first time into action. C’est lui qui m’a mis les armes à la main. He first taught me how to fight, or I fought the first campaign under his orders.

METTRE aux arrêts, Fr. To put under arrest.

METTRE sur pied, Fr. To arm, to equip, to put troops upon an established footing.

MEURTRIERES, Fr. Small loop holes, sufficiently large to admit the barrel of a rifle gun or musquet, through which soldiers may fire, under cover, against an enemy. They likewise mean the cavities that are made in the walls of a fortified town or place. See MURDRESSES.

MICHE. See MALINGERER.

MICROMETER, (Micromêtre, Fr.) an instrument contrived to measure small spaces, as in the divisions of the worm of a screw.

MIDI, Fr. the South.

MILE, in geography, a long measure, whereby the English, &c. express the distance between places: it is of different extent in different countries. The geometrical mile contains 1000 geometrical paces, or mille passus, from whence miles are denominated.

We shall here give a table of the miles in use among the principal nations of Europe, in geometrical paces, 60,000 of which, according to the English Military Dictionary, make a degree of the equator.

Geometrical paces. Mile of Russia 750 Italy 1000 England 1200 Scotland and Ireland 1500 The old league of France 1500 The small ditto 2000 The great ditto 3000 Mile of Poland 3000 Spain and Portugal 3428 Germany 4000 Sweden 5000 Denmark 5010 Hungary 6000 Holland 3500

MILE. Comparison of the different miles, in geometric paces, each of which is equal to 5 feet French royal, 5·6719 feet Rhinland, or 6·1012 English feet.

Geometric paces. The mile of Sweden 5761 Switzerland 4512 Denmark 4071 Common, of Germany 4000 Holland 3158 League of France 2400 Spain 2286 Scotland 1500 Mile of Italy 1000 England 868 Werste of Russia 575

MILICE, Fr. soldiery, but more particularly the militia or trained bands.

MILICES gardes-côtes, Fr. A militia, somewhat similar to our sea fencibles, which existed during the old French government, and whose services were confined to the coast. Every province, contiguous to the sea, was obliged to furnish a certain proportion of its male inhabitants, from 16 to 60 years old. This militia was exempted from the regulations which governed the land militia. It was under the admiralty.

MILITANT, the state of warfare, or business of war.

MILITAR, MILITARY, something belonging to the soldiery or militia, &c.

MILITARY architecture, the same with fortification. See FORTIFICATION.

MILITARY ways, the large Roman roads which Agrippa procured to be made through the empire in the reign of Augustus for the marching of troops and conveying of carriages. They were paved from the gates of Rome to the utmost limits of the empire. The British have constructed a military road throughout India; with wells and other accommodations at certain distances.

MILITARY discipline. Next to the forming of troops, military discipline is the first object that presents itself to our notice: it is the soul of all armies; and unless it be established amongst them with great prudence, and supported with unshaken resolution, soldiers become a contemptible rabble, and are more dangerous to the very state that maintains them, than even its declared enemies. See DISCIPLINE.

MILITARY execution, the ravaging or destroying of a country or town that refuses to pay the contribution inflicted upon them. Also the punishment inflicted by the sentence of a court-martial.

MILITARY first principles, is the bodily training for a soldier, to make him hardy, robust, and capable of preserving health amidst fatigue, bad weather, and change of climate; to march at such possible pace, and for such length of time, and with such burden, as, without training, he would not be able to do.

MILITARY REGULATIONS. The rules and regulations, by which the discipline, formations, field exercise, and movements of the whole army, are directed to be observed in one uniform system. The American military system is scarcely entitled to the name of a system; and as to regulation that requires yet to be established, the worst of all is that there does not appear to be a suspicion in congress that any regulation is required. See REGULATIONS.

MILITIA. A force whose services, in general, do not exceed the boundaries of the nation, but which may volunteer beyond them. The American militia has no coherent system, every state has power to regulate its own, and the effect is, that there is either no regulation at all, or what is worst, an imbecile mockery, the only use of which is the preservation on the statute book that there is a power though there is not a will to regulate the militia. The militia among the Romans was frequently called Agrarian soldiers. The system of our revolution though it was not complete in general was the most effectual ever established; the French system of conscription was borrowed from America, who borrowed it from the Romans.

MILL, properly denotes a machine for grinding corn, &c. but more generally all such machines whose action depends upon a circular motion. There are various kinds, though foreign to this work.

Gunpowder MILL, is that used for pounding and beating together the ingredients of which gunpowder is composed.

These ingredients being duly proportioned, and put into the mortars of the mills, which are hollow pieces of wood, each capable of holding 20 pounds of paste, are incorporated by means of the pestle and spindle. There are 24 mortars in each mill, where are made each day 480 pounds of gunpowder, care being taken to sprinkle the ingredients in the mortars with water, from time to time, lest they should take fire. The pestle is a piece of wood 10 feet high, and 4¹⁄₂ inches broad, armed at bottom with a round piece of metal. It weighs about 60 pounds.

MIM BASHY, Ind. A commander of one thousand horse.

MINE, in a military sense, implies a subterraneous passage dug under the wall or rampart of a fortification, for the purpose of blowing it up by gunpowder.

The excavation formed by the blowing up of a mine is found by experiment to be nearly a paraboloid. It was formerly supposed that the diameter of the entonnoir, or excavation, was always equal to only double the line of least resistance; but experiments have proved, that the diameter of the excavation may be increased to six times the line of least resistance; and that the diameter of the globe of compression may be increased to eight times that line; this is called the maximum of a mine, or the greatest effect that can be produced by a globe of compression. In any mine intended to produce an effect within this extent, the effects will be nearly as the charges.

The globes are to each other as the cubes of their radii. Their radii are the hypothenuse of rightangled triangles, of which the line of least resistance, and the semi-diameter of the excavation, are the other two sides. Therefore, to find the charge to produce any required diameter of the excavation, the following will be the rule, the radius being found as above:

As the cube of the radius of the globe of compression in the following table, (having the same line of least resistance as the required globe,)

Is to the cube of the radius of the required globe;

So is the charge corresponding in the following table,

To the charge required.

Table for the Charges of Mines, according to Valliere.

-------------+----------++-------------+---------- Line of least|Charge for||Line of least|Charge for Resistance. | the Mine.|| Resistance. | the Mine. -------------+----------++-------------+---------- Feet. | lbs. oz.|| Feet. | lbs. oz. 1 | 0 2 || 21 | 868 3 2 | 0 12 || 22 | 998 4 3 | 2 8 || 23 |1140 10 4 | 6 -- || 24 |1296 -- 5 | 11 11 || 25 |1558 9 6 | 20 4 || 26 |1647 12 7 | 32 2 || 27 |1815 4 8 | 48 -- || 28 |2053 -- 9 | 68 5 || 29 |2286 7 10 | 93 12 || 30 |2530 4 11 | 124 12 || 31 |2792 4 12 | 162 -- || 32 |3072 -- 13 | 205 15 || 33 |3369 1 14 | 257 4 || 34 |3680 12 15 | 316 4 || 35 |4019 8 16 | 384 -- || 36 |4374 -- 17 | 460 9 || 37 |4748 11 18 | 546 12 || 38 |5144 4 19 | 643 -- || 39 |5561 2 20 | 750 -- || 40 |6000 -- -------------+----------++-------------+----------

This table is calculated upon a supposition that the excavation of the mine is a paraboloid, having a base double the line of resistance; and that 10 lbs. 10 oz. of powder is sufficient for raising one cubic fathom of earth. By the rule above given may be found the charge for any mine, that shall only shake the ground, without making any excavation, by making the line of least resistance of the required globe only equal to the radius of the globe of compression.

The charges thus found by means of this table, being only for one nature of soil; viz., light earth and sand, (that for which the table is calculated) must be augmented according to the following table of Vauban’s, by one, four, five, seven, or nine elevenths of the charge found.

Table of the quantity of powder required to raise a cubic fathom, according to the soil.

1 Light earth, mixed with sand 11 pounds. 2 Common earth 12 3 Strong sand 15 4 Clay, or fat earth 16 5 Old and good masonry 18 9 Rock 20

The following rule is however laid down by Belidor, and generally adopted, if it be intended that the mine shall produce its maximum or greatest effect: multiply the line of least resistance, expressed in feet, by 300, the product will be the charge in pounds.

In making mines of any kind, the following remarks may be of service.

The best form for the chamber would be spherical; but from the difficulty of its construction, it is always made a cube, of one inch larger dimensions than the box to contain the powder.

The chamber must not be made in the prolongation of the branch of the mine, but at one side, and lower than the level of the branch, if the soil be dry; but higher if it be wet.

One cubic foot will contain 75 lbs of powder; upon which principle the size of the case to contain the powder must be regulated. The auget is generally one inch square interior dimensions, and the end of it must reach the centre of the chamber; where the saucisson must be fastened, to prevent its being easily pulled out.

The branch of the mine to be sprung must be closed in the strongest manner by doors well secured by props, and must be stopped with earth or rubbish to a distance, taken in a straight line, equal to 1¹⁄₂ times the line of least resistance.

In proportioning the length of saucisson, in order that any number of mines may be fired at the same instant, a return of a right angle is generally reckoned equal to 4 inches in a right line.

The first step in making a mine, whether for attack or defence, is to sink a shaft to the depth of the bottom of the gallery, having two of its sides in the direction of the sides of the gallery. These shafts should be where the galleries are to cross each other, or in the centre of the length of gallery to be made. These shafts should never be further apart than 40 or 50 fathoms; for it is found, that the air is not fit for respiration in the larger galleries at a greater distance from the shaft than 25 fathoms; at 20 fathoms in those of medium dimensions; and at 15 in the smallest.

The rectangular frames used in sinking a shaft are commonly placed 4 feet asunder; and in the galleries they are only 3 feet. A gallery intended to be lined with masonry, must be 7 feet high and 6 feet wide, in order that it may be when finished, 6 feet high and 3 feet wide.

Temporary galleries are only made 4¹⁄₂ feet high, and 2¹⁄₂ or 3 feet wide.

The branches, at the ends of which the chambers are to be placed, are only made 2¹⁄₂ or 3 feet high, and 2 feet, or 2 feet 3 inches wide.

The first of these is dug on the knees; the second sitting or lying.

The miners are divided into squads of 4 each; and the rate of the work for each squad is 3 feet of the temporary gallery in 4 hours. The first squad is relieved by a second, after having worked 4 hours, or laid one frame; which second squad is again relieved by the first, at the expiration of the same time.

In the most easy ground to work, a miner may be heard to the distance of 14 or 15 fathoms under ground; and the noise made by fixing the frames of the galleries may often be heard as far as 20 or 25 fathoms. A drum braced, standing on the ground, with a few peas or other round substances on the head, will be very sensibly affected by an approaching miner.

It is of the most essential consequence to place the entrances to the countermines beyond the reach of any surprise from the enemy.

To prevent an enemy gaining possession of the galleries of the countermines they should be well secured by strong doors, at every 15 fathoms. These should be musquet proof.

A glacis, properly countermined, and every advantage taken of it to retard the besiegers, may, with proper management, prolong a siege at least 2 months; and if the rest of the works are also countermined, and properly defended, they may add another month to the siege. Every system of countermines must depend upon the system of fortification to which they are to be adapted; the general principle for their regulation is, that the galleries should occupy situations, from which branches can be most readily run out under the most probable points of the besieger’s batteries and approaches. The general system of countermines commonly used in a place prepared before hand, is as follows: the principal or magistral gallery runs all round the work, under the banquette of the covert way, and across the places of arms, having the entrances at the re-entering places of arms. Nearly parallel to this at 20, 25 or 30 fathoms distance is another gallery, called the envellope. These two galleries are connected by galleries of communication, under the gutters of the re-entering parts of the glacis, and under the ridges of the salient parts. From the envellope are run out about 15 or 16 fathoms, galleries in directions parallel to the capitals of the works, and at 23 fathoms distance from each other. These are called listeners.

Sometimes, shafts are sunk from the end of these listeners, and by connecting these shafts, a second envellope formed. Behind the escarps of the different works, galleries are likewise made, about the level of the bottom of the ditch; from whence branches may be run out into or under the foundations of the walls; and if the ditch be dry, galleries of communication may be made from these to the magistral gallery; and from which communications branches may be run out for chambers to annoy the besiegers in their passage of the ditch. The entrances to the escarp galleries are by means of posterns, which descend from behind the interior slope of the rampart.

If a place be not countermined before hand, a great deal may be done even after the investment of the place, to prolong the siege by countermines. In this case, the first thing to be done immediately that the place is invested, is to sink a shaft in each of the places of arms of the covert way; one in each branch of the covert way opposite that part of the bastion where the breach will most probably be made; and one in the flanked angle of each bastion. Those on the covert way will be on the banquette, and sunk to about 18 inches below the bottom of the ditch. Those in the bastions to about 12 feet below the bottom of the ditch. Thus prepared, the moment the side on which the attack is to be made can be ascertained, galleries must be carried on from these shafts on the side attacked along the capitals, in the form of trefles, or double T; and advanced as far into the country as the time will admit. Communication galleries may likewise be driven between these different works on the covert way, and from them to the work in the bastion; which will prevent the enemy gaining possession of their entrances. All these works may be carried on after the investment of the place; and be in sufficient forwardness by the time the enemy gains the third parallel.

The following rules are given by Vauban for fougasses, or small mines, having the diameter of the excavation equal to double the line of least resistance. The side of the chamber must be exactly a sixth part of the depth of the shaft. The side of the box to hold the powder exactly a ninth part of the depth of the shaft.

These remarks respecting mines are principally extracted from the General Essay on Fortification before mentioned, written in French and published at Berlin, 1799.

Counter-MINES, are those made by the besieged, whereas mines are generally made by the besiegers. Both mines and counter-mines are made in the same manner, and for the like purposes, viz. to blow up their enemies and their works; only the principal galleries and mines of the besieged, are usually made before the town is besieged, and frequently at the same time the fortification is built, to save expence.

Eventer la MINE, Fr. to spring a mine. When used figuratively, this expression signifies to discover a plot, or make it known. It is likewise used to express the failure of any expedition or undertaking.

Definitions of MINES. A mine is a subterraneous cavity made according to the rules of art, in which a certain quantity of powder is lodged, which by its explosion blows up the earth above it.

It has been found by experiments, that the figure produced by the explosion is a paraboloid, and that the centre of the powder, or charge, occupies the focus.

The place where the powder is lodged is called the chamber of the mine, or fourneau.

The passage leading to the powder is called the gallery.

The line drawn from the centre of the chamber, perpendicular to the nearest surface of the ground, is called the line of least resistance.

The pit or hole, made by springing the mine, is called the excavation.

The fire is communicated to the mines by a pipe or hose, made of coarse cloth, whose diameter is about one and a half inch, called a saucisson, (for the filling of which near half a pound of powder is allowed to every foot) extending from the chamber to the entrance of the gallery, to the end of which is fixed a match, that the miner who sets fire to it may have time to retire, before it reaches the chamber.

To prevent the powder from contracting any dampness, the saucisson is laid in a small trough, called an auget made of boards, three and a half inch broad, joined together, lengthwise, with straw in it, and round the saucisson, with a wooden cover nailed upon it.

Foyer, Fr. Focus or centre of the chamber, some authors call the end of the saucisson that comes within the work, and which is to be set fire to, the foyer, or focus: but by most people, this is generally understood to be the centre of the chamber.

Galleries and chambers of MINES. Galleries made within the fortification, before the place is attacked, and from which several branches are carried to different places, are generally 4 or 4¹⁄₂ feet wide, and 5 or 5¹⁄₂ feet high. The earth is supported from falling in by arches and walls, as they are to remain for a considerable time; but when mines are made to be used in a short time, then the galleries are but 3 or 3¹⁄₂ feet wide, and 5 feet high, and the earth is supported by wooden frames or props.

The gallery being carried on to the place where the powder is to be lodged, the miners make the chamber. This is generally of a cubical form, large enough to hold the wooden box, which contains the powder necessary for the charge: the box is lined with straw and sand-bags, to prevent the powder from contracting dampness.

The chamber is sunk something lower than the gallery, if the soil permits; but where water is to be apprehended, it must be made higher than the gallery; otherwise the besieged will let in the water, and spoil the mine.

Quantities of powder to charge, MINES. Before any calculation can be made of the proper charge for a mine, the density and tenacity of the soil in which it is to be made, must be ascertained, either by experiment, or otherwise; for, in soils of the same density, that which has the greatest tenacity, will require the greatest force to separate its parts. The density is determined by weighing a cubic foot (or any certain quantity) of the soil; but the tenacity can only be determined by making a mine. The following table contains experiments in 6 different soils, which may be of some assistance to form a judgment of the nature of the soil, when an actual experiment cannot be had.

+-------------------------------+--------+-------------+ | |Density.| Tenacity. | | +--------+-------------+ | | Weight |Quantity of | | | of |power to | | | 1 cubic|raise 1 cubic| | Nature of the soil. | foot. |fathom. | +-------------------------------+--------+-------------+ |1. Loose earth or sand | 95 pds.| 8 pds. | +-------------------------------+--------+-------------+ |2. Common light soil |124 | 10 | +-------------------------------+--------+-------------+ |3. Loam, or strong soil |127 | 12¹⁄₄ | +-------------------------------+--------+-------------+ |4. Potter’s clay, or stiff soil|135 | 13¹⁄₂ | +-------------------------------+--------+-------------+ |5. Clay, mixed with stones |160 | 16 | +-------------------------------+--------+-------------+ |6. Masonry |205 | 21¹⁄₂ | +-------------------------------+--------+-------------+

All the requisites in mining may be determined by the following problems, which admit of 4 cases; for any 3 of the articles below being given, the 4th may thence be found.

1. The nature of the soil,

2. The diameter of the excavation,

3. The line of least resistance,

4. The charge.

PROBLEM. I.

Given the nature of the soil, the diameter of the excavation, and the line of least resistance, to find the charge.

RULES.

1. To the square of the diameter of the excavation, add the square of double the line of least resistance, and reserve the said sum.

2. Multiply the square root of the reserved sum by double the line of least resistance, and subtract the product from the same sum.

3. Multiply half the remainder by the line of least resistance, and 1.57 times the product, will give the solidity of the excavation.

4. The charge will then be determined from the nature of the soil, as in the following example.

Example I.

It is required to make a mine in the second sort of soil, mentioned in the foregoing experiments, which shall have a line of least resistance of 10 feet, and the diameter of its excavation 20 feet; what will be the proper charge?

The nature of this soil, by the table, requires 10 pounds of powder to 216 cubic feet.

Calculation.

1. The diameter of the excavation is 20, and its square 400 Double the line of least resistance is 20, and its square 400 --- Therefore the sum to be reserved is 800

2. The square root of 800 is 28.3 Double the line of least resistance is 20 566 --- Which leaves the remainder 234 --- 3. Half the remainder is 117 Which multiplied by the line of least resistance, 10 --- Gives the product 1170 Which multiplied by 1.57 ------ Gives the solidity of the excavation feet 1836.9

feet. lb. feet. lb. 4. If 216 : 10 ∷ 1836.9 : 85 which is the charge required.

By Logarithms.

1. Diam. of excavation is = 20 1.301030 Diameter squared is 2.602060 400 Double the line of least resistance is = 20 and its square 400 --- The sum to be reserved is 2.903090 800 -------- 2. Square root of sum is 28.3 1.451545 Double the line of least resistance is = 20 1.301030 -------- Product to be subtracted is 2.752575 566 -------- --- Remainder is 2.369216 234 Line of least resist. = 10 1.000000 10 pounds of powder 1.000000 To 216 cubic feet, compl. arith. 7.665546 To which add the const. log. 9.894870 -------- And the sum is the logarithm charge required 1.929632 = 85 lb.

Problem II.

Given the nature of the soil, the line of least resistance, and the charge, to find the diameter of the excavation.

RULES.

1. Find the solidity of the earth to be raised, by a proportion from the nature of the soil, and multiply it by 1.27.--Divide the product by the line of least resistance, and to the quotient add the square of the line of least resistance: reserve the sum.

2. Multiply the square root of the sum reserved by twice the line of least resistance, and add the product to the said sum, and from the result subtract 3 times the square of the line of least resistance; so will the square root of the remainder be the diameter of the required excavation.

Example I.

Let a mine be charged with 100 pounds of powder in a soil which requires 11 pounds of powder to raise 216 cubic feet, and let its line of least resistance be 10 feet: what will be the diameter of the excavation?

By the nature of the soil 11lb. : 216 feet ∷ 100lb. : 1964 feet, which is the solidity of the earth to be raised.

1. Therefore multiply 1964 By 1.27 ------- The product is 2494.28 ------- Which divided by the line of least resistance, 10, is 249.428

To which add the square of the line of least resistance 100.000 ------- And the sum to be reserved is 349.428

2. The square root of 349.428 is 18.7, which multiplied by twice the line of least resistance, 20, gives 374. ------- This added to the sum reserved gives 723.428

From which subtract 3 times the square of least resistance 300. ------- And there will remain 423.428

The square root of which is, 20.5 feet, being the required diameter of the excavation.

By Logarithms.

Numb. Logar. Numb. Cubic feet = 216 2.334454 Powder 11lb. co. ar. 8.958607 Charge = 100 2.000000 Line of least resist. 10 co. ar. 9.000000 Constant logarithm 0.103804 -------- 2.396865 249.4 ----- To which add the square of line of least resistance 100.0 ----- Sum to be reserved is 2.543323 349.4 -------- Half of which logar. 1.271661 Twice line of least resistance, 20, 1.301030 -------- Product to be added is 2.572691 373.8 ----- The result is 723.2

From which subtract thrice the square of the line of least resistance 300.0 ----- And there remains 2.626546 423.2

Half of which logar. is 1.313273 20.57 feet, the diameter of the excavation required.

Loading and stopping of MINES. The gallery and chamber being ready to be loaded, a strong box of wood is made of the size and figure of the chamber, being about ¹⁄₃d or ¹⁄₄th bigger than is required for containing the necessary quantity of powder: against the sides and bottom of the box is put some straw; and this straw is covered over with empty sand bags, to prevent the powder from contracting any dampness: a hole is made in the side next the gallery, near the bottom for the saucisson to pass through, which is fixed to the middle of the bottom, by means of a wooden peg, to prevent its loosening from the powder: or that, if the enemy should get to the entrance, he may not be able to tear it out. This done, the powder is brought in sand bags, and thrown loose in the box, and covered also with straw and sand bags; upon this is put the cover of the box, pressed down very tight with strong props; and, to render them more secure, planks are also put above them, against the earth, and wedged in as fast as possible.

This done the vacant space between the props are filled up with stones and dung, and rammed in the strongest manner: the least neglect in this work will considerably alter the effect of the mine.

Then the auget is laid from the chamber to the entrance of the gallery, with some straw at the bottom; and the saucisson laid in it, with straw over it: lastly, it must be shut with a wooden cover nailed upon it. Great care must be taken, in stopping up the gallery, not to press too hard upon the auget, for fear of spoiling the saucisson, which may hinder the powder from taking fire, and so prevent the mine from springing. The gallery is stopped up with stones, earth, and dung, well rammed, 6 or 7 feet further from the chamber than the length of the line of least resistance.

Globe of compression in MINES, from Belidor. If you imagine a large globe of earth homogeneous in all its parts, and, a certain quantity of powder lodged in its centre, so as to produce a proper effect without bursting the globe; by setting fire to the powder, it is evident, that the explosion will act all round, to overcome the obstacles which oppose its motion; and as the particles of the earth are porous, they will compress each other in proportion as the flame increases, and the capacity of the chamber increases likewise; but the particles of earth next to the chamber will communicate a part of their motion to those next to them, and those to their neighbors; and this communication will thus continue in a decreasing proportion, till the whole force of explosion is entirely spent; and the particles of earth beyond this term, will remain in the same state as they were at first. The particles of earth that have been acted upon by the force of explosion will compose a globe, which Mr. Belidor calls the globe of compression.

MINERS, in a military sense, are generally soldiers: most of the European regiments of artillery have each a company of miners, commanded by a captain and two lieutenants. When the miners are at work in the mines, they wear a kind of hood, to keep the earth that falls out of their eyes. In the English service the artificers are ordered for that purpose.

MINERS tools, consist in several sorts of spades, wheel-barrows, axes, hand-levers, chissels, sounding-augres, sledge-hammers, masons’ hammers, mattocks, augets, plummets, miner’s rule, and miner’s dial, &c.

Different sorts of MINES, are as follows:

Fougasses, are a sort of small mines, frequently made before the weakest parts of a fortification, as the salient angles and faces, not defended by a cross fire.

Treffle MINES, are mines with two chambers only.

T-MINES, so called from their great resemblance to that letter. They are double mines, having four lodgments.

Double T-MINES, have eight lodgments, and four doors.

Triple T-MINES, have twelve lodgments, and six doors.

Double Treffle MINES, have four lodgments, and eight doors.

Triple Treffle-MINES, have six lodgments, and twelve doors.

MINING, in the art of war, is become one of the most essential parts of the attack and defence of places; so much artillery is used, that nothing above ground can withstand its effects; the most substantial ramparts and parapets can resist but a short time; the outworks, though numerous serve only to retard for a time the surrender of the place.

History informs us, that mines were made long before the invention of gun powder; for the ancients made galleries or underground passages, much in the same way as the moderns, from without, under the walls of the places, which they cut off from the foundation, and supported them with strong props; then they filled the intervals with all manner of combustibles, which being set on fire burnt their props and the wall being no longer supported, fell, whereby a breach was made.

The besieged also made under-ground passages from the town under the besieger’s machines, by which they battered the walls, to destroy them; which proves necessity to have been the inventress of mines, as well as of other arts.

The first mines, since the invention of gunpowder, were made in 1487, by the Genoese, at the attack of Serezanella, a town in Florence; but these failing, they were for some time neglected, till Peter Navarro, being then engineer to the Genoese, and afterwards to the Spaniards in 1503, against the French, at the siege of the castle del Ovo, at Naples, made a mine under the wall, and blew it up. In consequence of which the castle was taken by storm.

M. Valliere relates the same story, but differs in the name of the engineer; he says it was Francis George, an Italian, who, serving at Naples in quality of architect, proposed to Peter Navarro, the Spanish governor to take this castle by mines.

Names of every thing used in MINING.

Auget, a kind of small trough, made of strong inch boards, about 4 inches square, in which the saucisson is laid in straw, to prevent the powder from contracting any dampness.

Chamber, the place where the powder is lodged, being first put in cubical boxes made for that purpose.

Excavation, Entonnoir, the pit or hole made by a mine when sprung.

Focus, the centre of the chamber where the powder is lodged.

Fougas, a kind of small mine.

Fourneau, See CHAMBER.

Miners’ Tools, are augers of several sorts, levers of different sorts, needles for working in rocks, rakes, spades, shovels, sledge-hammers, masons’ hammers, pick-axes, picks, mattocks, chissels, plummets, rules, a miner’s dial, &c.

Line of least resistance, is a line drawn from the centre of the space containing the powder, perpendicular to the nearest surface.

Gallery, the passage leading to the powder.

Saucisson, is a pipe or hose made of coarse cloth, whose diameter is about an inch, and filled with gunpowder; then laid in a trough or auget, which extends from the chamber to the entrance of the gallery, that the miner who sets fire to it, may have time to retire before it reaches to the chamber.

MINING, in military affairs, is the art of blowing up any part of a fortification, building, &c. by gunpowder. The art of mining requires a perfect knowlege both of fortification and geometry; and by these previous helps, the engineer may be qualified to ascertain correctly the nature of all manner of heights, depths, breadths, and thicknesses; to judge perfectly of slopes and perpendiculars, whether they be such as are parallel to the horizon, or such as are visual; together with the true levels of all kinds of earth. To which must be added, a consummate skill in the quality of rocks, earths, masonry, and sands; the whole accompanied with a thorough knowlege of the strength of all sorts of gunpowder

MINION, a piece of ordnance, of which there are two kinds, the large and ordinary: the large minion has its bore 3¹⁄₄ inches diameter, and is 1000 pounds weight; its load is 3¹⁄₄ pounds of powder; its shot three inches in diameter, and 3³⁄₄ pounds weight; its length is eight feet, and its level range 125 paces. The ordinary minion is three inches diameter in the bore, and weighs about 800 pounds weight: it is seven feet long, its load 2¹⁄₂ pounds of powder, its shot near three inches in diameter, and weighs three pounds four ounces, and shoots point blank 120 paces.

MINISTER, according to Johnson, is one who acts not by any inherent authority of his own, but under another. Thus in England all ministers act under a supreme authority, which is vested in the king, lords, and commons, to whom they are responsible. In military matters, there is not only a war minister, but a secretary at war, who likewise acts conjointly with the secretary of state. All dispatches and papers of consequence relating to the army must first pass through the secretary of state, and the war minister, before they are laid before parliament, or otherwise acted upon by the secretary at war. The common arrangements of corps, directions with respect to marching, &c. are transmitted to the secretary at war, and to the quarter-master general’s office, without previously passing through the secretary of state, or war minister.

MINISTRE de la guerre, Fr. Minister of the war department. The appointment of minister and secretary at war, among the French, first took place in the reign of Henry the II. in 1549. See WAR.

MINUTE, a hasty sketch taken of any thing in writing. Hence minutes of a general or regimental court-martial.

MINUTES of council in the military department. The notification of orders and regulations, which are directed to be observed by the British army in India, is so called. These minutes receive the sanction of the governor-general in council, and are the result of previous communications from the court of directors in Europe. They answer to the French word Résultat, which was prefixed to all orders and regulations that were occasionally issued by the military boards, or conseils de guerre, for the government of the army. The term, jugement d’un conseil de guerre, corresponded with our minutes of a general or regimental court-martial, and expressed not only the minutes but the sentence of the court.

MINUTE, the 60th part of each degree of a circle; and, in computation of time, the 60th part of an hour: it also denotes a short memoir or hasty sketch taken of any thing in writing. See MEASURE.

La MINUTE, Fr. The original of a sentence or decree.

To MISBEHAVE, in a military sense, to act in any manner unbecoming the character of an officer or soldier.

To MISBEHAVE before the enemy, to abandon the colors, or shamefully give way in action, &c. See WAR.

MIQUELETS, Fr. A banditti that infest the Pyrenean mountains, and are extremely obnoxious to travellers.

MIQUELETTI. A small body of mountain fusileers, belonging to the Neapolitan army.

MIRE, Fr. In the French artillery, a piece of wood about four inches thick, one foot high, and two feet and a half long, which is used in pointing cannon.

Coins de MIRE, Fr. Wedges made of wood, which serve to raise or depress any piece of ordnance. They are likewise used for the same purpose in mortars.

MIRZA, Ind. Sir, lord, master.

MISCELLANEOUS, an item or charge in the estimates of the British army, so distinguished as miscellaneous services; the same as our contingent expenditures.

MISERICORDE, Fr. a short dagger, which the cavalry formerly used, for the purpose of dispatching an enemy who would not ask quarter or mercy.

MISSILE, MISSIVE, any weapon which is either thrown by the hand, or which strikes at a distance from the moving power.

MITRAILLE, Fr. small pieces of old iron, such as heads of nails, &c. with which pieces of ordnance are frequently loaded.

Tirer à MITRAILLE, Fr. To fire with grape shot. This term is frequently used by the French, to express the bribery which is practised in war time by one nation upon another, for the purpose of fomenting civil insurrections. Hence tirer à mitraille d’or.

MITRE, MITER, a mode of joining two boards, or other pieces of wood together at right angles.

MOAT, A wet or dry ditch, dug round the walls of a town, or fortified place. When an enemy attacks a town, which has dry moats round it, the rampart must be approached by galleries under ground, which galleries are run beneath the moat; when the place is attempted through wet moats, your approaches must be made by galleries above ground, that is to say, by galleries raised above the surface of the water. The brink of the moat next the rampart is called the scarp, and the opposite one the counterscarp.

Dry-MOAT, that which has no water. It should invariably be deeper than the one that is full of water.

Flat bottomed MOAT, that which hath no sloping, its corners being somewhat rounded.

Lined MOAT, that whose scarp and counterscarp are cased with a wall of mason work made aslope.

MODEL, a mould; also a diminutive representation of any thing. Thus models of warlike instruments, fortifications, &c. &c. are preserved in the British laboratory at Woolwich.

MODERN, something of our own times, in opposition to what is antique or ancient.

MODERN Tactics, and MODERN Art of War, That system of manœuvre and evolution, which has been adopted since the invention of gunpowder, and particularly the system improved by the French within twenty years. See Am. Mil. Lib.

Ancient Tactics, and ancient art of War. The system which was pursued by the Greeks and Romans, &c. before the invention of gunpowder and fire arms.

MOGNIONS, from the French Maignon, signifying the stump of a limb. A sort of armor for the shoulders.

MOGUL, the emperor of India, from whom the nabobs (properly Naib, a deputy,) originally received their appointments, as governors and superintendants of provinces.

MOGUL Tartars, a nation so called that made considerable conquests in India.

MOHUR, Ind. A golden coin, of which there are several values, but generally goes for fifteen or sixteen rupees; a rupee half our dollar.

MOIENNE, Fr. A piece of ordnance, which is now called a four pounder, and which is ten feet long, was formerly so called.

MOINEAU, a French term for a little flat bastion, raised upon a re-entering angle, before a curtain which is too long, between two other bastions. It is commonly joined to the curtain, but sometimes separated by a fosse, and then called a detached bastion. They are not raised so high as the works of the place.

MOIS Romains, Fr. a term used in Germany, to signify a particular tax or contribution, which the emperors had a right to demand on urgent occasions. This tax grew out of an old custom which originally prevailed when the emperors went to Rome to be crowned, and which served to defray their expences thither. Thus when the tax was required, it was called for as a contribution of so many Roman months; implying a certain sum for so many.

MOISSON, Fr. Harvest. This word is used in various senses by the French, particularly in two of a poetical and figurative kind, viz. Il a vu cinquante moissons; he has lived fifty years, literally, has seen fifty harvests.

MOISSON de lauriers, Fr. a succession of victories, &c. literally a harvest of laurels.

MOISSON de gloire, is taken in the same sense.

MOISSONNER des lauriers, Fr. To reap laurels.

MOISSONNER les hommes, Fr. To kill off, &c. To mow down men.

MOLLER, Fr. Literally means to wax soft. It is used figuratively among the French to signify, in a military sense, the yielding or giving way of armed men, viz. les troupes mollisent, the troops gave way.

MOLLESSE, Fr. in a figurative sense, signifies want of firmness or resolution. Je crains la mollesse de vos conseils; I mistrust the pliant tendency of your advice or counsel.

MONDE, Fr. in a military sense, means men or soldiers, viz.

Ce capitaine n’avoit que la moitié de son monde; such a captain had only half his complement of men.

On a perdue beaucoup de monde, Fr. They lost a considerable number of men.

Il a un monde d’ennemis sur les bras, Fr. he is assailed by a multiplicity of foes.

Aller à l’autre monde, Fr. This expression bears the same import in English that it does in French, viz. to die--literally, to go into the other world.

Le Nouveau Monde, Fr. This term is frequently used to denote America. Hence L’Ancien et le Nouveau Monde, means the two continents.

MONEY-matters. An expression in familiar use to express all pecuniary concerns. It cannot be too strongly recommended to every responsible military man to be scrupulously correct on this head. More than half the breaches of friendship and common acquaintance that occur in life, may be traced to irregularity: but in no instance are its effects so fatal, as when the soldier is wronged, or is induced to think so by the omissions, &c. of officers or serjeants.

Of the Monies, Weights, and Measures, of Foreign Nations respectively with those of England.

In order to the attainment of a just comparison of foreign monies with our own, the following tables are subjoined.

The first table contains the denominations of the principal foreign monies of account, and their intrinsic value in English money, calculated upon the existing proportion between gold and silver in the respective countries.

The second table shews the names of the principal foreign coins in gold, their weight, their fineness, their pure contents, and the intrinsic value of each in relation to the gold coins of Great Britain.

The third table relates to silver coins, upon similar principles to those of the second.

The comparison of the weights and measures of foreign nations with those of England is established by the following tables.

The fourth table bespeaks the names of the weights used for precious metals, the quantity which each contains in grains troy-weight, and the relation of the several foreign weights to 100 pounds troy-weight.

The fifth table denotes the names of the weights used in the sale of merchandize, the quantity which each contains in troy-weight, and the relation of foreign weights to 100 and to 112 pounds avoirdupois-weight.

The sixth table relates to the measures used in the sale of corn, to the number of English cubic inches of the internal measurement of each, and to the relation of foreign measures to 10 quarters Winchester measure.

The seventh table comprises the measures for liquids, the quantity of English cubic inches which each contains internally, and the relation of foreign measures to 100 gallons English.

The eighth table relates to cloth measures, to the length of each in lines, and to the relation of foreign measures to 100 yards and to 100 ells.

The ninth table is descriptive of measures of length for measuring masts, timber, and other solid bodies, of the number of lines contained in each, and of the proportion between foreign measures of a similar description and 100 feet English.

The tenth table refers to land measures, to the quantity of English square feet which each contains, and to the proportion between foreign measures of this description and 100 acres.

The eleventh and last table is founded upon itinerary measures, the length of each in feet, and the proportion between the measures severally adopted in different countries and a degree of the equator.

Independently of the facility which will be afforded by these tables in the comparison of the monies, weights, and measures of foreign nations with those of England, it will not be difficult to find the relation of the monies, weights, and measures of foreign countries, in respect to each other, by the guidance of the explanations at the foot of each of the tables in question.

It will be observed, that in order to avoid the multiplicity of the denominators of fractions, and to give to the several calculations a greater degree of exactitude, the unit has constantly been divided, in the following tables, into 100 parts.

TABLE, which shews the intrinsic Value of the monies of account of Foreign Nations expressed in pence sterling.

MONIES OF ACCOUNT.

Pence 100 Aix la Chapelle, the specie rixdollar 42, 75 the current rixdollar 32, 25 Amsterdam, the pound Flemish banco 132, 48 the florin banco 22, 08 the pound Flemish current 126, 36 the florin current 21, 06 Arragon, the libra jaquesa 47, 80 Augsburgh, the gulden exchange money 32, 51 the gulden currency 25, 60 the gulden white money 21, 33 Barcelona, the libra catalana 27, 32 Basil, the rixdollar of exchange 48, 25 the current rixdollar 43, 40 the current livre 14, 46 Bengal, the current rupee 21, the sicca rupee 30, Bergamo, the lira 5, 13 Berlin, the rixdollar gold currency 39, 66 the rixdollar silver currency 35, 97 the pound banco 48, 75 Bern, the current livre 14, 67 Bologna, the scudo di cambio 48, 09 the lira di cambio 11, 31 the current livre 11, 05 Bolzano, the gulden exchange money 35, the gulden current money 25, 66 Bombay, the current rupee 23, 63 Bremen, the rixdollar 38, 40 Breslaw, the rixdollar gold currency 39, 66 the rixdollar silver currency 35, 97 the pound banco 48, 75 Brunswick, the current thaler 38, 40 Bussorah, the mamudi 5, 50 Calcutta, the sicca rupee 30, the current rupee 21, the arcot rupee 24, Canary Islands, the current real 5, 82 Cassel, the thaler 38, 40 China, the tale 80, Cologne, the specie rixdollar 31, 71 the current rixdollar 30, 92 Copenhagen, the specie reichsthaler 55, 85 the current reichsthaler 45, 46 Curacoa, the dollar 43, 09 Dantzic, the florin 9, 14 Dublin, the pound Irish 221, 54 Elsinore, the specie rixdollar 34, 75 the crown rixdollar 32, 18 the current rixdollar 30, 92 England, the pound sterling 240, Flanders, the florin or exchange 20, 25 the current florin 17, 37 Florence, the scudo d’oro 62, 45 the ducato 58, 29 the pezza of 8 reals 47, 88 the lira moneta buona 8, 32 France, the livre tournois 9, 49 the franc 9, 61 Francfort, the thaler 38, 40 the gulden 25, 60 Geneva, the current crown 49, 20 the current livre 40, 16 the florin 4, 68 Genoa, the scudo d’oro marche 89, 50 the scudo d’argento 73, 13 the pezza fuori di banco 48, 12 the scudo di cambio 38, 50 the lira fuori di banco 8, 37 Germany, the reichsthaler constitution money 56, 84 the thaler ditto 42, 63 the gulden ditto 28, 42 the reichsthaler convention money 51, 20 the thaler ditto 38, 40 the gulden ditto 25, 60 Hamburgh, the pound Flemish banco 138, 37 the rixdollar banco 55, 35 the marc banco 18, 45 the rixdollar currency 45, the marc currency 15, Hanover, the current thaler 42, 63 Konigsberg, the gulden 12, 17 Leghorn, the pezza of 8 reals 47, 88 the lira moneta buona 8, 32 the lira moneta lunga 7, 97 Leipsic, the current thaler 38, 40 Liege, the gulden 12, 96 Lubec, the reichsthaler 45, 21 the marc 15, 07 Lucca, the scudo d’oro 56, 32 the lira 7, 51 Madras, the pagoda of 36 fanams 94, 75 the Carnatic rupee of 10 fanams 26, 32 Malta, the silver crown 40, 26 the copper crown 26, 84 Martinique, the livre currency 7, 12 Mexico, the dollar 52, 60 Milan, the scudo imperiale 64, 14 the current scudo 45, 33 the lira currency 7, 88 Modena, the lira 3, 81 Morocco, the ducat 105, Munich, the current thaler 32, 04 the current gulden 21, 36 Naples, the ducato di regno 42, 50 Navarre, the ducado of 10⁸⁄₉ reals 53, 95 the libra of 60 maravedis 8, 25 the real of 36 ditto 4, 95 Nuremberg, the current thaler 38, 40 the thaler gold money 38, 95 the thaler white money 31, 97 Pegu, the silver tical 33, 70 Persia, the toman 289, 65 Poland, the florin of Great Poland 7, 10 Poland, the florin of Little Poland 14, 20 Pondicherry, the pagoda 93, 50 the current rupee 24, 20 Portugal, the milreis 67, 50 Prague, the current gulden 25, 60 Ratisbon, the gulden white money 25, 60 Riga, the albertus rixdollar 53, 29 Rome, the scudo di stampa d’oro 80, 92 the scudo moneta 53, 16 Rostock, the thaler 45, 20 the zweydrittel 30, 13 Russia, the ruble 33, 58 St. Eustatia, the dollar 38, 25 St. Gall, the gulden exchange money 27, 90 the gulden currency 24, Sardinia, the lira 11, 50 Siam, the gold tical 465, 50 the silver tical 39, 25 Sicily, the onza 130, 77 Smyrna, the piastre 13, 50 Spain, the pistole of exchange 153, the ducat of exchange 52, 73 the dollar of exchange 38, 25 the real of plate 4, 78 the real of vellon 2, 54 Sweden, the riksdahler 55, 35 Surat, the rupee 25, Surinam, the florin 25, 25 Trieste, the gulden of 60 kreitzers 25, 60 the florin of 5 lire 24, 20 Turin, the scudo of 6 lire 69, 84 the lira 11, 64 Turkey, the piastre 13, 50 United States, the dollar at par 54, Valencia, the libra of 20 sueldos 38, 25 Venice, the lira piccoli inclusive of the agio on the zecchins 5, 12 Vienna, the current thaler 38, 40 the current gulden 25, 60 Zante, the real of 10 lire 41, 15 Zurich, the gulden exchange money 27, 50 the gulden currency 25,

The following example will shew in what manner the relation between the monies of account of any two given countries may be ascertained.

Example.

Let it be required to express, in pence Irish, the value of a marc banco of Hamburgh.

The marc being worth 18,45 pence sterling, and the pound Irish 221,54, according to the table prefixed, I state the following equation:

1 marc banco = x 1 marc ban. = 18,45 pence sterling 221,54 pence ster. = 1 pound Irish 1 pound Irish = 240 pence Irish Result 19,99 pence Irish.

TABLE, which shews the Weight, Fineness, and pure Contents of the principal Gold Coin of foreign Nations, as well as their intrinsic Value, expressed in English Money.

