A military dictionary (part 1 of 8)

A military dictionary

Transcriber’s Notes

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A

MILITARY DICTIONARY,

OR,

EXPLANATION OF THE SEVERAL SYSTEMS OF DISCIPLINE OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF TROOPS,

INFANTRY, ARTILLERY, AND CAVALRY;

THE PRINCIPLES OF FORTIFICATION,

AND

ALL THE MODERN IMPROVEMENTS IN THE SCIENCE OF TACTICS:

COMPRISING

THE POCKET GUNNER, OR LITTLE BOMBARDIER;

THE MILITARY REGULATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES; THE WEIGHTS, MEASURES, AND MONIES OF ALL NATIONS;

_THE TECHNICAL TERMS AND PHRASES OF THE ART OF WAR IN THE FRENCH LANGUAGE_.

PARTICULARLY ADAPTED TO THE USE OF THE MILITARY INSTITUTIONS OF THE UNITED STATES:

BY WILLIAM DUANE,

LATE LIEUTENANT COLONEL IN THE ARMY OF THE UNITED STATES, AND AUTHOR OF THE AMERICAN MILITARY LIBRARY.

An army without discipline is but a mob in uniform, more dangerous to itself than to its enemy. Should any one from ignorance not perceive the immense advantages that arise from a good discipline, it will be sufficient to observe the alterations that have happened in Europe since the year 1700.

SAXE.

I am fully convinced that the tactics of Frederic II. the causes of his superiority, of his system of battles and lines, and of his most skilful movements have been wholly misunderstood to the present time, and that the actions of this great man have been attributed to maxims diametrically opposite to his real principles.

JOMINI.....1808.

PHILADELPHIA: PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY WILLIAM DUANE, NO. 98, MARKET STREET. 1810.

DISTRICT OF PENNSYLVANIA, TO WIT:

BE IT REMEMBERED, that on the Tenth day of August, in the Thirty Fifth year of the Independence of the United States of America, A. D. 1810, William Duane of the said district, hath deposited in this office, the title of a book, the right whereof he claims as proprietor, in the words following, to wit: “A Military Dictionary; or, Explanation of the several systems of discipline of different kinds of Troops, Infantry, Artillery, and Cavalry; the Principles of Fortification, and all the Modern Improvements in the Science of Tactics: comprising the Pocket Gunner, or Little Bombardier; the Military Regulations of the United States; the Weights, Measures, and Monies of all Nations; the Technical Terms and Phrases of the Art of War in the French language. Particularly adapted to the use of the Military institutions of the United States: by William Duane, late lieutenant colonel in the army of the United States, and author of the American Military Library. An army without discipline is but a mob in uniform, more dangerous to itself than to its enemy. Should any one from ignorance not perceive the immense advantages that arise from a good discipline, it will be sufficient to observe the alterations that have happened in Europe since the year 1700. Saxe. I am fully convinced that the tactics of Frederic II. the causes of his superiority, of his system of battles and lines, and of his most skilful movements have been wholly misunderstood to the present time, and that the actions of this great man have been attributed to maxims diametrically opposite to his real principles. Jomini....1808.”

In conformity to the Act of the Congress of the United States, intituled “an Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies during the times therein mentioned.” And also to the Act, entitled “an Act supplementary to an Act, entitled ‘an Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies during the times therein mentioned,’ and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical and other prints.”

D. CALDWELL, Clerk of the District of Pennsylvania.

ELUCIDATORY PREFACE.

When the editor first undertook to prepare a MILITARY LIBRARY for general use, he was stimulated thereto by perceiving the total decay of military information, and the gross errors, in particulars the most simple and essential, which every where had superceded or obstructed useful knowlege. War at the moment seemed to be impending. There was no organization of the militia, nor any system established, excepting an incomplete elementary hand book, formed during the revolution, and adapted to fix those who had already some military experience of the first evolutions of a battalion, in a common method.

This book, no way calculated to teach the initiatory exercises, nor to give an idea of the combined manœuvres of larger bodies; nor any method of instruction, nor the duties of any other body than an infantry battalion, was improperly dignified with the name of a system. The most elevated in power as well as the most subordinate in military or militia duty, adopted this false notion of a system, without enquiring further than that it was established. When such a tract was held forth as sufficient by the authority of law and by the silent indifference of those who knew or ought to know better, it is not at all surprizing that every other object of military study was neglected, since every other was announced to be superfluous.

This state of general indifference or unacquaintance with the business of war, gave rise to the American Military Library; in which the editor intended originally to have comprehended a vocabulary of military terms; and had made so much progress in its preparation, as to discover that it would make a large book, and that any thing short of a minute and comprehensive Dictionary, would be leaving the undertaking still incomplete. The general want of knowlege on the subject, the inaccuracy of the notions which prevailed, and above all the great revolutions which modern times had produced in the whole economy and ordination of military science, decided the editor upon the necessity of rendering the undertaking as complete as practicable, by giving to the public a competent book of reference, so necessary to study in the acquisition of every species of knowlege.

After some numbers of the Library had been published, the French Military Dictionary of 1768, and the English Military Dictionary of major James, fell into the editor’s hands. These works rendered much of what had been already done superfluous, though not entirely useless; the French work had been antiquated long before the revolution, by the changes which took place in the French establishment in 1788 and 1791, and still more by the total renovation which it underwent during the revolution. The English Dictionary labored under difficulties of another nature; adapted to England alone, the military system of England, called by the name of Dundas, which was only a modification of the Prussian system of Saldern, and the French system formed in imitation of the Prussian after the seven years war, must necessarily be to a British officer the standard of a work published for the British army; accordingly, although major James, both from his fine understanding and experience, was well acquainted with the defects of that system, he was still under the necessity of making it his standard.

In undertaking to give a work to the American people, the publication of either the French or English Dictionary, though it might equally profit the bookseller, would be only imposing upon the public, instead of giving the best information and the most recent and approved principles and improvements in the art of war: it was necessary therefore almost to re-write, and to augment to a vast bulk the quantity of information. The whole has been, therefore, modelled and adapted throughout to the modern principles of discipline and general tactics. So much of what is old has been retained as may give some correct ideas of the systems of other nations; and the body of information, as well as of words of reference, renders this the most ample and particular Military Dictionary that has been published in the language.

To the general mass has been added the useful little work called the Little Bombardier, or Pocket Gunner, originally compiled for the British artillerists from the French Manuel de l’Artilleur of Durtubie. The measures of extent and capacity, and the monies of all foreign nations: under the words Tactics, Military Schools, Topographical Depot, Money, Weights and Measures, Valor, and generally throughout the work will be found a vast body of new information, particularly adapted to the communication of correct knowlege to all who wish to comprehend military subjects.

A too prevalent error, and the most fatal if we should ever be engaged in war, and not acquire more perfect and general knowlege, is, that the art of war requires neither study nor much attention to what is called discipline; and this error has obtained a sort of sanctity from the triumphs of our undisciplined yeomanry over the British, Hanoverian, Wurtemburg, and Hessian veterans in our revolution. Undoubtedly without an examination into the causes of the triumphs in a more particular manner than general history presents, the assumption is very imposing, and adapted to flatter self-love and national pride.

These natural and often useful passions must, nevertheless, be restrained like all others within the bounds of reason; and, in order to avoid the danger which may flow from our prejudices, we must endeavor to consider our own circumstances with eyes as dispassionate as we should those of strangers. We must enquire, what was the state of military knowlege in the armies of the invaders; whether they exhibited any of the great qualities which constitute well disciplined troops or great generals; whether the whole course of their military transactions was not a series of blunders, produced by their ignorance of our people and country; and even in a great degree owing to the want of talents in the officers of the enemy, to supply by their genius and spirit of enterprize, the disadvantages under which they labored. It would require only an enumeration of a few facts to shew, that although the patience with which the American troops endured hardships and privations, afford glorious examples of the military virtues; that even these great virtues, conducted as they were, by a general who united in himself the military qualities of a Fabius and a Scipio, could not have had so much success were it not for the want of a good discipline, and the utter incapacity of the generals of the British army.

In the modern wars of the French revolution, the like truths have been demonstrated as in the American contest. The British armies had been merely taught the duties of parade, and when they came into the field, had to learn by hard fighting and severe defeats, that their officers were generally ignorant of the art of war; for they were beaten once more by raw troops ably conducted to the field by experienced officers, who possessed skill, who had made military science their study; and, above all, who knew how to take advantage of the incompetency of the British leaders.

Mankind in every country, educated in the same way, varies very little in those points which are adapted to military services. It must, therefore, in a great measure depend upon the education which is applied to military affairs, in the discipline of armies, whether they are victors or vanquished. All nations profess to have acted upon this opinion, though there seems not to be that attention paid to the subject, nor to education of any kind, which the acknowleged importance of the case calls for. This indifference or heedlessness has at times infected all nations, and may be considered as a disease, which if not cured at a certain stage, ensures destruction.

The triumphs of Spain before the peace of Vervins in 1598, is a most important part of history for the study of men fond of military enquiries; the infantry of Spain was then the first in Europe; we have seen in the years 1808 and 1809, that the extinction, by the neglect of military knowlege, has left Spain, with ten millions of people, an easy conquest. Austria and Prussia have successively shone preeminent on the military theatre of Europe. The daily parades at Berlin, which Frederic II. conducted himself for many years, and from which strangers were excluded, were only lessons of experiment and instruction by which he formed his own mind to the conviction of the power of rapid movement, and close evolutions by small divisions; divisions moving in different modes, and by different points, in apparent disorder but by the most exact laws, to one common point of action. Here it was that he contrived those methods which he accomplished in action afterwards, and which enabled him, with a force not equal to half the Austrian army, to baffle, defeat, and triumph over all Europe. It will be useful for the man of sense to consider, whether Frederic could have performed such wonders in the field, without this previous practice himself, and the previous discipline which rendered his armies of 40,000 as manageable as a battalion of 500 men. Perhaps we shall be told that Steuben’s tract renders all these considerations unnecessary.

The military triumphs of modern France have been ascribed to a multitude of causes; really, perhaps, the causes of her military successes may be reduced to two. First, the necessity which arose out of what has been preposterously called the balance of power in Europe, which under the pretence of maintaining an equality of nations, has been the real mask for reiterated wars, conquests, plunder, and desolation; Spain, Austria, and France, have been at different periods held up as aspiring to universal dominion; under the color of resisting the aggrandizement of either, they have been for two centuries constantly engaged in efforts to plunder each other. France, from her position, was from the passions of the age, forced to be prepared for the defensive; and in several successive wars had made conquests on her extremities, which rendered it daily more necessary to maintain a military establishment; and at length, after suffering great disasters, and thereby producing a succession of great generals, the passions and character of the people became military.

Taught by triumphs and disasters, the causes of success and failure, her generals and statesmen directed their attention to the perfection of all the branches of military institution; the management of weapons, the array of troops, the plans of marches, the supply of armies, the passage of rivers, and the simplification of every species of duty. Colleges were instituted, the sciences were enlisted in the military service, and it was difficult to tell in which class of citizens the greatest military enthusiasm prevailed....the nobles who alone could aspire to command, or the privates who composed the rank and file of armies.

It is to these institutions, through which the path to honor and renown lay, that France owes her present preeminence. Under several heads of this Dictionary will be found the facts upon which this opinion is sustained; other nations rather aped than emulated her institutions; while France pursued the spirit of the Romans who adopted every weapon which they found powerful in the hands of their enemies; France adopted the prolonged line of the Austrians, or abandoned it to pursue the concentric movements of Prussia; those echellons which under another name were among the manœuvres of Scipio and Gustavus Adolphus, and which so many have affected to laugh at as novelties, because they know neither their history nor their use; were recommended by Guibert in 1763, as the column had been before recommended by Folard; and each of whom had been calumniated and their tactics reprobated, by the enemies of innovation, or rather by the blockheads of their day, a class of beings of which some are to be found every where.

The rapid principles of Frederic, and the evolutions of the echellon and column adapted to the concentric method of movement, upon oblique as well as direct lines; and all executed with a combined precision before unusual, constitute the great features of the modern tactics. Simplicity of method in instruction is the key to it.

It must be evident to the humblest understanding, that a great part of the success of armies in war must depend as much upon the knowlege of the enemies’ mode of movement and action, as well as in the perfection, precision, and promptitude of execution in their own. Voltaire, whose history of Europe is alike admirable for its conciseness and authenticity, since all his information on military affairs was drawn from the military depot established at Versailles, speaking of the battle of Rosbach, attributes the defeat of the French under Soubise to their ignorance of the new methods of movement which had been introduced by Frederic II. The soldiers saw that the old method of battle was changed; they did not comprehend the motions of the Prussians, which were not merely novel, but as exact as the movements on a parade; they believed they saw their masters in the art of war, they were dismayed and fled.

This anecdote, which has many resemblances in ancient history, is of great moment in directing the understanding to the consideration of military institution. It leaves no doubt of the necessity of knowing the art of war as it is practised by other nations, and especially the importance of practising that which has proved superior to all others.

A fatality has attended all the efforts which have been made for several years to introduce a suitable organization of the militia, and a correct military system. The genius of ignorance appears to have cast a spell over all the attempts that have been made. Like the projector who was so much occupied by the erection of a weathercock, that he set about it before the foundation for the steeple was laid, every attempt has been made at the wrong end; a part has been mistaken for a whole, composed of numerous parts, and the wrong part has always been chosen first. America, which has been so original in the revolution as to give rise to the institution of rifle corps, which have decided seven-eighths of the battles that have been fought in Europe since; has been led to resort constantly to the very system of which America proved the futility, for precepts and examples; instead of profiting by the march of science, we have gone for instruction to the worst military institutions of Europe. When any person intrusted with the military concerns of the U. States wants information, it is to authorities exploded and condemned by men of military knowlege, reference is made. A minister of England in addressing that nation in 1806, at the very moment when it was announced to that nation that the bellum ad internicionem had only then begun..... that “the war was now at the foot of her walls,” had the honesty, which times of danger extracts even from ministers, to declare.... “The military system of England was equally in want of repairs, or rather a thorough rebuilding, even to its foundation stone.” There is no truth more certain, yet it is to this tattered and defenceless fabric we resort for models on every occasion. The bill for establishing a quarter-master general’s department, which was before congress in 1809-10, is a scion of this decayed tree; no doubt that as long as the present apology for a system exists, the proposed department may serve, as a crutch is of use to a body stricken with paralysis.

Military science even in France, where it has now reached the greatest perfection, has had to struggle with selfishness and the occasional and almost insuperable difficulties, which the appointment of ministers incompetent and inexperienced in military affairs, threw in their way. Folard is reputed to have died broken-hearted, by the persecution which he experienced from stupid generals and ministers who looked to nothing but official patronage. Levrilliere, whose admirable improvements in the various departments of artillery, to whom is owing the reduction of the length and the weight of metal of guns of the same calibre, was persecuted out of France, and obliged to take refuge in the army of Austria, where his services proved so formidable as to induce his recall, and the final adoption of his vast improvements; those improvements which, by lessening the weight of artillery, have led to the powerful institution of horse artillery.

Wise nations are never disposed to reject the useful because it is not of their own invention. The Austrians after the battle of Austerlitz immediately abolished their old discipline, and the archduke Charles instituted a better system upon the principles of the modern French. Even the French themselves, surrounded by triumphs, have not yet deemed the science of war perfect. New dispositions of the column were adopted in Egypt; it was only in 1808 that the regulations for the exercise and manœuvres of Cavalry were completed; and even since the campaign which closed with the battle of Wagram, they have made some important alterations in the arms of their cavalry, founded either on the experience of inconvenience in their own, or of some superior advantages in those of their enemy.

The conclusions which we draw from these facts are, that the prevalence of erroneous opinions on the military institutions is a subject of very serious concern; because it is evident, that so long as a nation or a government, which has the care of the national concerns, and a great influence over its opinions, suffers ignorance and prejudice to occupy the place of intelligence, a similar fate may be considered as the consequence, whenever the nation shall be attacked, as other negligent or ignorant nations have been, by a power of superior knowlege and capacity in the art of war.

Nothing more plainly shews the misconception which generally prevails, especially in the legislatures of the Union and the several states, than the contradictory motives which are assigned for leaving the militia and military system in their present state of disorganization. Some plead that the art of war is laid down in Steuben; others that Steuben carried us through the revolution; when in fact both Burgoyne and Cornwallis were taken before Steuben’s tract was introduced; others are for arming our militia with pikes alone, forgetting that an open country is that for which pikes are best adapted; and that to render pikes effective there must be a most perfect discipline of manœuvre, which may render the line as potent and firm as the column, and as easily displayed, concentrated, and formed to various fronts as the best disciplined infantry; when the new modes of movement are mentioned, they are called novelties, though the principal of them are as old as the battle of Pharsalia, and were in practice at the battle of Lutzen; other exceptions are, that besides being new, the modern discipline is too difficult to learn, too perplexed and fatiguing; that the multiplied manœuvres require more time and labor, and must be in a great measure useless; and that so satisfied are the British of this that they have reduced them all to nineteen manœuvres. Nothing so truly depicts the want of judgment or a proper attention to the subject, as observations like these.....the truth is that the modern principles of instruction are fewer in number, more easily taught and understood, and less irksome to the soldier; better adapted to engage the soldier’s attention and afford him gratification; that the variety and number of evolutions is not more various than the eternal variety of ground by which military movements and dispositions are always governed; and that the new discipline, by teaching the first elements well, enables the military body to be moved by these principles on any ground, and not only to form any disposition that it is possible to form, but without having been previously formed in such new dispositions; the elementary principles of modern discipline being peculiarly adapted to the understanding, and the movements by small bodies, enabling every officer of a small portion of troops to move his particular corps by the mode best adapted to the ground.

It must always be the fault of the government if its military institutions are erroneous. If there were but a single regiment, that should be instructed according to the best principles, and made to practise whatever was most useful and necessary in the art of war. In a nation of freemen the regular force should constantly exhibit their exercises and evolutions, so that every citizen should be familiar with the best practice of the use of arms and of manœuvres. The eye may be said to have an infallible memory, it is above all other of the organs of sense the best medium of intelligence. The United States troops are usually cooped up in garrisons, as if they were, like the king of Prussia, forming a system in secret, while in fact there is nothing worthy of the name of discipline carried on, and in too many instances nothing understood. Perhaps the troops of the United States have not, as a part of discipline, fired a ball at a target for twenty years. Field artillery, or mortar practice, probably not more frequent. The maxim of economy is an important one in a free state, but there is an economy more destructive than the greatest profusion; and that is the economy of practical and useful knowlege.

We speak of these things reluctantly, but the evil is almost a disease, and requires the regard of the intelligent men in all parts of the nation.

What is then requisite for the United States?

It will be said that there is some difficulty in effecting any improvement. Unquestionably so it is, and so it ever will be. But the government is bound not to regard difficulties, when they are put in competition with the dangers which may flow from neglect. The government possesses the power, and the army is bound, and the country is anxious to possess a more complete system in lieu of the once useful but at present useless tract of baron Steuben. The difficulties are not so great as may be at first sight supposed, and may be surmounted in a way rather to serve as a pleasure than a difficulty to the army and militia. The elements of modern exercise might be first introduced, they are neither so numerous, so perplexed, nor so unnatural as the old forms; neither are they so tiresome to the teacher or the taught. They have also another advantage, that the soldier is not as heretofore stiffened and set up like an embalmed Egyptian mummy; the modern method takes any number from 10 to 100 men, and places them in an easy position erect without constraint of head, or limbs, or body; and proceeds by familiarizing the ear to equal time by the action of the feet of the whole squad or company; after which they are all taught to face to either hand or about, indifferently, and never in one routine; the mode of moving the limbs and the time of movement is ever the same; and the words of command few, simple, and plain; where they in any case differ from the usual words of common life the teacher’s duty is to explain them often, until the ears of all are familiar with their practical meaning.

The next process is advancing, at a given length of pace in equal times; and this is combined with facings, and at last with wheelings, in whole ranks, or in sections of any given numbers, always varying, diminishing, and augmenting at discretion the numbers of the sections, by drawing from the right of each successive section in the rear of the first, to the left of the leading section, a number sufficient to augment the first to the number required, and so of every section from front to rear; the drill is thus carried on always with moving feet at the time of gay dancing music, and when marching always at a pace of 24 inches.

After the squad of 20 or 100 is found complete in these minute branches of marking time, advancing at time, facing and wheeling, augmenting and diminishing sections, they are taught the oblique wheelings and facings, or as the modern words are half or quarter facing, or half or quarter wheeling; and to march dressed in these several orders, so as to form exactly in the same relative position to each other when wheeled or faced to their primitive position.

Thus much may be well taught, and comprehended, and practised in two or three weeks, employing only two or three hours at each drill, and twice each day.

The instruction of the pivots or flank men of ranks and sections, go along with the first wheelings; and as soon as the uses of the pivots are generally understood, then the whole are formed into double ranks; and the men are prepared to execute any of the modern evolutions or manœuvres; it being always calculated that the officers are equally diligent and as well drilled as the men, and competent not only to comprehend but to correct an error when it occurs.

At this stage, and not before, arms should be put into their hands; and a manual exercise of some kind taught, for it is not material what the motions are so that the firing and loading motions are taught to be performed with dexterity and ease. The drill is then manœuvred once a day with arms, and the officer who feels a proper sense of the importance of the habit of command, and the advantage of giving troops the practice of movement, will diversify his own pleasures and gratify his men, by moving them into all the various positions of column, line, echellons, movements by heads of sections, changing flanks and fronts, taking new alignements, countermarching in the various modes of which modern military works furnish such useful and abundant examples.

The elements of the first drills with minute instructions might be comprised in a hand book of one half the compass of Steuben’s tract; and this elementary work placed in the hands of all descriptions of troops, infantry, artillery, and cavalry, should be the first rule of practice for them all in common. This introduced, the government could at leisure prepare instructions for a more comprehensive course of manœuvres, and particularly hand books upon the same simple principles of drills for artillery, riflemen, and cavalry, in their particular branches of duty. It being to be understood as a fundamental principle, that as the movements and action of all kinds of troops are regulated by the movements of infantry; or in other words, as infantry compose the main body, line, or column; the riflemen, artillery, and cavalry must be governed in their movements by the main body, to which they are appendages or auxiliaries; and it is therefore required that they should know themselves how to execute the infantry manœuvres, in order that they should not, like the French at Rosbach, be confounded by movements of which they are ignorant.

The profound mathematician may look down from the elevation of abstract science upon the cold common place of syllabic combination and Arabic numerical notation; but he owes his first knowlege to the alphabet of language and arithmetic; here he must have begun, and here the military man of whatever grade must also begin. He must learn the alphabet of military knowlege at the drill, he must take his lessons and learn them; he must study and practice what he has learned there, in order to teach; and the officer must learn both to command others and to obey. There is no science which may not be attained by earnest application and practice. But no science or art can be acquired or understood without both; and the more carefully that study is pursued and the more frequently it is practised, the more efficient will it be in the individual and in the regular mass of individuals. But practice is above all requisite, careful, frequent, constant, obstinately pursued practice.

But this is not yet a system.

We have exhibited the elementary branch of military instruction first, merely because it is the point at which every military body must commence; because this is what is now most wanted, and because while it is carrying into practical use, the general system containing all the purposes and uses of an efficient military establishment may in the mean time be prepared and digested.

Having treated so much on this subject, its importance will excuse the discussion of it more at large. To the perfection of a military establishment for the U. States two things are essential.

The first is, that it should be such as to be equally applicable in its operation to the militia and to the army of the U. States, whenever the former are called forth.

The second, that every act and duty appertaining to the military establishment should be transacted by none other than men subject to military order, control, and responsibility; and liable to be put in motion or brought to account for delay or neglect in a military manner.

These two principles lead to the consideration of what would be an efficient military organization; and here we have a host of formidable enemies, ignorance, a disorderly mass; indolence and idleness, hanging on the flanks; the steady habits of old prejudice ever alarmed for its patronage or its place; all immediately exclaim, would there not be great confusion produced by abrogating some duties and introducing others. We shall not skirmish with this motley and unmilitary groupe; we shall come to the point. In considering the subject, it will be found that the present war department in fact corresponds with what is called the general staff in other countries; the president representing the commander in chief, the secretary at war chief of the staff. From this fact it will be perceived, that whatever improvements might take place in the system, it would at first consist only of defining and distributing the duties and details of service by the war department.

After defining and arranging the various heads of service, they should of course be classed according to analogy or the dependency of one kind upon another; so that there would be several heads, under each of which the inferior branches of duty might be distributed. At the head of one of the superior branches should be placed a responsible officer, who would have the superintendance of all the duties, and the direction and control of all those placed in the execution of the subordinate branches; this officer to be responsible to the executive directly in peace; and when the arrangements became necessarily distinct in the field, to become responsible to the commanding officer in the field. These heads of branches should be the efficient staff of the military institution, it is through the perfection of the organization of the staff, and the rigid responsibility for the due execution and for seeing all under them duly performed, that modern tactics is in an eminent degree indebted for its preeminency and its triumphs. Precision, promptitude, and provident foresight, are their invariable laws, and upon these being perfect depends all the success of modern military science; but it must be taken in connexion also with the disciplinary principles which go into action, where the same provident foresight, the same precision, and the same celerity of motion ensure success to all that is undertaken against any force, however numerous and brave, destitute of a system equally provident and combined in its operations.

To commence an efficient system we must take the outline upon the largest scale; that is, in preparing an establishment, of which the end is the defence of all the nation, we must not begin with a system which is only adapted to a peace; an assumption of this kind would render any military system nugatory. To form a system complete, it must be founded in its very nature on the supposition of an actual war. This would no doubt be reversing the present order of things; since it is not to be concealed, that as it is at present constituted, the war department is utterly incompetent to conduct a war; but such as would leave the mind of a general officer, in case of actual war, to labor under a most hazardous and perplexing responsibility. Possibly economy may here take the alarm, we shall quiet this costly chimera.

A peace establishment of the military department we conceive should be treated as the incident; forming and fixing the principles of the institution would not necessarily call for its immediate completion, or the appointment even of a single officer, or the expenditure of a single dollar more than at present; the duties and functions should be defined, but no additional officers employed until occasion called for them, that is war. It is necessary to offer these precautionary ideas to prevent misapprehension, and lest the idea of the formation of a system, that is a coherent and comprehensive regulation for the military department, should be mistaken for a wish to immediately organize an army and staff, and put them into pay. It is barely meant that during peace provision should be made against war, which we do not know how soon we may be involved in.....we shall therefore proceed.

The military system may be said to consist of two principal branches, military operations, and subsistence, both of which must be within the full and ample command of the chief of an army. These two branches become the objects of duty distributed among the staff; which unfolds another important truth, that every officer who has the provision, or charge of procuring supplies of subsistence or clothing, should be responsible in a military manner for the execution of his duty, and liable to military penalties for the abuse or the neglect of that duty. This is a most important consideration; and it is apprehended the scandalous state of the clothing of the army of the U. States, which has been gradually becoming worse for several years past, is a strong exemplification of this necessity. There should not be a single officer of the war department, unless perhaps the accounting officers, who should be exempt from military control, in order to assure a due exercise of their duty between the public and the military establishment; as it would be in the power of men intrusted with the provision of clothing or subsistence at any time.... to betray the army to an enemy.

The beginning should be with the organization of the general staff, and this should be adapted, for the reasons given, to a state of war. The secretary of the war department being in fact the chief of the staff, the rest of the staff should consist of an able practical general officer, a capable chief officer of the artillery, an effective chief officer of the engineers, a vigilant and experienced quarter-master general, and an intelligent and experienced adjutant general, with one or two commissioned officers, as the service might require, attached to each of these several officers as aids, who should execute under a board of war the details of duty; these superior officers, with others called in, should constitute this council or board for the regulation of all the military details; appoint inspectors of reviews; and such other persons as might be required to aid in the service, such as surgeons, draftsmen, &c. They should divide their duties into the military and the administrative, and have cognizance and control over every branch, always subject to the chief of the staff or secretary at war; they should assemble and deliberate, and their consultations and measures, however minute, with their reasonings or objections, should be daily recorded; and these consultations should, whenever required, be presented to the secretary at war, to the president, or to congress when called for.

The military branch should be distributed under the heads following.....

MILITARY I.....PLANS AND MEANS OF DEFENSIVE OR OFFENSIVE WAR.

1. This should comprehend a topographical establishment; the preparation of complete maps and surveys of our own country; and a classification of the surface of the Union into districts of equal portions of three, five, or nine parts; and these again into lesser districts; designating all the passes, roads, rivers, &c., in each, with descriptive memoirs and references to each.

2. The police of armies.

3. Military exercises or discipline.

4. Military operations, marchings, and encampments.

5. Movements of troops by water.

6. Military chronology, or daily and other returns, of duties, actions, retreats, &c. &c.

FISCAL II.....SUBSISTENCE, PECUNIARY AND CIVIL ADMINISTRATION.

1. Pay, receipts, and expenditures, or the treasury branch.

2. Clothing, equipments, arms.

3. Provisions, meat, bread, grain, liquors, fuel.

4. Forage, hay, oats, straw, corn.

5. Hospitals and magazines.

6. Carriages and horses for stores and artillery.

Such is the outline of a military system adapted to the circumstances and necessities of the U. States. On a superficial glance, to timid or unreflecting men, this may appear to be surrounded with difficulties insuperable; there will be discordant opinions, envy, jealousy, folly will devise objections; no two men may concur, however equal and able; the objects are themselves too numerous and complex for any one man to prepare in time or in a satisfactory manner; the proposition itself will be said to arise from interested motives; from some lust of place or profit; it will require resolution to resist prejudice; and the requisite firmness to decide may not be found.

We shall close this part of our essay by stating generally, that whenever there shall appear a disposition to adopt this or any such system, means can be pointed out by which the insuperable difficulties shall be made appear easy to be overcome; discordant opinions reconciled and brought spontaneously to concurrence; envy, folly, and jealousy will be allowed to prey upon themselves, without danger of annoyance to the plan; the variety of the objects can be made subservient to render them more simple, practicable, and effective; and instead of the merit being ascribed to any one man, every officer in the army and the militia if they choose shall have an opportunity of laying his claim to a participation in the plan.

If the observations thrown out in this preface are well founded, the necessity of a work of this kind will be immediately perceived. Let it not however be imagined, says major James, that a Military Dictionary ought exclusively to belong to a camp or barrack, or be found in the closets or libraries of military men alone. The arts and sciences are so intimately connected together, that they eventually borrow language and resources from each other, and go hand in hand from the senate to the field, from the pulpit to the bar, and from the desk of the historian to the bureau of the statesman or politician.

We have a few words to say on certain parts of the work. The French phrases are adopted for their usefulness in reading, and often even in political reading: the words and phrases in the language of the East Indies, are adopted from the English Dictionary, in which however there were some errors which the editor of this work was enabled to correct, and to give more accurate explanations to many. Some subjects which might with more propriety be placed under one letter are placed under another; the course of reading which the editor commenced cotemporaneous with the preparation of the three first letters, not affording the illustrations until the letter to which they properly belonged had been printed. Thus under Valor will be found much of what would properly come under Courage; and under Topographical what would properly belong to Depot. There are several similar instances.

