A military dictionary (part 4 of 8)

A military dictionary (part 4 of 8)

INTRENCHMENT, any work that fortifies a post against the attack of an enemy. The word is generally used to denote a ditch or trench with a parapet. Intrenchments are sometimes made of fascines, with earth thrown over them, of gabions, hogsheads, or bags filled with earth, to cover the men from the enemy’s fire. See RETRENCHMENT.

INTREPIDITE, Fr. See INTREPIDITY.

INTREPIDITY. An unqualified contempt of death, and indifference to fortune, as far as it regards personal safety; a fearlessness of heart and a daring enterprize of mind. According to Rochefoucault, intrepidity, especially with regard to military daring, implies firmness of character, great confidence of mind, and extraordinary strength of soul. Buoyed up and supported by these qualities, (which are sometimes natural and sometimes acquired,) men become superior to every emotion of alarm, and are insensible of those perturbations of the heart which the prospect of imminent danger almost always engenders. Chevalier Folard defines it to be a settled contempt of death, a species of courage which so intoxicates the mind as to make it leap over the sober bounds of judgment and discretion; an enthusiastic impulse which urges us forward and renders danger imperceptible, or, if discovered, raises our sensations beyond the least impression of fear.

A general may be said to act with intrepidity, when with forces inferior to those of his enemy, and under all the disadvantages of ground, &c. he hazards a general action, attacks his whole front, and finally defeats him. This hardiness and enterprize of character not only surprize your enemy, but likewise create emotions of wonder. If, on the contrary, a general at the head of a small army should be known to act against another that is superior to him in every point, except that of talent and military skill, and if by means of these qualities, the former should by able manœuvres and well concerted measures, render all the designs and attempts of the latter fruitless and abortive (at a time and under circumstances, which might dishearten almost any other general,) it is then fair to conclude, that the conduct of such a general is the consequence of great military knowlege; but it cannot, with propriety be said to be the result of intrepidity; for it must be evident, that before any very dangerous step has been taken, most of the obstacles have been previously removed or rendered practicable.

An officer, who is not under the influence of that species of intrepidity which we have described, when he has once got upon equal ground, or finds it necessary to risk an action, will, without hesitation, advance against his enemy, depending wholly upon military skill and the superior disposition of his line of battle. Full of resources and with great presence of mind, he will march forward and obtain a victory, not by dint of courage or by the mere favor of fortune, but through judgment, military ingenuity, and great tactical knowlege. And yet it would be an injustice done to the character of such an officer, were it imagined, that he could act in this manner without possessing great intrepidity. We are rather of opinion that such a man must have the most undaunted courage, with the additional advantage of consummate prudence founded upon military knowlege. The intrepidity of his soul is calmed by the cooler judgment of his head; he is aware of difficulties, but is not disheartened by their appearance; he is, on the contrary, encouraged to surmount them by that self-possession, and by that unshaken presence of mind, which enable him to execute what might seem impracticable to others.

Mere intrepidity is of a lively, impetuous nature, restless and impatient of restraint, which, though it may not degenerate into downright animal brutality, is nevertheless very far from being strictly rational or enlightened. If the person who acts under its immediate influence be quick in his perceptions, his conduct is generally marked by some imprudent measure, some enterprize that bids defiance to reflexion, and by some attempt that is as hastily executed as it has been inconsiderately planned. An intrepidity of this species is seldom found in the first class of military character: sometimes indeed, but rarely, it has been accompanied by great prudence and foresight.

In this number may be considered some ancient and modern heroes, such as Alexander the great, Charles king of Sweden, Henry IV. of France, Wolfe at Quebec, Bonaparte and Augereau at Lodi; Dessaix, Marmont, and Lannes, at Marengo; Murat at Eylau; Davoust at Austerlitz; Soult at Jena; Claperede on the Danube, in 1809; if instances be found in their histories where prudence and discretion have been overleaped by an intrepidity of soul that was too actively disposed on certain occasions, the effect was temporary, and easy to be traced to a cause which was too powerfully engrafted upon their nature, to be always subject to control.

INVALID properly includes every soldier that has been wounded, or has suffered materially in his health, and in consequence of his good conduct, has been recommended to a certain provision for life. Chelsea hospital is the place allotted for the reception of such objects of public gratitude and benevolence in England. Before the building of the hotel des invalides at Paris, all soldiers of the above description who belonged to the French army, were distributed among the frontier towns, and enjoyed a certain allowance for life.

In England, and, we presume, the custom still exists under the new order of things in France, those invalid soldiers who are reported not wholly incapable of bearing arms, are occasionally sent into garrisoned places, and do duty with the regular army.

It is a reproach to the United States that there is yet no provision for the maintenance of those who serve the best part of their lives in its military establishment.

INVALIDE, Fr. See INVALID.

INVASION, in war, the entrance or attack of an enemy on the dominions of another.

INVENTAIRE des Effets des Officiers décedés, Fr. Inventory of the effects of deceased officers. As the French regulations on this head were more specific than those expressed in our articles of war, we shall premise the extract from the latter, by the following particulars which were in force during the old government of France.

When governors, commandants of places, staff officers, commissaries of war, engineers and officers entrusted with the care of artillery, died in their several provinces or allotted quarters, the judges or magistrates belonging to the spot where such deaths occurred sealed up the effects of the deceased, and took an inventory of their property, without being, in the least, controled by any species of military authority. On the removal of the seals, the town-major or his adjutant received a specific statement of every thing which appertained to the situation or appointment of the deceased person or persons, which statement was transmitted to government.

The creditors of the deceased preferred a schedule of the debts contracted in each place of residence, before any of the ordinary justices, which debts were discharged out of the personal property that was left. But all other creditors must have recourse to the judge or justice belonging to the precise spot where the deceased resided; applications respecting all debts which exceeded the value of the personal effects were directed to be made through the same channel.

When officers died in a garrison town or upon a march, or when engineers, who had no particular fixed residence, or artillery officers that were upon leave, departed this life, the town-majors or aid-major of the towns or places, where such persons died, fixed their seals upon their effects. An inventory of these effects was afterwards taken, provided they were not claimed by the next heir; in which latter case, all the debts that had been contracted by the deceased in the place where he died, were ordered to be paid by the person who took possession of the property. Public notice was given by beat of drum, that a military sale would be made, and one sol in the livre was charged on all that was disposed of in this manner.

The man who beat the drum, and the person who enregistered the minutes of the sale, were paid out of this sol; whatever surplus remained, after a reasonable deduction had been made for these purposes, became the town-major’s property.

The produce of the sale was appropriated to the discharge of such debts as had been contracted in the garrison: and the judge or magistrate, whose particular province it was to take cognizance of all cases relating to property, placed his seal upon the remainder, which was deposited in a box. This box was delivered over to the person that had enregistered the effects and taken minutes of the sale; in whose hands it remained until claimed by the widow of the deceased, the residuary legatee, or by any creditors, except those who immediately belonged to the garrison.

When a captain in the French guards died or was killed, his heirs or executors were not obliged to discharge any demands which his company might have had upon him. If the sale of his private property should not be sufficient to defray these debts, the officer who succeeds to the company is bound to make up the remainder, and the soldier’s claim has the preference of all other demands. If there was an overplus, it was paid into the hands of the lawful heirs. The soldiers of the company received the moiety of what was due to them in ready money.

On the decease or departure of the officers belonging to any of the detached companies of invalids, the superior officer of that detachment in which the death or dereliction happened, ordered every article belonging to the royal hospital of invalids to be sold in the presence of the several officers, without deducting the sol in the livre. The produce of this sale was placed to the credit of the detachment; and all other articles belonging to the deceased were disposed of by the town-majors in the manner already mentioned.

The powers which were vested in the town-majors and staff-officers belonging to garrisoned places, were lodged in the hands of the majors or aid-majors of regiments, who upon the decease of an officer on service or in a place where there was not any staff, took a regular inventory of his effects, &c.

Town-majors were not authorized to put their seals upon the effects of deceased officers belonging to the Swiss regiments, as these had a peculiar military jurisdiction of their own. But other foreign troops in the service of France were not entitled to these privileges.

INVENTORY of deceased officers effects, &c. In the British army, when any commissioned officer happens to die or is killed on service, it is directed by the articles of war, that the major of the regiment, or the officer doing the major’s duty in his absence, shall immediately secure all his effects or equipage then in camp or quarters; and shall before the next regimental court-martial make an inventory thereof, and forthwith transmit the same to the office of our secretary at war, to the end, that the executors of such officer may, after payment of his regimental debts and quarters, and the expences attending his interment, receive the overplus, if any be, to his or their use.

When any non-commissioned officer or private soldier, happens to die, or is killed on service, the then commanding officer of the troop or company, shall, in the presence of two other commissioned officers, take an account of whatever effects he dies possessed of, above his regimental clothing, arms, and accoutrements, and transmit the same to the office of the secretary at war. These effects are to be accounted for and paid to the representatives of such deceased non-commissioned officer or soldier; and in case any of the officers so authorized to take care of the effects of dead officers and soldiers, should, before they have accounted to their representatives for the same, have occasion to leave the regiment by preferment or otherwise, they are ordered before they be permitted to quit the same, to deposit in the hands of the commanding officer or of the agent of the regiment, all the effects of such deceased non-commissioned officers and soldiers, in order, that the same may be secured for, and paid to, their respective representatives. See Articles of War, section XIX.

To INVEST a place, (investir une place, Fr.) A fortified town or place is said to be invested, when all the avenues leading to it have been seized upon by hostile troops, which are distributed and posted on the principal commands, to prevent any succour from being received by the garrison, and to keep the ground until the rest of the army with the artillery, can arrive to form a regular siege. To invest a place is, in fact, to take preparatory measures for a blockade, or a close siege. In order to do this effectually, the general in chief of the approaching army must detach a large body of cavalry, together with the different corps of dragoons under the command of a lieutenant-general, for the purpose of regularly investing the town. As secrecy is of the utmost consequence on this occasion, the troops belonging to the detachment must have their march so managed as to create an alarm and jealousy in some other quarter, by deviating from the road which leads directly to the proposed object of attack. The general, indeed, would act wisely, by giving written sealed orders to the commanding officer, with strict injunctions not to open them until the detachment should have reached a certain spot, and then only in the presence of some particular persons; by which means his real designs may be concealed. Sometimes a place is partially invested, for the sole purpose of diverting the enemy’s attention from the real object, and of inducing him to weaken the garrison, by detaching it to different quarters. Thus in 1710, the allied army suddenly appeared before the town of Ypres, and by threatening to besiege it, caused so many troops to be detached from Tournay to its relief, that the latter place, which was the real object of attack, and was one of the strongest towns in the Low Countries, afforded little or no resistance.

It is sometimes prudent to harrass and perplex the enemy that may be in the neighborhood of the town which you propose to attack, by perpetually driving in his out-posts, &c. and by forcing him to retire from the different avenues and commanding grounds; when the various objects, which are to facilitate the approaches of the besieging army, have been accomplished, the lieutenant-general who is entrusted with the investment of the town, must procure faithful and intelligent guides, advance by forced marches, halt as little as possible, and then only for the purpose of refreshing his men. He must studiously preserve the secret of his expedition, until he gets so near to the town, that the object of his approach becomes manifest and unequivocal.

When he arrives within one days march of the town, he must detach from his main body two or three parties of horse, (each party to be stronger than the garrison of the place) which must lie in ambush in the neighborhood, for the purpose of carrying off cattle, or of making prisoners. The instant he reaches the town, he must seize upon all the leading avenues, and draw his army up on some advantageous ground. He then goes out to reconnoitre, and to discover the most likely places by which succours might be conveyed into the town. He must have the precaution to post a strong guard in each of these places.

His next business will be to send out small scouting parties, in order to obtain correct intelligence respecting the enemy’s motions. Every outlet is blocked up by some dragoons, for the purpose of hemming in the garrison as close as possible. He makes it his study moreover to acquire personal information by examining the prisoners, with regard to the nature of the country, the different fords, rivulets, points of enfilade, avenues, strong buildings, or commanding heights in the neighborhood. He further enquires as to the strength of the garrison, and the number of officers; whether the governor suspects that a regular siege is intended: whether he expects succours, supplies of stores and ammunition, and from what quarter he is to be furnished; finally, whether the fortifications be in good repair, and the place equal to a defence.

At night he sends out advanced parties, with directions to bivouac within musquet shot of the town, and takes especial care always to post strong parties in those places and avenues by which succours and supplies might be easily conveyed to the garrison. He has likewise the precaution to have different small guards, or out-lying and in-lying piquets, both in his front and rear, to prevent surprizes. On these occasions the detachments are formed, half on foot and half mounted; those on foot constantly remaining at their horses’ heads, bridle in hand. These detachments are on the alert during the whole of the night, and only one half of the number is suffered to repose during the day.--Whenever the commanding officer has received intelligence of the approach of a body of troops to relieve the garrison, he must make his dispositions in such a manner as to give them battle, before they get sufficiently near to throw themselves into the town in scattered and divided parties. Great caution, however, must be observed under these circumstances, not to advance too far, lest it should only prove a feint on the enemy’s part, in order to induce him to weaken some of his posts; and by taking advantage of their absence, to throw some succours into the town.

As the principal, indeed the only object which the lieutenant-general can have, is to prevent any assistance being given to the garrison, whilst he invests the place, he must always be on horseback; he must incessantly visit the different posts, thoroughly reconnoitre the country, and minutely examine those quarters, through which succours or supplies might be conveyed to the garrison, or which offer advantageous positions for his own troops to occupy. During the investment of the town, it will be his duty to collect all the intelligence and information he can, respecting the state of the works and the adjacent points, in order to communicate fully with the general in chief, when he brings up the besieging army, and to put him in full possession of every thing, which may facilitate the object of his enterprize.

The chief engineers should always accompany the lieutenant-general who is entrusted with the investing of a town, in order to get the necessary knowlege of the place before hand, and to understand how the lines of circumvallation, &c. should be drawn, three or four days before the main army arrives; they should moreover make several rounds for the purpose of reconnoitring. These measures will conduce a great deal towards a wise and effectual method of investing the place. To accomplish these ends, a correct plan of the town must be procured. This plan must be reduced, and a rough sketch taken of every thing within half a league of the circumference of the town; after which a small chart may be drawn of the lines, &c. which are to be made for the purpose of carrying on the siege. This must be done in concert with the lieutenant-general who ought to know better than any body, what the order of battle will be, how much ground is to be occupied by the different brigades and regiments and what the relative detail of the whole army will require.

From the day on which a town is invested, every thing is thrown into motion. The train of artillery is directed to be brought out with necessary stores and ammunition, and proper carriages, with their drivers, are impressed; every department, in a word, performs its allotted duty, and the board of ordnance, as well as the commissary general’s office become subservient to the orders that are issued by the general in chief.

Whilst the necessary measures are adopted for the close investing of the town, the main army approaches by forced marches, and generally arrives before the place five or six days after it has been invested. The lieutenant-general, or officer commanding the investing army goes out to meet the main body when it is within half a league of the place, and communicates with the general; who, in consequence of the report he makes, gives directions respecting the lines of circumvallation, &c.

For further particulars on this article, see Traité de l’Attaque des Places par le Marechal Vauban revue, &c. F. P. Foissac Chef de brigade au corps du Génie de la Republique Francaise, vol. i. page 69.

INVESTISSEMENT. (A French word which is strictly military. The celebrated Vauban has erroneously used investiture to signify the same thing.) The act of investing any town or place in such a manner as to prevent the garrison or inhabitants from receiving succours or provisions.

To INUNDATE, in a military sense, is to overflow any part of a country, in order to prevent an enemy from advancing. Holland is particularly calculated for this species of defence.

INUNDATION. The act of letting water into a country, so that it shall be overflowed to prevent the approach of an enemy.

In the Instruction adressée aux officiers d’Infanterie pour tracer et construire toutes sortes d’Ouvrages de Campagne, &c. par A. P. I. Belair, Chef de Brigade, may be found some very sensible observations on the means of making inundations to answer military purposes, see page 119, &c. Chapitre Huitieme, Moyens de faire des Inondations. We likewise refer our military readers to the Elemens de Fortification, published by the same author, see pages, 75, 82, 83, and 84. In page 294 of his Dictionnaire Militaire, some excellent observations upon the same subject, may be seen under the article Architecture hydraulique.

JOAR, Ind. A general massacre of the women and children, which is sometimes performed by the Hindoos, when they find they cannot prevent the enemy from taking the town. When this dreadful and unnatural ceremony is to take place, a spot is selected, which is filled with wood, straw, oil, &c., the victims are enclosed, and the whole is set on fire.

To JOIN. A technical word used in the British service, generally signifying to effect the junction of one military body with another. In a more limited sense, it means the accession of an individual voluntarily, or otherwise, to a corps or army. If an officer on being ordered to join, omits to do so wilfully, he is liable to be tried by a general court-martial, or to be peremptorily suspended by the commander in chief for being absent without leave.

JOINT Bolts. See BOLTS.

JOLS, Fr. Barges so called, are used in Denmark, and sometimes by the Russians.

JONCTION, Fr. See JUNCTION.

JOODAY PERRAPUT, Ind. A term used in India to signify a slave taken in war.

JOOMAN, Ind. Friday so called in India.

JOUE! Fr. A word of command in the French service answering to aim!

Coucher en JOUE, Fr. To aim with a musquet, or other fire-arm, which is used as such--as je l’avois dêjà couché en joue, I had already taken my aim at him.

JOVES, Fr. The two sides in the epaulement of a battery which form the embrazure are so called.

JOUR, Fr. The tour of duty which is done in the course of a day and night.

Etre de JOUR, Fr. To be officer of the day, or to command a body of troops at a siege or otherwise in the capacity of a general officer, &c. The usual time was 24 hours, at the expiration of which another officer undertook the duty, and was relieved by one of his own rank. See OFFICER of the day.

Ordre du JOUR, Fr. Orders. See General ORDERS.

JOURNAL, Fr. A public record or general orderly book, kept in the French service, and in which every transaction that occurred during a siege is entered by the governor of the town, for the future inspection of a superior authority. The general officer who carried on the siege of a place likewise kept a document of the sort, and minuted down every thing that happened under his command. So that the journal which was kept in this manner was a circumstantial detail of what occurred, day after day, during the attack and defence of a town.

JOURNAL de l’armée, Fr. See RETURNS.

JOURNEE, Fr. A term used among the French, to express any particular engagement or battle, as la journée de Marengo, the battle of Marengo. We frequently adopt the word day in the same sense: thus a hard fought day signifies a hard fought battle.

JOUTE, Fr. A close fight between two individuals. It likewise means an engagement at sea.

JOUTER, faire des joutes, Fr. To run a tilt at one another with lances.

JOUST. See JUST.

IRAN, Ind. Persia.

IRENARCH, (Irenarque, Fr.) An officer, so called in the old Grecian empire, irenarcha præfectus pacis. His principal duty was to preserve public tranquillity, and his functions were nearly similar to those of the French prévots de maréchaussées, or police magistrates. We read in the Justinian code of laws, that the irenarchs were sent into the different provinces, for the purpose of preserving peace and good order. They were therefore invested with authority to take cognizance of all crimes and misdemeanors, and to punish the delinquents. There was likewise an irenarch established in every town, to settle the disputes and differences which might arise between the inhabitants, and to secure public tranquillity. This person was anciently called præfectus urbis. The office of irenarch was abolished under the Emperors Theodosius and Honorius, it having latterly been found more productive of evil than good. The word itself is derived from the Greek, and signifies Prince of Peace.

IRREGULAR Fortification. See FORTIFICATION.

IRON Guns. See GUNS.

IRONS. See PRIMING IRONS.

ISLAUD, Ind. A term to express slow music among the Indians.

ISOCELES, a triangle having only two sides which are equal.

ISOLE, Fr. This word is used among the French, to express any body or thing which is detached from another. It is variously applied in fortification. Thus a pavillion or a barrack which is not joined to any other wall or building is called isolé, because it stands alone, and a person may walk entirely round it. A parapet is also said to be isolé, when there is an interval of four or five feet between the rampart and its wall; which interval serves as a path for the rounds.

ISOPERIMETRICAL Figures.--(Figures Isoperimetriques, Fr.) A term derived from the Greek to express all figures that have equal circumferences or perimeters.

ISSUE, event; consequence; the ultimate result of any undertaking; the termination of any contest.

General ISSUE. In matters of litigation is the question to be decided upon, or issue, the parties state certain facts, one asserts the fact, the other denies, and upon this they join issue, the determination of that fact is the issue.

ISTHMUS, (Isthme, Fr.) A neck of land which joins the Peninsula to the Continent, and which separates two seas, as Darien; Corinth.

ITINERAIRES, Fr. Itinerary movements or days of march. A technical phrase among the French to denote the order and disposition which a body of men, or an army, is directed to observe in its march from one camp to another, or to any particular quarter of destination.

ITMAMDAR. Ind. A superintendant or lieutenant-governor in India.

JUDGES are authorized to take judicial notice of the articles of war.

JUDGE MARTIAL, or Advocate General, the supreme judge in martial law as to the jurisdiction and powers of military courts, in the British system. It is incumbent upon this person, as well as upon his deputies to be well acquainted with the laws of the land, that they may admonish the court or president when their proceedings are tending to infringe the civil law. He is register of courts-martial, and should take down the evidence in the very words of the witness. He is neither a judge nor a juror as to the charge.

JUGE, Fr. A sort of judge or provost marshal. This term was particularly applicable to the interior government of the Swiss guards that were in the service of France. Each regiment of that description had one judge or provost marshal per company, and one superior to the rest who presided over the regiment. The inferior judge was called richter, and the grand or superior judge obster richter. The inferior judges had the examination of petty crimes and offences which they reported to the captain of the company. If the crimes were of a serious or heinous nature, the inferior judges drew up a specific statement of them, and laid the whole before the obster richter, who communicated the circumstance to the colonel. Grounds for a general court-martial were generally established out of the latter report.

JUGG, Ind. An Indian sacrifice.

JUGGUT GROW, Ind. An Indian term which signifies guardian of mankind.

JUMBAUN, Ind. In Indian music, means, shake.

JUMBOO DEEP, Ind. A word particularly used to signify India; it is derived from jumboo or jumbook, a jackal, and deep, any large portion of land which is surrounded by the sea.

JUMBOO DEEP, Ind. The inhabitants of India were so called before the introduction of the Tartar governments.

JUMMA KERCH, Ind. An account, stating the receipt and expenditure of the revenue; that is the gross or general account.

JUNCAN, Ind. A toll or duty on every thing that passes.

JUNGLE, An Indian term for a wood, or woody country. It likewise means high grass, reeds, or thicket.

JURISDICTION. Legal authority, extent of power. Officers not being liable to be tried by garrison or regimental courts-martial, may appeal from the jurisdiction of such courts; as may non-commissioned officers and soldiers in cases where their pay is concerned.

JUST. A sportive combat on horseback, man against man, armed with lances; called also Joust, Tilt, Tournament, &c.

JUSTICES. Military men are, in many instances, under the necessity of applying to justices in order to execute their several orders and instructions without infringing upon the civil authorities; and justices on their side are bound to aid and assist the military in conformity to established laws and regulations.

Military JUSTICE, (Justice Militaire, Fr.) That species of justice which prevails in the army, and corresponds with the articles of War.

K.

KABBADE or CABADE, Fr. A military dress which is worn by the modern Greeks. According to Tzetzes it derives its name from Cabades, a Persian king. Codinus, on the other hand, asserts, that the Greeks in Constantinople adopted it in imitation of the Assyrians. Others again maintain, that it owes its appellation to the resemblance which it bears to a Greek letter. Father Goar, the author, very justly ridicules this etymology. We are, however, authorized to say, that be the derivation of the word what it may, the dress itself consists of a short garment which was worn underneath another. It had not any folds, but sat close to the body, being buttoned with large buttons, and reaching down to the calves of the legs. It was fringed round the edges, and was usually worn with a girdle; such is the description which Father Goar has given of the kabbades in his notes upon Codinus. He concludes by observing, that in his opinion it is what the Romans called sagum, and the modern Greeks afterwards corrupted into kabbade.

KAK TOWDA, Ind. Fine mould beat strongly in between two walls, for the purpose of shooting arrows into when the walls are taken away.

KALEE, Ind. An Hindoo deity the genius of evil; the infernal god, to whom human beings are sacrificed.

KALLAAT or KELAUT, Ind. a dress which is given to any person invested with a new office.

KALMUCS, (Kalmouques, Fr.) This word is generally written Calmucs. They are wandering tribes of Tartars, who inhabit the parts north of the Caspian sea. These hordes frequently put themselves under the protection of the court of Russia. A French writer describes the Kalmucs to be a sort of militia, which is established between Siberia and the Caspian sea. There are generally some regiments of them attached to the Russian armies in common with the Cossacks. They are armed with a lance iron pointed, about six feet long, and carry a bow with a quiver upon their backs, containing ten arrows. They never serve on foot, and are only formidable by name.

KALSA, Ind. The treasury.

KALSA CUTCHERRY, Ind. the room of business, where the business of the army is transacted; and all matters of litigation on that branch of service is determined.

KHAN, an officer in Persia, who is invested with the same powers that are entrusted to an European governor.

KANAUTS, Ind. a term used in India, to express the walls of a canvas tent.

KATAA, the Indian name for China.

KATIK, an Indian month, which in some measure coincides with our month of October.

KAULAUBHAIJE, the Indian term for message.

KECHERKLECHI, guards attached to the person of the king of Persia; they are armed with a musquet of an extraordinary size and calibre. They were raised and formed into a regular corps the middle of the last century.

KEELS, the long boats in which the Saxons successfully invaded England were so called.

KEEP, in ancient military history, a kind of strong tower which was built in the centre of a castle or fort, to which the besieged retreated and made their last efforts of defence. Of this description is the keep of Windsor Castle.

King’s KEEP, a fort built by king Henry II. in the interior part of Dover castle is so called.

To KEEP off, in a military sense, is either to deter your enemy from approaching close to the lines or fortifications by inducing him to suspect a superior force, an ambuscade, or a mine, or by openly galling his advanced posts in such a manner as to beat him in detail. Infantry may keep off cavalry by hot firing, or by a compact intrepid direction of the bayonet.

To KEEP up, in military movements, is the preservation of that regular pace, by which a line or column, on a march, or in manœuvring, advances towards any given point without any chasms or fluctuations. When a regiment marches by files, it is almost impossible for the rear to keep up. On this account, divisions, subdivisions, and even sections, are best calculated to preserve a regular depth and continuity of march.

To KEEP up, likewise signifies to attend to the interior management and discipline of a corps, so as to prevent the least deviation from established rules and regulations. Thus commanding officers are said to keep up good order and discipline, who, whilst absent or present, provide against the least insubordination, &c.

To KEEP up a heavy fire, is to play with heavy ordnance against a fortified place, or body of men, by a calm and well-directed succession of shot. In musquetry firing, officers commanding battalions, divisions, or platoons, should be very exact in giving the word in order to keep up the different firings.

KEERAY, Ind. expences, charges.

KENT. It is the peculiar duty of the county lieutenant, or of three deputy lieutenants belonging to this English county, to issue orders to the chief constables of the several hundreds to send out precepts to the churchwardens or overseers to return a list of men liable to serve. The churchwardens and overseers of the county of Kent are, by act of parliament, invested with the powers of constables, to put in force the militia acts.

KENTASSI, a range of mountains in Thibet, in which are the sources of the Ganges. This river, formed from several sources, passes successively two great lakes, and flows to the west, until the opposition of a part of the Indian Caucasus turns it to the south, and having completed in these various directions a course of two hundred leagues, it enters India by forcing its passage through the mountains of the frontier.

KERANA, a long trumpet, similar in shape and size to the speaking trumpet. The Persians use it whenever they wish to make any extraordinary noise, and they frequently blow it with hautboys, kettle drums and other instruments at sunset, and two hours after midnight.

KEREEF, Ind. One of the two seasons into which the year is divided in India.

KERIMCHARRY, Ind. an inferior officer under the Zemindar, who collects from the villages, and keeps the accounts.

KERN. Irish, a soldier. The Irish infantry were formerly distinguished by this appellation. The men in those days were armed with a sword, and a dart or javelin, which was tied to a small cord, so that after they had thrown it at the enemy, they could instantly recover it, and use it in any way they thought proper. The javelin was called skene, which is also the Irish for a knife.

KERUI, Ind. a village or parish.

KETTLE, a vessel used to boil composition for fire-works.

KETTLE-Drums. See DRUMS.

KETTLE-drum cart, a four wheel carriage which is drawn by four horses, and is used exclusively by the British artillery as a pageant.

The ordnance flag is planted on the fore part, and the drummer with two kettle drums is seated, as in a chair of state, on the back part. This cart is finely engraven and richly gilt. It has not been in the field since the year 1743, when the king was present. It is kept in the tower.

KEYS, in a general sense, are instruments with which locks are opened.

KEYS, in artillery carriages, may be considered under three specific heads, viz.

Fore-lock KEYS, which serve to pass through the lower end of bolts, in order to fasten them.

Spring KEYS may be used in the same manner, but are differently made, for instead of being of one single piece, they are of two, like two springs laid one over the other. When they are put into eye-bolts, they are pinched together at the ends, and when they are in, they open again; so that the motion of the carriage cannot disturb or shake them out. Spring keys are peculiarly useful in travelling carriages.

KEYS with chains and staples fixed on the side pieces of a carriage or mortar bed. They serve to fasten the cap squares by passing through the eyes of the eye-bolts, with or without.

KEY stone, in architecture, is the middle stone of an arch, by which the sweep of the arch is bound together.

KEY. See QUAY.

KEYSERLICKS, or imperialists, the Austrian troops are frequently called so. The term was indeed common among the British soldiers, when they did duty together, and invaded France in 1794. It is derived from keyser, from Caesar, which in German, signifies emperor.

KHAN, Ind. signifies lord or chieftain. This title was given by the king of Delhi, for which it is supposed, the person maintained 250 horse soldiers, which he commanded and disciplined for the king’s service.

KHEET, Ind. a fortified city, which is four coss or eight English miles in length and breadth, and not so much as eight coss.

KHODA, Ind. GOD.

KHODADAUD SIRCAR, Ind. That is the government or ruler blessed or beloved of God; it was a title assumed by Tippo Sultaun, the sovereign of the kingdom of Mysore, who fell in defence of his capital, Serungputtun, or Seringapatam, when it was stormed, May the 4th, 1799, by the British forces under the command of lieutenant general Harris.

KID. This appellation was formerly given to any person that was trepanned by kidnappers.

KIDNAPPER, a man who by improper means decoys the unwary into the army or navy.

KIEU, the Indian term for any bridge under which water flows.

KILLA, Ind. a castle, fort, or fortress.

KILLADAR, Ind. the governor or commandant of a fort.

KINDALAHS, a vagabond, outcast set of people in India, originally belonging to the Hindoo tribe. By such proscription and disgrace are these miserable creatures marked, that the people of other casts not only will not visit them, but if any one of them should presume to approach a person of the Nayr tribe, it is lawful for the latter to put him to instant death.

To KINDLE, in a military sense, is to excite mankind to arms. To kindle the flames of war is a familiar expression.

KING from the Saxon koning, that is cunning, wise; it has come to bear a different sense, and to signify a person neither cunning nor wise; a person in whom a supreme or qualified authority is vested without the consent of a nation. The chief magistrate, and one of the three nominal parts of the British government.

In a military acceptation of the term, the king of Great Britain is captain general of the British army, the primary source from which all appointments in it are derived, and the last resort of naval and military jurisdiction. With him, as principal magistrate in the state, and head of the executive power, all the arrangements of the British army finally rest, as from him they primarily issued. From him all the effective forces derive energy and effect, and when war has been declared, to him only does the army look for the immediate application and general exercise of its powers, through the medium of the ministers he appoints, who are responsible to parliament for the manner in which the authority they have received has been executed.

The British king is likewise supreme head of the militia, and has the power of appointing or dismissing lieutenants of counties. This king may likewise order three deputy lieutenants to act, when the lieutenant is abroad, or when there is a vacancy. He may join independent companies into a battalion, or incorporate them with any other regiment; and by him only can adjutants be appointed to act in the militia. If they are selected from the regular army, they preserve their rank, and their new commission bears the sign manual.

In case of an invasion or rebellion, the British king has the power to order the county lieutenants to embody the militia, and to put it under general officers from the regular army. On these occasions he may issue a proclamation for the meeting of parliament in fourteen days.

The word king is synonymous with monarch, tyrant, despot, and an emperor is only a higher grade of king.

KING at Arms. See HERALD.

KIOSQUE, Fr. a sort of garden pavillion which is open on all sides. It is used in the Levant, particularly in Turkey, and at Constantinople.

KISSELBACHES, Ind. soldiers are so called in India.

KIST, Ind. an instalment; the amount of a stated payment.

KISTYBUNDY, the Indian term for a monthly payment or periodical instalment.

KITSBUNDY, a contract or agreement for the discharge of any debt or obligation by stated payments.

KIT, in laboratory works, a composition made, of rosin 9lb. pitch 6lb. bees wax 6lb. and tallow 1lb. used for the last covering of carcasses. In order to apply it properly, it must first be broken into small pieces, and put into an iron pot over the fire, where it must be kept stirring about until it be thoroughly dissolved. When rendered very hot and completely liquid, it may be used.

KIT is likewise used among dragoons, to signify their lot of necessaries, which is packed up in a very small compass. The term is also used by the infantry, and means the contents of a soldier’s knapsack.

KLINKETS, in fortification, are small gates made through pallisades for the purpose of sallying.

KNAPSACK, a rough leather or canvas bag, which is strapped to an infantry soldier’s back when he marches, and which contains his necessaries. Square knapsacks are supposed to be most convenient. They should be made with a division to hold the shoes, blacking-balls, and brushes, separate from the linen. White goat skins are sometimes used, but we do not conceive them to be equal to the painted canvas ones. Soldiers are put under stoppages for the payment of their knapsacks, which after five years, become their property. See list of necessaries, according to the last regulations, under the article NECESSARIES.

KNAVE, for its military acceptation, see INFANTRY.

KNIGHT, a person who, in ancient times, on account of some eminent service, civil or military, was singled out from the common class of gentlemen, &c. and was personally invested with a title. This word, which was originally derived from the German and Dutch knecht or kneht, signifies a servant, in which sense it is applied when we speak of the knight of a shire; it likewise means a military man, or rather a horseman, from the Latin eques, a soldier or horseman; knights of this description having been either the king’s domestic servants or of his life guards.

In common law they are called milites, usually holding lands under the feudal tenure by knight’s service, to serve the king in his wars.

KNOT, the wing or epaulette, which is commonly made of worsted, of a non-commissioned officer or corporal. When serjeants and corporals are sentenced to be reduced to the ranks, the knot is generally cut off by the drum-major in the presence of the battalion, as a mark of ignominy.

KNOTS, the division of the log line. Each knot is equal to an English mile.

KNOUT, a Russian punishment.

KOHISTAN, Ind. properly means a province. It likewise signifies a rocky or mountainous country.

KOLLEE Jogue, Ind. is the fourth of the four æras or periods of Indian chronology. It is the present æra, in which all mankind are corrupted, or rather lessened; it is supposed to be ordained to subsist four hundred thousand years, of which near five thousand are already expired, and the life of man, in that period is limited to one hundred years. Colonel Dow says this age is to last thirty-six thousand years: the age which preceded it, is called the davapaar jogue.

KOOLOO, Ind. the cocoa tree.

KOONAR, an Indian month, which partly coincides with our month of September.

KOONCHY, Ind. a measure of about eight handfuls.

KOONWUR, Ind. prince, highness.

KOREISH, Ind. an Arabian tribe.

KORTCHI-BACHI, the chief or commanding officer of the Kortchis. In former times he was the first military character in Persia, at present he is only the second in command. He never leaves the court except upon extraordinary occasions, when his presence is required at the army. This, however, rarely happens, as the king is obliged to furnish him with an household service of plate, and to detach a part of his own guards for the protection of his person. The Kortchi Bachi is generally entrusted with one of the chief governments belonging to Persia.

KORTCHIS, a body of Persian cavalry, which is stationed along the frontiers of the country. Every individual belonging to this corps, receives fifty crowns for his annual pay. The children of the Kortchis succeed their fathers, with the consent and approbation of the general. The Kortchis are descended from a race of foreigners, who used to live under tents, and were always distinguished for their courage.

KOSSACKS, (Kosaques, Fr.) See COSSACKS.

KOTE, Ind. a warehouse.

KOULER-AGASI, a distinguished military character in Persia, who has the command of a body of men called Kouls. He is usually governor of a considerable province.

KOULIE, a courier, a porter, a slave.

KOURIE, Ind. a sea-shell used as money in many parts of India.

KOULS, a corps of Persian soldiers who rank as a third body among the five that constitute the king’s household troops; they mount guard under the portico which stands between the first and second gate leading to the palace. The Kouls are men of note and rank; no person can arrive at any considerable post or situation, who has not served among the Kouls. Their number is computed at 4000 men.

KOYAL, Ind. a weighman.

KOYALEE, Ind. fees for weighing.

KRAMA, Ind. wooden sandals which are worn by the natives of India during the wet season.

KUFFEET, Ind. An Indian term for security.

KUL, the Turkish word for slave to the prince. The grand vizier, the bachas, the beiglerbeys, and all persons who receive pay or subsistence from situations dependent upon the crown, are so called. This title is in high estimation among the Turkish military, as it authorizes all who are invested with it, to insult, strike and otherways ill use the common people, without being responsible for the most flagrant breach of humanity. Horrid pre-eminence, and fitted only to Mahomedan civilization!

KULLUSTAUNS, Ind. Christians.

KUNDNEE, Ind. A sum of money which is annually paid by an inferior governor to his superior.

KUPELE, Straights so called in India, through which the Ganges disembogues itself into Hindustan. They are distant from Delhi about 30 leagues, in the longitude of 96, and in the latitude of 30.2. These straights are believed by the Indians, who look very little abroad, to be the sources of the Ganges: and a rock 15 miles distant from them, bearing some resemblance to the head of a cow, has joined in the same part of the nations, two very important objects of their religion: the grand image of the animal which they almost venerate as a divinity, and the first appearance of that immense body of holy water which washes away all their sins. It was at these straights that the Indians made some shew of resistance, when the famous Tamerlane invaded India. The field of this victory is the most distant term of that emperor’s conquest in India and on the globe. See Dissertation on the establishments made by Mahomedan conquerors in Hindustan, in Orme’s History of the Carnatic, page 14, and 15.

KURROL, Ind. The advanced guard of a main army.

KURTCHI, a militia is so called in Persia. It consists of one body of cavalry, which is composed of the first nobility belonging to the kingdom, and of the lineal descendants of the Turkish conquerors, who placed Ismael Sophi on the throne. They wear a red turban, made of particular stuff, into twelve folds. This turban was originally given them by Ismael, in consideration of their attachment to the religion and family of Ali. The twelve folds are in remembrance of the twelve Imaans or Mahomedan preachers who descended in a direct line from Ali, and distinguished themselves so much in that sect. The turban is red, for the purpose of provoking those who wear it to avenge upon the Ottomans, the death of Ali and Hussein, who were murdered by the chief of Sunis, to whose sect the Turks belong. In consequence of their wearing this turban, the Persians are always called by the Turks kitil-baschi or red-heads. The noblemen in Persia have adopted the term, with a slight alteration, and call themselves kesil-baschis or golden-heads. The Kurtchi form a body of nearly eighteen thousand men. The chief or commanding officer is called kurtchi-baschi. This was formerly the most distinguished situation in the kingdom, and the authority annexed to it was equal to what the constable of France originally possessed. At present his power does not extend beyond the Kurtchis.

KUSH-BASH, Ind. Persons who enjoy lands rent free, upon condition of serving government in a military capacity when called upon. The term also signifies, people of middling circumstances who do not cultivate their lands themselves, but hire servants to do it while they hold other employments.

KUTTY, Ind. Closets.

KUVVAUS, Ind. Servants attending on the king’s person.

KUZANA, Ind. A treasury.

L.

LAAK, Ind. One hundred thousand.

LABARUM, a celebrated standard which was used among the Roman emperors, and frequently means any imperial or royal standard. The original one, so called, consisted of a long lance, at the top of which was fixed a stick that crossed it at right angles, and from which hung a piece of rich scarlet cloth, that was sometimes ornamented with precious stones. Until the days of Constantine the great, the figure of an eagle was placed upon the top of the labarum; but that prince substituted in its room, a cross, with a cypher expressing the name of Jesus.

LABORATORY signifies that place where all sorts of fire-works are prepared, both for actual service, and for pleasure, viz. quick matches, fuses, portfires, grape-shot, case-shot, carcasses, hand-grenades, cartridges, shells filled, and fuses fixed, wads, &c. &c.

Aigrettes. See MORTARS.

Balls are of various sorts, shapes and forms; as

Chain-shot, are two shot linked together by a strong chain of 8 or 10 inches long; they are more used on board men of war, than in the land service. The famous M. de Witt was the first inventor, about the year 1665.

Light-balls, of which there are several sorts: the best composition is mealed powder 2, sulphur 1, rosin 1, turpentine 2¹⁄₂, and saltpetre 1¹⁄₂. Then take tow, and mix and dip it in this composition, till of a proper size, letting the last coat be of mealed powder. Or take thick strong paper, and make a shell the size of the mortar you intend to throw it out of, and fill it with a composition of an equal quantity of sulphur, pitch, rosin, and mealed powder; which being well mixed, and put in warm, will give a clear fire, and burn a considerable time.

The composition for filling balls that are intended to set fire to magazines is, mealed powder 10, saltpetre 2, sulphur 4, and rosin 1; or mealed powder 4, pounded glass 1, antimony ¹⁄₂, camphor ¹⁄₂, sal-ammoniac 1, common salt ¹⁄₄; or mealed powder 48, saltpetre 32, sulphur 16, rosin 4, steel or iron filings 2, fir tree saw-dust boiled in saltpetre ley 2, and birch wood charcoal 1. With any of these compositions fill the sack, and ram it, if possible, as hard as a stone, putting in the opening, a fuse, and about the same an iron ring ¹⁄₅th of the ball’s diameter wide; and on the opposite end, another ring ¹⁄₆th of the ball’s diameter; then with a strong cord of ¹⁄₄th of an inch diameter, lace round the hoops, or rings, from one end of the ball to the other, as often as is requisite; this is called the ribbed coat; then lace it again the contrary way, which is called the check coat.

Between each square cord, iron barrels are driven in, ¹⁄₃d of which are filled with powder, and a bullet: at the end of each a small vent is made, that the composition may inflame the powder, and drive the balls out on every side, which not only kill numbers of people, but prevent any one from extinguishing the fire-ball. The whole must, when finished, be dipped in melted pitch, rosin and turpentine oil; which composition fastens the whole together.

Smoke-Balls, are made and contrived to give an uncommon smoke, and thereby prevent the enemy from seeing what you are about. They are prepared as above, only the composition must be 5 to 1 of pitch, rosin, and saw-dust: the ingredients are put into iron shells, having 4 holes each to let out the smoke, and are thrown out of mortars.

Stink- } Poisoned-} Red-hot- }Balls. See BALLS. Chain- } Stang- } Anchor- }

Message-Balls. See SHELLS.

Fire-Barrels are at present not much used: they were of different sorts; some mounted on two wheels. The inside of the barrel is loaded with powder, and the outside full of sharp iron points, intermixed with grenades loaded, and fuses fixed. Sometimes they are placed under ground, and made use of to annoy the enemy’s approach.

Carcass, in military affairs, was formerly of an oval form, made of iron bars, and filled with a composition of mealed powder, saltpetre, sulphur, broken glass, shavings of horn, pitch, turpentine, tallow, and linseed oil, covered with a pitched cloth; it is primed with mealed powder and quick match, and fired out of a mortar. Its design is to set houses on fire, &c. See CARCASS.

None but round carcasses are used at present, the flight of the oblong ones being so uncertain. The composition is, pitch 2, saltpetre 4, sulphur 1, and corned powder 3. When the pitch is melted, the pot is taken off, and the ingredients (well mixed) put in; then the carcass is filled with as much as can be pressed in.

Cartridges are made of various substances, such as paper, parchment, bladders, and flannel. When they are made of paper the bottoms remain in the piece, and accumulate so much, that the priming cannot reach the powder; besides other inconveniencies. When they are made of parchment or bladders, the fire shrivels them up, so that they enter into the vent, and become so hard, that the priming iron cannot remove them so as to clear the vent. Nothing has been found hitherto to answer better than flannel, which is the only thing used at present for artillery cartridges of all sorts; because it does not keep fire, and is therefore not liable to accidents in the loading: but, as the dust of powder passes through them, a parchment cover is sometimes made to put over them, which is taken off when used.

The best way of making flannel cartridges, is to boil the flannel in size; which will prevent the dust of powder from passing through, and render it stiff, and more manageable; for without this precaution cartridges are so pliable, on account of their size and the quantity of powder they contain, that they are put into the piece with much difficulty.

The loading and firing guns with cartridges is done much sooner than with loose powder, and fewer accidents are likely to occur. The heads of cartridges, especially for musquetry, are sometimes wrapped in coarse cotton.

In quick firing the shot is fixed to the cartridge by means of a wooden bottom, hollowed on one side so as to receive nearly half the shot, which is fastened to it by two small slips of tin crossing over the shot, and nailed to the bottom; and the cartridge is tied to the other end thereof. They are fixed likewise in the same manner to the bottoms of grape shot, which are used in field pieces.

Grape-shot, in artillery, is a combination of small shot, put into a thick canvas bag, and corded strongly together, so as to form a kind of cylinder, whose diameter is equal to that of the ball which is adapted to the cannon.

To make grape shot, a bag of coarse cloth is made just to hold the bottom which is put into it; as many shot are then thrown in as the grape is to contain; and with a strong pack thread the whole is quilted to keep the shot from moving. The bags, when finished, are put into boxes for the purpose of being conveniently carried.

The number of shot in a grape varies according to the service or size of the guns: in sea service 9 is always the number; but by land it is increased to any number or size, from an ounce and a quarter in weight, to four pounds. It has not yet been determined, with any degree of accuracy, what number and size answer best in practice; for it is well known, that they often scatter so much that only a small number takes effect.

Of the three different sorts of cannon which are used for throwing grape-shot, the 3-pounder seems rather the best; especially when two are used, as the effect of two 3-pounders is much greater than that of one 6-pounder. But the 8-inch howitzer, which can be made to throw in from three to five of its charge (from 12 to 20lb. of shot) becomes thereby a very formidable piece, when it can be used for grape-shot; and this is the howitzer used by the French light or horse artillery.

Proper charges for grape-shot have never yet been effectually determined: we can only give our advice from some experiments; that for heavy 6-pounders, ¹⁄₃d of the weight of the shot appears to be the best charge of powder; for the light 6-pounders, ¹⁄₄th of the weight of the shot; and for howitzers, ¹⁄₈th or ¹⁄₁₀th answers very well.

This kind of fire seems not yet to have been enough respected, nor depended on. However, if cannon and howitzers can be made to throw ¹⁄₃d or ¹⁄₄th, and sometimes half their charge of grape shot into a space 39 by 12 feet, at 200 and 300 yards distance, and those fired 7 or 8 times in a minute; it surely forms the thickest fire that can be produced from the same space.

Tin case-shot, in artillery, is formed by putting a great quantity of small iron shot into a cylindrical tin box, called a canister, that just fits the bore of the gun. Leaden bullets are sometimes used in the same manner; and it must be observed, that whatever number or sizes of the shot are used, they must weigh, with their cases, nearly as much as the shot of the piece.

Case shot, formerly, consisted of all kinds of old iron, stones, musquet balls, nails, &c.

Tubes, in artillery are used in quick firing. They are made of tin: their diameter is ²⁄₁₀ths of an inch, being just sufficient to enter into the vent of the piece; about 6 inches long, with a cap above, and cut slanting below, in the form of a pen; the point is strengthened with some solder, that it may pierce the cartridge without bending. Through this tube is drawn a quick-match, the cap being fitted with mealed powder, moistened with spirits of wine. To prevent the mealed powder from falling out by carriage, a cap of paper or flannel, steeped in spirits of wine, is tied over it.

Flambeaux, a kind of lighted torch, used in the artillery upon a march, or the park, &c.

Formers, are cylinders of wood, of different sizes and dimensions, used in the laboratory, to drive the composition of fuzes and rockets.

Funnels, are of various sorts, used to pour the powder into shells, and the composition into fuses, and rocket-cases.

Fire-ship, a vessel filled with combustible materials, and fitted with grappling irons, to hook, and set fire to the enemy’s ships in battle, &c.

From the bulk head at the fore castle to a bulk head to be raised behind the main chains, on each side and across the ship at the bulk heads, is fixed, close to the ship’s sides, a double row of troughs, 2 feet distance from each other, with cross troughs quite round, at about 2¹⁄₂ distance; which are mortised into the others. The cross troughs lead to the sides of the ship, to the barrels and to the port holes, to give fire both to the barrels and to the chambers, to blow open the ports; and the side troughs serve to communicate the fire all along the ship and the cross troughs.

The timbers of which the troughs are made, are about 5 inches square; the depth of the troughs, half their thickness; and they are supported by cross pieces at every 2 or 3 yards, nailed to the timbers of the ship, and to the wood work which incloses the fore and main masts. The decks and troughs are all well paved with melted rosin.

On each side of the ship 6 small port holes are cut, from 15 to 18 inches large, the ports opening downwards, and are close caulked up. Against each port is fixed an iron chamber, which, at the time of firing the ship, blows open the ports, and lets out the fire. At the main and fore chains, on each side, a wooden funnel is fixed over a fire barrel, and comes through a scuttle in the deck, up to the shrouds, to set them on fire. Both funnels and scuttles must be stopped with plugs, and have sail cloth or canvas nailed close over them, to prevent any accident happening that way, by fire, to the combustibles below.

The port holes, funnels, and scuttles, not only serve to give the fire a free passage to the outside and upper parts of the ship, and her rigging, but also for the inward air (otherwise confined) to expand itself, and push through those holes at the time of the combustibles being on fire, and prevent the blowing up of the decks, which otherwise must of course happen, from such a sudden and violent rarefaction of the air as will then be produced.

In the bulk head behind, on each side, is cut a small hole, large enough to receive a trough of the same size of the others; from which, to each side of the ship, lies a leading trough, one end coming through a sally port cut through the ship’s side, and the other fixing into a communicating trough that lies along the bulk-head, from one side of the ship to the other; and being laid with quick match, at the time of firing either of the leading troughs, communicates the fire in an instant to the contrary side of the ship, and both sides burn together.

Fire barrels, for a fire-ship, are cylindric, on account of that shape answering better both for filling them with reeds, and for stowing them between the troughs: their inside diameters are about 21 inches, and their length 33. The bottom parts are first filled with double-dipt reeds set on end, and the remainder with fire-barrel composition, which is, corned powder 30lb. Swedish pitch 12, saltpetre 6, and tallow 3, well mixed and melted, and then poured over them.

There are 5 holes of 3-quarters of an inch diameter, and 3 inches deep, made with a drift of that size in the top of the composition while it is warm: one in the centre, and the other four at equal distances round the sides of the barrel. When the composition is cold and hard, the barrel is primed by well driving those holes full of fuze composition, to within an inch of the top; then fixing in each hole a strand of quick-match twice doubled, and in the centre hole two strands the whole length; all which must be well driven in with mealed powder: then lay the quick-match all within the barrel, and cover the top of it with a dipt curtain, fastened on with a hoop to slip over the head, and nailed on.

Bavins, for a fire-ship, are made of birch, heath, or other sort of brushwood, that is both tough and quickly fired: in length 2.5, or 3 feet; the bush-ends all laid one way, and the other ends tied with two bands each. They are dipped, and sprinkled with sulphur, the same as reeds, with this difference, that the bush ends, only, are dipped, and should be a little closed together by hand, as soon as done, to keep them more compact, in order to give a stronger fire, and to preserve the branches from breaking in shifting and handling them. Their composition is, rosin 120lb., coarse sulphur 90, pitch 60, tallow 6, and mealed powder 12, with some fine sulphur for salting.

Iron-chambers, for a fire-ship, are 10 inches long, and 3.5. in diameter; breeched against a piece of wood fixed across the holes. When loaded, they are almost filled full of corned powder, with a wooden tompion well driven into their muzzles. They are primed with a small piece of quick-match thrust through their vents into the powder, with a part of it hanging out; and when the ship is fired, they blow open the ports, which either fall downwards, or are carried away, and so give vent to the fire out of the sides of the ship.

Curtains, for a fire-ship, are made of barras, about 3-quarters of a yard wide, and 1 yard in length: when they are dipped, 2 men, with each a fork, must run the prongs through the corner of the curtain at the same end; then dip them into a large kettle of composition (which is the same as the composition for bavins) well melted; and when well dipped, and the curtain extended to its full breadth, whip it between 2 sticks of about 5.5 feet long, and 1-5 inches square, held close by 2 other men to take off the superfluous composition hanging to it; then immediately sprinkle saw-dust on both sides to prevent it from sticking, and the curtain is finished.

