A military dictionary (part 2 of 8)

A military dictionary (part 2 of 8)

Prussian blue, is a kind of friable substance of an exceeding fine blue: it is used to represent the color of blue cloth in drawing encampments, battles, &c. It must be well ground, and mixed with a little gum-water.

Smalt, also a good sort of blue, and may be used for the same purposes.

Ultramarine, is an impalpable powder, and of a very delicate sky-blue. It is a color of high price.

Umber, is a yellowish brown color in powder: when it is mixed with gum-water, it serves to color dry ditches, sand, and all kinds of earth. By mixing a little red ink with it, it will make a wood color.

If some tobacco-leaves be steeped in clear water for several hours, and filtered through a woollen cloth, or brown paper, with a little red ink mixed with it, it will make the best earth or wood color, as lying smoother than any other.

Gum-water, is best when it is made some time before it is used; for which purpose take some gum arabic and steep it in clear water for some hours, ’till it is dissolved; then strain it through a woollen cloth or brown paper, and preserve it in phials, well stopped, ’till wanted.

COLUMN, in the art of war, a long, deep file of troops or baggage. The advantages and disadvantages of columns are so numerous, that we shall only mention, that columns ought to be able to form near the enemy; and in such a position, as not to suffer much from the artillery; that their motions be quick, so as not to suffer much during the operation; and that the divisions, in short, which compose each column, be so arranged as to afford each other a mutual defence and assistance, in case they should be attacked. Such are the principles that should guide, in forming of columns judiciously, and of freeing them from that multiplicity of inconveniencies which make them liable to the most melancholy accidents. The chevalier Folard has written a treatise on the disposition of the column as the best order of battle; after his death the theory sunk into disregard; but the French revolution has revived and realized all the advantages, held forth by Folard.

Close-COLUMN, a compact, solid column, with very little space between the divisions of which it is composed.

Open-COLUMN, a column with intervals between the divisions equal to their respective fronts.

COMBAT, a battle or duel. Anciently it was not uncommon for contending powers to adjust their disputes by single combat, when each party chose for itself a champion who contested the point in presence of both armies.

COME-in, soldiers are said to come in, as volunteers, recruits, &c. when invited to join any particular standard.

COME-over, when men desert from an enemy, and join the army that opposes them, they are said to come over. This term is opposed to go over.

To COME-in to, to join with, to bring help. “They marched to Wells, where the Lord Audley, with whom their leaders had before secret intelligence, came in to them.” English History.

To COME-up, to overtake. To come up with an enemy, is a military phrase much in use.

COMINGE, Fr. a shell of extreme magnitude, which takes its name from the person who originally invented it.

COMMAND, generally called the word of command, is a term used by officers in exercise, or upon service.

COMMAND, in military matters. All commands fall to the eldest in the same circumstances, whether of horse, dragoons, artillery, foot, or marines.

COMMANDE, a rope made use of in boats and pontoons.

COMMANDS, in fortification, are:

A command in front, when any eminence is directly facing the work which it commands.

A command in rear, when any eminence is directly behind the work which it commands.

A command by enfilade, when an eminence is situated in the prolongation of any line of a work, and a considerable part of it may be seen from thence.

COMMANDANT, is that person who has the command of a garrison, fort, castle, regiment, company, &c. called also commander.

COMMANDEMENT Fr. in a military sense, means any spot which is higher than another. A commandement is called simple, when the difference between two heights is only 9 feet. It is called double, when the difference is 18 feet; triple when 27, and so progressively, taking 9 feet invariably, for the height of each commandement. A commandement may be considered in three lights. In front, in enfilade, and in reverse. The commandement in front, is when you see all the persons who are employed in protecting a work; in enfilade, when you only see them from a flank; and in reverse, when you see them obliquely from behind.

COMMANDING-ground, implies in a military sense, a rising ground which overlooks any post, or strong place. There are, strictly speaking, three sorts of commanding grounds; namely,

Front COMMANDING-ground, Every height is called so, that lies opposite to the face of the post which plays upon its front.

Reverse COMMANDING-ground, an eminence which plays upon the rear of a post.

Enfilade COMMANDING-ground, or Curtain COMMANDING-ground, a high place, which, with its shot, scours all the length of a line, &c.

COMMANDERY, a certain benefice belonging to a military order. A body of the knights of Malta, were so called. They have now only a nominal existence.

COMMIS, Fr. Clerk or inferior person, who is employed in any of the French war-departments.

COMMISSAIRE, Fr. Commissary. This term was used in the old French service, to express a variety of military occupations. The following are the principal designations.

COMMISSAIRE-général des armées. Commissary-general of the armies. His duties were correspondent to those of a quarter master, forage master, or agent for supplying an army with provisions and stores.

COMMISSAIRE-général de la cavalerie légère. Fr. Commissary general of light cavalry.

COMMISSAIRE d’artillerie. Fr. Commissary of artillery. One commissary general superintended in each department of the ordnance, and had one of the three keys which belonged to the general magazine. This officer had the power of giving directions respecting the cleanliness and the general government of the magazines.

COMMISSAIRES provinciaux d’artillerie, Fr. Provincial commissaries attached to the ordnance.

COMMISSAIRES ordinaires d’artillerie, Fr. Commissaries in ordinary attached to the ordnance. These were subordinate to the provincial commissaries, and were distributed among the navy, forts, and garrison towns.

COMMISSAIRES extraordinaires d’artillerie, Fr. Extraordinary commissaries attached to the ordnance. These formed the third class of commissaries under the monarchial government in France. They likewise did duty on board the king’s ships, or in garrisoned towns.

COMMISSAIRE provincial en l’Arsenal de Paris, au départment de l’Isle de France. Provincial commissary belonging to the arsenal in Paris. This officer received his commission from the grand master, in whose gift the situation lay, and had the exclusive privilege of being rendered privy to every alteration or movement that was made in the arsenal.

COMMISSAIRE général des poudres et salpêtres, Fr. Commissary general of gun-powder and saltpetre.

COMMISSAIRE général des fontes, Fr. Commissary general of the Founderies.

COMMISSAIRES des guerres, Fr. Commissaries of the war departments or muster masters general.

COMMISSAIRES ordinaires des guerres, Fr. Commissaries in ordinary, or deputy muster masters. These were subordinate to the former, and were entrusted with the superintendance of hospitals, to see that proper provisions were procured for, and distributed among the sick. They likewise gave proper vouchers to account for the absence of soldiers, and regulated what number of extraordinary waggons should be furnished to the troops on marches.

COMMISSAIRES provinciaux et ordinaires des guerres, Fr. Provincial or ordinary commissaries of war. Specific duties were attached to their appointments, the discharge of which was principally confined to the different provinces.

COMMISSAIRES des guerres entretenus dans l’hotel des invalides, Fr. Commissaries of war, specifically attached to, and resident in the hotel des invalides. It was their duty to keep a regular roll, containing all the names of the different officers, non-commissioned officers, and soldiers who might be detached on garrison duty, &c. which return was made monthly by them to the secretary at war. Each commissary at every review or inspection of the corps of invalids, had particular directions to mark out those men who appeared capable of serving; and a regular return to that effect was made to the secretary at war.

COMMISSAIRE des vivres, Fr. Commissary of stores. The commissary of stores had several deputies, who acted immediately under, and were in every respect accountable to him for the management of their trust.

COMMISSAIRE general des fortifications, Fr. Commissary general of Fortifications. This was a very important situation during war, as it was the duty of the commissary general to trace the lines of circumvallation, &c. at the siege; to determine upon the mode of attack and defence, and to see, that the necessary repairs were made.

COMMISSARY, in military affairs, is of various denominations, though generally a civil officer appointed to inspect the musters, stores, and provisions for the army. In war-time their number is proportioned to the service required.

COMMISSARY-general of the musters, or muster-master general. He takes account of the strength of every regiment as often as he pleases; reviews them, sees that the horse are well mounted, and all the men well armed and clothed. He receives and inspects the muster rolls, and knows exactly the strength of the army. The British have created an inspector general of cavalry, which answers every purpose for which that of muster master general was intended.

COMMISSARY-general of stores, a civil officer in the artillery, who has the charge of all the stores, for which he is accountable to the office of ordnance. He is allowed various other commissaries, clerks, and conductors, especially in war-time.

COMMISSARY of the train horses, a civil officer likewise of the artillery, who has the inspection of all horses belonging to the train, the hospital, and the bakery; having under him a number of conductors, drivers, &c.

COMMISSARY of accounts is a responsible person who attends each army, where the numbers are of sufficient importance, with a proper establishment, for the purpose of examining and controlling accounts on the spot. All commissaries of accounts make returns of their examination, and on these documents the comptrollers of the army accounts found the best enquiry into the expenditure which the nature of the subject admits of.

COMMISSARY-general of provisions, has the charge of furnishing the army in the field with all sorts of provisions, forage, &c. by contract; he must be very vigilant and industrious, that the troops may never suffer want. He has under him various commissaries, store-keepers, clerks, &c.

COMMISSION, in a military sense, any situation or place which an individual may hold in the army, or militia. In the United States the President nominates the officer, who enters upon service and pay immediately on his acceptance, but the appointment must be submitted to the senate, and approved by a majority, before the commission issues.

Militia COMMISSIONS are issued in different modes in all the United States; officers being elective by the line in some states, as in Pennsylvania; they are appointed by the governor, as Maryland.

COMMISSION of array. In the reign of Henry II. 1181, an assize of arms was settled to the following effect: That every person possessed of a knight’s fee, was to have a coat of mail, an helmet, a shield, and a lance, and as many of these as he had fees. Every free layman that had in goods or rents to the value of 16 marks, was to have the same arms; and such as had 10 marks were to have a lesser coat of mail, an iron cap, and a lance; the two last of which with a wamhois were assigned for the arms of burgesses, and all the freemen of boroughs. These arms were all to be provided before the feast of St. Hilary next following.

To enforce these regulations, it was customary for the time, at certain seasons of the year, to issue commissions to experienced officers, to draw out and array the fittest men for service in each county, and to march them to the sea coasts, or to such other quarters of the country as were judged to be most in danger. Of these commissions of array, there are many hundreds in the Gascon and French rolls in the tower of London, from the 36th of Henry III. to the reign of Edward IV. The form of the ancient commissions of array may be seen in Rushworth’s historical collection published in 1640. These commissions were again attempted to be revived by Charles I but they were voted illegal and unconstitutional by the parliament.

Non-COMMISSIONED, applies to that particular class of men who act between what are called the rank and file of a battalion, and the commissioned or warrant officers. See SERJEANTS.

COMMITTEE, a select number of persons to whom the more particular consideration of some matter is referred, and who are to report their opinion to the court, &c. of which they are members.

COMMUNICATION, in fortification signifies all sorts of passages, or ways which lead from one work to another. The best, and indeed the only good communications are those which the besieger cannot annoy, or interrupt by his fire. The obstinate defence of a work is rendered almost impracticable, if you are destitute of good communications. Subterraneous galleries, coffers, or caponiers, slopes made on the outside of gorges, may be termed communications. When the ditches are filled with water, floating bridges, &c. serve as communications.

COMPAGNE, Fr. a room or cabin belonging to the chief of a galley.

COMPANIES-Franches, Fr. free corps or companies, which during the old government of France, were put upon a certain establishment in war time. The Austrians and Prussians had free corps in the seven years war; there were some in France at the beginning of the revolution, but they were more fatal to friends than enemies, and utterly destitute of discipline.

COMPANY, in a military sense, means a small body of foot, or artillery, the number of which is never fixed, but is generally from 50 to 120, commanded by a captain, a lieutenant, and an ensign, and sometimes by a first and second lieutenant, as in the artillery and flank companies of the line. A company has usually 4 or 6 serjeants, 4 or 6 corporals, and 2 drums. A company should have at least 4 commissioned officers, a serjeant and corporal for every ten men and a company consist of 120. In the Austrian service a company consists of 200 men.

Free COMPANY, is one of those corps commonly called irregular; is seldom or never under the same orders with the regular corps of the army, but for the most part acts like a detached army, either by itself, or in conjunction with some of its own kind; therefore their operations are properly considered under the title of the petite guerre. Same as companies Franches.

Independent COMPANY, that which is not incorporated in a regiment. Two such companies generally belong to each regiment in England, who are to supply the regiments with recruits.

COMPARTIMENT de feu, Fr. a specific division of the intermediate spaces belonging to a mine, and the regular allotment of the saucissons or train-bags to convey fire to the furnaces at one and the same time.

COMPLEMENT of the curtain, that part in the interior side of a fortification which makes the demi-gorge. See FORTIFICATION.

COMPLEMENT of the line of defence, the remainder of the line of defence, after you have taken away the angle of the flank. See FORTIFICATION.

COMPLETE, a regiment, troop, or company, is said to be complete when it has the whole number of officers, non-commissioned officers and privates, according to the regulation for the time being.

COMPLIMENT of the line of the army. See HONORS.

COMPLIMENT from guards. See HONORS.

COMPOSITION.--For the composition of FUZES, PORTFIRES, TUBES, CARCASSES, see those words.

Composition for Kitt.

lbs. Rosin 9 Pitch 6 Beeswax 6 Tallow 1

For Fire Balls, 1794.

lbs. oz. Rosin 5 8 Sulphur 3 0 Alum powder 1 8 Starch, Do. 0 8 Saltpetre 4 6 Mealed powder 8 0 Linseed oil ¹⁄₄ pint Oil of spike 1 pint.

Bengal Lights.

First Composition.

lbs. oz. Saltpetre 7 0 Sulphur 1 12 Red orpiment 0 1

Second Composition.

lbs. oz. Saltpetre 2 4 Sulphur 0 8 Antimony 0 4 Orpiment 0 1¹⁄₂

Light Balls.

Nitre 40 parts Sulphur 15 Antimony 3 Pitch 3

This composition to be carefully fused, and cast into the shape of balls, which when cold will be sufficiently hard to be fired from a small mortar.

Composition for Suffocating Pots.

Sulphur 6 parts Nitre 5

This composition when intimately mixed, to be rammed into wooden boxes, and primed in the usual way.

This composition will answer for fumigation.

Chinese, or White Light.

Nitre from 50 to 60 parts. Sulphur 16 to 20 Antimony 5 Orpiment 8 to 10

For Smoke Balls.

lbs. Corned powder 10 Saltpetre 2 Pitch 4 Seacoal 3 Tallow 1

For Fire Hoops, Fire Arrows, and Fire Lances.

lbs. oz. Mealed powder 1 0 Saltpetre 3 0 Flour of Sulphur 0 8 Linseed oil ¹⁄₂ pint.

Composition to fill cases for setting fire to Fascine Batteries.

lbs. oz. Mealed powder 1 4 Saltpetre 6 0 Sulphur 1 8

All dry compositions must be well mixed; first by the hands, and then passed several times through fine hair sieves, that the ingredients may be thoroughly incorporated. In mixing compositions which require fire, the greatest precautions are necessary; particularly in those where gunpowder enters. The dry parts of the composition may in general be mixed together first, and put by degrees into the cauldron, while the other ingredients are fluid, being well stirred all the time of putting in. When the dry ingredients are inflammable, the cauldron must not only be taken off the fire, but the bottom must be dipt in water, to prevent the possibility of accident while mixing them.

COMPOUND motion. See GUNNERY.

COMPTROLLER of the artillery, inspects the musters of the artillery, makes the pay-list, takes the account and remains of stores, and is accountable to the office of ordnance. This post is only in war-time. Also an officer who superintends the accounts of the army at large.

COMRADE, a fellow soldier in the same regiment, troop, or company.

To CONCERT, in a military sense, is to digest, arrange, and dispose matters in such a manner, that you may be able to act in conjunction with other forces, however much divided, at any given point of offensive or defensive operation.

CONCORDANT, Fr. a certain agreement, which officers belonging to the same corps in the French service formerly entered into, for the specific purpose of providing for a comrade who left the regiment. This contract was, however, without the sanction of government, and if known incurred its displeasure.

CONDUCTORS, are assistants to the commissary of stores, to conduct depots, or magazines, from one place to another: they have also the care of the ammunition waggons in the field; they report to the commissary, and are under his command.

CONFEDERATE Troops. Troops of different nations united together in one common cause against an enemy. Hence the league by which they are so engaged, is called a confederacy. The same as coalition, the powers of Europe coalesced in 1791, to partition France, and were defeated; there were several other coalitions since, which have ended in the subjugation of them all.

CONFIDENCE, in a military sense, implies an explicit reliance upon the skill, courage, &c. of an individual. Next to a perfect knowlege of military tactics, the faculty of securing the confidence of the soldiers is, perhaps, one of the surest means of becoming successful in war. There are instances, indeed, which prove that many victories have been gained by men who had the entire confidence of their army, without being remarkable for much military knowlege; whilst on the other hand, battles have been lost by the most celebrated generals, because they did not possess the good opinion of their men. When confidence and military science go together, an army must be unfortunate not to succeed in the most desperate enterprize.

CONFLICT. See COMBAT.

CONGE, Fr. leave of absence, The old service of France admitted of two sorts. The Congé limité, a limited or specific leave, and Congé absolu, a full discharge: in time of war, the latter was always suspended.

CONGLOMERATE, to gather together, to assemble in a knot.

CONGRESS, in military and political affairs, is an assembly of commissioners, deputies, envoys, &c. from several powers meeting to agree on terms for a general pacification, or to concert matters for their common good. A committee of the American Congress conducted the war during the first years of the revolution.

CONNETABLE de France. Constable of France. This appointment succeeded to that of Grand Sénéchal de France. It was not originally a military place of trust, but merely an office belonging to the king’s household.

CONSCRIPT, conscriptus, a term anciently applied to the senators of Rome, from their names being entered all in one register. It was used by congress in our revolution.

CONSCRIPTS, men raised to recruit the French armies. In Bohemia and Hungary, all men capable of bearing arms are enregistered, and must march whenever there is occasion for their services. The conscripts in France have been raised during the present war upon similar principles.

The militia of Great Britain come under the appellation, with this difference, that the men are raised by ballot, and do not march out of their native country, unless they be voluntarily disposed so to do. In a republic every man is a soldier, and as the word means must have his name written on the militia roll.

CONSEILLE-de-guerre, Fr. not only signifies a council of war, at which the French king and his minister sat to determine upon military matters, both by sea and land, but it likewise meant a general or regimental court martial.

CONSIGNE, Fr. parole or countersign.

It likewise means, when used in the masculine gender, a person formerly paid by the French government for constantly residing in a garrisoned town, in order to take cognizance of all persons who entered or went out of the gates. He had a place allotted to him in the half-moon, and delivered a regular report to the governor or commandant of the place.

CONSPIRATION, Fr. Conspiracy.

CONSPIRATION contre le service du Roi, Fr. a conspiracy against the King’s service. During the existence of the old government of France, any conspiracy, collusion, or unlawful understanding, which was discovered to exist against the king, his governors, commandants, or other inferior officers, was reckoned a capital military offence; and by an order which took place on the 1st of July, 1727; it was enacted, that every person convicted of the crime should be broken upon the wheel.

CONSTABLE, chief. A person employed under the militia establishment to collect fines.

They may likewise apprehend persons suspected of being deserted serjeants, corporals or drummers.

High CONSTABLE and Marshal were officers of considerable weight and dignity, not only in France, but throughout all the feudal governments of Europe. The title of constable or comes stabuli, according to the ingenious author of an essay on military law, explains the original nature of this office, which was that of commander of the cavalry, and as these once constituted the principal strength of the imperial or royal armies, this officer became naturally the commander in chief of those armies. The office of marshal appears originally to have been of a much inferior nature, the person who exercised it being the actual superintendant of the stables, or chief of the equerries, whose duty was to furnish the provender for the horses, and to oversee their proper management. But in process of time this office grew into high consideration, and the marshal subordinate only to the constable, became the second in command of the armies, and in the absence of the latter supplied his place. See MARSHAL.

The powers of the constable as a field officer, were extremely ample and dignified. The constable was subordinate only to the king in the command of the army; and even when the king was actually in the field, the efficient command of the troops seems to have been in this officer, and all the general orders were issued jointly in the sovereign’s name and in the constable’s.

CONSUL. The person invested with the powers of the consulate.

Consul chief, or premier Consul, Fr. The first or chief magistrate of three persons, each bearing the title of consul, according to the constitution of France, in 1799, the chief consul commanded, directed, and superintended all the military establishments of the country, and whenever it was judged expedient led the armies into battle. Bonaparte, was appointed chief consul; but soon after emperor.

CONSULAR, relating, or appertaining to the consul.

CONSULATE, a civil and military power which was originally instituted by the Romans, on the extinction of their kings in Tarquin the Proud. It has been revived in France, and was the principal feature of the last constitution.

CONSULSHIP. The office of consul.

CONTACT, a touching, or the point or points where one body touches another.

CONTINGENT, something casual or uncertain, that may or may not happen.

The CONTINGENT bill of a regiment, is an account of extra charges, which depend on the accidental situation or circumstances, which may attend any regiment in its due course of service. See RECRUITING.

CONTRABAND, this term is applicable to various foreign commodities which are either totally prohibited by the laws, or are subject to severe penalties and heavy duties.

CONTRAMURE, in fortification, is a wall built before another partition wall to strengthen it, so that it may receive no damage from the adjacent buildings.

CONTRAVALLATION, in military art, implies a line formed in the same manner as the line of circumvallation, to defend the besiegers against the enterprises of the garrison: so that the army, forming a siege, lies between the lines of circumvallation and contravallation. The trench of this is towards the town, at the foot of the parapet, and is never made but when the garrison is numerous enough to harrass and interrupt the besiegers by sallies. This line is constructed in the rear of the camp, and by the same rule as the line of circumvallation, with this difference, that as it is only intended to resist a body of troops much inferior to a force which might attack the circumvallation, so its parapet is not made so thick, nor the ditch so wide and deep; 6 feet is sufficient for the 1st, and the ditch 8 feet broad, and 5 feet deep.

Amongst the ancients this line was very common, but their garrisons were much stronger than ours; for, as the inhabitants of towns were then almost the only soldiers, there were commonly as many troops to defend a place, as there were inhabitants in it. The lines of circumvallation and contravallation are very ancient, examples of them being found in histories of the remotest antiquity. The author of the military history of Louis le Grand pretends however, that Cæsar was the first inventor of them; but it appears from the chevalier de Folard’s treatise on the method of attack and defence of places, used by the ancients, how little foundation there is for this opinion. This author asserts with great probability on his side, that these lines are as ancient as the time in which towns were first surrounded with walls, or, in other words, were fortified.

CONTREBANDE, Fr. See CONTRABAND.

Faire la CONTREBANDE, Fr. to smuggle.

CONTREBANDIER, Fr. a smuggler.

CONTRE-Forts, Fr. Brick-work which is added to the revetement of a rampart on the side of the terre-pleine, and which is equal to its height. Contre-forts are used to support the body of earth with which the rampart is formed. They are likewise practised in the revetements of counterscarps, in gorges and demi-gorges, &c. The latter are constructed upon a less scale than the former. It has been suggested by an able engineer in the French service, to unite contre-forts, and consequently to strengthen them, by means of arches.

Contre-forts likewise form a part of the construction of powder magazines, which are bomb proof.

CONTRE-queue d’hironde, Fr. denotes the figure or shape which is made by the oblique direction of the wings, or long sides of a horned or crowned work, whose branches widen as they approach any place.

CONTRIBUTION, in military history, is an imposition or tax paid by countries who suffer the afflictions of war, to redeem themselves from being plundered and totally destroyed by the enemy; or when a belligerent prince, wanting money, raises it by contribution on the enemy’s country, and is either paid in provisions or in money, and sometimes in both.

CONTROL, comptrol, or controle, is properly a double register kept of acts, issues of the officers or commissioners in the revenues, army, &c. in order to ascertain the true state thereof.

CONTROLER, an officer appointed to control or oversee the accounts of other officers, and on occasions to certify whether or no things have been controled or examined.

CONTROLES, Fr. See MUSTER-ROLLS.

CONTROLEURS des guerres, Fr. Muster-masters. This term was likewise applied to signify various other appointments belonging to the interior arrangement of the French army, viz. controlleurs general d’artillerie, controleurs des hopiteaux militaires. See SUPERINTENDANT of military hospitals.

CONTROLEUR general des vivres. See COMMISSARY general of stores.

CONVALESCENT, recovering, returning to a state of health.

List of CONVALESCENTS, is a return made out by the surgeon belonging to a battalion, hospital, &c. to ascertain the specific number of men who may shortly be expected to do duty.

CONVENTION, a treaty, contract, or agreement between two, or more parties.

CONVERSION, is a military motion or manœvre, which turns the front of a battalion where the flank was, when the flank is attacked. The old method of conversion is now exploded, and the new method which has superceded it, has received the name of counter-march, or changing front by counter-march; this is best effected in column; and is never attempted in line in the face of an enemy. For the manner of performing it and the bad effects of attempting it in the face of an enemy, see Am. Mil. Lib.

CONVOY, in military affairs, a detachment of troops employed to guard any supply of men, money, ammunition, provisions, stores, &c. conveyed in time of war, by land or sea, to a town, or army. A body of men that marches to secure any thing from falling into the enemy’s hand, is also called a convoy. An officer having the command of a convoy, must take all possible precautions for its security; and endeavor, before its march, to procure some good intelligence concerning the enemy’s out-parties. And as the commanding officer of the place from which the convoy is to march, and those of such other places as he is to pass by, are the most proper persons to apply to for assistance; he must therefore take such measures as will enable him to keep up a constant intercourse with them. The conducting a convoy is one of the most important and most difficult of all military operations.

CONVOYS. A waggon with four horses occupies about sixteen paces; a mile will therefore hold about 117 waggons: but allowing a short distance between each waggon in travelling, a mile may be said to contain 100 waggons. Waggons in convoy may travel from one to two miles per hour, according to the roads and other circumstances. A great object in convoys is to preserve the horses as much as possible from fatigue. For this purpose, if the convoy amounts to many hundred waggons, they must be divided into divisions of not more than 500 each. Should it consist of thousands, it will be adviseable to divide them into grand divisions, and then again into subdivisions of 500 each: by this means, and the time of departure being calculated by the following rules, each division may remain at rest, till just before its time of movement; and which will prevent the necessity of the latter part of a large convoy being harrassed for a considerable time before its turn to move.

Rule 1. To find the time in which any number of waggons may be driven off: Divide the number of waggons by 100, and multiply by the time of travelling one mile.

Rule 2. To find the time in which any number of waggons will drive over any number of miles: To the time they take in driving off, add the time any one of the waggons takes to travel the distance.

The different divisions of the convoy should be numbered, and obliged each day to change the order of their marching.

Whenever the progress of a train of waggons is arrested by the breaking down of any one of them, or other delay, all the waggons in the rear of the stoppage, should immediately drive up into the first open space, to as great a number as the open space will hold; this keeps the convoy together and better under the care of the escort.

The escort for a convoy should be divided into front, centre, and rear guards; beside the divisions for the flanks, which should never be beyond musquet shot, or at most 400 yards from each other. The whole escort should never be so separated that they could not be collected in an hour. Under proper precautions against an enemy, a convoy of any size cannot travel more than ten or fifteen miles per day.

To CO-OPERATE, to put a well digested plan into execution, so that forces, however divided, may act upon one principle and towards one end.

COOK, each troop or company has cooks, who are excused from other duties.

COPPER. No other metal is allowed to the magazines, or barrels of gunpowder.

COQUILLES à boulet, Fr. shells or moulds. They are made either of brass or iron; two are required for the casting of a cannon ball; but they never close so effectually as to prevent the liquid metal, which has been poured in, from running somewhat out of the part where they join. This excrescence is called the beard, which is broken off to render the ball completely round.

CORBEILLES, Fr. Large baskets, which being filled with earth, and placed one by another along the parapet, serve to cover the besieged from the shot of the besieging enemy. They are made wider at top than at the bottom, in order to afford loop-holes, through which the men may fire upon the besiegers. Their usual dimensions are one foot and a half high, as much in breadth at the top, and eight or ten inches at the bottom. See GABION.

CORDE, Fr. Cord, in geometry and fortification, means a straight line which cuts the circumference into two parts, without running through the centre.

CORDEAU, Fr. a cord which is used in measuring ground. It is divided into toises, feet, and inches, for the purpose of ascertaining with precision, the opening of angles and the extent of lines. In wet weather a small chain made of wire is substituted to prevent mistakes that would necessarily occur, from the cord becoming shorter or longer, according to the influence of the weather. The technical terms among French Engineers, are Manier le cordeau, Pendre le cordeau, Travailler au cordeau.

CORDON, in fortification, is a row of stones made round on the outside, and placed between the termination of the slope of the wall, and the parapet which stands perpendicular, in such a manner, that this difference may not be offensive to the eye; whence those cordons serve only as ornaments in walled fortifications.

The CORDON of the revetement of the rampart is often on a level with the terre pleine of the rampart. It has been observed in a late French military publication, that it might be more advantageously placed some feet lower; especially when there is a wall attached to the parapet, to shield the rounds from the enemy’s fire.

CORDON, in military history, is a chain of posts, or an imaginary line of separation between two armies, either in the field or in winter quarters.

CORIDOR, the covert way which is formed between the fossé and the pallisade on the counterscarp. See COVERT-way. This word is becoming obsolete as a military term, and is chiefly confined to domestic buildings.

CORNAGE, an ancient tenure, which obliged the land-holder to give notice of an invasion by blowing a horn.

CORNE, ou OUVRAGE a CORNE, Fr. See HORNED WORK.

CORNET, in the military history of the ancients, an instrument much in the nature of a trumpet: when the cornet only sounded, the ensigns were to march alone without the soldiers; whereas, when the trumpet only sounded, the soldiers were to move forward without the ensigns. A troop of horse was so called.

CORNET, in the military history of the moderns, the junior commissioned officer in a troop of horse or dragoons, subordinate to the captain and lieutenants, equivalent to the ensign amongst the foot. His duty is to carry the standard, near the centre of the front rank of the squadron.

CORNETTE-BLANCHE, Fr. an ornament which in ancient times, served to distinguish French officers who were high in command. It was worn by them on the top of their helmets. It likewise meant a royal standard, and was substituted in the room of the Pennon Roïal. The cornette-blanche was only unfurled when the king joined the army; and the persons who served under it were princes, noblemen, marshals of France, and old captains, who received orders from the king direct.

CORNETTE, Fr. See CORNET.

The CORNETTES or Cornets, of the colonel general of cavalry, in the old French service, as well as those attached to the quarter-master general and commissary general, ranked as lieutenants, and the cornettes of la colonelle général des dragons ranked as youngest lieutenants, and commanded all other cornets.

CORNETTE, Fr. was likewise the term used to signify the standard peculiarly appropriated to the light cavalry. Hence cornettes and troops were synonimous terms to express the number of light-horse attached to an army. The standard so called was made of taffeta or glazed silk, one foot and a half square, upon which the arms, motto, and cypher of the officer who commanded the cavalry were engraved. A sort of scarf or long piece of white silk, (the old French colors) was tied to the cornette whenever the cavalry went into action, in order to render the standard conspicuous, that the men might rally round it.

CORNISH ring, in gunnery, the next ring from the muzzle backwards. See CANNON.

CORPORAL, a rank and file man with superior pay to that of common soldiers, and with nominal rank under a serjeant. He has charge of one of the squads of the company, places and relieves centinels, and keeps good order in the guard. He receives the word of the inferior rounds that pass by his guard. Every company should have a corporal for every ten men.

Lance-CORPORAL, one who acts as corporal, receiving pay as a private.

CORPS, any body of forces, destined to act together under one commander.

CORPS de garde, Fr. an inferior post which is sometimes covered in, and at others is in the open air, garrisoned and defended by troops who are occasionally relieved, and whose immediate duty is to prevent a post of greater consequence from being surprised. Corps de garde, in the French acceptation of the word, signifies not only the place itself, but likewise the men who are stationed to protect it.

CORPS de garde avancés, Fr. These posts are occupied by cavalry and infantry, according to the exigency of the service, and the peculiar nature of the ground. When a camp is secured by entrenchments, and has one line of defence, the corps de garde, or advanced post of the cavalry is on the outside of the line, and each part has its quarter and main guard. These guards are always within sight of the same line, unless the unevenness of the ground should obstruct the view. The quarter guard or petit corps de garde is more in front, but still in sight of the main guard, and the vedette is still further in advance for the security of both.

CORPS de battaille, Fr. the main body of an army, which marches between the advanced and the rear guard.

CORPS de reserve, See REAR GUARD.

CORRESPOND, an officer or soldier who corresponds with the enemy, is liable to suffer death, by the articles of war.

CORSAIR, in naval history, a name given to the piratical cruisers of Barbary, who frequently plunder the merchant ships of countries with whom they are at peace.

CORSELET, a little cuirass; or according to others, an armor, or coat made to cover the whole body, anciently worn by the pike-men, who were usually placed in the fronts and flanks of the battle, for the better resisting the enemy’s assaults, and guarding the soldiers posted behind them.

COSECANT, the secant of an arch which is the complement of another to 90°.

COSINE, the right sine of an arch which is the complement of another to 90°.

COSSACS, in military history, a wild irregular people, who inhabit the Ukraine, and live by plunder and piracy, in small vessels on the Black Sea. A scythe fixed on the end of a pole was their ancient weapon. They are now a regular militia, and use the same arms as the Croats and Pandours.

COTANGENT, the tangent of an arch which is the complement of another to 90°.

COTE extérieur du poligone, Fr. exterior side of the polygon. The line which is drawn from the capital of one bastion to another.

COTE intérieur du poligone, Fr. interior side of the polygon. The line which is drawn from the angle of one gorge to the angle of the gorge most contiguous to it. See sides of the POLYGON.

COUNCIL of war, in military affairs, is an assembly of principal officers of an army or fleet, called by the general or admiral who commands, to concert measures for their conduct.

COUNTER-APPROACHES, lines or trenches made by the besieged, when they come out to attack the lines of the besiegers in form.

Line of COUNTER APPROACH, a trench which the besieged make from their covered way to the right and left of the attacks, in order to scour or enfilade the enemy’s works.

COUNTER-Battery, a battery used to play on another in order to dismount the guns. See BATTERY.

COUNTER-breastwork. See FAUSSE-BRAYE.

COUNTER-forts, in fortification, are certain pillars and parts of the wall, distant from 15 to 20 feet one from another, which are advanced as much as may be in the ground, and are joined to the height of the cordon by vaults, to sustain the chemin de rondes, and the part of the rampart, as well as to fortify the wall, and strengthen the ground. See BUTTRESSES.

COUNTER-guards, in fortification, are small ramparts, with parapets and ditches, to cover some part of the body of the place. They are of several shapes, and differently situated. They are generally made before the bastions, in order to cover the opposite flanks from being seen from the covert way; consisting then of 2 faces, making a salient angle, and parallel to the faces of the bastion. They are sometimes made before the ravelins. See FORTIFICATION.

COUNTER-round. See ROUNDS.

COUNTER-mines. See MINES.

COUNTER-trenches. See SIEGE.

COUNTER-working, is the raising of works to oppose these of the enemy.

COUNTER-swallow’s-tail, in fortification, is a kind of an out-work very much resembling a single tenaille.

To COUNTERMAND, is to give contrary orders to those already given; to contradict former orders, &c.

COUNTERMURE, a wall built up behind another in order to increase the strength of any work.

COUNTERMARCH, a change by wings, companies, subdivisions, sections, or files, whereby those who were on the right take up the ground originally occupied by the left; generally used in changing the front. See MARCH.

COUNTERSCARP, in fortification, is properly the exterior talus, or slope or the ditch, on the farther side from the place, and facing it. Sometimes the covert way and glacis are meant by this expression. See FORTIFICATION.

COUNTERSIGN, in a general acceptation of the term means any particular word, such as the name of a place or person, which, like the parole, is exchanged between guards, entrusted to persons who visit military posts, go the rounds, or have any business to transact with soldiers in camp or garrison. It ought always to be given in the language most known to the troops.

COUNTERVALLATION, or line of countervallation, a trench with a parapet, made by the besiegers, betwixt them and the place besieged, to secure them from the sallies of the garrison; so that the troops which form the siege, are encamped between the lines of circumvallation and countervallation. When the enemy has no army in the field, these lines are useless.

COUP-DE-MAIN, in military affairs, implies a desperate resolution in all small expeditions, of surprise, &c. The favorable side of the proposed action must ever be viewed; for if what may happen, arrive, or fall out, is chiefly thought upon, it will, at the very best, not only greatly discourage, but, in general, it will produce a total failure. The very name of an expedition implies risk, hazard, precarious warfare, and a critical but desperate operation, or Coup-de-main.

COUP-d’œil, Fr. in a military sense, signifies that fortunate aptitude of eye in a general, or other officer, by which he is enabled at one glance on the ground or on a map to see the weak parts of an enemy’s country, or to discern the strong ones of his own. By possessing a ready coup d’œil, a general may surmount the greatest difficulties, particularly in offensive operations. On a small scale this faculty is of the greatest utility. Actions have been recovered by a sudden conception of different openings upon the enemy, which could only be ascertained by a quick and ready eye, during the rapid movements of opposing armies. See Am. Mil. Lib. articles RECONNOITRING, and COUP D’OEIL.

COUPURE, in fortification, are passages, sometimes cut through the glacis, of about 12 or 15 feet broad, in the reentering angle of the covert way, to facilitate the sallies of the besieged. They are sometimes made through the lower curtain, to let boats into a little haven built on the rentrant angle of the counterscarp of the out works.

COURANTIN, Fr. a squib; a term used among French artificers.

COURCON, Fr. a long piece of iron which is used in the artillery, and serves to constrain, or tighten cannon.

COURIER, in a military sense, means a messenger sent post, or express, to carry dispatches of battles gained, lost, &c. or any other occurrences that happen in war.

COURIERS des vivres, Fr. were two active and expert messengers attached to the French army, whose duty consisted wholly in conveying packets of importance to and fro, and in taking charge of pecuniary remittances.

COURONEMENT, or Couronnement, in fortification, implies the most exterior part of a work when besieged.

COURSER. See CHARGER.

COURSIER, Fr. a gun which was formerly placed in the forecastle of a galley for the purpose of firing over the ship’s beak. The weight of its ball was from 33 to 34 lb.

COURT-martial, a court appointed for the investigation and subsequent punishment of offences in officers, under-officers, soldiers, and sailors; the powers of which are regulated by the articles of war for the government of the armies of the United States, passed in the year 1806.

Art. 64. General courts martial may consist of any number of commissioned officers from five to thirteen inclusively, but they shall not consist of less than thirteen, where that number can be convened, without manifest injury to the service.

Art. 65. Any general officer commanding an army, or colonel commanding a separate department, may appoint general courts martial whenever necessary. But no sentence of a court martial shall be carried into execution until after the whole proceedings shall have been laid before the officer ordering the same, or the officer commanding the troops for the time being; neither shall any sentence of a general court martial, in time of peace, extending to the loss of life, or the dismission of a commissioned officer, or which shall, either in time of peace or war, respecting a general officer, be carried into execution, until after the whole proceedings shall have been transmitted to the secretary of war, to be laid before the President of the United States, for his confirmation or disapproval and orders in the case. All other sentences may be confirmed and executed by the officer ordering the court to assemble, or the commanding officer for the time being, as the case may be.

Art. 66. Every officer commanding a regiment, or corps, may appoint, for his own regiment or corps, courts martial, to consist of three commissioned officers, for the trial and punishment of offences, not capital, and decide upon their sentences. For the same purpose all officers, commanding any of the garrisons, forts, barracks, or other places where the troops consist of different corps, may assemble courts martial, to consist of three commissioned officers, and decide upon their sentences.

Art. 67. No garrison, or regimental court martial shall have the power to try capital cases, or commissoned officers; neither shall they inflict a fine exceeding one month’s pay, nor imprison, nor put to hard labor, any non-commissioned officer or soldier, for a longer time than one month.

Art. 68. Whenever it may be found convenient and necessary to the public service, the officers of the marine shall be associated with the officers of the land forces, for the purpose of holding courts martial and trying offenders belonging to either; and in such cases the orders of the senior officers of either corps who may be present and duly authorised, shall be received and obeyed.

Art. 69. The judge advocate, or some person deputed by him, or by the general, or officer commanding the army, detachment, or garrison, shall prosecute in the name of the United States, but shall so far consider himself as council for the prisoner, after the said prisoner shall have made his plea, as to object to any leading question to any of the witnesses, or any question to the prisoner, the answer to which might tend to criminate himself; and administer to each member of the court before they proceed upon any trial, the following oath, which shall also be taken by all members of the regimental and garrison courts martial.

“You A. B. do swear that you will well and truly try and determine, according to evidence, the matter now before you, between the United States of America, and the prisoner to be tried, and that you will duly administer justice, according to the provisions of “An act establishing rules and articles for the government of the armies of the United States,” without partiality, favor or affection; and if any doubt shall arise, not explained by said articles, according to your conscience, the best of your understanding, and the custom of war, in like cases; and you do further swear, that you will not divulge the sentence of the court until it shall be published by the proper authority; neither will you disclose or discover the vote or opinion of any particular member of the court martial, unless required to give evidence thereof as a witness, by a court of justice, in a due course of law. So help you God.”

And as soon as the said oath shall have been administered to the respective members, the president of the court shall administer to the judge advocate, or person officiating as such, an oath in the following words:

“You A. B. do swear, that you will not disclose or discover the vote or opinion of any particular member of the court martial, unless required to give evidence thereof as a witness, by a court of justice in due course of law. Nor divulge the sentence of the court to any but the proper authority, until it shall be duly disclosed by the same. So help you God.”

Art. 70. When any prisoner arraigned before a general court martial shall, from obstinate and deliberate design, stand mute or answer foreign to the purpose, the court may proceed to trial and judgment as if the prisoner had regularly pleaded not guilty.

Art. 71. When a member shall be challenged by a prisoner, he must state his cause of challenge, of which the court shall, after due deliberation determine the relevancy or validity, and decide accordingly; and no challenge to more than one member at a time shall be received by the court.

Art. 72. All the members of a court martial are to behave with decency and calmness; and in giving their votes, are to begin with the youngest in commission.

Art. 73. All persons who give evidence before a court martial, are to be examined on oath or affirmation in the following form:

“You swear or affirm (as the case may be) the evidence you shall give in the cause now in hearing, shall be the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth. So help you God.”

Art. 74. On the trials of cases not capital, before courts martial, the deposition of witnesses not in the line or staff of the army, may be taken before some justice of the peace, and read in evidence; provided, the prosecutor and person accused are present at the taking the same, or are duly notified thereof.

Art. 75. No officer shall be tried but by a general court martial, nor by officers of interior rank, if it can be avoided. Nor shall any proceedings or trials be carried on excepting between the hours of eight in the morning, and three in the afternoon, excepting in cases, which, in the opinion of the officer appointing the court martial, require immediate example.

Art. 76. No person whatsoever shall use any menacing words, signs, or gestures, in presence of a court martial, or shall cause any disorder or riot, or disturb their proceedings, on the penalty of being punished at the discretion of the said court martial.

Art. 77. Whenever any officer shall be charged with a crime, he shall be arrested and confined in his barracks, quarters, or tents, and deprived of his sword, by the commanding officer. And any officer who shall leave his confinement before he shall be set at liberty by his commanding officer, or by a superior officer, shall be cashiered.

Art. 78. Non-commissioned officers and soldiers, charged with crimes, shall be confined until tried by a court martial, or released by proper authority.

Art. 79. No officer or soldier who shall be put in arrest, shall continue in confinement more than eight days, or until such time as a court martial can be assembled.

Art. 80. No officer commanding a guard, or provost martial, shall refuse to receive or keep any prisoner committed to his charge by an officer belonging to the forces of the United States; provided the officer committing, shall, at the same time, deliver an account in writing, signed by himself, of the crime with which the said prisoner is charged.

Art. 81. No officer commanding a guard, or provost martial, shall presume to release any person committed to his charge, without proper authority for so doing, nor shall he suffer any person to escape, on the penalty of being punished for it by the sentence of a court martial.

Art 82. Every officer or provost marshal, to whose charge prisoners shall be committed, shall within twenty-four hours after such commitment, or as soon as he shall be relieved from his guard, make report in writing, to the commanding officer, of their names, their crimes, and the names of the officers who committed them, on the penalty of being punished for disobedience or neglect, at the discretion of a court martial.

Art. 83. Any commissoned officer convicted before a general court martial of conduct unbecoming an officer and a gentleman, shall be dismissed the service.

Art. 84. In cases where a court martial may think it proper to sentence a commissioned officer to be suspended from command, they shall have power also to suspend his pay and emoluments from the same time, according to the nature and heinousness of the offence.

Art. 85. In all cases where a commissioned officer is cashiered for cowardice or fraud, it shall be added in the sentence, that the crime, name, and place of abode, and punishment of the delinquent, be published in the newspapers, in and about the camp, and of a particular state from which the offender came, or where he usually resides, after which it shall be deemed scandalous for an officer to associate with him.

Art. 86. The commanding officer of any post or detachment, in which there shall not be a number of officers adequate to form a general court martial, shall, in cases which require the cognizance of such a court, report to the commanding officer of the department, who shall order a court to be assembled at the nearest post or detachment, and the party accused, with necessary witnesses, to be transported to the place where the said court shall be assembled.

Art. 87. No person shall be sentenced to suffer death but by the concurrence of two thirds of a general court martial, nor except in the cases herein expressly mentioned; nor shall more than fifty lashes be inflicted on any offender, at the discretion of a court martial, and no officer, non-commissioned officer, soldier, or follower of the army, shall be tried a second time for the same offence.

Art. 88. No person shall be liable to be tried and punished by a general court martial for any offence which shall appear to have been committed more than two years before the issuing of the order for such trial, unless the person by reason of having absented himself, or some other manifest impediment, shall not have been amenable to justice within that period.

Art. 89. Every officer authorised to order a general court martial, shall have power to pardon or mitigate any punishment ordered by such court, except the sentence of death, or of cashiering an officer; which in the cases where he has authority (by article 65) to carry them into execution, he may suspend until the pleasure of the President of the United States can be known; which suspension, together with copies of the proceedings of the court martial, the said officer shall immediately transmit to the President for his determination. And the colonel or commanding officer of the regiment or garrison, where any regimental or garrison court martial shall be held, may pardon or mitigate any punishment ordered by such court to be inflicted.

Art. 90. Every judge advocate, or person officiating as such, at any general court martial, shall transmit, with as much expedition as the opportunity of time and distance of place can admit, the original proceedings and sentence of such court martial, to the secretary of war, which said original proceedings and sentence shall be carefully kept and preserved in the office of the said secretary, to the end that the persons entitled thereto may be enabled, upon application to the said office, to obtain copies thereof.

The party tried by any general court martial, shall, upon demand thereof made by himself, or by any person, or persons in his behalf, be entitled to a copy of the sentence and proceedings of such court martial.

The following section is extracted from the laws of Congress of 1808.

Sec. 10. And be it further enacted, That the officers, non-commissioned officers, musicians, and privates of the said corps, shall be governed by the rules and articles of war, which have been established by the United States in Congress assembled, or by such rules and articles as may be hereafter, by law established; Provided nevertheless, That the sentence of general courts martial, extending to the loss of life, the dismission of a commissioned officer, or which shall respect the general officer, shall, with the whole of the proceedings of such cases, respectively, be laid before the President of the United States, who is hereby authorised to direct the same to be carried into execution, or otherwise, as he shall judge proper.

COURT of inquiry, an assemblage of officers who are empowered to inquire into the conduct of an officer, or to see whether there is ground for a court-martial, &c. Courts of inquiry cannot award punishment, but must report to the officer by whose order they were assembled. Courts of inquiry are also appointed to examine into the quality and distribution of military stores. See ARTICLES OF WAR, §. 91, and 92.

A regimental COURT-MARTIAL cannot sentence to the loss of life or limb. The colonel or commanding officer approves the sentence of a regimental court-martial.

A garrison COURT-MARTIAL resembles a regimental one in as much as the members are not sworn, and only differs by its being composed of officers of different regiments. The governor, or other commanding officer of the garrison, approves the sentence.

COURTINE, Fr. See CURTAIN.

COUSSINET à mousquetaire, Fr. a bag formerly worn by a French soldier on his left side beneath the cross belt. It hung upon hooks near the but of his musquet. It likewise signifies a wedge used to support the mortar in its frame.

COUTELAS, Fr. See CUTLASS.

COUVERT, Fr. See COVER.

COUVRE-FACE, Fr. a term used by some engineers, and among others by Cohorn, to express the counter-guard: others, particularly Montalembert, convey by couvre face géneral a second line of complete investment.

To COVER, in the mechanical disposition of a battallion, company or squad, only means that a man is to stand in such a position in files, as that when he looks exactly forward to the neck of the man who leads him, he cannot see the second man from him. Nothing but great attention at the drill can bring men to cover so truly as never to destroy the perpendicular direction of any leading body. The least deviation in the men who cover upon either flank of a leading column or division, will throw all that follow out of the true line.

To COVER ground, is to occupy a certain proportion of ground individually, or collectively. A foot soldier upon an average covers 22 inches of ground when he stands in the ranks. The dimensions are taken from his shoulder points.

A file on horseback covers or occupies in the ranks about 2 feet 8 inches. Thus three file, 8 feet; twelve file will occupy about 32 feet or 10 yards and 2 feet; thirteen file, 34 feet 8 inches, or 11 yards, 1 foot 8 inches; fourteen file, 37 feet 4 inches, or 12 yards 1 foot 4 inches, and so on.

One horse’s length from nose to croup, on an average, 8 feet and about 2 inches, or 2 yards 2 feet 2 inches. This consequently will be the space which about three files occupy in front.

Cavalry and infantry officers cannot pay too much attention to the calculation of distances by an accurate knowlege of which, ground will be properly covered, and any proportion of men, on horseback or on foot, be drawn up so as to answer the intentions of an able general. The best way that an officer can form his eye, is to exercise it to the measurement of ground by the regular pace of two feet, used in the military drawing; by this he can calculate his interval exactly, when he once knows how many feet his division occupies; for it is only halving the number of feet, and the number, so produced, is his distance in paces of two feet each. This instruction has been given to cavalry officers, by a very able Tactician.

COVER, a term in war to express security or protection: thus, to land under cover of the guns, is to advance offensively against an enemy who dares not approach on account of the fire from ships, boats or batteries. It likewise signifies whatever renders any movement imperceptible: as, under cover of the night, under cover of a wood, &c. The gallery or corridor in fortification is however, particularly distinguished by the term Chemin Couvert, covert way, because the glacis of the parade is its parapet.

COVERT-WAY, in fortification, is a space of 5 or 6 fathoms on the border of the ditch towards the country, covered by a rising ground, which has a gentle slope towards the field. This slope is called the glacis of the covert-way. See FORTIFICATION.

Second COVERT-WAY, or as the French call it avant chemin couvert, is the covert-way at the foot of the glacis. See FORTIFICATION.

CRAB. See GIN.

CRANE, an instrument made with ropes, pullies, and hooks, by which great weights are raised.

CREDITS. See DEBTS and Credits.

CREMAILLE, in field fortification, is when the inside line of the parapet is broken in such a manner as to resemble the teeth of a saw; whereby this advantage is gained, that a greater fire can be brought to bear upon the defile, than if only a simple face were opposed to it; and consequently the passage is rendered more difficult.

Redouts en CREMAILLERE, or Cremaille, are such as are constructed as above mentioned.

CRESSET, any great light upon a beacon, light-house, or watch-tower.

CRETE, in fortification, implies the earth thrown out of the ditch in a fortification, trench, &c. The most elevated part of a parapet or glacis.

CRI des armes, Fr. a savage custom which is still preserved by the Turks and other uncivilized nations, whenever they go into action. It was formerly practised among the French, Spaniards, and the English, &c. The national exclamations were Montjoie and St. Dennis for France, St. James for Spain, St. George for England, St. Malo or St. Yves for the Dukes of Britanny, St. Lambert for the principality of Liege, &c. The war-whoop may likewise be considered in this light. It is still practised among the savages of America. See WAR-WHOOP.

Every species of noise however is now exploded in Europe. When two armies are upon the point of engaging, a dead silence prevails, the eye and ear of the soldier are rivetted to the word of command; and when he comes into close contact with the enemy, nothing is heard besides the noise of drums, trumpets and cymbals, to which are added the discharge of ordnance and the fire of the musquetry.

In making any desperate assault, or in charging bayonet, or when one battalion is directly opposed to another, or squadron to squadron, the French soldiery frequently use the cri des armes; tué tué; and the Spaniards vociferate amat. Silence and calmness in the soldier, with steadiness and observation in the officer, are nevertheless superior to such ungovernable effusions. The former must contribute to regularity, the latter seldom fails to create disorder.

CRIQUES, Fr. small ditches which are made in different parts of a ground, for the purpose of inundating a country, in order to obstruct the approaches of an enemy.

CROATS, in military history, light irregular troops so called; generally people of Croatia. They are ordered upon all desperate services, and their method of fighting is the same as the Pandours. They wear a short waist-coat, and long white pantaloons, with light boots, a cap greatly resembling the hussar cap. Their arms are a long firelock with rifled barrel, and short bayonet, a crooked hanger, and brace of pistols.

CROCUS, a calcined metal used by the soldiers to clean their musquets, &c.