Should the disposition be manifested to cultivate the knowlege of military subjects generally, the editor proposes at some future day to publish gen. Grimoard’s treatise on the Staff of armies; the French Regulations for Cavalry of 1808; and the most modern and celebrated works on Tactics, the treatise of Jomini, the 4th volume of which was published in the beginning of 1810. All these works are already translated and ready to be put to press; beside a Dictionary of all the military actions recorded in ancient and modern history which is now in great forwardness.

Military men who may be desirous of adding to the stock of useful and correct knowlege, will oblige by pointing out any defects or errors, or recommending any additions that are pertinent to the nature of this work, addressed to the compiler.

JULY 4, 1810.

MILITARY DICTIONARY.

A.

ABATIS, in a military sense, is formed by cutting down many entire trees, the branches of which are turned towards an enemy, and as much as possible entangled one into another. They are made either before redoubts, or other works, to render the attacks difficult, or sometimes along the skirts of a wood, to prevent an enemy from getting possession of it. In this case the trunks serve as a breast-work, behind which the troops are posted, and for that reason should be so disposed, that the parts may, if possible, flank each other.

ABLECTI, in military antiquity, a choice or select part of the soldiery in the Roman armies, picked out of those called extraordinarii.

ABOLLA, in military antiquity, a warm kind of garment, generally lined or doubled, used both by the Greeks and Romans, chiefly out of the city, in following the camp.

ABORD, Fr. attack, onset.

_S’_ABOUCHER, Fr. to parley.

ABOUT, a technical word to express the movement, by which a body of troops changes its front or aspect, by facing according to any given word of command.

Right ABOUT, is when the soldier completely changes the situation of his person, by a semi-circular movement to the right.

Left ABOUT, is when the soldier changes the situation of his person by a semi-circular movement to the left.

ABREAST, a term formerly used to express any number of men in front. At present they are determined by Files.

ABRI, Fr. shelter, cover. Etre à l’abri, to be under cover, as of a wood, hillock, &c.

ABSCISSA, in military mathematics, signifies any part of the diameter or axis of a curve, contained between its vertex or some other fixed point, and the intersection of the ordinate.

In the parabola, the abscissa is a third proportional to the parameter and the ordinate.

In the ellipsis, the square of the ordinate is equal to the rectangle under the parameter and abscissa, lessened by another rectangle under the said abscissa, and a fourth proportional to the axis, the parameter, and the abscissa.

In the hyperbola, the squares of the ordinates are as the rectangles of the abscissa by another line, compounded of the abscissa and the transverse axis.

But it must be remembered, that the two proportions relating to the ellipsis and hyperbola, the origin of the abscissas, or point from whence they began to be reckoned, is supposed to be the vertex of the curve, or, which amounts to the same thing, the point where the axis meets it; for if the origin of the abscissa be taken from the centre, as is often done, the above proportions will not be true.

ABSENT, a term used in military returns. It forms a part of regimental reports, to account for the deficiency of any given number of officers or soldiers; and is usually distinguished under two principal heads, viz.

ABSENT with leave, officers with permission, or non-commissioned officers and soldiers on furlough.

ABSENT without leave. Men who desert are frequently reported absent without leave, for the specific purpose of bringing their crime under regimental cognizance, and to prevent them from being tried capitally, for desertion.

ABSOLUTE Gravity, in philosophy, is the whole force by which a body, shell, or shot, is impelled towards the centre. See GRAVITY.

ABSOLUTE Number, in Algebra, is the known quantity which possesses entirely one side of the equation. Thus, in the equation, xx + 10_x_, = 64, the number 64, possessing entirely one side of the equation, is called the absolute number, and is equal to the square of the unknown root x, added to 10_x_, or to 10 times x.

ABUTMENT. See BRIDGES.

ACADEMY, in antiquity, the name of a villa situated about a mile from the city of Athens, where Plato and his followers assembled for conversing on philosophical subjects; and hence they acquired the name of Academics.

The term Academy is frequently used among the moderns for a society, of learned persons, instituted for the cultivation and improvement of arts or sciences. Some authors confound academy with university; but, though much the same in Latin, they are very different things in English. An university is, properly, a body composed of graduates in the several faculties; of professors, who teach in the public schools; of regents or tutors, and students who learn under them, and aspire likewise to degrees; whereas an academy was originally not intended for teaching, or to profess any art, but to improve it; it was not for novices to be instructed in, but for those who were more knowing; for persons of distinguished abilities to confer in, and communicate their lights and discoveries to each other, for their mutual benefit and improvement. The first academy we read of, was established by Charlemagne, by the advice of Alcuin: it was composed of the chief wits of the court, the emperor himself being a member.

Military ACADEMY. There are in England two royal military academies, one at Woolwich, and one at Portsmouth. The first was established by king George II. in 1741, endowed, and supported, for the instructing of the people belonging to the military branch of ordnance, in the several parts of mathematics necessary to qualify them for the service of the artillery, and the business of engineers. The lectures of the masters in theory were then duly attended by the practitioner-engineers, officers, serjeants, corporals, private men, and cadets. At present the gentlemen educated at this academy are the sons of the nobility and military officers. They are called gentlemen cadets, and are not admitted under 14 and not above 16 years of age. They are taught writing, arithmetic, algebra, Latin, French, mathematics, mechanics, surveying, levelling, and fortification, together with the attack and defence; gunnery, mining, laboratory works, geography, perspective, fencing, dancing, &c. The master-general of the ordnance is always captain of the company of gentlemen cadets, and some officer of merit is always captain-lieutenant. There is, besides, a first lieutenant, and two second lieutenants. They are further under the immediate care of a lieutenant-governor, and an inspector, who are officers of great abilities and experience; and the professors and masters are men of known talents and capacity. That at Portsmouth was founded by George I. in 1722, for teaching of the branches of the mathematics which more immediately relate to navigation.

For the American and French Military Academies, see SCHOOL.

ACANZI, in military history, the name of the Turkish light-horse that form the van-guard of the Grand Signior’s army on a march.

ACCELERATED Motion on oblique or inclined-planes. See MOTION.

ACCELERATED Motion of pendulums. See PENDULUMS.

ACCELERATED Motion of Projectiles. See PROJECTILES.

ACCENDONES, in military antiquity, a kind of gladiators, or supernumeraries, whose office was to excite and animate the combatants during the engagement.

ACCENSI, in antiquity, were officers attending the Roman magistrates; their business was to summon the people to the public games, and to assist the prætor when he sat on the bench.

Accensi, in military antiquity, was also an appellation given to a kind of adjutants appointed by the tribune to assist each centurion and decurion. According to Festus, they were supernumerary soldiers, whose duty it was to attend their leaders, and supply the places of those who were either killed or wounded. Livy mentions them as irregular troops, but little esteemed. Salmasius says, they were taken out of the fifth class of the poor citizens of Rome.

ACCESSIBLE, that which may be approached. We say, in a military stile, that place, or that fortress, is accessible from the sea, or land, i. e. it may be entered on those sides.

An accessible height or distance, in geometry, is that which may be measured by applying a rule, &c. to it: or rather, it is a height, the foot whereof may be approached, and from whence any distance may be measured on the ground.

Heights, both accessible, and inaccessible, may be taken with a quadrant. See ALTITUDE; and the article on Field Fortifications in the American Military Library, Theorem 11, 12, 13, 14, 15.

One of the objects of surveying, is the measuring both accessible and inaccessible distances.

ACCLIVITY, in a military sense, is the steepness or slope of any work, inclined to the horizon, reckoned upwards. Some writers on fortification use acclivity as synonymous with talus; though talus is commonly used to denote all manner of slopes, either in its ascendent or descendent state.

ACCONTIUM, in ancient military writers, a kind of Grecian dart or javelin, somewhat resembling the Roman pilum.

ACCOUTREMENTS, in a military sense, signify habits, equipage, or furniture, of a soldier, such as belts, pouches, cartridge-boxes, saddles, bridles, &c. Accoutrements should be made of stout leather, not of the spongy kind, which is always stretching, and difficult to clean. The belts are about 2¹⁄₄ inches broad, with two buckles to fix them to the pouch. Pouches are made of the stoutest blackened leather, especially the outside flaps, which are of such a substance as to turn the severest rain. Cartridge-boxes are made as light as possible, with holes in each, to hold cartridges. See CARTRIDGE.

ACLIDES, in Roman antiquity, a kind of missive weapon, with a thong fixed to it, whereby it might be drawn back again. Most authors describe the aclides as a sort of dart or javelin: but Scaliger makes it roundish or globular, with a wooden stem to poise it by.

ACOLUTHI, in military antiquity, was a title in the Grecian empire, given to the captain or commander of the varangi, or body-guards, appointed for the security of the emperor’s palace.

ACTIAN games in antiquity, were games instituted, or at least restored, by Augustus, in memory of the famous victory, at Actium, over Mark Antony.

ACTIAN years, in chronology, a series of years, commencing with the epocha of the battle of Actium, otherwise called the æra of Augustus.

ACTION, in the military art, is an engagement between two armies, or any smaller body of troops, or between different bodies belonging thereto. The word is likewise used to signify some memorable act done by an officer, soldier, detachment or party.

ACTIVITY, in a military sense, denotes laboriousness, attention, labor, diligence and study.

ACUTE angle. See ANGLE.

ADACTED applies to stakes, or piles, driven into the earth by large malls shod with iron, as in securing ramparts or pontoons.

ADDICE, a sort of axe which cuts horizontally. It is sometimes called an Adze.

ADIT, a passage under ground, by which miners approach the part they intend to sap. See GALLERY.

ADJUTANT-GENERAL is a staff officer, who aids and assists a general in his laborious duties: he forms the several details of duty of the army, with the brigade-majors, and keeps an exact state of each brigade and regiment, with a roll of the lieutenant-generals, major-generals, colonels, lieutenant-colonels, and majors. He every day at head quarters receives orders from the general officer of the day, and distributes them to the majors of brigades, from whom he receives the number of men they are to furnish for the duty of the army, and informs them of any detail which may concern them. On marching days he accompanies the general to the ground of the camp. He makes a daily report of the situation of all the posts placed for the safety of the army, and of any changes made in their posts. In a day of battle he acts as aid to the general. In a siege he visits the several posts and guards of the trenches, and reports their situation, and how circumstanced: he gives and signs all orders for skirmishing parties (if time permit) and has a serjeant from each brigade to carry any orders which he may have to send. See American Mil. Lib. Article STAFF.

ADJUTANT, an officer who aids the major in part of his duty, and performs it in his absence. He receives orders from the brigade-major, if in camp; and when in garrison, from the town-major: after he has carried them to his colonel or officer commanding the regiment, he then assembles the serjeant-major, drum-major and fife-major, with a serjeant and corporal of each company, who write the orders in an orderly book, to shew to their respective officers. If convoys, parties, detachments, or guards, are to be furnished, he gives the number which each company is to furnish, and hour and place for the assembling: he must keep an exact roster and roll of duties, and have a perfect knowlege of all manœuvres, &c. This post is usually given to an active subaltern.

ADMIRAL, on the European establishiments, when on shore, are entitled to receive military honors, and rank with generals in the army.

ADVANCE. See PAY in Advance.

ADVANCED signifies some part of an army in front of the rest, as in advanced guards, which always precede the line of march or operations of a body of troops; again, as when a battalion, or guns of a second line are brought up in front and before the first line. This term also applies to the promotions of officers and soldiers.

{Fossé} See FORTIFICATION. ADVANCED {Ditch} {Guard. See GUARD.

ADVANCEMENT, in a military sense, signifies honor, promotion, or preferment, in the army, regiment or company.

ADVANTAGE Ground, a ground that gives superiority, or an opportunity of annoyance or resistance.

ADVICE-Boat, a vessel employed for intelligence.

ADVOCATE General. See JUDGE Martial.

ÆNEATORES, in military antiquity, the musicians in an army; including those who sounded the trumpets, horns, litui, buccincæ, &c.

AFFAIR, in the military acceptation of the word, means any slight action or engagement.

AFFAIR of Honor, a duel.

AFFAMER, une Place, Fr. to besiege a place so closely as to starve the garrison and inhabitants. See BLOCKADE.

AFFIDAVIT, in military law, signifies an oath taken before some person who is properly authorised to administer it; as first, when a soldier is inlisted, when it is stiled an attestation; secondly, by all officers appointed on a court-martial; thirdly, by the commissaries, or muster-masters.

AFFRONTER, Fr. to encounter or attack boldly.

AFFUT, the French name for a gun-carriage, and for which we have no appropriate name; the only distinction from all other carriages is, that it belongs to a gun. See CARRIAGE.

AGA, in the Turkish army, is the same as a general with us.

AGE. A young man must be 14 years old before he can become an officer in the English army, or be entered as a cadet at Woolwich, in the English academy.

Persons are enlisted for soldiers from 17 to 45. After the latter age, every inhabitant is exempted from serving in the British militia.

By a late regulation in England, growing boys may be enlisted under 16 years of age. These recruits are chiefly intended for the East-India service.

In the United States 18 to 45 is the legal age for militia and regulars.

The Romans were obliged to enter themselves in the army at the age of 17 years; at 45 they might demand their dismission. Amongst the Lombards, the age of entry was between 18 and 19; among the Saxons, at 13.

AGEMA, in the ancient military art, a kind of soldiery chiefly in the Macedonian armies. The word is Greek, and literally denotes vehemence, to express the strength and eagerness of this corps. Some authors will have agema to denote a certain number of picked men, answering to a legion among the Romans.

AGENCY, a certain proportion of money which is ordered to be subtracted from the pay and allowances of the British army, for transacting the business of the several regiments composing it.

AGENT, a person in the civil department of the British army, between the paymaster-general and the paymaster of the regiment, through whom every regimental concern of a pecuniary nature must be transacted. He gives security to government for all monies which pass through his hands in the capacity of an Agent--and by the Mutiny Act, it was provided, That if an Agent shall withhold the Pay of Officers or Soldiers for the Space of one Month, he should be dismissed from his Office and forfeit 100_l._

The army agency has since been incorporated with the British war office, and forms a special department.

Military AGENT in the United States is a civil officer whose duty is the transporting of clothing and other articles; and the expenditures for other services attached to the military department; they act under direct orders from the War Department.

AGGER, in ancient military writers, denotes the middle part of a military road, raised into a ridge, with a gentle slope on each side, to make a drain for the water, and keep the way dry.

AGGER is also used for the whole road, or military way. Where highways were to be made in low grounds, as between two hills, the Romans used to raise them above the adjacent land, so as to make them of a level with the hills. These banks they called aggeres. Bergier mentions several in the Gallia Belgica, which were thus raised 10, 15, or 20 feet above ground, and 5 or 6 leagues long. They are sometimes called aggeres calceati, or causeways.

AGGER, also, denotes a work of fortification, used both for the defence and the attack of towns, camps, &c. in which sense agger is the same with what was otherwise called vallum, and in later times, agestum: and among the moderns, lines; sometimes, cavaliers, terrasses, &c.

The agger was usually a bank, or elevation of earth, or other matter, bound and supported with timber; having sometimes turrets on the top, wherein the workmen, engineers, and soldiery, were placed. It had also a ditch, which served as its chief defence. The height of the agger was frequently equal to that of the wall of the place. Cæsar tells us of one he made, which was 30 feet high, and 330 feet broad. Besides the use of aggers before towns, they generally used to fortify their camps with them; for want of which precaution, divers armies have been surprised and ruined.

There were vast aggers made in towns and places on the sea-side, fortified with towers, castles, &c. Those made by Cæsar and Pompey, at Brundusium, are famous. Sometimes aggers were even built across arms of the sea, lakes, and morasses; as was done by Alexander before Tyre, and by M. Antony and Cassius.

The wall of Severus, in the north of England, may be considered as a grand agger, to which belong several lesser ones. Besides, the principal agger or vallum, on the brink of the ditch, Mr. Horsley describes another on the south side of the former, about 5 paces distant from it, which he calls the south agger; and another larger one, on the north side of the ditch, called the north agger. This latter he conjectures to have served as a military way; the former, probably, was made for the inner defence, in case the enemy should beat them from any part of the principal vallum, or to protect the soldiers against any sudden attack from the provincial Britons.

AGGER Tarquinii, was a famous fence built by Tarquinius Superbus, on the east side of Rome, to stop the incursions of the Latins, and other enemies, whereby the city might be invested.

AGGER is also used for the earth dug out of a ditch or trench, and thrown up on the brink of it: in which sense, the Chevalier Folard thinks the word to be understood, when used in the plural number, since we can hardly suppose they would raise a number of cavaliers, or terrasses.

AGGER is also used for a bank or wall, erected against the sea, or some great river, to confine or keep it within bounds; in which sense, agger amounts to the same with what the ancients called tumulus and moles; the Dutch, dyke; and we, dam, sea-wall; the Asiatics call them bunds, &c.

AGIADES, in the Turkish armies, are a kind of pioneers, or rather field engineers, employed in fortifying the camp, &c.

AGUERRI, Fr. an officer or soldier experienced in war; a veteran.

AIDE-DE-CAMP, an officer appointed to attend a general officer, in the field, in winter-quarters, and in garrison; he receives and carries the orders, as occasion requires. He is taken from the line, and all aids-de-camp have extra pay allowed for their duty. This employment is of greater importance than has been generally believed: it has been, however, too often entrusted to young officers of little experience, and of as little capacity; but in the French service they bestow great attention on this article. Marshal de Puysegur mentions the loss of a battle through the incapacity of an aide-de-camp. On the English establishment, generals, being field marshals, have four, lieutenant-generals two, and major-generals and brigadier-generals one.

In the United States the number is established by law; though on service the number must necessarily be equal to the exigency, or the various points to which orders must be sent. See American Mil. Lib. Article STAFF.

AIDE du Parc des Vivres, Fr. an officer in France, acting immediately under the commissary of stores and provisions.

AID-MAJOR. See ADJUTANT.

AIGREMORE, a term used by the artificers in the laboratory, to express the charcoal in a state fitted for the making of powder.

AIGUILLE, an instrument used by engineers to pierce a rock for the lodgement of powder, as in a mine; or to mine a rock, so as to excavate and make roads.

AILE, Fr. a wing or flank of an army or fortification.

AIM, the act of bringing the musquet, piece of ordnance, or any other missive weapon, to its proper line of direction with the object intended to be struck.

AIM FRONTLET, a piece of wood hollowed out to fit the muzzle of a gun, to make it of an equal height with the breech, formerly made use of by the gunners, to level and direct their pieces. It is not used at present.

AIR-GUN, a pneumatic machine for exploding bullets, &c. with great violence.

The common air-gun is made of brass, and has two barrels: the inside barrel is of a small bore, from whence the bullets are exploded; and a large barrel on the outside of it. There is likewise a syringe fixed in the stock of the gun by which the air is injected into the cavity between the two barrels through a valve. The ball is put down into its place in the small barrel with the rammer, as in any other gun. Another valve, being opened by the trigger, permits the air to come behind the bullet, so as to drive it out with great force. If this valve be opened and shut suddenly, one charge of condensed air may be sufficient for several discharges of bullets; but if the whole air be discharged on one single bullet, it will drive it out with uncommon force. This discharge is effected by means of a lock placed here, as usual in other guns; for the trigger being pulled, the cock will go down and drive the lever, which will open the valve, and let in the air upon the bullet: but as the expansive power of the condensed air diminishes at each discharge, its force is not determined with sufficient precision for the purposes of war. Hence it has been long out of use among military men.

In the air-gun, and all other cases where the air is required to be condensed to a very great degree, it will be necessary to have the syringe of a small bore, viz. not exceeding half an inch in diameter; because the pressure against every square inch is about 15 pounds, and therefore against every circular inch about 12 pounds. If therefore the syringe be one inch in diameter, when the atmosphere is injected, there will be a resistance of 12 pounds against the piston; and when 10 are injected, there will be a force of 120 pounds to be overcome; whereas 10 atmospheres act against the circular half-inch piston (whose area is only ¹⁄₄ part so large) with only a force equal to 30 pounds; or 40 atmospheres may be injected with such a syringe, as well as 10 with the other. In short, the facility of working will be inversely as the squares of the diameter of the syringe.

AIR-SHAFTS, in mining. See MINING.

ALARM, is a sudden apprehension upon some report, which makes men run to their arms to stand upon their guard; it implies either the apprehension of being suddenly attacked, or the notice given of such an attack being actually made; generally signified by the firing of a cannon, or rocket, the beat of a drum, &c.

ALARM-Post, in the field, is the ground appointed by the quarter-master general for each regiment to march to, in case of an alarm.

ALARM-Post, in a garrison, is the place allotted by the governor for the troops to draw up in, on any sudden alarm.

False-ALARMS, are stratagems of war, frequently made use of to harrass an enemy, by keeping them perpetually under arms. They are often conveyed by false reports, occasioned by a fearful or negligent sentinel. A vigilant officer will sometimes make a false alarm, to try if his guards are strict upon duty.

ALARM Bell, the bell rung upon any sudden emergency, as a fire, mutiny, approach of an enemy, or the like, called by the French, Tocsin.

ALCANTARA, knights of a Spanish military order, who gained a great name during the wars with the Moors.

ALERT, originally derived from the French word alerte, which is formed of a and airte. The French formerly said airte for air; so that alerte means something continually in the air, and always ready to be put in action. A general is said to be alert when he is particularly vigilant.

To be kept upon the alert, is to be in continual apprehension of being surprised. Alerte, among the French, is an expression which is used to put soldiers upon their guard. It is likewise used by a post that may be attacked in the night, to give notice to the one that is destined to support it; and by a sentry to give warning when any part of the enemy is approaching. We have had an alert, is a military phrase.

ALGEBRA, a peculiar kind of arithmetic, in which every military man ought to be versed, but which is indispensibly necessary for officers in the ordnance department.

ALIEN, in law, implies a person born in a foreign country, in contradistinction to a natural born or naturalized person.

ALIGNEMENT, implies any thing strait--For instance, the alignement of a battalion means the situation of a body of men when drawn up in line. The alignement of a camp signifies the relative position of the tents, &c. so as to form a strait line, from given points.

ALLAY. See ALLOY.

ALLÆ, in the ancient military art, the two wings or extremes of an army ranged in order of battle.

ALLEGIANCE, in law, implies the obedience which is due to the laws.

Oath of ALLEGIANCE, is that taken by an alien, by which he adopts America and renounces the authority of a foreign government. It is also applied to the oath taken by officers and soldiers in pledge of their fidelity to the state.

ALLEGIANT, loyal, faithful to the laws.

ALLEZER, to cleanse the mouth of a cannon or other piece of ordnance, and to increase the bore, so as to produce its determined calibre.

ALLEZOIR, a frame of timber firmly suspended in the air with strong cordage, on which is placed a piece of ordnance with the muzzle downwards. In this situation the bore is rounded and enlarged by means of an instrument which has a very sharp and strong edge made to traverse the bore by the force of machinery or horses, and in an horizontal direction.

ALLEZURES, the metal taken from the cannon by boring.

ALLIAGE, a term used by the French to denote the composition of metals used for the fabrication of cannon and mortars, &c.

ALLIANCE, in a military sense, signifies a treaty entered into by sovereign states, for their mutual safety and defence. In this sense alliances may be divided into such as are offensive, where the contracting parties oblige themselves jointly to attack some other power; and into such as are defensive, whereby the contracting powers bind themselves to stand by, and defend one another, in case of being attacked by any other power.

Alliances are variously distinguished, according to their object, the parties in them, &c. Hence we read of equal, unequal, triple, quadruple, grand, offensive, defensive alliances, &c.

ALLODIAL, independent; not feudal. The Allodii of the Romans were bodies of men embodied on any emergency, in a manner similar to our volunteer associations.

ALLOGNE, the cordage used with floating bridges, by which they are guided from one side of a river to the other.

ALLONGE, Fr. a pass or thrust with a rapier or small sword; also a long rein used in the exercising of horses.

ALLOY, is the mixture of metals that enter into the composition of the metal proper for cannon and mortars.

ALLY, in a military sense, implies any nation united to another--under a treaty, either offensive or defensive, or both.

ALMADIE, a kind of military canoe, or small vessel, about 24 feet long, made of the bark of a tree, and used by the negroes of Africa.

ALMADIE, is also the name of a long-boat used at Calcutta, often 80 to 100 feet long, and generally six or seven broad, they row from ten to thirty oars.

ALTIMETRY, the taking or measuring altitude, or heights.

ALTITUDE, height, or distance from the ground, measured upwards, and may be both accessible, and inaccessible.

ALTITUDE of a figure, is the distance of its vertex from its base, or the length of a perpendicular let fall from the vertex to the base. See American Mil. Lib. Art. FIELD FORTIFICATION.

ALTITUDE of a shot or shell, is the perpendicular height of the vertex above the horizon. See GUNNERY and PROJECTILES.

ALTITUDE, in optics, is usually considered as the angle subtended between a line drawn through the eye, parallel to the horizon, and a visual ray emitted from an object to the eye.

ALTITUDE, in cosmography, is the perpendicular height of an object, or its distance from the horizon upwards.

ALTITUDES are divided into accessible and inaccessible.

Accessible ALTITUDE of an object, is that whose base you can have access to, i. e. measure the nearest distance between your station and the foot of the object on the ground.

Inaccessible ALTITUDE of an object, is that when the foot or bottom of it cannot be approached, by reason of some impediment; such as water, or the like. The instruments chiefly used in measuring of altitudes, are the quadrant, theodolite, geometric quadrant, cross, or line of shadows, &c.

ALTITUDE of the eye, in perspective, is a right line let fall from the eye, perpendicular to the geometrical plane.

ALTITUDE of motion, a term used by some writers, to express the measure of any motion, computed according to the line of direction of the moving force.

AMAZON, one of those women who are fabled to have composed a nation of themselves, exclusive of males, and to have derived their name from their cutting off one of their breasts, that it might not hinder or impede the exercise of their arms. This term has often by modern writers been used to signify a bold daring woman, whom the delicacy of her sex does not hinder from engaging in the most hazardous attempts. The recent and former wars with France have furnished several instances of females who have undergone the fatigue of a campaign with alacrity, and run the hazards of a battle with the greatest intrepidity. Several cases occurred also in the American Revolution.

AMBIT, the compass or circuit of any work or place, as of a fortification or encampment, &c.

AMBITION, in a military sense, signifies a desire of greater posts, or honors. Every person in the army or navy, ought to have a spirit of emulation to arrive at the very summit of the profession by his personal merit.

AMBUSCADE, in military affairs, implies a body of men posted in some secret or concealed place, ’till they find an opportunity of falling upon the enemy by surprise; or, it is rather a snare set for the enemy, either to surprise him when marching without precaution; or by posting your force advantageously, and drawing him on by different stratagems, to attack him with superior means. An ambuscade is easily carried into execution in woods, buildings, and hollow places; but requires a more fertile imagination, and greater trouble, in a level country.

AMBUSH, a place of concealment for soldiers to surprise an enemy, by falling suddenly upon him.

AME, a French term, similar in its import to the word chamber, as applied to cannon, &c.

AMENDE honorable, in the old armies of France, signified an apology for some injury done to another, or satisfaction given for an offence committed against the rules of honor or military etiquette; and was also applied to an infamous kind of punishment inflicted upon traitors, parricides, or sacrilegious persons, in the following manner: the offender being delivered into the hands of the hangman, his shirt stripped off, a rope put about his neck, and a taper in his hand; then he was led into court, where he begged pardon of God, the court, and his country. Sometimes the punishment ended there; but sometimes it was only a prelude to death, or banishment to the gallies. It prevails yet in some parts of Europe.

AMMUNITION, implies all sorts of powder and ball, shells, bullets, cartridges, grape-shot, tin, and case-shot; carcasses, granades, &c.

AMMUNITION, or gun-powder, may be prohibited to be exported.

AMMUNITION, for small arms, in the British service, is generally packed in half barrels, each containing 1000 musket, or 1500 carbine cartridges. An ammunition waggon will carry 20 of these barrels, and an ammunition cart 12 of them: their weight nearly 1 cwt. each.

The cartouch boxes of the infantry are made of so many different shapes and sizes, that it is impossible to say exactly what ammunition they will contain; but most of them can carry 60 rounds. See the word Cartridges; and for artillery ammunition, see the word Artillery, for the field, for the siege, and the defence of a fortified place.

The French pack all their ammunition in waggons without either boxes or barrels, by means of partitions of wood. Their 12 Pr. and 8 Pr. waggons will contain each 14,000 musket cartridges, but their 4 Pr. waggons will contain only 12,000 each.

AMMUNITION bread, such as is contracted for by government, and served in camp, garrison, and barracks.

AMMUNITION shoes, stockings, shirts, stacks, &c. such of those articles as are served out to the private soldiers, by government. See HALF-MOUNTINGS.

AMMUNITION waggon, is generally a four-wheel carriage with shafts; the sides are railed in with staves and raves, and lined with wicker-work, so as to carry bread and all sorts of tools. It is drawn by four horses, and loaded with 1200 pound weight. See WAGGON.

AMMUNITION-cart, a two-wheel carriage with shafts; the sides of which, as well as the fore and hind parts, are inclosed with boards instead of wicker-work. See CAISSON.

AMMUZETTE. See the word GUNS.

AMNESTY, in a military or political sense, is an act by which two belligerent powers at variance promise to forget and bury in oblivion all that is past.

AMNESTY is either general and unlimited, or particular and restrained, though most commonly universal, without conditions or exceptions: such as that which passed in Germany at the peace of Osnaburg in the year 1648, and between the United States and Great Britain, in 1783.

AMNESTY, in a more limited sense, denotes a pardon to persons rebellious, usually with some exceptions; such as was granted by Charles II. at his restoration.

AMNISTIE, Fr. See AMNESTY.

AMORCE, an old military word for fine-grained powder, such as is sometimes used for the priming of great guns, mortars or howitzers; as also for small-arms, on account of its rapid inflammation. A port fire, or quick match.

AMPLITUDE of the range of a projectile. See PROJECTILE.

AMPOULETTE, an old military term used by the French to express the stock of a musket, &c.

AMUSETTE, a species of offensive weapon which was invented by the celebrated Marshal Saxe. It is fired off in the same manner as a musquet, but is mounted nearly like a cannon. It has been found of considerable use during the war of the French revolution, especially among the French, who armed some of their horse artillery with it, and found it superior to the one adopted by the Prussians from Marshal Saxe.

ANABASII, in antiquity, were expeditious couriers, who carried dispatches of great importance, in the Roman wars.

ANACLETICUM, in the ancient art of war, a particular blast of the trumpet, whereby the fearful and flying soldiers were rallied and recalled to the combat.

ANCIENT, a term, used formerly to express the grand ensign or standard of an army.

ANCILE, in antiquity, a kind of shield, which fell, as was pretended, from heaven, in the reign of Numa Pompilius; at which time, likewise, a voice was heard, declaring, that Rome would be mistress of the world as long as she should preserve this holy buckler.