Reeds, for a fire-ship, are made up in small bundles of about 12 inches in circumference, cut even at both ends, and tied with two bands each: the longest sort are 4 feet, and the shortest 2.5; which are all the lengths that are used. One part of them are single dipped, only at one end; the rest are double-dipped, i. e. at both ends. In dipping, they must be put about 7 or 8 inches deep into a copper kettle of melted composition (the same as that for bavins;) and when they have drained a little over it, to carry off the superfluous composition, sprinkle them over a tanned hide with pulverised sulphur, at some distance from the copper.

STORES for a FIRE-SHIP of 150 tons.

No. Fire-barrels 8 Iron chambers 12 Priming composition barrels 3¹⁄₂ Quick-match barrels 1 Curtains dipped 30 Long reeds single dipped 150 Short reeds{double dipped 75 {single dipped 75 Bavins single dipped 209

Quantity of COMPOSITION for preparing the stores of a FIRE-SHIP.

For 8 barrels, corned powder 960lb. pitch 480lb. tallow 80.

For 3 barrels of priming composition, salt-petre 175lb. sulphur 140lb. corned powder 350lb. rosin 21lb. oil-pots 11.

For curtains, bavins, reeds, and sulphur to salt them, sulphur 200lb. pitch 350lb. rosin 175lb. tallow 50lb. tar 25lb.

Total weight of the composition 3017 pounds, equal to C. 26 : 3 : 21.

Composition allowed for the reeds and barrels, 1-fifth of the whole of the last article, which is equal to 160lb. making in the whole 3177 pounds, or C. 28 : 1 : 13.

Port-fires in artillery, may be made of any length: however, they are seldom made more than 21 inches. The interior diameter of port-fire moulds should be ¹⁰⁄₁₆ of an inch, and the diameter of the whole port-fire about ¹⁄₂ an inch. The paper cases must be rolled wet with paste, and one end folded down. They are used instead of matches to fire artillery. The composition of wet port-fire is, salt-petre 6, sulphur 2, and mealed powder 1; when it is well mixed and sieved, it is to be moistened with a little linseed oil: the composition for dry port-fire is, salt-petre 4, sulphur 1, mealed powder 2, and antimony 1.

Rockets, in pyrotechny, an artificial firework, consisting of a cylindrical case of paper, filled with a composition of certain combustible ingredients; which being tied to a stick, mounts into the air to a considerable height and there bursts: they are frequently used as signals in war time.

Composition for sky-rockets in general is, salt-petre 4lb. brimstone 1lb. and charcoal 1¹⁄₂lb; but for large sky-rockets, salt-petre 4lb. mealed powder 1lb. and brimstone 1lb. for rockets of a middling size, salt-petre 3lb. sulphur 2lb. mealed powder 1lb. and charcoal 1lb.

Quick-match in artillery, is of 2 sorts, cotton and worsted; the first is generally made of such cotton as is put in candles, of several sizes, from 1 to six threads thick, according to the pipes it is designed for. The ingredients are, cotton 1 lb. 12 oz. salt-petre 1 lb. 8 oz. spirits of wine 2 quarts, water 2 quarts, isinglass 3 gills, and mealed powder 10lb. It is then taken out hot, and laid in a trough where some mealed powder, moistened with spirits of wine, is thoroughly wrought into the cotton. This done, they are taken out separately, and drawn through mealed powder, and hung upon a line to dry.--The composition for the second is, worsted 10oz. mealed powder 10lb. spirits of wine 3 pints, and white-wine vinegar 3 pints.

LABORER, Fr. literally, to remove earth with a plough, spade; &c. Figuratively, to belabor, which according to Johnston, is to beat, thump, &c. The French use it, in a military sense, to express any direct and concentrated effort which is made to destroy a fortification.

LABORER un rampart, signifies to bring several pieces of ordnance discharged from two oblique directions to bear upon one centre. Shells and hollow balls are generally used on these occasions, and the chief design is to second the operations of the miner in some particular part from whence the explosion is to take place.

Laborer likewise applies to the working of a bomb or shell, which excavates, ploughs up, and scatters the earth about wherever it bursts.

LACAY or LAQUET, Fr. An old French militia was formerly so called. The name is found among the public documents which were kept by the treasurers belonging to the dukes of Britanny, in the fifteenth century.

LACE, the uniform of regiments is distinguishable often by the lace and button.

LACERNA, Fr. a garment which was worn by the ancients. It was made of woollen stuff, and was only worn by men; originally indeed by those alone that were of a military profession. It was usually thrown over the toga, and sometimes indeed over the tunica. It may not improperly be considered as the surtout or great coat of the ancients, with this difference, that there was a winter lacernum and a summer one.

The lacerna was adopted by the Romans towards the close of their republic. Even as late down as the days of Cicero it was unknown amongst them, or if known, censured as a mark of disgraceful effeminacy. During the civil wars that occurred in the triumvirate of Augustus, Lepidus, and Antony, the lacerna became familiar to the people, and by degrees was adopted as common apparel, by the senators and knights of Rome, until the reigns of Gratian, Valentinian, and Theodosius, who enjoined the senators not to wear it.

The lacerna is the same as the chlamys and the burrbus.

Un LACHE, Fr. A familiar phrase among the french to signify a coward, &c.

LACHER, Fr. to go off. Son pistolet, ou son fusil, vint à lâcher; his pistol, or his musquet, went off of itself.

LACHER pied, Fr. to run away.

LACHER un prisonnier, Fr. to let a prisoner escape, or go away unmolested.

LACHER un coup, in speaking of fire arms, signifies to discharge a pistol or musquet. Il lui lâcha un coup de pistolet dans la tête; he lodged a bullet in his head. Le vaisseau lâcha toute sa bordée à la portée du mousquet; the ship fired a whole broadside within musquet shot.

LACHETE, Fr. An opprobrious term which is frequently used among the French, and is applied in all instances of cowardice, want of spirit, or dishonorable conduct. One of their writers emphatically observes, that in a military sense of the word it cannot be misunderstood, as the least imputation of cowardice or want of spirit, is sufficient to destroy the entire character and fame of every officer and soldier whom it may affect. As it is the direct opposite to courage, the person who enters into the profession of arms, should weigh well within himself whether he possesses that indispensible quality, which is above all the temptations of pleasure or the effeminacy of life, and is only alive to the glorious impulse of military animation. He only, in fact, is fit for arms, whose spirit is superior to every sordid view, who knows no personal fear, and who can encounter the greatest difficulties and dangers with an inward placidity of soul, and an outward indifference to life. In order to illustrate this article, we shall quote some ancient and modern instances of that species of cowardice or lâcheté, which affects the military character.

Euripidas, chief of the Eléans, having imprudently advanced too far into a long and narrow defile, and learning, that Philip of Macedon was on this march to block up the passage through which he had entered, instead of manfully waiting the issue of an engagement, abandoned his army, in the most cowardly manner. It does not appear says the chevalier Folard, that Euripidas possessed those talents which are necessary to form a great general; for instead of meanly stealing off by a bye road and leaving his army to its fate, he would have remained at its head, and either have fought his way through, honorably have capitulated, or have died combating with his men.

Base and inglorious as this conduct of Euripidas most unquestionably was, the behaviour of Perseus king of the Macedonians exceeded it in cowardice and degradation. This infamous prince did not wait to be visited by misfortune or to lose a battle; he had, on the contrary, obtained a signal victory over the Romans, and when Paulus Emilius marched against him, the army he commanded was not inferior to that of his opponent in discipline and valor, and had the advantage in point of numbers. Yet, strange to relate! the engagement was no sooner begun, than he rode off full gallop, and repaired to the town of Pydnus, under the flimsy pretext of sacrificing to the God Hercules; as if Hercules, to use Plutarch’s expression, was the deity to whom the prayers and offerings of Cowards were to be preferred!

The English duke of York on two occasions during his command in the Netherlands, displayed this lâcheté.

Mark Antony on the other hand, after having acquired the reputation of a brave and distinguished general, submitted to the allurements of sensual gratification, and buried all his glory in the meretricious embraces of an Egyptian strumpet. We have had a striking instance, during the present war, of the superiority which a real military thirst for glory will always have over private indulgences. When the French army was very critically situated in Germany, general Hoche who commanded it, became exposed one evening to the allurements of a most beautiful woman, who by design or accident got placed near the general at a public supper. Aware of the weakness of human nature, and full of his own glory, as well as conscious of the critical state of the army entrusted to his care, he suddenly rose, ordered his horses, and left the place at midnight.

We might enumerate a variety of cases in which the greatest heroes have fallen victims to human weakness; and few alas! in which a sense of public duty and a regard for the opinion of posterity have got the ascendancy. History, however, saves us that trouble, and we shall remain satisfied with having explained under the word Lâchete, what we conceive disgraceful in an officer or soldier, who suffers personal fear, passion, or interest to get the better of public character.

La trahison est une lâcheté; treason is infamous in its nature.

LACUNETTE, Fr. a term in fortification. A small fossé or ditch was formerly so called. The word Cunette has since been adopted.

LADAVEE, Ind. A release or acquittance from any demand.

LADLES, in gunnery, are made of copper, to hold the powder for loading guns, with long handles of wood, when cartridges are not used.

LADLES, in laboratory business, are very small, made of copper, with short handles of wood, used in supplying the fuses of shells, or any other composition, to fill the cases of sky-rockets, &c.--There is another kind of ladle which is used to carry red hot shot. It is made of iron, having a ring in the middle to hold the shot, from which 2 handles proceed from opposite sides of the ring.

Scaling-LADDERS (échelles de siege, Fr.) are used in scaling when a place is to be taken by surprise. They are made several ways: sometimes of flat staves, so as to move about their pins and shut like a parallel ruler, for conveniently carrying them: the French make them of several pieces, so as to be joined together, and to be capable of any necessary length: sometimes they are made of single ropes, knotted at proper distances, with iron hook at each end, one to fasten them upon the wall above, and the other in the ground; and sometimes they are made with 2 ropes, and staves between them, to keep the ropes at a proper distance, and to tread upon. When they are used in the action of scaling walls, they ought to be rather too long than too short, and to be given in charge only to the stoutest of the detachment. The soldiers should carry these ladders with the left arm passed through the second step, taking care to hold them upright close to their sides, and very short below, to prevent any accident in leaping into the ditch.

The first rank of each division, provided with ladders, should set out with the rest at the signal, marching resolutely with their firelocks slung, to jump into the ditch: when they are arrived, they should apply their ladders against the parapet, observing to place them towards the salient angles rather than the middle of the curtain, because the enemy has less force there. Care must be taken to place the ladders within a foot of each other, and not to give them too much nor too little slope, so that they may not be overturned, or broken with the weight of the soldiers mounting upon them.

The ladders being applied, they who have carried them, and they who come after should mount up, and rush upon the enemy sword in hand: if he who goes first, happens to be overturned, the next should take care not to be thrown down by his comrade; but on the contrary, immediately mount himself so as not to give the enemy time to load his piece.

As the soldiers who mount first may be easily tumbled over, and their fall may cause the attack to fail, it would perhaps be right to protect their breasts with the fore-parts of cuirasses; because, if they can penetrate, the rest may easily follow.

The success of an attack by scaling is infallible, if they mount the 4 sides at once, and take care to shower a number of grenades among the enemy, especially when supported by some grenadiers and picquets, who divide the attention and share the fire of the enemy.

The ingenious colonel Congreve of the British artillery, has very much improved upon the construction of these ladders. As the height of different works vary, and the ladders, when too long, afford purchase to the besieged, he has contrived a set of ladders having an iron staple at the lower part of each stem, so that if 1, 2, or 3, should be found insufficient to reach the top of the work, another might with facility be joined to the lowest, and that be pushed up until a sufficient length could be obtained.

LAITON, sometimes written LETTON, Fr. a metallic composition which is made of copper and the lapis calaminaris; a soft brass.

LALA, Ind. lord; sir; master; worship.

LAMA, Ind. A chief priest, whose followers suppose him immortal. They imagine, that on the dissolution of his mortal frame, his spirit enters the body of a new born child. He is also monarch of Thibet.

LAMBREQUINS, Fr. small mantles or ribands which were twisted round the hood or top of a helmet at the bottom of the crest, and kept the whole together. These ornaments fell into disuse when the helmet was laid aside. In former times, when the cavaliers or persons who wore them, wished to take breath, and to be relieved from the weight of the helmet, they untied the mantles, and let them float about their shoulders suspended from the hood only. Hence the appellation of valets as hanging behind.

LAMPION à parapet, Fr. a lamp generally used on the parapet or elsewhere in a besieged place. It is a small iron vessel filled with pitch and tar which the garrison lighted as occasions required. The lampion is sometimes confounded with the réchaud de rampart, or chaffing dish, which is used upon the rampart on similar occasions.

LANCE, lance, Fr. This offensive weapon was much used by the French in former times, particularly by that class of military gentlemen called chevaliers, and by the gendarmes. It has also been used by the English and other nations. Lances were made of ash, being a wood of a tough quality and not so liable to break as another species. Before the reign of Philip de Valois, the chevaliers and gens d’armes fought on foot, armed with lances only, both in battles and at sieges. On these occasions they shortened their lances, which were then said to be retaillées or cut again. A sort of bannerol or streamer hung from each lance, and was attached to the bottom of the sharp iron or blade which was fixed to the pole. Lances were used in this manner as far back as during the crusades.

Rompre la LANCE, Fr. to break a lance. This was a phrase peculiar to any assault which was given at tilts or tournaments, and signified to engage or come to close combat.

Rompre une LANCE, according to the last edition of the Dictionnaire de l’Académie Francoise, likewise means in a familiar and proverbial sense, to defend another against the attacks of an adversary. The French say: rompre des lances pour quelqu’un, to defend another: rompre une lance avec quelqu’un, to enter into any warm dispute or controversy with another.

Main de la LANCE, Fr. A figurative expression, to signify the right hand of a cavalier or horseman.

LANCE de drapeau, Fr. The staff to which regimental colors are attached.

LANCES levées, Fr. uplifted lances, indicated that the enemy was beaten, and that the chevaliers or gendarmes should close the day by giving a final blow to the disordered ranks. The use of the lance was discontinued in France sometime before the compagnies d’ordonnance or independent companies were reduced and formed into the gendarmerie. Little or no use indeed, was made of them, during the reign of Henry IV. But the Spaniards still retained that weapon as low down as the days of Louis XIII. and when arms were too scarce at the opening of the French revolution, the pike or lance was resorted to with great success.

LANCE, Fr. means likewise an iron rod which is fixed across the earthen mould of a shell, and which keeps it suspended in the air when it is cast. As soon as the bomb or shell is formed, this rod must be broken, and carefully taken out with instruments made for that purpose. Shells ought to be scrupulously examined with respect to this article, as they could not be charged, were the lance or any part of it to remain within. Lance is also an instrument which conveys the charge of a piece of ordnance and forces it home into the bore. See RAMMER of a GUN.

LANCE à feu, Fr. a squib. A species of artificial fire work which is made in the shape of a fuse, and is used for various purposes. According to the author of Œuvres Militaires, tom. II. p. 208, the composition of the lance à feu consists of three parts of the best refined salt-petre, two parts of flour of sulphur, and two of antimony; the whole being pounded and mixed together.

The chief use which is made of the lance à feu is to throw occasional light across the platform, whilst artificial fireworks are preparing. They likewise serve to set fire to fuses, as they can be taken hold of without danger.

LANCE à feu puant, Fr. Stink-fire lances prepared in the same manner that stink-pots are, and particularly useful to miners. When a miner or sapper has so far penetrated towards the enemy as to hear the voices of persons in any place contiguous to his own excavation, he first of all bores a hole with his probe, then fires off several pistols through the aperture, and lastly forces in a lance à feu puant, taking care to close up the hole on his side to prevent the smoke from returning towards himself. The exhalation and stinking hot vapour which issue from the lance, and remain confined on the side of the enemy, infest the air so much, that it is impossible to approach the quarter for three or four days. Sometimes, indeed, they have had so instantaneous an effect, that in order to save their lives, miners, who would persevere, have been dragged out by the legs in an apparent state of suffocation.

LANCE de feu, Fr. a species of squib which is used by the garrison of a besieged town against a scaling party.

LANCE-Gaie, Fr. an offensive weapon formerly so called in France.

LANCE Spezzate, Fr. a reduced officer. In former times it signified a dismounted gendarme who was appointed to an infantry corps with some emolument attached to his situation. The word anspessade, a non-commissioned officer who acts subordinate to the corporal, is corrupted from this term. Besides the three hundred Swiss guards which were constantly attached to the palace, the Pope maintained twelve lance-spezzates or reduced officers.

LANDING Troops. See DEBARKATION, and REGULATIONS.

LAND FORCES, troops whose system is calculated for land service only, in contradistinction to seamen and mariners. All the land forces of Great Britain are liable to serve on board the navy. Indeed the marine establishment as a military corps is an anomaly, kept up only for patronage; the proper establishment of soldiers for sea service should be by detachments from the infantry, according to a roster.

LANE, in a military sense, is where men are drawn up in two ranks facing one another, as in a street, for any great person to pass through, or sometimes for a soldier to run the gantelope.

LANGUE, Fr. a term peculiarly connected with the late military order of Malta. The eight nations of which this celebrated order consisted, were distinguished by the appellation of Langue or tongues. There were three of this description in France, viz. la Langue de France, la Langue de Provence, et la Langue d’Auvergne; two in Spain, viz. la Langue d’Arragon, et la Langue de Castile; and three indiscriminate ones, viz. la Langue d’Italia, la Langue d’Allemagne, et la Langue d’Angleterre. The head of each langue was called Grand Prieur, or Grand Prior.

LANGUE de terre, Fr. a tongue of land.

LANSQUENETS, Fr. the German mercenaries which Charles VII. of France first added to his infantry, were so called. They continued in the French service until the reign of Francis I. who consolidated all the foot establishments into a certain number of legions; they were so called from the lance or pike which was their weapon.

LANS-PESATE, LANCE-PESADE, a soldier that does duty as a corporal, especially on guards and detachments; a lance corporal.

LANTERN, LANTHORN, commonly called Muscovy lanterns, being a kind of dark lantherns, used in the field, when dark, to light the gunners in the camp to prepare the stores, &c.

LANTERNE, Fr. A word used in the French navy to signify any wooden case or box in which cartridges are brought out of the powder magazine for the purpose of serving the guns.

LANTERNE, Fr. it is sometimes called cuiller or ladle, and serves to convey gunpowder into a piece of ordnance. It is made of copper, and resembles a round spoon or ladle, which is fixed to a long pole.

LANTERNE, a mitrailles, Fr. A round piece of concave wood, something like a box, which is filled with case shot, and is fired from a piece of ordnance when the enemy is near.

LASCARS, or Laskars. The native seamen of India; the native gunners are likewise so called. They are employed to tend and serve the artillery on shore, and are attached to corps as pioneers or tent-pitchers.

LASHING-RINGS, in artillery, with hoops, fixed on the side-pieces of travelling carriages, to lash the tarpauling, as also to tie the spunge, rammer, and ladle. See CARRIAGE.

LATH, in building, a long, thin, and narrow slip of wood, nailed to the rafters of a roof or ceiling, in order to fasten the covering. Laths are distinguished into three kinds, according to the different kinds of wood of which they are made, viz. heart of oak, sap-laths, deal-laths, &c.

LATHE, a machine for turning wood or metal.

LATHE Reeve, an officer during the Saxon government, who held a certain jurisdiction over that part of the country which was called a tithing.

LATTIE, an Indian term for warehouse.

LATITUDE, in geography, the distance of any place from the equator, measured in degrees, minutes, seconds, &c. upon the meridian of that place: and is either north or south according as the place is situated either on the north or south side of the equator.

LATRINES, Fr. privies or holes which are dug at the back of a camp for the convenience of soldiers. The pioneers are generally employed to make them.

LAVER, LAVIS, Fr. a wash, or superficial stain or color; it is particularly made use of in all sketches, plans, and drawings; the different intervals or spaces of which are slightly shaded or colored. This kind of painting is stiled lavis, or water-coloring. The difference between miniature painting and washing or drawing in water colors, consists in this, that the former is dotted and worked up into light and shade; the latter is barely spread with a brush. There are, besides, other marks of distinction; those colors which more immediately resemble nature, are always used in the lavis or water-painting; the spaces that represent a fosse or ditch, which is supposed to be full of water, must be distinguished by a sky blue; brick and tiles by red; roads by a dun color, and trees or turf, &c. by green.

LAVIS, Fr. generally means every sort of simple color which is diluted with water.

LAVURE, Fr. the grains, dust, or detached pieces of metal which fall in casting cannon.

LAUREL, a shrub which is always green.

To be crowned with laurels, a figurative expression, signifying that a man has atchieved glorious actions, and is entitled to marks of public distinction. In ancient times heroes and conquerors had their heads encircled with a wreath of laurels.

LAURES, gold coins which were issued from the English mint in 1619, representing the head of king James I. encircled with laurels.

LAW of arms, certain acknowleged rules, regulations, and precepts, which relate to war, and are observed by all civilized nations.

LAWS of arms are likewise certain precepts shewing how to proclaim war, to attack the enemy, and to punish offenders in the camp; also restricting the contending parties from certain cruelties, &c.

LAW military. The persons who are subject to military law, and are amenable to trial by court martial, are in the terms of military law, all persons commissioned or in pay, as officers, non-commissioned officers, private soldiers, and all followers of an army. Half pay officers are not subject to military law, whilst civil justice can be resorted to.

LAWS relating to martial affairs. The following laws existed during the most flourishing state of the Roman commonwealth. We insert them in this place as by no means being inapplicable to the present times.

Secreta Lex Militaris, which was promulgated about the year 411, ordained, that no soldier’s name which had been entered in the muster roll, should be struck out, unless by the party’s consent; and that no person who had been military tribune should execute the office of ductor ordinum. Sempronia lex, which appeared in the year 630, ordained, that the soldiers should receive their pay gratis at the public charge, without any diminution of their ordinary pay; and that none should be obliged to serve in the army, who was not full seventeen years old. Sulpicia lex, which was made in 665, ordained, that the chief command in the Mithridatic war, which was then enjoyed by L. Sylla, should be taken from him, and conferred on C. Marius.

Gabinia lex appeared in 685, ordaining that a commission should be granted to Cn. Pompey, for the management of the war against the pirates for three years, with this particular clause, that upon all the sea on this side Hercules’s pillars, and in the maritime provinces, as far as 400 stadia from the sea, he should be empowered to command kings, governors, and states to supply him with all the necessaries in his expedition.

Manilia lex, published in 687, ordained, that all the forces of Lucullus, and the province under his government, should be given to Pompey; together with Bithynia, which was under the command of Glabrio, and that he should forthwith make war upon Mithridates, retaining still the same naval forces, and the sovereignty of the seas as before.

Maria Parcia lex appeared in 1691, ordaining that a penalty should be inflicted on such commanders as wrote falsely to the senate, about the number of the slain, on the enemy’s side, and of their own party; and that they should be obliged, when they first entered the city, to take a solemn oath before the quæstors that the number which they returned, was true, according to the best computation. See Kennett’s Ant. of Rome, page 168.

It will be seen by these laws, particularly by the last, that the most minute military operation was subservient to the senate. The French seem, in this respect, to have imitated the Romans very closely, but they do not appear to have adhered, so strictly as they might, to the law which regards the loss of men, nor are their neighbors more correct.

LAWS of Nations, such general rules as regard the embassies, reception and entertainment of strangers, intercourse of merchants, exchange of prisoners, suspension of arms, &c.

LAW of marque, or letters of marque, that by which persons take the goods or shipping of the party that has wronged them, as in time of war, whenever they can take them within their precincts.

LAWS of the United States, regulating the military establishment; these are of two descriptions, the first relates to the regular force; the second to the militia, the latter of which is mere print and paper, without consistency, efficacy, or force; and calculated rather to discourage than assure military knowlege in the militia. The following are the laws regulating the military establishment.

Sec. I. That from and after the passing of this act, the following shall be the rules and articles by which the armies of the United States shall be governed.

Art. 1. Every officer now in the army of the United States, shall, in six months from the passing of this act, and every officer who shall hereafter be appointed, shall before he enters on the duties of his office, subscribe these rules and regulations.

Art. 2. It is earnestly recommended to all officers and soldiers diligently to attend divine service; and all officers who shall behave indecently or irreverently at any place of divine worship, shall, if commissioned officers, be brought before a general court-martial, there to be publicly and severely reprimanded by the president; if non-commissioned officers or soldiers, every person so offending shall, for his first offence, forfeit one sixth of a dollar, to be deducted out of his next pay; for the second offence, he shall not only forfeit a like sum, but be confined twenty-four hours: and for every like offence shall suffer and pay in like manner; which money, so forfeited, shall be applied by the captain or senior officer of the troop or company, to the use of the sick soldiers of the company or troop to which the offender belongs.

Art. 3. Any non-commissioned officer or soldier who shall use any profane oath or execration shall incur the penalties expressed in the foregoing article, and a commissioned officer shall forfeit and pay for each and every such offence one dollar, to be applied as in the preceding article.

Art. 4. Every chaplain commissioned in the army or armies of the United States, who shall absent himself from the duties assigned him (except in cases of sickness or leave of absence) shall, on conviction thereof before a court-martial, be fined not exceeding one month’s pay, besides the loss of his pay during his absence; or be discharged, as the said court-martial shall judge proper.

Art. 5. Any officer or soldier who shall use contemptuous or disrespectful words against the president of the United States, against the vice president thereof, against the congress of the United States, or against the chief magistrate or legislature of any of the United States in which he may be quartered, if a commissioned officer, shall be cashiered, or otherwise punished as a court-martial shall direct; if a non-commissioned officer or soldier, he shall suffer such punishment as shall be inflicted on him by the sentence of a court-martial.

Art. 6. Any officer or soldier who shall behave himself with contempt or disrespect towards his commanding officer, shall be punished according to the nature of his offence, by the judgment of a court-martial.

Art. 7. Any officer or soldier who shall begin, exercise, cause, or join in any mutiny or sedition in any troop or company in the service of the United States, or in any party, post, detachment, or guard, shall suffer death, or such other punishment as by a court-martial shall be inflicted.

Art. 8. Any officer, non-commissioned officer, or soldier, who being present at any mutiny or sedition, does not use his utmost endeavor to suppress the same, or coming to the knowlege of any intended mutiny, does not without delay, give information thereof to his commanding officer, shall be punished by the sentence of a court-martial with death or otherwise, according to the nature of his offence.

Art. 9. Any officer or soldier who shall strike his superior officer, or draw or lift up any weapon, or offer any violence against him, being in the execution of his office, on any pretence whatsoever, or shall disobey any lawful command of his superior officer, shall suffer death, or such other punishment as shall, according to the nature of his offence, be inflicted upon him by the sentence of a court-martial.

Art. 10. Every non-commissioned officer, or soldier, who shall inlist himself in the service of the United States, shall, at the time of his so inlisting, or within six days afterwards, have the articles for the government of the armies of the United States, read to him, and shall, by the officer who inlisted him, or by the commanding officer of the troop or company into which he was inlisted, be taken before the next justice of the peace, or chief magistrate of any city or town corporate, not being an officer of the army, or where recourse cannot be had to the civil magistrate, before the judge advocate, and, in his presence, shall take the following oath or affirmation: “I A. B. do solemnly swear, or affirm, (as the case may be) that I will bear true allegiance to the United States of America, and that I will serve them honestly and faithfully against all their enemies, or opposers, whatsoever, and observe and obey the orders of the president of the United States, and the orders of the officers appointed over me, according to the rules and articles for the government of the armies of the United States.” Which justice, magistrate, or judge advocate is to give the officer a certificate, signifying that the man inlisted, did take the said oath, or affirmation.

Art. 11. After a non-commissioned officer or soldier, shall have been duly inlisted and sworn, he shall not be dismissed the service without a discharge in writing; and no discharge granted to him shall be sufficient, which is not signed by a field officer of the regiment to which he belongs, or commanding officer, where no field officer of the regiment is present; and no discharge shall be given to a non-commissioned officer or soldier, before his term of service has expired, but by order of the president, the secretary of war, the commanding officer of a department, or the sentence of a general court-martial, nor shall a commissioned officer be discharged the service, but by order of the president of the United States, or by sentence of a general court-martial.

Art. 12. Every colonel, or other officer commanding a regiment, troop, or company, and actually quartered with it, may give furloughs to non-commissioned officers or soldiers, in such numbers, and for so long a time as he shall judge to be most consistent with the good of the service; and a captain or other inferior officer commanding a troop or company, or in any garrison, fort or barrack of the United States, (his field officer being absent), may give furloughs to non-commissioned officers or soldiers, for a time not exceeding twenty days in six months, but not to more than two persons to be absent at the same time, excepting some extraordinary occasion should require it.

Art. 13. At every muster, the commanding officer of each regiment, troop, or company there present, shall give to the commissary of musters, or other officer who musters the said regiment, troop, or company, certificates signed by himself, signifying how long such officers, as shall not appear at the said muster, have been absent, and the reason of their absence. In like manner, the commanding officer of every troop, or company, shall give certificates, signifying the reasons of the absence of the non-commissioned officers and private soldiers, which reasons, and time of absence, shall be inserted in the muster-rolls opposite the name of the respective absent officers and soldiers. The certificates shall, together with the muster-rolls, be remitted by the commissary of musters, or other officer mustering, to the department of war as speedily as the distance of the place will admit.

Art. 14. Every officer who shall be convicted, before a general court-martial, of having signed a false certificate, relating to the absence of either officer or private soldier, or relative to his or their pay, shall be cashiered.

Art. 15. Every officer who shall knowingly make a false muster of man or horse, and every officer or commissary of musters, who shall willingly sign, direct or allow the signing of musters-rolls, wherein such false muster is contained, shall, upon proof made thereof by two witnesses, before a general court-martial, be cashiered, and shall be thereby utterly disabled to have or hold any office or employment in the service of the United States.

Art. 16. Any commissary of musters or other officer, who shall be convicted of having taken money or other thing, by way of gratification, on the mustering any regiment, troop or company, or on the signing muster-rolls, shall be displaced from his office, and shall be thereby utterly disabled to have or hold any office or employment in the service of the United States.

Art. 17. Any officer who shall presume to muster a person as a soldier, who is not a soldier, shall be deemed guilty of having made a false muster, and shall suffer accordingly.

Art. 18. Every officer who shall knowingly make a false return to the department of war, or to any of his superior officers, authorized to call for such returns, of the state of the regiment, troop, or company, or garrison, under his command; or of the arms, ammunition, clothing, or other stores thereunto belonging, shall on conviction thereof before a court-martial, be cashiered.

Art. 19. The commanding officer of every regiment, troop, or independent company, or garrison of the United States, shall in the beginning of every month, remit through the proper channels, to the department of war, an exact return of the regiment, troop, independent company, or garrison, under his command, specifying the names of officers then absent from their posts, and the reasons for, and the time of their absence. And any officer who shall be convicted of having, through neglect or design, omitted sending such returns, shall be punished according to the nature of his crime, by the judgment of a general court-martial.

Art. 20. All officers and soldiers, who have received pay, or have been duly inlisted in the service of the United States, and shall be convicted of having deserted the same, shall suffer death, or such other punishment as by sentence of a court-martial shall be inflicted.

Art. 21. Any non-commissioned officer or soldier, who shall, without leave from his commanding officer, absent himself from his troop, company, or detachment, shall, upon being convicted thereof, be punished according to the nature of his offence at the discretion of a court-martial.

Art. 22. No non-commissioned officer or soldier shall inlist himself in any other regiment, troop, or company, without a regular discharge from the regiment, troop, or company, in which he last served, on the penalty of being reputed a deserter, and suffering accordingly. And in case any officer shall knowingly receive and entertain such non-commissioned officer or soldier, or shall not, after his being discovered to be a deserter, immediately confine him, and give notice thereof to the corps in which he last served, the said officer shall by a court-martial be cashiered.

Art. 23. Any officer or soldier, who shall be convicted of having advised or persuaded any other officer or soldier, to desert the service of the United States, shall suffer death, or such other punishment as shall be inflicted upon him by the sentence of a court martial.

Art. 24. No officer or soldier shall use any reproachful or provoking speeches or gestures to another, upon pain, if an officer, of being put in arrest; if a soldier, confined, and of asking pardon of the party offended, in the presence of his commanding officer.

Art. 25. No officer or soldier shall send a challenge to another officer or soldier, to fight a duel, or accept a challenge, if sent; upon pain, if a commissioned officer of being cashiered; if a non-commissioned officer or soldier, of suffering corporeal punishment at the discretion of a court-martial.

Art. 26. If any commissioned or non-commissioned officer commanding a guard, shall knowingly or willingly suffer any person whatsoever to go forth to fight a duel, he shall be punished as a challenger; and all seconds, promoters, and carriers of challenges, in order to duels, shall be deemed principals, and be punished accordingly. And it shall be the duty of every officer, commanding an army, regiment, company, post, or detachment, who is knowing to a challenge being given, or accepted, by any officer, non-commissioned officer, or soldier, under his command, or has reason to believe the same to be the case, immediately to arrest and bring to trial such offender.

Art. 27. All officers, of what condition soever, have power to part and quell all quarrels, frays, and disorders, though the persons concerned should belong to another regiment, troop, or company; and either to order officers into arrest, or non-commissioned officers or soldiers into confinement, until their proper superior officers shall be acquainted therewith; and whosoever shall refuse to obey such officer, (though of an inferior rank) or shall draw his sword upon him, shall be punished at the discretion of a general court-martial.

Art. 28. Any officer or soldier, who shall upbraid another for refusing a challenge, shall himself be punished as a challenger, and all officers and soldiers are hereby discharged from any disgrace or opinion of disadvantage, which might arise from their having refused to accept of challenges, as they will only have acted in obedience to the laws, and done their duty as good soldiers, who subject themselves to discipline.

Art. 29. No suttler shall be permitted to sell any kind of liquors or victuals, or to keep their houses or shops open for the entertainment of soldiers, after nine at night, or before the beating of the reveilies, or upon Sundays, during divine service or sermon, on the penalty of being dismissed from all future suttling.

Art. 30. All officers commanding in the field, forts, barracks, or garrisons of the United States, are hereby required to see that the persons permitted to suttle, shall supply the soldiers with good and wholesome provisions, or other articles, at a reasonable price, as they shall be answerable for their neglect.

Art. 31. No officer commanding in any of the garrisons, forts, or barracks of the United States, shall exact exorbitant prices for houses or stalls let out to suttlers, or connive at the like exactions in others; nor by his own authority, and for his private advantage, lay any duty or imposition upon, or be interested in, the sale of any victuals, liquors, or other necessaries of life, brought into the garrison, fort, or barracks, for the use of the soldiers, on the penalty of being discharged from the service.

Art. 32. Every officer commanding in quarters, garrisons, or on the march, shall keep good order, and to the utmost of his power, redress all abuses or disorders, which may be committed by any officer or soldier under his command; if upon complaint made to him of officers or soldiers beating, or otherwise ill treating any person, of disturbing fairs, or markets, or of committing any kind of riots, to the disquieting of the citizens of the United States, he, the said commander, who shall refuse or omit to see justice done to the offender or offenders, and reparation made to the party or parties injured, as far as part of the offender’s pay shall enable him or them, shall, upon proof thereof, be cashiered or otherwise punished as a general court-martial shall direct.

Art. 33. When any commissioned officer or soldier, shall be accused of a capital crime, or of having used violence, or committed any offence against the persons or property of any citizen of any of the United States, such as is punishable by the known laws of the land, the commanding officer, and officers of every regiment, troop, or company, to which the person, or persons, so accused, shall belong, are hereby required, upon application duly made by, or in behalf of the party or parties injured, to use their utmost endeavors to deliver over such accused person, or persons, to the civil magistrate, and likewise to be aiding and assisting to the officers of justice in apprehending and securing the person or persons so accused in order to bring him or them to trial. If any commanding officer, or officers, shall wilfully neglect, or shall refuse, upon the application aforesaid, to deliver over such accused person, or persons, to the civil magistrates, or to be aiding and assisting to the officers of justice in apprehending such person, or persons, the officer, or officers, so offending, shall be cashiered.

Art. 34. If any officer shall think himself wronged by his colonel, or the commanding officer of the regiment, and shall, upon due application being made to him, be refused redress, he may complain to the general, commanding in the state or territory where such regiment shall be stationed, in order to obtain justice; who is hereby required to examine into the said complaint, and take proper measures for redressing the wrong complained of, and transmit as soon as possible, to the department of war, a true state of such complaint, with the proceedings had thereon.

Art. 35. If any inferior officer or soldier, shall think himself wronged by his captain, or other officer, he is to complain thereof to the commanding officer of the regiment, who is hereby required to summon a regimental court-martial, for the doing justice to the complainant; from which regimental court-martial, either party may, if he thinks himself still aggrieved, appeal to a general court-martial. But if, upon a second hearing, the appeal shall appear vexatious and groundless, the person so appealing, shall be punished at the discretion of the said court-martial.

Art. 36. Any commissioned officer, store keeper, or commissary, who shall be convicted at a general court-martial, of having sold, without a proper order for that purpose, embezzled, misapplied, or wilfully, or through neglect, suffered any of the provisions, forage, arms, clothing, ammunition, or other military stores, belonging to the United States, to be spoiled, or damaged, shall, at his own expence, make good the loss, or damage, and shall moreover, forfeit all his pay, and be dismissed from the service.

Art. 37. Any non-commissioned officer, or soldier, who shall be convicted, at a regimental court-martial, of having sold, or designedly, or through neglect, wasted the ammunition delivered out to him, to be employed in the service of the United States, shall be punished at the discretion of such court.

Art. 38. Every non-commissioned officer or soldier, who shall be convicted before a court-martial, of having sold, lost, or spoiled, through neglect, his horse, arms, clothes, or accoutrements, shall undergo such weekly stoppages (not exceeding the half of his pay) as such court martial shall judge sufficient, for repairing the loss or damage; and shall suffer confinement or such other corporeal punishment as his crime shall deserve.

Art. 39. Every officer, who shall be convicted before a court-martial, of having embezzled, or misapplied any money, with which he may have been entrusted for the payment of the men under his command, or for inlisting men into the service, or for other purposes, if a commissioned officer, shall be cashiered, and compelled to refund the money; if a non-commissioned officer, shall be reduced to the ranks, be put under stoppages until the money be made good, and suffer such corporeal punishment as such court-martial shall direct.

Art. 40. Every captain of a troop, or company, is charged with the arms, accoutrements, ammunition, clothing, or other warlike stores belonging to the troop, or company under his command, which he is to be accountable for to his colonel, in case of their being lost, spoiled, or damaged, not by unavoidable accidents, or on actual service.

Art. 41. All non-commissioned officers and soldiers, who shall be found one mile from the camp, without leave, in writing, from their commanding officer, shall suffer such punishment as shall be inflicted upon them by the sentence of a court-martial.

Art. 42. No officer, or soldier, shall be out of his quarters, garrison, or camp, without leave from his superior officer, upon penalty of being punished according to the nature of his offence, by the sentence of a court-martial.

Art. 43. Every non-commissioned officer and soldier shall retire to his quarters or tent, at the beating of the retreat; in default of which he shall be punished according to the nature of his offence.

Art. 44. No officer, non-commissioned officer, or soldier, shall fail in repairing, at the time fixed, to the place of parade, of exercise, or other rendezvous, appointed by his commanding officer, if not prevented by sickness, or some other evident necessity; or shall go from the said place of rendezvous, without leave from his commanding officer, before he shall be regularly dismissed or relieved, on the penalty of being punished according to the nature of his offence, by the sentence of a court-martial.

Art. 45. Any commissioned officer who shall be found drunk on his guard, party, or other duty, shall be cashiered. Any non-commissioned officer or soldier so offending, shall suffer such corporeal punishment as shall be inflicted by the sentence of a court-martial.

Art. 46. Any centinel who shall be found sleeping upon his post, or shall leave it before he shall be regularly relieved, shall suffer death, or such other punishment as shall be inflicted by the sentence of a court-martial.

Art 47. No soldier belonging to any regiment, troop, or company, shall hire another to do his duty for him, or be excused from duty, but in cases of sickness, disability, or leave of absence; and every such soldier found guilty of hiring his duty, as also the party so hired to do another’s duty, shall be punished at the discretion of a regimental court-martial.

Art. 48. And every non-commissioned officer conniving at such hiring of duty aforesaid, shall be reduced; and every commissioned officer, knowing and allowing such ill practices in the service, shall be punished by the judgment of a general court-martial.

Art. 49. Any officer belonging to the service of the United States, who, by discharging of fire arms, drawing of swords, beating of drums, or by any other means whatsoever, shall occasion false alarms in camp, garrison, or quarters, shall suffer death, or such other punishment as shall be ordered by the sentence of a general court-martial.

Art. 50. Any officer or soldier, who shall, without urgent necessity, or without the leave of his superior officer, quit his guard, platoon, or division, shall be punished according to the nature of his offence, by the sentence of a court-martial.

Art. 51. No officer or soldier shall do violence to any persons who brings provisions or other necessaries to the camp, garrison, or quarters, of the forces of the United States, employed in any parts out of the said states, upon pain of death, or such other punishment as a court-martial shall direct.

Art. 52. Any officer or soldier, who shall misbehave himself before the enemy, run away, or shamefully abandon any fort, post, or guard, which he or they may be commanded to defend, or speak words inducing others to do the like; or shall cast away his arms and ammunition, or who shall quit his post or colors to plunder and pillage, every such offender being duly convicted thereof, shall suffer death or such other punishment as shall be ordered by the sentence of a general court-martial.

Art. 53. Any person belonging to the armies of the United States, who shall make known the watch-word to any person who is not entitled to receive it, according to the rules and discipline of war, or shall presume to give a parole or watch-word, different from what he received, shall suffer death, or such other punishment as shall be ordered by the sentence of a general court-martial.

Art. 54. All officers and soldiers are to behave themselves orderly in quarters, and on their march; and whosoever shall commit any waste, or spoil, either in walks of trees, parks, warrens, fish ponds, houses, or gardens, corn-fields, enclosures of meadows, or shall maliciously destroy any property whatsoever, belonging to the inhabitants of the United States, unless by order of the then commander in chief of the armies of the said states, shall (besides such penalties as they are liable to by law,) be punished according to the nature and degree of the offence, by the judgment of a regimental or general court-martial.

Art. 55. Whosoever, belonging to the armies of the United States, employed in foreign parts, shall force a safe guard, shall suffer death.

Art. 56. Whosoever shall relieve the enemy with money, victuals, or ammunition, or shall knowingly harbor or protect an enemy, shall suffer death or such other punishment as shall be ordered by the sentence of a court-martial.

Art. 57. Whosoever shall be convicted of holding correspondence with, or giving intelligence to the enemy, either directly or indirectly, shall suffer death, or such other punishment as shall be ordered by the sentence of a court-martial.

Art. 58. All public stores taken in the enemy’s camp, towns, forts, or magazines, whether of artillery, ammunition, clothing, forage, or provisions, shall be secured for the service of the United States; for the neglect of which the commanding officer is to be answerable.

Art. 59. If any commander of any garrison, fortress, or post, shall be compelled, by the officers and soldiers under his command, to give up to the enemy, or to abandon it: the commissioned officers, non-commissioned officers, or soldiers, who shall be convicted of having so offended, shall suffer death, or such other punishment as shall be inflicted upon them by the sentence of a court-martial.

Art. 60. All suttlers and retainers to the camp, and all persons whatsoever, serving with the armies of the United States, in the field, though not inlisted soldiers, are to be subject to orders, according to the rules and discipline of war.

Art. 61. Officers having brevetts, or commissions, of a prior date to those of the regiment in which they serve, may take place in courts-martial and on detachments, when composed of different corps, according to the ranks given them in their brevetts, or dates of their former commissions; but in the regiment, troop, or company, to which such officers belong, they shall do duty and take rank, both in courts-martial and on detachments, which shall be composed only of their own corps, according to the commissions by which they are mustered in the said corps.

Art. 62. If upon marches, guards, or in quarters, different corps of the army shall happen to join, or do duty together, the officer highest in rank of the line of the army, marine corps, or militia, by commission there, on duty, or in quarters, shall command the whole, and give orders for what is needful to the service, unless otherwise specially directed by the president of the United States, according to the nature of the case.

Art. 63. The functions of the engineers being generally confined to the most elevated branch of military science, they are not to assume, nor are they subject to be ordered on any duty beyond the line of their immediate profession, except by the special order of the president of the United States; but they are to receive every mark of respect, to which their rank in the army may entitle them, respectively, and are liable to be transferred, at the discretion of the president, from one corps to another, regard being paid to rank.

Art. 64. General courts-martial may consist of any number of commissioned officers, from five to thirteen, inclusively, but they shall not consist of less than thirteen, where that number can be convened, without manifest injury to the service.

Art. 65. Any general officer commanding an army, or colonel commanding a separate department, may appoint general courts-martial, whenever necessary. But no sentence of a court-martial shall be carried into execution until after the whole proceedings shall have been laid before the officer ordering the same, or the officer commanding the troops for the time being; neither shall any sentence of a general court-martial, in time of peace, extending to the loss of life, or the dismission of a commissioned officer, or which shall, either in time of peace or war, respect a general officer, be carried into execution, until after the whole proceedings shall have been transmitted to the secretary of war, to be laid before the president of the United States, for his confirmation or disapproval, and orders in the case. All other sentences may be confirmed and executed by the officer ordering the court to assemble, or the commanding officer for the time being, as the case may be.

Art. 66. Every officer commanding a regiment, or corps, may appoint, for his own regiment or corps, courts-martial, to consist of three commissioned officers, for the trial and punishment of offences, not capital, and decide upon their sentences. For the same purpose all officers, commanding any of the garrisons, forts, barracks, or other places where the troops consist of different corps, may assemble courts-martial, to consist of three commissioned officers, and decide upon their sentences.

Art. 67. No garrison, or regimental court-martial shall have the power to try capital cases, or commissioned officers; neither shall they inflict a fine exceeding one month’s pay, nor imprison, nor put to hard labor, any non-commissioned officer or soldier, for a longer time than one month.

Art. 68. Whenever it may be found convenient and necessary to the public service, the officers of the marines shall be associated with the officers of the land forces, for the purpose of holding courts-martial and trying offenders belonging to either; and in such cases the orders of the senior officers of either corps who may be present and duly authorised, shall be received and obeyed.

Art 69. The judge advocate, or some person deputed by him, or by the general, or officer commanding the army, detachment, or garrison, shall prosecute in the name of the United States, but shall so far consider himself as council for the prisoner, after the said prisoner shall have made his plea, as to object to any leading question to any of the witnesses, or any question to the prisoner, the answer to which might tend to criminate himself; and administer to each member of the court before they proceed upon any trial, the following oath, which shall also be taken by all members of the regimental and garrison courts-martial.

“You A. B. do swear that you will well and truly try and determine, according to evidence, the matter now before you, between the United States of America, and the prisoner to be tried, and that you will duly administer justice, according to the provisions of ‘An act establishing rules and articles for the government of the armies of the United States,’ without partiality, favor, or affection; and if any doubt shall arise, not explained by said articles, according to your conscience, the best of your understanding, and the custom of war, in like cases; and you do further swear, that you will not divulge the sentence of the court until it shall be published by the proper authority; neither will you disclose or discover the vote or opinion of any particular member of the court-martial, unless required to give evidence thereof as a witness, by a court of justice, in a due course of law. So help you God.”

And as soon as the said oath shall have been administered to the respective members, the president of the court shall administer to the judge advocate, or person officiating as such, an oath in the following words:

“You A. B. do swear, that you will not disclose or discover the vote or opinion of any particular member of the court martial, unless required to give evidence thereof as a witness, by a court of justice in due course of law. Nor divulge the sentence of the court to any but the proper authority, until it shall be duly disclosed by the same. So help you God.”

Art. 70. When any prisoner arraigned before a general court-martial shall, from obstinacy and deliberate design, stand mute or answer foreign to the purpose, the court may proceed to trial and judgment as if the prisoner had regularly pleaded not guilty.

Art. 71. When a member shall be challenged by a prisoner, he must state his cause of challenge, of which the court shall, after due deliberation determine the relevancy or validity, and decide accordingly; and no challenge to more than one member at a time shall be received by the court.

Art. 72. All the members of a court-martial are to behave with decency and calmness; and in giving their votes, are to begin with the youngest in commission.

Art. 73. All persons who give evidence before a court martial, are to be examined on oath or affirmation in the following form:

“You swear or affirm (as the case may be) the evidence you shall give in the cause now in hearing, shall be the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth. So help you God.”

Art. 74. On the trials of cases not capital, before courts-martial, the deposition of witnesses not in the line or staff of the army, may be taken before some justice of the peace, and read in evidence; provided the prosecutor and the person accused are present at the taking the same, or are duly notified thereof.

Art. 75. No officer shall be tried but by a general court-martial, nor by officers of inferior rank, if it can be avoided. Nor shall any proceedings or trials be carried on excepting between the hours of eight in the morning, and three in the afternoon, excepting in cases, which, in the opinion of the officers appointing the court-martial, require immediate example.

Art. 76. No person whatsoever shall use any menacing words, signs, or gestures, in presence of a court-martial, or shall cause any disorder or riot, or disturb the proceedings, on the penalty of being punished at the discretion of the said court-martial.

Art. 77. Whenever any officer shall be charged with a crime, he shall be arrested and confined in his barracks, quarters, or tent, and deprived of his sword, by the commanding officer. And any officer who shall leave his confinement before he shall be set at liberty by his commanding officer, or by a superior officer, shall be cashiered.

Art. 78. Non-commissioned officers and soldiers, charged with crimes, shall be confined, until tried by a court-martial, or released by proper authority.

Art. 79. No officer or soldier who shall be put in arrest, shall continue in confinement more than eight days, or until such time as a court-martial can be assembled.

Art 80. No officer commanding a guard, or provost marshal, shall refuse to receive or keep any prisoner committed to his charge, by an officer belonging to the forces of the United States; provided the officer committing, shall, at the same time, deliver an account in writing, signed by himself, of the crime with which the said prisoner is charged.

Art. 81. No officer commanding a guard, or provost marshal, shall presume to release any person committed to his charge, without proper authority for so doing, nor shall he suffer any person to escape, on the penalty of being punished for it by the sentence of a court-martial.

Art. 82. Every officer or provost marshal, to whose charge prisoners shall be committed, shall, within twenty-four hours after such commitment, or as soon as he shall be relieved from his guard, make report in writing, to the commanding officer of their names, their crimes, and the names of the officers who committed them, on the penalty of being punished for disobedience or neglect, at the discretion of a court-martial. Art. 83. Any commissioned officer convicted before a general court-martial of conduct unbecoming an officer and a gentleman, shall be dismissed the service.

Art. 84. In cases where a court-martial may think it proper to sentence a commissioned officer to be suspended from command, they shall have power also to suspend his pay and emoluments for the same time, according to the nature and heinousness of the offence.

Art 85. In all cases where a commissioned officer is cashiered for cowardice or fraud, it shall be added in the sentence, that the crime, name, and place of abode and punishment of the delinquent, be published in the newspapers in and about the camp, and of the particular state from which the offender came, or where he usually resides, after which it shall be deemed scandalous for an officer to associate with him.

Art. 86. The commanding officer of any post or detachment, in which there shall not be a number of officers adequate to form a general court-martial, shall, in cases which require the cognizance of such a court, report to the commanding officer of the department, who shall order a court to be assembled at the nearest post or detachment, and the party accused, with necessary witnesses, to be transported to the place where the said court shall be assembled.

Art. 87. No person shall be sentenced to suffer death, but by the concurrence of two thirds of the members of a general court-martial, nor except in the cases herein expressly mentioned; nor shall more than fifty lashes be inflicted on any offender, at the discretion of a court-martial; and no officer, non-commissioned officer, soldier, or follower of the army, shall be tried a second time for the same offence.

Art. 88. No person shall be liable to be tried and punished by a general court-martial for any offence which shall appear to have been committed more than two years before the issuing of the order for such trial, unless the person, by reason of having absented himself or some other manifest impediment, shall not have been amenable to justice within that period.

Art. 89. Every officer authorised to order a general court-martial, shall have power to pardon or mitigate any punishment ordered by such court, except the sentence of death, or of cashiering an officer; which, in the cases where he has authority (by article 65) to carry them into execution, he may suspend, until the pleasure of the president of the United States can be known; which suspension, together with the copies of the proceedings of the court-martial, the said officer shall immediately transmit to the president, for his determination. And the colonel or commanding officer of the regiment or garrison where any regimental or garrison court-martial shall be held, may pardon or mitigate any punishment ordered by such court to be inflicted.