CROIX de St. Louis, Fr. The cross of St. Louis, a French order which was purely of a military nature. It was instituted by Louis, surnamed the Great, in 1693.

In 1719 the number of grand crosses to be distributed in the French army was limited, with appropriate allowances, in the following manner.

445 Commandeurs and chevaliers. 12 grand crosses at 6000 livres, 13 commandeurs at 4000 livres, 27 ditto at 3000, 25 chevaliers at 2000, 38 ditto at 1500, 100 ditto at 1000, 1 ditto at 900, 99 ditto at 800, 45 ditto at 600, 23 ditto at 500, 35 ditto at 400, 5 ditto at 300, and 4 ditto at 200.

The King was Sovereign Grand Master of the order. Land and sea officers wore it promiscuously. The cross consisted of an enamelled golden fleur de lis which was attached to the button hole of the coat by means of a small riband, crimson colored and watered.

On one side was the cross of St. Louis, with this inscription Ludovicus Magnus instituit, 1693; on the reverse side a blazing sword with the following words, Bellicæ virtutis, præmium.

This is the only order which could be properly and strictly called military. There were several others during the old French government, which we judge superfluous to the present work.

CROSS, the ensign or grand standard borne by the crusaders in the holy-war.

CROSS-fire, in the art of war, is when the lines of fire of two or more adjoining sides of a field-redoubt, &c. cross one another; it is frequently used to prevent an enemy’s passing a defile. It may be two ways obtained: first, by constructing the redoubt with the face opposite the defile, tenailled; that is, forming a re-entering angle. The other way is, to defend the defile by 2 redoubts, whose faces command the passage, flanking each other at the same time.

CROSS-bar shot, shot with iron bars crossing through them, sometimes standing 6 or 8 inches out at both sides: they are used at sea, for destroying the enemy’s rigging. At a siege they are of great service in demolishing the enemy’s palisading, &c.

CROSS-bars. See CARRIAGES.

CROSS-bow, a missive weapon used to propel arrows, &c. previous to the use of gunpowder.

CROTCHET, of cavalry. See CROSS.

CROW, an iron bar used as a lever, in moving heavy ordnance, or carriages, &c.

CROWS-feet, or CALTROPS, in the art of war, are 4 pointed irons, so made that what way soever they fall, one point is always uppermost. The short ones are about 4 inches in length, and the long ones 6 or 7. The short ones are thrown on bridges, &c. and the long ones on the earth, both to incommode the cavalry, that they may not approach without great difficulty.

CROWN-work, in fortification, an out work that takes up more ground than any other. It consists of a large gorge, and two sides terminating towards the country in two demi-bastions, each of which is joined by a particular curtain, forming two half bastions and one whole one: they are made before the curtain, or the bastion, and generally serve to inclose some buildings which cannot be brought within the body of the place, or to cover the town gates, or else to occupy a spot of ground which might be advantageous to the enemy. See FORTIFICATION.

CROWNED horned-work, in fortification, is a horn-work, with a crown-work before it.

CROWNS, in ancient military history, were of various uses and denominations, viz.

Oval CROWN, corona ovalis, given to a general who, without effusion of blood, had conquered the enemy.

Naval CROWN, corona navalis distributed to those who first should board an enemy’s ship.

Camp CROWN, corona castrensis, the reward of those who first passed the palisades of, and forced an enemy’s camp.

Mural CROWN, corona muralis, the recompense and mark of honor due to those who first mounted the breach at an assault of a besieged town.

Civic CROWN, corona civica, more esteemed than the preceding: it was the distinguishing mark of those who had saved the life of a Roman citizen in battle. It was given to Cicero for dissipating the conspiracy of Catiline, and denied to Cæsar, because he embrued his hands in the blood of his fellow citizens.

Triumphal CROWN, corona triumphalis, the symbol of victory, and presented to a general who gained any signal advantage to the republic.

Grass CROWN, corona graminea was delivered by the whole Roman people to any general who had relieved an army invested or besieged by the enemy. The other crowns were distributed by the emperors and generals; this was given to Fabius by the Roman people, for obliging Hannibal to decamp from Rome.

Olive CROWN, corona oliva, the symbol of peace, and presented to the negotiators of it.

CROISADE CRUSADE in military history, also called a holy war, barbarous expeditions of the Christians against the Saracens or Turks for the recovery of the holy land, and so called from those who engaged in it wearing a cross on their clothes.

CUBE a solid, consisting of 6 equal square sides. The solidity of any cube is found by multiplying the superficial content of any one of the sides by the height. Cubes are to one another in the triplicate ratio of their diagonals.

CUBE-root, is the side of one of the squares constituting the cube.

CUBIC foot, implies so much as is contained in a cube whose side is 1 foot, or 12 inches.

CUBIC hyperbola, is a figure expressed by the equation x y² = a, having 2 asymptotes, and consisting of 2 hyperbolas, lying in the adjoining angles of the asymptotes, and not in the opposite angles, like the Apollonian hyperbola, being otherwise called, by Sir Isaac Newton, in his enumeratio linearum tertii ordinis, an hyperbolismus of a parabola: and is the 65th species of lines, according to him.

CUBIC number, is that which is produced by multiplying any number by itself, and then again the product by that number.

CUBIC parabola, a curve of the second order, having infinite legs, diverging contrary ways.

CUE or QUEUE, the hair tied in form of a tail. All the British soldiers, excepting the grenadiers and light infantry, till very lately wore their hair cue’d.

CUIRASSE, a piece of defensive armor, made of plate, well hammered, serving to cover the body, from the neck to the girdle, both before and behind, called breast and back plate.

CUIRASSIERS, in the military art, are a sort of heavy cavalry armed with cuirasses, as most of the German horse are. The several German powers have regiments of cuirassiers, especially the emperor, and the king of Prussia. The late king of France had also one regiment; but there were none in the English army since the revolution of 1688.

CUISH, the ancient armor which covered the thighs, was so called.

CUISSARS, Fr. are plates or scales made of beaten iron, which formerly served to cover the thighs.

CUITE, Fr. a technical word to express the preparation of saltpetre for the making of gunpowder. See SALTPETRE.

CULASSE, Fr. See BREECH of a GUN.

CULBUTER, une Colonne, to overthrow a column. This term is frequently used when cavalry attack infantry by rapidly charging it.

CULEE d’un pont, Fr. butment of a bridge.

CULVERIN, CULVERIN ordinary, CULVERIN of the largest size, See CANNON.

CUNEUS. See WEDGE.

CUNETTE. See CUVETTE.

CURFEW-bell, a signal given in cities taken in war, &c. to the inhabitants to go to bed. The most eminent curfew was that in England, established by William the Conqueror, who appointed, under severe penalties, that, at the ringing of a bell, at 8 o’clock in the evening, every one should put out their lights and fires, and go to bed, &c.

CURTAIN, in fortification, is that part of the body of the place, which joins the flank of one bastion to that of the next. See FORTIFICATION.

Angle of the CURTAIN. See FORTIFICATION.

Complement of the CURTAIN. See FORTIFICATION.

CURTELASSE, CURTELAX, See CUTLASS.

CUSTREL, the shield-bearer of the ancients was so called.

CUT. There are six cuts used by the cavalry, to be made with the broad sword, or sabre. See SWORD Exercise.

To CUT off. To intercept, to hinder from union or return. In a military sense, this phrase is variously applicable, and extremely familiar.

To CUT off an enemy’s retreat, is to manœuvre in such a manner as to prevent an opposing army, or body of men, from retiring, when closely pressed, either to their entrenchments, or into a fortified town from which they had marched or sallied. Whole armies may be cut off either through the mismanagement of their own generals, by extending the line of operation too far, or through the superior talents of an individual, who in the midst of the hurry, noise, and desolation, which invariably attend a pitched battle, suddenly takes advantage of some opening in the wings or centre, and cuts off a material part of his enemy’s line. When one army is superior to another in numbers, and is commanded by a shrewd and intelligent officer, it may always cut off a part at least of the opposing forces that come into action.

To CUT short. To abridge: as the soldiers were cut short of their pay.

To CUT up. When the cavalry are sent in pursuit of a flying enemy, the latter are generally cut up.

To CUT through. A small body of brave men, headed by a good officer, will frequently extricate itself from apparent captivity, or destruction, by cutting its way through superior force.

CUTLER, a military artificer, whose business is to forge, temper, and mount all sorts of sword blades.

CUTTING-off. See RETRENCHMENT.

CUVETTE, in fortification, is a small ditch of 10 or 12 feet broad, made in the middle of a large dry ditch, about 4 or 4¹⁄₂ feet deep, serving as a retrenchment to defend the ditch, or else to let water in, (if it can be had during a siege,) and afford an obstacle, should the enemy endeavor to cross the fosse.

CYCLOPOEDIA. See ENCYCLOPOEDIA.

CYCLOID, a curve in geometry.

CYLINDER, or concave cylinder of a gun, is all the hollow length of the piece, or bore. See CANNON.

Charged CYLINDER, the chamber, or that part which receives the powder and ball. See CANNON.

Vacant CYLINDER, that part of the hollow or bore which remains empty when the piece is loaded.

CYMAR, a slight covering; a scarf.

CYMBAL, in ancient military history, a war-like musical instrument in use among the ancients, made of brass and silver. They are derived from Asia, where they are of a variety of sizes. They are now used by the British and other European nations, in their martial music.

CZAR, in military history, a title assumed by the great dukes, or, as they are now stiled, emperors of all the Russias. This title is no doubt, by corruption, taken from Cæsar, emperor; and the Czars accordingly bear an eagle, as the symbol of their empire. The first that bore this title was Basil, the son of Basilides, about the year 1470. The Empress is called the Czarina or Tzarina.

D.

DAGGER, in military affairs, a short sword, or poinard, about 12 or 13 inches long. It is not long since, that duellists fought with sword and dagger.

DAGUE, Fr. dagger, a short thick poniard which was formerly used when individuals engaged in single combat.

DAM. See DYKE.

DAME, Fr. among miners any portion of earth which may remain after the explosion of a mine has taken place. It likewise means a piece of wood with two handles used to press down turf or dirt in a mortar.

DARE, a challenge or defiance to single combat.

DARRAIN. See BATTLE-array.

DART, in ancient military history, implies a small kind of lance, thrown by the hand.

DAY, in a military sense implies any time in which armies may be engaged, from the rising of one day’s sun to that of another. According to Johnson it signifies the day of contest, the contest, the battle.

DAYSMAN, an umpire of the combat was so called.

DEBANDADE. A la débandade, helter-skelter.

Se battre à la débandade, to fight in a loose, dispersed manner.

Laisser à la débandade, to leave at random, or in disorder.

DEBARK, See DISEMBARK.

DEBAUCHER, Fr. to debauch or entice a soldier from the service of his country. During the reign of Louis the XV. and in former reigns, it was enacted, that any person who should be convicted of having debauched or enticed a soldier from his duty should suffer death. By a late act of the British parliament it is made a capital offence to entice or seduce a soldier from any regiment in the British service.

By the 23d section of the articles of war of the United States, the advising or persuading any officer of the United States army to desert, subjects the adviser to the punishment of death, or such other punishment as a court martial may inflict.

DEBENTURE, is a kind of warrant, given in the office of the British board of ordnance, whereby the person whose name is therein specified, is intitled to receive such a sum of money as by former contract had been agreed on, whether wages, or otherwise. Debenture, in some of the British acts of parliament, denotes a kind of bond or bill, first given in 1649, whereby the government is charged to pay the soldier, creditor, or his assigns, the money due on auditing the account of his arrears. The payments of the board of ordnance for the larger services at home are always made by debentures; and the usual practice has been to make those payments which are said to be in course of office, at a period which is always somewhat more than three months after the date of each debenture, and which can never exceed six: to pay, for instance, at once for the three months of January, February, and March, as early as possible after the 30th of June.

Debentures were generally made up at the Pay-Office by virtue of warrants from the War-Office, with the state of regimental charges annexed, after which is issued the final, or clearing warrant. See WARRANT.

DEBLAYER un Camp, Fr. To evacuate a camp for the purpose of cleaning and purifying the ground.

DEBTS and Credits. Every captain of a troop or company in the British service is directed to give in a monthly statement of the debts and credits of his men; and it is the duty of every commanding officer to examine each list, and to see, that no injustice or irregularity has been countenanced or overlooked in so important an object, as every money matter between officer and soldier most unquestionably is.

DECAGON, in fortification, is a polygon figure, having 10 sides, and as many angles; and if all the sides are equal, and all the angles, it is called a regular decagon, and may be inscribed in a circle. The sides of a regular decagon are, in power and length, equal to the greatest segment of an hexagon inscribed in the same circle, and cut in extreme and mean proportion.

DECAGONE. Fr. See DECAGON.

To DECAMP, to march an army or body of men from the ground where it before lay encamped. It also signifies to quit any place or position in an unexpected manner. See CAMP.

DECANUS, in Roman military history, an officer who presided over ten other officers, and was head of the contubernium, or serjeant of a file of Roman soldiers; hence our Deacons.

DECHARGEURS, Fr. are men appointed to attend the park of artillery, and to assist the non commissioned officers, &c. who are employed on that service. It is the duty of the former to keep a specific account of articles received and consumed, in order to enable the latter to furnish their officers with accurate statements.

To DECIMATE, to divide any body of men into as many tenths as the aggregate number will afford, and to make them cast lots for the purpose of being punished.

DECIMATION, in Roman military history, a punishment indicted upon such soldiers as quitted their post, or behaved themselves cowardly in the field. The names of all the guilty were put into an urn or helmet, and as many were drawn out as made the tenth part of the whole number: the latter were put to the sword and the others saved.

DECIMER, Fr. See DECIMATE.

DECLARATION of war, a public proclamation made to the citizens, or subjects of a state, declaring them to be at war with any foreign power, and forbidding all and every one to aid or assist the common enemy, at their peril.

DECLIVITY, as opposed to acclivity, means a gradual inclination, or obliquity reckoned downwards.

DECOMPTE, Fr. signifies a liquidation, or balance, which from time to time was made in the old French service, between the captain of a company and each private soldier, for monies advanced, or in hand. In the British service every infantry soldier is settled with on the 24th day in each month. The cavalry is paid every second month. In the American army the soldiers are required to be paid every two months at least.

DECOUVERTE, Aller à la découverte, Fr. To patrole. In the old French service, the party ordered to perform this duty, when in a garrison, usually went three miles round the fortifications to pick up stragglers who could not account for themselves, and to secure spies, should any be lurking about.

Aller à la DECOUVERTE, when applied to any party that is detached from the army, signifies to reconnoitre the enemy. Cavalry are usually employed upon this duty.

DECOY, a stratagem to carry off the enemy’s horses in a foraging party, or from the pasture; to execute which, you must be disguised, and mix on horseback in the pasture, or amongst the foragers on that side on which you propose to fly; you must then begin, by firing a few shots, which are to be answered by such of your party as are appointed to drive up the rear, and are posted at the opposite extremity of the pasture, or foraging ground; after which they are to gallop from their different stations towards the side fixed for the flight, shouting and firing all the way: the horses being thus alarmed, and provoked by the example of others, will break loose from the pickets, throw down their riders and the trusses, and setting up a gallop, will naturally direct their course to the same side; insomuch that, if the number of them was ever so great, you might lead them in that manner for several leagues together: when you are got into some road, bordered by a hedge, or ditch, you must stop as gently as possible; and without making any noise; the horses will then suffer themselves to be taken without any opposition. It is called in French Haraux; and marshal Saxe is the only author that mentions it.

DECOYED, an enemy is said to be decoyed when a small body of troops draws them into action, whilst the main body lies in ambush ready to act with the greatest effect.

DECURIO, in Roman military history, a commander of ten men in the army, or chief of a decury.

DECURY, ten Roman soldiers ranged under one chief, or leader, called the Decurio.

DEEP, troops are told off in ranks of two, or 3 deep, and on some occasions in 4 or more.

DEFAULTER. See DESERTER.

DEFEAT, the overthrow of an army.

DEFECTION. See MUTINY.

DEFENCE, in fortification, consists of all sorts of works that cover and defend the opposite posts; as flanks, parapets, casemates, and fausse-brays. It is almost impossible to fix the miner to the face of a bastion, till the defences of the opposite one are ruined; that is, till the parapet of its flank is beaten down, and the cannon, in all parts that can fire upon that face which is attacked, is dismounted. See FORTIFICATION.

Active DEFENCE, generally considered, means every species of offensive operation which is resorted to by the besieged, to annoy the besiegers. Such for instance, is the discharge of heavy ordnance from the walls, the emission of shells, and the firing of musquetry. A mass of water may likewise be understood to mean active defence, provided it can be increased according to the exigency of the service, and be suddenly made to overflow the outworks, or entrenchments of the besieging enemy. Mines which are carried beyond the fortifications may likewise be included under this head.

Passive DEFENCE is chiefly confined to inundations, and is effected by letting out water in such a manner, that the level ground which lies round a fortified town or place may be entirely overflowed and become an inert stagnant pool. Mere submersion is, in fact, the distinguishing character of this species of defence, which does not afford any other movement than what naturally arises from the greater or lesser elevation of the waters, without the means of urging them beyond a given point.

Distant DEFENCE, consists in being able to interrupt the enemy’s movements by circuitous inundations; to inundate, for instance, a bridge, when a convoy is passing, or to insulate batteries, the heads of saps or lodgments which have been made in the covert way is to act upon a distant defence. By this species of defence an enemy’s communications may be perpetually intercepted, and his approaches so obstructed as to force him to leave dangerous intervals.

See Belidor’s treatise on Hydraulic Architecture.

Line of DEFENCE, represents the flight of a musquet ball from the place where the musqueteers stand, to scour the face of the bastion. It should never exceed the reach of a musquet. It is either fichant or razant: the first is when it is drawn from the angle of the curtain to the flanked angle; the last, when it is drawn from a point in the curtain, razing the face of the bastion.

Line of DEFENCE is the distance between the salient angle of the bastion, and the opposite flank; that is, it is the face produced to the flank. See FORTIFICATION.

DEFENCE of rivers, in military affairs, is a vigorous effort to prevent the enemy from passing; to effect which, a careful and attentive officer will raise redoubts, and if necessary join curtains thereto: he will place them as near the banks as possible, observing to cut a trench through the ground at the windings of the river, which may be favorable to the enemy, and to place advanced redoubts there, to prevent his having any ground fit to form on, &c. See RIVERS.

To be in a posture of DEFENCE, is to be prepared to oppose an enemy, whether in regard to redoubts, batteries, or in the open field.

To DEFEND, to fortify, secure, or maintain a place or cause.

DEFENSE, Fr. See Ligne de DEFENSE.

DEFENSE, Fr. être en défense, technically signifies to be in a state of defence, or able to resist. The French usually say: Cette redoute est en défense. This redoubt is in a state of defence.

DEFENSES d’une place, Fr. See DEFENCE in FORTIFICATION.

DEFENSIVE, serving to defend; in a state or posture of defence.

DEFENSIVE-war. See WAR.

DEFIANCE. See CHALLENGE.

DEFICIENT, wanting to complete, as when a regiment, troop, or company has not its prescribed number of men.

DEFILE, in military affairs, a strait narrow passage, or road, through which the troops cannot march, otherwise than by making a small front, and filing off; so that the enemy may take an opportunity to stop, or harrass their march, and to charge them with so much the more advantage, because the rear cannot come up to the relief of the front.

To DEFILE, is to reduce divisions or platoons into a small front, in order to march through a defile; which is most conveniently done by quarter facing to either the right or left, and then covering to either right or left, and marching through by files, &c. It has been mentioned by a writer on military manœuvres, that defiling should be performed with rapidity, for this obvious reason, that a body of men which advances towards, or retires from an approaching enemy, may get into line, or into columns prepared for action, without loss of time. There may, however, be exceptions to this general rule. For instance, if the regiment is passing a bridge, either retreating or advancing, and the bridge is not firm, the pressure upon it must be as little as possible; because if it should break down, the regiment is suddenly separated, and the remainder may be cut to pieces. In passing a common defile the pace must be proportioned to the nature of the ground.

DEFILING a lodgment. See ENFILADE.

DEFORMER, Fr. in a military sense, signifies to break: as déformer une colonne, to break a column.

DEFY. See CHALLENGE.

DEGAST, Fr. the laying waste an enemy’s country, particularly in the neighborhood of a town which an army attempts to reduce by famine, or which refuses to pay military exactions.

DEGORGEOIR, Fr. a sort of steel pricker used in examining the touch-hole of a cannon; called a priming wire.

DEGRADATION, in a military life, the act of depriving an officer for ever of his commission, rank, dignity, or degree of honor; and taking away, at the same time, title, badge, and every other privilege of an officer.

DEGRADER, Fr. To degrade. The character of a soldier in France was formerly, and we presume still is, so scrupulously watched, that criminals were never delivered over to the charge of the civil power, or sent to be executed, without having been previously degraded; which was done in the following manner:

As soon as the serjeant of the company to which the culprit belonged, had received orders from the major of the regiment, to degrade and render him incapable of bearing arms; he accoutred him cap-a-pied, taking care to place his right hand upon the but-end of the musquet, while the soldier remained tied. He then repeated the following words: finding thee unworthy to bear arms, we thus degrade thee. “Te trouvant indigne de porter les armes, nous t’en dégradons.” He then drew the musquet from his arm backwards, took off his cross-belt, sword, &c. and finally gave him a kick upon the posteriors. After which the serjeant retired, and the executioner seized the criminal. See DRUM-OUT.

DEGRE. See DEGREE.

DEGREE. Though this term properly belongs to geometry, nevertheless it is frequently used both in fortification, and gunnery. Hence it will not be improper to state, that it is a division of a circle, including a 360th part of its circumference. Every circle is supposed to be divided into 360°, parts called degrees, and each degree into 60′, other parts, called minutes; each of these minutes being divided into 60″ seconds, each second into thirds, and so on.

DEHORS, in the military art, are all sorts of out-works in general, placed at some distance from the walls of a fortification, the better to secure the main places, and to protect the siege, &c. See FORTIFICATION.

DELINEATION, an outline or sketch. See DESIGN.

DELIVER. See SURRENDER.

DEMI-BASTION, or half-bastion, is a work with only one face and one flank. See FORTIFICATION.

DEMI-CANNON. See CANNON.

DEMI-CULVERIN. See CANNON.

DEMI-DISTANCE des polygones, Fr. is the distance between the exterior polygons and the angles.

DEMI-DISTANCES, Fr. half distances: as serrez la colonne à demi-distances, close to the column at half distances.

DEMI-FILE, Fr. is that rank in a French battalion, which immediately succeeds to the serre-demi-file, and is at the head of the remaining half of its depth.

DEMI-LANCE, a light lance or spear.

DEMI-LINE, in fortification, is a work placed before the curtain to cover it and prevent the flanks from being discovered sideways. It is made of two faces, meeting in an outward angle. See FORTIFICATION.

DEMI-GORGE, in fortification, is half the gorge, or entrance into the bastion, not taken directly from angle to angle, where the bastion joins the curtain, but from the angle of the flank to the centre of the bastion; or the angle which the two curtains would make, by their prolongation. See FORTIFICATION.

DEMISSION, Fr. Resignation.

DEMOLITION, the act of overthrowing buildings.

DENIZEN, a free man, residing in a country or state, and owing allegiance, as opposed to Alien, which means a person not a citizen, and who owes or acknowleges a foreign allegiance.

DENONCIATEUR d’un déserteur, Fr. During the old government of France, a military regulation existed by which any person who discovered a deserter, was entitled to his full discharge, if a soldier: and to one hundred livres, or eleven dollars reward.

DENONCIATEUR, in a general sense, may not improperly be called a military informer. So rigid indeed, were the regulations (even in the most corrupt state of the French government) against every species of misapplication and embezzlement, that if a private dragoon gave information to the commissary of musters of a troop horse that had passed muster, having been used in the private service of an officer, he was entitled not only to his discharge, but received moreover one hundred livres in cash, and became master of the horse and equipage, with which he retired unmolested. It is not mentioned in the publication from which we extract this remark, whether the officer was cashiered, &c. but we presume he was.

One hundred and fifty livres were likewise paid to any dragoon, or soldier who should give information of a premeditated duel; he obtained moreover his discharge.

DENSITY of bodies. See MOTION.

DEPASSER (or DEBORDER), Fr. To over-run. In oblique movements, particular care should be taken not to afford an enemy that advances on the same points with yourself, the means of outflanking you; which must inevitably happen, should any part of your troops over-run their proper ground. For the instant such an error occurs, your antagonist will only have to form a retired flank, oppose you in front on that part, and charge the remainder in flank, after having cut off all the troops that had over-run.

Se laisser DEPASSER, to suffer yourself to be overtaken.

DEPENSES, Fr. In a military sense, implies secret service money.

DEPLOY, to display, to spread out; a column is said to deploy, when the divisions open out, or extend to form line on some one of those divisions.

DEPLOYMENT, or flank march, in a military sense, the act of unfolding or expanding any given body of men, so as to extend their front. A deployment may be made in various ways. The principal one is, from the close column into line. A battalion in close column may form in line on its front, on its rear, or on any central division, by the deployment, or flank march, and by which it successively uncovers and extends its several divisions.

In the passage of an obstacle, parts of the battalion are required to form in close column, and again deploy into line; although the division formed upon, continues to be moveable. This, however, depends wholly upon the nature of the ground or country, over which the battalion is marching.

DEPLOYMENT into line on a front division, the right in front, is effected by halting that division in the alignement, and all the others in their true situations, parallel and well closed up to it; and then by taking a point for forming upon, and dressing by it in the prolongation of that division. For a minute explanation of the deployments on a rear and central division. See American Military Library.

Oblique Deployments differ from those movements, which are made when a battalion stands perpendicular to the line on which it is to form. These deployments are frequently made on an oblique line advanced, on an oblique line retired: and when the close column halted is to form in line in the prolongation of its flank, and on either the front, rear, or central division. See Am. Mil. Lib.

DEPOT, any particular place in which military stores are deposited for the use of the army. In a more extensive sense, it means several magazines collected together for that purpose. It also signifies an appropriated fort, or place, for the reception of recruits, or detached parties, belonging to different regiments. During hostilities, the greatest attention should be given to preserve the several depots which belong to the fighting army. Hence the line of operation should be invariably connected with them; or rather no advance should be made upon that line, without the strictest regard being paid to the one of communication.

DEPOT is also used to denote a particular place at the tail of the trenches, out of the reach of the cannon of the place, where the troops generally assemble, who are ordered to attack the out-works, or support the troops in the trenches, when there is reason to imagine the besieged intend making a vigorous sally.

DEPOT, likewise means a temporary magazine for forage, for fascines, gabions, tools, and every other thing necessary for the support of an army, or for carrying on a siege.

DEPOUILLE, Fr. mettre en dépouille, is an expression made use of in casting of cannon, and signifies to strip it of the matting, clay, &c.

DEPOUILLES de l’ennemi, Fr. See SPOILS.

DEPRESSION, the placing of any piece of ordnance, so that its shot be thrown under the point blank line.

DEPRESSED gun, any piece of ordnance having its mouth depressed below the horizontal line.

DEPTH of a battalion or squadron, in military affairs, the number of ranks, or the quantity of men. Infantry were formerly drawn up 6 or 8 deep, that is, it consisted of so many ranks; but now the line of infantry are generally drawn up only 3 deep, and in defence of a breastwork but two deep. When infantry is drawn up 3 deep, the first rank is called the front rank; the second, the centre rank; and the third, the rear rank; and the files which bind the right and left, are called the flanks. The cavalry is drawn up 2 deep.

DEPTH, a technical word peculiarly applicable to bodies of men drawn up in line or column.

DEPTH of formation. The fundamental order of the infantry in which they should always form and act, and for which all their various operations and movements are calculated, is three ranks. The formation in two ranks is regarded as an occasional exception that may be made from it, where an extended and covered front is to be occupied, or where an irregular enemy, who deals only in fire, is to be opposed. The formation in two ranks, and at open files, is calculated only for light troops in the attack and pursuit of a timid enemy, but not for making an impression on an opposite regular line, which vigorously assails, or resists.

DEPTH is not only applicable to men drawn up in line, and standing at close, or open files two or three deep, but it may likewise signify the relative depth of an army marching towards any given object, in desultory columns.

DEPUTY, a term given to persons employed in the civil departments of the army, and subject to superior trusts.

DEPUTY pay-masters.

DEPUTY muster-masters.

DEPUTY commissaries.

DEPUTY judge-advocate.

DEROUTE, Fr. The total overthrow of an army, battalion, or of any armed party. See DEFEAT.

To DESCEND, signifies to leave any position on an eminence for immediate action.

To DESCEND upon, to invade. When an enemy from surrounding heights suddenly marches against a fortified place, he is said to descend upon it. The term is also applied to troops debarking from their ships for the purpose of invasion.

DESCENT. Hostile invasion of any state or kingdom.

DESCENTES, dans le fossé, Fr. See DESCENTS into the ditch.

DESCENTS into the ditch, are cuts and excavations which are made by means of saps in the counterscarp beneath the covert way. They are covered with thick boards and hurdles, and a certain quantity of earth is thrown upon the top, in order to obviate the bad effects which might arise from shells, &c.

When the ditch or fossé is full of water, the descent must be made to its edge, after which the ditch must be filled with strong fascines covered with earth. When the ditch is dry, the saps are carried on to the bottom, and traverses are made in order to secure a lodgment, or to render the approaches of the miner more practicable. When the ditch or fossé which is full of water, has little or no bank, the descent is simply made over it, care being taken to cover its enfilade or range with blinds and chandeliers, or to execute it as much out of that line as possible.

DESCENTS, in fortification, are the holes, vaults, and hollow places, made by undermining the ground.

DESCRIPTION, Signalement, Fr. The description of a man’s person, his appearance, &c. It not only signifies the figure, but an exact and specific detail of such marks and prominent features, that by comparing the copy taken on paper with the original, the latter may be instantly recognised. It is the custom in all well regulated armies for every regiment to have an exact description of each man that belongs to it, specifically drawn out in the adjutant’s books. So that when a soldier deserts, a copy is instantly taken, and forwarded to those places to which he is most likely to resort.

DESERTER, in a military sense, a soldier who, by running away from his regiment, troop, or company, abandons the service.

DESERTERS. A prudent officer will always be cautious of what he entrusts to a deserter; the judgment of the officer and his knowlege of human character, are the only guides which he has in his conduct; the motives of the deserter are therefore to be considered, whether it was the result of depravity in himself or of causes which might affect a generous mind. In this case, however, he should be as cautious as if it proved to be depravity only. A deserter on reaching the lines is put under arrest and conducted to the commanding officer, where he is examined, and it is usual to notify him he will be punished with death as a spy if he gives false information. Though great caution is required in regard to the information given by deserters, great advantage may be derived from their information, as attacks premeditated, the positions of officers, corps, and magazines, and head quarters, of discontents in the army, or disagreements among the superior officers.

DESERTERS from the militia may be apprehended by any person in the same manner, that deserters are from the regular army. Persons apprehending a deserter are entitled to 10 dollars.

Penalty of DESERTION. All officers and soldiers, who having received pay, or having been duly enlisted in the U. S. service, shall be convicted of having deserted the same, shall suffer death or such other punishment as by a court-martial shall be inflicted. Art. War, § 20, 21, 22, 23.

Any non commissioned officer or soldier, who shall, without leave from his commanding officer, absent himself from his troop or company, or from any detachment with which he shall be commanded, shall, upon being convicted thereof, be punished according to the nature of the offence, at the discretion of a court-martial.

No non commissioned officer or soldier shall inlist himself in any other regiment, troop, or company, without a regular discharge from the regiment, troop, or company in which he last served, on the penalty of being reputed a deserter and suffering accordingly: and in case any officer shall knowingly receive and entertain such non commissioned officer or soldier, or shall not, after his being discovered to be a deserter, immediately confine him, and give notice thereof to the corpse in which he last served, he, the said officer so offending, shall by a court-martial be cashiered.

Whatsoever officer or soldier shall be convicted of having advised any other officer or soldier, to desert our service, shall suffer such punishment as shall be inflicted upon him by the sentence of the court-martial.

Penalty for concealing BRITISH DESERTERS, or buying their arms, clothes, &c. Provided always, that if any person shall harbor, conceal, or assist any deserter from his majesty’s service, knowing him to be such, the person so offending shall forfeit for every such offence, the sum of 5_l._ or if any person shall knowingly detain, buy, or exchange, or otherwise receive, any arms, clothes, caps, or other furniture belonging to the king, from any soldier or deserter, or any other person, upon any account or pretence whatsoever, or cause the color of such clothes to be changed; the person so offending, shall forfeit for every such offence the sum of 5_l._ and upon conviction by the oath of one or more credible witness or witnesses, before any of his majesty’s justices of the peace, the said respective penalties of 5_l._ and 5_l._ shall be levied by warrant under the hands of the said justice or justices of the peace, by distress and sale of the goods and chattels of the offender; one moiety of the said first mentioned penalty of 5_l._ to be paid to the informer, by whose means such deserter shall be apprehended; and one moiety of the said last mentioned penalty of 5_l._ to be paid to the informer; and the residue of the said respective penalties to be paid to the officer to whom any such deserter or soldier did belong: and in case any such offender, who shall be convicted, as aforesaid, of harboring or assisting any such deserter or deserters, or having knowingly received any arms, clothes, caps, or other furniture belonging to the king or having caused the color of such clothes to be changed, contrary to the intent of this act, shall not have sufficient goods and chattels, wherein distress may be made, to the value of the penalties recovered against him for such offence, or shall not pay such penalties within 4 days after such conviction; then, and in such case, such justice of the peace shall and may, by warrant under his hand and seal, either commit such offender to the common gaol, there to remain without bail or mainprise for the space of three months, or cause such offender to be publicly whipped at the discretion of such justice.

DESERTEUR, Fr. See DESERTER.

DESIGN, in a general sense, implies the plan, order, representation, or construction of any kind of military building, chart, map, or drawing, &c. In building, the term ichnography may be used, when by design is only meant the plan of a building or a flat figure drawn on paper: when some side or face of the building is raised from the ground, we may use the term orthography; and when both front and sides are seen in perspective, we may call it scenography.

DESIGNING, the art of delineating or drawing the appearance of natural objects, by lines on a plane.

DESORDRE, Fr. See DISORDER.

DESTINATION, the place or purpose, to which any body of troops is appointed in order to do or attempt some military service.

To DETACH, is to send out part of a great number of men on some particular service, separate from that of the main body.

DETACHED pieces, in fortification, are such out-works as are detached, or at a distance from the body of the place; such as half-moons, ravelines, bastions, &c.

DETACHEMENT, Fr. See DETACHMENT.

DETACHMENT, in military affairs, an uncertain number of men drawn out from several regiments or companies equally, to march or be employed as the general may think proper, whether on an attack, at a siege, or in parties to scour the country. A detachment of 2000 or 3000 men is a command for a general officer; 800 for a colonel, 500 for a lieutenant-colonel, 200 or 300 for a major, 80 or 100 for a captain, 40 for a lieutenant or ensign, 12 for a serjeant, and 6 for a corporal. Detachments are sometimes made of intire squadrons and battalions. One general rule in all military projects that depends upon us alone, should be to omit nothing that can insure the success of our detachment and design; but, in that which depends upon the enemy, to trust something to hazard.

DETAIL, Fr. faire le détail d’une armée, d’une compagnie, ou d’une corps de gens de guerre; is to keep a strict eye upon every part of the service, and to issue out instructions or orders, that every individual belonging to a military profession may discharge his trust with accuracy and fidelity. Faire le détail d’une compagnié, likewise means to make up a company’s report, &c.

DETAIL of duty, in military affairs, is a roster or table for the regular and exact performance of duty, either in the field, garrison, or cantonments. The general detail of duty is the proper care of the majors of brigade, who are guided by the roster of the officers, and by the tables for the men, to be occasionally furnished. The adjutant of a regiment keeps the detail of duty for the officers of his regiment, as does the serjeant-major that for the non-commissioned, and the latter that for the privates.

DEVASTATION, in military history, the act of destroying, laying waste, demolishing, or unpeopling towns, &c.

DEVELOPPER, Fr. to unfold, to unravel; as Se développer sur la tête d’une colonne, to form line on the head of a column.

DEVICE, the emblems on a shield or standard.

DEUIL militaire, Fr. military mourning.

DEVUIDER, in the manege, is applied to a horse that, upon working upon volts, makes his shoulders go too fast for the croupe to follow.

DIABLE. Fr. See CHAT.

DIAGONAL, reaching from one angle to another; so as to divide a parallelogram into equal parts.

DIAGONAL MOVEMENTS. See ECHELLON.

DIAMETER, in both a military and geometrical sense, implies a right line passing through the centre of a circle, and terminated at each side by the circumference thereof. See CIRCLE.

The impossibility of expressing the exact proportion of the diameter of a circle to its circumference, by any received way of notation, and the absolute necessity of having it as near the truth as possible, has put some of the most celebrated men in all ages upon endeavoring to approximate it. The first who attempted it with success, was the celebrated Van Culen, a Dutchman, who by the ancient method, though so very laborious, carried it to 36 decimal places: these he ordered to be engraven on his tomb-stone, thinking he had set bounds to improvements. However, the indefatigable Mr. Abraham Sharp carried it to 75 places in decimals; and since that, the learned Mr. John Machin has carried it to 100 places, which are as follows:

If the diameter of a circle be 1, the circumference will be

3.1415926535,​8979323846,​2643383279,​5028841971,​6939937510,​ 5820974944,​5923078164,​0528620899,​8628034825,​3421170679,​+

of the same parts; which is a degree of exactness far surpassing all imagination.

But the ratios generally used in the practice of military mathematics are these following. The diameter of the circle is to its circumference as 113 is to 355 nearly.--The square of the diameter is to the area of the circle, as 452 to 355. The cube of the diameter is, to the solid content of a sphere, as 678 to 355.--The cubes of the axes are, to the solid contents of equi-altitude cylinders, as 452 to 355.--The solid content of a sphere is, to the circumscribed cylinder, as 2 to 3.

How to find the DIAMETER of shot or shells. For an iron ball, whose diameter is given, supposing a 9-pounder, which is nearly 4 inches, say, the cube root of 2.08 of 9 pounds is, to 4 inches, as the cube root of the given weight is to the diameter sought. Or, if 4 be divided by 2.08, the cube root of 9, the quotient 1.923 will be the diameter of a 1-pound shot; which being continually multiplied by the cube root of the given weight, gives the diameter required.

Or by logarithms much shorter, thus: If the logarithm of 1.923, which is .283979, be constantly added to the third part of the logarithm of the weight, the sum will be the logarithm of the diameter. Suppose a shot to weigh 24 pounds: add the given logarithm .283979 to the third part of .460070 of the logarithm 1.3802112 of 24, the sum .7440494 will be the logarithm of the diameter oi a shot weighing 24 pounds, which is 5.5468 inches.

If the weight should be expressed by a fraction, the rule is still the same: for instance, the diameter of a 1¹⁄₂ pound ball, or ³⁄₂, is found by adding the logarithm .2839793, found above, to .0586971 ¹⁄₃ of the logarithm of ²⁄₃, the sum .3426764 will be the logarithm of the diameter required, i. e. 2.2013 inches.

As the diameter of the bore, or the calibre of the piece, is made ¹⁄₂₀ part larger than that of the shot, according to the present practice, the following table is computed for this proportion.

DIAMETERS of the shots and calibres of English guns.

+---+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ |lb.| 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | +---+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | 0 |1.923|2.423|2.775|3·053|3.288| | 0 +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | 0 |2.019|2.544|2.913|3.204|3.568| +---+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | |4.143|4.277|4.403|4.522|4.635|4.743| | 1 +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | |4.349|4.490|4.623|4.748|4.866|4.981| +---+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | |5.220|5.305|5.388|5.409|5.547|5.623| | 2 +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | |5.480|5.579|5.661|5.742|5.824|5.893| +---+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | |5.975|6.041|6.105|6.168|6.230|6.290| | 3 +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | |6.275|6.343|6.410|6.475|6.?41|6.604| +---+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | |6.576|6.631|6.684|6.737|6.789|6.640| | 4 +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | |6.904|6.962|7.018|7.076|7.128|7.182| +---+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

+---+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+ |lb.| 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | | +---+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+ | |3.498|3.679|3.846|4.000|diam. | | 0 +-----+-----+-----+-----+------+ | |3.668|3.861|4.038|4.200|calib.| +---+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+ | |4.846|4.945|5.040|5.131|diam. | | 1 +-----+-----+-----+-----+------+ | |5.088|5.192|5.292|5.368|calib.| +---+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+ | |5.697|5.769|5.839|5.908|diam. | | 2 +-----+-----+-----+-----+------+ | |5.982|6.057|6.129|6.203|calib.| +---+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+ | |6.350|6.408|6.465|6.521|diam. | | 3 +-----+-----+-----+-----+------+ | |6.666|6.707|6.788|6.846|calib.| +---+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+ | |6.890|6.940|6.989|7.037|diam. | | 4 +-----+-----+-----+-----+------+ | |7.234|7.287|7.338|7.383|calib.| +---+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+

EXPLANATION.

The numbers in the first line of the table are units, and those in the first column of the left side of the table tens; the other numbers, under the one, and opposite to the others, are the respective diameters of shot and calibres. Thus, to find the diameter of the shot, and the calibre of a 24 pr. look for the number 2 on the left-hand side, and for 4 at top; then the number 5.547, under 4, and opposite 2, will be the diameter of the shot in inches and decimals, and the number 5.824, under the first, the calibre of a 24-pounder &c.

DIAMETERS of the Bullets and Calibres of English musquets.

+-+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | +-+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ |0| 0 |1.671|1.326|1.158|1.05 | .977| .919| .873| .835| .803| +-+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ |1|.715| .?51| .730| .711| .693| .677| .663| .650| .637| .626| +-+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ |2|.615| .605| .596| .587| .579| .571| .564| .557| .550| .544| +-+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ |3|.538| .536| .526| .521| .517| .511| .506| .501| .497| .493| +-+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

The diameter of musquet bores differs about ¹⁄₅₀th part from that of the bullet.

DIAMETER of powder measures. See POWDER MEASURES.

DICTATOR, a magistrate of Rome, made in times of exigence and public distress, and invested with absolute authority.

DIFFERENCE. The sum paid by an officer in the British service, when he exchanges from half to full pay. It likewise means the regulation price between an inferior and a superior commission. Officers who retire upon half pay, and take the difference, subject themselves to many incidental disadvantages, should they wish to return into active service.

DIGGING. See MINING.

DIGLADIATION, a combat with swords.

DIGUON, Fr. a staff at the end of which is suspended a vane or streamer. This term is properly marine.

DIKE or DYKE, a channel to receive water, also a dam or mound, to prevent inundation. See FORTIFICATION.

DIMACHÆ, in ancient military affairs, were a kind of horsemen, answering to the dragoons of the moderns.

DIMICATION. See BATTLE.

To DIMINISH or increase the front of a battalion, is to adapt the column of march or manœuvre according to the obstructions and difficulties which it meets in advancing. This is one of the most important movements, and a battalion which does not perform this operation with the greatest exactness and attention, so as not to lengthen out in the smallest degree, is not fit to move in the column of a considerable corps.

DIRECTEUR General, Fr. A military post of nominal importance which was originally instituted by Louis XIV. This charge was entrusted to eight lieutenant generals, four to command and superintend the infantry, and four for the cavalry. They possessed, however, little or no authority over the army in general; being subordinate in some degree to the general officer whose corps they might inspect, and to whom they rendered a correct account of its interior œconomy. They were likewise assisted by Inspectors general. The four directors were afterwards replaced by the inspectors, from a principle of œconomy. The permanent ones of that appellation were: director general of the royal artillery school; director general of military hospitals; director general of fortification; director general of the cavalry; director general of stores.

DIRECTION, in military mechanics, signifies the line or path of a body in motion, along which it endeavors to force its way, according to the propelling power that is given to it.

Angle of DIRECTION, that formed by the lines of direction of two conspiring powers.

Quantity of DIRECTION, a term used by military mathematicians for the product of the velocity of the common centre of gravity of a system of bodies, by the sum of their quantities of matter: this is no ways altered by any collisions among the bodies themselves.

DIRK, a kind of dagger used by military men, and by the highlanders in Scotland.

To DISARM. To deprive a soldier of every species of offensive or defensive weapon.

DISARMED. Soldiers divested of their arms, either by conquest, or in consequence of some defection.

DISBANDED, the soldiers of any regiment, who are in a body dismissed from the conditions of their military service.

DISBARK. See DISEMBARK.

DISCHARGE, in a military sense, is the dismissing a soldier from the troop or company he belonged to, either at his own request, or after long services.

This term is also applied to the firing of cannon or musquets, as a discharge of cannon, or of small arms.

DISCIPLINARIAN, an officer who pays particular regard to the discipline of the soldiers under his command.

DISCIPLINE, in a military sense, signifies the instruction and government of soldiers.

Military DISCIPLINE, Military Constitution, By military constitution is meant, the authoritative declared laws for the guidance of all military men, and all military matters; and by discipline is meant, the obedience to, and exercise of those laws. As health is to the natural body, so is a sound military constitution to the military one; and as exercise is to the first, so is discipline to the last. Bravery will perchance gain a battle; but every one knows that by discipline alone the long disputed prize of a war can be ultimately obtained.

The kingdom of Prussia was a striking example in favor of perfect discipline; for while that state had a strong army, and maintained that army in strict discipline, it had held a very considerable share in the system of Europe.

Marine DISCIPLINE, is the training up soldiers for sea service, in such exercises and various positions as the musquet and body may require: teaching them likewise every manœuvre that can be performed on board ships of war at sea, &c.

DISCIPLINE militaire. See MILITARY DISCIPLINE.

DISCRETION, Fr. discretion. Se rendre à discrétion, to surrender at discretion, implies to throw one’s self upon the mercy of a victorious enemy. The French likewise say, les soldats vivent à discrétion dans un pays; which in familiar English signifies, soldiers live scot-free in a country.

To DISENGAGE, to clear a column or line, which may have lost its proper front by the overlapping of any particular division, company, or section when ordered to form up. To do this, ground must be taken to the right or left. It is however, a dangerous operation when the army or battalion gets into a line of fire. In that case the files that overlap must remain in the rear, and fill up the first openings.

To DISENGAGE, is also to extricate yourself and the men you command from a critical situation. A battalion, for instance, which may have advanced too far during an action, and got between two fires, may, by an able manœuvre, disengage itself.

To DISENGAGE the wings of a battalion. This is necessary when the battalion countermarches from its centre, and on its centre by files. The battalion having received the word “by wings, inward face,” is next ordered “by wings, three side steps to the right, march,” by which the wings are disengaged from each other, or this may be done by a quarter face to the right and left alter facing inward. In counter-marching, &c. the leading files must uniformly disengage themselves.

To DISENGAGE, in fencing, to quit that side of your adversary’s blade, on which you are opposed by his guard, in order to effect a cut or thrust where an opportunity may present.

DISMANTLE, to strip a town or fortress of its outworks.

To DISMANTLE a gun. To render it unfit for use. Guns are frequently dismantled and left upon the field of battle.

DISCOMFIT, defeat, rout, overthrow.

DISCOVERER, a scout; one who is set to descry the enemy.

DISEMBARK, to land from on board any vessel or craft, used to convey troops on the sea.

DISEMBODIED. See DISBANDED.

To DISEMBODY. To disband.

DISGARNISH, to take guns from a fortress.

DISLODGE, to drive an enemy from their post or station.

DISMISSED. An officer in the British service may be dismissed generally or specifically. When an officer is dismissed generally, it is signified to him, that there is not any further occasion for his services. When an officer is dismissed specifically, it is expressly notified, that he is rendered incapable of ever serving again. Sometimes, indeed this species of dismissal is attended with public marks of extreme disgrace and degradation. In the Austrian service a colonel has been dismissed at the head of his regiment, and has had his sword broken before him, &c. During the present war the colonel of a militia regiment has not only been rendered incapable of ever serving again, but has been expelled the house of commons for military misconduct. The charges against him, together with the circumstantial proofs of his guilt, and the king’s approbation of the sentence were read in the circle of every regiment throughout Great Britain, in 1795, and nothing but a plea of severe indisposition saved the culprit from having the minutes publicly communicated to him at the horse guards.

DISMOUNTING, in a military sense, is the act of unhorsing. Thus, to dismount the cavalry, &c. is to make them alight.

To DISMOUNT cannon, is to break their carriages, wheels, axle-trees, or any thing else, so as to render them unfit for service. It also implies dismounting by the gin, &c.

DISOBEDIENCE of orders. Any infraction, by neglect or wilful omission, of general or regimental orders. It is punishable by the articles of war.

DISPART, in gunnery, is to set a mark on the muzzle ring, so that it may be of an equal height with the base ring: hence a line drawn between them, will be parallel to the axis of the concave cylinder, for the gunner to take aim by it, to hit the mark he is to fire at; for the bore and this imaginary line being parallel, the aim so taken must be true. This exactness cannot be made use of in an engagement, and but very seldom at a siege; for in those cases practice and the eye must be the only guides.

DISPART. The dispart of a gun is the half difference between the diameter of the gun at the base ring, and at the swell of the muzzle. The general dispart of all guns is about the ¹⁄₅₆ part of their length. See the disparts of French and English guns under the word TANGENT SCALE.

DISPART-frontlet. See FRONTLET.

To DISPERSE. In a military sense, may be variously understood. In an active one, it signifies to disperse any body of men, armed or unarmed, who may have assembled in an illegal or hostile manner. The cavalry are generally employed on these occasions.

To DISPERSE, likewise means to break suddenly from any particular order, in line or column, and to repair to some rallying point. Hence to sound the disperse, is to give notice that the battalion or battalions are to retreat from their actual position, in a loose and desultory manner, and to reassemble according to the natural line of formation, taking the colors as their central points to dress by.

DISPLACED, officers in the British service are sometimes displaced from a particular regiment in consequence of misconduct proved upon the minutes of a general court martial; but they are at liberty to serve in any other corps.

To DISPLAY, in a military sense, is to extend the front of a column, and hereby bring it into line. See DEPLOY.

DISPOSE, to dispose cannon, is to place it in such a manner, that its discharge may do the greatest mischief. For instance, to dispose cannon along the front of the line.

DISPOSITION, in a general sense, is the just placing an army or body of men upon the most advantageous ground, and in the strongest situation for a vigorous attack or defence.

DISPOSITION de guerre, Fr. warlike arrangement, or disposition. Under this head may be considered the mode of establishing, combining, conducting, and finally terminating a war, so as to produce success and victory.

Wisdom and discretion in council point out the form necessary for the first establishment of a warlike enterprise, or disposition, afford the means of bringing it to a conclusion, and assimilate all the various parts so as to unite the whole.

The following maxims are in the memoirs of general Montecuculli.

1. Deliberate leisurely, execute promptly.

2. Let the safety of your army be your first object.

3. Leave something to chance.

4. Take advantage of circumstances.

5. Use all the means in your power to secure a good reputation.

The disposition or arrangement of a warlike enterprise may be universal, or particular.

An universal disposition or arrangement of war implies every thing which relates to that system upon an extensive scale; such as the combination of many parts for the ultimate benefit of the whole, &c.

A particular disposition or arrangement of war signifies the detail of minute objects, and the appropriation of various parts, one with another, for the purpose of effecting a general combination. This disposition, (without which the other must prove abortive,) consists in an observance of the strictest discipline by every individual that belongs to a troop or company. To this end, general officers should be scrupulously exact in attending to the inspection of particular corps; specific instructions for regimental œconomy and discipline should be given, and the strictest regard be paid to the execution of orders.

DISTANCE, in military formation, signifies the relative space which is left between men standing under arms in rank, or the intervals which appear between those ranks, &c.

DISTANCES. Inaccessible distances may be found several ways; the most correct of which of course is by means of proper mathematical instruments; which, however, are not always to be had in the field.

The following different methods are laid down by several authors, where instruments cannot be had.

1. Wishing to know the distance of the object A from B (fig. 1.) place a picket at B and another at C, at a few fathoms distance, making A B C a right angle, and divide B C into 4, 5, or any number of equal parts: make another similar angle at C, in a direction from the object, and walk along the line C D till you bring yourself in a line with the object A, and any of the divisions, (say o) of the line B C. Then, as C_o_ : C D ∷ B_o_ : B A.

VAUBAN.

2. To gain the distance between two objects C and D (fig. 2.) from any point A, taken in the line C D, erect the perpendicular A E: on which set off from A to E, 1 or 200 feet, more or less, according to the distance between the points C and D; set off from E to G in the prolongation A E, one eighth or one tenth of A E; at G raise the perpendicular G F, and produce it towards I; plant pickets at E and G, then move with another picket on G F till it becomes in a line with E and D: and on the prolongation of the perpendicular F G place another picket at I in the line with E and C; measure F I, and it will be as G E : A E ∷ F I : C D.

3. To gain the inaccessible length A B, (fig. 3.) of the front of a fortification; plant a picket at C, from whence both points may be seen: find the lengths C A and C B by the method just given (No. 1.) make C E ¹⁄₄, or any part of C B, and make C D bear the same proportion to C A: measure D E, then it will be as C D : D E ∷ C A : A B.

See Am. Mil. Lib. Article FIELD FORTIFICATION.