Authors are much divided about its shape: however, it was kept with great care in the temple of Mars, under the direction of twelve priests; and lest any should attempt to steal it, eleven others were made so like it, as not to be distinguished from the sacred one. These Ancilia were carried in procession every year round the city of Rome.

ANDABATÆ, in military antiquity, a kind of gladiators, who fought hoodwinked; having a sort of helmet that covered the eyes and face. They fought mounted on horse-back, or on chariots.

St. ANDREW, or the Thistle, a nominally military order of knighthood in Scotland. The occasion of instituting this order is variously related.

In 819, Achaius, king of Scotland, having formed a league, offensive and defensive, with Charlemagne, against all other princes, found himself thereby so strong, that he took for his device the Thistle and the Rue, which he composed into a collar of his order, and for his motto, Pour ma defense; intimating thereby, that he feared not the powers of foreign princes, seeing he leaned on the succour and alliance of the French. And though from hence may be inferred, that these two plants, the Thistle and the Rue, were the united symbols of one order of knighthood, yet Menenius divides them into two; making one whose badge was the thistle, whence the knights were so called; and the motto, Nemo me impune lacessit; another vulgarly called Sertum rutæ, or the garland of rue; the collar of which was composed of two branches or sprigs thereof, or else of several of its leaves: at both these collars hung one and the same jewel, to wit, the figure of St Andrew, bearing before him the cross of his martyrdom.

But though the thistle has been acknowleged for the badge and symbol of the kingdom of Scotland, even from the reign of Achaius, as the rose was of England, and the lily of France, the pomegranate of Spain, &c.; yet there are some who refer the order of the thistle to later times, in the reign of Charles VII. of France; when the league of amity was renewed between that kingdom and Scotland, by which the former received great succour from the latter, at a period of extraordinary distress. Others again place the foundation still later, even as low as the year 1500; but without any degree of certainty.

The chief and principal ensign of this order is a gold collar, composed of thistles, interlinked with annulets of gold, having pendent thereto the image of St Andrew with his cross, and this motto, Nemo me impune lacessit.

Knights of St. ANDREW, is also a nominal military order instituted by Peter III. of Muscovy, in 1698; the badge of which is a golden medal, on one side whereof is represented St. Andrew’s cross; and on the other are these words, Czar Pierre monarque de toute la Russie. This medal, being fastened to a blue ribbon, is suspended from the right shoulder.

ANGARIA, in ancient military writers, means a guard of soldiers posted in any place for the security of it. Vide Vegetius, lib. i. c. 3. lib. ii. c. 19. lib. iii. c. 8.

ANGARIA, in civil law, implies a service by compulsion, as furnishing horses and carriages for conveying corn or other stores for the army.

ANGE, a term used by the French to express chain shot.

ANGEL Shot. See CHAIN-SHOT.

ANGLE, in geometry, is the inclination of two lines meeting one another in a point.

Sometimes angles are denoted by a single letter placed at the point of intersection; but when several lines meet at the same point, each particular angle is denoted by three letters, whereof the middle letter shews the angular point, and the other two letters the lines which form that angle.

The measure of an angle is the arch of a circle, described on the angular point, intercepted between the two lines which form the angle, and as many degrees, &c. as are contained in that arch, so many degrees, &c. the angle is said to consist of.

ANGLES are either right, acute, or obtuse.

A Right ANGLE, is that whose two legs are perpendicular to each other; and consequently the arch intercepted between them is exactly 90° or the quarter of a circle.

An Acute ANGLE, is that which is less than a right angle, or 90°.

An Obtuse ANGLE, is that which is greater than a right angle.

Adjacent ANGLES, are such as have the same vertex, and one common side contained beyond the angular point. The sum of the adjacent angles is always equal to two right angles (13. Eucl. 1.) and therefore, if one of them be acute, the other will be obtuse; and the contrary: whence, if either of them be given, the other is also given, it being the complement of the former to 180°.

Homologous ANGLES in similar figures are such as retain the same order, reckoning from the first in both figures.

Vertical ANGLES, are the opposite angles made by two lines cutting or crossing each other. When two lines cut or cross each other, the vertical angles are equal (15 Eucl. 1.)

Alternate ANGLES, are those cut or obtuse angles made by two lines cutting or crossing each other, and formed by a right line cutting or crossing two parallel lines. Alternate angles are always equal to each other (18. Eucl. 1.)

A rectilineal or right lined ANGLE, is made by strait lines, to distinguish it from the spherical or curvilineal angle.

ANGLES of contact. Angles of contact may be considered as true angles, and should be compared with one another, though not with right lined angles as being infinitely smaller.

ANGLE of elevation, in gunnery, is that which the axis of the hollow cylinder, or barrel of the gun, makes with a horizontal line. See ELEVATION.

ANGLES oblique are those which are greater than right angles.

Spherical ANGLE, is an angle formed by the intersection of two great circles of the sphere. All spherical angles are measured by an arch of a great circle described on the vertex as a pole, and intercepted between the legs which form the angle.

ANGLE lunular is an angle formed by the intersection of two curves, the one concave and the other convex.

Mixed-line ANGLE, is that comprehended between a right line and a curved line.

Curved-line ANGLE, is that intercepted between two curved lines meeting each other in one point, in the same plane.

ANGLE of a semi-circle is that which the diameter of a circle makes with the circumference.

ANGLE of Incidence, is that which the line of direction of a ray of light, &c. makes at the point where it first touches the body it strikes against, with a line erected perpendicular to the surface of that body.

ANGLE of interval between two places is that formed by two lines directed from the eye to those places.

ANGLE of Reflection, is the angle intercepted between the line of direction of a body rebounding, after it has struck against another body, and a perpendicular erected at the point of contact.

ANGLE at the centre, in fortification, is the angle formed at the middle of the polygon, by lines drawn from thence to the points of the two adjacent bastions.

ANGLE of the curtain, ANGLE of the flank, That which is made by, and contained between the curtain and the flank.

ANGLE of the polygon, that which is made by the meeting of the two sides of the polygon, or figure in the centre of the bastion. See FORTIFICATION.

ANGLE of the triangle, is half the angle of the polygon.

ANGLE of the bastion, or Flanked ANGLE, That which is made by the two faces, being the utmost part of the bastion most exposed to the enemy’s batteries, frequently called the point of the bastion. See FORTIFICATION.

Diminished ANGLE, only used by some engineers, especially the Dutch, is composed of the face of the bastion, and the exterior side of the polygon.

ANGLE of the shoulder, or ANGLE of the épaule, Is formed by one face, and one flank of the bastion. See FORTIFICATION.

ANGLE of the tenaille, ANGLE rentrant, Is made by two lines fichant, that is, the faces of the two bastions extended till they meet in an angle towards the curtain, and is that which always carries its point towards the out-works. See FORTIFICATION.

ANGLE of the flank exterior, is that which is before the centre of the curtain, formed by the prolongation of the faces of the bastion, or by both the fichant lines of defence, intersecting each other on planning a fortification.

ANGLE of the flank interior, is formed by the flanked line of defence and the curtain; being that point where the line of defence falls upon the curtain.

ANGLE of the line of defence, is that angle made by the flank, and the line of defence.

ANGLE of the face, is formed by the angle of the face and the line of defence produced till they intersect each other.

ANGLE of the base interior, is the half of the figure, which the interior polygon makes with the radius, when they join each other in the centre; intersecting the centre of the gorges of each bastion.

ANGLE of the base exterior, is an angle formed by lines drawn from the centre of the figure, to the angle of the exterior polygon, cutting the centre of the gorges of each bastion.

ANGLE of the gorge, is that angle formed by the prolongation of the curtains, intersecting each other, in the centre of the gorge, through which the capital line passes.

ANGLE of the ditch, is formed before the centre of the curtain, by the outward line of the ditch.

ANGLE of the mole, is that which is made before the curtain where it is intersected.

Flanked ANGLE. See ANGLE of the bastion.

Saliant ANGLE, ANGLE sortant, Is that angle which points outwards, or towards the country. Such is the angle of the counterscarp before the point of a bastion.

Entering ANGLE, or ANGLE rentrant, An angle pointing inwards, as the saliant angle does outwards. Such is the angle of the counterscarp before the curtain.

ANGLE of the counterscarp, made by two sides of the counterscarp, meeting before the centre of the curtain.

ANGLE at the circumference of a circle, is an angle formed by two chords in the circumference of a circle.

ANGLE of the circumference, is the mixed angle formed by an arch, drawn from one gorge to another.

Re-entering ANGLE. See Entering ANGLE.

ANGLE of the complement of the line of defence, is the angle formed by the intersection of the two complements with each other.

ANGLES of a battalion, are made by the last men at the extremity of the ranks and files.

Front ANGLES, the two last men of the front rank.

Rear ANGLES, the two last men of the rear rank.

Dead ANGLE, is a re-entering angle, consequently not defended.

ANGULAR, in a general sense, denotes something relating to angles, or that hath angles.

ANGON, in ancient military history, was a kind of dart of a moderate length, having an iron bearded head and cheeks; in use about the fifth century. This sort of javelin was much used by the French. The iron head of it resembles a fleur-de-lis; and it is the opinion of some writers, that the old arms of France were not fleurs-de-lis; but the iron point of the angon or javelin of the ancient French.

To ANIMATE, in a military sense, is to encourage, to incite, to add fresh impulse to any body of men who are advancing against an enemy, or to prevent them from shamefully abandoning their colours in critical situations. Soldiers may be encouraged and incited to gallant actions not only by words, but by the looks and gestures of the officers, particularly of their commanding one. It is by the latter alone, indeed, that any of these artificial means should be resorted to; for silence, steadiness, and calmness are the peculiar requisites in the characters of subordinate officers. Whatever their private feelings may be, a superior sense of duty should always prevent them from discovering the slightest symptom of perturbation. The best effects, however, may be sometimes produced by a sort of electrical shock which is communicated to the soldiery: as, when officers, being themselves animate and full of fire, give a sudden and unexpected utterance to their sentiments; make use of some particular expression by which the national ear is captivated, or by a happy waving of the hand, hat, or sword cause the most timid to become careless of danger, and keep up the enthusiasm of the bravest. Many battles, both in ancient and modern times, have taken a sudden turn from the most trivial circumstance of this nature.

The French are very susceptible of this species of animation. During the present war they have furnished several instances of the power of military animation. The success at Lodi, to which Bonaparte owes so much of his reputation, was the consequence of a bold and individual exertion, when he snatched the standard, and personally led the grenadiers across the bridge. A variety of instances might be enumerated wherein words and gestures have had the most happy result. As far back as the days of Cæsar there are examples that stand fresh upon record; and nothing proves more forcibly the influence which a great reputation has upon common minds, than the exclamation which Cæsar used when he was crossing a branch of the sea, between Brundusium and Dyrrachium. He embarked by night in the habit of a slave, and lay on the boards like an ordinary passenger. As they were to sail down the river Annius a violent storm arose, which quite overcame the art of the pilot, who gave orders to put back; but this, Cæsar would not permit, who discovering himself, and taking the astonished pilot by the hand, bade him boldly go on and fear nothing, for, cried he, thou carried Cæsar and Cæsar’s fortune. “Cæsarem vebis fortunamque ejus.”

ANNALS, a species of military history, wherein events are related in the chronological order they happened. They differ from a perfect history, in being only a mere relation of what passes every year, as a journal is of what passes every day.

ANNUNCIADA, an order of military knighthood in Savoy, first instituted by Amadeus I. in the year 1409; their collar was of 15 links, interwoven one with another, and the motto F. E. R. T. signifying fortitudo ejus Rhodum tenuit. Amadeus VIII. changed the image of St. Maurice, patron of Savoy, which hung at the collar, for that of the Virgin Mary; and instead of the motto abovementioned, substituted the words of the angel’s salutation. Now extinct.

ANOLYMPIADES. See OLYMPIAD.

ANSE des Pieces, a French term for the handles of cannon. Those of brass have two--Those of iron seldom any--these handles serve to pass cords, handspikes, or levers, the more easily to move so heavy a body, and are made to represent dolphins, serpents, &c.

ANSPESADE. See LANCE CORPORAL.

ANTEMURAILLE, in the ancient military art, denoted what now the moderns generally call the outworks.

ANTESTATURE, in ancient fortification, signifies an intrenchment of pallisades or sacks of earth, thrown up in order to dispute the remainder of a piece of ground.

ANTHONY, or Knights of St. Anthony, a military order instituted by Albert, duke of Bavaria, Holland, and Zealand, when he designed to make war against the Turks in 1382. The knights wore a collar of gold made in the form of a hermit’s girdle, from which hung a stick like a crutch, with a little bell, as they are represented in St. Anthony’s pictures.

APPAREILLES, are those slopes that lead to the platform of the bastion. See FORTIFICATION.

APPAREILLEUR, Fr. an architect who superintends the workmen in the construction of fortifications, sluices, &c.

APPEAL, might formerly have been made, by the prosecutor or prisoner, from the sentence or jurisdiction of a regimental to a general court-martial.

APPEL, Fr. a roll call; a beat of drum for assembling; a challenge.

APPEL, in fencing, a smart beat with your blade on that of your antagonist on the contrary side to that you have engaged, generally accompanied with a stamp of the foot, and used for the purpose of procuring an opening.

APPOINTE. This word was applicable to French soldiers only, during the old monarchy of France, and meant a man who for his long service and extraordinary bravery received more than common pay. There were likewise instances in which officers were distinguished by being stiled officiers appointés.

The word appointé was originally derived from it being said, that a soldier was appointed among those who were to do some singular act of courage, as by going upon a forlorn hope, &c.

APPOINTMENT, in a military sense, is the pay of the army; it likewise applies to warlike habiliments, accoutrements, &c.

APPREHEND, in a military sense, implies the seizing or confining of any person. According to the articles of war, every person who apprehends a deserter, and attests the fact duly before a magistrate, is entitled to receive a reward.

APPROACHES. All the works are generally so called that are carried on towards a place which is besieged; such as the first, second, and third parallels, the trenches, epaulements with and without trenches, redoubts, places of arms, saps, galleries, and lodgments. See these words more particularly under the head FORTIFICATION.

This is the most difficult part of a siege, and where most lives are lost. The ground is disputed inch by inch, and neither gained nor maintained without the loss of men. It is of the utmost importance to make your approaches with great caution, and to secure them as much as possible, that you may not throw away the lives of your soldiers. The besieged neglect nothing to hinder the approaches; the besiegers do every thing to carry them on; and on this depends the taking or defending of the place.

The trenches being carried to their glacis, you attack and make yourself master of their covered-way, establish a lodgment on the counterscarp, and effect a breach by the sap, or by mines with several chambers, which blow up their intrenchments and fougades, or small mines, if they have any.

You cover yourselves with gabions, fascines, barrels, or sacks; and if these are wanting, you sink a trench.

You open the counterscarp by saps to make yourself master of it; but, before you open it, you must mine the flanks that defend it. The best attack of the place is the face of the bastion, when by its regularity it permits regular approaches and attacks according to art. If the place be irregular, you must not observe regular approaches, but proceed according to the irregularity of it; observing to humor the ground, which permits you to attack it in such a manner at one place, as would be useless or dangerous at another; so that the engineer who directs the attack ought exactly to know the part he would attack, its proportions, its force and solidity, in the most geometrical manner.

APPROACHES, in a more confined sense, signify attacks.

Counter APPROACHES, are such trenches as are carried on by the besieged, against those of the besiegers.

APPRENTI, Fr. Apprentice.

In France they had apprentices or soldiers among the artillery, who served for less pay than the regular artillery men, until they became perfect in their profession; when they were admitted to such vacancies as occurred in their respective branches. The system is changed.

APRON, in gunnery, a square plate of lead that covers the vent of a cannon, to keep the charge dry, and the vent clean and open.

APRONS--of lead for guns, according to Deturbie

lbs. oz. Large--1 foot long--10 in. wide-- 8 4 Small--6 inch long--4¹⁄₂ in. wide-- 1 12

Their dimensions are as follow, viz. for a 42, 32, and a 24 pounder, 15 inches by 13; for an 18, 12, and a 9 pounder, 12 inches by 10; for a 6, 5¹⁄₄, 3, and 1¹⁄₂ pounder, 10 inches by 8. They are tied fast by two strings of white marline, the length of which, for a 42 to a 12 pounder inclusive, is 18 feet, 9 feet each string; for a 9 to 1¹⁄₂ pounder, 12 feet, 6 feet for each.

APPUI--Pointe d’appui, or point of bearing, or direction, or support, is any particular given point or body, upon which troops are formed, or by which they are marched in line or column.

_Aller à l’_APPUI, Fr. to go to the assistance of any body, to second, to back.

_Hauteur d’_APPUI, Fr. breast-height.

AQUEDUCT, a channel to convey water from one place to another. Aqueducts, in military architecture, are generally made to bring water from a spring or river to a fortress, &c.; they are likewise used to carry canals over low ground, and over brooks or small rivers; they are built with arches like a bridge, only not so wide, and are covered above by an arch, to prevent dust or dirt from being thrown into the water--there are also subterranean aqueducts, such as pipes of wood, lead, or iron. See Muller’s Practical Fortification.

The Romans had aqueducts which extended 100 miles. That of Louis XIV. near Maintenon, which carries the river Bute to Versailles, is 7000 toises long.

ARAIGNEE, in fortification. See GALLERY.

ARBALET, in the ancient art of war, a cross-bow, made of steel, set in a shaft of wood, with a string and trigger, bent with a piece of iron fitted for that purpose, and used to throw bullets, large arrows, darts, &c. Also a mathematical instrument called a Jacob’s Staff, to measure the height of the stars upon the horizon.

ARBALETE à jalet, a stone bow.

ARBALETRIER, Fr. a cross-bow man.

ARBALETRIER d’une Galére, Fr. that part of a galley where the cross-bowmen were placed during an engagement.

ARBORER, Fr. to plant. Arborer l’étendart, to plant the standard.

ARC, Fr. a bow; an arch in building.

ARCH, in military architecture, is a vault or concave building, in form of a curve, erected to support some heavy structure, or passage.

Triumphal ARCH, in military history, is a stately monument or erection generally of a semicircular form, adorned with sculpture, inscriptions, &c. in honor of those heroes who have deserved a triumph.

ARCHERS, in military history, a kind of militia or soldiery, armed with bows and arrows. They were much used in former times, but are now laid aside, excepting in Turkey, and in some parts of Asia.

ARCHERY, is the art of shooting with a bow and arrow. The ancient English were famous for being the best archers in Europe, and most of their victories in France were the purchase of the long-bow. The statutes made in 33 Hen. VIII. relative to this exercise, are worth perusal. It was forbidden, by statute, to shoot at a standing mark, unless it should be for a rover, where the archer was to change his mark at every shot. Any person above 24 years old was also forbidden to shoot with any prick-shaft, or flight, at a mark of eleven score yards or under. 33 Hen. VIII. chap. 9. The former was a provision for making good marksmen at sight; the latter for giving strength and sinews. The modern rifle has rendered the bow an useless weapon.

ARCHITECTURE, in a military sense, is the art of erecting all kinds of military edifices or buildings, whether for habitation or defence.

Military ARCHITECTURE, instructs us in the method of fortifying cities, sea-ports, camps, buildings, powder magazines, barracks, &c. Military architecture is divided into regular and irregular fortification.

Regular fortification consists in having all its sides and angles equal among themselves.

Irregular fortification is composed of parts where the sides and angles are not equal or uniform among themselves. This species of fortification is permanent or temporary.

The permanent one is constructed for the purpose of remaining a long time, and for the protection of large towns.

The temporary one is that which is erected in cases of emergency. Under this denomination are contained all sorts of works which are thrown up to seize a pass or gain an eminence, or those which are made in circumvallations and countervallations, viz. redoubts, trenches, and batteries. See FORTIFICATION.

Field Fortification is the art of forming temporary works of defence, such as trenches, redoubts, breastworks, epaulments, chevaux de frize, trous de loup, &c. See FIELD FORTIFICATION.

Naval ARCHITECTURE, is the art of building the hull, or body of the ship, distinct from her machinery and furniture for sailing; and may properly be comprehended in three principal articles. 1. To give the ship such a figure, or outward form, as may be most suitable to the service for which she is intended. 2. To find the exact shape of the pieces of timber necessary to compose such a fabric. 3. To make convenient apartments for the artillery, ammunition, provisions, and cargo: together with suitable accommodations for the officers and men.

ARCHITRAVE, the master beam, or chief supporter, in any part of a subterraneous fortification.

AREA, the superficial content of any rampart, or other work of a fortification.

ARIGOT, Fr. a fife or flute.

ARM--Military writers use this word to signify a particular species of troops--thus the artillery is an arm, and the cavalry, and infantry, and rifle men are each called an arm; but this use of the word is now deemed quaint.

ARM, in geography, denotes a branch of the sea, or of a river.

ARM is also used figuratively to denote power.

To ARM, to take arms, to be provided against an enemy.

ARMADA, a Spanish term, signifying a fleet of men of war, applied particularly to that great one fitted out by the Spaniards, with an intention to conquer England in 1588, and which was first dispersed by a terrible storm, several of the ships wrecked on the coasts of England and Ireland, and many overtaken and defeated by the English fleet, under admirals Howard and Drake.

ARMADILLA, a Spanish term, signifying a small squadron.

ARMATURA, in ancient military history, signifies the fixed and established military exercise of the Romans, nearly in the sense we use the word exercise. Under this word is understood, the throwing of the spear, javelin, shooting with bows and arrows, &c.

ARMATURA is also an appellation given to the soldiers who were light-armed. Aquinus seems without reason, to restrain armatura to the tyrones, or young soldiers.

ARMATURA was also a denomination given to the soldiers in the Roman emperor’s retinue.

ARMED, in a general sense, denotes something provided with, or carrying arms.

An ARMED body of men, denotes a military corps or detachment, provided with arms and ammunition, ready for an engagement.

ARMED, in the sea language. A cross-bar-shot is said to be armed, when some rope-yarn, or the like, is rolled about the end of the iron bar which runneth through the shot.

ARMED ship, is a vessel taken into the public service, and equipped in time of war, with artillery, ammunition, and warlike instruments: in the British service an armed ship is commanded by an officer who has the rank of master and commander in the navy, and upon the same establishment with sloops of war, having a lieutenant, master, purser, surgeon, &c.

ARMEE, Fr. See ARMY.

ARMEMENT, Fr. a levy of troops, equipage of war, either by land or sea.

ARMES a l’Epreuve, a French term for armor of polished steel, which was proof against the sword or small arms; but its weight so encumbered the wearer, that modern tacticians have wholly rejected its use.

ARMES à la légére, Fr. light-troops, who were employed to attack in small bodies, as opportunity occurred. See RIFLEMEN, &c.

ARMES des Pieces de Canon, the French term for the tools used in practical gunnery, as the scoop, rammer, sponge, &c.

ARMET, Fr. a casque or helmet.

ARMIGER, an esquire or armor-bearer, who formerly attended his knight or chieftain in war, combat, or tournament, and who carried his lance, shield, or other weapons with which he fought.

ARMILUSTRIUM, in Roman antiquity, a feast observed among the Roman generals, in which they sacrificed, armed, to the sound of trumpets, and other war-like instruments.

ARMISTICE, a temporary truce, or cessation of arms for a very short space of time only.

ARMORY, a warehouse of arms, or a place where the military habiliments are kept, to be ready for use.

ARMOR, denotes all such habiliments as serve to defend the body from wounds, especially darts, a sword, a lance, &c. A complete suit of armor formerly consisted of a helmet, a shield, a cuiras, a coat of mail, a gantlet, &c. now almost universally laid aside.

ARMOR BEARER, he that carries the armor of another.

ARMORER, a person who makes or deals in armor, or arms; also a person who keeps them clean.

ARMS, in a general sense, signify all kinds of weapons, whether used for offence or defence.

Fire-ARMS, are cannon, mortars, howitzers, grenades, firelocks, rifles, fusils, carbines, guns, and pistols; or any other machine discharged by inflamed powder.

Arms may properly be classed under two specific heads--

Arms of offence, which include musquet, bayonet, sword, pistol, rifle, &c.

Arms of defence, which are shields, helmets, coats of mail, or any species of repulsive or impenetrable covering, by which the body of a man is protected.

ARMS--Small.

+---------------+-------+-------+---------------------------+ | |Length | Diam. | Balls weight for | | Nature. | of | of +-------------+-------------+ | |Barrel.| Bore. | Proof. | Service. | +---------------+-------+-------+-------------+-------------+ | |Ft. In.|Inches.|oz. dr. gr. |oz. dr. gr. | |Wall pieces | 4 6 | .98 | 2 8 8 | 2 5 7 | |Musquet | 3 6 | .76 | 1 6 11¹⁄₂| 1 1 12 | |Carbine | 3 0 | .61 | 0 14 13 | 0 12 11 | |Pistol, common | 1 2 | .58 | 0 8 15 | 0 7 4¹⁄₂| |Ditto, Carbine | 1 0 | .66 | 0 14 13 | 0 12 11 | |Rifle, the long| 3 6 | .55 | 0 9 0 | 0 8 0 | |Short Rifle | 3 2 | .58 | 0 10 8 | 0 10 0 | +---------------+-------+-------+-------------+-------------+

In a legal sense, arms may extend to any thing that a man wears for his own defence, or takes in his hand, and uses in anger, to strike, throw at, or wound another. It is supposed, that the first artificial arms were of wood, and only employed against beasts; and that Belus, the son of Nimrod, was the first that waged war; whence, according to some, came the appellation bellum. Diodorus Siculus takes Belus to be the same with Mars, who first trained soldiers up to battle. Arms of stone, and even of brass, appear to have been used before they came to iron and steel. Josephus assures us, that the patriarch Joseph first taught the use of iron arms in Egypt, arming the troops of Pharaoh with a casque and buckler.

The principal arms of the ancients were hatchets, scythes, lances, swords, and bucklers: the Saxons used the halberd, bow, arrows, cross-bow, &c. By the ancient laws of England, every man was obliged to bear arms, except the judges and clergy. Under Henry VIII. it was expressly enjoined on all persons to be regularly instructed, even from their tender years, in the exercise of the arms then in use, viz. the long bow and arrows; and to be provided with a certain number of them.

But by the common law of England now it is an offence for persons to go or ride armed with dangerous weapons; but gentlemen, both in and out of the army, may wear common armor, according to their quality.

ARMS of parade, or courtesy, were those used in the ancient justs and tournaments; which were commonly unshod lances, swords without edge or point, wooden swords, and even canes.

Bells of ARMS, or Bell Tents, a kind of tents in the shape of a cone, where a company’s arms are lodged in the field. They are generally painted with the colour of the facing of the regiment; they have gone much out of use.

Pass of ARMS, a kind of combat, when anciently one or more cavaliers undertook to defend a pass against all attacks.

Place of ARMS. See FORTIFICATION.

Stand of ARMS, a complete set of arms for one soldier.

ARMS, in artillery, are the two ends of an axletree. See Axletree, under the word CARRIAGE.

ARMY, a large number of soldiers, consisting of artillery, foot, riflemen, horse, dragoons, and hussars or light horse, completely armed, and provided with engineers, a train of artillery, ammunition, provisions, staff, forage, &c. and under the command of a general, having lieutenant-generals, major-generals, brigadier-generals, colonels, lieutenant-colonels, majors, captains, and subalterns, and the suitable staff to each portion. An army is composed of legions, or corps, brigades, regiments, battalions, and squadrons; and is generally divided into three or more co-operating corps, and formed into three lines; the first of which is called the front line, a part of which forms the van-guard; the second, the main body; and the third, the rear-guard, or corps of reserve. The centre of each line is generally possessed by the foot; the cavalry and light troops form the right and left wings of each line; and sometimes a squadron of horse is posted in the intervals between the battalions. When an army is drawn up in order of battle, the horse are frequently placed at five feet from each other, and the foot at three. In each line the battalions are distant from each other about 180 feet, which is nearly equal to the extent of their front; and the same rule holds good of the squadrons, which have about 300 feet distance, being the extent of their own front. These intervals are left for the squadrons and battalions of the second line to range themselves against the intervals of the first, that both may more readily march through those spaces to the enemy. The front line is generally about 300 feet from the centre line; and the centre line as much from the rear, or corps of reserve; that there may be sufficient room to rally when the squadrons or battalions are broken. European armies anciently were a sort of militia; composed chiefly of the vassals and tenants of the lords. When each company had served the number of days or months enjoined by their tenure, or the customs of the fees they held, they returned home.

Armies in general are distinguished by the following appellations--

The grand army.

A covering army.

A blockading army.

An army of observation.

An army of reserve.

A flying army.

The grand army, is that which is the principal of several armies acting at different points remote from each other.

An army is said to cover a place when it lies encamped or in cantonments for the protection of the different passes which lead to a principal object of defence.

An army is said to blockade a place, when, being well provided with heavy ordnance and other warlike means, it is employed to invest a town for the direct and immediate purpose of reducing it by assault or famine.

An ARMY of observation is so called because by its advanced positions and desultory movements it is constantly employed in watching the enemy.

An ARMY of reserve may not improperly be called a general depot for effective service. In cases of emergency the whole or detached parts of an army of reserve are generally employed to recover a lost day or to secure a victory. It is likewise sometimes made use of for the double purpose of secretly increasing the number of active forces and rendering the aid necessary according to the exigency of the moment, and of deceiving the enemy with respect to its real strength. Such was the army at Dijon, before Bonaparte entered Italy.

Flying ARMY, a strong body of horse and foot, commanded for the most part by a lieutenant-general, which is always in motion, both to cover its own garrisons, and to keep the enemy in continual alarm.

A naval or sea ARMY, is a number of ships of war, equipped and manned with sailors, mariners, and marines, under the command of a superior officer, with the requisite inferior officers under him.

ARNAUTS, Turkish light cavalry, whose only weapon was a sabre very much curved. Some are in the Russian service.

ARQUEBUSE a Croc, an old piece of fire-arms, resembling a musquet, but which is supported on a rest by a hook of iron, fastened to the barrel. It is longer than a musquet, but of larger calibre, and was formerly used to fire through the loop holes of antique fortifications.

ARQUEBUSIER, a French term, formerly applied to all the soldiery who fought with fire arms, whether cavalry or infantry.

ARRAY, order of battle. See BATTLE-ARRAY.

ARRAYERS, officers who anciently had the charge of seeing the soldiers duly appointed in their armor.

ARREARS, in the army, were the difference between the full pay and subsistence of each officer, which was directed to be paid once a year by the agent. See PAY.

ARREST, a French phrase, similar in its import to the Latin word retinaculum. It consists of a small piece of steel or iron, which was formerly used in the construction of fire-arms, to prevent the piece from going off. Ce pistolet est en arret is a familiar phrase among military men in France. This pistol is in arrest, or is stopped.

ARREST, is the exercise of that part of military jurisdiction, by which an officer is noticed for misconduct, or put into a situation to prepare for his trial by a general court-martial.

ARRESTE of the glacis, is the junction of the talus which is formed at all the angles.

ARRIERE, Fr. the rear.