Art 90. Every judge advocate, or person officiating as such, at any general court-martial, shall transmit, with as much expedition as the opportunity of time and distance of place can admit, the original proceedings and sentence of such court-martial, to the secretary of war, which said original proceedings and sentence shall be carefully kept and preserved in the office of said secretary, to the end that the persons entitled thereto may be enabled, upon application to the said office, to obtain copies hereof.

The party tried by any general court-martial, shall, upon demand thereof made by himself or by any person or persons in his behalf, be entitled to a copy of the sentence and proceedings of such court-martial.

Art. 91. In cases where a general or commanding officer may order a court of inquiry to examine into the nature of any transaction, accusation, or imputation against any officer or soldier, the said court shall consist of one or more officers, not exceeding three, and a judge advocate, or other suitable person as a recorder, to reduce the proceedings and evidence to writing, all of whom shall be sworn to the faithful performance of their duty. This court shall have the same power to summon witnesses as a court-martial, and to examine them on oath. But they shall not give their opinion on the merits of the case, excepting they shall be thereto specially required. The parties accused shall also be permitted to cross examine and interrogate the witnesses, so as to investigate fully the circumstances in question.

Art. 92. The proceedings of a court of inquiry must be authenticated by the signature of the recorder and the president, and delivered to the commanding officer: and the said proceedings may be admitted as evidence by a court martial, in cases not capital, or extending to the dismission of an officer, provided that the circumstances are such, that oral testimony cannot be obtained. But as courts of inquiry may be perverted to dishonorable purposes, and may be considered as engines of destruction to military merit, in the hands of weak and envious commandants, they are hereby prohibited, unless directed by the president of the United States, or demanded by the accused.

Art. 93. The judge advocate, or recorder, shall administer to the members the following oath:

“You shall well and truly examine and inquire, according to your evidence, into the matter now before you, without partiality, favor, affection, prejudice, or hope of reward: So help you God.”

After which the president shall administer to the judge advocate, or recorder, the following oath:

“You A. B. do swear that you will, according to your best abilities, accurately and impartially record the proceedings of the court, and the evidence to be given in the case in hearing: So help you God.”

The witnesses shall take the same oath as witnesses sworn before a court-martial.

Art. 94. When any commissioned officer shall die or be killed in the service of the United States, the major of the regiment, or the officer doing the major’s duty in his absence, or in any post or garrison, the second officer in command, or the assistant military agent, shall immediately secure all his effects or equipage, then in camp or quarters, and shall make an inventory thereof, and forthwith transmit the same to the office of the department of war, to the end that his executors or administrators may receive the same.

Art. 95. When any non-commissioned officer, or soldier, shall die, or be killed in the service of the United States, the then commanding officer of the troop, or company, shall, in the presence of two other commissioned officers, take an account of what effects he died possessed of, above his arms and accoutrements, and transmit the same to the office of the department of war; which said effects are to be accounted for, and paid to the representatives of such deceased non-commissioned officer or soldier. And in case any of the officers, so authorised to take care of the effects of deceased officers and soldiers, should, before they have accounted to their representatives for the same, have occasion to leave the regiment, or post, by preferment or otherwise, they shall, before they be permitted to quit the same, deposit in the hands of the commanding officer, or of the assistant military agent, all the effects of such deceased non-commissioned officers and soldiers, in order that the same may be secured for, and paid to, their respective representatives.

Art. 96. All officers, conductors, gunners, matrosses, drivers, or other persons whatsoever, receiving pay or hire in the service of the artillery or corps of engineers of the United States, shall be governed by the aforesaid rules and articles, and shall be subject to be tried by courts-martial, in like manner with the officers and soldiers of the other troops in the service of the United States.

Art. 97. The officers and soldiers of any troops, whether militia or others, being mustered and in pay of the United States, shall, at all times, and in all places, when joined or acting in conjunction with the regular forces of the United States, be governed by these rules and articles of war, and shall be subject to be tried by courts-martial, in like manner with the officers and soldiers in the regular forces, save only that such courts-martial shall be composed entirely of militia officers.

Art. 98. All officers, serving by commission from the authority of any particular state, shall on all detachments, courts-martial, or other duty, wherein they may be employed in conjunction with the regular forces of the United States, take rank, next after all officers of the like grade in said regular forces, notwithstanding the commissions of such militia or state officers may be elder than the commissions of the officers of the regular forces of the United States.

Art. 99. All crimes not capital, and all disorders and neglects which officers and soldiers may be guilty of, to the prejudice of good order and military discipline, though not mentioned in the foregoing articles of war, are to be taken cognizance of by a general or regimental court-martial, according to the nature and degree of the offence, and be punished at their discretion.

Art. 100. The president of the United States, shall have power to prescribe the uniform of the army.

Art. 101. The foregoing articles are to be read and published once in every six months, to every garrison, regiment, troop or company, mustered or to be mustered in the service of the United States, and are to be duly observed and obeyed, by all officers and soldiers who are or shall be in said service.

Sec. II. That in time of war all persons not citizens of, or owing allegiance to the United States of America, who shall be found lurking as spies, in or about the fortifications or encampments of the armies of the United States, or any of them, shall suffer death, according to the law and usage of nations, by sentence of a general court-martial.

Sec. III. That the rules and regulations, by which the armies of the United States have heretofore been governed, and the resolves of congress thereunto annexed, and respecting the same, shall henceforth be void and of no effect, except so far as may relate to any transactions under them, prior to the promulgation of this act, at the several posts and garrisons respectively, occupied by any part of the army of the United States.

LAY. To lay down, implies to resign, as, the enemy laid down their arms; he means to lay down his commission.--To lay for, is to attempt something by ambuscade.

LAZARET, Fr. those large houses are so called which are built in the neighborhood of some sea-ports belonging to the Levant, for the purpose of lodging the people that are ordered to perform quarantine.

LAZARETTO, the same as lazaret.

LAZARUS, LAZARO, a military order instituted at Jerusalem by the Christians of the west, when they were masters of the Holy-Land, who received pilgrims under their care and guarded them on the roads from the insults of the Mahomedans. This order was instituted in the year 1119, and confirmed by a bull of Pope Alexander IV. in 1255, who gave it the rule of St. Augustine.

LEAD, a metal well known. It is employed for various mechanical uses; as in thin sheets for covering buildings, for pipes, pumps, shot, bullets, windows, for securing iron bars in hard stones, for sundry kinds of large vessels for evaporation, and many other purposes.

LEADER. See COMMANDER.

File LEADER, the front man of a battalion or company, standing two or three deep.

LEADING-COLUMN, the first column that advances from the right, left, or centre of an army or battalion.

LEADING-FILE, the first men of a battalion or company, that march from right, left, or centre, in files.

Flank LEADING-FILE, the first man on the right, and the last man on the left of a battalion, company, or section, are so called.

Centre LEADING-FILE, the last man of the right centre company, division, or section; and the first man of the left centre company, division, or section, are so called, when the line files from the centre to the front or rear. At close order, the colors stand between them.

LEAGUE, in military history, a measure of length, containing more or less geometrical paces, according to the different usages and customs of countries. A league at sea, where it is chiefly used by us, being a land measure mostly peculiar to the French and Germans, contains 3000 geometrical paces, or 3 English miles.

The French league sometimes contains the same measure, and, in some parts of France, it consists of 3500 paces: the mean or common league consists of 2400 paces, and the little league of 2000. The Spanish leagues are larger than the French, 17 Spanish leagues making a degree, or 20 French leagues, or 69¹⁄₂ English statute miles. The German and Dutch leagues contain each 4 geographical miles. The Persian leagues are pretty near of the same extent with the Spanish; that is, they are equal to 4 Italian miles, which is pretty near to what Herodotus calls the length of the Persian parasang, which contained 30 stadia, 8 whereof, according to Strabo, make a mile. See MEASURE.

LEAGUE also denotes an alliance or confederacy between princes and states for their mutual aid, either in attacking some common enemy, or in defending themselves.

LEAVE, indulgence, licence, liberty.

LEAVE of absence, a permission which is granted to officers, non-commissioned officers, and soldiers, to be absent from camp or quarters for any specific period.

General LEAVE, an indulgence which is annually granted on home service, by the commander in chief, to a certain proportion of the army, to be absent from military duty. This generally occurs in the winter months, and ends on the 10th of March, and in time of peace only.

LECTURES. Lectures are read at the British establishment at Woolwich to the officers of artillery, and engineers, and cadets, on chemistry: lectures upon topography and upon other essential parts of military science are given at High Wycombe: British colleges.

LEEKUK, Ind. a secretary or writer.

LEFT give point. See SWORD-EXERCISE.

LEFT protect. See SWORD-EXERCISE.

To put on the LEG, among cavalry, is to press the inside of the foot and leg against the horse’s flank. It is always used in passaging to direct the horse which way to passage, and again on the opposite flank to stop him after he has passaged to his place.

LEGATUS, in Roman antiquity, a military officer who commanded as deputy of the chief general.

Kennett, in his Antiquities, observes, that the design of the legati, at their first institution, was not so much to command as to advise. The senate selecting some of the oldest and most prudent members to assist the general in his councils.

Dionysius calls this the most honorable and sacred office among the Romans, bearing not only the authority of a commander, but with all, the sanctity and veneration of a priest.

Under the emperors there were two sorts of legati, consulares and prætorii; the first of which commanded the whole armies, as the emperor’s lieutenant generals, and the other only particular legions.

Machiavel highly extols the wisdom of the Romans, in allowing their generals unlimited commissions.

LEGER. This word although it be not strictly military, is in some degree connected with the profession, as diplomacy is not wholly foreign to military negociation. A leger ambassador, or resident signifies any person acting in that capacity, who remains stationary.

Artillerie Légère, Fr. The light or horse artillery.

Cavalerie Légère, Fr. Light horse.

Un Cheval léger à la main, Fr. A horse which is easily managed, or is not hard mouthed.

Troupes Légères, Fr. Light troops, or such as act in desultory warfare.

LEGION, in Roman antiquity, a body of foot, which consisted of ten cohorts, or 5000 men.

The exact number contained in a legion, was fixed by Romulus at 3000; though Plutarch assures us, that, after the reception of the Sabines into Rome, he increased it to 6000. The common number afterwards, in the first times of the free state, was 4000; but in the war with Hannibal, it rose to 5000; and after that, it is probable that it sunk again to 4200, which was the number in the time of Polybius.

In the age of Julius Cæsar, we do not find any legions exceeding the Polybian number of men; and he himself expressly speaks of two legions, that did not make above 7000 between them. (Commentar. lib. 5.)

The number of legions kept in pay together was different, according to the various times and occasions. During the free state, four legions were commonly fitted up every year, and divided between the consuls: yet in cases of necessity, we sometimes meet with no less than 16 or 18 in Livy.

Augustus maintained a standing army of 23 (or as some will have it) of 25 legions; but in aftertimes we seldom find so many.

They borrowed their names from the order in which they were raised, as prima, secunda, tertia, &c. but because it usually happened, that there were several primæ, secundæ, &c. in several places, upon that account they took a sort of surname besides, either from the emperors who first constituted them, as Augusta, Claudiana, Galbiana, Flavia, Ulpia, Trajana, Antoniana, or from the provinces which had been conquered chiefly by their valor, as Parthica, Scythica, Gallica, Arabica, &c. or from the names of the particular deities for whom their commanders had an especial honor, as Minervia and Appollinaris; or from the region where they had their quarters, as Cretensis, Cyrenaica, Britannica, &c. or sometimes upon account of the lesser accidents, as Adjutrix, Martia, Fulminatrix, Rapax, &c.

The whole Roman infantry, which was divided into four sorts, Velites, Hastati, Principes, and Triarii, consisted of Manipuli, Cohorts, and Legions. So that legion was considered as the largest establishment for foot soldiers. See Kennett’s Ant. of Rome, pages 190, 191.

Marshal Saxe has written at some length, respecting legion.

LEGION, in a general acceptation of the term, signifies any large body of men. In a more confined one among the moderns, it applies to a specific number of horse and foot, who are distinguished by that name, and do duty with the rest of the army. Such for instance was the British legion which served in America; and of this description were the Polish and Belgic legions, that formed part of the French army in the early part of the revolution. The French armies now form corps d’armie, which are in fact legions; and of 20 to 30,000 men each.

LEGIONARY, any thing appertaining to a legion, or containing an indefinite number.

LEGUMES, Fr. vegetables, roots, grain, &c. Every species of subsistence, which under the old government of France, was not provided for the troops by direct instructions from the war office, and at the expence of the public, was called legumes. Subsistence of this sort, however, may more properly be called that diet which soldiers got for themselves in foreign countries during actual hostilities.

Legumes, or vegetable food, &c. was classed under two specific heads. That which grew in consequence of the ground having been tilled and sowed, and that which rose spontaneously from the earth. Beans, peas, carrots, &c. may be considered as belonging to the first class, and those herbs or wild roots which have been cultivated in gardens, or are to be found in woods, &c. may come under the second. The latter sort, indeed, was frequently resorted to by the soldier in order to give a seasoning to his mess. Parties under the command of subaltern officers were permitted to accompany the foragers for the purpose of procuring this wholesome and pleasant addition to the regulated subsistence; and when there were not any foraging days, soldiers were permitted to gather roots and vegetables within the limits of the outermost house or vedette quarters, or of the regular outposts of the infantry.

To LENGTHEN out, in a military sense, means to stride out.

To LENGTHEN the step, to take more than the prescribed pace.

LESKAR, the camp of the great Mogul.

To LET in, to admit; as he let some of the enemy’s advanced parties in, or into the camp, &c.

To LET off, to discharge.

To LET off a pistol or musquet, to fire either of those fire arms.

LETTER of mark, LETTER of marque, a letter granted to a ship captain impowering him to make reprisals for what was formerly taken from him, by ships of another state, contrary to the law of mart. See MARQUE.

LETTER of mark, a commission granted the commander of a merchant ship or privateer, to cruise against, and make prizes of the enemy’s ships and vessels, either at sea, or in their harbors.

LETTER of service, a written order or authority issued by the secretary at war, empowering any officer or individual to raise a given body of men to serve as soldiers, within a certain time, and on special conditions.

LETTER, in its general acceptation, a character such as forms the alphabet, or any thing written, such as an epistle, &c.

LETTER of attorney, an instrument in writing, authorizing an attorney, or any confidential person, to take the affairs of another in trust. A letter or power of attorney is necessary to empower a person to receive the half-pay of an officer. This should be accompanied by a certificate sworn to by the officer before some magistrate or justice of the peace.

LETTER of credit, a letter which is given from one merchant or banker to another, in favor of a third person, enabling the latter to take up money to a certain amount. Sometimes a letter of credit is given without any specific limitation.

LETTER of licence, a deed signed and sealed by the creditors of a man, by which he is allowed a given period to enable him to discharge his debts by instalments, or by a certain proportion in the pound.

LETTER-men, certain pensioners belonging to Chelsea hospital, are so called.

LETTON, Fr. a metal composed of molten copper, called rosette, and of lapis calaminaris, or zinc. This is brass.

LETTON is used in cannon-foundries. The best practical mode of digesting and mixing the materials, is to put 11 or 12,000 weight of metal, 10,000 weight of rosette, or molten copper, 900 pounds of tin, and 600 pounds of letton. There are various opinions respecting the mixture of these several ingredients.

LETTRE circulaire, Fr. a circular letter.

LETTRE de cachet, Fr. an infamous state paper, which existed before the French revolution, differing in this essential point from an order of the British privy council, that the former was sealed, and the person upon whom it was served, carried into confinement without even seeing the authority by which he was hurried off in so peremptory a manner, or being tried afterwards for any specific offence; whereas the latter is an open warrant, which, (except when peculiar circumstances occasions a suspension of the habeas corpus act,) has its object closely investigated before a jury. The French lettre de cachet was written by the king, countersigned by one of his principal secretaries of state, and sealed with the royal signet.

LETTRES de service, Fr. See LETTERS of service.

LETTRES de passe, Fr. a paper signed by the kings of France, authorizing an officer to exchange from one regiment into another.

LETTRE de créance, ou qui porte crêance, Fr. A letter of credit. It likewise signifies the credentials which an ambassador presents from his government to a foreign court.

LETTRE de récréance, Fr. a letter which an ambassador receives from his government, by which he is recalled from a foreign court.

LETTRES en chiffre, Fr. Cyphers. Baron Espagnac in the continuation of his Essai sur l’operation de la guerre, tom. 1, page 269, gives the following instructions relative to this acquirement. He observes that writing in cypher may be practised in two different ways. First by means of distilled vinegar, which is boiled with silver litharge, one ounce of the latter to a pint of the former. When this mixture has stood some time, it must be carefully poured off from the sediment, and it will appear as clear as rock water. Intelligence or information may be conveyed by writing with this water in the blank spaces of an ordinary letter, on wrapping paper, or on the blank leaves of a book. The instant the writing dries, not the least trace appears of what has been marked. To render the writing legible, you must make use of a water in which quick lime has been dissolved with a mixture of orpiment. This water is as clear as rock water; and if you steep a sheet of paper in it, and lay it upon the letter, book, &c. on which any thing has been written, the different characters will instantly appear.

The first of these distilled liquids is so powerful and searching, that by putting the written letter upon several other sheets of paper, after having rubbed the top sheet with the second water, the writing will be clearly seen in almost all of them. The same circumstance will occur, if you rub the leaf of a book or any piece of paper which you may spread upon it. These waters, especially the last, should be kept in bottles that are well corked up, to prevent the spirituous particles from evaporating. A fresh composition must, indeed, be made, if the old one should seem weakened. The letters that are written must likewise be carefully penned, and kept free from blots, &c. The paper must not be turned, nor rubbed with the hand until the writing be thoroughly dry. This is the author’s first proposed mode of writing in cyphers, the second may be seen in page 270 of the work already quoted.

LETTRES de représailles, Fr. Reprisals. See LETTERS of marque.

LETTRES de santé, patentes de santé, Fr. letters of health.

LEVANT, the countries bordering upon the Mediterranean are so called. It appears to be derived from le vent, the wind, or country to windward, in relation to Italy.

LEVANTIN, Fr. A word generally used among the French to distinguish any person from the Levant.

LEVANTINE nations, (Nations Levantines, Fr.) Nations belonging to the East, or to those countries which border on the Mediterranean. The French likewise say, Peuples Levantines.

LEVANTIS, Fr. The soldiers belonging to the Turkish gallies are so called.

LEVEE de troupes, Fr. See LEVY.

LEVEE en Masse, Fr. a general rising of the people of any country, either for the purposes of self defence, or to answer the intentions of its governing powers.

LEVEE d’une siege, Fr. The raising of a siege. See SIEGE.

LEVEL, an instrument to draw a line parallel to the horizon, whereby the difference of ascent or descent between several places may be found, for conveying water, draining fens, &c.

Air-LEVEL, that which shews the line of level by means of a bubble of air, inclosed with some liquor in a glass tube of an indeterminate length and thickness, whose two ends are hermetically sealed. When the bubble fixes itself at a certain mark, made exactly in the centre of the tube, the plane or ruler wherein it is fixed is level; when it is not level, the bubble will rise to one end. This glass tube may be set in another of brass, having an aperture in the middle, whence the bubble of air may be observed. There is one of these instruments with sights, being an improvement upon the last described, which by the addition of more apparatus, becomes more commodious and exact: it consists of an air-level about eight inches long, and 7 or 8 lines in diameter, set in a brass tube, with an aperture in the middle: the tubes are carried in a strong straight ruler, a foot long, at whose ends are fixed two sights, exactly perpendicular to the tubes, and of an equal height, having a square hole, formed by two fillets of brass crossing each other at right angles, in the middle whereof is drilled a very little hole, through which a point on a level with the instrument is described: the brass tube is fastened on the ruler by means of two screws, one whereof serves to raise or depress the tube at pleasure, for bringing it towards a level. The top of the ball and socket is riveted to a little ruler that springs, one end whereof is fastened with screws to the great ruler, and at the other end is a screw serving to raise and depress the instrument when nearly level.

Artillery foot-LEVEL, is in form of a square, having its two branches or legs of an equal length, at the angle of which is a small hole, whence hang a line and plummet, playing on a perpendicular line in the middle of a quadrant: it is divided into twice 45 degrees from the middle.

Gunner’s-LEVEL, for levelling pieces of artillery, consists of a triangular brass plate, about 4 inches, at the bottom of which is a portion of a circle divided into 45 degrees; which angle is sufficient for the highest elevation of cannons, mortars, and howitzers, and for giving shot and shells the greatest range: on the centre of this segment of a circle is screwed a piece of brass, by means of which it may be fixed or screwed at pleasure; the end of this piece of brass is made so as to serve for a plummet and index, in order to shew the different degrees of elevation of pieces of artillery. This instrument has also a brass foot, to act upon cannon or mortars, so that when these pieces are horizontal, the instrument will be perpendicular. The foot of this instrument is to be placed on the piece to be elevated, in such a manner, as that the point of the plummet may fall on the proper degree, &c.

The most curious instrument for the use of the artillerist, was lately invented by the very ingenious colonel Congreve, of the British artillery; having the following qualifications, viz. 1. It will find the inclination of any plane, whether above or below the horizon. 2. By applying it either to the cylinder, or outside of any piece of ordnance, angles of elevation or depression may be given to the 60th part of a degree, with less trouble than the common gunner’s quadrant, which only gives to the 4th part of a degree. 3. It will give the line of direction for laying either guns or mortars to an object above or below the horizon. 4. It will find the centre of metals of any piece of ordnance. 5. With it, a point may be found in the rear of a mortar-bed, in the vertical plane of the mortar’s axis; consequently a longer line of sight is given for directing them to the object than the usual way. 6. It answers all the purposes of a pair of callipers, with the advantage of knowing (to the 100th part of an inch) diameters, whether concave or convex, without the trouble of laying the claws upon a diagonal scale. 7. On the sides of the instrument are the following lines, viz. equal parts, solids, plains, and polygons, logarithms, tangents, versed sines, and numbers, plotting scales, and diagonal scale of inches for cutting fuzes by. 8. In the lid of the instrument-case is a pendulum to vibrate half seconds. It is likewise of singular use in surveying; as, 1. It takes horizontal angles to the 60th part of a degree. 2. Vertical angles. 3. Levels. 4. Solves right angled plane triangles. 5. Oblique-angled plane triangles. 6. Answers all the purposes of a protractor, with the advantage of laying down angles exactly as taken in the field. N. B. captain Jordane’s ingenious instrument answers nearly the same purposes.

Spirit-LEVEL. See AIR LEVEL.

By the term level is also to be understood the line of direction in which any missive weapon is aimed.

LEVELLING, the finding a line parallel to the horizon at one or more stations, and so to determine the height of one place in regard to another.

A truly level surface is a segment of any spherical substance, which is concentric to the globe of the earth. A true line of level is an arch of a great circle which is imagined to be described upon a true level surface.

The apparent level is a straight line drawn tangent to an arch or line of true level. Every point of the apparent level except the point of contact, is higher than the true level.

The common methods of levelling are sufficient for laying pavements of walks, for conveying water to small distances, for placing horizontal dials, or astronomical instruments; but in levelling the bottoms of canals or ditches in a fortification, which are to convey water to the distance of many miles, the difference between the apparent and true level must be taken into the account.

Dr. Halley suggests a method of levelling, which is performed wholly by the barometer, in which the mercury is found to be suspended to so much the less height, as the place is more remote from the centre of the earth. Hence it follows, that the different height of the mercury in two places gives the difference of level.

Mr. Derham, from some observations at the top and bottom of the monument in London, found that the mercury fell ¹⁄₁₀th of an inch at every 82 feet of perpendicular ascent, when the mercury was at 30 inches. Dr. Halley allows of ¹⁄₁₀th of an inch for every 30 yards; and considering how accurately barometers are now made, we think this method sufficiently exact to take levels for the conveyance of water, or any other military purposes, and indeed less liable to errors than the common levels. Mr. Derham also found a difference of 3 inches ⁸⁄₁₀ths between the height of the mercury at the top and bottom of Snowdonhill in Wales.

For the common occasions of levelling, set a pole upright in a spring, pond, &c. and mark how many feet and inches are above water; then set up another pole of equal length with the other, in the place to which the water is to come. Place the centre of a quadrant on the top of this last pole, the plummet hanging free; spy through the sights at the top of the pole in the water, and if the thread cuts any degree of the quadrant, the water may be conveyed by a pipe laid in the earth. If you cannot see from one extreme to the other, the operation may be repeated.

LEVELLING.--Table shewing the difference between the true and apparent level.

+------+------+------+------+------+--------+------+-------+ | | Dif- | | Dif- | | Dif- | | Dif- | | | fer- | | fer- | | fer- | | fer- | | | ence | | ence | | ence | | ence | | Dis- | of | Dis- | of | Dis- | of | Dis- | of | |tance.|level.|tance.|level.|tance.| level. |tance.| level.| +------+------+------+------+------+--------+------+-------+ | Yds. | Inch.| Yds. | Inch.| Mls. |Ft. in.| Mls. |Ft. in.| | 100 | 0.026| 1000 | 2.570| ¹⁄₄ | 0 0¹⁄₂| 7 | 32 6 | | 200 | 0.103| 1100 | 3.110| ¹⁄₂ | 0 2 | 8 | 42 6 | | 300 | 0.231| 1200 | 3.701| ³⁄₄ | 0 4¹⁄₂| 9 | 53 9 | | 400 | 0.411| 1300 | 4.344| 1 | 0 8 | 10 | 66 4 | | 500 | 0.643| 1400 | 5.038| 2 | 2 8 | 11 | 80 3 | | 600 | 0.925| 1500 | 5.784| 3 | 6 0 | 12 | 95 2 | | 700 | 1.260| 1600 | 6.580| 4 |10 7 | 13 |112 2 | | 800 | 1.645| 1700 | 7.425| 5 |16 7 | 14 |130 1 | | 900 | 2.081| | | 6 |23 11 | 15 |150 | | | | | | | | 16 |175 | +------+------+------+------+------+--------+------+-------+

This table will answer several useful purposes.

First.--To find the height of the apparent level above the true, at any distance.--If the given distance be contained in the table, the correction of level is found in the same line with it; but if the exact distance be not found in the table, then multiply the square of the distance in yards, by 2.57, and divide by 1,000,000, or cut off 6 places on the right for decimals; the rest are inches: or multiply the square of the distance in miles, by 66 feet 4 inches, and divide by 100.

Second.--To find the extent of the visible horizon, or how far can be seen from any given height, on a horizontal plane, at sea, &c.--The height of the observer’s eye above the horizon being known, the extent of his visible horizon is found in the column opposite, under the word Distances.

Third.--To find the distance of any object when it first comes in sight, its height being known.--For the distance of any object will be the extent of the visible horizon of the observer, added to the visible horizon of the point he observes. It is necessary in this case for the observer to know only the height of that part of the object which is kept from his view, by the curvilinear figure of the globe.--Knowing the distance of an object, its height may be found in the same manner.

If the height or distance exceed the limits in the table; then, first, if the distance be given, divide it by 2, 3, or 4, till the quotient comes within the distances in the table; then take out the height answering to the quotient, and multiply it by the square of the divisor for the height required. But when the height is given, divide it by one of these square numbers, 4, 9, 16, 25, &c. till the quotient come within the limits of the table, and multiply the quotient by the square root of the divisor.

LEVELLING staves, instruments used in levelling, that carry the marks to be observed, and at the same time measure the heights of those marks from the ground. These usually consist of two wooden square rulers, that slide over one another, and are divided into feet, inches, &c.

LEVELLING has two distinct applications in the art of war, in the one case it implies the reduction of an uneven surface to that of a plane, so that the works of a fortification may be of a correspondent height or figure throughout. The other is the art of conveying water from one place to another; in this process, it is found necessary to make an allowance between the true and apparent level, or in other words, for the figure of the earth, for the true level is not a straight line, but a curve which falls below the straight line about 8 inches in a mile, 4 times 8 in 2 miles, 9 times 8 in 3 miles, 16 times 8 in 4 miles, always increasing with the square of the distance.

LEVELLING System, a term which since the commencement of the French revolution has been grossly misinterpreted, and cannot be found in any civilized country to answer any other purpose than that of delusion; such was the calumny raised by the patricians of Rome, when they having plundered the soldiers of their lands and appropriated to themselves; when the people complained they were thus reproached; the agrarian law which proposed only to restore the lands to the owners, was called a levelling system; but the people were robbed and the consequence was the ultimate ruin of Roman liberty, and Rome itself; the word Jacobin in modern times has superseded leveller.

LEVER, a balance which rests upon a certain determinate point called a fulcrum.

LEVER in mechanics, an inflective line, rod, or beam, moveable about, or upon a fixed point, called the prop or fulcrum, upon one end of which is the weight to be raised, at the other end is the power applied to raise it; as the hand, &c.

Since the momentum of the weight and power are as the quantities of matter in each, multiplied by their respective celerities; and the celerities are as the distances from the centre of motion, and also as the spaces passed through in a perpendicular direction in the same time, it must follow, that there will be an equilibrium between the weight and power, when they are to each other reciprocally as the distances from the centre, or as the celerities of the motions, or as the perpendicular ascent or descent in the same time; and this universally in all mechanical powers whatsoever, and which is therefore the fundamental principle of all mechanics. See MECHANICAL POWERS.

LEVET, the blast of a trumpet.

LEVIER, Fr. Lever. The French writers having been more explicit on this head than any of our lexicographers, we shall extract the following passages as conducive to general information. The levier or lever is an instrument made of wood or iron, by whose means the heaviest weights may be raised with few hands. When the lever is made of iron, it is called pince or crow. The lever may be considered as the first of all machines. Wheels, pullies, capstans, &c. act only by the power it possesses. The lever must be looked upon as a straight line, which has three principal points, namely, the one on which the load is placed, and which is to be raised, the appui or rest which is the centre round which it turns, and which the French mechanics call orgueil, and lastly the human arm, which is the power that puts the lever into motion. The different arrangements or disposition which is given to these three points, or rather the unequal distances at which they are placed, occasion the force that is collectively displayed.

Belidor makes the following remarks on this useful machine. It is an inflexible bar which must be considered as having no weight in itself, upon which three powers are made to act in three different points in such a manner, that the action of two powers must be directly opposed to the one that resists them. The point where the opposing power acts is called the point d’appui.

LEVIER, in artillery, a wedge.

LEVIER de pointage, Fr. a wedge to assist in pointing pieces of ordnance.

LEVIERS de support, Fr. a wedge by which cannon is raised to a certain line of direction.

To LEVY, has three distinct military acceptations, as to levy or raise an army, to levy or make war; and, to levy contributions.

LEVY, the levying, or raising troops, by enregistering the names of men capable of bearing arms, for the common defence and safety of a country, has from time immemorial been a leading principle among men.

There are indeed some people still existing, who indiscriminately go to war, leaving, for the immediate security of their huts or habitations, only their old men, their wives and children.

Among the Romans, however, and in some other civilized countries, it was a prevailing maxim never to employ above a certain proportion of matured population, and that proportion consisted uniformly of men who were expert at arms.

National assemblies were called together whenever the situation of the country required, that the senate’s decree should be published and put into effect.

The levying or raising of troops for service was regulated in the following manner under two specific heads, called ordinary and extraordinary levy. The ordinary levy took place in consequence of a decree from the senate by which all males of a certain age were called out to do military service: the extraordinary levy was enforced when a deficiency was found in the ordinary levy to answer the immediate exigencies of the state.

The extraordinary levy, which was further distinguished by the word evocation, (See Evocati) was performed as follows. A public orator mounted the rostrum, and after having expatiated upon the urgency of the case, and paid a handsome tribute of commendation to all who should voluntarily step forward to defend their country, he entrusted the conclusion of the business to two superior officers who were to command the new levies.

These officers instantly unfurled two flags, and emphatically exclaimed, let all those brave men who have the safety of the Republic at heart flock to our standards! A red flag was the rallying mark for all who were to serve on foot, and a blue flag pointed out the rendezvous for cavalry. Every one was at liberty to chuse the service he liked best.

With respect to the ordinary levy by which every citizen was liable to be called upon for personal service, it was conducted in the following manner.

All the different tribes into which the inhabitants of the country were divided, assembled in places marked out for that purpose, and as soon as a whole tribe, consisting of males only, had entered, the public crier called over, in a distinct and audible manner, the names of four persons, after which the first military tribune, from among those of that rank who were to command the intended legion, selected one out of the four, and had him enrolled.

The crier then called over the names of four others belonging to the same class, and the second tribune selected one from the four in the same manner as the first had done. This selection went on through the different classes, until the whole tribe was drafted, and another tribe was then subjected to the same rotation. Legions were formed out of these levies, and completed to so effective a strength, that three of them generally composed a Roman army. The Romans readily submitted to these calls of the state; and they did so the more cheerfully, because it was a fundamental rule amongst them, that no man could be provided for in a military or civil way, unless he had served a prescribed number of years.

Kennett, in his antiquities of Rome, gives the following account, which the reader will perceive differs in some particulars from the former.

“At the same time of the year as the consuls were declared elect or designed, they chose the military tribunes; fourteen out of the body of the Equites who had served in the army five years, and ten out of the commonalty, such as had made ten campaigns. The former they called tribuni juniores, and the latter seniores.

The consuls having agreed on a levy (as, in the time of the commonwealth they usually did every year,) they issued out an edict, commanding all persons who had reached the military age (about seventeen years) to appear (commonly) in the capitol, or in the area before the capitol, as the most sacred and august place, on such a day. The people being come together, and the consuls who presided in the assembly having taken their seat, in the first place, the four and twenty tribunes were disposed of according to the number of legions they designed to make up, which was generally four. The junior tribunes were assigned, four to the first legion, three to the second and last. After this, every tribe, being called out by lot, was ordered to divide into their proper centuries; out of each century were soldiers cited by name, with respect had to their estate and class; for which purpose, there were tables ready at hand, in which the name, age, and wealth of every person were exactly described. Four men, as much alike in all circumstances, as could be pitched upon, being presented out of the century, first the tribunes of the first legion chose one, then the tribunes of the second another, the tribunes of the third legion a third man, and the remaining person fell to the tribunes of the fourth. Then four more were drawn out; and now the right of chusing first belonged to the tribunes of the second legion; in the next four to the tribunes of the third legion, then to the tribunes of the fourth legion, and so round; those tribunes chusing last the next time, who chose first the time before; the most equal and regular method imaginable.

Cicero has remarked a superstitious custom observed in these proceedings; that the first soldier pitched upon should for the omen’s sake, be such as had fortunate names, as Salvius, Valerius, and the like. Cic. de Divinat. lib. 1.

There were in those times, (as in the present with respect to the militia) many legal excuses which might keep persons from the list; as, in case they were fifty years old, for then they could not be obliged to serve; or if they enjoyed any civil or sacred office, which they could not conveniently relinquish; or if they had already made twenty campaigns, which was the time required for every foot soldier; or if, upon account of extraordinary merit, they had been by public authority, released from the trouble of serving for such a time; or if they were maimed in any part, and so ought not to be admitted into the legions; as Suetonius tells us of a father who cut off the thumbs of his two sons on purpose to keep them out of the army (Sueton. August. chap. 24.) and Valerius Maximus gives a relation of the like nature. (Val. Max. lib. 6. cap. 3.)

Otherwise they were necessitated to submit, and in case of a refusal, were usually punished either with imprisonment, fine or stripes, according to the lenity, or severity of the consul. And therefore it seems strange, that Machiavel should particularly condemn the Roman discipline, upon account of forcing no one to the wars, when we have in all parts of history, such large intimations of a contrary practice. Nay, we read too of the conquisitores or impress-masters, who were commissioned upon some occasions, to go about, and compel the men to the service of the state.

Valerius Maximus (lib. 6. chap. 3.) gives one example of changing this custom of taking out every particular soldier by the tribunes, for that of chusing them by lot. And Appianus Alexandrinus (in Iberic.) acquaints us, that in the Spanish war, managed by Lucullus, upon complaint to the senate of several unjust practices in the levies, the senate thought fit to chuse all the soldiers by lot. Yet the same author assures us, that within five years time the old custom returned of making the levies in the manner already described.

However, upon any extraordinary occasion of immediate service, they omitted the common formalities, and without much distinction, listed such as they met with, and led them out on an expedition. These they called Milites Subitarii. Kennett’s Ant. page 183, b. iv.

The French always followed the example of the Romans with regard to the first principles of levying men, which was effected by a proclamation from the court, called the ban. This ban was addressed to the principal person belonging to a province, who, in pursuance to its instructions, assembled his vassals, and got them fit and ready for immediate service.

In England a similar rotation took place; and the balloting for militia-men still exhibits some remains of that feudal system. But when regular armies became necessary in Europe (necessary only from the ambition of contiguous and rival nations!) a different system was adopted, and the natural strength of the country was made a secondary object. Disposable means of offence and defence were resorted to by crowned heads; and as war was became a science, permanent bodies of armed men were kept on foot to answer the purposes of prompt and vigorous decision.

Charles VIII. was the first monarch among the French who dispensed with the service of his noblemen, in themselves and vassals; these he replaced by raising regular companies of gendarmes, who were paid out of his privy purse; in process of time cavalry and infantry regiments, with appropriate trains of artillery, &c. were formed into a military establishment, and have continued ever since.

During the existence of the old government in France, it was customary for the king to issue orders that a certain bounty should be offered to all recruits who would inlist; and when regiments, in time of war, suffered materially, men were frequently drafted out of the militia to complete their establishment.

With respect to the standing or permanent army of England, the first traces of it are to be found during the reign of Henry VII.; from that period until the present time the military establishment of Great Britain has been progressive. Levies have been made in various ways, upon various principles.

The French system of conscription is the most profound and perfect that has ever been devised; no man is exempted. And in this respect it is the only system in its principle adapted to a free state, where all individuals having equal rights, have also corresponding duties and obligations.

LEVY likewise means inlisting money.

LICE, Fr. List for combats.

LICENCIEMENT des troupes, Fr. At the end of a campaign this generally happened in France, when troops could not any longer keep the field owing to the severity of the weather. In former times it was usual, during the continuance of a war, for the French army to retire into winter quarters about the latter end of October. But since the revolution, hostilities have been carried on at all seasons, and under the most disheartening pressure of the weather.

LICENCIEMENT des equipages des vivres, Fr. It was usual in the old French army, for an order to be issued by which the contractors and commissaries, for the time being, were discharged at the close of a campaign. The director general of the stores always preserved this order, as it formed the only final voucher, upon which the contractors could receive any demand against government. The greatest attention was paid to this important branch of military economy; and, if at the conclusion of a campaign, it was found necessary to retain any part of the establishment for the immediate subsistence of the troops in winter quarters, that part was minutely noticed in the order.

LICENCIER, Fr. to discharge.

LIDE, Fr. a warlike machine, which was formerly used to throw large stones against a fortified place, or upon an enemy.

To LIE, in a military acceptation of the term, to be in quarters, in cantonments, or to be in camp: the fourth regiment of foot, for instance, LIES encamped between Fort Adams and Orleans: or it LIES at Orleans. The light dragoons LIE along the frontier.

To LIE in ambush, to be posted in such a manner as to be able to surprise your enemy, should he presume to advance, without having previously cleared the woods, hedges, &c.

To LIE under cover, to be under the protection of a battery, or to be sheltered by a wood, &c.

To LIE in wait, to take a position unobserved by the enemy, and to remain under arms, in the expectation of suddenly falling upon his flanks or rear.

LIEU, Fr. League. There are three sorts of lieues or leagues in France, the great, middling, and small. The great French league contains three thousand geometrical paces, or two thousand five hundred toises; and the small league two thousand geometrical paces, that is, twice the extent of the Italian mile; which is so called, because it contains one thousand geometrical paces. According to an old existing regulation, the leagues of France were directed to contain two thousand two hundred toises, and two thousand six hundred and forty geometrical paces. See MEASURE.

In LIEU. In the room, place, or stead of.

LIEUTENANT. This word is originally derived from the Latin legatus, locum tenens, and comes immediately to us from the French lieu-tenant, supplying or holding the place of another. In a military sense it means the second person or officer in command. Lieutenant-general, the next in command to a general; lieutenant-colonel, the next to a colonel; captain-lieutenant, an intermediate rank; and lieutenant, the next to a captain, in every company of both foot and horse, and who takes the command upon the death or absence of his superior officer. Fuzileer corps, grenadiers, and light infantry, in the British service, have second lieutenants and no ensigns, a very absurd distinction.

LIEUTENANT of artillery. In the British service each company of artillery has 4; 1 first and 3 second lieutenants. The first lieutenant has the same detail of duty with the captain, because in his absence he commands the company: he is to see that the soldiers are clean and neat: that their clothes, arms, and accoutrements are in good and serviceable order; and to watch over every thing else, which may contribute to their health. He must give attention to their being taught their exercise, see them punctually paid, their messes regularly kept, and visit them in the hospitals when sick. He must assist at all parades, &c. He ought to understand the doctrine of projectiles and the science of artillery, with the various effects of gunpowder, however managed or directed. He should likewise be able to construct and dispose batteries to the best advantage; to plant cannon, mortars, and howitzers, so as to produce the greatest annoyance to an enemy. He is to be well skilled in the attack and defence of fortified places, and to be conversant in arithmetic, mathematics, and mechanics, &c.

Second LIEUTENANT, in the artillery, is the same as an ensign in an infantry regiment, being the youngest commissioned officer in the company. It is his duty to assist the first lieutenant in the detail of the company. His other qualifications should be the same as those required in the first lieutenant.

LIEUTENANT of engineers. See ENGINEERS.

LIEUTENANT-colonel. See COLONEL.

LIEUTENANT-general. See GENERAL.

LIEUTENANT du Roi, Fr. During the monarchy of France there was a deputy governor in every fortified place, or strong town, who commanded in the absence of the governor, and was a check upon his conduct when present. This person was called LIEUTENANT du Roi.

LIEUTENANT Reduced, (Lieutenant Reformé, Fr.) he whose company or troop is broke or disbanded, but who continued in whole or half pay, and still preserves his right of seniority and rank in the army.

LIEUTENANT de la Colonelle, Fr. the second officer, or what was formerly styled the captain lieutenant of the colonel’s company of every infantry regiment, was so called in France.

LIEUTENANS des Gardes Francoises et Suisses, Fr. lieutenants belonging to the French and Swiss guards. During the existence of the monarchy in France they bore the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and took precedence of all captains.

LIEUTENANS Provinciaux d’Artillerie, Fr. were certain officers belonging to the old French service, and immediately attached to the artillery, who bore the title or name of the particular province in which they were stationed. The majority of this description were employed in the ordnance department; another part superintended different artillery departments upon the frontiers. Some were excused from all duty on account of their age and seniority.

Several provincial lieutenants, who had military employments under the board of ordnance, received the rank of lieutenant general in the army from the king, and could rise to the most exalted stations in common with other officers.

LIEUTENANT Général, Fr. The title and rank of lieutenant-general was of a more desultory nature in France under the old government of that country, than in other countries. High officers of justice were distinguished by the name; and all governors of provinces, as far as their jurisdiction extended, together with the persons who acted under them, were called lieutenants généraux. There were likewise persons who bore the title of lieutenant-general of the kingdom at large. Every officer, moreover, that acted immediately under a general, and was next to him in rank, was styled lieutenant-general. It is the same, in this respect, in England. In both countries, however, (considering the subjects as appertaining to a monarchical institution) the title of general was only ostensible and honorary, as his functions were delegated to him by his sovereign, the real general and head of the army. So that intrinsically a general could only be considered as lieutenant-general to the king; but the lieutenant-general who acts under him, must be viewed as holding a relative rank inferior to both. The words of the two commissions sufficiently explain our observation. They are as follow for a lieutenant-general with the nominal rank of general:--We have made and constituted N. our lieutenant-general, &c. and for those acting under him:--We have made and constituted N. one of our lieutenant-generals. Which plainly indicates, that of the first class there can only be one who represents his sovereign; whereas there are and may be many of the other description. Lieutenant-generals, in the French service, did not receive any pay, in consequence of the rank they bore, unless they actually commanded some part of the army, and received a commission from the king for that purpose. This commission was renewed annually, according to his majesty’s pleasure.

LIEUTENANT-General d’Artillerie. See Lieutenant-general of the ORDNANCE.

LIEUTENANT-General des Armèes Navales du Roi. Fr. an officer in the old French service, belonging to the naval department. He took rank of all chefs d’escadre, or commodores, and issued orders through them to inferior officers.

LIFE GUARDS.--See GUARDS.

LIGHT BOBS, a familiar term used for the light infantry.

LIGHT HORSE. All mounted soldiers, that are lightly armed and accoutred for active and desultory service, may be considered under this term. Thus light dragoons, hussars, mounted riflemen, &c. are strictly speaking light horse.

LIGHT INFANTRY, an active, strong body of men, selected from the aggregate of battalion companies, and made up of the most promising recruits that are occasionally inlisted.

When the light infantry companies are in line with their battalions, they are to form and act in every respect as a company of the battalion; but when otherwise disposed of, they may loosen their files to six inches

The open order of light infantry is usually two feet between each file.

The files may be extended from right, left, or centre; in executing it, each front rank man must carefully take his distance from the man next to him on that side from which the extension is made: the rear rank men conform to the movement of their file leaders.

When light infantry men fire in extended order, it is to be a standing rule, that the two men of the same file are never unloaded together; for which purpose as soon as the front rank man has fired, he is to slip round the left of the rear rank man, who will take a short pace forward, and put himself in the other’s place, whom he is to protect while loading.

The extended order of light infantry varies according to circumstances and situations. They may sometimes loosen their files to three times the distance of open order. But the general rule is to allow convenient intervals for the rear rank men to slip by, and return after they have fired.

All movements of light infantry, except when firing, advancing, or retreating, are to be in quick time.

The officer commanding the company in line will be on the right, covered by a serjeant; the next on the left also covered by a serjeant. The youngest officer in the rear. In extended order the post of the officers and serjeants is always in the rear at equal distances.

In marching by files the officer commanding leads: by divisions each officer leads one. The supernumerary officer, if there be one, is in both cases with the officer commanding, ready to obey any directions he may receive from him.

The arms of light infantry in general are carried sloped, when the bayonets are fixed. Flanking or advanced parties, however, or parties in particular situations, may carry them trailed, and without bayonets, for the purpose of taking a more cool and deliberate aim.

When the light infantry is ordered to cover the line to the front, the divisions will move from their inner flanks round the flanks of the battalions, and when at the distance of fifty paces, the leading flanks will wheel towards each other, so as to meet opposite the centre of the battalion, opening their files gradually from the rear, so as to cover the whole extent of the battalion.

The files are not to wait for any word of command, but to halt and front themselves. In this position, and in all positions of extended order, the post of the officer commanding is in the rear of the centre, and the movements are to be regulated by the company belonging to the battalion, which governs those of the line. See Am. Mil. Lib.

Light infantry men, like hussars, are frequently detached to act as scouts on the flanks, in the front, or with the rear guard of the body of troops to which they belong. They then acquire the appellation of skirmishers, and being previously told off for that specific duty, they advance and form in the front in rank entire; which is effected by each man from the rear rank placing himself on the left of his file leader. The rank entire may be resorted to for various purposes during the movements of one or more battalions, since it may serve not only to cover them from the enemy’s observation, but in some cases, especially in foggy weather, will itself appear a larger body than it really is. Too much attention cannot be given to the organization of light troops on foot. They are very properly called the eyes of an army, and ought always to be considered as indispensibly necessary.

LIGHT TROOPS. By light troops are generally meant all horse and foot which are accoutred for detached service.

LIGNE, Fr. See LINE.

LIGNE d’Eau, Fr. a term used in aquatics. It is the hundredth and fortieth portion of an inch of water, and furnishes or supplies one hundred and four pints of water, Paris measure, in twenty four hours.

LIGNE de moindre résistance, Fr. is the line that being drawn from the centre of the fourneau or chamber of a mine, runs up in a perpendicular direction to the nearest outward surface.

LIGNES en forme de Crémaillère, Fr. Indented lines, or lines resembling the teeth of a saw, or stairs: they are connected with one another like crotchets; or united by small flanks comprising fourteen or fifteen toises each. M. de Clairac has given a particular account of their construction in his Ingenieur de Campagne. The effect, observes that writer, which is produced by the concentrated fire that may be poured from these lines, is perhaps unexampled. One advantage is certain, that of being able to increase your efforts of defence, in proportion as the enemy advances; since it must be evident, that constructed as the flanks are, and enchasing one another, the execution becomes multiplied in every quarter. It may moreover be stated among other advantages, that as the salient points are double in number, and are flanked within half a distance of musquet shot, without stretching far into the country, they must of course be less exposed to the enemy’s approaches. From the figure of these lines the troops are enabled to keep up an uninterrupted and regular direct fire; and it is the only construction from which an equal discharge of ordnance or musquetry may be served in every quarter at once.

LIMBER, in artillery, a two-wheel carriage with shafts to fasten the trail of travelling carriages by means of a pintle or iron pin, when travelling, and taken off on the battery, or when placed in the park of artillery; which is called unlimbering the guns.

LIME, in military architecture, is made of all kind of stones, that will calcine: that which is made of the hardest stone is the best, and the worst of all that which is made of chalk.

Lime will not be sufficiently burnt in less than 60 hours. The signs of well burnt lime are, that its weight is to that of the stone in a sesquialterate proportion; that it be white, light, and sonorous; that when slaked, it sticks to the sides of the vessel, sending forth a copious thick smoke, and requires a great deal of water to slake it.

In some countries, as the East Indies and the United States, they make good lime of shells of fish, which dries and hardens in a very short time; and when it is mixed with Dutch terras, is fit for all kind of aquatic works.

Lime should always be burnt with coals, and never with wood, the coals being strongly impregnated with sulphureous particles, which, mixed with the lime, make it more adhesive. See MORTAR.

LIMINARQUE, Fr. an office of distinction, which existed in the Roman empire. The persons invested with it were directed to watch the frontiers of the empire, and they commanded the troops that were employed upon that service.

LIMITARY, a guard or superintendant, placed at the confines or boundaries of any kingdom or state.

LIMITS, in a military sense, is that distance which a sentry is allowed on his post, namely 50 paces to the right, and as many to the left.

LINCH-pin, in artillery, that which passes through the ends of the arms of an axle-tree, to keep the wheels or trucks from slipping off in travelling.

LINCH-clout, in artillery, the flat iron under the end of the arms of an axle-tree, to strengthen them, and to diminish the friction of the wheels.

LINDEN TREE. The wood used in artificial fire-works, &c.

LINE, in geometry, signifies length, without any supposed breadth or depth. A straight or right line is the shortest way from one point to another. A curved or crooked line is that which deviates from the shortest way, and embraces a greater space between one point and another. A perpendicular line is a straight line, which falling upon another line does not incline either to one side or the other. Parallel lines are lines which are at equal distances from one another, in such a manner, that although they may be prolonged ad infinitum, they never can meet.

Euclid’s second book treats mostly of lines, and of the effects of their being divided, and again multiplied into one another.

Horizontal LINE is that which is spread upon the plane of the horizon; such, for instance, are those lines that may be supposed to form the level surface of a plain.

Inclined LINE, (ligne inclineé, Fr.) is that line which leans or is raised obliquely upon the plane of the horizon, and which might resemble the sloping or declivity of a hillock.

Oblique LINE, (ligne oblique, Fr.) a straight line which leans more to one side than another the instant it is brought into contact with any other line.

LINE tangent, (ligne tangente, Fr.) a straight line, which, without intersecting it meets a curve at one point, and does not enter, but barely touches it.

Vertical LINE, (ligne verticale, Fr.) a line which is raised perpendicularly above or below the horizon. Of this description are all lines that express height or depth.

The LINE. This term is frequently used to distinguish the regular army from other establishments of a military nature. All numbered or marching regiments are called the line. The marines, militia, and volunteers, do not come under the term. It is, however, a corruption of the word, since the true import of line in military matters, means that solid part of an army which is called the main body, and has a regular formation from right to left. Thus in the seven years war, when prince Ferdinand commanded the allied army, the British troops under the marquis of Granby did not belong to the line, because they were always detached and acted in front of the main body. Grenadiers and light infantry, when from their several corps, cannot be called the line, but the instant they are incorporated they become so. According to this explanation, and we think it a correct one, the word is very generally misapplied, as it cannot strictly be used to distinguish any particular establishment from another.

LINE, or line of battle, is the arrangement or disposition of an army for battle: its front being extended along a straight line as far as the ground will permit, in order that the several corps of cavalry and infantry which compose it, may not be cut off or flanked by the enemy.