Nearly after the same manner may be ascertained the distance from B to A when the point B is accessible; for having measured the line C B, and made the angle C E D equal to C B A, it will be, as C E : D E ∷ C B : B A.

4. The distance of a battery, or other object, may be ascertained by the tangent scale on the breech of a gun. It is however necessary in this case to know the height of the object, the distance of which is required. Lay the gun by the upper line of metal for the top of the object, then raise the tangent scale till the top of the scale and the notch at the muzzle are in a line with the bottom of the object, and note what height of the tangent scale is required: then say, as the length of the scale above the base ring of the gun is to the length from the base ring to the swell of the muzzle, so is the height of the object to its distance from the muzzle of the gun.

5. The breadth of a river, or other short distance, may be taken thus: take two pickets of different lengths, drive the shortest into the ground close to the edge of the bank; measure some paces back from it, and drive in the other till you find, by looking over the tops of both, that your sight cuts the opposite side--Then pull up the first picket, measure the same distance from the second, in any direction the most horizontal, and drive it as deep in the ground as before. Consequently, if you look over them again, and observe where the line of sight falls, you will have the distance required.

6. The following simple method of ascertaining the breadth of a river may be sufficiently correct for some cases: Place yourself at the edge of one bank, and lower one corner of your hat till you find the edge of it cuts the other bank; then steady your head, by placing your hand under your chin, and turn gently round to some level spot of ground, and observe where your eyes and the edge of the hat again meet the ground: your distance from that point will be nearly the breadth of the river.

7. DISTANCES ascertained by the difference between the true and apparent level. See LEVELLING.

8. DISTANCES measured by sound. See SOUND.

9. The following simple micrometer may be so usefully applied to military purposes, that we shall extract it verbatim from the Philosophical Transactions for 1791, where it is described by Cavallo. This micrometer consists of a thin and narrow slip of mother of pearl, finely divided, and placed in the focus of the eyeglass of a telescope, just where the image is formed. It is immaterial whether the telescope be a reflector, or a refractor, provided the eye glass be a convex lens and not a concave one, as in the Galilean construction. The simplest way to fix it, is to stick it on the diaphragm, which generally stands within the tube, and in the locus of the eye glass. When thus fixed, if you look through the eye glass, the divisions on the scale will appear very distinct, unless the diaphragm is not exactly in the focus: in which case the scale must be placed exactly in the focus, by pushing the diaphragm, backwards or forwards, when this is practicable; or else the scale may be easily removed from one surface of the diaphragm to the other, by the interposition of a circular bit of paper or card, or a piece of sealing wax. This construction is fully sufficient when the telescope is always to be used by the same person; but when different persons are to use it, then the diaphragm, which supports the micrometer, must be so constructed as to be easily moved backwards or forwards, though that motion need not be greater than about the tenth or eighth of an inch. This is necessary, because the distance of the focus of the same lens appears different to the eyes of different persons; and therefore whoever is going to use the telescope for the mensuration of an angle, must first unscrew the tube which contains the eye glass and micrometer, from the rest of the telescope, and, looking through the eye glass, place the micrometer where the divisions of it may appear most distinct to his eye. The mother of pearl scale may be about the 24th part of an inch broad; its length is determined by the aperture of the diaphragm; its thickness that of writing paper. The divisions on it maybe the 200th of an inch, which may reach from one edge of the scale to about the middle; and every fifth and tenth division may be a little longer, the tenths going quite across. When the telescope does not magnify above 30 times, the divisions need not be so minute. For the sake of those not conversant in trigonometry, the following is an easy method of determining the value of the divisions on the scale. Mark upon a wall or other place, the length of 6 inches; then place the telescope before it so that the 6 inches be at right angles to it, and exactly 57 feet 3¹⁄₂ inches distant from the object glass of the telescope. This done, look through the telescope, and observe how many divisions of the micrometer are equal to it, and that same number of divisions will be equal to half a degree, or 30′; and this is all that need be done to ascertain the value of the scale. The reason on which it is founded is, that an extension of six inches at the distance of 57 feet, 3¹⁄₂ inches, subtends an angle of 30′, as is easily calculated by trigonometry. To save the trouble of calculation, a scale may be made requiring only inspection. Thus, draw a line equal to the diameter of the field of the telescope, and divide its under side into the same number of parts as are on your micrometric scale, and, by the above operation on the wall, having determined the value of 30′, which we will suppose to correspond with 16 divisions on the scale, mark 30′ on the opposite side of the line, opposite 16 on the lower; 15 opposite 8, and so on.

By the following table the results may be ascertained by inspection only: thus, suppose an extension of 1 foot is found by the table to subtend an angle of 22′, the distance will be 156.2: and suppose at the distance of 171.8 an object subtends an angle of 20′, its height will be found to be 1 foot; or, suppose an object of 6 feet high to subtend an angle of 20′, the distance is 1030.8, by multiplying 171.8 by 6.

Table of Angles subtended by 1 Foot, at different Distances.

-----+------++-----+------++-----+------++------------ | Dis- || | Dis- || | Dis- || | Dis- |tances|| |tances|| |tances|| |tances Min-| in || Min-| in || Min-| in || Min-| in utes.| feet.||utes.| feet.||utes.| feet.||utes.| feet. -----+------++-----+------++-----+------++-----+------ 1 |3437.7|| 16 | 214.8|| 31 | 110.9|| 46 | 74.7 2 |1718.9|| 17 | 202.2|| 32 | 107.4|| 47 | 73.1 3 |1145.9|| 18 | 191.0|| 33 | 104.2|| 48 | 71.6 4 | 859.4|| 19 | 180.9|| 34 | 101.1|| 49 | 70.1 5 | 687.5|| 20 | 171.8|| 35 | 98.2|| 50 | 68.7 6 | 572.9|| 21 | 162.7|| 36 | 95.5|| 51 | 67.4 7 | 491.1|| 22 | 156.2|| 37 | 92.9|| 52 | 66.1 8 | 429.7|| 23 | 149.4|| 38 | 90.4|| 53 | 64.8 9 | 382.0|| 24 | 143.2|| 39 | 88.1|| 54 | 63.6 10 | 343.7|| 25 | 137.5|| 40 | 85.9|| 55 | 62.5 11 | 312.5|| 26 | 132.2|| 41 | 83.8|| 56 | 61.4 12 | 286.5|| 27 | 127.2|| 42 | 81.8|| 57 | 60.3 13 | 264.4|| 28 | 122.7|| 43 | 79.9|| 58 | 59.2 14 | 245.5|| 29 | 118.5|| 44 | 78.1|| 59 | 58.2 15 | 229.2|| 30 | 114.6|| 45 | 76.4|| 60 | 57.3 -----+------++-----+------++-----+------++-----+------

DISTANCE of files. Every soldier when in his true position under arms, shouldered and in rank, must just feel with his elbow the touch of his neighbor with whom he dresses; nor in any situation of movement in front, must he ever relinquish such touch, which becomes in action the principal direction for the preservation of his order, and each file as connected with its two neighboring ones, must consider itself a complete body, so arranged for the purpose of attack, or effectual defence. Close files must invariably constitute the formation of all corps that go into action. The peculiar exercise of the light infantry is the only exception. See Am Mil. Lib.

DISTANCE of ranks, open distances of ranks are two paces asunder; when close they are one pace; when the body is halted and to fire, they are still closer locked up. Close ranks, order or distance is the constant and habitual order at which troops are at all times formed and move; open ranks, order or distance is only an occasional exception, made in the situation of parade, or in light infantry manœuvres.

DISTANCES of files and ranks, relate to the trained soldier, but in the course of his tuition he must be much exercised at open files and ranks, and acquire thereby independence and the command of his limbs and body.

DISTANCE of the bastions, in fortification, is the side of the exterior polygon. See FORTIFICATION.

DISTRIBUTION. In a military sense, generally applies to any division, or allotment, which is made for the purposes of warfare. Thus an army may be distributed about a country. In a more confined sense, it means the minute arrangements that are made for the interior œconomy of corps; as distribution of pay or subsistence, distribution of allowances, &c.

DISTRICT, in a military sense, one of those parts into which a country is divided, for the conveniences of command, and to secure a ready co-operation between distant bodies of armed men.

DITCH. See FORTIFICATION, MOAT.

To drain a DITCH, is to make the water run off into lower ground, by means of small trenches cut for this purpose.

DIVERSION, in military history, is when an enemy is attacked in one place where he is weak and unprovided, in order to draw off his forces from making an irruption somewhere else; or where an enemy is strong, and by an able manœuvre he is obliged to detach part of his forces to resist any feint or menacing attempt of his opponent. To derive advantage from a diversion, taken in an extended acceptation of the term, it is necessary, that one state should have greater resources than another; for it would be absurd to attack the territories of another before you had secured your own.

It is likewise requisite, that the country you attack by stratagem or diversion, should be easy of access, and the invasion you make must be prompt, vigorous and unexpected, directed against a weak and vulnerable quarter. A little good fortune is however essential to render a diversion perfectly successful, as all the ways and means by which it ought be made, cannot be reduced to rule.

The most memorable instance of a diversion well executed, which we meet with in ancient history, was performed by Scipio in Africa, whilst Annibal carried the war into Italy. In 1659, a diversion no less remarkable, was practised by the imperial and allied armies against the Swedes.

DIVISIONS of a battalion, are the several platoons into which a regiment or battalion is divided, either in marching or firing; each of which is commanded by an officer.

DIVISIONS of an army, are the number of brigades and squadrons it contains.

The advance, the main, and the rear guards are composed out of the several brigades, and march in front, in the centre, and in the rear of an army. Each army has its right wing, its centre, and its left wing. When armies march they advance in column, that is, they are divided into several squadrons and battalions of a given depth, successively formed upon one another. If an army be drawn out or displayed in order of battle it is usually divided into the first line, which constitutes the front, the second line, which makes the main body, and the third line or reserve.

DODECAGON, in geometry, is a regular polygon, consisting of 12 equal sides and angles, capable of being regularly fortified with the same number of bastions.

DODECAHEDRON, is one of the platonic bodies, or five regular solids, and is contained under 12 equal and regular pentagons.

The solidity of a dodecahedron, is found by multiplying the area of one of the pentagonal faces of it by 12; and this latter product by ¹⁄₃d of the distance of the face from the centre of the dodecahedron, which is the same as the centre of the circumscribing sphere.

The side of a dodecahedron inscribed in a sphere, is the greater part of the side of a cube inscribed in that sphere, cut into extreme and mean proportion.

If the diameter of the sphere be 1,0000, the side of a dodecahedron inscribed in it will be .35682 nearly.

All dodecahedrons are similar, and are to one another as the cubes of the sides; and their surfaces are also similar, and therefore they are as the squares of their sides; whence as .509282 is to 10.51462, so is the square of the side of any dodecahedron to the superficies thereof; and as .3637 is to 2.78516, so is the cube of the side of any dodecahedron to the solidity of it.

DOG-Nails. See NAILS.

DOLPHINS. See CANNON.

DOMMAGE, Fr. in a general acceptation of the term, signified in the old French service, the compensation which every captain of a troop, or company was obliged to make in consequence of any damage that their men might have done in a town, or on a march. If any disagreement occurred between the officers and the inhabitants, with respect to the indemnification, a statement of losses sustained was sworn to by the latter, before the mayor or magistrates of the place, who determined the same. But if the officers should refuse to abide by their decision, a remonstrance was drawn up and transmitted to the secretary at war, with a copy of the same to the intendant of the province. Officers have frequently been displaced or degraded on this account. Hence the term dommage is supposed to have been derived from the latin words damnum jactura, and signifies the loss or privation of a step.

DONJON. See DUNGEON.

DOSSER, in military matters, is a sort of basket, carried on the shoulders of men, used in carrying the earth from one part of a fortification to another, where it is wanted.

DOUBLING, in the military art, is the placing two or more ranks, or files into one.

DOUBLE your ranks, is for the 2d, 4th, and 6th ranks (when so drawn up) to march into the 1st, 3d, and 5th; so that of 6 ranks they are made but 3; which is not so when they double by half files, because then 3 ranks stand together, and the 3 other come up to double them; that is, the 1st, 2d, and 3d, are doubled by the 4th, 5th, and 6th, or the contrary.

DOUBLE your files, is for every other file to march into that which is next to it, on the right or left, as the word of command directs; and then the 6 ranks are doubled into 12, the men standing 12 deep; and the distance between the files is double what it was before. By this method 3 files may be doubled into 6, &c.

To DOUBLE round, in military movements, is to march by an inversion of a second line, on the extremity of a first line, thereby to outflank an enemy.

DOUBLE tenaille. See TENAILLE.

DOUILLE, Fr. a small iron socket which is at the heel of the bayonet, and receives the extreme end of the musquet, so as to be firmly united together.

DOUILLE likewise signifies, the cavity which belongs to the round piece of iron that is fixed to the end of the ramrod, by means of two nails through two small holes, called yeux or eyes, and to which the worm is attached.

DRAGON et DRAGON VOLANT, Fr. some old pieces of artillery were anciently so called. The Dragon was a 40-pounder; the Dragon Volant a 32. But neither the name nor the size of the calibre of either piece is now in use.

DRAGONNER, Fr. According to the French acceptation of the term, is to attack any person in a rude and violent manner; to take any thing by force; to adopt prompt and vigorous measures; and to bring those people to reason by hard blows, who could not be persuaded by fair words.

DRAGOONS, in military affairs, are a kind of horsemen, or cavalry, who serve both on horseback, and foot; being always ready on every emergency, as being able to keep pace with the horse, and to do infantry duty. In battle, or on attacks, they generally fight sword in hand after the first fire. In the field they encamp on the right and left of the lines. They are divided into brigades, regiments, and squadrons. Their martial music is the clarion or trumpet. The first regiment of dragoons in England was raised in 1681, and called the royal regiment of dragoons of North Britain. This name is derived from the Latin word Draconarii, used amongst the Romans. The standard of the Roman cavalry bore as its device a dragon; as that of the infantry bore an eagle.

To DRAGOON, is to persecute by abandoning a place to the rage of the soldiery.

DRAG-ropes. See ROPES. See BRICOLE.

DRAIN or DREIN, in the military art, is a trench made to draw water out of a ditch, which is afterwards filled, with hurdles and earth, or with fascines, or bundles of rushes and planks, to facilitate the passage over the mud. See TRENCH.

DRAKE, a small piece of artillery.

DRAUGHT, a plan or delineation of any place; a body of troops selected from others.

To DRAUGHT, to draw forces from one brigade, &c. to complete another; to select a proportion from brigades, regiments, or companies for any particular service.

DRAUGHT-hooks, in a gun-carriage, are fixed to the transom-bolts on the cheeks of artillery carriages, near the trunnion holes and trails: they are used to draw the guns backwards and forwards by men with drag ropes fixed to those hooks.

DRAUGHTED, the soldiers of any regiment being allotted to complete other regiments are said to be draughted.

DRAUGHTSMEN, a body of men educated to assist the engineers in drawing plans, fortifications, and surveying; every officer should endeavor to be a good draughtsman; and every corps ought to have a master to teach in camp or quarters.

To DRAW, to delineate or make a sketch.

DRAW RAMROD, a word of command, used in the drill exercise, on which the soldier draws his ramrod half from the pipes, and seizing it back handed by the middle, waits for the signal for the next motion, when he turns it round, and with an extended arm, places the butt of the rod about one inch in the muzzle of the firelock, in which position he waits for the command ram down cartridge.

DRAW SWORDS, a word of command in the sword exercise of the cavalry.

The drawing of swords is performed in 3 motions. 1st, Bring the right hand smartly across the body to the sword knot, which being placed on the wrist, and secured by giving the hand a couple of turns inwards, seize the hilt of the sword. 2d, Draw the sword with an extended arm; sink the hand till the hilt of the sword is immediately against the left nipple, the blade of the sword perpendicular, and the back of the hand outwards. 3d. Bring down the hilt till in a line with the bridle hand, the blade perpendicular, the edge turned towards the horse’s left ear.

Officers of infantry, when the men are under arms, draw their swords without waiting for any word of command.

To DRAW off, to retire.

To DRAW on, to advance.

To DRAW out, to call the soldiers forth in array for action.

To DRAW up, to form in battle array.

DRAW bridge. See BRIDGE.

DRAWING, in a military sense, is the art of representing the appearances of all kinds of military objects by imitation, or copying, both with and without the assistance of mathematical rules.

DRESS-military. The clothing of the army is generally called regimentals, every part of which should facilitate, and not hinder, the various motions of the manual exercise. A soldier, without regard to fashion or taste (to use the words of a modern author) should be dressed in the most comfortable and least embarrassing manner possible; and the keeping him warm, and leaving him the entire use of his limbs, are objects always to be had in view.

To DRESS, in a military sense, is to keep the body in such a relative position, as to contribute towards, and form a part of, an exact continuity of line, upon whatever front, or in whatever shape, the battalion may be formed. Soldiers dress by one another in ranks, and the body collectively dresses by some given object.

DRESSING of a battalion after the halt, is to bring all its relative parts in a line with the point, or object, towards which it was directed to move. Whatever correction is necessary, must be made by advancing or retiring the flanks, and not by moving the centre; which, having been the guide in the march, has properly stopped at the point where it has arrived.

DRESSING of a battalion when it is to retire, is to have some intelligent officer placed thirty paces in the rear, so as to stand perpendicular to the front directing serjeant, by whom the direction of the march is to be ascertained, as the officer will, of course, be in the line, or nearly so, of the directing serjeants.

DRESSER, Fr. See to DRESS.

DRINKING to excess in the army is at all times highly criminal, but upon service it ought never to be overlooked; and the consequence will be a trial by a court martial. It has been productive of almost innumerable mischiefs, and is a most detestable and horrid practice. Whatever commissioned officer shall be found drunk on his guard, party, or other duty, under arms, shall be cashiered; any non-commissioned officer or soldier, so offending, shall suffer such corporal punishment as shall be inflicted by the sentence of a court martial. Art. of War.

To DRILL, to teach young recruits the first principles of military movements and positions, &c.

To be sent to DRILL, to be placed under the command of the drill officer, or non-commissioned officer, and made to join the recruits in performing the manual and platoon exercise, &c. This is sometimes ordered as a punishment to those who are perfect in their exercise, when a battalion, company, or individual has done something to merit exposure.

DRIVERS of baggage or artillery, men who drive the baggage, artillery, and stores, having no other duty in the army.

DRUM, is a martial musical instrument in the form of a cylinder, hollow within, and covered at the two ends with vellum, which is stretched or slackened at pleasure, by means of small cords and sliding leathers. This instrument is used both by infantry and artillery; which is done in several manners, either to give notice to the troops of what they are to do, or to demand liberty to make some proposal to an enemy. Every company of foot or artillery, has two or more drums, according to the effective strength of the party. The drum was first invented by Bacchus, who, as Polyenus reports, fighting against the Indians, gave the signal of battle with cymbals and drums; and the Saracens, who invaded Christendom, introduced the drum into the European armies. The various beats are as follow, among the British.

The general, is to give notice to the troops that they are to march.

The assembly, The troop, to order the troops to repair to the place of rendezvous, or to their colors.

The march, to command them to move, always with the left foot first.

Tat-too, to order all to retire to their quarters.

The reveille, always beats at break of day, and is to warn the soldiers to rise, and the centinels to forbear challenging, and to give leave to come out of quarters.

To arms, for soldiers who are dispersed, to repair to them.

The retreat, a signal to draw off from the enemy. It likewise means a beat in both camp and garrison a little before sun-set, at which time the gates are shut, and the soldiers repair to their barracks.

The alarm, is to give notice of sudden danger, that all may be in readiness for immediate duty.

The parley, The chamade, is a signal to demand some conference with the enemy.

DRUM, or DRUMMER, the person who beats the drum.

Kettle-DRUMS, are two sorts of large basons of copper or brass, rounded at the bottom, and covered with vellum or goatskin, which is kept fast by a circle of iron, and several holes, fastened to the body of the drum, and a like number of screws to stretch it at pleasure. They are used among the horse.

DRUM-major, is always that person in the regiment, who beats the best drum, has the command over the other drums, and teaches them their duty. Every regiment has a drum-major.

DRUM-STICKS, the sticks with which the drummer beats his drum.

DUEL, is a single combat, at a time and place appointed, in consequence of a cartel or challenge. Duelling was anciently authorised; but the motive of the duellists was the good of their country, when one, or a small number of combatants were chosen to save the blood of a whole army, and decide, by victory or death, the quarrels of kings or nations. Thus it was with Goliah and David, the Horatii and Curatii, and several others.

DUELLING was so general a method of determining differences among the nobles, that even ecclesiastics were not excused; only, to prevent their being stained with blood, they procured champions to fight for them. None were excepted from combat, but sick people, cripples, and such as were under 21 years of age, or above 60. Justs and tournaments, doubtless, rendered duels more frequent.

No officer or soldier shall pretend to send a challenge to any other officer or soldier, to fight a duel; if a commissioned officer, on pain of being cashiered; if a non-commissioned officer or soldier, of suffering corporal punishment, at the discretion of a court martial. Articles of war.

Pharamond king of the Gauls, in the year 420, issued the following edict against duelling.

“WHEREAS it has come to our royal notice and observation, that in contempt of all laws, divine and human, it has of late become a custom among the nobility and gentry of this our kingdom, upon slight and trivial, as well as great and urgent provocations, to invite each other into the field, there, by their own hands, and of their own authority, to decide their controversies by combat: we have thought fit to take the said custom into our royal consideration, and find, upon inquiry into the usual causes whereon such fatal decisions have arisen, that by this wicked custom, maugre all the precepts of our holy religion, and the rules of right reason, the greatest act of the human mind, forgiveness of injuries, is become vile and shameful; that the rules of good society and virtuous conversation are hereby inverted; that the loose, the vain, and the impudent, insult the careful, the discreet, and the modest; that all virtue is suppressed, and all vice supported, in the one act of being capable to dare to death. We have also further, with great sorrow of mind, observed that this dreadful action, by long impunity, (our royal attention being employed upon matters of more general concern) is become honorable, and the refusal to engage in it ignominious. In these our royal cares and inquiries, we are yet farther made to understand, that the persons of most eminent worth, of most hopeful abilities, accompanied with the strongest passion for true glory, are such as are most liable to be involved in the dangers arising from this licence. Now, taking the said premises into our serious consideration, and well weighing, that all such emergencies (wherein the mind is incapable of commanding itself, and where the injury is too sudden, or too exquisite to be borne) are particularly provided for by laws heretofore enacted; and that the qualities of less injuries, like those of ingratitude, are too nice and delicate to come under general rules; we do resolve to blot this fashion, or wantonness of anger, out of the minds of our subjects, by our royal resolutions declared in this edict, as follows:--No person who either sends or accepts a challenge, or the posterity of either, though no death ensues thereupon, shall be, after the publication of this our edict, capable of bearing office in these our dominions:--The person who shall prove the sending or receiving a challenge, shall receive to his own use and property, the whole personal estate of both parties; and their real estate shall be immediately vested in the next heir of the offenders, in as ample a manner as if the said offenders were actually deceased:--In cases where the laws (which we have already granted to our subjects) admit of an appeal for blood: when the criminal is condemned by the said appeal, he shall not only suffer death, but his whole estate, real, mixed, and personal, shall, from the hour of his death, be vested in the next heir of the person whose blood he spilt:--That it shall not hereafter be in our royal power, or that of our successors, to pardon the said offences, or restore the offenders to their estates, honor, or blood, for ever. Given at our court, at Blois, the eighth of February, 420, in the second year of our reign.”

DUELLING was authorised before the Normans came into England, but the practice was not so frequent as after the conquest.

DULEDGE, a peg of wood which joins the ends of the felloes, forming the circle of the wheel of a gun carriage; and the joint is strengthened on the outside of the wheel by a strong plate of iron, called the duledge plate.

DUMB-BELLS, weights which were used in drilling the soldier, who held one in each hand, which he swung backwards and forwards, to open his chest, increase muscular strength, throw back his shoulders, and accustom him to that freedom of action in the arms, and to that erect position of body which are so essentially necessary to a soldier.

The following method of exercising recruits with the dumb-bells, is extracted from a work entitled Military Instruction.

The dumb-bells being placed one on each side of the recruit, and himself in an erect, steady posture--on the word,

Raise bells--he will take one in each hand, and by a gentle motion, raise them as high as his arm will suffer him above his head; then gradually sinking them with stretched arm, as much behind him as possible, he will form a circle with them, making the circle complete, by causing the backs of his hands to meet behind his body; this will be repeated according to his strength, 5 or 6 times.

Extend bells.--The bells being raised to the shoulder, they will be forced forwards, keeping the same height, then brought back in the same manner; this will throw the chest forward, and force back the neck and shoulders, this must be frequently repeated.

Swing bells.--The top part of the bells to be made meet together in front, the height of the breast; then forced backwards with an extended arm, and be made to touch behind: in doing this, the palm of the hands must be uppermost, and the elbows well down: this circle must be repeated 14 or 15 times: Time, the circle performed, in 2 seconds.

Ground bells.--The recruit will let fall the bells by his sides, and remain steady and firm.

DUNES, Fr. sand hills, commonly called downs. As les dunes sur la cote de Flandres; the downs, or sand hills along the coast of Flanders.

DUNGEON, DONJON, Fr. in fortification, is commonly a large tower or redoubt of a fortress, whither the garrison may retreat, in case or necessity, and capitulate with greater advantage. Also a dark and secluded place in which prisoners were kept.

DUTY, in a military sense, is the exercise of those functions that belong to a soldier; yet with this nice distinction, that duty is counted the mounting guard, &c. where no enemy is directly to be engaged; for when any body of men marches to meet the enemy, this is strictly called going upon service.

On all duties, whether with or without arms, picquets, or courts martial, the tour of duty begins with the eldest downwards. An officer who is upon duty cannot be ordered for any other before that duty is finished, except he be on the inlying picquet, as then he shall be relieved, and go on the duty ordered.

Military DUTIES may be divided into two general classes, under the heads of Brigade and Regimental duties.

Brigade duties, are those which one regiment does in common with another, collectively or by detachments; and of which the brigade major keeps a regular roster.

Regimental Duties, are those which the several companies of a regiment perform among themselves, and of which the adjutant keeps a regular roster.

The following general regulations are to be observed, respecting duties in general.

When field or other commissioned officers, are given out at head quarters for one duty, they cannot be taken off to be put on any other duty.

No officer is allowed to exchange his duty with another, after he has been put in orders for it, without leave of the commanding officer of his regiment.

Guards, or detachments, which have not marched off from the parade, are not to be reckoned as for a duty done; but, if they should have marched from the parade, it stands for a duty done, though they should be dismissed immediately.

If any officer’s tour of duty for the picquet, general court martial, or duty of fatigue, happen when he is on duty, he shall not make good such duty when he comes off.

No regiment can demand a tour of duty, unless it has marched off the place of parade, and beyond the main guard.

General courts martial that have assembled, and the members sworn in, shall be reckoned for a duty, though they should be dismissed without trying any person.

Whenever the picquets are ordered to march to any parade, it is not to be accounted a duty, unless they march off that parade.

All commands in the regular forces, fall to the eldest officers in the same circumstances, whether of cavalry or infantry, entire, or in parties. In case two commissions, of the same date, interfere, a retrospect is to be had to former commissions, or to lot.

Officers, on all duties under arms, are to have their swords drawn, without waiting for any word of command for that purpose.

E.

EAGLE. Black-EAGLE, an order of military knighthood in Prussia, instituted by the elector of Brandenburg, in 1701, on his being crowned king of Prussia. The knights of this order wear an orange colored riband, from which is suspended a black eagle.

White-EAGLE, is a like order in Poland, instituted in 1325, by Uladislaus V. on occasion of the marriage of his son Casimir to the daughter of the great duke of Lithuania. The knights of this order wear a chain of gold, to which a silver eagle, crowned, is suspended.

The white headed eagle, peculiar to America, is the standard of the United States.

EAGLE. The standard of the ancient Romans. In a general sense, it formerly meant the standard of the Roman armies; in a more limited acceptation, the sign or flag of the several legions.

The standard of the German empire was an eagle with two heads, referring to the eastern and western Roman empires, whose successors they claimed to be, and called themselves Keisar, or Cæsar.

The difference between the Roman and the Imperial eagle consists in this, that the first were eagles of gold or silver, fixed at the end of a pike, having their wings extended, and holding the lightning in their claws; the second are eagles painted or embossed upon the colors and standards of the emperors. The eagle likewise signified, in a figurative sense, the German empire, now extinct.

EARL-MARSHAL. An officer who has the care and direction of military solemnities. The dukes of Norfolk are by hereditary right, earls marshal of England.

EARTH-bags. See BAGS.

EASE, in a military sense, signifies a prescribed relaxation of the frame, from the erect and firm position which every well dressed soldier should observe. He is, on no account to lounge, or in his common gait so far to give way to an idle fluctuation of his limbs, as to feel himself constrained when he returns to duty. A habit of this sort will gradually gain upon recruits, if they are not corrected during the intervals of drill.

To stand at EASE, in a technical acceptation of the term, is to draw the right foot back about six inches, and to bring the greatest part of the weight of the body upon it. The left knee must be a little bent, and the hands brought together before the body, the right hand in front. But the shoulders must invariably be kept back and square, the head to the front, and the whole carriage of the person be unconstrained.

In cold weather, when standing at ease, the men are permitted by command, to move their limbs without quitting their ground.

Stand at EASE, (from the support) on this command the soldier retires his right foot 6 inches, bends his left knee, and carrying the right hand smartly across the body, seizes the firelock by the small of the butt, and raises it sufficiently to slope it over his left shoulder, and relieve the left arm from the pressure of the cock. In some corps, instead of seizing the small of the butt with the right hand, they only place the hollow of the hand below the left elbow.

EASE arms, a word of command, given immediately after the order, to handle arms, by which the soldier is directed to drop his right hand to the full extent of the arm, from the top of the ramrod on the front of the sling, with his fingers spread along it.

EAU, Fr. water, is a principal object to be considered, whenever an army advances, retreats, or encamps. It is the quarter master general’s business, through his subordinate deputies, to secure this indispensible necessary of life. Small running rivulets are preferable to large rivers, because the latter cannot be so easily turned for the convenience of the army; whereas the former may be always stopped, or diverted from their natural course.

Wells are never resorted to, but in case of absolute necessity. Stagnant or pond water is in general unwholesome, and rarely limpid or clear.

Haute EAU. High water.

Basse EAU. Low water.

EAUX Meres ou AMERES, Fr. The water which remains after the first boiling of saltpetre. It has a bitter salt taste, and is used to fill the tubs a second time.

Petites EAUX, Fr. The water which remains after the saltpetre has been boiled to a certain degree. See SALTPETRE.

ECHANTILLON, Fr. means literally a pattern or model. In a military sense, it signifies a plank, which is covered on one side with iron, and serves to finish the mouldings, &c. of a piece of ordnance.

ESCHARPE, Fr. a scarf. In ancient times, a military mark to distinguish officers and soldiers from the rest of the people. Before a regular clothing was adopted among the nations in Europe, officers and soldiers appeared with two scarfs of different colors, which crossed each other before and behind, in order to point out the country and the corps to which the wearer of it belonged. The scarf was preserved among the French, as late down as the reign of Louis the XIVth. It consisted of a piece of white silk, which previous to the revolution, was the national color of France.

Scarfs, however, were continued much later among other nations, particularly among the Germans, who wear them to this day across their uniforms. Cross belts succeed the scarf.

En ECHARPE, in the military art. To batter en echarpe, is to fire obliquely, or sideways. See BATTERY.

ECHAUGETTE, in military history, signifies a watch-tower, or kind of centry-box.

ECHELLE, Fr. scale. In a mathematical sense, is a straight line drawn double, which is divided into a certain number of parts, each part containing as many toises or yards, &c. as the size of the chart or paper will admit, which are again reduced into feet.

ECHELLE, Fr. ladder, in civil and military architecture, means a machine, which is made of two side pieces or arms, that receive a certain number of small steps, at equal distances from one another. These echelles or ladders, are of two kinds: large and small. The small ladders are used to descend into the ditches of fortified places, and the large ones for scaling the walls, &c. See SCALING LADDERS.

ECHELLON, Fr. from echelle, a ladder. A position in military tactics, where each division follows the preceding one, like the steps of a ladder; and is convenient in removing from a direct to an oblique, or diagonal line. When troops advance in echellon, they almost invariably adopt the ordinary time. Hence to march in echellon, may not improperly be said to approach towards any given object by a gradual movement.

ECHELLON movements and positions, are not only necessary and applicable to the immediate attacks and retreats of great bodies, but also to the previous oblique or direct changes of situation, which a battalion, or a more considerable corps already formed in line, may be obliged to make to the front or rear, or on a particular fixed division of the line.

The oblique changes are produced by any wheel of less than the quarter circle of divisions from line, which places them in the echellon situation. The direct changes are produced by the perpendicular and successive march of divisions from line to front, or rear. See Amer. Mil. Lib.

ECLAIREURS, Fr. a corps of grenadiers raised by Bonaparte, in France, who from their celerity of movement were compared to lightning.

ECLOPES, a French military term, to express those soldiers who, though invalids, are yet well enough to follow the army. Among these may be classed dragoons or horsemen, whose horses get suddenly lame, and cannot keep up with the troop or squadron. They always march in the rear of a column.

ECLUSES, Fr. See SLUICES.

ECONOMY, in a military sense, implies the minutiæ, or interior regulations of a regiment, troop, or company. Hence regimental economy.

ECORE, Fr. steep shore. Côte en ecore, signifies a very steep descent.

ECOUPE, Fr. An instrument used by the pioneers. See OUTILS.

ECOUVILLON, Fr. a maulkin or drag. The spunge made use of to clean and to cool the inside of a cannon, when it has been discharged.

ECOUVILLONER, Fr. To clean a piece of ordnance before it has been fired, or to cool it after.

ECRETER, Fr. To batter or fire at the top of a wall, redoubt, epaulement, &c. so as to dislodge or drive away the men that may be stationed behind it, in order to render the approach more easy. Ecreter les pointes des palissades, is to blunt the sharp ends of the palisades. This ought always to be done before you attack the covert way, which is generally fenced by them.

ECU, Fr. A large shield which was used by the ancients, and carried on their left arms, to ward off the blows of a sword or sabre. This instrument of defence was originally invented by the Samnites. The Moors had ecus or shields, sufficiently large to cover the whole of their bodies. The clipei of the Romans, only differed from the ecu in shape; the former being entirely round, and the latter oval.

EDGE. The thin or cutting part of a sword or sabre.

EDICT. See PROCLAMATION.

EDUCATION, in a military sense, implies the training up of youth to the art of war; the first object to be considered is, whether nature has given the young man the talents necessary for the profession or not; for here sense, parts, courage, and judgment, are required in a very eminent degree. The natural qualities of an officer are, a robust constitution, a noble open countenance, a martial genius, fire to produce activity, phlegm to moderate his transports, and patience to support the toils and fatigues of war, almost without seeming to feel them. Acquired qualities in an officer consist in moral virtues and sciences; by the first is meant, a regular good conduct, economy, prudence, and a serious application to what regards the service. Military sciences indispensibly demand the reading of ancient and modern historians; a good knowlege of military mathematics; and the study of the chief languages of Europe.

It is in ancient authors we find all that is excellent, either in politics or war: the make and form of arms are changed since the invention of gunpowder; but the science of war is always the same. On one hand, history instructs us by examples, and furnishes us with proofs, of the beautiful maxims of virtue and wisdom, which morality has taught us: it gives us a kind of experience, beforehand, of what we are to do in the world; it teaches us to regulate our life, and to conduct ourselves with wisdom, to understand mankind; ever to carry ourselves with integrity and probity, never to do a mean action; and to measure grandeur with the level of reason, that we may despise it when dangerous or ridiculous.

On the other hand, history serves to give us a knowlege of the universe, and the different nations which inhabit it; their prejudices, their governments, their interests, their commerce, their politics, and the law of nations. It shews us the origin of the illustrious men who have reigned in the world, and given birth to their successors.

The knowlege of military mathematics, regards the operations of war in general; every thing there consists in proportion, measure, and motion: it treats of marches, encampments, battles, artillery, fortification, lines, sieges, mines, ammunition, provisions, fleets, and every thing which relates to war; but no perfect notion can be acquired without geometry, natural philosophy, mechanics, military architecture, and the art of drawing.

The study of languages is most useful to an officer, and he feels the necessity of it, in proportion as he rises to higher employments. Thus the Latin, German, and French languages, are very necessary for an English officer; as the English, French, and Italian, are for a German.

French MILITARY EDUCATION. He who undertakes to investigate the causes of the military superiority of the modern French, will, perhaps, be inclined to attach some importance to the facts contained in the following anecdote:

In the course of the winter of 1806, part of the pupils of the Prytaneum, at Paris, left that city to receive appointments as officers in the grand army in Poland. The route of these youths, of whom many had not obtained their full stature, and others had a weakly appearance, though they were neither so small nor so weak as were formerly many subalterns in the Prussian army--led them through Berlin. An officer accompanied them in quality of inspector. They passed one night in that capital.

A well-informed inhabitant of the city, who had formerly been in the army, and possessing considerable military attainments, had occasion to be in the neighborhood of their quarters. Their juvenile appearance induced him to ask the officer who accompanied them, whether these youths would be capable of enduring the fatigues and dangers of field encampments in a northern climate, at so inclement a season, and in such a country as Poland. The officer, a polite and sensible man, made this reply:--

“These young men, sir, can scarcely be subjected to any contingency for which they are not perfectly prepared by education and practice. You are mistaken if you imagine that the Emperor Napoleon considers theoretical instruction sufficient for a soldier; our institution goes farther, a great deal farther. All these youths whom you here see, have had much more experience than many officers in actual service in other armies. Their constitution is early inured to all the prejudicial influences which menace the practical soldier. Among these young men there is not one but what has worked with his own hands at the construction of real forts; not one but what has stood centinel whole nights together. All of them have slept many cold and tempestuous nights in the open air, and next day performed a march of 16 or 18 miles; have climbed lofty mountains, beneath the scorching rays of a meridian sun; have swam, sometimes in their clothes, sometimes without, through impetuous rivers and chilling streams; have even been obliged to abstain for whole days from food, and during the hottest weather from drink, that they might learn to endure all possible inconveniences incident to a soldier’s life, and that they might be intimately acquainted with them before they were involved in them by necessity. Nothing would terrify them in an uncommon degree: for in the sham fights in our Institution, the rapier is thrown away after the first few hours, and a sharp sword is put into the hands of the pupils. If any of them receive a wound, he has nothing but his own aukwardness to blame for it. It is his business to protect himself by his superiority. Would you now repeat your question?”

It is easy to conceive what an effect such a practical education must have upon the soldier in the higher ranks! What may be expected of an officer thus prepared for every event? That the conduct of their leader operates with a powerful impulse on all those who are under his command, is not to be denied. Exercise begets courage and energy, and at a period when war is a trade, those who possess these two qualities in the highest degree, must predominate.

EFFECTIVE men, in a military sense, are soldiers fit for service; as an army of 30,000 effective (fighting) men.

EFFORT du Cannon, Fr. The effect or impression made by a piece of ordnance, which wholly depends upon the manner it is loaded and fired.

EGUILLETTES. Shoulder knots.

To ELANCE, to throw darts, &c.

ELDER battalion. A battalion is counted elder than another, by the time since it was raised. See SENIORITY.

ELDER officer, is he whose commission bears the oldest date. See SENIORITY.

ELEMENTS, in a military sense, signify the first principles of tactics, fortification, and gunnery.

ELLIPSIS, an oval figure, made by the section of a cone, by a plane dividing both sides of a cone; and though not parallel to the base, yet meeting with the base when produced.

ELEVATION, in gunnery, that comprehended between the horizon and the line of direction of either cannon or mortars; or it is that which the chace of a piece, or the axis of its hollow cylinder, makes with the plane of the horizon.

EMBARKATION. The act of putting troops on board of ship, when destined to be conveyed on an expedition.

EMBARKATION. 1. Of ordnance and stores.--The first thing necessary is to prepare a list of all the articles to be embarked, with the weight of each. This list must have a large column for remarks. The tonnage required for bulky articles will be generally one third more than their actual weight; but the tonnage of ordnance, shells, shot, &c. will be equal to their weight. If vessels be paid according to the tonnage they carry, the masters will of course stow away as much as the ships will hold; but if, by the voyage, they will be averse to loading their ships too much; a naval officer should therefore always attend to see that the ships are properly stowed.

Ordnance and stores may be embarked either for the purpose of merely transporting them to another situation, or for a military expedition. In the first case, each ship must be stowed with as much as it will carry, and every article that relates to one particular species of service or ordnance, must be put on board the same ship; that in case one ship be lost, the others may remain in themselves complete. This principle must of course be likewise attended to in an embarkation for an expedition; but a more particular distribution must take place of the stores when on board. With each piece of ordnance must be placed every thing necessary for its service; its side arms, carriage, limber, ammunition, &c. so as to be readily come at, when required to be disembarked. If it be an embarkation of ordnance, &c. for a siege, not only every thing necessary for the service of the pieces of ordnance should be arranged with them; but also every thing necessary for the construction of the battery on which they are mounted. It will be adviseable in this case, to put different kinds of ordnance in the same ship, in proportions according to the service required of them. In general it will be best to put the heavy articles in first, and every thing that is light, easy to be removed, or likely to be first wanted, on the top. Previous to embarkation, the guns, carriages, waggons, &c. must be dismounted, but first numbered as follows: and the number of each article marked in the list, in the column of remarks. Give each piece of ordnance and its carriage the same number. Give the ammunition and other carriages, different numbers from the ordnance carriages. Then give every limber, whether of ordnance carriage, ammunition carriage, or waggon, the number of its respective carriage. If for a simple transport, arrange the small stores, side arms, &c. according to their several kinds; but if for an expedition, every thing belonging to each particular piece of ordnance must be collected together, and the cases or chests in which they are put, marked with the number of the piece of ordnance to which they belong, their kinds and description. If there be any doubt of the different parts of the carriages, being made with that uniformity, so essentially necessary, every part which is separated, must bear the number of its carriage. This precaution at any rate may be a good one, if the same vessel contain different kinds of ordnance or carriages.

The axletrees need not be taken off the carriages, if the vessel be of a sufficient size to admit them when fixed, as they are not easily replaced without workmen and a tedious operation. When a carriage is dismounted, all the small articles, such as elevating screws, linch pins, drag washers, cap squares, &c. must be carefully collected, and secured in a box, marked with the description of stores, and number of the carriage to which they belong. All carriages or waggons embarked with their axletrees fixed, must be arranged in the ship, side by side, and alternately front and rear, that their axletrees may not interfere with each other, and take too much room. Every transport or other vessel employed in carrying troops or stores for an expedition, should be numbered on the quarters and on the bows, with figures as large as 2 or 3 feet, and on the sails, that they may be known at a distance. The number of the ship, her name and tonnage, and the master’s name should be entered in the list of the stores which she carries.

In disembarking ordnance and stores, they must be landed exactly in order, the reverse of what they were shipped. The carriages and waggons must be mounted as soon as possible, and every kind must be arranged as far from the shore as possible to prevent confusion. If the disembarkation take place in the presence of an enemy, the vessels of course must be loaded accordingly; and the field ordnance, with their carriages, ammunition, &c. must be so arranged as to be first landed, and with the greatest ease possible. In this case, the entrenching tools must also be kept in the greatest readiness.--Aide Memoire.

2. Of troops.--All transports taken into the public service, are under the direction of the naval agents, and of their agents at the different ports at home and abroad. No troops or other persons can be put on board them, or victualled, but by an order from the navy department, or one of its agents. Troops embarked on board transports or ships of war (except as marines) are only allowed two thirds of a seaman’s allowance of provisions. (See the word RATION.) It is therefore necessary to divide the men into messes of 6 each. Six women to 100 men embarked on foreign service, are allowed rations; and 10 women to 100 men on home service. The births on board transports, are usually made 6 feet square, and each admits 4 men at a time; but one third of the men should always be on deck; there fore 6 men (or one mess) are told off to each birth, one third of whom are always on watch. The commanding officer of the troops on board a transport, has a right to peruse the charter party of the ship, which points out every different article, as firing, candles, boats, utensils, &c. which the ship is engaged to find for the use of the troops on board. It likewise expresses the part of the ship allotted to the officers, to the master, the mate, and the agent, should there be one on board.

EMBARGO, a prohibition for any ships to leave a port: generally enforced on the rupture of any two or more nations, or by law.

EMBARK. See EMBARKATION.

EMBARRASS, Fr. a cheval de frise.

EMBATTLE. See BATTLE ARRAY.

EMBEZZLING, EMBEZZLEMENT, of military stores, is punishable by the articles of war, but not at the discretion of a general court martial, as the offender must be sentenced to be cashiered.

EMBLEE, Fr. a prompt, sudden, and vigorous attack, which is made against the covert way and out works of a fortified place. This military operation is executed by means of a rapid march, and an unexpected appearance before a town, followed by an instantaneous assault upon the out posts of the enemy, who is thrown into so much confusion, that the assailants force their way at the same time, and endeavor to get possession of the town.

EMBOUCHURE du canon, Fr. the muzzle of a cannon.

EMBRASSEUR, Fr. from embrasser, to embrace or close round. A piece of iron, which grasps the trunnions of a piece of ordnance, when it is raised upon the boring machine, to widen its calibre.

EMBRASURE, in fortification, is an opening, hole, or aperture in a parapet, through which cannon is pointed to fire at the enemy. Embrasures are generally made from 10 to 12 feet distant from one another, every one of them being from 6 to 9 feet wide without, and 2 or 2¹⁄₂ within: their height above the platform is 2¹⁄₂ er 3 feet towards the town, and 1¹⁄₂ foot on the other side towards the field, so that the muzzle of the piece may be sunk on occasion, and brought to fire low. See BATTERY and FORTIFICATION.

EMBUSCADE, Fr. See AMBUSCADE.

EMERILLON, Fr. a mislin, or small piece of brass or cast iron, which does not exceed a pound weight.

EMERY, a ground iron ore. The British soldiers are each allowed a certain quantity for cleaning their arms.

EMIGRANTS, persons who have quitted their native country.

EMINENCE, in military art, a high or rising ground, which overlooks and commands the low places about it: such places, within cannon shot of any fortified place, are a great disadvantage; for if the besiegers become masters of them, they can from thence fire into the place.

EMISSARY, a person sent by any power that is at war with another, for the purpose of creating disaffection among the people of the latter.

EMOUSSER, Fr. to blunt, to dull. In a military sense, it signifies to take off the four comers of a battalion, which has formed a square, and to give it, by those means, an octagon figure; from the different obtuse angles of which it may fire in all directions.

EMPALE. See FORTIFY.

EMPATTEMENT, in fortification. See TALUS.

EMPILEMENT, Fr. from empiler, to pile up. The act of disposing balls, grenades, and shells, in the most secure and convenient manner. This generally occurs in arsenals and citadels.

EMPRIZE. See EXPEDITION.

EMULATION, in a military sense, is a noble jealousy, without the slightest tincture of envy, whereby gentlemen endeavor to surpass each other in the acquisition of military knowlege. Is not the want of encouragement to excite emulation, the great cause of misconduct among military men? An officer who is not protected, who is never sure of the least favor, neglects himself, and takes less trouble to acquire glory, rarely heard of, though merited by the bravest actions, than to enjoy the tranquillity of an ordinary reputation. Brave actions, by whomsoever accomplished, should never be buried in oblivion, as they excite to emulation, and are full of instruction.

ENAMBUSH. See AMBUSH.

ENCAMPMENT, the pitching of a camp. See CAMP.

In the regulations published by authority, are particularly enjoined the following:

Attentions relative to ENCAMPMENTS. On the arrival of a brigade, or a battalion, on the ground destined for its camp, the quarter and rear guards of the respective regiments will immediately mount; and when circumstances require them, the advanced picquets will be posted. The grand guards of cavalry will be formed, and the horses picqueted. The mens’ tents will then be pitched, and till this duty is completed, the officers are on no account to quit their troops or companies, or to employ any soldier for their own accommodation.

Necessaries are to be made in the most convenient situations, and the utmost attention is required in this, and every other particular, to the cleanliness of the camp.

If circumstances will allow the ground on which a regiment is to encamp to be previously ascertained, the pioneers should make these, and other essential conveniences, before the corps arrives at its encampment.

Whenever a regiment remains more than one night in a camp, regular kitchens are to be constructed.

No tents, or huts, are to be allowed in front of, or between the intervals of the battalions. A spot or ground for this purpose should be marked by the quarter-master, with the approbation of the commanding officer.

On arriving in a camp which is intersected by hedges, ditches, unequal or boggy ground, regiments will immediately make openings of communication, of 60 feet in width.

The ground in front of the encampment is to be cleared, and every obstacle to the movement of the artillery and troops is to be removed.

Commanding officers of regiments must take care that their communication with the nearest grand route is open, and free from any impediments.

ENCEINTE, in fortification, is the interior wall or rampart which surrounds a place, sometimes composed of bastions or curtains, either faced or lined with brick or stone, or only made of earth. The enceinte is sometimes only flanked by round or square towers, which is called a Roman wall.

ENCLOUER un canon, Fr. to spike the cannon.

ENCLOUEURE, Fr. this term is used in the artillery, to signify the actual state and condition of any thing that has been spiked.

ENCOUNTERS, in military affairs, are combats, or fights, between two persons only. Figuratively, battles or attacks by small or large armies. The marquis de Feuquieres mentions four instances of particular encounters brought on by entire armies, with a design to create a general engagement.

ENCOURAGE. See ANIMATE.

ENCROACHMENT, the advancement of the troops of one nation, on the rights or limits of another.

ENDORMI, Fr. asleep; soldat endormi, a soldier asleep on guard. See the articles of war, which direct that any centinel who is found asleep during the period of his duty, shall be punished with death.

ENDECAGON, a plain figure of 11 sides and angles.

ENEMY, in a military sense, one who is of an opposite side in war, or who publicly invades a country.

ENFANS perdus, forlorn hope, in military history, are soldiers detached from several regiments, or otherwise appointed to give the first onset in battle, or in an attack upon the counterscarp, or the breach of a place besieged; so called (by the French) because of the imminent danger they are exposed to.

ENFILADE, in fortification, is used in speaking of trenches, or other places, which may be scoured by the enemy’s shot, along their whole length. In conducting the approaches at a siege, care must be taken that the trenches be not enfiladed from any work of the place. See TRENCHES.

To ENFILADE, is to sweep the whole length of any work or line of troops, with the shot of artillery or small arms.

ENFILER, Fr. to enfilade, is to batter and sweep with cannon shot, the whole extent of a strait line.

ENGAGEMENT, Fr. See ENLISTMENT.

ENGAGEMENT. See BATTLE.

ENGARRISON, to protect any place by a garrison.

ENGINES, in military mechanics, are compound machines, made of one or more mechanical powers, as levers, pullies, screws, &c. in order to raise, project, or sustain any weight, or produce any effect which could not be easily effected otherwise.

ENGINE to drive fuzes, consists of a wheel with a handle to it, to raise a certain weight, and to let it fall upon the driver, by which the strokes become more equal.

ENGINE to draw fuzes, has a screw fixed upon a three-legged stand, the bottom of which has a ring to place it upon the shell; and at the end of the screw is fixed a hand screw by means of a collar, which being screwed on the fuze, by turning the upper screw, draws out or raises the fuze.

ENGINEER, is commonly applied to an officer who is appointed to inspect and contrive any attacks, defences, &c. of a fortified place, or to build or repair them, &c.

The art of fortification is an art which stands in need of so many others, and whose object is so extensive, and its operations accompanied with so many various circumstances, that it is almost impossible for a man to make himself master of it by experience alone, even supposing him born with all the advantages of genius and disposition possible for the knowlege and practice of that important art. We do not pretend to deny that experience is of greater efficacy, than all the precepts in the world: but it has likewise its inconveniences as well as its advantages; its fruits are of slow growth; and whoever is content with pursuing only that method of instruction, seldom knows how to act upon emergencies of all kinds, because old age incapacitates him from exercising his employment. Experience teaches us, through the means of the errors we commit ourselves, what theory teaches us at the expence of others. The life of man being short, and opportunities of practice seldom happening, it is certain nothing less than a happy genius, a great share of theory, and intent application joined to experience, can make an engineer one day shine in his profession. From whence it follows, that less than the three first of those four qualities, should not be a recommendation for the reception of a young gentleman into a corps of engineers.

The fundamental sciences, and those absolutely necessary, are arithmetic, geometry, mechanics, hydraulics, and drawing. Without arithmetic, it is impossible to make a calculation of the extent, and to keep an account of the disbursements made, or to be made; nor without it can an exact computation be made upon any occasion whatsoever.

Without geometry, it is impossible to lay down a plan or map with truth and exactness, or settle a draught of a fortification, or calculate the lines and angles, so as to make a just estimation, in order to trace them on the ground, and to measure the surface and solidity of their parts.

Mechanics teach us the proportions of the machines in use, and how to increase or diminish their powers as occasion may require; and likewise to judge whether those which our own imagination suggests to us, will answer in practice.

Hydraulics teach us how to conduct waters from one place to another, to keep them at a certain height, or to raise them higher.

How fluently soever we may express ourselves in speaking or writing, we can never give so perfect an idea as by an exact drawing; and often in fortification both are wanted; for which reason the art of drawing is indispensibly necessary for engineers.