ARRIERE Ban, Fr. See BAN.

ARRIERE-garde, Fr. the rear-guard.

En ARRIERE--marche! Fr. to the rear--march!

ARROW, a missive weapon of offence, slender and pointed, made to be shot with a bow.

ARROW. See FORTIFICATION.

ARSENAL, is a large and spacious building, or number of buildings, in which are deposited all kinds of arms, and other warlike implements; such as cannon, mortars, howitzers, small arms, and every other kind of warlike engines and instruments of death.

ART. Military art may be divided into two principal branches. The first branch relates to the order and arrangement which must be observed in the management of an army, when it is to fight, to march, or to be encamped. This branch is called tactics, and derives its appellation from tactic, which signifies order.

The same appellation belongs to the other branch of military art, and includes the composition and the application of warlike machines.

ARTICLES OF WAR, are known rules and regulations for the better government of an army. The articles of war of the United States underwent an alteration in 1806, and are of date 10th April of that year; they consist of 103 articles; all that relates to the army not comprehended therein, are published in general orders or in established regulations, issued from time to time from the War Department, or by the commanding officer of the army, copies of which are delivered to the officers of the army. In England they may be altered and enlarged at the pleasure of their king. And in certain cases extend to civilians--as when by proclamation any place shall be put under martial law; or when people follow a camp or army for the sale of merchandize, or serve in any civil capacity. It is ordained, that the articles of war shall be read in the circle of each regiment or company mustered once every month, or oftener if the commanding officer thinks proper. A recruit or soldier is not liable to be tried by a military tribunal, unless it can be proved that the articles of war have been duly read to him.

ARTIFICE, among the French, is understood as comprehending every thing which enters the composition of fire works; as the sulphur, salt-petre, charcoal, &c. See FIRE WORKS.

ARTIFICER or ARTIFICIER, he who makes fire works, or works in the artillery laboratory, who prepares the fuses, bombs, grenades, &c. It is also applied to the military smiths, collar-makers, &c. and to a particular corps in an army.

ARTILLERY, in a general sense, signifies all sorts of great guns or cannon, mortars, howitzers, petards, and the like; together with all the apparatus and stores thereto belonging, which are not only taken into the field, but likewise to sieges, and made use of both to attack and defend fortified places. See ORDNANCE.

ARTILLERY, in a particular sense, signifies the science of artillery or gunnery, which art includes a knowledge of surveying, levelling, geometry, trigonometry, conic sections, laws of motion, mechanics, fortification, and projectiles.

The Train of ARTILLERY consists of an unlimited number of pieces of ordnance; such as 24 pounders, 18 pounders, 12, 9, 6, 4, and 3 pounders; mortars from 13 to 8 inches diameter; besides royals and cohorns; howitzers of every denomination, mounted on their proper carriages and beds, &c. There is moreover attached to the train a sufficient quantity of horses, spare carriages, spare mortar-beds, block-carriages, limbers, waggons for ammunition and stores, shells, round and grape shot, bullets, powder, cartridges, port-fires, intrenching-tools, artificers tools, miners tools, gins, capstans, forges, small stores, laboratory-stores, pontoons, pontoon-carriages, with their requisites; tumbrels, aprons of lead, budge-barrels, chevaux de frize, pallisades, platforms, chandeliers, blinds, prolonges, drag-ropes, flints, harness, powder-measures, fuze-engines, fuzes, tents, &c. The train of artillery is, or should be, divided into brigades, to which belong not only the officers of the regiments of artillery, but even the civil-list, such as comptrollers, commissaries of stores, clerks of stores, artificers of all denominations, conductors, store-keepers, waggon-masters, drivers, &c. The increase of artillery clearly demonstrates its great utility; for in the year 1500, an army of 50,000 men had only 40 pieces of cannon in the field; and in the year 1517, the same number of troops brought 200 pieces into the field, including mortars and howitzers.

At the battle of Jemappe, which was fought between the French and Austrians on the 6th of November, 1792, the latter had 120 pieces of cannon disposed along the heights of Framery, whilst their effective force in men did not exceed 28,000. The French on this occasion brought nearly the same quantity of ordnance, some indeed of extraordinary calibre, but their strength in men was above 40,000, and composed of young men who had never seen service, nor had any more than a few days discipline.

A Brigade of ARTILLERY generally consists of 8 or 10 pieces of cannon, with all the machinery, and officers to conduct them, and all the necessary apparatus thereto belonging.

The Park of ARTILLERY is that place appointed by the general of an army, to encamp the train of artillery, apparatus, ammunition, as well as the battalions of the artillery, appointed for its service and defence. The figure of the park of artillery, is that of a parallelogram, unless the situation of the ground renders another necessary.

The park of artillery is generally placed in the centre of the second line of encampment, and sometimes in the rear line, or corps of reserve. In both places the muzzles of the guns are in a line with the fronts of the serjeants tents of the regiments of artillery and infantry. Some generals choose to place the park about 300 paces before the centre of the front line of the army. But let the situation be where it will, the manner of forming the park is almost every where the same, except that some artillery officers differ in the disposition of the carriages; others again divide the equipage as well as the guns into brigades, placing the first in the front line, the second in the next, and so on. However the most approved method, is to divide the whole into brigades, placing the guns of the first to the right of the front line, and their ammunition behind them, in one or more lines. The different brigades should be all numbered, as well as every waggon belonging to them. Example, 1st brigade, front line, No 1, 2, &c. 1st brigade, 2d line, No. 1, 2, &c. 2d brigade, front line, No. 1, 2, &c. and so of all the rest. This method prevents confusion in the forming and breaking up of the park, as also on a march: besides, according to the numbers, the stores therein contained are known.

ARTILLERY--The proportion of artillery and ammunition necessary to accompany an army in the field, to lay siege to a fortified place, or to defend one, must depend upon so many circumstances, that it is almost impossible, in a work of this kind, to lay down any positive rules as guides on the subject: the following principles are drawn from the best authorities:

1st. ARTILLERY for the Field.

FIELD Artillery is divided into Battalion Guns, Artillery of the Park, and Horse Artillery.

The Battalion Guns include all the light pieces attached to regiments of the line, which they accompany in all manœuvres, to cover and support them.

The following kinds of field ordnance are attached to battalions of infantry, by different powers in Europe:

French --two-- 4 Prs. per battalion. English --two-- 6 do. do. Danes --two-- 3 do. do. Austrians --three-- 6 do. do. Prussians --two-- 6 Prs. to a battalion in the first line. Prussians --two-- 3 Prs. to a battalion in the second line. Hanoverians --two-- 3 Prs. per battalion.

The Artillery of the Park is composed of all kinds of field ordnance. It is destined to form batteries of position; that is to say, to occupy advantageous situations, from which the greatest effect may be produced, in supporting the general movements of an army, without following it, like the battalion guns, through all the detail of its manœuvres. The park of artillery attached to an army in the field, generally consists of twice as many pieces of different kinds, varied according to the country in which it is to act, as there are battalions in the army. Gribauvale proposes the following proportion between the different kinds of artillery for the park or reserve, viz. two-fifths of 12 Prs. two-fifths of 8 Prs. and one-fifth of 4 Prs. or reserve for battalion guns. In a difficult country he says, it may be ¹⁄₄ of 12 Prs. ¹⁄₂ of 8 Prs. and ¹⁄₄ of 4 Prs. and for every 100 pieces of cannon he allots 4 Howitzers; but this proportion of Howitzers is much smaller than what is generally given.

AMMUNITION for Field Artillery.

A proportion of Ammunition and Stores for each Species of Field Ordnance, viz. 1 Medium 12 Pr.[1]--1 heavy 6 Pr.--2 light 6 Prs. as they are always attached to Battalions of Infantry--and one 5¹⁄₂ inch Howitzer; according to the British Service.

---------------------------+---------+---------+----------+----------- | _12 | _6 | _2 | _Proportion of |Pounders,|Pounders,| Light 6 |5¹⁄₂ Inch Ammunition and Stores. |Medium. | Heavy. |Pounders.|Howitzers. ---------------------------+---------+---------+----------+----------- Shot fixed to wood bottoms --case 24 30 68 24 Shot fixed to wood bottoms --round 120 120 188 00 Shells, fixed 00 00 00 24 Shells, empty 00 00 00 120 Carcasses, fixed 00 00 00 4 {4 lb. 120 00 00 00 {3¹⁄₂ lb. 00 00 00 00 {2¹⁄₄ lb. 00 120 00 00 Cartridges of {2 lb. 00 30 00 00 flannel filled {1¹⁄₂ lb. 00 00 188 00 with powder. {1¹⁄₄ lb. 00 00 68 00 {10 oz. 00 00 125 00 {1 lb. 00 00 00 144 {12 oz. 00 00 00 28 Cartridges flan. empty 12 12 100 12 Ditto of paper for bursting 10 oz. 00 00 00 120 Tubes of tin--N. P. 172 178 560 190 Portfires--long small 18 18 62 18 Fuses--drove 00 00 00 132 Powder, mealed lbs. 00 00 00 ¹⁄₂ Travelling carriages and limbers 1 1 2 1 Aprons of lead 1 1 2 1 Spunges with staves and heads 2 2 4 2 Wad hooks, with staves 1 1 2 00 Handspikes, traversing 2 2 4 2 Tompions with collars 1 1 2 1 Trucks, Hanoverian 00 1 2 1 Straps for lashing side arms 00 3 8 00 Tarpaulins, gun 1 1 2 1 Tarpaulins, limber 00 1 2 1 Lintstocks with cocks 1 1 2 1 Drag ropes with pins, pairs 2 2 4 2 Padlocks with keys 2 3 5 4 Match, slow--lbs. 28 28 56 28 Spikes{Spring 1 1 2 1 {Common 2 2 4 2 Punches for vents 2 2 4 2 Barrels budge 1 1 1 1 Couples for chain traces 00 6 12 6 Spare heads, spunge 1 1 2 1 Spare heads, rammer 1 1 2 1 Hammers, claw 1 1 2 1 Priming irons, sets 1 1 2 1 Draught chains, prs. 2 1 3 2 Powder horns, N. P. 00 1 00 00 Water buckets French 1 1 2 1 Intrench’g tools, felling axes, 1 1 2 1 pick axes, 1 1 2 1 hand bills, 1 1 2 1 spades, 2 2 4 2 Marline, tarred-skeins 1 1 1 1 Twine, tarred-lbs. 00 1 00 00 Hambro’ line, tarred-do. 1 1 1 1 Packthread, tarred-do. 00 1 00 00 Grease-firkins 1 1 1 1 Grease-boxes 3 2 3 3 Tallow-lbs. 1 1 2 1 Lanthorns, dark 1 1 1 1 Jacks, lifting 1 1 1 1 Jacks, handscrew 1 00 00 00 Waggons with hps. and painted covers, Flanders pattern 2 1 1 2 Wad miltilts 2 1 1 2 Tanned hides 2 1 1 2 Men’s harness (12 to a set) sets 1 1 00 00 { {Rope, { {6 do. sets 1 00 00 00 {New {Chain, {pattern{6 do. sets 00 1 00 00 { {Trace, Horse { {4 do. sets 2 1 1 3 Harness.{ {Thill 00 00 2 00 {Common {Trace 00 00 4 00 {Pattern {Bit { {halters 00 00 6 00 {Wanties 2 1 3 2 {Hemp halters 14 10 10 12 Whips, long 00 00 2 00 Whips, short 7 5 2 6 Nose bags 14 10 10 12 Corn Sacks 3 2 3 3 Forage cords, sets 3 2 3 3 Rope, tarred, 2 inch, fathoms 00 00 10 00 {Linch pins 2 1 1 2 For {Clouts, body 4 2 2 4 Waggons.{Clouts, linch 4 2 2 4 {Clout nails, 6_d._ 64 32 32 64 Spare ladle staves 1 1 1 1 Horses, for guns 6 6 6 4 Horses, for waggons 8 4 4 8 Drivers, for guns 3 3 2 2 Drivers, for waggons 4 2 1 4 Tube boxes, with straps 2 2 4 2 Portfire sticks 2 2 4 2 Cutting knives 1 1 2 1 Drawing do. 00 00 00 1 Scissars, pairs 1 1 2 1 Worsted, ounces ¹⁄₂ ¹⁄₂ 1 ¹⁄₂ Needles, large 2 2 4 2 Cartouches of leather 2 2 4 2 Copper {4 oz. 1 1 2 00 measures{2 oz. 00 1 00 00 for {1 oz. 1 1 2 00 powder. {4 lb. to ¹⁄₄ oz. {sets 00 00 00 1 Thumb stalls 2 2 4 2 Perpendicular 00 00 00 1 Quadrant of brass 00 00 00 1 Diagonal scale 00 00 00 1 Copper salting box 00 00 00 1 Pincers for drawing fuzes, pairs 00 00 00 1 Sheepskins 00 00 00 2 Funnels of copper 00 00 00 1 Compasses of steel, Pairs 00 00 00 1 Saw, tenant 00 00 00 1 Files, square 00 00 00 3 Rasps, half round 00 00 00 2 Flax, oz. 00 00 00 8 Tow, oz. 00 00 00 4 Saw set 00 00 00 1 Mallets of wood 00 00 00 1 Setters do. 00 00 00 2

[1] The 12 Prs. which have a small box on their limbers, carry 6 round shot and 2 case shot, with 6 cartridges of 4 lbs. and 2 of 3¹⁄₂ lbs. of powder, more than the above proportion.

This proportion of ammunition and stores is carried in the following manner:

12 Pr. MEDIUM--Has no limber boxes,[2] but has two waggons attached to it, and the ammunition and stores divided between them.

[2] A small limber box has lately been added to the medium 12 Prs. which carries 6 round shot and 6 case shot, with a small proportion of the small stores. See note preceding page.

6 Pr. HEAVY--Carries 36 round, and 14 case shot in limber boxes, with a proportion of the small stores; and the remainder is carried in one waggon.

6 Pr. LIGHT--Carries 34 round, and 16 case shot on the limber, with a proportion of the small stores for immediate service; and, if acting separately, must have a waggon attached to it, to carry the remainder. But two 6 pounders attached to a battalion, have only one waggon between them.

5¹⁄₂ Howitzer, LIGHT--Has 22 shells, 4 case shot, and two carcasses in the limber-boxes, with such of the small stores as are required for immediate service; and has two waggons attached to carry the rest.

One common pattern ammunition waggon carries the following numbers of rounds of ammunition of each kind:

Kinds. No. of Rounds. 12 Pr. Medium, 72 6 Pr. Heavy, 120 6 Pr. Light, 156 3 Pr. 288 5¹⁄₂ Howitzer, 72 8 Inch Howitzers, 24 Musquets, 20000[3]

[3] Though the waggons will contain 20,000 cartridges, it is customary to load them with only 18 half barrels of 1000 each, and 2 half barrels of flints.

The waggons, however, attached to the different parks of artillery in England, which have not been altered from the old establishment, are loaded with only the following number, and drawn by three horses:

Kinds. No. of Rounds. 12 Prs. Medium, 66 6 Prs. Heavy, 120 6 Prs. Light, 138 5¹⁄₂ Howitzer, 60

The horse artillery having waggons of a particular description, carry their ammunition as follows:

| | | Car-|Total No. | Shot. | |cass-|with each KINDS. |Round.|Case.|Shells.| es. |Piece. -----------------------------+------+-----+-------+-----+--------- 12 Prs. light, on the limber.| 12 | 4 | 4 | 00 } 92 Do. ---- in one waggon. | 52 | 10 | 10 | 00 } 6 Prs. light, on the limber. | 32 | 8 | 00 | 00 } 150 Do. ---- in one waggon. | 97 | 13 | 00 | 00 } 5¹⁄₂ In. How’r on the limber.| -- | 5 | 13 | 00 } 73 Do. ---- in one waggon. | -- | 10 | 41 | 4 } 3 Prs. heavy, curricle. | 6 | 6 | 00 | 00 } 136 Do. ---- ammunition cart. | 100 | 24 | 00 | 00 }

The following Proportion of Artillery, Ammunition, and Carriages, necessary for four French Armies of different Degrees of Strength, and acting in very different Countries, is attributed to Gribauvale, and is extracted from Durtubie, on Artillery.

| _Flan- | _Mo- | | ARMIES. | ders. | selle.|Rhine.|Italy. ---------------------------+--------+--------+--------+-------- Number of battalions 80 28 32 48 ------------------------------------ Battalion guns 160 56 64 94 }12 Prs. 32 12 12 16 Park or }8 Prs. 72 24 32 48 Reserve.}4 Prs. 40 16 16 24 }6 In. How. 8 4 4 8 ------------------------------------ Total pieces of ord. 312 112 128 192 ------------------------------------ Carriage }12 Prs. 36 14 14 18 for ord. }8 Prs. 81 27 36 54 including}4 Prs. 215 78 90 129 sp. ones }6 In. Howtz. 9 5 5 9 ------------------------------------ Total ord. carriages 341 124 145 210 ------------------------------------ }12 Prs. 96 36 36 48 Ammunition}8 Prs. 144 48 64 96 waggons }4 Prs. 200 72 80 120 }6 In. How. 24 12 8 24 Wags. for musq. cart. 120 42 48 72 Large wags. for park 10 6 5 8 ------------------------------------ Total am. waggons 594 216 241 368 ------------------------------------ Smiths {Large 14 3 3 8 forges.{Small -- 3 3 4 ------------------------------------ Total forges 14 6 6 12 ------------------------------------ Waggons{Intrench.}Artillery 27 10 12 16 for {tools for}The army 20 10 12 16

Car- {New iron 6 3 3 6 riages{Wood for spr. car. 9 3 3 7 for {Anchors, &c. for {pontoons 4 2 2 4 ------------------------------------ Total store carriages 66 28 32 49 ------------------------------------ Pontoons upon their carriages 36 18 18 36 Spare pontoon carriages 4 2 2 4 ------------------------------------ Total pontoon carri’gs 40 20 20 40 ------------------------------------

RECAPITULATION.

Ordnance--pieces 312 112 128 192 ------------------------------------

{Ordnance carri’gs 341 124 145 210 Car- {Ammunition 594 216 241 368 riages.{Store 66 28 32 49 {Pontoon 40 20 20 40 {Forges 14 6 6 12 ------------------------------------ Genl. total of carri’gs 1055 394 444 679 ------------------------------------

This table contains, beside the proportion of ordnance with each army, also the quantity of ammunition with each piece of ordnance, and the number of rounds of musquet ammunition carried for the infantry; for each waggon in the French service, having its particular allotment of ammunition and stores, it needs but to know the number of waggons of each description, to ascertain the quantity of ammunition and stores with an army. The following is the number of waggons usually attached to each piece of field ordnance in the French service, and the quantity of ammunition carried with each.

Kind of Ordnance and Number of | Shot. |Total with Waggons attached to each. |Round.|Case.|each piece. --------------------------------+------+-----+----------- 12 Pr. on the carriage | 9 | 00 } 00 213 3 Waggons, each containing | 48 | 20 } 8 Pr. on the carriage | 9 | 00 }00 193 2 Waggons, each containing | 62 | 30 } 4 Pr. on the carriage | 18 | 00 } 00 168 One waggon, containing | 100 | 50 } 6 Inch Howitzer, on the carriage| 00 | 4 } 3 Waggons, each containing |shell | }00 160 | 49 | 3 }

The French horse artillery waggon, called the wurst, carries 57 rounds for 8 pounders; or 30 for 6 inch howitzers.

The following is a proportion of ammunition for one piece of field artillery of each kind, by different powers in Europe.

+--------+------------+------------+------------+-----+------+ | | Austrians. | Prussians. | Danes. |Hanoverians.| | KINDS. +-----+------+-----+------+-----+------+-----+------+ | |Case.|Round.|Case.|Round.|Case.|Round.|Case.|Round.| +--------+-----+------+-----+------+-----+------+-----+------+ | 3 Pr. | 40 | 184 | 20 | 90 | 58 | 177 | 50 | 150 | | 6 Pr. | 36 | 176 | 30 | 150 | 53 | 166 | 48 | 144 | |12 Pr. | 44 | 94 | 20 | 130 | 44 | 128 | 50 | 150 | |Howitzer| 16 | 90 | 20 | 60 | 25 | 76 | 30 | 120 | +--------+-----+------+-----+------+-----+------+-----+------+

Of the movements and positions of field artillery.

Battalion Guns; the following are the usual positions taken by battalion guns, in the most essential manœuvres of the battalion to which they are attached; but the established regulations for the movements of the infantry in the British service, take so little notice of the relative situations for the artillery attached to it, that they afford no authority for a guide on the subject. In review, both guns are to be placed, when in line, on the right of the regiment; unlimbered and prepared for action. The guns 10 yards apart, and the left gun 10 yards from the right of the battalion. Nos. 7 and 8 dress in line with the front rank of the regiment. The officer, at open order, will be in front of the interval between his guns, and in line with the officers of the regiment. When the regiment breaks into column, the guns will be limbered up and wheeled by pairs to the left: the men form the line of march, and the officer marches round in front of the guns. In the review of a single battalion, it is usual after marching round the second time, for one of the guns to go to the rear, and fall in at the rear of the column. Upon the regiment wheeling on the left into line, the guns, if separated, will be unlimbered to the right, but if they are both upon the right, they must be wheeled to the right, and then unlimbered; and afterwards run up by hand, as thereby they do not interfere with the just formation of the line, by obstructing the view of the pivots.

The usual method by which the guns take part in the firings while in line, is by two discharges from each piece, previous to the firing of the regiment; but this is usually regulated by the commanding officer, before the review. Though the guns when in line with a regiment in review, always remain in the intervals; in other situations of more consequence, every favorable spot which presents itself, from which the enemy can be more effectually annoyed, should be taken advantage of. In column, if advancing, the guns must be in front; if retreating, in the rear of the column. If in open column of more than one battalion, the guns in the centre must be between the divisions, and when the column is closed, these guns must move to the outward flank of that division of the column, which leads the regiment to which they are attached. In changing front, or in forming the line from column, should the guns be on that flank of the battalion on which the new line is to be formed, they will commence firing to cover the formation.

In retiring by alternate wings or divisions, the guns must be always with that body nearest the enemy. That is, they will not retire with the first half, but will remain in their position till the second half retires; and will then only retire to the flanks of the first half; and when it retires again, the guns will retire likewise, but only as far as the second half, and so on.

When in hollow square, the guns will be placed at the weakest angles, and the limbers in the centre of the square. In passing a bridge or defile in front, the guns will be the first to pass; unless from any particular position they can more effectually enfilade the defilé; and thereby better open the passage for the infantry. But in retiring through a defilé, the guns will remain to the last, to cover the retreat.

General rule--with very few variations, the guns should attend in all the movements of the battalion, that division of it, to which they are particularly attached; and every attention should be paid in thus adapting the movements of the guns to those of the regiment, that they be not entangled with the divisions of the line, and never so placed as to obstruct the view of the pivots, and thereby the just formation of the line; but should always seek those positions, from which the enemy can be most annoyed, and the troops to which they are attached, protected.

If at any time the battalion guns of several regiments should be united and formed into brigades, their movements will then be the same as those for the artillery of the park.

ARTILLERY of the Park--The artillery of the park is generally divided into brigades of 4, 6 or 8 pieces, and a reserve, according to the force and extent of the from of an army. The reserve must be composed of about one-sixth of the park, and must be placed behind the first line. If the front of the army be extensive, the reserve must be divided.

The following are the principal rules for the movements and positions of the brigades of artillery: they are mostly translated from the Aide Mémoire, a new French military work.

In a defensive position, the guns of the largest caliber must be posted in those points, from whence the enemy can be discovered at the greatest distance, and from which may be seen the whole extent of his front.

In an offensive position, the weakest points of the line must be strengthened by the largest calibers; and the most distant from the enemy: those heights on which the army in advancing may rest its flanks, must be secured by them, and from which the enemy may be fired upon obliquely.

The guns should be placed as much as possible under cover; this is easily done upon heights, by keeping them so far back that the muzzles are only to be seen over them: by proper attention many situations may be found of which advantage may be taken for this purpose, such as banks, ditches, &c. every where to be met with.

A battery in the field should never be discovered by the enemy till the very moment it is to open. The guns may be masked by being a little retired; or by being covered by troops, particularly cavalry.

To enable the commanding officer of artillery to choose the proper positions for his field batteries, he should of course be made acquainted, with the effect intended to be produced; with the troops that are to be supported; and with the points that are to be attacked; that he may place his artillery so as to support, but not incommode the infantry; nor take up such situations with his guns, as would be more advantageously occupied by the line. That he may not place his batteries too soon, nor too much exposed; that he may cover his front and his flanks, by taking advantage of the ground; and that he may not venture too far out of the protection of the troops, unless some very decided effect is to be obtained thereby.

The guns must be so placed as to produce a cross fire upon the position of the enemy, and upon all the ground which he must pass over in an attack.

They must be separated into many small batteries, to divide the fire of the enemy; while the fire from all these batteries, may at any time be united to produce a decided effect against any particular points.

These points are the débouchés of the enemy, the heads of their columns, and the weakest points in the front. In an attack of the enemy’s position, the cross fire of the guns must become direct, before it can impede the advance of the troops; and must annoy the enemy’s positions nearest to the point attacked, when it is no longer safe to continue the fire upon that point itself.

The shot from artillery should always take an enemy in the direction of its greatest dimension; it should therefore take a line obliquely or in flank; but a column in front.

The artillery should never be placed in such a situation, that it can be taken by an enemy’s battery obliquely, or in flank, or in the rear; unless a position under these circumstances, offers every prospect of producing a most decided effect, before the guns can be destroyed or placed hors de combat.

The most elevated positions are not the best for artillery, the greatest effects may be produced from a height of 30 or 40 yards at the distance of about 600, and about 16 yards of height to 200 of distance.

Positions in the rear of the line are bad for artillery, because they alarm the troops, and offer a double object to the fire of the enemy.

Positions which are not likely to be shifted, but from whence an effect may be produced during the whole of an action, are to be preferred; and in such positions a low breast work of 2 or 3 feet high may be thrown up, to cover the carriages.

Artillery should never fire against artillery, unless the enemy’s troops are covered, and his artillery exposed; or unless your troops suffer more from the fire of his guns, than his troops do from yours.

Never abandon your guns till the last extremity. The last discharges are the most destructive; they may perhaps be your salvation, and crown you with victory.

The parks of artillery in Great Britain are composed of the following ordnance: 4 medium 12 pounders; 4 desaguliers 6 pounders; and 4 light 5¹⁄₂ inch howitzers.

The following is the proposed line of march for the three brigades when acting with different columns of troops, as settled, in 1798.

12 Pounders. | 6 Pounders. | Howitzers. ----------------------+----------------------+---------------------- 4 Guns. | 4 Guns. | 4 Howitzers. 8 Ammunition Waggons.| 4 Ammunition Waggons.| 8 Ammunition Waggons. 1 Forge Cart. | 1 Forge Cart. | 1 Forge Cart. 1 Store Waggon, with | 1 Store Waggon. | 1 Store Waggon. a small proportion | | of stores and spare| | articles. | | 1 Spare Waggon. | 1 Spare Waggon. | 1 Spare Waggon. 1 Waggon to carry | 1 Waggon for bread | 1 Waggon with bread bread and oats. | and oats. | and oats. 2 Waggons with | 2 Waggons with | 2 Waggons with musquet ball | musquet ball | musquet ball cartridges. | cartridges. | cartridges. -- |-- |-- 18 Total. |14 Total. |18 Total.

2d. ARTILLERY and Ammunition for a siege.

Necessary considerations in forming an estimate for this service.

The force, situation, and condition of the place to be besieged; whether it be susceptible of more than one attack; whether lines of circumvallation or countervallation will be necessary; whether it be situated upon a height, upon a rocky soil, upon good ground, or in a marsh; whether divided by a river, or in the neighborhood of one; whether the river will admit of forming inundations; its size and depth; whether the place be near a wood, and whether that wood can supply stuff for fascines, gabions, &c. whether it be situated near any other place where a depot can be formed to supply stores for the siege. Each of these circumstances will make a very considerable difference in proportioning the stores, &c. for a siege. More artillery will be required for a place susceptible of two attacks, than for the place which only admits of one. For this last there must be fewer pieces of ordnance, but more ammunition for each piece. In case of lines being necessary, a great quantity of intrenching tools will be required, and a numerous field train of artillery. In case of being master of any garrison in the neighborhood of the besieged town, from whence supplies can readily be drawn, this must be regarded as a second park: and too great a quantity of stores need not be brought at once before the besieged place. The number of batteries to be opened before the place must determine the number of pieces of ordnance; and on the quantity or ordnance must depend the proportion of every species of stores for the service of the artillery.

There must be a battery to enfilade every face of the work to be besieged, that can in any way annoy the besiegers in their approaches. These batteries, at least that part of them to be allotted for guns, need not be much longer than the breadth of the rampart to be enfiladed, and will not therefore hold more than 5 or 6 heavy guns; which, with two more to enfilade the opposite branch of the covert way, will give the number of guns for each ricochet battery. As the breaching batteries, from their situation, effectually mask the fire of the first or ricochet batteries, the same artillery generally serves for both. Having thus ascertained the number of heavy guns, the rest of the ordnance will bear the following proportion to them:

Mortars. From 8 inch to 13 inch, about ¹⁄₃.

Small Mortars. About ¹⁄₄.

Heavy Howitzers. About ¹⁄₃.

The fewer kinds of ordnance which compose the demand the better, as a great deal of the confusion may be prevented, which arises from various kinds of ammunition and stores being brought together.

The carriages for the ordnance are generally as follows:

For 24 Prs. ⁵⁄₆ the number of guns.

For Mortars, ⁸⁄₉ the number of mortars.

For Howitzers, ³⁄₄ the number of howitzers.

For Stone Mortars, ⁶⁄₇ the number of mortars.

Ammunition for the ordnance.

24 Prs. At 1000 rounds per gun.

Mortars, howitzers, and stone mortars, at 800 rounds per piece of ordnance.

The following proportion of artillery and ammunition was demanded by a very able officer, for the intended siege of Lisle, in 1794, which place was thought susceptible of two attacks.

64--24 Prs, with carriages complete, at 50 round shot per gun, per day, for the whole siege; half of them en ricochet, with 2lbs. of powder; the other half with the full charge of 8lbs.

Case and Grape shot, at one round per gun, per day, of each: 6lbs. per charge.

Shells for guns, two rounds do.

Flannel cartridges, for the case, grape, and shells.

Tin tubes for the case and grape.

Quill tubes for the round shot.

Spare, one tenth.

28--10 Inch mortars, on iron beds, at 50 shells each per day, for the whole siege. 3lbs. of powder charge; 2lbs. 10 oz. for bursting.

Pound shot; 100 to a charge; 50 rounds per mortar each day for 10 mortars 7 days; 2lbs. of powder each.

Hand granades; 25 to a charge; the same as the pound shot.

Carcasses, round; 1 per mortar, per day.

8--8 Inch howitzers, on travelling carriages.

30 Shells for each per day, during the siege.

Case shot; 5 rounds per day each.

Carcasses; 1 per day each.