GOLD COINS.

| | | Pure | | Weight| Fineness|contents| Value | ---- | ---- | ---- | ---- |Grs.100|Car. grs.|Grs. 100|s. _d._100 +-------+---------+--------+------------ Bavaria, the carl | 150,32| 18 2⁵⁄₆| 117,18 | 20 8,87 the max | 100,21| 18 2²⁄₃| 77,94 | 13 9,54 Bengal, the gold mohur | 176,50| 23 3 | 174,66 | 30 10,95 Brunswick, the carl | 102,36| 21 3 | 92,76 | 16 5,02 Denmark, the ducat of 12| | | | marcs | 48,21| 21 0²⁄₃| 42,52 | 7 6,30 England, the guinea | 129,44| 22 | 118,65 | 21 the half guinea| 64,72| 22 | 59,33 | 10 6, the 7s piece | 43,13| 22 | 39,55 | 7 Flanders, the double | | | | souverain | 171,50| 22 | 157,20 | 27 9,79 the souverain | 85,75| 22 | 78,60 | 13 10,89 France, the louis of | | | | 1726 | 122,90| 21 2²⁄₃| 110,95 | 19 7,65 the louis of | | | | 1785 | 117,83| 21 2²⁄₃| 106,37 | 18 9,93 the 40 franc | | | | piece | 199,25| 21 2²⁄₅| 179,32 | 31 8,85 the 20 franc | | | | piece | 99,62| 21 2²⁄₅| 89,66 | 15 10,42 Geneva, the pistole of | | | | 1752 | 87,13| 22 | 79,87 | 14 1,63 Genoa, the zecchino | 53,80| 23 3¹⁄₂| 53,52 | 9 5,67 Germany, the ducat | 53,85| 23 2²⁄₃| 53,10 | 9 4,78 Hamburgh, the ducat | 53,85| 23 2 | 52,73 | 9 4, Hanover, the georges | 103,03| 21 3 | 93,37 | 16 6,31 the gold gulden| 50,06| 19 0¹⁄₃| 39,80 | 7 0,54 Holland, the ryder | 153,54| 22 | 14,74 | 24 10,92 the ducat | 53,85| 23 2 | 52,73 | 9 4, Hungary, the ducat of | | | | Kremnitz | 53,85| 23 3 | 53,29 | 9 5,18 Madras, the star pagoda| 52,75| 19 2 | 42,86 | 7 7,05 Naples, the onza | 68,10| 21 | 59,59 | 10 6,56 Piedmont, the zecchino | 54, | 23 3¹⁄₂| 53,72 | 9 6,09 the pistole of | | | | 1741 | 110,10| 21 3 | 99,78 | 17 7,92 the doppia of | | | | 1755 | 148,50| 21 3 | 134,58 | 23 9,83 Portugal, the joanese | 221,87| 22 | 203,39 | 36 the moidore | 166, | 21 3³⁄₄| 151,30 | 26 9,35 Prussia, the frederick | 103,03| 21 3 | 93,37 | 16 6,31 Rome, the zecchino | 53,55| 23 2 | 52,43 | 9 3,36 Russia, the imperial of| | | | 1755 | 255,53| 22 | 234,23 | 41 5,49 the imperial of| | | | 1763 | 202,18| 22 | 185,33 | 32 9,62 the imperial of| | | | 1801 | 202,18| 23 2¹⁄₂| 199,90 | 35 2,70 Saxony, the august | 102, | 21 2²⁄₃| 92,08 | 16 3,57 Siam, the tical | 281,88| 19 0¹⁄₃| 224,13 | 39 8,04 Sicily, the onza | 67,94| 21 3 | 61,57 | 10 10,77 Spain, the doubloon | | | | before 1772 | 416,65| 21 3³⁄₄| 380,85 | 67 4,87 the doubloon of| | | | 1772 | 416,65| 21 2²⁄₃| 376,14 | 66 6,88 the doubloon of| | | | 1785 | 416,65| 21 2 | 373,25 | 66 0,74 Sweden, the adolphus | 102,95| 15 1¹⁄₂| 65,77 | 11 7,70 Tuscany, the ruopono | 161,33| 23 3²⁄₃| 160,77 | 28 5,45 United States the eagle | 268,66| 22 | 246,27 | 43 7,05 Venice, the zecchino | 54, | 23 3¹⁄₂| 53,72 | 9 6,09 Wirtemberg, the carl | 150,32| 18 2⁵⁄₆| 117,18 | 20 8,87

In the first column of this table is shewn the weight of each foreign coin in grains troy-weight; in the second column, the degree of the fineness in carats and grains of a carat; in the third column, the contents of fine gold in grains troy-weight; and in the fourth, the intrinsic value expressed in shillings and pence sterling.

The following example will be of guidance to ascertain the value of foreign coin in other money also foreign.

Example.

It is required to express the value of a louis d’or of France coined since 1785 in the money of Portugal.

As it is seen by the prefixed table that the louis of 24 livres tournois contains 106,37 grains of fine gold, and that the joanese of 6400 reis contains 203,39 grains of fine gold, I state the following equation:

1 louis = x 1 louis = 106,37 grains 203,39 grains = 1 joanese 1 joanese = 6400 reis Result 3347 reis.

TABLE, which shews the Weight, Fineness and pure Contents of the principal Silver Coins of foreign Nations, as well as their intrinsic Value, expressed in English Money.

SILVER COINS.

| | | Pure | | Weight|Fineness|contents| Value | ---- | ---- | ---- | ---- |Grs.100|Oz. dwt.| Grs.100|_d._100 +-------+--------+--------+------- Aix la Chapelle, the rathspræsentger| 95,68| 7 1 | 56,21 | 7,85 Arabia, the larin | 74,17|10 17¹⁄₂| 56,84 | 7,93 Basil, the reichsthaler | 436,89|10 10 | 382,28 | 53,38 Bengal, the sicca rupee | 179,55|11 18¹⁄₂| 178,43 | 24,92 Bern, the patagon | 417,63|10 | 348, | 48,59 Bombay, the rupee | 178,31|11 15 | 174,60 | 24,38 Denmark, the riksdahler | 449,87|10 10 | 393,64 | 54,97 the krohn | 344, | 8 1 | 230,77 | 32,23 England, the crown | 464,52|11 2 | 429,68 | 60,00 the shilling | 92,90|11 2 | 85,94 | 12, Flanders, the ducaton | 513,29|10 8³⁄₄| 446,46 | 62,34 the croon | 456,91|10 8¹⁄₂| 395,71 | 55,26 the patagon | 433, |10 10 | 378,88 | 52,91 France, the ecu of 1726 | 452,50|10 18 | 411,03 | 57,40 the 5 franc piece | 386,14|10 16 | 347,52 | 48,53 Geneva, the patagon | 416,87|10 | 347,38 | 48,51 Genoa, the genovina | 593,10|11 9 | 565,93 | 79,03 the St. Gianbatista| 321,66|11 | 294,85 | 41,17 the giorgino | 91,25|10 6²⁄₃| 78,58 | 10,97 the double madonina| 140,19|10 1²⁄₃| 117,80 | 16,45 Germany, the reichsthaler | | | | constitution money | 450,97|10 13¹⁄₃| 400,87 | 55,98 the gulden ditto | 225,48|10 13¹⁄₃| 200,43 | 27,99 the reichsthaler | | | | convention money | 432,93|10 | 360,78 | 50,38 the gulden ditto | 216,46|10 | 180,39 | 25,19 the old zweydrittel| | | 229,05 | 31,98 the new zweydrittel| | | 200,42 | 27,98 Hamburgh, the rixdollar banco| 450,52|10 13¹⁄₂| 400,47 | 55,92 the marc banco | 150,17|10 13¹⁄₃| 133,49 | 18,64 the rix dollar lubs| 124,41| 9 | 318,30 | 44,43 the marc lubs | 141,47| 9 | 106,10 | 14,81 Holland, the ducatoon | 503,50|11 5 | 472,03 | 65,91 the three florin | | | | piece | 488, |11 | 447,33 | 62,46 the rixdaler | 433,17|10 10 | 379,03 | 52,93 the leeuwendaler | 422, | 8 18 | 312,98 | 43,70 the gold florin | 307, | 7 7 | 188,04 | 26,26 the current florin | 162,70|10 19 | 148,46 | 20,73 Madras, the rupee | 178,88|11 16¹⁄₂| 176,28 | 24,61 Milan, the philip | 430,21|11 8¹⁄₂| 409,30 | 57,15 Naples, the ducat | 336, |10 19 | 306,60 | 42,81 Piedmont, the ducatoon | 491,03|11 8¹⁄₃| 467,17 | 65,23 the scudo of 1733 | 459,88|10 19¹⁄₆| 419,96 | 58,64 the scudo of 1755 | 542,95|10 17¹⁄₂| 492,05 | 68,71 Pondicherry, the rupee | 177,27|11 11 | 170,63 | 23,83 Poland, the tympfe | 89,75| 6 3¹⁄₂| 46,12 | 6,44 Portugal, the cruzade | 265,65|10 15¹⁄₂| 238,54 | 33,31 Prussia, the current | | | | rixdollar | 343,42| 9 | 257,57 | 35,97 Rome, the scudo moneta | 408,70|11 | 374,64 | 52,31 the testono | 130,54|11 | 119,67 | 16,71 the papeta | 81,59|11 | 74,79 | 10,44 Russia, the ruble of 1755 | 402,76| 9 10 | 318,85 | 44,52 the ruble of 1763 | 369,88| 9 | 277,41 | 38,74 the ruble of 1801 | 77,48|10 8 | 240,48 | 33,58 the livonina of | | | | 1757 | 411,66| 9 1¹⁄₄| 310,99 | 43,41 the rixdollar | | | | albertus | 433,17|10 10 | 379,03 | 52,93 Saxony, the old | | | | reichsthaler | 450,97|10 13¹⁄₃| 400,87 | 55,98 the new | | | | reichsthaler | 432,93|10 | 360,78 | 50,38 the | | | | zweydrittelstucke | 212,14|11 6²⁄₃| 200,35 | 27,98 Spain, the hard dollar | | | | before 1772 | 416,40|10 18¹⁄₃| 378,81 | 52,90 the hard dollar | | | | since 1772 | 416,40|10 15 | 373,03 | 52,09 Sweden, the reichsthaler of| | | | 1764 | 451,56|10 10⁵⁄₆| 396,69 | 55,39 the ducatoon | 484, |11 1¹⁄₄| 446,18 | 62,30 the carolin | 160,51| 8 6²⁄₃| 111,47 | 15,56 the ten oere silver| | | | piece | 108,30| 5 6²⁄₃| 48,13 | 6,72 Tuscany, the francescono | 422,75|11 | 387,52 | 54,11 the lanternina | 420, |11 1 | 386,75 | 54, the livornina | 402, |11 1 | 370,18 | 51,69 United States, the dollar | 409,79|11 | 375,64 | 52,45 Venice, the ducat | 350,83| 9 18 | 289,44 | 40,42 the scudo | 489,54|11 | 448,75 | 62,66 the giustina | 433,17|11 | 397,07 | 55,45

In the first column of this table is shewn the weight of each foreign coin in grains troy-weight; in the second column, the degree of fineness in carats and grains of a carat; in the third column, the contents of fine silver in grains troy-weight; and in the fourth, the intrinsic value expressed in pence sterling.

The following example will shew in what manner the value of a foreign coin in other money also foreign may be ascertained.

Example.

It is required to express the value of a Spanish hard dollar in the money of France.

As it is seen by the prefixed table that the hard dollar contains 373,03 grains of fine silver, and that the piece of 5 francs contains 347,52 grains of fine silver, I state the following equation:

1 hard dollar = x 1 hard dol. = 373,03 grains 347,52 grains = 5 franc piece Result 5 francs 37 cents

MONIES, in a military sense, are such sums as are issued for public service, and are more specifically distinguished by the appellation of army estimates. It is usual for the secretary at war to move for the estimates of the army. The following sums shew the amount of the British military establishment on the 17th of February, 1801:--

1,615,878_l._ for guards and garrisons.

1,743,773_l._ for maintenance of troops abroad.

17,232_l._ for land forces for Ireland.

355,000_l._ for recruiting in Great Britain.

319,479_l._ for ditto in Ireland.

86,523_l._ for generals and staff officers in Great Britain.

48,197_l._ for ditto in Ireland.

973,433_l._ for militia in Great Britain.

1,338,000_l._ for ditto in Ireland.

57,000_l._ for fencibles in Great Britain.

34,451_l._ for contingencies in Ireland.

25,876_l._ for supernumerary officers.

11,628_l._ for officers’ clerks, &c. in Great Britain.

6,416_l._ for ditto in Ireland.

255,000_l._ for increased rates for subsistence to inn-keepers in Great Britain.

115,384_l._ allowance for beer.

138,979_l._ for reduced officers in Great Britain.

148,382_l._ for the in and out pensioners of Chelsea.

35,923_l._ for ditto of hospital at Kilmainham, near Dublin.

455,000_l._ for volunteer cavalry in Great Britain.

425,139_l._ for ditto in Ireland.

33,394_l._ for foreign troops in British pay.

456,000_l._ for the augmentation of 10,000 in Great Britain.

21,332_l._ for contingencies in Ireland.

To be added, 1,033,750_l._ for the ordnance of the current year.

30,937_l._ for extraordinaries not provided for in 1799.

58,756_l._ for ditto not provided for in 1800.

Regimental MONIES. All sums issued to paymasters for the subsistence, &c. of the men belonging to a regiment, are so called; for the regular distribution of which the paymasters and captains of companies are responsible. La comptabilité, among the French, corresponds with this explanation.

Ley-MONEY. The money which is paid for recruiting the army, is so called.

Smart MONEY. The money which was paid by the person who has taken the enlisting money, in order to get released from an engagement entered into previous to a regular enlistment.

Bounty MONEY.--See RECRUITING.

MONOMACHY, (Monomachie, Fr.) a single combat, or the fighting of two, hand to hand. It is derived from the Greek. A duel may be properly called Monomachy.

MONSON ou MOUSON, Fr. a word derived from the Arabic, signifying the wind of any particular season, or one that blows regularly. See MONSOONS.

MONSOONS. In India the year is divided into two seasons. From the month of October to March, the winds blow from the north-western, and during the rest of the year from the south-eastern points of the compass: these seasons are by mariners called monsoons; the change from the one to the other is generally preceded by an interval of about twenty days, in which calms, or light and uncertain winds prevail: the setting in of the northern monsoons generally falls out some time in the month of September, as that of the southern in the month of April. On the coast of Coromandel the northern monsoon sometimes begins with a violent tempest or hurricane; and if the monsoon sets in with moderation, it is often productive of tempestuous weather at different intervals, until the middle of December, and sometimes later; so that it is held dangerous for any vessels to remain on the coast after the 15th of October, or to return to it before the 20th of December.

MONTAGNES, Fr. Hills, mountains, &c. In a military sense, the term is peculiarly applicable to that species of warfare which is carried on in a mountainous and intersected country. We have already given a general outline of this species of warfare under the head Guerre de Montagne: nevertheless the following observations may not appear superfluous or irrelevant in this place. The chevalier Folard has written largely, and with no inconsiderable degree of method, on that part of a war among hills, &c. where an army might run the risk of being surrounded, or shut up. He observes, that a body of men may be drawn into snares by the well concerted movements of an able and active enemy, most especially in a country which is intersected by rivers, and occasionally broken with hills and eminences. Although disasters of this sort are manifest proofs of a want of ability in the person who holds the chief command, they become infinitely more disgraceful when a general runs headlong into a snare, as Euripidas did, without having sufficient courage to attempt a daring enterprize; for it certainly remains with ourselves to determine, whether we chuse to move into an impracticable country; and it equally rests with us to avoid stratagems and snares.

All this, however, depends upon a knowlege of the country into which the war is carried; and as it is impossible to be in possession of the requisite information without some extraneous means, every general ought to lay it down as a maxim, not to advance into a mountainous country without having a good number of intelligent and faithful guides. These, in addition to some able topographers, will prevent the possibility of being surprised, and make him thoroughly master of all the passes, &c.

It is not, however, sufficient to be in possession of the heights that immediately command a valley into which an army has moved; in proportion as you advance, you must be certain, that the enemy who retreats before, is not insensibly winding round a second range of hills, to get upon your flanks, or ultimately fall upon your rear.

It moreover frequently happens, that some vallies have not any outlets, and that others become so narrow, that an army is under the necessity of marching by single files, in order to reach a more open piece of ground, or to get at some important pass for the purpose of intercepting or obstructing the march of an enemy.

When it is found necessary to retreat, or to march over a country, as Hannibal did over the Alps, it is of little consequence what steps or measures you take, with regard to those parts which you are abandoning; but when you advance against an enemy, and are determined to dispute his march through a valley or hollow way, you must adopt every precaution to secure your rear and flanks, lest, as we have already observed, your antagonist should take advantage of the various passes and intricate bye-ways, which always exists in a mountainous country; and it must always be remembered, that many coups de main, and daring enterprises, may be undertaken by four or five hundred active partisans, which an army would find impracticable.

An able general cannot have a better, or more favorable field to exercise his military genius in, than that which is afforded by a mountainous country. All the chicane and stratagem of war may be resorted to; and however weak an army might be, yet such are the manifold resources of this peculiar kind of contest, that there is scarcely any thing which may not be attempted, provided the officer, who commands, has a thorough knowlege of the country, is fertile in expedients, and has a calm determined mind. Many instances might be adduced to illustrate these observations; we shall be satisfied with stating, that the prince of Conti, in the campaign of 1744, which he so ably conducted, owes a considerable part of his reputation to the scope afforded to his talents by the locality of Piedmont. This country, indeed, as well as Switzerland, seems to have been cut out as the peculiar theatre of great military talents. But neither the prince of Conti, nor the first consul of France, Bonaparte, would have succeeded in the brilliant manner, which they most unquestionably have done, had not the science of topography seconded the natural advantages of that mountainous part of Europe. Massena, Lecourbe, Ney, Lefebvre, Soult, and Macdonald have immortalized themselves in mountain warfare.

MONTE, Fr. This word is used among the French to express what we mean by carry; as, un vaisseau monté de cinquante pièces de canon: a ship that carries fifty guns, or a fifty gun ship.

MONTER la tranchée, Fr. See To MOUNT THE TRENCHES.

MONTER un Vaisseau, Fr. To embark on board a ship.

MONTER, Fr. This word likewise means to rise from one rank to another, in the way of promotion, as from cornet or ensign to become lieutenant, from lieutenant to become captain, or from having the command of the youngest company to be promoted to that of the oldest.

MONTH, considered as a military period, in the British service, consists alternately of 30 and 31 days, commencing on the 24th, and ending on the 25th day (inclusive) of each month, properly so called.

MONTHLY Abstract. See PAY.

MONTHLY Return. See RETURN.

MONTHLY Report. See REPORT.

MONTHLY Inspection. See REGIMENTAL INSPECTION.

MONT-joie, Saint Denis, Fr. a national exclamation, adopted by the French in the reign of Louis, sirnamed Le Gros. See CRI DES ARMES.

MONT-Pagnote ou Poste des invulnérables, Fr. an expression which is derived from Pagnote, a coward, a poltroon; and signifies any eminence or place from whence the operations of a siege, or the actual conflict of two armies, may be seen without personal danger to the curious observer. It is a term of reproach, C’est un Général qui voit le combat du Mont-Pagnote; he is one of those generals that look on whilst others fight. During the American war a particular body of refugees or tories who seemed to side with the British, were called invulnerables.

MONT-Pagnote, in fortification, an eminence where persons post themselves out of the reach of cannon, to see a camp, siege, battle, &c. without being exposed to danger. It is also called the post of the invulnerables.

MONTRE, Fr. The review, or muster of the men. Le régiment a fait montre devant le commissaire. The regiment has passed muster before the commissary. Les officiers mirent leur valets dans les rangs, et les firent passer à la montre. The officers put their servants in the ranks, and made them pass muster.

MONTRE likewise signified, in the old French service, the money which was paid to soldiers every month, when they passed muster. Il a reçu sa montre; he has received his monthly pay.

MONTURE, Fr. The complement of men, and number of cannon, on board a French ship of war.

MONTURE d’un fusil, d’un pistolet, Fr. the stock of a gun or pistol.

MONUMENT, (Monument, Fr.) In a military sense, any public edifice, pillar, or mark of distinction, which is exhibited to perpetuate the memory of some illustrious character.

MOOTIANA, Ind. Soldiers employed to collect the revenue.

MOQUA, MUCK, a frenzical riot of some mahomedans, who have returned from Mecca, against those who have not professed mahomedanism. This horrid custom has been lately practised by the Malays, both at the island of Ceylon, and at the Cape of Good Hope. In the latter place indeed, the fanaticism of one of these blind enthusiasts went so far, that he stabbed a soldier who stood centinel at the governor’s gate. His intention was to have destroyed the governor. He that runs the moqua, or muck, gets intoxicated with bang, or opium, loosens his hair, (which is generally bound up under a handkerchief) then takes a dagger (called a kreese) in his hand, whose blade is usually half poisoned, and in the handle of which there is some of his mother’s or father’s hair preserved, and running about the streets kills all those he meets, who are not mahomedans, till he is killed himself; pretending to believe, that he serves God and Mahomed by destroying their enemies. When one of these madmen is slain, all the mahomedan rabble run to him, and bury him like a saint, every one contributing his mite towards making a noble burial.

MORAILLE, Fr. Barnacles. An instrument made commonly of iron for the use of farriers, to hold a horse by the nose, to hinder him from struggling when an incision is made.

Le MORAL, Fr. This word is frequently used among the French, as a substantive of the masculine gender, to express the moral condition of man. It likewise means the prepossession or assurance which we feel in conscious superiority, viz. Quand les Anglois se battent sur mer, ils ont le moral pour eux, les Francois l’ont sur terre.

MORASS, in military drawings, denotes moor, marshy, or fenny low grounds, on which waters are lodged.

MORATTOES, Mahrattahs, a considerable Hindoo tribe in Hindustan. Their army is chiefly composed of cavalry and they excel in the management of their horses. The weapon principally used by them in war is a sabre, extremely well tempered, and carefully chosen. Their dress, when accoutred for action, consists of a quilted jacket of cotton cloth, which descends half way down their thighs, and of a thin linen vest, which is fitted close to the body, and is always worn under the jacket. They wear upon their head a broad turban, which is made to reach the shoulders, for the double purpose of covering the neck from the heat of the sun, and of shielding it against the enemy’s sabre. Their thighs and legs are covered with a loose kind of trowsers, or cotton overhose. They are extremely temperate, and pay the most minute attention to their horses.

It is now more than a century that the Mahrattahs first made a figure, as the most enterprising soldiers of Hindustan; as the only nation of Indians, which seems to make war an occupation by choice; for the Rajpouts are Hindus, soldiers by birth. The strength of their armies consist in their numerous cavalry, which is more capable of resisting fatigue than any in India; large bodies of them having been known to march fifty miles in a day. They avoid general engagements, and seem to have no other idea in making war, but that of doing as much mischief as possible to the enemy’s country.

MOREAU, Fr. A species of bag which the drivers of mules use to carry their hay. It is likewise the name of a celebrated French general, who by his able retreat out of Germany, during the most disastrous period of the French revolution, acquired a reputation, as a general, superior to Xenophon.

MORGLAY, a deadly weapon.

MORTIER, Fr. See MORTAR.

MORION, Fr. Donner sur le morion. This was a species of punishment which was formerly inflicted upon French soldiers for crimes that were not capital. They were shut up in a guard-house, and received a certain number of strokes with a halbert. The gantelope was substituted in its stead; but neither one or the other are practised in the present French army.

MORISON. See HELMET, CASQUE, &c.

MORT d’Eau, Fr. Low water.

MORTARS, are a kind of short cannon, of a large bore, with chambers: they are made of stone, brass, or iron. Their use is to throw hollow shells, filled with powder; which, falling on any building, or into the works of a fortification, burst, and their fragments destroy every thing within reach. Carcasses are also thrown out of them. These are a sort of shells, with 5 holes, filled with pitch and other combustibles, in order to set buildings on fire; and sometimes baskets full of stones, the size of a man’s fist, are thrown out of them upon an enemy, placed in the covert-way during a siege. The very ingenious general Desaguliers contrived to throw bags, filled with grape-shot, containing in each bag, from 400 to 600 shot of different dimensions, out of mortars; the effect of which is extremely awful and tremendous to troops forming the line of battle, passing a defile, or landing, &c. pouring down shot, not unlike a shower of hail, on a circumference of above 300 feet. They are distinguished chiefly by the diameter of the bore. For example, a 13-inch mortar is that, the diameter of whose bore is 13 inches. There are some of 10 and 8-inch diameters; and some of a smaller sort, as cohorns of 4.6 inches, and royals of 5.8 inches.

Weight and Dimensions of English Mortars.

+--------------------+------------+--------+----------+-------+ | | | |[13]Powder| | | | | | contained| | | | | | in | Range | | Kind. | Weight. | Length.| Chamber. |at 45°.| +--------------------+------------+--------+----------+-------+ | |Ct. qr. lbs.|Ft. In. |lbs. oz. | Yds. | | { Brass} Sea S. { | 82 -- 8 |5 3 | 32 -- | 4100 | |13{ Iron } { | 82 1 -- | | 20 -- | | | { Brass }Land. {| 25 -- 10 |3 7¹⁄₂| 9 12 | 2100 | | { Iron } {| 36 2 12 | | 9 8 | | | {Brass} Sea S. { | 33 -- -- |4 8 | 12 8 | 3800 | |10 {Iron } { | 41 -- -- | | 10 -- | | | {Brass }Land. {| 10 1 25 |2 9 | 4 10 | 1900 | | {Iron } {| 16 -- 6 | | 4 8 | | | 8{ Brass} Land. { | 4 1 8 |2 1³⁄₄| 2 -- | 1600 | | { Iron } { | 8 -- 11 | | 2 4 | | | 5¹⁄₂ Brass--Land. {| 1 -- 20 |1 4¹⁄₄| -- 9 | 1200 | | 4²⁄₅ Brass--Land. {| -- 3 11 |1 1¹⁄₂| -- 4¹⁄₂| 1040 | +--------------------+------------+--------+----------+-------+

[13] See the word Chambers, for experiments on the best form.

Ranges with French Mortars, at 45 Degrees, in French Weights and Measures.

+---------------++---------------++---------------++---------------+ | || 10 Inch, || 10 Inch, || | | 12 Inch. || long Ranges. || short Ranges. || 8 Inch. | +--------+------++--------+------++--------+------++--------+------+ | Charge.|Range.|| Charge.|Range.|| Charge.|Range.|| Charge.|Range.| +--------+------++--------+------++--------+------++--------+------+ |lbs. oz.|Yards.||lbs. oz.|Yards.||lbs. oz.|Yards.||lbs. oz.|Yards.| | 1 -- | 388 || 1 -- | 450 || 1 -- | 618 || -- 5 | 316 | | 1 8 | 632 || 2 -- | 1080 || 1 8 | 964 || -- 10 | 794 | | 2 -- | 862 || 3 -- | 1536 || 2 -- | 1280 || -- 15 | 1112 | | 2 8 | 954 || 4 -- | 2070 || 2 8 | 1428 || 1 4 | 1280 | | 3 -- | 1292 || 5 -- | 2206 || 3 -- | 1432 || | | | 3 8 | 1390 || 6 2¹⁄₂| 2304 || 3 10¹⁄₄| 1920 || | | +--------+------++--------+------++--------+------++--------+------+

Ranges with a 10 Inch Sea Mortar, at 21 Degrees, on a Horizontal Plane.

+--------------+---------+---------+----------+-------+------+ | Weight of | Weight | | | | | | Mortar. |of Shell.| Charge. |Elevation.|Flight.|Range.| +--------------+---------+---------+----------+-------+------+ |ct. qrs. lbs. |lbs. oz. | lbs. oz.| Deg. | Sec. |Yards.| | 34 2 14 {| 86 -- |} 5 8 | 21 {| 14³⁄₄ | 2335 | | {| 87 -- |} | {| 16 | 2510 | +--------------+---------+---------+----------+-------+------+

_Ranges with Sea Service, Iron Mortars, at 45 Degrees, upon a Horizontal Plane. 1798._

+-----------------------++-----------------------+ | 13 Inch. || 10 Inch. | +--------+-------+------++--------+-------+------+ | Charge.|Flight.|Range.|| Charge.|Flight.|Range.| +--------+-------+------++--------+-------+------+ |lbs. oz.| Sec. |Yards.||lbs. oz.| Sec. |Yards.| | 2 -- | 13 | 690 || 1 -- | 13 | 680 | | 4 -- | 18 | 1400 || 2 -- | 18 | 1340 | | 6 -- | 21 | 1900 || 3 -- | 21 | 1900 | | 8 -- | 24¹⁄₂ | 2575 || 4 -- | 24¹⁄₂ | 2500 | | 10 -- | 26- | 2975 || 5 -- | 26 | 2800 | | 12 -- | 29 | 3500 || 6 -- | 27 | 3200 | | 14 -- | 29- | 3660 || 7 -- | 29 | 3500 | | 16 -- | 30 | 3900 || 8 -- | 30 | 3800 | | 18 -- | 30- | 4200 || 9 -- | 30¹⁄₄ | 3900 | | 20 -- | 31 | 4400 || 9 8 | 30¹⁄₂ | 4000 | +--------+-------+------++--------+-------+------+

French Mortars, in their own Weights and Measures.

+------------------+----+----+--------+----+ | |lbs.| | | | |12 Inches |2060| | 3 7 |2400| |10 for long Ranges|2000| | 7 4 |2800| |10 for short do. |1560| | 4 -- |2200| | 8 for short do. | 595| | 1 4³⁄₄|1160| |Stone Mortars.[14]|1100| | 2 8 | | |12 Inch} |2750| |12 -- |2700| |10 Inch}Gomers |2000| | 6 8 |2800| | 8 Inch} | 600| | 2 -- |1400| +------------------+----+----+--------+----+

[14] Stone Mortars should not be fired at a greater distance than 250 yards.

Medium Ranges with Land Service Iron Mortars, at 45 Degrees, 1798.

-----------------------++----------------------- 13 Inch. || 10 Inch. --------+-------+------++--------+-------+------ Ch’ge. |Flig’t.|Range.|| Ch’ge. |Flig’t.|Range. --------+-------+------++--------+-------+------ lbs. oz.| Sec. | Yds. || lb. oz.| Sec. | Yds. -- 14 | 6¹⁄₂ | 245 || -- 8 | 6¹⁄₂ | 235 1 -- | 7- | 318 || -- 10 | 8 | 358 1 4 | 8- | 412 || -- 12 | 9 | 464 1 8 | 9- | 523 || -- 14 | 10 | 534 1 12 | 10- | 613 || 1 -- | 10- | 638 2 -- | 11 | 697 || 1 2 | 11- | 749 2 4 | 12- | 840 || 1 4 | 13 | 873 2 8 | 13 | 906 || 1 6 | 13- | 956 2 12 | 14 | 1054 || 1 8 | 14 | 1028 3 -- | 15 | 1132 || 1 10 | 15 | 1123 3 4 | 16 | 1244 || 1 12 | 15 | 1226 3 8 | 16- | 1317 || 1 14 | 16 | 1325 3 12 | 17 | 1424 || 2 -- | 16- | 1357 4 -- | 17 | 1490 || 2 2 | 17 | 1480 4 4 | 17- | 1580 || 2 4 | 17- | 1532 4 8 | 18- | 1656 || 2 6 | 17- | 1571 4 12 | 19 | 1744 || 2 8 | 18- | 1700 5 -- | 19- | 1824 || 2 10 | 19 | 1780 5 4 | 19- | 1900 || 2 12 | 19- | 1825 5 8 | 20 | 1950 || 2 14 | 20 | 1880 5 12 | 20- | 2062 || 3 -- | 20 | 1916 6 -- | 21 | 2095 || 4 -- | 25 | 2485 7 -- | 24 | 2510 || 4 8 | 26 | 2536 8 -- | 25 | 2706 || | | --------+-------+------++--------+-------+------

-----------------------++----------------------- 8 Inch. || 5¹⁄₂ Inch, Brass. --------+-------+------++--------+-------+------ Ch’ge. |Flig’t.|Range.|| Ch’ge. |Flig’t.|Range. --------+-------+------++--------+-------+------ lbs. oz.| Sec. | Yds. || oz. dr.| Sec. | Yds. -- 5 | 6 | 225 || 1 8 | 5¹⁄₂| 155 -- 6 | 7¹⁄₂| 328 || 1 12 | 6 | 198 -- 7 | 8 | 428 || 2 -- | 6- | 255 -- 8 | 9- | 474 || 2 4 | 7- | 316 -- 9 | 10 | 560 || 2 8 | 8 | 380 -- 10 | 11 | 664 || 2 12 | 8- | 426 -- 11 | 12 | 762 || 3 -- | 9- | 470 -- 12 | 12- | 801 || 3 4 | 10 | 540 -- 13 | 13- | 859 || 3 8 | 10- | 590 -- 14 | 14 | 960 || 3 12 | 11 | 630 -- 15 | 14- | 1011 || 4 -- | 11- | 725 1 0 | 14- | 1119 || 4 4 | 12 | 746 1 1 | 15 | 1156 || 4 8 | 12- | 800 1 2 | 16 | 1262 || 4 12 | 13- | 910 1 3 | 16- | 1320 || 5 -- | 13- | 935 1 4 | 17 | 1380 || 5 4 | 14 | 1016 1 5 | 17- | 1446 || 5 8 | -- | -- 1 6 | 18 | 1530 || 5 12 | -- | -- 1 7 | 18- | 1600 || 6 -- | 15 | 1175 1 8 | 19 | 1660 || | | 1 9 | 19- | 1720 || | | --------+-------+------++--------+-------+------

Medium Ranges with Brass Mortars, at 45 Degrees. 1780.

--------------++--------------++-------------- 13 Inch.[15] || 10 Inch. || 8 Inch. -------+------++-------+------++-------+------ Ch’ge.|Range.|| Ch’ge.|Range.|| Ch’ge.|Range. -------+------++-------+------++-------+------ lb. oz.| Y’ds.||lb. oz.| Y’ds.||oz. dr.| Y’ds. 2 12 | 862 || 1 10 | 823 || 10 8 | 580 2 14 | 939 || 1 11 | 852 || 11 -- | 635 3 -- | 998 || 1 12 | 783 || 11 8 | 711 3 2 | 1003 || 1 13 | 758 || 12 -- | 708 3 4 | 1090 || 1 14 | 823 || 12 8 | 701 3 6 | 1139 || 1 15 | 888 || 13 -- | 777 3 8 | 1165 || 2 -- | 892 || 13 8 | 825 3 10 | 1209 || 2 1 | 940 || 14 -- | 870 3 12 | 1270 || 2 2 | 941 || 14 8 | 853 3 14 | 1322 || 2 3 | 1041 || 15 -- | 860 4 -- | 1309 || 2 4 | 1128 || 15 8 | 899 4 2 | 1331 || 2 5 | 1103 || 16 -- | 921 4 4 | 1391 || 2 6 | 1221 || 16 8 | 987 4 6 | 1363 || 2 7 | 1258 || 17 -- | 987 4 8 | 1324 || 2 8 | 1215 || 17 8 | 1062 -------+------++-------+------++-------+------

[15] For the Ranges with the 5¹⁄₂ inch Brass, see the Iron Mortars.

Ranges with a 5¹⁄₂ Inch Brass Mortar, at 15 Degrees.

-------+-------+------+------ | | First|Rolled Charge.|Flight.|Graze.| to. -------+-------+------+------ oz. dr.| Sec. |Yards.|Yards. 2 8 | 3 | 209 | 303 3 -- | 3¹⁄₂ | 256 | 330 3 8 | 4 | 375 | 443 4 -- | 4- | 457 | 501 4 8 | 5 | 530 | 600 5 -- | 5- | 561 | 627 5 8 | 6- | 667 | 715 6 -- | 7 | 709 | 780 -------+-------+------+------

Medium Ranges with Land Service Iron Mortars, at 10 Degrees Elevation....Powder in Cartridges.

------------------------------++------------------------------ 10 Inch. || 8 Inch. -------+-------+------+-------++-------+-------+------+------- | | First|Extreme|| | | First|Extreme Flight.|Charge.|Graze.| Range.||Flight.|Charge.|Graze.| Range. --------+-------+-----+-------++-------+-------+------+------- Sec. |lb. oz.| Yds.| Yds. || Sec. |lb. oz.| Yds. | Yds. 3 |-- 12 | 198 | 415 || 3 |-- 8 | 202 | 403 3¹⁄₂ | 1 -- | 278 | 458 || 3 |-- 10 | 266 | 461 4 | 1 4 | 366 | 564 || 3¹⁄₄ |-- 12 | 351 | 614 4¹⁄₂ | 1 8 | 451 | 685 || 4 |-- 14 | 413 | 630 4 | 1 12 | 432 | 686 || 4³⁄₄ | 1 -- | 468 | 754 4³⁄₄ | 2 -- | 559 | 938 || 5 | 1 2 | 562 | 811 5 | 2 4 | 602 | 798 || 6 | 1 4 | 664 | 950 4³⁄₄ | 2 8 | 597 | 976 || 6¹⁄₂ | 1 6 | 700 | 1028 5 | 2 12 | 664 | 1121 || 6 | 1 8 | 768 | 1064 5¹⁄₄ | 3 -- | 764 | 1169 || | | | -------+-------+------+-------++-------+-------+------+-------

Medium Ranges with the above Mortars, at 15 Degrees.

----------------------++---------------------- 10 Inch. || 8 Inch. -------+-------+------++-------+-------+------ Ch’ge.|Flig’t.|Range.|| Ch’ge.|Flig’t.|Range. -------+-------+------++-------+-------+------ lb. oz.| Sec. |Yards.||lb. oz.| Sec. | Y’ds. 1 4 | 5 | 464 ||-- 11 | 4¹⁄₂ | 427 1 6 | 5¹⁄₂ | 543 ||-- 12 | 4- | 485 1 8 | 6 | 590 ||-- 13 | 5 | 513 1 12 | 6³⁄₄ | 685 ||-- 14 | 5- | 559 1 14 | 7 | 765 || 1 -- | 6- | 690 2 -- | 7 | 805 || 1 2 | 7 | 822 2 4 | 7¹⁄₂ | 884 || 1 4 | 7 | 827 2 8 | 7³⁄₄ | 960 || 1 6 | 7³⁄₄ | 1004 2 12 | 8 | 1070 || 1 8 | 8¹⁄₂ | 1012 3 -- | 8¹⁄₂ | 1154 || 1 10 | 8 | 1196 | | || 1 11 | 9 | 1337 -------+-------+------++-------+-------+------

All English mortars are erroneously fixed to an angle of 45 degrees, and custom has prevailed to lash them strongly with ropes to that elevation. In a siege, shells should never be thrown with an angle of 45 degrees, excepting in one case only; that is, when the battery is so far off that they cannot otherwise reach the works: for when shells are thrown out of the trenches into the works of a fortification, or from the town into the trenches, they should have as little elevation as possible, in order to roll along and not bury themselves; whereby the injury they do, and the terror they cause to the troops, is much greater than if they sink into the ground. On the contrary, when shells are thrown upon magazines, or any other buildings, with an intention to destroy them, the mortars should be elevated as high as possible, that the shells may acquire a greater force in their fall, and consequently do more execution. The British are the only nation that fix mortars to an elevation of 45 degrees, the proper range is from 32¹⁄₂ to 35 degrees.

The use of mortars is thought to be older than that of cannon; for they were employed in the wars of Italy to throw balls of red-hot iron, and stones, long before the invention of shells. It is generally believed, that the Germans were the first inventors, and that they were actually used at the siege of Naples, in the reign of Charles the VIII., in 1435. History informs us, with more certainty, that shells were thrown out of mortars at the siege of Wachtendonk, in Guelderland, in 1588, by the earl of Mansfield. Shells were first invented by a citizen of Venlo, who, on a festival, celebrated in honor of the duke of Cleves, threw a certain number, one of which fell on a house, and set fire to it; by which misfortune the greatest part of the city was reduced to ashes. Mr. Malter, an English engineer, first taught the French the art of throwing shells, which they practised at the siege of Motte, in 1634. The method of throwing red-hot balls out of mortars, was first put in practice, with certainty, at the siege of Stralsund, in 1675, by the elector of Brandenburg; though some say in 1653, at the siege of Bremen.

Land-MORTARS, are those used in sieges, and of late in battles, mounted on beds; and both mortar and bed are transported on block-carriages. There is also a kind of land-mortars, mounted on travelling carriages, invented by count Buckeburg, which may be elevated to any degree; whereas the British as we have already stated, are fixed to an angle of 45 degrees, and are firmly lashed with ropes.

Partridge MORTAR, is a common mortar, surrounded by 13 other little mortars, bored round its circumference in the body of its metal. The centre one is loaded with a shell, and the others with grenades. The vent of the large mortar being fired, communicates its fire to the small ones; so that both shell and grenades go off at once. The French used them in the war of 1701, and more especially at the siege of Lisle, in 1708, and at the defence of Bouchain in 1702.

Hand-MORTARS, were frequently used before the invention of cohorns. They were fixed at the end of a staff of 4¹⁄₂ feet long, the other end being shod with iron to stick in the ground: while the bombardier, with one hand, elevated it at pleasure, he with the other hand fired.

Firelock-MORTARS, Bombards, are small mortars, fixed at the end of a firelock they are loaded as all common firelocks are; and the grenade, placed in the mortar at the end of the barrel, is discharged by a flint-lock; and, to prevent the recoil hurting the bombardier, the bombard rests on a kind of halberd, made for that purpose. They were first invented by major-general Siebach, a German, about the year 1710.

Names of the several parts of a MORTAR.

Grand divisions exterior, viz.--The whole length, of the mortar, muzzle, chace, reinforce, breech, trunnions.

Small divisions exterior. The vent, dolphins, vent astragal and fillets, breech ring and ogee, reinforce ring and ogee, reinforce astragal and fillets, muzzle astragal and fillets, muzzle ring and ogee, muzzle moulding, shoulders.

Interior parts. Chamber, bore, mouth, vent.

Chamber in MORTARS, is the place where the powder is lodged. There are different sorts, and made variously by different nations. The Spaniards use chiefly the spheric; the French, Germans, and Dutch, the conic, cylindric, and the concave or bottled; the Portuguese at present, the parabolic; and the English make them in the form of a frustrum of a cone. Each nation has its reasons, good or bad, to prefer their make before that of others: among which the English say the concave and cylindric chambers are the best; the French say the frustrum of a cone.

Sea-MORTARS; are those which are fixed in the bomb-vessels, for bombarding places by sea: they are made somewhat longer, and much heavier than the land-mortars.

Land-MORTAR-BEDS, are made of very solid timber, and placed upon very strong timber frames, fixed in the bomb ketch; to which a pintle is attached in such a manner, that the bed may turn round. The fore part of these beds is an arc of a circle, described from the same centre as the pintle-hole. Land-mortar-beds are now made of cast iron.

Stone-MORTARS, serve to throw stones into the enemy’s works, when near at hand; such as from the town into the trenches in the covert-way, or upon the glacis; and from these trenches into the town. The bore is terminated by two quadrants of a circle, terminated by the reinforce and lines drawn from the ends of the cylinder, made to lodge the tompions parallel to the axis of the mortar. The bottom of the conic chamber is terminated by an arc of 60 degrees, and the round part of the outside is a semi-circle.

Chambers in MORTARS, are of different sorts and dimensions. Mr. Belidor mentions four; namely, the cylindric, the spheric, the conic, and the concave or bottled; to which a fifth may be added, the parabolic, invented by count de Lippe Buckeburg.

Cylindric chambers. Experience demonstrates, that concave chambers will throw the shell farthest of any with the same charge, yet, in this case, where but little powder is required, in the entrance would become too narrow, and consequently inconvenient to clean; whereas, when they are cylindric, the difference between the advantages of the one and the other will be but little, and not attended with any inconveniences.

Conic chambers, are generally made in a circular form at the bottom, so that the sides produced, meet the extremities of the diameter at the mouth.

Spheric chambers, are much inferior to the cylindric or concave; for it is well known by the properties of geometry, that when a cylinder and a frustrum of a cone occupy equal spaces, the surface of the cone is always greater than that of the cylinder. Hence, if the entrance of these chambers be not made very narrow, contrary to practice, as demonstrated by Mr. Muller, in his second edition of Artillery, page 38, of the introduction, and the examples that follow, we conclude that these and the conic chambers are the worst.

Concave chambers. The advantage of these kinds of chambers consist in this, that their entrance may be made narrower than that of any other form; and practice has sufficiently proved it. Yet, when the entrance is so small as not to admit a man’s hand, they are not easily cleaned: for which reason it is supposed that all 13 and 10-inch mortars should have concave chambers, and the others cylindric ones.

Parabolic chambers. These chambers, being the widest of any, may therefore be included among the worst; as it is not the inward figure of the chamber, but its entrance, which produces the effect; because the smaller it is, the nearer it reduces the effect into the direction of the shell. It has however one advantage, namely that the shells will have no windage.

MORTAR, in military architecture, a composition of lime, sand, &c. mixed up with water, that serves as a cement to bind the stones, &c. of any building. Mine sand makes weak mortar, and the rounder the sand, the stronger the mortar; and if the sand is washed before it is mixed, so much the better.

The proportion of lime and sand for making mortar is extremely variable. Some use three parts of pit-sand, and two of river-sand, to one of lime; others, a proportion of sand to quick-lime as 36 to 35. It should be well mixed, and beat every 24 hours for a week together, letting it then lie for a week more; and when it is used, must be beat and mixed again. By this means it will make good mortar, though the lime is but indifferent.

MORTAR for water-courses, cisterns, &c. is made of lime and hog’s lard; sometimes mixed with the juice of figs, and sometimes with liquid pitch, which is first slaked with wine; and, after application, it is washed over with linseed oil.

MORTAR furnaces, &c. is made with red clay wrought in water wherein horse dung and chimney-soot have been steeped; by which a salt is communicated to the water, that binds the clay, and makes it fit to endure the fire. The clay must not be too fat, lest it should be subject to chinks: nor too lean or sandy, lest it should not bind enough.

MORTAR, made of terras, puzolana, tile-dust, or cinders, is mixed and prepared in the same manner as common mortar; only these ingredients are mixed with lime instead of sand in a due proportion, which is to be in equal quantities. As this mortar is to be used in aquatic buildings, the lime should be the very best.

In fortifications, docks, or piers of harbors, lay all the works under water with terras-mortar, and the rest of the facings, both within and without, with cinder or tile-dust mortar, for about two feet deep.

The East India MORTAR for building and plaistering, is made with shell lime, brick dust pulverized, (called soorkee) washed sand, and the raw juice of the sugar cane, (called jaggeree.) The proportions of different kinds of work are different; but well made and mixed, surpasses all others; the roofs of houses, as well as the floors of their chambers, and the walls are covered with this composition, which, skilfully executed, bears a polish and smoothness like marble.

MORTES-Payes, Fr. Soldiers that were paid for the constant duty of a town or fortified place, both in the time of peace and war. Infantry regiments, which were occasionally stationed in citadels and garrisoned towns, took the right of the mortes-payes, and had the precedence in chusing lodgings.

MORTISE, a hole cut in wood, so that another piece may be fitted into it.

MORTS, Fr. The dead on a field of battle are so called.

MOT, Fr. Parole, watchword.--This word bears the same import in French that it does in English. See PAROLE.

Donner le MOT, Fr. To give the parole, or watch-word.

Aller prendre le MOT, Fr. To go for the parole or watch-word.

On l’envoya porter le MOT, Fr. he was sent with the parole or watch-word.

In the French service parole and countersign are frequently comprehended under the word mot, viz. Le mot qu’on avoit donné le jour du combat, étoit Saint Louis et Paris; which according to the English method of giving out orders would have stood thus:--Parole St. Louis, countersign Paris.

MOT de ralliement, Fr. Rallying word.

MOTHIR al moolk. In Indian fortification, barricadoes, intrenchments, or breastworks, are so called.

MOTION, is defined to be the continued and successive change of place.--There are three general laws of motion: 1. That a body always perseveres in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a right line, till by some external force it be made to change its place: for as a body is passive in receiving its motion, and the direction of its motion, so it retains them without any change, till it be acted on by something external. 2. The second general law of motion is, that the change of motion is proportional to the force impressed, and is produced in the right line in which that force acts. 3. The third general law of motion is, that action and re-action are equal, with opposite directions, and are to be estimated always in the same right line.