The Ottoman troops are generally drawn up on a curve line, or half-moon, for the purpose of surrounding their enemies by superior numbers. European armies are usually drawn up in three lines; the first being named the van, (avant-garde, Fr.) the second, main body, (corps de bataille, Fr.) and the third, which was formerly the weakest, is called the reserve, or rear-guard. (Corps de réserve, ou arrière-garde, Fr.) Each of these lines is so drawn up, that the wings or extremities are always composed of some squadrons of horse, whose intervals are likewise supported by infantry platoons. The battalions are posted in the centre of each line; sometimes they are intermixed with squadrons of horse, when there is a considerable body of cavalry attached to the army. The space of ground, which in each line separates the different corps from one another, is always equal in extent to the front that is occupied by them. These intervals are left in order to facilitate their several movements, and to enable them to charge the enemy without being exposed to confusion and disorder. It must be observed, as a general rule, that the intervals or spaces which are between each battalion and squadron belonging to the second line should invariably correspond with the ground that is occupied by the battalions and squadrons, which constitute the first line; in order that the first line, on being forced to fall back, may find sufficient ground to rally upon, and not endanger the disposition of the second line, by precipitately crowding on it.

Each line is divided into right and left wings. Each wing is composed of one or more divisions. Each division is composed of one or more brigades. Each brigade is formed of two, three, or four, or more battalions.

Battalions are formed in line at a distance of twelve paces from each other, and this interval is occupied by two or more cannon, which are attached to each battalion. There is no increased distance betwixt brigades, unless particular circumstances attend it. In exercise, should there be no cannon betwixt the battalions, the interval may be reduced to six paces.

LINE, how regulated. Its regulating body in movement is, in general, the battalion of that flank which is nearest to, and is to preserve the appui, or which is to make the attack. There are very few cases in which the centre ought to regulate, although the direct march of the line in front appears to be the easiest conducted by a battalion of the centre. It is the flank, however, that must preserve the line of appui in all movements in front, if the line is thrown backward or forward, it is generally on a flank point.

It may not be superfluous to remark, that the term line, as expressing a military disposition for battle, was not known until the sixteenth century.--Before that period when armies were ranged in order of battle upon three lines; the first line was called advanced guard, (avant garde,) the second, main body only, (corps de bataille,) and the third, rear guard, (arriére garde.)--These terms are never used in modern times, except when any army is on its march; when drawn up for action, or in the field for review, columns, or lines are substituted.

LINES of support, are lines of attack, which are formed to support one another. Where there are several, the second should outflank the first, the third the second; the advanced one being thereby strengthened and supported on its outward wing.

LINE of march. The regular and tactical succession of the component parts of an army that is put in motion.

LINES of march, are bodies of armed men marching on given points to arrive at any straight alignement on which they are to form. The general direction of such alignement is always determined before the troops enter it, and the point in that line at which their head is to arrive, must next be ascertained. See Am. Mil. Lib.

The line is said to be well dressed, when no part is out of the straight alignement. That this may be effected, at the word dress, which is given by the commander, it is immediately to commence from the centre of each battalion, the men looking to their own colors, and the correcting officers lining them upon the colors of their next adjoining battalion.

LINE-firings, are executed separately and independently by each battalion.

Inversion of the line, in formation. This is a manœuvre which ought only to be resorted to on the most urgent occasions, as it is prudent to avoid the inversion of all bodies in line. The inversion is effected by facing a battalion or line to the right about, instead of changing its position by a counter march; sometimes, indeed, it may be necessary to form to a flank with its rear in front. The column with its line in front may arrive on the left of its ground, and be obliged immediately to form up and support that point, so that the right of the line will become the left. Part of a second line may double round on the extremity of a first line, thereby to outflank an enemy. These, and various other movements, may be found necessary, and they can only be practised with safety and expedition by the inversion of the line.

LINES advancing to engage an enemy. Lignes marchant à l’ennemi, Fr. According to Marshal Puységur, all lines should take the centre for the regulating point of movement, and not the right, as others have maintained. He grounds his opinion upon a known fact, that the more extended a line is, the more difficult it must prove to march by the right. By making the centre the directing portion of the line, more than half the difficulty is removed. To which it may be added, that the centre is more easily discernible from the right and left, than the right is within the just observation of the left, or the left within that of the right.

When the line advances it must uniformly preserve a convexity from the centre, so that when it halts, the right and left may have to dress up; but this convexity must be scarcely perceptible. Were the line to be concave on approaching the enemy, a necessity would occur of throwing the wings back, perhaps even of putting several corps to the right about, during which operation the whole army might be endangered.

When lines are marching forward they must be occasionally halted: in which cases the centre halts first, and when the line is ordered to advance again, the centre steps off though in an almost imperceptible manner, before the right and left.

Each commanding officer must place himself in the centre of that proportion of the line which he has under his immediate orders, unless he should be otherwise directed. The centre is always the most convenient point, from whence every thing that passes on the right and left may be observed. When the line advances in charging order, he must march at the head of his battalion or squadron, taking care, that he is followed by his troops with an equal cadenced step, and regulating his own movement by that of the divisions which are formed on his right and left. The greater the extent of line proves, which is composed of several battalions and squadrons that advance forward with the same front, the more difficult will be the movement of the several bodies; but as we have already observed, a great part of this difficulty is overcome when the centre is made the directing body. The right and left must be invariably governed by it.

Retiring LINE, are bodies of armed men that have advanced against an opposing enemy in order of battle, withdrawing themselves with regularity from the immediate scene of action. On this occasion it is of the greatest importance, that the line should be correctly dressed before it faces to the right about; and the battalions will prepare for the retreat in the manner prescribed for the single one by receiving the caution, that the line will retire.

To form the LINE, in land tactics, is to arrange the troops in order of battle, or battle array.

To break the LINE, to change the direction from that of a straight line, in order to obtain a cross fire.

Turning out of the LINE, in a military sense. The line turns out without arms whenever the general commanding in chief comes along the front of the camp.

In the British army the following is the usage:

When the line turns out, the private men are drawn up in a line with the bells of arms; the corporals on the right and left of their respective companies: the piquet forms behind the colors, with their accoutrements on, but without arms.

The serjeants draw up one pace in the front of the men, dividing themselves equally.

The officers draw up in ranks, according to their commissions, in the front of the colors; two ensigns taking hold of the colors.

The field officers advance before the captains.

The camp colors on the flanks of the parade are to be struck, and planted opposite to the bells of arms; the officers espontoons are to be planted between the colors, and the drums piled up behind them; the halberts are to be planted between, and on each side the bells of arms, and the hatchets turned from the colors.

Full or close LINES, (lignes pleines, Fr.) Marshal Puységur in his Art de la Guerre is a strong advocate for full or close lines, in his disposition of the order of battle, provided the ground will admit it. He proposes, in fact, that the battalions of infantry and the squadrons of horse should form one continuity of line, without leaving the least interval between them.

LINES that are close and open, (lignes tant pleines que vuides, Fr.) When troops are drawn up in order of battle with intervals between the battalions and squadrons, the lines are said to be close and open.

LINE, or camp courts-martial. These courts-martial are frequently resorted to, and differ from regimental ones, in as much as they are composed of the officers belonging to different corps, and the ratification of the sentence is vested in the general or commanding officer of the camp. So that no time is lost in waiting for the commander in chief’s approbation, when he is delegated by him; nor has the colonel or commanding officer of the regiment to which the offender may belong, any power to interfere. The sentences of line or camp, field, and garrison courts-martial, are confined to corporeal punishments, but they can neither affect life, nor occasion the loss of a limb. The proceedings are read by the adjutant of the day; the surgeon is from the regiment to which the prisoner belongs, and the punishment is inflicted in front of the piquet by the drummers of the different corps under the direction of the drum-major, who is from the regiment to which the adjutant of the day belongs. Field and drum-head courts-martial, may be considered in the same light, when an army is on its march; with this difference, that the prisoner is tried either by officers belonging to his own corps, or by a mixed roster. A circle is formed at a short distance from the men under arms, and the sentence is written upon a drum-head; whence the appellation of drum-head courts-martial is derived. When there are several regiments present, the same forms are attended to in punishing prisoners as are observed in line or camp courts-martial; and when there is only one regiment, the examination and the punishment of the prisoner or prisoners take place within itself.

LINES, in fortification, bear several names and significations; such as,

{defence } {defence fichant } {defence razant } LINE of{circumvallation }See FORTIFICATION. {countervallation } {counter-approach } {defence prolonged} LINE, Capital }

LINE of communication. (Ligne de communication, Fr.) That space of ground in a fortified place which joins the citadel to the town.

LINES of communication, are trenches that unite one work to another, so that men may pass between them without being exposed to the enemy’s fire: thence the whole intrenchment round any place is sometimes called a line of communication, because it leads to all the works.

Inside LINES, are a kind of ditches towards the place, to prevent sallies, &c.

Outside LINES, are a kind of ditches towards the field, to hinder relief, &c.

Capital LINE of the half moon. (Ligne capitale de la demi-lune, Fr.) That which is drawn from the flanked angle of a half moon, to the rentrant angle of the counterscarp on which it is constructed.

LINE of counter approach. (Ligne de contre-approche, Fr.) A sort of trench which the besieged make, and push forward from the glacis, for the purpose of counteracting the enemy’s works. See APPROACHES.

LINE of defence. (Ligne de dèfense, Fr.) See FORTIFICATION.

LIGNE magistrale, Fr. See Capital line in FORTIFICATION.

LINE of circumvallation. (Ligne de circonvallation, Fr.) See FORTIFICATION.

LINE of direction in gunnery, is a line formerly marked upon guns, by a short point upon the muzzle, and a cavity on the base ring, to direct the eye in pointing the gun.

LINE of distance, the interval between two things, either in regard to time, place, or quantity.

LINE of gravitation, of any heavy body, is a line drawn through its centre of gravity, and according to which it tends downwards.

LINE of swiftest descent, of a heavy body, is the cycloid. See CYCLOID.

LINE of projectile. See PROJECTILES.

LINE of the least resistance, (ligne de moindre resistance, Fr.) that line, which being drawn from the centre of the furnace or the chamber of a mine, takes a perpendicular direction towards the nearest superficial exterior.

LINE of fire, (ligne de feu, Fr.) in fortification. This term admits of two distinct acceptations; first, when it is found necessary to give an idea of the manner in which a rampart, or an entrenchment overwhelms and crosses any space of ground by the discharge of ordnance or musquetry, lines must be drawn to express the distances which have been traversed by the shot, &c. These lines are called lines of fire, being an abbreviation of those lines of direction which have been given to the shot.

In order to convey a more just and accurate conception of this species of line of fire, it is recommended to give a profile, which shall not only shew the curves of the trajectories, but likewise point out the intersections and impressions which have been made by such fire upon a rampart, entrenchment, ground, or fortification of any description.

In the second place, all that extent of a rampart or entrenchment, from whence the shot of ordnance or musquetry is discharged, is understood to be a line of fire.

If, for instance, it were to be said that a reserve or oblique direction was taken against a long extent of rampart or entrenchment, by means of a jettée or any great work thrown up, so as to out-flank or take it in the rear, it might be concluded that those points would be supplied with a long line of fire.

LINE of direction, (Ligne de direction, Fr.) In mechanics any straight line down which a heavy body descends. There are likewise lines of direction which relate to powers; they are then straight lines by means of which a power draws or urges on a weight for the purpose of supporting or moving it.

Capital LINE of the bastion, (Ligne capital du bastion, Fr.) a line which is drawn from the centre angle of a bastion to its flanked angle. In regular fortification this line cuts the bastion in two equal parts.

LINES of entrenchment, (Lignes retrenchées, Fr.) all lines which are drawn in front of a camp, &c. to secure it from insult or surprize are so called. Whenever an army is not sufficiently strong to run the hazard of being attacked, the general who commands it, must have the precaution to dig a ditch in front measuring three toises at least in breadth and two in depth. He must likewise throw up a parapet with redans, or have it flanked at intermediate distances by small bastions two toises thick, made of strong close earth, and get it covered and supported by fascines, with a banquette behind sufficiently high to cover the soldiers tents. If water can be got into the ditch from a neighboring stream or rivulet, an additional advantage will be derived from that accession. When the lines are constructed for any space of time, it will then be proper to make a covert-way in the usual manner.

Other lines are likewise constructed for the purpose of communicating with different quarters; great care must be taken lest any of them be exposed to the enemy’s enfilade. To prevent this they must be supported by redoubts, or by works belonging to the neighboring forts; for the enemy might otherwise make good his ground within them, and use them as a trench.

If an army is so weak as to be within lines, you take care to have communications between the villages, and small parties of light horse patroling towards the enemy, and to have videttes and sentries posted so near one another, that you may have intelligence of all their transactions.

LINE in fencing, that part of the body opposite to the enemy, wherein the shoulders, the right arm, and the sword, should always be found; and wherein are also to be placed the two feet at the distance of 18 inches from each other. In which sense, a man is said to be in his line, or to go out of his line, &c.

LINE, also denotes a French measure, containing ¹⁄₁₂th part of an inch. It is of late frequently made use of in calculations.

LINE OF SCIENCE, is substituted for the old and awkward oblique step; movements to a flank oblique are now by half or quarter facing, that is, the whole who are to move in the required direction are faced on a line midway between a front and full faced position; so that quarter faced to the right, the right shoulder of the second man is behind the left shoulder of the right file; and so on each along each rank have their right shoulders behind the man on their right: so if the movement is to be oblique to the left, they are quarter faced to the left, and the files will stand successively with their left shoulders in the rear of the right of those who stood on their left.

To LINE, from the French aligner, is to dress any given body of men, so that every individual part shall be so disposed as to form collectively a straight continuity of points from centre to flanks.

To LINE men. Officers, and non-commissioned officers, are said to line the men belonging to their several battalions, divisions, or companies, when they arrive at their dressing points, and receive the word dress from the commander of the whole.

When a single battalion halts, it is dressed or lined on its right centre company, and must of course be in a straight line. When several battalions dress from the centre of each on its next colors, the general line will be straight, provided all the colors have halted regularly in a line. On these occasions every thing will depend upon the two centre guides of each battalion.

To LINE a Coast. To line a coast well under the immediate pressure of invasion, requires not only great ability and exertion in the commanding officer of the particular district against which an insult may be offered, but it is moreover necessary, that every individual officer in the different corps should minutely attend to the particular spot on which he may be stationed. The English coast, especially where there are bays, is almost always intersected by narrow passes through the rocks or sandhills. On this account, when any body of men receives orders to line a specified extent of ground, the officers who are entrusted with the several parts of a battalion or brigade, should take care to make the most of their men, and to extend their files in such a manner, as not only to present an imposing front from the crown of the hill, but to be able, at a moment’s warning, to carry their whole strength to prevent the enemy from getting upon the flanks by suddenly rushing up the gap. Much coolness is required on these occasions.

To LINE hedges, &c. to plant troops, artillery, or small arms, along them under their cover, to fire upon an enemy that advances openly, or to defend them from the horse, &c.

To LINE a street or road, is to draw up any number of men on each side of the street or road, and to face them inwards. This is frequently practised on days of ceremony, when some distinguished person is received with military honors on his way through places where troops are stationed.

This is the usage also in funerals, when the corps under arms form a lane, by the ranks being faced to the right and left inward; and the party rests on arms reversed.

To LINE, in a fortification, is nothing more than to environ a rampart, parapet, or ditch, &c. with a wall of masonry or earth.

LINCE, et chaussure du soldat, Fr. necessaries belonging to a soldier. During the monarchy of France, a sol or one English half-penny per day, was added to the pay of each serjeant, and about six deniers or three English farthings to that of each corporal, anspessade or lance-corporal, grenadier, private soldier, and drummer, to enable them to keep up a certain list of necessaries. On any deficiency being discovered it was in the power of the commanding officer of the regiment to reduce the soldier’s subsistence to four sols or two-pence English per day, until the full complement was made up.

LINGERER, one who pretends to be indisposed, in order to avoid his tour of duty--a skulker. Hence the term malingerer, or a soldier who avoids duty in a disreputable manner.

To LINK together, to tie together. Cavalry horses are frequently linked together when it is found necessary for the men to dismount. When the word of command link your horses is given, the right hand files are to move up into the intervals, slip their bridoons and dress by the right, standing in front of their own horses’ heads; the left files slipping the bridoons in their hands at the same time, and stepping to the front of their horses’ heads. As soon as up and dressed, the whole advance their left feet by a motion from the right, and by another motion from the right, the whole go to the left about together, and link; as soon as done linking, the left hand man of each rank falls back, two paces from his horse, and the whole dress well to him, with the carabine in the trailing position. But before they do this they must put their belts and plates in order.

It ought to be recollected, that when the right hand files come up, they must take care not to bring their horses past the others; and in order to dress with the left files they must slip the bridoon to the left hand, leaving the horse in his place in the rank.

When dragoons are ordered to dismount, and are to mount again immediately, without moving from their horses, the word of command unlink your horses is made use of; in which case the dragoon drops his carabine, which is then in a trailing position, on his left arm, and unlinks: as soon as that is done, he takes his carabine in his left hand, the horse in the right, by the right bridoon rein, waiting for the word prepare to mount.

LINKS, in the art of war, are distinct reins, or thongs of leather used by the cavalry to link their horses together, when they dismount, that they may not disperse. Every tenth man is generally left to take care of them.

LINS-pins. See LINCHPINS.

LINSTOCK. (Boute-feu, Fr.) In gunnery, a short staff of wood, about three feet long, having at one end a piece of iron divided into two branches, each of which has a notch to hold a lighted match, and a screw to fasten it there, the other end being shod with iron to stick into the ground.

LIS, Fr. A warlike machine was formerly so called: it consisted of a piece of wood or stake, about the size of the human body, which was made smaller at the top than at the bottom, and resembled a lilly not yet blown. Several of these were tied together with ozier or willow twigs, and were used for the security of a camp. They were not unlike the palisades of the present day.

Fleur de LIS, Luce, Fr. A flower borne in the ancient arms of France, and adopted by the English kings until the French insisted on its abandonment, which was done on the consummation of the union with Ireland. The electoral cap, as emblematic of Hanover, and the shamrock for Ireland, have been substituted in their stead.

FLEUR-de-Lis, during the French monarchy signified also a mark of infamy, which was made with a hot iron, upon the back of a malefactor.

LISSE, Fr. Any smooth and unornamented piece in architecture is so called by the French.

LISSOIRE, Fr. from lisser to smooth. This word was particularly applied in France to an operation which gunpowder went through in order to make coarse grains smooth and round. This was effected by tying several barrels together and by means of a mill, turning them round, so as to occasion considerable friction within.

LISTS, in a military sense, a place inclosed, in which combats are fought.

To enter the LISTS, is to contend with a person.

To LIST soldiers, To inlist, to retain and enroll soldiers, either as volunteers, or by a kind of compulsion.

LISTING. Persons listed, are to be carried before the next justice of peace or magistrate of any city or town and sworn.

Persons, owning before the proper magistrate, that they voluntarily listed themselves, are obliged to take the oath, or suffer confinement by the officer who listed them, till they do take it.

The magistrate is obliged in both cases, to certify, that such persons are duly listed; setting forth their birth, age, and calling, if known; and that they had taken the oath.

Persons receiving inlisting money from any officer, knowing him to be such, and afterwards absconding, and refusing to go before a magistrate to declare their assent or dissent, are deemed to be inlisted to all intents and purposes, and may be proceeded against as if they had taken the oath. See ATTESTATION.

LIT de CAMP, Fr. A camp bed, which takes to pieces, and is portable. The French frequently call it lit brisé, or a bed which may be taken to pieces. The Turks never use these beds; they always carry mattrasses, which they spread upon sophas when they halt at night.

LITTER, a sort of hurdle-bed, on which wounded officers or men are carried off the field.

LITTLE fortification. The first division of the first system of M. de Vauban, and is so called when the exterior side of a fortification does not exceed 175 toises, or 350 yards. It is used in the construction of citadels, small forts, horn and crown-works.

LIVRE. An old French money of account, consisting of 20 sols, about 18_d._ English: each sol containing 12 deniers. The livre is of two kinds, Tournois and Parisis.

LIVRE Tournois contains 20 sols Tournois, and each sol 12 deniers Tournois.

LIVRE Parisis, is 12 sols Parisis, being worth 12 deniers Parisis, or 15 deniers Tournois; so that a livre Parisis is worth 25 sols Tournois. The word Parisis is used in opposition to Tournois, because of the rate of money, which was one-fourth higher at Paris than at Tours.

LIVRER bataille, Fr. To deliver, give or join battle.

LIVRER assaut, Fr. To storm.

LIVRER, une ville au pillage, Fr. to give a town up to plunder.

LOAD, a word of command given, when men are to charge their guns or musquets.

LOAD. Artillery carriages, or waggons, are frequently loaded with 14 cwt. for 3 horses, and 20 cwt. for 4 horses. This, however it may answer on an English road, is a great deal too much for general service. No doubt a carriage of one construction will travel easier than of another, with the same weight; and where the mechanical advantage thus gained is greatest, the heaviest weight may be put, with the same number of horses; but in the carriages usually made for the service of artillery, 4 cwt. per horse, beside the weight of the carriage, is the utmost they ought to be allowed to draw.

The French ammunition waggons, which are drawn by 4 horses, are always charged with 1200 pounds only.

The regulations for British home service in 1798 state the load for a bread waggon at 2400 lbs. and for a cart of entrenching tools at 400 lbs. Men used to bear loads, such as porters, will carry from 150 to 250 pounds.

A horse will carry about 300 lbs. and a mule about 250 lbs. See also the word HORSES.

LOCHABER-AXE, a tremendous Scotch weapon, now used by none but the town guard of Edinburgh; one of which is to be seen among the small armory in the tower of London.

LOCKS, in gunnery, are of various sorts; common for lockers in travelling carriages, or for boxes containing shot, powder, or cartridges. Also locks for fire arms, being that part of the musquet, by which fire is struck and the powder inflamed.

LOCK-STEP. This step was first introduced into the British service by the Elliot Lord Heathfield, when he commanded the garrison at Gibraltar; and is the same that general Saldern (from whose works all the British regulations have been almost literally selected) calls the deploy step. This step consists in the heel of one man being brought nearly in contact with the joint of the great toe of another, so that when men step off together they constantly preserve the same distance. The lock or deploy step was always practised when a battalion marched in file or close column; and the great advantage to be derived from it was, that the last file gained ground at the same time that the front advanced. It is now exploded, and very properly, as an excessive absurdity.

To LOCK, is to fasten one or more of the wheels of a carriage from going round, in going down a hill, &c.

To LOCK up, to take the closest possible order inline or in file. The expression is derived from the lock-step.

LOCK up! a word of command which is frequently used in the British service, to direct soldiers to take or preserve the closest possible order, especially in file-marching.

LOCKER hinges, serve to fasten the cover of the lockers in travelling carriages.

LOCKING plates, in artillery, are thin flat pieces of iron nailed on the sides of a held carriage, where the wheels touch it in turning, to prevent the wearing the wood in those places. See CARRIAGE.

LOCKSPIT, in field fortification, a small cut or trench made with a spade, about a foot wide, to mark out the first lines of a work.

To LODGE ARMS. A word of command which is used on guards and pickets. When a guard has closed its ranks, and the men are to place their arms in front of the guard-house or quarter-guard, according to circumstances, the commanding officer gives the words port arms, to the right or right about, (as the case may be) face. Lodge Arms.

LODGMENT, in military business, is a work made by the besiegers in some part of a fortification, after the besieged have been driven out, for the purpose of maintaining it, and to be covered from the enemy’s fire. It also means possession of an enemy’s works.

When a lodgment is to be made on the glacis, covert way, or in a breach, there must be a great provision made of fascines, sand bags, gabions, wool packs, &c. in the trenches; and during the action, the pioneers (under the direction of an engineer) with fascines, sand bags, &c. should be making the lodgment, in order to form a covering, while the grenadiers are storming the covert way, &c.

LOGARITHMS, the indexes of the ratios of numbers, one to another; of which the following is a concise account.

Of arithmetical progression.--By arithmetical progression is meant a series of terms, each of which exceeds, or is exceeded by, that which precedes it by the same given number.

For instance, the series 1 . 3 . 5 . 7 . 9 . 11 is in arithmetical progression, since each of the terms exceeds that which precedes it by the same number, which is 2. The series 11 . 9 . 7 . 5 . 3 . 1 is also in arithmetical progression, since each of the terms is exceeded by that which precedes it, and by the same number.

Of geometrical progression.--Geometrical progression is that in which each term of a series contains the preceding term, or is itself contained in it, the same number of times throughout.

For instance, the series 1 . 3 . 9 . 27 . 81 . 243, &c. is in geometrical progression, since each term contains that which precedes it the same number of times, which is 3.

The series 243 . 81 . 27 . 9 . 3 . 1 is also in geometrical progression, each of the terms being contained by the preceding the same number of times.

Of the formation of logarithms.--Logarithms are numbers in arithmetical progression, corresponding, term by term, with a similar series of numbers in geometrical progression. If, for instance, we have a geometrical series and an arithmetical series as follows,

1 . 3 . 9 . 27 . 81 . 243 1 . 3 . 5 . 7 . 9 . 11

we shall call each term of the lower series the logarithm of the corresponding term in the upper series.

Any given quantity may therefore have an infinite number of different logarithms, since the same geometrical progression may be made to correspond with an infinite diversity of series in arithmetical progression.

In the formation, however, of tables of logarithms, it has been found convenient to adopt a ten-fold progression, as the geometrical progression, and the series of natural numbers as the arithmetical progression. It will be remarked, that, in respect to the latter, the ratio, or common measure of increase, is always unity, while the former has the advantage of being adapted to the mode of notation which is in universal use. The following, therefore, are the progressions chosen:

1 . 10 . 100 . 1000 . 10000 . 100000 . 1000000 0 . 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6

It follows from the nature and correspondence of these progressions, that, as often as the ratio of the former may have been used as a factor in the formation of any one of the terms of that progression, so often will the ratio of the second progression have been added to form the corresponding term of this identical second progression. For instance, in the term 10000, the ratio 10 is 4 times a factor, and in the term 4 the ratio is added 4 times.

If any two terms of the geometrical progression be intermultiplied, and if the corresponding terms of the arithmetical progression be added, the product and the sum will be two terms which will correspond with each other in the same progressions.

Upon this principle it is, that, by the simple addition of any two or more terms of the arithmetical progression, we can ascertain the product of the corresponding terms of the geometrical progression.

For instance, by adding the terms 2 and 3 which answers to 100 and 1000, I have 5, which answers to 100000; whence I conclude that the product of 100 by 1000 is 100000, which in fact it is.

It is always easy to ascertain the logarithm of unity followed by any given number of ciphers; for such logarithm will invariably be expressed by as many units as there may be ciphers in the given number. In order to extend this practice to the formation of intermediate logarithms, it may be conceived, that, although any given number, for instance 3, may not apparently form any part of the geometrical progression 1 . 10 . 100, yet if we were to insert a great number of geometrical means, suppose 1,000,000, between the two first terms, we should either find the number 3 itself, as one of such means, or a number of very near approximation to it. The intermediate terms between 10 . 100 and between 100 . 1000 might be found in like manner, as well as a corresponding number of intermediate terms, in arithmetical proportion, between 0 and 1, and between 1 and 2, 2 and 3, &c. The whole of the geometrical terms being then arranged upon the same line, and the whole of the arithmetical terms upon another line, under the former, it is obvious that the lower series would contain units, or decimal fractions, corresponding with the numbers in the upper series, or, in other words, the logarithmic relation of the two series would be complete and exactly similar to that of the fundamental progressions.

It is thus, that, in the tables most in use, the number of decimal places in the logarithmic quantities is 7, than which, however, many more are used by men of science with a view to the attainment of a corresponding degree of precision. Nevertheless, in certain tables which were made a few years ago for the use of accompting houses, the number of decimal places is reduced to 5, and the rather, as a greater degree of precision is not necessary in those calculations of business which do not require more than approximate results.

It should be remarked, in respect to the tables of logarithms, that the first figure to the left of each logarithm is called the characteristic; since it is that figure which denotes the class of the geometrical progression which comprises the number to which the logarithm relates. For instance, if the characteristic of a number be 2, I know that it relates to the second class, or the hundreds, the logarithm of 100 being 2; and, as that of 1000 is 3, every number from 100 to 999 inclusively, cannot have any other logarithm than 2 and a decimal fraction.

Thus, the characteristic of a logarithm is a number corresponding to the natural numbers, namely, 1 to 10, 2 to 100, 3 to 1000, 4 to 10000, &c. &c. The characteristic of the logarithm of any number under 10 is 0.

It happens by this progressive correspondence, that a number being 10 times, 100 times, or 1000 times greater than another number, has the same logarithm as the lesser number, as far as relates to the decimal fractions of each. The characteristic alone is susceptible of variation, as will be seen by the logarithms of the following numbers:

Numbers Logarithms 3 0,47712 30 1,47712 300 2,47712 3000 3,47712

the characteristics of which are separated by a comma, being 0, 1, 2, 3.

It is this property by which the extraction of logarithms is facilitated, since, if we know the logarithm of the number 30, and are desirous of finding that of 300, of 3000, or of 3, it is requisite merely to add to the characteristic of 30, or to deduct from it, as many units as there may be more or less ciphers in the number whose logarithm is sought.

LOGEMENT, Fr. means generally any place occupied by military men, for the time being, whether they be quartered upon the inhabitants of a town, or be distributed in barracks. When applied to soldiers that have taken the field, it is comprehended under the several heads of huts, tents, &c.

LOGIS, Fr. Quarters.

Marquer les LOGIS, Fr. To mark the officer’s rooms according to their respective ranks.

LOGEMENT d’une attaque, Fr. See Lodgment in FORTIFICATION.

LONG BOAT, the largest boat belonging to a ship: it serves to bring goods, provisions, &c. to or from the ship, to land men, to weigh the anchor, &c.

Le long de la Côte, Fr. Along the coast.

Tout du long de l’année, Fr. All the year round.

Long à la guerre, Fr. An expression used in the French service.

Faire long-bois signifies to leave a considerable opening between the ranks.

Prendre le plus long, Fr. To go the furthest way about, as L’armée fut obligee de prendre le plus long pour éviter les défilés, the army was under the necessity of going the furthest way about in order to avoid the defiles.

LONGER, Fr. A French military phrase. Longer la riviere. To move up or down the river. It is frequently found necessary to attack an enemy’s post, in order to have a free passage on the river, pour longer la riviere.

Longer le bois, Fr. To march by the side of a wood.

Faire une LONGUE marche, Fr. To make a long march.

Epee de longueur, Fr. A sword of a proper length to serve as a weapon of defence. This term is used to distinguish it from the short swords, which are worn for mere dress or parade.

Longs-costes, Fr. Those sides are so called, which belong to places that are irregularly fortified, and contain indiscriminately eighty toises and upwards. In which cases they are usually strengthened by a flat bastion in the centre, or by several flat bastions, which are constructed, according to the extent of the sides, at intermediate distances.

LONGIMETRY, (Longimetrie, Fr.) The art of measuring lands and distances, whether the extent or space be accessible as in a road, or inaccessible as in a river, or branch of the sea.

LONGITUDE of the earth, denotes its extent from west to east, according to the direction of the equator.

LONGITUDE of a place, in geography, its distance from some first meridian, or an arch of the equator intercepted between the meridian of the place, and the first meridian. See GEOGRAPHY.

LONGITUDE of motion, according to some philosophers, is the distance which the centre of any moving body runs through, as it moves on in a right line. See MOTION.

LONGRINES, Fr. Pieces of wood or branches which are laid along the extent of a sluice, and make part of its grating.

To LOOK, a word frequently used in the British service to express the good or bad appearance of a corps, &c. viz. such a regiment looks well or ill under arms.

To LOOK at. To go down the front of a regiment, &c. without requiring that the troops should be put through the different evolutions. A general officer frequently looks at a regiment in this manner. Sometimes indeed the expression bears a more extensive meaning: it is usual, for instance, to say--It would be ridiculous to think of looking at a strong place for the purpose of attacking it, without having sufficient force to carry its works.

To be LOOKED at, in a military sense to be distantly observed by an enemy who has a design of attacking you; or to be seen by a general officer, whose duty is to enforce any established system. The latter must be considered as a mere cursory inspection. It is common to say--We are to be seen or looked at, but not regularly reviewed.

LOOP, in a ship-carriage, made of iron, fastened one on the front of a fore axle-tree, and two on each side, through which the ropes or tackle pass, whereby the guns are moved backwards and forwards on board of ships.

LOOP, a small iron ring or staple, by which the barrel of a gun is affixed to the stock.

LOOP is likewise used to signify an ornamental part of a regimental hat.--Every officer in the British service, when dressed in his uniform, is directed to wear a hat, the loop of which is made of scaled silver or gold, if in the cavalry; and of gold lace if in the infantry. General officers wear the scaled loop.

LOOP-holes, (Crénaux, Fr.) In fortification, are small holes in the walls of a castle or fort, through which the garrison may fire. In field fortification, loop-holes are frequently resorted to.

To LOOSEN, to separate, to make less coherent. In a military sense it implies to open ranks or files from close order. In marching by files, the officers and non-commissioned officers should be particularly attentive to their men, especially when any particular manœuvre requires a compact and solid movement. To loosen is, in fact, to lose that firm continuity of line or perpendicular adherence, which constitutes the true basis of military operations. The lock step was introduced for the purpose of counteracting the mischievous effects of loose marching, but it produced a greater inconvenience, and has therefore been laid aside; and the equal pace and marked time corrects both.

LOOT. Indian term for plunder or pillage.

LOOTIES or LOOTEES, Ind. A term in India to express a body of irregular horsemen, who plunder and lay waste the country, and harass the enemy in their march. They may be compared to the Hulans of Europe, and other free-booters.

LOOTYWALLOW, Ind. A term Of the same import as Looties.

To LOT for men, a phrase peculiar to military arrangements. When recruits join they should be lotted for with the strictest impartiality. If some troops or companies should be less effective than others, they must be first completed to the strength of other troops or companies, and then the whole must lot equally.

LOUIS, or Knight of St. Louis, the name of a military order in France, instituted by Louis XIV. in 1693. Their collars were of a flame color, and passed from left to right: the king was always grand master.

LOUIS d’OR. A French coin first struck in the reign of Louis XIII. in 1640; but laid aside since the revolution.

LOUP, Fr. literally signifies a wolf.

LOUP des anciens was an iron instrument, made in the shape of a tenaille, by means of which they grappled the battering rams and broke them in the middle. See CROWS-FEET.

LOYAL. By a misapplication of terms has been perverted from its true signification, a person faithful to the law, loi, is loyal; it is made to signify, a person who, whether he regarded the law or not, was called loyal if he supported a king. Hence during the revolutionary war a regiment was formed, called Loyal American.

LOYALISTS. During the American war several Americans who betrayed their country, served in the British army; and at the conclusion of it many went over to England and received compensations for their perfidy to their country. The allowances made on this occasion were not, however, confined to those that had served; several families had their cases taken into consideration, and were provided for by the British government. These compensations did not however give any right to a military man to avail himself of the allowance on the score of half-pay; many of these persons have been since used as spies.

LUMIERE, Fr. Vent, touch-hole, aperture.

LUMIERE des pieces d’artillerie, des armes à feu, et de la plûpart des artifices, Fr. the vent or aperture through which fire is communicated to cannon, fire-arms, and to almost every species of artificial fireworks. In the making of cannon, it is of the utmost consequence to pay minute attention to the vent or touch-hole. It is in this part that pieces of ordnance are generally found defective, from the vent being too much widened by repeated firing, and the explosion of the gunpowder being necessarily weakened.

LUNETTE d’approche, Fr. a telescope. The French sometimes call them Lunettes de Galilèe, from the perspective glass or telescope having been invented by Galileo.

LUNETTE à facettes, Fr. a multiplying glass.

LUNETTE polyèdre. Fr. a magnifying glass.

LUNETTE à puce, Fr. a microscope.

LUNETTES, in fortification, are works made on both sides of the ravelin: one of their faces is perpendicular to half or two thirds of the faces of the ravelin; and the other nearly so to those of the bastions.

LUNETTES, are also works made beyond the second ditch, opposite to the place of arms: they differ from the ravelins only in their situation. See FORTIFICATION.

LUNETTONS, are a smaller sort of lunettes.

LUNGER-CONNA. A poor-house or hospital is so called in India.

LUNT. The matchcord with which cannon, &c. are fired.

LUNULÆ. (Lunules, Fr.) In geometry a half moon or crescent, which is made by the arcs of two intersecting circles. If you inscribe a triangle-rectangle within a half circle, the diameter of which becomes the hypothenuse; and if upon each side that compresses the right angle, as its diameter, you describe a half circle, the space in shape of a half moon, closed in by the circumference of each of these two circles, and by a part of the circumference of the great half circle, will form the figure called Lunula.

LUTTE, Fr. Struggle. An exercise of the body, which consists in a full exertion of all its muscular powers to overcome another body, that resists with equal force and pertinacity. This sort of exercise was much encouraged among the ancients. The wrestlers or lutteurs, were distinguished by the name of athletics.

LUXHEBAR. The Indian name for Thursday.

LUZERNE, Fr. Spanish trefoil, called likewise in English Lucerne. A species of hay, which is cultivated for the subsistence of horses. It bears a violet colored flower.

LYCANIANS, (Lycaniens, Fr.) A militia that was formerly raised in Sclavonia, the troops of which resemble the Pandours and Warasdins. It derives its name from being quartered in the neighborhood of the lordship of Lyka.

LYING, to be actually stationed or quartered in a given place.

In-LYING. This term is peculiarly applicable to pickets. A picket is said to be an In-lying picket when it is confined within the immediate lines of entrenchments belonging to a camp, or within the walls of a garrisoned town.

Out-LYING picket, is that which does duty without the limits of a camp or garrisoned town; that is, beyond the immediate sentries belonging to either. Those pickets are likewise called In-line and Out-line pickets.

Out-LYERS, the same as faggots in the line, or among the regulars. The term out-lyers was a term, however, peculiarly understood among the guards; and consisted of a certain number of men from each company, who were permitted to work, on condition that the whole of their pay was left in the hands of the captain, for the time they were so employed. This sum the officer appropriated to his own use, and was thereby enabled not only to increase his pay, but to keep a handsome table whenever he mounted guard. During the winter months the money arising from out-lyers amounted to a considerable sum. This was allowed as a sort of compensation for the expence the captain incurred by the dinner he gave to his subalterns; and for his contribution to the support of a regimental hospital. The custom is now abolished, as a table is kept by the king, and copiously paid for out of the civil list. The following anecdote, which is related to have occurred in the company that once belonged to the British general Gansell, (whom Junius notices in his letters) will shew the absurdity of the old custom, and the wisdom of its abolition:--A general muster being ordered, it was remarked that a soldier dressed in new regimentals, and perfectly unknown to every man in the company, stood to have his name called over: on being asked to whose company he belonged, he replied, to general Gansell’s: (it must be here observed, that the general had quitted the guards for some time.) Who is the present captain? was the next question, or who are the other officers? To which he briefly replied, I only know the pay-serjeant. The fact was, that he had been some years in the guards, and had constantly been an out-lyer.

It was a common practice and continues to be, though not to so great an extent as formerly, to place the names on the muster rolls of the children of officers, often their illegitimate children, and instances have occurred of girls, receiving men’s pay as out-lyers.

M.

MAALER, Ind. A certificate, which is attested by the principal inhabitants of a town or village.

MACE. A heavy blunt weapon, having a metal head: a club.

MACHICOULIS, or Masse-coulis, Fr. In ancient, and sometimes in modern fortification, that upper part of the wall which is sustained by brackets or corbels, jets out and overlooks the gate or ditch.

When a place is besieged, detached parties of the garrison may be posted in the several machicoulises. Through the intervals of the corbels, or supporting brackets, they may easily observe every thing that passes at the foot of the wall; and if the besiegers should be hardy enough to penetrate as far, they may easily overwhelm them by throwing down large stones, combustible materials, hand-grenades or bombs. These brackets or supporters, which in ancient fortification were of a slight construction, might be made of solid materials. The machicoulis, in fact, is susceptible of great improvement; and in many instances might be adopted in order to defend the lower parts of angular forts or turrets.

MACHINES. Machines, Fr.

MACHINES used in war by the ancients. Every species of instrument or machine, which was employed before the invention of fire-arms, for the purpose of demolishing the fortifications of an enemy, or of rendering them accessible to the besieger, came under the denomination of machine. For a full and elaborate explanation of the different machines that were adopted by the ancients, we refer our military readers to the second volume of the Recueil Alphabetique, page 73.

MACHINES Infernales, Fr. Infernal machines. Although the first idea of these machines has been attributed to France, the invention, nevertheless, is by no means new. Frederic Jambelli, an Italian engineer, was the first that used them, when Alexander, of Parma, besieged Antwerp. The prince of Orange likewise had recourse to the destructive effects of an infernal machine, in order to bombard Havre-de-Grace, and to set it on fire. The Dutch and English, in conjunction, attempted to destroy St. Malo by the same means. The first instance, however, upon record, in which the French made use of this machine, was when Louis the XIVth ordered a vessel, carrying an enormous shell, full of every species of combustible matter, to be dispatched to Algiers, for the purpose of demolishing its harbor. This, the English say, suggested to other nations the adoption of fire-ships, and other destructive machines, which have frequently been used against maritime places, although they had been in use a century before.

The author of Oeuvres Militaires, tom. xxii. page 222, speaking of the infernal machines, observes, that if he were to be in a situation which required the use of so dreadful an explosion, especially to destroy a bridge, he would prefer having the machine made simply with different strong pieces of wood joined together, so as to be in the shape of an egg, or of a cone reversed. The whole must then be made compact with cords twisted round it. This method, in his opinion, is not only the best, but can be executed in the most easy and expeditious manner. He further adds, that in order to burn and blow up wooden bridges, and even to destroy such as are constructed upon arches, several sorts of barges or boats might be used, which should be filled with fireworks, bombs, petards, &c. It would likewise be extremely easy to construct these machines upon floating rafters, carrying several thousand pounds weight of gunpowder, which might be confined within strong pieces of wood, put together in the manner already described.

These machines should be piled one above the other, and long iron bars must be thrown across the floats, or be fixed like masts, so that when the whole of the combustible materials is beneath the centre of the bridge, the rafters may be stopped. Great care must be taken to dispose the matches in such a manner that no fire may be communicated to the gunpowder before the machine reaches the exact spot which is to be destroyed.

MACHINE, in general, whatever hath force sufficient to raise or stop the motion of a heavy body.

MACHINES are either simple or compound: the simple ones are the seven mechanical powers, viz. lever, balance, pully, axis, and wheel, screw, and inclined plane. See MECHANICAL POWERS.

If the given power is not able to overcome the given resistance when directly applied, that is, when the power applied is less than the weight or resonance given; then the thing is to be performed by the help of a machine, made with levers, wheels, pullies, screws, &c. so adjusted, that when the weight and power are put in motion on the machine, the velocity of the power may be at least so much greater than that of the weight, as the weight and friction of the machine, taken together, is greater than the power; for on this principle depends the mechanism or contrivance of all mechanical engines used to draw or raise heavy bodies, or overcome any other force; the whole design of these being to give such a velocity to the power, in respect of the weight, as that the momentum of the power may exceed the momentum of the weight: for if machines are so contrived, that the velocity of the agent and resistant are reciprocally as their forces, the agent will just sustain the resistant, but with a greater degree of velocity will overcome it. So that if the excess of motion or velocity in the power is so great as to overcome all that resistance which commonly arises from the friction or attraction of contiguous bodies, as they slide by one another, or from the cohesion of bodies that are to be separated, or from the weights of bodies that are to be raised: the excess of the force remaining, after all these resistances are overcome, will produce an acceleration of motion thereto, as well in the parts of the machine, as in the resisting body.

Compound MACHINES, are formed by various combinations, and serve for different purposes; in all which the same general law takes place, viz. that the power and weight sustain each other, when they are in the inverse proportion of the velocities they would have in the directions wherein they act, if they were put in motion. Now, to apply this law to any compound machine, there are four things to be considered: 1. The moving power, or the force that puts the machine in motion; which may be either men or other animals, weights, springs, the wind, a stream of water, &c. 2. The velocity of this power, or the space it moves over in a given time. 3. The resistance, or quantity of weight to be removed. 4. The velocity of this weight, or the space it moves over in the same given time.

The two first of these quantities are always in the reciprocal proportion of the two last; that is, the product of the first two must always be equal to that of the last; hence, three of these quantities being given, it is easy to find the fourth; for example, if the quantity of the power be 4, its velocity 15, and the velocity of the weight 2, then the resistance, or quantity of the weight, will be equal to

4 × 15 60 ------ = -- = 30. 2 2

The following rules will direct the mechanic how he may contrive his machine, that it may answer the intended purpose, to the best advantage.

1. Having assigned the proportion of your power, and the weight to be raised, the next thing is to consider how to combine levers, wheels, pullies, &c. so that working together they may be able to give a velocity to the power, which shall be to that of the weight something greater than in the proportion of the weight to the power. This done, you must estimate your quantity of friction; and if the velocity of the power be to that of the weight still in a greater proportion than the weight and friction taken together are to the power; then your machine will be able to raise the weight. And note, this proportion must be so much greater, as you would have your engine work faster.

2. But the proportion of the velocity of the power and weight must not be made too great: for it is a fault to give a machine too much power, as well as too little; for if the power can raise the weight and overcome the resistance, and the engine perform its proper effect in a convenient time and work well, it is sufficient for the end proposed; and it is in vain to make additions to the engine to increase the power any farther; for that would not only be a needless expence, but the engine would lose time in working.

3. As to the power applied to work the engine, it may either be a living power, as men, horses, &c. or an artificial power, as a spring, &c. or a natural power, as wind, water, fire, weights, &c.

When the quantity of the power is known, it matters not, as to the effect, what kind of power it is; for the same quantity of any sort will produce the same effect; and different sorts of powers may be applied in an equal quantity a great variety of ways.

The most easy power applied to a machine is weight, if it be capable of effecting the thing designed. If not, then wind, water, &c. if that can be conveniently had, and without much expence.

A spring is also a convenient moving power for several machines: but it never acts equally as the weight does; but is stronger when much bent, than when but a little bent, and that in proportion to the bending, or the distance it is forced to; but springs grow weaker by often bending or remaining long bent: yet they recover part of their strength by lying unbent.

The natural powers, wind and water, may be applied to vast advantage in working great engines, when managed with skill and judgment.--The due application of these has much abridged the labors of men; for there is scarce any labor to be performed, but an ingenious artificer can tell how to apply these powers to execute his design, and answer his purpose; for any constant motion being given, it may, by due application, be made to produce any other motions we desire. Therefore these powers are the most easy and useful, and of the greatest benefit to mankind. Besides, they cost nothing, and do not require any repetition nor renewing, like a weight or a spring, which require to be wound up. When these cannot be had, or cannot serve our end, we have recourse to some living power, as men, horses, &c.

4. Men may apply their strength several ways in working a machine. A man of ordinary strength, turning a roller by the handle, can act for a whole day against a resistance equal to 30 pounds weight; and if he works ten hours in a day, he will raise a weight 30lb. 3¹⁄₂ feet in a second; or if the weight be greater, he will raise it so much less in proportion.

But a man may act, for a small time, against a resistance of 50lb. or more.

If two men work at a windlass or roller, they can more easily draw up 70lb. than one man 30lb. provided the elbow of one of the handles be at right angles to that of the other: and with a fly or heavy wheel applied to it, a man may do ¹⁄₃d part more work; and for a little while act with a force, or overcome a continual resistance of 80lb. and work a whole day when the resistance is but 40lb.

Men used to carrying weighty burdens, such as porters, will carry some 150lb. others 200lb. or 250lb. according to their strength.

A man can draw but about 70 or 80lb. horizontally; for he can but apply half his weight.

If the weight of a man be 140lb. he can act with no greater force in thrusting horizontally, at the height of his shoulders, than 27lb.

A horse draws to greatest advantage, when the line of direction is a little elevated above the horizon, and the power acts against his breast: and can draw 200lb. for eight hours in a day, at two miles and an half an hour. If he draws 240lb. he can work but six hours, and not quite so fast; and, in both cases, if he carries some weight he will draw better than if he carried none. And this is the weight a horse is supposed to be able to draw over a pully out of a well. In a cart a horse may draw 1000lb. The most force a horse can exert is when he draws something above a horizontal direction.

The worst way of applying the strength of a horse, is to make him draw or carry up a hill: and three men with 100lb. on their backs, will climb up a steep hill faster than a horse with 300lb.

A round walk for a horse to draw in at a mill, &c. should not be less than 40 feet diameter.

5. Every machine should be made of as few parts, and those as simple as possible, to answer its purpose; not only because the expence of making and repairing will be less, but it will also be less liable to be put out of order.

6. If a weight is to be raised but a very little way, the lever is the most simple, easy, and ready machine; or, if the weight be very great, the common screw is most proper; but if the weight is to be raised a great way, the wheel and axle is a proper power, but blocks and pullies render the labor still more easy: the same may be done by the perpetual screw.

Great wheels, to be wrought by men or cattle, are of most use and convenience when their axles are perpendicular to the horizon; but if by water, &c. then it is best to have their axles horizontal.

7. As to the combination of simple machines to make a compound one, though the lever when simple cannot raise a weight to any great height, and in this case is but of little service; yet it is of great use when compounded with others. Thus the spokes of a great wheel are all levers perpetually acting; and a beam fixed to the axis to draw the wheel about by men or horses, is a lever. The lever also may be combined with the screw, but not conveniently with pullies or with the wedge. The wheel and axle is combined to great advantage with pullies: but the perpetual screw, with the wheel is very serviceable. The wedge cannot be combined with any other mechanical power; and it only performs its effect by percussion; but this force of percussion may be increased by engines.

Pullies may be combined with pullies, and wheels with wheels. Therefore if any single wheel would be too large, and take up too much room, it may be divided into two or three more wheels and trundles, or wheels and pinions, as in clock work, so as to have the same power, and perform the same effect.

In wheels with teeth, the number of teeth that play together in two wheels, should be prime to each other, that the same teeth may not meet at every revolution: for when different teeth meet, they by degrees wear themselves into a proper figure: therefore they should so be contrived that the same teeth meet as seldom as possible.

8. The strength of every part of the machine should be made proportional to the stress it is to bear: and therefore let every lever be made so much stronger, as its length and the weight it is to support are greater; and let its strength diminish proportionally from the fulcrum, or point where the greatest stress is to each end. The axles of wheels and pullies must be so much stronger as they are to bear greater weight. The teeth of wheels, and the wheels themselves, which act with greater force, must be proportionally stronger; and in any combination of wheels and axles, make their strength diminish gradually from the weight to the power, so that the strength of every part be reciprocally as its velocity. The strength of ropes must be according to their tension; that is, as the squares of their diameters: and, in general, whatever parts a machine is composed of, the strength of every particular part of it must be adjusted to the stress upon the whole; therefore in square beams the cubes of the diameters must be made proportional to the stress they bear: and let no part be stronger or bigger than is necessary for the stress upon it; not only for the ease and well going of the machine, but for diminishing the friction; for all superfluous matter in any part of it, is a dead weight upon the machine, and serves only to impede its motion: hence he is the most perfect mechanic, who not only adjusts the strength to the stress, but who also contrives all the parts to last equally well, so that the whole machine may fall together.

9. To have the friction as little as possible, the machine should be made of the fewest and simplest parts. The diameters of the wheels and pullies should be large, and the diameters of the arbors or spindles they run on, as small as can be consistent with their strength. All ropes and cords must be as pliable as possible, and for that end rubbed with tar or grease: the teeth of wheels must be made to fit and fill up the openings, and cut into the form of epicycloids. All the axles, where the motion is, and all teeth where they work, and all parts that in working rub upon one another, must be made smooth: and when the machine goes, must be oiled or greased.

10. When any motion is to be long continued, contrive the power to move or act always one way, if it can be done, for this is better and easier performed than when the motion is interrupted, and the power is forced to move first one way, and then another; because every change of motion requires a new additional force to effect it. Besides, a body in motion cannot suddenly receive a contrary motion, without great violence: and the moving any part of the machine contrary ways by turns, with sudden jerks, tends only to shake the machine to pieces.

11. In a machine that moves always one way, endeavor to have the motion uniform.

12. But when the nature of the thing requires that a motion is to be suddenly communicated to a body, or suddenly stopped: to prevent any damage or violence to the engine by a sudden jolt, let the force act against some spring, or beam of wood, which may supply the place of a spring.

13. In regard to the size of the machine, let it be made as large as it can conveniently; the greater the machine, the more exact it will work, and perform all its motions the better; for there will always be some errors in the making, as well as in the materials, and consequently in the working of the machine. The resistance of the medium in some machines has a sensible effect; but all these mechanical errors bear a less proportion in the motion of great machines, than in that of little ones; being nearly reciprocally as their diameters, supposing they are made of the same matter, and with the same accuracy, and are equally well finished.

14. For engines that go by water, it is necessary to measure the velocity, drop in pieces of sticks, &c. and observe how far they are carried in a second, or any given time.

But if it flows through a hole in a reservoir, or standing receptacle of water, the velocity will be found from the depth of the whole below the surface.