Powder; 1lb. per charge; 1lb. 14 oz. for bursting.

20--5¹⁄₂ Inch mortars, on wooden beds.

50 Shells for each, per day, for the whole siege; charge 8 oz.; 12 oz. for bursting.

Flannel cartridges, for ¹⁄₃ the number of rounds.

Tin tubes in the same proportion.

Portfires, one half the number of rounds with tubes.

Fuzes, one tenth to spare.

Match, 50 cwt.

Spare carriages for 24 Prs. seven.

2 Devil carriages.

6 Sling carts.

6 Block carriages.

3 Forge carts.

3 Store waggons, with iron and coals.

3 Triangle gins, complete.

6 Laboratory tents.

2 Small petards.

4 Grates for heating shot.

Of the arrangement of Artillery at a siege.

The first arrangement of the artillery at a siege is to the different batteries raised near the first parallel, to enfilade the faces of the work on the front attacked, which fire on the approaches. If these first batteries be favorably situated, the artillery may be continued in them nearly the whole of the siege; and will save the erection of any other gun batteries, till the besiegers arrive on the crest of the glacis. It however frequently happens, from local circumstances, that the besiegers cannot avail themselves of the most advantageous situations for the first batteries. There are four situations from which the defenses of any face may be destroyed; but not from all with equal facility. The best position for the first batteries, is perpendicular to the prolongation of the face of the work to be enfiladed. If this position cannot be attained, the next that presents itself is, on that side of the prolongation which takes the face in reverse; and under as small an angle as possible. From both these positions the guns must fire en ricochet. But if the ground, or other circumstance, will not admit of either of these being occupied by ricochet batteries, the battery to destroy the fire of a face must be without the prolongation, so as to fire obliquely upon the outside of the face. The last position, in point of advantage, is directly parallel to the face. From these two last positions the guns must fire with the full charges.

The second, or breaching batteries at a siege, are generally placed on the crest of the glacis, within 15 or 18 feet of the covert way; which space serves as the epaulment: but if the foot of the revetement cannot be seen from this situation, they must be placed in the covert way, within 15 feet of the counterscarp of the ditch. These batteries must be sunk as low as the soles of the embrasures, and are in fact but an enlargement of the sap, run for the lodgment on the glacis or in the covert way. In constructing a battery on the crest of the glacis, attention must be paid that none of the embrasures open upon the traverses of the covert way. These batteries should consist of at least four guns; and if the breadth between the traverses will not admit of this number, at the usual distances, the guns must be closed to 15 or 12 feet from each other.

The mortars are generally at first arranged in battery, adjoining the first gun batteries, or upon the prolongation of the capitals of the works; in which place they are certainly least exposed. Upon the establishment of the half parallels, batteries of howitzers may be formed in their extremities, to enfilade the branches of the covert way; and upon the formation of the third parallel, batteries of howitzers and stone mortars may be formed to enfilade the flanks of the bastions, and annoy the besieged in the covert way. In the lodgement on the glacis, stone and other mortars may also be placed, to drive the besieged from their defences. A great object in the establishment of all these batteries, is to make such an arrangement of them, that they mask the fire of each other as little as possible; and particularly of the first, or ricochet batteries. This may very well be prevented till the establishment on the crest of the glacis, when it becomes in some degree unavoidable: however, even the operations on the glacis may be so arranged, that the ricochet batteries be not masked till the breaching batteries be in a great state of forwardness: a very secure method, and which prevents the soldiers in trenches being alarmed by the shot passing over their heads, is to raise a parados, or parapet, in the rear of the trenches, at such parts where the fire from the besieger’s batteries crosses them. For further details on this subject, and for the manner of constructing batteries, see the word Battery; also the words Ricochet, Breach, Magazine, Platform, &c.

3d. ARTILLERY and Ammunition for the defence of a Fortified Place.

It is usual in an Estimate of Artillery and Ammunition for the Defence of Fortified Places, to divide them into Eight Classes, as follows:

+-----------------------+-----+-----+----+----+----+----+----+----+ | CLASSES. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | +-----------------------+-----+-----+----+----+----+----+----+----+ |Garrisons |12000|10000|8000|5000|3500|2500|1600| 400| |Cannon | 100| 90| 80| 70| 60| 50| 40| 30| |Triangle Gins | 4| 3| 2| 2| 2| 1| 1| 1| |Sling Carts | 4| 3| 2| 2| 2| 1| 1| 1| |Jacks of Sizes | 4| 3| 2| 2| 2| 1| 1| 1| |Truck carriages | 6| 6| 4| 4| 2| 2| 2| 2| |Ammunition carts, &c. | 12| 12| 12| 6| 6| 6| 2| 2| |Tools for Pioneers | 9000| 6000|5000|4000|3500|3000|1000|1000| |Tools for Miners | 300| 200| 100| 100| 100| 100| 50| 5| |Tools for}¹⁄₃ Axes }| 1200| 900| 600| 500| 450| 300| 150| 150| |Cutting }²⁄₃ Billh’ks}| | | | | | | | | |Forges complete | 6| 4| 2| 2| 2| 2| 1| 1| +-----------------------+-----+-----+----+----+----+----+----+----+

The guns will be of the following calibres: one-third of 18 prs.; one-third of 12 prs.; and one-third of 24, 9, and 4 pounders in equal proportions. If the place does not possess any very extraordinary means of defence, it will be very respectably supplied with 800 rounds of ammunition per gun for the two larger calibers, and 900 for each of the others.

Gun Carriages; one-third more than the number of guns.

Mortars; about one-fourth the number of guns in the three first classes; and one-fifth or one-sixth in the other classes. Of these two-fifths will be 13 or 10 inch mortars, and the rest of a smaller nature.

Howitzers; one-fourth the number of mortars.

Stone Mortars; one-tenth the number of guns.

Shells; 400 for each of the 10 and 13 inch mortars, and 600 for each of the smaller ones.

Beds for mortars; one-third to spare.

Carriages for howitzers; one-third to spare.

Hand Grenades; 4 or 5000 for the two first classes; 2000 in the three following classes; and from 1500 to 600 in the three last classes.

Rampart Grenades; 2000 for the first class; 1000 for the four following classes; and 500 for the sixth class; none for the two last.

Fuzes; one-fourth more than the number of shells.

Bottoms of wood for stone mortars; 400 per mortar.

Sand Bags; 500 for every piece of ordnance in the large places, and one-fourth less in the small ones.

Handspikes; 10 per piece.

Tackle Falls for gins; 1 for every 10 pieces to spare.

Musquets; 1 per soldier, and the same number to spare.

Pistols, pairs; one half the number of musquets.

Flints; 50 per musquet, and 10 per pistol.

Lead or Balls for small arms; 30 pounds per musquet.

Powder for small arms; 5 pounds for every musquet in the garrison, including the spare ones.

The above proportions are taken from Durtubie’s Manuel De l’Artilleur.

The following method of regulating the management of the artillery, and estimating the probable expenditure of ammunition in the defence of a fortified place, is extracted from a valuable work on fortification lately published at Berlin. It is particularly applied to a regular hexagon: the siege is divided into three periods, viz.

1st. From the first investiture to the first opening of the trenches, about 5 days.

2d. From the opening of the trenches to the effecting a lodgement on the glacis, about 18 days.

3d. From this time to the capitulation, about 5 days.

First Period. Three guns on the barbette of each bastion and on the barbettes of the ravelins in front of the gate ways, half 24 prs. and half 18 prs.[4] three 9 prs. on the barbette of each of the other ravelins.

[4] For 16 prs. in the French work, we have said 18 prs....for 8 prs. 9 prs....for 12 inch mortars, 13 inch: to which they nearly answer, our measures being generally the same as the English.

Twelve 12 prs. and twelve 4 prs. in reserve.

One 13 inch mortar in each bastion.

Six of 8 inch in the salient angles of the covert way.

Do. in reserve.

Ten stone mortars.

The 12 prs. in reserve, are to be ranged behind the curtain, on which ever side they may be required, and the 4 prs. in the outworks; all to fire en ricochet over the parapet. By this arrangement, the whole of the barbette guns are ready to act in any direction, till the side of attack is determined on; and with the addition of the reserve, 49 pieces may be opened upon the enemy the very first night they begin to work upon the trenches.

The day succeeding the night on which the trenches are opened, and the side to be attacked determined, a new arrangement of the artillery must take place. All the 24 and 18 prs. must be removed to the front attacked, and the other bastions, if required, supplied with 12 prs. The barbettes of the bastions on this front may have each 5 guns, and the twelve 18 prs. may be ranged behind the curtain. The six mortars in reserve must be placed, two in each of the salient angles of the covert way of this front, and with those already there mounted as howitzers,[5] to fire down the prolongations of the capitals. Three 4 pounders in each of the salient places of arms of the ravelins on the attacked fronts, to fire over the palisading, and five 9 prs. in the ravelin of this front. This arrangement will bring 47 guns and 18 mortars to fire on the approaches after the first night; and with a few variations will be the disposition of the artillery for the second period of the siege. As soon as the enemy’s batteries are fairly established, it will be no longer safe to continue the guns en barbette, but embrasures[6] must be opened for them; which embrasures must be occasionally masked, and the guns assume new directions, as the enemy’s fire grows destructive; but may again be taken advantage of, as circumstances offer. As the enemy gets near the third parallel, the artillery must be withdrawn from the covert way to the ravelins, or to the ditch, if dry, or other favorable situations; and, by degrees, as the enemy advances, to the body of the place. During this period of the siege, the embrasures must be prepared in the flanks, in the curtain which joins them, and in the faces of the bastions which flank the ditch of the front ravelins. These embrasures must be all ready to open, and the heavy artillery mounted in them, the moment the enemy attempts a lodgement on the glacis.

[5] The iron mortars, on iron beds, all admit of being fired at low angles.

[6] A German author proposes that the mounds of earth which enable the guns to fire en barbette, should be so arranged, that the embrasures may be opened between them; and when the guns descend to the embrasures, the barbettes will serve as traversers.

Every effort should be made to take advantage of this favorable moment, when the enemy, by their own works, must mask their former batteries, and before they are able to open their new ones.

The expenditure of ammunition will be nearly as follows:

First period of the siege; 5 rounds per gun, per day, with only half the full charge, or one-sixth the weight of the shot, and for only such guns as can act.

Second period; 20 rounds per gun, per day, with one-sixth the weight of the shot.

Third-period; 60 rounds per gun, per day, with the full charge, or one-third the weight of the shot.

Mortars; at 20 shells per day, from the first opening of the trenches to the capitulation.

Stone Mortars; 80 rounds per mortar, for every 24 hours, from the establishment of the demi-parallels to the capitulation; about 13 days.

Light, and Fire balls; five every night, for each mortar, from the opening of the trenches to the eighth day, and three from that time to the end of the siege.

These amount to about 700 for guns. 400 for mortars. 1000 for stone do.

This proportion and arrangement is however made upon a supposition, that the place has no countermines to retard the progress of the besiegers, to a period beyond what is abovementioned; but the same author estimates, that a similar place, with the covert way properly countermined beforehand, and those countermines properly disputed, may retard a siege at least 2 months; and that if the other works be likewise effectually countermined and defended, the siege may be still prolonged another month.

The above proportion is therefore to be further regulated, as the strength of the place is increased by these or any other means. These considerations should likewise be attended to, in the formation of an estimate of ammunition and stores for the siege of a fortified place. See Carriage, Platform, Park, and the different kinds of artillery, as Gun, Mortar, Howitzer, &c.

The ammunition for small arms is estimated by this author as follows:

¹⁄₄ of a pound of gunpowder, or 10 rounds per day, per man, for all the ordinary guards.

1¹⁄₄ lbs. or 50 rounds per man, per 12 hours, for all extraordinary guards.

⁵⁄₈ of a pound, or 25 rounds for every man on picket, during the period of his duty.

ARTILLERY, in a military acceptation of the term, signifies every species of light or heavy ordnance. It is classed under specific heads; the most important of which are--

Field ARTILLERY, which includes every requisite to forward the operations of an army, or of any part of an army acting offensively or defensively in the field. Field artillery may be divided into two distinct classes--Field Artillery, commonly called the Park, and Horse Artillery.

Encampment of a regiment of ARTILLERY. Regiments of artillery are always encamped, half on the right, and half on the left of the park. The company of bombardiers (when they are formed into companies, which they are in European nations excepting England) always takes the right of the whole, and they rate by seniority, so that the two youngest are next but one to the centre or park: the two companies next to the park, are the miners on the right, and the artificers on the left.

In the rear of, and 36 feet from the park, are encamped the civil list, commissioners, clerks, &c. all in one line.

The breadth between the front tent-pole of one company, and that of another, called the streets, will depend on the size and capacity of the tents; but according to the old mode during the revolution of 1776, when the American army had tents, 36 feet to each was the interval.

FEET. From the front pole of officers tent of the quarter-guard, or guard of the army, to the centre of the bells of arms of ditto 34 To the parade of the quarter-guard 12 To the first line of the regimental parade 150 To the centre of the bells of arms 90 From thence to the front poles of serjeants tents 12 For pitching 12 tents of artillery, with their proper intervals at 9 feet each 108 From the rear of companies tents, to the front of the subalterns tents 60 From the front of the subalterns, to that of the captains 72 From the front of the captains, to that of the field officers 72 From the front of the field officers, to that or the colonels 36 From the front of the colonels, to that of the staff officers 48 From the front of the staff officers, to the front row of bâtmans tents 54 From thence to the first row of pickets for horses 6 From thence to the second row 36 From thence to the second row of bâtmans tents 6 From thence to the front of the grand suttler’s tent 42 From thence to the centre of the kitchens 60 From thence to the front of petit-suttler’s tents 45 From thence to the centre of the bells of arms of the rear-guard 45 --- Total depth 789 ---

The army guard is in the front of the park, opposite the alarm-guns, in a line with the artillery quarter-guards, that are placed on the right and left of the artillery companies.

When there are bells of arms they front the poles of serjeants tents.

The colours are placed in the centre of the front line of guns, in the interval of the two alarm-guns, in a line with the bells of arms of the companies.

The lieutenant-colonels and majors tents front the centres of the second streets from the right and left of the regiment.

The colonel’s tent is in a line with the colours and guard of the army, facing the same.

The staff-officers front the centres of the second streets, on the right and left of the angles of the park.

The bâtmen’s tents front towards their horses.

The rear-guard fronts outwards. The front poles are in a line with the centre of the bells of arms, and each is 18 feet distant. The parade of the rear-guard is 12 feet from the bells of arms.

In the rear of the rear guard, and 80 feet distant from their parade, the artillery-horses and drivers tents are placed, in two or more lines, parallel with the line of guns, extending from the right and left of the whole.

It sometimes happens, that a very large train of artillery is in the field, with two or more regiments: in that case the oldest takes the right of the park, the next oldest the left, and the youngest the centre: the centre or grand street is 63 feet broad, opposite to which the tent of the commanding officer is placed. In the centre of this street, the colours are placed in a line with the bells of arms, and the artillery quarter-guard is in the front of the colours at the same distance as before mentioned. For further particulars of camps, see American Mil. Lib. Vol. II. Art. CAMPS.

Regiment of ARTILLERY. The corps of artillery, with all its dependencies, is, as it were, the general instrument of the army. It is impossible to attack fortified places, or to defend them, without artillery; and an army in the field, which wants artillery, can not so well make head against one that is well provided with it. for this reason it is, that at all times governments have taken great care to provide proper officers of learning and capacity to govern, repair and keep in order, this essential part of military force.

The strength of a regiment of artillery depends upon the circumstances of the country, the quantity of troops to maintain, the number of fortifications and points to be defended. It had always been the custom, to regulate the corps of artillery according to the French method; but, the celebrated king of Prussia fixed his regiments of artillery on another plan, and produced a great change, upon which the French have since improved, and are again followed by all nations. The British method, from which we borrowed in the revolution, may be useful to know as well as the Prussian.

In 1628, and probably long before, the artillery had sundry privileges, from which the rest of the army were excluded, viz. of having the first rank and the best quarters; neither could any carriage or waggon presume to march before theirs, except that belonging to the treasurer.

In 1705, we find the first mention made of English royal artillery, before that time it was only called the train of artillery. It then consisted only of 4 companies, under the command of general Borgard. From that period it gradually increased to 6 battalions, each battalion consisting of 10 companies, beside 1 invalid battalion equal in its establishment to the others, but confined in duty to the home garrisons, or to Jersey, Guernsey and Bermuda, commanded by a colonel commandant, 1 colonel en second, 2 lieutenant-colonels, 1 major, who have no companies. Each company in time of war generally consisted of 120 men, commanded by 1 captain, 1 captain lieutenant, 2 first, and 1 second lieutenant. In time of peace the companies were reduced to 50 men each.

Frederick the second of Prussia, found his army in a very good condition, excepting the corps of artillery and engineers, little esteemed by the rest of the army, and the officers without commissions. Knowing how necessary it was to have a good corps of artillery and engineers, and how impossible it was to secure that important object without having officers learned in every branch of military mathematics; immediately draughted all the illiterate officers into the garrison regiments, supplying their places with persons of capacity; and giving them all commissions, with rank equal to that of the officers of the guards, and an extraordinary pay. This method of proceeding established the use and reputation of that corps; induced the nobility and men of rank (provided they had capacity) to engage in it sooner than elsewhere; which brought it to that summit of high renown, it since enjoyed.

The Prussian army consisted of 12 battalions, 8 for the field, and 4 for garrison. Each battalion had 12 companies, namely, 1 company of bombardiers, 1 of miners, 1 of artificers, and 9 of artillerists. The first, or bombardier companies, were composed of 1 captain, 2 lieutenants, 3 upper and 6 under fire-workers, 2 serjeants, 4 corporals, 2 drummers, and 60 bombardiers. The miners had the same commissioned officers, with 3 serjeants, 6 corporals, 2 drummers, 33 miners, and 33 sappers. The artificers had the same officers and non-commissioned officers as the miners, with 30 artificers, and 36 pontoneers. All the artillery companies had 3 commissioned and 6 non-commissioned officers, 2 drummers, and 60 artillerists. The colonel, lieutenant-colonel, and major’s companies, had each a captain-lieutenant; and each battalion had further, 1 chaplain, 1 auditor, 1 adjutant, 1 quarter-master, 1 doctor, 3 surgeons, 1 serjeant-major, 1 drum-major, 6 musicians, and 1 provost.

By the law of the 16th March, 1802, sect. 2, the United States artillery consists of five battalions, consisting of 1 colonel, 1 lieutenant colonel, 4 majors, 1 adjutant, 20 companies, each composed of 1 captain, 1 first lieutenant, 1 second lieutenant, 2 cadets, 4 serjeants, 4 corporals, 4 musicians, 8 artificers, and 56 privates; two teachers of music were added by the law of February 28, 1803.

March of the ARTILLERY. The marches of the artillery are, of all the operations of war, the most delicate; because they must not only be directed on the object you have in view, but according to the movements the enemy make. Armies generally march in 3 columns, the centre column of which is the artillery: should the army march in more columns, the artillery and heavy baggage march nevertheless in one or more of the centre columns; the situation of the enemy determines this. If they are far from the enemy, the baggage and ammunition go before or behind, or are sent by a particular road; an army in such a case cannot march in too many columns. But should the march be towards the enemy, the baggage must absolutely be all in the rear, and the whole artillery form the centre column, except some brigades, one of which marches at the head of each column, with guns loaded and burning matches, preceded by a detachment for their safety. The French almost invariably place their baggage in the centre.

Suppose the enemy’s army in a condition to march towards the heads of your columns: the best disposition for the march is in 3 columns only; that of the centre for the artillery; for it is then easy to form it in order of battle. Hence it is equally commodious for each brigade of artillery to plant itself at the head of the troops, in the place marked for it, in such a manner, that the whole disposition being understood, and well executed, the line of battle may be quickly formed in an open country, and in the presence of any enemy, without risquing a surprise; by which method the artillery will always be in a condition to act as soon as the troops, provided it march in brigades.

If your march should be through a country full of defiles, some cavalry and other light troops must march at the head of the columns, followed by a detachment of grenadiers and a brigade of artillery; cannon being absolutely necessary to obstruct the enemy’s forming into order of battle.

When you decamp in the face of the enemy, you must give most attention to your rear-guard. On such occasions, all the baggage, ammunition, provisions, and artillery, march before the troops; your best light troops, best cavalry, some good brigades of infantry, together with some brigades of artillery, form the rear-guard. Cannon is of infinite use for a rear-guard, when you are obliged to pass a defile, or a river; and should be placed at the entry of such defile, on an eminence, if there be one, or on any other place, from whence they can discover the ground through which the enemy must march to attack the rear-guard.

A detachment of pioneers, with tools, must always march at the head of the artillery, and of each column of equipage or baggage.

If the enemy be encamped on the right flanks of the march, the artillery, &c. should march to the left of the troops, and vice versa. Should the enemy appear in motion, the troops front that way, by wheeling to the right or left by divisions; and the artillery, which marches in a line with the columns, passes through their intervals, and forms at the head of the front line, which is formed of the column that flanked nearest the enemy, taking care at the same time that the baggage be well covered during the action.

Though we have said armies generally march in 3 columns, yet where the country will allow it, it is better to march in a greater number; and let that number be what it will, the artillery must form the centre columns. See American Mil. Lib. on the march of troops.

Line of march of the ARTILLERY for a large army, as established before the French revolution:

1. A guard of the army; the strength of which depends on the commander in chief.

2. The companies of miners (excepting a detachment from each, dispersed in various places, to mend the roads) with tumbrels of tools, drawn by 2 horses, assisted by pioneers.

3. The brigades of artillery’s front-guard, with four light 6 pounders loaded, and matches burning.

4. The trumpeters on horse-back.

5. The flag-gun, drawn by 12 horses, and ten 12 pounders more, by 4 horses each.

6. Twenty waggons with stores for the said guns, and 1 spare one, by 4 horses each.

7. All the pontoons, with the waggons thereto belonging.

8. Eight 9 pounders, by 3 horses each.

9. Fifteen waggons with stores for said guns, by 4 horses each, and 2 spare ones.

10. Gins and capstans, with their proper workmen, 3 waggons, with 2 horses each.

11. A forge on four wheels, and 1 waggon, 4 horses each.

12. Twelve heavy 24 pounders, by 16 horses each.

13. Sixteen waggons with stores for ditto, and 2 spare ones, by 4 horses each.

14. A waggon with tools, and pioneers to mend the roads.

15. Nine light 24 pounders, by 8 horses each.

16. Twelve waggons with stores for ditto, and 2 spare ones, by 4 horses each.

17. A forge and waggon, by 4 horses each.

18. Nine 24 pounders, by 8 horses each.

19. Twelve waggons with stores for ditto, and 2 spare ones.

20. Twelve 12 pounders, by 8 horses each.

21. Sixteen waggons with stores for ditto, and 2 spare ones.

22. Sixteen 5.8 inch mortars, by 2 horses each.

23. Twenty-five waggons with stores for ditto, and 2 spare ones.

24. Ten 8 inch mortars, by 4 horses each.

25. Twenty waggons with stores for ditto, and 2 spare ones.

26. Six 10 inch howitzers, by 6 horses each.

27. Twenty waggons with stores for ditto, and 2 spare ones.

28. A waggon with tools, and men to mend the roads.

29. A forge and waggon, by 4 horses each.

30. Ten 8 inch mortars, by 4 horses each.

31. Twenty waggons with stores for ditto, and a spare one.

32. Sixteen 12 inch mortars, by 8 horses each.

33. Thirty waggons with stores for ditto, and 2 spare ones.

34. Eight 18 inch stone mortars, by 10 horses each.

35. Sixteen waggons with stores for ditto, and a spare one.

36. Eight 9 pounders, by 3 horses each.

37. Sixteen waggons with stores for ditto, and a spare one.

38. Twenty 6 pounders, by 2 horses each.

39. Twenty waggons with stores for ditto, and a spare one.

40. Two sling-waggons, and 2 truck-carriages, 4 horses each.

41. Twenty 3 pounders, by 1 horse each.

42. Ten waggons with stores for ditto, and a spare one.

43. A waggon with tools, &c.

44. A forge and waggon, by 4 horses each.

45. Twelve 2 and 1 pounders, by 1 horse each.

46. Six waggons with stores for ditto.

47. Sixteen 6 pounders, by 2 horses each.

48. Ten waggons with stores for ditto.

49. Twenty spare carriages, for various calibres.

50. Eighteen ditto.

51. Fifty spare limbers.

52. Ten 18 pounders, by 6 horses each.

53. Twenty waggons with stores for ditto, and 2 spare ones.

54. Twenty waggons with ammunition and stores.

55. Two 12 pounders, by 4 horses each.

56. Four waggons with stores for ditto.

57. Fifty waggons with stores.

58. A waggon with tools, and men to mend the roads.

59. A forge and waggon, by 4 horses each.

60. A hundred waggons with stores, and 4 spare ones.

61. Four 2 and 1 pounders, by 1 horse each.

62. A hundred waggons with stores, and 3 spare ones.

63. Two hundred waggons, and 2 spare ones.

64. Two hundred and fourteen waggons belonging to the artillery baggage; some with 4, 3, and 2 horses each.

65. The artillery rear-guard.

66. The rear-guard from the army.

Horse Artillery.--The French horse artillery consists of 8 Prs. and 6 inch Howitzers.

The English of light 12 Prs., light 6 Prs. and light 5¹⁄₂ inch Howitzers.

The Austrian and Prussian horse artillery have 6 Prs. and 5¹⁄₂ inch Howitzers.

The United States by a law of April 12, 1808, authorised the raising of a regiment of horse artillery of ten companies, of the same number of officers and men as the artillery regiment of the old establishment to the company.

Officers of ARTILLERY. The commander of the army is commander in chief of the artillery; the colonels of artillery act under his orders; they are entrusted with one of the most laborious employments, both in war and peace, requiring the greatest ability, application, and experience. The officers in general should be good mathematicians, and engineers, should know all the powers of artillery, the attack and defence of fortified places; in a word, every thing which appertains to that very important corps.

ARTILLEUR, Fr. an officer belonging to the French service.

ARTILLIER, Fr. a man who works on pieces of ordnance as a founder; or one who serves them in action.

ARX, in the ancient military art, a fort, castle, &c. for the defence of a place.

ARZEGAGES, Fr. batons or canes with iron at both ends. They were carried by the Estradiots or Albanian cavaliers who served in France under Charles VIII. and Louis XII.

ASAPPES, or AZAPES, auxiliary troops which are raised among the Christians subject to the Turkish empire. These troops are generally placed in the front to receive the first shock of the enemy.

ASCENT. See GUNNERY.

ASPECT, is the view or profile of land or coast, and contains the figure or representation of the borders of any particular part of the sea. These figures and representations may be found in all the charts or directories for the sea coast. The Italians call them demonstratione. By means of this knowlege you may ascertain whether the land round the shore be high; if the coast itself be steep or sloping; bent in the form of an arc, or extended in strait lines; round at the top, or rising to a point. Every thing, in a word, is brought in a correct state before the eye, as far as regards harbors, swamps, bogs, gulphs, adjacent churches, trees, windmills, &c. See RECONNOITRING in Amer. Mil. Lib.

A menacing ASPECT. An army is said to hold a menacing aspect, when by advanced movements or positions it gives the opposing enemy cause to apprehend an attack.

A military ASPECT. A country is said to have a military aspect, when its general situation presents appropriate obstacles or facilities for an army acting on the offensive or defensive.

An imposing ASPECT. An army is said to have an imposing aspect, when it appears stronger than it really is. This appearance is often assumed for the purpose of deceiving an enemy, and may not improperly be considered as a principal ruse de guerre, or feint in war.

ASPIC, Fr. a piece of ordnance which carries a 12 pound shot. The piece itself weighs 42-50 pounds.

ASSAILLIR, Fr. to attack; to assail. This old French term applies equally to bodies of men and to individuals.

ASSAULT, a furious effort to carry a fortified post, camp, or fortress, where the assailants do not screen themselves by any works. While an assault during a siege continues, the batteries cease, for fear of killing their own men. An assault is sometimes made by the regiments that guard the trenches of a siege, sustained by detachments from the army.

To give an ASSAULT, is to attack any post, &c.

To repulse an ASSAULT, to cause the assailants to retreat, to beat them back.

To carry by ASSAULT, to gain a post by storm, &c.

ASSAUT, Fr. See ASSAULT.

ASSIEGER, Fr. to besiege.

ASSEMBLEE, Fr. the assembling together of an army. Also a call, or beat of the drum. See ASSEMBLY.

ASSEMBLY, the second beating of the drum before a march; at which the men strike their tents, if encamped, roll them up, and stand to arms. See DRUM.

ASSESSMENT, in a military sense, signifies a certain rate which is paid in England by the county treasurer to the receiver-general of the land-tax, to indemnify any place for not having raised the militia; which sum is to be paid by the receiver-general into the exchequer. The sum to be assessed is five pounds for each man, where no annual certificate of the state of the militia has been transmitted to the clerk of the peace: if not paid before June yearly it may be levied on the parish officers. Such assessment where there is no county rate is to be raised as the poor’s rate.

ASSIETTE, Fr. the immediate scite or position of a camp.

ASSOCIATION, any number of men embodied in arms for mutual defence in their district; and to preserve the public tranquility therein, against foreign or domestic enemies.

ASTRAGAL. See CANNON.

ATTACH. Officers and non-commissioned officers are said to be attached to the respective army, regiment, battalion, troop, or company with which they are appointed to act.

ATTACHE, Fr. the seal and signature of the colonel-general in the old French service, which were affixed to the commissions of officers after they had been duly examined.

ATTACK, any general assault, or onset, that is given to gain a post, or break a body of troops.

ATTACK of a siege, is a furious assault made by the besiegers by means of trenches, galleries, saps, breaches, or mines, &c. by storming any part of the front attack. Sometimes two attacks are carried on at the same time, between which a communication must be made. See SIEGE.

False ATTACKS are never carried on with that vigor and briskness that the others are; the design of them being to favor the true attack, by amusing the enemy and by obliging the garrison to severer duty in dividing their forces, that the true attack may be more successful.

Regular ATTACK, is that which is carried on in form, according to the rules of art. See SIEGE, APPROACHES, &c.

To ATTACK in front or flank, in fortification, means to attack the saliant angle, or both sides of the bastion.

This phrase is familiarly used with respect to bodies of men which attack each other in a military way.

ATTACK and Defence. A part of the drill for recruits learning the sword exercise, which is commenced with the recruit stationary on horseback, the teacher riding round him, striking at different parts as openings appear, and instructing the recruit how to ward his several attacks; it is next executed in a walk, and, as the learner becomes more perfect, in speed; in the latter under the idea of a pursuit. The attack and defence in line and in speed form the concluding part of the sword exercise when practised at a review of cavalry. It is to be observed, that although denominated in speed, yet when practising, or at a review, the pace of the horse ought not to exceed three quarters speed.

ATTENTION, a cautionary word used as a preparative to any particular exercise or manœuvre. Garde-á-vous, which is pronounced Gar-a-vous, has the same signification in the French service.