MOTION. A word bearing the same signification as tems does in the French. It is peculiarly applicable to the manual and platoon exercise; as, draw ramrod, which is done in two motions:--Tirez la baguette en deux tems. Motion, in a military sense, is distinguished from movement, inasmuch as the former applies specifically to something done by an individual, with an instrument of war, as handling the firelock; whereas the latter is generally understood to mean the different changes, &c. which are made in evolutions, &c. Motion is the particular adjunct of the manual, and movement that of evolution. The French make the same distinction with respect to maniement.

MOTION, mouvement, Fr. generally so called, a continual and successive change of place.

MOTION, equal or uniform, (mouvement égal, ou uniforme) that by which a body moves over equal spaces in equal times; such are the motions of celestial bodies.

MOTION absolute, (mouvement absolu, Fr.) is a mutation or change of absolute space, and its celerity is measured according to absolute space.

MOTION relative, (mouvement relatif, Fr.) is a change or mutation of relative place, and its celerity is measured according to relative space.

MOTION equally accelerated, (mouvement uniformément accéléré, Fr.) is such whose velocity equally increases in equal times.

MOTION, equally retarded, (mouvement uniformément retardé) is such whose velocity equally decreases, in equal times, till the body comes to rest.

MOTIONS of an army, (mouvemens d’une armée, Fr.) are the various changes which it undergoes in marching from one place to another; these are more generally understood by the word movement.

MOTIONS of the firelock during the manual and platoon exercise. Motion in this sense is expressed by tems among the French. These consist of those prescribed methods which have been explained under manual.

The new mode of carrying, (which is with nearly extended arm) is certainly less fatiguing than supporting arms; since the former leaves the circulation of the blood free, and the latter binds the soldier’s arm at the elbow. The French allow great latitude in the carrying of the firelock, especially in marching and manœuvring. The men are frequently permitted to slope arms.

MOTION compound, (mouvement composé, Fr.) is the motion of one body impelled by two different powers.

MOTION of projection, (mouvement de projection, Fr.) that by which bodies are impelled through the air, or through any other fluid. A shell which is forced out of a mortar by means of inflammable gunpowder has a motion of projection.

MOTION of vibration, or vibrating motion, (mouvement de vibration, Fr.) is the circular motion of a body, which is generally round or spherical.

MOTION of undulation, or undulating motion, (mouvement d’ondulation, Fr.) a circular motion which is perceptible in water, when any hard substance is thrown into it.

MOTIONS of an enemy, (mouvemens d’un ennemi, Fr.) The different marches, positions, &c. which an enemy takes are so called.

To watch the MOTIONS of an enemy, (guétter un ennemi, Fr.) To keep a good look out by means of a regular communication between head-quarters, and the outposts of your army. On a large scale, the business of an army of observation is chiefly confined to this species of service. On a more limited one, the duty is frequently entrusted to partisans and light troops.

MOTION of a bomb or ball. The progress which a bomb or ball makes through the air may be said to consist of three sorts, after it has been delivered out of the mortar, or emitted from a gun or musquet. These are:--

The violent MOTION, or first explosion, when the powder has worked its effect upon the ball, so far as the bomb or ball may be supposed to move in a right line.

The mixed MOTION, or yielding impulse, when the natural weight of the bomb or ball begins to overcome the force which was given by the gunpowder.

The natural MOTION, or exhaustion of the first impulse. This occurs when the bomb or ball is falling to the ground.

To MOTION a thing, to propose it in a military or civil meeting.

MOTION, Fr. This word has been adopted by the French to convey the same meaning that it does in English, namely, a proposition; hence appuyer la motion dans une assemblée; to support a motion in a public assembly or meeting. Déliberer sur la motion, to deliberate upon the motion. Retirer sa motion, to withdraw one’s motion. Rejeter la motion, to throw out the motion.

MOTS d’ordre et de ralliement, Fr. In a recent publication, written by Paul Thiébault, adjutant-general, on the French staff, the following explanation is given of paroles and countersigns, which may be considered as the free translation of mots, with this exception, that the mot de ralliement seems peculiarly used in the French service. The parole and countersign only are practised, and their distinct import seems so little understood, that we shall not hesitate to give the whole article from the French.

The MOTS d’ordre et de ralliement, consist of three distinct and separate words, which are chosen for the specific purpose of enabling the soldiers belonging to the same army, to be in perfect intelligence with one another, especially during the night.

These words are composed in the following manner, viz. Le MOT d’ordre, or what we call the parole, must be taken from the name of some deceased person, to which must be added that of some town or country.

The mot de ralliement, must consist of a substantive, which does not relate either to the name of a man, the name of a town, or the name of a country.

These three words are given out every morning from head quarters, and are delivered sealed up, to the officers of the different guards, and to those persons who are entrusted with the command of an outpost, or have the charge of a patrole.

The MOT d’ordre, or parole, must never be confided beyond officers and non-commissioned officers; the mot de ralliement may in some cases be given to centries that are stationed at some distance from the outposts; but these should invariably consist of old soldiers, whose fidelity and courage can be depended on.

The mot d’ordre, or parole, as well as the mot de ralliement, is always given out from head quarters; nor ought any general or commanding officer to take upon himself to alter either, except under circumstances so peculiarly urgent, that the good of the service would justify the change. Among these circumstances may be considered, the desertion of a centinel from the out post, and the strong presumption, that the enemy has been made acquainted with the words, &c. Whenever this necessity occurs, all the commanding officers who have any communication with that quarter from whence the parole was issued, should instantly be made acquainted with the alteration.

With respect to the manner in which these words are to be delivered out, and the frequency of their circulation, the whole must depend upon circumstances. When an army or body of troops lies at some distance from the enemy, they are usually forwarded to the different quarters, camps, or cantonments, for five, ten, or fifteen days together. When close to the enemy, they are given out, as we have already observed, every day. When there is no ground to apprehend a surprize or attack, one word will be sufficient for each day: but, in critical cases, the parole must be changed two or three times during the night. If several corps are cantoned together, the mot d’ordre, or parole, must be sent to the officer commanding in the cantonment. When the troops are encamped, it is generally sent to the commanding officer of each regiment, and seldom to the commandant of each brigade.

The MOT, or parole, must always be given out during the day, except in cases of emergency; and it must never be delivered to any person, unless the individual who is entrusted with it be fully convinced, that he is authorised to receive it. It ought indeed to be given personally to him only to whom it is addressed by name. See Am Mil. Lib. Art. STAFF.

MOTTO. Any sentence, either with or without a badge by which any regiment is particularly distinguished, as for example, the English 3d foot, or old Buffs, have a griffin embossed as their badge, and the motto, Veteri frondescit honore. The colors taken from this regiment in the American revolution are in the war office at Washington.

MOUCHARD, Fr. a domestic spy, an informer. Among the French it more particularly means a person who is employed to watch the motions of any marked man. Creatures of this infamous, although perhaps necessary, class, were constantly attached to the police of France. The term is little known in the United States, unless it be those mouchards established in the American coffee house, to give information to the British consuls. These gentlemen have been called, humorously enough, reporters. In a military sense, neither the term nor the practice can be properly understood; at least we should hope so, as it is beneath the high mind of a soldier to fetch and carry.

MOVEABLE PIVOT. When the pivot flank of any body of men describe in the wheel a smaller circle than the wheeling flank, the wheel is said to be made on a moveable pivot.

MOVEMENT. Every inspecting general should notice minutely and comparatively on the performance by each battalion of the great leading points of movement. He is particularly to observe and specify

Whether or not

The original formation be according to order? The marches are made with accuracy, at the required times and length of step, and on such objects as are given.

The proper distances in column and echellon are at all times preserved.

The wheelings are made just, and in the manner prescribed.

The formations into line are made true, without false openings, or necessity of correction.

The officers are alert in their changes of situation, exact in their own personal movements, and loud, decided, and distinct, in their words of command.

The march in line is uniformly steady, without floating, opening, or closing.

The march in file, close, firm, and without lengthening out.

The officers, and under-officers, give the aids required of them with due quickness and precision.

Hurry and unnecessary delay, are equally avoided.

In the firings the loading is quick, the levelling is just, the officers animated and exact in their commands.

MOVEMENTS. In cavalry movements the following great leading points should be attended to by every inspecting officer, independent of the circumstances which relate to the dress and general appearance of man and horse, the exercise on foot, &c. &c.

He must particularly observe and specify in his communications to the commanding officer,

Whether or not

The original formation of squadrons and regiments be according to order?

The marches made with accuracy, at the paces required, and on such objects as have been given?

The proper distance in column are at all times preserved?

The wheelings are made quick, just and in the manner prescribed?

The formations into line are made true in the intended directions, without false openings, or necessity of correction; or that corrections, when necessary are instantly made?

The changes of position are made with due celerity and justness?

The officers are alert in their changes of situation, exact in their own personal movements, and loud, decided, and distinct in their words of command?

The march in line is uniformly steady, without opening, floating, or closing?

The flank march is compact, firm, and without improperly lengthening out?

The officers and under officers give the aids required of them with due quickness and precision?

Hurry and delay, in military movements, are two extremes which should be equally avoided.

In the firings the loading is quick, the levelling is just, and the officers firm in their commands.

The officers, non-commissioned officers, and men ride well, and the horses are active, vigorous, and well broken.

Movements, in a general sense, may be considered under the following heads, viz.--1st. Offensive movements; the great advantage which attends this movement, consists in the measure having been previously determined upon, and a consequent preparation made for rapid execution before the design is obvious. Much however, will depend, upon the justness of the distances, and of the march in column, having been so taken as to allow of decisive operations. Manœuvre will chiefly operate where an enemy is inferior in number, inexpert in movement, weakly posted, and where the weak point is found out, and is attacked before he can move to strengthen it.

Counter-MOVEMENTS of defence, are movements calculated to defeat any premeditated attack. According to the regulations they may be briefly explained by observing, that if the flank of one body be thrown forward, that of the other may by similar means be thrown back. If one body prolongs its line to outflank, the other may by the same movement maintain its relative situation. Whatever change of position is made by one body, the other may counteract it by a similar change. If the wing of one body is refused, the wing of the others may be advanced to seize an advantage.

MOVEMENTS of previous formation, are military dispositions which every general must have carefully digested, before he advances upon a direct line of offensive operations. A body of troops, which has a considerable march to make previous to the attack, must always approach an enemy in one, or more columns, at open or other distances, according to circumstances. Some general knowlege of an enemy’s situation, determines the manner in which he is to be approached, the composition of the columns, the flank of each which leads, and their combination in forming. A nearer view determines a perseverance in the first direction, or a change in the leading flanks, and direction of the columns, in order to form in the most speedy and advantageous manner.

MOVEMENTS of attack, are made by bodies of men advancing in line or column to attack an opposing enemy. When a considerable body of troops is to act offensively, it must form in line at latest within 1200 or 1500 paces of a posted enemy, unless the ground particularly favor, and cover from the fire of the artillery, the enfilade of which is what chiefly prevents bodies in column from approaching nearer; and that space, under the unceasing fire of their own artillery, troops in line will march over in 18 minutes.

Movements of attack, when they are made from a parallel position, must be either in line, or by a flank of the line in echellon, that flank being reinforced, and the other refused; or from a new and advantageous position taken up, and not provided against by the enemy. From an oblique position the attack is directed against a comparatively weak point of the enemy. Attacks from the centre are more liable to be enfiladed, and are sooner guarded against than from the flank.

MOVEMENTS of retreat, are combinations of columns of march, covered by positions, and a strong rear guard. Troops are occasionally taken out of the retiring columns of march, to occupy positions and heights; they remain till the rear has passed, and then become the rear guard; this they continue to be, till they find other troops in like manner posted; these last in their turn become also the rear guard, and in this way are the troops of columns in such situations relieved. A rear guard will fall back by the retreat in line--the chequered retreat--the passage of lines--the echellon changes of position.

MOVEMENTS in echellon of the line. Echellon, or diagonal movements, especially of a great corps, are calculated not only to disconcert an enemy, but likewise to enable the army, which adopts them, either to make a partial attack, or a gradual retreat. The attack may be formed from the centre, or from either of the wings reinforced. If successful, the divisions move up into line to improve the advantage: if repulsed, they are in a good situation to protect the retreat. In advancing, the several bodies move independent, act freely, and are ready to assist: in retiring, they fall gradually back on each other, and thereby give mutual aid and support. Echellon movements, in fact, comprise within themselves all the essential principles of extension and compression, which are found in close or open column, with the additional advantage of being better adapted to throw a considerable line into an oblique position, of presenting a narrow front, with the means of increasing it at pleasure, unexposed to the enemy’s fire and of diminishing it with the same facility and safety.

Echellon MOVEMENTS on an oblique line, are best calculated to outwing an enemy, or to preserve the points of appui of a wing; possessing this advantage, that such movement may not be perceptible to the enemy, as they are short and independent lines, and when seen at a distance, appear as if a full line.

Echellon movements by half battalions or less, are made by their directing flank, which is always the one advanced from, or wheeled to. Echellon movements by whole battalions, are governed by their advanced serjeants. Echellon movements by several battalions are made in line, each by its own centre, and the whole by the directing flank.

MOVEMENTS that are made in face of an enemy. (Mouvemens devant l’ennemi Fr.) There is no operation in war which requires so much nicety, precision, and judgement, as that of retreating in the presence of an enemy. Every movement from the direct line of battle is more or less critical; but when a regiment is obliged to retire under the eye, and perhaps the fire of a pursuing foe, the utmost presence of mind is required in the officers who command, and the greatest steadiness in the men. In a situation of this sort it becomes the peculiar duty of the field officers, to see that every change of manœuvre, and every movement, be made with promptitude and accuracy. For although they be subordinate to others, and must of course, follow superior directions, yet so much of the executive duty rests with them that their character and abilities, as officers, will be more conspicuous on these occasions than in any other. The movements of a corps which retreats, consist in retrograde marches, in line, by alternate companies, in column, by wings, or in square.

Eventail or Fan MOVEMENT. This movement is performed on the march, and must be begun at a distance behind the line, proportionate to the body which is to oblique and form. It may be applied to one battalion, but hardly to a more considerable body, which would find great difficulty in the execution. It gives a gradual increase of front during a progressive movement. With justness it can be made on a front division only, not on a central or rear one: in proportion as the leading platoon shortens its step, will the one behind it, and successively each other come up into line with it. As soon as the colors of the battalion come up, they become the leading point. Although it is an operation of more difficulty, yet if the leading division continues the ordinary, and the obliquing ones take the quick step, till they successively are up with it, a battalion column which is placed behind the flank of a line, may, in this manner, during the march, and when near to the enemy, gradually lengthen out that line.

Vourff or quick MOVEMENT. This movement is frequently resorted to when the head of a considerable open column in march arrives at, or near the point from which it is to take an oblique position facing to its then rear, and at which points its third, fourth, or any other named battalion, is to be placed.

The justness of the movement depends on the points in the new direction being taken up quickly, and with precision. On the previous determination that a certain battalion, or division of a battalion, shall pass or halt at the point of intersection; and that every part of the column which is behind that battalion, shall throw itself into open column on the new line behind the point of intersection, ready to prolong or to form the line whenever it comes to its turn.

This movement will often take place in the change of position of a second line, and is performed by all those that are behind the division, which is to stop at the point where the old and new lines intersect. And at all times when the open column changes into a direction on which it is to form, and that the division which is to be placed at the point of entry can be determined, it much facilitates the operation to make every thing behind that division gain the new line as quick as possible, without waiting till the head of the column halts.

MOUFLE, Fr. a sort of stuffed glove. It is common among the French to say, Il ne faut pas y aller sans moufles; figuratively meaning, that no dangerous enterprise ought to be undertaken without sufficient force to carry it into execution.

MOUILLAGE, Fr. Anchorage.

MOUILLER, Fr. To anchor. To let go the anchor.

MOULDS, for casting shot for guns, musquets, rifles, and pistols: the first are of iron, used by the founders, and the others by the artillery in the field, and in garrison.

Laboratory MOULDS, are made of wood, for filling and driving all sorts of rockets, and cartridges, &c.

MOULDINGS, of a gun or mortar, are all the eminent parts, as squares or rounds, which serve for ornaments: such as the breech-mouldings. The rings, &c. are also called mouldings.

MOULE. Fr. See MOULD.

MOULE de fusée volante, Fr. a piece of round wood used in fireworks.

MOULIN, Fr. a mill.

MOULIN à bras portatif, Fr. a species of hand-mill, which was invented in France by le Sieur de Lavault, and which has been found extremely useful to troops on service. Ten of these mills may be conveniently placed on one waggon.

MOUND, in old military books, is a term used for a bunk or rampart, or other defence, particularly that of earth.

MOUNTEE, an alarm to mount or go upon some warlike expedition.

Half or small MOUNTING. The shirt, shoes, stock, and hose, or stockings which were formerly furnished by the colonels or commandants of corps every year. This mode of distribution, which engendered a multiplicity of abuses, has been abolished in the British service: in lieu of which, a regulation has taken place, that (if honestly attended to) must be highly beneficial to the soldier.

In lieu of the small articles of clothing, which were annually given, by the colonels of regiments, to non-commissioned officers and private soldiers, and were called small or half mounting, two pairs of good shoes, of the value of five shillings and sixpence each, have been substituted. These shoes are to be provided in conformity to a pattern lodged at the office of the comptrollers of the accompts of the army; and patterns of the shoes are to be approved and sealed by the general officers of the clothing board, at the same time, and in like manner, as for the clothing: one pair is to be delivered out at the annual period of clothing, and the other pair at the end of six months from that time; and in order to prevent the injury that the shoes might sustain, from remaining a long time in store in the East and West Indies, they are to be forwarded to corps on those stations at two different periods, instead of sending the whole quantity with the clothing.

Should the price of good shoes at any time exceed five shillings and sixpence per pair, the difference, which shall be declared by the clothing board at their first meeting on, or after the 25th of April in each year, is to be charged to the respective accompts of the non-commissioned officers and soldiers receiving them, but with respect to the 5th battalion of the 60th regiment, the difference is to be taken between four shillings and sixpence paid by the colonel, and the actual price declared as above mentioned.

The allowances, directed to be given by the colonels, in lieu of the former small articles, called half mounting, are to be regularly credited to the men, and to be expended for their use, in such articles as are suitable to the respective climates in which they are serving.

Non-commissioned officers and soldiers of infantry, dying or discharged before the completion of a full year, from the usual day of delivering the annual clothing of their regiments, have no demand whatever on account thereof.

A recruit, who comes into the regiment after the proper time of the delivery of the clothing, is entitled to a pair of shoes at the next delivery of that article.

The compensation money to be given to each servant in the infantry in lieu of half-mounting is 0 14 0 To each corporal, drummer, and private, 0 11 0

To MOUNT, is a word variously made use of in military matters, as

To MOUNT Cannon. To place any piece of ordnance on its frame, for the more easy carriage and management of it in firing. Hence to dismount is to take cannon from any serviceable position.

To MOUNT a breach, to run up in a quick, and determined manner to any breach made in a wall, &c.

To MOUNT guard, to do duty in a town of garrison, in a camp, or at out quarters.

To MOUNT, to place on horseback, to furnish with horses; as, twelve thousand men have been well mounted, without any considerable expence to the country. A cavalry regiment may be said to be well or ill mounted; in either of which cases, the commanding officer is generally blameable or praise-worthy.

To mount likewise signifies the act of getting on horseback, according to prescribed military rules: as, to prepare to mount, is when the left hand files move their horses forward in the manner described under unlink your horses. The dragoons put their firelocks into the buckets, and buckle them on, doubling the strap twice round the barrel, come to the front of the horses, fasten the links, throw them over the horses’ heads with the left hand round the horses’ heads, take their swords, and buckle them tight into the belt, take the bit reins up, then take a lock of the mane, and put it into the left hand, the left foot into the stirrup, and the right hand on the cantle of the saddle, waiting for the word mount; when they spring smartly up, and look to the right of the rear. At the next signal, they must throw the leg well over the valise and place themselves well in the saddle, with the right hand leaning on the off holster. The men must be careful not to check the horses with the bits in mounting. In mounting and dismounting, the files that move forward must take care to keep their horses straight, and at the prescribed distances from each other; and when mounting, as soon as the gloves are on, belts right, &c. the left files must dress well to the right, putting the horses straight, and leaving distance enough for the right files to come in.

To MOUNT a gun, is either to put the unit to its carriage, or else when in the carriage, to raise the mouth higher.

MOUNTAINS, called Great and Little St. Bernard. A part of the Alps, situated in the Glacieres of Switzerland, which has been rendered famous in modern history by the passage of the French army under Bonaparte. The following account is extracted from a French publication, and cannot fail of being interesting to the military reader, as it is told in the plain and simple language of a soldier, who was present during the whole of this astonishing campaign. On the 16th of May, 1800, the vanguard, commanded by general Lannes, climbed up the mountain: the Austrians, although greatly inferior in number, defended themselves step by step, and never disappeared till they perceived another corps of the French army descending the mountain of the Little St. Bernard, menacing their rear, and absolutely interrupting their retreat.

The first division of the army, under general Watrin, followed the movement of the vanguard.

Until this period of time, neither artillery nor ammunition had crossed either eminence; the whole was collected at St. Peter, (a small village at the foot of the mountain) where the park of artillery was established. It appeared at first impossible to transport this heavy and embarrassing ordnance across the mountain; however it was natural to consider the question, what is an army in the present day without artillery? Its necessity in this respect was manifest and imperious.

The artillery corps immediately set about dismounting the cannons, caissons, forges, &c. piecemeal. Gassendi, inspector of ordnance, gave directions for hollowing a number of the trunks of trees in the same manner that wood is hollowed for troughs. The pieces of cannon were deposited in these machines, and after having been drawn up these almost inaccessible heights, by five or six hundred men, according to the weight of metal, were left to slide down the steep declivities. The wheels were carried up on poles; and sledges made expressly for the purpose at Auxonne, conveyed the axle trees, and the empty caissons, and lastly, mules were loaded with ammunition in boxes made of fir.

The exertion of a whole battalion was requisite for the conveyance of one field piece with its proportion of ammunition: one half of the regiment could only draw the load, while the other half was obliged to carry the knapsacks, firelocks, cartridge boxes, canteens, kettles, and more especially five days provisions, in bread, meat, salt, and biscuit.

Such was the commencement of the march of the French army across the Alps.

MOUNTING and DISMOUNTING, when the horses are to be led away. It frequently happens, especially in retreating or advancing, that it may be necessary to cover the defiling of a regiment by dismounting a squadron, or part of one, to flank the mouth of a defile. This is generally effected by lining the hedges, &c. and keeping up a hot fire upon the enemy. It follows, of course, that the horses cannot be linked together, but they must be led away (in a retreat) to the most convenient spot in the defile for the men to mount again. In advancing they must be led to a spot where they will not impede the defiling of the regiment, but where they will be at hand for the dismounted parties to mount.

Guard MOUNTING. The hour at which any guard is mounted obtains this appellation, viz. The officers will assemble at guard mounting.

MOURIR, Fr. To die.

MOURIR d’un bel epée, Fr. A French phrase, which signifies to fall under the hands of an enemy of great skill and reputation.

MOURNE, that part of a lance or halbert to which the steel or blade is fixed.

MOUSER. An ironical term, which is sometimes used in military sport to distinguish battalion men from the flank companies. It is indeed generally applied to them by the grenadiers and light bobs, meaning that while the latter are detached, the former remain in quarters, like cats to watch the mice, &c.

MOUSQUET, Fr. Musquet. This word, which signifies an old weapon of offence that was formerly fired by means of a lighted match, has been variously used among the French, viz. gros mousquet, a heavy musquet; un petit mousquet, a short musquet; un mousquet leger, a light musquet.

Recevoir un coup de MOUSQUET, Fr. To receive a musquet shot.

Porter le MOUSQUET dans une compagnie d’infanterie, Fr. To stand in the ranks as a foot soldier.

MOUSQUETADE, Fr. a musquet shot. Il fut tué d’une mousquetade; he was killed by a musquet shot. This term is generally used to express a smart discharge of musquetry: On a entendu une vive MOUSQUETADE; they have heard a brisk discharge of musquetry.

MOUSQUETAIRES, Musqueteers, Fr. A body of men so called during the old government of France. It consisted of two companies, selected from the young men of noble extraction. The first company was formed in 1622, by Louis XIII. out of another company, called his Majesty’s Carabineers. The king was captain, so that the person who commanded had only the rank of captain lieutenant. The company remained upon this footing until 1640, when it was reduced at the instigation of cardinal Mazarine, who from personal motives, had taken a decided aversion to it. But Louis XIV. restored it in 1657, by the same appellation, and increased the establishment to 150 musqueteers. They were commanded by one captain-lieutenant, one sub-lieutenant, two ensigns, and two quarter-masters.

The second company, when first created, was attached to cardinal Mazarine as his personal guard; but the officers received their commissions from the king. An alteration took place in the management of this company in 1660, the men being incorporated with the rest of the troops that were destined for the immediate protection of his majesty’s person. In consequence of this change they did duty on foot, but were again mounted, in order to accompany the expedition against Marsal, which took place that year.

Louis XIV. named himself captain of this company, as well as of the first; and from that period both companies became subject to the same regulations, with no other difference, than that of precedency as first and second company. From the year 1663, the establishment of each company was 300, exclusive of the officers. They were subsequently reduced to a lower establishment. Having originally been raised to serve on foot or horseback, the mousquetaires were allowed drums and fifes when they acted as infantry troops; and trumpets when they acted as cavalry. In 1603 hautboys were substituted for fifes and trumpets. It is supposed that mounted drummers were first used among the mousquetaires du Roi. Previous to the revolution, each of these companies consisted of one captain-lieutenant, two sub-lieutenants, two ensigns, two cornets, two aid-majors, eight quarter-masters, four brigadiers, sixteen sub-brigadiers, six standard-bearers, one ensign or color-bearer, one hundred and eighty musqueteers, six drummers, four hautboys, one commissary, one chaplain, one quarter-master serjeant, one surgeon, one apothecary, one blacksmith, one saddler, and three treasurers.

This corps was raised, not only for the purpose of attending his majesty on foot or horseback, and of going on service, as circumstances might require, but it was further intended to be a sort of military school for the French nobility. Several princes, almost all the general officers, and old marshals of France, were indebted to this establishment for the first elements of military science.

The officers, belonging to these companies, clothed, armed, and mounted themselves, without putting government to the expence of one shilling. Their uniform was a scarlet coat faced with the same, and a scarlet waistcoat. Those attached to the first company had gold buttons and button-holes, and their coats were edged with gold. Those attached to the second company, had the same ornaments in silver; their hats, in which they wore a white feather, were laced according to the same distinction, as were likewise their horse cloths and holsters. Instead of the musquet, which they formerly carried, they were latterly armed with a carbine, two pistols in the saddle-bow, and a sword calculated for infantry or cavalry duty. The brigadiers and sub-brigadiers were armed in the same manner. The quarter-masters, when mounted, had only a sword and two pistols, but on foot they each carried a halbert or pike, which they used as the sergeants belonging to infantry regiments were directed to do.

The cloaks and great coats of the mousquetaires were made of blue cloth laced with silver. The quarter-masters, brigadiers, and sub-brigadiers, wore the same, with more or less lace according to the rank they held. These cloaks, &c. were distinguished from those worn by the rest of the army; having white crosses sewed before and behind with red streaks running into the corners or rentrant angles. The first company was marked with red, and the second with yellow streaks. The uniform of the superior officers, (who were generally called officiers a hausse-col, or officers wearing gorgets or breast plates) was embroidered in gold or silver, according to the company which they commanded. The troop horses of the first company, were of a white or dapple-grey color; those of the second company were black. Each company had a flag and two standards: so that when the mousquetaires served on foot, the flag or color was unfurled, and the standards were cased; and when they were mounted, the standards were displayed, and the colors cased. The standards belonging to the first company represented a bomb falling upon a besieged town, with this motto: Quo ruit et lethum: those of the second company bore a bunch of arrows, with these words underneath: Alterius Jovis altera tela. The mousquetaires received their colors from the king’s hands.

The mousquetaires never served on horseback, except when the king travelled: on those occasions they stood next to the light horse. Their duty when on foot, was the same as that of the royal regiment of guards.

When they did duty on foot at the palace, they were provided with a handsome table at the expence of the civil list. The two companies always mounted guard without being mixed with any other troops; whereas the rest of the household did duty by detachment.

The mousquetaires did not take rank in the army, but they enjoyed the same privileges that were attached to the body guards, gensdarmes, and light horse. They were frequently called mousquetaires gris, and mousquetaires noirs, from the color of their horses.

MOUSSE, Fr. Moss.

MOUSSE, garcon de bord, Fr. a cabin boy. The Powder Monkey, on board ships of war, corresponds with the term Mousse. According to a French writer, these boys were so hardly used in the old French navy, that, whether they deserved punishment or not, some captains of ships directed them to be chastised regularly once a week.

MOUSTACHE, Fr. This word was originally derived from the Greek, adopted by the Italians, subsequently by the French, and then used generally. It literally means the hair which is allowed to grow upon the upper lip of a man; and which is better known amongst us by the familiar term whiskers. The French use it in a figurative sense, viz.

Enlever sur la moustache, jusque sur la moustache de quelqu’un, Fr. To seize or take possession of any thing under the very nose, or in the presence of a person. Les ennemis sont venus pour défendre cette place, on la leur a enlevée sur la moustache. The enemy drew near to defend the town, but it was taken under their very whiskers.

Donner sur la MOUSTACHE, Fr. To give a slap on the face.

MOUTARDE, Fr. means literally mustard. The word, however, is frequently used by the French in a figurative sense, viz. S’amuser à la moutarde. To be uselessly employed, or busy about nothing. It is likewise used to express impatience: La moutarde lui monte au nez, Fr. The mustard rises in his nose, that is, he grows restless and impatient.

C’est de la MOUTARDE après diner, Fr. This expression is in general use among the French, and signifies, that assistance, &c. is brought when there is no longer need of it. When commissaries, &c. make up a lame account for monies received, it is common to say. Et le reste en moutarde.

MOUTH. See Muzzle.

MOUTH of FIRE. The entrance into the garrison of Gibraltar by the grand battery and the old Mole, is so called by the Spaniards, on account of the formidable appearance of the ordnance from the lines.

MOUTONNIER, Fr. Sheep-like; gregarious.

MOUVEMENS de Tête, Fr. Motions of the head. For the English explanation of these motions, see eyes. The French express them in the following manner: Tête à droite, right dress.--Tête à gauche, left dress.--Fixe, front dress.

MOUVEMENS des troupes sous les armes, Fr. By these are understood the different changes of position, and the various facings which soldiers go through under arms.

MOUVEMENS de pied ferme, Fr. That exercise, consisting of the manual and facings, which a soldier performs, without quitting his original ground. The left foot on this occasion becomes a standing pivot.

MOUVEMENS ouverts, Fr. Movements, or evolutions, which are made at open order.

MOUVEMENS serrés, Fr. Movements, or evolutions, which are made at close order.

MOUVEMENS opposés, Fr. Opposite movements, or evolutions.

MOUVEMENT, Fr. See MOVEMENT.

MOUVEMENT, Fr. See MOTION for its general acceptation.

MOUVEMENS, Fr. Commotions, broils.

MOYENNE, Fr. A piece of ordnance formerly so called. See MINION.

MOYEN. The bastions which are constructed on the angles are called royal bastions. Some engineers have distinguished those bastions by the name of moyens royaux, or medium royals, whose flanks contain from ninety to one hundred toises.

MOYENNE Ville, Fr. A term given by the French to any town in which the garrison is equal to the third of the inhabitants, and which is not deemed sufficiently important to bear the expence of a citadel; more especially so, because it is not in the power of the inhabitants to form seditious meetings without the knowlege of the soldiers who are quartered on them.

MOYENS côtés, Fr. In fortification, are those sides which contain from eighty to one hundred and twenty toises in extent: these are always fortified with bastions on their angles. The moyens côtés, are generally found along the extent of irregular places; and each one of these is individually subdivided into small, mean, and great sides.

MUD-WALLS. The ancient fortifications consisted chiefly of mud or clay, thrown up in any convenient form for defence against sudden inroads.

MUET, Fr. See MUTE.

To MUFFLE. To wrap any thing up so as to deaden the sound, which might otherwise issue from the contact of two hard substances. When the French effected their passage over the march Albaredo, on their route to the plain of Marengo, they were so much exposed to the Austrians, that, in order to get their artillery and ammunition over, without being betrayed by the noise of the carriage wheels, and the clattering of the horses’ shoes, both were muffled with bands of hay and straw, and dung was spread over the ground. In this manner they crossed that stupendous rock. Thirty men were put to the drag ropes of each piece, and as many were employed to draw up the caissons.

MUFFLED. Drums are muffled at military funerals or burials, and at military executions, particularly when a soldier is shot for some capital crime.

MUGS. An Indian nation, living on the borders of Bengal and Arracan.

MUHLAGIS, Fr. Turkish cavalry which is mounted by expert horsemen, who generally attend the beglierbeys. They are not numerous.

MULATTOS, (Mulâtre, Fr.) In the Indies, denotes one begotten by a negro man on an Indian woman, or by an Indian man on a negro woman. Those begotten of a Spanish woman and Indian man are called metis, and those begotten of a savage by a metis, are called jambis. They also differ very much in color, and in their hair.

Generally speaking, especially in Europe, and in the West Indies, a Mulatto is one begotten by a white man on a negro woman, or by a negro man on a white woman. The word is Spanish, mulata, and formed of mula, a mule, being begotten as it were of two different species.

Mulattoes abound in the West Indies; so much so, that on the dangerous symptoms of insurrection, which appeared among the blacks after the success of Toussaint in St. Domingo, a proposal was made to the British government by a rich planter, to raise a mulatto corps, as an intermediate check upon the blacks. After six months suspence, the memorial was rejected by the war-minister.

MULCT. A soldier is said to be mulct of his pay when put under fine or stoppages for necessaries, or to make good some dilapidations committed by him on the property of the people or government.

MULTANGULAR, is said of a figure, or body which has many angles.

MULTILATERAL, having many sides.

MULTIPLE, one number containing another several times: as 9 is the multiple of 3, 16 that of 4, and so on.

MUNIMELL, a strong hold, fortification, &c.

MUNITION, Fr. This word is used among the French to express not only victuals and provisions, but also military stores and ammunition.

MUNITIONS de bouche, Fr. Victuals or provisions, (such as bread, salt, meat, vegetables, butter, wine, beer, brandy, &c. which may be procured for soldiers) are so called by the French. Corn, oats, hay, straw, and green forage, for cavalry, bear the same appellation. See SUBSISTENCE.

MUNITIONS de guerre, Fr. Military stores, such as gunpowder, shot, balls, bullets, matches, &c. See STORES.

MUNITIONNAIRE ou entrepreneur des vivres, Fr. Military purveyor, or commissary of stores. Amaury Bourguignon, from Niort, a town of Poitou, was the first munitionnaire and entrepréneur général, or purveyor-general, among the French. He was appointed in the reign of Henry III. in 1574. See PURVEYOR.

MUNITIONNAIRE pour la marine, Fr. The head of the victualling office was so called among the French. There was a person on board every ship of war, called commis, or clerk, who acted under his orders. The appointment of the latter was somewhat similar to that of a purser in the British navy.

MUNSUBDAR, Ind. A title which gives the person invested with it, a right to have the command of ten thousand horse, with the permission of bearing amongst his ensigns that of the fish; neither of which distinctions is ever granted, excepting to persons of the first note in the empire. The office is called a Munsub, and it is generally supported by a district named, on which the corps is quartered.

MUR, Fr. a wall.

MUR CRENELE, Fr. A wall which has small intervals or spaces at the top, that serve more for ornament or ostentation than for real defence. This method of building prevailed very much in former times.

MUR de face, Fr. Outside wall of any building.

MUR de face de devant, Fr. Front outside wall; it is likewise called mur anterieur.

MUR de face de derriére, Fr. The wall which forms the backside of a building is so called: it is likewise named mur postérieur.

MURS lateraux, Fr. The side walls of a building.

Gros MURS, Fr. All front and partition walls are so called.

MUR de pierres sèches, Fr. A wall that is built of stone, without mortar or cement. Walls or this construction are seen in several counties in England, particularly in the west country.

MUR en l’air, Fr. Every wall is so called that does not rise uniformly from a parallel foundation. Walls built upon arches are of this description.

MUR mitoyen, Fr. Partition wall.

MUR d’appui, Fr. Wall of support. Any wall that is built to support a quay, terrace, or balcony, or to secure the sides of a bridge, is so called. Mur de parapet, or parapet wall, may be considered as a wall of support.

MURAGE. Money appropriated to the repair of military works, was anciently so called.

MURAILLE de revêtement, Fr. the wall which surrounds a fortified place is so called.

Charger en MURAILLE, Fr. To charge or attack an enemy, in a firm, compact, and steady line.

MURAL-Crown. See CROWN.

Couronne MURALE, Fr. See MURAL-CROWN.

MURDRESSES, in ancient fortification, a sort of battlement with interstices, raised on the tops of towers to fire through.

Ville MUREE, Fr. A walled town.

MURRION. See MORION.

MURTHERERS, or murthering pieces, small pieces of ordnance, having chambers, and made to load at the breech. They were mostly used at sea, in order to clear the decks when an enemy boarded a vessel.

MUSCULUS. Kennett in his Roman Antiquities, page 237, says, “the Musculus is conceived to have been much of the same nature as the testudines; but it seems to have been of a smaller size, and composed of stronger materials, being exposed a much longer time to the force of the enemy; for in these musculi, the pioneers were sent to the very walls, where they were to continue, while with their dolabræ or pick-axes, and other instruments, they endeavored to undermine the foundations.” Cæsar has described the muscalus at large in his second book of the civil wars.

MUSIC, a general term for the musicians of a regimental band.

MUSICIANS. It has been often asked, why the dress of musicians, drummers and fifers, should be of so varied and motley a composition, making them appear more like harlequins and mountebanks, than military appendages? The following anecdote will explain the reason, as far at least as it regards the British service:--The musicians belonging to the English guards formerly wore plain blue coats, so that the instant they came off duty, and frequently in the intervals between, they visited alehouses, &c. without changing their uniform, and thus added considerably to its wear and tear. It will be here remarked, that the clothing of the musicians then fell wholly upon the colonels of regiments; no allowance being specifically made for that article by the public. It is probable, that some general officer undertook to prevent this abuse by obtaining permission to clothe the musicians, &c. in so fantastical a manner that they would be ashamed to exhibit themselves at public-houses, &c.

PHRYGIAN MUSIC. A martial sort of ancient music, which excited men to rage and battle: by this mode Timotheus stirred up Alexander to arms.

Modes of MUSIC. There were three modes among the ancients, which took their names from particular countries, namely, the Lydian, the Phrygian, and the Doric.

MUSKET, MUSQUET, the most serviceable and commodious fire-arm used by an army. It carries a ball of 18 to 1 pound. Its length is 3 feet 6 inches from the muzzle to the pan. The Spaniards were the first who armed part of their foot with musquets. At first they were made very heavy, and could not be fired without a rest: they had match locks, and did execution at a great distance. These kinds of musquets and rests were used in England so late as the beginning of the civil wars.

MUSQUETS were first used at the siege of Rhege, in the year 1521.

MUSQUET BASKETS. These are about a foot, or a foot and an half high, eight or ten inches diameter at bottom, and a foot at the top; so that, being filled with earth, there is room to lay a musquet between them at bottom, being set on low breast-works, or parapets, or upon such as are beaten down.

MUSQUETEERS, soldiers armed with musquets; who, on a march, carried only their rests and ammunition, and had boys to bear their musquets after them. They were very slow in loading, not only by reason of the unwieldiness of the pieces, and because they carried the powder and ball separate, but from the time required to prepare and adjust the match: so that their fire was not so brisk as ours is now. Afterwards a lighter kind of matchlock musquet came in use; and they carried their ammunition in bandeliers, to which were hung several little cases of wood, covered with leather, each containing a charge of powder; the balls they carried loose in a pouch, and a priming-horn, hanging by their side. These arms were about the beginning of this century, universally laid aside in Europe, and the troops were armed with flint firelocks.

MUSQUETOONS, a kind of short thick musquet, whose bore is the 38th part of its length: it carries five ounces of iron, or 7¹⁄₂ of lead, with an equal quantity of powder. This is the shortest sort of blunderbusses.

MUSRAL. The noseband of a horse’s bridle.

MUSSUK, Ind. A skin in which water is carried.

MUSTACHES. Whiskers, worn by the Asiatics, Germans, Russians, and other foreign troops.

MUSTER, in a military sense, a review of troops under arms, to see if they be complete, and in good order; to take an account of their numbers, the condition they are in, viewing their arms, and accoutrements, &c.

MUSTER. This word is derived from the French mustrer, to shew. At a muster every man must be properly clothed and accoutred, &c. and answer to his name. The French call it appel nominatif. We call it an Inspection.

MUSTERS. By sect. 4th of the British Articles of War, it is enacted, that musters shall be taken of the regiments of life guards, horse guards, and foot guards, twice at least in every year, at such times as shall have been or may be appointed, and agreeably to the forms heretofore used therein.

The musters of every other regiment, troop, or company, in the service, are to be taken at such times, and in such manner, as is directed by the late regulations touching regimental and district paymasters, and the mode of mustering, paying, and settling the accompts of the army.

All commanding officers, and others concerned in the mustering, as well of the regiments of life guards, horse guards, and foot guards, as of the other forces, are enjoined to give the utmost care and attention to the making up of the muster rolls with strict exactness and accuracy.

Every officer who shall be convicted before a general court-martial of having signed a false certificate, relating to the absence of either officer, non-commissioned officer, or private soldier, will be cashiered.

Every officer who shall knowingly make a false muster of man or horse, and every officer and commissary, or muster-master, who shall wittingly sign, direct, or allow the signing of the muster rolls, wherein such false muster is contained, shall, upon proof made thereof, by two witnesses before a general court-martial, be cashiered, and suffer such other penalty as he is liable to by the act for punishing mutiny and desertion.

Any commissary or muster-master, who shall be convicted before a general court-martial, of having taken money, by way of gratification, on the mustering any regiment, troop, or company, or on the signing the muster-rolls, shall be displaced from his office, and suffer such other penalty as he is liable to by the said act.

Every colonel, or other field officer, commanding a regiment, troop, or company, and actually residing with it, may give furloughs to non-commissioned officers and soldiers, in such numbers, and for so long a time, as he shall judge to be most consistent with the good of our service; but no non-commissioned officer or soldier, shall, by leave of his captain, or inferior officer, commanding the troop or company, (his field officer not being present) be absent above twenty days in six months; nor shall more than two private men be absent at the same time from their troop or company, unless some extraordinary occasion shall require it; of which occasion the field officer present with and commanding the regiment is to be the judge.

It is strictly forbidden to muster any person as a soldier who does not actually do his duty as a soldier, &c. See LIVERY.

MUSTER-master-general, Commissary-general of the MUSTERS, one who takes account of every regiment, their number, horses, arms, &c. reviews them, sees that the horses are well mounted, and all the men well armed and accoutred, &c.

MUSTER-ROLL, (état nominatif, Fr.) a specific list of the officers and men in every regiment, troop, or company, which is delivered to the muster-master, regimental or district paymaster, (as the case may be) whereby they are paid, and their condition is known. The names of the officers are inscribed according to rank, those of the men in alphabetical succession. Adjutants of regiments make out a muster roll, and when the list is called over, every individual must answer to his name. Every muster-roll must be signed by the colonel or commanding officer, the paymaster and adjutant of each regiment, troop, or company: it must likewise be sworn to by the muster-master or paymaster, (as the case may be) before a justice of the peace, previous to its being transmitted to government.

MUSTI. One born of a mulatto father or mother, and a white father or mother.

MUTILATED. In a military sense, signifies wounded in such a manner as to lose the use of a limb. A battalion is said to be mutilated, when its divisions, &c. stand unequal.

MUTINE, or MUTINEER, a soldier guilty of mutiny.

MUTINY, in a military sense, to rise against authority. Any officer or soldier who shall presume to use traitorous or disrespectful words against the president of the United States, against the vice president, against the congress of the United States, or against the chief magistrate or legislature of any of the United States, in which he may be quartered, is guilty of mutiny.

Any officer or soldier who shall behave himself with contempt or disrespect towards his commanding officer, or shall speak words tending to his hurt or dishonor, is guilty of mutiny.

Any officer or soldier who shall begin, excite, cause, or join in any mutiny or sedition, in the troop, company, or regiment, to which he belongs, or in any other troop, or company, in the service of the United States, or on any party, post, detachment, or guard, on any pretence whatsoever, is guilty of mutiny.

Any officer or soldier who, being present at any mutiny or sedition, does not use his utmost endeavors to suppress the same, or coming to the knowlege of any mutiny, or intended mutiny, does not, without delay, give information to his commanding officer, is guilty of mutiny.

Any officer or soldier, who shall strike his superior officer, or draw, or offer to draw, or shall lift up any weapon, or offer any violence against him, being in the execution of his office, on any pretence whatsoever, or shall disobey any lawful command of his superior officer, is guilty of mutiny. See WAR.

MUTINY-Act, an act which passes every year in the British house of commons, to answer some specific military purposes; and by which the army is continued on a peace or war establishment.

MUZZLE of a gun or mortar, the extremity at which the powder and ball are put in.

MUZZLE-RING of a gun, that which encompasses and strengthens the muzzle, or mouth of a cannon.

MYRIAD, denotes the number ten thousand.

MYRIARCH. The captain, or commander of ten thousand men.

MYRMIDONS. In antiquity, a people of Thessaly, of whom it is fabled, that they arose from ants, upon a prayer put up to Jupiter, by Æacus, after his kingdom had been depopulated by a pestilence. In Homer, and in Virgil, the Myrmidons are Achilles’s soldiers. The term Myrmidon is used in modern times to express any rude ruffian, or hireling assassin; the same as Hessian.

MYRMILLONES. A sort of combatants among the Romans, who had on the top of their cask or helmet, the representation of a fish; and in their engagements with the Retiarii, if they were caught and wrapped in the net, it was not possible for them to escape.