Thus let s = 16¹⁄₁₂; v = velocity of the fluid per second; B = the area of the hole; H = the height of the water; all in feet. Then the velocity of v = √(2 s H); and its force = the weight of the quantity

v v -----B 2 s

or H B of water, or =

62¹⁄₂ -----H B 112

hundred weight: because a cubic foot = 62¹⁄₂ lb. avoirdup. Also a hogshead is about 8¹⁄₂ feet, or 531lb. and a tun is 4 hogsheads.

When you have but a small quantity of water, you must contrive it to fall as high as you can, to have the greater velocity, and consequently more force upon the engine.

15. If water is to be conveyed through pipes to a great distance, and the descent be but small, much larger pipes must be used because the water will come slow.

Water should not be driven through pipes faster than four feet per second, by reason of the friction of the tubes; nor should it be too much wire-drawn, that is, squeezed through smaller pipes, for that creates a resistance, as water-way is less in narrow pipes.

16. When any thing is to be performed by a water-wheel, moved by the water running under it and striking the paddles or ladle-boards, the channel it moves in ought to be something wider than the hole of the adjutage, and so close to the floats on every side as to let little or no water pass; and when past the wheel, to open a little, that the water may spread. It is of no advantage to have a great number of floats or paddles; for those past the perpendicular are resisted by the back water, and those before it are struck obliquely. The greatest effect that such a wheel can perform, in communicating any motion, is when the paddles of the wheel move with one-third the velocity of the water; in which case, the force upon the paddle is four-ninths only; supposing the absolute force of the water against the paddle, when the wheel stands still, to be 1: so that the utmost motion which the wheel can generate, is but ⁴⁄₂₇ths of that which the force of the water against the paddles at rest would produce.

MADRAS. Fort St. George. A town and fort on the Coromandel coast, in the East Indies, belonging to the English. The town is called Madras by the inhabitants, but by the natives, Chilipatam. It is divided into two towns, the one called the White, and the other the Black town; the former being inhabited by Europeans, and the latter by Gentoos. The diamond mines of Golconda are a week’s journey from this place. The town is governed by a mayor and aldermen, with other officers. It is 63 miles north of Pondicherry, lat. 13, 5, N. long. 80, 34, E. It may not be irrelevant to state, that the establishments belonging to Great Britain, on the coast of Coromandel, is divided into several governments, independent of each other. Bombay commands the factories on the western side of the peninsula, commonly called the Malabar coast; together with those in Guzzerat: the establishments and possessions on the eastern or Coromandel coast, are under the government of Madras; and those in Bengal depend on Calcutta.

MADRIERS, are long planks of broad wood, used for supporting the earth in mining, carrying on a sap, making coffers, caponiers, galleries, and various other purposes at a siege; also to cover the mouth of petards after they are loaded, and are fixed with the petards to the gates or other places designed to be forced open. When the planks are not strong enough, they are doubled with plates of iron.

MAGAZIN, Fr. magazine.

Petit-MAGAZIN. Fr. This was a sort of intermediate building, called entrepot, where stores, provisions, &c. to answer daily consumptions were deposited.

MAGAZIN d’approvisionnement, Fr. magazine of stores.

MAGAZIN d’artillerie, Fr. gunpowder magazines.

MAGAZINE, a place in which stores are kept, or arms, ammunition, provisions, &c. Every fortified town ought to be furnished with a large magazine, which should contain stores of all kinds, sufficient to enable the garrison and inhabitants to hold out a long siege, and in which smiths, carpenters, wheel-wrights, bakers, &c. may be employed in making every thing belonging to the artillery, as carriages, waggons, &c.

Powder-MAGAZINE, is that place where the powder is kept in very large quantities. Authors differ greatly both in regard to situation and construction; but all agree, that they ought to be arched, and bomb-proof. In fortifications they are frequently placed in the rampart; but of late they have been built in different parts of the town. The first powder magazines were made with gothic arches; but M. Vauban, finding them too weak, constructed them in a semicircular form, whose dimensions are, 60 feet long, within; 25 broad; the foundations are eight or nine feet thick, and eight feet high from the foundation to the spring of the arch; the floor is 2 feet from the ground, which keeps it from dampness.

An engineer of great experience some time since, had observed, that after the centres of semicircular arches are struck, they settle at the crown and rise up at the hances, even with a straight horizontal extrados, and still much more so in powder magazines, whose outside at top is formed like the roof of a house, by two inclined planes joining in an angle over the top of the arch, to give a proper descent to the rain; which effects are exactly what might be expected agreeable to the true theory of arches. Now, as this shrinking of the arches must be attended with very ill consequences, by breaking the texture of the cement, after it has been in some degree dried, and also by opening the joints of the voussoirs, at one end, so a remedy is provided for this inconvenience, with regard to bridges, by the arch of equilibration in Mr. Hutton’s book on bridges; but as the ill effect is much greater in powder magazines, the same ingenious gentleman proposed to find an arch of equilibration for them also, and to construct it when the span is 20 feet the pich or height 10, (which are the same dimensions as the semicircle) the inclined exterior walls at top forming an angle of 113 degrees, and the height of their angular point above the top of the arch, equal to seven feet: this very curious question was answered in 1775 by the Rev. Mr. Wildbore, to be found in Mr. Hutton’s Miscellanea Mathematica.

Artillery-MAGAZINE, in a siege, the magazine is made about 25 or 30 yards behind the battery, towards the parallels, and at least 3 feet under ground, to hold the powder, loaded shells, port-fires, &c. Its sides and roof must be well secured with boards to prevent the earth from falling in: a door is made to it, and a double trench or passage is sunk from the magazine to the battery, one to go in and the other to come out at, to prevent confusion. Sometimes traverses are made in the passages to prevent ricochet shot from plunging into them.

MAGAZINES. The present practice is not to make large powder magazines for batteries, but to disperse the barrels of powder, or cartridges here and there in small magazines, about 6 or 7 fathoms, in the rear of the battery; as it appears better to lose a small quantity from time to time, than to run the risk of the whole being destroyed, by a single shell falling into the magazine. These small magazines or entrenchments, will hold about one or two tons of powder; and are about eight or 9 feet square. They ought to be well covered from the fire of the place, and always in the rear of one of the merlons. When they cannot be sunk in the ground, they should be secured by sand bags or gabions. They should be made with attention, as should the communication from them to the battery. Two magazines of this kind will be required for a battery of six pieces.

Permanent powder magazines. According to Vauban’s plan, powder magazines are commonly made 10 fathoms long, and 25 feet wide, in the clear. The foundation of the longest sides, is 9 or 10 feet thick, and 6 feet or more deep, according to the nature of the ground. The side walls raised upon these are 8 or 9 feet thick; and if there is not to be an upper story, 8 feet will be sufficient height above the foundation. By this means the flooring may be raised above the ground, free from damp, and there will remain 6 feet from the floor to the spring of the arch. The arch is formed of layers of bricks, arched one over the other, and ought to be 3 feet thick at the top. The exterior surface of the arch terminates with an angle at top, like a roof; which angle must be of such magnitude as to make a thickness of 8 feet over the key stone of the arch. The foundation at the gable ends is 5 feet thick, and the same depth as the sides; these ends are built up 4 feet thick, from the foundation to the top of the roof. The long sides are supported by counterforts, 6 feet thick and 4 feet long; and placed 12 feet asunder. The ventilators are placed, one in the centre of each space between the counterforts, and are made with a die across them of 1¹⁄₂ feet. These ventilators are also closed with plates of iron. The magazine is lighted by a window in each end, high up, which are opened and shut by means of a ladder. These windows are secured, each by two shutters, made of plank 2 or 3 inches thick; and the outer one covered with sheet iron, and both fastened with strong bolts. The entrance to the magazine is closed by two doors, one of which opens inwards, and the other outwards; the outward one is covered with sheet iron. The entrance of the magazine should, if possible, be placed towards the south. A wall of 1¹⁄₂ feet thick, and 10 feet high, is built round the magazine at 12 feet distance. A magazine of the above dimensions will contain about 94,800 lbs. of powder, in piles of 3 barrels each; for a greater number piled above each other destroys the barrels, damages the powder, and occasions accidents.

MAGNITUDE, or quantity, any thing locally continued, or that has several dimensions. Its origin is a point, which though void of parts, yet its flux forms a line, the flux of that a surface, and of that a body, &c.

MAGNA CHARTA, the great charter of liberties granted to the people of England in the 9th year of Henry III. and confirmed by Edward I. It is so called on account of the supposed excellence of the laws therein contained; or according to some writers, because another lesser charter, called Charter de Foresta, was established with it; or because it contained more than any other charter, &c. or in regard of the remarkable solemnity in the denouncing excommunications against the infringers of it. It is nevertheless a code of barbarity characteristic of the age; and to which imposture has given it all the consequence which ignorance ascribes to it.

MAHONNE, Fr. a species of galeas or double galley which the Turks use. The Venetian galeasses are larger and stronger built.

MAIDEN, an edged instrument used at Edinburgh in former times for the decapitation of criminals. The original invention is by some attributed to an inhabitant of Halifax, in Yorkshire. The guillotine, so called from a French physician of that name, and by which the unfortunate Louis the Sixteenth was executed, January 21st, 1793, owes its origin to the Maiden.

MAIL, primarily denotes the holes or meshes in a net: it likewise signifies a round iron ring. Hence

Coat of MAIL, a coat of armor or steel net-work, anciently worn for defence.

MAILLET, Fr. a mallet. The French formerly made use of this instrument as an offensive weapon in their engagements.

In 1351 the mallet was used at the famous battle des Trente (of thirty) which derived its name from the number of combatants that fought on each side.

This extraordinary combat, holds a distinguished place in the history of Britanny, and was entered into by the partisans of Charles of Blois, and the king of France on one side, and by the count Montfort and the king of England on the other.

Under the reign of Charles VI. a Parisian mob forced the arsenal, took out a large quantity of mallets, with which they armed themselves for the purpose of murdering the custom-house officers. The persons who assembled on this occasion were afterwards called Maillotins.

In the days of Louis XII. the English archers carried mallets as offensive weapons.

MAILLOTIN, Fr. an old French term; which signified, an ancient weapon that was used to attack men who wore helmets and cuirasses. A faction in France was distinguished by the appellation of Maillotins.

MAIN Armée, Fr. Armed force.--Entrer a main armée dans un pays, is to enter into a country with armed men.

MAIN. Venir aux mains, Fr. To come to close action.

MAIN-BATTLE. See BATTLE-ARRAY.

MAIN-BODY of the army, the body of troops that march between the advance and rear-guards. In a camp, that part of the army encamped between the right and left wings.

MAIN-GUARD, or grand-guard, a body of horse posted before a camp for the security of an army. In garrison, it is a guard generally mounted by a subaltern officer and about 24 men. See GUARD.

MAIN-Guard. The French observed the following general maxims, with respect to their Grandes-Gardes or main-guards. In the first place, every main-guard on foot or horseback, must be so posted as to remain secure of not being surprised and carried off, nor easily forced to abandon its position. In order to accomplish these two objects, it must constantly be within the reach of the different piquets; and, if necessary, those piquets should be readily supported by the army itself.

MAINTAIN, when any body of men defend a place or post, against the attacks of an adverse party, they are said to maintain it.

MAJOR. A superior officer in the army, whose functions vary according to the nature of the service on which he is employed.

MAJOR of a regiment of foot, the next officer to the lieutenant-colonel, generally promoted from the eldest captain: he is to take care that the regiment be well exercised, to see it march in good order, and to rally it in case of being broke in action: he is the only officer among the infantry that is allowed to be on horseback in time of action, that he may the more readily execute the colonel’s orders.

The MAJOR of a regiment of horse as well as foot, ought to be a man of honor, integrity, understanding, courage, activity, experience, and address: he should be master of arithmetic, and keep a detail of the regiment in every particular: he should be skilled in horsemanship, and ever attentive to his business: one of his principal functions is, to keep an exact roster of the officers for duty; he should have a perfect knowlege in all the military evolutions, as he is obliged by his post to instruct others, &c.

Town-MAJOR, the third officer in order in a garrison, and next to the deputy-governor. He should understand fortification, and has a particular charge of the guards, rounds, patroles, and centinels.

Brigade-MAJOR, is a particular officer appointed for that purpose, only in camp: or attached to a brigade when an army is brigaded; he goes every day to head quarters to receive orders from the adjutant general: from thence he goes and gives the orders, at the place appointed for that purpose, to the different majors or adjutants of the regiments which compose his brigade, and regulates with them the number of officers and men which each are to furnish for the duty of the army; taking care to keep an exact roster, that one may not give more than another, and that each march in their tour; in short, the major of brigade is charged with the particular detail in his own brigade, in much the same way as the adjutant-general is charged with the general detail of the duty of the army. He sends every morning to the adjutant-general an exact return, by battalion and company, of the men of his brigade missing at the retreat, or a report, expressing that none are absent: he also mentions the officers absent with or without leave.

As all orders pass through the hands of the majors of brigade, they have infinite occasions of making known their talents and exactness.

MAJOR of Artillery, is also the next officer to the lieutenant-colonel. His post is very laborious, as the whole detail of the corps particularly rests with him; and for this reason all the non-commissioned officers are subordinate to him, as his title of serjeant-major imports; in this quality they must render him an exact account of every thing which comes to their knowlege, either regarding the duty or wants of the artillery and soldiers. He should possess a perfect knowlege of the power of artillery, together with all its evolutions. In the field he goes daily to receive orders from the brigade-major, and communicates them with the parole to his superiors, and then dictates them to the adjutant. He should be a very good mathematician, and be well acquainted with every thing belonging to the train of artillery, &c.

MAJOR of engineers, should be very well skilled in military architecture, fortification, gunnery, and mining. He should know how to fortify in the field, to attack and defend all sorts of posts, and to conduct the works in a siege, &c. See ENGINEER.

Aid-MAJOR, is on sundry occasions appointed to act as major, who has a pre-eminence above others of the same denomination. Our horse and foot guards have their guidons, or second and third majors.

Serjeant-MAJOR, is a non-commissioned officer, of great merit and capacity, subordinate to the adjutant, as he is to the major. See SERJEANT.

Drum-MAJOR, is not only the first drummer in the regiment, but has the same authority over his drummers as the corporal has over his squad. He instructs them in their different beats; is daily at orders with the serjeants, to know the number of drummers for duty. He marches at their head when they beat in a body. In the day of battle, or at exercise, he must be very attentive to the orders given him, that he may regulate his beats according to the movements ordered.

Fife-MAJOR, is he that plays the best on that instrument, and has the same authority over the fifers as the drum-major has over the drummers. He teaches them their duty, and appoints them for guards, &c.

MAJOR-General. See GENERAL.

MAJOR, Fr. The French considered this term, in a military sense, under the following heads:--

MAJOR-Général d’une Armée, Fr. Major-general generally so called, which see.

MAJOR-Général de l’Infanterie Francoise, Fr. Major-general of the French infantry. This appointment was made under Francis the 1st in 1515.

MAJOR-Général des Dragons, Fr. a major-general of dragoons. His functions were similar to those exercised by the Maréchal-géneral des logis de la Cavalerie; and nearly the same as those of the major-general of infantry.

MAJOR de Brigade, Fr. Brigade-major.

MAJOR d’un Régiment de Cavalerie, Fr. Major in a regiment of cavalry.

MAJOR d’un Régiment d’Infanterie, Fr. Major of a regiment of infantry. Under the old government of France all majors of infantry regiments, were styled sergent-majors, or serjeant-majors in their commissions. They were not permitted to have any company of their own: because it was reasonably judged, that their own interest might render them more partial to that company, and the service be thereby injured.

MAJOR d’une Place de Guerre, Fr. Town-major.

MAJOR, des quatres compagnies des Gardes du corps, Fr. A rank which was exclusively given to an officer belonging to the old French guards. This was an appointment of considerable trust under the old government of France. He was lieutenant in each of the companies; and had the right of seniority over all lieutenants younger than himself in date of commission.

MAJOR sur un vaisseau de guerre, Fr. An officer on board a ship of war, whose duty it was to see the guard regularly mounted, and the sentries posted.

Etat-MAJOR, Fr. A comprehensive French term, in which is included every thing that can be conveyed under the word staff, as applicable to the British service. In a very recent publication, intituled, Manuel des Adjudans-Généraux et leurs Adjoints, the particular duties of the etat-major are accurately explained, of which an entire translation is incorporated with the American Military Library. Another work on the same subject, was published in 1809, by general Grimoard, entitled Traité sur le Service des Armées contenant son organisation, et ses fonctions sous les rapports administratifs et Militaires, with plates. The author began this work in 1778, and part of it was published in 1797, in the Encyclopédie Methodique. This work has superceded the work of Thiebault, only on account of its being more comprehensive; their views and principles are the same.

MAJOR-Dome, Fr. An officer belonging to the gallies, who has the chief superintendance of provisions.

MAJORITY, the office, charge, or appointment of a regimental major.

MAIRE, Fr. Under the old government of France the person so called was invested with the first dignity of the kingdom. Charles Martel, of whom so much is said in the history of the French kings, was Maire of the palace. He was, in fact, grand master of the king’s household, and had an entire control over the officers belonging to that establishment.

The appellation of Maire du Palais, or mayor of the palace, was given in lieu of Maitre du Palais, or master of the palace. This name was borrowed from the Roman emperors, who had each a grand master of the palace. Du Tillet, a French author, in page 12 of his book, pretends that the word is derived from Mer, which signifies Præfect. At first he had only the care and superintendance of the king’s household, so that his functions were nearly similar to those that were exercised by the grand master of the king’s household previous to the Revolution. During the reign of Clotaire the Second, the power of the Maires increased very considerably. Their influence grew greater through the weakness and effeminacy of the last kings of the second race; so much so, that they maintained an uncontroled power over the royal expenditure, and had the sole management of the king’s affairs. Pepin added the dignity and functions or Maire to the royal prerogative; but he did not suppress them wholly. He merely limited his functions to what they were originally; which however were soon restored, in consequence of the fall and extinction of the second race. As the Maires possessed an unlimited control over the finances and judicature of the country, and had more over the entire management of the war department, they found little difficulty in assuming a superiority over all the officers belonging to the crown. They took precedence of all dukes and counts who were the governors of provinces. On which account they were called Ducs des Ducs, or dukes of France. Hugh Capet was duke of France at the time he proclaimed himself king of the country; but the kings belonging to the third race, being convinced that the authority which was thus vested in one person, must eventually prove extremely dangerous, abolished the office of Maire du Palais, or duke of France. They divided the functions, and created the four great officers that were immediately attached to the crown. The command and superintendance of the army, were entrusted to the constable; the administration of civil justice was vested in the chancellor; the management of the finances was given to the grand treasurer, and the care of the king’s household devolved upon the seneschal, who was afterwards styled grand master.

MAISON-du-Roi, Fr. The king’s household. Certain select bodies of troops were so called during the monarchy of France, and consisted of the gardes du corps or body-guards, the Gendarmes, Chevaux legers or light horse, Mousquetaires or musqueteers, la gendarmerie, grenadiers à cheval or horse-grenadiers, the regiments belonging to the French and Swiss guards, and the cent Suisses or hundred Swiss guards. The Maison-du-Roi or king’s household, was not considered as a separate establishment from the rest of the army, until the reign of Louis IV. This establishment was successively formed by different kings out of militia companies, which they took into their body guard.

MAISON Meurtriere, Fr. This term was formerly given to casemates.

MAITRE des armes, Fr. Master at arms. An officer, during the existence of the Grecian empire, who took precedence of the Maitre de la milice, or commander of the militia.

MAITRE d’armes, Fr. A term in general use among the French, signifying a fencing master. Every regiment has a maitre d’armes attached to it.

MAKE-Ready, a word of command in the firing, on which the soldier brings his piece to the recover, at the same time cocking it ready for firing.

MAL d’armée, Fr. A sort of contagious disorder which sometimes rages in an army, and is occasioned by too much fatigue, or by bad food.

MAL-de-Mer, Fr. Sea-sickness.

MAL-de-Terre, Fr. The scurvy is so called by the French.

MALABAR GUNS, Ind. Heavy pieces of ordnance, which are made in the Malabar country, and are formed by means of iron bars joined together with hoops. They are very long, and extremely unwieldy.

MALADES, Fr. The sick.

Soldats-MALADES, Fr. Soldiers on the sick list.

MALANDRINS, Fr. a set of free-booters, who under the reign of Charles V. infested France. During the 14th century, these plunderers made their appearance twice in considerable bodies. They consisted chiefly of discharged soldiers who formed themselves into marauding parties, and pillaged with impunity all the travellers they met. Abbé de Choisi, relates that it was extremely hazardous to oppose them in their first onset. These pillagers, whom the inhabitants called Malandrins, assembled in different cantons, chose their own leaders, and observed a sort of discipline in their depredations.

They usually contrived to station themselves in such a manner, that it was impossible to attack them.

They plundered or destroyed many places and buildings through which they passed, and paid no regard to church or state. Their principal and most notorious leaders, were the Chevalier de Vert, brother to the count d’Auxerre, Hugues de Caurelée, Mathieu de Gournar, Hugues de Varennes, Gauthier Huet, and Robert Lescot, who all belonged to some order of knighthood. Bertrand du Guesclin cleared the country of these dangerous and unprincipled men, by leading them into Spain under a pretence of fighting the Moors, when in reality his object was to attack Peter the cruel. See French Hist. de Charles V. liv. 1. page 86.

MALINGERER, (from the French) one who feigns illness to avoid his duty.

MALINGRE, Fr. peaking, sickly.

MALL. See MAUL.

MALLET, a wooden hammer, to drive the pegs into the ground, by which a tent is fastened; it is likewise used on various other occasions, especially in fortification and artillery.

MALLEABLE, in the art of founding, a property of metals, whereby they are capable of being extended under the hammer.

MALTA. The strongest place in the Mediterranean, taken by the French troops during the present war, from the knights of that order, and since re-taken by the British. The island of Malta may be considered as a key to the Levant. See MILITARY orders.

MAMMILLIARIA, (Mammellieres, Fr.) a word corrupted from the Latin, signifying a sort of armor, or that part of armor which formerly covered the chest and nipples. Etienne de la fontaine, who was silver smith to the French court, mentions among other articles two sets of Mammillieries, in an account which was delivered in the year 1352.

MAMALUKES, (Mammelucs, Fr.) Some writers assert that they were Turkish and Circassian slaves, originally purchased from the wandering tartars by Meliesaheh, and amounting in number to one thousand men. They were trained and disciplined to war, and some were raised to the first places of trust in the empire. Other writers say that the mamelukes were generally chosen out of christian slaves, and may be considered in the same light as the Turkish janizaries are; others again assert, that they originally came from Circassia, and attracted public notice by their valor, &c. in 869. See D’Herbelot, page 545. The mamelukes have made a considerable figure during the present war, especially in their contest against Bonaparte, for the defence of Egypt. They afterwards joined the French, and formed a considerable part of their cavalry.

MAN, to man the works, is to post the soldiers on the lines so as to be ready for their defence, &c. In the plural number it means soldiers, as an army consisting of 12,000 men.

Flank-front-rank-MAN. Each soldier upon the right and left extremity of the first line or rank of any given body of troops is so called.

Flank-rear-rank-MAN. Each soldier upon the right and left extremity of the last line or rank of any given body of troops.

When a company or battalion is drawn up three deep, the two men who stand at the extremities of the centre line may be called flank-centre-rank-men.

MANCELLE, Fr. a small chain which is fixed to the collars of carriage or dray horses, and which terminates in a large iron ring, that is attached to the shaft. It likewise means the ring itself.

MANCHE d’un Bataillon, Fr. literally means the sleeve of a battalion.--This word originally signified any small body consisting of 40 or 60 men, which were drawn out of the main-body of a battalion, and were posted by files upon the corners or angles of the same battalion.

At present the word manches means the wings of a battalion, the centre of which was composed of pikemen, whilst pikes were in use. Thus there were right and left wings, which were again divided into half-wings, quarter-wings, and half-quarter-wings.

Any battalion may defile or break off by wings, half-wings, or by the other proportions.

The term manche, or wing, was undoubtedly adopted for the express purpose of distinguishing several small corps, which, though at times connected and standing together, could suddenly detach themselves, and act against the enemy without occasioning the most trifling fluctuation or movement in the main body. The Greeks and Romans must have had a term synonimous to manche, in order to shew the several little portions into which the phalanx of the former, and the legion of the latter, were at times divided, when there was occasion for either to manœuvre upon the same principles that we do by wings.

Gardes de la Manche, Fr. Men belonging to the old French body guards, who on particular occasions, as at the Royal Chapel, &c. stood on each side of the king, dressed in hoquetons, and armed with pertuisanes or lances.

La MANCHE, Fr. The channel.

La MANCHE Britannique, Fr. The British channel.

La MANCHE de Bristol, Fr. The Bristol channel.

MANCHE d’outil, Fr. The handle of any utensil.

MANDARIN. A name which the Portuguese originally gave to the Chinese nobility. According to a French author, the Mandarins are divided into nine orders, each having a peculiar mark of distinction to ascertain its rank.

Civil MANDARINS. (Mandarins lettrés, Fr.) These were able and scientific men who had the management of the different branches belonging to civil government.

Military MANDARINS. (Mandarins militaires, Fr.) A certain proportion of the body of mandarins is selected by the emperor of China, to superintend and command the militia of the country, these are called military mandarins.

The mandarins are considered as noblemen, but their rank is not hereditary. Every mandarin undergoes a severe and close examination respecting his natural and acquired talents, before he receives a civil or military appointment; and there are public schools or seminaries to which the natives of the empire may repair to obtain the requisite qualifications for such important and honorable stations.

MANDILION, (Mandille, Fr.) the soldier’s coat is so called by the Italians. It does not, however, bear that meaning either amongst us or among the French; Mandilion and Mandille signifying a footman’s great coat.

MANEGE, in horsemanship, the exercise of riding the great horse, or the ground set apart for that purpose; which is sometimes covered, for continuing the exercise in bad weather; and sometimes open, in order to give more liberty and freedom both to the horseman and horse.

MANGAN, Fr. This word is sometimes written MANGON, (See GUN). A warlike machine which was formerly used. The term itself, indeed, was generally adopted to signify any species of warlike machine. But it more particularly meant the largest and most powerful machine that could be used for warlike purposes; whether it was practised to throw enormous stones against besieged places, or to cast javelins, &c. It was likewise called balista, from the Greek; tormentum from the Latin à torquendo; and sometimes petraria, because stones weighing upwards of three hundred and sixty pounds, were thrown from it. This machine answered the double purpose of defending or attacking fortified places, and it was sometimes used at sea. According to a French writer, one of these machines may still be seen at Basle.

MANGANELLE, Fr. See MANGONNEAU.

MANGONNEAU, Fr. A word originally derived from the Greek, which, according to Potter, seems to signify any engine designed to cast missive weapons. With respect to that particular engine, which the French have called mangan, manganelle, and mangonneau, there is not any specific term for that famous engine, out of which, stones of a size not less than mill-stones, were thrown with such violence, as to dash whole houses in pieces at a blow:--it was called indeed by the Romans, balista; but this name though of Grecian original, appears not to have been used in Greece; this engine, however, was known there, and was the same with that used by the Romans, the force of which is thus expressed by Lucan:--

_At faxum quoties ingenti verberis ictu Excutitur, qualis rupes, quam vertice montis Abscidit impulsu ventorum adjuta vetustas; Frangit cunctaruens, nec tantum corpora pressa Exanimas, totos cum sanguine dissipat artus._

MANIEMENT des armes, Fr. manual exercise. Although it might be thought superfluous to enter into a minute explanation of the manual as practised by the French, it will not be deemed entirely useless to the military man, to make him master of the different terms. With this view, we shall likewise give the words of command used in the platoon exercise &c. The French manual differed from the English in many points; essentially so in the commencement of it, as, (extreme bad weather excepted) the soldiers in the former service, regularly appeared upon parade with fixed bayonets; so that the first word of command was,

Presentez vos armes.--Present arms.

Portez vos armes.--Shoulder arms.

Reposez sur vos armes.--Order arms.

Posez vos armes à terre.--Ground arms.

Relevez vos armes.--Take up arms.

Portez vos armes.--Shoulder arms.

L’arme au bras.--Support arms.

Portez vos armes.--Carry arms.

Presentez la baïonnette.--Charge bayonet.

Portez vos armes.--Shoulder arms.

The other words of command which do not belong to the manual, but are occasionally practised, consist of

Baïonnette au canon.--Fix bayonet.

Tirez la baguette.--Draw ramrod.

Baguette dans le canon.--Spring ramrod.

L’arme à volonté.--Slope arms.

L’arme au bras gauche.--Secure arms.

Armes au faisceau.--Pile arms.

Repos.--Rest.

Portez les armes comme sergent.--Advance arms.

Remettez la baguette.--Return ramrod.

Remettez la baïonnette.--Return or unfix bayonet.

Ouvrez le bassinet.--Open pan.

Fermez le bassinet.--Shut pan.

Port arms is not practised among the Trench. When a guard is dismissed, instead of porting arms, the soldier receives the following word of command, haut les armes! which is somewhat similar to recover arms.

MANIEMENT des armes, Fr. The platoon exercise is so called in the French service, and is distinguished from their manual by the additional caution of charge en douze tems, or prime and load in twelve motions.

Chargez vos armes.--Prime and load.

Ouvrez le bassinet.--Open pan.

Prenez le cartouche.--Handle cartridge.

Déchirez la cartouche.--Bite cartridge.

Amorcez.--Prime.

Fermez le bassinet.--Shut pan.

L’arme à gauche.--Cast over.

Cartouche dans le canon.--Load.

Tirez la baguette.--Draw ramrod.

Bourez.--Ram down cartridge.

Remettez la baguette.--Return ramrod.

Portez vos armes.--Shoulder arms.

FIRING AFTER THE MANUAL.

Apprétez vos armes.--Make ready.

Joue.--Aim.

Feu.--Fire.

Chargez.--Prime and load.

Le chien au repos.--Half-cock firelock.

Portez vos armes.--Carry arms.

Presentez vos armes.--Present arms.

Portez vos armes.--Shoulder arms.

Reposez sur vos armes.--Order arms.

Repos.--Rest.

INSPECTION D’ARMES.--INSPECTION OF ARMS.

Baïonnette au canon.--Fix bayonet.

Baguette dans le canon.--Spring ramrod.

In the British service the ramrod is rammed down the barrel without any further word of command.

Vos armes à terre.--Ground arms.

Relevez vos armes.--Take up arms.

Portez vos armes.--Shoulder arms.

L’arme au bras.--Support arms.

L’arme à volonté.--Slope arms.

L’arme au bras.--Support arms.

Portez vos armes.--Carry arms.

L’arme sous le bras gauche.--Secure arms.

Rortez vos armes.--Shoulder arms.

Croisez la baïonnette.--Charge bayonet.

Croiser la baïonnette likewise signifies to cross bayonet in such a manner as to form a sort of cheval de frise to resist the attack of cavalry from either flank. This has been adopted since the French revolution, and consists in placing the shoulder of the bayonet of the second man behind the shoulder of the first man’s bayonet; and so of every succeeding two from right to left.

Portez vos armes.--Carry arms.

Charge précipitée.--Prime and load quick; in four motions.

Chargez vos armes.--Load.

Deux.--Two.

Trois.--Three.

Quatre.--Four.

Charge à volonté.--Independent or running fire.

Chargez vos armes.--Prime and load.

PLATOON FIRING.

Peloton.--Platoon.

Armes.--Ready.

Joue.--Aim.

Feu.--Fire.

Charges.--Prime and load.

Roulement.--Roll.

Fin de roulement.--Cease to roll.

Feu à volonté.--Independent firing.

Peloton.--Platoon.

Armes.--Ready.

Commencez le feu.--Commence firing.

Roulement.--Roll.

It is here necessary to explain to the English reader, that the words of command Roulement and Fin de Roulement are only used in the drill, or when there is not any drum to beat the prescribed roll.

MANIER, Fr. to handle. This word is generally used among the French, in a military sense, whenever they speak of portable fire-arms, &c. Hence maniement des armes.

MANIER les armes, Fr. To handle the fire-lock, or handle arms.

MANIER la hallebarde, Fr. To handle, or salute with the halbert.

MANIER le sponton, Fr. To handle, or salute with the spontoon.

MANIER l’épée, Fr. To be a swordsman.

MANIER le drapeau, Fr. To furl or unfurl the colors.

MANIER l’épée à deux mains, Fr. To be able to use your sword with either hand.

MANIFESTO (manifeste, Fr.) A public declaration which is made by a prince or state, containing motives and reasons for entering into a war. The formality of a manifesto has been considerably reduced in modern times. Among the ancients, on the contrary, it was particularly attended to. Potter, in his Grecian Antiquities, observes, that invasions without notice were looked upon rather as robberies than lawful wars, as designed rather to despoil and make a prey of persons innocent and unprovided, than to repair any losses, or damages sustained, which for ought the invaders knew, might have been satisfied for in an easier way. It is therefore no wonder, as Polybius (lib. iv.) relates of the Ætolians, that they were held as common outlaws and robbers in Greece, it being their manner to strike without warning, and to make war without any previous and public declaration, whenever they had an opportunity of enriching themselves, with the spoil and booty of their neighbors. Yet there want not instances of wars begun without previous notice, even by nations of better repute for justice and humanity: but this was only done upon provocations so great and exasperating, that no recompence was thought sufficient to atone for them: whence it came to pass, that such wars were of all others the most bloody and pernicious, and fought with excess of rage and fury; the contesting parties being resolved to extirpate each other, if possible, out of the world.

Before the Grecians engaged themselves in war, it was usual to publish a declaration of the injuries they had received, and to demand satisfaction by ambassadors; for however prepared, or excellently skilled, they were in the affairs of war, yet peace, if to be procured upon honorable terms, was thought more eligible: which custom was observed, even in the most early ages, as appears from the story of Tydeus, whom Polynices sent to compose matters with his brother Eteocles king of Thebes, before he proceeded to invest that city, as we are informed by Statius, (Thebaid. lib. ii. v. 368.) and several others. See Potter, page 64 and 65.

The Romans, on the other hand, used abundance of superstition in entering upon any hostility, or closing in any league or confederacy; the public ministers who performed the ceremonial part of both these were the Feciales, or heralds. The ceremonies were of this nature. When any neighboring state had given sufficient reason for the senate to suspect a design of breaking with them; or had offered any violence or injustice to the citizens of Rome, which was enough to give them the repute of enemies; one of the Feciales, chosen out of the college upon this occasion, and habited in the vest belonging to his order, together with his other ensigns, and habiliments, set forward for the enemy’s country. As soon as he reached the confines, he pronounced a formal declaration of the cause of his arrival, calling all the Gods to witness, and imprecating the divine vengeance on himself, and his country if his reasons were not just. When he came to the chief city of the enemy, he again repeated the same declaration, with some addition, and withal desired satisfaction. If they delivered into his power the authors of the injury, or gave hostages for security, he returned satisfied to Rome: if otherwise they desired time to consider; he went away for ten days, and then came again to hear their resolution, and this he did, in some cases, three times: but, if nothing was done towards an accommodation in about thirty days, he declared that the Romans would endeavor to assert their right by their arms. After this the herald was obliged to return, and to make a true report of his embassy before the senate, assuring them of the legality of the war, which they were now consulting to undertake; and was then again dispatched to perform the last part of the ceremony, which was to throw a spear into (or towards the enemy’s country) in token of defiance, and, as a summons to war, pronouncing at the same time a set form of words to the like purpose. Kennett’s Roman Antiquities, book iv. page 229.

The British have within the last century totally changed the usages of war; and appear to court the opprobrium bestowed by history upon the Carthaginians for their perfidiousness and cruelty; and upon the Ætolians for their treachery and rapacity; by making war first, and issuing their manifesto afterwards; as in the attack on Copenhagen in 1806.

MANIGLIONS, the two handles on the back of a piece of ordnance. See CANNON.

MANIPLE. See MANIPULUS.

MANIPULARIS (manipulaire,) Fr. from MANIPLE, a handful or bottle of straw. The chief officer in a part of the Roman infantry called manipulus, was so called. This officer was likewise ordinary, ordinaire, Fr.

MANIPULA, Fr.. See MANIPULUS.

MANIPULE Pyrotechnique, Fr. a certain quantity of iron or brass petards, which may be thrown by the hand upon an enemy. These petards and the method of making them, are particularly described by Casini in his work on artillery. See PETARDS.

MANIPULUS (manipule, Fr.) A small body of infantry originally so called among the Romans, during the reign of Romulus. Their ensign was a hand on the end of a staff.

It consisted of one hundred men, and in the days of the consuls and first Cæsars, of two hundred. Three manipuli constituted a Roman cohort. Each manipulus was commanded by two officers called centurions, one of whom acted as lieutenant to the other. A centurion among the Romans, may be considered in the same light, as we view a captain of a company in modern service. Every manipulus made two centuries or Ordines. This, however, cannot be said to have been the uniform establishment or formation of the manipulus; for according to Varro and Vegetius, it was the smallest body of men employed in the Roman armies, and composed the tenth part of a century. Spartian in his life of Sexennius Niger, says, it consisted only of ten soldiers. We have already observed, that it takes its name from manipulus, which signifies a handful of straw; the latter having been fixed to a long pole to serve as a rallying signal, before the eagles were adopted. This circumstance has given rise to the modern expression, a handful of men, une poignée de gens. Vegetius, on the other hand says, it comes from manus, which signified a small body or handful of men collected together, and following the same standard; and Modestus as well as Varro, state it to have been so called, because, when they went into action, they took one another by the hand, or fought all together. A French writer conceives, that manipulus may be considered as one of those parts of a modern battalion, which are distributed in different rooms, &c. and which is called une chambrée, or a company that messes together.

MANIPULUS, so called from its standard or flag, which was made of cloth, and hung suspended on a staff with a hand. The manipulus was distinguished in this manner from the chief standard of each legion, which was an eagle of massive metal.

MANOEUVRE, (Manoeuvre, Fr.) Manœuvres of war consist chiefly in habituating the soldier to a variety of evolutions, to accustom him to different movements, and to render his mind familiar with the nature of every principle of offensive or defensive operation. The regular manœuvres of the British army have been reduced to nineteen, though these are not competent to every exigency of service the skilful officer will know how to manœuvre as the ground he is upon requires.

The word manœuvre is frequently used in the French artillery to express the method with which a piece of ordnance or mortar is raised and placed upon its carriage by several hands, assisted by the crab or any other machine. In a general acceptation of the term, manœuvre means that mechanical process by which any weight is lifted.

To MANŒUVRE, is to manage any body or armed force in such a manner as to derive sudden and unexpected advantages before the enemy, from a superior talent in military movements. It consists in distributing equal motion to every part of a body of troops, to enable the whole to form, or change their position, in the most expeditious and best method, to answer the purposes required of a battalion, brigade, or line of cavalry, infantry, or artillery.

The use of all manœuvres and of all discipline is the same, to habituate men to the word of command, to perform what is commanded, and in the shortest time, in the best manner. The idea therefore of reducing manœuvres to 18 or 19, or any given number, manifests a misconception of the military art, that is truly surprizing; for it must be perceived by a practical man, that the principles of all manœuvres are few and simple; although manœuvres are as susceptible of infinite variety and of real use, as arithmetical numbers. The ability of the officer is shewn in the choice of manœuvre, and its adaptation to the ground manœuvred upon, the end proposed to be obtained by the manœuvre, the position of the enemy, and the exactness and celerity with which it is performed. The great perfection of manœuvre is when troops at a single word of command perform movements of different kinds at the same instant, but all to accomplish the same object; that is to accomplish together the end proposed by the commander. Soldiers should be so exercised as to be competent to move in any manner or direction on the instant; a fixt number of manœuvres is calculated to defeat this end. The Austrians have attempted to follow the French, and practise their methods of manœuvre, which are not so much for parade as for practice. In the United States, the prejudice against, or the ignorance of manœuvre is excessive.

It has always been lamented, that men have been brought on service without being acquainted with the uses of the different manœuvres they have been practising; and having no ideas of any thing but the uniformity of the parade, instantly fall into disorder and confusion when they lose the step, or see a deviation from the straight lines they have been accustomed to at exercise. It is a pity to see so much attention confined to show, and so little given to instruct the troops in what may be of use to them on real service.

Manœuvre when executed in the presence of the enemy, must be protected by some light troops, riflemen or horse artillery.

Grand MANŒUVRE de Guerre, Fr. This expression is peculiarly French, and may be said to signify the dispositions of war upon a large scale. According to marshal Saxe these dispositions consist chiefly in drawing troops up in such a manner, that the cavalry and infantry may support each other; but he objects to that arrangement by which companies or platoons of infantry are intermixed with squadrons of horse; for, as he justly observes, if the latter should be beaten, the foot soldiers must unavoidably be thrown into confusion by the enemy’s cavalry, and be cut to pieces. For further particulars on this important article, see Saxe’s Reveries, where he treats of La Grande Manœuvre de Guerre, and the supplement to them by baron d’Espagnac, page 69.

Warlike MANOEUVRES, (Manoeuvres de Guerre, Fr.) Warlike manoeuvres, or the different exercises, &c. by which men are taught the military profession: these exercises, from the earliest periods of history, have been infinitely diversified. Vegetius, an ancient writer, remarks, that the Romans, in order to enure their raw troops to the fatigues of war, had specific regulations drawn up, by which every recruit was regularly practised in martial exercises. These regulations were originally formed during the existence of their republic, and were afterwards confirmed by the emperors Augustus and Adrian.

It was particularly ordained, that the cavalry as well as the infantry should be walked out (être mené à la promenade) three times every month. The foot were obliged to go ten miles beyond the lines of their encampment. On these occasions they were originally drawn up. But their movements both in going and returning were frequently altered; being sometimes obliged to march at a moderate rate, and at others to increase their pace and run. The same regulation held good with respect to the cavalry, which was armed and divided into certain proportions, called turmæ. The troops on horseback went the same distance, and practised different evolutions on the road. Sometimes advancing to attack, and at others suddenly wheeling round, to return to the charge with greater impetuosity. These exercises were not, however, confined to open roads, or a level country: both horse and foot were frequently ordered to make their way through intricate passes, over cragged hills, &c. and to accustom themselves to every possible obstacle that might occur in military movements.

This species of manoeuvre or practising exercise, has at last obtained in modern times. It was till lately thought sufficient to teach a raw recruit the use of the firelock, and to make him master of a certain number of movements, by the knowlege of which he was held fit to make a part of a well disciplined corps. How to march against and attack an enemy, or to meet his attack with skill and steadiness; these principally constituted the system of modern manoeuvres, and are better understood by the name of evolutions. In the British service there is a specific number of manoeuvres or evolutions to which every regiment must conform, and with the particular practice of which every officer and soldier must be made intimately acquainted. See Am. Mil. Library.

MANOEUVRER, Fr. To manoeuvre. This verb in the French language may be applied two ways; as, manoeuvrer les voiles, to manage the sails and tackle of a vessel.

MANOEUVRER des Troupes, to make soldiers go through their different manoeuvres. Ces troupes ont bien manoeuvré, those soldiers have ably manoeuvred.

Bien ou mal MANOEUVRER, Fr. signifies to manoeuvre well or ill; as, un tel gênéral ou officier a bien manoeuvré à tel passage, à tel endroit, such a general manoeuvred well at such a passage or quarter: mais un tel à mal manoeuvré à la defense ou à l’attaque de tel poste, but such an officer manoeuvred extremely ill in his defence or attack of such a post. The word manoeuvre is originally derived from the Latin Manûs Opus.

MANOEUVRIER, Fr. any officer who is perfectly acquainted with the art of manoeuvring.

MANOEUVRIER, Fr. A sea phrase, which is frequently used among the French, to signify that an officer not only understands all the different words of command, but can thoroughly manoeuvre his ship. It is common to say, il est un des meilleurs manoeuvriers qui soient sur mer, he is one of the ablest sea officers in the service.

MANTEAU, Fr. This word, which literally signifies a cloak, is frequently used among the French to express the covering that hussars or light infantry troops carry for the double purpose of shielding their bodies from the inclemencies of the weather in outposts, &c. and for spreading over their heads, by means of poles, when they occasionally halt, and take a position.

MANTELETS, in a military sense, are either single or double, composed of great planks of wood, of about 5 feet high, and 3 inches thick. The single ones are sometimes covered with tin, made musquet-proof, which the pioneers generally roll before them, being fixed upon wheels, to cover them from the enemy’s fire, in opening the trenches, or carrying on the sap, &c. The double ones form an angle, and stand square, making two fronts, which cover both the front and flank of the sappers, &c. when at work: these have double planks with earth rammed in between them: they are 5 feet high and 3 in breadth, sometimes covered with plates of iron; they may with propriety be called a moving parapet, having a shaft to guide them by.

MANTONET, Fr. A small piece of wood or iron, which is notched, for the purpose of hanging any thing upon it. The pegs in soldier’s rooms are sometimes so called.

MANUAL.--In a general acceptation of the word, means any thing done by the hand.

MANUAL Exercise, in the British service, is the exercise of the musquet, independent of powder and ball, and consists in seven motions of the firelock; 5 of which are essentially different from each other, viz. order arms, fix bayonets, shoulder arms, present arms, shoulder arms, charge bayonets, and shoulder arms.

I. Order Arms. (3 motions.) Bring the firelock to the trail in two motions as usual, seizing it at the first at the lower loop, just at the swell, at the 2d, bring it down to the right side, the butt within an inch of the ground: at the 3d, drop the butt on the ground, placing the muzzle against the hollow of the right shoulder, and the hand flat upon the sling; the thumb behind the barrel.

II. Fix Bayonets.--At the word, fix, grip the firelock; as soon as the word of command is fully out, push the firelock a little forward, at the same time drawing out the bayonet with the left hand, and fixing it with the utmost celerity. The instant this is done, return as quick as possible, to the order, as above described, and stand perfectly steady.

III. Shoulder Arms.--As soon as the word shoulder is given, grip the firelock with the right hand, as in fixing bayonets, and, at the last word, arms, the firelock must be thrown, with the right hand, in one motion, and with as little appearance of effort as possible, into its proper position on the left shoulder; the hand crosses the body in so doing, but must instantly be withdrawn.

IV. Present Arms. (3 motions.)--1st. Seize the firelock with the right hand, under the guard, turning the lock to the front, but without moving it from the shoulder.

2d. Bring it to the poize, seizing it with the left hand, the fingers easily round the stock, the wrist upon the guard, and the point of the left thumb of equal height with the eyes.

3d. Bring down the firelock with a quick motion, as low as the right hand will admit without constraint, drawing back the right foot at the same instant, so that the hollow of it may touch the left heel. The firelock in this position is to be totally supported in the left hand; the body to rest intirely on the left foot; both knees to be straight; the firelock in front of the left eye, and the butt in front of the left thigh.

V. Shoulder Arms. (2 motions.)--1st. By a turn of the right wrist, bring the firelock to its proper position on the shoulder, as described above, the left hand grasping the butt.

2d. Quit the right hand, bring it briskly down to its place by the side.

VI. Charge Bayonets. (2 motions.)--1st. At one motion throw the firelock from the shoulder across the body, to a low diagonal recover, a position known by the name of porting arms, or preparing for the charge, in which the lock is to be turned to the front, and at the height of the breast; the muzzle slanting upwards, so that the barrel may cross opposite the point of the left shoulder, with the butt proportionally depressed; the right hand grasps the small of the butt, and the left holds the piece at the swell, close to the lower pipe, the thumbs of both hands pointing towards the muzzle.

2d. Make a half-face to the right, and bring down the firelock to nearly a horizontal position, with the muzzle inclining a little upwards, and the right wrist resting against the hollow of the thigh, just below the hip.

N. B. The first motion of the charge is the position which the soldier will either, from the shoulder, or after firing, take, in order to advance on an enemy, whom it is intended to attack with fixed bayonets; and the word of command for that purpose is “prepare to charge.” The second position of the charge is that which the front rank takes when arrived at a few yards distance only from the body to be attacked. The first motion of the charge is also that which sentries are to take when challenging any persons who approach their posts.

VII. Shoulder Arms. (2 motions.)--1st. Face to the front, and throw up the piece into its position on the shoulder, by a turn of the right wrist, instantly grasping the butt, as before described, with the left hand.

2d. Quit the firelock briskly with the right hand, bringing it to its proper place by the side.

The men are taught likewise to support arms at three motions, throwing the first and second nearly into one: at the first motion they seize the small of the butt, under the lock, with the right hand, bringing the butt in the front of the groin, and keeping the lock somewhat turned out: at the second, they bring the left arm under the cock: at the third, they quit the right hand. In carrying arms from the support, the motions are exactly reversed.

In marching any distance, or in standing at ease, when supported, the men are allowed to bring their right hand across the body, to the small of the butt, which latter must in that case, be thrown still more forward; the fingers of the left hand being uppermost, must be placed between the body and the right elbow; the right hands are to be instantly removed when the division halts, or is ordered to dress by the right.

Time.--The motions in the manual exercise to be performed slow, leaving three seconds between each motion, except that of fixing bayonets, in which a longer time must be given.

The manual is not to be executed by one word, or signal, but each separate word of command is to be given by the officer who commands the body performing it.

In regard to the motions of securing, grounding, and trailing, as well as those of piling, &c. it will be sufficient for the soldiers to be taught to perform them in the most convenient and quickest method. Returning bayonets is to be done from the order; in the same manner as fixing them.

Sentries.--Sentries posted with shouldered arms, are permitted afterwards to support, but not to slope them. On the approach of an officer, they immediately carry their arms, and put themselves into their proper position; which is not to be done at the instant he passes, but by the time he is within twenty yards of their post, so that they may be perfectly steady before he comes up.

Corporals.--Corporals marching with reliefs, or commanding detachments, or divisions, carry their arms advanced, as formerly: for which purpose a soldier, when promoted to that rank, must be taught the position of advanced arms.

Explanation of the several Motions of the Platoon Exercise, as taught at the drill in the British service.

I. Make Ready.--As usual, bringing the firelock to the recover, and instantly cocking.

II. Aim.--1st. Slip the left hand along the sling, as far as the swell of the firelock, and bring the piece down to the present, stepping back about six inches to the rear with the right foot.

III. Fire.--After firing drop the firelock briskly to the priming position.

2d. Half cock.

IV. Handle Cartridge.--1st. Draw the cartridge from the pouch.

2d. Bring it to the mouth, holding it between the fore finger and thumb, and bite off the top of it.

V. Prime.--1st. Shake some powder into the pan.

2d. Shut the pan with the three last fingers.

3d. Seize the small of the butt with the above three fingers.

VI. Load.--1st. Face to the left on both heels, so that the right toe may point directly to the front, and the body be a very little faced to the left, bringing at the same time the firelock round to the left side without sinking it. It should, in this momentary position, be almost perpendicular (having the muzzle only a small degree brought forward), and as soon as it is steady there, it must instantly be forced down within two inches of the ground, the butt nearly opposite the left heel, and the firelock itself somewhat sloped, and directly to the front; the right hand at the same instant catches the muzzle, in order to steady it.

2d. Shake the powder into the barrel, putting in after it the paper and ball.

3d. Seize the top of the ramrod, with the fore finger and thumb.

VII. Draw ramrods.--1st. Draw the ramrod half out, and seize it back-handed exactly in the middle.

2d. Draw it entirely out, and turning it with the whole hand and arm extended from you, put it one inch into the barrel.

VIII. Ram down cartridge.--1st. Push the ramrod down, holding it as before, exactly in the middle, till the hand touches the muzzle.

2d. Slip the fore finger and thumb to the upper end, without letting the ramrod fall farther into the barrel.

3d. Push the cartridge well down to the bottom.

4th. Strike it two very quick strokes with the ramrod.

IX. Return ramrod.--1st. Draw the ramrod half out, catching it back-handed.

2d. Draw it entirely out, turning it very briskly from you, with the arm extended, and put it into the loops, forcing it as quick as possible to the bottom; then face to the proper front, the finger and thumb of the right hand holding the ramrod, as in the position immediately previous to drawing it, and the butt raised two inches from the ground.

X. Shoulder Arms.--Strike the top of the muzzle smartly with the right hand, in order to fix the bayonet and ramrod more firmly, and at the same time throw it nimbly up, at one motion to the shoulder.

N. B. Though the butts are not to come to the ground in casting about, as accidents may happen from it, yet they are permitted, while loading, to be so rested; but it must be done without noise, and in a manner imperceptible in the front.

Explanation of priming and loading quick.

Prime and Load.--1st. Bring the firelock down in one brisk motion to the priming position, the thumb of the right hand placed against the pan-cover, or steel: the fingers clenched; and the elbow a little turned out, so that the wrist may be clear of the cock.

2d. Open the pan by throwing up the steel, with a strong motion of the right arm, turning the elbow in, and keeping the firelock steady in the left hand.

3d. Bring your hand round to the pouch, and draw out the cartridge.

The rest as above described, excepting that, in the quick loading, all the motions are to be done with as much dispatch as possible; the soldiers taking their time, from the flugel man in front, for casting over and shouldering only.