ATTESTATION, a certificate made by some justice of the peace of the enlistment of a recruit. This certificate is to bear testimony, that the recruit has been brought before him in conformity to law and has declared his assent or dissent to such enlistment; and, if according to the law he shall have been, and is duly enlisted, that the proper oath has been administered to him by the said magistrate.

ATILT, in the attitude of thrusting with a spear, &c. as was formerly the case in tournaments, &c.

AVANT, Fr. foremost, most advanced toward the enemy, as

AVANT-chemin couvert, Fr. The advanced covert-way which is made at the foot of the glacis to oppose the approaches of an enemy.

AVANT-duc, Fr. The pile-work which is formed by a number of young trees on the edge or entrance of a river. They are driven into the ground with battering rams or strong pieces of iron, to form a level floor, by means of strong planks being nailed upon it, which serve for the foundation of a bridge. Boats are placed wherever the avant-duc terminates. The avant-duc is had recourse to when the river is so broad that there are not boats sufficient to make a bridge across. Avant-ducs are made on each side of the river.

AVANT-fossé, Fr. The ditch of the counterscarp next to the country. It is dug at the foot of the glacis. See FORTIFICATION.

AVANT-garde. See VAN GUARD.

AVANT-train, Fr. The limbers of a field piece, on which are placed one or two boxes containing ammunition enough for immediate service.

AUDITOR, the person who audits regimental or other military accounts.

AVENUE, in fortification, is any kind of opening or inlet into a fort, bastion, or out-work.

AUGET, or AUGETTE, Fr. A wooden pipe which contains the powder by which a mine is set fire to.

AULNE de Paris, a French measure, containing 44 inches, used to measure sand-bags.

AUTHORITY, in a general acceptation of the term, signifies a right to command, and a consequent right to be obeyed. The appointment of officers in the army of the United States is in the nomination by the president, and approved by a majority of the Senate. The president may however dismiss at his discretion. The king of Great-Britain has the power to exercise military authority without controul, as far as regards the army; and may appoint or dismiss officers at his pleasure.

AUXILIARY. Foreign or subsidiary troops which are furnished to a belligerent power in consequence of a treaty of alliance, or for pecuniary considerations. Of the latter description may be considered the Hessians that were employed by Great-Britain to enslave America.

AWARD, the sentence or determination of a military court.

AXLE-TREE, a transverse beam supporting a carriage, and on the ends of which the wheels revolve. See CARRIAGES.

B.

BACK-Step, the retrograde movement of a man or body of men without changing front; it is half the forward step.

BACKWARDS, a technical word made use of in the British service to express the retrograde movement of troops from line into column, and vice versa. See WHEEL.

BAGGAGE, in military affairs, signifies the clothes, tents, utensils of divers sorts, and provisions, &c. belonging to an army.

BAGGAGE-Waggons. See WAGGONS.

BAGPIPE, the name of a musical warlike instrument, of the wind kind, used by the Scots regiments, and sometimes by the Irish. Bagpipes were used by the Danes; by the Romans, and by the Asiatics at this day; there is in Rome a most beautiful bas-relievo, a piece of Grecian sculpture of the highest antiquity, which represents a bag-piper playing on his instrument exactly like a modern highlander. The Greeks had also an instrument composed of a pipe and blown-up skin. The Romans in all probability, borrowed it from them. The Italians still use it under the names of piva and cornumusa. The Bagpipe has been a favorite instrument among the Scots. There are two varieties: the one with long pipes, and sounded with the mouth; the other with short pipes, filled with air by a bellows, and played on with the fingers: the first is the loudest and most ear-piercing of all music, is the genuine highland pipe, and is well suited to the warlike genius of that people. It formerly roused their courage to battle, alarmed them when secure, and collected them when scattered: solaced them in their long and painful marches, and in times of peace kept up the memory of the gallantry of their ancestors, by tunes composed after signal victories. The other is the Irish bagpipe.

BAGS, in military employments, are used on many occasions: as,

Sand BAGS, generally 16 inches diameter, and 30 high, filled with earth or sand to repair breaches, and the embrasures of batteries, when damaged by the enemies fire, or by the blast of the guns. Sometimes they are made less, and placed three together, upon the parapets, for the men to fire through.

Earth-BAGS, containing about a cubical foot of earth, are used to raise a parapet in haste, or to repair one that is beaten down. They are only used when the ground is rocky, and does not afford earth enough to carry on the approaches.

BALANCE, Fr. a term used in the French artillery to express a machine in which stores and ammunition are weighed.

BALL, in the military art, comprehends all sorts of balls and bullets for fire-arms, from the cannon to the pistol.

BALLS of Lead, of different kinds.

-----------+-------+---------+------------ |_Number|_Diameter| _No. made |to one | in |from one ton KINDS. |Pound.| Inches.| of Lead._ -----------+-------+---------+------------ Wall pieces| 6³⁄₄ | .89 | 14,760 Musquets | 14¹⁄₂ | .68 | 32,480 Carabine | 20 | .60 | 44,800 Pistol | 34 | .51 | 78,048 7 Brl. guns| 46¹⁄₂ | .46 | 104,160 -----------+-------+---------+------------

Lead balls are packed in boxes containing each 1 cwt. About 4 pounds of lead in the cwt. are generally lost in casting. See SHOT.

Cannon-BALLS are of iron; and musket and pistol-balls are of lead. Cannon-balls are always distinguished by their respective calibres, thus,

A 42} {6,684 inches. 32} {6,105 24} {5,547 18} {5,040 12} pound ball, the diameter of which is {4,403 9} {4,000 6} {3,498 3} {2,775 2} {2,423 1} {1,923

Fire-BALLS, Light-BALLS, of which there are various sorts, used for various purposes. Their composition is mealed powder 2, saltpetre 1¹⁄₂, sulphur 1, rosin 1, turpentine 2¹⁄₂. Sometimes they are made of an iron shell, sometimes a stone, filled and covered with various coats of the above composition, until it conglomerates to a proper size; the last coat being of grained powder. But the best sort in our opinion, is to take thick brown paper, and make a shell the size of the mortar, and fill it with a composition of an equal quantity of sulphur, pitch, rosin, and mealed powder; which being well mixed, and put in warm, will give a clear fire, and burn a considerable time.

When they are intended to set fire to magazines, buildings, &c. the composition must be mealed powder 10, saltpetre 2, sulphur 4, and rosin 1; or rather mealed powder 48, saltpetre 32, sulphur 16, rosin 4, steel or iron filings 2, fir-tree saw-dust boiled in saltpetre ley 2, birch-wood charcoal 1, well rammed into a shell for that purpose, having various holes filled with small barrels, loaded with musket-balls; and lastly the whole immerged in melted pitch, rosin and turpentine oil.

Smoke-BALLS are prepared as above, with this difference, that they contain 5 to 1 of pitch, rosin and saw-dust. This composition is put into shells made for that purpose, having 4 holes to let out the smoke. Smoke-balls are thrown out of mortars, and continue to smoke from 25 to 30 minutes.

Stink-BALLS are prepared by a composition of mealed powder, rosin, saltpetre, pitch, sulphur, rasped horses and asses hoofs, burnt in the fire, assa-fœtida, seraphim gum or ferula, and bug or stinking herbs, made up into balls, as mentioned in Light-BALLS, agreeably to the size of the mortar out of which you intend to throw them.

Poisoned BALLS. We are not sure that they have ever been used in Europe; but the Indians and Africans have always been very ingenious at poisoning several sorts of warlike stores and instruments. Their composition is mealed powder 4, pitch 6, rosin 3, sulphur 5, assa-fœtida 8, extract of toad’s poison 12, other poisonous substances 12, made into balls as above directed. At the commencement of the French Revolution poisoned balls were exhibited to the people said to have been fired by the Austrians, particularly at the siege of Lisle. We have seen some of this sort. They contained glass, small pieces of iron, &c. and were said to be concocted together by means of a greasy composition which was impregnated with poisonous matter. In 1792, they were deposited in the Archives of Paris.

Red-hot BALLS are fired out of mortars, howitzers, or cannon. Use which you will, the ball must be made red-hot, which is done upon a large coal fire in a square hole made in the ground, 6 feet every way, and 4 or 5 feet deep. Some make the fire under an iron grate, on which the shell or ball is laid; but the best way is to put the ball into the middle of a clear burning fire, and when red-hot, all the fiery particles must be swept off. Whatever machine you use to throw the red-hot ball out of, it must be elevated according to the distance you intend it shall range, and the charge of powder must be put into a flannel cartridge, and a good wad upon that; then a piece of wood of the exact diameter of the piece, and about 3¹⁄₂ inches thick, to prevent the ball from setting fire to the powder; then place the ball on the edge of the mortar, &c. with an instrument for that purpose, and let it roll of itself against the wood, and instantly fire it off. Should there be a ditch or parallel before such a battery, with soldiers, the wood must not be used, as the blast of powder will break it to pieces, and its own elasticity prevent it from flying far; it would in that case either kill or wound your own people. For this deficiency the wad must be double. See American Mil. Lib. article ARTILLERY.

Chain-BALLS are two balls linked together by a chain of 8 or 10 inches long, and some have been made with a chain of 3 or 4 feet long; they are used to destroy the pallisadoes, wooden bridges, and chevaux-de-friezes of a fortification. They are also very destructive to the rigging of a ship.

Stang-BALLS are by some called balls of two heads; they are sometimes made of two half-balls joined together by a bar of iron from 8 to 14 inches long; they are likewise made of two entire balls; they are for the same purpose as the before-mentioned.

Anchor-BALLS are made in the same way as the light-balls, and filled with the same composition, only with this addition, that these are made with an iron bar two-thirds of the ball’s diameter in length, and 3 or 4 inches square. One half is fixed within the ball, and the other half remains without; the exterior end is made with a grapple-hook. Very useful to set fire to wooden bridges, or any thing made of wood, or even the rigging of ships, &c. for the pile end being the heaviest, flies foremost, and wherever it touches, fastens, and sets all on fire about it.

Message-BALLS. See SHELLS.

BALLIUM, a term used in ancient military history. In towns the appellation of ballium was given to a work fenced with pallisades, and sometimes to masonry, covering the suburbs; but in castles it was the space immediately within the outer wall.

BALLOON, a hollow vessel of silk, varnished over and filled with inflammable air, by which means it ascends in the atmosphere. It has during the war been used by the French in reconnoitering, and with great success at Fleurus.

BALOTS, Fr.. sacks or bales of wool, made use of in cases of great emergency, to form parapets or places of arms. They are likewise adapted for the defence of trenches, to cover the workmen in saps, and in all instances where promptitude is required.

BAN, or BANN, a sort of proclamation made at the head of a body of troops, or in the several quarters or cantonments of an army, by sound of trumpet, or beat of drum; either for observing martial discipline, or for declaring a new officer, or punishing a soldier, or the like. At present such kind of proclamations are given out in the written orders of the day.

BAN and ARRIERE BAN, a French military phrase signifying the convocation of vassals under the feudal system. Ménage, a French writer, derives the term from the German word ban, which means publication; Nicod derives it from another German term which signifies field. Borel from the Greek pan which means all, because the convocation was general. In the reign of Charles VII. the ban and arriere ban had different significations. Formerly it meant the assembling of the ordinary militia. After the days of Charles VII. it was called the extraordinary militia. The first served more than the latter; and each was distinguished according to the nature of its particular service. The persons belonging to the arriere-ban were at one period accoutred and mounted like light-horse; but there were occasions on which they served like the infantry. Once under Francis I. in 1545, and again under Lewis XIII. who issued out an order in 1637, that the Arriere-Ban should serve on foot.

BAN likewise signified during the ancient monarchy of France, a proclamation made by the sound of drums, trumpets, and tamborines, either at the head of a body of troops, or in quarters. Sometimes to prevent the men from quitting camp, at others to enforce the rigor of military discipline; sometimes for the purpose of receiving a new commanding officer, and at others to degrade a military character.

BANDER, Fr. to unite, to intrigue together for the purposes of insurrection.

BANDERET, in military history, implies the commander in chief of the troops of the canton of Berne, in Switzerland.

BANDES, Fr. bands, bodies of infantry.

BANDES Francoises. The French infantry was anciently so called. The term, however, become less general and was confined to the Prévôt des Bandes, or the Judge or Prevost marshal that tried the men belonging to the French guards.

BANDIERES, Fr. Une Armée rangée en front de bandieres, signifies an army in battle array. This disposition of the army is opposed to that in which it is cantoned and divided into several bodies.

BANDOLEER, in ancient military history, a large leathern belt worn over the right shoulder, and hanging under the left arm, to carry some kind of warlike weapon.

BANDOLIERS were likewise little wooden cases covered with leather, of which every musqueteer used to wear 12 hanging on a shoulder-belt; each of them contained the charge of powder for a musquet.

BANDROLS. BANNEROLS. See CAMP COLORS.

BANDS, properly bodies of foot, though almost out of date.

Train-BANDS. In England the militia of the City of London were generally so called. The third regiment of Foot or the Old Bulls were originally recruited from the Train bands, which circumstance gave that corps the exclusive privilege of marching through London with drums beating and colors flying. They lost their colors in America, which are now in the war-office at Washington.

BAND of Music. The term band is applied to the body of musicians attached to any regiment or battalion, with wind instruments.

BAND is also the denomination of a military order in Spain, instituted by Alphonsus XI. king of Castile, for the younger sons of the nobility, who, before their admission, must serve 10 years, at least, either in the army or during a war; and are bound to take up arms in defence of the Catholic faith, against the infidels.

BANERET, Fr. a term derived from Baniere. This appellation was attached to any lord of a fief who had vassals sufficient to unite them under one banier or banner, and to become chief of the troops or company.

Un Chevalier BANERET, or a Knight BANERET gave precedence to the troop or company which he commanded over that of a baneret who was not a knight or chevalier; the latter obeyed the former, and the banner of the first was cut into fewer vanes than that of the second.

BANNERET, Knights-bannerets, according to the English acceptation of the term, are persons who for any particular act of valor were formerly knighted on the field of battle.

BANQUET. See BRIDGES.

BANQUETTE. See FORTIFICATION.

BAR, a long piece of wood or iron. Bars have various denominations in the construction of artillery carriages, as sweep and cross bars for tumbrils: fore, hind and under cross bars, for powder carts; shaft bars for waggons, and dowel bars used in mortar beds.

BAR Shot, two half bullets joined together by an union bar, forming a kind of double headed shot.

BARB, the reflected points of the head of an arrow. The armor for horses was so called. See CAPARISON.

BARBACAN, or BARBICAN, a watch-tower, for the purpose of descrying an enemy at a great distance: it also implies an outer defence, or sort of ancient fortification to a city or castle, used especially as a fence to the city or walls; also an aperture made in the walls of a fortress to fire through upon the enemy. It is sometimes used to denote a fort at the entrance of a bridge, or the outlet of a city, having a double wall with towers.

BARBETS were peasants of Piedmont, who abandoned their dwellings when an enemy has taken possession of them. They formed into bodies and defended the Alps.

BARBET-Battery, in gunnery, is when the breast-work of a battery is only so high, that the guns may fire over it without being obliged to make embrasures: in such cases, it is said the guns fire en barbette. See BATTERY.

BARDEES d’eau, Fr. a measure used in the making of saltpetre, containing three half-hogsheads of water, which are poured into tubs for the purpose of refining it. Four half-hogsheads are sometimes thrown in.

BARILLER, Fr. an officer employed among the gallies, whose chief duty was to superintend the distribution of bread and water.

BARRACKS, or BARACKS, are places erected for both officers and men to lodge in; they are built different ways, according to their different situations. When there is sufficient room to make a large square, surrounded with buildings, they are very convenient, because the soldiers are easily contained in their quarters; and the rooms being contiguous, orders are executed with privacy and expedition; and the soldiers have no connection but with those who instruct them in their duty.

BARRACK-Allowance, a specific allowance of bread, beer, wood, coals, &c. to the regiments stationed in barracks. See RATION.

BARRACK-Guard, when a regiment is in barracks, the principal guard is the barrack-guard; the officer being responsible for the regularity of the men in barracks, and for all prisoners duly committed to his charge while on that duty.

BARRACK-Master General, a staff officer at the head of the barrack department; he has a number of barrack-masters and deputies under him, who are stationed at the different barracks; he has an office and clerks for the dispatch of business; to this office all reports, &c. respecting the barrack department are made. This is a British sinecure office.

BARRACK-Office: the office at which all business relating to the Barrack department is transacted.

BARRELS, in military affairs, are of various kinds.

Fire-BARRELS are of different sorts: some are mounted on wheels, filled with composition and intermixed with loaded grenades, and the outside full of sharp spikes: some are placed under ground, which have the effect of small mines: others are used to roll down a breach, to prevent the enemy’s entrance.--Composition, corned powder 30lb. Swedish pitch 12, saltpetre 6, and tallow 3. Not used now.

Thundering-BARRELS are for the same purpose, filled with various kinds of combustibles, intermixed with small shells, grenades, and other fire-works. Not used now.

Powder-BARRELS are about 16 inches diameter, and 30 or 32 inches long, holding 100 pounds of powder.

BARRELS for powder--Their dimensions.

+-----------------+------------+------------+------------+ | | _Whole | _Half | _Quarter | | | Barrels. | Barrels. | Barrels._ | | +------------+------------+------------+ | |Ft. In.|Ft. In.|Ft. In.| +-----------------+------------+------------+------------+ |Depth | 1 9.61 | 1 5.13 | 1 2.25 | |Diameter at top | 1 3.61 | 1 0.37 | 9.35 | |Diameter at bulge| 1 5.36 | 1 2. | 10.71 | |Diameter at bot’m| 1 3.51 | 1 0.31 | 9.41 | +-----------------+------------+------------+------------+

The whole barrels are made to contain 100 pounds, and the half barrels 50 pounds of powder; but of late only 90 pounds have been put into the barrels, and 45 into the half barrels; which, by leaving the powder room to be shifted, preserves it the better.

Budge BARRELS, hold from 40 to 60 pounds of powder; at one end is fixed a leather bag with brass nails: they are used in actual service on the batteries, to keep the powder from firing by accident, for loading the guns and mortars.

Budge-Barrels contain 38 lbs.

Weight of barrel--copper hooped--10 lbs.

Weight of barrel--hazle hooped--6lbs.

Length of barrel--hazle hooped--10¹⁄₂ inches.

Diameter of barrel--hazle hooped--1 foot 1 inch.

BARRICADE. To barricade is to fortify with trees, or branches of trees, cut down for that purpose, the brushy ends towards the enemy. Carts, waggons, &c. are sometimes made use of for the same purpose, viz. to keep back both horse and foot for some time. ABATIS.

BARRIER, in a general sense means any fortification, or strong place on the frontiers of a country. It is likewise a kind of fence composed of stakes, and transums, as overthwart rafters, erected to defend the entrance of a passage, retrenchment, or the like. In the middle of the barrier is a moveable bar of wood, which is opened and shut at pleasure. It also implies a gate made of wooden bars, about 5 feet long, perpendicular to the horizon, and kept together by two long bars going across, and another crossing diagonally: Barriers are used to stop the cut made through the esplanade before the gate of a town.

BARRIER-Towns, in military history, were Menin, Dendermond, Ypres, Tournay, Mons, Namur, and Maestricht. These towns were formerly garrisoned half by French or Imperial, and half by Dutch troops.

BARM, or BERM. See BERM.

BASCULE, Fr. a counterpoise which serves to lift up the draw bridge of a town. Likewise a term used in fortification to express a door that shuts and opens like a trap door.

BASE, or BASIS, in fortification, the exterior part or side of a polygon, or that imaginary line which is drawn from the flanked angle of a bastion to the angle opposite to it.

BASE signifies also the level line on which any work stands that is even with the ground, or other work on which it is erected. Hence the base of a parapet is the rampart.

BASE, an ancient word for the smallest cannon. See CANNON.

BASE-line, the line on which troops in column move, the first division that marches into the alignement forms the base line, or appui which each successive division prolongs.

BASE-ring. See CANNON.

BASILISK, an ancient name given to a 48 pounder. See CANNON.

BASIS, the same as BASE.

BASKET-Hilt, the hilt of a sword, so made as to contain, and guard the whole hand.

BASKETS, in military affairs, are simple baskets, frequently used in sieges. They are filled with earth, and placed on the parapet of the trench, or any other part. They are generally about a foot and a half in diameter at the top, and eight inches at the bottom, and a foot and a half in height; so that, being placed on the parapet, a kind of embrasure is formed at the bottom, through which the soldiers fire, without being exposed to the shot of the enemy. See GABION.

BASKETS.--Ballast, ¹⁄₂ bushel--weight 5 lbs.

Diameter, 1 foot 6 inches--length 1 foot.

BASTILLE, Fr. any place fortified with towers.

BASTILLE, a state prison which stood near the Temple in Paris, and was deservedly destroyed by the inhabitants of that capital on the 14th of July, 1789.

BASTINADO, a punishment among the Turkish soldiers, which is performed by beating them with a cane or flat of a sword on the soles of their feet.

BASTION. See FORTIFICATION.

BASSE-Enceinte. See FAUSSE-Braye.

BASSINET, Fr. the pan of a musquet.

BASSON or BASSOON, a wind instrument blown with a reed, performing the base to all martial music, one or two of which are attached to each regimental band.

BAT DE MULET, a pack-saddle used on service when mules are employed to carry stores, &c.

BATAGE, Fr. the time employed in reducing gun-powder to its proper consistency. The French usually consumed 24 hours in pounding the materials to make good gun-powder; supposing the mortar to contain 16 pounds of composition, it would require the application of the pestle 3500 times each hour. The labour required in this process is less in summer than in winter, because the water is softer.

BATAILLE, Fr. a battle.

Cheval de BATAILLE, Fr. a war horse, or charger. This expression is used figuratively as a sheet anchor or last resource.

BATAILLER, Fr. to struggle hard.

BATARDE, French 8 pounders were so called.

BATARDEAU, in fortification, is a massive perpendicular pile of masonry, whose length is equal to the breadth of the ditch, inundation, or any part of a fortification where the water cannot be kept in without the raising of these sorts of works, which are described either on the capitals prolonged of the bastions or half-moons, or upon their faces. In thickness it is from 15 to 18 feet, that it may be able to withstand the violence of the enemy’s batteries. Its height depends upon the depth of the ditch, and upon the height of the water that is necessary to be kept up for an inundation; but the top of the building must always be under the cover of the parapet of the covert way, so as not to be exposed to the enemy’s view. In the middle of its length is raised a massive cylindrical turret, whose height exceeds the batardeau 6 feet.

BATESME du Tropique, Fr. a christening under the line. This is a ridiculous ceremony which every person is obliged to go through the first time he crosses the Line on his passage to the East-Indies. Different methods of performing it are observed by different nations. Englishmen frequently buy themselves off. Among the French, the individual who was to be baptized or christened, swore that he would individually assist in forcing every person hereafter, who should be similarly situated, to go through the same ceremony. A barbarous usage.

BAT-Horses, BAW-Horses, are baggage horses belonging to the officers when on actual duty.

BAT-Men, BAW-Men, were originally servants hired in war time, to take care of the horses belonging to the train of artillery, bakery, baggage, &c. Men who are excused regimental duty, for the specific purpose of attending to the horses belonging to their officers, are called bat-men.

Knights of the BATH, an English military order of uncertain original. After long decay, this order was revived under George I. by a creation of a considerable number of knights. They wear a red riband, and their motto is, Tria juncta in uno, alluding to the three cardinal virtues which every knight ought to possess!

BATON, Fr. a staff. See STAFF.

BATON a deux bouts, Fr. a quarter-staff.

BATON de commandement, Fr. an instrument of particular distinction which was formerly given to generals in the French army. Henry III. before his accession to the throne was made generalissimo of all the armies belonging to his brother Charles the IX. and publicly received the Baton, as a mark of high command.

BATON ferrat et non ferrat, Fr. all sorts of weapons.

Obténir son object par le tour du BATON, Fr. to accomplish one’s ends by equivocal means.

Etre bien assuré de son BATON, Fr. to be morally certain of a thing.

Etre reduit au BATON blanc, to be reduced to your last stake.

A BATONS rompus, Fr. to do any thing by fits and starts, to be undecided in your plans of attack, &c.

BATOON, a truncheon, or marshal’s staff.

BATTAILOUS, a warlike or military appearance.

BATTALIA, Johnson adopts the word from Battaglia, Ital. and calls it the main body of an army, distinguished from its wings. It also implies an army or considerable detachment of troops drawn up in order of battle, or in any other proper form to attack the enemy. See BATTLE.

BATTALION, an undetermined body of infantry in regard to number, generally from 500 to 1000 men. In the United States the usage is various, as it is in all other countries. The United Stares regiment of artillery consists of 20 companies, which form five battalions; the other regiments infantry and artillery, consist of ten companies of each, so that each regiment must form two battalions of five companies each. The militia regiments in most of the states consist of 1000 men, composing two battalions of 500 men each, being perhaps the most perfect organization for a battalion.

The French call their military corps which answer to our regiments, demi brigades, these usually consist or three battalions of 1000 men each; when two of the battalions of a demi brigade are in the field the other is in quarters or recruiting and disciplining the young soldiers, who are thus drafted from their regimental depots.

On the British establishment the companies of grenadiers and light infantry-men having been detached from their several corps and formed into separate battalions; the British guards at present consist of 9 battalions. The different companies are likewise considerably augmented; so that it is impossible to affix any specific standard to their complement of men. The English royal regiment of artillery consists of 4 battalions. Sometimes regiments consist each of 1 battalion only; but if more numerous, are divided into several battalions, according to their strength; so that every one may come within the numbers mentioned. A battalion in one of the English marching regiments consists of 1000, and sometimes of 1200 men, officers and non-commissioned included. When there are companies of several regiments in a garrison to form a battalion, those of the eldest regiment post themselves on the right, those of the second on the left, and so on until the youngest fall into the centre. The officers take their posts before their companies, from the right and left, according to seniority. Each battalion is divided into 4 divisions, and each division into two sub-divisions, which are again divided into sections. The companies of grenadiers being unequal in all battalions, their post must be regulated by the commanding officer. See REGIMENT.

Triangular BATTALION, in ancient military history, a body of troops ranged in the form of a triangle, in which the ranks exceed each other by an equal number of men: if the first rank consists of one man only, and the difference between the ranks is only one, then its form is that of an equilateral triangle; and when the difference between the ranks is more than one, its form may then be an isoscele; having two sides equal, or scalene triangle. This method is now laid aside.

BATTER, a cannonade of heavy ordnance, from the 1st or 2d parallel of entrenchment, against any fortress or works.

To BATTER in breach, implies a heavy cannonade of many pieces directed to one part of the revetement from the third parallel.

BATTERING, in military affairs, implies the firing with heavy artillery on some fortification or strong post possessed by an enemy, in order to demolish the works.

BATTERING-Pieces, are large pieces of cannon, used in battering a fortified town or post.

It is judged by all nations, that no less than 24 or 18 pounders are proper for that use. Formerly much larger calibres were used, but, as they were so long and heavy, and very troublesome to transport and manage, were for a long time rejected, till adopted among the French, who during the present war have brought 36 and 42 pounders into the field.

BATTERING-Train, a train of artillery used solely for besieging a strong place, inclusive of mortars and howitzers: all heavy 24, 18, and 12 pounders, come under this denomination; as likewise the 13, 10, and 8 inch mortars and howitzers.

BATTERING-Ram. See the article RAM.

BATTERIE de Tambour, a French beat of the drum similar to the general in the British service.

BATTERIE en roüage, Fr. is used to dismount the enemy’s cannon.

BATTERIE par camarades, Fr. the discharge of several pieces of ordnance together, directed at one object or place.

BATTERY, in military affairs, implies any place where cannon or mortars are mounted, either to attack the forces of the enemy, or to batter a fortification: hence batteries have various names, agreeably to the purposes they are designed for.

Gun-BATTERY, is a defence made of earth faced with green sods or fascines, and sometimes made of gabions filled with earth: it consists of a breast-work parapet, or epaulement, of 18 or 20 feet thick at top, and of 22 or 24 at the foundation; of a ditch 12 feet broad at the bottom, and 18 at the top, and 7 feet deep. They must be 7¹⁄₂ feet high. The embrasures are 2 feet wide within, and 9 without, sloping a little downwards, to depress the metal on occasion. The distance from the centre of one embrasure to that of the other is 18 feet; that is, the guns are placed at 18 feet distance from each other; consequently the merlons (or that part of solid earth between the embrasures) at 16 feet within, and 7 without. The genouilliers (or part of the parapet which covers the carriage of the gun) are generally made 2¹⁄₂ feet high from the platform to the opening of the embrasures; though this height ought to be regulated according to the semi-diameter of the wheels of the carriage, or the calibre of the gun. The platforms are a kind of wooden floors, made to prevent the cannon from sinking into the ground, and to render the working of the guns more easy; and are, strictly speaking, a part of the battery. They are composed of 5 sleepers, or joists of wood, laid lengthways, the whole length of the intended platform; and to keep them firm in their places, stakes must be driven into the ground on each side: these sleepers are then covered with sound thick planks, laid parallel to the parapet; and at the lower end of the platform, next to the parapet, a piece of timber 6 inches square, called a hurter, is placed, to prevent the wheels from damaging the parapet. Platforms are generally made 18 feet long, 15 feet broad behind, and 9 before, with a slope of about 9 or 10 inches, to prevent the guns from recoiling too much, and for bringing them more easily forward when loaded. The dimensions of the platforms, sleepers, planks, hurters, and nails, ought to be regulated according to the nature of the pieces that are to be mounted.

The powder magazines to serve the batteries ought to be at a convenient distance from the same, as also from each other; the large one, at least 55 feet in the rear of the battery, and the small ones about 25. Sometimes the large magazines are made either to the right or left of the battery, in order to deceive the enemy; they are generally built 5 feet under ground; the sides and roof must be well secured with boards, and covered with earth, clay, or something of a similar substance, to prevent the powder from being fired: they are guarded by centinels. The balls are piled in readiness beside the merlins between the embrasures.

The officers of the artillery ought always to construct their own batteries and platforms, and not the engineers, as is practised in the English service; for certainly none can be so good judges of those things as the artillery officers, whose daily practice it is; consequently they are the properest people to direct the situation and to superintend the making of batteries on all occasions.

Mortar-BATTERY. This kind of battery differs from a gun-battery, only in having no embrasures. It consists of a parapet of 18 or 20 feet thick, 7¹⁄₂ high in front, and 6 in the rear; of a berm 2¹⁄₂ or 3 feet broad, according to the quality of the earth; of a ditch 24 feet broad at the top, and 20 at the bottom. The beds must be 9 feet long, 6 broad, 8 from each other, and 5 feet from the parapet: they are not to be sloping like the gun platforms, but exactly horizontal. The insides of such batteries are sometimes sunk 2 or 3 feet into the ground, by which they are much sooner made than those of cannon. The powder magazines and piles of shells are placed as is mentioned in the article GUN-BATTERY.