MYSORE. An extensive country in the East Indies, which borders on the Carnatic to the S. W. bounded on the East by the south part of the Carnatic, and the district of Tritchinopoly. It extends west within 30 miles of the sea coast of Malabar. Seringapatam was the capital. It was wantonly attacked, taken, and partitioned twice, and at last completely occupied and incorporated with the British conquests.

NABOB, Ind. a corruption from Nawaub, the plural of naib. The title means a deputy, but it is often assumed in India without a right to it. As the real signification and import of this word is not generally known, we shall extract a passage out of Mr. Orme’s History of the Carnatic, that will place them in the clearest point of view:

“Most of the countries which had been conquered by the great Mogul in the peninsula of India, are comprised under one viceroyalty, called from its situation decan, or south. From the word soubah, signifying a province, the viceroy of this vast territory is called soubahdar, and by Europeans sometimes the subah. Of the countries under his jurisdiction, some were entirely subjected to the throne of Delhi, and governed by mahomedans, whom Europeans improperly call Moors; whilst others remained under the government of their original Indian princes or Rajahs, and were suffered to follow their ancient modes on condition of paying tribute to the great Mogul. The Moorish governors depending on the soubah, assumed, when treating with their inferiors, the title of nabob, which (as we have already observed) signifies deputy: but this in the registers of the throne (of Delhi) is synonimous to soubahdar, and the greatest part of those who styled themselves nabobs were ranked at Delhi under the title of phousdar, which is much inferior to that which they assumed. The Europeans established in the territories of these pseudo-nabobs (if we may be allowed the expression) following the example of the natives with whom they have most intercourse, have agreed to give them the title they so much affect.

“A nabob ought to hold his commission from Delhi, and if at his death a successor has not been previously appointed by the great Mogul, the soubah has the right of naming a person to administer the nabobship, until the will of the sovereign is known; but a nabob thus appointed by a soubah was not deemed authentically established until he had been confirmed from Delhi. The soubah received from the several nabobs the annual revenues of the crown, and remitted them to the treasury of the empire. The nabobs were obliged to accompany him in all military expeditions within the extent of his viceroyalty, but not in any without that extent. These regulations were intended to place them in such a state of dependence on the soubah, as should render them subservient to the interests of the empire, and at the same time leave them in a state of independence, which would render it difficult for the soubah to make use of their assistance to brave the throne.

Nabobs, however, often kept possession of their governments in opposition both to the soubah and the throne; and what is more extraordinary in the offices of a despotic state, both soubahs and nabobs have named their successors, who have often succeeded with as little opposition as if they had been the heirs apparent of an hereditary dominion.” It is, perhaps, superfluous to observe, that the British have taken the place of the mogul, and that nabobs are made and unmade much more freely and frequently than European kings in modern times.

NABOBSHIP. The office of a nabob. The Carnatic was one of the most considerable nabobships dependent on the soubah of Decan. From its capital it was likewise named the province of Arcot; but its present limits are greatly inferior to those which bounded the ancient Carnatic before it was conquered by the great Mogul; for we do not find that the nabobs of Arcot ever extended their authority beyond the river Gondegama to the north, the great chain of mountains to the west, and the borders of the provinces of Tritchinopoly, Tanjore, and Mysore to the south. The sea bounds it to the east. It was not before the beginning of last century that this country was entirely reduced by the Mahomedans. For further particulars respecting nabobs, see pages 27 and 28 in the Dissertation prefixed to the History of the Carnatic.

NACELLE, Fr. A small boat that has neither mast nor sail. It is properly called a ferry-boat.

NADIR. In astronomy, is that point in the heavens which is directly under our feet, and is diametrically opposite to the zenith, or point over our heads. The word is pure Arabic, signifying the same thing. The zenith and the nadir are the two poles of the horizon, each 90° distant from it, and consequently each in the meridian.

NAGARA, Ind. The drum made from a hollow cylinder of teak wood, and the ends covered with goat skin; it is suspended from the left shoulder to the right side, and beat with a stick made of teak wood.

NAGER, Fr. to swim.

Se sauver à la NAGE, to save oneself by swimming.

NAGGUR, Ind. The principal drum in Asiatic armies, commonly allowed only to persons of high dignity. The bass drum.

NAIB, Ind. a deputy. The governor of a town under a nawaub or nabob is so called in India.

NAIC, or NAIK, a subaltern officer in the sepoys; a corporal.

Drill NAIC, or NAICK, a subaltern officer belonging to the native infantry in India, answering to our drill corporal. Every battalion of native infantry has two drill havildars or serjeants, and two drill-naicks, called non-effective, attached to it.

NAILS of various sorts are used in artillery. See CARRIAGE.

Garnish NAILS, in travelling carriages, have pointed heads like diamonds, with a small narrow neck: they serve to fasten the plates with roses, to cover the sidepieces from the ends of the trunnion-plates to 5 or 6 inches beyond the centre of the carriage.

Diamond headed NAILS, small nails, whose heads are made like a flat diamond, and serve to fix the plates upon travelling carriages.

Rose bud NAILS, are small round headed nails, driven in the centre of the roses of the plates.

Counter sunk NAILS, those that have flat round heads, sunk into the iron plates, so as to be even with the outside of it.

Streak NAILS, are those which fasten the streaks to the fellies of the wheels.

Box pin NAILS, small nails without heads, to pin the nave boxes, to the naves.

Stub NAILS, are driven on the outside of the nave hoops, to keep them in their places.

Flat headed NAILS, to fasten the locker or any sort of hinges.

Dog NAILS, have flat round heads; and one part of the shank next to the head is also round.

To NAIL, spike, or cloy, cannon, enclouer le canon, Fr. When circumstances make it necessary to abandon cannon, or when the enemy’s artillery are seized, and it is not however possible to take them away; it is proper to nail them up, in order to render them useless; which is done by driving a large nail or iron spike into the vent of a piece of artillery, to render it unserviceable. There are various contrivances to force the nail out, as also sundry machines invented for that purpose, but they have never been found of general use; so that the best method is to drill a new vent.

One Gasper Vimercalus was the first who invented the nailing of cannon. He was a native of Bremen, and made use of his invention first in nailing up the artillery of Sigismund Malatesta.

NAIRS, a native military tribe of the Malabar coast. They affirm that they are the oldest nobility in the world. Their pride on this supposition is greater than that of Rajpoots. In 1755, the king of Travancore, with the assistance of a French officer, called Launoy, disciplined 10,000 Naires in the method of European infantry.

NAGARKANNA, Ind. the place where all the drums and war music are kept.

NAUKODA. A native captain or pilot so called in India.

NANA, Ind. the title which is given to a chief of the Marattahs. It more properly signifies the acting head of the government, and general of the forces.

NAPPE de feu, Fr. See JETS DE FEU.

NARROW, of small breadth.

NARROW Front. A battalion, &c. is said to assume a narrow front, when it goes from line into column, upon the safe principles of compression.

The NARROWS, an important position on the entrance of the Hudson’s river, N. York; strong works are erecting there, at the expence of that state.

The NARROW, a channel which runs between the Margate sands and the Main.

NASIR-JUNG, Ind. victorious, or triumphant in war.

NATION, a people; also a country. As the American nation, the French nation. It is more generally used in the first sense; as, The nation at large seems disposed to resist every attempt that the British may make to reduce us to our former condition of colonies; and to maintain the freedom of the seas.

NATIONAL, that which concerns or belongs to a whole nation.

NATIONAL troops, are those raised under the authority of Congress, in contradistinction to the Militia, which may be called States troops, being organized by the several States.

NATIVE, in general, denotes a person born in a certain place, but more particularly it refers to the proper residence of the parents, and where the person has his education.

NATIVE Cavalry, a body of troops so called in India, in contradistinction to the European regiments. According to the regulations printed at Calcutta in 1797, each regiment was directed to have six troops, consisting of two captains, one captain-lieutenant, six lieutenants, three cornets, two serjeants, six subidars, six jemidars, 18 havildars, 18 naicks, six trumpeters, 420 troopers, six puckallies. The staff consists of one adjutant, one quarter-master, one paymaster, one surgeon’s mate, one serjeant-major, one quarter-master serjeant, one drill havildar, one drill naick, one trumpeter-major, six pay-havildars, six farriers, and one native doctor.

Each regiment to be commanded by a· field officer.

NATIVE Infantry. A body of troops under the immediate direction of the presidency of Bengal, composed of the natives of India. According to the regulations published at Calcutta in 1797, it is directed, that the battalions of native infantry should be formed into regiments of two battalions each, with ten companies in each battalion, the regiment to consist of one colonel, two lieutenant-colonels, two majors, (junior lieutenant-colonel, and junior major, to be without companies) seven captains, 1 captain-lieutenant, 22 lieutenants, 10 ensigns, two serjeants, 20 subidars, 20 jemidars, 100 havildars, 100 naicks, 40 drums and fifes, 1600 privates for Bengal, 1800 privates for Madras and Bombay, 20 puckallies. The staff consists of two adjutants, one paymaster, one surgeon, two mates, one serjeant-major, one quarter-master serjeant, two native doctors, one drum-major, one fife-major, two drill havildars, and two drill naicks.

The peace establishment of these corps was ordered to consist of four regiments, to be commanded by two lieutenant-colonels to the two first, and two majors to the 3d and 4th regiments; a brigade major to be allowed to the cavalry. The whole, when raised, were to be commanded by a colonel commandant. But, at the period mentioned, only two regiments of native cavalry were raised, and twelve regiments of native infantry.

It was further directed, that upon the completion of the native cavalry, the promotions of officers should proceed by seniority in their respective regiments, until they arrived to the rank of captain, and afterwards to rise in the whole corps to the rank of major, and to the command of regiments. The promotion to major, and command of regiments, was subjected to the same principle, as in the infantry, in regard to being unfit. But if field officers of cavalry were superceded in consequence of being unfit to command, they were to be allowed to retire with the pay of lieutenant-colonel of infantry.

The promotions in the native infantry were to take place according to seniority in their respective regiments, to the rank of lieutenant-colonels, and afterwards to colonels, and command of regiments, with the following proviso:

That should the senior lieutenant-colonels appear to the government at the presidency, either upon representation of the commander in chief, or by any other means, to be unfit for the command of regiments, they were to be passed over, and junior officers promoted. But the reasons for such supercession were to be entered on the records, for the information of the court of directors.

The same principle was directed to be applied to the European infantry, to the promotion of officers of artillery to the command of battalions, and of corps; to the chief engineers, to the colonels commandants, and officers to command regiments of cavalry, and to the rank of major-generals from that of colonels.

It was further ordained, that should any captains or subalterns obtain leave from that period to exchange from one regiment to another, they were to come into the regiment to which they were removed as youngest of their respective ranks, according to the practice in the British establishment.

It was also ordered, that each regiment of native cavalry, and native infantry, in the absence of the colonel, should be under the general command of the senior lieutenant-colonel, who was to have the particular command of the 1st battalion, and the junior lieutenant-colonel that of the second battalion.

The same regulation prevails in the Indian, or native corps, with respect to the appointment of paymasters, that exists in the royal service.

About the same period, a very satisfactory regulation took place in favor of the European and native or company’s troops, to prevent the growth of much existing jealousy between them and the king’s troops. To give every officer of the company a king’s commission, of the same date with that which he received from the company, with a retrospect founded on the date of the king’s commission they then held, so as to prevent supercession by the various promotions which had recently taken place by general brevet in the British army.

NATURAL FORTIFICATION, consists in those natural obstacles which are found in some countries, and which impede or prevent the approach of an enemy. Thus a place, the avenues to which are easily closed, or which is surrounded by impassable rivers or marshes, is defended by natural fortification.

NAUAB, Ind. See NABOB.

NAVAL, Fr. This word is used to convey the same meaning among the French that it does with us, viz. armée navale, naval armament; combat naval, sea fight, or naval combat; forces navales, naval forces. It is remarked in the Dictionnaire de l’Academie Francoise, that naval, when used in the masculine gender, is not susceptible of the plural number.

NAVAL armament, the fitting out a fleet, with all kinds of provisions and military stores, for actual service.

NAVAL camp, in military antiquities, a fortification, consisting of a ditch and parapet on the land side, or a wall built in the form of a semi-circle, and extended from one point of the sea to the other. This was beautified with gates, and sometimes defended with towers, through which they issued forth to attack their enemies. Towards the sea, or within it, they fixed great pales of wood, like those in their artificial harbors; before these the vessels of burthen were placed in such order, that they might serve instead of a wall, and gave protection to those without; in which manner Nicias is reported by Thucydides to have encamped himself. When their fortifications were thought strong enough to defend them from the assaults of enemies, the ancients frequently dragged their ships on shore. Around these ships the soldiers disposed their tents as appears every where in Homer: but this seems only to have been practised in winter, when their enemy’s fleet was laid up, and could not assault them; or in long sieges, and when they lay in no danger from their enemies by sea, as in the Trojan war, where the defenders of Troy never once attempted to encounter the Grecians in a sea-fight.

NAVAL crown, in Roman antiquity, a crown conferred, among the Romans, on persons who, in sea engagements, distinguished themselves. A. Gellius says, in general, the naval crown was adorned with prows of ships. Lipsius distinguishes two kinds; the first he supposes plain, and given to the common soldiers; the other rostrated, and only given to generals or admirals, who had gained some important victory at sea.

NAVAL officers, are admirals, captains, lieutenants, masters, boatswains, midshipmen, gunners, &c.

NAVAL engagement, implies, in general, either a sea-fight between single ships, or whole fleets of men of war, or gallies, &c.

NAVAL TACTICS, or the art of war carried on by ships at sea; this being limited to the possibilities of navigation, is therefore much less susceptible of that variety of stratagem which belongs to the hostility of armies on land, and comprehends beside the knowlege of military operation, that of the movement of ships under all circumstances of wind, weather, and also of the structure of ships and rigging.

The tactics of the ancients consisted in the formation of position by which they could bear down upon and pierce the sides, or board vessels, and decide the conflict hand to hand; the invention of gunpowder has had the same effect upon naval as upon land tactics, that they can fight without coming to close quarters.

The Dutch, French, and British have been most distinguished for naval tactics; but they have been principally reduced to fixed rules like the armies of modern times, by the French and English. M. Morogues is the most copious author on the subject in modern times. M. Bourde de Villehuet, in his work called La Manœuvrier, has also published a most valuable treatise. M. Girmoard has treated of the subject as a science.

A Treatise has been published in English by Mr. Clerk, who was not a professional seaman, in which new principles were introduced, and those of the French adopted. The battles of April 1782, and of the Nile and Trafalgar were fought upon the new principles.

NAVE, in gun-carriages, that part of a wheel in which the arms of the axletree move, and in which the spokes are driven and supported. See WHEEL.

NAVE-hoops, are flat iron rings to bind the nave: there are generally three on each nave.

NAVE-boxes, were formerly made of brass; but experience has shewn that those of cast iron cause less friction, and are much cheaper: there are two, one at each end, to diminish the friction of the axletree against the nave.

NAVIGATION, the theory and art of conducting a ship by sea, from one port to another, or of disposing and influencing her machinery, by the force of the wind, so as to begin and continue her motion at sea.

NAVIRE de guerre, a man of war.

NAVIRE Merchand, Fr. a merchantman. It is likewise called vaisseau marchand.

NAULAGE, NAULIS, Fr. Freight or fare.

NAULISER, Fr. to freight or hire a vessel.

NAUMACHIÆ,or sea-fights, are described as early as the time of the first Punic war, when the Romans first initiated their men in the knowlege of sea affairs. After the improvement of many years, they were designed as well for the gratifying the sight as for increasing their naval experience and discipline; and therefore composed one of the solemn shows, by which the magistrates or emperors, or any affectors of popularity, so often made their court to the people. It will be observed from this passage out of Kennett’s Roman Antiquities, page 269, that the necessity which Rome was under of fighting Carthage upon her own element, gave rise to their naval manœuvres. But the overgrown empire of the former, and the subsequent corruption of her people, soon converted these powerful auxiliaries to the legions, by whom she had conquered the universe, into instruments of pleasure and debauchery. Lampridius, in the life of the emperor Heliogabalus, relates, that, in a representation of a naval fight, he filled the channel where the vessels were to ride with wine instead of water. A story scarcely credible, though we have the highest conceptions of that wretch’s prodigious luxury and extravagance. The frequent threats which the French emperor has put forth, and the similitude which he draws between France and Great Britain to Rome and Carthage, may probably lead to great na- exertions.

NAUTICAL planisphere, a description of the terrestrial globe upon a plane, for the use of mariners: but more usually called chart.

NAVY, implies, in general, any fleet or assembly of ships. It is, however, more particularly understood of the vessels of war that belong to a kingdom or state.

NAVY DEPARTMENT of the United States, has the charge of the naval affairs, and of the military marine corps.

Number and Kind of Ordnance for each of the Ships in the British Navy.

+------+-----++---------------------++-----------+ | | || No. of Guns || | | | No. || of each Kind. ||Carronades.| | | of ++--+--+--+--+--+--+---++--+--+--+--+ |Rates.|Guns.||42|32|24|18|12| 9| 6 ||32|24|18|12| +------+-----++--+--+--+--+--+--+---++--+--+--+--+ |1st. | 100 ||28|--|28|--|30|--|18 || 2| 6|--|--| |2d. | 98 ||--|28|--|30|40|--|--}|| 2|--| 6|--| | { | 80 ||--|26|--|26|--|24| 4}|| | | | | | { | 74 ||--|28|--|28|--|18|--}|| 2|--| 6|--| |3d. { | 70 ||--|28|--|28|--|14|-- || | | | | | { | 64 ||--|--|26|26|--|12|-- ||--| 2| 6|--| |4th. {| 60 ||--|--|24|--|26|--|10 ||--|--|--|--| | {| 50 ||--|--|22|--|22|--| 6 ||--| 6|--| 6| | { | 44 ||--|--|--|20|22|--| 6 ||--|--| 8|--| |5th.{ | 36 ||--|--|--|26| 2| 8|-- || 8|--|--|--| | { | 32 ||--|--|--|--|26|--| 6 ||--| 6|--|--| | {| 28 ||--|--|--|--|--|24| 4 ||--| 6|--|--| |6th. {| 24 ||--|--|--|--|--|22| 2 ||--| 2| 6|--| | {| 20 ||--|--|--|--|--|20|-- ||--|--|--| 8| |Sloops| 18 ||--|--|--|--|--|--|18 ||--|--|--| 8| +------+-----++--+--+--+--+--+--+---++--+--+--+--+

Dimensions of Ships, Number of Men, and Draught of Water.

+------+---------+--------+----------------------+---------+ | | | | | Depth | |Number| Length | | Complement of | of water| | of | on the | Extreme+--------+-------------+ required| | Guns.|Gun-deck.|Breadth.|Sailors.| Marines. |for each.| +------+---------+--------+--------+-------------+---------+ | | Ft. In. |Ft. In. | N^{o.} | Officers. | Feet. | | 110 | 190 -- | 53 -- |} 875 |} |} 24 | | 100 | 186 -- | 52 -- |} |} |} | | 98 | 180 -- | 50 -- | } 750 |} 1 Captain | } 23 | | 90 | 177 6 | 49 -- | } |} 3 Subalt’s.| } | | 80 | 182 -- | 49 6 |} |} |} | | 74 | 182 -- | 48 7 |} 650 |} |} 18 | | 74 | 169 -- | 46 11 |} |} |} | | 64 | 160 -- | 44 6 |} |1 Cap. 2 Sub.|} | | 50 | 146 -- | 40 6 | 420 |2 Lieuten’ts.| } | | 44 | 140 9 | 38 8 |} |} | } 16 | | 38 | 144 -- | 39 -- |} 300 |} | } | | 36 | 142 -- | 38 -- |} |} | } | | 32 | 126 -- | 35 4 |} |} 1 Subalt. | 15 | | 28 | 120 -- | 33 6 | } |} | | | 24 | 114 7 | 32 3 | } 200 |} | | | 20 | 108 -- | 30 -- | } |} | | | 18 | 110 -- | 29 6 |} 125 | }Serjeant. | 13 | | 16 | 106 -- | 28 -- |} | } | | +------+---------+--------+--------+-------------+---------+ | N. B. The usual complement of Marines is one for | | every Gun in a British Ship of War. | +----------------------------------------------------------+

NAVY-board, together with its civil and military departments, in England, consists of a lord high admiral, or lords commissioners for executing this office; one first lord commissioner, and six other lords commissioners, with a number of inferior officers, and clerks.

NAVY, is also a collective body of officers employed in the military sea-service.

NAWAUB, Ind. See NABOB.

NEABUT, Ind. a deputyship, or lieutenancy: from naib, a deputy.

NECESSARIES, in a military sense, are such articles as are ordered to be given to every soldier.

NEESHUNGPAT, Ind. a violent assault without bloodshed.

NEGATIVE. This term is sometimes used to express the result of measures or enterprizes, which though not entirely successful, are not productive of serious or mischievous consequences. Hence the British expeditions to Spain, and to Walcheren, may be considered as having had negative success.

NEGATIVE Penalties. Certain laws whereby persons are secluded from military rank, &c. without inflicting any positive pains.

NEGLECT of DUTY. Officers or soldiers convicted of neglect of duty, are punishable at the discretion of a court-martial.

NEGROES, blacks, moors. The people brought from Guinea, and other parts of Africa, as slaves, and sent into the colonies of America, to cultivate sugar, tobacco, indigo, &c. and to dig in the mines of Peru or Mexico.

NELLI-COTAH, a fort situated about forty miles to the south of Tinivelly, in the East Indies. This fort has been rendered memorable by the manner in which it was carried by the English in 1755, and the barbarity with which a garrison was treated which had not killed a man and had called for quarter, and yet men, women, and children were massacred. The detachment consisted of 100 Europeans, and 300 sepoys, with two field pieces. These troops (to quote Mr. Orme’s words in his History of the Carnatic, page 386, book V.) set out at midnight and performed the march in 18 hours: the polygar, startled at the suddenness of their approach, sent out a deputy, who pretended he came to capitulate, and promised that his master would pay the money demanded of him in a few days; but suspicions being entertained of his veracity, it was determined to detain him as a pledge for the execution of what he had promised, and he was accordingly delivered over to the charge of a guard. The troops were so much fatigued by the excessive march they had just made, that even the advanced centinels could not keep awake; and the deputy perceiving all the soldiers who were appointed to guard him, fast asleep, made his escape out of the camp, and returned to the fort; from whence the polygar had sent him only to gain time, in order to make the necessary preparations for his defence. This being discovered early in the morning, it was determined to storm the place, of which the defences were nothing more than a mud wall with round towers. The troops had not brought any scaling ladders, but the outside of the wall was sloping, and had many clefts worn in it by the rain, so that the assault, although hazardous, was nevertheless practicable. It was made both by the Europeans and the sepoys with undaunted courage, in several parties at the same time; each of which gained the parapet without being once repulsed, when the garrison retired to the buildings of the fort, where they called out for quarter; but the soldiers, put all they met to the sword, not excepting the women and children; suffering only six persons, out of four hundred, to escape alive: shameful to relate, the troops and officers who bore the greatest part in this shocking barbarity, were the bravest of Englishmen, having most of them served under colonel Lawrence, on the plains of Tritchinopoly: but those who contemplate human nature will find many reasons, supported by examples, to dissent from the common opinion, that cruelty is incompatible with courage.

NESHAUNBURDAR, Ind. an ensign.

NETHERLANDS, that part of modern France which lies next to the North sea; it was once called the circle of Burgundy, and sometimes the Low Countries, so called from being situated between France, Lorrain, Germany, and the ocean.

They were formerly divided into 17 provinces, four of which were dukedoms, viz. Brabant, Limburg, Luxemburg, and Guelderland; seven were earldoms, viz. Flanders, Artois, Hainault, Holland, Zealand, Namur, and Zutphen; and five Baronies, viz. West Friezland, Mechlin, Utrecht, Overysell, and Groningen.

These were originally governed by distinct lords or princes, but were all united under Philip the good, duke of Burgundy, who left them to his son Charles, surnamed the Hardy, who being killed at Nancy, in 1477, the 17 provinces fell to his only daughter, Mary of Burgundy, who by marrying with Maximilian the First, of Germany, carried them into the house of Austria.

The kings of France claimed a right to Artois, Flanders, &c. In the reign of king Philip II. of Spain, William of Nassau, prince of Orange, and several other discontented noblemen, gave beginning to those disturbances which terminated in the separation of Holland, and the other countries known by the name of the United Provinces, occasioned by the dread of the inquisition, the insupportable rigor of the government of the Duke of Alva, and the violent encroachments of the Spaniards upon the liberties and privileges of the countries.

The Netherlands, comprehending Holland, have undergone material alterations during the progress of the French Revolution. Brabant and Flanders, which belonged to the house of Austria, have been annexed to France, and form several of its departments. Holland, upon the expulsion of the Stadtholder, was allowed to call itself an independent country, in alliance with France; but the British co-operating with the adherents of the Stadtholder, exposed it to repeated invasions, to put an end to these conspiracies, after twice expelling the English, the government was changed, and it is now distinguished by the name of the Batavian kingdom.

NETTOYER les Magazins, Fr. in artillery, signifies to remove the different pieces of ordnance, for the purpose of having them carefully examined, &c. and to have the stores and ammunition so arranged as not to receive damage. This duty is generally performed by small parties of solders, under the command of serjeants, who are detached from the different guards of a garrison town. In the old French service the commissaire d’artillerie superintended the execution of this necessary duty, and the soldiers who were employed, got relieved from any further attendance as part of the guard, the instant their work was done.

NETTOYER, ou enfiler, Fr. to scour or enfilade.

NETTOYER la courtine, Fr. to scour, or fire through the whole extent of the curtain.

NETTOYER le rampart, Fr. to scour the rampart.

NETTOYER le tranchée, Fr. to scour or clear the trenches. This is effected by means of a vigorous sally which the garrison of a besieged place make upon the besiegers; when they beat in the guard, drive off the artificers and workmen, level the parapet, break up and choak the line of circumvallation, and spike or nail the cannon.

NEUTRAL, neither of the one nor the other.

NEUTRALITE, Fr. See NEUTRALITY.

Garder la NEUTRALITE, Fr. To be neutral.

Accorder la NEUTRALITE, Fr. To allow others to be neutral, or to grant neutrality.

Observer la NEUTRALITE, Fr. To observe a strict neutrality.

Violer la NEUTRALITE, Fr. To violate the laws of neutrality.

Demeurer dans la NEUTRALITE, Fr. To remain in a state of neutrality.

NEUTRALITY. The state or condition of one who is neuter, a middle condition between a friend and an enemy. In a military sense, remaining strictly indifferent, whilst other powers are at war, without assisting any party with arms, ammunition, or men. When a country, calling itself neutral, furnishes a quota or contingent to any nation that is at war with another, it cannot be said to observe the strict laws of neutrality. Of all precarious and difficult situations that perhaps is the most so, in which a weak nation is placed when two powerful nations wage war on each side, and the exact laws of neutrality are expected to be observed by the intermediate country. Bayle speaking of neutrality, humorously exclaims, heureux les pacifiques quant a l’autre monde, mais dans celui-ci, ils sont misérables: happy are the peaceable with respect to the next world, but they are miserable in this! in trying to derive advantages from the dissensions and broils of others, they insensibly become the victims of both parties. The French writer humorously says, Ils veulent être marteaux, cela fait que continuellement ils sont enclumes à droite et à gauche: they would fain be hammers, instead of which they become anvils, and get beaten both right and left. This happened to the Venetians in 1701, who endeavored to remain neutral during the campaigns that took place between the French and the Imperialists. The Danes afford another illustration of the inefficacy of a neutrality without power to resist, the destruction of Copenhagen, and the plunder of their navy, is an atrocity unparalleled. The treatment experienced by the United States, is only inferior to the barbarity exercised against Denmark. Genoa, Florence, Holland, and Switzerland were all forced from their neutrality by England, and fell victims. The observance of a strict neutrality is unquestionably a matter of extreme difficulty, and requires uncommon ability. Few princes possess those qualities of the head and heart that distinguished Hieron king of Syracuse, who so dexterously managed his neutrality in the war between Rome and Carthage. His subjects were considerably benefited by the conduct he observed, whilst his own reputation was not a little increased by the sound policy that dictated it.

Armed NEUTRALITY. The depredations committed by the naval force of Great Britain, during the first years of the American revolution, excited a general indignation among the maritime powers of the north of Europe. A project said to be devised by Dr. Franklin, and suggested to the count de Vergennes, was communicated to the courts of Russia and Prussia, and taken up with the zeal of a patron by the empress Katherine of Russia, the result was, that in the year 1780, Russia, Prussia, Sweden, and Denmark, had entered into engagements to arm their fleets, in order to support the neutrality of their commerce; Holland was invited, and consented to engage, but was attacked by Great Britain by surprize before she had ratified the agreement; the other neutral nations were brought to engage in it, and Great Britain was under the necessity of recognizing the principles of the armed confederacy. This event, novel in history, was productive of signal advantages to neutral nations; it formed a new epocha in maritime history, and wrested from England the audacious usurpation of the sovereignty of the seas.

The principles of the armed neutrality were again resumed during the French revolution; but the British, by employing corruption in the northern cabinets, procured the assassination of the emperor Paul of Russia, and at the same time brought a large fleet before Copenhagen which they bombarded, in consequence of which Russia was brought into the war, and Denmark obliged to bend to circumstances. Sweden was already a party in the war.

During the progress of the French revolution, instances have occurred in which a wise neutrality might have been made productive of great national good. But, alas! there are few statesmen, who have ability or political virtue enough, to resist the intrigues or views of those cabinets, who being themselves involved in war, leave nothing untried to drag their neighbors into the same troubled state. Montesquieu has observed, with his usual good sense, that nations seldom know how to avail themselves of natural advantages. What becomes a matter of hard necessity in one country, is frequently found to exist in another, from crooked and interested policy, or from ignorance in administration. Some countries are calculated to be neutral; some to avail themselves of insular situations; and to impose by maritime operations; and others, to make up for the natural disadvantages of continental position, by means of standing armies.

It has been remarked, (with what justice we leave politicians to determine) that no power, being or affecting to be neuter, should be allowed to arm itself, because it is impossible to have perfect confidence in a quarter from whence hostilities may commence according to the exigency of circumstances, (so properly called by the French, la force des circonstances;) or the alluring prospects of ambition.

It is more than probable, that the armed confederacy of the north sprung originally from a secret understanding with the agents of France, and manifested itself more strongly on the declaration of Russia. Great Britain of course took the alarm; and, as a French writer very justly observes on the subject of armed neutrality, has sent her fleets, to ascertain the point at the gates of Copenhagen.

The second expedition of the British against Copenhagen is one of the most extraordinary in the annals of the world. The pretence set up is best expressed in the language of Jackson, the agent of England in this unprecedented outrage--these are his words. “In the present disturbed state of the continent of Europe it was impossible to distinguish any longer between a neutral and an enemy, but by her becoming an ally or an open foe. That something therefore was required beyond an ordinary presumption of the real disposition of every state; and that whilst the influence of an implacable enemy predominated over every power within his reach, (France is alluded to) and either checked or converted into immediate hostility every engagement or inclination unfavorable to his interest, it was impossible to consider the ordinary covenants (that is the law of nations and treaties,) of any neutral nation either as a sufficient security for her own independence, or of those who confide in her neutrality. It becomes the duty of England, therefore, to discriminate in these circumstances between rights paramount and invariable, binding upon all states, and rights which might be suffered to relax and yield to that state of expediency in which a certain course of measures might involve the existence of a nation.”

Such was the detestable and odious sophistry which might be as well applied to cover and excuse any other species of atrocity, and which was followed by the bombardment and conflagration of Copenhagen, the murder of its citizens, and the seizure and plunder of its fleet and naval arsenal. La loi des plus forts, or the law of the strongest, so often tramples down national rights, that necessity drives those to the adoption of questionable measures, who would otherwise remain strictly neutral; whilst others again, from being contiguous to contending armies, resort to various pretences, in order to remain in an armed condition for the purpose of taking advantage at a critical moment. Of this description was the system of armed neutrality which Pope Leo X. is recorded to have pursued. When Francis I. king of France, was engaged in a war with the Swiss Cantons, respecting the Milanese, his holiness resolved to remain neuter, or at least affected to be so, although he was strongly invited by both parties to take an active and decisive part. He drew his troops towards the frontiers of the Milanese, under a pretext of covering the ecclesiastical states, but in reality for the purpose of being at hand when the two armies should come to a decisive engagement, of unexpectedly falling upon the victorious army at the close of an obstinate and bloody battle, of driving it out of Italy, becoming master of Lombardy, and finally establishing himself as the arbiter of the country. But all these imaginary triumphs of the Pope soon disappeared. His troops, which had already reached the frontiers of the Milanese, no sooner learned, that the Swiss had been totally routed by the French, than they were panic-struck, and dispersed in the greatest disorder, as if they were conscious of being engaged in a crooked and illegal cause.

Ancient history affords us several examples of this species of neutrality. During the civil wars between the adherents of Vespasian and those of Otho and Vitellius, various means of duplicity were resorted to. We likewise read of the same sort of conduct having been observed by the inhabitants of Corcyrus when they went to war with the Corinthians; and modern history is full of similar instances of specious neutrality. For further particulars on this interesting subject, especially on the conduct to be observed by neuters in war, see from Page 531 to 533, of the English Translation of Hugo Grotius.

NICK-NAME, (Sobriquet, Fr.) A surname, which is used in ridicule or good humor, to distinguish an individual. Nicknames among military men are familiarly used in a collective sense. Thus the light infantry are called Light Bobs, the grenadiers Tow Rows, and the battalion-men Flat Foots; and in many instances whole corps have been particularized in this manner. The 28th of foot were familiarly called the Slashers; and a general Sir C. Grey, an officer in the British service, used to be nicknamed General No-Flint, from a circumstance which occurred during the American war, when he commanded a party which stole into an American camp at night, and instead of fighting like a soldier, assassinated the Americans while asleep. During the campaigns of 1793 and 1794, in Flanders, &c. the 15th regiment of light dragoons were called Young Eyes by the guards, who received or rather gave themselves the nick-name of Old Eyes.

NIGHER, Ind. any fortified city, measuring at least eight coss, or eight English miles, in length and breadth.

NIQUIBS, Ind. men whose military functions among the sepoys, correspond with those of corporals in the king’s service.

NITHING, a coward, or poltroon.

NITRE, See Salt Petre, Gunpowder.

NIVEAU, Fr. A level.

NIVEAU de la campagne, Fr. the level surface of a country is so called, in contradistinction to the talus or slope of any rising ground.

De NIVEAU, Fr. level, even.

NIVEAU d’eau, Fr. a water level. This instrument is extremely simple, and of great use to engineers in the construction of works.

NIVEAU de charpentier, Fr. a carpenter’s rule or level.

NIVEAU de paveur, Fr. a pavior’s level.

NIVELER, Fr. to level.

NIVELER les eaux, Fr. to find the true level for conveying water.

NIVELER le terrein, Fr. to find the true level of ground, and to ascertain the relative elevations of places.

NIVELEUR Fr. a leveller: it is likewise sometimes used to express a trifler; but it does not signify a leveller in the political sense which we apply the English word in these days; nor does it mean a Leveller belonging to a set of people in Oliver Cromwell’s army, who were for having an equal share in the administration of the government between the nobility and the commons.

NIZAM, Ind. a title which was bestowed by the great Mogul on one of his principal officers on his being appointed to the command and administration of a province. It became the title of an independent prince who ruled over Golconda about the year 1790; the British now rule over him. The word means, an adjuster, a regulator, an arranger, or manager, &c.

NIZAM ul Moolc, Ind. the protector of the country.

NIZAMUT, the office of Nizam.

NOBILITY, from the Latin, Nobilitas. This word has been variously defined. It is, however, generally understood to signify illustrious descent, and conspicuousness of ancestors, with a succession of arms conferred on some one (and from him to his family) by the prince, by law, or by custom, as a reward for the good and virtuous actions of him that performed them. The only true purchase of nobility should therefore consist of great and good actions, which in proportion as they dignified and ennobled the original owner, become objects of important trust with every descendant; who either reflected them back by a laudable imitation, or shamefully abused the tenure by dishonorable practices. The futility of hereditary nobility is now universally acknowleged.

NOBILITY likewise means in Europe, a quality that dignifies, or renders a person noble: particularly that raises a person possessed of it above a peasant or a commoner. The quality or degree of a nobleman; also the whole body of noblemen separated from the commons.

Nobility also means name, reputation, renown. N. Bailey in his fourth edition of the New Universal Etymological Dictionary, has the following curious passages on this word:--

NOBILITY. The Italians thus satyrised nobility: the dukes and earls of Germany, (every son of a duke being a duke, and every daughter of a dutchess being a dutchess) the dons of Spain, the monsieurs of France, the bishops of Italy, (every city having a bishop) the nobility of Hungary, the lairds of Scotland, the knights of Naples, and the younger brethren of England, make all together a poor company. He then classes nobility under five specific heads, viz.

Divine NOBILITY, which is also called heavenly, or theological nobility, and relates to the supposed original of the soul.

Human or worldly NOBILITY, which regards blood, and a genealogy of many ancestors. This nobility is purely accidental, and depends upon the birth. This is called political or hereditary, and becomes the right of individuals, be their merit, virtue, or capacity what they may.

Moral NOBILITY, refers only to virtue, is purely personal, and depends on our own free will. It is also called philosophical; but is not hereditary, except by the influence of example, which render it the general inheritance of all good men.

Dative NOBILITY, is such as has been acquired by some merits, or deeds, and has been conferred by the prince, &c.

Native NOBILITY, is what passes from father to son, and makes the son noble, because his father was so. Of this species of nobility consists the British house of lords; to which occasional additions are made by purchased peerages. The justly celebrated Thomas Paine has characterised the futility of what is called nobility by a happy pun, calling them no-ability.

NOBLES, NOBLEMEN, are the grandees of any kingdom or nation, by whatsoever title they are distinguished. Honorary distinctions have been very ancient. The Greeks distinguished their people into three ranks, viz. Noblemen, land-holders, or farmers, and tradesmen. The first were indulged with great privileges, and wore the figure of a grasshopper, as a badge of honor, in their hair. The Romans wore a half moon upon their shoes.

Among the Romans, those persons were called nobles who preserved the statues of their ancestors in their courts or cabinets. The faces of these statues were painted to resemble life. But it was necessary to be descended from the ancient magistrates, called curules, to be entitled to have these statues. They were exhibited to the public on festival days, and when any of the family died, they were carried in solemn procession before the corpse: so that under these circumstances, an individual might be a patrician without being actually of noble blood or extraction.

That person was called noble in France, who first received a letter patent constituting him such, and who thus gave rise to the nobility of his descendants. Those born of him bore the title of gentilhomme, or gentleman, Un ancien gentilhomme, or gentleman of some standing, was stiled homme de condition, or a person of condition. Those gentlemen who were descended from illustrious houses were called, men of quality, gens de qualité.

In England those only are called nobles or noblemen, who have the title of duke, marquis, earl, viscount, lord or baron; which titles either descend to individuals from family-right, are gratuitously conferred upon them by the prince, (who is called the fountain of honor) or are obtained by the price of gold. The hereditary tenure becomes equally solid in all these instances, though not equally estimable, unless the title be itself ennobled by some great and good actions of the possessor. By those, and those only, can a purchased title be converted into sterling gold from base metal.

NOBLESSE. See NOBILITY.

NOBLESSE militaire, Fr. Military nobility. Although most of the orders may be considered as appendages which confer a species of military nobility, especially that of the British garter, which was instituted by king Edward III. on the 19th of January, 1344, yet the British cannot be strictly said to have among them, that species of military nobility or distinction that was peculiarly known in France, &c. under the immediate title of noblesse militaire. In order to reward military merit, an edict was issued by the French court at Fontainbleau, in November 1750, and enregistered on the 25th of the same month by the parliament of Paris, whereby a noblesse militaire, or military nobility, was created; the acquisition of which depended wholly upon martial character, but did not require any letter patent for the purpose of ennobling the individual.

By the first article of this perpetual and irrevocable edict, as it was then stated, it was decreed, that no person, serving in the capacity and quality of officer in any of the king’s troops, should be liable to the land or poll tax, so long as he continued in that situation. 2dly. That by virtue of this edict, and from the date thereof, all general officers, not being otherwise ennobled, but being actually and bonâ fide in the service, should be considered as noble, and remain so, together with their children born, or to be born in lawful wedlock. 3dly. That in future the rank of general officer should of itself be sufficient to confer the full right of nobility upon all those who should arrive at that degree of military promotion; and that their heirs and successors, as well as their children, actually born and lawfully begotten, should be entitled to the same distinction; and that all general officers should enjoy all the rights and privileges of nobility from the date of their commissions. In articles IV. V. VI. and VII. it was specifically provided upon what conditions those officers, who were not noble, and were inferior in rank to that of maréchal de camp, but who had been created chevaliers or knights of the royal and military order of St. Louis, and who should retire from the service after having been in the army during thirty years without intermission, were to be exempted from the payment of the land or poll tax, and how the same privileges was to be transferred to their sons, provided they were in the service. By the eighth article it was enacted, that those officers who had risen to the rank of captain and were chevaliers or knights of the order of St. Louis, but who were disabled by wound, or diseases contracted in the service, should not be obliged to fill up the period of thirty years as prescribed in the recited articles. By article IX. it was provided, that when any officer, not under the rank of captain, died in the actual exercise of the functions, or bearing the commission of captain, the services he had already rendered should be of use to his sons, lawfully begotten, who were either in the service or were intended for it.

It was specified in articles X. and XI. that every officer, born in wedlock, whose father and grandfather had been exempted from the land or poll tax, should be noble, in his own right, provided he got created a chevalier or knight of St. Louis, had served the prescribed period, or was entitled to the exemption mentioned in article VIII. that if he should die in the service, he would be considered as having acquired the rank of nobility, and that the title so obtained should descend, as matter of right, to the children, lawfully begotten, of such officers as had acquired it. It further specified, that even those who should have been born previous to their father’s being ennobled, were entitled to the same privilege.

Article XII. pointed out the method by which proofs of military nobility were to be exhibited in conformity to the then existing edict.

Article XIII. and XIV. provided for those officers, who were actually in the service at the promulgation of the edict, in proportion as the prescribed periods were filled up. This provision related wholly to the personal service of officers; as no proof was acknowleged or received, relative to services done by their fathers or grandfathers, who might have retired from the army, or have died prior to the publication of the edict.

The XVth, or last article, was a sort of register, in which were preserved the different titles that enabled individuals to lay claim to military nobility.

The whole of this edict may be seen, page 206, in the 3d volume, Des Elémens Militaires.

The French emperor Bonaparte has instituted an order of nobility called the legion of honor, the political influence of which appears to be greater than any order ever established, even than that of the Jesuits. He has also adopted the ancient military title of duke; which he has hitherto conferred only on men who have merited renown by their military greatness. The title of count is also established, and all the members of the legion of honor hold a rank corresponding with the knights of feudal institution. Private soldiers and tradesmen, for acts of public virtue, have been created members of the legion of honor.

NOEUD de l’artificier, Fr. a particular knot which artificers or fireworkers make use of to bind fusees together.

NOEUD de charrue, Fr. a particular knot or stress, which is used in the artillery when ropes are passed under carriages, for the purpose of raising any piece of ordnance that has been overturned. For the various knots used in military service, see the Am. Mil. Library, Art. ARTILLERY.

NOMADES, a tribe of wandering Arabs, so called in Asia.

NOMINAL, by name. Hence

NOMINAL Call which corresponds with the French appel nominatif; and, in a military sense, with our roll call.

NOURRICE, Fr. a nurse. A female who attends the sick. This word is likewise used by the French to express the means of subsistence, &c. which are supplied by the agricultural part of a kingdom. Hence une province est la nourrice d’une ville; the town is fed by the country round it. La Sicile est la nourrice de Rome. Sicily is the nurse of Rome; meaning thereby that the latter was supplied with corn, &c. by the former.

NOURRIR. To feed. The French say familiarly, la soupe nourrit le soldat; broth feeds the soldier.

NOYAU, Fr. in English mandril, a long piece of iron, which is placed in the middle of a cannon mould, in order that the liquid metal may be poured round it, and the piece obtain an equal thickness on all sides.

NOYAU, Fr. likewise means the whole of the vacant space or bore of a cannon, under which are comprehended the diameter of the mouth, the vacant cylinder, the breech, and the vent.

With respect to bombs, grenades, and hollow balls, that which is called noyau consists of a globular piece of earth, upon which the cover of bombs, grenades, and hollow balls, is cast. The metal is poured in between this cover and the noyau, after which the noyau or core is broken, and the earth taken out.

NOWARRA, Ind. An establishment of boats, which is kept at Dacca, for a defence against the Decoits, Mugs, and other plunderers.

NUDDEE, Ind. The name for a rivulet.

NULLA, Ind. This term likewise signifies a rivulet, and means the place which was once the bed of a river.

NUMEROS, Fr. round pieces made of brass, or other metal, which were numbered and used in the old French service in the detail of guards. See MARON.

NURSE. A person, generally a female, whose whole business is to attend the sick in the general or regimental hospital. She is under the immediate direction of the surgeon, whose duty will be to prepare the slops and comforts for the sick, and occasionally to assist in administering medicines, cooking the victuals, washing, &c. and for every ten men confined to bed by fever, an additional nurse and orderly-man should be allowed. All the patients, who are able, are every morning and evening to assist in cleaning and airing the hospital, carrying away dirt, &c., and by every means to assist the helpless.

There are also serjeants, orderly-men, and nurses, in regiments of the line.

In every regimental hospital, a room should be appropriated to the accommodation of such convalescents, whose state of health will admit of their being placed on full diet. This hospital to be regularly visited by the surgeon once, twice, or oftener in the day, as circumstances may require.

A non-commissioned officer should be appointed to the particular charge of the convalescent hospital, with an orderly-man, and when the convalescents are numerous, more orderly-men are to be attached to it, to keep it clean.

It is particularly necessary that none of the hospital tables and orders, which are to be hung up in a conspicuous place in every regimental hospital, shall be defaced by any person whatever, nor taken down, but by the surgeon or serjeant, the latter of whom will explain the allowance ordered for those patients who are not themselves in a situation to read the table for the distribution of diet.