Priming position.--In firing three deep the priming position for the front rank is the height of the waistband of the breeches: for the centre rank, about the middle of the stomach; and for the rear rank, close to the breast: the firelock, in all these positions, is to be kept perfectly horizontal.

Explanation of the Positions of each Rank in the Firings.

Front Rank, kneeling.--Bring the firelock briskly up to the recover, catching it in the left hand; and, without stopping, sink down with a quick motion upon the right knee, keeping the left foot fast, the butt end of the firelock, at the same moment, falling upon the ground; then cock, and instantly seize the cock and steel together in the right hand, holding the piece firm in the left, about the middle of that part which is between the lock and the swell of the stock: the point of the left thumb to be close to the swell, and pointing upwards.

As the body is sinking, the right knee is to be thrown so far back that the left leg may be right up and down, the right foot a little turned out, the body straight, and the head as much up as if shouldered; the firelock must be upright, and the butt about four inches to the right of the inside of the left foot.

Aim.--Bring the firelock down firmly to the aim, by sliding the left hand, to the full extent of the arm, along the sling, without letting the motion tell: the right hand at the same time springing up the butt by the cock so high against the right shoulder, that the head may not be too much lowered in taking aim; the right cheek to be close to the butt; the left eye shut, and the middle finger of the right hand on the trigger, look along the barrel with the right eye from the breech-pin to the muzzle, and remain steady.

Fire.--Pull the trigger strong with the middle finger, and, as soon as fired, spring up nimbly upon the left leg, keeping the body erect, and the left foot fast, and bringing the right heel to the hollow of the left; at the same instant drop the firelock to the priming position, the height of the right hip; half cock, handle cartridge, and go on with the loading motions, as before described.

Centre rank.--Make ready.--Spring the firelock briskly to the recover: as soon as the left hand seizes the firelock above the lock, raise the right elbow a little, placing the thumb of that hand upon the cock, with the fingers open on the plate of the lock, and then, as quick as possible, cock the piece, by dropping the elbow, and forcing down the cock with the thumb, step at the same time with the right foot a moderate pace to the right, and keeping the left fast, seize the small of the butt with the right hand: the piece must be held in this position perpendicular, and opposite the left side of the face, the butt close to the breast, but not pressed, the body straight and full to the front, and the head erect.

Aim.--As in the foregoing explanation for the front rank.

Fire.--Pull the trigger strong with the middle finger, and, as soon as fired, bring the firelock to the priming position, about the height of the stomach: the rest, as in the explanation of priming and loading, with this difference only, that the left foot is to be drawn up to the right, at the same time that the firelock is brought down to the priming position, and that immediately after the firelock is thrown up to the shoulder, the men spring to the left again, and cover their file leaders.

Rear rank.--Make ready.--Recover and cock, as before directed for the centre rank, and, as the firelock is brought to recover, step briskly to the right a full pace, at the same time placing the left heel about six inches before the point of the right foot. The body to be kept straight, and as square to the front as possible.

Aim.--As in explanation for the centre rank.

Fire.--As in explanation for the centre rank; after firing and shouldering, the men step as the centre rank does.

In firing with the front rank standing, that rank makes ready, &c. as specified in the article relative to the platoon exercise.

Officers.--In giving words of command, as well in as out of the ranks, officers are to stand perfectly steady, and in their proper position; their swords held firmly in the full of the right hand, with the upper part of the blade resting against the shoulder, the right wrist against the hip, and the elbow drawn back.

Firing by platoons.--Officers, &c.--The officers, instead of giving the words platoon, make ready, aim, fire, are to pronounce the words short, as for instance, ’toon, ready, aim, fire.

In firing by platoons, or divisions, the officers commanding them are to step out one pace, on the close of the preparative, and face to the left towards their men; they there stand perfectly steady till the last part of the general, when they step back again into their proper intervals, all at the same time. After a division has fired, the right hand man of it steps out one pace, in front of the officer, but still keeping his own proper front, and gives the time for casting about and shouldering, after which he falls back again into his place in the front rank.

The flugle man of a battalion is also to keep his front, in giving the time of exercise.

In firing by grand divisions, the centre officer falls back, on the preparative, into the fourth rank, and is replaced by the covering serjeant.

MANUBALISTE, Fr. From the Latin manubalista. A cross bow.

MANUFACTURES d’armes, Fr. Places appropriated for the manufacturing of arms. During the old government of France, three places were appropriated for the manufacturing of arms; one at Maubeuge, one at Charleville and Nourzon, and the third at St. Etienne en Foret. These were called royal manufactories of arms for public service. A director general superintended the whole, to whom every person concerned in the undertaking was subject, and who was himself subordinate to those artillery inspectors and comptrollers, that were severally appointed by the grand master of the ordnance and the secretary at war.

The United States have manufactories of arms at Harpers ferry, on Potomac; at Springfield, Massachusetts; at Washington City; and at Rocky Mount, S. Carolina.

MAP, in a military and geographical sense, is a plane figure, representing the surface of the earth, or a part thereof, according to the laws of perspective; distinguishing the situation of cities, mountains, rivers, roads, &c.

In maps these three things are essentially necessary. 1. That all places have the same situation and distance from the great circles therein, as on the globe, to show their parallels, longitudes, zones, climates, and celestial appearances. 2. That their magnitudes be proportionable to the real magnitudes on the globes. 3. That all places have the same situation, bearing, and distance, as on the earth itself.

MAPS are either universal, which exhibit the whole surface of the earth; or partial, which exhibit some particular part thereof: each kind is called geographical or land-maps, in contradistinction to hydrographical or sea-maps, representing the seas and sea-coasts, properly called charts.

As a map is a representation of some part of the surface of the earth delineated upon a plane, the earth, being round, no part of the spherical surface of it can be accurately exhibited upon a plane; and therefore some have proposed globular maps. For this purpose a plate of brass might be hammered, or at a less expence a piece of paste-board might be formed into a segment of a sphere, and covered on its convex side with a map projected in the same manner as the papers of the common globe are. A map made in this method would show every thing in the same manner, as it would be seen upon a globe of the same diameter with the sphere upon the segment of which it was delineated: and, indeed, maps of this sort would in effect be segments of such a globe; but they are not in common use.

The ancients described all parts of the known earth in one general map. In this view one of them compares the shape of the earth to the leather of a sling, whose length exceeds its breadth: the length of the then known parts of the earth from east to west was considerably greater than from north to south; for which reason, the former of these was called the longitude, and the other the latitude.

The modern general maps are such as give us a view of an entire hemisphere, or half of the globe; and are projected upon the plane of some great circle, which terminates the projected hemisphere, and divides it from the other half of the globe, at the equator, the meridian, or horizon of some place. From the circle the projection is denominated, and said to be equatorial, meridionial, or horizontal.

Particular maps are such as exhibit to us less than an hemisphere; of this sort are maps of the great quarters into which the earth is divided, as Europe, Asia, Africa, and America; or maps of particular nations, provinces, countries, or of lesser districts.

A particular map is a part of a general one, and may be made upon the same principles, as by projecting a large hemisphere, and taking so much of it as the map is designed to contain. When we are to delineate a map of the smaller part of the earth, if it be near the equator, the meridians and parallels may be represented by equi-distant straight lines; if at some distance from the equator, the parallels may be equi-distant straight lines, and the meridian straight lines, a little converging towards the nearest pole; or the meridians may be straight lines, converging towards the nearest pole, and the parallels circular.

When we are to make a map of a very small district, as of a county or town, whatever part of the earth it be in, the meridians and parallels may be equidistant straight lines, drawn through every minute, &c. of longitude, in proportion as the largeness of the map will allow. See PLOTTING and SURVEYING.

The use of maps is obvious from their construction. The degrees of the meridians and parallels shew the longitude and latitude of places; their bearings from each other appear from inspection; and their distance from each other may be measured by the divisions on the meridian, equator, or scales. GEOGRAPHY.

MARAUDE, Fr. The act of marauding. This word specifically means the theft or depredation which a soldier commits against the peasantry of the country, and for which offence, he is punished with death in all foreign services.

MARAUDEUR, Fr. A marauder. This term is now strictly English. Its signification, however, is generally the same in all services. Any soldier that steals out of camp, armed or unarmed, for the purpose of pillaging the country, is a marauder, and is liable, upon conviction, to be punished with death, or such other punishment as by a general court-martial shall be awarded.

Aller en MARAUDE, means to go out marauding.

MARAUDING, in a military sense, the act of plundering, which is generally committed by a party of soldiers, who, without any order, go into the neighboring houses or villages, when the army is either in camp or in garrison, to pilfer and destroy, &c. Marauders are a disgrace to the camp, to the military profession, and deserve no better quarters from their officers than they give to poor peasants, &c. Marauding is also applied to plundering at sea; thus the Barbary Corsairs, and the British navy are systematic marauders.

MARC, Fr. A weight equal to eight ounces. In France, it is usual for silversmiths and jewellers to take a marc at that standard, but when articles of greater bulk and grosser quality than those they deal in, are brought to the scale, the marc contains 16 ounces to the pound. All stores and ammunition were appreciated by this measure.

A MARCH, (une Marche, Fr.) is the moving of a body of men from one place to another. Care must be taken, in marching troops, that they are not liable to be flanked or intercepted; for of all operations none is more difficult, because they must not only be directed to the objects they have in view, but according to the movements the enemy may have made.

Of all the mechanical parts of war, none is more essential than that of marching. It may be justly called the key which leads to all important motions and manœuvres of an army; for they depend entirely on this point. A man can be attacked in four different ways; in the front, on both flanks, and in the rear: but he can defend himself, and annoy the enemy, only when placed with his face towards him. Hence it follows, that the general object of marching, is reduced to three points only; to march forwards, and on both sides, because it is impossible to do it for any time backwards, and by that means face the enemy wherever he presents himself. The different steps to be made use of are three: slow, quick, and accelerated. The first is used only at reviews, for parade, or in mounting guard. The second is proper in advancing, when at a considerable distance from the enemy, and when the ground is unequal, that the line may not be broken, and that a regular fire may be kept up without intermission. The third is chiefly necessary, when you want to anticipate the enemy in occupying some post, in passing a defile, and, above all, in attacking an intrenchment, to avoid being a long while exposed to the fire of the artillery and small arms, &c. Columns may be opened and formed into lines, and vice versa, lines into columns, by all these steps. In coming out of a defile, you may instantly form the line without presenting the flank to the enemy. The line may be formed, though ever so near to the enemy, with safety, because you face him, and can with ease and safety protect and cover the motion of the troops, while they are coming out of the defiles and forming. The same thing may be equally executed, when a column is to be formed, in order to advance or retreat; which is a point of infinite consequence, and should be established as an axiom.

The order of march of the troops must be so disposed, that each should arrive at their rendezvous, if possible, on the same day. The quarter-master-general, or his deputy, with an able engineer, should sufficiently reconnoitre the country, to obtain a perfect knowlege both of that and of the enemy, before he forms his routes.

Before a march, the army generally receives several days bread. The quarter-masters, camp-color men, and pioneers, parade according to orders, and march immediately after, commanded by the quarter-master-general, or his deputy. They are to clear the roads, level the ways, make preparations for the march of the army, &c. The general, for instance, beats at 2, the assembly at 3, and the army to march in 30 minutes after. Upon beating the general, the village, and general officer’s guards, quarter and rear-guards, join their respective corps; and the army pack up their baggage. Upon beating the assembly, the tents are to be struck, and sent with the baggage to the place appointed, &c.

The companies draw up in their several streets, and the rolls are called. At the time appointed, the drummers are to beat a march, and fifers play at the head of the line; upon which the companies march out from their several streets, form battalions as they advanced to the head of the line and then halt.

The several battalions will be formed into columns by the adjutant-general, and the order of march, &c., be given to the general officers who lead the columns.

The cavalry generally march by regiments or squadrons. The heavy artillery always keep the great roads, in the centre of the columns, escorted by a strong party of infantry and cavalry.--The field-pieces move with the columns.

Each soldier generally marches with 60 rounds of powder and ball, and three good flints; one of which is to be fixed in the cock of his firelock. The routes must be so formed, that no column may cross another on the march. See American Military Library.

MARCH! (Marche! Fr.) as a word of command, whenever it is given singly, invariably denotes that ordinary or triple time is to be taken; when the slow time is meant, that word will precede the other. The word march, marks the beginning of movements from the halt; but it is not given when the body is in previous motion. It should be sharp, clear, and distinct.

The usual rate of marching for cavalry is 17 miles in 6 hours; but this may be extended to 21, or even 28 miles in that time.

Rates paid for English carriages on the march.

{with 5 horses, or One shilling per mile for every carriage{with 6 oxen, or {with 4 oxen & 2 horses;

nine pence per mile for any cart with 4 horses, and so in proportion for less carriages; or a further sum, not exceeding 4_d_ per mile for every carriage with 5 horses, or with 6 oxen, or with 4 oxen and 2 horses; or 3_d_ per mile for every cart with 4 horses; and so in proportion for less carriages, as the same shall be fixed and ordered by the justices of the peace. The waggons, &c. not to carry more than 30 cwt.

Regular ferries in England are only to be paid for on the march at half the ordinary rate.

Marching money.--Innkeepers in the British dominions, are obliged to furnish troops on the march with diet and small beer, for the day of their marching in, and two days afterwards; unless one of the days be a market day. For which the publican by the king’s warrant, 17th of March, 1800, is to receive 16_d_, and which is paid in the following manner:

Paid by government, Cav. 9_d._--Inf. 11_d._ -- by the soldier -- 6_d._ -- 4_d._ Soldiers beer money -- 1_d._ -- 1_d._ ------ ------ Total 16 16

In MARCHING every soldier must be well balanced on his limbs: his arms and hands, without stiffness, must be kept steady by his sides, and not suffered to vibrate. He must not be allowed to stoop forward, still less to lean back. His body must be kept square to the front, and thrown rather more forward in marching than when halted, that it may accompany the movement of the leg and thigh: the ham must be stretched, but without stiffening the knee: the toe a little pointed, and kept near the ground, so that the shoe-soles may not be visible to a person in front: the head to be kept well up, straight to the front, and the eyes not suffered to be cast down: the foot, without being drawn back, must be placed flat on the ground.

The object so generally recommended, of keeping the body erect, and the legs well stretched and pointed, would be effectually gained, were recruits, when they are first placed under the moulding hand of the drill serjeant, taught and gradually accustomed to step well out from the haunches. This method is invariably practised among the French, who are unquestionably not only the best dancers, but the most expert movers on foot in the world.

Quick-MARCH. Ordinary time. A movement by which troops advance at the rate of 75 steps in the minute, each of 24 inches, making 150 feet or 50 yards in a minute.

Quick-MARCH. As a word of command, signifies, that the troops should move in quick time.

Slow-MARCH. A movement by which troops advance at the rate of 60 steps in the minute.

In order to teach a recruit the just length of pace, accurate distances must be marked out on the ground, along which, he should be practised.

Wheeling-MARCH, or accelerated pace is 120 steps of 24 inches each, or 2880 inches, or 240 feet in the minute.

This is the most rapid movement by which men under arms, or otherwise when formed, should go from line into column, or come from column into line. This is applied chiefly to the purpose of wheeling, and is the rate at which all bodies should accomplish their wheels, the outward file stepping 30 inches, whether the wheel be from line into column, during the march in column, or from column into line. In this time also should divisions double and move up, when passing obstacles in line; or when in the column of march, the front of divisions is increased or diminished.

A MARCH, (La Marche, Fr.) a certain tune or concord of notes, which is adapted to the movement of any particular body of troops, as, the grenadier’s march, the march of the Marseillois, la marche des Janizaires, the march of the Janizaries.

MARCHING to the front or rear. This is one of the most difficult operations in military movements.

The person instructing a platoon will, before he puts it in motion to front or rear, indicate which flank is to direct by giving the word, mark time! and then forward or march. Should the right be the directing flank, the commander of the platoon himself, will fix on objects to march upon in a line truly perpendicular to the front of the platoon; and when the left flank is ordered to direct, he and his covering serjeant will shift to the left of the front rank, and take such objects to march upon.

The conductor of the platoon, before the word march is given, will endeavor to remark some distant object on the ground, in his own front, and perpendicular to the directing flank, he will then observe some nearer and intermediate point, in the same line, such as a stone, tuft of grass, &c. these he will move upon with accuracy, and as he approaches the nearest of these points, he must from time to time chuse fresh ones in the original direction, which he will by these means preserve, never having fewer than two such points to move upon. If no object in the true line can be ascertained, his own squareness of person must determine the direction of the march.

The same observations hold good in all movements to front or rear, or from either flank; and the only way to execute them with accuracy, is for the leader to look out for small intermediate points of march.

MARCH of a battalion in file, is to advance from the right, left, or centre of any given number of men, for the purposes of countermarching, or of closing, or opening an interval in line. On these occasions the whole step off together at the word march, and dress at the word mark time, the whole front, and the officers and serjeants, resume their several posts in line and then receive the word halt. Whenever more than one company march in file, the officers are out of the ranks during the march, on the left of the leading file when the right is in front, and on the right when the left is in front. They are of use in preserving the line and step, as the rear officer necessarily keeps the pace, and marches on the exact perpendicular line of his coverer. When a company is marched off singly, or files into or out of column, the officer is invariably to be in front. It sometimes happens, that a battalion standing in narrow ground, may be obliged to form open column from its leading flank, either before or behind that flank, before or behind its other flank; or before or behind any central part of the line.

To MARCH in file before the right flank. When the right platoon or company has moved on, the rest of the battalion face to the right, and march in file: the divisions then successively front, following each other, and taking the leading one for their regulating company.

To MARCH in file behind the right flank.

The whole face to the right, and march by word of command; at which instant the right division countermarches to the rear, fronts, and moves forward; whilst every other division successively moves on in the same manner (having previously countermarched) and continues till the whole is in column.

To MARCH before any central point or the left flank. The battalion makes a successive countermarch from the right flank towards the left, and when the right division is arrived at the point from whence it is to advance in column, it again countermarches to its right, a space equal to its front, then faces, moves on, and is thus successively followed by part of the battalion. The other part of the battalion, beyond the point of advancing, faces inwards, when necessary makes a progressive march in file, and then fronts. Each division belonging to this part of the battalion follows successively till the whole stand in column.

To MARCH by files behind the centre or left flank. The right proportion of the battalion countermarches from the right by files successively by the rear, and the other proportion of the battalion, according to circumstances, makes a progressive march by files from its right to the central point, and there begins to countermarch; at that point the leading or head division fronts into column, and moves on, each successive division doing the same. When the left of a battalion is to be in front, the same operations take place by an inverse march of the several divisions.

This method, however, of marching by files into open column, should be resorted to as little as possible, and never when it can be conveniently avoided. The formation of open column from battalion and line is better done by the wheelings of companies, subdivisions, or sections.

To MARCH up in charging order, is to advance towards the enemy’s line with a quick but firm and steady pace, till you get within a few paces of the opposing body, when an increased rapidity must be given to the whole, but not to run so as to lose breath, the officers on this occasion must be particularly attentive to the several divisions in their charge, keeping them well dressed to their centre, and thereby preventing dangerous openings and consequent confusion. The French call this the pas de Charge.--Which see under PAS. See Am. Mil. Lib.

Points of MARCH, one or more objects which ought always to be prepared for the direction of any considerable body, every leader of which who moves directly forward in front, must take care to conduct it in a line perpendicular to that front. But should a leader, either in file or front, have only one marked point of march, ascertained to him, he will himself instantly look out for small intermediate points.

To MARCH in file to a flank, is to reduce a line by marching out from its several divisions towards a given flank, there to remain in close or open column, of brigades, regiments, grand divisions, companies, &c. Nothing is more essential in all deployments into line, and in the internal movements of the divisions of the battalion, than the accuracy of the march in file. After facing, and at the word march, the whole are directed to step off at the same instant, each man replacing, or rather overstepping the foot of his preceding comrade: that is the right foot of the second man comes within the left foot of the first, and thus of every one, more or less overlapping, according to the closeness, or openness of the files and the length of step. The front rank will march straight along the given line, each soldier of that rank must look along the necks of those before him, and never to right or left. The centre and rear ranks must look to, and regulate themselves by their leaders of the front rank, and always dress in their file. File marching is always made in quick time.

MARCH of a battalion in line, is a regular continuity of files advancing forward in two or three ranks, each rear file preserving a perpendicular direction to its leader, and the ranks being kept parallel to each other at given distances; so that the whole line shall continue straight without being deformed by a concavity or convexity of figure. The march of the battalion in line, either to front or rear, being the most important and most difficult of all movements, every exertion of the commanding officer, and every attention of officers and men, become peculiarly necessary to attain this end. The great and indispensible requisites of this operation are, that the direction of the march be perpendicular to the front of the battalion as then standing; that the shoulders and body of each individual be perfectly square, that the files touch lightly at the elbow only, and finally, that an accurate equality of cadence and length of step be given by the advanced guides or serjeants, whom the battalion in every respect must cover, and which equality of cadence and length of step every individual must follow and comply with. If these essential rules are not observed, its direction will be lost, the different parts will open and attempt to close, and by so doing, a floating of the whole will ensue, and disorder will arise at a time when the remedy is so difficult, and perfect order so imperiously wanted.

In order to ensure these essential requisites, and to produce perfect correctness, the serjeants must be trained to this peculiar object, on whose exactness of cadence, regularity of step, squareness of body, and precision of movement, the greatest dependance can be placed, these are the proper guides of manoeuvre. The habitual post of the two principal directing serjeants, is to be in the centre of the battalion, betwixt the colors. One of them is posted in the front rank, and one in the rear, that they thereby may be ready to move out when the battalion is to march; another also covers them in the supernumerary rank.

Whenever the battalion is formed in line and halted, the front directing serjeant or guide, after having placed himself perfectly and squarely in the rank, must instantly cast his eyes down the centre of his body, from the junction of his two heels, and by repeated trials endeavor to, take up and prolong a line perpendicular to himself, and to the battalion; for this purpose he is by no means to begin with looking out for a distant object, but if such by chance should present itself in the prolongation of the line, extending from his own person, he may remark it. He is therefore rather to observe and take up any accidental small point on the ground within 100 or 150 paces. Intermediate ones cannot be wanting, nor the renewal of such as he afterwards successively approaches to in his march. In this manner he is prepared, subject to the future correction of the commanding officer, to conduct the march.

To MARCH forward or advance in line, when the battalion has been halted and correctly dressed--Is to step off, according to any given word of command, in quick or ordinary time, and to march over a perpendicular line of direction, without deviating to the right or left, or unnecessarily opening or closing during the movement; the commanding officer having previously placed himself 10 or 12 paces behind the exact line of the directing serjeant, will, if such file could be depended on, as standing truly perpendicular to the battalion, (and great care must be taken to place it so) remark the line of its prolongation, and thereby ascertain the direction in which it should march; but, as such precision cannot be relied on, he will from his own eye and from having the square of the battalion before him, with promptitude make such correction, and observe such object to the right or left, as may appear to him the true one; and in doing this, he will not at once look out for a distant object, but will hit on it, by prolonging the line from the person of the directing serjeant to the front; or he will order the covering serjeant to run out 20 paces, and will place him in the line in which he thinks the battalion ought to advance. The directing serjeant then takes his direction along the line which passes from himself, betwixt the heels of the advanced serjeant, and preserves such line in advancing, by constantly keeping his object in view.

When the commanding officer gives the caution, (the battalion will advance) the front directing serjeant moves out 6 accurate and exact paces in ordinary time, halts; the two other guides who were behind him, move up on each side of him, and an officer from the rear, replaces in the front rank, the leading serjeant. The centre serjeant, in moving out marches and halts on his own observed points, and the two other serjeants dress and square themselves exactly by him. If the commanding officer is satisfied, that the centre serjeant has moved out in the true direction, he will intimate as much; if he thinks he has swerved to right or left, he will direct him to incline to that side, the smallest degree possible, in order thereby to change his direction, and to take new points on the ground, towards the opposite hand.

The line of direction being thus ascertained, at the word march, the whole battalion instantly step off, and without turning the head, eyes are glanced towards the colors in the front rank; the replacing officer betwixt the colors, preserves, during the movement, his exact distance of 6 paces from the advanced serjeant, and is the guide of the battalion. The centre advanced serjeant is answerable for the direction, and the equal cadence and length of step; to these objects he alone attends, while the other two, scrupulously conforming to his position, maintain their parallelism to the front of the battalion, and thereby present an object, to which it ought to move square: they are not to suffer any other considerations to distract their attention. They must notice and conform to the direction of the commander only, and if any small alteration in their position be ordered, the alteration must be gradually and cooly made.

These are the essential points, which the guiding serjeants must be rendered perfect in, and to which every commanding officer will pay the most minute attention. With respect to the officers in the ranks, they can only be observant of their own personal exactness of march, and must consider themselves, as forming part with the aggregate of the men, subject to the same principles of movement, and in no shape or sense independent of them. They may attend to dress their companies by looking along the front, or by calling to the individuals who compose it. By so doing they must not destroy the exact parallelism of the rank they stand in, nor derange the march: the care of correcting any errors in the front line, belongs to the officers in the rear.

Well-trained soldiers, indeed, know the remedy that is required, and will gradually apply it.

The colors, as far as their natural weight and casualties of the weather will admit, must be carried uniformly and upright, thereby to facilitate the moving and dressing of the line. But it frequently happens in windy weather, and in movements over rough ground, that very little dependence can be placed on the officer who carries them, for a true direction, or an equal and cadence step. On these occasions, and indeed on all others, the men must on no account turn their heads to the colors. They must, on the contrary, keep their shoulders square to the front, and depend principally on the light touch of the elbow, together with an occasional glance of the eye, and the accuracy of step, for their dressing. On the light touch of the elbow, and a regular cadenced step, the chief dependence must be placed: for if the men be often permitted to glance at the centre, they will, by so doing, insensibly contract that habit, abandon the touch of the elbow, shorten or perhaps lose the cadence step, and in proportion, as the files which are removed from the centre, adopt that method, the line itself will gradually assume a concave form, by the flanks bending inwards.

When any waving, or fluctuation in the march, is produced by an inequality of step, the major and adjutant, who from their situation are particularly calculated to correct the irregularity, will immediately apprize the companies in fault, and cooly caution the others that are well in their true line, not to participate of the error.

When a company has lost the step, (a circumstance which frequently happens) the supernumerary officer of that company must watch a seasonable moment to suggest a change of step, in which operation, he will be assisted by the supernumerary serjeants. For it must be an invariable rule among officers in the ranks, never to deviate from their own perpendicular line of march, to correct the errors of their several companies. That business belongs entirely to the major and adjutant, who are occasionally assisted by the supernumeraries, in the manner just mentioned.

It very often happens, that a central division by bulging out, may make a flank of a battalion appear to have lost ground, when the fault in reality arises from that division, either stepping out too far, or from it being warped towards the colors, and thereby preventing the flank from being seen.

All changes and corrections that are judged necessary to be made, in any part of a battalion, during its march in line, must be effected gradually. Any abrupt alteration would unavoidably produce a waving, which must be felt in every part. The mounted officers only, with the imperceptible aid of the supernumeraries, can alone point out and correct such faults.

The flanks are not, on any account, to be kept back; much less are they to be advanced before the centre, since in either case, the distance of files must be lost, and the battalion will not be covering its true ground. The commanding officer of every battalion, will easily perceive this defect, by casting his eye along the line, which must soon acquire a concave or convex shape, unless the beginning of each inaccuracy be studiously attended to, by the necessary officers.--The two officers who are on the two flanks of the battalion, being unconfined by the rank, and not liable to be influenced by any floating that may arise, by preserving an accurate step, and having a general attention to the colors, and to the proper line which the battalion should be in, with respect to the advanced directors, will very much contribute towards preserving the flanks in their due position. When either of them observes that a line, drawn from himself, through the centre of the battalion, passes considerably before the other flank, he may conclude, that he is himself too much retired; when such line passes behind that flank, he may be certain that he is too much advanced; he will, therefore, regulate himself accordingly. When the battalion in march is convex, the wings must gain the straight line of the centre, by bringing up the outward shoulder; and it must be strongly impressed upon the soldier’s mind, that in all situations of movement, by advancing or keeping back the shoulder as ordered, the most defective dressing will be gradually and smoothly remedied; whereas sudden jerks and quick alterations break the line, and eventually produce disorder.

It must be generally remarked, that the rear ranks which were closed up before the march began, are to move at the lock step, and not be allowed to open during the march. The correct movement of the battalion depends much on their close order.

In the march in line, arms are always to be carried shouldered. Supported arms are only allowed when the battalion is halted, or advanced in column; but if this indulgence were allowed in line, when the most perfect precision is required, the distance of files would not be preserved, and slovenliness, inaccuracy, and disorder, must inevitably take place.

To change direction on the centre in MARCH, is to correct any floating of the line, occasioned by the opening or closing of the flanks, by ordering a section or central platoon to quarter wheel to right or left. At this command the guiding Serjeant making an almost imperceptible change of his position, and of his points, and the colors in the battalion, when they have advanced 6 paces to his ground, conforming to it, the whole will, by degrees, gain a new direction. Every change of direction made in this manner, must produce a kind of wheel of the battalion, on its centre, one wing gradually giving back, and the other as gradually advancing, an attention which the commander must be careful to see observed.

When the battalion which has marched in perfect order, arrives on its ground, it keeps the marked time until it is dressed, and receives the word halt, the step which is then taking is finished, and the whole halt. Eyes are cast to the centre, and the commanding officer places himself close to the rear rank, in order to see whether the battalion be sufficiently dressed, and in a direction perfectly parallel to the one it quitted.

When the battalion is advancing in line for any considerable distance, or moving up in parade, the music may be allowed at intervals, to play for a few seconds only, and the drums in two divisions to roll, but the wind instruments are alone permitted to play. When the line is retiring, the music are never to play.

To march by any one face, the square or oblong having previously been formed by the 4th, 5th, and 6th, companies of a regular battalion standing fast. Under these circumstances, the side which is to lead is announced; the colors move up behind its centre; the opposite side faces about: and the two flank-sides wheel up by sub-divisions, so as to stand each in open column, The square marches, two sides in line, and by their centre; and two sides in open column, which cover, and dress to their inward flanks on which they wheeled up carefully preserving their distances. The square halts, and when ordered to front square, the sub-divisions in column immediately wheel back, and form their sides, and the side which faced about again faces outwards.

To MARCH by the right front angle. When the perfect square is to march by one of its angles, in the direction of its diagonal, a caution is given by which angle the movement is to be made, and the two sides that form it stand fast, while the other two sides face about. The whole then by sub-divisions, wheel up one-eighth of a circle, two sides to the right, and two sides to the left, and are thus parallel to each other, and perpendicular to the direction in which they are to move, the pivot-flanks being in this manner placed on the sides of the square, each side being thus in echellon, and the colors behind the leading angle, the whole are out in march, carefully preserving the distances they wheeled at, and from the flanks to which they wheeled.

When the oblong marches by one of its angles, its sub-divisions perform the same operation of wheeling up, each the eighth of the circle; but its direction of march will not be in the diagonal of the oblong, but in that of a square, viz. of the line which equally bisects the right angle.

It will be remembered, that the angular march of the square or oblong, may be made in any other direction, to the right or left of the above one; but in such case the sub-divisions of the two opposite sides, will have to wheel up more than the eighth of the circle, in order to stand as before, perpendicular to the new direction. The sum of these two wheels will always amount to that of a quarter circle, and their difference will vary as the new line departs, more or less, from the equal bisecting line; this will be known by the first wheeling up the two angular divisions, till they stand perpendicular with the new direction, and then ordering all the others to conform accordingly. This movement is very beautiful in the execution, but cannot be made with any degree of accuracy, unless the perpendicular situation of the division is correctly attained, and carefully preserved.

To MARCH in open ground, so as to be prepared against the attack of cavalry. In order to execute this movement, with some degree of security, one or more battalions may move in column of companies at quarter distances, one named company in the centre of each being ordered to keep an additional distance of 2 files; in which shape a battalion is easily managed, or directed upon any point. When the column halts, and is ordered to form the square, the first company falls back to the second, the last company closes up to the one before it: the whole companies make an interval of 2 paces in their centre, by their sub-divisions taking each one pace to the flanks; 2 officers with their serjeants, place themselves in each of their front and rear intervals; two officers with their serjeants, also take post in rear of each flank of the company, from which the additional interval has been kept; and a Serjeant takes the place of each flank front rank man of the first division, and of each flank rear rank man of the last division; all other officers, serjeants, the 4 displaced men, &c. assemble in the centre of the companies, which are to form the flank faces. Those last named companies having been told off, each in 4 sections, wheel up by sections, 2 to the right, and 2 to the left; (the 2 rear companies at the same time closing up, and facing outwards,) the inner sections then close forward to their front ones, which dress up with the extremities of the front and rear companies, and 4 on each flank of the second companies, from the front and from the rear; Face outwards!--The whole thus stand faced outwards and formed 6 deep, with two officers and their serjeants in the middle of each face, to command it; all the other officers, as well as serjeants, &c. are in the void space in the centre, and the files of the officers in the faces, may be completed from serjeants, &c. in the interior, in such manner as the commandant may direct. The mounted field officers, must pass into the centre of the column, by the rear face, if necessary, opening from its centre 2 paces and again closing in.

When ordered only, the 2 first ranks all round the column, will kneel and the front rank slope their bayonets, the 2 next ranks will fire standing, and all the others will remain in reserve; the file coverers behind each officer of the sides will give back, and enable him to stand in the third rank.

MARCH resumed under the same circumstances. On receiving the cautionary word of command, the several sections that had closed up, fall to their distances; the sections then wheel back into column; the officers, serjeants, &c. take their places on the flanks; and when the column is again put in motion, the companies that closed up, successively take their proper distances.

It will be remembered that unless the companies are above 16 file, they cannot be divided into 4 sections; so that in this case, a section may consist of 4 file or eight men, if therefore, they are under 16 file, and told off in sections of 5 or 3, the column will march at the distance of a section; and in forming the square, the 2 outward sections will wheel up, but the 3d one will stand fast, and afterwards, by dividing itself to right and left, will form a 4th rank to the others; in resuming column the outward sections wheel back, and the rear of the centre sections easily recover their places: as to all other circumstances, they remain the same.

The MARCH, when applied to the movement of an army, consists in its arrangement with respect to the number and composition of columns, the precautions to be taken, the posts to be seized upon to cover it, &c. which arrangement must depend upon circumstances. The following are general rules:

The routes must be constantly opened to the width of 60 feet.

If the march be through an open country, without defiles, the cavalry march by divisions of squadrons, and the infantry by platoons or half companies.

In an inclosed country, or such as is intersected by hollow ways, or other defiles, the march must be by sections of 6 (by the heads of the section after facing to left, being wheeled to the right) or more files in the infantry, and ranks by threes or by twos in the cavalry, and the artillery must move in a single file, because the frequent breaking off and forming up again, may retard the march, and fatigue the troops.

In marches made parallel to, or with a view of gaining the enemy’s flank, divisions must preserve their wheeling distances, and the column must cover the same length of ground which it would occupy in line of battle; in marches directly perpendicular to the enemy’s position, the column must be closed up to half or quarter distance, in order to move in as compact a body as possible.

The pivot files must attend to preserve their distances exactly, each following precisely the path pointed out by the one before him; and keeping the regular marching step, by which means, upon a signal being given, the division is in a moment in order. The leader or guide of the pivot file may be occasionally changed.

At the head of every column, whether composed of infantry or cavalry, a well instructed non-commissioned officer must march as guide. He must carefully keep the regular step of the march, to which the troops are drilled, and upon this man the regular pace of the column will depend; by this method two essential points are ensured; one, that every column moves in exactly the same time, and of course enables the officer commanding to calculate the march with certainty; another that it ensures the troops not being over hurried, which they are more especially liable to be when cavalry leads the column; two non-commissioned officers should be appointed for this purpose, who must relieve each other.

At the head of every column of march, there must be a considerable number of pioneers to clear the rout.

Guns or carriages breaking down and disabled, are immediately to be removed out of the line of march, so as not to interrupt its progress.

Officers are most positively enjoined at all times to remain with their divisions, whether marching or halted.

The commanding officers of regiments must pay the greatest attention to their corps whilst passing a defile, and proper officers should be left to assist in this most essential part of the conduct of marches.

It is a standing rule in column, that every regiment should march with the same front, that the regiment does which precedes it, right or left.

No alteration should be made in any circumstance of the march, which is to be taken up from the regiment in front, until arrived exactly upon the same ground upon which that regiment made the alteration.

No officer should ride between the divisions on a march, except general and staff officers, the execution of whose duty renders it necessary for them to pass in all directions.

When a battalion passes a defile, and there is no room for the officers to ride on the flanks of their divisions, half of those who are mounted pass at the head of the battalion, and half in the rear.

All breakings off to enter a defile, and all formations again when passed through it, must be done extremely quick, by the parts that double, or that form up.

A sufficient number of faithful and intelligent guides must always be ready to march at the head of the battalions and columns.

MARCH of the line, in a collective sense of the word, is a military movement, executed upon established principles, governed by local circumstances, and influenced by the nature of the service for which it is performed. After a general has obtained an accurate knowlege of the country through which his army is to move, his next care must be the arrangement of all its different component parts, with which he will form his column of route.

MARCH of the Column of Route. The order in which a battalion should at all times move; that the columns of an army should perform their marches; that an enemy should be approached; and that safety can be ensured to the troops in their transitions from one point to another is in columns of divisions, and never on a less front than 6 files where the formation is 3 deep, or 4 files where it is 2 deep, nor does any advantage arise from such column, if it is an open column, exceeding 16 or 24 files in front, where a considerable space is to be gone over.

At no time whatever ought a column of manœuvre, or of route, to occupy a greater extent of ground in marching than what is equal to its front when in order of battle; no situation can require it as an advantage. Therefore, the marching of great bodies in file, where improper extension is unavoidable, must be looked upon as an unmilitary practice, and ought only to be had recourse to when unavoidably necessary. Where woods, inclosures, and bad or narrow routes absolutely require a march in file, there is no remedy for the delay in forming, and man may be obliged to come up after man; and if circumstances admit, and there are openings for their passage, the divisions or platoons may be faced to the left and wheeled to the right, and severally marched to the same front; but these circumstances, which should be regarded as exceptions from the primary and desired order of march on a greater front, should tend the more to enforce the great principle of preventing improper distances, and of getting out of so weak a situation as soon as the nature of the ground will allow of the front of the march being increased.

In common route marching, the battalion or more considerable column may be carried on at a natural pace of about 75 steps in a minute, or near two miles and an half in an hour: the attention of the soldier is allowed to be relaxed, he moves without the restraint of cadence of step, or carried arms; rear ranks are opened to one or two paces; files are loosened but never confounded; in no situation is the ordered distance between divisions ever to be increased, and the proper flank officers and under officers remain answerable for them.

If the column is halted, the whole must be put in march at the same time. The movement of the head division must be steady and equal; the descending of heights must not be hurried, that the part of the column ascending may properly keep up. Alterations occasioned by the windings of the route are executed without losing distance. Soldiers are not to break to avoid mud or small spots of water. The guides and pivots must trace out such a path for themselves as will best avoid small obstructions, and the men of the division will open from, and not press upon their pivots. When platoon officers are permitted to be mounted, each will remain on the flank of his division watching over its exactness, and that the proper distance of march is kept by the flank pivot and guide under the officer appointed to preserve it.

Where the arrival of a column at a given point is to be perfectly punctual, in that case the distance being known, the head, must move at an equal cadenced step, and the rear must conform; and a guide, expressly appointed, will, at the head of the column, take such step as the nature of the route shall permit the column to comply with.

Nothing so much fatigues troops in a considerable column, and is more to be avoided than an inequality of march. One great reason is, that the rear of the column frequently and unnecessarily deviates from the line which its head traces out; and in endeavouring to regain that line, and their first distances, the divisions must of course run or stop, and again take up their march. It is unnecessary to attempt the same scrupulous observances in common route marching, as when going to enter into the alignement; but even a general attention to this circumstance will in that case prevent unnecessary winding in the march, which tends to prolong it, and to harass the soldier.

When the probable required formation of the line will be to a flank, then the column of march is an open one, and except the cannon, no impediment or circumstance whatever must be allowed betwixt the divisions or in the intervals of battalions. When cannon can possibly move on the flank of the battalion, they ought, and mounted officers or bat horses must not be permitted between the divisions. If the probable formation may be to the front, then distances are more closed up, and bat horses, &c. may be allowed between the brigades of a column, but not between the battalions of a brigade.

It is always time well employed to halt the head of a considerable column, and enlarge an opening, or repair a bad step in the road, rather than to diminish the front, or lengthen out the line of march. No individual is to presume to march on a less front than what the leader of the column directs, and all doublings must therefore come from the head only. The preservation of the original front of march, on all occasions, is a point of the highest consequence, and it is a most meritorious service in any officer to prevent all unnecessary doublings, or to correct them as soon as made; no advantage can arrive from them, and therefore each commanding officer, when he arrives near the cause, should be assured that it is necessary before he permits his battalion so to double: on all occasions he should continue his march on the greatest front, that, without crowding, the road or openings will allow, although the regiment or divisions before him may be marching on a narrower front.

All openings made for the march of a column should be sufficient for the greatest front on which it is to march, they should be all of the same width, otherwise each smaller one becomes a defile.

At all points of increasing or diminishing the front of the march, an intelligent officer, per battalion or brigade, should be stationed to see that it is performed with celerity; and the commandant of a considerable column should have constant reports and inspections made that the column is moving with proper regularity; he should have officers in advance to apprize him of difficulties to be avoided, or obstacles to be passed, and should himself apply every proper means to obviate such as may occur in the march. (And at no time are such helps more necessary than when regiments are acting in line on broken ground, and when their movements are combined with those of others.) When the column arrives near its object of formation or manœuvre, the strictest attention of officers and men is to be required, and each individual is to be at his post.

The great principle on all occasions of diminishing or increasing the front of the column in march is, that such part as doubles or forms up shall slacken or quicken its pace, as is necessary to conform to the part which has no such operation to perform, but which continues its uniform march, without the least alteration, as if no such process was going on; and if this is observed, distances can never be lost, or the column lengthened out. Unless the unremitting attention and intelligence of officers commanding battalions and their divisions are given to this object, disorder and constant stops and runs take place in the column; the soldier is improperly and unnecessarily harassed; disease soon gains ground in a corps thus ill conducted, which is not to be depended on in any combined arrangement, is unequal to any effort when its exertion may be required, and is soon ruined from a neglect of the first and most important of military duties.

The most important exercise that troops can attend to is the march in column of route. No calculation can be made on columns which do not move with an ascertained regularity, and great fatigue arises to the soldier. A general cannot depend on execution, and therefore can make no combination of time or distance in the arrival of columns at their several points. In many situations an improperly extended column will be liable to be beat in detail, and before it can be formed. Troops that are seldom assembled for the manœuvres of war, can hardly feel the necessity of the modes in which a considerable body of infantry must march and move.

The distance of columns from each other, during a march, depends on the circumstances of ground, and the object of that march, with regard to future formations. The more columns in which a considerable corps marches, the less extent in depth will it take up, the less frequent will be its halts, and the more speedily can it form in order of battle to the front.

On the combinations of march, and on their execution by the component parts of the body, does the success of every military operation or enterprize depend. To fulfil the intentions of the chief every concurrent exertion of the subordinate officer is required, and the best calculated dispositions, founded on local knowlege, must fail, if there is a want of that punctuality of execution which every general must trust to, and has a right to expect from the leaders of his columns.

The composition of the columns of an army must always depend on the nature of the country and the objects of the movement. Marches made parallel to the front of the enemy will generally be performed by the lines on which the army is encamped, each marching by its flank, and occupying when in march the same extent of ground as when formed in line. Marches made perpendicular to the front of the enemy, either advancing or retiring, will be covered by strong van or rearguards. The columns will be formed of considerable divisions of the army, each generally composed both of cavalry and infantry: they will move at half or quarter distance, and the nature of the country will determine which kind of force precedes.

During a march to the front, the separation of the heads of the columns must unavoidably be considerable; but, when they approach the enemy, they must be so regulated and directed as to be able to occupy the intermediate spaces, if required to form in line. Some one column must determine the relative situation of the others, and divisions must be more closed up than in a march to a flank, and in proportion as they draw near to the enemy must exactness and attention increase. The general, in consequence of the observations he has made, will determine on his disposition: the columns which are now probably halted and collected will be subdivided and multiplied; each body will be directed on its point of formation, and the component parts of each will in due time disengage from the general column, and form in line.

The safety of marches to the rear must depend on particular dispositions, on strong covering or rear guards, and on the judicious choice of such posts as will check the pursuit of the enemy. In these marches to front or rear, the divisions of the second line generally follow or lead those of the first, and all their formations are relative thereto. The heavy artillery and carriages of an army form a particular object of every march, and must be directed according to circumstances of the day. The safety of the march, by the arrangement of detachments and posts to cover the front, rear, or flanks of the columns, depends also on many local and temporary reasons, but form an essential part of the general disposition.

MARCH in line, must be uniformly steady, without floating, opening, or closing.

MARCH in file, must be close, firm, and without lengthening out.

To MARCH past, is to advance in open or close column, in ordinary or slow time, with a firm and steady step, erect person, the eye glanced towards the reviewing general.

The ordered or cadenced MARCH.--The prescribed movements in military tactics. All military movements are intended to be made with the greatest quickness consistent with order, regularity, and without hurry or fatigue to the troops. The uniformity of position, and the cadence and length of step, produce that equality and freedom of march, on which every thing depends, and to which the soldier must be carefully trained, nor suffered to join the battalion, until he be thoroughly perfected in this most essential duty. Many different times of march must not be required of the soldier. These two must suffice.

Ordinary or quick time, and slow or parade time. The first 75 steps of 24 inches in a minute; the second of 60 steps of 24 inches in a minute.

In order to accustom soldiers to accurate movements, plummets, which vibrate the required times or march in a minute, have been recommended: musquet balls suspended by a string which is not subject to stretch, and on which are marked the different required lengths, will answer the above purpose. The length of the plummet is to be measured from the point of suspension, to the centre of the ball.

The several lengths are:--

steps in. hun. Ordinary or quick time in a minute 75 -- 24 96 Accelerated time 108 -- 12 3

MARCHING by files, is to march with the narrowest front, except that of rank entire or Indian file, which bodies of men are susceptible of.

The strictest observance of all the rules for marching, is particularly necessary in marching by files, which is first to be taught at the ordinary time, or 75 steps in the minute, and afterwards in accelerated time, or 108 steps in the minute.

In file marching, particularly at the drill, the whole of a company or squad, having been previously faced, are immediately to step off together, gaining at the very first step 24 inches.

The first adoption of file marching has been attributed to the Prussians, and the advocates for what is called the Ordre mince des Prussiens, the thin or narrow order, have in contradistinction named the ordre profond, the deep order, or column, the French order. According to a very ingenious and lively writer, who has had frequent occasions to see the practice of both orders, the ordre mince or file marching, may be very useful during a march, but the deep order or column ought only to be depended upon in manœuvring before an enemy.

To MARCH according to time and measure, (marcher en cadence, Fr.) Marshal Saxe, in page 23, art. 6. of the folio edition of his Reveries or Memoires sur l’Art de la Guerre, is of opinion, that marching to time and measure constitutes one of the essential requisites in war; he calls it indeed the principal one to be observed by troops who are going into action. By marching according to time and measure, we understand, that regular movement of a large body of men whose steps are cadenced and uniformly the same, and which are kept so by the artificial aid of music.

The marshal observes, that although military men will enter into much desultory conversation respecting the tactic, (la tactique) of the ancients, they seldom or ever understand the real definition of the word. It is, in fact, so much corrupted in modern times, that what really conveyed no more than a regular principle in marching, has since been made to signify the exercise and evolutions of troops. All the world know how to beat a march, without comprehending the real object, and half the world imagine, that the noise of a drum or fife is nothing more than military parade.

It is ridiculous to suppose, that martial sounds and military music, were first invented for the sole purpose of confounding each other on the day of battle. Let us indulge a better opinion of the good understanding of the ancients, particularly of the Romans, and endeavor to prove, that regularity in marching, (which depends wholly upon the cadenced step,) is the ground-work of military operations, and that nothing is more simple because it corresponds with nature. This was, in fact, the military step which the Romans brought to so great a perfection, and which has since been so closely followed by the Prussians. It was upon this principle, that marches were first devised, and that the drum was adopted to second the purposes. This is literally nothing more than a certain beat or tact, as the marshal expresses it, and which is evidently derived from the Roman word tactum, touch, and by means of which men may be taught to move in quick or slow time. As long as this principle can be followed up, the rear will never lag behind, soldiers will preserve the same step and march with the same foot; the wheelings will be made uniformly together, without confusion or delay; and the men will be less fatigued than if they were suffered to march or wheel at random. Every person of the least reflection or observation, will be convinced of the truth of this last remark. Let one man, for instance, be ordered to dance two hours, without the assistance of any sort of musical instrument, and let another, with the same bodily powers and activity, go through the same operation, during double the time accompanied by music, and let it then be determined which of the two has been most fatigued. It will evidently appear that the former has: for it is an unquestionable fact, that sounds of concord and harmony have a wonderful secret influence over the human frame, and that they render the exercises and functions of the body extremely easy. It is well known, that when the camel drivers wish to make their camels get on, they never flog or strike them with sticks, but sing, whistle, or repeat some humorous song.

Should it be asked what sort of music is best adapted to the human organs in military movements? It may safely be replied all those simple tunes which can be played by the fife and drum; I shall perhaps be told, (observes the marshal) that many men have no ear for music; this I deny, as far as the observation regards marching, which is a movement so easy to the human frame, that it comes, as it were, naturally to man. I have often remarked, that when the long roll has beat, the men in repairing to their several parades, have insensibly preserved the regular step, without knowing that they did so: nature, in fact, and instinct go together. If marching according to time and measure be considered in a mere superficial manner, the cadence step will undoubtedly appear of little importance; but if it be considered as an essential requisite to quicken or slacken the movement of troops who are going into action, it must be found an important object. No evolution, in fact, can be well done at close order without its assistance. The military step of the Romans, was the cadence or measured movement, and they were thereby enabled to march with ease upwards of 24 miles in five hours. This, however, would be looked upon as great exertion, if not fatigue, among some modern troops, although it constituted a principal part of the Roman exercise. Hence some opinion may be formed of the attention which they paid to that species of training, by which men were habituated to long marches; and this they accomplished by means of the tact or cadenced movement.

In order to prove the validity of our observations, let us, for a moment, imagine a thing which is scarcely possible to be accomplished by troops that do not march according to time and measure. Let us suppose, that two battalions, advancing to attack one another, should march up without floating, overlapping, or breaking in the least; under these circumstances, which would obtain the superiority? the one that should imprudently have commenced firing, or that which should have reserved its fire? Every intelligent and able officer will instantly determine in favor of the latter; and his decision would unquestionably be correct; for the former, besides being disheartened by seeing men advance against them with a reserved fire, would necessarily be retarded in their march in order to prime and load; and it must be evident to every man, that their antagonists would completely overthrow them by advancing with a rapid and cadenced step.

This was the plain and effectual method of the Romans. It may, perhaps, be said, that their ignorance of the use of gunpowder alters the case with respect to our manner of fighting. Let it, however, be recollected, that they fought with missile weapons, which did full as much mischief as our fire arms can produce. Gunpowder, in fact, is not so destructive as most people are apt to imagine. Few men are killed in regular fought actions, by the two armies engaging with musquetry only. Marshal Saxe does not scruple to assert, that it is impossible for a battalion of armed men to charge its enemy with vigor and effect, unless it preserve the cadenced step. For the ranks must unavoidably open during the march in line; and when the troops get within 50 or 60 paces of their opponents, the commanding officers see chasms, cry out serre, or close into the centre: and in the hurry of so doing, one rank overlaps another, and the centre itself becomes insensibly broken, standing eight or ten deep, while the wings are at two, three, or four. To remedy this defect, the whole line is halted, and if the enemy be wise enough to advance in regular order, during this operation, it is ten to one that he turns the flank of his opponent, and completely routs him. With regard to the musquetry firing, it may be laid down as a certain fact, that the mischief it does in pitched battles is more imaginary than real. It has been acknowleged by the most experienced officers, it is, indeed, positively asserted by marshal Saxe, (page 29 of the folio edition) that the closest vollies have produced little or no effect against a line of determined steady troops. I have seen, observes the marshal, a whole volley of cool directed musquetry, occasion the loss of no more than four men; while the troops against which it has been poured, have calmly marched up, reserved their fire till they got in contact with the enemy, and then amply revenged the deaths of their comrades by discharging their pieces and following up with the bayonet.

It is at this stage of the battle, that a real carnage commences, and its execution rests wholly with the victorious party; and we need scarcely add, that its success must be attributed to that composed, steady movement, or cadenced step, which enabled the troops to act together, when they came to close action. The military reader will be gratified by a perusal of two or three interesting anecdotes in pages 29, 30, 31, of the Reveries, fol. edit.