To the qualities above mentioned, must be added activity and vigilance; both which are absolutely necessary in all operations of war, but especially in the attack of such places as are in expectation of succours. The besieged must have no time allowed them for consideration; one hour lost at such a juncture often proves irreparable. It is by their activity and vigilance, that engineers often bring the besieged to capitulate, much sooner than they would have done, if those engineers had not pushed on the attack with firmness and resolution. Want of vigilance and activity often proceed from irresolution, and that from weakness of capacity.

As the office of an engineer requires great natural qualifications, much knowlege, study, and application, it is but reasonable that the pay should be proportioned to that merit which is to be the qualification of the person employed: he must be at an extraordinary expence in his education, and afterwards for books and instruments for his instruction and improvement, as well as for many other things; and that he may be at liberty to pursue his studies with application, he must not be put to shifts for necessaries. It should likewise be considered, that if an engineer do his duty, be his station what it will, his fatigue must be very great; and, to dedicate himself wholly to that duty, he should be divested of all other cares.

The word engineer is of modern date in England, and was first used about the year 1650, when one captain Thomas Rudd had the title of chief engineer. In 1600, the title given to engineers, was trench-master; and in 1622, sir William Pelham, and after him sir Francis Vere, acted as trench-masters in Flanders. In the year 1634, an engineer was called camp-master general, and sometimes engine-master, being always subordinate to the master of the ordnance.

At present the corps of engineers in England, consists of 1 colonel in chief, 1 colonel en second, 1 chief engineer, 5 colonels, 6 lieutenant colonels, 18 captains, 15 captain lieutenants, and captains, 31 lieutenants, 16 second lieutenants.

The establishment of the corps of invalid engineers, comprises a colonel, lieutenant colonel, captain, captain lieutenant and captain, first lieutenant, and second lieutenant.

The corps of engineers in Ireland consists of a director, colonel, lieutenant colonel, major, captain, captain lieutenant and captain, and 2 first lieutenants.

During the administration of general Washington, the necessity of some military institute, or school, was frequently recommended; and in the administration that followed, the same policy was pursued; particularly at the period of raising the additional army in 1798. In the year 1792, military subjects were very much pressed upon congress, as arising out of the state of the world, and the necessity of being prepared to ward against the dangers which might arise. In 1800, the subject of military defence was discussed, with increased zeal, and a very able and judicious report of the then secretary at war was laid before congress, in which it was proposed to establish a military academy to be divided into four general departments. 1. A fundamental school. 2. A school of artillerists and engineers. 3. A school of cavalry and infantry. 4. A naval school. The objects of this report fell to the ground. In 1802, (16 March) a law was passed, in which it was provided, Sect. 26. That the President of the United States is hereby authorised and empowered, when he shall deem it expedient, to organize and establish a corps of engineers, to consist of one engineer, with the pay, rank, and emoluments of a major; two assistant engineers, with the pay, rank, and emoluments of captains; two other assistant engineers, with the pay, rank, and emoluments of first lieutenants; two other assistant engineers, with the pay, rank, and emoluments of second lieutenants; and ten cadets, with the pay of sixteen dollars per month, and two rations per day: and the President of the United States is, in like manner authorised, when he shall deem it proper, to make such promotions in the said corps, with a view to particular merit, and without regard to rank, so as not to exceed one colonel, one lieutenant colonel, two majors, four captains, four first lieutenants, four second lieutenants, and so as that number of the whole corps shall, at no time, exceed twenty officers and cadets.

Sec. 27. And be it further enacted, That the said corps when so organized, shall be stationed at West Point in the state of New York, and shall constitute a military academy; and the engineers, assistant engineers, and cadets of the said corps, shall be subject at all times, to do duty in such places, and on such service, as the President of the United States shall direct.

Sec. 28. And be it further enacted, That the principal engineer, and in his absence the next in rank, shall have the superintendance of the said military academy, under the direction of the President of the United States; and the secretary of war is hereby authorised, at the public expence, under such regulations as shall be directed by the President of the United States, to procure the necessary books, implements and apparatus for the use and benefit of the said institution.

This school of engineers of the U. States has been since augmented; and it is proposed to place it at Washington city.

ENGINERY, the act of managing artillery; also engines of war.

ENGUARD. See GUARD.

ENLARGEMENT, the act of going or being allowed to go beyond prescribed limits: as the extending the boundaries of an arrest, when the officer is said to be enlarged, or under arrest at large.

ENNEAGON, in, geometry, or fortification, is a figure consisting of 9 angles, and as many sides, capable of being fortified with the same number of bastions.

ENNEGONE. See ENNEAGON.

ENRANK, to place in orderly or regular rows.

ENROLEMENT, Fr. enrollment. This term, according to the military acceptation of it in the French service, differs from the words engagement, enlistment, inasmuch as in some instances, the officer enrolls or enlists a soldier without his consent; whereas in others the soldier is enrolled, after having declared that he voluntarily enlisted.

ENROLLED, ENROLLMENT, See INLISTED.

ENSCONCE, to cover as with a fort.

ENSEIGNE, Fr. the colors, originally derived from the Latin word Insignire. The French designate all warlike symbols under the term enseigne; but they again distinguish that word by the appellations of drapeaux, colors, and étendarts, standards. Drapeaux or colors are particularly characteristic of the infantry; étendarts or standards belong to the cavalry. We make the same distinctions in our service. See COLORS.

ENSEIGNE de vaisseau, Fr. The lowest commissioned officer in the French navy.

ENSHIELD, to cover from the enemy.

ENSIFORM, having the shape of a sword.

ENSIGN, in the military art, a banner, under which the soldiers are ranged according to the different regiments they belong to. See COLORS.

ENSIGN, or ensign-bearer, is an officer who carries the colors being the lowest commissioned officer in a company of foot, subordinate to the captain and lieutenant. The word ensign is very ancient, being used both by the Greeks and Romans, and amongst both foot and horse. Ensigns belonging to the foot, were either the common ones of the whole legion, or the particular ones of the manipuli. The common ensign of the whole legion was an eagle of gold or silver, fixed on the top of a spear, holding a thunderbolt in his talons as ready to deliver it. That this was not peculiar to the Romans, is evident from the testimony of Xenophon, who informs us, that the royal ensign of Cyrus was a golden eagle spread over a shield, and fastened on a spear, and that the same was still used by the Persian kings. In the rustic age of Rome, the ensigns were nothing more than a wisp of hay carried on a pole, as the word manipulus properly signifies. The ensign of the cavalry was a dragon; but there were some of cloth, somewhat like our colors, distended on a staff; on which the names of the emperors were generally depicted. The religious care the soldiers took of their ensigns, was extraordinary: they worshipped them, swore by them (as at present several European powers do) and incurred certain death if they lost them. The Turks and Tartars make use of horses tails for their ensigns, whose number distinguishes the rank of their commanders; for the Sultan has 7, and the Grand Vizier only 3, &c.

ENTERPRIZE, in military history, an undertaking attended with some hazard and danger.

ENTERPRISER, an officer who undertakes or engages in any important and hazardous design. This kind of service frequently happens to the light infantry, light horse, and hussars.

ENTIRE, or rank ENTIRE, a line of men in one continued row on the side of each other. When behind each other, they are said to be in file. See INDIAN files.

ENTONNOIR, Fr. the cavity or hole which remains after the explosion of a mine. It likewise means the tin-case or port-feu which is used to convey the priming powder into the touch-hole of a cannon.

ENTREPOSTS, Fr. magazines and places appropriated in garrison towns for the reception of stores, &c. In a mercantile sense it means an intermediate public warehouse, where goods were deposited, and from whence they might be forwarded to different quarters within or beyond the immediate confines of a country.

ENTREPRENEUR, Fr. See CONTRACTOR.

ENVELOPE, in fortification, a work of earth, sometimes in form of a single parapet, and at others like a small rampart: it is raised sometimes in the ditch, and sometimes beyond it. Envelopes are sometimes en zic-zac, to inclose a weak ground, where that is practicable, with single lines, to save the great charge of horn works, crown works, and tenailles, or where room is wanting for such large works. These sort of works are to be seen at Besancon, Douay, Luxembourg, &c. Envelopes in a ditch are sometimes called sillons, contregardes, conserves, lunettes, &c. which words see.

To ENVIRON, to surround in a hostile manner, to hem in, to besiege.

EPAULE, in fortification, denotes the shoulder of a bastion, or the place where its face and flank meet, and form the angle, called the angle of the shoulder. See FORTIFICATION.

EPAULEMENT, in fortification, is a kind of breast work to cover the troops in front, and sometimes in flank. In a siege, the besiegers generally raise an epaulement of 8 or 10 feet high, near the entrance of the approaches, to cover the cavalry, which is placed there to support the guard of the trenches. These works are sometimes made of filled gabions, or fascines and earth. This term is frequently used for any work thrown up to defend the flank or a post, or any other place. It is sometimes taken for a demi-bastion, and at other times for a square orillon to cover the cannon of a casemate. See FORTIFICATION.

EPAULETTES, are shoulder knots, worn by officers; those for the officers are made of gold or silver lace, with rich fringe and bullions, those of non-commissioned are of cotton or worsted. They are badges of distinction worn on one or both shoulders. When a serjeant or corporal is publicly reduced, the shoulder-knot is cut off by the drum major in the front or circle of the battalion.

Among the French, all the degrees of rank, from a cadet to a general officer, were so minutely marked out by the epaulette, that a common centinel might instantly know what officer approached his station, and could pay the prescribed honors without hesitation or mistake.

All officers above the rank of captain wear two in the United States army and militia; captains wear one on the right shoulder: lieutenants and ensigns on the left; serjeants and corporals wear as captains and lieutenants.

Epaulettes have been introduced into the British navy.

The following are the gradations of rank as distinguished by epaulettes.

Masters and commanders have one epaulette on the left shoulder.

Post captains under three years, one epaulette on the right shoulder.

And after having been post three years, two epaulettes.

Rear admirals have one star on the strap of the epaulette, vice admirals two stars, and admirals three stars.

EPEE, Fr. a sword.

EPERON, Fr. a spur.

EPICYCLOID, a curve formed by the revolution of the periphery of a circle along the convex or concave part of another circle.

EPIGNARE, Fr. a small piece of ordnance which does not exceed one pound in calibre.

EPREUVE, Fr. See PROOF.

EPROUVETTE, is a machine to prove the strength of gunpowder. There are different sorts of eprouvettes, according to the fancy of different nations who use them. Some raise a weight, and others throw a shot, to certain heights and distances.

EPTAGON. See HEPTAGON.

EQUANGULAR, having equal angles.

EQUATION, an expression of the same quantity in two dissimilar terms, but of equal value. See ALGEBRA.

EQUERRE, Fr. a sort of rule which is absolutely necessary to the miner in order to make his descent at right angles.

EQUERRY, the master of the horse. It likewise means any person who is appointed to attend horses.

EQUESTRIAN statue, the inanimate resemblance, in bronze, stone, or marble, of any person mounted on horseback.

EQUESTRIAN order, among the Romans, signified their knights or equites; as also their troopers or horsemen in the field; the first of which orders stood in contradistinction to the senators, as the last did to the foot; each of these distinctions was introduced into the state by state cunning.

EQUILIBRIUM, equality of weight or powder.

To EQUIP, to furnish an individual, a corps, or an army, with every thing that is requisite for military service, such as arms, accoutrements, uniforms, &c. &c.

EQUIPAGE, in a military sense, is all kinds of furniture made use of by the army; such as

Camp-EQUIPAGE, Field-EQUIPAGE, are tents, kitchen furniture, saddle horses, baggage waggons, bat horses, &c.

EQUIPMENT, the act of getting completely equipped, or supplied with every requisite for military service.

EQUITES, an order of equestrian knights introduced among the Romans by Romulus.

ESCADRON, Fr. Squadron. This term is derived from the Italian scara or scadra, corrupted from the Latin quadrum. Froissart was the first French writer that made use of the word escadron to signify a troop of horse drawn out in order of battle. The term escadron is more ancient than battalion. See SQUADRON.

ESCALADE. See SCALADE.

ESCALADE d’un soldat was used in the old French service to express the act of a soldier who got into a town, camp, or quarters, by scaling the ramparts, &c. When discovered in the act of so doing, the centinels had orders to fire at him; and if apprehended, he was tried and condemned to death.

ESCALE, Fr. a machine used to apply the petard.

ESCARMOUCHE, Fr. See SKIRMISH.

ESCARPE, is the outward slope or talus of the rampart.

ESCARPMENT. See DECLIVITY.

ESCORT, in the art of war. See CONVOY.

ESCORTS, Fr. See CONVOY.

ESCOUADE, Fr. in the old French service generally meant the third part of a company of foot or a detachment. Companies were divided in this manner for the purpose of more conveniently keeping the tour of duty among the men.

The word escouade is, however, more specifically applicable to the old distribution of a French artillery company, which was divided into three parts called escouades. The first, containing double the complement of the rest, was composed of 24 artillerists or bombardiers, including two serjeants, two corporals, two anspessades or lance corporals of the same profession, and twenty-four soldiers called soldats apprentis. The second escouade was composed of twelve miners or sappers, including one serjeant, one corporal, and one anspessade or lance corporal of the same profession, and twelve soldats apprentis.

The third escouade was composed of twelve workmen or artificers in wood or iron attached to the artillery, amongst whom were included one serjeant, one corporal and one anspessade or lance corporal of the same trade, together with twelve soldats apprentis. We have corrupted the terra and called it squad. See SQUAD.

ESCOUT. See SPY.

ESCUAGE, an ancient feudal tenure by which the tenant was bound to follow his lord to war or to defend his castle.

ESPADON, in old military books, a kind of two-handed sword, having two edges, of a great length and breadth; formerly used by the Spanish.

ESPION, Fr. a spy.

ESPLANADE, in fortification, the sloping of the parapet of the covert-way towards the field, and is therefore the same as the glacis of the counterscarp; but begins to be antiquated in that sense, and is now only taken for the empty space between the glacis of a citadel, and the first houses of the town.

ESPONTOON, Fr. A sort of half pike. On the 10th of May, 1690, it was ordered by the French government that every espontoon, or half pike, should be 8 feet in length. The colonels of corps as well as the captains of companies always used them in action. The officers of the British army have likewise been provided with this weapon: but it has been replaced by the strait sword in both countries; and is generally exploded.

ESPRINGAL, in the ancient art of war, a machine for throwing large darts, generally called muchettæ.

ESPRIT de Corps, Fr. this term is generally used among all military men in Europe. It may not improperly be defined a laudable spirit of ambition which produces a peculiar attachment to any particular corps, company or service. Officers without descending to mean and pitiful sensations of selfish envy, under the influence of a true Esprit de corps rise into an emulous thirst after military glory. The good are excited to peculiar feats of valor by the sentiments it engenders, and the bad are deterred from ever hazarding a disgraceful action by a secret consciousness of the duties it prescribes.

ESQUADE. See SQUAD.

ESQUIRE. See ARMIGER.

S’ESQUIVER, Fr. to steal away.

ESSES, in the train of artillery, are fixed to draught chains and made in the form of an S, one end of which is fastened to the chain, and the other hooks to the horses harness, or to a staple: they serve likewise to lengthen and piece chains together.

ESSUYER le feu, Fr. to remain exposed to the fire of cannon or musquetry.

ESTABLAGE, Fr. the harness which is between the two shafts of a cart, and serves to support them.

To ESTABLISH, To fix, to settle. It is likewise a technical phrase, to express the quartering of any considerable body of troops in a country. Thus it is common to say: The army took up a position in the neighborhood of ---- and established its head quarters at ----.

ESTABLISHMENT, in a military sense, implies the quota of officers and men in an army, regiment, troop, or company.

Peace-ESTABLISHMENT, is the reduction of corps to a certain number, by which the aggregate force of a country is diminished, and its expenditure lessened.

War-ESTABLISHMENT, is the augmentation of regiments to a certain number, by which the whole army of a country is considerably increased.

ESTAFFE, contribution money.

ESTIMATE, army estimates are the computation of expences to be incurred in the support of an army for a given time.

ESTOFETTE, a military courier, sent express from one part of an army to another.

ESTOILE. See ETOILE.

ESTRADE, Fr. a road or way. This word is derived from the Italian strada, which signifies road, street, or way. Some writers take its etymology from Estradicts, a class of men on horseback, who were employed in scouring the roads, and in procuring intelligence respecting the movements of an army. See BATTEUR D’ESTRADE.

ETAIM or ETAIN, Fr. Tin, A white metal of a consistency less hard than silver, but firmer than lead. It is used in the casting of cannon. The best quality is found in Cornwall.

ETANCONS, Fr. Stays, supporters. Large pieces of wood which are fixed vertically in the cavities of mines, for the purpose of sustaining the weight of earth that is laid upon the galleries.

ETAPE, Fr. subsistence, or a soldier’s daily allowance. See SUBSISTENCE.

ETAPIERS, Fr. were military purveyors, who accompanied the French armies or were stationed in particular places to supply the troops on their march.

ETAT-Major, Fr. Staff. Etat major in the French service, is a more comprehensive term than staff appears to be in our acceptation of the word. As we have in some degree adopted the term, it cannot be superfluous to give a short account of its origin, &c. Among the French, according to the Author of the Recueil Alphabetique de tous les termes propres à l’art de la guerre, état-major signifies a specific number of officers who are distinguished from others belonging to the same corps. It did not follow that every regiment was to have its staff, as the king had the power of appointing or suppressing staff officers at pleasure.

The état-major général de l’infanterie, or the general staff of the infantry, was created under Francis I. in 1525. That of the light cavalry under Charles IX. in 1565. That of the dragoons under Louis XIV. in 1669.

The état-major of an infantry regiment, was composed of the colonel, the major, the aid-major, quarter-master, the chaplain, the provost-marshal, the surgeon, and the attendant commissary, who was called le commissaire à la conduite. To these were added the lieutenant of the provostship, the person who kept the regimental register, or the greffier, the drum-major, six archers, and the executioner. By this establishment it is presupposed, that a provostship, was allowed in the regiment, which was not a general regulation, but depended upon the king’s pleasure.

The état-major, or staff of an old French regiment of cavalry, according to the Ordonnance, or military regulation which was issued on the 4th of November in 1651, consisted of the mestre de camp, or colonel of the horse, the major and the aid-major. It is therein particularly stated, that the état-major of a cavalry regiment shall not have a provostship, a chaplain, a surgeon, nor any other subordinate officer under that denomination.

Every fortified town or place had likewise its appropriate état-major, consisting of a certain number of officers who were subject to specific and distinct regulations.

By an order dated the 1st of August, 1733, the officers belonging to the état major of a garrison town, or citadel, were strictly forbidden to absent themselves more than four days from their places of residence, without especial leave from the king, nor for four days, unless they obtained permission from the governor or commandant of the town or citadel. See Amer. Mil. Lib. Art. STAFF.

ETENDART. Fr. Standard. This word derives its name from the circumstance of its application, being constantly stretched out, étendu or displayed. This etymology does not appear to hold good with our translation of the word.

ETERCILLON, ou arcboutant, Fr. Buttress. A piece of wood which is placed transverse, or horizontally in the galleries of a mine, in order to sustain the earth on both sides; but most especially to keep the chamber well closed, and to support the corners of the gallery.

ETIQUETTE, a French term, primarily denoting a ticket, or title affixed to a bag, or bundle of papers, expressing its contents. It is also used, when applied to the Spanish and some other courts to signify a particular account of what is to be done daily in the king’s household. It likewise denotes those forms that regulate the decorum of conduct towards persons of various ranks and stations. In the Austrian service, military etiquette is punctiliously attended to; and in the old French service the utmost deference was paid to a superior officer by an inferior, at all times, and on all occasions.

ETOILES, Fr. small redoubts, which are constructed by means of angles rentrant and angles sortant, and have from five to eight saliant points. Each one of their sides or faces may contain from 12 to 25 toises. This species of fortification has fallen into disuse, not only because etoiles do not possess the advantage of having their angle rentrant effectually flanked, but because they have been superceded by square redoubts, which are sooner built, and are applicable to the same purposes of defence.

ETOUPILLE, Fr. an inflammable match, composed of three threads of very fine cotton, which is well steeped in brandy mixed with the best priming gunpowder.

EVACUATE, in military history, a term made use of in the articles of capitulation granted to the besieged at the time they surrender to the besiegers; and is the same as quitting a place.

EVENT, Fr. Vent. This word is particularly applicable to the vent or cavity which is left in cannon, or other fire arms, after they have been proved and found defective. The vent is sometimes round and sometimes long. Vents are frequently so exiguous, that they appear like the lines of a small fibre, through which water will ooze, and smoke evaporate. These pieces, whether of ordnance, or of musquetry, are of course rejected.

EVIDENCE, a declaration made viva voce of what any person knows of his own knowlege relative to the matter in question. Military men are obliged to attend and give evidence before courts-martial, without any expence to the prosecutor, or prisoner.

Hearsay EVIDENCE, the declaration of what one has heard from others. As in all other courts of ordinary judicature, this species of evidence is not admissible in courts-martial.

EVOCATI, were a class of soldiers among the Romans, who, after having served their full time in the army, entered as volunteers to accompany some favorite general. Hence they were likewise called emeriti and beneficiarii.

EVOCATION. A religious ceremony which was always observed among the Romans, at the commencement of a siege, wherein they solemnly called upon the gods and goddesses of the place to forsake it, and come over to them. When any place surrendered, they always took it for granted, that their prayer had been heard, and that the Dii Penates, or the household gods of the place had come over to them.

EVOLUTION, in the art of war, the motion made by a body of troops, when they are obliged to change their form and disposition, in order to preserve a post, occupy another, to attack an enemy with more advantage, or to be in a condition of defending themselves the better. That evolution is best, which, with a given number of men, may be executed in the least space, and consequently in the least time possible.

EVOLUTION of the moderns, is a change of position, which has always for its object either offence or defence. The essentials in the performance of an evolution are, order, directness, precision, and the greatest possible rapidity.

EVOLUTIONS may be divided into two classes, the simple and the compound; simple evolutions are those which consist in simple movements, which do not alter the shape or figure of the battalion, but merely afford a more or less extended front or depth, keep it more or less closed to its flanks or centre, turn its aspect to flank or rear, or break it into divisions, subdivisions, sections, or files, in order that it may unfold itself, or defile and resume its proper front or order of battle. All the various ways of defiling, forming line, opening to right and left, closing or deploying, doubling the ranks or files, or changing front upon either of the flanks by conversion, are called simple evolution.

Compound evolutions are those which change the shape and figure of battalions, break them into divisions or companies, separate the companies from the main body, and again replace or rejoin them; in a word which afford the means of presenting a front at every direction.

Compound evolutions are practised either by repeating the same simple evolution several times, or by going through several simple evolutions, or moving in different modes with different parts of the same corps, which ultimately tend to the same object.

The EVOLUTIONS of the ancients were formed and executed with uncommon good sense and ability. Considering the depth and size of the Grecian phalanx, it is astonishing how the different parts could be rendered susceptible of the most intricate and varied evolutions. The Roman legion, though more favorable to such changes and conversions, from being more loose and detached, did not execute them upon more sound or better principles.

EVOLUTION (in geometry) the equal evolution of the periphery of a circle, or any other curve, is such a gradual approach of the circumference to rectitude, as that all its parts do meet together, and equally evolve or unbend; so that the same line becomes successively a less arch of a reciprocally greater circle, till at last they turn into a straight line.

EVOLUTION of powers (in algebra) extracting of roots from any given power, being the reverse of involution.

EXAGON. See HEXAGON.

EXAMINER. One who scrutinizes.

EXCAVATION, the act of cutting or otherwise making hollows; also the cavity formed. In military matters, it is generally applied to the place from whence the earth or other substance has been taken by mining.

EXAMPLE, any act or word which disposes to imitation. The example of a superior officer has considerable influence over the mind of an inferior; but in no instance does it appear more important than in the good and bad behaviour of a non-commissioned officer or corporal. These characters, therefore, should be particularly correct in their duties, tenacious of every principle of military honor, and remarkable for honesty. Old soldiers should likewise direct their attention to the strict observance of rules and regulations, as young recruits always look up to them for example.

EXAMINATION, a scrutiny or investigation of abilities, conduct, &c. All officers of artillery and engineers should undergo an examination in mathematics, fortification, and gunnery, prior to their having commissions. Surgeons and assistant surgeons should be examined before a medical board.

EXAUCTORATIO, in the Roman military discipline, differed from the missio, which was a full discharge, and took place after soldiers had served in the army 20 years; whereas the exauctoratio was only a partial discharge: they lost their pay indeed, but still kept under their colors or vexilla, though not under the aquila or eagle, which was the standard of the legion: whence instead of legionarii, they were called subsignani, and were retained till they had either served their full time, or had lands assigned them. The exauctoratio took place after they had served 17 years.

EXCELLENCY, a title absurdly given to kings and emperors, in Europe, and with equal falsehood and absurdity given to governors, ambassadors, generals, and other persons.

EXCHANGE, in a military sense, implies the removal of an officer from one regiment to another, or from full to half pay, and vice versa: It is usual on these occasions for individuals belonging to the latter class to receive a pecuniary consideration. See DIFFERENCE.

EXCHANGE of prisoners, the act of giving up men, that have been taken in war, upon stipulated conditions which are subscribed to by contending powers.

EXCHANGE, in a general sense, signifies any contract or agreement whereby persons or things are exchanged for others.

EXCHEQUER. The public office from whence all monies are issued for the use of the English army. With respect to the militia, it is enacted that the money paid for that particular service, shall be kept apart from all other money.

Officers belonging to the exchequer, are not to take any fees for receiving, or issuing such money.

EXCITE. See ANIMATE.

EXCUBIÆ, in antiquity, the watches and guards kept in the day by the Roman soldiers. They differed from the vigiliæ which were kept in the night.

EXECUTER, Fr. The French use this verb technically. They say, exécuter et servir une piéce. See the particular method of so doing, under TIRER le canon, to fire a gun or cannon.

EXECUTER, Fr. to execute, to put to death.

EXECUTION. Military EXECUTION is the pillaging or plundering of a country by the enemy’s army.

Military EXECUTION also means every kind of punishment inflicted on the army by the sentence of a court martial; which is of various kinds. When a soldier is to be punished with death, a detachment of about 200 men from the regiment he belongs to form the parade, when a file of grenadiers shoots the prisoner to death.

Every nation has different modes of military execution.

EXEMPT, men of 45 years of age are exempt from serving in the militia. An aid-de-camp and brigade major are exempt from all regimental duties while serving in these capacities. Officers on courts martial are sometimes exempt from all other duties until the court is dissolved. The people called Quakers, and all others who are religiously scrupulous, are by the laws of the U. States exempt from militia duty, an indulgence which they have hitherto repaid with extreme ingratitude.

EXEMPTION, the privilege to be free from some service or appearance. Thus officers in the British militia who have served during the war, according to prescribed regulations, are exempted from being balloted for.

EXEMTS, Fr. so called originally, from being exempted from certain services, or entitled to peculiar privileges.

EXEMTS du ban et arriere ban persons exempted from being enrolled for that particular service, were so called. They consisted of the domestic attendants belonging to the palace, those attached to the princes and princesses of the blood; all persons actually serving his majesty, together with the sons of officers who were in the army.

EXEMTS des gardes du corps. Exempts belonging to the body guards. They were twelve in number, and held the rank of captains of cavalry, taking precedence of all captains whose commissions were of a younger date to the brevet of the exempts.

These brevet commissions were given away under the old government of France.

EXEMTS des maréchaussées. Certain persons employed to keep the public peace. Maréchaussée means in a literal sense, marshalsey. But the functions of the exempts were of a nature peculiar to France. They held their situations under commissions, bearing the great seal, which were forwarded to them by the secretary at war. The privileges they enjoyed were to be exempted from all taxes, &c. but they could not institute any species of criminal information without the concurrence of the greffier or sheriff.

EXERCISE, in military affairs, is the practice of all those motions and actions, together with the whole management of arms, which a soldier is to be perfect in, to render him fit for service, and make him understand how to attack and defend. Exercise is the first part of the military art; and the more it is considered the more essential it will appear. It disengages the human frame from the stiff rusticity of simple nature, and forms men and horses to all the evolutions of war. The honor, merit, appearance, strength, and success of a corps depend wholly upon the attention which has been paid to the drill and exercise of it, according to prescribed rules and regulations; while on the other hand we see the greatest armies, for want of being exercised, instantly disordered, and that disorder increasing in spite of command; the confusion oversets the art of skilful masters, and the valor of the men only serves to precipitate the defeat: for which reason it is the duty of every officer to take care, that the recruits be drilled as soon as they join the corps.

The greatest advantage derived from the exercise, is the expertness with which men become capable of loading and firing, and their learning an attention to act in conformity with those around them. It has always been lamented, that men have been brought on service, without being informed of the uses of the different manœuvres they have been practising; and that having no ideas of any thing but the uniformity of the parade, they instantly fall into disorder and confusion when they lose the step, or see a deviation from the straight lines they have been accustomed to at exercise. It is a pity to see so much attention confined to show, and so little given to instruct the troops in what may be of use to them on service. Though the parade is the place to form the characters of soldiers, and to teach them uniformity, yet when confined to that alone, it is too limited and mechanical for true military use.

The great loss which the British troops sustained in Germany, America, and the West Indies, during the war of 1783, from sickness, as well as from the enemy, was chiefly owing to a neglect of exercise. An army whose numbers vanish after the first 4 months of a campaign, may be very ready to give battle in their existing period; but the fact is, that although fighting is one part of a soldier’s business, yet bearing fatigue, and being in health, is another, and at least as essential as the first. A campaign may pass without a battle; but no part of a campaign can be gone through without fatigue, without marches, without an exposure to bad weather; all of which have exercise for their foundation; and if soldiers are not trained and enured to these casualties, but sink under them, they become inadequate to bodily fatigue, and eventually turn out a burthen to the country.

It is not from numbers, nor from inconsiderate valor, that we are to expect victory; in battle she commonly follows capacity, and a knowlege of arms. We do not see, that the Romans made use of any other means to conquer the world, than a continual practice of military exercises, an exact discipline in their camps, and a constant attention to cultivate the art of war. Hence, both ancients and moderns agree, that there is no other way to form good soldiers but by exercise and discipline; and it is by a continual practice and attention to this, that the Prussians arrived at that point of perfection which was long so much admired in their evolutions, and manual exercise.

Formerly in the British service every commander in chief, or officer commanding a corps, adopted or invented such manœuvres as he judged proper, excepting in the instance of a few regulations for review: neither the manual exercise, nor quick and slow marching were precisely defined by authority. In consequence when regiments from different parts were brigaded, they were unable to act in line till the general officer commanding had established some temporary system to be observed by all under his command.

These inconveniences were at length obviated by the rules and regulations compiled by general Dundas on the system of the Prussian discipline, as established by Frederic the Great.

During the American revolution, a committee of officers was appointed by congress to digest a system of discipline for the military forces of the United States. A considerable body of materials were thrown together by the several officers, which proving too voluminous, amounting to three volumes folio, Baron Steuben, an officer who had been in the Prussian service, was appointed to make a digest, which was afterwards adopted, and continues still to be the only regulation for discipline. This work which is very brief, was of much use where there was no sort of order established, or rather where utter disorder prevailed; but is not by any means adapted to the uses of a good discipline in the present state of military knowlege. It is confined to the duties of a regiment of infantry only, and is in fact no more than an abstract modification of the Prussian system of 1741. The war department of the United States, has had the provision of a more enlarged and competent system under preparation for three or four years, and the commander in chief (general Wilkinson) had made great progress in a general arrangement of a system comprehending all the details of drill, exercise, manœuvre, formations of separate, and co-operating bodies, and of various kinds of troops; as well as the police of camps, garrisons, rank, and rotation; and other regulations, but public service having called him off to the southern frontier, and general Dearborne having resigned, the system of Steuben remains, while the new discipline of Europe has become known to all the volunteer corps of the Union, commanded by intelligent officers; and the old discipline of Steuben, has from actual deficiency been superceded.

Infantry EXERCISE, includes the use of the firelock and practice of the manœuvres for regiments of foot, according to the regulations issued by authority.

When a regiment of foot is drawn up, or paraded for exercise, the men are placed two and sometimes three deep, which latter is the natural formation of a battalion. In order to have the manual exercise well performed, it is in a particular manner requisite, that the ranks and files be even, well dressed, and the file leaders well covered: this must be very strictly attended to both by the major, and his adjutant: all officers also, on service in general, where men are drawn up under arms, or without, must be careful, that the ranks and files are exactly even; and the soldiers must learn to dress themselves at once, without the necessity of being directed to do it. The beauty of all exercise and marching, consists in seeing a soldier carry his arms well, keep his firelock steady and even in the hollow of his shoulder, the right hand hanging down, and the whole body without constraint. The musquets when shouldered, should be exactly dressed in rank and file; the men must keep their bodies upright, and in full front, not having one shoulder too forward, or the other too backward. The distances between the files must be equal, and not greater than from arm to arm, which gives the requisite room for the motions. The ranks are to be two paces distant from each other. Every motion must be done with life, and all facings, wheelings, and marchings, performed with the greatest exactness. Hence a regiment should never be under arms longer than three hours without rest. See FIRINGS, MANUAL and MANŒUVRES.

Cavalry EXERCISE, is of two sorts, on horseback, and on foot. The squadrons for exercise are sometimes drawn up three deep, though frequently two deep; the tallest men and horses in the centre and front. When a regiment is formed in squadrons, the distance of 24 feet, as a common interval, is always to be left between the ranks; and the files must keep boot top to boot top. The officers commanding squadrons must, above all things, be careful to form with great celerity, and, during the whole time of exercise, to preserve their several distances. In all wheelings, the flank which wheels, must come about in full gallop. The men must keep a steady seat upon their horses, and have their stirrups at a fit length.

Cavalry Sword EXERCISE. See SWORD EXERCISE.

Artillery EXERCISE, is the method of teaching the corps of artillery the use and practice of all the various machines of war, viz.

EXERCISE of the light field pieces, teaches the men to load, ram, and spunge the guns well; to elevate them according to the distance, by the quadrant and screw; to judge of distances and elevations without the quadrant; how to use the port fire, match, and tubes for quick firing; how to fix the bricole and prolonge, and use them in advancing, retreating, and wheeling with the field pieces; how to fix and unfix the trail of the carriage on the limbers, and how to fix and unfix the boxes for grape shot on the carriages of each piece.

EXERCISE of the garrison and battering artillery, is to teach the men how to load, ram, and spunge; how to handle the handspikes in elevating and depressing the metal to given distances, and for ricochet; how to adjust the coins, and work the gun to its proper place; and how to point and fire with exactness, &c.

Mortar EXERCISE, is of two different sorts, viz. with powder and shells unloaded, and with powder and shells loaded; each of which is to teach the men their duty, and to make them handy in using the implements for loading, pointing, traversing, and firing, &c. See PRACTICE.

Howitz EXERCISE, differs but little from the mortar, except that it is liable to various elevations; whereas that of the mortar is usually fixed to an angle of 45°; but the men should be taught the method of ricochet firing, and how to practise with grape shot: each method requiring a particular degree of elevation. See PRACTICE.

EXERCISE of guns with reduced numbers. When 15 men are attached to the service of a gun in the field, they may be classed to the right and left sides of the gun; or they may be placed in a kind of roster, by a succession of numbers from 1 to 15; the two first numbers of each gun being the first and second gunner; and the remaining 13 as aids. This numerical distribution, upon a little practice, will be found as easy as the regulation of the guard duties, and is well calculated for service where discipline is good. It is by this arrangement also well suited to use, where there are men not well disciplined, as these can be placed on the remotest numbers. So it is also well calculated for horse artillery, where it will require some men to take care of the horses; and it is also well adapted to service where men are lost by the casualties of war.

Supposing, therefore, that a 12 pound gun with 15 men, is required to exercise with 9 men. The six numbers, beginning with the 4th aid of the left, or Nos. 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, that is, the fourth of the left, fifth and sixth aids of the right and left, in the practice; they are either employed on other service, or engaged in securing the horses, or in preserving and securing the caisson. The first gunner has provided a return of the names and stations of each man at the gun. They are posted as follows: and the numbers which precede their stations are the numbers of their roster, and they should be prepared to answer by their number, whenever called for.

No. 1. First gunner on the right. 2. Second gunner on the left. 3. First aid on the right. 4. First aid on the left. 5. Second aid on the right. 6. Second aid on the left. 7. Third aid on the right. 8. Third aid on the left. 9. Fourth aid on the right. 10. Fourth aid on the left. 11. Fifth aid on the right. 12. Fifth aid on the left. 13. Sixth aid on the right. 14. Sixth aid on the left. 15. Thirteenth aid.

A reference to the number prefixed to these stations, simplifies the return, and points out the duty of each, which may be done by either telling them off in ranking, or giving them a ballot with their number on it, or any other arbitrary sign that may be devised. It is proposed then to post the artillerists to a gun on the march; and so of several guns. A twelve pounder is detached with 15 men, and they are numbered, it is required to know the stations of the artillerists according to their numbers, and according with the dipositions of the men to the same duties.

First rule, all the odd numbers are on the right side of the gun; all the even numbers on the left side. This is their position in battery, and prepared for action. The next rule is their positions in advancing.

Line of march. Nos. 2, 4, 6, and 8, are on the left, which numbers correspond with the second gunner, the first, second, and third aids of the left; so on the right of the gun, are the Nos. 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9, answering to the first gunner of the right, and the first, second, third, and fourth aids of the right, making in all nine. The other six aids, that is to say, the fourth aid of the left, the fifth aids of right and left, the sixth aids of right and left, and the thirteenth aid, are thus dispensed with, and may be thus dispensed with, unless the men are required with their bricoles to manœuvre the gun; if this is done with horse, their aid is only required with the horses, and it exemplifies the excellent adaptation of the means of this new discipline to its proposed end.

The third rule is, to find the men, and their stations by their numbers, it is only requisite to refer to the preceding table of numbers, 1 and 2 are stationed opposite the trail, they are the two gunners; 3 and 4 are opposite the muzzle in the march, they load and ram the cartridge and shot; 5 and 6 are opposite the breech; they have charge of the port fire and priming; 7 and 8 march opposite the axletree of the limber; they are the third aids of right and left, and have to supply ammunition, and move the tumbril on unlimbering; they are purveyors of the gun; 9 leads the limber horse, and takes charge of the tumbril when the gun is in battery.

Duties of nine men as numbered in battery.

Light Artillery duties.

1 Commands the gun. 2 Stops the vent, and elevates the gun. 3 Rams and spunges. 4 Loads with cartridge and shot. 5 Fires the gun. 6 Clears the vent and primes. 7 {Supply 8 {cartridge. 9 Takes charge of the tumbril or caisson.

Positions.

1 At the right handspike. 2 At the left handspike. 3 Outside of the right wheel, in front. 4 Outside of the left wheel, in front. 5 }Covering 3 and 4, and dressing 6 }with the rear of the wheels. 7 {Cover the aids in front, at a distance 8 {of 5 yards in their rear. 9 Is posted with the tumbril or caisson, 25 yards in the rear.

Heavy guns.--The duties and positions are the same, only that 4 aids 3 in ramming home the charge.

Howitzers.--The positions and duties are nearly the same as at the heavy guns; only that 3 spunges, uncaps the fuze, and puts in the shell; 4 takes the sheep-skin out of the piece, lays it on the ground, with the woollen side up, loads with cartridge, wipes the bottom of the shell, (when 2 holds it up) puts in the sheep-skin again, and pulls it out with his left hand, on the word Ready: He stops the muzzle with it immediately, when the piece is fired; 6 serves the vent; 5 fires; 1 commands; 7 carries the slow match and bucket; 8 serves 4 with cartridges from a cartouch; 9 serves 3 with shells from the limber, which he lays on the sheep-skin. As from unavoidable accidents, the number of men attached to a gun may be reduced, it will be necessary, if the vacancies happen amongst those doing the most essential duties, to immediately replace them by those doing the most subordinate duties.

The following method of distributing the duties amongst a smaller number of men, will be equally applicable to all kinds of field ordnance.

+----+---------------------------------------------------------------+ | No | | | of | | |men.|KIND. Numbers retained. The vacancies, how supplied. | +----+---------------------------------------------------------------+ | 9 {Gun. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9{Complete. | | {How’r. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9{ | +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ | 8 {Gun. 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9{No. 6 being dropt, No 8 does his | | {How’r. 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9{duties. | +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ | 7 {Gun. 1 2 3 4 5 7 9{No. 8’s pouch is laid on the ground; | | { {2 carries it when moving. | | {How’r. 1 2 3 4 5 7 9{No. 3 serves himself with ammunition. | +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ | 6 {Gun. 1 2 3 5 7 9{2 serves the vent with his left hand, | | { {pricks, primes, and carries tube box on the | | {How’r. 1 2 3 5 7 9{left side. | +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ | 5 {Gun. 1 2 6 7 9{No. 1 does all the duties of 5 like 2 in the | | { {last change, his own duties, and those of 2 | | {How’r. 1 2 6 7 9{at trail. | +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ | 4 {Gun. 1 2 6 9{No. 9 brings the ammunition; 6 serves the | | {How’r. 1 2 6 9{shells. | +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ | 3 {Gun. 1 6 9{No. 6 serves and loads all the ammunition. | | {How’r. 1 6 9{No. 6 and 9 must change duties occasionally. | +--------------------------------------------------------------------+

To limber up, light Guns and Howitzers.

The whole of the men face towards the gun; 1 unships the traversing handspikes; the limber is brought up by 9, rather to the sight of the gun, and then turned to the left about; 7 and 8 raise the trail, and place it on the limber, in which they are assisted by 3 and 4 bearing down on the muzzle, and 5 and 6 at the wheels; 2 chains the limber.

Heavy Field Guns, or Howitzers.--The only difference from the above is, that 3 and 4 assist 7 and 8 to raise the trail, and 9 aids 5 and 6 at the wheels; 1 stands to the carriage wheels.

To unlimber, Light Guns and Howitzers.

The whole face towards the gun; 1 unchains the limber; 2 and 7 lift the trail off the pintle, and set it on the ground, in which they are assisted, as in limbering up, by 3, 4, 5, and 6; 2 ships the traversing handspikes, and the whole assume the position for action. The limber is led by 9 and the driver, 25 yards to the rear, and there turned to the left about. The leading horse is unhooked by the driver, and tied to the rear of the limber.

Heavy Field Guns, and Howitzers.--The same as the light ones, except that 5 and 6 assist 2 and 7 to raise the trail, and 8 and 9 stand to the gun wheels.

It must be understood, that simply to limber up, or to unlimber, means that the gun is to be placed upon its limber, or lifted off, without changing its direction: but, guns may be limbered up to the front, to the right, or to the left, according as it is intended to advance in any of those directions; and unlimbered to the rear, to prepare for action to the front, to the left for action to the right, and to the right for action to the left. To limber up, or to unlimber, in any of these situations, is exactly the same as those already given, except that in the first, previous to limbering up, the trail is thrown round by No. 1, assisted by 2, if necessary, into the direction specified by the word of command, and the limber is brought up to that side to meet it; and in the second, the trail, after being taken off the limber, is carried round to the rear, right, or left, according as the word of command expresses, before it is put to the ground, and the limber goes round to the rear of the gun.

It must be constantly kept in mind, that the front of a gun, or line of guns, or column of guns, is that to which the men at the gun front, without any respect to the situation of the gun or carriage. The trail of the carriage, when moved round to the rear, or the contrary, whether in limbering up, or unlimbering, must always be carried round to the right, and the limber, or a horse, when brought up to advance or retire a gun, must always be brought up on the right side, and go off on the left; and whenever the limber is turned about, it must be to the left about. By attending to these precautions, the greatest confusion is avoided.

Prepare to advance with a horse and prolonge.

Light pieces.--3 gives his spunge to 5; 3 and 4 unhook the chain traces from the breast of the carriage, and lay them over the spokes of the wheels; the driver brings up a horse to the front, by the right; 3 and 4 unhook the horses traces from the back band, and hook them to the gun, and then take post outside the wheels; 3 takes his spunge; 7 and 8 hook the traces to the swingle-trees.

Heavy pieces.--This is done with two horses, one before the other; 3 and 4 hook the horses, the driver rides to the rear horse, and 6 and 8 hook the rear horse to the gun; 1 and 9 look to the unfixing length and fastening of the prolonge.

Prepare for action.--The different numbers exactly undo what they had just done; 1 and 9 beginning to loose the prolonge as soon as the gun is fronted or about to be limbered.

Prepare to advance with a limber.

The only difference between this and advancing with a horse, is, that the limber is brought up to the front; and 9 or 15 brings up the prolonge, and, takes a turn on the lashing rings of the trail; or if the gun is to be limbered, it is laid on as in the drill.

Exercise with heavy ordnance in a Battery.

32, or 42 Pounder.

10 Men.

3 spunges; 4 loads. 7 and 8 run the gun up. 5 and 2 run up and elevate. 6 serves the vent, traverses, primes, and runs up. 5 fires. 8 brings cartridges. 1 points and commands.

9 Men.

3 spunges; 4 loads. 7 and 8 run up. 2 brings cartridges. 6 serves the vent, runs up, and primes. 3 runs up, traverses, and fires. 1 points and fires. 2 traverses and elevates.

8 Men.

3 spunges; 4 loads and runs up. 8 runs up. 5 and 6 run up and elevate. 7 brings cartridges, runs up, and traverses. 2 serves the vent, runs up, traverses, and primes. 1 points, fires, and commands.

7 Men.

3 spunges and runs up. 4 loads and runs up. 7 runs up and elevates. 6 brings cartridges, runs up, and elevates. 2 serves the vent, runs up, traverses, and primes. 5 runs up, traverses, and fires. 1 points and commands.

6 Men.

3 Spunges and runs up. 4 loads, runs up, and elevates. 6 runs up and elevates. 5 brings cartridges, runs up, and traverses. 2 serves the vent, runs up, traverses, and primes. 1 runs up, points, fires, and commands.

5 Men.

3 and 4 load and run up. 2 and 3 prime, fire, and run up. 1 elevates, points, and commands.

24 Pounder, &c.

8 Men.

3 spunges; 4 loads. 6 and 7 run up and elevate. 2 serves the vent, runs up, traverses, and primes. 5 runs up, traverses, and fires. 8 brings cartridges. 1 points and commands.

7 Men.

3 spunges; 4 loads. 7 runs up and elevates. 6 brings cartridges, runs up, and elevates. 2 serves vent, traverses, and primes. 5 runs up, traverses, and fires. 1 points and commands.

6 Men.

3 spunges, runs up, elevates. 4 loads, runs up, and elevates. 2 serves the vent, runs up, traverses, and primes. 5 runs up, traverses, fires. 6 brings cartridges. 7 points and commands.

5 Men.

3 spunges, runs up. 4 brings cartridges, loads, runs up. 2 serves vent, runs up, elevates, and primes. 5 runs up, traverses, fires. 1 points and commands.

4 Men.

3 spunges, runs up, points. 4 brings cartridges, loads, runs up, and elevates. 2 serves vent, runs up, traverses, elevates, and primes. 1 runs up, traverses, fires.

3 Men.

1 spunges, runs up, points, and fires. 2 brings cartridges, loads, runs up, elevates, traverses. 3 serves vent, runs up, elevates, traverses, and primes.

4²⁄₅, or 5¹⁄₂ Inch Mortar.

2 Men.

1 spunges, runs up, brings shells, puts them in, traverses, and primes. 2 serves the vent, runs up, brings cartridges, puts them in, points, and fires.

3 Men.

2 spunges, runs up, traverses, brings shells, and puts them in. 3 brings cartridges, puts in, serves the vent, runs up, primes, and fires. 1 points, elevates, and commands.

8 Inch Mortar, or Howitzer.

5 Men.

3 spunges, runs up, dredges. 5 runs up, brings cartridges, and puts them in. 4 runs up, brings cartridges, and puts them in. 4 runs up, brings shells, puts them in, elevates, primes. 2 runs up, traverses, fires. 1 serves vent, points, and commands.

4 Men.

3 spunges, runs up, dredges. 4 runs up, brings cartridges, and puts them in. 2 serves the vent, brings shells, and puts them in, runs up, traverses, and fires. 1 runs up, points, elevates, and commands.

10, or 13 Inch Mortar.

10 Men.

3 spunges, runs up, puts in shells, and dredges. 4 runs up, brings cartridges, puts them in, and puts in the shells. 6 brings cartridges. 7 and 8 bring shells. 9 and 10 run up and traverse. 2 serves vent and primes. 5 fires; 1 points, elevates and commands.

6 Men.

3 spunges, runs up, puts in shells, dredges, and traverses. 4 runs up, brings cartridges, and puts them in, puts in shells, and traverses. 5 and 6 run up, bring shells, and traverse. 2 runs up, serves vent, and primes. 1 runs up, points, elevates, fires, and commands.

Of the exercise of auxiliary machines.

Exercise of the Gin.

The complement of men for a gin is usually 1 non-commissioned officer and 10 men; they are numbered from 1 to 10, the non-commissioned officer being 11.

To carry a Gin.

1 and 2 carry a pry-pole, 3 and 5 the right cheek, 4 and 6 the left, 7 the windlass and side, 8 and 9 the blocks and tackles, 10 the handspikes, &c.

To set up a Gin.

1 and 2 put a common handspike through the ring, near the foot of the pry-pole, at which they lift; 3 and 4 steady the cheeks, by placing each a handspike against the lower cross bar; 5, 7, and 9, lift the right cheek; 6, 8, and 10, the left cheek; 11 gives directions. The tackles must be hooked on before the gin is raised.

To work a Gin.

1 and 3 man the right handspikes of the gin: 2 and 4 the left; 5, 6, 7, and 8, hold on the fall, and pull in the slack; 9 and 10 steady the gun, 9 at the muzzle, 10 at the breech. The tackle hook must be fixed directly over the dolphins, if any, or a little behind the trunnions.

In heaving, when the ends of 1 and 4’s handspikes come as low as their knees, 2 and 3 put theirs into the upper holes of the windlass, and 3 gives the word Bear, upon which 1 and 4 clear their handspikes from the windlass, and 1 gives the word Heave; 2 and 3 then bear down their handspikes, and remain fast till 1 and 4 having taken their fresh purchase, 1 gives the word Bear, when 2 and 3 clear their handspikes, and 3 gives the word Heave; and so on alternately, till the gun is at its proper height, when the handspikes in the upper holes are made to rest against the upper cross bar, and 5 makes fast the fall to the lower cross bar; and if required to lower the gun, eases the fall off from the windlass; 5, 6, 7, and 8, move the carriage, as required, under the gun.

Exercise of the Sling Cart.

The men for the service of the sling cart are numbered from 1 to 7; the non-commissioned officer being No. (1); Nos. 2 and 3 sling the gun. The gun must be laid with one trunnion touching the ground, and the sling passes diagonally round the gun, being before one trunnion, and behind the other; and that end of the sling which goes round the lower side of the gun, must be the end to be acted on by the windlass; as by that means the trunnions become horizontal when the gun is raised; Nos. 4, and 6, man the right lever; 5, and 7, the left lever; and upon the word from the non commissioned officer, then directs, left hand lever hold on, right lever bear; the right lever takes a fresh purchase: then, right lever hold on, left lever bear; the left lever takes a fresh purchase; they then heave together again. When the gun is high enough, (1) puts in the pall; 2 and 3 take out the levers, and put in the pry-pole; 4 and 5 raise the breech of the gun with two common handspikes, and 6 and 7 lash it to the pry-pole: 2 and 3 then lay their levers along side the pry-pole, and 4 and 5 their handspikes on the top of them, which 6 and 7 lash all fast together.

EXERCISES, are also understood of what young gentlemen or cadets learn in the military academies and riding schools; such as fencing, dancing, riding, the manual exercise, &c.

EXHORT. See ANIMATE.

EXPEDITION, in a general sense, signifies haste, speed, rapidity. In a military sense, it is chiefly used to denote a voyage or march against an enemy, the success of which depends on rapid and unexpected movements. It is out of the nature of the thing itself to lay down fixed rules for the minute conducting of small expeditions; their first principles only can be with certainty fixed, and men will often disagree about preparations, and differ in their conduct, though they acknowlege the same principles.

One of the principles of many small expeditions, is surprise; and 6 battalions, without much accompaniment, may sometimes do that which 24, and a great fleet, would not succeed in.

There is no part of war so interesting to an insulary soldier as an expedition; nor can there be any part more worthy of attention.

EXPEDITIONS have heretofore had no rules laid down for their conduct, and that part of war had never been reduced to a system. The slow rules of a great war will not do in expeditions; the blow must be struck with surprise, and intimidation be produced in the invaded enemy, before succors can arrive. Debate is out of season, and all slow proceedings are ruin. Not to advance, is to recede; and not to be on the road to conquest, is to be already conquered. There must be that glance, which sees certainly, though instantly; that rapidity, which executes on the surest rules, when it seems least to act on any. The French have given all their campaigns the characters of expeditions.

In all small expeditions, such as expeditions of surprise, or coup-de-main, the favorable side of the proposed action must ever be viewed; for if what may happen, what may arrive, what may fall out, is chiefly thought upon, it will, at the very best, greatly discourage, but in general end in a total failure. Hence the very name of an expedition implies risk, hazard, precarious warfare, and a critical operation.