O. This letter is generally used in the orderly books to signify orders, viz.

GL. O. General orders.

R. O. Regimental orders,

GN. O. Garrison orders.

B. O. Brigade orders.

OATH, a solemn asseveration made in the presence of a magistrate, and taken on the Bible, whereby an individual binds himself to observe certain conditions, or swears to specific facts which he knows of his own knowlege. Soldiers from time immemorial have been accustomed to take oaths of fidelity. These oaths were, however, observed with greater solemnity among the ancients than they are administered in modern armies, except upon very particular occasions. In the latter, indeed, it seldom or ever happens, that oaths are taken by bodies of soldiers, assembled for the purpose. Oaths are taken by men newly enlisted, but those oaths are individually administered, and separately taken. The military oath, on the contrary, among the Romans, was of a more general and impressive nature. Kennett, in his Roman Antiquities, page 188, gives the following account of it:--“The levies being finished, the tribunes of every legion chose out one whom they thought the fittest person, and gave him a solemn oath at large, the substance of which was, that he should oblige himself to obey the commanders in all things to the utmost of his power, be ready to attend whenever they ordered his appearance, and never to leave the army but by their consent. After he had ended, the whole legion, passing one by one, every man, in short, swore to the same effect, crying, as he went by, Idem in me. The same by me.”

OATH of Allegiance. See ALLEGIANCE.

OATS, a grain which constitutes a principal food of horses in Europe. The distribution of this article ought to be narrowly watched by every officer commanding a troop; since it is notorious, that government is frequently charged for quantities which are not delivered, by which means, the horse suffers, and the public are imposed upon.

OBEDIENCE, (Obéissance, Fr.) Submission to the orders of a superior. The first principle which ought to be inculcated and impressed upon the mind of every officer and soldier is obedience to all lawful commands. It is the main spring, the soul and essence, of military duty.

Preter obeissance, Fr. To swear allegiance.

Remettre dans l’obeissance, Fr. To recall to duty.

OBEDIENCE to orders. An unequivocal performance of the several duties which are directed to be discharged by military men. All officers and soldiers are to pay obedience to the lawful orders of their superior officers.

OBEIR, Fr. See OBEY.

To OBEY, in a military sense, is without question or hesitation, to conform zealously to all orders and instructions which are legally issued. It sometimes happens, that individuals are called upon (by mistake, or from the exigency of the service) out of what is called the regular roster. In either case they must cheerfully obey, and after they have performed their duty, they may remonstrate.

OBJECT, in a military sense, signifies the same as point, with respect to mere movements and evolutions. Thus in marching forward in line, &c. the leader of a squad, company, or battalion, must take two objects at least upon which he forms his perpendicular movement, and by which the whole body is regulated. In proportion as he advances he takes care to select intermediate and distant objects or points by which his march is governed. See MARCHING IN LINE.

OBLATE, any rotund figure flatted at the poles as a turnip, which is properly an oblate spheroid.

OBLIQUATION, OBLIQUITY, a deviation from the parallel or perpendicular line.

OBLIQUE, or second flank. The face of a bastion discovered from a part of the curtain, is so called.

OBLIQUE projection, is that wherein the direction of the striking body is not perpendicular to the body struck, which makes an oblique angle with the horizontal line.

OBLIQUE deployments. When the component parts of a column that is extending into line, deviate to the right or left, for the purpose of taking up an oblique position, its movements are called oblique deployments. This is thus executed, either by wheeling the line by quarter or half wheels toward the point directed in single files, sections, or platoons; so that the movement may be made perpendicular to the newly wheeled front, and the sections will form echellons; if files, they march by what is called the line of science.

OBLIQUE fire or defence, that which is under too great an angle, as is generally the defence of the second flank, which can never be so good as a defence in front. See Oblique Firing, at the word FIRINGS. See Am. Mil. Lib. plates.

OBLIQUE percussion, is that wherein the direction of the striking body is not perpendicular to the body struck, or is not in line with its centre of gravity.

Oblique position. A position taken in an oblique direction from the original line of formation. As described in oblique deployments.

OBLIQUE radius, a line extending from the centre to the exterior side of a polygon.

OBLIQUE STEP. This absurd and awkward contortion is deservedly exploded.

To OBLIQUE, in a military sense, is to move forward to the right or left, in either of those directions, from a line.

Pas OBLIQUE, Fr. Oblique step.

OBLIQUE à droite, Fr. Right oblique.

OBLIQUE à gauche, Fr. Left oblique.

Feux OBLIQUES à droite et à gauche, oblique firings to the right and left.

Marcher OBLIQUEMENT, Fr. To oblique, or march in an oblique direction.

OBLIVION. See AMNESTY.

OBLONG Square. See SQUARE.

OBSEDER, Fr. To besiege, to beset, to get possession of.

OBSEQUIES, (Obséques, Fr.) See BURIALS.

OBSERVATION. See ARMY OF OBSERVATION.

To be under OBSERVATION. To be carefully watched and looked after. Etre vu de prés; etre suivi de prés.

OBSERVATOIRE, Fr. See OBSERVATORY.

OBSERVATORY, a building, public or private, which is erected and provided with all sorts of instruments, proper for astronomical observations, &c. The most noted observatories in Europe, are:

1. That of Tycho Brahe, a nobleman of Denmark, at Uraineberg, in the island of Wern, between the coasts of Schonen and Zealand, in the Baltic.

2. The observatory at Paris, which was erected by Louis XIV. This building stands in the Fauxbourg St. Germain, and is so constructed as to answer the four cardinal points of the world, east, west, north and south. The foundation is laid 80 feet below the ground, and the edifice carried as much above it. It contains three stories in height, and has a terrace at top, from whence the whole horizon appears flat. The stair-case of this observatory deserves notice, from the singularity of its construction, being in the form of a screw, and so contrived, that from the bottom there is a full sight of the stars that pass the zenith of this place.

3. The royal observatory at Greenwich, in England, which was founded by Charles the second.

4. The observatory at Pekin in China, which was erected by the late emperor, at the intercession of the Jesuits.

To OBSERVE, to watch closely, &c. Hence, to observe the motions of an enemy, is to keep a good look out by means of small corps of armed men, or of intelligent and steady spies or scouts, and to be constantly in possession of his different movements. No man can be said to have the talents of an able general, who neglects to observe his enemy in all directions; for if it be his intention to attack, you may thwart him by previous manœuvres; and if you are liable to be attacked yourself, you may assume the best possible position, and prevent surprise, &c.

OBSESSION. The act of besieging.

OBSIDIONAL, belonging to a siege.

OBSIDIONAL Crown, (couronne obsidionale, Fr.) a crown so called among the ancient Romans, which was bestowed upon a governor or general, who by his skill and exertions, either held out, or caused the siege to be raised of any town belonging to the republic. It was made from the grass which grew upon the spot, and was therefore called gramineus, from the Latin word gramen, signifying grass.

Monnoie OBSIDIONALE, Fr. any substitute for coin, which has a value put upon it that is greater than its intrinsic worth; and a currency given, to answer the convenience of the inhabitants of a besieged place. On a employé le cuir à faire des monnoies obsidionales. The inhabitants made use of leather as a substitute for coin.

OBSTACLES, in a military sense, are narrow passes, woods, bridges, or any other impediments, which present themselves when a battalion is marching to front or rear. These are passed, by the formation, march, and deployment of the close column. Such parts as are not interrupted still move on in front; such parts as are interrupted, double by divisions, as ordered, behind and adjoining a flank or flanks, and in this manner follow in close column in their natural order. As the ground opens they successively deploy, and again perfect the line. The columns are always behind the line, and march closed up. The formed part of the battalion, whether advancing or retiring, continues to move on at the ordinary pace, and in proportion as the obstacles increase or diminish, will the formed or column parts of the line increase or diminish.

The general attentions directed to be observed on these occasions are, that the columns formed shall be of sub-divisions, if the ground will admit. The first sub-division that is obliged to double, will be directed to which hand by the commander of the battalion, the others, as they successively double, will, in consequence, place themselves behind it, and behind each other, and the hand first doubled to, will be that which presents the opening most favorable to the subsequent march, and formation, and which the commanding officer will always hold in view, and order accordingly. The interrupted body will double to one or both flanks, according to circumstances, and the order it receives. Obstacles that impede a flank will occasion a single column to be formed from the flank towards the centre. Obstacles that impede the centre, or a central part of a wing, will, if considerable, occasion two columns to be formed, from the centre towards the flanks. The columns will follow a flank of such part of the line as is not impeded; and either in doubling into column, or extending into line, the rear divisions will conform to the movements of their then leading one. No part less than the front of the column doubles or moves up, and when half or more of a battalion must be thrown into one column, it will be ordered by companies.

OBSTACLES whose fronts are parallel to the line. When such occur, the divisions impeded must all at once double behind such one, or two, other divisions as clear them of the obstacle.

OBSTACLES whose first points continue to increase as the line advances. In these cases the doubling is successive, beginning with that division which is first interrupted, and continuing as it becomes necessary, till the column can advance in clear ground.

OBSTACLES passed, or diminished. When obstacles are of such a nature as to permit of the complete extension at once into line: the whole column performs it by the commands and deployments of the close column on the front division, which then makes part of the line. But when obstacles diminish by degrees only, then the divisions of the column must come up into line successively as the ground opens, and the remainder of the column must, in diminishing, shift toward the obstacle, in the same manner as it before shifted from it in increasing.

OBSTACLES that are passed in presence of an enemy. Under these circumstances if the battalion, in advancing, should be obliged to fire, it halts in the situation it is then in, executes such firings as are ordered, and again advances.

If the battalion, in retiring, is pressed by the enemy, the part in line will halt! front! the part in column will move on till the last division arrives in line, and will then halt, front. The firing that is ordered, will be executed; and when it is again proper to retire, the whole will face about, the part in line will march, and the columns will also be put in march when the line arrives at their head.

OBSTACLES whose points of opening are narrow, and continue so, more or less. In such cases the interrupted division, will be ordered to face either to one or both flanks, and closely to follow in file such parts of the battalion as are not broken: the filing will increase as the obstacles increase, but as they diminish, file after file will successively and quickly move up to their place till the whole are again formed; and during this operation the leading file will always remain attached to the flank of the part in line.--The same rules that direct the doubling in column, direct the doubling by files; when a subdivision files, it will be from the flank only; when a company files, it may be from both flanks; and if a larger front than two companies is interrupted, it then doubles into column. Where the obstacles are of small extent, but frequently occurring, this mode is the readiest that can be applied in advancing; but in retiring it cannot be of use, if the enemy be at hand to press upon the battalion; and therefore the passing by column is to be looked upon as the general method. For further explanations on the important operations of passing obstacles, we refer our military readers to Am. Mil. Lib. Article RECONNOITRING.

OBSTINATE, in a military sense, determined, fixed in resolution.--Hence obstinate resistance.

OBSTINATELY. Persevering. The two armies fought so obstinately, that night only could separate the combatants.

OBSTINEMENT, Fr. Obstinately. Stubbornly, inflexibly, with unshaken determination.

S’OBSTINER, Fr. to persist in any thing.

OBSTRUCTION, any difficulty or impediment, opposing the operations of an army, &c.

OBTUS, Fr. Obtuse.

Angle OBTUS, Fr. Obtuse angle.

OBTUSANGULAR, having angles larger than right angles.

OBUS, Fr. Hobits. Howitzer. A species of small mortar, resembling a mortar in every thing but the carriage, which is made in the form of that belonging to a gun, only shorter. It has been frequently used at sieges; and is well calculated to sweep the covert way, and to fire ricochet shots. They were usually loaded with cartouches. Belidor writes upon the subject at some length in his Bombardier Francois, page 39. See HOWITZER.

OCCASIO, L., Opportunity, among the Romans, an allegorical divinity, the goddess of time, who presides over the most favorable moment for success in any enterprise. She is represented stark naked, with a long lock of hair upon her forehead, and bald behind. And also standing on a wheel, with wings on her feet, and is said to turn herself very swiftly round; by which is intimated, that we should lay hold of the present opportunity. Among modern nations no people pay greater attention to the instruction which is conveyed by this allegory than the French do. It is common among them to say:--L’occasion est chauve. Occasion or opportunity is bald--Alluding to the Roman allegory; and in the same figure, il faut prendre l’occasion par les cheveux. You must seize time (by which is meant occasion or opportunity) by the forelock; meaning the forelock of hair alluded to.

OCCASION, Fr. has the same signification, in military matters, that affair bears among the French.

Une OCCASION bien chaude, Fr. a warm contest, battle, or engagement.--It further means, as with us, the source from whence consequences ensue. Les malheurs du peuple sont arrivés a l’occasion de la guerre. The misfortunes of the people have been occasioned by the war, or the war has been the occasion of the people’s misfortunes. The French make a nice distinction which may hold good in our language, between cause and occasion, viz. Il n’en est pas la cause--Il n’en est que l’occasion, l’occasion innocente.--He is not the cause, he is only the occasion, the innocent occasion of it. Il s’est faché pour une legére occasion; he took offence, or grew angry on a very slight occasion.

_Se servir de l’_OCCASION, Fr. to take advantage, or make a proper use of time and opportunity. A French writer has very properly observed, that to seize with dexterity occasions as they occur, is a certain proof of courage and ability, especially in the general of an army. Opportunity or occasion, according to Tacitus, is the mother of events. Opportunos magnis conatibus transitas rerum. One complete and decisive victory leads us to a multiplicity of enterprises and great designs, all of which grow out of the first triumph.

A full and decisive victory, by which the country is left entirely at the mercy of the conqueror, must necessarily throw the inhabitants into confusion, and open fresh avenues to conquest; for one opportunity or occasion well embraced and executed upon, becomes the source of many others. There is not, perhaps, in human contingencies any thing which spreads itself so rapidly, or ought to be so little neglected. An enterprise which grows out of another, though it be in reality more arduous to get through than the one which produced it, becomes more easy in its execution: and yet, how many brave and skilful generals have existed, who could not make a proper use of opportunity? In reading over their gallant exploits, one would be led to believe, that all their knowlege consisted in merely knowing how to fight. We have seen them, with unexampled intrepidity, doing every thing that man dares to do, in the field of battle: we have seen them make a decisive blow, and place victory within their grasp; and when they were in the actual possession of all they fought for, we have seen them suddenly relax, give their enemies time to breathe, and finally lose all the fruits of their victory. The courage and promptitude which they manifested in a decisive battle, were the effects of a transitory impulse which was soon wasted and extinguished.

Hannibal, so much celebrated for his bold enterprise against the Romans, was guilty of this error. After the battle of Cannæ it rested entirely with himself to march to Rome. He had only to follow up his first blow, to take advantage of the consternation of the Romans, and to pursue them to their capitol. By so doing he would have made use of the glorious occasion which fortune had thrown into his hands by the first victory, and would not have been driven to the necessity of endeavoring to obtain the original object of his enterprise, by fighting several battles that proved abortive of it. Adherbal on this account, after having failed in his attempt to persuade Hannibal to pursue his first good fortune, and to march to the gates of Rome, is recorded to have used the following expression: Vincere scis, Hannibal; sed victoriâ uti nescis. Hannibal, thou knowest how to conquer, but thou dost not know how to make use of a victory.

Gustavus Adolphus made the same mistake. Had he, after having won the battle of Leipsic, hung upon the rear of the discomfited Imperialists, pushed and harassed them to the gates of Vienna, there is little doubt of the consequences which must have ensued.

The emperor Ferdinand was as weak in effective forces at the capital as the Romans were at Rome, and the same consternation prevailed among the inhabitants. Had Gustavus profited by his first success, and converted the means, which so glorious an occasion offered, into prompt and vigorous pursuit, he would not indeed have reaped additional laurels in the plains of Outzen, where he fell at the head of his victorious Swedes, but he must have reached Vienna, and there have dictated his own terms.

Carthalon, among the ancients, was on the contrary, an instance of how much may be done by acting up to circumstances, and by judiciously making use of fortune as occasions offer. He was not satisfied with having surprised the Roman fleet, taken off a considerable number of ships, and burned others, but he instantly availed himself of his first good fortune, attempted another enterprise, and succeeded.

The British generals who made war in the American revolution, were as unfortunate in their never taking proper advantage of occasion; their retreat from Princeton, and their subsequent stupor, while the American army of only 4000 men lay hutted at Valley Forge; while they held Philadelphia within 20 miles of them, with 17000 men, is a striking instance. An important occasion was also lost by them after the battle of Brandywine; where the American dispositions and subsequent retreat were alike unsuited to the occasion. The campaign was a series of the most extravagant blunders that can be conceived. The campaign that ended with the capitulation at York Town, was as brilliant on the part of the American arms, as on the English side eggregiously injudicious and unsuitable to the occasion.

OCCASIONAL, (elle, Fr.) This adjective is used in a different sense among the French, to what it is with us, viz. Cause occasionally; any thing that occasions an event.

OCCIDENT, Fr. The west.

OCCUPE, Fr. to be taken possession of. Les environs furent occupés par des troupes légéres; the neighboring places were taken possession of by some light troops.

To OCCUPY, is to take possession of any work or post.

OCTAEDRE, Fr. Octahedron, one of the five regular bodies which is terminated by eight equilateral equal triangles.

OCTAGON, (Octogone, Fr.) a figure or polygon that has eight equal sides, which likewise form eight equal angles. The octagon, in fortification, is well calculated in its ground for the construction of large towns, or for such as have the advantage of neighboring rivers, especially if the engineer can so place the bastions, that the entrance and outlet of the rivers may be in some of the curtains. By means of this disposition no person could come in or go out of the garrison without the governor’s or commandant’s permission, as the centinels must have a full view from the flanks of the neighboring Bastions.

OCTAVION, (one, Fr.) any male or female that is born of a quarteron and a white woman, or of a white man and a quarterone.

OCTONS, Fr. a mathematical instrument, which contains 45 degrees or the eighth part of a circle.

OCTOEDRICAL, having eight sides.

OCTOSTYLE, the face of a building containing eight columns.

ODA. The different corps or companies into which the janizaries are divided, bear this appellation. The word itself means a room, and the companies are so called from messing separately.

ODEN, ODIN, or WODEN, a deity so called in ancient times among the Swedes, and Goths. He was their god of war in the same manner that they acknowleged Thor to be their Jupiter, and Freya their Venus.

ODOMETER, (Odometre, Fr.) an instrument by which you may ascertain how much ground you go over on foot, or in conveyance.

OEIL, Fr. in architecture, any round aperture, which is made in a building.

OEIL de dome, Fr. an opening made at the top of an edifice.

OEIL de bœuf, Fr. a round window or aperture, which is made in a wall or roof. The black spot in the centre of a target is likewise called œil de bœuf, or bull’s eye.

OEIL de pont, Fr. the opening, or vacant space, under the arch of a bridge.

OEUVRE, Fr. in architecture this word admits of various significations in the French language, and may be connected with different prepositions, all of which determine the signification, viz.

Dans OEUVRE, Fr. Within. Trente toises de long dans œuvre; signifies 30 toises in length within doors.

_Hors d’_OEUVRE, Fr. Without. Un escalier hors d’œuvre; a stair-case without doors.

Sous OEUVRE, Fr. From the bottom. Reprendre un mur sous œuvre; to build up a wall from the foot or bottom.

Dans OEUVRE _et hors d’_OEUVRE, within and without.

OIN, or OING, Fr. Cart-grease, such as is used to the wheels of ordnance carriages, &c.

OFF, an adverb, which is frequently conjoined with verbs; and, in a military sense, is used as follows:

To march OFF, to quit the ground on which you are regularly drawn up, for the purpose of going upon detachment, relieving a guard, or doing any other military duty.

To tell OFF, to count the men composing a battalion or company, so as to have them readily and distinctly thrown into such proportions as suit military movements or evolutions.

OFFENCES. All acts, that are contrary to good order and discipline, omissions of duty, &c. may be called military offences. The principal ones are specified in the Articles of War. No officer or soldier can be tried twice for the same offence; unless in case of an appeal from a regimental to a general court-martial: nor can any officer or soldier be tried for any offence committed more than two years before the date of the warrant for trial; except in cases where the offenders were not amenable to justice in that period, when they may be brought to trial any time within two years after the impediment ceased.

OFFENSIVE War. Military acts of aggression constitute what is called an offensive war. Those who assail an opposite or adverse army, or invade the dominions of another power, are said to wage an offensive war.

OFFENSIVE Weapons, are such as are fit for the purpose of carrying on offensive war, as cannon, mortars, swords, pistols, musquets, &c.

OFFENSIVE Fortification. See APPROACHES, SIEGE, &c.

OFFICE, in a military sense, signifies any place or apartment which is fixed or appointed for officers, clerks, &c. to attend in, for the discharge of their respective employments; as war-office or office of the war department--adjutant and inspector’s office--commander in chief’s office--paymaster general’s office, &c. &c.

Department and board are sometimes synonymous terms. Sometimes the term office is inapplicable to places where military business is transacted, viz. Clothing department, board of general officers, &c. The word conseil is used by the French in the latter sense, the term bureau in almost all others.

OFFICE of the inspector-general.

OFFICE of the commissary-general of stores, &c. to the forces at home.

OFFICE of the military agent.

OFFICE of the superintendant of military stores.

OFFICE of the advocate-general.

OFFICE of the physician-general.

OFFICE of the comptroller. Since the commencement of the coalition wars, the whole system of conducting the extraordinary expences of armies serving abroad has undergone a careful revision in the British service. Among other wise suggestions it has been recommended, 1st. That no military officer should himself have a property, or interest, in any article which his duty obliged him to provide for the public service. The object of this suggestion has in some instances been fulfilled; but it still remains with the commander in chief, and with those persons particularly concerned with army matters, to recommend its adoption in the clothing of the different regiments, regular as well as militia. The property which the colonels manifestly hold in this article, exposes the most honorable character to unmerited imputations, and affords ample means to the base and selfish of growing rich at the expence of public virtue. 2. That no payment should be made by the military officer belonging to any department (such as quarter, or barrack master general, inspector of hospitals, commanding engineers, &c.) but that every expence should be paid by the deputy paymasters general, in pursuance of a warrant from the commander in chief. 3. That all vouchers, proving any payment, should be subject to a careful and speedy examination by persons appointed for the purpose, on the spot where the expence was incurred.

In the present war, the whole of the extraordinary expences of an army serving abroad, are conducted by the means of a commissary general, who receives and has charge of all provisions and stores sent for the use of the troops from this country; who purchases, or provides, under the direction of, or in concurrence with, the commander in chief (without whose authority no service can be performed, or expence incurred) such articles as may be more conveniently obtained on the spot, and who is responsible for all monies, provisions, or stores, whether actually used, damaged, lost, destroyed, or plundered, with the condition of procuring proper certificates to prove every mode of their consumption, before he can be discharged therefrom.

A commissary of accounts also attends each army where the numbers are of sufficient importance, with a proper establishment, for the purpose of examining and controlling accounts on the spot; Both acting under specific instructions.

All monies, for the ordinary services of the army, are obtained by the means of bills drawn by the deputy paymaster abroad on the paymaster general, which bills are negociated by the commissary general, who is obliged to note the rate of exchange on the bill.

All monies, for extraordinaries, are obtained by drafts of the commissary general on the treasury, which, on their arrival, are accepted, if drawn conformably to the rules laid down, as being in payment for services ordered by the commander in chief, and the value of which have been previously examined and ascertained by the commissaries of accounts on the spot.

The commissaries of accounts make returns of their examination; and on these documents the comptrollers of the army accounts found the best enquiry into the expenditure which the nature of the subject admits of.

The commissaries general and commissaries of accounts, are appointed by warrant under the king’s sign manual, directing them to obey all instructions given them for the execution of their duty by the lords commissioners of the treasury; which instructions, since the commencement of this war, have been prepared by the comptrollers of the army accounts, under the orders, and subjected to the inspection of the treasury. Instructions are also given by the secretary of state for the war department, to all commanding officers abroad, to conduct the service on which they are employed, with the utmost regard to public economy, and punctuality in their accounts.

The present establishment of this office is composed in the following manner:--

Two comptrollers at 1000_l._ per annum each.

One secretary, 700_l._ ditto.

Civil Department.

One first accomptant and chief clerk 500_l._

One second ditto, 300_l._

One third ditto, salary not specified.

Military Department.

One first clerk, one second clerk, one third clerk, salaries not specified.

One chamber keeper, one messenger, one necessary woman, salaries not specified.

OFFICE of ordnance, or board of ordnance in the British service.--It belongs to the office of ordnance to supply all military stores for the army and navy; to defray the expence of the corps of artillery, corps of engineers, and other military corps attached to the ordnance service; and also the charge of repairing and building fortifications at home and abroad; excepting field works abroad, and excepting also those fortifications which commanders in chief may deem it expedient to erect without previous instructions from home; in which two cases the bills are paid by the treasury, and placed to account in the extraordinaries of the army. All contingent expences, attending ordnance stores, as well as camp equipage for the artillery, and the article of tents for the privates of the whole army, included in the payments of the ordnance.

The hire of vessels for the transportation of ordnance for foreign service, has, since the establishment of the transport board, been transferred to that office: and the building of barracks belongs now to the barrack department, except when barracks are ordered to be built within a fortification.

The master general, who, in his military character, is commander in chief over the artillery and engineers, has, in his civil capacity, the entire control over the whole ordnance department: he can alone do any act, which can otherwise, if he does not interpose, be done by the board. He can order the issue of money, but that order must be executed in the usual mode, by three board officers.

The lieutenant general, who is second in command over the artillery and engineers, is, in his civil capacity, the first in rank among the members of the board; which comprehends four other principal officers; the surveyor general, the clerk of the ordnance, the store-keeper, and the clerk of deliveries. During the absence of the master general, or the vacancy of the office, the whole executive power devolves on the board; and it belongs to them, though they are subject to the interposition of the master general, to make contracts for stores, and for performance of services, and to direct the issue of stores and of money. The signatures of three members of the board, of whom the clerk of the ordnance must be one, are necessary for the payment of money.

Fortifications are erected by the commanding engineer, pursuant to an order from the master general, for carrying a project into execution, according to an approved plan and estimate. The estimate is usually formed in the first place by the engineer, who is afterwards to execute the work; and its accuracy is examined into by a committee of engineers at home, the expediency of the measure being submitted to the master general. All fortifications, works, and repairs are carried on by measurement and by contract, except where the soldiers of the corps of royal military artificers have been employed; and even in such cases the materials worked up by the soldiers are usually supplied by contract.

The sums voted for the ordnance, consist of the three following heads:--1st. The ordinary, which comprehends the provision for the ordinary establishment, civil and military, for the year ensuing, 2dly; The extraordinary, which comprehends every service known before hand, of a temporary and contingent nature, being a provision for the ensuing year also; and 3dly, the services unprovided for, consisting of services which either have been actually paid in the past year, as is generally the case, or which are supposed to have been paid, but which were not foreseen when the estimate for the past year was made up. Among these unforeseen expences are included various exceedings, which have happened in the individual services voted in the past year’s ordnance estimates; to which are added, such sums as may be necessary to make up the deficiency of the sum directed to the ordnance use from the naval service.

OFFICERS belonging to the military branch of the ordnance.

Corps of Royal Engineers.

One master general, one lieutenant general, one chief engineer and colonel, five colonels, six lieutenant colonels, fifteen captains, thirteen captain lieutenants, twenty-seven first lieutenants.

OFFICERS belonging to the royal military academy at Woolwich.

One governor, one lieutenant governor, one inspector, one professor of mathematics, one professor of fortification, one mathematical master, one arithmetical master, two French masters, one assistant fortification master, two drawing masters, one fencing master, one dancing master, two model makers, one clerk.--Salaries unknown.

Ship-Letter OFFICE. During the continuance of the British army in Holland, a mail was made up every Tuesday and Friday night, and forwarded to Yarmouth, where two packets, taken from the Cuxhaven station, were appointed to convey them to the Helder. A gentleman (the deputy comptroller of the foreign office) was sent to the head quarters, as army post master, and in like manner made up two mails per week, but they were sometimes detained for despatches.

On application from the duke of York the letters of soldiers (being subscribed by the commanding officer) were suffered to pass at the reduced charge of one penny, although that sum was not paid at the time of the letter being put into the post-office, as the act of parliament on the subject requires.

The following particulars, relative to this useful and humane establishment, were issued from the general post-office, on the 20th of September, 1799.

“Notice is hereby given, that letters addressed to persons serving with the army under the command of field marshal his royal highness the duke of York, will be received at the Ship-Letter office twice, instead of once in the week, viz. on Tuesday and Friday from ten in the morning until ten o’clock at night, and not on Thursday, as mentioned in the advertisement from this office of the 10th instant.

“And that such letters will be regularly forwarded in vessels from Yarmouth to the Helder Point on the same days as the mails are sent to Cuxhaven.

“Letters by this conveyance will be chargeable with an half-rate of postage, under the act of the 39th of his present majesty, of sixpence each single letter, one shilling double, one shilling and sixpence treble, and so on in proportion, excepting single letters to and from private soldiers and sailors, which are chargeable with one penny only, under the act of the 35th of his present majesty.

“And that newspapers will also be forwarded at a rate of three pence upon each, provided such paper is sent without cover, or in covers open at the sides.”

Transport OFFICE, in the British service. The transport-office is a newly created board, and was instituted in July, 1794, at first for the superintendance of the transport service only; but to that employment has since been added the management of the prisoners of war, in health, at home, and abroad.

The immediate duty of this office, so far as related to the transport service, used to be performed by the commissioners of the navy; except in some instances, where the ordnance, or other departments hired the transports wanted for their own immediate service; and the present transport board have pursued the modes of engaging transports which were practised by the navy board, when the transport service was under its directions; but it was thought expedient to constitute a distinct board, to transact the business of that extensive branch of the naval service; and from the unparalleled extent to which that service has been carried during the present war, it is highly proper that every possible check and control should be put over so vast an expenditure of money.

Since the institution of this board, which took place in July 1794, to 22d June 1797, the tonnage of vessels, hired as regular transports for four or six months certain, amounted to 99,656 tons; the tonnage of the vessels hired on freight for service amounted to 178,560 tons; making the whole tonnage 278,216. The total expenditure for this service, during this period, amounted to 4,088,524_l._, 3_s._ 5_d._

The total expence of this establishment for the year 1796, is stated to have been as follows:

Salaries and allowances £. 8,838 12 0 Contingent expences 3,907 12 2 Travelling charges and extra pay to officers on distant duty 583 15 6 ------------- Total paid by the public 13,329 19 8 ------------- The fees which were received from individuals amounted, in the transport department, to £. 2,128 7 6 Ditto prisoners of war, to 114 7 6 Making together £. 2,242 15 5 out of which sum there has been paid to clerks £. 1,650; and for taxes on salaries £. 334 7 6, which is carried forward to the account of the year 1797.

Deducting from the sum of 13,329 19 8 The taxes paid to government 334 7 6} 592 15 0 And the balance carried to 1797 258 7 6} -------------

The expence to the public for the year 1796, appears to have been 12,737 4 8

In a schedule of the fees paid at the war office, and a paper describing the application thereof, it appeared, that (with the exception of an occasional arrangement made in favor of two retired principal clerks) they have been exclusively paid in certain proportions to the following clerks and officers:--

1. Deputy secretary at war. 2. First clerk. 3. Principal clerk. 4. Ditto. 5. Ditto. 6. Clerk for the entry of commissions. 7. Clerk for accounts of deserters. 8. Clerk for business of widows’ pensions. 9. Examiner of army accounts. 10. Assistant to the examiner of army accounts. It appeared on examination, that during the years 1792, and 1796, (being respectively periods of peace and war) the amount of all fees received and distributed at the war office, was in the year 1792, 4,991_l._ 3_s._ 4_d._ In the year 1796, 42,731_l._ 11_s._ 11_d._

War OFFICE, British service, the nature of the accounts which come into the war office, the first head consists of the annual accounts of the ordinary and incidental charges of established regiments; the second regimental extraordinaries, or incidental expences more properly belonging to established corps than to the army in general, which latter are known by the term, “extraordinaries of the army.” All claims made by the regimental agents come under the inspection of the “examiner of army accounts,” to whose office they are transmitted of course, in virtue of a general delegation of that duty to him by the secretary at war: after his examination and report, the secretary at war, in many instances, orders partial issues of money by letter to the pay master general. No final payment is made, except under the authority of a warrant countersigned by the secretary at war, and in most instances by three lords of the treasury. The regimental agents account finally to the secretary at war. They are likewise accountable to him and to the commander in chief, for every species of mismanagement or misconduct with respect to the officers and soldiers, &c.

The forms under which all payments derived from the establishment are conducted, consist of the following papers:

1. The establishment of a regiment.

2. The warrant from the war-office to make out debentures, with the state of charges annexed.

3. The debenture made up at the pay-office.

4. The final or clearing warrant.

5. The pay-office state.

OFFICERS, in a military sense, are of several denominations and ranks, viz.

Commissioned OFFICERS, are those appointed by commission; such are all from the general to the cornet and ensign, both inclusive.

Warrant OFFICERS, those who have no commissions, but only warrants from such boards, or persons, who are authorized by law to grant them.

Non-commissioned OFFICERS, are Serjeant majors, quarter master serjeants, serjeants, drum and fife majors, who are appointed by the commanding officers of regiments, and by them may be reduced without a court-martial. But it is not in the power of any captain of a company, or other subordinate officer, to reduce a serjeant without the sentence of a general or regimental court-martial.

General OFFICERS, are those whose command is not limited to a single company, troop, or regiment; but extends to a body of forces, composed of several regiments: such are the general, lieutenant general, major general, and brigadier general; on the United States establishment we have three brigadier generals; and the territory of the United States consists of three districts, over each of which a general presides.

Field OFFICERS, are such as command a whole regiment; as the colonel, lieutenant colonel, and major.

Staff OFFICERS, are all those officers who are not attached to companies in a regiment; whose duties extend over the whole; or a large section, such as a brigade or division; such as the quarter master general, and the adjutant and inspector general, brigade officers, and aids-de-camp, also the quarter masters, adjutants, the physicians, surgeons, and chaplains.

Subaltern OFFICERS, are lieutenants, cornets, and ensigns.

Flag OFFICERS, are admirals who hoist flags at the mast-heads.

Sea OFFICERS, are, in general, all those who have any command in the navy.

The following observations, are generally applicable to every other military situation on service, that we recommend them to the serious attention of every officer.

It is the duty of all officers, to take notice of any negligence, or impropriety of conduct, in the men, whether on duty or off duty, although the person, or persons offending, should not belong to their particular regiments. All neglects of duty, they are immediately to report to the officer commanding the guard; and they are enjoined to confine, and to report to the commanding officer of the regiment to which they belong, any non-commissioned officers or soldiers, they may detect in disorderly practices, or who appear out of their quarters, conducting themselves either in point of behaviour or appearance, in a manner unbecoming soldiers.

Brevet OFFICER, in the British service. One who in doing duty with other corps takes rank according to the commission which he holds, and which is superior to the one for which he actually receives pay, or by which he can do duty in his own. A captain lieutenant, for instance, in the 23d regiment of foot, who has the rank of brevet major in the army, may, when that corps does brigade duty, command every captain on service with him. The word brevet is taken from the French, and in the instance before us means rank without pay. During the French monarchy there were various instances in which individuals held posts of honor during the king’s pleasure, or during their own natural lives. Hence ducs à brevet; dukes by brevet: or to use an expression more familiar to us, persons who received the patent letter of a dukedom during their natural lives. Brevet likewise signified a sum attached by order of the king to the sale of a commission or place for the benefit of a deceased person’s wife, heirs, or creditors: this was called brevet de retenue. So that the word brevet, though limited to one sense amongst us, was applicable to rank and emolument among the French. Hence breveter signified to give a person a commission, place, or employment; to invest him with honorary rank; or to authorise him to receive a pension. Brevet de capitaine, signifies the commission, or rank of a captain.

Civil OFFICERS belonging to the British laboratory at Woolwich:--

One comptroller, one chief fire-master, one assistant fire-master, one inspector of gunpowder manufactures, six clerks, one extra clerk, one surgeon, one inspector of artillery, one assistant ditto, one clerk and draftsman, one clerk, one proof master, one searcher, one instrument keeper, one modeller, one assistant, one constructor of artillery carriages, one assistant to ditto, one second assistant, and two clerks.

OFFICERS belonging to the British military repository at Woolwich:--

One superintendant, one modeller, one clerk, one draftsman, one astronomical observer at Greenwich, salaries unknown. To these may be added, the officers belonging to the different out ports and garrisons that are subject to the British government.

Commissioners and OFFICERS of the British hospital at Chelsea:--

The civil department consists of:

The president of the council. First lord of the treasury. The two secretaries of state. The paymaster general of land forces. The secretary at war. The two comptrollers of army accounts. The governor and lieutenant governor. Salaries unknown.

The military department consists of:--

Governor. Lieutenant governor. Major. Adjutant. Treasurer, who is the paymaster general for the time being. Deputy treasurer, one clerk, two chaplains, one secretary and registrar, two clerks, one agent and paymaster to the out pensioners, one physician, one comptroller, one steward, one surgeon, two surgeon’s mates, one apothecary, one truss maker, one whitster, one wardrobe keeper, one compter of coal-yard, one organist, one clerk of the works, one master lamp-lighter, one master butler, one master cook, one second cook, two under cooks, one scullery man, one gardener, one master barber, one engine keeper, one clock keeper, one canal keeper and turncock, one sexton, one usher of the hall, one porter, one cellarman, two sweepers, one matron, one master mason, one master smith, one master painter, and one plumber.

Field OFFICERS belonging to the several regiments of militia in Ireland.--By an act passed on the 24th of March 1801, the number of field officers of this description has been increased by adding one additional lieutenant colonel, and one additional major, to such of the Irish regiments as consist of eight companies or upwards, and one additional major to such of the said regiments as consist of seven companies or under. The following counties consist of eight companies and upwards:--Antrim, Armagh, North Cork, South Cork, city of Cork, Donegall, city of Dublin, Galway, Kerry, Kilkenny, King’s County, County of Limerick, Londonderry, Louth, Meath, Monaghan, Roscommon, Tipperary, Tyrone, Waterford, and Wexford. The Carlow, Cavan, Clare, North Downshire, South Downshire, County of Dublin, Fermanagh, Kildare, Leitrim, city of Limerick, Longford, North Mayo, South Mayo, Queen’s County, Sligo, Westmeath, and Wicklow, regiments consist of seven companies, or are under seven companies.

All such additional field officers, if qualified, in manner as field officers of the same rank in the militia of Ireland are now by law required to be, and not disapproved by the lord lieutenant, or other chief governor or governors of Ireland, within fourteen days after such certificate shall have been laid before him or them, shall, to all intents and purposes, be deemed and taken as field officers of the respective regiments in the respective ranks to which their commissions shall respectively appoint them; and shall have the same powers according to such commissions respectively, that other field officers in the militia now have, and shall have rank, and receive pay according to such rank from the dates of their respective commissions, in manner and form as the field officers of the militia regiments of Ireland are now entitled thereto.

OFFICER in waiting. The officer next for duty is so called. He is always mentioned in orders, and ought to be ready for the service specified, at a minute’s warning. He must not, on this account, quit the camp, garrison, or cantonments.

OFFICER of the day. An officer whose immediate duty is to attend to the interior œconomy and good order of the corps to which he belongs, or of those with which he does mixed duty. The following regulations will explain the nature of that duty when troops are encamped:--

The officers for daily duty in camp, independent of guards, will be a general or generals of the day, according to the circumstances and strength of the camp. In large camps there will be a lieutenant general of the day, and a major general for each wing, or one major general of cavalry, and one of infantry; and majors of brigade in the same proportion: a field officer per brigade, and a captain and subaltern of the day per regiment, and an adjutant and quarter master of the day per brigade.

The general of the day is to superintend the regularity and discipline of the camp, in every particular: he is to visit the guards of the camp and the outposts (unless the latter are put under the command of some particular officer): he is to call out and inspect the inlying piquets, as often, and at such times as he thinks proper: he is to receive all reports in camp, and make immediate communication of any extraordinary occurrences, to the commander in chief.

The captain of the day of each regiment superintends the cleanliness and regularity of the camp of the regiment: he attends the parading of all regimental guards, orders the roll to be called frequently and at certain hours, and reports every thing extraordinary to the commanding officer.

The subaltern of the day assists the captain in his various duties, and reports to him any irregularity, which may come to his knowlege.

The captain and subaltern of the day, are each to visit the hospital at uncertain hours, the captain is to make his report of the state of the hospital to the commanding officer of the regiment.

The regularity of the men’s messing is an object of primary importance. The captain or subaltern of the day must visit, and inspect the kettles, at the hour appointed for cooking, and no kettle is to be taken from the kitchens till this inspection is made, and the signal is given by the drum for the men to dine, which should be at the same hour, throughout the camp. Independent of this regimental arrangement, the officers of companies must daily and hourly attend to the messing and every circumstance of the œconomy of their companies, in camp more particularly than in quarters.

The adjutant of the day, of the brigades, is to assist the brigade major in the various details of it, and in the absence of the brigade major is to receive and execute all orders; it may frequently be necessary for him likewise to attend for orders, at head-quarters. It is the duty of the quarter master of the day, of the brigade, to attend to the cleanliness of the camp; to take care that all broken glass and filth of all kinds is removed, for which the quarter master of each regiment is responsible, as far as the camp of his regiment is concerned.

The officers on duty and those in waiting, as next for duty, who are always to be mentioned in the orders of the day, are constantly to remain in camp, or within their cantonments. No officer is, on any account, to sleep out of camp, or cantonments, without leave.

Officers making written report, are to sign them, specifying their rank, and the regiments to which they belong.

All orders relating to the men are to be read to them by an officer per company, at the next parade after such orders are given out.

When there is a field officer of the day, it is his duty to visit all guards frequently during the day and night; in the morning, on the dismounting of the guards, he will collect the reports, and carry them to the governor or commandant, together with any observations he may himself have made, in the course of his duty in the preceding day. When there is no field officer of the day, the reports will be collected, and delivered to the governor, by the captain of the main guard. Each regiment must have an alarm post assigned to it, to which it will repair in case of fire, or any other extraordinary alarm either by day or by night.

Marine OFFICERS, all those who command in that body of troops employed in the sea service, under the direction of the lords of the admiralty.

OFFICIAL, all orders, reports, applications, memorials, &c. which pass through the regular channels of communication, are called official.

OFFICIER, Fr. See OFFICER.

OFFICIER sur terre, Fr. a land officer, or any commissioned person in the land service.

OFFICIER du genie, Fr. an engineer.

OFFICIER sur mer, Fr. a sea officer, or any commissioned person in the sea service. The term, however, is not confined to this class only, it likewise signifies the master, pilot, boatswain, &c. of a ship, in which case the latter are called officiers mariniers, in contradistinction to the former, who are stiled officiers de la marine, or persons who have naval rank, and whose immediate business is to fight their ships. These consisted, in the old French service, of admirals, vice-admirals, lieutenant generals, commodores, captains of ships, or post-captains, majors, captains of light frigates, captains of fireships, captains of stores or ordnance vessels, port-captains, to which may be added, capitaines en second, together with the lieutenants and ensigns de vaisseau, whether actually employed, and bearing rank, or being only en second. There were besides various employments and situations under the old French government, which entitled individuals to the appellation of officier. Those of a military or naval nature were generally and specifically as follow:--

OFFICIER de guerre, Fr. a military man or officer.

OFFICIER dans les troupes, Fr. any person holding a military situation in the army.

OFFICIER général, Fr. a general officer.

OFFICIER subalterne, Fr. a subaltern officer.

Les hauts OFFICIERS, Fr. Commissioned officers.

Les bas OFFICIERS, Fr. non-commissioned officers.

OFFICIER de la garnison, Fr. an officer belonging to the garrison of a town, or fortified place.

OFFICIER en garnison, Fr. Any officer in garrison.

OFFICIER au régiment des gardes, Fr. an officer belonging to the guards.

OFFICIERS à la suite, Fr. During the existence of the French monarchy a certain number of individuals were permitted to wear the uniform of a regiment, without being otherwise connected with it. These were divided into two classes, viz.

OFFICIERS à la suite d’un régiment, Fr. Officers nominally attached to a regiment. Of this description were the gentlemen appointed by the German princes who were in alliance with France. It is mentioned, as a fact, that before the French revolution took place, there were 42 lieutenant-colonels à la suite du régiment Deux Ponts. The prince of that name having been permitted to extend this strange brevet to any number, provided the officers so distinguished, never went into the town where the regiment lay, or interfered with regard to quarters, &c.

The other class consisted of noblemen and gentlemen, who were appointed by the court of Versailles, and received their brevets from the war-minister. These were called officiers à la suite de toute l’armée; or officers bearing brevet rank without being attached, even nominally, to any specific corps.

This institution though extravagant, was nevertheless calculated to maintain the preeminence of military passions, and to cherish those military ideas which, by thus becoming national, conduced in a great measure to the present military character and triumphs of the French.

OFFICIER dans la marine, Fr. an officer in the marine service.

OFFICIER de marine, Fr. a marine officer.

OFFICIER marinier, Fr. See OFFICIER sur mer.

OFF-Reckonings, a specific account so called, which exists between government and the colonels of British regiments for the clothing of the men. This account is divided into two parts, viz. gross-off-reckonings, and net off-reckonings.

Gross OFF-reckonings consist of all the pay of the non-commissioned officers and private men, above the subsistence.

Net OFF-reckonings, are the produce of the gross off-reckonings, reserved for the clothing of the men, after the warrant deduction of one shilling in the pound, and one day’s pay of the whole regiment for Chelsea hospital; and also the deduction of 2_d._ in the pound for the agent, are made at the pay-office. The balance of the pay of the officers, over and above their subsistence, after the warrant deductions are made, and the respited pay, if there is any, is charged to the officer, is called clearings; which are paid by the paymaster to the agent, who pays them to the officers, and there finds his twopences.