Ricochet-BATTERY, so called by its inventor M. Vauban, and first used at the siege of Aeth in 1697. It is a method of firing with a very small quantity of powder, and a little elevation of the gun, so as just to fire over the parapet, and then the shot will roll along the opposite rampart, dismounting the cannon, and driving or destroying the troops. In a siege they are generally placed at about 300 feet before the first parallel, perpendicular to the faces produced, which they are to enfilade. Ricochet practice is not confined to cannon alone; small mortars and howitzers may effectually be used for the same purpose. They are of singular use in action to enfilade an enemy’s ranks; for when the men perceive the shells rolling and bouncing about with their fuzes burning, expecting them to burst every moment, the bravest among them will hardly have courage to await their approach and face the havoc of their explosion.

Horizontal BATTERIES are such as have only a parapet and ditch; the platform being only the surface of the horizon made level.

Breach or Sunk BATTERIES are such as are sunk upon the glacis, with a design to make an accessible breach in the faces or saliant angles of the bastion and ravelin.

Cross BATTERIES are such as play athwart each other against the same object, forming an angle at the point of contact; whence greater destruction follows, because what one shot shakes, the other beats down.

Oblique BATTERIES or Batteries en Echarpe, are those which play on any work obliquely, making an obtuse angle with the line of range, after striking the object.

Enfilading BATTERIES are those that sweep or scour the whole length of a strait line, or the face or flank of any work.

Sweeping BATTERIES. See Enfilading-BATTERIES.

Redan BATTERIES are such as flank each other at the saliant and rentrant angles of a fortification.

Direct BATTERIES are those situated opposite to the place intended to be battered, so that the balls strike the works nearly at right angles.

Reverse BATTERIES are those which play on the rear of the troops appointed to defend the place.

Glancing BATTERIES are such whose shot strike the object at an angle of about 20°, after which the ball glances from the object, and recoils to some adjacent parts.

Joint BATTERIES, Camarade BATTERIES, when several guns fire on the same object at the same time. When 10 guns are fired at once, their effect will be much greater than when fired separately.

Sunk BATTERIES are those whose platforms are sunk beneath the level of the field; the ground serving for the parapet; and in it the embrasures are made. This often happens in mortar, but seldom in gun-batteries. BATTERY sometimes signifies the guns themselves placed in a battery.

Fascine BATTERIES, Gabion BATTERIES, are batteries made of those machines, where sods are scarce, and the earth very loose or sandy. For a particular detail of all kinds of batteries, see Toussard’s Artillerist, No. I. c. 1.

BATTERY.--Dimensions of Batteries.

1. Gun BATTERIES.--Gun Batteries are usually 18 feet per gun. Their principal dimensions are as follow:

Ditch--Breadth 12 feet. Depth 8

Note.--These dimensions give for a battery of two guns 3456 cubic feet of earth; and must be varied according to the quantity required for the epaulment.

Epaulement--Breadth at bottom 23 feet. Breadth at top 18 Height within 7 Height without 6 ft. 4 in. Slope, interior ²⁄₇ of h’gt. Slope, exterior ¹⁄₂ of h’gt.

Note.--The above breadths at top and bottom are for the worst soil; good earth will not require a base of more than 20 feet wide, which will reduce the breadth at top to 15 feet; an epaulement of these dimensions for two guns will require about 4200 cubic feet of earth, and deducting 300 cubic feet for each embrazure, leaves 3600 required for the epaulement. In confined situations the breadth of the epaulement may be only 12 feet.

Embrazures--Distance between their centers 18 feet Openings, interior 20 inc. Openings, exterior 9 feet Height of the sole above the platform 32 inc.

Note.--Where the epaulement is made of a reduced breadth, the openings of the embrazures are made with the usual breadth within, but the exterior openings proportionably less. The embrazures are sometimes only 12 feet asunder, or even less when the ground is very confined. The superior slope of the epaulement need be very little, where it is not to be defended by small arms. The slope of the side of the embrasures must depend upon the height of the object to be fired at. The Berm is usually made 3 feet wide, and where the soil is loose, this breadth is increased to 4 feet.

2. Howitzer BATTERIES.--The dimensions of howitzer batteries are the same as those for guns, except that the interior openings of the embrazures are 2 feet 6 inches, and the soles of the embrazures have a slope inwards of about 10 degrees.

3. Mortar BATTERIES.--Are also made of the same dimensions as gun batteries, but an exact adherence to those dimensions is not so necessary. They have no embrazures. The mortars are commonly placed 15 feet from each other, and about 12 feet from the epaulement.

Note.--Though it has been generally customary to fix mortars at 45°, and to place them at the distance of 12 feet from the epaulement, yet many advantages would often arise from firing them at lower angles, and which may be done by removing them to a greater distance from the epaulement, but where they would be in equal security. If the mortars were placed at the undermentioned distances from the epaulement, they might be fired at the angles corresponding:

At 13 feet distance for firing at 30 degrees. 21 20 30 15 40 10

over an epaulment of 8 feet high.

A French author asserts, that all ricochet batteries, whether for howitzers or guns, might be made after this principle, without the inconvenience of embrazures; and the superior slope of the epaulement being inwards instead of outwards, would greatly facilitate this mode of firing.

If the situation will admit of the battery being sunk, even as low as the soles of the embrazures, a great deal of labour may be saved. In batteries without embrazures, this method may almost always be adopted; and it becomes in some situations absolutely necessary in order to obtain earth for the epaulement; for when a battery is to be formed on the crest of the glacis, or on the edge of the counterscarp of the ditch, there can be no excavation but in the rear of the battery.

4. BATTERIES on a coast--generally consist of only an epaulement, without much attention being paid to the ditch; they are, however, sometimes made with embrazures, like a common gun battery; but the guns are more generally mounted on traversing platforms, and fire over the epaulement. When this is the case, the guns can seldom be placed nearer than 3¹⁄₂ fathoms from each other. The generality of military writers prefer low situations for coast batteries; but M. Gribauvale lays down some rules for the heights of coast batteries, which place them in such security, as to enable them to produce their greatest effect. He says the height of a battery of this kind, above the level of the sea, must depend upon the distance of the principal objects it has to protect or annoy. The shot from a battery to ricochet with effect, should strike the water at an angle of about 4 or 5 degrees at the distance of 200 yards. Therefore the distance of the object must be the radius, and the height of the battery the tangent to this angle of 4 or 5°; which will be, at the above distance of 200 yards, about 14 yards. At this height, he says, a battery may ricochet vessels in perfect security; for their ricochet being only from a height of 4 or 5 yards, can have no effect against the battery. The ground in front of a battery should be cut in steps, the more effectually to destroy the ricochet of the enemy. In case a ship can approach the battery so as to fire musquetry from her tops, a few light pieces placed higher up on the bank, will soon dislodge the men from that position, by a few discharges of case shot. It is also easy to keep vessels at a distance by carcasses, or other fire balls, which they are always in dread of.

Durtubie estimates, that a battery of 4 or 5 guns, well posted, will be a match for a first rate man of war.

To estimate the materials for a battery.

Fascines of 9 feet long are the most convenient for forming a battery, because they are easily carried, and they answer to most parts of the battery without cutting. The embrazures are however better lined with fascines of 18 feet. The following will be nearly the number required for a fascine battery of two guns or howitzers:

90 fascines of 9 feet long.

20 fascines of 18 feet--for the embrazures.

This number will face the outside as well as the inside of the epaulement, which if the earth be stiff, will not always be necessary; at least not higher than the soles of the embrazures on the outside. This will require five of 9 feet for each merlon less than the above.

A mortar battery will not require any long fascines for the lining of the embrazures. The simplest method of ascertaining the number of fascines for a mortar battery, or for any other plain breast work, is to divide the length of work to be fascined in feet, by the length of each fascine in feet, for the number required for one layer, which being multiplied by the number of layers required, will of course give the number of fascines for facing the whole surface. If a battery be so exposed as to require a shoulder to cover it in flank, about 50 fascines of 9 feet each will be required for each shoulder.

Each fascine of 18 feet will require 7 pickets.

Each fascine of 9 feet will require 4 pickets.

12 workmen of the line, and 8 of the artillery, are generally allotted to each gun.

If to the above proportion of materials, &c. for a battery of two guns, there be added for each additional gun, 30 fascines of 9 feet, and 10 of 18 feet, with 12 workmen, the quantity may easily be found for a battery of any number of pieces.

The workmen are generally thus disposed: one half the men of the line in the ditch at 3 feet asunder, who throw the earth upon the berm: one fourth upon the berm at 6 feet asunder, to throw the earth upon the epaulement, and the other quarter on the epaulement, to level the earth, and beat it down. The artillery men carry on the fascine work, and level the interior for the platforms. This number of workmen may complete a battery in 36 hours, allowing 216 cubic feet to be dug and thrown up, by each man in the ditch in 24 hours.

Tools for the construction of the battery.

Intrenching--1¹⁄₂ times the number of workmen required; half to be pick axes, and half shovels or spades, according to the soil.

Mallets--3 per gun.

Earth Rammers--3 per gun.

Crosscut Saws--1 to every two guns.

Axes or Hatchets--2 per gun.

This estimate of tools and workmen, does not include what may be required for making up the fascines, or preparing the other materials, but supposes them ready prepared. For these articles, see the words Fascine, Gabion, Platform, &c. and for the construction of field magazines for batteries, see the word Magazine.

Note. The following estimate of the quantity of earth which may be removed by a certain number of workmen in a given time, may serve to give some idea of the time required to raise any kind of works. 500 common wheel barrows will contain 2 cubic toises of earth, and may be wheeled by one man, in summer, to the distance of 20 yards up a ramp, and 30 on a horizontal plain, in one day. In doing which he will pass over, going and returning, about 4 leagues in the first case, and 6 in the last. Most men, however, will not wheel more than 1³⁄₄ toise per day. Four men will remove the same quantity to four times the distance.

In a soil easy to be dug, one man can fill the 500 barrows in a day; but if the ground be hard, the number of fillers must be augmented, so as to keep pace with the wheel barrow man.

BATTERY-Planks are those planks or boards used in making platforms.

BATTERY-Boxes are square chests or boxes, filled with earth or dung; used in making batteries, where gabions and earth are not to be had. They must not be too large, but of a size that is governable.

BATTERY-Nails are wooden pins made of the toughest wood, with which the planks that cover the platforms are nailed. Iron nails might strike fire against the iron-work of the wheels, in recoiling, &c. and be dangerous.

BATTERY-Master, whose duty formerly it was to raise the batteries. This officer is now out of use.

BATTEURS d’Estrade. See SCOUTS.

BATTLE, implies an action, where the forces of two armies are engaged; and is of two kinds, general and particular, general where the whole army is engaged, and particular where only a part is in action; but as they only differ in numbers, the methods are nearly alike.

There is no action in war more brilliant than that of pitched battles. Their success sometimes decides the fate of nations. It is by this action a general acquires reputation. It is in battle that his valour, his force of genius, and his prudence, appear in their full extent; and where especially he has occasion for that firmness of mind, without which the most able general will hardly succeed.

Battles have ever been the last resource of good generals. A situation where chance and accident often baffle and overcome the most prudential and most able arrangements, and where superiority in numbers by no means ensures success, is such as is never entered into without a clear necessity for so doing. The fighting a battle only because the enemy is near, or from having no other formed plan of offence, is not the way of making war. Darius lost his crown and life by it: Harold, of England, did the same; and Francis I. at Pavia, lost the battle and his liberty. King John, of France, fought the battle of Poictiers, though ruin attended his enemy if he had not fought. The king of Prussia lost his country, and the reputation which Prussia acquired from Frederick II. by the battle of Jena.

A skilful general will give battle when his army’s situation cannot be worse, if defeated, than if it does not fight at all; and when the advantage may be great, and the loss little. Such was the duke of Cumberland’s at Hastenbeck, in 1757, and prince Ferdinand’s at Vellinghausen, in 1761. The reasons and situations for giving battle are so numerous, that to treat of them all would fill a large volume; the following are a few exigencies of state that require an army to attack the enemy at all events. Such were the causes of the battle of Blenheim, in 1704, of Zorndorff, in 1758, of Cunnersdorff, in 1759, and of Rosbach, in 1757, of Austerlitz, in 1805. An army is also obliged to engage when shut up in a post. An army may give battle to effect its junction with another army, &c.

The preparations for battle admit of infinite variety. By a knowlege of the detail of battles, the precept will accompany the example. The main general preparations are, to profit by any advantage of ground; that the tactical form of the army be in some measure adapted to it; and that such form be, if possible, a form tactically better than the enemy’s; and, in forming the army, to have a most careful attention to multiply resources, so that the fate of the army may not hang on one or two efforts; to give any particular part of the army, whose quality is superior to such part in the enemy’s army, a position that ensures action; and finally, to have a rear by nature, or if possible, by art, capable of checking the enemy in case of disaster.

The dispositions of battles admit likewise of an infinite variety of cases; for even the difference of ground which happens at almost every step, gives occasion to change the disposition or plan; and a general’s expedience will teach him to profit by this, and take the advantage the ground offers him. It is an instant, a coup d’œil which decides this: for it is to be feared the enemy may deprive you of those advantages or turn them to his own profit; and for that reason this admits of no precise rule, the whole depending on the time and the occasion.

With regard to battles, there are three things to be considered; what precedes, what accompanies, and what follows the action. As to what precedes the action, you should unite all your force, examine the advantage of the ground, the wind, and the sun, (things not to be neglected) and chuse, if possible, a field of battle proportioned to the number of your troops.

You must post the different kinds of troops advantageously for each: they must be so disposed as to be able to return often to the charge; for he who can charge often with fresh troops, is commonly victorious. Your wings must be covered so as not to be surrounded, and you must observe, that your troops can assist each other without any confusion, the intervals being proportioned to the battalions and squadrons.

Great care must be taken about the regulation of the artillery, which should be disposed so as to be able to act in every place to the greatest advantage; for nothing is more certain than that, if the artillery be well commanded, properly distributed, and manfully served, it will greatly contribute to gaining the battle; being looked upon as the general instrument of the army, and the most essential part of military force. The artillery must be well supplied with ammunition, and each soldier have a sufficient number of cartridges. The baggage, provisions, and treasure of the army, should, on the day of battle, be sent to a place of safety.

In battle, where the attacks are, there is also the principal defence. If an army attacks, it forms at pleasure; it makes its points at will: if it defends, it will be sometimes difficult to penetrate into the designs of the enemy, but when once found, succour succeeds to the discovery. Ground and numbers must ever lead in the arrangement of battles; impression and resource will ever bid fairest for winning them.

The most remarkable on record are

B. C. 1225. The Theban war of the Seven Heroes against Eteocles.

1184. Troy taken after ten years siege.

1048. Jerusalem taken by David from the Jebusites.

750. War of the Romans against the Sabines.

743. The first Messinian war begins and continues 19 years, to the taking of Ithome.

721. Samaria taken.

685. The second Messinian war begins, continues 14 years to the taking of Ira, after 11 years siege.

624. Scythians make war in Asia Minor.

612. Nineveh destroyed by the Medes.

596. The war of the Persians against the Scythians, who are expelled by Cyaxeres.

587. Jerusalem taken by Nebuchadnezzar after a siege of 18 months.

548. War of Cyrus against Crœsus.

509. Civil war at Rome, the Tarquins expelled, monarchy abolished, and consuls chosen.

504. The Athenians take and burn Sardis.

490. Battle of Marathon.

480. Battle of Thermopylæ.

Battle of Salamis.

479. Platea}Same day Persians defeated at both places. Mycale}

470. Cyprus, Persians defeated.

Eurymedon, Persians defeated.

465. Third Messinian war begins, continues ten years.

448. First sacred war concerning the temple of Apollo at Delphi.

439. War between Corinth and Corcyra.

431. The Peloponnesian war begins the 7th of May, lasts 27 years.

409. Carthage makes war on Sicily.

405. Battle of Egospotamos--the usurpation of Dyonisius.

404. Lysander takes Athens--end of the Peloponnesian war--30 tyrants reign.

401. Battle of Cunaxa--the younger Cyrus killed--the glorious retreat of the 10,000, and expulsion of the 30 tyrants.

396. Agesilaus carries the war into Persia.

395. The Corinthian war--Athens, Corinth, Thebes, Argos, against Lacedæmon.

394. Battle of Cnidus--Lacedæmonians under Pisander defeated by Conon.

A few days after Agesilaus defeats the allies at Choronea.

390. Battle of Attia--Rome taken by the Gauls.

387. War against Cyprus--ends in two years.

371. Leuctra, battle of--Epaminondas, general of Thebes, defeats the Lacedæmonians.

363. Mantinea battle gained by Epaminondas.

360. Methone, the first victory of Philip of Macedon over the Athenians.

357. Second sacred war, on the temple being attacked by the Phoceans, ends in 9 years.

340. Battle of Agrigentum--Timoleon defeats the Carthaginians.

338. Battle of Cheronea.

335. Thebes destroyed by Alexander the Great, when he left only Pindar the poet’s house standing.

334. Battle of Granicus--Alexander.

333. Battle of Issus.

331. Battle of Arbella.

301. Battle of Ipous--Antigonus defeated.

312. Tuscan war commenced.

278. Battle at Delphi. Gauls under Brennus cut to pieces.

264. First Punic war lasts 23 years.

262. Sardis, Antiochus Soter defeated there by Eumenes.

256. Regulus defeated by Xanthippus.

234. Sardinian war continues 3 years.

222. Battle of Sellafia.

218. Second Punic war begins, lasts 17 years.

217. Battle of Thrasymene.

216. Battle of Cannæ.

208. Battle of Mantinea.

202. Battle of Zama.

197. Battle of Cynocephale--Philip defeated.

168. Battle of Pydna. This battle closed the Macedonian empire.

149. Third Punic war.

146. Carthage destroyed by the Romans.

111. Jugurthine war begins, continues 5 years.

105. Battle on the Rhine, the Tuetones defeat 80,000 Romans.

102. Tuetones defeated by C. Marius at Aquæ Sextia.

91. Social war begins, continues three years, finished by Sylla.

89. Mithridatic war begins, continues 26 years.

88. Wars of Marius and Sylla, last six years.

73. War of the Slaves under Spartacus, lasts two years, ended by Pompey and Crassus.

54. England invaded by Julius Cæsar.

48. Battle of Pharsalia.

45. Battle of Munda.

43. Battle of Mutina.

42. Battle of Philippi. Death of Brutus.

31. Battle of Actium. Death of the Republic; beginning of the Empire.

A. D. 10. Varus the Roman general, defeated in Germany.

70. Jerusalem destroyed by Titus, August 31.

73. Byzantium taken by the Romans.

196. Byzantium destroyed by Severus.

269. The Goths conquered by Claudius, who massacres 300,000 of them.

340. Battle of Aquileia, Constantine the younger defeated and killed by Constans.

405. Battle of Fesulæ, Stilicho defeats 200,000 Goths.

410. Rome taken and plundered by the Goths.

440. England ravaged by the Picts and Scots.

455. Rome taken and plundered by the Vandals.

547. Rome re-taken by the Goths.

553. Rome re-conquered by the Emperor.

613. Jerusalem pillaged by the Persians, and 90,000 inhabitants killed.

622. Carthage destroyed by the Saracens.

637. Jerusalem taken by the Saracens.

640. Egypt conquered by the Saracens.

787. Danes, their first descent upon England, at Portland.

895. The Danes under Rollo, make their first descent on France.

1016. Battle of Ashdown, between Canute and Edmund.

1017. Danes under Canute conquer England.

1041. Danes expelled from England.

1066. England invaded by the Normans.

1066. Battle of Hastings, where Harold was slain, and William the Norman became king of England.

1074. The last Danish invasion of England, when they were bribed to depart.

1095. First Crusade--Jerusalem taken and re-taken.

1100. Jerusalem taken by Robert, duke of Normandy.

1147. Second Crusade.

1187. Jerusalem finally conquered by Saladin.

1189. Third Crusade--Siege of Acre.

1192. Battle of Ascalon, in Palestine.

1203. Fourth Crusade.

1204. Constantinople taken by the Latins.

1205. Zenghis Khan, till his death in 1227, gains various battles in Asia.

1215. Prussia subdued by the Mercian Knights.

1214. Battle of Bovines, 25 July.

1217. Battle of Lincoln, 19 May.

1218. The Fifth Crusade.

1219. Prussia revolted to Poland.

1261. Constantinople recovered by the Greeks.

1064. Battle of Lewis, 14 May.

1265. Battle of Evesham, 4 Aug.

1314. Battle of Bannockburn, 25 June.

1333. Battle of Halydown-Hill, 19 July.

1346. Battle of Cressy, 26 Aug.

Battle of Durham, when David, king of Scots, was taken prisoner, 17 Oct.

1347. Calais taken by the English, August 4.

1356. Battle of Poictiers, when the Fr. king and his son were taken prisoners, 19 Sept.

1357. John, king of France, taken prisoner by Edward the Black Prince, brought to England, and ransomed for 3,000,000 crowns, but being unable to pay this sum, he returned to England, and died in prison 1364.

1370. Timour (vulgarly called Tamerlane) appears a warrior, and conquers Asia, reigns 35 years.

1388. Battle of Otterburn, between Hotspur and earl Douglas, 31 July.

1403. Battle of Shrewsbury, 12 July.

1415. Battle of Agincourt, 25 Oct.

1421. Battle of Beauge, 3 April.

1423. Battle of Crevaut, June.

1424. Battle of Ferneuil, 27 Aug.

1429. Battle of Herrings, 12 Feb.

1453. Mahomed II. takes Constantinople, and begins the Turkish Empire in Europe, which put an end to the eastern empire.

Same year, the wars of the two Roses in England commence.

1455. Battle of St. Alban’s, 22 May.

1459. Battle of Blackheath, 23 Sept.

1460. Battle of Northampton, 10 July.

Battle of Wakefield, 24 Dec.

1461. Battle of Tourton, 29 March.

1464. Battle of Hexham, 15 May.

1469. Battle of Banbury, 26 July.

1470. Battle of Stamford, March.

1471. Battle of Barnet, 14 April.

Battle of Tewkesbury, 4 May.

1485. Battle of Bosworth, 22 Aug.

1487. Battle of Stoke, 6 June.

1494. Battle of Formonte, 6 July.

1497. Battle of Blackheath, 22 June.

1513. Battle of Flouden, 9 Sept. when James IV. king of Scots, was killed.

1515. Battle of Marignano, Francis I. gains victory, 14-15-25 Sept.

1516. Egypt conquered by the Turks.

1525. Battle of Pavia, Francis I. loses all but honor, 24 Feb.

1542. Battle of Solway, 24 Nov.

1547. Battle of Pinkey, 20 Sept.

1557. Battle of St. Quintin, 10 Aug.

1558. Calais retaken by the French, January 10.

1596. Cadiz, in Spain, taken by the English.

1632. Battle of Lutzen, Gustavus Adolphus, killed.

1641. Battle of Naseby, June.

1642. Battle of Edgehill, 24 Oct.

1643. Battle of Shatton, 16 May.

Battle of Lansdown, 5 July.

Battle of Roundawaydown, 13th July.

Battle of Newbury, 20 Sept.

1644. Indians, in New England, at war amongst themselves.

1644. Battle of Marston-moor, 2 July.

1650. Battle of Dunbar, 3 Sept.

1651. Battle of Worcester, 3 Sept.

1658. Ostend attempted to be taken by the French, but they were defeated with great loss.

1658. Dunkirk taken by the English, June 24.

1662. Battle of Steinkirk.

1675. Providence, the town of, in Rhode Island, almost destroyed by Indians.

1675. Medfield, town of, in Massachusetts, about half-burnt by the Indians, Feb.

1676. Northampton, and several other towns in Massachusetts, burnt and plundered by the Indians, March.

1679. Battle of Bothwell-bridge, 22 June.

1686. Buda taken from the Turks by the Imperialists.

1690. Battle of Staffarda, Catenat defeats the duke of Savoy.

Port Royal, in Nova Scotia, taken by the Massachusetts forces.

Battle of Boyne, Ireland, 1 July.

Casco fort, New Hampshire, taken by the French and Indians.

1691. York-town, in the province of Maine, burnt and plundered by the Indians, Jan. 25.

Battle of Aughrim, Ireland, 22d July.

1700. Port Royal, in Nova Scotia, retaken by the French.

1703. Deerfield in Massachusetts, burnt, and the inhabitants carried off by the French and Indians, as prisoners, February.

1704. Battle of Blenheim, 13 Aug.

1705. Battle of Cassano, passage of the Adda, by prince Eugene.

1706. Battle of Turin, prince Eugene defeats the French.

Battle of Ramillies, on Whitsunday.

Charleston, South Carolina, invaded by the French, who were repulsed with loss.

1708. Battle of Oudenard, 30 June.

Battle of Wynendale, 28 Sept.

1709. Battle of Malplaquet, Eugene defeats Villeroy.

Battle of Blarignies, 14 Sept.

Battle of Pultowa, Charles XII. defeated.

Canada unsuccessfully attacked by the New-Yorkers.

1710. Port Royal, in Nova Scotia, re-taken by the English, when it received the name of Annapolis.

1711. Canada attacked by the British troops and those of New England.

1712. Indian war in North Carolina.

1715. Battle of Dumblain, 12 Nov.

1717. Indians instigated by a Jesuit to make incursions upon the colony of Massachusetts.

1734. Dantzic taken by the Swedes.

1743. Dettingen, the battle of, won by the English and allies, in favour of the queen of Hungary, 26th June.

1744. Battle of Fontenoy, 30 Apr.

1745. Louisburgh taken by the Massachusetts forces, June 17.

Battle of Preston-pans, 21 Sept.

1746. Battle of Falkirk, 17 Jan.

Battle of Culloden, 16 Apr.

Madras taken from the English.

1747. Battle of Laffeldt, 20 July.

1749. Louisburg given up to the French.

1755. Fort Du Quesne, (now Pittsburgh) battle of, July 9.

1756. Oswego taken by the English.

Grenada, the island of, taken by Admiral Rodney, Feb.

Battle of Lobositz, 1 Oct.

1757. Battle of Rosbach, 5 Nov.

Battle of Reichenberg, 21 April.

Battle of Gros Jegerndorff, 30 Aug.

Battle of Breslau, 22 Nov.

Battle of Lissa, 5 Dec.

Battle of Hastenbeck, 26 July.

Battle of Kolin, 13 June.

Battle of Prague, 6 May.

1758. Fort Du Quesne (Pittsburg) taken by General Forbes.

Hanover desolated by the French.

Louisburgh re-taken, July 22.

Dresden taken by the Prussians.

Battle of Sandershausen, 23 July.

Battle of Crevelt, 23 June.

Battle of Meer, 5 Aug.

Battle of Zorndorff, 25 Aug.

Battle of Sandershagen, 10 Oct.

Battle of Munden, 11 Oct.

Battle of Hochkirken, 14 Oct.

1759. Battle of Kunersdorf, 12 Aug.

Niagara taken by the English, July 24.

Ticonderoga taken by the English.

Quebec taken by the English, September 13.

Canada taken by the English, September 13.

Arcot, Carnatic, taken by the English from the Hindoos.

Frankfort upon the Oder, the Prussians and Russians, 20,000 men on field of battle.

Dresden taken by the Imperialists.

Crown Point taken from the English.

Battle of Bergen, 13 April.

Battle of Zullichau, 23 July.

Battle of Coefeld, 1 Aug.

Battle of Minden, 1 Aug.

Battle of Torgau, 8 Sept.

Battle of Pretsch, 29 Oct.

Battle of Plains of Abraham, 13 Sept. Wolf killed.

Battle of Maxen, 20 and 21 Nov.

1760. Montreal taken by the English.

Battle of Cosdorff, 20 Feb.

Battle of Quebec, 28 April.

Battle of Grabensteyn, 4 June.

Battle of Corbach, 24 June.

Battle of Emsdorff, 9 July.

Battle of Warburg, 31 July.

Battle of Strehlen, 2 Aug.

Battle of Leignitz, 15 Aug.

Battle of Torgau, 2 Nov.

Dresden taken by the Prussians again.

Chamblee taken from the French by the British, Sept. 7.

1761. Cherokee Indians in Carolina, defeated by the Americans under Col. Grant.

Dominica taken by the English.

Battle of Langensaltz, 15 Feb.

Battle of Grümberg, 21 March.

Battle of Vellinghausen, 16 July.

Battle of Kirkdenckern, 15 July.

Battle of Einbeck, 24 Aug.

1762. Battle of Dobeln, 12 May.

Battle of Wilhelmstahl, 24 June.

Battle of Fulda, 23 July.

Battle of Friedberg, 30 Aug.

Battle of Freyberg, 10 and 29 Oct.

1773. Dantzic taken by the Prussians.

1774. Fort William and Mary, in New-Hampshire, seized by the inhabitants, who possessed themselves of a quantity of powder and military stores, Dec. 14.

1775. Cedars, fort at the, given up to the British by Major

Rutherfield, March 15.

Engagement at Concord and Lexington.

The grenadiers and light infantry of the British army at Boston, under colonel Smith, 10th foot, and Major Pitcairn, detached to destroy the magazines at Concord, 20 miles from Boston, 18-19 April.

Another detachment march under earl Percy, of 16 companies of infantry and a corps of marines, 19 April.

At Lexington, 15 miles from Boston, fell in with the continentals about five in the morning. The British fire on them and a skirmish is continued to Concord; the British are forced to retreat to Boston, driven before the Americans like sheep; the British lost 114 killed, and 127 wounded, beside 52 missing: the Americans had 62 men killed and wounded; about the third recovered of their wounds.

Ticonderoga taken by Ethan Allen, “in the name of Great Jehovah and the continental Congress,” containing 120 pieces of iron ordnance, between 6 and 24 pounders, 50 swivels, 2 ten inch mortars, 1 howitzer, 1 cohorn, 10 tons of leaden ball, 3 carts laden with flints, 30 new field carriages, a quantity of shells, 100 stand of small arms, 10 casks gun-powder, 2 pieces of brass artillery, 3 May.

Crown Point taken by the Americans, May 14.

Bunker’s-hill, the British began the attack about noon; the British lost 1440 men killed, 857 wounded; among the killed were 26 commissioned officers, and 81 among the wounded. The Americans had 452 men killed, 301 wounded and missing; among the killed was the gallant Dr. Warren, who commanded the American forces. The American fire was conducted with great judgment; and the British were blockaded in Boston, 17 June.

Charlestown, Massachusetts, burnt by the British, June 17.

Stonington, Connecticut, set on fire by the British, Sept. 3.

Canada invaded by the American forces, October.

Chamblee taken by the Americans commanded by Col. Brown and Major Livingston, October 18.

Falmouth, New England, destroyed by the British forces, October 18.

Chamblee fort, in Canada, attacked by the Americans, Oct. 20.

Chamblee taken by Montgomery, 124 barrels gun-powder, 6564 musket cartridges, 150 stand French made arms, 3 mortars, 61 shells, 83 stand English arms; and other valuable military and naval stores, 3 Nov.

Montreal taken by the Americans, Nov. 12.