An expedition is governed by five principal maxims.

1st, A secrecy, if possible, of preparation, and a concealment of design, &c.

2dly, That the means bear proportion to the end. In this there will ever be a difference in opinion.

3dly, A knowlege of the state and situation of the country, where the scene of action is, or the place or object that is to be attacked.

4thly, A commander who has the particular turn of mind, which is most adapted to such particular sort of warfare.

Lastly, The plan of an expedition, great or small, is ever to be arranged as much as possible before setting out, and then any appearances that may vary a little from what might have been expected, will not perplex.

EXPEDITION, Fr. See EXPEDITION. The French likewise use this word, to express any particular military quality, which an officer or soldier may possess. As, cet officier est un homme d’expedition, this officer is a man of enterprise, is courageous and daring.

EXPLOIT. See ATCHIEVEMENT.

To EXPLODE, burst or blow up.

EXPLOSION, the discharge of a gun, the blowing up of a mine, or the bursting of a shell.

EXPRESS. A messenger sent with direct and specific instructions.

To send by EXPRESS, to send any thing by extraordinary conveyance.

EXPUGN, EXPUGNATION, the taking any place by assault.

EXPERIMENTS, in a military sense, are the trials, or applications of any kind of military machines, in order to ascertain their practical qualities and uses.

EXTEND, when the files of a line, or the divisions of a column are to occupy a greater space of ground, they are said to extend their front or line. Extended order is applicable to the light infantry.

EXTORTION, the act of obtaining money or property by violence or unjust means: taking advantage of the ignorance or peculiar circumstances of a purchaser, to demand more than a fair price for an article. All sutlers, or camp followers, who are guilty of extortion in the sale of necessaries, are punishable by a general or regimental court-martial.

EXTRADOS, Fr. The exterior surface of a regular arch, used in the construction of powder magazines.

EXTRAORDINARIES of the army. The allowances to troops, beyond the gross pay in the pay office, come under the head of extraordinaries to the army. Such are the expences for barracks, marches, encampments, staff, &c.

EXTRAORDINARII, among the Romans, were a body of men consisting of a third part of the foreign horse, and a fifth of the foot, which body was separated from the rest of the forces borrowed from the confederate states, with great caution and policy, to prevent any design, that they might possibly entertain against the natural forces. A more choice body of men was drawn from amongst the extraordinarii, under the name of ablecti. See ABLECTI.

EXTRAORDINARY. Something out of the common course.

EXTRAORDINARY couriers, persons sent with some information or order of great importance.

EXTRAORDINARY guards. Guards out of the common routine of duty. They are frequently given as a punishment for military offences.

EYES Centre, an old word of command given when the battalion was advancing in line, denoting, that the men were to look to the centre in which the colors are placed, and dress by them.

EYES right, EYES left, words of command denoting the flank to which the soldier is to dress. In casting his eyes to either flank care must be taken that the shoulders are kept square to the front.

EYES front, a word of command given after the dressing in line is completed, on which the soldier is to look directly forward, which is the habitual position of the soldier. These motions are only useful on the wheeling of divisions, or when dressing is ordered after a halt, and particular attention must be paid in the several turnings of the eyes, to prevent the soldier from moving his body, which must invariably be preserved perfectly square to the front. In the American practice the direction of the eye is understood to follow the word dress--as right, centre, or left dress.

Eye-bolts. See BOLTS.

F.

FACADE, in military fortification. See FACE.

FACE, in fortification, is an appellation given to several parts of a fortress; as the

FACE of a bastion, the two sides, reaching from the flanks to the saliant angle. These in a siege are commonly the first undermined, because they extend most outwards, and are the least flanked; consequently the weakest.

FACE prolonged, FACE extended, that part of the line of defence razant, which is terminated by the curtain and the angle of the shoulder, that is, it is, strictly taken, the line of defence razant, diminished by the face of the bastion.

FACE of a place, is the front comprehended between the flanked angles of two neighboring bastions, composed of a curtain, two flanks, and two faces; and is sometimes called the Tenaille of the place.

FACE of a gun, is the superficies of the metal at the extremities of the muzzle of the piece.

FACE, (to the right, left, &c.) a word of command on which the soldiers individually turn to the side directed; in performing which, the left heel should never quit the ground, the knees must be kept straight, and the body turned smoothly and gracefully. The moving of the right foot forward or backward, is wholly exploded; all the facings are now made upon the left heel as a pivot. The following are the old methods.

To the right, FACE. 2 motions.--1st, Place the hollow of the right foot smartly against the left heel; 2d, Raise the toes, and turn (a quarter of the circle) to the right on both heels.

To the right about, FACE, 3 motions.--1st, Place the ball of the right toe against the left heel; 2d, Raise the toes, and turn (half of a circle) to the right about on both heels; 3d, Bring the right foot smartly back in a line with the left.

To the left, FACE. 2 motions.--1st, Place the right heel against the hollow of the left foot; 2d, Turn (a quarter of the circle) to the left on both heels.

To the left about, FACE. 3 motions.--1st, Place the right heel against the ball of the left foot; 2d, Raise the toes, and turn (half of a circle) to the left about on both heels; 3d, Bring up the right foot smartly in a line with the left.

Quarter FACE to the right or left, is now substituted for the old and awkward mode of oblique marching, the quarter facing being referred to the positions of action being all on the face of a semicircle; half of which is facing to the right or left; that is the side of the soldier is thrown to the previous front; in quarter facing the side is thrown diagonally between the front and flanks; marching quarter face is called marching by the line of science.

Great precision must be observed in these facings; otherwise the dressing will be lost in every movement.

FACES of a square. The different sides of a battalion, &c. when formed into a square are all denominated faces, viz. the front face, the right face, the left face, and the rear face. See SQUARE.

FACE ou pan de bastion, Fr. See FACE of a bastion.

FACE d’une place, Fr. See TENAILLE.

FACINGS, are the different movements of a battalion, or of any other body of men, to the right, to the left, or right and left about. All facings must be executed with a straight knee; and the body must be kept firm, and turn steadily, without drooping forward or jerking. The plant of the foot, after facing about, must be sharp.

FACINGS, likewise signify the lappels, cuffs, and collar of a military uniform, and are generally different from the color of the coat or jacket.

FACTION, Fr. the duty done by a private soldier when he patroles, goes the rounds, &c. but most especially when he stands centry. The French usually say, entrer en faction, to come upon duty; être en faction, to be upon duty; sortir de faction, to come off duty.

FACTIONNAIRE, Fr. Soldat factionnaire, a soldier that does every species of detail duty.

The term factionnaire, was likewise applicable to the duty done by officers in the old French service. Premier factionnaire du regiment implied, that the officer, so called, was the fourth captain of a battalion; as the colonel, lieutenant colonel, major, and the captain of grenadiers did not mount the ordinary guards.

FAGOTS, in the military history were men hired to muster by officers whose companies are not complete; by which means they cheated the public of the men’s pay, and deprive the country of its regular establishment. See False return.

A British general in the East Indies made an immense fortune by bullock fagots. Artillery are all drawn by oxen in Asia, as well as all baggage; upon an inspection of bullocks, the inspector counted 12,000: it appeared there were only 4,000, they were drawn up in front of a wood, and as soon as the bullocks on the right were inspected; they were drawn off successively by the rear, and appeared again in ranks on the left; so that every bullock was three times inspected, and the round number returned.

FAGOTS. See FASCINES.

FAILER. See DESERTER.

FAILURE, an unsuccessful attempt, as the failure of an expedition.

FAIRE faux feu, Fr. to miss fire; to flash in the pan.

FALAISE, Fr. Any part of the sea-coast is so called by the French, when it is extremely steep, and broken into precipices.

FALAISER, Fr. to break upon. La mer falaise signifies, the sea breaks upon the shore.

FALCHION, a short crooked sword.

FALCON, or Faucon, an ancient name given to a 3-pounder. See CANNON.

FALCONET, an ancient name given to a 1¹⁄₂-pounder. See CANNON.

FALL. The fall of a place after it has been besieged. See SURRENDER.

To FALL back, to recede from any situation in which you are placed. This phrase is frequently, indeed, always made use of in the drill, or exercise of soldiers; particularly during the formation of a line, when individuals, or whole divisions are apt to overstep their ground and get beyond the dressing point.

FALL in, a word of command for men to form in ranks, as in parade, line, or division &c.

To fall in likewise means the minute arrangement of a battalion, company, guard or squad, by which every man is ordered to take his proper post. The long roll, a peculiar beat of the drum, is the usual signal for soldiers to assemble and fall in.

To FALL into, to become the property of another, as, we fell in with a large convoy of the enemy, which after a short resistance made by the escort, fell into our hands.

To FALL in with. A military technical phrase, signified any sudden or unlooked for rencontre of any enemy. As our light cavalry patroles fell in with a party of foragers belonging to the enemy’s army.

To FALL off, to desert; to fail; to relax in exertion.

To FALL out, to quit the rank or file in which you were first posted. Dirty soldiers on a parade are frequently ordered to fall out, and remain in the rear of their companies. The phrase is applicable in a variety of other instances:

To FALL upon. To attack abruptly, as, we no sooner came in sight of the enemy, but our advanced guard instantly fell upon his out-posts and beat them in. According to the celebrated General Monk it is very fit, that a general should often command his horse and dragoons to fall upon his enemy’s outermost horse quarters; which mode, he says is one of the easiest, readiest, and securest ways to break an enemy’s army.

FALOTS, Fr. small lanthorns fixed upon the end of a stick or pole. Small lamps are likewise used, attached in the same manner, for the purpose of carrying them readily about to light a camp, or besieged towns, as occasion may require.

FALSE alarms, an alarm or apprehension which is either designedly or unintentionally created by noise, report, or signals without being dangerous.

FALSE attack, an approach which is made as a feint for the purpose of diverting your enemy from the real object of attack.

FALSE fires, any fire or light which is made use of for the purpose of deceiving an enemy. False fires or lights are frequently resorted to when an army finds it necessary to retreat from an advanced position. On this occasion large fires are lighted in different parts of the camp and round the lines, previous to the departure of the troops, which generally happens in the night.

FALSE lights, in debarkations under cover of the night, may likewise be used as signals of deception, when it is found expedient to attract the attention of the invaded country towards one part of the coast or territory, whilst a real attack is meditated against another.

FALSE muster, an incorrect statement of the effective number of men or horses, by which government is defrauded. By the articles of war every officer, paymaster, or commissary, found guilty of false mustering, is ordered to be cashiered.

FALSE report. A false report in military matters, may be truly said to be the ground work of a false return and a false muster, and consequently the primary cause of imposition upon the public. The strictest attention should, therefore, be paid to the most trifling report which is made in a troop or company respecting the presence or absence of men or horses, the state of clothing, accoutrements, or necessaries. This can only be done by the commanding officer of such troop or company having constantly the general good of the service at heart in preference to his own convenience, or to that of others. Every serjeant or corporal of a squad should be severely punished when detected in making a false report.

FALSE return, a wilful report of the actual state of a brigade, regiment, troop, or company, by which the commander in chief or the war-office is deceived, as to the effective force of such regiment, troop or company.

FANION, Fr. corrupted from the Italian word gonfanone, a particular standard which was carried in the front of the ordinary baggage belonging to a brigade in the old French service. It was made of serge, and resembled in color the uniform or livery of the brigadier, or of the commandant of any particular corps.

FANTASSIN, Fr. A foot soldier. The term is derived from the Italian fante, a boy, the light troops in the 14th and 15th centuries being formed of boys who followed the armies, that were formed into corps with light arms, hence the origin of the word infantry; the French still use the words mes enfans.

FARAILLON, Fr. a light house.

FARIAL, Fr. a light house; also a watch light.

FARRIER, in a general acceptation of the term, any person who shoes horses, or professes to cure their diseases. In a practical military sense a man appointed to do the duty of farriery in a troop of cavalry. Troop farriers should be under the immediate superintendance and controul of a veterinary surgeon, to whom they ought to apply whenever a horse is ill or lame, that he may report the same to the officer commanding the troop. No farrier should presume to do any thing without having first received directions from his superior.

When the farrier goes round, after riding out, or exercise on horseback, he must carry his hammer, pincers, and some nails to fasten any shoe that may be loose.

When horses at out quarters fall particularly ill, or contract an obstinate lameness, the case must be reported to the head quarters of the regiment; and if the veterinary surgeon cannot prescribe for him at a distance, he must, if time and distance will permit, be personally sent to examine the horse.

No farrier should make up any medicine or any external application contrary to the receipt given him by the veterinary surgeon.

If any farrier, through carelessness or inattention, lames a horse belonging to another troop, he ought to be at all the expence in curing the horse so lamed. In some well regulated cavalry corps this forms one of the standing regimental orders.

Farriers are in every respect liable to be tried according to the articles of war. They may be ordered to inflict punishments; and they must constantly recollect, that the circumstance of being a farrier is no extenuation for dirty appearance, or excuse for drunkenness. The guilt of the latter vice, indeed, is aggravated by the responsibility of their situation.

FARRIER-Major, a person who was formerly appointed by the colonel of a dragoon regiment to superintend the farriers of troops, who are named by the several commanding officers of them. He has since been superceded or replaced by a veterinary surgeon, who, as the farrier-major was formerly directed, is to have free access to every stable of the regiment whenever he chuses. It is his duty to go frequently into the cantonments of the different troops, and examine the horses feet; and if he finds a shoe contrary to the regimental pattern, or discovers any thing amiss in the management of the troop horses, he is to report it immediately to the officer commanding the regiment. In all his duty he is to receive the utmost support from every officer and quarter master; and any farrier that dares to act contrary to his instructions, should be punished. There ought, in fact, to be a chain of mutual support and co-operation from the veterinary surgeon, up to the commanding officer of every cavalry regiment, each farrier looking to the veterinary surgeon for correct instructions relative to the preservation of every horse’s health.

FASCINES, in fortification, are a kind of fagots, made of small branches of trees or brush wood, tied in 3, 4, 5, or 6 places, and are of various dimensions, according to the purposes intended. Those that are to be pitched over, for burning lodgments, galleries, or any other works of the enemy, should be 1¹⁄₂ or two feet long. Those that are for making epaulements or chandeliers, or to raise works, or fill up ditches, are 10 feet long, and 1 or 1¹⁄₂ feet in diameter. They are made as follows: six small pickets are struck into the ground, 2 and 2, forming little crosses, well fastened in the middle with willow bindings. On these tressels the branches are laid, and are bound round with withes at the distance of every 2 feet. Six men are employed in making a fascine; 2 cut the boughs, 2 gather them, and the remaining 2 bind them. These six men can make 20 fascines every hour. Each fascine requires five pickets to fasten it.

FASTNESSES, strong places not easily forced.

FATHOM, in fortification, originally denoted that space which a man could reach when both his arms were extended; but it now means a measure of 6 feet or 2 yards, equivalent to the French word toise. See TOISE.

FAUCON. See FALCON.

Faucon ou FAUCONNEAU, Fr. a small piece of ordnance, carrying from 1 to 1¹⁄₄ pound ball.

FAUCHION. See FALCHION.

FAUCONET. See FALCONET.

FAULX, Fr. an instrument nearly resembling a scythe. It is often used to defend a breach, or to prevent an enemy from scaling the walls of a fortified place. This weapon was first resorted to with some success, when Louis the XIV. besieged Mons. On the surrender of that town, the besiegers found large quantities of faulx, or scythes in the garrison.

FAUSSE-BRAIE. See FAUSSE BRAYE.

FAUSSE-BRAYE, in fortification, is a low rampart encircling the body of the place; its height is about 3 feet above the level ground, and its parapet about three or four toises from that of the body of the place. These works have been entirely rejected by the modern engineers, excepting M. Vauban, who makes them only before the curtains; and then they are called more properly tenailles.

FEATHERS, are ornamental marks worn by officers and soldiers in their caps or hats. The following distinctions are made, and directed by authority to be observed in the British service. In the royal artillery, both officers and men, have white feathers. The cavalry and battalion corps scarlet and white; the grenadiers all white, and the light-infantry all green.

FEDERATE. See CONFEDERATE.

FEES, are sums of money claimed by persons in office, and to the payment of which every British officer is subject. Fees are paid at the British war office for different commissions, and are charged to their respective owners by the army agents.

FEINT, a mock attack, or assault, often made to conceal the true one.

FELLOES, or FELLIES, in artillery, are the parts of a wheel which form its circumference. The dimensions of fellies of British wheels are as follow: for a 24-pounder, 5 inches thick, and 6.5 inches broad; for a 12-pounder, 4.5 inches thick, and 6 inches broad; for a 6-pounder, 4 inches thick, and 5.5 inches broad, &c. made of dry elm. There are generally 6 in each wheel. See WHEEL.

FELLOW soldier one who fights under the same commander, a comrade. Dr. Johnson very properly calls this term an endearing appellation used by officers, to their soldiers. The French use an equivalent expression, camarade, or comrade; the officers also call the soldiers mes enfans, my boys or my children. The toils and perils, in fact of a military life, are so many, that an army fighting under the same banners may be truly called one family, and every officer should look upon himself as the father, the guardian, and the protector of his men.

FENCE, a guard, security, outwork, &c.

To FENCE, to practice with foils; to fight with swords; to secure any place by pallisades, &c.

FENCIBLE, any thing capable of defence. Such regiments as are raised for limited service, and for a limited time, are called fencible regiments. They rank junior to the line.

FENCING, is the art or science of making a proper use of the sword, as well for attacking an enemy, as for defending one’s self. Fencing is a genteel exercise, of which no military gentleman should be ignorant. It is learned by practising with steel foils. See FOILS.

Fencing is either simple, or compound. Simple is that which is performed nimbly, and off hand, on the same line. In this the principal intention, in respect to the offensive part, should be to attack the enemy in the most unguarded quarter; and in the defensive, to parry or ward off the enemy’s thrusts or blows.

Attitude, in FENCING, the head upright, though the body hath a forward inclination on a longe; and all the weight resting on the left haunch when on guard. The feet, hand, body, arm, and sword, must be to the line.

Appel, in FENCING, is a sudden beat of your blade, on the contrary side to that you join your adversary on, and a quick disengagement to that side again.

Beating, in FENCING, is when you parry with a sudden short beat, to get a quick repost; or when you beat with your foot, to try if you are firm on it, or on both feet.

Battering, in FENCING, is to strike the feeble of your adversary’s blade on the side opposite to that you join, &c.

Back-quarte, is a parade of a late invention, and is a round quarte over the arm.

Cave, in FENCING, is a tierce on a quarte side, also the thrust of a prime, or a seconde, at the low quarte side.

Darting, in FENCING, to defend a blow with some contraction of your arm, and to dart a thrust right forward.

Feint forward, in FENCING, made by advancing your point a little from its line and coming to it again.

Guard, in FENCING, is any of the parades you stand on.

On guard, is being placed properly on your feet, and well covered with your weapon.

Lurching, in FENCING, to make an opening, to invite your adversary to thrust at you, when you, being ready, may find a favorable repost at him.

Locking, in FENCING, is to seize your adversary’s sword arm by twining your left arm round it, after you close your parade, shell to shell, in order to disarm him.

Guards in carte, tierce, implies the putting of the body and sword in such a state of defence, as to prevent the antagonist from wounding you, by either of the thrusts so denominated. These are the principal positions on which to engage. The others, viz. prime, seconde, quinte, half-circle, &c. are termed parades, when used with the small sword.

Hanging-guard, one of the broad-sword guards. See BROAD-SWORD.

Thrusts are of various denominations, according to the direction of the point, and position of the wrist.

The thrusts directed at the inside of the body, are called prime, carte, and low-carte; those at the outside, are seconde, tierce, carte over the arm, quinte and flanconade.

In teaching, the thrusts are not arranged according to the above order; it is usual to begin with carte (or quarte) and tierce, the names of which prove them to have been originally the 4th and 3d positions in the art; but which are now justly considered as the chief and most elegant.

Parrying in FENCING, the action of warding off the blows aimed at each other.

Flanconade, in FENCING, is the action of dropping the point of your sword under your adversary’s hilt, in seizing with force the feeble of his blade; which binding, without quitting it, form the parade in octave and then throw in your thrust. See Art of defence with swords by the author of Am. Military Library.

Glissade, in FENCING, is performed by dexterously making your sword slip along your adversary’s blade, and forming at the same time your extension, &c.

FER, Fr. Iron. Figuratively, this word is used for a sword or dagger; as manier le fer, to wear the sword, to follow the profession of arms, Battre le fer, to fence.

FER à cheval, Fr. In fortification, a horse-shoe, which see. It further means according to the French acceptation of the term, a work constructed for the purpose of covering a gate, by having within it a guard-house, to prevent the town from being surprised.

FERDWIT, in ancient military history, a term formerly used to denote a freedom from serving upon any military expedition; or according to some, the being quit of manslaughter committed in the army.

FERRIES, water conveyances, made use of to cross rivers, or branches of the sea.

FERTH or FORTH. See ARMY.

FEU, Fr. Fire. Faire feu, to discharge any sort of firearms.

FEU, fire, is also understood to mean any light combustible, which is kept up in the front of a camp, and at each post during the night to keep the soldiers alert, and to prevent them from being surprised.

Every species of fire, or light is, however, strictly forbidden on a march, when the object is to surprize an enemy. Soldiers on these occasions are not permitted to smoke. Bundles, and large wisps of lighted straw, which are hung out from the tops of steeples, or from any other elevation, frequently serve to give the alarm when an enemy is discovered in the act of passing a river.

Lights are likewise resorted to on various other occasions. See LIGHTS.

FEU de joie. See RUNNING-FIRE.

FEU rasant, Fr. a grazing fire, or a discharge of ordnance or musquetry so directed that the shot shall run parallel with the ground they fly over, within 3 or 4 feet of the surface.

That is likewise called a feu rasant, or grazing fire, which is sent in parallel directions with the faces of the different works belonging to a fortification.

FICHANT. See LINE OF DEFENCE, FORTIFICATION.

FIELD. The ground of battle. A battle, campaign, or the action of an army while it keeps the field.

FIELD-bed, a folding bed used by officers in their tents.

{Colors, } {Camp colors. {Officers,} {Officers. Field-{Pieces, }See{Cannon. {Staff, } {Lintstock. {Works, } {Field fortification.

FIELD-Fort. See FORT.

FIELD-marshal, a military rank superior to all others, except the captain general.

This rank formerly existed and has been again revived in England. The French in their modern system, have given it an effective character, it being the superior rank of distinguished generals; the number of which have a temporary limitation. Their corps d’armée or legions of 25,000 men, are each commanded by a marshal.

FIFE, a military instrument of the wind kind, generally used as an accompaniment to the drum.

FIFRE, Fr. Fife. In French, this word likewise means fifer.

FIGHT. See BATTLE.

FIGHTING-men, such as are effective, and able to bear arms.

Running-FIGHT, that in which the enemy is continually chased.

FIGURE, in fortification, the plan of any fortified place, or the interior polygon. Of this there are two sorts, regular, and irregular; a regular figure is that where the sides and angles are equal; an irregular one where they are unequal.

FILE, in the art of war, is an unlimited term, comprehending any number of men, drawn up in a direct line behind each other; as a rank on the other hand, includes any number drawn up beside each other; whether in either respect, they be in close or open order. Or rather, by file is meant the line of soldiers standing one behind another, which makes the depth of the battalion; and is thus distinguished from the rank, which is a line of soldiers drawn up side by side, forming the length of the battalion. A file is 2 or 3 deep; hence a battalion or regiment drawn up, consists of 2 or 3 ranks, and of as many files as there are men in a rank.

The files of a battalion of foot were formerly 12 and 6 deep, but now only 3, which is its natural formation. Those of the cavalry are but 2 deep.

A FILE on horseback, in marching order, occupies in the ranks 3 feet; thus 3 file 9 feet. A file on foot occupies in the ranks 22 inches.

Close FILES in cavalry, are at the distance which was taken before dismounting, when each man’s boot-top touches, but does not press that of his neighbor.

Loose FILES, in cavalry movements, are 6 inches distant from boot top to boot top being calculated for the gallop as well as the walk of a squadron.

Open FILES in cavalry are the full breadth of a horse from boot-top to boot-top. They contain the distance which is left, when from close files the left files rein back to dismount. Recruits and horses must be frequently exercised at this distance. See American Military Library.

Flank FILE, the extreme file on the right or left of a squadron or troop, battalion or company, &c.

Forming from FILE, is when the front file halts, and the rest ride up at a very smart gallop, taking care to halt in time, and not to over-run the front. If the formation is by doubling round the front file (for instance, when a formation is made to the rear of the march, or to the right, when marched from the right) the files must double round as close and as expeditious as possible.

In all formings from file, the leaders of ranks instantly cover each other, take the ordered front and halt. See American Military Library.

In the covering of files on horseback, the same directions hold good as on foot. In addition, it must be scrupulously observed that every man’s horse stands exactly straight to the same front as that of the man before him. Both in the horse and foot drill, the men should be often practised in covering. The former are thereby taught to place their horses straight under them.

Close FILES of infantry, are soldiers standing in rank, contiguous to one another, upon any given depth of line or column. Whenever a regiment marches in front, every man should feel the arm of his next man which ever way he dresses; but he must not lean on him, nor must he move his arm from the body to feel him. So that close files mean nothing more than that soldiers in the ranks should lightly touch each other, without crowding or pressing.

Open FILES, are soldiers standing in rank at given distances without touching one another. The formation at open files is only practised as a preparatory drill for forming at close files, (which is the order for action) so that every man may be taught to stand and move in a proper position, without acquiring a habit of leaning upon his neighbor. On this account every intelligent officer who has the management of recruits, will form them sometimes at open files, and march them in that order. Soldiers that have been regularly drilled, should likewise be occasionally practised in advancing by open tiles.

Double FILES are formed by the left files in each rank stepping to the rear of the right files; or the contrary.

Indian Files, a line of men advancing or retreating from either of the flanks, from the centre or from any proportion of a line in succession to one another. They are sometimes called goose files; but the term is only familiarly, or rather vulgarly used among soldiers, and derives its appellation from a flock of geese, generally following a leader, one by one. The Prince de Ligne, says, that men march forward in file, or en ordré mince, par une instinct moutonnier, meaning, that they follow each other like so many sheep, who move by instinct.

FILE-leader, is the soldier placed in the front of any file, or the man who is to cover all those that stand directly in the rear of him, and by whom they are to be guided in all their movements.

File leaders must be particularly careful to preserve their proper distances from which ever hand they are to dress, and the followers of each file must only be attentive to cover, and be regulated by their proper file leaders. In file the rear rank invariably dresses by, and is regulated by the front rank.

To double the FILES, is to put 2 files into one, making the depth of the battalion double to what it was, in number of men. Thus four deep are double files.

FILE marching on foot, all recruits must be taught first to face, and then to cover each other exactly in file, so that the head of the man immediately in front may conceal the heads of all the others behind him. The principal points to be attended to are, that the men move in equal time an equal pace of 2 feet, that the front rank men cover exactly, and that the rear rank men keep closed and dressed to the front rank.

File marching may be practised to the front, to the rear, and to either flank; in all which cases the men must be taught to cover well. When recruits are at drill, on the word march, the whole are to step off with the left foot together, gaining at the very first step 24 inches, and so continuing each step, without increasing the distance betwixt each recruit, every man placing his advanced foot on the ground, before the spot from whence his preceding man had taken up his. See Amer. Mil. Lib.

Marching in open order to the front, is when any body of men advances by ranks at open order, and dress to some given object without touching one another. The flank man of the flank the soldiers dress to, must be a non-commissioned officer, and he must take especial care not to incline to one hand or the other. His head must be kept quite straight to the front, his body must be erect, and he must advance without deviating in the most trifling manner to the right or left. In order to execute this essential part of the drill with any degree of accuracy, two persons should be present, one in the front, and the other on the flank, to observe the dressing. Young officers should be exercised themselves in the presence of a superior officer; for upon them thereafter will greatly depend the movement of the battalion in line or column.

Marching to the front in close order, is when any number of men advance by ranks at close order, and dress to some given objects each man lightly touching his next man, without crowding or pressing. The march in front by closed files is much easier than that at open files, because every man feels his next man, which ever way the rank dresses, and into whatever direction the line or column moves.

To FILE, is to advance to, or move from any given point by files; as to file to the front, to file to the rear, to file from the right or left flank, or to file from any given company. In some of which cases, the leading files must disengage themselves according to the directions given.

To File off, To defile, to wheel off from marching in a spacious front, and march in length by files. When a regiment is marching in full front, or by divisions or platoons, and comes to a defile or narrow pass, it may file off to the right or left, as the ground requires, &c.

FILINGS, are movements to the front, rear, or flank by files. These movements must be executed with great quickness. The files must go off at a smart gallop, and continue so till all are in file, the rear rank men dressing well to their front rank; the front rank covering well, and keeping close to the croup. If the filings are to be made from a flank to the front or rear, the whole must keep passaging up to the ground from whence the first file went, before they go off; if to a flank, the horses must be turned as soon as there is room. If the filings are from a flank to march along the front or rear, past the other flank, every file must come off from its own ground as the next gets into file.

General and necessary FILINGS, are from either, or both flanks of the squadron to front, flank or rear; filing from the centre of the squadron to the front, or to the flank. Filing single men by ranks, or by front or rear rank men alternately from either flank of the squadron.

In the filings of the squadron, the serre-files take their places in the rear of the files unless the ground will allow them to remain on the flanks of the rear rank; but their general and proper position is in the rear of the files.

In cavalry filing, the greatest attention must be paid to keep the squadron as compact together as the nature of the movement will permit. It is a situation in which horses move free, and without confinement, but in which the parts of a squadron are apt to lengthen out, and take up much more ground than what they stand upon in line, and is therefore to be adopted only from necessity, in broken or embarrassed ground. When the word file, has been given, and the heads of the horses have been turned ready to move off without loss of distance, the leaders of files must go off short and quick in their ordered direction. They are followed close by each man as it comes to his turn, so as to leave no unnecessary interval from one to another, and instantly to put off the ground. After being once in file, a distance of a yard from head to tail may be taken so as to trot or gallop the easier if required. Every alteration of pace ought to be made as much as possible by the whole file at once: if this is not observed, a crowding and stop in the rear will always attend such alteration.

FIRE, in the art of war, a word of command to soldiers of all denominations, to discharge their fire arms, grenades, cannon, &c.

FIRE, is also used to denote the discharge of all sorts of fire arms against the enemy. The fire of the infantry is by a regular discharge of their fire-locks, in platoons, divisions, &c. that of the cavalry, with their pistols; and that of a place besieged with their artillery.

FIRE of the curtain or second flank, is from that part of the curtain comprehended between the face of the bastion prolonged and the angle of the flank; frequently called the line of defence fichant.

FIRE rasant, is produced by firing the artillery and small arms in a line parallel with the horizon, or parallel with those parts of the works you are defending.

FIRE-arms, are all kinds of arms charged with powder and ball; every one of which is mentioned under its respective head.

Running-FIRE, is when a rank or ranks of men, drawn up, fire one after another; or when the lines of an army are drawn out to fire on account of a victory; when each squadron or battalion takes it from that on its right, from the right of the first line to the left, and from the left to the right of the second line; also called feu de joie.

FIRE-balls. See BALLS.

FIRE-cross, an ancient token in Scotland for the nation to take up arms.

FIRE-ship, a ship filled with a variety of combustibles to set fire to the vessels of the enemy.

FIRE-ship. Proportion of combustible stores for a fire-ship of 150 tons.

No. Fire barrels, filled with composition 8 Iron chambers, to blow open the ports 12 Composition for priming barrels 3¹⁄₂ Quick, match do. 1 Curtains, dipped 48 Reeds, long, single dipped 150 Do. short}double dipped 75 }single dipped 75 Bavins, single dipped 250

The fire barrels are about 2 feet 4 inches high, and 1 foot 6 inches diameter. Each barrel must have four holes of about 6 inches square cut in its sides; and these holes must have a square piece of canvass nailed over them quite close. They are then filled with the same composition as for carcasses, and 4 plugs of about 1 inch diameter and 3 inches long, and well greased are thrust into the top, and then left to dry. When dry, these plugs are taken out and the holes driven with fuze composition and quick match at the top; which goes from one hole to the other: after this the top is smeared over with mealed powder mixed up with spirits of wine. When dry again a sheet or two of brown paper is laid over the top, and then one of the canvass covers, which is made secure by the upper hoop of the barrel.

Composition for dipping Reeds, Bavins, and Curtains.

lbs. Rosin 120 Coarse Sulphur 90 Pitch 60 Tallow 6 Mealed powder 12

This proportion will dip about 100 reeds and 25 bavins.

Each curtain contains 1 square yard of barras.

Each cover for fire barrels 1 do. of sacking.

Immediately that the curtains, covers, &c. are dipped, they are to be strewed over with fine brimstone, before the composition grows cold.

The iron chambers, for blowing open the ports, hold from 9 to 11 ounces of powder. They are fixed in such a manner as to prevent their recoil, and to ensure the ports being blown open. The vents are generally corked up, and covered with a piece of barras, till required to be primed.

To fit out a fire ship. The whole breadth of the fire room is to be divided into 9 parts, and troughs laid the whole length of the room. Cross troughs of communication are laid between them, about 20 in each row, perpendicular to the long troughs. These troughs are usually 4 inches wide, and 4 deep. There are two fire trunks and two fire scuttles on each side, under which the eight fire barrels are to be placed.

The reeds and bavins are to be tied down in the troughs. The curtains are to be nailed up to the beams, equally through the fire room. The ship is not to be primed when fitted out, but only when intended to be fired.

To Prime.

Composition for priming,

Saltpetre pulverized 22 lbs. 8 oz. Rosin 2 11 Sulphur 18 -- Mealed powder 45 -- Linseed oil 1 pint.

All the reeds and bavins are to be taken up, and a little of the above composition sprinkled in the bottom of the troughs; the reeds, &c. to be then gently tied down again. Quick match of 6 or 8 threads doubled must be laid along on the tops of all the reeds, &c. and priming composition strewed over it, and over all the fire room. The covers of all the fire barrels must be cut open, and made to hang down on the sides of the barrels. Leaders of strong quick match must be laid from the reeds to the barrels and to the chambers; and must be tied down to the vents to ensure its not falling off. Strong leaders of quick match, 4 or 5 times doubled, must be laid from the reeds to the sally ports; and the sally ports must be connected by quick match, that the whole may take fire at once.

The following method is now adopted of producing an external fire, in addition to the internal fire, before gained by the fire room.

Fireboxes filled with the carcass composition, are distributed in the following manner, in a ship of three masts:

1 Suspended from each of the catheads and davits, on each side the bow 4 8 Slung across the bowsprit 8 4 Across each of the outriggers abaft 8 2 From the graplins of each of the lower yard-arms 12 2 From the dead-eyes on each side of the three round tops 6 2 From the middle of the inside of the main, fore, and mizzen shrouds 6 -- 44

The boxes are suspended by chains and hooks, and those slung across the bowsprit and outriggers, are fixed by staples. The two inner ones are laid with leaders of quick match, which fire instantly, or with portfires, which burn a given time; they communicate with the outer ones by reeds, which are tied down on the bowsprit and outriggers. The boxes hanging from the dead-eyes and shrouds, are fired by curtains suspended from the shrouds, the lower one of which hangs immediately over one of the large fire barrels. The two boxes on each yard-arm are hung one over the other; the upper one having a leader of quick match carried along the yard from the shrouds; and in burning will no doubt fire the lower one. Besides the boxes, there are fire barrels arranged as follows; 2 half barrels on the forecastle; 2 abaft the main deck, and 4 on the main deck; 2 in each roundtop, placed against the masts; and 4 large fire barrels under fire trunks, to convey fire to the curtains on the shrouds. All these fire barrels and boxes are to be fired by separate leaders of quick match or portfire, in order that any part of the ship may be fired, to cover its approach by the smoke; and the remaining part instantaneously upon quitting the ship. It has been found by experiment, that two men with lighted portfires can set fire to the whole of the leaders on the deck, bowsprit, catheads, outriggers, &c. in less than a minute; therefore the risk of trusting to one main leader to the whole may be avoided.

The leaders are laid in painted canvass hose made for the purpose.

FIRE-master, in the artillery, gives the directions and proportions of all ingredients for each composition required in fire-works, whether for the service of war, or for rejoicings and recreations.

FIRE-masters-mate. His duty is, to aid and assist the chief fire-master, and he should be skilled in every kind of laboratory works.

FIRE-pan of a gun, is the receptacle for the priming powder.

FIRE-pot, in the military art, a small earthen pot, into which is put a charged grenade, and over that, powder enough to cover the grenade; the whole covered with a piece of parchment, and two pieces of quick match across lighted: it breaks and fires the powder, as also the powder in the grenade, which has no fuze, that its operations may be quicker: it burns all that is near it.

FIRE-works, are particular compositions of different sorts, made with sulphur, salt-petre, and charcoal. They are used in war, and on rejoicing days.

FIRE-workers, were formerly subordinate to the fire-master and his mate; had afterwards the rank of youngest lieutenants to the regiment of artillery; but now that rank is abolished, and they are all second lieutenants. They were supposed to be well skilled in every kind of laboratory-work, which knowlege is an essential qualification in every officer of that regiment.

FIRE-LOCKS, so called from their producing fire of themselves, by the action of the flint and steel; the arms carried by a foot-soldier: they were formerly 3 feet 8 inches in the barrel, and weighed 14lb.; at present the length of the barrel is from 3 feet 3 inches to 3 feet 6 inches and the weight of the piece from 9 to 12lb. British fire-locks carry a leaden bullet of which 29 make 2lb. Its diameter is .550 of an inch, and that of the barrel ¹⁄₅₀th part of the shot. Fire-locks were first made use of in 1690, when matchlocks were universally disused; but when invented we cannot ascertain. A fire-lock is called, by writers of about the middle of the last century, a snaphaan, which being a low Dutch word, seems to indicate its being a Dutch invention. Formerly, both in the manual and platoon exercises, the term fire-lock was always adopted--as shoulder your fire-lock, present your fire-lock--At present a more simple and brief mode of expression prevails as, shoulder arms, carry arms, &c.

FIRING in line. According to regulations, the following principal heads constitute firing in line.

The object of fire against cavalry is to keep them at a distance, and to deter them from the attack; as their movements are rapid, a reserve is always kept up. But when the fire commences against infantry, it cannot be too heavy, nor too quick while it lasts; and should be continued till the enemy is beaten or repulsed. This may not improperly be called offensive fire.

Defensive fire, belongs principally to infantry, when posted on heights, which are to be defended by musquetry. As soldiers generally aim too high, and as fire is of the greatest consequence to troops that are on the defensive, the habitual mode of firing should therefore be rather at a low level of three or four feet than a high one.

On these occasions the men are generally drawn up 3 deep; in which case the front rank may kneel when it can be safely and usefully done; but this is now generally rejected, and the third rank loads for the centre rank, which fires the guns of both centre and rear rank.

FIRING by half battalions, the line advancing. The left wings halt, and the right ones continue to march 15 paces, at which instant the word march being given to the left wings, the right at the same time are ordered to halt, fire, and load; during which the left march on and pass them, till the right wings, being loaded and shouldered, receive the word march, on which the left ones halt, fire, &c. and thus, they alternately proceed.

FIRING by half battalions, the line retiring. The right wings come to the right about and march 15 paces, are ordered to halt, front, and when the left wings have gained 15 paces, and have received the word halt, front, the right wings are instantly ordered to fire, load, about, and march 15 paces beyond the left ones, where they receive the word halt, front, on which the left wings fire, &c. and thus alternately proceed.

In manœuvring many battalions there should be a regulating battalion named, by the half battalions of which each line may move, halt, and fire: the commander of each line to be with such half battalion and in giving his several commands, to have an attention to the general readiness of the line, especially after loading, that the whole be prepared to step off together at the word march. The firing of the advanced wing succeeds the march, or the halt, front, of the retired wing instantly; and each half battalion fire independent and quick, so that no unnecessary pauses being made betwixt the firing words, the fire of the line should be that of a volley as much as possible; and the whole being thereby loaded together, to be ready for the next command of movement. In these firings of the line advancing or retiring, the two first ranks fire standing, and the rear rank support their arms, and may change places at the second fire with the centre rank.

In this manner also may the alternate battalions of a line advance or retire, and when the whole are to form, and that the last line moves up to the first, every previous help of advanced guides will be given to ensure its correctness.

Fire in line advancing, is when the infantry marches in line to attack the enemy and in advancing makes use of its fire. On these occasions it is better to fire the two first ranks only standing, reserving the third, than to make the front rank kneel, (as was formerly the practice) and to fire the whole; but when it is necessary to fire a considerable distance, or on a retiring enemy, vollies may be given by the three ranks, the front one kneeling.

FIRING by platoons is practised when a line is posted, or arrives at a fixed situation, in this position battalions fire independent of one another, and the fire generally commences from the centre of each. The first fire of each battalion must be regular, and at established pauses and intervals; after which each platoon may continue to fire as soon as it is loaded independent and as quick as possible. The use of this is to acquire the habit of obedience to command; for in close action platoon firing is both absurd and impracticable.

FIRING by files, is generally used behind a parapet, hedge, or abbatis. In this situation the two first ranks only can fire, and that must be by the 2 men of the same file always firing together, with coolness and deliberation. When however, the parapet, hedge, or abbatis is but a little raised, platoon firing may be resorted to.

Oblique FIRING by battalions, or otherwise, according to the ground, is extremely advantageous when it is found expedient to give an oblique direction to part of a line, or when it is discovered that their fire can in this manner be thrown against the opening of a defile, the flanks of a column, or against cavalry or infantry that direct their attack on some particular battalion or portion of the line. See Am. Mil. Lib.

Oblique firing, is either to the right and left, or from the right and left to the centre, depending entirely on the situation of the object to be fired against. The Prussians have a particular contrivance for this purpose: If they are to level to the right, the rear ranks of every platoon are to make two quick but small paces to the left, and the body of each soldier to quarter face or turn ¹⁄₈th of a circle; and are to take the same distance to the right if they are to level to the left.

When a line halts at its points of firing, no time is to be lost in scrupulous dressing, and the firing is instantly to commence. But when a line halts, and is not to fire, the usual dressings must be attended to; and every thing will depend upon the coolness and attention of the officers and non-commissioned officers.

It should be observed with respect to firings in general, that after the march in front, and halt of the battalion, company, or platoon, firing ought invariably to begin from the centre, and not from the flank. In other cases, and in successive formations, it may begin from whatever division first arrives, and halts on its own ground.

Square FIRING, is that method of firing where either a regiment or any body of men are drawn up in a square, each front of which is generally divided into divisions or firings, and the flanks of the square, as being the weakest part, are sometimes covered by platoons of grenadiers who flank the angles. The first fire is from the right division of each face; the second fire from the left division of each face, and so on; the grenadiers making the last fire.

Street FIRING, is the method of firing adopted to defend or scour a street, lane, or narrow pass of any kind; in the execution of which the platoon must be formed according to the width of the place, leaving sufficient room on the flanks for the platoons which have fired, successively to file round to the rear of the others.

Street FIRING advancing. When the column has arrived at the spot where the firing is to commence, the commanding officer from the rear gives the word halt! and the officer commanding the platoon, orders it to make ready, aim, fire; recover arms, load; he then orders the rear platoon of the column outward face, (by half platoons) quick march.

At the instant the men in the first platoon recover their arms after firing, the rear platoon makes ready, and moves up the flank to the front of the first platoon having filed round the flanks towards the front, when the second from the rear advances, with recovered arms, until it receives the words halt, ready, aim, fire.

The platoon which has fired, primes and loads in its ground immediately, without moving; the rear platoons only advancing.

Street FIRING retiring, is conducted on the same principles, except that the platoons fire without advancing, on the front being cleared by the former platoon filing round the flank.

Another method of street firing, advancing, generally esteemed more eligible, is, after firing, to wheel out by subdivisions, (the pivots having taken a side step to right and left outwards) prime and load, and as soon as the last platoon has passed, file inwards and form.

FISSURE, a narrow chasm where a small breach has been made.

FIT. Qualified, proper; adapted to any purpose or undertaking.

FIT for service strong, healthy men, from 18 to 45 years of age, of a certain height, and not subject to fits; are considered fit objects for service, and may be enlisted into the United States regiments. The principal heads under which every recruit should be rejected, consist of rupture, venereal lues, or incurable pox, habitual ulcers, sore legs, scurvy, scald head, and fits.

FIT, a paroxysm. Any violent affection of the body, by which a man is suddenly rendered incapable of going through the necessary functions of life.

FITS, habitual affections of the body to which men and women are subject, and by which they may be frequently attacked without any other immediate consequence, than a temporary suspension of the mental powers, accompanied by a disordered and painful action of the frame.

FIX-Bayonets, a word of command in the manual exercise. See MANUAL.

FLAGS in the United States navy, are the colors of the Union, red and white alternate stripes, equal to the number of states; with a square in the upper angle of blue, upon which are wrought white stars equal in number to the states of the Union. A custom has grown up among commanders of ships of appropriating a peculiar flag for each state, but as this is not a settled regulation requires no further notice.

FLAGS. See COLORS, STANDARDS, &c.

FLAGS, in the British navy, are either red, white, blue, or yellow, and they are hoisted either at the heads of the main-mast, fore-mast, or mizen-mast.

FLAGS, when displayed from the top of the main-mast, are the distinguishing marks of admirals; when from the fore-mast, of vice admirals; and when from the mizen-mast, of rear admirals.

The highest flag in the British navy, is the anchor and cable, which is only displayed when their lord high admiral, or lords commissioners of the admiralty are on board; the next is the union, the distinction peculiar to the second officer, called admiral of the fleet; and the lowest flag is the blue at the mizen-mast.

FLAG-Officer, a naval officer commanding a squadron.

FLAG-STAFF, the staff on which the flag is fixed.

FLAM, a word formerly made use of in the British service, signifying a particular tap or beat upon the drum, according to which each battalion went through its firings or evolutions. The practice is laid aside, as only a matter of mere parade without any practical utility; too often employed by officers to cover their ignorance or incapacity, or to indulge their indolence; therefore it is the usage now wherever discipline is well understood and practised, for every battalion, troop or company to be exercised by specific words of command, delivered in a distinct and audible tone of voice.

FLAMME, or ORIFLAMME, Fr. in the old French marine establishment, was a mark of distinction which exclusively belonged to the French king’s ships.

FLAMME, ou pendant, Fr. Bolting cloth or ticking. It is a long streamer which generally hangs either from the topmast head, and serves for ornament, or to give signals.

FLAMBEAU, a torch.

FLANC du bastion, Fr. See flank of the bastion.

{bas, } FLANC{couvert,}See Retired FLANC. {retiré, }

FLANKS, in the art of war and in fortification, are of several denominations, according to their uses, viz.

FLANKS of an army. Certain proportions of offensive or defensive forces which are extended to the right and left of a main body, and ought to be posted in such a manner, that it would be certain ruin to the enemy were he to attempt any impression between them. In a more confined sense, the troops which are stationed on the right and left of each line of encampment. See WINGS.

FLANK-files, are the two first men on the right and the two last men on the left, telling downwards from the right, of a line, battalion, company, division, subdivision or section. When a battalion is drawn up three deep, its flank files consist of three men, or as the French call its file and demi-file. When four deep, the flank files are termed double files; so that a column formed from any of these alignements will have all its relative flank files, be the depth of formation what it will.

Inward FLANK in manœuvring. The first file on the left of a division, subdivision, or section when the battalion stands at close or open column with the right in front. Upon this flank, which is called the proper flank, and on which the pivot rests, the division, &c. wheels backward from line into column, or forward from column into line. When the left is in front the right becomes the proper flank and pivot.

Outward FLANK, of a line or battalion, the extreme file on the right or left of a division, subdivision, or section, according to the given front, when the battalion is at close or open column, and which is the furthest wheeling point from line into column, or from column into line. It is likewise called the reverse flank. The general rule which directs, that leading officers shall march invariably on the inward flank, where the proper pivot rests, is in one instance dispensed with, when, after marching by the right in front, the wheeling of the column or guard is to the right. On this occasion, the officer who had shifted from the right to his proper flank, instead of being wheeled upon, wheels with the flank, and continues his march. It has been remarked in a late military publication, that the squareness of the division would certainly be preserved with greater ease, were the officer to remain upon the right, though the right be in front, until the wheel in that direction should be completed, when he might shift to his proper flank. Where the column or guard has only a few paces to proceed beyond the passing or saluting point, this certainly is advisable. The regulation of guides, that is, non-commissioned officers on both flanks of every subdivision of a line, renders it of less moment where the officer is posted; but the pivot is the most rational position.

FLANK company, a certain number of men drawn up on the right or left of a battalion. Thus where there are grenadiers they compose the right, and the light infantry the left flank company. When these are detached, the two extreme battalion companies become such.

The grenadiers and light infantry are generally called flank companies, whether attached or not to their several battalions; rifle corps are always flankers.

FLANKING party, a select body of men on foot or on horseback, whose object is to harrass and perplex the enemy, to get upon his wings, or by any manœuvre to hang upon the flank of an opposing force.

FLANK en potence, is any part of the right or left wing formed at a projecting angle with the line. See POTENCE.

Leading FLANK, when the line breaks into column in order to attack an enemy, it is the flank which must almost always preserve the line of appui in all movements in front. The first battalion, division or company of every column which conducts is called the head or leading flank of that column. All the writhings and turnings to which it must unavoidably be subject, are followed by every other part of the body, and such head becomes a flank, right or left, when formed into line. The commander must therefore be on whichever flank directs the operations of the line, and by which he proposes to attack, or to counteract the attempts of the enemy.

FLANK in fortification, in general, is any part of a work that defends another work, along the outside of its parapet.

FLANK of a bastion, in fortification, that part which joins the face to the curtain, comprehended between the angle of the curtain and that of the shoulder, and is the principal defence of the place. Its use is, to defend the curtain, the flank, and face of the opposite bastion, as well as the passage of the ditch; and to batter the salient angles of the counter-scarp and glacis, from whence the besieged generally ruin the flanks with their artillery; for the flanks of a fortification are those parts which the besiegers endeavor most to ruin, in order to take away the defence of the face of the opposite bastion.

Oblique}FLANK, Second }

that part of the curtain from whence the face of the opposite bastion may be discovered, and is the distance between the lines rasant and fichant, which are rejected by most engineers, as being liable to be ruined at the beginning of a siege, especially when made of sandy earth. The second parapet, which may be raised behind the former, is of no use; for it neither discovers nor defends the face of the opposite bastion: besides, it shortens the flank, which is the true defence; and the continual fire of the besiegers’ cannon will never suffer the garrison to raise a second parapet. This second flank defends very obliquely the opposite face, and is to be used only in a place attacked by an army without artillery.

Retired} Low }FLANK, Covered}

the platform of the casemate, which lies hid in the bastion. These retired flanks are a great defence to the opposite bastion and passage of the ditch; because the besiegers cannot see, nor easily dismount their guns.

FLANK prolonged, in fortification, is the extending of the flank from the angle of the epaule to the exterior side, when the angle of the flank is a right one.

Concave FLANK, is that which is made in the arc of a semi-circle bending outwards.

FLANKS of a frontier. Are the different salient points of a large extent of territory, between each of which it would be impolitic for any invading army to hazard an advanced position. The late celebrated gen. Lloyd (whose accuracy of observation and solidity of conclusion with respect to the iron frontier of old France have been universally acknowleged) has furnished military men with a full and succinct account of the relative positions upon it. This long line he begins at Basle in Switzerland, and runs into various directions from thence to Dunkirk in old French Flanders, he divides it into three parts, and considers each of them separately. The first part goes from Basle to Landau and covers old Alsace, near 130 miles in length. The second from Landau to Sedan on the Moselle, covers ancient Lorrain on the side of Treves, Deux-Ponts, Luxemburgh, and Limburg; 190 miles in length. From Sedan down the Meuse to Charlemont in old Flanders, and thence to Dunkirk, is the third part, and is about 150 miles; so that the whole natural frontier of old France was 470 miles. The greatest part, if not the whole of which, is in the shape of a horse shoe, and presents impregnable flanks. An anonymous writer, after referring the reader to general Lloyd for a specific account of the first and second lines of the French frontier, has made the following observations relative to the third and last which runs from Sedan down the Meuse to Charlemont, from thence to Dunkirk, and is 150 miles in length. His words are--While the duke of Brunswick and the king of Prussia were ruining the most formidable armies in Europe by endeavoring to penetrate a few miles into Lorrain and Champagne through the first and second line, (without having previously secured the two flanks,) the French with redoubled activity operated upon the third, and finally subdued all Flanders. Those very difficulties, in fact, which presented themselves to oppose the progress of the allied army into France, facilitated every excursion on her part, as the direction of the line which goes from Sedan to Landau is concave towards that part of Germany.

The remainder of this line, (within which so many faults were committed, or rather could not be avoided, because the impression itself was founded in error,) runs to Dunkirk. It has been the scene of successive wars for near two centuries, the most expensive, bloody, and durable of any recorded in the annals of mankind. This line, continues general Lloyd, is stronger by art than nature, having a prodigious number of strong fortresses and posts upon it, moreover it projects in many places, so that an enemy can enter no where, without having some of them in front and on his flanks.

The United States are flanked by Canada and Florida.