Colonels of regiments either pay the clothier ready money, or allow him interest for forbearance. But no colonel can make a valid assignment of the off-reckonings, till the clothier has exhibited to a board of general officers, appointed by his majesty for that purpose, the patterns of each species of cloathing he is to provide; which patterns are left with the secretary to the clothing board, at the office of the comptrollers of the army, and compared with sealed patterns, already approved by the king; and if found conformable thereto, are sealed by all the general officers, who compose that board, in testimony of their approbation; and when the clothier has completed his clothing, ready to be delivered, the inspector of clothing is directed to view the said clothing, who certifies in writing, that he has found it conformable to his majesty’s instructions in quantity and quality; which certificate, together with the colonel’s assignment of the off-reckonings, is produced by the clothier to the board of general officers, who pass the assignment; but the contract between the colonel and clothier is not laid before any officer whatsoever; nor is any account brought afterwards of the expence of that clothing. Clothiers provide clothing for complete regiments, as upon the establishment.

There are several other articles of expence defrayed out of the clothing fund, as the charge of package, of carriage by land or water, of insurance, when sent abroad, of interest, more or less, as the off-reckonings are paid, of fees of offices, of clothing lost by desertion, of small accoutrements, colors, drums, and other contingent charges. The subsistence of the men, allowed for clothing lost by deserters, is paid to the respective colonels; and the off-reckonings only are included in the assignment. For the latest regulations on this head, see a British work called Military Finance, page 196.

OFFUSQUER, Fr. literally means to darken; or conceal. Ce bâtiment est offusque par les maisons voisines. This building is darkened or concealed from the eye by the neighboring houses. It likewise signifies in a figurative sense, to out-do or out-match. Il se sent offusqué. He feels himself out-done.

OGNON, Fr. literally means an onion. The word is sometimes used in a familiar manner by the French to express persons standing in a row. Ils etoient tous en rang d’ognon. They all stood, like a rope of onions, in a row.

OGEE, OGIVE, in pieces of ordnance, an ornamental moulding, in the shape of an S, taken from architecture, and used in guns, mortars, and howitzers. See CANNON.

OGIVE, (Ogive, Fr.) In Gothic vaults those arches are stiled ogives, or ogees, which cross one another diagonally. The French likewise call them croisés d’ogives.

OIL. Every soldier should be supplied with a given quantity of oil and emery, for the purpose of cleaning his arms, accoutrements, &c.

OLYMPIAD, in chronology, the space of four years, for on the 5th the Olympic games were celebrated in honor of Jupiter Olympius, near Olympia. The Greeks began to use this epocha a little before the building of Rome.

OLYMPIC Games, were instituted by Hercules, A. M. 2856, in honor of Jupiter Olympius, at Olympia, a city of Elis, in Peloponnesus. They were celebrated every four years, about the summer solstice. The design of them was to accustom the young military men to running, leaping, and every other military exercise.

OMBRE, (sécher à l’ombre, Fr.) This term is in use among the French founders of artillery, when they put the clay or putty, which serves to form the cannon moulds, out to dry, without making any fire for the purpose.

OMRA, or OMHRA, Ind. plural of ameer, a lord. They were persons of considerable consequence in the dominions of the great Mogul. Some of them had command of 1000 horse, others 2000, and so on to 20,000: their pay being regulated according to the number of their horses. The governors and great officers of state were generally chosen out of this body.

ON, a preposition frequently used in military exercise. It precedes those words of command which direct the change or formation of bodies of men upon points that are fixed, viz.

By companies on the left backwards wheel. The left pivot man of each company faces at this cautionary word, and remains a fixed point, on which the rest wheel back when they receive directions so to do. When the column of companies is to be wheeled into line, the word on is equally understood to direct the moveable parts of each company towards the given pivot which faces, and remains a fixed point. In the British drill instructions, they say, to the left wheel into line; but in the third part of the regulations to is wholly omitted, and the commanding officer uses the term left wheel into line, and vice versa; the preposition on is here understood: for it is evident, that in breaking into column the component parts of a line wheel as much from a given point, as they do to a given one, when the column returns into line. Whereas by using on, or understanding it to be used, when, for the sake of abbreviation, it is omitted, we preserve the true meaning of the preposition, keep the men in the recollection of the necessary adhesion, and shew, that whether you wheel backwards or forwards, from line into column, or from column into line, there is one invariable fixed point on which you move. It is more proper to say, on the right or left forwards wheel into line, in lieu of to.

ONAGRA, (Onagre, Fr.) a warlike machine, which was used by the ancients to throw stones of different sizes. It is mentioned by Vegetius.

ONDECAGON, a figure of eleven sides and angles.

ONSET, assault, storm, attack.

OPEN, in military movements and dispositions is frequently used, but it is seldom applicable to any operations in face of an enemy; the ranks, &c. on such occasions being generally compact and close. In formation, the word open is opposed to close, viz. open column, open distance, open order. It also constitutes part of a word of command; as rear ranks take open order; in opposition to rear ranks take close order.

OPEN distances in column. (Distances entieres en colonne, Fr.) The intervals in these cases are always equal in depth to the extent in front of the different component parts of the column.

OPEN flank, in fortification, that part of the flank, which is covered by the orillon. See FORTIFICATION.

OPENING of trenches, the first breaking of ground by the besiegers, in order to carry on their approaches towards the place.

OPERATIONS de guerre, Fr. See MILITARY OPERATIONS.

Military OPERATION. Military operations consist in the resolute application of preconcerted measures, in secrecy, dispatch, regular movements, occasional encampments, and desultory combats, or pitched battles.

Line of OPERATION. All the forward movements of an army for the purpose of attacking an enemy, penetrating into a country, &c. may be properly called a line of operation. There is so intimate and so necessary a connection between this line and the line of communication, that no army can be in security, let its temporary successes be what they may, without a strict and unremitting attention being given to their relative points of continuity and correspondence. The line of operation in a siege is partial and extremely limited, so is that of communication; but upon the large scale of war these two lines are of considerable extent and importance. No man, in fact, can be called a good general, or even an officer, who carries his views so far forward as to venture upon a long line of operation, without having previously secured his line of communication, by a perfect knowlege of the countries through which he moves, and having his flanks so thoroughly covered, that he may fall back or retreat according to circumstances. See Amer. Mil. Lib.

OPINION. In military proceedings that regard the interior government of an army, this word signifies decision, determination, judgment formed upon matters that have been laid before a court-martial, or court of enquiry. Hence, the court-martial having duly weighed the whole matter before them, are of opinion, that ---- is not guilty of any part of the charge preferred against him.

OPINION. Officers on courts-martial give their opinion by seniority, beginning with the youngest in rank.

OPINION, abstractedly considered, may be defined an assent of the understanding, with some doubt or distrust of the contrary. In a political sense, it is the acquiescence of the mind to certain principles. In some instances opinion and principle are synonymous terms. Hence French revolutionary opinions, or revolutionary principles.

A war of OPINION, (Guerre d’opinion, Fr.) This expression has grown into familiar use since the commencement of the French revolution, and was never, perhaps, so strongly illustrated as by the perseverance of the French people. Hence also the war commenced against France, as fomented by Burke and the emigrants, was a war against the opinion, which overturned the corrupt abuses of the old French monarchy, to color its atrocity it was called a war against jacobinism--a war in support of religion and order--a war in support of regular government--at length a war of extermination; but experience has shewn, that the influence of opinion is paramount to every consideration in life. Friend, parent, and relation, have given way to the superior calls of public duty, growing out of and sanctioned by public opinion.

OPINION, Fr. This word is variously used among the French, and as we have already observed, is now generally attached to the contest in which they have been engaged for the maintenance of certain principles that seem to have altered their character. The nation at large, in fact, has taken up an opinion, grounded upon certain principles, which are diametrically opposite to those their forefathers had implicitly followed for 1400 years. When Great Britain formed a part of the well known coalition, the preservation of the balance of Europe was the ostensible cause for entering into hostilities against France; so that the war in 1792, &c. might not improperly be called a war of policy or political necessity, as far as it regarded the coalesced powers; but it has unquestionably been, all along, a war of opinion on the other side. The French familiarly say, Il faut respecter l’opinion publique; le pouvoir, l’empire, l’influence de l’opinion. Public opinion must be respected or attended to; the power, the dominion, the influence of opinion. L’opinion est la reine du monde. Opinion governs all the world. When the allied armies under the command of the duke of Brunswick, in 1792, were within a few days march of Paris, it was observed by a firm adherent to the royal cause: Que malgré l’air imposant d’une telle force, ou combinaison, on avoit tout a craindre pendant qu’il existoit un ennemi a combattre, aussi terrible qu’etoit l’opinion. That notwithstanding so formidable a force or combination, every thing was to be apprehended so long as that terrible enemy, opinion, remained to be combated against.

OPIUM, a juice, partly of the resinous, partly of the gummy kind. It is brought from Natolia, Egypt, and the East Indies, produced from the white garden poppy, with which the fields of Asia are in many places sown. The first effect of opium is making the person who takes it cheerful; it removes melancholy, and dissipates the dread of danger. The Turks always take it when they are going to battle: it afterwards quiets the spirits, eases pain, and disposes to sleep. A remarkable instance of the powerful influence of opium over the natives of the East is related by Mr. Orme, in his history of the Carnatic, page 270. His words are: the enemy remained quietly until noon, when having sufficiently intoxicated themselves with opium, they began to swarm out in great numbers; but the field pieces (which were served by Europeans) kept them for some time at a distance, every shot doing execution. During the cannonade a party of the nabob’s sepoys crossed the river, and taking possession of a small choultry, (an open house for the accommodation of travellers, so called in India) at a little distance to the right of the other, began to fire from this untenable post, upon which a body of 300 marattah horse galloped up to attack them; but before they arrived the sepoys took flight; several of them were cut to pieces, and the rest re-crossing the river ran into the city: the marattahs encouraged by this success, (and still flushed with the opium) now galloped up towards the entrenchment of the great choultry, where they were suffered to come so near, that several of them made use of their sabres across the parapet before the troops within gave fire, which then began, and seconded by that of the four pieces of cannon on the other side of the river, killed and wounded a great number of men and horses, and obliged the enemy to retire in confusion; in this instant an officer unadvisedly took the resolution of quitting his post, and passed the river, in order to give captain Dalton, (who commanded the detachment) some information concerning the artillery; some of the soldiers seeing this, imagined that he went away through fear, and concluding, that things were worse than appeared to them, followed his example and ran out of the entrenchment; which the rest perceiving, a panic seized the whole, and they left the post with the greatest precipitation, notwithstanding they had the minute before given three huzzas, on the retreat of the marattahs: a body of 3000 mysore horse, who were drawn up on the bank, immediately galloped into the bed of the river, and charging the fugitives with fury, cut down the whole party excepting 15 men: flushed with this success, they made a push at captain Dalton’s division on the other side. All these motions succeeded one another so rapidly, that he had hardly time to put his men on their guard; more especially as many of them had caught the panic, from having been spectators of the massacre of their comrades; however, some of the bravest hearkening to his exhortations, stood firm by the artillery: their behaviour encouraged the sepoys, who made a strong fire from behind the low wall in their front, which accompanied by the grape shot of the four field pieces, soon abated the ardor of the enemy, and obliged them to retreat, leaving some horses, whose riders fell within 20 yards of the muzzles of the guns: captain Dalton then advanced a little way into the bed of the river, where he remained until he had collected the dead and the wounded. Not a man who escaped could give any reason why he quitted his post, all of them acknowleging that at the time when they took flight, only one man in the intrenchment was wounded, and that they had nine barrels of ammunition.

OPPORTUNITY. In addition to what has been said respecting occasion, which is nearly similar to opportunity in its import, we shall extract the following account of the latter, which was also honored as a goddess among the pagans. Opportunity was represented by them as a naked woman, with a long lock of hair before, but bald behind, to intimate, that opportunity if not laid hold on when it offers, soon slips away; also standing with one foot on a wheel, and the other in the air, holding a sail in one hand, and a razor in the other; her feet also being winged, and the wheel in continual motion, to intimate that opportunity is always inconstant and in motion.

To OPPOSE, to act as an adversary against another, to resist, &c. It likewise signifies to place as an obstacle.

OPPUGN, To oppugn, is to attack by force of arms.

ORANGE. A term applied to those persons who adhered to the Stadtholder. Hence, orange party. The troops of the prince of orange were taken into British pay in Sept. 1799.

ORANGE MEN. A title assumed by the members of certain clubs instituted by the British government in Ireland; when the Irish or united Irishmen meditated to rescue their country, in 1796, from British dominion, the orange men were sworn to extirpate the catholics wherever found; and their atrocities surpassed the cruelties of the British in India, and the Spanish in South America.

ORB, in tactics, is the disposing of a number of soldiers in circular form of defence. The orb has been thought of consequence enough to employ the attention of the famous marshal de Puysegur, in his Art of war, who prefers this position, to throw a body of infantry in an open country, to resist cavalry, or even a superior force of infantry; because it is regular, and equally strong, and gives an enemy no reason to expect better success by attacking one place than another. Cæsar drew up his whole army in this form when he fought against Labienus. The whole army of the Gauls were formed into an orb, under the command of Sabinus and Cotta, when fighting against the Romans. The orb was generally formed six deep.

ORDER. The arrangement or disposition of things in their proper place; custom or manner, rule or discipline, as order of march, &c.

ORDER of battle. The arrangement or disposition of the different component parts of an army in one or more lines, according to the nature of the ground, for the purpose of engaging an enemy, by giving or receiving an attack, or in order to be reviewed, &c.

Parade ORDER. When a regiment of horse or foot, a troop, or company is drawn up with the ranks open and the officers in front, it is said to be in parade order.

Close ORDER. When a battalion or company is commanded to take close order, at the word march, the ranks (supposing the men to stand three deep) close within one pace, marching one and two paces and then haulting. So that close order in ranks comprehends an interval of one pace between each.

Open ORDER. When a battalion or company is commanded to take open order, on the word march, the dressers front, and the centre and rear ranks fall back one and two paces, each dressing by the right the instant it arrives on the ground. So that open order comprehends an interval of two paces between each rank.

Extended ORDER, is preparatory to rank entire, and is frequently practised in light infantry manœuvres. In order to execute this movement the files of a battalion or company, standing two deep, open from the given point, leaving just space enough for one man. Sometimes, and indeed almost always, when the ground will permit, extended order is taken by facing the battalion or company to the right or left, and by marching to either flank until the whole has gradually doubled its original front. This mode is extremely simple, and consists in nothing more than open order of files from the right or left. The battalion or company after it has obtained all its relative distances, and been halted, is fronted, and each rear rank man springs into the vacancy on the word of command--Form rank entire.

Entire, when applied to rank, means a straight line composed of half files. See RANK ENTIRE.

Extended order may likewise be taken, without facing to the right or left. This is effected by every file moving sideways a given distance; say one pace, or twenty four inches, which extent of ground a man generally covers, from the centre file. The word of command in this case would be, battalion or company, mark time, from the centre by the side step to the right and left. The centre file stands fast--march--halt.

ORDER Arms, a word of command, on which the soldier brings the butt of his musquet to the ground, the barrel being held perpendicular in a line with the right side.

ORDERS, in a military sense, all that is lawfully commanded by superior officers. Orders are given out every day, whether in camp, garrison, or on a march, by the commanding officer; which orders are afterwards given to every officer in writing by their respective serjeants.

Commander in chief’s ORDERS. Such orders as issue directly from the commander in chief’s office for the government of the army at large, or for any specific purpose. These orders are sanctioned by the king, and are irrevocable elsewhere.

General ORDERS, are such as are issued out by the general who commands, who gives them in writing to the adjutant general, who first sends exact copies to the general officers of the day, and distributes them at his own quarters to all the brigade majors, who daily go to head quarters for that purpose: where they write down every thing that is dictated to them; from thence they go and give the orders, at the place appointed for that purpose, to the different majors or adjutants of the regiments which compose that brigade, who first read them to their colonels and lieutenant colonels, or majors, and then dictate them to the serjeants of companies (this is more frequently done by the serjeant major) who write them correctly down in their respective orderly books, and bring them to all the officers belonging to the company.

Garrison ORDERS, such orders and instructions as are given by the governor or commanding officer of a town or fortified place.

Brigade ORDERS, orders which are issued by the generals commanding, through the brigade majors, to the several adju- corps that do duty together, or are brigaded.

Regimental ORDERS, such orders and instructions as grow out of general or garrison orders, or proceed immediately from the commanding officer of a regiment.

Standing ORDERS, certain general rules and instructions which are to be invariably followed, and are not subject to the temporary intervention of rank; of this description are those orders which the colonel of a regiment may judge fit to have inserted in the orderly books, and which cannot be altered by the next in command without the colonel’s concurrence.

Sailing ORDERS, final instructions which are given to ships of war, and the commander in chief.

Beating ORDER, an authority given to an individual empowering him to raise men, by beat of drum, for any particular regiment, or for general service. It consists of a warrant which is signed by the secretary at war, or issued in his name, by the adjutant general, or adjutant and inspector of the army.

Military ORDERS, are companies of knights, instituted by kings and princes; either for defence of the faith, or to confer marks of honor on their military subjects. They are as follow:

ORDER of the Bear, a military order in Switzerland, erected by the emperor Frederic II. in 1213, by way of acknowlegement for the service the Swiss had done him, and in favor of the abbey of St. Gall. To the collar of the order hung a medal, on which was represented a bear, raised on an eminence of earth.

Amaranth, an order of military knighthood, instituted in Sweden, by queen Christina, in 1645, at the close of an annual feast, celebrated in that country, and called wirtschaft. Their device was the cypher of amarante, composed of two A’s, the one erect, the other inverted, and interwoven together; the whole inclosed by a laurel crown, with this motto, Dolce nella memoria.

Argonauts of St. Nicolas, was the name of a military order, instituted by Charles III. king of Naples, in the year 1382, for the advancement of navigation, or as some authors say, merely for preserving amity among the nobles. They wore a collar of shells, inclosed in a silver crescent, whence hung a ship with this device, Non credo tempori.

ORDER of Calatrava, a Spanish military order. It was instituted in 1130 by don Santio, of Toledo. The habit of these knights is a black garment, with a red cross upon the breast.

ORDER of Alcantara, a Spanish military order. It was established by Ferdinand the second, king of Leon and Castile, in 1170. They wore a green cross upon their garment.

ORDER of St. James, instituted by Ferdinand II. in 1175. These knights had the privilege of wearing their hats in the chapter, in the presence of their sovereign.

ORDER of St. Michael, instituted in 1469, by Lewis XII. in honor of the important services done to France by that archangel at the siege of Orleans, where he is supposed to have appeared at the head of the French troops, disputing the passage of a bridge, and to have repulsed the attack of the English, whose affairs ever after declined in that kingdom. The order is a rich collar, with the image of that saint pendent thereto; with this inscription: Immensi tremor oceani.

ORDER of the Holy Ghost, instituted by Henry II. of France, in 1578. The number of knights are 100, besides the sovereign, who is always grand-master.

ORDER of St. Louis, instituted by Louis XIV. in the year 1693. This order has remained entirely in the possession of military men, ever since its institution, and has been of singular use in keeping up the spirit, and rewarding the services, of those who have distinguished themselves. The number of knights is unlimited, being given to every man of merit. The order is a golden cross, with eight points, which hang pendent to a broad crimson riband. The motto is Bellicæ virtutis præmium.

ORDER of Mount Carmel, instituted by Henry IV. in 1608.

ORDER of St. Lazarus, is of a very early institution, but has been often neglected, and as often revived, till Louis XV. united the order of St. Carmel and St. Lazarus in April 1722. The king was sovereign, chief, founder, and protector.

ORDER of the knights of Malta. See MALTA.

ORDER of the knights of the Garter. See GARTER.

ORDER of the knights of the Bath. See BATH.

ORDER of the golden fleece, instituted by Philip duke of Burgundy, surnamed the Good, in 1429. See FLEECE.

ORDER of the Annunciation, instituted by Amadeo, count of Savoy, surnamed the Green, in memory of Amadeo, the first earl, who had valorously defended the island of Rhodes against the Turks. The collar belonging to this order is of gold, and on it are these four letters, F. E. R. T. which means Fortitudo ejus Rhodum tenuit, with the figure of the annunciation hanging to it.

ORDER of knights templars, instituted at Jerusalem about the year 1118. At first there were but nine of the order, and the two principal persons were Hugo de Paganis, and Jeoffroy of St. Omer’s. This order, after having performed many great exploits against the infidels, became rich and powerful all over Europe; when, on the 22d of May, 1312, the pope by his bull, pronounced the extinction of the order, and united their estates to the order of St. John of Jerusalem. They took the name of templars, because their first habitation stood near the temple dedicated to our Saviour at Jerusalem.

ORDER of the knights of St. Jago, instituted by king Ramico, of Spain, in commemoration of a victory obtained against the Moors, A. D. 1030. Their ensign is a red cross in form of a sword.

ORDER of knights of the band, erected by Alphonso, king of Spain, in the year 1268. Their name proceeded from the knights wearing a red scarf, or lace of silk, the breadth of three inches, which hung on their left shoulder.

ORDER of knights of the Redemption, erected in the kingdom of Arragon, by king James, who conquered the island of Majorca, in the year 1212. Their garments are white, with a black cross thereon.

ORDER of Teutonic knights, established towards the close of the 12th century, and thus called, as chiefly consisting of Germans, anciently called Teutons.

ORDER of the knights of St. Stephen, instituted in the year 1561, by Cosmo, duke of Florence. They wear a red cross with a border of gold.

ORDER of merit, instituted by Frederic III. king of Prussia, as a reward to those officers whose behaviour deserved some marks of distinction. The ensign of this order is a golden star of eight rays, enamelled with blue, which is worn appendant to a black riband, edged with silver: the motto, Pour le mérite.

ORDER of St. Alexander Newski, or the red riband, which was instituted by Peter I. emperor of Russia; but the czarina Catharine I. conferred it in the year 1725.

ORDER of the stole, an order of knights instituted by the kings of Arragon.

ORDER of the golden stole, a Venetian military order, so called from a golden stole, which those knights wore over their shoulder, reaching to the knee, both before and behind, a palm and a half broad. None are raised to this order but patricians, or noble Venetians. It is uncertain when this order was instituted.

ORDER of Maria Theresa. This order was instituted in June, 1757, by the empress queen of Hungary. In 1765, an intermediate class, styled knights commanders, was added to the two classes that originally composed the order. See THERESA.

ORDERLY Officer. See OFFICER OF THE DAY.

ORDERLY serjeant, ORDERLY men, are appointed to attend general, or other officers that are entitled to have them.

ORDERLIES, the non-commissioned officers and private men who do orderly duty are so called.

Orderly serjeants when they go for orders are sashed.

Orderly corporals and orderly men wear their side arms, and carry a small osier switch or cane in their hands.

In the dragoons, orderly men, on foot, have their sword-belts and bayonets; and on horseback, are dressed the same, only with gloves, and boots, and spurs of course, with the sword-belt and sword. They likewise have their pistols. When an orderly dragoon or foot soldier is sent from one quarter to another, the time of his setting out must be specified on the back of the letter which he carries; the dragoon must take care to bring his horse in cool and properly (unless he has been sent on any pressing occasion) and they must both return to quarters perfectly sober.

ORDERLIES in general. It is the duty of the serjeant-majors to see that the orderlies are properly dressed and accoutred, before they are inspected by the adjutant, who parades them every morning in front of the main guard, &c. When private soldiers are chosen for orderlies in mixed duty, the credit of the corps from which they are taken requires, that they should be the best set up and the best behaved men belonging to it.

ORDERLY non-commissioned officers, are those who are orderly, or on duty for that week; who, on hearing the drum beat for orders, are to repair to the place appointed to receive them, and to take down in writing, in the orderly book, what is dictated by the adjutant or serjeant-major; they are then immediately to show those orders to the officers of the company, and afterwards warn the men for duty.

ORDERLY book. Every company has such a book in which the serjeants write down both general and regimental orders, for the specific information of the officers and men. This book is provided by the public.

ORDERLY Drum. The drummer that beats orders, and gives notice of the hour for messing, &c. is so called.

ORDINAIRE, Fr. The soldier’s messing together is so called among the French.

ORDINANCE, or ORDNANCE, a name given to all that concerns artillery, or engineering: thus, the commander in chief is called master general of the ordnance; and the next officer, lieutenant general of the ordnance, instead of artillery.

ORDNANCE. The British value of all brass ordnance is at 84_l._ 17_s._ or 371 dollars per ton, for the metal; that is, the weight of the gun, and 12lbs. per hundred weight for waste: to which is added for casting, on the total weight of metal used, 64_l._ or 286 dollars per ton for light pieces; 54_l._ or 240 dollars for medium; and 44_l._ 195¹⁄₂ dollars for heavy.

Iron ordnance cost 20_l._ or 90 dollars per ton. See also the words GUNS, MORTARS, HOWITZERS, &c.

For the proof of all kinds of ordnance, see the word PROOF.

ORDINARY TIME. This in the British service is the slowest time in marching that is permitted to be used by infantry, and consists of a pace which is 30 inches from heel to heel, and of which only 75 are to be taken in a minute. But there is a manifest absurdity in having a different length of pace; in the American service the pace in all time is 24 inches; and the ordinary time is what the British call quick time; and is in fact gay and lively, or the time of country dances.

ORDONNANCE. Fr. A warrant. This word is variously used among the French, viz.

_Compagnies d’_ORDONNANCE. Independent companies, or such bodies of armed men as do duty by detached companies, and are not formed into regular regiments. Of this description were the gendarmes, the light horse, and the musqueteers, under the French monarchy.

ORDONNANCES, Fr. Orderly men, whether on foot or horseback.

ORDONNANCE, Fr. The disposition or arrangement of troops for battle.

ORDRE, Fr. Parole and countersign so called.

_Aller à l’_ORDRE, Fr. To go for the parole or countersign.

Récevoir _l’_ORDRE, Fr. To receive or get the parole or countersign.

ORDRE que l’on donne à la tranchée, Fr. Parole and countersign together with specific orders, which are given out every night in the trenches.

ORDRES Militaires, Fr. Military orders.

Nouveaux ORDRES, Fr. Fresh orders.

ORDRES de mouvement. Marching orders.

ORGANIZATION of Troops. The act of putting troops into such uniform state of discipline, as may fit them to co-operate on any service.

ORGUES, thick long pieces of wood, pointed and shod with iron, clear one of another, hanging perpendicular each by a rope, over a gate of a strong place to be dropped in case of emergency.

Their disposition is such, that they stop the passage of the gate, and are preferable to horses or portcullises; because these may be either broken by a petard, or stopped, by different contrivances, in their falling down. But a petard is useless against an orgue; for if it break one or two of the pieces, others immediately fall down and fill up the vacancy.

ORGUE, (un Orgue, Fr.) A term used to express that arrangement or disposition of a certain quantity of musquet barrels in a row, which by means of a priming train of gunpowder, may be subjected to one general explosion. This machine has been found extremely serviceable in the defence of a low flank, a tenaille, or to prevent an enemy from crossing the ditch of a fortified place.

ORIENT, Fr. The east.

ORIFLAMME, Fr. The ancient banner belonging to the abbey of St. Denis, which the counts du Vexin, who possessed the perpetual advowson of the abbey, always bore in the different wars or contests that formerly prevailed between the abbot and some neighboring lords. When the Vexin country fell into the hands of the French kings, they made the oriflamme the principal banner of their armies, in honor of St. Denis, whom they chose for the patron and tutelary saint of France.

ORILLON. See FORTIFICATION.

ORME, Fr. Elm. This wood was considered of such consequence by the old French government, (and perhaps is equally so by the present) that a specific order was made out in 1716, enjoining all persons letting or holding land in French Flanders, Artois, and Hainault, to plant elm trees, in order that there might be a constant supply in future of carriages and wainage for the artillery.

ORNAMENTS Military. Those parts of the dress of a soldier which are more for appearance or distinction than for absolute use; as gorgets, plates for cross-belts, pouch ornaments, &c.

ORTEIL. See BERM in FORTIFICATION.

ORTHOGON, any rectangular figure.

ORTHOGRAPHIE, Fr. See ORTHOGRAPHY.

ORTHOGRAPHY. The art of drawing or sketching out a work according to its breadth, thickness, elevation, and depth.

OSIER, a young willow twig, with which hurdles are made.

OSTAGE, Fr. See HOSTAGE.

OTTOMAN. A name generally given to the Turks, and to the Turkish empire, from Ottoman, who was one of their most celebrated emperors.

OVATION, (so called of a sheep, because the general who so triumphed, offered only a sheep; whereas in the great triumph he offered a bull) an inferior sort of triumph allowed by the Romans to the generals of their armies for lesser victories, as over slaves, &c. or when the war had not been declared pursuant to military usage. According to Kennett, in his Roman Antiquities, page 224, the word ovation is said to have derived its name from shouting evion! to Bacchus; but the true original is ovis. The shew generally began at the Albanian mountain, whence the general, with his retinue, made his entry into the city: he went on foot with many flutes or pipes, sounding in concert as he passed along, wearing a garment of myrtle as a token of peace, with an aspect rather raising love and respect than fear.

We have already observed, with Gellius, that this honor was then conferred on the victor, when either the war had not been proclaimed in due method, or not undertaken against a lawful enemy, and on a just account; or when the enemy was but mean and inconsiderable. But Plutarch has delivered his judgment in a different manner; he believes that heretofore the difference betwixt the ovation and the triumph was not taken from the greatness of the achievements, but from the manner of performing them: for they who, having fought a set battle, and slain a great number of the enemy, returned victors, led that martial, and, as it were, cruel procession of the triumph. But those who without force by benevolence and civil behaviour, had done the business, and prevented the shedding of human blood; to these commanders custom gave the honor of this peaceable ovation. For a pipe is the ensign or badge of peace; and myrtle the tree of Venus, who, beyond any other deities, has an extreme aversion to violence and war. Vide Plut. in Marcell. For a full account of this ceremony, as well as of the Roman triumph, see Kennett, page 224.

OVENS. The modern improvements in the art of war, has beside making biscuit, the common food of man and horse, also introduced in the equipage of armies, ovens of cast iron, which travel with the waggon train, and the bakers are classed and under military discipline, in the performance of their important functions. The operations of dressing food in military camps, have been also improved by the introduction of count Rumford’s process of boiling, roasting, and baking by steam; all performed by the single fire which heats the oven.

OVERFLOW. See INUNDATION.

To OVERLAP, to overspread any preceding object. In marching by echellon, for the purpose of forming upon any given point, but particularly in wheeling from column into line, troops may loose their relative distances by not taking ground enough; when this occurs, the rear division, company, or section, unavoidably crouds upon its preceding one, and it is then said to overlap. When this happens on service, the troops, so shut out, must remain as serre-files, or reserve, to fill up the intervals that will necessarily present themselves in action. But whether so or not, the line must, on no account, be deranged by moving it to right or left.

OVERLANDRES, Fr. Small barges that ply upon the Rhine and the Meuse.

To OVER-RUN. In a military sense, to ravage, to lay waste. A country which is harassed by incursions, is said to be over-run.

OVERSEER, an officer in the ordnance department, who superintends the artificer in the construction of works, &c.

OVERSLAGH, as a military phrase, which is derived from the Dutch, to skip over, will be better explained by the following table.--For instance, suppose 4 battalions, each consisting of 8 captains, are doing duty together, and that a captain’s guard is daily mounted: if in the first regiment the second captain is doing duty of deputy adjutant-general; and the 4th and 7th captains in the second are acting, one as aid-de-camp, the other as brigade major; the common duty of these three captains must be overslaghed, that is skipped over, or equally divided among the other captains.

TABLE of Explanation.

------------+------+-----------------------+ |No. of| Heads of each column. | ------------+ cap- +--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+ Regiments. |tains.| 1| 2| 3| 4| 5| 6| 7| 8| ------------+------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+ Pennslvania.| 8 | 1| 5| 8|12|15|19|23|26| ------------+------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+ Georgia. | 8 | 2| 6| 9|13|16|20|24|27| ------------+------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+ Massachu’s. | 8 | 3| |10|14|17|21|25|28| ------------+------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+ Virginia. | 8 | 4| 7|11| |18|22| |29| ------------+------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+ Total. | 32 | | | | | | | | | ------------+------+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+

N. B. The three blanks shew where the overslaughs take place.

OVERTHROW, total defeat, discomfiture, rout.

OUEST ou Occident, Fr. One of the four cardinal points of the world, or the west.

OURAGAN, Fr. A violent tempest.

OUTBAR, to shut out by fortification.

OUT-GUARD. See OUT-POSTS.

OUTILS, Fr. Tools of every description that are used by the artificers and workmen belonging to the artillery, &c.

OUTILS à mineur. Fr. Tools used in mining.

OUTLINE, the line by which any figure is defined.

OUTPART, at a distance from the main body. See OUT-POSTS.

OUT-posts, a body of men posted beyond the grand guard, called out-posts, as being without the rounds or limits of the camp. See POSTS.

OUTSIDE, in fencing, that part which is to the right of the line of defence.

OUTSIDE Guard, a guard used with the broad sword and sabre, to defend the outside of the position. See BROADSWORD.

OUTWALL. See REVETEMENT.

OUTWARD FACE, a word of command for troops to face to the right and left from their centre.

To OUTWING, to extend the flanks of an army or line in action, so as to gain an advantageous position against the right or left wing of an enemy. This manœuvre or evolution is effected by the movement on an oblique line. See MOVEMENTS.

OUT-works, in Fortification, are works of several kinds, which cover the body of the place, as ravelins, half-moons, tenailles, horn-works, crown-works, counter-guards, envelopes, swallow-tails, lunettes, covert-ways, &c.

These out-works, not only cover the place, but likewise keep an enemy at a distance, and hinder his gaining any advantage of hollow or rising grounds; as such cavities and eminences may serve for lodgments to the besiegers, facilitate the carrying on approaches, and enable them to raise their batteries against the town. When outworks are placed one before another, you will find a ravelin before the curtain, a horn-work before the ravelin, and a small ravelin before the curtain of the horn-work; those works which are nearest to the body of the place must be the highest, though lower than the body of the place, that they may gradually command those without them, and oblige the enemy to dislodge, if in possession of them.

OUVERTURE des portes, Fr. The opening of the gates in a fortified town or place, according to specific military rules. The method in all regular governments is too well known to require any particular explanation.

OUVERTURE et fermeture des portes chez les Turcs, Fr. There are certain laws and regulations among the Turks, by which the janizaries are entrusted with the keys belonging to the gates of every fortified town or place in which they do garrison duty. The gates are always opened at day-break by two or four janizaries. There is a capigy or porter stationed at each gate. Whenever he opens the gate he repeats, in an audible tone of voice, certain words in the praise of God and the sultan, after which he returns the key or keys to the janizaries, who carry them to the governor or commandant or the place. The closing of the gates is done with the same solemnity.

OUVERTURE de la tranchée, Fr. the opening of the trench or trenches.

OUVRAGES, Fr. Works. See FORTIFICATION.

OUVRAGE à corne, Fr. Hornwork. See FORTIFICATION.

OUVRAGE à couronne, Fr. Crowned work. See FORTIFICATION.

OUVRAGES detachés, pieces detachées, Fr. See DEHORS.

OUVRIR, Fr. To open.

OUVRIR les rangs, Fr. To take open order.

En arriére, OUVREZ vos rangs, Fr. Rear ranks take open order.

S’aligner à rangs OUVERTS, Fr. To aligne or dress in line at open order.

A jour OUVRANT. At break of day.

A portes OUVRANTES. At the opening of the gates.

OUVRIERS, Fr. All sorts of artificers and workmen employed in fortification, &c. are so called.

OXFORD Blues. See HORSE GUARDS.

OXYCRAT, Fr. A certain portion of vinegar to five or six times its quantity of water. This mixture is frequently used on service, and in hot weather, to allay the burning heat of any inflamed part. It is likewise employed to cool cannon, during an engagement, in very hot firing.

OXYGENE. The chemical base of vital air with which nitre is found to abound, and to which gunpowder owes its rapid and perfect combustion.

King’s or queen’s Own, a term which has been attached to some British regiments since the revolution in 1688. Thus the 4th, which landed with William III. was called the 4th, or King’s Own.

PAAT, Ind. A promissory note.

PACE. The common pace is of no determined length; though made use of as a measure by most military writers.

In Germany, and amongst most of the northern powers, the pace is considered equal to ²⁄₁₀ of a Rhinland rood.

In France the pace is commonly reckoned at 2¹⁄₂ feet. The military pace is 2 ft.

In England it is usually reckoned at 2¹⁄₂ feet.

The geometrical pace is equal to 5 French royal feet; 60,000 of which make a degree of the equator. This makes the geometrical pace equal to 6.102 English feet, and 5.6719 Rhinland feet.

For the military pace, see MARCHING.

To PACE, as a horse does: aller à pas, Fr. There are four kinds of paces in the manége, the walk, trot, gallop, and amble. The last, more particularly, is called a pace, or easy motion, wherein the horse raises the two feet of the same side together.

PACHA. The captain pacha, among the Turks, is the chief admiral and superintendant general of the marine. He generally commands in person. The sailors and soldiers of the military marine were formerly called lavans or lavantis; the soldiers are now called galiondjis.--The sailors are Turks from the maritime towns, or Greeks from the Archipelago. They are in constant pay. The soldiers, or galiondjis, are all mussulmen, and only receive pay when they are in actual service. We recommend to our military readers an important work, which has lately been published at Paris, and from which they will derive considerable information respecting the Turks. It is intituled, Travels in the Ottoman Empire, Egypt, and Persia, by citizen Olivier, member of the French National Institute.

PACKET-Boats, small vessels that sail from the different sea ports and carry passengers, mails, &c. and keep up a regular intercourse with different places.

PADDY, Ind. Rice in the husk whether dry or green.

PADSHA, Ind. A king.

PAGEANT, in ancient military history, a triumphal car, chariot, arch, or other like pompous decoration, variously adorned with colors, flags, &c. carried about in public shows, processions, &c.

PAGES, mousses ou garcons, Fr. Young lads of the description of English cabin boys, who learn navigation, and do the menial offices on board a French ship.

PAGOD, Ind. a general name given by the Portuguese to the temples in the east. It also denotes a coin. See PAGODA.

PAGODA, Ind. The place of worship among the Hindoos. It is likewise the name of a gold coin of the value of eight rupees. The English and Dutch coin pagodas. There are also silver pagodas struck, at Marsingua, &c. with the figure of some monstrous idol.

PAILS, made of wood, with iron hoops and handles, hold generally four gallons, and serve in the field to fetch water for the use of artillery works, &c.

PAILLASSES, Fr. Straw beds, commonly called paillasses. These are furnished by the barrack-department for the accommodation of sick soldiers.

PAILLE, Fr. Straw.

Les soldats vont à la PAILLE, Fr. The soldiers are going to the forge yard or depot. This term is likewise used to signify the indulgence occasionally granted to soldiers for exercise or necessary evacuations. Thus when a battalion has gone through its manual, &c. the commanding officer gives the word à la paille.

Rompre la PAILLE avec quelqu’un, Fr. a figurative term, signifying to quarrel or fall out with any body, in an open and unreserved manner.

PAILLE, Fr. likewise signifies any flaw in metals. Cette lame est fine, mais il y a quelques pailles; this blade is finely tempered, but there are some flaws in it. La lame de son épée se cassa à l’endroit ou il y avoit une paille. The blade of his sword broke where there was a flaw.

PAILLER, Fr. Palearius. An ancient body of French militia. The soldiers belonging to it were probably so called either from the circumstance of their wearing straw in their helmets, in order to know one another in action, or because they were accustomed to set fire to their enemy’s habitations, &c. with bundles of straw, which they always carried with them for that purpose. The inquisitive may be more fully satisfied on this subject by referring to Ducange’s Glossary.

PAIN de Munition, Fr. Ammunition bread. In the folio edition of marshal Saxe’s reveries, page 16, we find the following important observations on the subject of ammunition bread. He states that bread never should be given to soldiers on active service, but that they should be accustomed to eat biscuits, for the following reasons:--Biscuits will keep a considerable number of years, and every soldier can conveniently carry with him in his haversack a sufficient quantity for seven or eight days. Those officers who have served among the Venetians, will readily prove the justness of this remark. But there is a species of biscuit, or hard baked bread, that never crumbles, (called soukari by the Russians) which is preferable to any thing of the kind. It is square, and about the thickness of a nut, and takes up less room than either bread or biscuits.

Purveyors, who are interested in the business, maintain a different opinion. They tell you that bread is best for troops. Every man of experience knows the contrary; for it is notorious, that contract, or ammunition bread, is not only made of unwholesome ingredients, but that it is seldom more than half baked; which together with the water it contains, increases the weight, and consequently enhances the value. Add to this, that purveyors must unavoidably increase the expence of the army by being obliged to employ a great number of bakers, bakers’ men, waggons, and horses. Independent of the expence, it is evident, that the operations of an army must unavoidably be clogged by the necessity of providing quarters for these people, of having a quantity of hand-mills, and of employing a certain number of effective men to form detachments for their security.

It is impossible to calculate the train of robberies and inconveniences which grow out of this system, the embarrassments it occasions to a general; but above all the diseases, which bread, supplied in this manner, will always engender, and the fatigue that the troops must necessarily undergo to get their rations. Were all these mischiefs obviated, there is still another evil in reserve, which no precaution can set aside. This is the certainty that an enemy may be under, with respect to your intentions and motions, by narrowly watching the establishment and disposition of your ovens. Were I, continues the marshal, to adduce instances and facts to corroborate these observations, I might dwell considerably at large upon the subject. I do not hesitate to say, that much ill success, which is attributed to other causes, proceeds entirely from the provision and distribution of ammunition bread. He even goes farther, for he asserts unequivocally, that soldiers ought sometimes to be enured to almost every species of privation, and instead of being provided with biscuit, occasionally to receive grain, which they must be taught to bake upon iron pallets, after having bruised and made it into dough.--Marshal Turenne has observed upon the same subject in his Memoirs. Marshal Saxe, indeed, does not scruple to say, that although there might be plenty of bread, he would, in conformity to the opinion of many good officers, suffer his men to feel the want of it. I have, adds the latter, been eighteen months successively on service with troops who during the whole of that period never tasted bread, and yet never once complained or murmured. I have, on the contrary, been frequently with others that had never familiarized themselves to that privation, and who, on the first appearance of want, were disheartened. In consequence of which the very nerve of enterprise and hardihood was broken, and nothing great could be undertaken.

The modern French armies have carried this idea to an astonishing extent and with success; not only their troops in the field are supplied with biscuit, but their horses also.

PALADIN, Fr. A name given to those ancient knights who were either what the French call comtes du palais, counts of the palace, or were princes lineally descended from Charlemagne, and other old kings.

PALANKEEN, Ind. a vehicle carried on the shoulders of four men, by means of a bamboo pole extending from each end: it carries one person in a reclining posture: it has a canopy which is supported by a pole raised along the centre, from whence it is pendent on either side. The palankeens are of various kinds; some are shaped like a chair, in which the person carried sits: in others they recline or sleep, and frequently journies of 2000 miles are thus performed.

PALEAGAS, Ind. See POLYGARS.

PALANQUE, Fr. a kind of fortification, so called in Hungary. It is made of stakes driven into the ground, interlaced with twigs, and covered with earth, and serves to stop the progress of an advancing enemy.

PALÆSTRA, in Grecian antiquity, a public building, where the youth exercised themselves in the military art, wrestling, running, playing at quoits, &c.

PALEE, Fr. The row of piles upon which a wooden bridge is constructed, is so called.

PALESTRE, Fr. a wrestling place, or exercising ground. It comes from the Latin, and was originally derived from the Greek.

PALIS, Fr. the rows of small pointed stakes, which serve for any species of inclosure, are so called. The term palissade is derived from it.

PALISADES, or PALISADOES, in fortification, stakes made of strong split wood, about nine feet long, six or seven inches square, three feet deep in the ground, in rows about 2¹⁄₂ or three inches asunder, placed in the covert-way, at three feet from and parallel to the parapet or side of the glacis, to secure it from surprise.

They are also used to fortify the avenues of open forts, gorges, half moons, the bottoms of ditches, and, in general, all posts liable to surprise. They are usually fixed perpendicularly, though some make an angle inclining towards the ground next the enemy, that the ropes cast over them, to tear them up, may slip off.

Turning PALISADES, are an invention of Mr. Cohorn, in order to preserve the palisades of the parapet of the covert-way from the besiegers shot. They are so ordered, that as many of them as stand in the length of a rod, or about ten feet, turn up and down like traps, so as not to be in the sight of the enemy, till they just bring on their attack; and yet are always ready to do the proper service of palisades.

PALISSADES, Fr. See PALISADES.

PALISSADES de camp, Fr. several pieces of wood so arranged and tied together, that they may with great dispatch be fixed in the ground, which is marked out for the encampment of an army.

PALISSADES ferrèes, palisades that are shod with iron. They are used in shallow streams and marshes to prevent small craft from plying, or persons from crossing them on foot.

PALKEE, Ind. See Palankeen.

PALL, a covering thrown over the dead. It is always used in military burials.

PALLAS, a name in the Heathen mythology, which is given to Minerva, who was looked upon as the goddess of war.

PALUDAMENTUM, (Chlamys) among the ancients, a garment worn in time of war by the principal men of Rome, especially the generals, who were called for that reason paludati. The soldiers, having only short coats, called a sagum, were denominated sagati.

The paludamentum was open on the sides, coming down no lower than the navel, and had short sleeves. It was either of a white, purple, or red color, and sometimes black. Kennett, in his Roman Antiquities, page 313, says, the old paludamentum of the generals was all scarlet, only bordered with purple; and the chlamydes of the emperors were all purple, commonly beautified with a golden or embroidered border.

PAN, the side of a rectangle or irregular figure.

PAN, likewise means the distance which is comprized between the angle of the epaule and the flanked angle in fortification. See FACE OF A BASTION.

PAN, a name well known among the shepherds of antiquity, and frequently used by modern writers in their rural fictions. In military history it signifies a man who was lieutenant general to Bacchus in his Indian expedition. He is recorded to have been the first author of a general shout, which the Grecians practised in the beginning of their onset in battle. See PANIC.

PAN, that part of the lock of a musquet, pistol, &c. which holds the priming powder.

PANACHE, PANNACHE, Fr. a plume, a bunch of feathers.

PANACHES flottans, Fr. nodding plumes.