MARCH in prolongation of the line.--This operation is gone through when a battalion standing in open column, with the pivot flanks of its divisions on the line, and advanced points being ascertained, moves forward at the word march, which is given by the commanding officer. Whenever the battalion wheels into open column, in order to prolong the line on which it was formed, and that no distant point in that prolongation is previously given, the serjeant guide of the leading company will advance 15 or 20 paces, and place himself in the line of the pivot flanks, and the leading officer will thereby (taking a line over his head) be enabled to ascertain the direction in which he is to move.

MARCH by the inversion of files, or countermarch. A compound word signifying retrocession, backward movement, change of measures or conduct, any alteration, in fact, of an original conception or undertaking. Thus the countermarch of ideas in the mind is the precursor of the different changes made by the body. In a military sense it is variously applicable; and as every countermarch or backward movement necessarily implies a previous march, or forward movement, we shall extract under this article the most material instructions that have been published in good authors relative to the countermarch of the component parts of a battalion, &c. observing generally that the word countermarch may be applied to the most extensive scale of military operations. Thus a whole army which has advanced into an enemy’s country, is said to countermarch when it not only ceases to make progress in a forward direction, but changes its whole plan of manœuvre, and treads back the ground over which it had advanced. To countermarch in a more desultory manner, means to quit different positions by the countermarching of detached bodies, by changing their relative fronts, without abandoning the field, or scene of general operation. In order to execute such evolutions and inversions with accuracy, every battalion should be well instructed in the prescribed methods of changing front by the inversion of its files to right or left, in front or in rear of a leading division, from and on its centre.

The COUNTERMARCH by files.--According to the last printed regulations, this movement is of two kinds. Either successive (the body being halted) by each file successively turning on its own ground, the moment it is disengaged by the departure of its preceding file: or progressive (the body being in motion) by each file turning when it arrives at the point from which the leading or head file first wheeled. In the first case the body must shift its ground to a flank a space at least equal to its front: in the second it will perform this operation of the countermarch on its original ground, exchanging flanks and fronts; so that what before stood as the leading or head division will become the rear of the column; or, if in line, what was the right flank fronting one way, will still remain the right flank fronting another. In both cases the pivots are in a small degree moveable, but they must be so as little as possible, since a solid and compact inversion of the files is as requisite to a true and close formation in line or column, as the lock-step is indispensible in every other movement by files.

COUNTERMARCH by files in front of the battalion, &c. In this case the front men become the pivots, on which every successive file turns, till the rear file gets upon the identical space of ground from whence the front file first wheeled.

COUNTERMARCH by files in rear of the Battalion. In this case the rear rank men become the pivots upon similar principles of movement. All countermarches of a battalion or greater body, must be made in ordinary time; of smaller divisions in general in quick time. The observations which have already been made, under the head files, with respect to a solidity and quickness of movement in each wheeling, and to an unity of step, (allowing for an increased length of it in the wheeling men) are especially applicable to the countermarch by files.

The COUNTERMARCH of a battalion from both flanks on its centre, by files. In order to effect this movement and change of formation, the wings face outwards from the colors, which stand fast, and a serjeant remains at the point of each wing in order to mark the ground. At the word march, the right wing files successively close behind the rear rank, and the left wing before the front rank of the battalion, till they arrive at the points where each other stood. They then halt, cover, and front by word of command, looking to the colors which take their places. The commanding officer dresses the line if necessary.

The COUNTERMARCH of the battalion, from its centre, and on its centre, by files. The wings face inwards to the colors, which stand fast, and a serjeant remains to mark each flank. The whole then take three side steps to the right, by word of command, in order to disengage the centre. At the second word of command, the whole move on, and each file successively wheels into the centre as it arrives at and beyond the colors. As soon as each company is in the line from the colors to the flank serjeant, its leading officer fronts it. When the whole is formed, the colors countermarch, and every company dresses to the colors till otherwise ordered. It must be remembered, as a general rule, that in the countermarch from both flanks, no part of the battalion is fronted till the whole is on its ground. In the countermarch from the centre, the battalion begins instantly and successively to front by companies, as each is ready and on its ground.

The COUNTERMARCH by companies or subdivisions, on the centre of a battalion or line. Although this maybe done by files, it has been allowed, that on account of the unavoidable openings which always occur in file marching, a battalion, or larger body, will be best enabled to execute that movement with quickness and rapidity, by the march of columns of companies or subdivisions in front. To effect this object, the battalion is cautioned to countermarch from its centre by subdivisions; one or two central subdivisions having wheeled the half circle upon their centre point, or countermarched into the new line, so that the front rank stands precisely where the rear rank did: one of the wings then faces to the right about, and both wheel inwards by subdivisions: they march along the rear and front of the formed division, and successively wheel up into their respective places on each side of those already arranged in the line. The subdivisions which wheel up to the rear, successively mark time, when they reach their ground. The officers who lead them must be particularly attentive to their wheeling points, by being at their proper front rank when they halt their subdivisions. They would otherwise pass the rear, and disfigure the formation.

If it be intended that the front rank of the directing company or subdivision, should stand on the identical line which it occupied before the countermarch, it will be placed in that direction. In that case, after the subdivision has wheeled inwards, the wing which is to march in rear of it, must shift a few paces to the flank, in order to get clear of the rear ranks, and then proceed.

When one flank of a battalion or line is to occupy the spot where the other one stands, its most expeditious movement to arrive at it, will be along the prolongation of the line. If the flanks are to exchange places with each other, the countermarch on the centre, or on a flank, is the best method by which that exchange can be effected. The single battalion may do it by files, if its ground be confined, but a line must do it by countermarch of divisions in open column.

The COUNTERMARCH in column, is the inversion of the different files which constitute the several divisions, subdivisions, or sections of which the column is composed. By which inversion the front of the column is completely reversed.

To COUNTERMARCH a column, the right in front, is to change the front, or aspect of the leading company, subdivision, or section, and to place it in the rear of its perpendicular formation. After the caution has been given to countermarch by files the whole will face to the right, by word of command. Each company or leading officer or serjeant, will immediately quit the pivot, and place himself on the right of his company, subdivision, or section, whilst his covering serjeant advances to the spot which he has quitted, and faces to the right about. At the word march the whole move. The leader in the first instance wheels short round to the right, and proceeds, followed by his files of men, until he has placed his pivot front rank man close to his serjeant, who remains immoveable. As soon as the leading officer or serjeant of each company, subdivision, or section, has countermarched the extent of his front, he instantly gives the words mark time, so as to have it squared and closed in to the right, which is now become the pivot flank, and on which the officer or serjeant replaces the person that had advanced to ascertain the exact point of perpendicular formation; and who falls back behind the rear rank; and when dressed, halt. By means of this inversion of the files, the column will face to its rear, each company, subdivision, or section, having its original follower its head or leading object.

To COUNTERMARCH a column, the left in front, is to make the left company, subdivision, or section, which is now in the rear of the column, become the head of it. After the caution, to countermarch by files, has been given, at the word left face, the whole face to the left, the officer or serjeant moves to the left of his company, subdivision, or section, and the person who has covered him, moves to his place, and faces about. At the word march, the officer turns short to the left, and proceeds as before until he is fixed on the left, which is now become the pivot flank, as the column stands with its right in front. In all countermarches, the facing is always to that hand which is not the pivot, but which is to become such. The countermarch of each division, subdivision, or section, separately on its own ground, is an evolution of great utility on many occasions. It enables a column which has its right in front, and is marching in an alignement, to return along that same line, and to take such new positions in it as circumstances may require, without inverting or altering the proper front of the line. In many situations of forming from column into line, it becomes a previous operation which ought not to be dispensed with.

When a column countermarches by divisions, each on its own ground, unless the divisions be equal, the distances after the countermarch will not be the true wheeling distances, but will be such as are equal to the front of the preceding division, and therefore the true distances must be regained before the divisions can wheel up into line with the accuracy and completion of space which are required.

MARCHING past by the cavalry.--At a review, or inspection, regiments, brigades, or lines, do not march past in column of squadrons, but in column of half squadrons.

In passing by in half squadrons at open ranks, the commander of the squadron will be in front of his leading half squadron, covered by the standard, with which the other officers of the half squadron dress. In the second half squadron all its officers are in front, and in one line. The trumpets are all in front of the regiment, and when they have passed, wheel quickly round, and remain posted opposite the general, and sound till the regiment has passed; when they cease, (and those of the succeeding regiments commence) follow their regiment, and regain its front.

The half squadrons, or divisions, will dress, and cover to the passing hand; after the successive wheel, which brings them on the line of passing, they will open ranks, 60 or 70 yards, before they approach the general, and close them about the same distance after passing, and they will continue so to dress, and preserve the line, till each division wheels at the point, where the head one has changed its direction: there, and not before, the dressing and covering will be made to the proper pivot flank of divisions.

The whole pass, (whether at open or close ranks) as one column; nor is any division, squadron, or regiment, to increase, or alter the distances it possessed, at the moment it wheeled from line into column.

In passing by half squadrons or divisions, at close ranks, the standard may take the centre of the front rank of the leading one. The commanding officer is before it, other officers are at their squadron posts, and care is taken, that there shall be an officer on each passing flank.

At the drawing of swords, and general salute, on the general’s approach, the trumpets all sound the parade march. When the general passes along the line, each regiment successively sounds its own march, or such other as it shall be ordered, and the same is done by each regiment when it passes the general.

The general orders and field regulations have prescribed the soundings with which all generals, and other persons, are to be received; when they pass along the line, or the line before them, the trumpet soundings will be the same as when the president or governor of a state appears.

The trumpet flourish, in drawing swords, is used regimentally on their own ground, and is the sounding used in receiving a major general; it is repeated twice for a lieutenant-general, and to all superior generals the march is sounded.

In parade, to receive the president, or the commanding general, the trumpets are assembled on the right of their regiments, (whether single or in line) in two ranks, and the staff beyond them.--The staff does not march past.

On all occasions of exercise, and manœuvre, trumpets are behind their troops and squadrons, unless otherwise detached.

If the president sees a brigade, he will be received at the point of his approach in the manner already directed, by the general commanding it. If a single regiment, in the same manner by its commanding officer.

After passing in parade, and in movements, and exercise, it will depend on the commanding officer of the regiment, to place the other field officers at the head of squadrons, or to assign them the superintendance of wings, in order the better to assist.

In general, regiments manœuvre at too great a distance from the person inspecting them; they ought to terminate many of their movements and formations within 20 or 30 yards of where he stands.

Cavalry regiments, when dismounted, and formed in line, will have an interval of six paces between each.

When the regiments dismount, field officers, and adjutants, do not dismount, but remain on horseback.

When the dismounted line advances in front, at close ranks, general officers, and commanding officers of regiments, are behind the centre; other field officers are behind the flanks of the battalion.

When the dismounted line is at open ranks, field officers are on the flanks of the battalion, in a line with the men, and general officers, and commanding officers of regiments, are in front.

In passing on foot, all mounted officers are in front of the regiment, except the adjutant, who is in the rear.

General principles in MARCHING.--Where a large body is marching in column, or columns, through narrow ground, and when its parts are to be assembled beyond the defile in several lines, in a compact manner behind each other--such parts are not to begin to assemble when the leading one does, but the head of each line is successively first to come up to the ground on which it is to stand, and when it there halts, its proper followers (and not before) move into line with it, and thereby do not impede the bodies that are behind them, which are still in the defile, and are to perform the same operation.

When a new line to be marched, or formed upon, is taken up by guides, commanding officers of squadrons, of regiments, and all other persons whatever, will take care that during such operation they do not stand upon, or obscure the direction of that line. Too many guides should not be thrown out. In movements in column, commanding officers of squadrons, and regiments, should keep wide of the flanks, that the pivot leaders may more correctly follow each other, and that they themselves may the better see, and distinguish the relative situation of the whole.

We shall conclude our remarks on the principles of marching, by quoting a remarkable passage out of marshal Saxe’s Reveries, which may serve to undeceive many with regard to the over-rated importance that is given to the expert handling of the firelock.

He justly remarks, that the manual and platoon exercise does extremely well to render the soldier easy under arms, but it should not engross the whole of our attention on that account. It is, perhaps, of all others, the least important branch in military acquirements, after the soldier has been taught to carry his firelock on his left shoulder, to prime and load with accuracy and dispatch, and to fire in platoon.

When once a soldier has been rendered master of these essential requisites, (and it requires little to make him so) the full possession of his legs and feet becomes the principal object of his attention.

The secret of all manœuvres, and the consequent issue of engagements, depend upon the legs. Hence the necessity of moving to time and measure, and the wise practice of teaching the cadenced step. Whoever attempts to drill a recruit without paying attention to this important object, must be ignorant of the first elements of war.

Il n’en est pas seulement aux elemens a qu’on appelle le métier de la guerre.--He does not even know the first rudiments of what is called the art of war.

These observations ought to be strongly impressed upon the minds of those persons who are too apt to devote all their time to the firelock, and consequently to neglect the more necessary object of marching, &c. Officers, in particular, should be taught to feel the justness of those principles of movement, by which large bodies are enabled to act together. The motions of the firelock are easily learned, but the various changes to which the human frame must submit in marching, require something more than mere mechanical operation.

MARCH of a train of artillery.--It has been observed in page 192, of Muller’s Treatise of Artillery, that the French march their artillery much in the same manner that the British do, with this difference, that the French artillery is divided into brigades. In page 191 of Muller’s treatise on Artillery, we find the following detail of a march of English artillery:--

1. A guard of the army. 2. The company of miners, with their tumbrel of tools, drawn by two horses. 3. The regiments of artillery front guard. 4. The kettle drums, drawn by four horses, and two trumpeters on horseback. 5. The flag gun drawn by 17 horses, and five twelve pounders more, by 15 horses each. 6. Eleven waggons with stores for the said guns, and one spare, by three horses each. 7. Six nine pounders, drawn by eleven horses each. 8. Nine waggons with stores for the said guns, and one spare, by three horses each. 9. Five long six pounders, by seven horses each. 10. Seven waggons with stores for ditto, and a spare one, drawn by three horses each. 11. Five long six pounders, drawn by seven horses each. 12. Six waggons with stores for ditto, and a spare one, by three horses each. 13. Four long six pounders, by seven horses each. 14. Five waggons with stores for ditto, and a spare one, by three horses each. 15. Two howitzers, by five horses each. 16. Four waggons with stores for ditto, by three horses. 17. Six short six pounders, by two horses each. 18. Three waggons with stores for ditto, by three horses each. 19. Six royals, with their stores, in four waggons, by three horses each. 20. One 12 pounder carriage, by seven horses; one nine pounder carriage, by five; one long six pounder carriage, by five; two short, by two; one short and one long limber, by one horse; and two forges, by two each. 21. Twenty ammunition carts, by three horses each. 22. Nineteen waggons with musquet cartridges, and one spare, by three horses each. 23. Thirty waggons with powder, and one spare, by three horses each. 24. Thirty waggons with musquet shot, and one spare, by three horses each. 25. Twenty-five waggons with intrenching tools, and one spare, by three horses each. 26. Twenty-five waggons with small stores, and one spare, by three each. 27. Six waggons for artificers, with four spare, each by three. 28. Thirty-two baggage waggons, nine by four horses, and 23 by three. 29. Thirty pontoons, and three spare carriages, each by seven. 30. The artillery rear guard. 31. The rear guard from the army.

It must be observed that there are parties of gunners and matrosses marching with the guns: there are likewise some parties of pioneers interspersed here and there to mend the roads, when they are spoiled by the fore carriages.

We shall now present our military readers with an extract from a French work, which has appeared since the Memoires D’Artillerie, par M. Surirey de Saint Remy, and which may put them more especially in possession of the French manner of marching their artillery, than Mr. Muller has afforded.--We must however, at the same time, refer them for more copious information to the third volume of Saint Remy, page 187 to 201.

In the last edition of the Dictionnaire Militaire, the following observations are made on this important operation.

When the troops in the advanced camp of the army begin to assemble, the commanding officer of the artillery repairs to head-quarters, and communicates with the commander in chief.--Utensils, stores, and ammunition, are forwarded to the camp, and every soldier is provided with ten or twelve rounds of ball cartridge, before he commences his march against the enemy.--These articles having been distributed, the waggons and horses return to the train of artillery, and proper dispositions are made to connect the whole line of march.

The horses belonging to the train are narrowly inspected by the lieutenant-general of artillery, who marks or rejects them according to his judgment, and sends one report of their actual state to government, and another to the master general of the ordnance. He gives directions to the captain-general of the waggon-train to arrange matters in such a manner with each provincial commissary belonging to the park, that the different captains may know what brigades fall under their immediate superinterdance. The latter must not on any account leave the brigades with which they are entrusted during the march.

The ammunition waggons having been loaded, and the horses harnessed in, they are distributed into different brigades, and put in motion to join the main army, according to the following order:--

The first thing that precedes the march of a regular train of artillery, is a waggon loaded with utensils, such as spades, pick-axes, shovels, mattocks, wooden spades, with iron bottoms; grapples, hatchets, &c. These are under the care of a waggon-master, who is attended by forty pioneers to clear and point out the way.

In the rear of this waggon follow four four pounders, mounted on their several carriages, with every necessary appendage on each side, loaded with ball, and the cannoneers ready, each having a lighted match in his hand, and two steel prickers or dégorgeoirs. Next to these is a waggon loaded with different articles of ordnance, containing likewise one barrel of gunpowder, one ditto of ball, a bundle of matches, weighing together about fifty pounds, about fifty balls of the calibre of the guns and five or six sets stout drag-ropes or bricoles.

The military chest, and the king’s or royal stores, generally accompany this small train, when the army consists of one column only.

The pontoons, with every thing belonging to them, follow next; and after them the crab with its appendages, accompanied by the captain of artificers, with a certain number of carpenters.

Next follow the heavy ordnance.

Those pieces of artillery which are mounted, follow each other according to their several calibres, with all their necessary implements for service hanging on each side.

Then come the frames belonging to the pieces of heavy ordnance, with their implements, &c. placed upon them. The mortars follow next.

After these follow the caissons belonging to the escorts of the park of artillery, military chest, quarter-master general, and captain of artificers or workmen, in which are contained the tools belonging to the different workmen and miners, together with the forges, &c.

The baggage belonging to the commanding officer of artillery, and to the several officers of the train, follow next, each waggon succeeding the other according to the rank of the several officers. It frequently happens, that the carriages with stores and provisions, and those belonging to the royal regiment of artillery move together.

After these follow the tumbrels with gunpowder, matches, sand-bags, ropes, fuses for bombs and grenades, proof-pieces, if there are any, plummets, hand grenades, mining tools, mortar-carriages, bombs, balls, according to the different calibres of cannon, tools, and instruments for pioneers, with the spare carts.

In order to secure the regular progress and march of these different classes, it has been usual among the French, to divide them into five brigades, each brigade under the command of an artillery officer; and the whole subject to the orders of the commandant of artillery. All the equipage belonging to the train is distributed among these five brigades, and each brigade takes care to bring up its proportion every day to the park or spot of rendezvous. These are subject to a roster among themselves, some leading, and others bringing up the rear, according to its arrangement.

Night-MARCHES. Whenever marches are undertaken in the night, great precaution should be observed on the part of the commanding officer of the troops, to attach two or three faithful and intelligent guides to each column or detachment; for it may very easily happen, that in moving a considerable detachment during the night, some troops or squadrons may lose themselves, especially where there are cross-roads, and difficult passes.

The commanding officer at the head of the detachment must march slow, provided the nature of his expedition will admit of it: and wherever he finds any bye-roads on the march, he must post a few men there to direct the succeeding squadron; which squadron is to repeat the same caution, and so on throughout the whole.

As it is almost impossible for squadrons to keep constantly close together; and as it almost always happens, that, in order to conceal a march from the enemy, no trumpet must be sounded, (which would otherwise serve for a direction in the night time) a good non-commissioned officer, with four or six men, must be appointed to the rear of every squadron, who are to divide themselves, and form a chain in the interval, between it and the one succeeding, in order to prevent any mistake of the road.

Before the detachment matches off, the officer commanding must be careful to exhort the officers leading troops or squadrons, strictly to observe all the above directions: he must also have several orderly men to attend him; and, if possible, two or three guides in front.

The advanced guard must be reinforced in the night time, and march at a small distance from the main body, and whenever it shall happen unexpectedly to meet the enemy, it must instantly charge with all possible vigor; on which account, and in order to be in continual readiness, it must always march with advanced arms.

Secret MARCHES, are made with a design to reconnoitre an enemy, surprize his camp, secure a post, or seize a place. They are likewise undertaken to succour troops that may be precariously situated, to relieve a besieged town, &c. It is in this service that a commander has occasion for his utmost sagacity and penetration, to prevent his being discovered or betrayed. In order to ensure success, the person who conducts the march, should have previously obtained good information relative to the different roads through which he is to pass, the disposition of the inhabitants, &c. He should also obtain correct intelligence respecting the situation of the enemy’s out-posts, &c.

To MARCH for the direct purpose of fighting an enemy. In order to effect this important operation with confidence and safety, every army that marches from a distant point towards the ground which is occupied by an enemy, endeavors as much as possible, to preserve its regular front, and to advance in order of battle. Whenever obstacles occur, and the ground becomes so confined, that the march in line cannot be preserved, the different squadrons and battalions must approach the enemy in such a disposition of columns, as to be able to form line in the quickest manner, and before the enemy could possibly attempt to make an impression on the advancing columns, by charging with his cavalry.

The general officers who command the several columns, in leading them forward must attentively observe each other’s movement, so that their heads, at least, be upon a line; and that when they reach the ground where the whole are to deploy, this manœuvre may be accomplished with dispatch and safety, and the order of battle be fully made, out of the reach of the enemy’s horse.

The general or commander in chief, with his aids-de-camp, &c. takes his ground in such a manner as to be able to see the effect of the first fire. From being thus conveniently situated, he will know what orders to send, whether to support that part of the line which has gained ground, or to replace any particular one that may have given way. In order to accomplish this double purpose, he either makes use of the troops which have been drawn up between the two lines, as circumstances may require, or detaches from the reserve, as he judges best for the service.

The instant the line is formed, and the enemy appears in sight, every general officer must be found at the head of his division, actively employed either in leading on the troops, entrusted to his skill and valor, or in speedily remedying every symptom of disorder which may occur throughout the whole extent of his command.

The disposition of an army (to quote the words of mons. de Feuquieres) which comes to close action, differs essentially from that it assumes in a march, or previous movement. Were troops, indeed, to advance over a wide space of open and unembarrassed ground, the formation of them might be the same. But this is seldom or ever the case. The intervention of hills, woods, rivers, villages, and narrow passes or defiles, gives rise to so many obstacles, that a large body of men, such as constitutes an army, must necessarily be divided into many different corps, in order, that the collective force may arrive, at a given time, within the lines of a new camp, or within sight of an enemy.

On these occasions the movements of an army are attended with considerable risk, especially if the enemy has himself taken the field; for by ably manœuvring he may take advantage of the divided state of your army, and attack it piece-meal. The greatest precautions, however, are observed in modern warfare, which were either unknown to, or neglected by our ancestors. Most of these have already been discussed, as far as the limits of our undertaking would admit. The following additional observations may not, perhaps, be thought wholly superfluous.

In the first instance it will be necessary for the quarter master general, and for the different officers who compose the staff or etat-major of the army, to render themselves perfectly masters of the country through which the troops are to march. The corps of guides, especially if the march should be continued during the night, must be well chosen on these occasions; and the different captains that have the charge of them, are frequently to communicate with the principal officers on the staff, to facilitate the several movements. All the general officers must be in possession of correct topographical sketches of the country; and their aids-de-camp, &c. must not only know how to deliver orders, but they must themselves be able to calculate, (from a cursory view of the chart,) time and distance, The science of locality, has, indeed, become so manifestly useful in all military operations, that the French have formed regular companies of topographers, who accompany their armies; a new institution, at High-Wycombe, England, pays much attention to this branch of necessary knowlege.

Artificers and workmen with appropriate escorts, precede the several columns, in order to clear the roads, and to remove obstacles that occur. Light troops, and large detachments of cavalry, are pushed forward for the purpose of keeping the enemy in awe, and to send the earliest intelligence respecting his movements. Bridges are thrown across rivers with astonishing activity and dispatch; every thing in a word which relates to the movement of the army, is so well digested before-hand, and subsequently so well executed, that all the different corps co-operate, and readily succour each other should the enemy attack. The natural formation of the battalion is preserved, whether the grenadiers are disposed in front, or the light companies lead; and the several piquets come regularly up with the rear during the march, and are as readily stationed in the front when their corps halt.

When a forced march is undertaken for the specific purpose of rendering some design of an enemy abortive, it is the duty of the commissariat to have provisions ready at hand, during the transient halts which are made in this harassing and fatiguing enterprise.

It is usual for great armies to march in several columns, in conformity to the order of battle which has been laid down by the general or commander in chief, at the beginning of the campaign. Those battalions and squadrons which compose the right, take their line of march through that direction of the country; those which compose the left, preserve their relative time and distance in that quarter. The artillery and heavy baggage are generally disposed of in the centre column.

When an army marches directly forward to attack or meet an enemy, the artillery is almost always distributed in the centre: sometimes a brigade of that corps, with a body of select troops in front, precedes each column; but the heavy baggage invariably moves in the rear under cover of the reserve.

When an army marches through a woody or close country, the heads of the different columns are usually covered by a strong detachment of riflemen, preceded by squadrons of horse. Should the enemy be in your rear, when it is found expedient to make a movement, the hospital stores, ammunition, baggage, and artillery, escorted by some squadrons of horse, must be sent forward, and the best disciplined troops, with a certain quantity of artillery, are in that case to make up the rear guard. If the enemy should hang upon your flank (the right, for instance,) the artillery, stores, and baggage, must be conducted by the left: should the enemy direct his operations from the left, the same movements must take place on the right.

A small army may march in one column, having its artillery and baggage between the advanced and rear guards. Should it be brought to action, the dragoons and light cavalry belonging to the advanced guard will compose one wing, and the troops that are disposed of in the rear, will form the other: the infantry will be distributed in the centre with the artillery in its front.

The French seem to have paid the greatest attention to the various details and incidental circumstances which attend the march of any considerable body of troops. It was not, however, until the reign of Louis XIII. that any sort of regular system began to prevail. There was certainly less necessity for such an arrangement, because the baggage was by no means so great, nor was the train of artillery half so extensive. The only dangers, indeed, which were to be guarded against, when the enemy was near, seemed confined to the loss of baggage and artillery. These were, of course, provided against by every able general, who naturally observed the greatest secrecy with respect to his encampment, and practised various stratagems to conceal his march from the enemy.

Some very sensible observations, relative to the manner in which troops should be managed previous to an engagement, may be found in the Rêveries de M. le Maréchal de Saxe; and considerable information may be derived from Les Reflexions de M. le Baron d’Espagnac, on the best method of forming the infantry for battle. See Supplément aux Rêveries, page 19. See likewise Oeuvres Militaires, tom. 1. p. 124.

General observations on the march of troops. Observations from a French work, applicable to general service. When troops are ordered to march, four principal objects should be well considered, viz. locality, time, possible ambuscades, and the ultimate end for which the march is undertaken. In order to secure these important points, some topographers (without whom no army can be said to be well constituted, or its staff ably appointed) should be directed to give in plans of the country, to shew where it is intersected, where hills with their different incurvations appear, where the roads are narrow, where the ground is soft or marshy, and unfavorable to the passage of artillery, where intricate passes occur, where there are woods, hedges, rivers, or marshes, and finally where the country becomes totally impervious.

When these different objects have been well ascertained, and thoroughly digested at head quarters, the component parts of the army must be so distributed with respect to the battalions of infantry, squadrons of horse, artillery, and baggage, that the front of the leading column shall invariably correspond with the extent of the road or defile which is to be marched over.

When troops are ordered to march through an inclosed country, the whole army is divided into a given number of columns, which successively follow each other, and are encamped, cantoned, or quartered separately. Sometimes the country is cleared, as much as circumstances will admit, in order that the several columns may advance, while the artillery, under an escort of infantry on each side, and with cavalry distributed upon both wings of the army, makes the best of its way through the main road. Small detachments, consisting of active, spirited young men, headed by intelligent and enterprising officers, are sent forward to take possession of the different defiles, woods, passes, and to post themselves close to an enemy’s post, for the purpose of blocking it up until the whole of the army has marched by.

The leading columns should always be composed of tried and steady soldiers; and the front of each should invariably consist of the best men in the army.

The advanced and rear guards must be well supported by infantry, with the addition of some light field pieces. The order of battle is so arranged, that the heavy ordnance, the baggage, and the greatest part of the cavalry, which can be of little use on the wings, may be distributed in the centre.

When it is necessary to cross a river, the artillery must be planted directly opposite to the post which the army intends to occupy. Considerable advantage will accrue should the river wind in such a manner as to form a rentrant angle in that particular spot, which advantage would be greatly increased by having a ford near.

In proportion as the construction of the bridge advances, some steady troops must be marched forward, and a regular discharge of musquetry must be kept up against the enemy on the opposite bank.

The instant the bridge is finished, a corps of infantry, with some cavalry, some pieces of artillery, and a certain number of pioneers, to fortify the head of the bridge, must be ordered over. Should there be the least ground to suspect an attack upon the rear guard, the inside tête de pont must also be fortified.

Proper precautions will have been taken to prevent any surprise during the construction of the bridge, and while the troops are crossing. Each side of the river above and below the bridge, will on this account have been well reconnoitred, to ascertain that there are not any armed barges or floating rafters with infernals upon them, kept ready to blow up the bridge, when a considerable part of the army shall have passed the river. If the preservation of the bridge be considered as an object, both ends must be fortified, and adequate guards stationed to defend them.

Each corps that marches separately, such as the advanced and rear guards, and the main body, must be provided with shovels, pick-axes, and a sufficient number of pioneers and guides, to clear the roads, and to direct it on its march.

The following general rules in route marching have been laid down by the celebrated Montecuculli:--

No officer or soldier is on any account to quit his post or rank. The battalion companies must never intermix with the squadrons or troops of cavalry. Squadrons or troops of cavalry must always take care not to leave such wide intervals between them, as will expose them to be suddenly cut off, or such contracted ones as might enable the enemy to throw them into confusion.

In summer, troops should quit their ground or quarters at day-break.

In winter, great care should be taken by the commissariat, to see that the troops are well supplied with fuel whenever they halt. During very inclement weather the march of troops should be greatly contracted.

Some steady old soldiers must be stationed at the different cross roads, to prevent the rear men from mistaking the line of march.

The leading columns of those troops that precede them, must instantly fall upon any body of the enemy that may attempt to oppose their progress.

Three things are always to be considered and well weighed, viz. whether there be much ground to apprehend a serious attack from the enemy; whether there be little ground to fear him; or whether there be no ground at all.

In the latter case each corps of cavalry and infantry, marches separately, and with its own baggage.

All convoys, containing stores and ammunition, move with the artillery accompanied by an officer from the adjutant or quarter-master general’s department, who has the direction of the march, as far as regards the convoy itself; but cannot interfere with the artillery; the commanding officer of the latter being presumed to know best, when and where his park should halt, &c. A very sensible observation on this head may be found in a recent French publication, intituled, Manuel des Adjudans Généraux, by Paul Thiébault. The whole of which is published under the article STAFF in the Am. Mil. Lib. On the evening preceding a march, each corps is specifically furnished with the necessary orders in writing.

At the hour which is named in general orders for the troops to commence their march, the quarter-master general, and the captain of guides, repair to the advanced guard.

If the army has been encamped, the lines of entrenchment are levelled or cleared in such a manner, that the troops may move with an extended front. As soon as the troops have marched off, the different guards belonging to the camp will be withdrawn.

Pioneers must be sent forward to clear the roads, preceded by small detachments of light and select troops, together with estaffettes or mounted messengers and vedettes, who are to reconnoitre in front, rear, and round the wings of the army. To these must be added appropriate guards and escorts to accompany the artillery, and to protect the baggage. It will belong to this latter description of troops, to take possession of advantageous heights, to discover ambuscades, and to send a faithful detail of all they observe to head quarters. These communications will be made by the chief of the etat major who accompanies them.

The advanced guard of the army will be composed of one half of the cavalry, the main body will consist of the infantry, attended by pioneers and detached corps of light artillery, which will be preceded by an iron instrument made in the shape of a plough-share, for the purpose of tracing out the paths, which must be kept by the waggon-train. In the rear of the main body must follow the heavy ordnance, the baggage-waggons belonging to the several regiments, and the train of artillery. The other half of the cavalry will be disposed of in the rear-guard, in which the army stores and ammunition are to be escorted by a regiment of horse.

If the army should be divided, and march in different columns by indirect roads, a rendezvous or place d’armes must be marked out in writing, where the whole may conveniently meet on the line of march. The utmost attention must be paid to the selection of this spot, by the adjutant and quarter-master general, lest it should be exposed to a surprise from the enemy; on which account it is kept as secret as possible, lest any intelligence should be given to him by deserters or spies. The hour and the manner in which the several columns are to arrive, is specifically stated to the different leaders; and scouts, &c. are sent round the country to discover the enemy’s movements.

If there should be any reason to apprehend an attack, the various precautions must be increased in proportion to the alarm.

An army must always march, if it possibly can, in that order from which it may easily and expeditiously deploy into line; that is, it should invariably preserve the order of battle; every column bearing a natural front towards the enemy. Montecuculli further adds, that an army must invariably march the right or left in front, and not from its centre.

Field-pieces, with a sufficient quantity of ammunition, shovels, spades, and pick-axes always at hand, must be disposed along the most vulnerable part of the rendezvous; these must be guarded by a body of cavalry and infantry, who are to be selected for that specific duty.

Care is likewise taken to lodge the baggage-waggons, &c. in the most secure and best defended spot.

The two first lines of the army will consist of the mounted artillery in front, next to which will stand the different squadrons of horse that are posted in intervals between the infantry battalions: after these will follow the train of caissons, &c. in as many files as the road will admit; then the stores and baggage, and finally the reserve.

Whenever the leading columns have passed an obstacle, the front man must be halted till the rear have completely cleared it likewise; and when the whole enters an open country, the line must be formed, and the march be continued in order of battle until a fresh obstacle occurs, when the troops must be prepared to pass the defile, the advanced guard leading, the main body following next, and the reserve bringing up the rear.

When an army is thus advancing, the right or left flank (according to circumstances) of its line of march, must be covered by rivers, and banks, rising grounds, or eminences; and if these natural advantages do not present themselves, artificial ones must be resorted to. These may consist of waggons, chevaux de friezes or other temporary means of defence; the quantity, &c. must depend upon the nature of the country, and the number of troops that compose the columns.

It is, however, impossible to set down general rules for all cases; these must vary with the manifold circumstances that occur, and the different designs which are to be accomplished or pursued.

When the movements of an army are to be concealed, the march must be undertaken at night through woods, vallies, and concealed ways; all frequented and inhabited places must be carefully avoided; no loud instruments must on any account be played; and if fires are made, they must only be lighted on the eve of breaking up camp; in which case they must be left burning, for the purpose of deluding the enemy into a supposition, that the troops have not moved.

Small parties of cavalry are sent forward to seize all stragglers or scouts from the enemy, or to take possession of the different passes. In order to avoid being discovered in the object of the march, a different road must be taken from the one which you really propose to march through; and a fit opportunity must afterwards be embraced to get into the real track. Before you march out of a town or fortified place, the utmost care must be observed to prevent your intended route from being conveyed to the enemy. On this account the troops must be first marched out, and the gates immediately shut upon the rear, so that no stranger, &c. may be able to slip out with the men.

During a march of this nature, the troops must be provided with subsistence, stores, and ammunition, to last out until the object is attained. No scout or vedette is sent forward, when an army, or any part of it, advances to take possession of a post or place, to succour a town, to surprize an enemy, in a close or woody country, by favor of the night, or in hazy weather, or on any occasion when orders have been given to oppose and fight every thing it meets.

When an army marches for the direct purpose of forcing a passage, which is guarded by an enemy, a feint must be made in one quarter, whilst the real object is vigorously pursued in another. Sometimes you must appear suddenly disposed to make a retrograde movement, and then again as suddenly resume your progress; sometimes march beyond the spot you wish to occupy, insensibly drawing off the enemy’s attention; and whilst the whole army is thus pushing forward and is closely watched by its opponents, (who hang upon the flanks, and hug its line of march) let detached parties of cavalry and foot, that have lain in ambush, suddenly surprise the passage, and post themselves upon it.

When it is found expedient to advance rapidly into a country for the purpose of surprising an enemy, getting possession of a town or place, or avoiding superior forces, every species of baggage must be left behind (even the common necessaries of the men: if circumstances require,) the cavalry must be sent forward, and the infantry put in carts, carriages, and chaises, or mounted behind the dragoons. If there be spare horses enough in the different troops, or any can be procured from the inhabitants of the country, they must be led in order to relieve those that are double mounted, in the manner which is practised by the Tartars. Marches of this description and urgency, must be kept up night and day; and it is on such occasions that the value of a good staff or etat-major will have all its weight.

It must be observed, as a general maxim, that whenever troops are retiring from a weak position, or to avoid the approach of a superior force, the retreat must be so managed, as not to bear the least resemblance of a flight.

Order of MARCH, which is observed in the Turkish army: this order of march may be considered as the movement of an army that combines its several operations according to some established system of military art. The Turks usually divide this movement into time distinct operations: the first comprehends that by which troops of several denominations, and from different quarters, assemble together at some given spot or rendezvous. Such, for instance, is the march of various corps of militia, both in Asia and Europe, belonging to the Ottoman empire, who must necessarily pass through several quarters, and cross the sea, to form a junction. From the many inconveniences which troops must unavoidably experience on these occasions, and from the irregularity that always grows out of them, this march cannot be strictly called a systematic movement of the army.

The second order of march among the Turks is that which they call alay; when the troops arrive, under the command of their several bachas, at the camp or given spot of rendezvous, for the purpose of being reviewed by the serasquier, the grand vizier or the sultan. This order is observed likewise by the janizaries when they repair to a similar place.

The third order of march must be considered as a real military movement. It is that which is performed by the army that first takes up its ground in a regular manner, and encamps. This is the commencement or beginning of military marches, because from a situation or arrangement of this sort, troops either leave one camp to pitch their tents elsewhere, or return again to their old one after having made an attempt against an enemy’s post, &c.

It is an established law in Turkey, whenever the sultan or grand vizier takes the field, to have their magnificent tents, with seven or five horse-tails displayed above them, regularly pitched on the plains of Constantinople, or in those of Adrianople, accordingly as the court happens to be in either of those imperial residences; which circumstance is announced throughout the empire, that every province, &c. may be made acquainted with the march of the sultan or grand vizier.

As soon as these pavilions or tents have been thus pitched, all the different armed corps that have not yet commenced their march receive their route: and those that are already on the march, advance with all the expedition they can, to the spot of general rendezvous. The troops from Egypt and Asia are particularly alert on these occasions, most especially if the war should be carried into Hungary. All the points from whence embarkations are to take place, appear conspicuously marked along the coast of the Marmora, Propontides, and the Archipelago, in order that the different bodies of troops may take the direct road to Constantinople, Andrianople, Philipolis Sophia, Nissa, and Belgrade, in which places was the general rendezvous of all the troops, when the Ottoman empire flourished. Those, however, were not included which were destined to act in Hungary and Bosnia. They met together, after having passed the bridge of Osek, and formed a junction with the main army. Kara-Mustapha followed these dispositions when he went to besiege Vienna.

The second march of the Turkish or Ottoman army, is a business of mere parade or ceremony. This movement is observed by all the different corps, and it is executed with great magnificence by the Bachas, particularly so when they repair the first time to the camp of general rendezvous.

With respect to the third march, it is a real and essential movement, and ought to be called the military march or route. Four principal branches or objects of service, constitute the nature of this march, and form its disposition. These are the cavalry, infantry, artillery, and baggage; in which latter are included the stores, &c. belonging to the Turkish militia, the royal provisions, public stores, and ammunition, comprehending gunpowder, shot, matches, spades, pick-axes, &c.

There is, however, no invariable rule attached to this arrangement, it alters according to circumstance and place.

The real or military march of the troops is entirely managed by the grand vizier, or the seraskier. Written instructions are issued out for this purpose; for the Turks never give out verbal orders, except in matters of little or no importance, or in cases of extreme emergency, when they cannot commit them to writing.

It is an invariable maxim among the Turks, whenever their troops are upon the march, to throw new bridges over rivers, or to repair old ones, to clear public or bye roads, to fill up ditches, and to cut down trees, &c. so as to facilitate their movements, and to obviate delay. They moreover throw up small heaps of earth, which they call unka, at the distance of half a league from each other, and often nearer, especially on high grounds. When the sultan marches at their head they make two heaps of this description.

The Turks pay very particular attention to their movements or marches on service: the whole of the army is under arms during the night, in order to make the necessary dispositions; on which occasions the soldiers make use of small vessels with fire lighted in them, and tie them to the ends of long pikes or poles. The greatest silence is observed during the march; neither drums, trumpets, nor cymbals are heard. Sometimes, indeed, but this rarely happens, the drummers belonging to the band of the grand vizier, accompany the salutes or ceremonial compliments which are paid by the salam-agasi, or master of ceremonies.

When they march through a country in which there is no cause to apprehend surprise or hostility, the infantry generally takes the lead, two or three days march, in front of the main army. The troops march in the loosest manner, being neither confined to particular companies, nor formed in columns. They chuse what roads they like best, halt where they please, and reach the camp in detached parties; with this injunction, however, that the whole must arrive at the spot of rendezvous before evening prayers.

Next to these follow the cavalry, headed by a general officer. Their march, notwithstanding his presence, is as irregular as that of the infantry. The men frequently halt out of mere laziness, and under pretence of refreshing their horses; and little or no attention is paid to system and good order. The baggage and ammunition waggons, together with such stores, &c. as are carried by beasts of burthen, move in the same manner.

When the army enters an enemy’s country, the whole of the infantry is collected together, and marches in one body. The capiculy and the seratculy, for instance, form one column. There is this distinction, however, observed, that every janizary marches under his own colors, and every officer remains attached to his oda or company, for the purpose of executing, in the speediest manner, the commander in chief’s directions.

The cavalry is often divided into two wings; it is likewise frequently formed in one body. Every man is ranged under his own standard. The squadrons are commanded by the alay-begs, who receive orders through the chiaous; and the other officers are near the bacha.

The baggage sometimes moves in the front, and sometimes in the rear of the janizaries. A particular body of cavalry, called topracly, are an exception to this arrangement: the men belonging to this corps are obliged to furnish themselves with all the necessaries of life, and consequently carry provisions, &c. with them in all their marches; which circumstance unavoidably creates much confusion.

The artillery is generally attached to the infantry; sometimes, however, it moves with the cavalry.

When the Turkish army marches through an enemy’s country, it is covered by an advanced and a rear guard. The advanced guard is composed of five or six thousand of the best mounted cavalry. This body is under the immediate orders of a commanding officer, called kialkagy-bacy, whose appointment lasts during the whole of the campaign. The advanced guard usually moves six, seven, or eight leagues in front of the main body; but it falls back in proportion as the enemy retires. When there are bodies of Tartars or auxiliary troops from any of the rebellious provinces with the army, they are detached in front of the advanced guard, for the purpose of harassing the enemy’s rear, pillaging the country, and committing those excesses which are not countenanced by regular troops.

The rear-guard generally consists of one thousand horse. It is the business of this body to escort the baggage safe into camp, and not leave it until the whole be securely lodged.

The Turks, in all their movements on real service, display uncommon activity; and their marches are generally so well managed, that an enemy runs the greatest hazard of being surprised.

Rogue’s MARCH. A tune which is played by trumpeters or fifers of a regiment (as the case may be) for the purpose of drumming out any person who has behaved disorderly, &c. in a camp or garrison. Thieves, strumpets, &c. are frequently disgraced in this manner; being marched down the front of a battalion, from right to left, and along the rear: after which they are conducted to the gate of the garrison or entrance of the camp, where they receive a kick on the posteriors from the youngest drummer, and are warned never to appear within the limits of either place, under pain of being severely punished.

MARCHANDS, Fr. Slop-sellers, petty-suttlers. Men of this description always flock round and follow an army on its march. As they generally deal in articles which are wanted by the officers and soldiers, it is the business of every general to see them properly treated, to ensure their safety, and to permit them, under certain regulations, to have access to the camp. They should, however, be warily watched in some instances, especially upon the eve of a retreat, or before any advanced operation takes place. Spies frequently disguise themselves as pedlars, and under the mask of selling trifling articles, pry into the state of a camp, put indirect questions to the soldiers, and tamper with those who may seem disposed to act in a traitorous manner. Yet as armies cannot do without such men, they must be sanctioned, and it is the particular duty of the provost-marshal, and of the waggon-master general, to watch and superintend their motions.

MARCHE accélérée, ou pas accéléré, Fr. The time in which troops march to the charge--we call it the accelerated pace, the English formerly called it double quick time.

MARCHE ordinaire, ou pas ordinaire, Fr. Ordinary time.

MARCHE precipitée, ou pas precipité, Fr. Quickest time.

MARCHE cadencée, ou pas cadencé, Fr. March or step according to time and measure. It is likewise called the cadenced step.

MARCHE non-cadencée, ou pas non-cadencé, Fr. This step is likewise called pas de route, and signifies that unconstrained movement which soldiers are permitted to adopt in marching over difficult ground, and in columns of route.

MARCHE de Flanc, Fr. Flank movement or march.

MARCHE forcée, Fr. a forced march.

Battre, sonner la MARCHE, Fr. To put troops into motion by the beat of drum or sound of trumpet, &c.

Gagner une MARCHE sur l’ennemi, Fr. To gain ground or time upon an enemy, which signifies to get in his front or upon his flanks, so as to harass or perplex him, or by any able manœuvre to get the start of him.

Dérober sa MARCHE, Fr. to steal a march.

Couvrir une MARCHE, Fr. to conceal a march.

MARCHES d’armées, et ce que les soldats ont à faire quand la générale est battue, Fr. column of route or general order of march which an army observes when it takes the field. See CAMP.

MARCHE, Fr. This word is likewise used among the French, to express the course or progress of a ship, or as we say, technically, the way she makes: hence marche d’un vaisseau.

MARCHER par le flanc, Fr. To march from any given flank.

MARCHER en colonne avec distance entiere, Fr. To march in open column at open distance.

MARCHER en colonne à distance de section, ou en mass, Fr. To march in column, quarter distance, or in mass.

MARCHER en bataille ou en colonne d’attaque, Fr. To advance in column for the purpose of attacking an enemy.

MARCHER en bataille en ordre deployé, Fr. To advance by the echellon march in deployed order.

MARCHER en rétraite, Fr. To retreat.

MARCHER en bataille par le dernier rang, Fr. To march in line rear rank in front.

MARCHER au pas accêléré, Fr. To march in quicker time.

MARCHER le pas en arriére, Fr. To take the back-step.

MARCHER au pas ordinaire, Fr. To march in ordinary time.

MARCHER au pas précipité, Fr. To march in quickest time, or charging time.

MARCHER par le flank, droit, ou gauche, Fr. To march by the right or left flank.

MARCHER en colonne, la droit ou la gauche, en tête, Fr. To march in column, the right or left in front.

MARCHER en colonne, serrée, Fr. To march in close column.

MARCHER en colonne ouverte, Fr. To march in open column.

MARCHER, en terme d’évolutions, Fr. To march in line, &c. which see.

MARCHES. The limits or bounds between England, Wales, and Scotland, have been so called.

MARCHING regiments. A term given to those corps who had not any permanent quarters, but were liable to be sent not only from one end of Great Britain to another, but to the most distant of her possessions abroad. Although the word marching is insensibly confounded with those of line and regulars, it was originally meant to convey something more than a mere liability to be ordered upon any service; for by marching the regular troops from one town to another, the inhabitants, who from time immemorial have been jealous of a standing army, lost their antipathy to real soldiers, by the occasional absence of regular troops. At present, the English guards, militia, and fencibles, may be considered more or less as marching regiments.--The marines and volunteer corps have stationary quarters.

St. MARCOU. Two rocks upon the coast of Normandy, lying in a bite or bay between cape Barfleur and Point Percé, bearing south east from La Hogue nine miles, from the mouth of the river Isigny, north, eight miles, and distant from the body of the French shore about four miles. The surface of each island, which is 18 or 20 feet above the level of the sea at high water, comprises about an acre, and bear from each other W. by N. and E. by S. distant 200 yards. On the abandonment of an expedition to the islands of Chossé, in the year 1795, sir Sidney Smith, whose active and comprehensive mind, justly concluded that the contiguity of these posts to the continent, would materially facilitate communications with the royalists, took possession of them; and having drawn the Badger and Sandfly gun vessels on shore, gave to their respective commanders the direction of the spot upon which he was thus placed. These officers having constructed batteries, mounted in them the guns belonging to their vessels, and in the year 1796 block houses, with detachments of marines, invalids, and 12 artillery men, were ordered out by government.

The extreme annoyance of these rocks to the coasting trade of the enemy, at length determined them to employ a part of the division of the army destined for the conquest of England, in their recovery, and 15,000 troops being assembled at the Hogue, 9000 were embarked on the 6th of May, 1798, on board 52 gun-vessels; when so great was the solicitude to partake in this conceived certain prelude to their glory, that several of the fourth demi-brigade of the army of Italy, whose tour of duty did not entitle them to be thus employed, gave four and five crowns, each, to others to change with them. Perfectly acquainted with the situation of the islands, the French flotilla rowed towards them in the night of the 6th, and at the dawn of the morning of the 7th, the weather being perfectly calm, they were discovered in a body between the islands and the shore. They soon separated into three divisions, one of which, comprising the heavy gun brigs remained in that position, while the other two, consisting of large flat boats, carrying a long 18 pounder in the bow, and a 6 pounder in the stern, took positions to the north and to the south of the islands, with an intention to drop into the passage that separates them. An animated and well directed fire was commenced from the islands, and warmly returned by the enemy. The northern division having been driven by the ebb tide within a short distance of the east island, soon became disabled in their oars, and considerably increased its distance, while the attention of the two islands was principally directed to the southern division, which came with the tide, and with almost unexampled gallantry pushed to the attack; being however by the severity of the fire that was kept up, foiled in its intention of getting between the islands, when each island would be exposed to the fire of the other, it passed quickly to the westward of the west island, and pulling up on the northern side of that island, the defence of which was almost wholly dependent on the flanking fire of the east island, made another determined effort to land. This appears to have been the critical period of the day, and the discharge of grape shot from the islands was proportionate to the danger; the entire side of the commodore of this division’s vessel was battered in, and she sunk; the others of the division beaten and disabled, retreated to their companions, and being reduced to the number of 47, they all retreated to La Hogue, amidst the deriding taunts and huzzas of the English, 400 of whom, with about 50 pieces of cannon, most of which were of a small calibre, and placed in works constructed by themselves, by vanquishing the advanced guard of the army of England, with the loss of 1100 killed, drowned, and wounded, dissipated the terrors of a French invasion. The action lasted two hours and ten minutes, during which time there were upwards of 100 pieces of cannon firing on the islands; notwithstanding which the loss on our side was only one killed and two wounded. English Mil. Dict.

MARDIKERS, or Topasses, a mixed breed of Dutch, Portuguese, Indians, and other nations, incorporated with the Dutch at Batavia, in the East Indies. Mardikers, in all probability, derive their name from some original adventurers, who left a place, called Mardike, about four miles from Dunkirk, and formerly subject to, or forming part of the seventeen United Provinces. When the Dutch took possession of that territory which is named Batavia, these adventurers were perhaps the leading party, and from their being called Mardikers, the natives in those quarters insensibly attached the term to all persons of European descent, or connection. All, in fact, who wear hats are distinguished among turban-nations by the appellation of Topasses, and Mardikers, and from that circumstance are confounded in the term, with respect to Batavia. Eng. Dict.

There is a mistake in this--the word tope signifies a gun, as well as a hat; those who carried guns instead of spears, were called topasses; the topasses of the Malabar coast, where in fact they were first embodied by the Portuguese, wore no hats, but turbans, and carried matchlocks or topes; a house in which guns are kept is called tope kannah.

MARECHAL de camp, Fr. a military rank which existed during the French monarchy. The person invested with it was a general officer, and ranked next to a lieutenant-general. It was his duty to see the army properly disposed of in camp or quarters, to be present at all the movements that were made; to be the first to mount his charger, and the last to quit him. He commanded the left in all attacks. The appointment, under this distinction, was first created by Henry the fourth in 1598.

MARECHAL-general des camps et armées du roi, Fr. A post of high dignity and trust, which, during the French monarchy, was annexed to the rank of Maréchal de France. Military writers differ with respect to the privileges, &c. which belonged to this appointment; it is, however, generally acknowleged, that the general officer who held it, was entrusted with the whole management of a siege, being subordinate only to the constable, or to any other Maréchal de France, who was his senior in appointment.