FLANKS, in farriery, a wrench, or any other grief in the back of a horse.

To FLANK, in fortification, is to erect a battery which may play upon an enemy’s works on the right or left without being exposed to his line of fire. Any fortification, which has no defence but right forward, is faulty; and to make it complete, one part ought to flank the other.

To FLANK, in evolutions, to take such a position in action as either to assist your own troops, or to annoy those of your enemy by attacking either of his flanks, without exposing yourself to all his fire.

To OUT-FLANK. A manœuvre by which an army, battalion, troop, or company outstretches another, and gets upon both or either of its flanks.

To OUT-FLANK, in an extensive acceptation of the term, when applied to locality, means to possess any range of opposite parts, of territory, whence you might invade your neighbor. Thus France, by her present possessions along the Dutch and Flemish coasts, outflanks all the opposite shores of England, properly so called; resting her left flank at Ushant in Finisterre, and her right at Schelling, in North Holland, in the Province of Friesland. By the conquest of Spain and Portugal, the French have extended their south western flank, and rendered the invasion of Ireland more easy. Ireland again is completely outflanked by Great Britain at Penzance, in Cornwall, and at the Hebrides or Western Isles, independent of the continental part of Scotland.

FLANKER, a fortification jutting out so as to command the side or flank of an enemy marching to the assault or attack. Riflemen and all light troops are also called flankers.

FLANKERS, in cavalry manœuvres, the most active men and horses are selected to do the duty of flankers. The men of course must be perfect masters of their horses. One complete file of each four must be a file of flankers; it does not signify which file, but if it can conveniently be done, the centre file should be taken, as in that case neither the flank men, nor the telling off of the squadron or division will be affected.

When you manœuvre by whole squadrons, six or eight flankers are sufficient in general for the whole squadron.

The word of command, when the flankers come out to the front, is flankers forward.

In flanking, a great deal depends upon the officer or serjeant; he must be extremely active, and not only attend to the movements of the division from which he is detached, but likewise to his flankers.

As horses frequently refuse to quit the ranks and hang back obstinately, the men indiscriminately should be often called out of the ranks one by one, and practised as flankers.

To FLANKER, in French flanquer. To fortify the walls of a city with bulwarks or countermines.

FLANKING, is the same in fortification as defending.

FLANKING party--Any body of men detached from the main army to get upon the flanks of an enemy. See FLANKERS.

FLANKING angle, in fortification, that composed of the two lines of defence, and pointing towards the curtain. See TENAILLE.

FLANKING line of defence. See line of defence.

FLANKING-POINT. See POINT.

FLASH.--The flame which issues from any piece of ordnance on its being fired.

FLASH in the pan, an explosion of gunpowder without any communication beyond the touch hole. When a piece is loaded, and upon the trigger being drawn, nothing but the priming takes fire, that piece is said to flash in the pan.

FLASK, a measure made of horn, used to carry powder in, with the measure of the charge of the piece on the top of it.

FLASQUES, Fr. in the artillery, are the two cheeks of the carriage of a great gun. See AFFUT.

FLASQUE likewise means a gun-powder flask.

FLAT-bottomed boats, in military affairs, are made to swim in shallow water, and to carry a great number of troops, artillery, ammunition, &c. They are constructed in the following manner: a 12-pounder, bow chase, an 18 ditto, stern chase; 90 to 100 feet keel; 12 to 24 ditto beam; 1 mast, a large square main-sail; a jib-sail: they are rowed by 18 or 20 oars, and can each carry 400 men. The gun takes up one bow, and a bridge the other, over which the troops are to march. Those that carry horses have therefore parts of the boats made to open.

FLAW, any crack or small opening in a gun or its carriage is so called.

FLEAU, Fr. the beam, or balance of a pair of scales.

There are some fleaux or scales among the French, which hold 6000 lb. weight in one scale, and 6000 lb. weight of ammunition in the other, making together 12000 weight.

FLEAU de fer, an iron instrument or weapon, that resembles in shape the flails with which corn is thrashed.

FLECHE, in field fortification, a work of two faces, usually raised in the field, to cover the quarter guards of a camp or advanced post.

FLETCHER. See BOWYER.

FLIGHT, is used figuratively for the swift retreat of an army or any party from a victorious enemy.

To put to FLIGHT, to force your enemy to quit the field of battle.

FLIGHT, is likewise applicable to missile weapons or shot, as a flight of arrows, a flight of bombs, &c.

FLINT, a well known stone, used at present with every sort of fire arms. Every soldier ought to have one or two spare flints when on service.

FLINTS--are usually packed in half barrels.

Weight. qrs. lbs. }Musquet, 2000 -- 2 14 One half barrel contains}Rifle, 3000 -- 2 10 }Pistol, 4000 -- 2 15

The most transparent and free from veins are esteemed the best flints.

28 kegs of musquet flints take 18 cwt. in tonnage.

10 kegs of pistol flints take 3 cwt. 2 qrs. in tonnage.

To FLOAT, a column is said to float when it loses its perpendicular line in march, and becomes unsteady in its movements.

FLOATING-batteries, vessels used as batteries, to cover troops in landing on an enemy’s coast.

FLOGGING, a barbarous punishment in general use among the British foot soldiers. It is inflicted with a whip having several lashes, and is calculated to degrade and render the man totally unfit for a soldier. It is not practised in any other army in Europe.

FLOOD-GATE, in fortified towns, is composed of 2 or 4 gates, so that the besieged by opening the gates may inundate the environs so as to keep the enemy out of gun shot.

FLOOR. See PLATFORM.

To FLOURISH, in a general musical acceptation of the term, is to play some prelude or preparatory air without any settled rule.

A FLOURISH, any vibration of sound that issues from a musical instrument.

The trumpet FLOURISH in drawing swords, is used regimentally by corps of cavalry on their own ground, and is the sounding used in receiving a general officer.

FLOWER de Luce, FLEUR de Lis, The arms of France under the old monarchy. They consisted in three flowers de lis or, or gold, in a field azure, or blue. These arms were superceded by the three colored flag, when the bastile was taken and destroyed by the inhabitants of Paris.

FLUSHED, a term frequently applied when men have been successful, as, flushed with victory, &c.

FLUTE, a wind instrument which is sometimes used in military bands; but never on service.

FLUX, an extraordinary evacuation of the body, to which soldiers are frequently subject on service. Towards the fall of the year this disorder is particularly prevalent, especially in camps. It is of a contagious nature, and the greatest care should be taken to prevent the healthy men in a regiment from frequenting the privies to which those infected by this cruel disorder are permitted to resort. A centry should always be posted in the vicinity of every hospital for that specific purpose.

FLYING{army. See ARMY. {bridge. See BRIDGE.

FLYING Artillery. See HORSE ARTILLERY.

FLYING-Camp. See CAMP.

FOCUS, in mining. See MINE.

FODDER. See FORAGE.

FOE. See ENEMY.

FOIL, in fencing, a long piece of steel of an elastic temper, mounted somewhat like a sword, which is used to learn to fence with; it is without a point, or any sharpness, having a button at the extremity, covered with leather.

To FOIL, to defeat.

FOLLOWERS of a camp, Officers, servants, sutlers, &c. All followers of a camp are subject to the articles of war equally with the soldiery.

FOND, ground, properly means the surface of the earth which lies above the water.

FONDEMENS, Fr. foundation.

FONDERIE, Fr. forge, ou Fourneaux. See FOUNDERY.

FONDS destinés pour le payement des troupes. Fr. Monies issued for the service of the army.

FONTE des pieces d’artillerie. The metal used in the casting of cannon which consists of three sorts well mixed together, viz. copper, tin, and brass.

FOOT, in a military sense, signifies all those bodies of men that serve on foot. See Infantry.

FOOT is also a long measure, consisting of 12 inches. Geometricians divide the foot into 10 digits, and the digits into 10 lines; but we after the manner of the English divide the foot into 12 inches, and an inch into 12 lines, and a line into 12 points. The French call the 12th part of a foot, a line.

A square FOOT, is the same measure, both in length and breadth, containing 12 × 12 = 144 square or superficial inches.

A cubic FOOT, is the same measure in all the three dimensions, length, breadth, and thickness; containing 12 × 12 = 144 × 12 = 1728 cubic inches. The foot is of different length in different countries. The Paris royal foot exceeds the English by 9 lines; the ancient Roman foot of the capitol consisted of 4 palms = 11⁴⁄₁₀ English inches; and the Rhineland or Leyden foot, by which the northern nations go, is to the Roman foot as 950 to 1000. The proportions of the principal feet of several nations are as follow. The English foot divided into 1000 parts, or into 12 inches, the other feet will be as follow:

PLACES. 1000 feet. inch. lines. parts ---------------------------------------------- London foot 1000 -- 12 -- Amsterdam 942 -- 11 3 Antwerp 946 -- 11 2 Bologna 1204 1 2 4 Berlin 1010 1 -- 2 Bremen 964 -- 11 6 Cologne 954 -- 11 4 Copenhagen 965 -- 11 6 Dantzic 944 -- 11 3 Dort 1184 1 2 2 Frankfort on the Main 948 -- 11 4 The Greek 1007 1 -- 1 Mantua 1569 1 6 8 Mechlin 999 -- 11 -- Middlebourg 991 -- 11 9 Paris Royal 1068 1 -- 9 Prague 1026 1 -- 3 Rhineland 1033 1 -- 4 Riga 1831 1 9 9 Roman 967 -- 11 6 Old Roman 970 -- 11 8 Scotch 1005 1 -- ⁵⁄₇ Strasbourg 920 -- 11 -- Madrid 899 -- 10 7 Lisbon 1060 1 -- 6 Turin 1062 1 -- 7 Venice 1162 1 1 9

To be on the SAME FOOTING with another, is to be under the same circumstances in point of service; to have the same number of men, and the same pay, &c.

To gain or lose ground FOOT by FOOT, is to do it regularly and resolutely; defending every thing to the utmost extremity, or forcing it by dint of art or labor.

FOOT-bank, in fortification. See BANQUETTE.

FORAGE, in the art of war, implies hay, straw, and oats, for the subsistence of the army horses. This forage is divided into rations, one of which is a day’s allowance for a horse, and contains 20 lb. of hay, 10 lb. of oats and 5 lb. of straw.

Dry FORAGE, oats, hay, &c. which are delivered out of magazines to a garrison, or to troops when they take the field, before the green forage is sufficiently grown to be cut or gathered.

Green FORAGE, oats, hay, &c. that have been recently cut. It likewise means meadow pasture, into which horses are turned.

When the British cavalry are stationed in barracks, the number of rations of forage to be issued to the horses of the officers, non-commissioned officers, and soldiers is not to exceed what follows, and is to be confined to those which are actually effective in the barracks.

Rations. Field officers, having 4 effective horses 4 Captains, having 3 ditto 3 Subalterns and staff officers, having 2 ditto 2 Quarter masters, each 1 Non-commissioned officers and private men, each 1

For each of which rations a stoppage is to be made of 8¹⁄₂_d._ per diem.

On foreign service this article is governed by circumstances.

FORCE, an armament or warlike preparation.

FORCE, in a military sense, any body of troops collected together for warlike enterprize.

Effective FORCES. All the efficient parts of an army that may be brought into action are called effective, and generally consist of artillery, cavalry, and infantry, with their necessary appendages such as hospital staff, waggon-train, artificers and pioneers: the latter, though they cannot be considered as effective fighting men, constitute so far a part of effective forces, that no army could maintain the field without them.

Effective FORCES of a country. All the disposable strength, vigour and activity of any armed proportion of native or territorial population. The navy of Great Britain must be looked upon as part of the effective force of England, to which is added the body of marines.

Distribution of the effective FORCES of a country. Under this head may be considered, not only the effective forces which might engage an enemy, but likewise those included in the several returns that are made from home to foreign stations to the war office, and out of which a grand total is formed to correspond with the estimates that are annually laid before the government.

To FORCE is to take by storm; also to man the works of a garrison.

To FORCE an enemy to give battle. To render the situation of an enemy so hazardous, that whether he attempt to quit his position, or endeavor to keep it, his capture or destruction must be equally inevitable. In either of which desperate cases, a bold and determined general will not wait to be attacked, but resolutely advance and give battle; especially if circumstances should combine to deprive him of the means of honorable capitulation. This can only be safely effected, by having previously disposed your own forces so as to defy any impression on his part, and by subsequent able manœuvres to have it in your power to foil his attack.

To FORCE a passage. To oblige your enemy to retire from his fastnesses, and to open a way into the country which he had occupied. This may be done either by coup de main, or renewal of assaults. In either case, the advancing body should be well supported and its flanks be secured with the most jealous attention.

FORCING an adversary’s guard or blade, a term used in the science of broadsword.

“If at any time your antagonist appears languid and weak on his guard, and barely covers his body on the side he is opposed; by stepping well forward, and striking the fort of your sword smartly on his blade, you may be enabled to deliver a cut without risk, even at the part he intends to secure, taking care to direct your blade in such a manner, that the plate or cross bar of your hilt shall prevent his sword from coming forward.”

Art of defence on foot.

FORCEPS, an instrument used in chirurgery, to extract any thing out of wounds or to take hold of dead or corrupt flesh, to amputate. It is made somewhat in the shape of a pair of tongs or pincers, with grappling ends. Every regimental surgeon, or assistant surgeon, should have a pair among his set of instruments.

FORD. The shallow part of a river where soldiers may pass over without injuring their arms.

FORE-RANK, first rank, front.

FOREIGN service, in a general sense, means every service but home. In a more confined and native acceptation of the term, it signifies any service done out of the limits of the United States, or the dependent territories.

FOREIGN troops, in an English acceptation, regiments or companies which are composed of aliens, as the Hessians in the American revolution. Before the present war, no foreigner could bear a commission in the British service, or be enlisted as a soldier.

FORELAND, in fortification, called by the French pas de souris, relais, retraite, berm or lizier, a confined space of ground between the rampart of a town or fortified place, and the moat. Whenever a fortification can be completed without having recourse to this substitute for stone, (with which the rampart ought to be faced) it certainly is advisable to go to the expence. For a bold enemy, who has once made his way over the moat, will derive considerable advantage from having this path to stand on. It is generally from 3 to 8 or 10 feet wide. This space serves to receive the demolished parts of the rampart, and prevents the ditch from being filled up. In Holland the foreland is planted with thickset, but it is generally faced with palisades. See BERM.

FORELAND, or FORENESS, any point of land which juts out into the sea.

FORGE, in the train of artillery, is generally called a travelling forge, and may not be improperly called a portable smith’s shop: at this forge all manner of smith’s work is made, and it can be used upon a march, as well as in camp. Formerly they were very ill contrived, with 2 wheels only, and wooden supporters to prop the forge for working when in the park. Of late years they are made with 4 wheels, which answers the purpose much better.

FORGE for red hot balls, is a place where the balls are made red-hot before they are fired off: it is built about 5 or 6 feet below the surface of the ground, of strong brick work, and an iron grate, upon which the balls are laid, with a very large fire under them. See RED-HOT BALLS.

FORKHEAD. See BARB.

FORLORN-hope, in the military art, signifies men detached from several regiments, or otherwise appointed to make the first attack in the day of battle; or at a siege, to storm the counterscarp, mount the breach, &c. They are so called from the great danger they are unavoidably exposed to; but the expression is old, and begins to be obsolete.

To FORM, in a general acceptation of the term, is to assume or produce any shape or figure, extent or depth of line or column, by means of prescribed rules in military movements or dispositions.

To FORM from file, among cavalry. The front file halts at a given point: the rest, or remaining files successively ride up at a very smart gallop, taking care to halt in time, and not to over-run the ground. If the formation is by doubling round the front file, (in a formation, for instance, to the rear of the march, or to the right when marched from the right,) the files must double as close round as possible and with the utmost expedition. In forming from file, particular attention should be given to make the men put their horses quite straight as they come in. They must keep their bodies square, dress by a slight cast of the eye towards the point of formation, and close and dress in an instant. A dragoon, in fact, must no sooner get into the ranks, than his attention should be given to remain steady, well closed and dressed. It is generally required, that when the cavalry forms, each man must come up in file to his place, and by no means move up to his leader, till that leader has formed to which ever hand the file is forming to. The whole must follow the exact track of the first leader, and come up one by one into their respective places in squadron.

To FORM to the front. To move nimbly up from file into ranks, and close to your leader, whether on foot, or horseback.

To FORM to the rear. To double round your leaders, who have themselves turned and faced.

To FORM to a proper flank. To turn and close in to your leader.

To FORM to a reverse flank. To pass, turn and successively close to your leaders.

In all formations from file, the whole, till otherwise directed, dress to the hand to which the squadron, or division forms. See Am. Mil. Lib.

To FORM by moving in front, and successively arriving in line, is by divisions, or distinct bodies, to advance forward by word of command towards any given point of alignement. On these occasions the eyes of the whole are turned to the hand to which they are to form, and from which they preserve required distances. The leading officer must be on the inward flank of his division; he conducts it to its point of junction in line, and from thence dresses and corrects it on the person, who is previously placed beyond him, and prolonging the general line. The outward flank of the last formed and halted body, is always considered as the point of conjunction (necessary intervals included) of the succeeding one. Thus the looking and lining of the soldier is always towards that point, and the flank of the line formed to; and the correction of dressing by the officer is always made from that point towards the other flank. Therefore on all occasions of moving up, forming and dressing in line, by the men lining themselves to one hand (inwards) and the officers correcting to the other (outwards) the most perfect line may be obtained. Commanding officers of regiments, when a considerable line is forming, must take every advantage from timeously throwing out intelligent guides to give them true points in the general line. In the French service these persons are called jalonneurs from jalonner, to fix any thing, by which any true direction, perpendicular or otherwise, may be obtained; the word guide is the best translation of the word jalonneur, and it is so used in the American Military Library.

To FORM line, is to wheel to the right or left from open column of divisions, subdivisions, or sections, according to prescribed rules, so as to present one continued front or straight line; or to deploy from close column for the same end, or to file to the front.

To FORM rank entire, is to extend the front of a battalion or company by reducing it to the least possible depth, from any existing number of ranks.

To FORM two deep, is from rank entire or from three deep to produce a regular line of files.

To FORM three deep, is to add the depth of one half file to two deep, and to produce the natural formation of a battalion in line.

To FORM four deep, is to diminish the natural extent of a battalion formed in line, by adding one half-file to its depth.

To FORM echellon, is, from line, or open column, to wheel a given number of paces forward or backward, so as to produce a diagonal or oblique direction in the different proportions of a line, the outward flank of each succeeding division, company or section, constantly preserving a perpendicular direction, at a regulated distance, from the inward flank of its leader, until it arrive at its point of junction.

To FORM line by echellon, is to advance in column towards any given object by a diagonal movement, so as eventually to produce a regular continuity of front. See ECHELLON or DIAGONAL movement.

To FORM close column, is to march by files in detached proportions of a line, till each proportion shall arrive in front or in rear of any given body.

To FORM open column, is to wheel backwards or forwards, or to march out by files, so that the several proportions of a line may stand in a perpendicular direction to one another, with intervals between them equal to the extent of their front.

To FORM circle, is to march a battalion or company standing in line from its two flanks; the leading files bringing their right and left shoulders forward, so as to unite the whole in a circular continuity of files. On the word of command--To the right and left, form circle, the two flank files bring their right and left shoulders forward; and on the word quick, march, the whole advance. The centre marks time, each file from the direct central one gradually inclining to right and left till the junction of the two extremes has been completed.

The general use which is made of this formation is to punish offenders, or to convey public orders to the men in such a manner, that every individual may have an equal opportunity of hearing what is read, or delivered to the whole battalion.

To FORM on, is to advance forward, so as to connect yourself with any given object of formation, and to lengthen the line.

To FORM on a front division, is from close, or open column, or by the march in echellon, to arrive by a parallel movement at the right or left of any given division, by which means a prolongation of the line is produced. When this formation takes place with the right in front, the officer of the second, or leading division (the first standing fast, and all the rest facing to the left) having stepped out to the right at the words quick march! allows his division led by his serjeant to go on a space equal to its front, and then gives his word front, dress, halt; his serjeant still remaining on the left of his division. The officer being still on the right of his division, immediately gives the word march! and the division proceeds at the ordinary step towards its place in the alignement. He steps nimbly forward, and obliques so as to be within the third file of the left flank of the preceding division, and is thus ready to give the words, dress, halt! at the instant his inward flank man joins that division. He then expeditiously corrects his men, (who have dressed upon the formed part of the line, on the distant given point) and resumes his proper post in line. Great care should be taken in these movements to prevent the outward flank of every advancing division from over-stepping its ground; as it is a general principle in dressing, to be rather behind the preceding formed division at the word dress, than before it; the word halt being the final and conclusive direction, and the dressing of ranks being more easily attained by a forward than a backward movement.

In this manner every other division proceeds; each officer advancing, with a firm, steady step, in a perpendicular direction towards his point of formation, while the flank serjeant remains at his point in the line, till the succeeding officer, who has dressed his division, arrives to replace him; after which the serjeant covers his own officer.

To FORM on a rear division, is to face all the preceding divisions which are in column to the right, (the point of forming having been previously taken in that direction, as far as the prolongation of the head division will extend, and just beyond where the right of the battalion is to come) and to uncover the rear one, so as to enable it to advance forward to a given point on the left, and take up its place in the alignement.

The leader of the front or head division having been shewn the distant point in the alignement on which he is to march, and having taken his intermediate points, if necessary, at the word march, the faced divisions step off quick, heads of files are dressed to the left, the front one moves in the alignement with scrupulous exactitude, and the others continue in a parallel direction close on its right; each carefully preserving its relative points of prolongation, and being fronted by its officer the instant it gets upon the ground, which is perpendicular to its intended formation in line.

As soon as the rear division is uncovered, and has received the word march, it proceeds forward, and when arrived within a few paces of its ground, the officer commanding steps nimbly up to the detached officer or serjeant, who has carefully marked its left in the new position, gives the words dress, halt, and quickly corrects his division on the distant point of formation; after which he replaces his serjeant on the right of his division. As the officer who conducts this division has necessarily the longest extent of ground to march on, he must take especial care to observe his perpendicular direction, constantly keeping the different points of formation in his eye, and preserving a perfect squareness of person. The intermediate divisions will successively proceed and advance as the ground opens before them.

To FORM on a central division. To execute this manœuvre, the front and rear divisions must deploy, or open, so as to uncover the named division, and enable it to move up to a given point of alignement. A forming point must be given to both flanks in the prolongation of the head division.

When the caution of forming on a central division has been given, the leading officers will shift to the heads of their several divisions, the instant they have been faced according to the hand which leads to their ground. The files during their deployment must be kept close, and well locked up; and when fronted, must instantly be corrected in their dressing before they march forward. The central division, when uncovered, moves up into line to its marked flank. Those that were in front of it proceed as in forming on a rear division; those that were in rear of it proceed as in forming on a front division. By means of those three formations, which are effected by the deployment, or flank march, every battalion in close column, may uncover and extend its several divisions. The previous formation of close column upon given proportions of a brigade, battalion, &c. is done by facing and moving inwards, and thus contracting the original line with any given division for the head; which line may again be restored by the different divisions facing and moving outwards, as we have just described.

To FORM line on a rear company of the open column standing in echellon, that company remains placed; the others face about, wheel back on the pivot flanks of the column, as being those which afterwards first come into line. On the word march, they move forward, and then front, halt, dress, successively, in the line of the rear company.

To FORM line on the rear company facing to the rear of the open column standing in echellon, the whole column must first countermarch, each company by files, and then proceed as in forming on a front company.

To FORM line on a central company of the open column, that company stands fast, or is wheeled on its own centre into a new required direction. Those in front, must be ordered to face about. The whole, except the central company, must wheel back the named number of paces. Those in front, on the proper pivot flanks of the column, and those in its rear on the reverse flanks, such being the flanks that first arrive in line. The whole then marches in line with the central company. See Am. Mil. Lib.

To FORM line from close column on a rear company facing to the rear, the whole of the column changes front by countermarching each company by files. The rear company stands fast, and the remaining companies face to the right, deploy, successively front, halt, dress, and move up into the alignement.

To FORM line from close column on a central company facing to the rear, the central company countermarches and stands fast; the other companies face outwards, countermarch, deploy, and successively march up to the alignement.

Whenever the column is a retiring one, and the line is to front to the rear, the divisions must each countermarch before the formation begins. In which case the head would be thrown back, and the rear forward.

To FORM en potence, to wheel the right or left flank of a body of men, or to march them forward by files, so as to make that proportion of a line face inwards, and resemble a potence or angle. A double potence may be formed by running out both flanks, so that they stand in a perpendicular direction facing towards each other like the letter Λ, or thus, \__/; these oblique lines are the potence, so named by the power of their cross fire. This formation is not only extremely useful on actual service, but it conduces greatly to the accommodation of any body of men which may be marched into a place that has not sufficient extent of ground to receive it in line.

FORMATION, in a military sense, the methodical arrangement, or drawing up of any given body of men mounted, or on foot, according to prescribed rules and regulations.

Cavalry FORMATION, consists of the following proportions.

Squadrons of cavalry are composed each of two troops; regiments are composed of ten.

FORMATION of a troop, is the drawing out of a certain number of men on horseback on their troop parade, in a rank entire, fixed according to the size roll, the tallest men in the centre.

FORMATION of the squadron, is the military disposition of two troops that compose it closed into each, from their several troop parades. In this situation, the officers move out, and form in a rank advanced two horses length, fronting to their troops. The serjeants and covering corporals rein back, and dress with the quarter-master in the rear. When the formation of a squadron has been completed, and its component parts have been accurately told off, the commanding officer is advanced a horse’s length before the standard. Two officers are posted, one on each flank of the front rank, covered by a non-commissioned officer. One officer is posted in the centre of the front rank with the standard, and is covered by a corporal. The serjeants are placed, one on the right of the front of each of the four divisions, except the right one, and each is covered by a corporal or private dragoon. The serre-files or supernumerary officers and serjeants, the quarter-masters and trumpeters, are in the rear of their several troops, divided in a line, at two horses distance from the rear rank. Farriers are behind the serre-files a horse’s length. Allowance is always made for sick and absent officers and non-commissioned officers; and if a sufficient number of any rank is not present, then serjeants replace officers, corporals replace serjeants, and lance-corporals or intelligent men replace corporals.

Formation, considered as to general circumstances, admits of a few deviations from the strict letter of the term. In order to preserve each troop entire, it is not material, if one division be a file stronger than another. The flank divisions indeed, both in cavalry and infantry regiments, will be strongest from the addition of officers. Officers, in the formation of squadrons, are recommended to be posted with their troops. Corporals not wanted to mark the divisions, or to cover officers or serjeants, will be in the ranks according to their size, or be placed in the outward flank file of their troops. Farriers are considered as detached in all situations of manœuvre.

All these general circumstances of formation apply and take place, whether the squadron be composed of two, or more troops, and whether the troops be more or less strong.

General modes of FORMATION, are when a regiment broken into and marching in open column, must arrive at and enter on the ground on which it is to form in line, either in the direction of that line, perpendicular to that line, or in a direction more or less oblique betwixt the other two.

Infantry FORMATION, is the arrangement or disposition of any given number of men on foot according to prescribed rules and regulations. When the companies join, which are generally ten in number, the battalion is formed; there is not to be any interval between the relative parts, but the whole front must present a continuity of points, and one compact regular line from one flank file to the other.

The formation or drawing up of the companies will be from right to left. There is much folly prevalent on the subject of positions of companies. Steuben’s work has endeavored to fix a plan of alternation; but failed. A simple principle would be to number the companies from right to left, and form the first battalion of 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, and the second of 2, 4, 6, 8, 10. Officers commanding companies or platoons are all on the right of their respective ones.

The eight battalion companies will compose four grand divisions--eight companies or platoons--sixteen subdivisions--thirty-two sections, when sufficiently strong to be so divided, otherwise twenty-four, for the purposes of march. The battalion is likewise divided into right and left wings. When the battalion is on a war establishment, each company will be divided into two equal parts. When the ten companies are with the battalion, they may then be divided into five grand divisions from right to left. This is done to render the firings more exact, and to facilitate deploy movements.

The battalion companies will be numbered from the right to the left 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. The subdivisions will be numbered 1. 2. of each. The sections will be numbered 1. 2. 3. 4. of each. The files of companies will also be numbered 1. 2. 3. 4. &c. the grenadier and light companies will be numbered seperately in the same manner, and with the addition of those distinctions. No alteration is to be made in these appellations whether the battalion be faced to front or rear.

FORMATION at close order, is the arrangement of any given number of men in ranks at the distance of one pace, except where there is a fourth, or supernumerary rank, which has three paces. In firing order the ranks are more closely locked in.

When a battalion is formed in close order, the field officers and adjutant are mounted. The commanding officer is the only officer advanced in front for the general purpose of exercise, when the battalion is single; but in the march in line, and during the firings, he is in the rear of the colors. The lieutenant colonel is behind the colors, six paces from the rear rank. The major and adjutant are six paces in the rear of the third and sixth companies. One officer is on the right of the front rank of each company or platoon, and one on the left of the battalion. All these are covered in the rear by their respective serjeants, and the remaining officers and serjeants are in a fourth rank behind their companies. There are no coverers in the centre rank to officers or colors. The colors are placed between the fourth and fifth battalion companies, both in the front rank, and each covered by a non-commissioned officer, or steady man in the rear rank. One serjeant is in the front rank betwixt the colors; he is covered by a second serjeant in the rear rank, and by a third in the supernumerary rank. The sole business of these three serjeants is, when the battalion moves in line, to act as guides, and direct the march according to prescribed instructions. The place of the first of those serjeants, when they do move out, is preserved by a named officer or serjeant, who moves up from the supernumerary rank for that purpose. The pioneers are assembled behind the centre, formed two deep, and nine paces from the third rank. The drummers of the eight battalion companies are assembled in two divisions, six paces behind the third rank of their 2d and 7th companies. The music are three paces behind the pioneers, in a single rank, and at all times, as well as the drummers and pioneers, are formed at loose files only, occupying no more space than is necessary. The staff officers are three paces behind the music.

FORMATION at open order, is any open disposition, or arrangement of men by ranks, at straight lines parallel to each other.

When a battalion is directed to take open order, the rear ranks fall back one and two paces, each dressing by the right the instant it arrives on the ground. The officers in the front rank, as also the colors, move out three paces. Those in the rear, together with the music, advance through the intervals left open by the front rank officers, and divide themselves in the following manner: the captains covering the second file from the right, the lieutenants the second file from the left, and the ensigns opposite the centre of their respective companies. The music form between the colors and the front rank. The serjeant coverers move up to the front rank, to fill up the intervals left by the officers. The pioneers fall back to six paces distance behind the centre of the rear rank. The drummers take the same distance behind their divisions. The major moves to the right of the line of officers; the adjutant to the left of the front rank. The staff place themselves on the right of the front rank of the grenadiers. The colonel and lieutenant-colonel dismounted, advance before the colors four and two paces.

FORMERS, round pieces of wood that are fitted to the diameter of the bore of a gun, round which the cartridge paper, parchment, lead, or cotton is rolled before it is sewed.

FORMERS were likewise used among officers and soldiers to reduce their clubs to an uniform shape, before the general introduction of tails.

FORMATION of guards. See GUARDS.

FORT, in the military art, a small fortified place, environed on all sides with a ditch, rampart, and parapet. Its use is to secure some high ground, or the passage of a river, or to make good an advantageous post, to defend the lines and quarters of a siege, &c.

Forts are made of different figures and extents, according to the exigency of the service, or the peculiar nature of the ground. Some are fortified with bastions, others with demi-bastions. Some are in form of a square, others of a pentagon. Some again are made in the form of a star, having 5 or 7 angles. A fort differs from a citadel, the last being built to command some town. See CITADEL.

Royal-FORT, one whose line of defence is at least 26 toises long.

Triangular FORTS, are frequently made with half bastions; but they are very imperfect, because the faces are not seen or defended from any other part. If, instead of being terminated at the angle, they were directed to a point about 20 toises from it, they would be much better, as then they might be defended by that length of the rampart, though but very obliquely. The ditch ought to be from 8 to 10 toises. Sometimes instead of half bastions at the angles, whole ones are placed in the middle of the sides. The gorges of these bastions may be from 20 to 24 toises, when the sides are from 100 to 120; the flanks are perpendicular to the sides, from 10 to 12 toises long; and the capitals from 20 to 24. If the sides happen to be more or less, the parts of the bastions are likewise made more or less in proportion. The ditch round this fort may be 10 or 12 toises wide.

The ramparts and parapets of these sorts of works are commonly made of turf, and the outside of the parapet is fraised; that is, a row of pallisades are placed about the middle of the slope, in an horizontal manner, the points declining rather a little downwards, that the grenades or fireworks thrown upon them may roll down into the ditch; and if the ditch is dry, a row of pallisades should be placed in the middle of it, to prevent the enemy from passing over it unperceived, and to secure the fort from any surprise.

FORT de campagne, Fr. a field fortification, See FORTIFICATION.

FORTERESSE, Fr. Fortress. Any strong place rendered so by art, or originally so by local advantages, or by means of both nature and art. Places which are strong by nature generally stand upon mountains, precipices, in the middle of a marsh, on the sea-coast, in a lake, or on the banks of some large river. Places which are strong by art, owe their strength to the labor of man, whose ingenuity and perseverance substitute ditches and ramparts where mountains and rivers are wanting.

FORTIFICATION, is the art of fortifying a town, or other place; or of putting it in such a posture of defence, that every one of its parts defends, and is defended by some other parts, by means of ramparts, parapets, ditches, and other outworks; to the end that a small number of men within may be able to defend themselves for a considerable time against the assaults of a numerous army without; so that the enemy, in attacking them, must of necessity suffer great loss.

Fortification may be divided into ancient and modern; offensive, and defensive; regular, and irregular; natural, and artificial, &c.

Ancient FORTIFICATION, at first, consisted of walls or defences made of trunks, and other branches of trees, mixed with earth, for security against the attacks of an enemy. Invention owes its origin to necessity; fortification seems to have had fear for its basis; for when man had no other enemy but the wild beasts, the walls of his cottage were his security; but when pride, ambition, and avarice, had possessed the minds of the strong and the daring to commit violences upon their weaker neighbors, either to subject them to new laws, or to plunder their little inheritance, it was natural for the latter to contrive how to defend themselves from such injuries.

Our Aborigines of North America, have left traces of fortification in its infancy, of which there are some curious and magnificent remains on the Miami river, in the state of Ohio.

There are abundance of Indian villages fenced round by long stakes driven into the ground, with moss or earth to fill the intervals; and this is their security (together with their own vigilance) against the cruelty of the savage neighboring nations.

Nor is fortification much less ancient than mankind; for Cain, the son of Adam, built a city with a wall round it upon mount Liban, and called it after the name of his son Enoch, the ruins of which, it is said, are to be seen to this day; and the Babylonians, soon after the deluge, built cities and encompassed them with strong walls.

At first people thought themselves safe enough with a single wall, behind which they made use of their darts and arrows with safety: but as other warlike instruments were continually invented to destroy these feeble structures, so on the other hand persons acting on the defensive were obliged to build stronger and stronger to resist the new contrived forces of the desperate assailants.

What improvements they made in strengthening their walls many ages ago, appear from history. The first walls we ever read of, and which were built by Cain, were of brick; and the ancient Grecians, long before Rome was ever thought of, used brick and rubble stone, with which they built a vast wall, joining mount Hymetus to the city of Athens. The Babylonian walls, built by Semiramis, or, as others will have it, by Belus, were 32 feet thick, and 100 feet high, with towers 10 feet higher, built upon them, cemented with bitumen or asphaltus. Those of Jerusalem seem to have come but little short of them, since, in the siege by Titus, all the Roman battering rams, joined with Roman art and courage, could remove but 4 stones out of the tower of Antonia in a whole night’s assault.

After fortification had arrived at this height it stopped for many ages, ’till the use of gunpowder and guns was found out; and then the round and square towers, which were very good flanks against bows and arrows, became but indifferent ones against the violence of cannon; nor did the battlements any longer offer a hiding place, when the force of one shot both overset the battlement, and destroyed those who sought security from it.

Modern FORTIFICATION, is the way of defence now used, turning the walls into ramparts, and square and round towers into bastions, defended by numerous outworks; all which are made so solid, that they cannot be beat down, but by the continual fire of several batteries of cannon. These bastions at first were but small, their gorges narrow, their flanks and faces short, and at a great distance from each other, as are those now to be seen in the city of Antwerp, built in 1540 by Charles V. emperor of Germany; since which time they have been greatly improved and enlarged, and are now arrived to that degree of strength, that it is almost a received opinion, that the art of fortification is at its height, and almost incapable of being carried to a much greater perfection.

Offensive FORTIFICATION, shews how to besiege and take a fortified place; it further teaches a general how to take all advantages for his troops; the manner of encamping, and method of carrying on either a regular or irregular siege, according as circumstances may direct.

Defensive FORTIFICATION, shews a governor how to make the most of a garrison committed to his care, and to provide all things necessary for its defence.

Regular FORTIFICATION, is that built in a regular polygon, the sides and angles of which are all equal, being commonly a musquet shot from each other, and fortified according to the rules of art.

Irregular FORTIFICATION, on the contrary, is that where the sides and angles are not uniform, equi-distant, or equal; which is owing to the irregularity of the ground, vallies, rivers, hills, and the like.

To FORTIFY inwards, is to represent the bastion within the polygon proposed to be fortified; and then that polygon is called the exterior polygon, and each of its sides the exterior side, terminating at the points of the two nearest bastions.

To FORTIFY outwards, is to represent the bastion without the polygon proposed to be fortified, and then the polygon is called the interior polygon, and each of its sides the interior side, terminating in the centres of the two nearest bastions.

Elementary FORTIFICATION, by some likewise called the theory of fortification, consists in tracing the plans and profiles of a fortification on paper, with scales and compasses; and examining the systems proposed by different authors, in order to discover their advantages and disadvantages. The elementary part is likewise divided into regular and irregular fortification, which see.

Front FORTIFICATION, any proportion of the body of a place, consisting of two half bastions and a curtain.

Practical FORTIFICATION, consists in forming a project of a fortification, according to the nature of the ground, and other necessary circumstances, to trace it on the ground, and to execute the project, together with all the military buildings, such as magazines, store houses, barracks, bridges, &c.

The names of every part of a FORTIFICATION; and first of lines, which are divided into right lines, and curve lines.

Line of defence, is the distance between the saliant angle of the bastion, and the opposite flank; that is, it is the face produced to the flank. Common experience, together with some of the greatest artists in fortification, unanimously agree, that the lines of defence may extend (though not exceed) 150 fathom. Some indeed will affirm, that as a musquet does not carry more than 130 fathom point blank, the angle of the bastion should be no further removed from its opposite flank. We agree that a musquet carries no farther point blank; but we are sure it will do execution, and kill, at 180 fathom. The enemy generally makes his breaches near the middle of the face; which if granted, the line of fire from the flank to the breach, scarcely exceeds 130 fathom; besides, the cannon of the flank does less execution upon a short line of defence than on a long one.

Line of defence fichant, is a line drawn from the angle of the curtain, to the point of the opposite bastion, which is not to exceed 120 fathom; and from the point of the curtain, and flank, to the face of the opposite bastion, which is to be defended. This line may not improperly be called in good English the butting flank, since it partly sees the opposite faces in reverse; and the shot from it, especially near the orillon, strike against the faces. Authors are numerous both for and against the fichant and rasant lines; we can only set down as a fixed rule, that the more powerful the active quality is, the more the passive must suffer; that in fortification the active quality is the fire, which discovers the assailants (who are the passive) going to attack the face of the opposite bastion; consequently, the more this active quality is augmented, by so much the more must the passive subjects suffer; and from thence we argue for the fichant flank, since it augments this active quality, by all the fire of the curtain added to the flank, which is the principal action in the art of defence.

Line of defence rasant, is a line drawn from the point of the bastion along the face, ’till it comes to the curtain, which shews how much of the curtain will clear, or defend the face. This line may very justly in our language be called the sweeping flank; because the shot as it were sweeps along the opposite faces. This line, as well as the fichant, has many supporters, and as many opponents. In our humble opinion, the line fichant is preferable to the line rasant.

Line of circumvallation. See SIEGE. See CIRCUMVALLATION.

Line of contravallation. See CONTRAVALLATION.

Line of counter-approach. See APPROACHES.

Capital line, is an imaginary line which divides the work into two equal and similar parts, or a line drawn from the point of the bastion to the point where the two demi-gorges meet, &c.

Line of defence prolonged. In the square, and most polygons of the lesser fortification, you prolong the line of defence; but in the polygons of the greater and meaner, you draw a line from the angle of the opposite shoulder to the angle of the curtain, upon which you raise a perpendicular, which serves for the first line of the flank.

Names of the angles in a FORTIFICATION.

Angle of the centre, in a polygon, is formed by two radii drawn to the extremities of the same side, or from the centre, terminating at the two nearest angles of the figure.

Angle of a bastion, Flanked angle, that which is made by the two faces, being the outermost part of the bastion, most exposed to the enemy’s batteries, frequently called the saliant angle, or point of the bastion.

Angle of the polygon, is made by the concourse of two adjacent sides of a polygon, in the centre of the bastion.

Angle of the triangle, is half the angle of the polygon.

Angle of the shoulder, Angle of the epaule, is made by the face and flank of the bastion.

Angle of the flank, Angle of the curtain that which is made by, and contained between the curtain and the flank.

Angle of the tenaille, Flanking angle, made by two lines fichant, that is, the face of the two bastions extended till they meet in an angle towards the curtain, and is that which always carries its point towards the work.

Dead-angle. Every angle is so called, that points inwards, or is not well defended.

Angle of the ditch, is formed before the centre of the curtain, by the outward line of the ditch.

Angle rentrant, Re-entering angle, is any angle whose point turns inwards, or towards the place; that is, whose legs open towards the field.

Saliant angle, is that which points outwards or whose legs open towards the place.

Angle of the complement of the line of defence, is the angle formed by the intersection of the two complements with each other.

Inward flanking angle, that which is made by the flanking-line and the curtain. See ANGLE.

Names of the solid works of a FORTIFICATION.

Advanced-foss, Avant-fossé, or ditch, made at the foot of the glacis: it is but very seldom made, because it is easily taken, and serves for a trench to the besiegers.

Appareille, is that slope or easy ascent which leads to the platform of the bastion, or to any other work, where the artillery, &c. are brought up and carried down.

Approaches, are a kind of roads or passages sunk in the ground by the besiegers, whereby they approach the place under cover of the fire from the garrison.

Area, the superficial content of a rampart, or other work.

Arrow, is a work placed at the saliant angle of the glacis, and consists of two parapets, each about 40 fathoms long; this work has a communication with the covert-way, of about 24 or 28 feet broad, called a caponniere, with a ditch before it of about 5 or 6 fathom, and a traverse at the entrance, of three fathom thick, and a passage of 6 or 8 feet round it.

Banquette, whether single or double, is a kind of step made on the rampart of a work near the parapet, for the troops to stand upon, in order to fire over the parapet: it is generally 3 feet high when double, and 1¹⁄₂ when single, and about 3 feet broad, and 4¹⁄₂ feet lower than the parapet.

Bastion, is a part of the inner inclosure of a fortification, making an angle towards the field, and consists of 2 faces, 2 flanks, and an opening towards the centre of the place, called the gorge: or it is rather a large mass of earth, usually faced with sods, sometimes with brick, but rarely with stone; having the figure described.

With regard to the first invention of bastions, there are many opinions amongst authors. Some have attributed this invention to Zisca, the Bohemian; others to Achmet Bashaw, who having taken Otranto in the year 1480, fortified it in a particular manner, which is supposed to be the first instance of the use of bastions. Those who wrote on the subject of fortification 200 years ago, seem to suppose, that bastions were a gradual improvement in the ancient method of building, rather than a new thought, that any one person could claim the honor of. It is certain, however, that they were well known soon after the year 1500; for in 1546, Tartalea published Quesiti & inventioni diverse, in the 6th book of which he mentions, that whilst he resided at Verona (which must have been many years before) he saw bastions of a prodigious size: some finished, and others building: and there is besides, in the same book, a plan of Turin, which was then fortified with 4 bastions, and seems to have been completed some time before.

The great rule in constructing a bastion is, that every part of it may be seen and defended from some other part. Mere angles are therefore not sufficient, but flanks and faces are likewise necessary. The faces must not be less than 50 fathom, nor more than 65. The longer the flanks are the greater is the advantage which can be derived from them. They must therefore stand at right angles with the line of defence. At the same time the disposition of the flanks makes the principal part of a fortification, as on them the defence chiefly depends; and it is this that has introduced the various kinds of fortifying.

The angle of the bastion must exceed 60°; otherwise it will be too small to give room for the guns, and will either render the line of defence too long, or the flanks too short. It must therefore be either a right angle or some intermediate one between that and 60 degrees.

Full bastions are best calculated for intrenchments, which are thrown up at the gorge, or by means of a cavalier, whose faces are made parallel to those of the bastion at the distance of 15 toises; having its flanks at the distance of 12 toises, and a ditch measuring 5.

Large bastions have the advantage of small ones, for this palpable reason; the bastion being considered the weakest part of the body of a place, is always attacked; when there is room for troops, cannon and mortars, its natural weakness is greatly remedied.

Gorge of a bastion, the interval between the extremity of one flank and that of the next.

Flat bastion. When a bastion upon a right line is so constructed, that its demi-gorges do not form an angle, it is called a flat bastion.

Gorge of a flat bastion, is a right line, which terminates the distance between two flanks.

Solid bastion, Full bastion, A bastion is said to be solid or full, when the level ground within is even with the rampart; that is, when the inside is quite level, the parapet being only more elevated than the rest. Solid bastions have this advantage over others, that they afford earth enough to make a retrenchment, in case the enemy lodge themselves on the top of the bastion, and the besieged are resolved to dispute every inch of ground.

Hollow bastion, Empty bastion, is that where the level ground within is much lower than the rampart, or that part next to the parapet, where the troops are placed to defend the bastion. The disadvantage of these kinds of bastions is, the earth being so low, that when an enemy is once lodged on the rampart, there is no making a retrenchment towards the centre, but what will be under the fire of the besiegers.

Detached bastion, is that which is separated or cut off from the body of the place, and differs from a half moon, whose rampart and parapet are lower, and not so thick as those of the place, having the same proportion with the works of the place. Counter-guards with flanks are sometimes called detached bastions.

Cut bastion, is that whose saliant angle or point is cut off, instead of which it has a re-entering angle, or an angle inwards. It is used, either when the angle would, without such a contrivance, be too acute, or when water, or some other impediment, prevents the bastion from being carried to its full extent.

Composed bastion, is when two sides of the interior polygon are very unequal, which also renders the gorges unequal; it may not improperly be called a forced bastion, being as it were forced into that form.

Deformed bastion, is when the irregularity of the lines and angles causes the bastion to appear deformed, or out of shape.

Demi-bastion, is composed of one face only, has but one flank, and a demi-gorge.

Double bastion, is that which is raised on the plane of another bastion, but much higher; leaving 12 or 18 feet between the parapet of the lower, and the foot of the higher; and is sometimes in the nature of a cavalier.

Regular bastion, is that which has its true proportion of faces, flanks, and gorges.

Irregular bastion, is that wherein the above equality of just proportion is omitted.

Barriers, in fortification, a kind of rails to stop the horse or foot from rushing in upon the besieged with violence. In the middle of this kind of defence there is a moveable bar of wood, which opens or shuts at pleasure.

Berm, is a little space or path, of 4 to 8 feet broad, between the ditch and the talus of the parapet; it is to prevent the earth from rolling into the ditch, and serves likewise to pass and repass. As it is in some degree advantageous to the enemy, in getting footing, most of the modern engineers reject it.

Bonnet, in fortification, is a sort of work placed before the saliant angle of the ravelin to cover it: it consists of 2 faces, parallel to the ravelin, or perpendicular to those of the lunette. They are generally made 10 fathom broad at the ends with a ditch of the same breadth, the covert-way 6, and the glacis 20 fathom.

Breach, is on opening or gap made in a wall or rampart, with either cannon or mines, sufficiently wide for a body of troops to enter the works, and drive the besieged out of it.

Practical breach, is that where men may mount, and make a lodgment, and should be 15 or 20 feet wide.

Capital of a work, is an imaginary line which divides that work into two equal parts.

Capital of a bastion, a line drawn from the angle of the polygon to the point of the bastion, or from the point of the bastion to the centre of the gorge. These capitals are from 35 to 40 toises in length, from the point of the bastion to the place where the two demi-gorges meet; being the difference between the exterior and the interior radii.

Caponnier is a passage made in a dry ditch from one work to another: when it is made from the curtain of the body of the place to the opposite ravelin, or from the front of a horn or crown-work, it has a parapet on each side, of 6 or 7 feet high, sloping in a glacis of 10 or 12 toises on the outside to the bottom of the ditch; the width within is from 20 to 25 feet, with a banquette on each side: there is a brick wall to support the earth within which only reaches within 1¹⁄₂ foot of the top, to prevent grazing shot from driving the splinters amongst the defendants.

Caponnieres with two parapets may properly be called double; as there are some made with one rampart only, in dry ditches of the ravelin, and in that of its redoubt, towards the saliant angles, and to open towards the body of the place.

Caponnieres, made from the body of the place to the out-works, are sometimes arched over, with loop-holes to fire into the ditch. The single ones in the ditch of the ravelin and redoubt are likewise made with arches open towards the place; for by making them in this manner, the guns which defend the ditch before them, can no other way be dismounted than by mines.

Cascanes, in fortification, a kind of cellars made under the capital of a fortification; also subterraneous passages or galleries to discover the enemy’s mines.

Casemate, in fortification, is a work made under the rampart, like a cellar or cave with loop-holes to place guns in it.

Cavaliers, are works, raised generally within the body of the place, 10 or 12 feet higher than the rest of the works. Their most common situation is within the bastion, and they are made much in the same form: they are sometimes placed in their gorges, or on the middle of the curtain, and then are in the form of a horse-shoe, only flatter.

The use of cavaliers is, to command all the adjacent works and country round them: they are seldom or never made, but when there is a hill or rising ground which overlooks some of the works.

Centre, the middle point of any work. From the centre of a place are drawn the first lines to lay down the form of a fortification.

Centre of the bastion, is that point where the two adjacent curtains produced intersect each other.

Citadel, is a kind of fort, or small fortification, of 4, 5, or 6 sides; sometimes joined to towns, &c. Citadels are always built on the most advantageous ground. They are fortified towards the city, and towards the country; being divided from the former by an esplanade, or open place: and serving in one case to overawe the inhabitants; and in the other, not only to hinder the approach of an enemy; but to become a retreat to the garrison, should the town be taken.

Coffers. See COFFERS.

Command is when a hill or rising ground overlooks any of the works of a fortification, and is within reach of common shot; such a hill is said to command that work. See COMMAND.

Complement of the curtain, is that part of the interior side which forms the demi-gorge.

Complement of the line of defence, is a horn-work with a crown-work before it. See CROWN-WORK.

Cordon, in fortification, is a round projection made of stone, in a semi-circular form, whose diameter is about 1 foot, and goes quite round the wall, and within 4 feet from the upper part.

The cordon being placed on the top of the revetement of the scarp, is a considerable obstacle to the besiegers, when they attempt to storm a place by applying scaling ladders to the scarp.

Covert-way is a space of five or six toises broad, extending round the counterscarp of the ditch, and covered by a parapet from six to seven feet and a half high, having a banquette: the superior part of this parapet forms a gentle slope towards the country, which terminates at the distance of twenty to twenty five toises; this slope is called the glacis.

Sometimes the covert-way is sunk 2 or 3 feet below the horizon of the field; for, as such works are never made to discover the enemy in their trenches, so this method of lowering the covert-way will give room for the fire of the lower curtain (in works that have one) to scour the esplanade; and the expence of it should be the most material objection against it.

Counter-forts, in fortification, are by some called buttresses; they are solids of masonry, built behind walls, and joined to them at 18 feet distance from the centre to centre, in order to strengthen them, especially when they sustain a rampart or terrace.

Counter-guard, in fortification is a work placed before the bastions to cover the opposite flanks from being seen from the covert way. It is likewise made before the ravelins.

When counter-guards are placed before the collateral bastions, they are esteemed of very great use, as the enemy cannot batter them without having first secured the possession of the counter-guards. They were first invented by Pasino, in 1579, and greatly improved by Speckle, in 1589.

Counterscarp, is properly the exterior talus of the ditch, or that slope which terminates its breadth, and is the further side from the body of the place. It is so called from being opposite to the scarp.

Crown-work, in fortification is a kind of work not unlike a crown: it has 2 fronts and 2 branches. The fronts are composed of 2 half bastions and 1 whole one: they are made before the curtain or the bastion, and generally serve to enclose some buildings which cannot be brought within the body of the place, or to cover the town-gates, or else to occupy a spot of ground which might be advantageous to an enemy. They are of such an expence, that they are rarely found in practice. The best use this work can possibly be put to, is to cover 2 joining curtains, when the sides of it will be parallel to the sides of the place, and it should be fortified with the same strength, and in the same manner.

The authors who have written on the subject, have never thought of this useful part; and we often see 2 horn-works put in practice to cover two curtains, where crown-work would do it much cheaper and much better. The crown-work is adopted for the same purposes as the horn-work.