PANNACHES likewise signifies in architecture, the triangular part of an arch that contributes towards the support of a turret or elevation which is raised above the dome of any particular edifice.

PANCARTE, Fr. an ancient exercise or tournament, which was performed in the Roman amphitheatre, when strong athletic men were opposed to all sorts of enraged animals.

PANDOURS, are Hungarian infantry. They wear a loose garment fixed tight to their bodies by a girdle, with great sleeves, and large breeches reaching down to their ankles. They use firearms, and are excellent marksmen: they also wear a kind of sabre, near four feet long, which they use with great dexterity.

PANIC, PANIC fear, sudden consternation which seizes upon men’s fancies without any visible cause; a needless or ill grounded fright. The reason why these terrors are attributed to Pan, was, as some say, because when Osiris was bound by Typho, Pan and the satyrs appearing, cast him into a fright; or because he frightened all the giants that waged war against Jupiter: or as others say, that when Pan was Bacchus’s lieutenant general in his Indian expedition, being encompassed in a valley, with an army of enemies, far superior to them in number, he advised the god to order his men to give a general shout, which so surprised the opposite army, that they immediately fled from their camp. And hence it came to pass, that all sudden fears impressed upon men’s spirits, without any just reason, were, by the Greeks and Romans, called panic terrors. (See Polyænus Stratag. book I.) The custom of shouting seems to have been used by almost all nations, barbarous as well as civil; and is mentioned by all writers who treat of martial affairs. Homer has several elegant descriptions of it, particularly one in the fourth Iliad, where he resembles the military noise to torrents rolling with impetuous force from the mountains into the adjacent vallies. We have likewise had our war-hoops.

PANIER à mine, Fr. See BOURRIQUET.

PANIERS, Fr. Baskets. Figuratively, un panier percé, a leaky vessel, or one who cannot keep a secret. A dangerous man in society: and in military concerns, one who ought to be particularly guarded against where discretion and confidence are necessary.

PANIQUE, Fr. See PANIC.

PANNE, Fr. literally means shag, plush, &c. and is properly a sea term, signifying to lie to, mettre en panne. It is likewise used in a military sense, to express the steady posture of troops who are drawn up for battle, and wait an enemy’s attack. La troupe est restée en panne. The squadron remained immoveable.

PANNEAU, Fr. Trap, snare.

Donner dans le PANNEAU, Fr. to be ensnared, or outwitted.

PANNELS, in artillery, are the carriages which carry mortars and their beds upon a march.

PANNONCEAU, Fr. an ancient term, which was used to signify ensign or banner.

PANOPLY, complete armor or harness.

PANSEMENT, Fr. The dressing of wounds.

PANSER, Fr. to dress a wound.

PANSER, Fr. in farriery, signifies to rub down, and otherwise to take care of a horse.

PANTHEON, in architecture, a temple of a circular form, dedicated to all the gods. The name has been adopted among modern nations from the Pantheon of ancient Rome, built by Agrippa in his third consulate, and dedicated to Jupiter Ultor, or Jupiter the avenger. There is a chapel in the Escurial in Spain, called Pantheon, of marble and jasper inlaid: the whole inside is of black marble, excepting the luthern, and some ornaments of jasper and red marble. The Pantheon at Paris during the progress of the French revolution, has been appropriated to national purposes; the names and busts of the most distinguished statesmen and generals being preserved therein as marks of public gratitude, and objects of public emulation. There is a building in London that bears the name of Pantheon, but that is all. It is private property, and the only public use to which it has been appropriated, has been that of operatical speculation, masquerades, or frivolous entertainments.

PANTOGRAPHE, Fr. a mathematical instrument, which serves to copy all sorts of drawings. The French have paid great attention to the improvement of this instrument, of which a minute description may be found in Cours de Mathématiques, by Pere Deschalles. But the sieur Panglois brought it to such perfection in 1750, that it is become universally useful.

PANTOMETER, an instrument used, to take all sorts of angles, distances and elevations. It was invented by the ancients, but has been greatly improved since.

PANTOMETRE, Fr. See PANTOMETER.

PAPIER de cartouche, Fr. Paper used for cartridges.

PAPIER gris, ou PAPIER brouillard, Fr. Whited brown paper.

PAPIERS et enseignemens, Fr. All the papers and manuscripts which are found on board a ship are so called.

PAQUEBOT, Fr. a modern French term, derived from packet-boat, which see.

PARABOLA, in geometry, a figure arising from the section of the cone, when cut by a plane parallel to one of its sides.

From the same points of the cone, therefore, only one parabola can be drawn; all the other sections within these parallels being ellipses, and all without hyperbolas.

Properties of the PARABOLA. The square of an ordinate is equal to the rectangle of the abscissa, and four times the distance of the focus from the vertex.

The perpendicular on the tangent, from the focus, is a mean proportional between the distance from the vertex to the focus, and the distance of the focus from the point of contact.

All lines within the parabola, which are drawn parallel to the axis, are called diameters.

The parameter of any diameter is a right line, of such a nature that the product under the same, and the abscissa, are equal to the square of the semi-ordinate.

The squares of all ordinates to the same diameter, are to one another as their abscissas.

Cartesian PARABOLA, is a curve of the second order, expressed by the equation xy = ax³ + bx² + cx + d containing four infinite legs, being the 66th species of lines of the third order, according to sir Isaac Newton: and is made use of by Descartes, in the third book of his geometry, for finding the roots of equations of six dimensions by its intersections with a circle.

Diverging PARABOLA, a name given by sir Isaac Newton to five different lines of the third order, expressed by the equation yy = ax³ + bx² + cx + d.

PARABOLE, Fr. See PARABOLA.

PARABOLOIDE, Fr. See PARABOLIC CONOID.

PARADE, originally consisted of a square court before cathedrals, surrounded with piazzas or porticoes for persons to walk under, being supported with pillars. It is now used in a military sense, to signify any place where troops assemble, and may be distinguished in the following manner:

General PARADE, the place where soldiers belonging to different corps are drawn up, according to seniority, to mount guard, or to be exercised, &c.

Regimental PARADE, the place where any particular regiment or corps is formed in line, &c.

Private PARADE, any spot selected, in general by each captain of a troop or company, for the inspection of his men, previous to their being marched off to the regimental parade. This parade is likewise called company or troop parade. When troops are encamped, the general and regimental parades are usually in front of the line of tents; each regiment having its quarter-guard opposite, and the space between being sufficient to allow of the free exercise of the battalion. The companies have their private parades in the several streets of the camp.

PARADE, in camp, is that spot of ground in the front of each encampment, between the camp colors, on the right and left wings.

Morning PARADE. In every garrison town, fortified place and camp, as well as in every town through which soldiers pass, or occasionally halt, a certain hour in the morning is fixed for the assembling of the different corps, troops, or companies, in regular order.

Evening PARADE. The hour generally fixed for the evening parade is at sunset. When troops are encamped, the signal for evening parade is given from the park of artillery, by the discharge of a piece of ordnance, which is called the evening gun.

To PARADE, to assemble in a prescribed regular manner, for the purposes of being inspected, exercised, or mustered.

To PARADE. This word is frequently used as an active verb, with respect to military matters, viz. to parade the guard, &c. It has likewise been adopted in Ireland to express the act of calling out a person in an affair of honor. The Irish familiarly say--I shall parade the gentleman to-morrow morning in the Phœnix Park.

PARADE, Fr. The French make use of this term in various ways.

PARADE, Fr. Show, ostentation.

Lit de PARADE, Fr. Bed of state.

Cheval de PARADE, Fr. a horse finely caparisoned, and kept for show.

PARADE, Fr. in fencing, the act of parrying a thrust or blow.

PARADE, Fr. the place or ground where soldiers parade.

Se mettre en PARADE, Fr. to take one’s ground.

Faire la PARADE, Fr. To do parade duty.

Monter la PARADE, Fr. To take part in the regular line of parade.

Manquer sa PARADE, Fr. in fencing, to miss one’s parry.

Etre hors de PARADE, Fr. to parry wide, or stand exposed.

PARADIS, Fr. that part of a harbor in which vessels may ride with the greatest safety.

PARALLELES, Fr. Parallel lines in fortification are so called. See PARALLELS.

PARALLELS, at a siege, the trenches or lines made parallel to the defence of the place besieged: they are also called lines of communication, and boyeaus.

PARALLELS, or places of arms, are deep trenches 15 or 18 feet wide, joining the several attacks together. They serve to place the guard of the trenches in readiness to support the workmen when attacked. There are usually three in an attack; the first, about 300 toises, or 600 yards, from the covert-way: the 2d and 3d, nearer to the glacis.

PARALLELEPIPED, (Parallelepipede, Fr.) one of the regular bodies of solids, comprehended under six rectangular and parallel surfaces, the opposite ones whereof are equal.

Tirer une PARALLELE, Fr. verbatim, to draw a parallel. To make a direct communication between one trench and another.

PARALLELISM, the situation or quality whereby any thing is denominated parallel.

PARALLELISM of a march. In order to preserve the parallelism of a march in the movement of troops each battalion must be kept perpendicular to the direction it marches upon, the whole of the several battalions in one straight line, and their several marching directions parallel to each other. The first battalion or line becomes the regulating one, and must be regarded as infallible; and from the moment that its direction is ascertained, the commander of each other, and their directing serjeants, are to consider their movements as subordinate to it, and to conform accordingly. It is the helm which guides the line, and must not change cadence; nor will it increase or diminish its speed, but from unavoidable necessity, and by particular order.

The instant communication of the word march is particularly important, that the advanced guides of the whole may step off together, and thereby maintain their line parallel to the one they quitted, and which becomes the principal guide for their battalions; each preserves its six paces from its advanced guide; this distance is to be kept by, and depends on, the replacing officer next to the color, who covers the directing guide; and if these trained guides do step equally, and in parallel directions to each other, they must be dressed themselves in line, and of consequence the centres of their following battalions.

PARALLELISM and distance to be observed in the formation and movement of any considerable body of troops. It is laid down as a general maxim, that no considerable body should ever be formed without a proportion of it being placed in reserve or in second line, and more or less according to circumstances. The movements of such second line will always correspond with those of the first, and it will always preserve its parallelism and distance.

If the first line makes a flank or central change of position, the second must make a change also on such point as will bring it into its relative situation.

The march of the second line in front, is regulated by its own division or battalion of direction, which moves relatively to that of the first line. In forming in line it will march upon its own points which are parallel to, and ascertained in consequence of those of the first.

When the lines break into columns to the front, the second will generally follow those of the first. When the march is to the flanks, the second line will compose a separate column, or columns. When the march is to the rear, the second line will lead in columns.

The distance betwixt the lines, may be in general supposed equal to the front of one or two battalions, and an interval.

The second lines are seldom composed of as many battalions as the first: they are often divided into distinct bodies, covering separate parts of the first line, and consequently preserving a relative parallelism and distance.

Second lines should not always remain extended, they may often be formed in column of battalions, or of greater numbers, ready to be moved to any point where their assistance is necessary.

Whenever the first line breaks, and manœuvres by its right to face to the left, or by its left to face to the right: the movements of the second line are free and unembarrassed, and it may turn round the manœuvring flank of the first line, and take its new position behind it, by extending itself parallel to that direction, how oblique soever it may be.

The central movement generally required from the second line to conform to that of the first, is equivalent to that line marching in two columns of platoons, from near the centre obliquely to the front, and from that situation forming to both flanks.

The movements of the central columns being well understood, those of the battalions of the wings, are similar in two lines.

The officer commanding the second line, must always be properly informed of the nature of the change to be made by the first, that he may readily determine his corresponding movements.

It requires much attention to conduct heads of battalion columns of both lines nearly parallel to their lateral ones, and perpendicularly, or diagonally to front or rear, according to the nature of the movement. To determine with precision, and in due time, their points in the new line, that wavering and uncertainty of march may be avoided. In great movements to allow the soldier every facility of motion without increasing the distances of divisions, and to require the most exact attention on entering the new line, and in forming. To avoid obstacles in the course of marching, but as soon as possible to re-enter the proper path of the column, while out of that path, the colors of that battalion column may be lowered, (as a mark for the neighboring column, not to be then entirely regulated by it) and again advanced when it regains its proper situation.

All the battalions of a second line, must at the completion of every change of position, find themselves placed in the same relative situation with respect to the first, as they were in before the commencement of the movement.

All changes of position of a first line are made according to one of the modes already prescribed: in general, in critical situations, they are made on a fixed flank, or central point, and by the echellon march of platoons or echellons of smaller sections than platoons, where ground and other circumstances require it; and the echellons may upon occasion be each marched in file, but keeping its position: but the movements of a second line being protected, more complicated, and embracing more ground, are made by the march of battalion columns regulated by a certain determined division of the line.

In all cases where a change of position is made on a flank or central point of the first line, the movement of its corresponding point of the second line determines the new relative situation of that second line.

Movements PARALLEL with a line of fire. Movements are said to be parallel with a line of fire, when one or more lines march either in the rear of troops engaged with an enemy, or in face of an enemy, who is advancing to attack. The greatest accuracy and order are required on both occasions, particularly on the latter; for if the second line, which is the line of support, does not preserve its perpendicular direction with respect to every leading point, and its relative parallelism and distance with the line engaged, according to circumstances, it will not only run the risk of becoming useless itself, but will in all probability endanger the line it covers, should any sudden necessity occur for a change of position.

PARALLELOGRAM, (Parallelogramme, Fr.) a plain figure bounded by four right lines, whereof the opposite are parallel one to the other. It likewise means an instrument composed of five rulers of brass or wood, with sliding sockets, to be set to any proportion, for the enlarging or diminishing any map or draught.

PARALYSER, Fr. To paralyse. A term frequently used by the French since the revolution, to express the bad effects of a factious spirit, &c. Un seul factieux quelque fois paralyse toute une administration: one factious man will sometimes render the designs of a whole administration abortive.

PARAMETER. See GUNNERY and PROJECTILES.

PARAPET, in fortification, an elevation of earth, designed for covering the soldiers from the enemy’s cannon, or small shot; its thickness is from 18 to 20 feet; its height 6 on the inside, and 4 or 5 on that side next the country: it is raised on the rampart, and has a slope called the superior talus, or glacis of the parapets, on which the troops lay their arms to fire over. The slope renders it easy for the soldiers to fire into the ditch. It has a banquette or two on the inside for the troops who defend it, to mount upon, for better discovering the country, the ditch, and counterscarp, to fire as they find occasion.

PARAPET of the covert-way, is what covers that way from the sight of the enemy; which renders it the most dangerous place for the besiegers, because of the neighborhood of the faces, flanks, and curtains of the place.

PARAPETS en forme de crémaillere, Fr. Parapets which are so constructed within, in the form of a saw, that one of the faces of the redans, or teeth, is perpendicular and the other parallel to the capital. The chevalier Clariac, in his Ingénieur de Campagne, has given a particular account of these parapets. But the merit of having invented them does not entirely rest with him, since the Marquis de la Fond, director of the fortified places upon the coast of French Flanders, and M. de Verville, chief engineer at Rocroi, have likewise mentioned them.

PARASANG, (Parasange, Fr.) an ancient Persian measure, being usually thirty, sometimes forty, and sometimes fifty stadia or furlongs.

PARC d’artillerie, Fr. See PARK OF ARTILLERY.

PARC, Fr. See PARK.

Le Commissaire du PARC, Fr. The commissary belonging to the park.

Le PARC des munitions et des vivres, Fr. The park of stores and provisions.

PARC d’Hôpital. See HOSPITAL.

PARC des vivres ou quartier des vivres, Fr. Park of provisions, which see.

PARCOURIR, Fr. in a military sense, to run over the ground during an action. This word is particularly applicable to those movements which are made by general officers, officers commanding brigades, &c. for the purpose of encouraging their soldiers in the heat of an engagement.

PARCOURIR de rang en rang, Fr. to run up and down the ranks, or from rank to rank.

PARDON, forgiveness, remission. In military matters this word must be understood in two senses, viz. in a limited one, when it affects a culprit who has been sentenced by a general court-martial, to receive punishment; and in a more extensive one, when the punishment is the consequence of a regimental decision. In the former case, the president only, through the war department, can pardon or remit the punishment; in the latter, the colonel, or commanding officer, has a discretionary power.

PARER, Fr. to parry,

PARER à toutes feintes, Fr. To parry to all feints.

PARK of artillery, should always be placed if possible within a short distance of water carriage; and have the most ready communication with every part of the line of the army. Its form must depend on its situation. Ten feet are usually allowed in front for one carriage and its interval, and near 50 feet from the hind wheels of the front row to the fore wheels of the second; this interval should allow sufficient room for putting the horses to the carriages, and for a free passage along the line. In parks not on immediate service, it is customary to arrange the guns with their muzzles to the front; but where the guns are likely to be wanted at a short notice, appearances must not be studied, and the gun carriages must be parked with their shafts to the front, ready to receive horses to them. A quarter guard is placed in front of the park, and the non-commissioned officers and gunners’ tents on the flanks, at about 20 paces distance; and 40 paces to the rear of the subaltern officers; at 10 more to the rear the captains, and 10 more the commanding officer. The mess tent is 15 in the rear of the officers. At a convenient distance, in the rear of the whole, are the horses, picketed in one or more lines, with the drivers on their flanks. The horses are sometimes picketed in lines perpendicular to the front, and on the flanks of the carriages, between the men and the carriages. See CAMP and ARTILLERY IN THE FIELD. Am. Mil. Lib.

PARK of provisions, a place in a camp, on the rear of every regiment, which is taken up by the sutlers who follow the army with all sorts of provisions, and sell them to the soldiers.

PARLEMENTER, Fr. to parley. The French familiarly say, Ville qui parlemente est à demi rendue; a town whose governor parlies may be said to be half given up.

PARLEY, oral treaty, talk, conference, discussion by word of mouth.

To PARLEY, in military matters, to enter into conference with your enemy. This is done by means of a flag of truce. See TRUCE.

To beat a PARLEY, is to give a signal for holding such a conference, by beat of drum, or sound of trumpet. See CHAMADE.

PAROLE, in a military sense, the promise made by a prisoner of war, when he has leave to go any where, of returning at a time appointed, or not to take up arms, if not exchanged.

PAROLE, means also a word given out every day in orders by the commanding officer, both in camp and garrison, in order to know friends from enemies.

PARQUER, Fr. This word, which signifies to lodge and place any thing in a convenient and safe manner, is used by the French both in an active and passive sense.

On PARQUERA l’artillerie, ou l’artillerie fut parquée en tel endroit, Fr. you will park the artillery in such a quarter, or the artillery will be parked in such a quarter.

Les gens de l’artillerie se parquérent, ou furent parqués, du côté de la rivière, Fr. The train of artillery parked itself on the banks of the river, or was parked upon the banks of the river.

L’artillerie parquoit en tel lieu, Fr. The artillery parked on such ground.

PARRAIN, Fr. means, literally, a godfather. In a military sense, it formerly signified a second or witness who attended at single combats to see fair play. Les combattants se trouvérent dans le lieu du combat, chacun avec son parrain. The combattants met upon the ground, each attended by his second or witness.

PARRAIN, Fr. in military orders, the person who introduces, or presents a newly elected knight. The term is also used to signify the comrade who is selected by a soldier that has been condemned to be shot, to bind the handkerchief over his eyes.

PARRYING, the action of warding off the push or blow aimed at one by another.

Etre à la Part, Fr. a marine term among the French, signifying, to share in the prizes which are made against an enemy.

PARTHENIÆ,a word derived from the Greek, signifying virginity. In military history it refers to a particular circumstance which occurred among the ancients. The Spartans having been at war with the Messenians for 20 years, and having by that means very much depopulated their country, and apprehending that if this war continued, it might eventually strip Sparta of all its male inhabitants, they sent some of their young men from the army into the city, with licence to be familiar with as many unmarried women as they would; and the children begotten by them in this manner were called Partheniæ, on account of the uncertainty who were their fathers. At the end of the war this brood were deemed bastards, and were denied the bearing of any office in the government, &c. This unjust exclusion enraged them so much, that they conspired with the slaves to destroy all the nobility; but on the discovery of their plot, they were driven out of the city. After which, being headed by Phalantus, a bold and enterprising son of chance, they travelled into Magna Grecia in Italy, and built Tarentum.--Bailey’s Dict.

PARTI, Fr. See PARTY.

PARTI-Bleü, Fr. any party of armed men who infest a country, and have no regular permission to act offensively.

Prendre le PARTI, Fr. to take a part.

Prendre son PARTI, Fr. to come to a determination.

Prendre son PARTI dans les troupes, Fr. To list in a regiment.

Tirer PARTI, Fr. to take advantage.

Ne point prendre de PARTI, Fr. to remain neuter, or not to take any part.

Esprit de PARTI, Fr. party spirit.

Se declarer d’un PARTI, Fr. openly to avow some particular party. The French say figuratively, Il faut être toujours du parti de la verité; we should always side with truth.

PARTI, likewise signifies profession or employment, viz. Le parti de l’èpée, le parti des armes; the military profession.

Prendre PARTI dans l’épée, Fr. to embrace a military life.

PARTIALITY. Unequal state of the judgment, and favor of one above the other, without just reason. If any member of a general court-martial expresses a previous judgment, in partiality either to the prisoner or prosecutor, before he is sworn, it is to be deemed a good cause of challenge; and he should not be allowed to sit in judgment on the case.

PARTISAN, has been applied to a halberd or pike, and to a marshal’s staff. See BATON.

PARTISAN, in the art of war, a person dexterous in commanding a party; who, knowing the country well, is employed in getting intelligence, or surprising the enemy’s convoy, &c. The word also means an officer sent out upon a party, with the command of a body of light troops, generally under the appellation of a partisan corps. It is necessary that this corps should be composed of infantry, light-horse, and riflemen.

PARTY, in a military sense, a small number or detachment of men, horse, or foot, sent upon any kind of duty; as into an enemy’s country, to pillage, to take prisoners, and oblige the country to come under contribution. Parties are often sent out to view the roads and ways, get intelligence, seek forage, reconnoitre, or amuse the enemy upon a march; they are also frequently sent upon the flanks of an army, or regiment, to discover the enemy, if near, and prevent surprise or ambuscade.

Parties escorting deserters in the British service receive the following allowances, being the same as have been granted to those of other forces, in consideration of the unavoidable extraordinary wear of their clothing and necessaries on that duty, viz.

Distances from For each man quarters. -------------- ------------------------- £. s. d. Between 8 and 20 miles 0 1 0 20 50 0 2 0 50 100 0 4 0 100 150 0 5 0 150 200 0 6 0 Above 200 0 7 6

In the like proportion, allowances are to be made for parties of four, five, and six men, but no higher. This is however to be understood as a regulation of allowance merely, it not being the intention of government thereby to restrain any commanding officer from employing larger parties on the escort duty, if he should think proper, but that whatever may be the actual number of the parties, the allowances are to be in the proportion of

Three men for an escort of from 5 to 8 deserters Four ---- 9 to 12 Five ---- 13 to 16 Six ---- 17 to 20

Exact returns of the said duty, as performed by each corps, are to be made up, agreeable to a form annexed, as soon as may be after every 24th of June and 24th of December, for the half years immediately preceding, and are to be transmitted to the office of the secretary at war, in order that the allowances thereon may be settled and directed.

Watering PARTY. See WATERING.

Firing PARTY, those who are selected to fire over the grave of any one interred with military honors, if below the rank of brigadier-general; for the specific number of which the party is to consist, &c.--See BURIALS.

Working PARTIES. These consist of small detachments of men under the immediate command and superintendance of officers who are employed on fatigues which are not purely of a military nature. They are generally called fatigue duties, being different from those of parade, or of exercise in the field. They principally consist in digging canals, repairing roads, working on fortifications, except such as may be constructed in the field, or upon actual service. An addition is made to their pay, as a reward for their labor, and a compensation for their extraordinary wear of necessaries: half of which should always be paid into the hands of the captains, and commanding officers of companies, for this latter purpose. It has been judiciously observed in a note to the treatise on Military Finance, that British troops might in time of peace, be employed much oftener than they are on works of this nature, with equal advantage to the public and to themselves. This remark becomes more forcibly apposite since the adoption of canals through the country.

PAS, Fr. Pace. A measure in fortification. The French divide their pas, or pace, into two kinds--pas commun, or ordinary pace, and pas geometrique, or geometrical pace. The ordinary pace consists of two feet; and the geometrical pace contains five royal feet, or five pieds du roi. The itinerary distance which the Italians call a mile, consists of one thousand geometrical paces; and three miles make a French league.

PAS oblique, Fr. Oblique step, now exploded.

PAS ordinaire, Fr. Ordinary time.

PAS ordinaire direct, Fr. Front step in ordinary time.

PAS precipite, Fr. Double quick time.

PAS de charge, Fr. Charging time.

PAS cadencé, Fr. Cadenced step.

Doubler le PAS, Fr. to double your step or pace: to go faster.

Forcer le PAS, Fr. to make a forced march.

PAS alongé, Fr. a lengthened step.

Alonger le PAS, Fr. to step out.

Diminuer le PAS, Fr. To step short.

Hâter le PAS, Fr. to slacken your pace; to go slower.

Marcher à grands PAS, Fr. To move rapidly.

Marcher à petits PAS, Fr. to step short, or move leisurely.

Retourner sur ses PAS, Fr. To go back.

Avoir le PAS, Fr. To have the precedency.

PAS de souris, Fr. Degrees or steps which are made in different parts of the circumference of the counterscarp. They serve to keep up a communication between works when the ditch is dry, and are generally made in the rentrant angles of the counterscarp, and in the rentrant angles of the outworks. There are likewise steps or degrees of this sort at some distance from the glacis.

PAS, Fr. Any strait or channel of water between two separate lands.

PAS de Calais, Fr. The straits between Calais and Dover.

PAS, likewise signifies any narrow pass. Le pas des Thermopyles. The pass of Thermopylæ.

Defendre le PAS, Fr. To defend the pass or strait.

Francher le PAS, Fr. To determine upon a thing after some hesitation.

PAS d’ane, Fr. A sword-guard, which covers the whole hand, or basket hilt. Une garde à pas d’ane.

PAS d’ane, Fr. This word likewise means a curb or snaffle.

PASS, in a military sense, a strait, difficult, and narrow passage, which shuts up the entrance into a country.

PASS, a voucher for the absence of a non-commissioned officer or soldier, in the following form:

By ---- commanding the ---- regiment of U. S. Infantry, stationed at ----.

Permit the bearer hereof ---- in ---- company of the abovementioned regiment, to pass from hence to ---- and to return to quarters at or before ---- o’clock.

Given under my hand at ---- this ---- day of ---- .

To all whom it may concern.

PASS, PASSADO, in fencing, a push or thrust upon your adversary.

PASS, (passade, Fr.) in fencing, a leap or advance upon the enemy.

To PASS, to march by open order of columns, for the purpose of saluting a reviewing general. Each division or company (on its march) will open its ranks at 20 paces distance from the general, and again close them, after it has passed 15 paces. The whole march in slow time, till the leading division arrives at the spot where the left of the battalion originally stood. The commanding officer then halts the regiment, the music ceases to play, and the different divisions with supported arms march in quick time until they have completed the third wheel from the ground of original formation; when arms are ordered to be carried, the music plays, and as each division completes the third wheel, the officers shift to the right, and the whole pass the general.

PASS of arms. In ancient chivalry, a bridge, road, &c. which the knights undertook to defend, and which was not to be passed without fighting the person who kept it. He, who was disposed to dispute the pass, touched one of the armories of the other knight who held the pass, that were hung on pales, columns, &c. erected for the purpose; and this was a challenge which the other was obliged to accept. The vanquished gave the conqueror such prize as was agreed on.

PASS-parole, a command or word which is given out at the head of an army, and from thence passed from mouth to mouth, till it reach the rear.

PASS-port, a letter of licence which is given by a government, granting safe conduct to travel, enter, and go out of its territories without molestation; this is properly given to friends and neutral persons; and the safe conduct to enemies.

PASS, All’s Well, a term used by a British sentry after he has challenged a person that comes near his post, and has given him the proper parole, watchword, or countersign. See ROUNDS.

PASSADE, Fr. See PASS.

PASSADE, in the manege, is a horse’s walking or trotting in such a manner, that he raises the outward hind-leg and the inward fore-leg together; and, setting these two on the ground, raises the other two alternately, never gaining above a foot of ground at a time.

Demander la PASSADE, Fr. This term is used among the French to express the act of soliciting charity out of the usual way of persons begging, or who have not been accustomed to ask alms. Donner la passade a un pauvre soldat; to give alms to a poor soldier. Il y avoit sur le chemin beaucoup de soldats qui demandoient la passade; there were many soldiers on the road who asked charity.

PASSAGE, (passage, Fr.) This word, as to its general import, does not require explanation. It is familiar to everybody. In a military sense it may be variously understood for passages made over rivers or through defiles, which should always be secured when an army is on its march. Dragoons or light cavalry are generally employed upon this service, being, by the celerity of their motions, better calculated to get the start of an enemy. Passes through mountainous countries, and passages over rivers, may likewise be secured by means of light field pieces and flying artillery. The latter are particularly calculated for defiles. Intrenching tools, &c. must be carried with them.

If it be found expedient to cross a river, a sufficient number of pontoons, must accompany the detachment. Should the river be fordable, and a body of infantry have been brought up in time to act with the cavalry, the former must instantly make good its footing on the opposite side, carrying intrenching tools, &c. for the purpose of fortifying the tête du pont, and thereby securing the passage of the river. Rivers are crossed either by surprise, or by main force.

When the passage is to be effected by surprise, such movements and feints must be resorted to, as may induce the enemy to direct his means of opposition to a distant quarter from the one you have in contemplation. Every precaution must be taken to prevent him from getting the least intelligence respecting your boats of pontoons; and on this account you must frequently countermarch different bodies of troops to divert his attention. When the passage is to be effected by main force, you must take such a position as will enable you to command the one occupied by the enemy, and you must select that part of the river where there are small islands or creeks, under cover of which the boats and barges may ply.

Those spots upon the banks of a river are best calculated for this enterprise, where the stream forms a rentrant angle, because it is more easy, in cases of that sort, to plant your batteries in such a manner as to afford a cross fire against the opposite bank. The instant you have dislodged the enemy, by means of a superior force of artillery (which you must always provide for the purpose in question) a strong detachment composed of grenadiers, and other chosen troops, must cross in boats or barges, in order to stand the first shock of the enemy, under a well supported fire of artillery.

When this detachment has made good its footing, the boats or barges must instantly row back for fresh troops, whilst the pioneers, artificers, and workmen, who accompanied the grenadiers, throw up temporary redoubts, and are protected by the fire of the troops that have landed. As soon as the works are sufficiently advanced, and an adequate number of men has been distributed in them to secure the post, the bridge must be undertaken. Its head or tete must be made as strong as possible, to keep the enemy in check should he return, and endeavor to dislodge the advanced guard.

The main body must be put in motion shortly after the departure of the first detachment, in order to support the latter, should the enemy succeed in making a bold push to defeat it, and thereby prevent the numberless disadvantages which must ensue, if the army were permitted to cross the river, or to pass the defile without opposition.

When the passage of a large river can be happily effected by means of a bridge, considerable advantages may be derived from it; most especially when the army is thereby enabled to reach a defile or pass, the possession of which enables a general to distribute his troops in desultory quarters. Marshal Turenne, in his famous passage over the Wesel in 1672, has afforded us a strong instance of this advantage. Marshal Saxe has written largely upon this important operation; and every general officer ought to be thoroughly versed in the ways and means of executing it under all the various circumstances that occur in the locality of ground, the peculiar nature of rivers, and the possible resources of an enemy, that is determined to dispute his passage. But the most memorable of all that is recorded in history are the passages of the Danube below Vienna, in 1809, which merit the study of every military man.

Soldiers should be frequently practised in the different evolutions which are required to pass a bridge in a safe and military manner. Bridges, defiles, &c. being obstacles that retard the movements of an army, whose object is to advance, we refer our readers for a full elucidation of the subject, under the article OBSTACLE.

PASSAGE, Fr.. a term which relates to the reception of a knight, in the order of Malta.

PASSAGE of bridges or defiles when a battalion or line stands on narrow ground.

A battalion, standing in narrow ground, may sometimes be ordered to march in file for the purpose of forming open column; and passing a defile, either before or behind that flank, before or behind the other flank, or before or behind any central point of that line.

Received Rules.

1. If before the right flank--The right platoon will move on, the rest of the battalion will face to the right, and march in file, the divisions will successively front and follow the leading one, and each other.

2. If behind the right flank--The whole face to the right and march, the right division instantly countermarches to the rear, fronts, and moves forward, followed in the same manner by every other division, till the whole is in column.

But the following method of passing in open column, would save a great deal of time which is unnecessarily lost by countermarching each division separately, as they successively arrive on the ground where the right division stood before it marched off to the rear.

1st. Countermarch the whole of the divisions at the same time, and on the same ground which they severally occupy in the line.

2d. Face the whole (except the right division) to the left, which moves forward on the word march from the chief. The divisions as they successively arrive on the ground from which the first division marched, will halt and front, follow the leading one and each other, till the whole are in column.

Received Rules.

3. If before any central point, or the left flank--The battalion makes a successive countermarch from the right flank towards the left, and when the right division arrives at the point from whence it is to advance, it again countermarches to its right, a space equal to its front, then faces and moves on, and is thus successively followed by part of the battalion. The other part of the battalion beyond the point of advancing, faces inwards, when necessary, makes a progressive march in file, then fronts, and follows by divisions as it comes to the turn of each, till the whole are in column.

A different Method.

Instead of passing according to the above method, much time may be gained, by the divisions on the right of the defile facing to the left, (commencing with the right division) march in file till opposite, and in full front of the division which is opposite the defile, or where the column is to advance from, then front, march forward, followed by the other divisions; the divisions on the left of the defile will face inwards, and when necessary, make a progressive march in file, followed as before, till the whole are in column.

Received Rule.

4. If behind the centre or the left flank.--The right part of the battalion countermarches from the right by files successively by the rear; and the other part of the battalion, as is necessary, makes a progressive march by files from its right to the central point, and there begins to countermarch at that point, the leading and each other division, fronts into column, and moves on.

A different Method.

To avoid loss of time in countermarching the divisions on the left as they successively arrive at the point they march from. Countermarch those divisions first on the ground they severally stand on, then face to the left; and when it comes to their turn march in file, front, and following in column, as they progressively and successively arrive opposite the point where the right division entered the defile.

It must be observed that in all countermarches of divisions on the ground they severally stand on, when passing to the rear, the division which stands opposite the point from which they are to march, must countermarch at the same time with the other divisions. See Am. Mil. Lib.

PASSAGE of Lines. In narrow grounds, where there are redoubled lines, and in many other situations, it becomes necessary for one battalion to pass directly through another, in marching either to front or rear. This must particularly happen, when a first line, which has suffered in action, retires through, and makes place for a second line which has come forward to support it; or, the second line remaining posted, when the first falls back, and retires through it, and thus alternately, till a safe position is attained.

PASSAGE of the Traverse, an opening out in the parapet of the covert-way, close to the traverses, that there may be a ready communication with all parts of the covert-way.

PASSAGE, in the manege, an action wherein the horse raises a hind and fore leg together; then setting these two on the ground, he raises the other two: and thus alternately, never gaining above a foot of ground at a time.

PASSAGE, Fr.. to passage, a term used in the manege.

PASSAGER un cheval, Fr. to make a horse passage. It is likewise used as a neutral verb, viz. un cheval passage, a horse passages.

PASSANDEAU, Fr.. an ancient piece of ordnance, which carried an eight pound ball, and weighed three thousand five hundred pounds.

Chemin PASSANT, Fr.. a thoroughfare.

PASSAVANT, Fr.. a pass. This term is not used in a military sense, but relates chiefly to commercial matters.

PASSE, Fr.. See PASS.

PASSES-Balles, Fr. boards or machines made of iron or brass, used in disparting cannon, and fitted to every species of calibre.

PASSE-Mur, Fr. a piece of ordnance formerly so called, which carried a sixteen pound ball, and weighed four thousand two hundred pounds.

PASSE-par-tout, Fr. a large saw, the teeth of which are irregularly made, for the purpose of cutting forest trees asunder.

PASSE-par-tout, Fr. a master key.

PASSE-vogue, Fr. Any extraordinary effort that is made in rowing is so called.

PASSE-Parole, Fr. This expression is used among the French in an absolute sense, and signifies to give the parole, order, or countersign. When troops are on service, or upon duty, they have frequent occasion to adopt it, especially during the rounds. Avance passe-parole. Advance, and give the parole or countersign.

PASSE-Volant, Fr. any man that is not really in the service, and who stands to be mustered for the purpose of completing the supposed number of effectives in a regiment, or on board a ship of war. They are likewise called soldats prêtés, Borrowed soldiers. During the existence of the old French government, the strictest regulations were made to prevent the gross impositions that were sometimes practised by means of passe-volans or faggots.

PASSE-Volans likewise means those wooden pieces of ordnance which are made to resemble real artillery, and fill up the vacant places in a ship. They were first adopted by the French, in consequence of a regulation which was made by M. de Pontchartrain, when he became minister of the marine department. He gave orders, that no vessels, except such as carried 16 guns, should sail to and from America. In order to comply, at least in outward appearance, with this regulation, the merchants had recourse to pass-volans, or wooden substitutes, they are called by us quaker guns. More advantages than one are indeed derived from this invention, which has been adopted in every civilized country.

PASSE-chevaux, Fr. ferry for horses.

PASSER, Fr. to pass. This word has various significations both in French and English, but chiefly in the former language.

PASSER en revue, Fr. to muster.

PASSER à compte, Fr. to allow in reckoning.

PASSER au fil de l’épée, Fr. to put to the sword.

PASSER par les baguettes, Fr. to run the gauntlet.

PASSER par les armes, Fr. to be shot.

PASSER à la montre, Fr. to pass muster.

PASSER par la main du bourreau, Fr. to be flogged, or otherwise punished, by the public hangman.

PASSER la riviére, passer la ligne, Fr. to cross the river, to cross the line.

PASSER par les courroies, Fr. to be picketed.

PASSER un homme à un officier, Fr. to allow an officer the pay and subsistence of a private soldier for the maintenance of a servant. The term is also used to express the receipt of any public allowance for sinecure places.

PASSER sur le ventre à une armée, Fr. to defeat an army.

PASSEUR, Fr. a ferryman.

PATACHE, Fr. This word sometimes means an advice boat; but it more generally signifies an armed tender, or a revenue cutter.

PATE, Fr. in fortification, a sort of horse-shoe, that is, a platform, or terre-pleine, irregularly built, yet generally constructed in an oval form. It is surrounded by a parapet, without any thing to flank it, and having no other defence than what is front or fore-right. Pates are usually erected in marshy grounds to cover the gate of a fortified town or place.

PATERERO, a small cannon managed by a swivel.

PATIENCE, the power or faculty of suffering; indurance; the power of expecting long, without rage or discontent; the power of supporting faults or injuries, without revenge; long suffering. In military life patience is an essential requisite. Without patience half the toils of war would be insupportable; with patience there are scarcely any hardships but what coolness, courage, and ability may overcome. It is one of the greatest virtues, indeed, in an officer or soldier patiently to support, not only the rigor of discipline, but the keen and vexatious circumstances of disappointment. Rousseau says, La patience est amêre, mais son fruit est doux. Patience is a bitter root, but its fruit is sweet.

PATOMAR, Ind. a two mast vessel: each mast carries one sail of four unequal sides. It likewise means a messenger.

PATRICIAN, from the Latin Patricius, one descended from a noble family. The term was used among the Romans, to distinguish the higher class of the inhabitants of Rome from the lower, who were called plebeians. Romulus, as soon as the city of Rome was tolerably well filled with inhabitants, made a distinction of the people. The names Peter, Patrick, are from pater a father; the Roman senate were called Patres conscripti. See PATRON.

Order of St. PATRICK. There is only one order of knighthood which belongs to Ireland; it is that of St. Patrick, and was created by Geo. III. for corrupt purposes.

PATRIOT, a sincere and unbiassed friend to his country; an advocate for general civilization, uniting, in his conduct through life, moral rectitude with political integrity. Such a character is seldom found in any country; but the specious appearance of it is to be seen every where, most especially in Europe. It is difficult to say, how far the term can be used in a military sense, although it is not uncommon to read of a citizen soldier, and a patriot soldier. Individually considered the term may be just, but it is hardly to be understood collectively.

PATROL, any party or round of soldiers, to the number of five or six, with a serjeant to command them. These men are detached from the main guard, picquet, or quarter-guard, according to circumstances, to walk round the streets of a garrison town, &c. for the purpose of taking up disorderly persons, or such as cannot give an account of themselves. It is their duty to see, that the soldiers and inhabitants of the place repair to their quarters and dwelling-houses, (in conformity to specific directions which are given out to that effect) and that alehouses and sutlers’ booths are shut up at a seasonable hour. They are likewise to take up every person they meet without a light, and that cannot give the watchword or countersign when he is challenged. All such persons must be conducted to the guard-house, and a report made of them to the commandant or governor of the place, by the town-major.

PATROLES are formed out of the infantry as well as the cavalry. When a weak place is besieged, and there is reason to apprehend an assault, strong patroles are ordered to do duty; these on foot keep a good look out from the ramparts, and those that are mounted take care of the outworks.

PATRON, one who countenances, supports, or protects. Every superior officer, from the commander in chief to the lowest non-commissioned officer, may, in a military sense, be called a patron; for it is the duty of all persons, in authority, to countenance, support, and protect every executive member in the service. Partialities on the other hand, (whatever may be their sources) are the bane of order and good discipline. In proportion as merit finds patrons among the good and great, indolence and inability should be discountenanced and degraded.

Kennett in his Roman Antiquities, page 97, has the following passage, on the origin of the word:--

Romulus, as soon as his city was tolerably well filled with inhabitants, made a distinction of the people according to honor and quality; giving the better sort the name of Patres or Patricii, and the rest the common title of Plebeii. To bind the two degrees more firmly together, he recommended to the patricians some of the plebians, to protect and countenance; the former being stiled Patroni, and the latter Clientes. The patrons were always their clients’ counsellors in difficult cases; their advocates in judgments; in short, their advisers and overseers in all affairs whatever. On the other side, the clients faithfully served their patrons, not only paying them all imaginable respect and deference, but if occasion required, assisting them with money towards the defraying of any extraordinary charges. But afterwards when the state grew rich and great, though all other good offices continued between them, yet it was thought a dishonorable thing for the better sort to take any money of their inferiors. (Vide Dionys. lib. 2, Liv. lib. 1. Plutarch in Romulo.) Hence the origin of patrons. But the case is altered in modern times with respect to pecuniary interest. Gold, or something more solid in the sale of liberty and good sense, buys a patron now.

PATRON, Fr. Among the French the captain of a trading vessel is so named. There were likewise sea-faring men called officiers mariniers, who served on board the French ships of war, and who were entrusted with the management of sloops and barges. These were generally called patrons.

PATRONS, (Galére patrons, Fr.) The galley which was second in rank at Marseilles, was so called. It was commanded by the lieutenant-general of the gallies, who took precedence in that line in the same manner that the vice-admiral of the French fleet did among ships of war.

PATROUILLE. See PATROL.

PATTE, Fr. a term used in mining. When a well or excavation is made in loose or crumbling earth, and it becomes necessary to frame it in, the rafters must be laid horizontally to support the boards in proportion as the workmen gain depth. The ends of the rafters that are first laid, run ten or twelve inches beyond the borders of the well, for the purpose of sustaining the platform. These supports are called Oreilles; consequently, that every subsequent frame may be supported, the second is attached or made firm to the first by means of the ends of boards which are nailed together. In this manner the third is joined to the second, and the fourth to the third. These ends are called pattes or handles.

PATTE d’Oie, Fr. a term used in mining to describe three small branches which are practised, or run out at the extremity of a gallery. They are so called from their resemblance to the foot of a goose.

PATTERN, a part shewn as a sample for the rest. In a late regulation relative to the inspection of the clothing of the British army in general, it is particularly directed, that regular inspectors, or the inspectors for the time being, do view and compare with the sealed patterns the clothing of the several regiments of cavalry and infantry, as soon as the same shall have been prepared by the respective clothiers; and if the clothing appear to be conformable to the sealed patterns, the said inspectors are to grant two certificates of their view and approval thereof, one of which certificates is to be delivered to the clothier, to be sent with the clothing to the head quarters of the corps; and the other to be lodged with the clothing board, as the necessary voucher for passing the assignment of the allowance for the said clothing.

A PATTERN Regiment, a phrase of distinction, which is applied to a corps of officers and soldiers, who are remarkable for their observance of good order and discipline.

PATURE, Fr. See FORAGE.

PATUREUR, Fr. Forager, one who goes on a foraging party.

PAVALUNGE, Ind. the name of a year.

PAUDSHAU, Ind. King.

PAVESSADES, Fr. large portable hurdles, behind which the archers and bowmen were formerly posted. According to Froissart, these hurdles were used long before the reign of Philip Augustus, king of France. Father Daniel, the Jesuit, in his Histoire de la Milice Francoise, describes them as bearing the figure of a shield; but the chevalier Folard, in his Commentaire sur Polybe, informs us, that they were mantlets which were disposed in parallel or oblique lines, from the camp to the nearest works belonging to the Corps de Place, behind which the soldiers and artificers, &c. could in safety, make a small fosse or ditch that was sufficiently deep to preserve them strait and firm. Hurdles, constructed in this manner, were used during the operations of a regular siege; but when it was found expedient to insult a place, those of less dimension were adopted. Father Daniel describes the Retranchment Portatif, which was used many centuries before the days of Philip Augustus, under the latter head.

PAVILION, in military affairs. See TENT.

PAVILLON, Fr. See TENT.

PAVILLON, Fr. Flag, standard, or colors.

Vaisser le PAVILLON, Fr. to strike, to yield.

Vaisseau PAVILLON, Fr. Flag ship.

PAVILLON, Fr. This word likewise signifies the swell or broad part of a speaking trumpet.

PAULETTE, Fr. a certain tax or pecuniary consideration which all persons who held public situations under the old government of France, were obliged to pay at the commencement of every year, to the king. This enabled them to sell or dispose of their appointments, and to leave the amount to their heirs, if they happened to die in the course of the year. It is so called from Paulet, the name of the person who first suggested the measure.