MARECHAL-géneral des logis de l’armée, Fr. This appointment, which existed during the old French government, and has since been replaced by the chef de l’etat-major, corresponds with that of quarter-master general in the British service.

MARECHAL de bataille, Fr. a military rank, which once existed in France, but was suppressed before the revolution, or rather confined to the body guards. An officer, belonging to that corps, received it as an honorary title. Its original functions, &c. with respect to general service, sunk in the appointments of maréchal de camp, and major-général. It was first created by Louis the XIIIth.

MARECHAL-general des logis de la cavalerie, Fr. This appointment took place under Charles the IXth in 1594. He had the chief direction of every thing which related to the French cavalry.

MARECHAL des logis dans la cavalerie, Fr. The quarter-master of a troop of horse was so called in the French service. In the old system every infantry regiment had one marechal des logis; two were attached to each company of the gendarmes: each troop of light horse had likewise two; and every company of musqueteers had eight.

MARECHAL des logis de l’artillerie, Fr. An appointment which existed in France before the revolution, and which was in the gift of the grand master of the ordnance. This officer always accompanied the army on service, and was under the immediate orders of the commanding officer of the artillery.

MARECHAL des logis pour les vivres, Fr. a person belonging to the quarter-master general’s department, so called in the old French service.

La MARECHALE, Fr. Marshal’s lady i. e. wife, was so called in France. We have already mentioned la colonelle, &c. This practice has indeed, of late, obtained in England, but not in the unlimited manner which prevailed among the French. We use it merely to distinguish two ladies of the same name and family, or neighborhood, viz. Mrs. Johnson, and Mrs. colonel Johnson; meaning thereby that the latter is the wife or widow of colonel Johnson.

MARECHAUSSEES de France, Fr. A species of military police, which has long existed in France. During the French monarchy there were 31 companies of Maréchaussées à cheval, or mounted police-men. After twenty years service the individuals who belonged to this establishment were entitled to the privileges of invalid corps, being considered as a part of the gendarmerie.

These companies were first formed for the purpose of preserving public tranquillity, and were distributed in the different provinces of the kingdom. They consisted of provosts-generals, lieutenants, exempts, brigadiers, sub-brigadiers, and horsemen. This useful body of men was first formed under Philip the first, in 1060: they were afterwards suppressed, and again re-established in 1720, as constituting a part of the gendarmerie of France.

The uniform of the Maréchaussées, or mounted police men, consisted of royal blue cloth for the coat, with red cuffs and linings; the waistcoat of chamoy-color, lined with white serge; a cloak lined with red serge, the buttons of plated silver placed in rows of three each, with intervals between them; horseman’s sleeves, with six silver loops with tassels. The brigadiers and sub-brigadiers, had silver lace one inch broad upon their sleeves; their cloaks were made of blue cloth with red cuffs, and they wore silver laced hats. The private horsemen wore bandeleers.

There were other companies of Maréchaussées, who were particularly distinguished from the thirty-one we have mentioned. Such, for instance, as that of the constable, called the gendarmerie.

MARECHAUSSEES de France, camps, et armées du roi, Fr. That which was under the immediate direction of the provost-general of the isle of France, and that which belonged to the mint.

The first of these companies is said to have been formed under the first race of French kings: the second by Francis the first; and the third by Louis XIII. There were, besides, several small bodies of troops, composed of officers, and soldiers who had served, that remained stationary in the principal towns to assist the civil magistrates. Those in Paris consisted of three companies; the company belonging to the lieutenant criminel de Robe-Courte, or to that particular court of judicature which was superintended by the prevost de la Maréchaussée, and which Charles the IXth attached to the gendarmerie: the independent company of mounted police, called Guet à Cheval; and the company of the police or foot patrole, called Guet à Pied, which was again subdivided into two companies, in order that one might do the duty of the quays. These companies were under the immediate direction of the secretary of state for the interior department of Paris. The guet de nuit, or night patrole, seems to have been first established by Clotaire the second. The commanding officer of the patrole, or chevalier duguet, during the reign of St. Louis was called milesgueti.

MARENGO, a plain and village in Italy, about one league distant from Tortona, so called. These spots have been rendered memorable in military history by the obstinate and decisive engagement which took place on the 14th of June, 1800, between the Austrians, commanded by general field marshal Melas; and the republican French army, under the direction and personal guidance of Bonaparte, the first consul. According to a very recent publication, translated from the French of Joseph Petit, horse grenadier in the consular guard, the effective number of each army was nearly as follows: the French army, at the moment the battle commenced, was computed from forty to forty-five thousand men, of which three thousand were cavalry: there were besides, from twenty-five to thirty pieces of cannon, in which were included two companies of light artillery: the Austrian army, according to the accounts of the best informed persons, contained from fifty-five to sixty thousand men, including the reinforcements which had just arrived from Genoa. From 15 to 18,000 of these were cavalry. The cannon amounted to fourscore pieces and upwards, two hundred ammunition waggons, well provided, besides an immense train of army implements, stores, and equipage. The French were extremely deficient in the latter articles, having been obliged for want of caissons, to put their ammunition upon tumbrils drawn by oxen.

The loss on both sides was enormous; that of the French was rendered more serious to the republic, by the death of general Desaix, to whose intrepidity, at a most critical juncture, the success of the day, and even the personal safety of Bonaparte were unquestionably owing. This admirable young officer, (for even his enemies pay homage to his virtues and talents) was called by the French and Austrian soldiers, guerrier sans peur et sans rèproche: an irreproachable and undaunted warrior. Without entering into a minute detail of this memorable action, we shall so far trespass upon the limited arrangements of our work, as to extract a passage from another French publication, which has been written by citizen Foudras, and may be found in the English translation from which we have already quoted:--

“It has already been shewn with what obstinacy both armies fought, (see page 64 of Petit’s narrative) four times were the French driven back, four times did they return to the charge, and advance against the Austrians. At the very instant when the consul, surrounded by hostile shot, was reanimating his almost exhausted troops, general Desaix darted with impetuosity amidst the Austrian battalions, when he received his death wound from a musquet ball. He had only time to utter the following words to the son of the consul Lebrun, in whose arms he expired:--“Go and tell the first consul, that I die with regret in not having done enough to live in the memory of posterity!” See page 192, of Foudras’s Biographical Notice.

CHASSE-Marée, Fr. The term means literally a Ripier, or man who brings fish from the sea-coasts to sell in the inland parts; but it has frequently been used to signify the cart or carriage itself on which he sits. According to the French construction of it, it may serve for several purposes, particularly for the speedy conveyance of small bodies of troops. It consists of a four wheel carriage, of equal height with a common axle-tree, having a platform sufficiently elevated to suffer the fore wheels to pass under it when on the lock. In the centre of this platform is an upright back, with a seat on each side, resembling the seat of an Irish car; so that about six soldiers might sit on each side, back to back. On the platform, and attached to the axle-tree, nearly at each corner, are four stout stumps on knee-hinges, that allow them to turn down flat on the platform, or to be fixed upright when they serve, by a crutch which fits into a hole as a rest for rifles, or for a piece of horse light artillery; on the crutch being taken out it fits into the hole after the manner of a swivel on board ship.

MARGA SEERSHA, Ind. a month which partly agrees with October.

MARRIAGE. It is generally understood in the British service, that no soldier can marry without the previous knowlege and consent of his captain, or commanding officer. There is not, however, any specific regulation on this head. The regulations respecting the marriages of officers and soldiers in the old French service, were extremely rigid.

MARIN, Fr. Any thing appertaining to the sea. Avoir le pied marin, to have sea-legs, or to be able to stand the motion of a vessel in rough water, and to go through the different functions of navigation. Marin is likewise used to distinguish a sea-faring man, (homme de mer) from Marinier, which literally means a sailor.

La MARINE. The French navy is so called.

MARINE, implies, in general, the whole navy of a state or kingdom, comprehending all the dock yards, and the officers, artificers, seamen, soldiers, &c. employed therein, as well as the shipping employed by the merchants for military or commercial purposes; together with whatever relates to navigation, ship-building, sailors, and marines.

The history of the marine affairs of any one state is a very comprehensive subject; much more that of all nations. Not only the preservation of that share of commerce which the British possess, but its future advancement, and even the very being of Britain, as an independent nation, depend on the good condition and wise regulation of the affairs of the marine, than on the superiority of its naval power. The Delphic oracle being consulted by the Athenians, on the formidable armament and innumerable forces of Xerxes, returned for answer, “that they must seek their safety in wooden walls.” To which the British affirm, that whenever their nation in particular has recourse to her floating bulwarks for her security and defence, she will find wealth, strength, and glory, to be the happy and infallible consequence.

MARINES, or MARINE FORCES, a body of soldiers, raised for the sea-service, and trained to fight either in a naval engagement or in an action on shore. Officers of marines may sit on courts-martial with officers of the land forces. See British MUTINY ACT, Sect. 13.

The great service which this useful corps has frequently rendered, entitles it to a fair record in every publication that treats of military matters. In the course of former wars the marines have distinguished themselves by great perseverance, strict attention to duty, and unquestionable valor. At the siege of Belisle they rose into considerable notice, although they had, at that period, been only recently raised, and were scarcely competent to military discipline. When the marines are at sea, they form part of the ship’s crew, and soon acquire a knowlege of nautical tactics. Their officers are directed by the admiralty, (under whose immediate control they serve,) to encourage them in every disposition to become able seamen; but no sea officer has the power of ordering them to go aloft against their inclination. During an engagement at sea, they are of considerable service in scouring the decks of the enemy, by firing musquetry from the poop, round top, &c. and when they have been long enough out to obtain good sea-legs, they are preferable to mere seamen, especially when the enemy attempts to board; in which case the marines can fraise the poop, quarterdeck, forecastle, &c. with their fixed bayonets, and prevent the completion of their design. In making this observation, we are necessarily led to recommend a more frequent use of the pike. Not only the seamen, but the marines, should be well exercised in the management of that weapon. The interior regulations for the several marine corps, have been well digested, and do credit to the establishment. If any fault can be found on that head, it must relate to the slops, which are given in too large a quantity, considering the little room that a marine must occupy on board. No commissions are bought or sold in the marines; every individual rises according to his seniority; but a marine officer never can arrive at the highest rank or pay which exists upon the marine establishment; one general, one lieutenant general, one major general, three colonels, and one lieutenant colonel commandant, being naval officers with those additional distinctions. It is not within our province to enter into the wisdom or the injustice, not to say ignorance of that policy, which with a series of indisputable claims to notice, still keeps the marine establishment upon the lowest footing of military honor and reward.

The marine forces have of late years been considerably augmented; and we make no doubt but they will continue to be so, from the many confessed advantages which are derived from the peculiar nature of their service. They at present consist of 140 companies, which are stationed in the following manner in three principal divisions:

|| _Ports- || _Ply- Chatham|| mouth_ || mouth_ companies|| companies|| companies 1st| 71st|| 2d | 72d || 3d | 73d 4th| 74th|| 5th| 75th|| 6th| 76th 7th| 77th|| 8th| 78th|| 9th| 79th 10th| 80th||11th| 81st||12th| 82d 13th| 83d ||14th| 84th||15th| 85th 16th| 86th||17th| 87th||18th| 88th 19th| 89th||20th| 90th||21st| 91st 22d | 92d ||23d | 93d ||24th| 94th 25th| 95th||26th| 96th||27th| 97th 28th| 98th||29th| 99th||30th|100th 31st|101st||32d |102d ||33d |103d 34th|104th||35th|105th||36th|106th 37th|107th||38th|108th||39th|109th 40th|110th||41st|111th||42d |112th 43d |113th||44th|114th||45th|115th 46th|116th||47th|117th||48th|118th 49th|119th||50th|120th||51st|121st 52d |122d ||53d |123d ||54th|124th 65th|125th||55th|126th||57th|127th 68th|128th||56th|129th||58th|130th | ||59th|131st||60th|132d | ||61st|133d ||62d |134th | ||63d |135th||64th|136th | ||66th|137th||67th|138th | ||69th|139th||70th|140th ----+-----++----+-----++----+----- 40 comp. || 50 comp. || 50 comp.

The siege of St. Jean D’Acre, fabulous as the defence of it may hereafter appear from the extraordinary means which were made use of to reduce the place, and the more extraordinary exertions which succeeded in preserving it, will long be remembered, by the two first rival nations in Europe, and will form a brilliant part of the records of the Turkish empire. When posterity shall read the account, it may doubt the relation in its full extent of wonderful hardihood on both sides; but it will rest satisfied, that the garrison of St. Jean D’Acre would not have resisted the first approach of Bonaparte’s army, had not a handful of British marines stood in each breach his soldiers made, and communicated courage and perseverance to the natives of the place.

It has already been remarked, that the marines are nominally under the command of three general officers, who are admirals, or vice-admirals in the navy, and three colonels belonging to the sea service. The marines themselves never rise beyond the rank of colonel commandant in their own corps, but they may be general officers with respect to the army at large. According to the last printed list there is one colonel commandant, properly so called, with the rank of major general in the army, three colonels commandant and captains, two of whom have the rank of major general in the army; three second colonels commandant and captains, two of whom have the rank of major general in the army; nine lieutenant colonels and captains, six of whom have the rank of colonel in the army, and three that of lieutenant colonel; nine majors and captains, one of whom has the rank of major general in the army, and eight that of lieutenant colonel; making together twenty-five field officers, who are marines properly so called; and six superior officers, who belong to the navy.

To these may be added 116 captains of companies, two of whom have the rank of lieutenant colonel in the army, and one is lieutenant colonel by brevet; 24 captain lieutenants, 256 first lieutenants, 276 second lieutenants, six adjutants, and three quarter masters. The list of those field officers who have been permitted to retire upon full pay, contains one colonel, one lieutenant colonel with the rank of major general, one major with the rank of major by brevet, in the army, 15 captains, 10 with the rank of major by brevet, and one with that of lieutenant colonel by brevet; eight first lieutenants, and three second lieutenants. There are four reduced field officers, two of whom have the rank of major general in the army, and one that of lieutenant colonel; 92 captains, one with the rank of captain in the army, one as field officer in the India company’s service, and nine with the rank of major by brevet; six reduced captain lieutenants, 162 reduced first lieutenants, four of whom have civil employments; 136 second lieutenants, one of whom has a civil employment; and one reduced adjutant. There is one paymaster to the marine establishment, who does not hold any military situation.

The American marine corps, like the British, is a separate establishment; the true system for a military establishment, would be to have the whole force consist only of horse and foot; and all instructed alike in the uses of small arms and artillery; then a selection of artillerists and marines could always be made by skill and not as now by chance.

MARK, a note, character, &c. set upon a thing.

MARK also denotes money of account. The English mark is 13_s._ 4_d._; among the Saxons it was equivalent to 7_s._ 6_d._ English money. It is also a money of account in Scotland, and formerly a silver coin, being equal to 13_d._ and one third English.

Gunpowder MARKS. The different sorts of gunpowder are distinguished by the following marks on the heads of the barrels. All gunpowder for service is mixed in proportions according to its strength, so as to bring it as much as possible to a mean and uniform force. This sort of powder is marked with a blue L. G. and the figure ¹⁄₂, or with F. G. and the figure 3, whose mean force is from 150 to 160 of the eprouvette. This is the powder used for practice, for experiments, and for service. The white L. G. or F. G. is a second sort of powder of this quality. It is sometimes stronger, but not so uniform as the blue L. G. It is therefore generally used in filling shells, or such other things as do not require accuracy. The red L. G. F. G. denotes powder entirely made at the king’s mills, with the coal burnt in cylinders, and is used at present only in particular cases, and in comparisons, and to mix with other sorts to bring them to a mean force. The figures 1, 2, or 3, denote that the powder is made from saltpetre obtained from damaged gunpowder; 4, 5, or 6, from saltpetre obtained from the grough. See pages 123, 124, of the Little Bombardier.

MARK to shoot at. A round or square piece of wood, which is generally painted in red and white circles, and has a black spot in the centre called the bull’s eye. Soldiers should be frequently practised in shooting at a mark. At the commencement of the French revolution, particularly in 1792, previous to the battle of Jemmappe, the inhabitants of the different towns exercised themselves several times during the course of the day, in firing at a mark. The national guards did the same. By means of this laudable practice several expert marksmen were formed. We need scarcely add, that the advantages which the service in general derived from their skill, has been too manifest to be denied. It must be evident to every military man that corps of light cavalry, mounted light artillery, and numerous small bodies of marksmen, capable of acting together, or on detached and desultory duties, would answer all the purposes of home defence.

MARK time.--To mark time is to move each leg alternately in quick or ordinary time, without gaining ground. This is frequently practiced when a front file or column has opened too much, in order to afford the rear an opportunity of getting up; and sometimes to let the head of a column disengage itself, or a body of troops file by, &c.

Knights of St. MARK. An order of knighthood which formerly existed in the republic of Venice, under the protection of St. Mark the evangelist.

To be MARKED. Marshal Saxe, in his reveries, proposes that every soldier should be marked in his right hand to prevent desertion. He recommends the composition which is used by the Indians; and grounds the propriety of his plan upon the custom which prevailed among the Romans, who marked their soldiers with a hot iron. We mention this as a suggestion grounded upon good authority: but we by no means recommend it as an adoption which would be palatable.

MARKSMEN, men expert at hitting a mark.

Light-armed MARKSMEN, men that are armed and accoutred for very active and desultory service. See RIFLEMEN.

Austrian volunteer MARKSMEN, a corps which has been formed in the hereditary dominions of the emperor of Germany, and is daily increasing by recruits and volunteers from the Tyrol, &c. The success which has uniformly attended the French Tirailleurs in all their actions, has induced other nations to pay great attention to the formation of similar corps.

MARLINS, in artillery, are tarred white skains, or long wreaths or lines of untwisted hemp, dipped in pitch or tar, with which cables and other ropes are wrapped round, to prevent their fretting and rubbing in the blocks or pullies through which they pass. The same serves in artillery upon ropes used for rigging gins, usually put up in small parcels called skains.

MARON, Fr. a piece of brass or copper, about the size of a crown, on which the hours for going the rounds were marked, in the old French service. Several of these were put into a small bag, and deposited in the hands of the major of the regiment, out of which they were regularly drawn by the serjeants of companies, for the officers belonging to them. The hours and half hours of the night were engraved upon each maron in the following manner--Ronde de dix heures, de dix heures et demie. The ten o’clock rounds, or those of the half hour past ten.

These pieces were numbered 1, 2, &c. to correspond with the several periods of the nights; so that the officers for instance, who was to go the ten o’clock rounds, had as many marons marked 10, as there were posts or guard-houses which he was directed to visit. Thus on reaching the first, after having given the mot, or watchword to the corporal, (who, whilst he receives it, must keep the naked point of his sword or bayonet close to the chest of the person who gives it) he delivers into his hands the maron marked 1. These marons being pierced in the middle, are successively strung by the different corporals upon a piece of wire, from which they slide into a box called boîte aux rondes, or box belonging to the rounds. This box is carried next morning to the major, who keeps the key: and who on opening it, can easily ascertain whether the rounds have been regularly gone, by counting the different marons, and seeing them successively strung. This is certainly a most excellent invention to prevent a neglect of duty in officers, or non-commissioned officers.

MARON d’artifice, Fr. a species of firework, which is made with a piece of pasteboard in the shape of a parallelogram, one side of which is as five to three, so that fifteen squares equal among themselves may be made, three on one side, and five on the other; these are folded into the form of a die or cube, and filled with gunpowder. The effect produced by this firework is extremely beautiful.

MARQUE, or Letters of Marque, in military affairs, are letters of reprisal, granting the people of one state liberty to make reprisals on those of another. See LETTERS of MARQUE.

MARQUEE, a word corrupted from the French marquise, signifying a tent or cover made of strong canvas or Russia-duck, which is thrown over another tent, and serves to keep out rain. Its primitive etymology may be traced to marquis, or marchio, whence marchers, and marches.

The complete weight of a marquée is 1 cwt. 17lbs. ridge pole, 7 feet; standard 8 feet.

MARQUER le pas, to mark time.

MARQUER un camp, Fr. to prick out the lines of an encampment.

MARQUIS, marquess, marchio, margrave, a title of honor given by letter patent to a person who holds a middle rank between the dignity of a duke and that of an earl. This word, like margrave, is derived from the high Dutch, or from the French marche, a limit, as the guard of the frontiers was entrusted to a marquis. The title itself is originally French, and was first known under Charlemagne. King Richard the second first introduced the dignity of marquis among the British, by creating Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford, marquis of Dublin; but it was a title without any office annexed to it.

MARQUISE, Fr. See MARQUEE.

Tendre une MARQUISE, Fr. to pitch a marquée.

MARQUISE, Fr. This word likewise means a species of fusée volante, which see.

MARS. According to the heathen mythology, the god of war was so called. The French frequently use the word in a figurative sense, viz. Les travaux de Mars, the labors or exploits of Mars; le métier de Mars, the military profession.

MARSAGLIA; near Turin in Italy, at the battle of 24th September, 1693, Catinat defeated prince Eugene and the duke of Savoy; this battle and place are memorable for being the first at which bayonets were used at the ends of musquets, and to this the French owed the victory.

The MARSEILLOIS, or Marseilles hymn, a national march adopted by the French during the course of their revolution, and since regularly played in their armies when they go to battle. It is frequently accompanied, or rather succeeded by the Cá Ira, a quick lively tune; the former being calculated for slow or ordinary time, and the latter for quick movements.

MARSHAL, Field-MARSHAL, in its primitive signification means an officer who has the care and charge of horses; but it is now applied to officers who have very different employments.--In a military sense, it means the commander in chief of all the forces. It is likewise given as an honorary rank to general officers who have no immediate command. See GENERAL.

MARSHAL of France, was an officer of the greatest dignity in the French army. It was first established by Philip-August, in the year 1185.

The French military institutions under the empire, has an establishment of marshals, which is a title of military honor given to generals of pre-eminent merit.

PROVOST-MARSHAL, an executive officer, whose duty is to see punishments put in force, when soldiers are condemned to death, or are to be otherwise chastised. Every army is provided with a provost-marshal general, who has several deputies under him. By the last general regulations it has been ordained, that in case the army should take the field in Great Britain, a deputy provost-marshal will be appointed to each district. The provost, under those circumstances, will frequently make the tour of the camp, and its environs, and will have orders to seize such persons as are committing disorders.

The provost-marshal will be particularly directed, in making his rounds, to execute the awful punishment which the military law awards against plundering and marauding.

And in order to assist him in the discovery of such persons as may be guilty of those offences, the regiments encamped nearest villages, will send frequent patroles into them, to apprehend such persons, as may be there without passes, or who having passes, may behave improperly.

If any soldier is base enough to attempt to desert to the enemy, he will suffer immediate death.

Any person forcing a safeguard will suffer death.

These punishments will attach equally to the followers of the camp, as to soldiers, and must be explained to them by the officers commanding the regiments by which such followers are employed.

The articles of war have decreed punishments for the following offences:--

Death is the absolute punishment for cowardice, or misbehaviour before an enemy, or speaking words inducing others to do the like.

For mutiny, or concealing a mutiny, desertion, sleeping on a post, or quitting it before relieved, plundering after victory, quitting a post in battle, compelling an officer to abandon or give up his post, or persuading others to do the like, corresponding with an enemy, and striking or refusing to obey any superior officer in the execution of his duty, a court-martial may inflict death, or any other punishment it may judge adequate to the offence.

The crimes of persuading others to desert, of concealing, assisting, or relieving an enemy; of being absent from the troop or company a soldier belongs to, absence from duty, drunkenness, and false alarms, are punishable at the discretion of a general or regimental court-martial.

All officers in the command of guards or detachments are enjoined to give assistance to the provost-marshal in the execution of his duty; and any officer or soldier impeding him in the same, or offering him any insult, will receive the most exemplary punishment.

MARSHY ground, les marais, Fr. As it may be frequently necessary to convey heavy ordnance, &c. over marshy ground, and sometimes indeed to erect batteries upon it, the following method has been recommended for those purposes:--

In the first place, a firm and solid road must be made, in order to convey, with safety, the different materials which may be wanted for the construction of the battery, and along which the men may securely drag the various pieces of ordnance. This road must be ten feet high at least.

If the marsh or bog should not be very deep, let a bed or platform, consisting of fascines, and disposed according to the direction of the road, be constructed between two rows of thick saucissons, that are secured and fixed in the earth with strong stakes. This platform must be two thirds as thick as the bog is deep, and contain 12 feet in breadth. Spread hurdles over the level surface of this platform, and then make another bed or covering with fascines, ten feet long, and disposed according to the breadth of the road, taking care to bind their ends, &c. well together by means of stakes, which must be driven through the hurdles and the lower bed. Let this second surface be sufficiently covered with earth and straw, to secure the fascines, and to render the road solid and compact.

If the road should appear unsafe after these precautions, it must be made wider and deeper.

If the marsh or bog be very deep, you must construct several beds or surfaces of fascines, in the manner already mentioned, taking care to make the top equal to the breadth of the road, and capable of supporting the weight of a waggon or carriage. The ground for the epaulement belonging to the platforms, their recoil backwards, and the path to the magazines, must be rendered firm and solid after the same manner. On each side of this epaulement you must throw up a berm or path, measuring three feet in front, and as much on the sides.

You will collect the earth, &c. in the usual way for the construction of batteries on rocks, and mask your artificers in like manner.

MARTEAU d’armes, Fr. an offensive weapon, so called from its resemblance to a hammer.

MARTIAL-Law, is the law of war, which entirely depends on the arbitrary power of the commander of the army when martial law is declared; and then the law of war is greatly influenced by the situation where war is carried on; by the conduct of the people in whose country the war exists: there are certain principles of humanity and honor, which all nations observe in time of war, which have the force of law; as the law of truces, the sacred character of ambassadors, &c. The laws that relate to the army are also branches of martial law.

MARTINET. A word frequently used to signify a strict disciplinarian, who sometimes gives officers and soldiers unnecessary trouble. It is supposed to have taken its origin from an adjutant of that name, who was in high repute, as a drill officer, during the reign of Louis the XIVth.

MARTINET, Fr. A small discipline, or cat o’ nine tails, fixed to the end of a wooden handle, which schoolmasters use to punish refractory or idle boys. This affords us another path, and perhaps a surer one, than the surname already quoted, to find out the real origin of Martinet in a military sense, more especially as it is particularly indicative of the severity that is sometimes practised by what is, ridiculously enough, called a tip-top adjutant.

MARTINGAL, (Martingale, Fr.) a thong of leather, which is fastened to one end of the girths under the belly of a horse, and at the other end to the mussroll, to keep him from rearing.

MASHKAWAR, Ind. Monthly accounts.

A MASK, Fr. in field fortification, (une masque.) It sometimes happens, that a ditch or fossé must be dug in an exposed situation; in this case it will be absolutely necessary for the artificers and workmen to get under cover by means of masking themselves in such a manner as to answer the double purpose of executing their immediate object, and of deceiving the enemy with respect to the real spot they occupy.

To effect the latter purpose, several masks must be hastily thrown up, whilst the men are employed behind one; by which means the enemy will either mistake the real point, or be induced to pour his fire in several directions, and thus weaken its effect.

A mask is generally six feet high. Bags made of wad or wool are too expensive on these occasions; nor are gabions, stuffed with fascines, seven or eight feet high to be preferred; for if the fascines be tied together they will leave spaces between them in the gabions; and if they are not bound together, they will be so open at top as to admit shot, &c.

In order to obviate these inconveniences, the following method has been proposed:--place two chandeliers, each seven feet high, and two broad, between the uprights, after which fill up the vacant spaces with fascines nine feet high, upon six inches diameter. One toise and a half of epaulement will require two chandeliers, and 60 fascines, to mask it.

The engineer, or artillery officer places himself behind this mask, and draws his plan.

As you must necessarily have earth, &c. to complete your work, these articles may be brought in shovels, sacks, or baskets; and if the quarter from whence you draw them should be exposed to the enemy’s fire, cover that line, as well as the line of communication, between the trenches, or the parallels, with a mask.

If you cannot procure earth and fascines, make use of sacks stuffed with wool, &c. and let their diameters be three feet, and their length likewise three, and let the outside be frequently wetted to prevent them from catching fire. See pages 828, 829, 830, Vol. ii. of the Aide-Memoire a l’Usage des Officiers d’Artillerie de France.

To MASK, (Masquer, Fr.) To cover any particular post or situation, for the purposes of attack or defence. In ambuscade, a battery is said to be masked, when its outward appearance is such as not to create any suspicion or mistrust in a reconnoitring or approaching enemy. A town or fortress, a battery, or the head of a bridge, may likewise be said to be masked, when a superior force sits down before them, and keeps the garrison in awe. This is frequently done, in order to render the advantages of such a place or hold ineffectual, while an army acts in its neighborhood, or marches by.

MASQUER un passage, Fr. To block up any road or avenue through which an army might attempt to march.

MASSALGIES, Ind. Persons employed in India as porters or messengers. Massalgies, coolies, and palankeen bearers, are allowed a certain batta when they travel. Mussal is a torch; and mussalgee a torch bearer, a person who carries a flambeau to give light.

MASSE, Fr. A species of stock-purse, which during the French monarchy was lodged in the hands of the regimental treasurer or paymaster, for every serjeant, corporal anspessade, drummer, and soldier. The sum retained for each serjeant was vingt deniers per day; and ten deniers for each of the other ranks, according to the establishment, not the effective number of each battalion. Out of these stoppages a settled and regular masse, or stock-purse, was made up, and at the end of every month it was paid into the hands of the major or officer entrusted with the interior management of the corps, and was then appropriated to defray the expence of clothing the different regiments, and lodged in the hands of the directors or inspector-general of clothing.

That part of the masse, or stock-purse, which remained in the major’s hands, and which was destined for the dress of the recruits, as well as for repairs of the regimental clothing, &c. could never be disposed of, or appropriated, without the knowlege and concurrence of the colonels commandant of regiments, the lieutenant-colonels, and other superior officers of the corps.

To this end it was customary for the major to call the commanding officers and oldest captains of the regiments together, in order to lay before them the actual state of the corps, to select some officer who should superintend the repairing of whatever was found necessary, and defray the lodging-money, &c. After this statement has been examined, the major must deliver in a faithful account of all the regimental debts that have been incurred; he must further explain how the last amount of the masse, or stock-purse, has been laid out, and specify the actual sum in hand, that a proper arrangement may be made, and that the repairs in the clothing, and the expences attending quarters, &c. may be duly ascertained.

The major was, on these occasions, directed to give his advice, with due respect and deference to his superior officers, and to suggest the best and cheapest method of fitting out and embellishing the regiment, carefully adhering to that system of œconomy which prevents it from running into debt. The statement of the several articles, with their appropriate expenditure, was specifically drawn out, and counter-signed by the colonel-commandant, and two or three of the oldest captains of companies. Their signatures served as vouchers for the major. By these means all internal cavils and disputes were obviated; the interior œconomy of the corps was well conducted, and a seasonable check was kept upon those officers who had the management of the regiment. Every thing, besides, came in a regular form before the inspector-general, under whose eyes all the accounts were ultimately laid; whether they regarded the recruiting service, or the clothing and distribution of necessaries.

MASSE du regiment Royal Artillerie, Fr. This corps, like other regiments in the old French service, had its masse, or stock-purse, formed by a certain stoppage or allowance for each serjeant, and for each master artificer in the corps of workmen; and for each corporal, anspessade, cannonier, bombardier, sapper, miner, under-master, artificer, apprentice, cadet, private artillery-man, and drummer. These sums formed an aggregate masse, or stock-purse, which was regularly submitted to the director general of the school of artillery, and was laid out for the clothing of the different battalions, &c.

MASSE des compagnies Franches d’infanterie, Fr. The masse belonging to these companies was formed in the same manner, and was under the control of the director or inspector-general.

MASSE de la cavalerie et des dragons, Fr. Every brigadier, horseman, carabineer, hussar, dragoon, trumpet and cymbal player, and drummer, belonging to the old French cavalry, was subject to a certain stoppage from the allowances that were made, over and above their regular subsistence, for the purpose of forming their masse, or stock-purse. This money remained in the hands of the regimental treasurer, who accounted for its application at the end of every month, and delivered a statement into the hands of the officer who was entrusted with its distribution; the same having been vouched for by the colonels-general of cavalry and dragoons.

In addition to these extracts from a French work, it may not be thought superfluous to give the following more specific explanation of what was comprehended under the term of regimental masse, or stock-purse, that was made out of stoppages.

There were three sorts of masses, or regimental stock-purses in the old French service; two of which were sanctioned by authority, or the king’s order. The third was confined to the interior management of each corps, but never appeared in any public regulation. On this account it obtained the appellation of masse noire, or dark and unknown.

The first masse directed by government to be attended to in every regiment, was called masse de linge et chaussure, or stock of necessaries, such as linen, shoes, &c. This masse was made up by means of a certain proportion of the recruit’s bounty (amounting to 15 livres) which was kept in hand, and by the retention of a part of the daily pay of each soldier. The money, thus stopped, was destined to keep up the soldier’s regular stock of shoes and breeches, as the king only allowed him one pair of each of those articles every year. He was likewise enabled thereby to provide himself with stockings, shirts, cravats or stocks, handkerchiefs, and gaiters; for every French soldier was obliged to produce at each monthly inspection of necessaries, one good pair of shoes, two shirts, two stocks or cravats, (one white and the other black,) two handkerchiefs, three pair of gaiters; one of which was to be white for parade duty, one of black worsted to mount ordinary guards, and one of black canvas for marching.

At the expiration of three months a regular account was made out of what remained unappropriated of the 15 livres, and of the masse in general, after the soldier had been supplied with the above specified articles. This statement was stuck up in every barrack-room, exhibiting the balance due to each man, who, on his side, was obliged to have a written counterpart, or schedule, of all the different articles, and of the exact sum in hand. When the captain of the company inspected the necessaries, each soldier was directed to produce this schedule, and to repeat its contents by heart.

Whenever it so happened, that 15 livres could not be kept in hand out of the soldier’s bounty, he was permitted to work, the instant he could, with propriety, be dismissed the drill; for which indulgence, and in order to keep his firelock and accoutrements in good condition, he was obliged to pay six livres.

The second masse was for purposes of cleanliness and military appearance. This masse grew out of the surplus of two or three livres, which was stopped out of the pay of the men that were permitted to work; and from a further stoppage of two deniers out of the daily pay of each soldier. Out of this masse the soldier was obliged to supply himself with pipe-clay or whiting, clothes brushes, shoe brushes, blacking, bees wax, emery, and hair powder, and powder bag, and to defray the expence of washing. He was likewise enabled thereby to pay a man for shaving. This man was attached to the company, and was called Frater, or Brother. The same practice prevails in most regiments belonging to the British service, with this difference, that there is not any direct authority to enforce the observance of it as a regulation.

In cavalry regiments, as in the infantry, the masses were formed by a stoppage of two or three livres out of the pay of those men that were allowed to work, and by the produce of the dung which was valued at two sols per day. There was likewise a further stoppage of two deniers out of the daily subsistence of each dragoon, by means of which he was regularly furnished with shovels, beesoms, and pitchforks for the stables.

The third masse (which, as we have already remarked, although distinguished by the appellation of masse noire, or dark and unknown, was still found indispensibly necessary for the interior management of each regiment) grew out of the surplus money that was given for discharges, (it being only required of each regiment to account to government for 100 livres per man) out of deaths and other casualties, and out of the money which had accumulated from men struck off the sick list. The regiment by means of this fund, (which may in some degree be considered in the same light that the stock-purse of a British regiment is,) made up the deficiency of the king’s bounty, which was seldom or ever found enough to answer the purposes of recruiting. The persons employed upon this service were accordingly paid out of the masse noire; which was further increased by certain contributions that the men, who were permitted to work, voluntarily gave, in addition to the six or seven livres already mentioned.

MASSE d’armes, Fr. a warlike weapon, which was formerly used. It consisted of a long pole with a large iron head.

MASSELOTTE, Fr. A French term which is used in foundery, signifying that superfluous metal which remains after a cannon or mortar has been cast, and which is sawed or filed off, to give the piece its proper form.

MASSIF, Fr. A short stick or rod, used by artificers in making cartridges.

MASSOOLAS, Ind. The most common and slightest boats made use of on the Coromandel coast.

MASSUE, Fr. a club.

MASTER at arms, in the marine, an officer appointed to teach the officers and crew of a ship of war the exercise of small arms; to confine prisoners, and plant centinels over them, and to superintend whatever relates to them during their confinement. He is also to observe, that the fire and lights are all extinguished, as soon as the evening gun is fired, except those that are permitted by proper authority, or under the inspection of centinels. It is likewise his duty to attend the gangway, when any boats arrive aboard, and search them carefully, together with their rowers, that no spirituous liquors may be conveyed into the ship, unless by permission of the commanding officer. In these several duties he is assisted by proper attendants, called his corporals, who also relieve the centinels, and one another, at certain periods.

MASTER gunner, in a ship of war, an officer appointed to take charge of the artillery and ammunition aboard, and to teach the men the exercise of the great guns. See GUNNER.

MASTER general of the ordnance. See ORDNANCE.

Baggage-MASTER and inspector of roads, an appointment in the British service.

Barrack-MASTER-general, an officer with the rank of a major general in the British army, vested with considerable powers. These powers were formerly exercised by the board of ordnance, but they were transferred to the barrack-master-general by the secretary at war on the 30th day of May, 1794. In 1795 the two warrants, whereby all matters relative to the government of barracks had been partially entrusted to the board of ordnance, and a barrack-master-general, were revoked, and the following rules, orders, powers, and directions were established in lieu thereof, in as much as regards the duties of the department entrusted to the barrack-master-general to the British forces.

It is the duty of the barrack-master-general to erect and keep in repair all barracks that are not in fortified places; and all supplies of barrack furniture, utensils, and other stores for the troops, are to be furnished by him. The accommodation for royal artillery in barracks is under the direction of the barrack-master-general, excepting at Woolwich, or wherever there may be a separate barrack for the artillery, or a fixed station for that corps.

The commanding officers in barracks are, in all matters relative to the accommodation, disposition, and supply of the troops stationed therein, to be under the direction of the barrack-master-general; and all applications and requisitions are to be made to him.

Whenever any damage, except from fair wear and tear, has been done to barrack buildings, or any of the furniture or utensils have been injured, destroyed, or embezzled, a just estimate must be formed by the barrack-master; and if his demand be not immediately paid by the commanding officer, it shall be verified by affidavit of the barrack-master, submitted to the commanding officer, and if the answer be not satisfactory, the barrack-master-general is to certify the amount of the expence of making good the said injury to the secretary at war, in order that he may direct the same to be charged against the regiment, or detachment concerned.

In order to prevent the inconveniencies and injury which might arise from officers making alterations in the barrack-rooms, &c. the barrack-master-general is directed to have the use, for which each room is intended, lettered on the door; and if any officer shall attempt to make any alteration in any room, or convert it to any purpose, other than is so specified, or remove any of the furniture belonging thereto, the barrack-master (who shall always be permitted to visit the rooms at seasonable hours, whenever he desires so to do,) shall represent the same to the commanding officer, and in case immediate attention is not paid thereto, the barrack-master is strictly commanded immediately to report it to the barrack-master-general. And when any room shall not be occupied, the same shall be locked up, and no part of the furniture be removed therefrom.

No officer, or barrack-master, is, upon any account, to make any alteration or repairs at any barrack, or cause any expence to be incurred in providing any article relative thereto, without the direction of the barrack-master-general first obtained for that purpose.

On the 25th of March, 24th of June, 23d of September, and 24th of December, in every year, regular returns are to be transmitted by the barrack-masters to the barrack-master-general, of the state of the barracks, and of the furniture and utensils, both in use and store, specifying the actual condition of each, and the manner in which the apartments of the barrack or barracks, under their care have been occupied for the three months preceding; which return shall be countersigned by the commanding officers, who are directed personally and diligently to inspect the same.

The barrack-master-general is to take care, that a proper quantity of good and sufficient firing, candles, and other stores, be provided for each barrack every year. And the same is to be duly delivered out to the troops by the respective barrack-masters, at such times, and in such proportions, as are specified in the general regulations. The deliveries are to be vouched, not only by certificates of the actual amount, but also by accurate returns, stating the number in every troop, company or detachment, present at each weekly delivery. The said certificates and returns are to be given under the hand of the commanding officer in the barracks, and to be transmitted with the accounts. And a return thereof is without delay to be transmitted by the several barrack-masters, who from thenceforth are to remain accountable for the same to the barrack-master-general.

Half-yearly accounts of expenditures, with general returns of the receipts and issues, and the necessary vouchers for the same, are to be made up to the 24th of June, and 24th of December, in each year, and to be transmitted, within fourteen days after the said periods, to the barrack-master-general, who is to examine and settle the same without delay.

The issue of forage to the cavalry, is to be made according to a prescribed regulation. The officer commanding in each of the cavalry barracks, where forage shall be issued, is to transmit to the barrack-master-general a weekly return of the number of horses for which it has been delivered; and also the name and rank of each officer, with the number of horses for which he has received rations of forage. And at such periods as shall be required, by the barrack-master-general, the said commanding officer shall transmit to him, a general statement of the quantity of forage received and actually issued to the troops, the said certificate to be according to such form as shall be prescribed by the barrack-master-general.

Whenever small beer is to be issued to troops in barrack, it can only be supplied by such persons as shall have been approved by the barrack-master-general; and the delivery is to be vouched by a weekly return from the commanding officer, stating the number to whom it has been issued. And at such periods as shall be required by the barrack-master-general, the said commanding officer is to transmit to him a general statement of the quantity of small beer actually issued to the troops; the said certificate to be according to such form, as shall be prescribed by the barrack-master-general.

Every instance of neglect or misconduct which may occur in the management of barracks, must be reported to the barrack-master-general by the several officers commanding in barracks; and on the representation being judged sufficiently weighty, an inspector is to be sent down for the specific purpose of seeing every matter of complaint removed.

The barrack-master-general is authorised to take cognizance of all matters relative to accommodation, disposition, and supply, of the troops stationed in barracks, reporting thereupon, whenever it may be requisite, to the secretary at war, for the king’s information. And all officers, and barrack-masters, are directed and enjoined to obey such orders and directions as the barrack-master-general shall find necessary to be given thereon.

The barrack-master-general is from time to time to receive imprests of money, for the current services of each year, upon estimates signed by him, and delivered into the office of the secretary at war. And at the end of each year, he shall make up and deliver into the said office, a general account of barrack expenditures for the preceding twelve months. The half-yearly accounts of the several barrack-masters, and the accounts of other persons to whom monies shall have been paid within the period on behalf of the barrack department (for the propriety, justness, and accuracy of which, as also for their strict conformity to the regulations, he shall be held responsible,) together with their acquittances, shall be the vouchers upon which the said general accounts shall be passed, and warrants shall be made out according to the royal sign manual. See pages 69 to 80, General Regulations.

Quarter-MASTER of the victuals. The person who had the chief care and management of the provisions belonging to an army was formerly so called. See PURVEYOR.

Scout-MASTER-general. A person, formerly so called, under whose direction all the scouts and army messengers were placed. The appointment does not exist at present.

MASULIT, a boat used in the East Indies, which is calked with moss.

MATCH, in artillery, a kind of rope slightly twisted, and prepared to retain fire for the use of the artillery, mines, fireworks, &c. Slow match is made of hemp or tow, spun on the wheel like cord, but very slack; and is composed of three twists, which are afterwards again covered with tow, so that the twists do not appear: lastly, it is boiled in the lees of old wine. This, when once lighted at the end, burns on gradually, without ever going out, till the whole be consumed. It is mounted on a lint stock.

Quick MATCH, used in artillery, made of three cotton strands drawn into lengths, and put into a kettle just covered with white wine vinegar, and then a quantity of saltpetre and mealed powder is put in it, and boiled till well mixed. Others put only saltpetre into water, and after that take it out hot, and lay it into a trough with some mealed powder, moistened with some spirits of wine, thoroughly wrought into the cotton by rolling it backwards and forwards with the hands; and when this is done, they are taken out separately, drawn through mealed powder, and dried upon a line. See LABORATORY.

MATCH.--The slow match used by the English is made by contract; one yard of it will burn about 8 hours. The French slow match is usually made by soaking light twisted white rope for three days in a strong lye. It burns about 3 feet in 6 hours.

Slow match was made at Gibraltar, during the last siege, in the following manner: eight ounces of saltpetre were put into a gallon of water, and just made to boil over a slow fire; strong blue paper was then wetted with the liquor, and hung to dry. When dry, each sheet was rolled up tight, and the outward edge pasted down, to prevent its opening: half a sheet, thus prepared, will burn 3 hours.

Quick MATCH Compositions.

Worsted Match.

Worsted 10 oz. Mealed powder 10 lbs. Spirits of wine 3 pints. Water 3 do. Isinglass ¹⁄₂ pint.

Cotton Match.

Cotton 1 lb. 12 oz. Saltpetre 1 8 Mealed powder 10 -- Spirits of wine 2 quarts. Water 3 pints.

The worsted or cotton must be laid evenly in an earthen or other pan, and the different ingredients poured over it, and about half the powder being left a short time to soak, it is afterwards wound smoothly on a reel, and laid to dry, the remaining half of the powder is then sifted over it; and it is ready for use when dry.

The French have lately made their slow match by soaking the rope in a solution of sugar of lead and rain water: in the proportion of ³⁄₄ths of an ounce of sugar of lead to one pint of water; and this they esteem as preferable to the old sort.

MATHEMATICS, originally signified any kind of discipline or learning; but, at present, denotes that science which teaches, or contemplates, whatever is capable of being numbered or measured; and accordingly is subdivided into arithmetic, which has numbers for its object; and geometry, which treats of magnitude.

MATHEMATICS are commonly distinguished into pure and speculative, which consider quantity abstractedly; and mixed, which treat of magnitude as subsisting in material bodies, and consequently are interwoven every where with physical considerations.

Mixed Mathematics are very comprehensive, since to them may be referred astronomy, optics, geography, hydrography, hydrostatics, mechanics, fortification, gunnery, projectiles, mining, engineering, and navigation.

Pure mathematics have one peculiar advantage, that they occasion no disputes among wrangling disputants, as in other branches of knowlege; and the reason is, because the definitions of the terms are premised, and every one that reads a proposition has the same idea of every part of it. Hence it is easy to put an end to all mathematical controversies, by shewing, that our adversary has not stuck to his definitions, or has not laid down true premises, or else that he has drawn false conclusions from true principles; and, in case we are able to do neither of these, we must acknowlege the truth of what he has proved.

It is true, that in mixed mathematics, where we reason mathematically upon physical subjects, we cannot give such just definitions as the geometricians; we must therefore rest content with descriptions; and they will be of the same use as definitions, provided we are consistent with ourselves, and always mean the same thing by those terms we have once explained.

Dr. Barrow gives a most elegant description of the excellence and usefulness of mathematical knowlege, in his inaugural oration upon being appointed professor of mathematics at Cambridge.

The mathematics, he observes, effectually exercise, not vainly delude, nor vexatiously torment studious minds with obscure subtleties; but plainly demonstrate every thing within their reach, draw certain conclusions, instruct by profitable rules, and unfold pleasant questions. These disciplines likewise enure and corroborate the mind to constant diligence in study; they wholly deliver us from a credulous simplicity, most strongly fortify us against the vanity of scepticism, effectually restrain us from a rash presumption, most easily incline us to a due assent, perfectly subject us to the government of right reason. While the mind is abstracted and elevated from sensible matter, distinctly views pure forms, conceives the beauty of ideas, and investigates the harmony of proportions; the manners themselves are sensibly corrected and improved, the affections composed and rectified, the fancy calmed and settled, and the understanding raised and excited to nobler contemplations.

MATRAS, Fr. a sort of dart which was anciently used, and which was not sufficiently pointed to occasion any thing more than a bruise.

MATRON, a woman, generally the wife of some well behaved and good soldier, who is employed to assist in the regimental hospital. She is under the direction of the surgeon, by whom she is originally appointed to the situation. See NURSE.

MATROSSES, are properly assistants to the gunner, being soldiers in the British regiments of artillery, and next to them: they assist in loading, firing, and spunging the great guns. They carry firelocks, and march along with the guns and store-waggons, both as a guard, and to give their assistance on every emergency.

MATTER of Deed, in law, denotes something to be proved by witnesses, in contradistinction from matter of record, which may be proved by some process, &c. appearing in any court of record.

MATTER, in a military sense, especially with regard to courts-martial, consists of the specific charges which are brought against a prisoner, and to which the president and members most strictly confine themselves. It has been very properly observed, in a small pamphlet upon martial law, that unacquainted with the serious consequence of a strict attention to the minutiæ of form in criminal proceedings, general courts-martial have looked upon the first swearing in of the court, as a sufficient authority to warrant their proceeding on the trial of a variety of offences; whereas, in propriety, the court should be sworn afresh at the commencement of every new prosecution: for though, as judges, (in the manner of a court of common law) once swearing would be sufficient; yet, as jurors, who are sworn on every different trial, though identically the same men, so are the members of general courts-martial to be considered, when a new criminal and fresh matter are brought before them. Lest, however, an established, and therefore an undisputed practice, should have acquired a force still difficult to be eradicated, we shall endeavor to point out those reasons which induce us to maintain this opinion. In the oath which is taken by each of the several members of a general court-martial, the words matter and prisoner, are cautiously inserted. These words, therefore, being absolutely confined to a single matter, and a single prisoner, and matters and prisoners not being subjected to their jurisdiction, how is it possible that men, with propriety, can proceed upon a trial which they are not warranted by law to decide upon? Were the obligation in the Articles of War decisive as to the trial of all matters, and all persons, and in all cases; or were the court possessed of the authority of extending the meaning of the oath, once swearing would undoubtedly be sufficient; but, as in every respect, the contrary is evident, as the very words of the oath express that “they shall well and truly try and determine according to their evidence, in the matter before them, &c.” How can it be otherwise than an unwarrantable irregularity in them, to proceed upon the trial of offenders, who, in the eye of the law, are not amenable to their authority? For, if the first prisoner to be tried, has a right to challenge an officer, who may be appointed to sit on an investigation of his offence, as a member of a court of enquiry, or who may be liable to any exceptions, why shall not the second and third prisoner be entitled to the same merciful indulgence? See Thoughts on Martial Law, pages 25, 26, 27, 28.

Combustible MATTER, and MATTER of composition. All solids and fluids are so called which are of an inflammable nature themselves, and can communicate fire to other substances.

MATTUCASHLASH, an ancient Scotch weapon, sometimes called armpit dagger, which was worn there, ready to be used on coming to close quarters. This, with a broad sword and shield, completely armed the highlanders. Since the use of fire arms, this weapon has been laid aside.

MATTOCK. An instrument somewhat resembling a pickax, but having two broad sharp edges instead of points.

MATTRESS, a sort of quilted bed of straw, used by officers on service, instead of the feather bed, differing from the paillasse in one particular only; the straw in the latter being loose, whereas that of the mattress is quilted in.

MAUG, Ind. The name of a month which partly agrees with our January and February.

MAUL, a heavy beater or hammer, generally shod with iron, used in driving piles, &c.

MAWANY, Ind. See KISTBUNDY.

MAXIMS, in fortification. See FORTIFICATION.

MEALED, pulverized, or reduced to powder.

MEAN Fortification. See FORTIFICATION.

MEANA, Ind. A machine or vehicle, a species of palankeen, but only used for carrying one person. It is borne by four men, and supported by means of a bamboo extended from the ends; being generally seven feet long, and three wide, with Venetian blinds, which slide and act as doors. Persons in India sometimes travel to a considerable distance in these vehicles; the number of bearers being increased, and successively relieved. It is computed that they will easily go at the rate of six miles in the hour.

MEASURE, in geometry, any quantity assumed as one, to which the ratio of other homogeneous or similar quantities is expressed.

MEASURE of an angle, the length of an arch described from the vertex to any place between its legs: hence angles are distinguished by the ratio of the arches between the legs to the peripheries. See ANGLE.

MEASURE of a figure, is a square, whose side is an inch, foot, yard, or other determinate measure. Hence square measures.

Among geometricians it is usually a square rod, called decempeda, divided into 10 square feet, and those into square digits, and those again into 10 lines, &c.

MEASURE of a line, any right line taken at pleasure, and considered as unity.

MEASURE of the mass or quantity of matter, in mechanics, is its weight: it being apparent that all the matter which coheres with a body, gravitates with it; and it being found by experiment, that the gravities of homogeneal bodies are in proportion to their bulks: hence while the mass continues the same, the absolute weight will be the same, whatever figure it puts on; for as to its specific weight, it varies as the quantity of its surface does.

MEASURE of a number, in arithmetic, such a number as divides another without leaving a fraction: thus 9 is a measure of 27.

MEASURE of a solid, is a cube, whose side is an inch, foot, yard, or other determinate length: in geometry, it is a cubic perch, divided into cubic feet, digits, &c. Hence cubic measure, or measures of capacity.

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