Crowned horn-work, is a horn-work with a crown-work before it. See CROWN-WORK.

Curtain, in fortification, is that part of the body of the place, which joins the flank of one bastion to that of another. The straight curtains have always been preferred to the different designs which have been proposed, of which some have diminished the expence, and (at the same time) the strength of the place, others have somewhat augmented the strength, but greatly diminished its area.

Cuvette, Cunette, in fortification, is a small ditch from 15 to 20 feet broad, made in the middle of a large dry ditch, serving as a retrenchment to defend the same, or otherwise to let water into it, when it can be had during a siege.

When there is a cunette, there should be a caponniere to flank it.

Defilement, in fortification, is the art of disposing all the works of a fortress in such a manner, that they may be commanded by the body of the place. It also includes the relative disposition of the works, and the ground within cannon shot, so that the one may be discovered, and the other not observed.

Demi-gorge, is half the gorge, or entrance into the bastion, not taken directly from angle to angle, where the bastion joins the curtain, but from the angle of the flank to the centre of the bastion, or rather the angle the two curtains would make were they protracted to meet in the bastion. Mr. Landmann determines it to be the line which is formed by the prolongation of the curtain meeting the oblique radius.

Demi-lune. See RAVELIN.

Descents in fortification, are the holes, vaults, and hollow places made by undermining the ground.

Descents into the ditch or fossé, are boyaux or trenches effected by the means of saps in the ground of the counterscarp, under the covert way. They are covered with madriers, or hurdles, well loaded with earth, to secure them against fire. In ditches that are full of water, the descent is made even with the surface of the water; and then the ditch is filled with fagots, fast bound, and covered with earth. In dry ditches the descent is carried down to the bottom; after which, traverses are made either as lodgments for the troops, or to cover the miner. When the ditch is full of water, the descent must be made over its surface; which is done by securing it with blinds or chandeliers, from being enfiladed, or by directing the course of the descent from the point of enfilade in the best way you can.

Detached bastion. See BASTION.

Detached redoubt. See REDOUBT.

Ditch, in fortification, is a large deep trench made round each work, generally from 12 to 22 fathom broad, and 15 to 16 feet deep: the earth dug out of it serves to raise the rampart and parapet. Almost every engineer has a particular depth and breadth for ditches; some are for narrow ones and deep, others for broad ones and shallow; and it is most certain that ditches should be regulated according to the situation. In regard to wet and dry ditches, almost all authors have given it in favor of the latter; and we shall only add, that the best of all are those which can either be filled or kept dry at pleasure.

Wet ditches, which have stagnant waters, are liable to great inconveniences. They are said to be well calculated to prevent sudden surprises and assaults; but we are convinced of the contrary, especially during a hard frost. Some again assert, that they stop all communication between ill-disposed persons in the garrison and the besiegers. Every man with the least experience, must be of a different opinion.

Wet ditches might certainly be so constructed, as to let the surface of the water remain 12 or 15 feet above the level of the adjacent country. In which case they would serve as large reservoirs, and not only contribute to the defence of a fortified place, but enrich the grounds by being occasionally let out. The additional value which the neighboring meadows would bear from these seasonable overflowings, might in some degree compensate for the expence of the fortification. During a siege, these waters, with proper management, must give considerable uneasiness to the enemy that invests the place.

To answer this double purpose, the ditch must be separated into several large basons, which might be filled or emptied at discretion, as often as circumstances would require.

Dry ditches. There are some ditches which may be filled at will; and others which cannot, except by extraordinary means. If they should be intended to answer the purpose of agriculture, aqueducts might be constructed, or the waters poured in through artificial channels. In which case the ditches would not require much depth. The glacis might be raised in such a manner as to serve to dam in the body of water, and to afford a second glacis from whence the besieger might be considerably embarrassed.

Ditches that are lined, ditches whose counterscarp is supported, and kept up by a stone or brick wall.

Ditches that are not lined, whose counterscarp is supported by earth covered with sods. These ditches are not so secure as the former, on account of the breadth which must be given to the talus, and by which an enemy might easily surprise a place.

So that ditches in fortification may be briefly distinguished under three separate heads, viz:

Dry ditches, which from the facility with which they may be repaired, and their capability of containing other works proper for their security, are in most instances preferable to any others.

Wet ditches that are always full of water, and consequently must have bridges of communication which are liable to be destroyed very frequently during a siege.

Wet ditches are subject to many inconveniences, are ill calculated to favor sallies, and have only the solitary advantage of preventing a surprise.

The third sort of ditch has all the advantages of the other two kinds; if, as we have just observed, it can be so contrived, as to admit water occasionally into the different basons by means of aqueducts, and be drained, as circumstances may require.

Draw-bridge. See BRIDGE.

Embrasures. See EMBRASURE.

Envelope, is a work of earth raised occasionally in the ditch, sometimes like a plain parapet, at others like a small rampart with a parapet to it. Envelopes are generally made before weak places.

Epaulement. See EPAULEMENT.

Epaule, or the shoulder of the bastion, the angle made by the union of the face and flank.

Escarp. See SCARP.

Esplanade. See ESPLANADE.

Exterior side of a fortification, is the distance, or imaginary line drawn from one point of the bastion to that of the next.

Faces of the bastion. See BASTION.

Faces, of any work, in fortification, are those parts where the rampart is made, which produce an angle pointing outwards.

Face prolonged, that part of the line of defence rasant, which is terminated by the curtain, and the angle of the shoulder.

Fascine. See FASCINES.

Fausse bray, is a low rampart going quite round the body of the place; its height is about 3 feet above the level ground, and its parapet is about 3 or 4 fathom distant from that of the body of the place. These works are made at a very great expence: their faces are very easily enfiladed, and their flank of course is seen in reverse: the enemy is under cover the minute he becomes master of them; and a great quantity of shells which may be thrown into them, and must of necessity lodge there, will go near to make a breach, or at worst to drive every one out. Hence they are liable to do more harm than good, and contribute no way to the defence of the place. M. Vauban only makes them before the curtains, and as such calls them tenailles.

Flanks, in fortification, are, generally speaking, any parts of a work, which defend another work along the outsides of its parapets.

Flank of the bastion, is the part between the face and the curtain; the flank of one bastion serves to defend the ditch before the curtain and face of the opposite bastion.

Flanking, is the same thing in fortification, as defending.

Retired flanks, are those made behind the line which joins the extremity of the face and the curtain, towards the capital of the bastion.

Concave flanks, are those which are made in the arc of a circle.

Direct, or grazing flank, is that which is perpendicular to the opposite face produced, and oblique or fichant, when it makes an acute angle with that face.

Second flank. When the face of a bastion produced does not meet the curtain at its extremity, but in some other point, then the part of the curtain between that point and the flank, is called the second flank. The modern engineers have rejected this method of fortifying. See FLANK.

Flêche, a work of two faces, often constructed before the glacis of a fortified place, when threatened with a siege, in order to keep the enemy as long at a distance as possible.

Gallery, is a passage made under ground, leading to the mines: galleries are from 4¹⁄₂ to 5 feet high, and about 3¹⁄₂ or 4 feet broad; supported at top by wooden frames, with boards over them.

Genouilliere, the undermost part of the rampart of a battery, or that part from the platform to the sole of the embrasures.

Glacis, is the part beyond the covert way, to which it serves as a parapet, and terminates towards the field in an easy slope at any required number of fathoms distance. Sometimes double glacis are made parallel to the esplanade, and at the distance of 16, or 20 fathoms.

Some authors think these works never answer the expence; however, M. Vauban was so sensible of their utility, that he never failed to make them when the ground was convenient for it; because, when such works are defended by a skilful governor, they will afford the means of being valiantly supported.

Gorge, of a bastion, is the interval between the extremity of one flank and that of the other.

Gorge, of any work, is that part next to the body of the place, where there is no rampart or parapet; that is, at the counterscarp of the ditch.

Half-moon. (Fr. Demi-Lune.) Is an out-work that has two faces which form a saliant angle, the gorge of which resembles a crescent. It owes its original invention to the Dutch, who use it to cover the points of their bastions. This kind of fortification, is, however, defective, because it is weak on its flanks. Half-moons are now called ravelins; which species of work is constructed in front of the curtain. See RAVELINS.

Gorge of a half moon, the distance between the two flanks, taken on the right of the counterscarp.

Head of a work, its front next the enemy, and farthest from the place.

Horn-work, is composed of a front and 2 branches: the front is made into 2 half bastions and a curtain: this work is of the nature of a crown-work, only smaller, and serves for the same purposes. The use of horn-works in general is to take possession of some rising ground advanced from the fortification; the distance of which determine that of the horn-work; and they are placed either before the curtain, or before the bastions, according to circumstances.

Horse-shoe, is a small round or oval work, with a parapet, generally made in a ditch, or in a marsh.

Insult. A work is said to be insulted, when it is attacked suddenly and openly.

Interior side of a fortification, an imaginary line drawn from the centre of one bastion to that of the next, or rather the curtain produced till they meet.

Lodgment, See SIEGE.

Loop-holes, are either square, or oblong holes, made in the wall, to fire through with musquets. They are generally 8 or 9 inches long, 6 or 7 inches wide within, and 2 or 3 feet without; so that every man may fire from them direct in front, or oblique to right or left, according to circumstances.

Lunettes in fortification, are works made on both sides of a ravelin: one of their faces is perpendicular to half or ²⁄₃ds of the faces of the ravelin, and the other nearly so to those of the bastion.

There are likewise lunettes, whose faces are drawn perpendicular to those of the ravelin, within ¹⁄₃ part from the saliant angle; whose semi-gorges are only 20 fathoms.

These kind of works make a good defence, and are of no great expence; for as they are so near the ravelin, the communication with it is very easy, and one cannot well be maintained till they are all three taken.

Lunettes, are also works made beyond the second ditch, opposite to the places of arms: they differ from the ravelins only in their situation.

Lunettons, are small lunettes.

Merlon, is that part of the breast-work of a battery which is between the embrasures.

Orillon, is a part of the bastion near the shoulder, which serves to cover the retired flank from being seen obliquely: it is sometimes faced with stone, on the shoulder of a casemated bastion, to cover the cannon of the retired flank, and hinder them from being dismounted by the enemy’s cannon.

Of all the works in a fortification, there is none more capable of defending the passage of the ditch, and to destroy the miner, wheresoever he enters himself, than the orillon. Experience in the last war has shewn us of what vast advantage it is to have 2 or 3 reserve pieces of cannon, which command the ditch, and the face of the opposite bastion, in such a manner as to destroy the attempts of the miners, and see the breach in reverse. Hence the great advantages of a double flank thus concealed weigh so very much with us, and convince us so entirely of their usefulness, that we affirm no place to be well fortified without the orillon, and that the straight flank is fit for nothing but field works.

The orillon is as old as the bastion, and was first made use of about the year 1480; and we find it frequently mentioned in the works of Pasino and Speckle, first published in 1579.

Out-works. See WORKS.

Palisades, in fortification, are a kind of stakes made of strong spars about 9 feet long, fixed 3 deep in the ground, in rows about 6 inches asunder: they are placed in the covert-way, at 3 feet from, and parallel to the parapet of the glacis, to secure it from being surprised.

Parapet, in fortification, is a part of the rampart of a work, 18 to 20 feet broad, and raised 6 or 7 feet above the rest of the rampart: it serves to cover the troops placed there to defend the work against the fire of the enemy.

Parallels. See SIEGE.

Port-cullice, in fortification, is a falling gate or door, like a harrow, hung over the gates of fortified places, and let down to keep out the enemy.

Place is the term commonly used in fortification instead of a fortified town.

Regular place, one whose angles, sides, bastion, and other parts are equal, &c.

Irregular place, one whose sides and angles are unequal, &c.

Place of arms, in fortification, is a part of the covert-way, opposite to the re-entering angle of the counterscarp, projecting outward in an angle. It is generally 20 fathoms from the re-entering angle of the ditch on both sides, and the faces are found by describing a radius of 25 fathoms.

Places of arms. See SIEGE.

Pits, or ponds, in fortification, are little holes dug between the higher and lower curtains, to hold water, in order to prevent the passing from the tenailles to the flanks.

Profiles, in fortification, are a representation of the vertical sections of a work; and serve to shew those dimensions which cannot be described in plans, and are yet necessary in the building of a fortification; they may be very well executed and constructed upon a scale of 30 feet to an inch. By a profile are expressed the several heights, widths, and thicknesses, such as they would appear were the works cut down perpendicularly from the top to the bottom. See PROFILES.

Rampart, is an elevation of earth raised along the faces of any work, 10 or 15 feet high, to cover the inner part of that work against the fire of an enemy: its breadth differs according to the several systems upon which it may be constructed: for De Ville makes them 12¹⁄₂ fathoms, M. Vauban 6, and others 10 fathoms.

Rams-horns, in fortification, are a kind of low work made in the ditch, of a circular arc; they were first invented by Mr. Belidor, and serve instead of tenailles.

Ravelin, in fortification, is a work placed before the curtain to cover it, and prevent the flanks from being discovered sideways, it consists of 2 faces meeting in an outward angle. Some ravelins are counter-guarded, which renders them as serviceable as either the cunettes, or tenaillons.

Gorge of the ravelin, is the distance between the two sides or faces towards the place.

Gorges, of all other outworks, are the intervals or spaces which lie between their several wings or sides towards the main ditch. See GORGES.

Redans, in fortification, are a sort of indented works, consisting of lines or facings that form sallying or re-entering angles, flanking one another, and are generally used on the sides of a river running through a garrisoned town. They were used before bastions. Sometimes the parapet of the covert-way is carried on in this manner.

Redoubt, is a kind of work placed beyond the glacis, and is of various forms. Its parapet, not being intended to resist cannon, is only 8 or 9 feet thick, with 2 or 3 banquettes. The length of the sides may be from 10 to 20 fathoms.

Redoubt, is also the name of a small work, made sometimes in a bastion, and sometimes in a ravelin, of the same form.

Redoubt, is likewise a square work without any bastions, placed at some distance from a fortification, to guard a pass or to prevent an enemy from approaching that way.

Detached-redoubt, is a kind of work much like a ravelin, with flanks placed beyond the glacis: it is made to occupy some spot of ground which might be advantageous to the besiegers; likewise to oblige the enemy to open their trenches farther off than they would otherwise do. Their distance from the covert-way should not exceed 120 toises, that it may be defended by musquet shot from thence.

Redouts-en-cremaillere, so called from their similitude to a saw; the inside line of the parapet being broken in such a manner, as to resemble the teeth of a saw; whereby this advantage is gained, that a greater fire can be brought to bear upon the defile, than if only a simple face was opposed to it, and consequently the passage is rendered more difficult.

Retrenchment, in fortification, is any work raised to cover a post, and fortify it against an enemy, such as fascines loaded with earth, gabions, sand-bags, &c.

Revetement, in fortification, is a strong wall built on the outside of the rampart and parapet, to support the earth, and prevent its rolling into the ditch. When the revetement of a rampart goes quite up to the top, 4 feet of the upper part is a vertical wall of 3 feet thick, with a square stone at the top of it, projecting about 5 or 6 inches, and a circular one below, or where the slope begins, of 8 or 10 inches diameter. They go quite round the rampart, and the circular projection is called the cordon.

Rideau, in fortification, is a small elevation of earth, extending lengthways on a plane, and serving to cover a camp, or to give an advantage to a post. They are also convenient for the besiegers of a place, as they serve to secure the workmen in their approaches to the foot of a fortress.

Rideau is also used sometimes for a trench, the earth of which is thrown up on its sides, to serve as a parapet for covering the men.

Sap. See SIEGE.

Scarp, is, properly speaking, any thing high and steep, and is used in fortification to express the outside of the rampart of any work next to the ditch.

Sillon, in fortification, a work raised in the middle of a ditch to defend it when too broad. This work has no particular construction, but as it runs, forms little bastions, half moons, and redans, which are lower than the rampart of the place, but higher than the covert way. It is not much used at present.

Sillon means literally a furrow. In fortification, it is a work raised.

Swallow’s-tail, a kind of out-work, only differing from a single tenaille, in that its sides are not parallel as those of the tenaille, but narrower towards the town than towards the country.

Talus signifies a slope made either on the outside or inside of any work, to prevent the earth’s rolling down; it is of various denominations, viz.

Talus of the banquette is that gentle slope from the top of the banquette to the horizontal line.

Interior talus of the parapet, the slope from the top of the parapet to the banquette.

Talus of the top of the parapet, that slope which lessens the height of the parapet towards the berm, by which means the troops firing from the banquette can defend the covert way.

Exterior talus of the parapet, the slope of the parapet from the top to the berm.

Interior talus of the ditch, the slope from the top of the ditch to the bottom, within.

Tenailles are low works made in the ditch before the curtains; of which there are three sorts. The first are the faces of the bastion produced till they meet, but much lower; the second have faces, flanks, and a curtain; and the third have only faces and flanks. Their height is about 2 or 3 feet higher than the level ground of the ravelin. Their use is to defend the bottom of the ditch by a grazing fire, as likewise the level ground of the ravelin, and especially the ditch before the redoubt within the ravelin, which cannot be defended from any other quarter so well as from them.

Tenaillons are works made on each side of the ravelin, much like the lunettes; with this difference, that one of the faces in a tenaillon is in the direction of the ravelin; whereas that of the lunette is perpendicular to it.

Terre-pleine, in fortification, the horizontal superficies of the rampart, between the interior talus and the banquette. It is on the terre pleine that the garrison pass and repass; it is also the passage of the rounds.

Tower bastions are small towers made in the form of bastions; first invented by M. Vauban, and used in his second and third method; with rooms or cellars underneath, to place men and artillery in them. As these towers are almost a solid piece of masonry, they must be attended with great expence, though their resistance can be but little; for it has been found by experience, that the casemates are but of little use, because as soon as they have fired once or twice, the smoke will oblige the defenders to leave them, notwithstanding the smoke holes: hence it may be concluded, that the strength of these tower bastions does by no means answer their expences; and that, if small bastions were made instead of them, without casemates, they would be much better, and less expensive.

Traditore, in fortification, signifies the concealed or hidden guns in a fortification, behind the reverse of the orillon.

Traverse, in fortification, is a parapet made across the covert way, opposite to the saliant angles of the works, and near the places of arms, to prevent enfilades; they are 18 or 20 feet thick, and as high as the ridge of the glacis. There are also traverses made in the caponniers, but then they are called tambours.

Traverses are likewise made within other works, when there are any hills or rising grounds from whence the interior parts of these works may be observed. Traverses that are made to cover the entrances of redoubts in the field, need not be above 8 or 10 feet thick.

Trous-de-loup, or wolf holes, round holes made about 5 or 6 feet deep, with a stake in the middle: they are generally dug round a field redoubt, to obstruct the enemy’s approach; circular at top, and about 4¹⁄₂ feet diameter; pointed at the bottom like an inverted cone. Two or three rows of them are dug chequerwise, about 6 paces from the edge of the ditch, viz. two rows of holes exactly opposite to each other, and a third row in the middle, covering the intervals.

Wicket, a small door in the gate of a fortified place, at which a man on foot may go in, and which may be opened though the gate itself be kept shut.

Works. All the fortifications about a place, are called the works of a place.

Out-works. All detached works in a fortification are so called. See Dehors.

Zig-Zag. See SIEGE.

The principal maxims of fortification, are these, viz. 1. That every part of the works be seen and defended by other parts, so that an enemy cannot lodge any where without being exposed to the fire of the place.

2. A fortress should command all places round it: and therefore all the out works should be lower than the body of the place.

3. The works farthest from the centre should always be open to those that are nearer.

4. The defence of every part should always be within the reach of musquet shot, that is, from 120 to 150 fathoms, so as to be defended both by ordnance and small fire arms; for if it be only defended by cannon, the enemy may dismount them by the superiority of their’s, and then the defence will be destroyed at once; whereas, if a work is likewise defended by small arms, if the one be destroyed, the other will still subsist.

5. All the defences should be as nearly direct as possible; for it has been found by experience, that the soldiers are too apt to fire directly before them, without troubling themselves whether they do execution or not.

6. A fortification should be equally strong on all sides; otherwise the enemy will attack it in the weakest part, whereby its strength will become useless.

7. The more acute the angle at the centre is, the stronger will be the place.

8. In great places, dry ditches are preferable to those filled with water, because sallies, retreats, succors, &c. are necessary; but, in small fortresses, wet ditches, that can be drained, are the best, as standing in need of no sallies.

Field FORTIFICATION is the art of constructing all kinds of temporary works in the field, such as redoubts, field forts, star forts, triangular and square forts, heads of bridges, and various sorts of lines, &c. An army intrenched, or fortified in the field, produces, in many respects, the same effect as a fortress; for it covers a country, supplies the want of numbers, stops a superior enemy, or at least obliges him to engage at a disadvantage.

The knowlege of a field engineer being founded on the principles of fortification, it must be allowed, that the art of fortifying is as necessary to an army in the field, as in fortified places; and though the maxims are nearly the same in both, yet the manner of applying and executing them with judgment, is very different.

A project of fortification is commonly the result of much reflexion; but in the field it is quite otherwise: no regard is to be had to the solidity of the works; every thing must be determined on the spot; the works are to be traced out directly, and regulated by the time and number of workmen, depending on no other materials than what are at hand, and having no other tools than the spade, shovel, pick-axe, and hatchet. It is therefore in the field, more than any where else that an engineer should be ready, and know how to seize all advantages at first sight, to be fertile in expedients, inexhaustible in inventions and indefatigably active.

Quantity and quality of the materials which are required in the construction of field-fortification.

1. Every common fascine made use of in the construction of field works or fortifications, should be 10 feet long and 1 foot thick. A fascine is raised by means of 6 pickets, which are driven obliquely into the earth, so that 2 together form the shape of a cross. These pickets are tied with willows, or birch twigs. It is upon supporters or tressels of this kind, that fascines are made, which are properly fagots bound together with rods, at intervals of 1 foot each in breadth. Six men are required to complete each fascine; viz. 2 to cut the branches, 2 to gather them up, and 2 to bind the fascines. Six men may with great ease, make 12 fascines in an hour. The smaller sort of willows, or birch twigs, are best calculated for this work. The fascines are fastened to the parapet, which would otherwise crumble and fall down. A redoubt, constructed en crémaillere, must have fascines 8 feet long.

2. There must be 5 pickets for each fascine, and each picket must be 3 or 4 feet long, an inch and a half thick, and sharp at one end; they serve to fasten the fascines to the parapet.

3. When you cannot procure wood for the fascines, the parapet must be covered or clothed with pieces of turf, 4 inches thick, and a foot and a half square; these are fastened to the parapet with 4 small pickets 8 inches long.

4. The fraises, or pointed stakes, must be 8 feet long, 5 inches thick, and be sharp at the top. The beams upon which they are laid, must be 12 feet long and 6 inches thick. These beams are spread horizontally along the parapet, and fraises are fixed to them, with nails 7 inches long; after which the beams are covered with earth. Two men will make 12 fraises in an hour.

5. The palisades, by which the ditch or fossé of a work is fortified, must be 9 or 10 feet long, and 6 inches thick; they must, likewise, be sharpened at the end. If you cannot procure them of these dimensions, you must use smaller ones; in which case you will have the precaution to mix a few large stakes.

6. The pickets, which are fixed in trous-de-loup or wolf-holes, must be 6 feet long, 4 inches thick, and sharp at the top.

7. The beams belonging to a cheval-de-frize must be 12 feet long, and 6 inches broad. The spokes which are laid across, must be 7 feet long, 4 inches thick, and placed at the distance of 6 inches from each other. These chevaux-de-frizes are made use of to block up the entrances into redoubts, to close passages or gates, and sometimes they serve to obstruct the fossé.

8. Gabions are constructed of various sizes. Those which are intended for field works, must be 3 or 4 feet high, and contain 2 or 3 feet in diameter. These gabions are made by means of long stakes, 3 or 4 feet long, which are placed so as to form a circle, which is 2 or 3 feet in diameter. The pickets must be covered and bound in the same manner as hurdles are. Gabions are chiefly of use in embrasures. They are fixed close to each other, and are afterwards filled with earth. There are also gabions of one foot, with 12 inches diameter at the top, and 9 at the bottom. The bank of the parapet is lined with gabions of this construction, behind which troops may be stationed, so as to fire under cover through the intervals. A quantity of large wooden mallets, rammers, hatchets, axes, and grappling irons, is required for this work.

Names of all works used in field FORTIFICATION.

Bridge heads, or têtes de pont, are made of various figures and sizes, sometimes like a redan or ravelin, with or without flanks, sometimes like a horn or crown work, according to the situation of the ground, or to the importance of its defence. Their construction depends on various circumstances; for, should the river be so narrow, that the work may be flanked from the other side, a single redan is sufficient; but when the river is so broad, that the saliant angle cannot be well defended across the river, flanks must be added to the redan; but should a river be 100 toises, or more across, half a square may be made, whose diagonal is the river side; and where the river is from 3 to 500 toises broad, a horn, or crown-work should be made. All the different sorts of heads of bridges, are to be esteemed as good works against a sudden onset only, and their use is almost momentary, as they sometimes serve but for a few days only, and at most during a campaign.

Dams are generally made of earth, but sometimes of other materials, as occasion may require: their use is to confine water.

Flêche a work consisting of two faces, terminating in a saliant angle of 90°, the faces are generally 75, or 80 feet long, the parapet 6 feet thick, and the ditch 7 feet broad.

Forts, in field fortification, are of various sorts, viz.

Field forts may be divided into two kinds: the one defending itself on all sides, as being entirely surrounded; the other, bordering on a river, &c. remain open at the gorge. They have the advantage of redoubts, in being flanked, and the disadvantage in containing less within, in proportion to their extent.

Star forts are so called, because they resemble that figure. They were commonly made of 4 angles, sometimes of 5, and very rarely of 6; but we find them now made of 7 and 8 angles. Let their figure however, be what it will, their angles should be equal; if formed of equilateral triangles, so much the better; for then the flanking angle being 120°, the fires cross better and nearer; and as the 2 flanks are on the same line, the space not defended before the saliant angle, is reduced to a parallelogram, whose smallest side is equal to the gorge.

Bastioned forts differ in nothing from that of places, except that the figure is less, and the attack supposed of another kind. It is reckoned sufficient to flank them with half bastions.

Triangular forts. As these kind of forts contain less in proportion than any other, they are consequently used as seldom as possible.

Square forts are in many respects preferable to the triangular ones. See FORT.

Lines, in field fortification, are of several sorts, viz. the front of a fortification, or any other field work, which with regard to the defence, is a collection of lines, contrived so as reciprocally to flank each other.

Lines of intrenchment are made to cover an army; or a place indifferently fortified, and which sometimes contains the principal magazine of an army; or to cover a considerable extent of ground, to prevent an enemy from entering into the country to raise contributions, &c.

Lines, of whatever form or shape, should be every where equally strong, and alike guarded.

Maxims. 1st. To inclose with the work as much ground as possible, having regard to circumstances. This attention chiefly concerns redoubts and small works.

2d. If there are several works near each other, their lines of defence should be so directed, as to defend each other without being annoyed by their own fire.

3d. Not to depend on the defence of small arms, but where they can fire at right angles; as they too generally fire without aim, and directly before them.

4th. Not to have recourse to the 2d flank or fire of the curtain, but when there is an absolute necessity.

5th. That the flanking angle be always a right one, or at least obtuse, but never to exceed 100°, if possible, there being no fear here, as in a fortification, of the flank being too much exposed. Besides, it is not necessary to graze the faces, or even to fire obliquely on them; since there is no danger of being exposed to the defence of a breach, or lodgment of the miners. The only thing to apprehend, is a sudden attack.

6th. That the flanking parts be sufficiently extended, so that the interior of their parapets at least may rake the whole breadth of the opposite ditch.

7th. Never to make an advanced ditch in dry ground, unless it can be enfiladed throughout, and under a proper angle be defended by the work which it covers, or surrounds.

8th. Not to allow more than from 60 to 80 toises for the lines of defence, when they proceed from two flanks separated by two branches, forming a saliant angle, or when not made to cross, though produced.

9th. That the parts most extended, and consequently the weakest in themselves, be as much defended as possible, and have at least the fire of two flanks, besides their own direct fire.

Redans are a sort of indented works, consisting of lines and faces, that form saliant and re-entering angles, flanking one another. Lines are often constructed with redans: their saliant angles are generally from 50 to 70°.

Indented redans are when the two faces are indented, in that case the faces of each indented angle is 8¹⁄₂ feet only.

Tambour, a kind of work formed of palisades, 10 feet long, and 6 inches thick, planted close together, and driven 2 or 3 feet into the ground; so that when finished it has the appearance of a square redoubt cut in two. Loop-holes are made 6 feet from the ground, and 3 feet asunder, for the soldiers to fire through, who are placed on scaffolds 2 feet high. They have often been used by the French with great advantage.

Têtes-de-pont. See Bridge-heads.

Trous-de-loup are holes dug in the ground, circular at top, about 4¹⁄₂ feet diameter, and 6 feet deep, pointed at bottom, like an inverted cone, or sugar loaf. A stake six feet long is fixed in their centre, driven 2 feet into the ground, and made sharp at top. Two or three rows of them are dug chequerwise, about 6 paces from the ditch of a field-work. They prevent the approach of horse, &c.

PERPENDICULAR FORTIFICATION.

The principles of Vauban for direct or horizontal works, are the most perfect of all others: indeed all the masters of the art in modern times, who have introduced any thing new, allow that their works are only improvements of Vauban. The writings of Cormontagne are the most approved of the late writers on military defence. The principles of elevated works to cover naval roads and harbors, is among the improvements on Vauban; the works at Cherbourg, in France, and at fort Columbus, New York harbour, are very happy examples of the power of such works, as well as of the talents of the Engineers who erected them. Those at New York were by Col. Williams of the United States engineer corps.

Subterraneous FORTIFICATION.

These consist of the different galleries and branches which lead to mines, to the chambers belonging to them, or to fougasses, and which are required whenever it is found necessary to explode for the purposes of attack or defence. A subterraneous fortification may be of a permanent or temporary construction, offensive or defensive nature. Whenever this sort of work is adopted to strengthen and secure a fortified place, it is generally built of stone or brick, and made sufficiently solid to last a long time; it is then called permanent and defensive. Any place which is put in a state to withstand the subterraneous attacks of a besieging enemy, is said to be countermined.

When the besieger wishes to make an impression on a fortification of this sort, he must first construct galleries which he covers with wood, &c. He then practices offensive and temporary fortifications of the subterraneous sort. These works are well calculated to aid him in securing a lodgment for his subterraneous artillery, and in establishing chambers, fougasses, &c.

With respect to fortification in general, different authors recommend different methods; but the principal are those of Pagan, Blondel, Vauban, Coehorn, Belidor, Scheiter, and Muller.

It must, however, be constantly recollected by every engineer, that his views are not to be confined to the mere art of fortification. He ought further to know the use which different generals, in different periods, have made of natural strength and position; without an attention of this sort, he will fall very short of that extensive knowlege, which every military man, who aims at military fame, must be ambitious of acquiring. Chains of mountains, and volumes of water, together with the influence which different climates have upon the latter element, should always constitute a part of the natural system that ought to form an essential portion of his application. Hydrography will likewise assist him in this pursuit. To enlarge upon this important branch of geography, and to point out the great means which it affords of natural defence and offence in fortification, would be to exceed the limits of our present undertaking. We shall, therefore, refer our military readers to Belair’s Elemens de Fortification, and content ourselves with submitting a short account of the different authors who have either given original systems, or have greatly improved those that were already known. Independent of whom, may be named the following writers, who have likewise contributed to the general knowlege of fortification, viz. Errard, Deville, Belidor, D’Alembert, Cormontagne, Folard, Clairac, Muller, Robins, LeBlond, Didier, Marshal Saxe, Cugnot, Tielke, Landsberghen, Trincano, Fallios, Rosard, Belair, &c.

FORTIFICATION, according to the method of Pagan, consists in three different sorts, viz. the great, the mean, and little, whose principal dimensions are contained in the following

TABLE.

+-----------------------------------+---------------+---------------+ | The great FORTIFICATION. | The mean. | The little. | +-------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ | | for |for all| for |for all| for |for all| | |squares| other |squares| other |squares| other | | | | poly- | | poly- | | poly- | | | | gons | | gons | | gons | +-------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ |Exterior side | 200 | 200 | 180 | 180 | 160 | 160 | +-------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ |The perpendicular | ?7 | 30 | 24 | 30 | 21 | 3? | +-------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ |The face | 60 | 60 | 55 | 55 | 45 | 50 | +-------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ |The flank | 22 | 24 2| 19 1| 24 | 18 3| 23 2| +-------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ |The curtain | 73 2| 70 5| 63 4| 60 4| 63 5| 50 4| +-------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ |The line of defence| 141 4| 141 2| 126 1| 126 5| 115 5| 112 3| +-------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

Blondel fortifies within the given polygon: he establishes two sorts of fortification; the great one, whose exterior side is 200 toises, and the lesser one 170; because he will not have the line of defence exceed 140 toises, which is the greatest musquet shot, nor less than 120 toises, not to increase the number of bastions. He begins by the diminishing angle, which may be found by taking 90 degrees from the angle of the polygon, and by adding 15 degrees to the third of the remainder.

Vauban’s method is divided into little, mean, and great: the little is chiefly used in the construction of citadels; the mean, in that of all sorts of towns; and the great, in particular cases only.

TABLE.

+-----------------------+--------------------------++ | | Forts. || +-----------------------+---+---+------+---+---+---++ |Side of Polygon | 80| 90|100 |110|120|130|| +-----------------------+---+---+------+---+---+---++ |Length of perpendicular| 10| 11| 12¹⁄₂| 14| 15| 16|| +-----------------------+---+---+------+---+---+---++ |Faces of Bastions | 22| 25| 28 | 30| 33| 35|| +-----------------------+---+---+------+---+---+---++ |Capital of Ravelins | 25| 28| 30 | 35| 38| 40|| +-----------------------+---+---+------+---+---+---++

+-----------------------++---------------++-------+-------+ | || Little. || Mean. | Great.| +-----------------------++---+---+---+---++---+---+---+---+ |Side of Polygon ||140|150|160|170||180|190|200|260| +-----------------------++---+---+---+---++---+---+---+---+ |Length of perpendicular|| 20| 21| 23| 25|| 30| 31| 25| 22| +-----------------------++---+---+---+---++---+---+---+---+ |Faces of Bastions || 40| 42| 45| 47|| 50| 53| 55| 60| +-----------------------++---+---+---+---++---+---+---+---+ |Capital of Ravelins || 45| 50| 50| 52|| 55| 55| 60| 50| +-----------------------++---+---+---+---++---+---+---+---+

In the first horizontal row are the numbers expressing the lengths of the exterior sides from 80 to 260.

In the second, the perpendiculars answering to these sides.

In the third, the lengths of the faces of the bastions; and in the fourth, the lengths of the capitals of the ravelins.

Belidor’s method is divided also into little, mean, and great: and in all three the exterior side is 200 toises; the perpendicular of the little is 50, that of the mean 55, and the great 40: the faces of the first 70, the second 70, and the third 55 toises.

Scheiter’s method is divided into the great, mean, and small sort. The exterior side of the polygon for the great sort is 200 toises, the mean sort 180, and the small 160. The line of defence in the first is 140 toises, the second 130, and the third 120. This line is always rasant. All the other lines are fixed at the same length for all polygons, whose structure chiefly depends upon the knowlege of the exterior side, of the capital, or of the flanked angle, the rest being easily finished.--See the TABLE.

TABLE of capitals and flanked Angles.

+---------------------------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | Polygons. | IV | V | VI | VII | VIII| +---------------------------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+ |The flanked angles in the | deg. | | | | | |3 sorts of fortification. | 64 | 76 | 84 | 90 | 95 | +---------------------------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | |toises| | | | | |Capital for the great sort.| 46 | 49 | 51 | 52 | 53 | +---------------------------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+ |Capital for the mean sort. | 42 |44¹⁄₂|46¹⁄₂|48¹⁄₂| 50 | +---------------------------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+ |Capital for the small sort.| 39 |41¹⁄₂|42¹⁄₂| 45 | 46 | +---------------------------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+

+---------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | Polygons. | IX | X | XI | XII | +---------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+ |The flanked angles in the | | | | | |3 sorts of fortification. | 97 | 99 | 101 | 103 | +---------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | | | | | |Capital for the great sort.|54¹⁄₂|56¹⁄₂| 58 | 59 | +---------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+ |Capital for the mean sort. | 51 |52¹⁄₂| 54 | 54 | +---------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+ |Capital for the small sort.|47¹⁄₂|48¹⁄₂| 50 |50¹⁄₂| +---------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+

Errard, of Bois le-Duc, who was employed by Henry IV. and was the first that laid down rules in France respecting the best method of fortifying a place so as to cover its flank, constructs that flank perpendicular to the face of the bastion; but by endeavoring to cover it effectually, he makes the gorges too exiguous, the embrasures too oblique, and leaves the ditch almost defenceless.

The Chevalier de Ville, who succeeded Errard, draws the flank line perpendicular to the curtain; but here again the embrasures are too oblique, especially in the polygons, and the ditch is necessarily ill guarded. This engineer’s method of fortifying is stiled by most authors, the French method. His favorite maxim is to make the flank angle straight, and the flank equal to the demigorge.

Count Pagan makes the flank perpendicular to the line of defence, which method seems to agree perfectly with this maxim, because by that means the flank so raised covers as much as possible the face of the opposite bastion; but notwithstanding this apparent advantage the flank becomes too small and is too much exposed to the enemy’s batteries. This engineer acquired great reputation during the several sieges which he assisted in conducting under Louis XIII. His system has been improved upon by Alain Marrison Mallet, and his construction in fortification is to this day esteemed the most perfect. It differs very little from Marshal Vauban’s first system. Count Pagan has pointed out the method of building casemates in a manner peculiar to himself.

Marshal Vauban has judiciously steered between these different methods. He has drawn his flank in such a manner, that it does not stand too much exposed, nor does its collateral line of defence extend too far from the direct line of defence. He has effected this by lengthening out his flank and giving it a circular form.

It cannot be disputed but that large and extensive flanks and demi-gorges are superior to narrow and confined ones. The more capacious the flank is, the better calculated will it prove for the disposition of a formidable train of artillery. From this conviction many writers in their proposed systems of fortification, have added a second flank, in order to augment the line of defence; but they did not foresee, that this second flank is not only incapable of covering the face of the opposed bastion, except in a very oblique and insecure direction, but that the right flank, or the flank of the bastion, is thereby more exposed to the enemy’s batteries, which, it must be acknowleged, is a great fault.

The prevailing system of the present day is to make the flanks of the bastion as wide as possible, without having recourse to a second flank, unless it be absolutely necessary. Those gorges are likewise best which are most capacious, because they afford space and ground in the bastion for the construction of intrenchments within, should the enemy have effected a practicable breach.

All parts of a fortification which stand exposed to the immediate attacks of a besieging enemy, must be strong enough to bear the boldest attempts, and the most vigorous impressions. This is a self-evident maxim, because it must be manifest to the most common understanding, that works are erected round a place for the specific purpose of preventing an enemy from getting possession of it. It consequently follows, that flanked angles are extremely defective when they are too acute, since their points may be easily flanked and destroyed by the besieger’s cannon.

The Dutch construct at sixty degrees; but according to Vauban’s method, no work should be under seventy-five degrees, unless circumstances and situation should particularly require it.

A place to be in a state of defence, should be equally strong in all its relative directions; for the enemy would of course make the weak part his object of attack, and finally succeed in getting possession of the town. The body of the place must have a command towards the country, and no quarter in the outward vicinity of it must overlook, or command either the place itself, or its outworks. Those works which are nearest to the centre of the place, must have a greater elevation than the more distant ones.

The first regular system of fortification which appeared and was adopted in France, owed its origin to Errard of Bois-le-Duc, whom we have just mentioned. His method, however, has been uniformly rejected by able engineers; and if we may give credit to the report of Ozanan, Errard himself never carried his own system into practice.

Next to Errard of Bois-le-Duc, came the Chevalier Antoine de Ville, who was engineer under Louis XIII. and published an excellent treatise upon fortification. His method is stiled by most authors, the French method. Others call it the Compound System, or Systeme à trait Composé, because it united the Italian and Spanish methods. He was, indeed, by no means an advocate for new systems; for he generally observed, that any new method, or invention was extremely easy, so long as it was confined to the mere alteration of something in the measure, or in the disposition of those parts of fortification which have been discussed by other authors.

The Count de Pagan followed after, and had the good fortune to propose a system which entirely superseded the other two. We have already mentioned the principal feature, in his method.

Marshal Vauban, whose reputation rose upon the manifest superiority which his skill gave him over all others that had written upon fortification, likewise proposed three methods, with considerable improvements: viz. The great, the mean, and the little.

The great method, according to Vauban, contains on its exterior side from 200 to 230, or 240 toises. This extent is not uniformly the same throughout all the sides of a place, but is confined to that side which lies along the banks of a river, where he uniformly erects considerable outworks.

Vauban made use of his second method in fortifying Béfort and Landau. On account of the bad local situation of Béfort, and the impossibility of fortifying it with common bastions that would not be exposed to an enfilade in almost every direction, in spite of the traverses or rechutes which might be made: he invented arched bastions that were bomb proof, which he called tours bastionnées, or towers with bastions. These arched bastions are covered by counter-guards, the height of whose parapet almost equals the elevation of the towers themselves. Although strictly speaking, both these places are irregularly fortified, nevertheless a method of regular defence may be established from the construction of their works.

Vauban’s third system grows out of the second, and for that reason it is called ordre renforcé, the reinforced order or method. It was adopted in the fortifications of New Brisac. Vauban left nothing untried to bring this system to perfection, and he had the ingenuity to execute his plan at a less expence, than it would otherwise have been effected, by means of half revetements which he threw up in the outward works called the dehors.

This system, however, (ingenious and unrivalled as it certainly is,) has not escaped the censure of some writers. It must nevertheless be acknowleged, that their remarks are either founded in envy, or that they proceed from ignorance.

There are other systems of fortification which have been proposed by the writers of other countries besides France. We shall give a brief detail of them, and leave the inquisitive to go more at length into the nature of their methods, by referring them to the different treatises.

The Italians have furnished several authors who have written variously on the subject of fortification. The method proposed by Sardis has been generally esteemed the best.

The Spaniards in their methods of fortifying, never adopt that which adds a second flank. The obtuse flanked angle is not looked upon by their best engineers as a defective system in fortification.

Both the Italians and the Spaniards speak frequently of the ordre renforcé, which was originally invented to lessen the number of bastions in a great town or fortified place, and to render consequently the line of defence equal to the range of musquetry.

The Chevalier St. Julien, a very able engineer, has published a method, by which, he asserts, that works may be constructed not only at a less expence than others require, but in a manner that must render his defence or attack more formidable. He has likewise invented a new method for the defence of small places, which is preferable to the first, although it is not without faults. According to his system, the reach of the musquet is taken from the centre of the curtain. To this end he directs, that a covert lodgment, 7 feet high, and 10 toises wide, be constructed from that spot to the gorge of the half moon or ravelin. Cannon is disposed along the faces, and a gallery is erected for the musquetry, which likewise serves as a passage to the ravelin.

Francis Marchi, a gentleman of Bologna, in his folio edition, has furnished us with upwards of 160 different methods of constructing fortifications.

The Dutch uniformly pursue the system published by Marollois.

Bombelle has likewise established three sorts of fortification, the great royal, grand royal; the mean; and the little royal, petit royal. His method agrees with the sound maxims of good fortification much more than any of the preceding ones.

Blondel has published a system of fortification, which he divides into two principal heads; the great, whose exterior side contains 200 toises; and the little, where the side does not exceed 170 toises. His reason is, because he objects to the line of defence having more than 140 toises, which is the furthest reach of musquetry, or less than 120 toises, to prevent an unnecessary increase of bastions. The principles of Blondel’s system resemble, in a great degree, those upon which Pagan’s is founded, and chiefly consist in methods of fortifying inward posts. The invention has certainly great merit, but its adoption must prove expensive in all its practical branches. It must, moreover, be manifest, that the four long batteries which are supported by flanks of his construction, must serve as so many scaling ladders, or steps to the besiegers, the instant they have effected a breach by cannon shot, or shells.

In 1689, a work was published, entitled:

Nouvelle maniere de fortifier les places, tirée de methodes du Chevalier de Ville, du Comte de Pagan, et de M. de Vauban; avec des remarques sur l’ordre renforcé, sur les desseins du Capitaine Marchy, et sur ceux de M. Blondel. This work is full of strong reasoning, from the result of which the author has formed a new method, containing indeed, nothing original, but giving references to what has already appeared, and disposing the different parts in so judicious a manner, as to shew how a place may be rendered stronger, and be subject at the same time to a less expence. This writer divides fortification into three parts, the great, the mean, and the little.

There is a second and a third method proposed anonymously, and containing mere simple designs. That method in which a modern author gives it the preference over the system of New Brisac, contains little useful information, and contributes less to the real art of fortifying places.

Donato Rosetti, a Canon belonging to Livournia, professor of mathematics in the academy at Piedmont, and mathematician to the Duke of Savoy, has written upon a method of constructing works in what he calls fortification à rebours, or fortification in reverse; so called not only because the re-entering angle of the counterscarp is opposite to the flanked angle; but because, in his idea, it will be necessary to attack it from the reverse side of other works. His system is very simple, and does not require a sacrifice of much money, or stand in need of many men to defend the works: although he can, on his side, pour as much fire upon the enemy, as could be furnished by more complicated methods.

Antonio de Herbart, major of artillery, in the Duke of Wurtemberg’s service, in 1735, published a treatise on fortifications with square angles, which he calls angular polygons.

Monsieur de Montalembert has lately endeavored to bring arches, which are so much condemned by the Chevalier de Ville, into repute. He treats the subject in a manner, and upon principles so similar to those proposed by Antonio de Herbart, that it is almost impossible to separate the two systems. M. de Montalembert asserts, that the science of fortification, (as it is established and taught at present) can only be valued by the public on account of its illusion. He looks upon the use of bastions, as the effect of prejudice; he rejects them wholly, and substitutes in their room, a front of angular tenailles, polygons with small wings, and angular polygons. The engineers of the present day assert with confidence, that the chief security to be derived in works that are supported by bastions, must depend upon cross and reverse firing directed against the enemy’s lodgments on the glacis. Large half-moons are made, not only for the purpose of covering the curtains and the flanks of bastions, but principally to obtain a reverse firing, which effectually prevents the enemy from maintaining his ground on the glacis of a bastion, before he has taken the two collateral half-moons.

M. Menno, Baron of Coehorn, who was general of artillery in the Dutch service, lieutenant-general of infantry, director-general of all the fortified places belonging to the united provinces, and governor of Flanders and all the fortresses that lay along the Scheldt, has been justly esteemed for his extensive knowlege in the art of fortifying places. He was cotemporary with Vauban. This intelligent and sagacious officer being thoroughly convinced, that, however expensively the rampart of a town may be constructed, it could not long sustain the shock of heavy ordnance, invented three different systems, by which he throws so many obstacles in the way of a besieging enemy, that although the place be not in reality rendered impregnable, it is nevertheless so far secured as to make its conquest a business of considerable hazard and expence. We must however acknowlege, that the three methods which have been pointed out by this Dutch general, can only suit places and grounds that are nearly on a level with the surface of the water; that is to say of 3, 4, or 5 feet; which circumstance plainly indicates, that his attention has been chiefly directed to the soil and ground of Holland; so that his instructions are peculiarly applicable to low and aquatic situations. There is much skill discovered in his manner of treating the subject, and considerable ingenuity in the treatise he has published, which certainly contains several improvements that are exclusively his own. It would be impossible to force a passage, or to penetrate into any of his works, without being exposed on all sides, to the fire of the besieged, who are under cover, and from whose discharge of ordnance and musquetry, it is scarcely possible for an assailing enemy to secure himself.

Scheiter, a German writer, describes two kinds of fortifications, the great or the superior, and the small or the inferior species. It has been erroneously and unjustly stated, that the celebrated Vauban only copied after Scheiter, at New Brisac.

Every man of the least knowlege or penetration must see, that the whole system of that illustrious engineer differs essentially from the author we have quoted.

The defects which are manifest in all these different systems shew the superiority which exists, to this day, in all the fortifications that have been constructed by Vauban.

An anonymous writer in the Sardinian service, proposes two new methods of fortification in a work entituled Science de la Guerre, which was published at Turin, in 1744. After having discussed, at considerable length, the art of fortification in general, its utility, the different sciences which must be acquired towards obtaining any degree of perfection in that art, the various systems in it, regular and irregular, and the construction of palisades, gates, mines, casemates, magazines, &c. &c. he concludes with this extraordinary sentence: “It is not my intention to propose any alteration in the general system, but merely to suggest, that the style be rendered more intelligible.” It must be noticed, that this Italian writer in his preface, frankly confesses his deficiency in the French language. We shall however pass over what he says relative to the approbation which his proposed systems, or rather his explanation of methods already known has met with from scientific men, and give his own observations concerning the improvements that might be made. His words are--

“The first method which I propose, consists of a new figure and position that should be given to exterior works in fortification. Having constructed the body of the place after Vauban’s manner, my next object is to erect counter guards with bastions at the head, and flanks upon the wings. I have been induced to adopt this species of work, in order to remedy the inconveniences and the dangers which invariably attend works erected at the foot of the glacis. These works contribute very little to the security of the place, and can only be defended by cannon, which eventually do more harm to the garrison than to the besieging enemy, since they serve as an epaulement to the battery, which the latter will naturally erect the instant he obtains footing in that quarter. This was proved during the siege of Turin, where in a very short space of time the French carried the bonnets and fleches, and made use of them for the purpose of bringing up their artillery.

By means of the small bastions which I have proposed, and which must be pushed forward into the country, the enemy’s approaches are necessarily checked, the saliant angle of the counter-guard is covered, the ditch is completely flanked, and the garrison are impressed with confidence, because the artillery and the troops can always be called in, in cases of exigency. They moreover equal the enemy in the fire which they can furnish, and the whole body of the place is covered by them.

I construct the bastions and flanks out of the sides of the counter-guard, which are detached by means of a ditch 4 toises wide. This ditch is covered above by vaults made of brick or timber, and by boards well supported underneath by strong stakes, the whole being strengthened and rendered bomb-proof with earth 3 or 4 feet thick. This earth keeps the upper plan of the bastion compact, and is sufficient to form a parapet to the counter-guard when the bastion is destroyed. If the vaults should be blown up by mines, and the besiegers set fire to the beams that supported them, a fresh work will present itself, together with a ditch which they had not foreseen or expected, and which they must cross before any further impression can be made.

This sort of subterraneous fortification is extremely advantageous, and may be converted to various purposes. It serves for casemates and galleries to the mines, which I would construct along the whole extent of the faces belonging to these bastions; a communication with them is kept up by means of the galleries attached to the counter-guard. These galleries must be blocked up the instant the bastion is demolished. The flanks of the side will be built after the same method, with a ditch as wide as the one dug in front of the bastion, and which, according to circumstances, may be uncovered, like that already described. The flanks will be of a round figure, in order to avoid the projection of any angles towards the body of the place, which would be the case, should the work be carried; for the enemy availing himself of the earth in front of the walls, and throwing it up, would derive considerable advantage from these angles.

The principal advantage to be obtained from my system arises out of the double defence which it affords to the saliant angles of the bastions, by covering a part of the demi-lunes mitrées, or mitred half-moons (which are their chief protection,) and by these means concealing the body of the place from any outward command, or eminence. This cover or defence cannot, in fact, be taken, before the enemy has got complete possession of the outworks.

I have spoken of these sorts of fortification in the chapter that treats of field works, which, in my humble opinion, are more useful, more solid, less expensive, and more easily built than a variety of others that have been adopted to this day.

The demi-lunes or half-moons which are nearly mitred or crossed, and which I dispose between the counter-guards, have been constructed in that manner for the purpose of stretching as far as possible, beyond the body of the place towards the country. One essential advantage attends this method, which is, that the work being more spacious, it is better calculated to hold a greater quantity of artillery, and a large garrison; that it becomes double by means of the ditch, which separates it from the advanced work, which it covered as described above, and which is joined to the interior revetement by plain walls, separating a whole half-moon from it; in which space a small fort with loop-holes may be constructed to enable the garrison to dispute every inch of ground as the enemy advances. Under the main body of the place, I build a subterraneous chamber, to serve as occasion may require, either for a powder magazine, or for mines.

Between the half-moons and counter-guards, I construct another kind of ravelins, which are open towards the body of the place, cover the curtains of the counter-guards, and supply a double fire against the enemy and the covert way. These ravelins are not raised so high as the other works, in order to keep them under their fire; and I preserve a communication by means of palisaded caponnieres. I leave them empty within, that the besiegers may have as little ground as possible; they are moreover sufficiently thick and solid to withstand the discharge of ordnance, which can only batter in breach from the counterscarp, which acquires double strength, because by means of these works, it is enfiladed, and secured against the enemy’s attack or attempt to make a lodgment.