PAVOIS, Fr. an ancient weapon of defence. It was the Clypeus or broad shield of the Greeks and Romans.

PAUSE, a stop, cessation, or intermission. It is essentially necessary for all officers to accustom themselves to a most minute observance of the several pauses which are prescribed during the firings. Accordingly the pause betwixt each of the firing words, make ready--aim,--fire, is the same as the ordinary time, viz. the 75th part of a minute, and no other pause is to be made betwixt the words.

In firing by companies by wings, each wing carries on its fire independent, without regard to the other wing, whether it fires from the centre to the flanks, or from the flanks to the centre. If there are five companies in the wing, two pauses will be made betwixt the fire of each, and the make ready of the succeeding one. If there are four companies in the wing, three pauses will be made betwixt the fire of each, and the make ready of the succeeding one. This will allow sufficient time for the first company to have again loaded, and shouldered at the time the last company fires, and will establish proper intervals betwixt each.

In firing by grand divisions, three pauses will be made betwixt the fire of each division, and the make ready of the succeeding one.

In firing by wings, one wing will make ready the instant the other is shouldering. The commanding officer of the battalion fires the wings.

In firing companies by files each company fires independent. When the right file presents, the next makes ready, and so on. After the first fire, each man as he loads comes to the recover, and the file again fires without waiting for any other; the rear rank men are to have their eyes on their front rank-men, and be guided by, and present with them.

When troops march to music, a pause in the mind before the latter strikes off, will contribute greatly to that uniformity of step, without which no line can move correctly. In some regiments the music does not play until one step has been taken. See STEP OFF.

PAY, or pay of the army, is the stipend or salary allowed for each individual serving in the army; first established by the British government in the year 1660.

FULL PAY

_Of the Officers, Non-commissioned Officers, and Privates in the British army._

-------------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+ | | | | | Life | | Foot | Rank. | Guards. | Cavalry. | Guards. | -------------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+ |£. s. d.|£. s. d.|£. s. d.| Colonel | 1 16 -- | 1 12 10 | 1 19 -- | Colonel en Second | ---- | ---- | -- | 1st. Lieut. Colonel| 1 11 -- | 1 3 -- | 1 8 6 | 2d. Lieut. Colonel | ---- | ---- | -- | 1st. Major | 1 6 -- | -- 19 3 | 1 4 -- | 2d. Major | ---- | -- | -- | Captain | -- 16 -- | -- 14 7 | -- 16 6 | Captain Lieutenant | }0 11 -- | -- 9 -- | -- 7 10 | 1st. Lieutenant | } | | | 2d. Lieutenant | ---- | -- | -- | Cornets | -- 8 6 | -- 8 -- | -- | Ensigns | ---- | -- | -- 5 10 | Pay-Master | ---- | -- 15 -- | -- | Quarter-Master | -- 6 | -- 5 6 | -- 5 8 | Adjutant | -- 11 -- | -- 5 -- | -- | Surgeon | -- 12 -- | -- 12 -- | -- 12 -- | Assistant Surgeon | ---- | -- 5 -- | -- 7 6 | Veterinary do. | ---- | -- 8 -- | ---- | Serjeant-Major | ---- | ---- | ---- | Quarter-Master do. | ---- | ---- | ---- | Serjeant | ---- | -- 2 -- | -- 1 10³⁄₄| Corporal | -- 2 6¹⁄₄| -- 1 7¹⁄₄| -- 1 4³⁄₄| Bombardier | ---- | ---- | ---- | 1st. Gunner | ---- | ---- | ---- | 2d. Gunner | ---- | ---- | ---- | Private | -- 1 11¹⁄₄| -- 1 3 | -- 1 1 | Farrier and Smith | ---- | ---- | ---- | Collar Maker} | | | | Wheeler } | ---- | ---- | ---- | Trumpeter} | | | | Drummer } | -- 2 6 | -- 1 7 | -- 1 2¹⁄₄| -------------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+

-------------------+--------------+----------------------------- | | Artillery. | Infantry +--------------+-------------- Rank. | of the line. | Horse. | Foot. -------------------+--------------+--------------+-------------- |£. s. d.|£. s. d.|£. s. d. Colonel | 1 2 6 | -- | 2 3 6 Colonel en Second | -- | 1 9 8 | 1 3 9 1st. Lieut. Colonel| 0 15 11 | 1 5 8 | -- 19 9 2d. Lieut. Colonel | 0 15 11 | -- | -- 16 10 1st. Major | }0 14 1 | {1 -- 9 | -- 14 10 2d. Major | } | { -- | -- Captain | 0 9 5 | -- 15 4 | -- 9 11 Captain Lieutenant | 0 5 8 | {0 10 -- | -- 7 -- 1st. Lieutenant | | {0 9 -- | -- 6 -- 2d. Lieutenant | -- | -- 8 -- | -- 5 -- Cornets | -- | -- | -- Ensigns | -- 4 8 | -- | -- Pay-Master | -- 15 -- | -- | -- Quarter-Master | -- 5 8 | -- 6 -- | -- 6 -- Adjutant | -- 5 -- | -- 5 -- | -- 5 -- Surgeon | -- 9 5 | -- 11 10 | -- 9 11 Assistant Surgeon | -- 5 -- | -- 6 -- | -- 5 -- Veterinary do. | ---- | ---- | ---- Serjeant-Major | ---- | -- 3 4 | -- 3 2 Quarter-Master do. | ---- | -- 2 10 | ---- Serjeant | -- 1 6³⁄₄| -- 2 4 | -- 2 2 Corporal | -- 1 2¹⁄₄| -- 2 2¹⁄₄| -- 2 ¹⁄₄ Bombardier | ---- | -- 2 ¹⁄₄| -- 1 10¹⁄₄ 1st. Gunner | ---- | ---- | -- 1 7 2d. Gunner | ---- | -- 1 5¹⁄₄| -- 1 3¹⁄₄ Private | -- 1 -- | ---- | ---- Farrier and Smith | ---- | -- 3 4³⁄₄| ---- Collar Maker} | | | Wheeler } | ---- | -- 2 ³⁄₄| ---- Trumpeter} | | | Drummer } | -- 1 1¹⁄₄| -- 2 1³⁄₄| -- 1 3¹⁄₄ -------------------+--------------+--------------+--------------

Full PAY. The pecuniary allowance which is made to officers and non-commissioned officers, without any deduction whatsoever. Since the abolition of arrears in the British service, which took place in 1797, commissioned and warrant officers, &c. receive their full pay, or daily subsistence. The private soldiers are subject to temporary deductions, for the purpose of appropriating part of their pay and allowances to the expence of their messes, including vegetables, &c. and to a stoppage not exceeding 1_s._ 6_d._ per week, for necessaries; which stoppage is to be accounted for monthly, as stated in their regulations of 1st September, 1795, and the remainder being 1_s._ 6_d._ must be paid, weekly to each soldier, subject to the accustomed deduction for washing, and for articles to clean his clothing and appointments.

The full pay of the British army is given in advance on the 25th of every month, and accounted for to government by the several district and regimental paymasters, through army agents appointed for that purpose. For further particulars, see Military Finance, page 48, &c. Non-commissioned officers and private soldiers serving as marines, are not liable to any deduction whatsoever from their full pay, on account of provisions. It will be further observed, that although the British army is now paid its full pay, in consequence of the abolition of the distinction between subsistence and arrears, that pay is nevertheless subject to the usual deductions on account of poundage, hospital, and agency. This will explain the mutilated appearance of the different rates of pay. Thus a captain of infantry, who is nominally supposed to receive 10_s._ per diem, gets only 9_s._ 5_d._ the 7_d._ going for the above deductions. The full pay of the subaltern officers has been very judiciously increased, but that of the captains, &c. remains as it was in the reign of Queen Anne. For the several rates of full pay, see Military Finance, page 66, &c.

Half PAY, (Demi solde, Fr.) a compensation or retaining fee which is given to officers who have retired from the service through age, inability, &c. or who have been placed upon that list in consequence of a general reduction of the forces, or a partial drafting, &c. of the particular corps to which they belonged. The half pay becomes due on the 25th of June, and on the 25th of December in each year, but it is seldom issued until three months after the expiration of each of those periods. The only deduction from the half pay is the poundage, two and an half per cent. See Military Finance, page 113.

Irish HALF-PAY. Every officer upon the Irish establishment, when reduced to half pay, must swear to, and sign the following certificate:

County of ------ ------ of foot, came this day before me, and made oath, that he is no otherwise provided for by any commission or employment, civil or military, in his majesty’s service, than by half pay on the establishment of Ireland, and is on no other establishment of half pay.

Officer’s Name.

Sworn before me this day of

N. B. To be sworn in January, April, July, and October, in every year.

PAY-MASTER, is he who is intrusted with the money, and has the charge of paying the regiment. He has no other commission in the line. His pay is 15_s._ per day.

District PAY-MASTER, an officer appointed for the better management of the interior concerns of the army, when the corps are detached in garrisons on duty, in several districts.

PAY-Bills. in the British army these bills are distinguished according to the nature of the service for which they are given. Every captain of a troop or company receives a regular weekly account from his Serjeant, of money to be advanced for the effectives of such troop or company; and on the 24th day in each month he makes out a monthly one for the paymaster, who makes out a general abstract for the agent. The paymaster-general’s estimate is likewise called the pay bill.

PAY-Lists. The monthly accounts, which are transmitted by the several regimental and district paymasters to their agents on the 25th of each month, are so termed.

PAY-Rolls, the same as pay-lists.

PAY-Serjeant. See Serjeant.

PAYE, Fr. the pay of the troops.

PAYEN-Ghaut, Ind. the lower mountain Ghaut is the general term for mountain.

PAYS, Fr. This word is variously applied by the French in a figurative sense: Parler, ou juger a vue de Pays. To speak or decide at random.

Gagner PAYS, (vuider le pays, Fr.) To leave a country. To go voluntarily into exile. Gagner pays likewise means to gain ground. Avancer pays may be used in the same sense.

Battre-PAYS, Fr. to speak wide of the subject.

Tirer-PAYS, Fr. a familiar phrase among the French, signifying to escape.

PAYS, Fr. country, locality, ground.

PAYS-conquis, Fr. This term was applied by the French to those countries and tracts of territory which had been ceded to France by treaty; as Lorraine; or had been conquered by force of arms; as Ypres, Tournay, Ghent, Ostend, and several other towns, from the reign of Louis XIII.

PAYS-coupés, Fr. Confined, inclosed, or intersected countries. Marshal Saxe has observed, that it is impossible to lay down any specific rule relative to the management of troops in countries of this description. An intelligent and able officer will be governed by the nature of the ground in which he is to act; and as under these circumstances, the contest will consist chiefly of a war of posts, and of desultory engagements, in which the most obstinate will be generally the most successful, it will be incumbent upon every military man to recollect, that he must never advance, without having previously secured means for a retreat, should that be judged expedient, and being constantly guarded on his flanks to prevent the fatal consequences of surprise and ambuscade. Although the latter precautions are principally attended to by the general of an army, every partisan or officer commanding a detachment, should be more or less alive to the many mischiefs which must ensue from carelessness and inattention. It would be superfluous to point out what troops are best calculated to act in a close or intersected country. Every military man must know, that mountainous and close countries, or intersected lands, are best adapted to light infantry manœuvres, and that cavalry can only act, with safety and effect, in an open country. The solidity of this observation has probably been the cause of so much improvement in light artillery, and in rifle corps. The latter, indeed, by the use which has been made of their particular weapon, and the desultory execution of it on service, have sufficiently shewn, that no army ought to move without them.

PAYSANS. Fr. Peasants.

PEACE, has been represented allegorically as a beautiful female, holding in her hand a wand or rod towards the earth, over a hideous serpent, and keeping her other hand over her face, as unwilling to behold strife or war. By some painters she has been represented holding in one hand an olive branch, and leading a lamb and a wolf yoked by their necks, in the other; others again have delineated her with an olive branch in her right hand, and a cornucopia, or horn of plenty, in her left.

A very celebrated temple was erected for the goddess of peace at Rome, which was furnished with most of the rich vases and curiosities taken out of the temple of the Jews at Jerusalem. In this temple she was represented as a fine lady, endowed with a great deal of sweetness and good-nature, crowned with laurel interwoven, holding a caduceus in one hand, and a nosegay of roses and ears of corn, in the other.

The temple of peace, built by Vespasian, was 300 feet long, and 200 broad. Josephus says, that all the rarities which men travel through the world to see, were deposited in this temple.

PEACE, (Paix, Fr.) rest, silence, quietness; the direct opposite to war; and when the latter prevails, the ultimate object of every contest. This word is frequently prefixed to the term establishment, to signify the reduced number of effective men, in the British army, according to the various formations of corps. Thus one regiment may be 1200 strong in time of war, and only 600 in time of peace. A regiment may also consist of several battalions, the 60th regiment for example has six battalions each of the strength of a regiment; that is from 1000 to 1200 men each. Whence arises the distinction between war and peace establishments. The standing army of Great Britain, according to law, consists of that force only which is kept up in time of peace, and which is confined to a specific number of regiments. Every regiment, beyond the regulated number, during a war is liable to be reduced; and all within it are said to be out of the break.

PEADA, Ind. a footman who carries a staff.

PECHE, Fr. Fishery.

PECTORAL, (Pectoral, Fr.) a breast plate. This word is derived from the Latin, Pectorale. Among the Romans the poorer soldiers, who were rated under a thousand drachms, instead of the lorica or brigantine, (a leathern coat of mail) wore a pectorale, or breast-plate of thin brass, about 12 fingers square. Some modern troops, such as the cuirassiers, &c. wear pectorals for the direct purposes of defence and bodily protection; but in general small ornamental plates with clasps, have been substituted.

PECULAT, Fr. See PECULATION.

PECULATE, PECULATION, the crime of pilfering any thing, either sacred or public, particularly public money, by a person who has the management or custody thereof. This crime is punishable in the heirs of the original delinquent. Under peculation may be considered not only the monies which are embezzled or misapplied by commissioned, non-commissioned, and warrant officers, but the public stores, provisions, aims, and ammunition, &c. which may be sold for private emolument. Occasional examples have been made by government, of a crime that cannot be too scrupulously watched, or too heavily punished, ought to deter individuals from sacrificing public integrity to private views. They ought to remember, that like the sword of Damocles, public scorn hangs over the head of every man whose accounts have not been finally audited and passed.

PECUNIA. Money. A deity in the heathen mythology; (though not a goddess personified among them) the most powerful ascendant the moderns know. The Romans held that she presided over riches, and that she had a son named Argentinus, whom they adored in the hopes of growing rich.

PECUNIUS, a deity of the ancient Prussians, in honor of whom they kept a fire of oak perpetually burning. A priest constantly attended, and if the fire happened to go out by his neglect, he was instantly put to death. When it thundered, they imagined that their grand priest conversed with their god, and for that reason they fell prostrate on the earth, praying for seasonable weather.

PEDERERO, PATTARERO, a Portuguese term, signifying a small sort of cannon, which is particularly used on the quarter deck of ships, to fire or throw forth stones, or broken iron, upon hoarding parties. This word has been adopted both by the French and English.

PEDOMETER, (Pedometre, Fr.) a mathematical instrument, composed of various wheels with teeth, which by means of a chain fastened to a man’s foot, or to the wheel of a chariot, advance a notch each step, or each revolution of the wheel, and the number being marked at the edge of each wheel, the paces may be numbered, or the distance from one place to another be exactly measured.

PEGS, pointed pieces of wood, used to fasten the cords of a tent.

PEIADAK, Ind. a guard to accompany a prisoner at large.

PEISA, Ind. Cash; or copper money.

PEER, Ind. Monday.

PELE-MELE, Fr. a French adverb, from which is derived the English term pellmell, signifying, confusedly, in disorder, in heaps, &c.

PELICAN, Fr. an ancient piece of artillery which carried a six pound weight of ball, and weighed two thousand four hundred pounds.

PELLE de bois simple, Fr. a wooden shovel.

PELOTE à feu, Fr. Pelote literally means the bottom of a pincushion, a ball, &c. It is here used to signify a species of combustible ball, which serves to throw light into a fosse or elsewhere. The composition is pitch one part, sulphur three parts, to one pound of saltpetre. The whole is well mixed together, and incorporated with tow, from which the pelotes are made.

PELOTON, Fr. Platoon.

Rompre le PELOTON, Fr. A platoon being generally considered as a subdivision, rompre le peloton signifies to break into sections.

Former le PELOTON, Fr. to double up or form subdivision.

PELOTONNE, ée, Fr. formed into a platoon.

PELOTONNER, Fr. to gather together, to get into groupes.

Se PELOTONNER, Fr. to form into a platoon.

PELTA, in antiquity, a kind of buckler, small, light, and more manageable than the Parma which was used by the Amazons, according to Virgil, and resembled the moon in his first quarter, according to Servius.

PENAL, (Pénal, ale, Fr.) any decree or law which subjects individuals, &c. to penalties. Hence code pénal. Les loix pénales. The penal code, the penal laws. Thus in England a person professing the Catholic religion is not permitted to exercise his religion if a soldier; and a catholic cannot be a commissioned officer.

PENALTY. In a military sense, signifies forfeiture for non-performance, likewise punishment for embezzlement, &c. An officer found guilty of embezzling stores is cashiered; any person who harbors, conceals, or assists any deserter from the United States’ service, is liable to a heavy penalty.

PENDULUM, in mechanics, any heavy body suspended in such a manner that it may vibrate backwards, and forwards, about some fixed point, by the force of gravity.

A pendulum is any body suspended upon, and moving about, a point as a centre. The nature of a pendulum consists in the following particulars. 1. The times of the vibrations of a pendulum, in very small arches, are all equal. 2. The velocity of the bob in the lowest point, will be nearly as the length of the cord of the arch which it describes in the descent. 3. The times of vibrations in different pendulums, are the square roots of the times of their vibrations. 4. The time of one vibration is to the time of descent, through half the length of the pendulum as the circumference of a circle is to its diameter. 5. Whence the length of a pendulum vibrating seconds in the latitude of London, is found to be 39 inches and ²⁄₁₀ths; and of one half-second pendulum 9.8 inches. 6. An uniform homogeneous body, as a rod, staff, &c. which is ¹⁄₃d part longer than a pendulum, will vibrate in the same time with it.

From these properties of the pendulum we may discern its use as an universal chronometer, or regulator of time. By this instrument, also, we can measure the distance of a ship, of a battery, &c. by measuring the interval of time between the fire and report of the gun; also the distance of a cloud, by counting the seconds or half-seconds, between the lightning and the thunder. Thus, suppose between the lightning and thunder we count ten seconds; then, because sound passes through 1142 feet in one second, we get the distance of the cloud = 11420 feet. Again, the height of any room, or other object, may be measured by a pendulum vibrating from the top thereof. Thus, suppose a pendulum from the height of a room, or other object, vibrates once in three seconds; then say, as 1 is to the square of 3, viz. 9, so is 39.2 to 352.8 feet, the height required. Lastly, by the pendulum we discover the different force of gravity on divers parts of the earth’s surface, and thence the true figure of the earth.

PENDULUMS. Pendulums for military purposes are best made with a musquet ball, and a piece of silk, or other small line. Their length must be measured from the centre of the ball to the end of the loop on which they are to swing. In a cylinder, or other uniform prism or rod, the centre of oscillation, from whence they must be measured, is at the distance of one-third from the bottom, or two-thirds below the centre of motion.

Pendulum’s length in latitude of London, to swing

Seconds 39¹⁄₈th. ¹⁄₂ Seconds 9·8 ¹⁄₄ Seconds 2·45

Length of Pendulums to vibrate Seconds at every fifth degree of latitude.

+----------+---------+ |Degrees of|Length of| | Latitude.|Pendulum.| +----------+---------+ | | Inches.| | | 39,027 | | 5 | 39,029 | | 10 | 39,032 | | 15 | 39,036 | | 20 | 39,044 | | 25 | 39,057 | | 30 | 39,070 | | 35 | 39,084 | | 40 | 39,097 | | 45 | 39,111 | | 50 | 39,126 | | 55 | 39,142 | | 60 | 39,158 | | 65 | 39,168 | | 70 | 39,177 | | 75 | 39,185 | | 80 | 39,191 | | 85 | 39,195 | | 90 | 39,197 | +----------+---------+

Rule.--To find the length of a pendulum to make any number of vibrations, and vice versa.

Call the pendulum making 60 vibrations the standard length; then say, as the square of the given number of vibrations is to the square of 60; so is the length of the standard to the length sought. If the length of the pendulum be given and the number of vibrations it makes in a minute be required; say, as the given length, is to the standard length, so is the square of 60, its vibrations in a minute, to the square of the number required. The square root of which will be the number of vibrations made in a minute.

PENNANT, PENNON, a small flag or color.

Gentlemen PENSIONERS, (Gentilshommes Pensionnaires, Fr.) a band of gentlemen, who guard the British king’s person in his own house, and for that end wait in the presence chamber. They were first instituted by Henry VII. They are usually forty in number. Their officers are, a captain, lieutenant, standard-bearer, and clerk of the cheque. Their ordinary arms are guilt pole-axes. Their pension is 100_l._ per annum; they are usually called beef-eaters, from their usually fat appearance and indolent habits.

PENTACAPSULAR, having five cavities.

PENTAEDROUS, having five sides.

PENTAGON, in fortification, a figure bounded by five sides, or polygons, which form so many angles, capable of being fortified with an equal number of bastions. It also denotes a fort with five bastions.

PENTAGRAPH, (Pentagraphe, Fr.), An instrument whereby designs, &c. may be copied in any proportion, without the person, who uses it, being skilled in drawing.

PENTANGLE, A figure having five angles.

PENTANGULAR. See PENTAGON.

PENTAPOLIS, in geography, a country consisting of five cities. This name was given, particularly, to the valley wherein stood the five infamous cities destroyed by fire and brimstone in Abraham’s time. The most celebrated Pentapolis was the Pentapolis Cyrenica in Egypt, whose cities were Berenice, Arsinoe, Ptolemais, Cyrene, and Apollonia

PENTASPAST, (Pentapaste, Fr.) An engine that has five pullies.

PENTATHLON. The five exercises performed in the Grecian games, viz. leaping, running, quoiting, darting, and wrestling.

PENTHOUSE, a shed hanging forward in a sloping direction from the main wall of a place.

PEONS, Ind. municipal foot soldiers. These men are chiefly employed to assist in collecting the revenues, and carry a pike or staff. Most persons in India keep servants, who wear a belt with the master’s name. These are likewise called Peadahs.

PEOPLE, of color. Blacks, Mulattoes, so called. They form part of the British territorial army, and are distributed, in corps, among the West India islands.

PERAMBULATOR. See PEDOMETER.

PERCH, in mensuration, is ten feet long. See MEASURE.

PERCUSSION. The impression which a body makes in falling or striking upon another, or the shock of two moving bodies. It is either direct or oblique.

Direct PERCUSSION, is where the impulse is given in the direction of a right line perpendicular to the point of contact.

Oblique PERCUSSION. When it is given in the direction of a line oblique to the point of contact.

Centre of PERCUSSION. That point wherein the shock of the percutient bodies is the greatest.

PERCUTIENT, striking against or upon.

PERDU, a word adopted from the French, signifying to lie flat and closely in wait. It likewise means the forlorn hope.

A corps PERDU, Fr. Desperately.

A coup PERDU, Fr. At random.

Coup PERDU, Fr. Random shot.

PEREMPTORY. Whatever is absolute and final, not to be altered, renewed, or restrained. Peremptory execution, what takes place immediately.

PERE, Ind. See PEER.

PERFIDIOUS. Treacherous, false to trust, guilty of violated faith. Hence a perfidious foe. War, however melancholy in its effects, and frequently unjustifiable in its cause and progress, is nevertheless, among civilized nations, so far governed by certain principles of honor, as to render the observance of established laws and customs an object of general acquiescence. When two or more countries are engaged in a hostile contest, whatever belligerent party grossly deviates from those rules, is deservedly stamped with infamy, and justly called “a perfidious foe.”

PERFIDIOUSLY, treacherously, falsely, without faith.

PERFIDY, want of faith, treachery.

PERGUNNA, Ind. A district.

PERIMETER, in geometry, the extent that bounds any figure or body. The perimeters of figures or surfaces, are lines; those of bodies are surfaces. In circular figures, &c. we use circumference or periphery instead of perimeter.

PERIOD. This word is frequently used in military accounts to express the intermediate time for which money has been issued to officers and soldiers.

Broken PERIOD, a term used in the returns and financial statements of the British army, when the regular distribution of pay is interrupted, or the effective force is lessened by the absence of one or more individuals, or by any other cause. A correct and faithful statement of broken periods is essentially necessary in every well regulated regiment, as not only the service but the public purse may be materially injured by the neglect, or embezzlement of individuals. Adjutants and pay-masters cannot be too scrupulously minute on this important head.

PERIPHERY, the circumference--as of a circle.

PERISTYLE, a circular range of pillars for the support or ornament of any building, &c. used in the ancient amphitheatres.

PERKERNUCKA, Ind. Petty officers are so called in India.

PERMANENT Fortification, is defined to be the art of fortifying towns, &c. so as to resist the attacks of an enemy, that makes regular approaches.

PERMANENT rank, a rank in the army, which does not cease with any particular service, or locality of circumstances; in opposition to local or temporary rank. See RANK.

PERPENDICULAR, (Perpendiculaire, Fr.) According to Vauban’s system, it is a line raised in a perpendicular direction on the centre of the exterior side of any given polygon. In mean fortification, which prevails more than any other system, the perpendicular contains 30 toises in the exagon, and in polygons that have a greater number of sides; but it contains fewer when the polygons have a less number. The perpendicular is used by this engineer to determine the other lines and angles belonging to a fortification. In proportion as the perpendicular is increased, the extent of the flanks is augmented.

PERPENDICULAR fortification, is that in which all the component parts flank each other at straight angles. Pagan, and other engineers, made the flanks perpendicular to the lines of defence. This is also the denomination of the improved system of Montalembert, which has superceded in a great measure all others; the distinction between this and the old, would require a treatise to exemplify it.

PERPENDICULAR, (Perpendiculaire, Fr.) When any star is vertical, it is said, in astronomy, to be perpendicular, because its beams fall directly upon us.

PERPENDICULAR, in geometry, when any right line is perpendicular to all the lines it meets with in a plane, it is said to be perpendicular to that plane.

PERPENDICULAR direction, in marching, is the regular and straight progress of one or more men over given points. Without the strictest attention is paid to this essential principal in all movements, the greatest irregularity, and, ultimately, the greatest confusion must ensue. Perpendicular and parallel movements, constitute, indeed, the whole system of good marching. When several columns, divisions, or companies, advance, the different pivots must be strictly perpendicular and parallel to each other, otherwise the distance will be lost, and the ultimate object of forming a correct line must be defeated.

PERPETUAL screw, a screw which is acted upon by the teeth of a wheel, and which continues its action for an indefinite length of time; or so long as the teeth of the wheel continue to act upon it.

PERQUISITES, all manner of profits arising from an office or place, independent of the actual salary or revenue. In a military sense no perquisites, advantages, or emoluments are allowed to persons in responsible situations.

PERSIAN Language, Ind. There are two sorts; the ancient, called Zebane-Pehlavy; the modern, called Zebaunedery.

PERSPECTIVE, is the art of drawing the resemblances or pictures of objects on a plane surface, as the objects themselves appear to the eye, &c.

PERSPECTIVE Elevation. See SCENOGRAPHY.

PERUST, Ind. A small weight or measure, equal to four koodups or puls.

PERWANNA, Ind. An order, warrant, or letter, signed by a Nawaub or Nabob, a passport; a custom-house permit, as in the case of the Neyau and vizier.

PESHWA, or PAISHWA, Ind. Prime minister; the acting head of the Mahrattah states. Paishwa became the title of a sovereign, the head of the Mahrattahs.

PESTLE, an instrument used in the fabrication of gunpowder. See GUNPOWDER MILL.

PETARDEAUX, Fr. Pieces of wood, covered with wool and pitch, which are used to stop the holes that are made in the sides of a ship by cannonball, during an engagement.

PETARD, or PETARDO, an engine to burst open the gates of small fortresses: it is made of gun-metal, fixed upon a board two inches thick, and about 2¹⁄₂ feet square, to which it is screwed, and holds from 9 to 20 pounds of powder, with a hole at the end opposite to the plank to fill it, into which the vent is screwed: the petard thus prepared is hung against the gate by means of a hook, or supported by three staves fastened to the plank: when fired it bursts open the gate. Its invention is ascribed to the French Huguenots in 1579, who, with them, took Cahors in the same year.

Petards are of four different sizes: the first contains 12lbs. 13oz. second 10lbs. 11oz. third 1lb. 10oz. fourth 1lb. The blind fuze composition for them is of mealed powder, 7lb. wood ashes 3oz.

Stores for one Petard.

Hooks to hang the petard 2 Gimblets 2 Brass fuze 1 Wrench to screw the fuze 1 Blue paper portfires 6 Slow match yards 4 Props or forks 2 Copper funnels 1 Tallow ounces 8 Cartridges 1

PETARDER, Fr.. to fire petards.

PETARDIER. The man who loads, fixes, and fires the petard. It likewise signifies among the French, the man who makes or throws a petard.

PETEL, Ind.. The head of a village.

PETER, Fr.. in a military sense, to explode, to make a loud noise.

PETEROLLES, Fr.. Squibs, such as children make and use in the streets for their diversion.

PETITE-Guerre, Fr. See GUERRE, for its definition.

PETITE-Guerre, is carried on by a light party, commanded by an expert partisan, and which should be from 1000 to 2000 men, separated from the army, to secure the camp or cover a march; to reconnoitre the enemy or the country; to seize their posts, convoys, and escorts; to plant ambuscades, and to put in practice every stratagem for surprising or disturbing the enemy; which is called carrying on the Petite-guerre. The genius of these days, and the operations of the American war, have placed the service of such a corps in a most respectable light, as it is more fatiguing, more dangerous, and more desultory than any other.

To form a corps capable of carrying on the Petite-guerre to advantage, prudence requires that it should consist of 1000 men at least, without which a partisan cannot expect to support the fatigues of a campaign, and seize the most important occasions that every where offer, and which a too great inferiority must make him forego.

It is no less important that this corps should be composed of light infantry and cavalry; and as it is most incontestible that the cavalry should be the most active in carrying on the Petite-guerre, it were to be wished that they were likewise the strongest, so as to have 600 cavalry and 400 infantry in a corps of 1000 men, making four companies of light infantry, and twelve troops of cavalry. Each company of infantry to consist of 1 captain, 1 first and 2 second lieutenants, 6 serjeants, and 100 men, including 6 corporals, 4 lance-corporals, and 2 drummers. Each troop of cavalry to consist of 1 captain, 1 first and 1 second lieutenant, 1 ensign, a quarter-master, 6 serjeants, and 100 horsemen; including 6 corporals, a trumpeter and 2 farriers.

The commanding officer should have the naming of the officers of this corps, or at least the liberty to reject such as he is convinced are not qualified for such service. To support the honor of this corps upon a solid and respectable footing, the strictest subordination must extend from the chief to all the officers, and the most rigid discipline, vigilance, patience, bravery, and love of glory, ought to pervade the whole corps.

PETITION. See MEMORIAL.

PETRE. See NITRE, SALTPETRE.

PETRINAL, or Poitrinal, Fr. a species of firearms between the arquebus and the pistol, which was used among the French, during the reign of Francis I. There is mention made of it in an account of the siege of Rouen, which was undertaken by Henry IV. in 1592. Being shorter than the musquet but of a heavier calibre, and not unlike our blunderbuss; it was slung in a cross belt, so as to rest upon the chest of the person who discharged it. From this circumstance it obtained the name of Poitrinal.

PETRONEL. See PISTOL.

PETTAH, Ind. the suburbs, or a town adjoining to a fort, which is in general surrounded by a stockade or fence of bamboos, a wall, and a ditch.

PEUPLER, Fr. literally means to people. This expression is used, in a military sense, by Belaire, author of Elémens de Fortification, in the following manner:--Il faut peupler la surface d’un glacis de Pierriers. The surface of a glacis ought to be well covered with pedereros. See page 388.

PHALANGE, Fr. See PHALANX.

PHALANX, a word taken from the Greek, signifying the same as legion. In antiquity, a huge, square, compact battalion, formed of infantry, set close with their shields joined, and pikes turned across. It consisted of 8000 men, and Livy says, it was invented by the Macedonians; and hence called the Macedonian phalanx.

PHAROS, (Phare, Fr.) a light-house or pile raised near a port, where a fire is kept burning in the night to direct vessels near at hand. The Pharos of Alexandria, built at the mouth of the Nile, was anciently very famous; whence the name was derived to all the rest. Ozanam says, Pharos anciently denoted a streight, as the Pharos or Pharo of Messina.

PHARSALIA, so called from Pharsalus, anciently a town in Thessaly, now Turkey in Europe, which lies a little to the south of Larissa. This spot was rendered memorable in history by the battle that was fought between Pompey and Cæsar, when they contended for the empire of the world. Plutarch has given the following account of the engagement:--

“Both armies were now arrived at the fields of Pharsalia, conducted by the two greatest generals alive; Pompey at the head of all the Roman nobility, the flower of Italy and Asia, all armed in the cause of liberty. Cæsar at the head of a body of troops firmly attached to his interests, men who had faced every appearance of danger, were long inured to hardships, and had grown from youth to age in the practice of arms. Both camps lay in sight of each other. In this manner they spent the night; when next morning, Cæsar’s army was going to decamp, word was brought him, that a tumult and murmur were heard in Pompey’s camp, as of men preparing for battle. Another messenger came soon after with tidings that the first ranks were already drawn out. Cæsar now seemed to enjoy the object of his wishes. Now, cried he to his soldiers, the wished for day is come, when you shall fight with men, not with want and hunger. His soldiers, with joy in their looks went each to his rank, like dancers on a stage; while Cæsar himself at the head of his tenth legion, a body of men that had never yet been broken, with silence and intrepidity waited for the onset. While Cæsar was thus employed, Pompey on horseback viewed both armies; and seeing the steady order of the enemy, with the impatience of his own soldiers, he gave strict orders, that the vanguard should make a stand, and keeping close in their ranks receive the enemy. Pompey’s army consisted of 45,000 men, Cæsar’s not quite half that number. And now the trumpet sounded the signal for battle on both sides, and both armies approached each other.

“While but yet a little space remained between either army, Caius Crastinus, a devoted Roman, issued from Cæsar’s army at the head of 120 men, and began the engagement. They cut through the opposite ranks with their swords, and made a great slaughter; but Crastinus still pressing forward, a soldier run him through the mouth, and the weapon came out at the back of his neck. In the mean time Pompey, designed to surround Cæsar, and to force his horse, which amounted to only one thousand, to fall back upon his infantry, gave orders that his own cavalry, consisting of 7000 men, should extend itself, and then attack the enemy. Cæsar expecting this, had placed 3000 foot in reserve, who rushed out fiercely, and attacked Pompey’s horse, letting fly their javelins in the faces of the young delicate Romans, who, careful of their beauty, turned their backs and were shamefully put to flight. Cæsar’s men, without pursuing them flanked the enemy, now unprotected by their horse, and soon a total rout began to ensue. Pompey, by the dust he saw flying in the air, quickly conjectured that his cavalry was overthrown, and overpowered by the event retired to his camp in agony and silence. In this condition he sat pondering in his tent, till roused by the shouts of the enemy breaking into his camp, he cried out: What, into the very camp! and without uttering any thing more, but putting on a mean habit, to disguise his flight, he departed secretly.” During the seven years war Frederick the great, king of Prussia, was much in the same situation. He had retired to his tent, and had given up every thing for lost, when the daring enterprise of Ziethen, who commanded the Death Hussars, turned the fortune of the day; and though he lost an incalculable number of Prussians, he secured the victory, and thereby restored to his master both his kingdom and his crown.

PHATUK, Ind. a gaol or prison. It likewise means a gate.

PHAUGUN, Ind. a month, which in some degree agrees with February and March.

PHILEBEG, or Kilt, from the Gaelic, Filleadh beg, which signifies a little plaid. This part of the Highland dress corresponds with the lower part of a belted plaid, and is frequently worn as an undress by Highland officers and soldiers. The philebeg or kilt may be considered as a very good substitute for the belted plaid, as it is not, at present, thought necessary for the Highlander to carry his clothing for the night, as well as by day, about his person. This was the case in ancient times, when the breachcan answered both purposes. The philebeg is a modern invention, and is the garment which some, who have endeavored to establish the antiquity of Truis, confound with the breachcan filleadh.

PHIRMAUND, Ind. This word is sometimes written Firmaun, and signifies a royal commission, mandate, charter, proclamation, or decree.

PHOUSDAR, Ind. The same as Fousdar, the superintendant of a large district. It more immediately signifies the officer in charge of the revenue.

PHOUS-DAN, Ind. The commander of a large body of forces.

PIAN, Fr. a term used in the West Indies, to signify a venereal taint.

PIANISTE, Fr. a person infected with the venereal disorder.

A PIC, Fr. perpendicularly.

PICE, Ind. a copper coin, used in most parts of India, the value of which four pices make an anna, sixteen anna, a rupee; and a rupee is half of our dollar; so that there are 64 pices to a rupee or half a dollar.

PICAROON, a pillager, one who plunders; a smuggler, one who violates the laws.

PICKETS, in fortification, stakes sharp at one end, and sometimes shod with iron, used in laying out the ground, of about three feet long; but, when used for pinning the fascines of a battery, they are from 3 to 5 feet long.

PICKETS, in artillery, are about 5 or 6 feet long, shod with iron, to pin the park lines, and to lay out the boundaries of the park.

PICKETS, in the camp, are also stakes of about 6 or 8 inches long, to fasten the tent cords, in pitching the tents; also, of about 4 or 5 feet long, driven into the ground near the tents of the horsemen, to tie their horses to.

PICKET, an out-guard posted before an army, to give notice of an enemy approaching. See GUARD.

PICKET, a barbarian kind of punishment so called, where a soldier stood with one foot upon a sharp pointed stake: the time of his standing was limited according to the offence.

PICK, PICK-AXE, PICKER, A sharp pointed iron tool, used in trenching, &c. to loosen the ground.

PICKER likewise means a small pointed piece of brass or iron wire, which every soldier carries to clear the touch-hole of his musquet. The brass pickers are the best, because they are not liable to snap or break off.

PICOREE, Fr. an obsolete French term, signifying a party of soldiers who go out in search of plunder.

PICORER, Fr. to go out in search of plunder. Obsolete.

PICOREUR, Fr. a marauder.

PICQUEERING, PICKERING, PICKEROONING, a little flying skirmish, which maurauders make, when detached for pillage, or before a main battle begins.

PICS-Hoyaux, Fr. Different sorts of pick-axes used by the pioneers.

PIECE, (Piéce, Fr.) This word is variously used, in a military sense, by the French and English, viz.

Un homme armé de toutes PIECES, Fr. a man armed at all points, or cap-a-pied.

PIECES d’honneur, Fr. the insignia or marks of honor. These consist of the crown, sceptre, and sword.

PIECES of Ordnance are all sorts of great guns and mortars.

Battering PIECES are the large guns which serve at sieges to make breaches, such as the 24-pounder, and the culverin, which carries 18lb. ball.

Garrison-PIECES, are mostly heavy 12, 18, 24, 36, and 42-pounders, besides wall guns.

Field-PIECES are twelve pounders, demi-culverins, six pounders, sakers, minions, and three pounders, which move with an army, and are parked behind the second line when it encamps, but are advanced in front, in the intervals of battalions, &c. and on the flanks in the day of battle.

Regimental PIECES, are light 6 pounders: each regiment has generally two of these pieces. See Am. Mil. Lib.

PIECE is likewise used to express a soldier’s musquet.

PIECE Goods, in India, the various fabrics which manufacture cotton and silk, are distinguished by this term.

Une PIECE d’artillerie, une PIECE de canon, Fr. These terms are used by the French to signify cannon in general.

PIECES de Battierie, Fr. See BATTERING PIECES.

PIECES de campagne, Fr. See FIELD PIECES.

PIECES de vingt-quatre, Fr. 24 pounders.

PIECES de trente-six, Fr. 36 pounders. When pieces are not specifically named the term is used in the same general sense by the English, as, one hundred pieces of cannon, or artillery: cent piéces d’artillerie; but when the calibre is mentioned, it is usual in English to substitute the word pounder for piece, as une piéce de vingt quatre; four and twenty pounder.

Démonter les PIECES, Fr. to dismount cannon.

Enclouer les PIECES, Fr. to spike cannon.

Rafraichir les PIECES, Fr. to spunge or clean out cannon.

PIECE de canon brisé, Fr. The French formerly made use of cannon that could be taken to pieces, and so rendered more portable. This species of ordnance was distinguished as above.

PIECE versée en panier ou en cage, Fr. a piece of ordnance is said to be in this situation, when it is so completely overturned, as to have the wheels of its carriage in the air. Various methods have been proposed by able engineers to raise cannon that have been overturned. See Saint Remi, Manuel de l’artilleur, and a late publication, intituled, Aide Mémoire a l’usage des Officiers d’Artillerie de France, by Gassendi.

PIECES légeres, Fr. light pieces. See FIELD PIECES.

PIECES à la Suédoise, Fr. field pieces originally invented, and since used among the Swedes.

PIECES Nettes, Fr. Artillery pieces that have no defect whatever.

PIECES de Chasse, Fr. a marine term, signifying the cannon that is placed on the stern and forecastle of a ship. We call them chase-guns.

PIECES détachées, Travaux avancés en dehors, Fr. Those works which cover the body of a fortified place, towards the country; of this description are ravelins, demi-lunes, hornworks, tenailles, crown works, queues d’hironde, enveloppes, &c.

To be cut to PIECES, (Etre écharpê, Fr.) The French say, Un tel régiment, a éte écharpé. Such a regiment was cut to pieces.

PIED de Roi, Fr. a measure containing twelve French inches, or one hundred and forty lines.

PIED Quarré, Fr. The French square foot contains the same dimensions in length and breadth, giving one hundred and forty inches of surface.

PIED de toise quarrée, Fr. the sixth part of a square toise. The square toise contains 36 feet, the square foot consequently comprehends six feet, and must be considered as a rectangle.

PIED Cube, Fr. the same measure according to three dimensions. It contains 1728 cubic inches.

PIED Rhenan or Rhinlandique, Fr. the German foot. See MEASURE.

PIED courant, Fr. the extent of a foot considered as to length only.

PIED Marin, Fr. literally, sea-leg. See MARIN.

PIED de mur ou de muraille, Fr. that lower part of a wall which is otherwise called Escarpe, and is contained between its base and top.

PIED de rampart, Fr. that extent of ground which lies between the fosse and the houses in a fortified town or place.

A PIED, Fr. On foot.

PIED à pied, Fr. foot by foot, gradually. Faire un logement pied à pied; to establish a lodgement foot by foot. Forcer les ouvrages pied à pied; to make regular approaches, or to besiege a town by opening trenches, &c. instead of insulting it by a direct attack.

Troupes retenues sur PIED, Fr. troops kept upon full pay.

Etre en PIED, Fr. to be kept upon full pay, in contradistinction to reformé, or being reduced.

PIEDROIT, Fr. Pier.

PIEGE, Fr. Snare.

PIERRE, Fr. A stone.

PIERRE à feu, Fr. Flint.

PIERRE à fusil, Fr. A flint.

PIERREE, Fr. A drain, water-course.

PIERRIER, Fr. A swivel, a pederero.

PIERRIERE, Fr. A quarry.

PIERRIERES, Fr. Heaps of stones, which are designedly collected round fortified places to interrupt besiegers in their approaches. These heaps are covered over with earth to conceal the stratagem; and the spots on which they lie are frequently fortified with palisadoes, in the form of bonnets or saliant angles; so that when the besieger attempts to carry them, the artillery from the ramparts or neighboring places, may be fired amongst the heaps of stones, and considerable damage be done by the fragments that must necessarily fly about.

PIERS. The columns on which the arch of a bridge is raised.

PIES, Fr. Knights that were created by Pope Pius IV. in 1560, with the titles of counts Palatines. They took precedence, at Rome, of the knights of the Teutonic order, and of those of Malta.

PIETINER, Fr. to move the feet with great quickness. It likewise signifies to mark time, but not technically so.

PIETON, Fr. a foot soldier.

PIEU, Fr. a large beam, or stake.

PIEUX, Fr. This word is sometimes used in the plural number to signify palisades.

PIGNON, Fr. the gable end of a building.

PIKE, in war, an offensive weapon, consisting of a wooden shaft, from 6 to 20 feet long, with a flat steel head, pointed, called the spear. This instrument was long in use among the infantry; but now the bayonet, which is fixed on the muzzle of the firelock, is substituted in its stead. The Macedonian phalanx was a battalion of pikemen.

PIKEMEN, soldiers armed with pikes.

The utility of the Pike was pointed out by marshal Saxe, but until the French being destitute of firearms for their national guards, were forced to resort to it, the great value of the weapon was not well understood; although the bayonet, which is only a pike on the end of a firelock, was in general use. On an emergency, where arms are scarce, the pike may always be relied on against infantry or cavalry. See Am. Mil. Lib.

PIKESTAFF, the wooden pole or handle of a pike.

PILE, Fr. A species of javelin which was used by the Romans. They darted these weapons with so much force, that, according to tradition, two men have been pierced through, together with their shields or bucklers.

PILES, strong pieces of wood, driven into the ground to make a firm foundation for any kind of work.

To PILE or stack arms, to place three musquets with six bayonets in such a relative position, that the butts shall remain firm upon the ground, and the muzzles be close together in an oblique direction. This method has been adopted to prevent the injury which was formerly done to musquetry, when the practice of grounding the firelock prevailed. Every recruit should be taught how to pile or stack arms before he is dismissed the drill.

PILE, any heap; as a pile of balls, shells, &c.

PILES of shot or shells, are generally piled up in the magazines, in three different manners: the base is either a triangular square, or a rectangle; and from thence the piles are called triangular, square, and oblong.

TABLE, of Triangular Piles of Shot.

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A military dictionary (part 5 of 8)

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A military dictionary (part 5 of 8)