If the plan, which I had the honor of laying before the king of Sardinia, be carefully examined, it must be apparent to every military man, that the works I therein describe, are not only more useful, but capable of being constructed at a less expence, than those which are generally practised to this day. It will be clearly seen, that I have done nothing more than add some additional proportions of the flanks and bastions to the counter-guards, which are usually erected; and that I have augmented their double face, by joining it to the half-moons of the curtain. The object of this addition, is to throw obstacles in the enemy’s way, should he attempt to make close approaches, to cover the body of the place, to render the siege difficult, to increase the besieger’s expence, and to give confidence to the troops of the garrison, who are thereby no longer exposed, as they must be in all outworks erected upon the foot of the glacis.

It is not, however, my design to throw works of this kind into utter disrepute. There are situations and local circumstances, which not only make their adoption useful, but render it absolutely necessary. I cannot pretend to describe the specific nature of such exigencies, as they grow out of existing cases, which an able general and an engineer will know how to discriminate by examining the ground.

The ditch belonging to the body of the place, be its soil what it may, must be very broad, as the chief security to be derived from it, depends entirely upon its width. The enemy cannot easily fill it up, and he must suffer a considerable loss of men, should he attempt to cross it; being exposed to the discharge of artillery from the flanks, which artillery cannot be dismounted from any quarter or lodgment, before the counter-guards are taken. The storming of the place must depend entirely upon the previous conquest of the side ravelins, and of the centre half moons; for unless the enemy has first effected this, he will not be able to cross the ditch, or make any lodgment, since at every approach he must be annoyed from the flanks, and battered in front; he must, in fact, attack and get the better of five works at once. The execution of any part of so important a task, must be the more dangerous, because in proportion, as he overcomes one line of defence, another presents itself which is equally formidable, and the rest increase in difficulty and hazard.

When I submitted this new method to the consideration of able and intelligent men, only one opponent started to controvert the property of its general adoption. This was a celebrated Dutch engineer, who asserted that it could not be of any essential service, except in hexagons, or figures that had many sides; he further argued, that the method was more faulty in small works, because the angles became more acute, and that no use could be made of them in regular fortification.

I had the good fortune to satisfy this gentleman, and to convince him, that his objections were not well founded. I stated to him, that by increasing the width of the ditch at the angle of the flanks of the bastion, I reduced that angle to any size I judged necessary; I maintained, that by so doing I did not weaken the place; but that on the contrary by cancelling the parallelogram of the counter-guards, I rendered more oblique any battery which the enemy might erect in front of the bastion, whilst the rampart belonging to it fell under a cross fire from the mitred half-moon.

With respect to its uselessness in irregular fortification, after having discussed the subject at some length, I got him to agree with me, that every detached piece of fortification might be constructed any where (and with greater advantage to the ultimate defence of a place) sooner than in plain counter-guards, horn or crownworks, tenailles and such like fortifications, because by means of the retreat which was secured under a second line of retrenchment, by means of the regular resistance it afforded, without having one dead angle attached, and by means of the little ground it left for the enemy to lodge on, the main body of the place was more effectually protected, and the approaches of the enemy were considerably checked.

With regard to the construction proposed in this new method, I take all the measurements, and I mark all the essential points upon capital lines; that is to say, I prolong the lines of the saliant angles of the bastion, and those of the centre of the curtain; after which I determine the width of the ditch at 23 or 24 toises, in order to make the parallels of the faces of the different bastions for the counterscarp of the counter-guards and of the great half-moon, and finally the thickness of the works, to agree with the ditches in front.

With regard to the ravelins which are made between the mitred half-moons and the counter-guards, I place the saliant angle in the centre of the scite, and I construct faces to them in such a manner, that they are under a straight line of defence from the half-moons and counter-guards. I erect the counterscarp and glacis in the usual manner, only with this difference that I wish to have a ditch of moderate breadth and depth between the covert-way and the glacis: say, two toises broad upon two deep.

In order to clear the ditch of occasional rubbish that may fall in, or of pieces that may drop from the demolished parts of a fortification during a siege, square excavations or wells must occasionally be made along the flanks and faces of the different works; by which means the ditch is always kept clean, and you may at any time repair the fortifications, whilst on the other hand, the enemy, should he attempt to storm the place, must have recourse to fascines, as he could derive no advantage from the materials that would otherwise be found under the walls.”

This ingenious writer has described every part of the method proposed in a clear and perspicuous manner. His plan is particularly valuable, on account of the exact measurements it contains, whereby the most common understanding may become acquainted with the construction. He appears singularly anxious to have it practically proved, that works can be erected according to this method at a less expence than by any other, and that there is no comparison between the advantages it affords in point of real utility. In chap. 16, p. 61, the following account is given of his second system, which he calls the Great System.

“After I had thoroughly digested my plan, relative to the best method of covering a town or fortified place by outworks, it naturally occurred, that I had not provided the necessary means of keeping the troops under shelter, of securing a retreat to the artillery, which is always seized whenever a work is taken by assault, nor of furnishing a heavier discharge of ordnance and musquetry than the enemy could pour in. These important objects put my invention to work, and I directed all the faculties of my mind towards discovering a kind of fortification which might not only cover the body of the place, and by a new disposition of its relative parts communicate equally with every quarter, without there being any necessity to carry the heavy ordnance into the ditch; but likewise oblige the besieging enemy to increase his means of attack, and make extraordinary efforts. I necessarily saw, that the saliant angles of the bastions should be well covered, and that the strongest ought to be raised before the curtain belonging to the body of the place, in order to force the assailants to make their attack on a quarter from whence the concentrated fire of several works, presenting a wide front of artillery, would issue with considerable effect.

After having for several years, directed the whole of my attention to this specific object, and tried the result of my reflections upon paper by a variety of designs; I had the good fortune to discover a method, whose plan exhibits to the eye several pieces that are joined together by their different walls, and in front of which there are ditches covered in with beams and strong oak boards, and made bombproof by means of a sufficient quantity of earth that is spread upon the whole. So that it appears evident to me, that there is only one species of fortification, which affords the means of concentrating your line of defence from every quarter, and of lining the parapets with heavy ordnance. By means of this construction, the lines and glacis will be secured against any immediate approaches of the enemy, during which seasonable interruption, the artillery may without risk, be withdrawn and lodged in the interior work; a convenience which cannot be obtained in detached pieces, on account of the difficulty which always attends the first erection, or ultimate demolition of them.

By taking away the beams, or by destroying them at once, and by pulling down the walls which compose the flanks, you suddenly open a new work upon the enemy; which work has the advantage of being considerably larger than the one he has just attacked and taken, and against which he must raise fresh batteries, and prepare the means of crossing a ditch, he had not foreseen, and which he cannot easily pass. This work either communicates with a tenaille that commands it, or is connected with a horned work, flanked by two others of similar construction. The tenaille is open in the centre (being divided into two parts by a ditch) in order to leave as little room as possible for the enemy to lodge on, and to multiply the enfilading points of the place.

Between these large works, demi-lunes or half-moons, of three orders, are constructed in the shape of bastions. These have orillons and ditches between the two, which flank the side-works, and are always protected by an enfilade, that the enemy never can lodge without being exposed to a cross and rear fire. In order to cover the whole body of the place, I construct other intermediate demi-lunes, which are equal in elevation to the first works. These contribute greatly towards preventing the enemy’s approaches; for they not only enfilade the covert-way, but they likewise double the defences in such a manner, that the enemy, as has already been observed, cannot attack one place without experiencing a necessity to attack four others at the same time: to which may be added this disheartening circumstance, that as fast as he advances, so fast a retreat is made behind some new work, and he is, of course, obliged to recommence his attack.

The regular communication between the several works must be kept up by means of sleeping bridges, which are well supported underneath by strong beams or stakes. Those which form a part of the rampart must be covered with four feet of earth, well pressed together. The walls by which the works are connected, must be so built as to be easily demolished, and they must only serve to cover the subterraneous fortifications. These walls are never within the reach of the enemy’s cannon, and when they are pulled down, their ruins are thrown into wells, or excavations, which have been previously dug at the foot of the main wall, to prevent the ditch from being filled with them: subterraneous embrasures are opened from within to enfilade the ditch, and to obstruct the passage.

When by dint of perseverance, and after having expended considerable sums of money, lost many lives and consumed much time the enemy has at last obtained possession of these works, he discovers, that his sacrifices have only led him to an unexpected body of the place which he cannot injure. This new construction he finds flanked on both sides by two double bastions, and a broad curtain lined with a triple front of artillery, having a very wide ditch, traversed by tenailles, batteries from casemates, and defended by flanks with the two cavaliers belonging to the bastions, which keep up an incessant fire upon the artillery that is planted in the carried outworks, and render it almost impossible for him to establish a lodgment.”

“I need not pretend,” continues the same author, “to have discovered by this new method, any certain means of rendering a place impregnable; such an idea would be chimerical and absurd.

Let a town be ever so well fortified, that town, if properly invested and resolutely attacked, must eventually fall, unless it be seasonably succoured from without. My chief object is to correct the errors into which former writers seem to have fallen, and by the methods I have proposed, to harrass a besieging army, not only by increasing its expence, but by occasioning a considerable loss of men; I thereby prolong the siege, and gain time for the garrison, so that succours may arrive, or such conditions be entered into as will secure the country, which the place attacked is destined to cover.

Counter-guards, ravelins, and demi-lunes are, in fact, a species of fortification by which they flank one another obliquely, and which only tend to embarrass the troops of the garrison, whenever it is judged expedient to manœuvre under the fire of artillery; a circumstance that invariably causes confusion; whereas the works which I have proposed are capacious enough to admit of every movement and evolution without inconvenience.

Horned and crowned works are extremely expensive in their construction, and of little use when completed; their lines of defence, their faces and their flanks are so short and limited, that a besieging enemy can with great ease attack, and carry them by means of an equal front and range of fire: and when he has so far succeeded, he derives considerable advantage from having opened a wide space of ground on which he can erect angles to annoy and batter the place. Whereas in the works of my proposed method, the foundations are broader, the defences are more direct and within musquet shot, and when the garrison retreats towards the body of the place, the ground which it abandons is scarcely sufficient for the erection of a small battery; it is moreover exposed to all the retrenched and flanking points, so that the enemy would be instantly dislodged.

Tenailles and queues d’hirondelle contain dead angles which may always be taken advantage of by the besieging enemy. This does not exist in the works I propose. For at every approach, not only fresh expences must be incurred by the assailant, but he will remain exposed to several fires at once, without being able to cover himself from the reverse and cross ones.

Double ditches afford the means of creating perpetual uneasiness in the enemy, by uncovering fresh works as he advances. So that the siege is protracted, his expences are increased, and his loss of men, ammunition, stores, and artillery is proportionably multiplied.

In the examination which was made of the relief proposed by me; some persons well acquainted with the particular subject, objected to its adoption on account of the expence. I made an accurate calculation of the amount, and I found that it cost a sixth more than the usual fortification. This does not assuredly form sufficient ground to outbalance the many advantages which can be derived from the construction. Besides, there is no occasion of fortifying all the parts of a town in this manner, since it would be advisable to strengthen the weak points only.”

The construction which is proposed in this new method, is simple, and easily understood. The principal objects to be attended to are these; that there be mines under all the works, and that a regular communication be kept up with the chambers by means of subterraneous galleries, which must be resorted to in proportion as the enemy approaches.

The Piedmontese engineer, from whom we have made these extracts, has added to Vauban’s and Coehorn’s systems. We leave the subject to the consideration of those professional men who have made the art of fortification their peculiar study; they must determine whether the theory of the proposed method be susceptible of practice, and if so, whether it can be rendered so generally useful, as the author seems to promise it would.

On a general view of the subject it must, however, be acknowleged, that a situation is not always found which will admit of the improvements and additions that might otherwise be made. There are some old places in which the figure of the fortifications erected for their defence, is so strange and whimsical, that the least correction of its errors, must be attended with an enormous expence.

A town may be irregularly fortified, and owe that irregularity either to the figure of the works only, by the angles not being equally distant from the centre, although every one may admit of a good bastion, and the lines be tolerably extensive; or by the figure and the angles differing, from some being too acute, and others being rentrant; or by the inequality of the figure and its sides; some being too long and others too short; or finally by a disparity all together in the figure, in its sides and angles.

If the three first kinds of irregularity are judiciously corrected, the correction of the fourth follows of course, as it is only the natural consequence of the others. Those irregularities may be occasioned by a neighboring river, by the entrance into a creek or harbor, or by steep rocks beyond which it is impossible to carry the works.

It is a sound and general maxim in the art of fortifying, to reduce the irregular proportions of its lines, &c. of defence to as much regularity as the ground and situation will permit. For by so doing, their strength becomes equally great throughout. If you should not be able to surmount the natural obstacle which may be thrown in your way, you must never deviate from the general rules that are laid down in regular fortification. These are, that all the parts be well flanked, that the angles of the bastions do not fall under sixty degrees, that the line of defence be within musquet shot, or that outworks be established to bring it within that range; and finally, that the means of resistance be distributed in as many equal proportions as the irregularity of the works will suffer.

You must, however, be careful to avoid an error into which many have fallen. You must not weaken the collective means of defence, in order to strengthen any particular vulnerable quarter; for by so doing you are sacrificing a great line of defence, to the security of a small part which might be strengthened by outworks.

The author of Oeuvres Militaires, in his 3d volume, page 45, has given observations and maxims relative to irregular fortification.

Baron d’Espagnac, in consequence of the remarks which are made by Marshal Saxe, in his Reveries, has in his supplement to that work amply discussed the subject of fortification, and described the different means of attack and defence. We refer the inquisitive officer to those works. Before we conclude these interesting remarks upon an art, which is certainly equal to any invention that has employed the skill and ingenuity of man, we must observe that in all periods, productions on that head have been as numerous as the subject has hitherto proved inexhaustible. It must, however, be acknowleged with some regret, that the tendency of the greater part, if not of all, seems to be an indiscriminate and bold attack upon the works of the immortal Vauban. These writers censure the methods of that great engineer by proposing something of their own, which only differs in appearance, and which they think proper to call a superior system. Assertions, and promises to afford new lights upon the science of fortification, have always, in fact, been profusely given by authors of this description. Their labors, however, are only so far to be regarded and esteemed, in as much as their different systems tend to point out the necessary calculations which are required to shew the expence attending their construction, and to prove the effects they might produce. The memoirs upon perpendicular fortification, written by M. Montalembert engineer, will throw considerable light upon these observations.

With respect to the knowlege of fortification, it must be manifest to every thinking man, that from a chief magistrate, or head of a country, down to the lowest infantry officer, the acquirement of it is more or less indispensibly necessary.

A chief magistrate of a country, should be well versed in the science of fortification, in order to examine the plans that are laid before him, and to determine upon the execution of proposed projects.

A secretary of war should know it, in order to explain the nature of the plans when questioned by a superior power, to calculate the expences which will attend the construction of works, and to distinguish good ones from those which might be useless and expensive.

Every commandant of a town or fortified place, should be well acquainted with the subject, because it may fall to his peculiar share to construct works in cases of emergency, or to add to those already erected for the defence of the place entrusted to his care. He likewise ought, at all times, to be able to ascertain how far such a place is capable of holding out.

Every director of fortification should be master of it, in order to discriminate between what is proper, or what is defective, and make his report accordingly.

Every infantry officer, in a word, should be conversant in field fortification at least, if not acquainted with the general system. For without some knowlege of its branches, how will he, in cases of emergency, be capable of throwing up a temporary redoubt, of fortifying a spot of ground which he is ordered to maintain, or of securing a common outpost?

Field FORTIFICATIONS, fortifications de campagne, Fr. consist in the art of fortifying, constructing, attacking, and defending all sorts of temporary field works during a campaign.

Although an engineer may be perfectly master of the different methods by which a town can be strengthened and secured by permanent works, he should not remain satisfied with that acquisition, but carefully direct his attention to the distribution of ground, for field fortification. He should be able to ascertain, with geometrical precision, all the relative divisions and corresponding points of any situation in which it might be judged expedient to construct that species of fortification which consists in intrenched lines, fortins, or small forts, and in redoubts of various denominations. The shape or figure of these works is exactly similar to those of the permanent kind. Ditches, ramparts, and parapets must be dug and thrown up, to secure the former, in the same manner as they are practised for the protection of the latter. They only differ in their measurement and proportions. Intrenched lines are made for the purpose of covering a camp from any sudden insult of the enemy, which should always, on this account, be pitched in the most advantageous manner; contiguous to and facing that quarter where it is probable the attack will be made, a ditch must be dug, having three toises at least in width and two in depth. This must be defended by a parapet en redans, or be occasionally flanked with small bastions, two toises thick, consisting of solid good earth well pressed together, covered and supported with fascines; having likewise banquettes behind them sufficiently high to conceal the soldiers’ tents. If water could be conveyed, or drawn into the ditch from any adjacent rivulet, or river, the security would be greater. When the lines of intrenchment are thrown up with an intention to maintain the ground any length of time, a covert-way must be made, which should be regularly fenced with palisades.

There is another species of field fortifications, which is resorted to in order to keep up a communication between two places; in which case great care must be taken to prevent the lines from being enfiladed in any quarter; and if they should be exposed in that manner, no time ought to be lost in strengthening the weak points by constructing redoubts, or small forts. The defence of these redoubts and forts must be entrusted to small arms and musquetry, but not to cannon, as the range of the latter is always too extensive to prevent an enemy’s close approaches to the lines of communication from their field works, or forts. Necessary drains must be made to let out the water that collects, as it would otherwise destroy the works, drown the sentries, and cut off all communication with the main body.

When a position is taken upon a steep rock, or eminence extremely difficult of access, the lines which surround it do not absolutely require ditches for their safety, as the parapet and banquette may probably be sufficient; but if any vulnerable or weak part be observed, every effort should be used to get at a spring, and to fill up an excavation in front of it, to prevent surprises. An able engineer will be particularly careful in drawing his plan of communication, to ascertain the exact points whereby they may be protected by an enfilade from one fort to another; so that if the enemy should make a lodgment any where, he will not be able to maintain his position on account of his being flanked by other works.

Field works, or small forts are generally constructed in places the preservation of which is judged to be indispensibly necessary. Such, for instance, are necks of land that stretch into a marsh, and are surrounded by it; the passage of a road, têtes de ponts, or heads of bridges, and other objects of similar importance in offensive, or defensive operations. On these occasions the shape and size of the construction must depend upon the nature of the ground, the importance of the undertaking, and on the number of men by which the works are to be garrisoned.

Many forts in field fortification are built in triangular forms; some are square, some starred, or en étoile, some as redoubts, in the shape of demi-lunes, others in crown, or horn-work, and others again in the figures of tenailles or queues d’hirondelle.

When the object of defence is a windmill, a castle, or a small dwelling-house, the first step to be taken, is to select a spot of ground upon which you are to build the field work, so as to check and prevent the enemy’s approaches. In order to do this effectually, the shape and adjacent parts of the building must be closely attended to, and the work be thrown up without exposing it to a rear attack; but if the place to be defended stand alone, and be not supported by any ditch or eminence on its flanks, or in its rear, you must then fortify it all round. The earth which is dug out of the ditch will serve to raise the rampart, or parapet. Saliant angles, distributed at equal distances, in the shape of bastions, must be erected with good flanks to protect and cover the intrenchment. If, on account of the ground, the work should not be much raised, the parapet must be raised, in order to prevent the enemy from attempting an easy assault.

An engineer from Piedmont, who has proposed some new methods in field fortification, is decidedly against stone and masonry, in the construction of parapets and field works. His reason is self-evident; for as he justly observes, the scattered pieces which must naturally be thrown about in all directions by the demolishing of the walls in the discharge of heavy cannon, would do more mischief than the cannon itself.

It is frequently found necessary to fortify a bridge; the means adopted for this purpose must depend entirely upon the size and current of the river. If the stream should be broad and navigable, and so far from the fortress, that it cannot be defended by the ordinance of the town or fortified place, in that case a large retrenchment, resembling a place of arms, must be constructed, with strong bastions to support and cover it, curtains and half-moons, a broad and deep ditch, and covert-way that must be well secured by palisades. This retrenchment, or place of arms, must be made sufficiently capacious to hold a garrison that would be capable of opposing the attack of a large detachment from the main army of an enemy. A half-moon must be constructed within the lines, with a ditch in front, to serve as a work behind which the garrison might retreat with its artillery, disputing every inch of ground, and by that means affording sufficient time to cut down the bridge.

If the river should be narrow, yet wide enough to prevent any sudden irruption into the country beyond it, the bridges that are across must be fortified by works made of earth, which are to be covered by ditches dug in front. Half-moons, tenailles, crown and horn-works, and similar constructions, provided they be well fenced with palisades, will answer all the purposes required in such cases. The engineer, by the first glance of his eye, will be able to ascertain the situation of the country, and to fit his plans accordingly. Small lodgments, or wooden recesses, must be made as guard-houses, in which detached parties of men should be stationed to meet the first attacks of the enemy, and to keep him in check while the whole army passes over the river, or is drawn up in order of battle to dispute the passage. These intrenchments must invariably be well furnished with light artillery, for the purpose of annoying the approaching enemy. But the disposition and arrangement of these pieces must always be such as to admit of their being instantly removed, when the intrenchments are carried, under the cover of heavier ordnance which is kept playing upon the enemy from the opposite side of the river.

Practical Maxims in building Field Works. 1st. The spot on which works are to be constructed should determine their figure; nor should any attention be paid to preserve a regular form which does not occupy the ground to advantage.

2d. Every line must be so disposed, that the slope of hills all around even to the very bottom, be open to the small arms of the garrison; and every part should be discoverable to the distance of at least 500 paces.

3d. Works thrown up for the defence of a defile, should always be within musquet shot of it, which must not be more than 200 yards.

4th. The best defence in works that are flanked, or where one side is defended by the fire of another, is that formed by right angles.

5th. A saliant angle should never be less than 60, and a re-entering angle than 90 degrees; nor greater than 120 degrees.

6th. The entrance to the work should always be made in the part least exposed to attack, and if possible in a re-entering angle.

7th. Endeavor to present, if possible, a larger front to the enemy than he can occupy in making the attack.

8th. Avoid all ground commanded by an eminence, either in front, flank, or rear.

9th. Never leave the rear of a work so exposed that the enemy may turn it.

10th. Always make the angles of a work in the directions least exposed to attacks, and consequently always present a front to the most exposed.

11th. The garrison should never be drawn up more than two deep; and an ordinary pace of two feet is usually allowed for each file, and from 6 to 8 paces from each piece of ordnance.

12th. If a work is so large as to be defended by a battalion or two, a reserve should be allowed of about one sixth of the number.

13th. The space within a work should always be sufficient for the men to move and lie down. Every soldier will require at least 18 square feet, and every field gun at least 216 square feet.

14th. Provided the line is not made too extensive, the more inward space there is the better.

15th. A parapet to resist cannon shot should never be less than 12 feet thick; and for musquet shot not less than 6 feet.

16th. The height of the parapet must be regulated by the situation of the work, and of the adjoining ground; with this consideration, that its height above the banquette does not exceed 4¹⁄₂ feet.

17th. The depth and breadth of the ditch must be regulated by the quantity of earth required for the parapet and banquette.

18th. A tête de pont, or work to cover the embarkation of troops, or the passage of a river, should, if possible, be made where the line of the river or coast forms a kind of re-entering angle; that the flanks of the corps, as well as those of the works, may be covered.

To carry on the work.--The number of workmen must be proportioned to the time allotted for carrying on the work, the quantity of labor, and the number of hands capable of being employed at the same time. When the ditches are broad, the workmen may be posted in two rows; but if narrow, only in one. In the first case, the earth will be thrown by those who are on the outward edge of the ditch to the second row, and by them upon the parapet; for which reason the second row, to keep pace with the first, ought to be twice as numerous. The workmen should never be placed nearer than 2 paces, or 4 feet, from each other; and two men with shovels should be preceded by one with a pickaxe. If more than usual expedition be required, one man with a wheelbarrow, or basket, may be added to six or eight with shovels. Another row of workmen should also be placed upon the parapet, to spread the earth and beat it down, as it is thrown up.

In fixing the fascines, three men will be sufficient for every 24 feet of the work, who should be provided with mallets, a saw, and a handbil, or hatchet.

In order to form some idea of the time in which a field work may be completed, compute the number of cubic feet of earth to be excavated, thus; multiply half the sum of the breadth of the ditch at top and at bottom, by the depth, for the number of square feet in the profile; and this multiplied by the distance between the workmen in feet will give the number of cubic feet each man has to dig: or being multiplied by the length of the ditch, gives the cubic contents of the ditch. Now one man is supposed to be able to move 216 cubic feet of earth in a day, during the summer; but this is not always the case. If a field work be completed in 24 hours, it will be as much as the most diligent workmen are capable of. This time is generally allowed for the formation of a weak profile; 48 hours for that of a stronger, with a revetement of fascines; and 72 for the strongest.

The different slopes for the works must depend upon the nature of the soil, and the materials of which the work is composed. The interior slope of the parapet, though it be fascined, should be ¹⁄₆ of its height; exterior about ²⁄₃ its height. The slope of the banquette equal to its height. The slope of the scarp or counterscarp of the ditch, should be from half its height to its full height, according to the soil. The superior slope of the parapets must entirely depend upon the situation of the work, and that of the surrounding country. The interior slope of the parapet is generally lined with fascines, to keep up the earth; but it is not absolutely necessary to fascine the exterior slope, if the soil be pretty stiff. The embrasures are generally made 20 inches wide on the inside, and 9 feet on the outside; they must always be lined with something to retain the earth; turf is generally preferred, as fascines are so apt to take fire.

The manner of making the materials for field works, may be seen under the heads Fascines, Gabions, Hurdles, &c. and the manner of estimating the quantity of materials for works of this kind, may be seen under the word Battery. See Am. Mil. Lib.

FORTIFICATION....Permanent.

A parapet, to resist cannon should never be less than 18 feet thick in earth, and 8 or 9 in masonry. A wall need only be two feet thick in masonry to resist musquetry. The parapet should always be 4¹⁄₂ feet above the banquette, and 7¹⁄₂ or 8 feet above the rampart, or terre-plein.

The Rampart should always be sufficiently wide to allow for the platform, and for two carriages passing each other; about 9 fathoms at top. A parapet of earth, though it takes more room, is always preferable to one of masonry, when it can be raised; though the only objection to the masonry, is the number of splinters it produces.

Entire Revetements of masonry are not advantageous for the same reason. The masonry of revetments should not be so high as to be seen or battered from a distance; earth parapets are battered in vain, as the earth forms a natural slope.

The best Scarp is made of masonry, either in wet or dry ditches, be the earthen one ever so well fraized or palisaded. The earthen one may be stormed without making a breach. The scarp should be 30 or 35 feet high.

The Counterscarp should also be of masonry, and not less than 12 feet high. The inconveniences of an earth or low counterscarp, are the impossibility of defending to the last the covert way; as the enemy may descend into the ditch, and again mount the covert way, and so get in the rear of the traverses. The enemy may find his way along the natural slope of an earth counterscarp, and is not delayed by a tedious operation of getting into the ditch. Besides the natural slope of the end of an earth traverse prevents its effectually covering the covert way.

Ditches are generally 15 or 18 toises wide. Dry ditches are always preferable to wet ones, on account of the shelter they afford the troops, and the ready communication with the outworks, without the constant trouble and danger of bridges.

The Covert way should be 5 toises wide; less would croud the troops, and more would allow room for the enemy to erect batteries in it.

The whole of the glacis should be seen, not only from the crest of the parapet, but from the embrasures in the parapet.

The Tenaille, must not be so high as to prevent the flank guns in one bastion seeing the breach that may be made in the collateral one.

Ravelins are best without flanks; their faces directed to 10 toises from the shoulders of the bastions.

The crest of the parapet of the body of the place should be 8 feet above the crest of the glacis, to command it across a ditch of 15 or 20 toises.

The crest of the parapet of the ravelin is 3 feet lower than that of the body of the place, in order that it may be more effectually commanded from the place; and therefore to enable the parapet of the ravelin to command its own glacis, the ditch is only made 10 toises, and this glacis is a foot lower than that of the body of the place.

There must be an equilibrium of defence established through every front of a fortified place; for it will be needless to strengthen any particular front, if the others from their weakness be left exposed. The following remarks may enable an observer to appreciate the value of particular works, in the proper application and arrangement of which that equilibrium consists.

Intrenchments within the works add much to their defence. In large bastions with obtuse flanked angles, the best intrenchment is formed of the front of a fortification, or of two demi-bastions and a curtain, connecting the angles formed by the flank and curtain. If this intrenchment be advanced to the shoulders of the bastion, so as to include its flanks, as is often the case, it will be subject to be taken in the rear, by the fire from the counter batteries opposed to the flanks. But in bastions with acute flanked angles which do not afford sufficient space for this kind of intrenchment, Cormontaigne proposes one in the form of a cavalier, whose faces and flanks are parallel to those of the bastion. The first kind of intrenchment does not operate in the defence of the place, till after the passage of the ditch; till which time it remains entire, and then capable of a very great defence. The second kind becomes a support to the bastion from the first commencement of the siege; but it is therefore subject to have its defence destroyed at a distance. Nor is its defence equal to that of the other form.

Counterguards should possess the three following properties: 1st. They must cover effectually the principal work before which they are placed; at least that part of it, which can be battered in breach. 2d. They must be lower than the work which they cover; but not so low as to permit its revetement to be seen. 3d. They must be so narrow as not to afford room for the besiegers to erect batteries in them, against the work which they cover, and therefore not leave the besiegers a choice of positions. The counterguards in Coehorn’s system are only of earth, through which it is necessary to make an opening, before the capital work can be battered.

Horn or Crown works, unless to occupy some important point, to strengthen some weak side, or to afford more room for a confined garrison are rather a weak than a strong arm to a place. This is particularly the case when they are constructed with smaller, and consequently weaker fronts, than that part of the body of the place which they cover: as they facilitate, when taken, the approaches to the body of the place. This is remedied by constructing their fronts of the same strength as the front or fronts which they cover. They also facilitate the taking of the place, by exposing the revetement of the work on which their branches are directed to be battered in breach, along the ditches of those branches. This is a great evil, even to an outwork, but is of serious consequence if they rest upon the body of the place. This defect has been remedied by placing these works altogether outside of the covert way, and allowing their ditch no communication with those in the rear. In this case their gorge must be made very secure to prevent its being turned.

An Advanced Covert way, is esteemed amongst the best means of adding to the defence of places. Besides the advantages common to the usual covert way, it has many peculiar to itself. It however seems necessary to ensure to it the many advantages of which it is susceptible, (beside being properly palisaded,) that it should be secured in the rear by a wet ditch, as the only means of giving it an inaccessible counterscarp, and at the same time keeping it under the fire of the musquetry of the place. This kind of covert way is generally supported by redoubts upon the capitals of the bastions and ravelins which from their position cannot mask the fire of the place; and being mounted with artillery, oblige the besiegers to commence their attack at a great distance, and very much to extend their operations; and as their establishment upon this covert way must effectually mask the fire of their first batteries, it must greatly increase their labor. The retreat from these redoubts must be secured by an underground passage.

Countermines are undoubtedly one of the first means of strengthening places. For this article we refer to the word Mines.

Detached redoubts, when circumstances of situation favor them, are employed with great success. They are usually detached and totally unconnected with any of the works of the place, by any covert way or other above ground work; and have for objects, either the opposing an additional obstacle to the besiegers at the point they occupy, or the rendering the adjoining fronts inaccessible, by an enfilade or reverse fire upon the approaches. They also afford at their gorge, a most excellent rendezvous and retreat for sorties; upon the level of the country, and without the difficulty of filing troops through the barrier of a covert way.

But in order to insure to the detached work or works, all these advantages, it is necessary that they should be either totally inaccessible to the besiegers, by reason of the natural difficulties of their situation, as in an inundation, morass, &c. or be made secure by art, from being taken by storm, and only attackable by regular approaches. They should be under cover of the fire of the place; but if their distance be too great for that, an intermediate work must be established to give them support. Their best form is that of a bastion with retired flanks; and a strong system of countermines the most effectual way of prolonging their resistance.

General remarks...The larger the flanked angles of works, the more direct will be their fire, and that of their covert way, upon the approaches; the greater extent will they oblige the besiegers to occupy in their parallels and batteries; and the more will they oblige the besiegers to expose themselves to the fire of the fronts collateral to the one attacked. Faces of works directed to inaccessible situations, such as rivers, lakes, &c. from whence they cannot be enfiladed by ricochet batteries, add greatly to the strength of a front.

If the flanked angle of a ravelin be so advanced as to see in reverse any battery erected upon the crest of the glacis, or in the covert way of the bastions, it will increase the strength of that front; because it will oblige the besiegers to gain possession of the ravelin, before they can make any lodgment, from which they can batter the bastions. This is the case in Cormontaigne’s system: and a place thus fortified, obliges the besiegers to attack and gain two ravelins to get at the bastion between them. Beside, if this system be applied to a right line, or to a polygon of many sides, the prolongations of the faces of the bastions will be intercepted by the flanked angle of the ravelins, and consequently make the establishment of enfilading batteries against them very difficult. A work which admits of a breach being made in it (particularly the body of the place) at a distance, very much facilitates its being taken. The ditch of the ravelin affords an opening through which the besiegers may make a breach in the face of the bastion from the glacis, opposite the flanked angle of the ravelin, and is therefore subject to this defect. A counterguard before the bastion, lessens this evil, by transferring the breach from the body of the place to the ravelin; but it requires a counterguard also before the ravelin, effectually to cure it. A crown or horn work also produces this evil; its remedy was given, in speaking of those works.

The direction of the flanks or faces of a work is not so material as relating to the fire of artillery, as to that of musquetry; for artillery is never fired without being pointed, but musquetry is fired mechanically, and perpendicular to the parapet, without much attention to the object to be struck.

A work in the neighborhood of a height must be defiladed[8] from that height, that is, instead of being built upon a horizontal plane, it must be erected upon an imaginary inclined plane, passing from somewhere in the interior of that work, over the most commanding points of the height: and every part of the works must bear the same relation to this inclined plane, that they would do, to a horizontal plane in a level country.

[8] The French use the word defile in a contrary sense to enfile; and as we admit the words enfilade and enfiladed from the latter, we cannot refuse the terms defilade and defiladed from the former.

A work is not therefore always to be condemned, because it is in the neighborhood of a height; for if it be properly defiladed from that height, it will receive a great advantage over the approaches of the besiegers, carried on down an inclined plane towards it. But a work to be properly constructed in the neighborhood of heights, must not uniformly preserve the same distance from those heights, unless their summits be all upon the same level; but must approach them at their lowest parts, and recede from them as they rise; thus will the necessary plane of defilement preserve nearly the same degree of obliquity throughout.

Dimensions of Walls and their Counterforts, from 10 to 50 Feet high, having a Slope of ¹⁄₅ their Height.

+---------------------------+-------------------------+ | Wall. | Counterforts. | +-------+---------+---------+--------+--------+-------+ | |Thickness|Thickness|Distance| | | | | at | at | between| | | |Height.| Top. | Bottom. | them. |Breadth.|Length.| +-------+---------+---------+--------+--------+-------+ | Ft. | Ft. In. | Ft. In. | Feet |Ft. In. |Ft. In.| | 10 | 4 0 | 6 0 | 8 | 2 8 | 4 -- | | 15 | 4 3 | 7 3 | 10 | 3 4 | 5 -- | | 20 | 4 6 | 8 6 | 12 | 4 0 | 6 -- | | 25 | 4 9 | 9 9 | 14 | 4 8 | 7 -- | | 30 | 5 0 | 11 0 | 16 | 5 4 | 8 -- | | 35 | 5 3 | 12 3 | 18 | 6 0 | 9 -- | | 40 | 5 6 | 13 6 | 20 | 6 8 |10 -- | | 45 | 5 9 | 14 9 | 22 | 7 4 |11 -- | | 50 | 6 0 | 16 0 | 24 | 8 0 |12 -- | +-------+---------+---------+--------+--------+-------+

The heights in the above table are taken only from the bottom of the ditch, and do not include the foundations.

When the rampart is partly walled and partly turfed; then ¹⁄₅ of the height of the turfed part must be added to the breadth of the wall at the top given in the table.

The bases of all inward slopes of earth should be equal to their height, if not more.

The bases of all outward slopes of earth ²⁄₃ of their height.

The superior slopes of all parapets ¹⁄₆ of their breadth.

The slope of all walls, or revetements ¹⁄₅ of their height.

Though the above principles given for the erection of field works may assist an officer’s recollection who may be employed on that duty, the memorandums given respecting permanent fortification pretend to no such object: but may serve to remind an officer, if he should visit a fortification, of its essential requisites; and may assist his observations in passing round the works.

FORTIN, FORTLETT, or FORTILAGE. See FIELD-FORT.

FORTRESS, any place strongly fortified.

FORWARD, a word of command, which is given when a regiment, or company has been interrupted in its regular movement, and the march is continued. On this occasion every succeeding division must preserve its proper distance and mark time until the word Forward, is given. This frequently occurs in the passage of obstacles, and in the winding of roads, streets, &c.,

Right or Left shoulders FORWARD, an absurd word of command, used in the British exercise. It is a gross misconception of the French line of science, which requires the whole body to face in the given inclination; every man must see that it is impossible for a soldier to march either with ease or grace in such a position. See LINE OF SCIENCE.

FOSSE, in fortification. See DITCH.

FOSSES pleins d’eau, Fr. Wet Ditches. See FORTIFICATION.

FOSSES secs, Fr. Dry ditches.

FOSSES revétus, Fr. Ditches that are lined.

FOSSES non revétus, Fr. Ditches that are not lined.

FOUCADE, FOUGADE, a small mine.

FOUGASS, in mining, a small mine, from 6 to 8 feet under ground: It is generally placed under the glacis or dry ditches.

FOUGETTE. Fr. Indian sky-rocket, a species of fire-work which is frequently used by the Asiatics. The author of a late military production in France makes the following observations relative to advantages which might be derived from this weapon against cavalry, and for the defence of fortified places, or intrenchments. He observes, that the fougette, in shape, resembles a sky-rocket, whose flight is gradually brought to run along an horizontal direction. By throwing several fougettes into parks of artillery and upon the caissons, &c. considerable damage might be occasioned from the fire which would inevitably be communicated to some part. A fougette forces itself immediately forward, cuts as it penetrates, by the formation of its sides, which are filled with small spikes, becomes combustible and on fire at all its points; and possesses within itself a thousand various means by which it can adhere to whatever object it is destined to set on fire or to destroy. This weapon would be more effectual, because it might be more variously applied, to defend the mouth of a harbor against an enemy’s shipping, than red-hot balls can ever prove. Fougettes might be used on board ships of war, but there would certainly be some danger in the experiment; although, in my humble opinion, a little experience would effectually remove that difficulty; in which case ships might run along a coast, and easily destroy the wooden works that are sometimes erected upon it. They would in the first place occasion more havoc than red-hot balls; and in the next, they might be used whilst the vessel was in full sail; which cannot be done in the first instance. By means of their natural velocity they would do more execution in a less space of time, than the most active piece of ordnance could effect; and they would require fewer hands, as the only necessary operation would be to light and dart them forward. As a defensible weapon it must naturally be allowed, that, where a small body of men is attacked, the fougette might be adopted with considerable advantage.--The writer of this article, who, we find, is likewise the inventor of a fougette which has been submitted to the French government, continues to argue much in favor of its adoption. If, adds he, our enemies should imitate the invention, we must then have recourse, especially in sea-fights to those pieces of ordnance which are calculated to do more execution at a distance; and it will then be our business to contrive fougettes that shall reach their shipping, by means of a greater degree of force and velocity which might be given to them, than they would be capable of attaining. See ROCKET.

FOUILLER, Fr. To search. In a military sense, it signifies to detach small bodies of infantry round the flanks of a column that is marching through a wood, for the purpose of discovering an ambuscade, and of giving timely notice that it may be avoided. The same precaution is necessary when a body of men advances towards or enters a village.

FOUNDATION, in military architecture, is that part of a building which is under ground, or the mass of stone, brick, &c. which supports a building, or upon which the walls of a superstructure are raised: or it is the coffer or bed dug below the level of the ground, to raise a building upon; in which sense, the foundation either goes to the whole area or extent of the building, as when there are to be vaults, galleries, casemates, or the like; or is drawn in cuts or trenches, as when only walls are to be raised. Sometimes the foundation is massive, and continued under the whole building, as in the antique arches and aqueducts; but it is more usually in spaces, or intervals; in which latter case, insulated pillars, bound together by arches, should be used.

There are several things to be well considered in laying the foundation of a military building. We must first examine the bed of the earth upon which we are to build, and then the under fillings or substruction. We are not to rest upon any seeming solidity, unless the whole mould through which we cut has likewise been solid; and in such cases, allow ¹⁄₆th part of the height of the building for the hollowing or under-digging, unless there be cellars under ground, in which case it may be something less. There are many ways to try the firmness of the ground; but the following, in our opinion, is the best. Take an iron crow, or such a borer as well-diggers use, which at once will point out the goodness and tenacity of the ground.

Engineers should use the utmost diligence in this point; for, of all the errors that may happen in building, those are the most pernicious which are committed in the foundation, because they bring with them the ruin of the whole building; nor can they be amended without very great difficulty.

FOUNDATIONS are either natural, or artificial: natural, as when we build on a rock, or very solid earth; in which case we need not seek for any other strengthening; for these, without digging, or other artificial helps, are of themselves excellent foundations, and most fit to uphold the greatest buildings. But if the ground be sandy or marshy, or have lately been dug, in such case recourse must be had to art. In the former case, the engineer must adjust the depth of the foundation by the height, weight, &c. of the building: ¹⁄₆th part of the whole height is looked upon as a medium; and as to the thickness, double that of the width of a wall is a good rule. If you build upon mossy and loose earth, then you must dig until you find sound ground. This sound ground, fit to support a building, is of divers kinds: in some places so hard, as scarcely to be cut with iron; in other places very stiff; in other places blackish, which is accounted the weakest; in others like chalk, and in others sandy: but of all these, that is the best which requires most labor in cutting or digging, and when wet, does not dissolve into dirt.

If the earth to be built upon is very soft, as in moorish grounds, or such that the natural foundation cannot be trusted, then you must get good pieces of oak, whose length should be the breadth of the trench or about 2 feet longer than the wall; these must be laid across the foundation about 2 feet asunder, and being well rammed down, lay long planks upon them; which planks need not lie so broad as the pieces are long, but only about four inches on a side wider than the basis, or foot of the wall is to be. But if the ground be so very bad, that this will not do, then you must provide good piles of oak of such a length as will reach the good ground, and whose diameter must be about ¹⁄₁₂th part of their length. These piles must be driven down by an engine for that purpose, and must be placed as close as one can stand by another; then lay planks upon them, and pin them fast. But if the ground be faulty in some parts, and firm in others, you may turn arches over those loose places, which will discharge them of the weight. You must not forget to place the piles under the inner, as well as the outer walls; for if these should sink, it would be a means to make the outer walls crack, and so ruin the whole building.

Having thus far considered the bed of the earth on which the building is to be erected, we shall next consider the substruction, as it was called by the ancients; but our modern engineers call it the foundation. This is the ground-work of the whole edifice, which must sustain the walls, and may be termed artificial, as the other was natural; with regard to which, the following things are most necessary to be observed: 1. That the bottom be exactly level; therefore lay a platform of good boards. 2. That the lowest ledge or row be all of stone, the broader the better, laid closely without mortar; which is a general caution for all parts of a building that are contiguous to board or timber, because lime and wood are utter enemies to one another, and, if unfit confiners any where, they are more especially so in the foundation. 3. That the breadth of the foundation be at least double the breadth of the wall which is to be raised upon it: but even in this case art should give way to discretion: and the foundation may be made either broader, or narrower, according as the ground and the ponderosity of the edifice require. 4. That the foundation be made to diminish as it rises, but yet so that there may be as much left on the one side as on the other; so that the middle of that above may be perpendicularly over the middle of that below, which should in like manner be observed in diminishing the walls above ground; for by this means the building will become much stronger than it would be if the diminution were made by any other way. 5. That you should never build on the ruins of an old foundation, unless you are well assured of its depth, and that its strength is sufficient to bear the building.

The stones in the foundation should be laid as they naturally lay in the quarry, for they have the most strength in their natural position. This should be observed in all parts of a building, because all stones have a cleaving grain; consequently, if the horizontal position of the stones in the quarry should be placed vertically in the building, the superincumbent weight would be apt to cleave them, and so render the building ruinous.

FOUNDER, a person, who casts cannon, &c.

FOUNDERING, a disorder in horses, which may be considered under two heads, viz.

FOUNDERING in the feet, which is an universal rheumatism, or defluxion of humors upon the sinews of a horse’s feet; so that in the course of time the hoofs become stiff and callous, and the horse has no sense or feeling of them. This disorder is generally brought on by hard riding. Sometimes it proceeds from sudden heats and colds; and frequently from the horse being watered when he is very hot. Too tight a shoe, or frequent travelling upon hard flinty ground, will likewise produce this disorder.

FOUNDERING in the chest, a disorder which may be occasioned by crudities collected in the stomach, or by other infirmities which obstruct the free action of the lungs. It is discovered by the horse not being able to bend his joints, and, when once laid, by not being able to rise again. A swelling in the legs is likewise symptomatic of it.

FOUNDERY, FOUNDRY, in military matters, the art of casting all kinds of ordnance, such as cannon, mortars, howitzers, &c. It likewise signifies the place or work-house wherein these operations are performed. At present all pieces of artillery are cast solid, and bored afterwards. Formerly guns were bored perpendicularly, but at present in a horizontal position: the boring instrument is fixed immoveably, and forced into the gun or mortar by a mechanical power. The piece of artillery is turned round by a large wheel, and at the same time the gun is bored, the outside is turned and polished, by another very curious machine for that purpose, invented by the very ingenious Messrs. Verbruggen, founders at Woolwich. Guns were first founded in England in 1587.

FOURAGE, Fr. Forage. In the artillery, it is used figuratively to signify hay, straw, or any thing else of vegetable growth, which is used to ram into the bore of a cannon for the purpose of cleansing it.

Aller au FOURAGE, to go a foraging.

FOURAGER, Fr. To forage, or look about for provender and provisions.

FOURAGER likewise means among the French to ravage, desolate, pillage, and waste a country for the purpose of throwing the inhabitants into disorder. The word is derived from foras agere, or to seek for forage in the fields.

FOURAGEUR, Fr. foragers, or men employed to procure forage, &c. for an army. They are generally escorted. Hence the expression: so many men have been ordered to escort the foragers. The body of foragers has been charged by the enemy’s cavalry.

FOURBISSEURS, Fr. a sword cutler. The French familiarly say of two persons who are extremely intimate, Ces gens sont tête-a-tête comme des fourbisseurs, meaning, that, like sword cutlers, (who when they work sit closely opposite to each other) they are putting their heads together.

Se battre a l’épée qui est chez le fourbisseur, to fight with a sword which is still in the cutler’s hands; signifying figuratively to dispute about any thing that does not concern either party.

FOURGON, Fr. a sort of waggon. It likewise signifies a poker.

FOURNEAU, Fr. furnace, also the chamber of a mine.

FOURIER, Fr. A quarter master belonging to a cavalry or infantry regiment. In France there were fouriers-majors of cavalry who composed a part of the cavalry staff. Serjeant fourier, and corporal fourier, answer to our quarter master serjeant.

FOURNIMENT, Fr. A horn which holds about one pound of gun-powder to prime cannon. It is likewise used by cavalry and infantry soldiers, who hang it across their shoulder. The artillerists keep it in a belt.

FOURCHETTES à mousquet, Fr. Rests for a musquet. They are sometimes used to relieve men who do duty on the rampart of a town.

Chemin FOURCHU, a cross way.

Paix FOURREE, Fr. a peace suddenly patched up.

Pays FOURRE, Fr. a country thick set with hedges, &c. properly called a close country.

FOURREAU de pistolet, a holster.

Faux FOURREAU de pistolet, pistol bag.

FOURREAU d’epée the scabbard of a sword.

FOURMILLER, Fr. to swarm with. La France fourmille en braves soldats--France swarms with brave soldiers; L’Angleterre fourmille en braves marins--England swarms with brave seamen.

FOUR de campagne. A field oven.

FOUR, a place of confinement in Paris to which vagabonds and persons who could not give any satisfactory account of themselves were committed; and when once shut up had their names enregistered, and were enlisted for the service of the old French government. A four in this acceptation of the term means a room arched over without having the least aperture to receive day light. There were several such places of confinement in Paris. They owed their invention to a Monsieur D’Argenson, and were supposed to add annually two thousand men at least to the king’s regular army; by which means the capital was relieved from a multitude of thieves, pick-pockets, &c.

FOURNITURES des vivres, Fr. See STORES, &c.

FOYER, Fr. Focus, or centre of the chamber. See MINE.

FRAISE, in fortification, a kind of stakes or palisades placed horizontally on the outward slope of a rampart made of earth, to prevent the work being taken by surprise. They are generally 7 or 8 feet long, and about 5 inches thick. When an army intrenches itself, the parapets of the retrenchments are often fraised in the parts exposed to an attack.

To FRAISE a battalion, is to line, or cover it every way with pikes, that it may withstand the shock of a body of horse.

FRAISER, Fr. To plait, knead or drill....In a military sense to fraise or fence; as fraiser un battalion, is to fraise or fence all the musquetry-men belonging to a battalion with pikes, to oppose the irruption of cavalry should it charge them in a plain. At present it means to secure a battalion by opposing bayonets obliquely forward, or cross-ways in such a manner as to render it impossible for a horseman to act against it.

FRAISES, Fr. See FRAISE an adopted English term.

FRANCHES, Fr....Les compagnies franches, free companies, were bodies of men detached and separated from the rest of the army, having each a chief, or commandant. They consisted chiefly of dragoons, hussars, &c. and their peculiar duty was to make irruptions into an enemy’s country; and may not improperly be called land pirates, as their chief occupation was to harrass and plunder the enemy and his adherents, in whatever manner they could, without paying any regard to military forms. The persons who composed these corps were termed partisans. They always accompanied the main army in time of war, and were distributed among the different garrison towns in France during peace. They were common to every power in Europe; the Pandours and Hulans were of this description. They were the worst afflictions of war; and generally as fatal to their friends as their enemies.

FRAY, a battle, combat, or duel.

FRICTION, in mechanics, the rubbing of the parts of engines and machines against each other, by which a considerable part of their effect is destroyed.

It is hardly possible to lay down general rules for computing the quantity of friction, because it depends upon a multiplicity of circumstances, as the structure, firmness, elasticity, &c. of bodies rubbing against each other. Some authors make the friction upon a horizontal plane, equal to ¹⁄₃d of the weight to be moved; while others have found it to be considerably less. But however this be, the doctrine of friction, as ascertained by the latest experiments, may be summed up in the following manner.

1. When one body rests on another upon a horizontal plane, it presses it with its whole weight, which being equally reacted upon, and consequently the whole effect of its gravity destroyed by the plane, it will be absolutely free to move in any horizontal direction by any the least power applied thereto, provided both the touching surfaces be smooth.

2. But since we find no such thing as perfect smoothness in the surfaces of bodies, arising from their porosity and peculiar texture, it is easy to understand, that when two such surfaces come together, the prominent parts of the one will, in some measure, fall into the concave parts of the other; and therefore, when an horizontal motion is attempted in one, the fixed prominent parts of the other will give more or less resistance to the moving surface, by holding and retaining its parts; and this is what we call friction.

3. Now since any body will require a force equal to its weight, to draw it over a given obstacle, it follows that the friction arising to the moving body, will always be in proportion to its weight only, and not to the quantity of the surface, by which it bears upon the resisting plane or surface. Thus if a piece of wood 4 inches wide, and 1 thick, be laid upon another fixed piece of the same wood, it will require the same weight to draw it along, whether it be laid on its broad or narrow side.

4. For, though there be 4 times the number of touching particles on the broad side (cetæris paribus) yet each particle is pressed with only ¹⁄₄th of the weight, that those are on the narrow side, and since 4 times the number multiplied by one fourth of the weight, it is plain the resistance is equal in both places, and so requires the same force to overcome it.

5. The reason why friction is proportional to the weight of the moving body, is, because the power applied to move the body must raise it over the prominent parts of the surface on which it is drawn; and this motion of the body, as it is not upright, will not require a power equal to its whole weight; but being in the nature of the motion on an inclined plane, it will only require a part of its own weight, which will vary with the various degrees of smoothness and asperity.

6. It is found by experiment, that a body, may be drawn along by nearly ¹⁄₃d of its weight; and if the surfaces be hard and well polished, by less than ¹⁄₃d part; whereas, if the parts be soft or rugged, it will require a much greater weight.

The ingenious Mr. Emerson, in his Principles of Mechanics, has given the following rules deduced from experiments; but they require some variation under different circumstances, which must be left to the judgment of the artist.

1. Wood and all metals, when greased, have nearly the same friction; and the smoother they are, the less friction they have; yet metals may be so far polished as to increase friction by the cohesion of their parts.

Wood slides easier upon the ground in wet weather than in dry, and easier than iron in dry weather; but iron slides easier than wood, in wet weather. Lead makes a great deal of resistance. Iron or steel running in brass, makes the least friction of any. In wood acting against wood, grease makes the motion twice as easy, or rather ²⁄₃ds easier. Wheel-naves, greased or tarred, go 4 times easier than when wet.

Metals oiled make the friction less than when polished, and twice as little as when unpolished.

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