St. John’s taken by Montgomery, 17 brass ordnance, 2 eight inch howitzers, 22 iron ordnance, shot, shells, powder, 800 stand small arms, and naval stores, 13 Nov.

Storm of Quebec, Montgomery falls, Arnold wounded, the Americans obliged to retreat, but encamp on the Plains of Abraham, 31 Dec.

Great Bridge in Virginia, battle of, in which the British were defeated, Dec.

1776. Norfolk, in Virginia, burnt by order of Lord Dunmore the British governor, and great damage sustained, Jan. 1.

Chamblee fort retaken by the British, Jan 18.

Highlanders, and regulators of N. Carolina, defeated with great loss near Moore’s Creek bridge, by Gen. Moore, Feb. 27.

Dorchester Point fortified in the night, so as to render Boston no longer tenable by the British, March 4.

Boston evacuated precipitately, the British leaving behind their arms, military stores and provisions; sir Archibald Campbell, with 1700 men, enters the harbor, and are made prisoners by general Washington, 18 March.

Crown Point re-taken by the British.

British attack on the Cedars, Arnold capitulates; Americans treated with barbarity; congress annuls the capitulation in consequence, 26 May.

British tories defeated at Moore’s creek, in North Carolina, by colonel Caswell, and the tory leader Macleod killed.

Portsmouth, Virginia, destroyed by the British, June 1.

General sir H. Clinton attacks Sullivan’s island, in concert with Sir P. Parker, and is defeated by general Lee, 15 June.

Montreal retaken by the British, June 15.

Charleston, S. C. attacked by a squadron of ships under Sir Peter Parker, and a body of troops under Generals Clinton and Cornwallis, who were defeated with great slaughter, June 25.

Battle of Long Island, or Flat bush; the American lines attacked by sir William Howe, with 20,000 men, and the American army suffers great loss from an injudicious disposition of the forces; the retreat however was conducted with admirable skill, in thirteen hours 9000 men with artillery, and all their equipage, crossed an arm of the sea a mile wide, in the face of a superior and victorious army. In this action the Americans had 2000 men killed and wounded, and 1000 taken prisoners. 26 Aug.

Fort on Sullivan’s Island, unsuccessfully attacked by the British, June 28.

New-York surrendered to the British forces, Sept. 15.

General Arnold opposes the force sent by Carleton from Canada against Ticonderoga, but is defeated on Lake Champlain; he makes an admirable retreat to Crown point, 11 Oct.

Battle of White Plains; generals Knyphausen, Cornwallis, and Percy, commanded columns; Howe commander in chief of the British, with 15,000 effectives; general Washington commander in chief of the American army, consisting of 5000 regulars, and 11,000 militia; the British attack the American entrenchments but are defeated, 28 Oct.

Fort Washington, near King’s Bridge, taken by the British, with a loss of 1000 men! 15 Nov.

Fort Lee, near New-York, taken by the British, Nov. 18.

Newport, R. Island, taken by the British, Dec. 7.

General Washington surprises the Hessians at Trenton; general William Irvine commanding the advance; general Cadwallader, the second column, and general Washington the principal division, general Greene and general Sullivan formed his suite; the enemy and their artillery were captured, 26 Dec.

Strength of British and American armies in 1776. British. Americans. Aug. 24000 16000 Nov. 26900 4500 Dec. 27000 3300

1777. Princetown, battle of, when the Americans under General Washington, defeated the British with great loss, Jan. 2.

Providence, the island of, taken by Commodore Hopkins, March.

Danbury, town of, in Connecticut, burnt by the British, and large quantities of continental stores destroyed, April 26. Ticonderoga taken by the British, 5 July.

Action at Hubberton, the British general Frazer attacks the retreating Americans under colonel Francis, and defeats them, 6 July.

Fairfield, in Connecticut, burnt by the British, July 7.

Bennington battle, 16 Aug.

General Stark defeats the Hessian general Baum, and colonel Breyman, on Walloon Creek, 16 Aug.

Fort Stanwix, alias Fort Schuyler, the siege of, raised by Sir

John Johnson and Lieut. Col. St. Leger, Aug. 22.

Eutaw Springs, the battle of, in which General Green defeats the British, Sept. 8.

Battle of Brandywine; the dispositions of the British were masterly in this action; the American army discomfitted and make a precipitate but circuitous retreat, 11 Sept.

Massacre at the Paoli, by sir Charles Grey, 20 Sept.

Philadelphia taken by the British under General Howe, Sept. 26.

Battle of Germantown; 800 English, 900 Americans killed and wounded; the British lost general Agnew and colonel Bird; the Americans, colonel Haslet, of Delaware state, a gallant officer, 4 Oct.

Battle of Stillwater, about 600 men killed on each side; no victory; the action as intrepid as any known for the numbers; Burgoyne retreats and entrenches himself at Saratoga, 17 September.

British entrenchments near Lake George attacked by general Gates, and the British completely beaten; the British general Frazer, and the Hessian colonel Breyman killed; Arnold who commanded on the right, was wounded in the tendon Achilles; Gates took 200 prisoners and 9 brass field pieces. Burgoyne makes a precipitate retreat to Saratoga, where he capitulates on the 17th of October, surrendering 5790 men, and 35 pieces of field artillery, &c. 17 Oct.

Esopus, in New-York, was totally destroyed by the British, with great quantities of stores, October 15.

Kingston, in Ulster county, New-York, burnt by the British, October 15.

Action at Red Bank, the Hessian general Donop killed, and the British attack frustrated, and the ship of war Augusta blown up, 22 Oct.

Forts Montgomery and Clinton taken by the British, October.

Martha’s Island, pillaged by the British, who carried off 300 oxen, and 2000 sheep.

Attack of Mud Fort, (now Fort Mifflin) by Cornwallis; gallantly defended by Col. Samuel Smith, 15 Nov.

Strength of British and American armies in 1777. British. Americans. March, 27000 4500 June, 30000 8000

1778. Battle of Savannah, 15 Jan.

Battle of Monmouth, the British retreat by forced marches to New York, 28 June.

Wyoming, out of 417 Americans stationed there, 360 were inhumanly butchered by a party of Tories and Indians, commanded by Col. John Butler, July 1.

Dominica taken by the French under the Marquis de Bouille, when 164 pieces of cannon and 24 brass mortars were found therein, Sept. 7.

Attack of Savannah, 28 Dec.

1779. Sunbury taken by Gen. Provost, Jan. 9.

Briars creek, American general Ashe defeated, 3 March.

Portsmouth, in Virginia, invaded again by the British, under Sir George Collier and General Matthews, who burnt vast quantities of property there, May 10.

Stoney Point and Verplanks taken by the British under general Vaughan, 30 May.

Stonoferry, in Carolina, the battle of, June 20.

Grenada taken by the French, July 6.

Norwalk, in Connecticut, burnt by the British, July 7.

General Wayne storms and takes Stony Point, 16 July.

Pawlus-hook taken by the Americans under General Lee, when 30 of the British were killed, and 160 made prisoners, July 19.

A conflagrating war carried into Connecticut, by governor Tryon and general Garth, New Haven taken; Fairfield, Norwalk, and Greenfield burnt to the ground, July.

Newhaven, town of, ravaged by the British, July.

General Lincoln attacks the British under colonel Maitland, 27 June.

Attack of the British lines at Savannah, by Lincoln and D’Estaign, who are repulsed and raise the siege, 9 Oct.

Fort of Omoa, key to the Bay of Honduras, taken by the British from the Spaniards, Oct. 20.

1780. Fort on Sullivan’s Island taken by the British, May 6.

Wachaws, North Carolina, where Colonel Tarleton surprised 300 Americans, of whom he killed by far the greatest number, May.

Charleston, South Carolina, taken by the British, after a siege of several weeks, by Gen. Clinton, 12 May.

Elizabethtown, New-Jersey, taken by the British, June 7.

Springfield attacked and burnt by the British from New York; the British severely handled and forced to retire, 23 June.

General Sumpter, after three repulses storms and takes the British post at Rocky Mount, on the Catawba river; but abandons it and attacks the post at Hanging Rock, 30 July.

Battle of Camden, Gates against Cornwallis, both armies set out at midnight, and their advanced guards began the action at 2 o’clock in the morning, 16 Aug.

Tarleton attacks Sumpter on the Wateree, a skirmish without any other effect than the display of enterprise and intrepidity on both sides, 18 Aug.

Augusta, Georgia, attacked by American general Clark, without success, 14 Sept.

Tarleton attacks Sumpter at Black Rock, on the Tyger river, and is defeated; both commanders severely wounded, Oct.

Battle of King’s Mountain, in which a party of American mounted riflemen collected from Kentucky, Georgia, and the Carolinas, attack and kill the tory leader Ferguson, and take 800 of his party prisoners, 7 Oct.

Clermont, S. C. taken by Colonel Washington, Dec. 4.

1781. Richmond, in Virginia, destroyed by the British under General Arnold, Jan. 5.

Hillsborough, in Carolina, the royal standard erected there by Lord Cornwallis, Feb. 20.

Colonel Henry Lee, with his legion, attacks a body of tories upon the Haw river, within a mile of Tarleton’s encampment, and cuts them to pieces, 25 Feb.

Battle of Guilford court house; general Greene commanded the Americans; general Cornwallis the British; a hard fought battle, the Americans defeated, but the victory was fatal to the victors, 15 March.

Fort Watson, South Carolina, taken by the Americans, April 15. Camden, battle at, in South Carolina, between General Green and Lord Rawdon, when the Americans retreated, April 25.

Petersburgh, in Virginia, the shipping and stores destroyed at, by Phillips and Arnold, April 26.

Fort Motte, in South Carolina, taken by the Americans, May 12. Camden, S. C. burnt by the British, May 13.

Fort Granby, in South Carolina, taken by the Americans, May 15.

Fort Cornwallis, at Augusta, taken by the Americans under Gen. Marion and Col. Lee, June 5.

Augusta, Georgia, taken by Col. Pickens and Lee, 5 June.

Battle of the Cowpens, general Morgan defeats Tarleton, whose whole force is cut to pieces; the British had 600 men killed on the field; the Americans 12 killed and 60 wounded, 7 June.

Battle of Ninety-six. 19 June.

Grotton, in Connecticut, burnt by Gen. Arnold, Sept. 6.

Battle or Hobkirks hill, general Greene and lord Rawdon, 8 Sept.

Eutaw Springs, the British under general Stewart, defeated by general Greene; the standard of the 3d British regiment, or old Bulfs, taken by the Americans; the American colonel Washington wounded and taken by the British, 8 Sept.

New London, Connecticut, burnt by Benedict Arnold, Sept. 13. Battles of Porto Novo and Mooteapollam, E. Indies.

1782. Floating batteries, the, destroyed before Gibraltar, Sept. 13.

Surrender of Yorktown, by Cornwallis, with his whole army, consisting of 7000 men, to the united armies of America and France, under the command of general Washington, which closed the battles of the American revolution, 17 Oct.

Mohawk river, battle at, when Colonel Willet defeated the British, Oct. 24.

1790. The Miami Indians defeat General Harmar with great loss, September 30.

1791. The Indians defeat Gen. St. Clair with great loss, Nov. 4.

Bangalore, battle of, Cornwallis captures the place.

1792. Ostend taken possession of by the French under Dumourier, Dec.

Nice taken by the French under General Anselm, Sept. 29.

Savoy, part of the king of Sardinia’s dominions, taken by the French under General Montesquieu, Oct.

Battle of Jemappe, Dumourier, French 40,000, Clairfayt, Austrians 28,000, Nov. 5.

Frankfort treacherously given up to the Austrians, when 1300 Frenchmen were massacred by the Hessians, and several whose lives were spared had their hands cut off, Dec. 2.

1793. Neuingen, the battle of, between the combined armies and General Dumourier, when the French were defeated with great loss, March 20.

Battle of Tirlemont, Clairfayt defeats Dumourier, March 18.

Battle of St. Amand, in which Dampierre the French commander was killed by a cannon ball, in an engagement near the woods of Rhemes and Vicoigne, when the allies were defeated with great loss; General Clairfayt and Duke of York commanded the coalesced army, May 8.

Famars, battle of, between the French and combined powers, when the former were defeated, by Cobourg and Duke of York, May 23.

Carlberg, the battle of, when the French under Custine, defeated the Prussians, May 18.

Arlon, French and Austrians, latter defeated, 9 June.

Valenciennes, taken by the combined powers, and soon after retaken, June.

Marseilles, which had revolted against the convention, subdued Aug. 24.

Verdun, the French garrison, taken by the Prussians, and retaken soon after, Sept. 2.

Battle of Weissemberg, (or attack and repulse of,) Aug. 27.

Battle of Hondschoote, French under Houchard commander, Marshal Freytag taken, duke of York escapes, Sept. 6.

Dunkirk besieged by the combined army under the Duke of York, August 25, who were repulsed with great slaughter, Sept. 7, following.

Battle of Dunkirk, Duke of York and Marshal Freytag defeated by the French under Houchard and Jourdan, 32 24-pounders, and 68 other pieces of cannon taken by the French, Sept. 8.

Battle of Pirmasens, on the Rhine, Duke of Brunswick victorious over the French.

Battle of Saorgia, King of Sardinia beaten, Sept. 20.

Spaniards defeated at Perpignan under Ricardos.

Boufflers, from 8 in the morning to 7 at night, Austrians retreat under cover of night.

Battle of Maubeuge, Cobourg Austrian, Jourdan French, lasted two days, from day light ’till night.

Jeremie fort, St. Domingo, taken by the British, Oct.

Limbach, battle of, when the French were victorious, Sept. 14.

Maubeuge, the battle of, between the Austrians and the French, when the former were defeated with great loss, Oct. 15 & 16.

Toulon surrendered to the English Admiral Lord Hood, who took possession of the town and shipping in the name of Louis XVII. when the tree of liberty, which had been erected there, was converted into a gibbet for the republicans. On December 19, following, the republicans attacked the town in a most vigorous manner; when the combined forces, finding that all future resistance was useless, after having set fire to the shipping, arsenals, &c. made a precipitate retreat.

Tirlemont, battle of, when after a contest of several days, the French under Dumourier were defeated.

Battle of Deuxponts, Hoche and Wurmser, Hoche victorious at 4 o’clock, afternoon, loss of Austrians 6000, French 2000, 21 Nov.

Hagenau, Hoche gains a victory, 8-9 Dec.

Action five days at Weissemberg, and Austrians driven from Balberotte, 31 Dec.

1794. Noimoutier, the island of, taken from the Insurgents of La Vendee, by the arms of the French Republic, Jan 3.

Battle between Russians and Poles, former defeated, 4 Jan. Fort Vauban taken by the French, Jan. 7.

Battle of Villers en Couchée, 24 April.

Battle of Cateau.

Moucron, battle of, when the allied forces under Clairfayt were totally defeated by the French under Pichegru, April 26.

Courtray, the same, 11 May.

Tournay, battle of, between the French and English, when the former were defeated, May 10; again between the French and combined powers, when the latter were defeated with great loss, May 17 & 18 following.

Lannoy, Pichegru defeats duke of York, 18 May, takes 60 pieces; here the duke won the race, but lost the battle.

Turcoing, Pichegru and Clairfayt, a victory on neither side, though a desperate battle, 22 May.

Coilloure, the Spanish garrison of, also Port Vendre, Fort St. Elmo, &c. with 8000 prisoners, taken by the French under Gen. Dugoumier, May.

Battle of Espierres, 25 May.

Hoogleden, Macdonald defeats Clairfayt, 13 June.

Charleroy, a garrison consisting of 3000 Austrians, surrendered to the French under Gen. Jourdan, June 25.

Battle of Fleurus, Jourdan victorious over Cobourg, began at 3 o’clock in the morning; the French three times fell back from the powerful artillery of the Austrians, and returned fresh to the fight. The French word of battle was, no retreat to day, for 9 hours victory indecisive; when Jourdan collecting his corps de reserve, Lefebvre leading the cavalry, the Austrians were put to the route. In this action reconnoitering with balloons was practised with the greatest effect, the combined forces lost about 8000 men killed and 15000 prisoners, June 28.

In consequence of this victory, Le Chateau de Namur soon after submitted to the French republic.

Battle of Bellgarde, in the Eastern Pyrennees, Spaniards defeated, French general Mirabel, killed, 13 July.

Fontarabia, the key of Spain, was taken by the French, July.

Chandernagore taken from the French by the British, July.

Indians defeated by Gen. Wayne, Aug. 20.

Juliers, the fortress of, submitted to the French, when all the provinces west of the Rhine fell into their hands.

Boxtel, Moreau pursues duke of York, 14, 15, 16, Sept.

Bellegarde taken after an action, the last place possessed by the coalesced powers in France, 18 Sept.

Battle of Warsaw, between the Russians and Poles, in which Kosciusko was taken prisoner covered with wounds, 10 Oct.

Battle of Rerzese, in Poland, in which Suwarrow annihilated the Poles, took all their artillery, 19 Oct.

Berterzel, Moreau, beats the Duke of York; general Fox wins a race here, 19 Oct.

Praga, the suburb of, near Warsaw in Poland, taken by the Russian General Suwarrow, who gave the barbarous orders to his army to give quarters to no one, in consequence of which, upwards of 30,000 Poles, men, women and children, were massacred, Nov. 4.

Nimeguen, port of, evacuated by the British, Nov. 7.

Warsaw, the capital of Poland, taken by the Russians under Suwarrow, Nov. 9.

Maestrecht, the garrison of, consisting of 8000 Austrians, surrendered to the French, Nov. 9.

Battle of the Black Mountain, Eastern Pyrennees, in which Dugomier, commander of the French, gained a complete victory, but fell in the battle; took 50 pieces of cannon and the Spanish founderies of Egui and Orbaycette, 17 Nov.

Another battle, French took tents for 50,000 men, at Figueras, 20 Nov.

Graves, the fortress of, taken by the French, Dec. 30.

1795. Battle of Bommel, in Holland, French under Moreau, took 120 pieces of cannon, 7 Jan.

Grenada, bloody battle fought between the French and English in that island, in which the latter were defeated, March 3.

Battle of Quiberoon, Puissaye defeated by Hoche, 3 Aug.

1796. Battle of Kreutsnach, in which the French general Moreau, defeats the Austrian generals Kray and Wurmser, 4 Jan.

Bonaparte’s first campaign in Italy.

Montenotte, Bonaparte with 56,000 men, defeats Boileau with 84,000, took from the Austrians 40 pieces of cannon, 11 April.

Battle of Fonubio, 7 May.

Battle of Pavia, 17 May.

Milessimo, 11 May.

Dego, the same, 14 April.

Battle of Mondovi, in which the French general Stengel was killed, 22 April.

Battle of Lodi, over Boileau, 11 May.

Passage of the Mincio and battle of Borghetta, 4 June.

Battle of Renchen, Moreau victorious over the Austrians, 28 June.

Battle of Etingen, the corps of Condé cut to pieces, 1 July.

Battle of Neukirchen, Lefebvre defeats the Austrians, 6 July.

Battle of Castiglione lasted five days, Wurmser defeated, 70 field pieces, 15,000 prisoners, and Killed 6000, 2 Aug.

Battle of Peschiera, 6 Aug.

Battle of Roveredo, 6 Sept.

Battle of Bassano, 8 Sept.

Battle of Castellaro, 14 Sept.

Battle of Legonaro, 11 Oct.

Battle of Caldiero, 12 Oct.

Battle of Arcole, 15 Oct.

Battle of Altenkirken, Jourdan defeats Wurmser, 1 June.

Moreau attacks Wurmser and defeats him at Frankenthal, 15 June.

Moreau defeats the Austrians at Nordlingen, 10 Aug.

Jourdan defeated and retreats from Frankfort towards the Rhine, 30 Aug. to 3 Sept.

Desaix defeats the Austrians at Marienburg and covers Moreau’s retreat, 7 Sept.

1797. Battle near Laforma on the Adige, 13 Jan.

Provera beaten and made prisoner at La Favorita, 15 Jan.

Passage of Tagliamento and defeat of the Archduke near Gradisca; who narrowly escapes, 16 Feb.

Battle of Tagliamento, Austrians under arch duke Charles, defeated by Massena, 16 March.

Battle of Neuwied, Hoche defeats the Austrians under Kray, and takes 4000 prisoners, 18 March.

Battle of Tarvis in the Noric Alps, Massena defeats the Austrians, 20 March.

Battle of Lavis, Joubert defeats the Austrians, 22 March.

Battle of Pufero, Austrians defeated by general Guyeux, 23 March.

Battle of Tarvis, fought above the clouds, Austrians defeated by Massena, the imperial cuirassiers annihilated, 25 March.

Battle of the defiles of Neumark, Massena defeats the Austrians, 2 April. 1798. General Berthier, enters and occupies the city of Rome, in consequence of the assassination of general Duphot, and an attempt to assassinate Joseph Bonaparte the French ambassador, 10 Feb.

General Brune takes possession of Fribourg in Switzerland, after a severe action, 3 March.

A revolt in Ireland, several actions between the Irish and British troops with various success, during this month, April.

Action at Killalla, 19 April.

Action at Hacketstown, between the Irish insurgents and British troops; same day actions in Clare, Lucan, Lusk, and Kilcullen, 25 May.

Action at Tarragh, very desperate and bloody; same day the insurgents in Wexford, capture a British detachment, 27 May.

Battle at Enniscorthy, Ireland; same day a desperate action near Limerick, 28 May.

Battle of Arklow, the Irish insurgents defeat the British regulars, 29 May.

Battle of Vinegar Hill, the British under general Fawcett, defeated, 30 May.

Action at Newtownbarry, the British compelled to retreat before the insurgents; the pike the chief weapon of the Irish, 1 June.

The insurgents from Wexford, defeat the British under colonel Walpole, the colonel is killed, and the cannon are taken by the insurgents, 4 June.

Desperate action at New Ross, county Wexford; the British army under general Johnson, severely cut up, their cannon taken, and lord Mountjoy killed. Several actions during this month in which the British are defeated, 5 June.

Battle of Antrim, lord O’Neil killed, with a pike, 7 June.

Battle of Ballinahinch, the British army severely handled by the insurgent general Munroe, who was wounded and taken prisoner and afterwards executed; the British in vengeance burned the town of Saintfield, 12 June.

Insurgents camp at Vinegar hill, stormed by general Lake, and carried with great slaughter, 21 June.

Sir Charles Asgill, defeated by a body of insurgents, under the command of Murphy, an Irish priest, 23 June.

Sir Charles Asgill, attacks the Irish insurgents on Kilconnel Hill, and defeats them, but with the loss of 1000 men; the insurgents lose as many with all their cannon, and their leader Murphy falls in battle, 26 June.

Several actions in this month between the revolted Irish and British troops, July.

A French army under general Humbert, lands in Ireland, and takes possession of Kilalla, 22 Aug.

Humbert attacks Lake at Castlebar, and defeats him, taking six pieces of British artillery, 27 Aug.

Battle of Underwalden in Swisserland, between the adherents of the aristocracy of Berne and the French, under Schauenburg; the town of Stantz was burnt to the ground, 9 Sept.

The Irish insurgents defeat a British force at Rathfarnham, 18 Oct.

Desperate action at Kilcock, the British troops suffer from the pike, 28 Oct.

General Mack commences hostilities in Italy against the French, by an attack on five different points of the French lines, in the Roman territory, 22 Nov.

Battle of Porto Fermo, on the Adriatic, the French defeat the Neapolitans and take their cannon and baggage, 28 Nov.

Macdonald defeats the Neapolitans at Civita Castellano, 5 Dec.

Again defeats Mack at Calvi, 8 Dec.

Championnet defeats Mack in a general action, 11 Dec.

Macdonald defeats the Neapolitans under Dumas. The fruit of these battles, was 12,000 prisoners, 99 pieces of cannon, 21 standards, 3000 horses, and all the baggage of the Neapolitan armies.

Egypt conquered by the French.

1799. Battle of el Arish, Bonaparte defeats the Mamalukes, 9 Feb.

Jaffa taken by storm, by generals Lasnes and Bonaparte, 5 March.

Battle of Sadaseer, near Periptnam, first action on the invasion of Mysore, 5 March.

Battle of Luciensteig, Massena forces that place with dreadful slaughter; and thus gains the key of Tyrol and the Grisons, 7 March.

Battle at Loubi, on the river Jordan, near Nazareth; Bonaparte, Murat, and Junot commanded, 8 March.

Kleber defeats the Syrians at Led-Jarra, 10 March.

Battle of Esdrelon, near Mount Tabor, 17 March.

General Desolles scales the Julian Alps, takes the intrenched defiles of Tauffers in the rear, and gains a complete victory over Laudohn, 17 March.

Ostrach, Jourdan with 40,000 men, is attacked by the archduke with 80,000, and is forced to retreat, 21 March.

Samanhout, a new and elegant disposition, infantry squares formed the two flanks, cavalry in a square the centre; the troops to oppose were Mamalukes and horsemen. Davoust commanded the French horse, Friant and Belliard the two squares of infantry, 22 March. Several battles at Biramba, Bardis, Girgé, gained by Desaix in this month.

Stockach, Jourdan attacks Archduke, but is defeated and forced to retreat; Jourdan’s force under 40,000 men, the Archduke’s above 80,000; the battle was principally fought by infantry and was terrible; 10,000 men lay on the field of battle, 25 March.

Scherer and Moreau attack the Austrians between the Garda and Adige, gain a hard earned victory, fought from day break to 11 at night, 26 March.

Scherer and Moreau attack general Kray before Verona, and are defeated, 30 March.

Battle of Magnan, the French are defeated, 5 April.

Battle Malanelly, E. Indies, 5 April.

Lacourbe defeats Bellegarde in the Engadine, 1 May.

Seringapatam taken by storm, Tippoo put to death, partition of Mysore followed, 4 May.

Attack of St. Jean d’Acre, and Bonaparte forced to raise the siege, 7 May.

Moreau defeats the Russians on the Po, 12 May.

Lecourbe defeats the Austrians on the Reuss, 2 June.

Battle of Zurich, the Austrian Generals Hotze, and Wallis, Kerpen and Hillier wounded; and Judinot and Humbert of the French, 5 June.

Battle of Modena, Macdonald defeats Hohenzollern, 10 June.

Battle of the Trebia, at St. Juliano, Moreau and Suwarrow; the French defeated, 18 June.

Battle of Chebrisa, Bonaparte against the Mamelukes; a new disposition, echellons of squares with artillery and baggage of each square in its centre--and giving a front and flank fire.

Turks land and take Aboukir after a battle very desperate, the Turks defeated, Bonaparte embarks for France, 15 July.

Battle of the Pyramids, the same order of battle--very decided victory over Murad Bey, 21 July.

Second battle of Zurich, most terrible and brilliant, Massena attacks the Archduke; indecisive, 14 Aug.

Suwarrow attacks Joubert at Novi, who is killed, Moreau takes the command but is forced to retreat, a bloody battle, 15 Aug.

Helder, 27 Aug.

Battle of Bergen, in Holland, general Brune attacks Abercrombie, 10 Sept.

Second battle, the British and Russians under the Duke of York, defeated by Brune, and forced to retire within intrenchments, 19 Sept.

Third battle of Zurich, terrible and decisive, one of the most brilliant in history; Massena commanded, the Austrian general Hotze killed, the French triumph, 7 to 24 Sept.

Battle of Fossano, 14 Sept.

Gaeta, Aquila taken by storm, Mack defeated, and the Neapolitans capitulate to Championnet, 1 Oct.

Battle of Bergen, 1 Oct.

Battle of Sand hills near Bergen, 2 Oct.

Battle of Egmont, duke of York again defeated and capitulates, 6 Oct.

Battle of Fossano, French defeated by Melas, 4 Nov.

1800. Egypt conquered by the English.

Moreau crosses the Rhine, and defeats the Austrians at Engen, 2 May.

Battle of Gremback, same, 3 May.

Biberach, same effect, 9 May.

Severe action at Memmingen, Kray forced to retreat, 11 May.

Signal defeat of five Austrian columns, by two French on the Iller, 5 June.

Battle of Hochstedt, the Austrians defeated by Moreau, 18 June.

Action at Ungerhausen, 26 June.

Celebrated battle at Hohenlinden, gained by Moreau, takes 80 pieces of cannon and 10,000 prisoners; action began at day break and ended at 4 o’clock.

Battle of Casteggio, Austrians defeated by Berthier, 8 June.

Battle of Marengo, one of the most brilliant in history, and important in its consequences; it lasted 11 hours; decided the fate of Italy, and placed the iron crown on the head of the Bonaparte Dynasty, 14 June.

Battle at Muhldorf, 1 Dec.

1801. Alexandria, Egypt, Abercrombie fell, French defeated by Hutchinson, 21 March.

1805. Battle of Wertingen in Bavaria, the first of the coalition of Austria and Russia; Austrians defeated and all their cannon taken, Oct. 8.

Battle of Guntzburg, marshal Ney defeats the Austrians, 9 Oct.

Battle on the Adige, Massena forces a passage at Verona, and defeats the archduke Charles, Oct. 18.

Surrender of Ulm by Mack, October 20.

Murat defeats prince Ferdinand at Nuremburg, Oct. 21.

Battle of Caldiero, Massena attacks the whole Austrian line, defeats them; captures one of their divisions; the arch duke escapes at night, Oct. 30.

Battle of Amstetten, the Russians defeated by Murat, 4 Nov.

Battle of Marienzel, Davoust defeats the Austrian General Meerfeldt, 8 Nov.

Mortier defeats the Russians under Kutasoff at Diernstein, Nov. 11.

Murat and Lasnes defeat the Russians under Kutasoff at Holabrunn, 15 Nov.

Soult again at Guntersdorff, 16 Nov.

Battle of Austerlitz or of the three emperors, 500 pieces of cannon and 150,000 men were engaged in this battle, which was one of the most profound in the history of tactics, and the most brilliant in the annals of victory; 150 pieces of artillery were taken by the victors; this battle deprived the house of Austria of the title of Emperor of Germany, 2 Dec.

1806. Battle of Jena, Oct. 14.

Prussia subdued by Bonaparte.

1807. Dantzick taken, May 20.

Battle of Spaudau, June 5.

Battle of Lonutten, same day.

Deppen, battle of, Marshal Ney makes a fictious retreat, and cuts a body of Russians to pieces, June 6.

Eylau, battle of, very bloody and desperate, Russians lost 30,000 men killed, June 6-12.

Friedland, battle of, this action decided the fate of the Coalition, and produced the peace of Tilsit on the 7th July succeeding. This battle stands in the same rank with Jemappe, Fleurus, Nordlingen, Zurich, Marengo, Jena and Austerlitz.

BATTLE-Array, Line of BATTLE, the method and order of arranging the troops in order or line of battle; the form of drawing up the army for an engagement. This method generally consists of three lines, viz. the front line, the rear line, and the reserve.

The second line should be about 300 paces behind the first, and the reserve at about 5 or 600 paces behind the second. The artillery is likewise divided along the front of the first line. The front line should be stronger than the rear line, that its shock may be more violent, and that, by having a greater front, it may more easily close on the enemy’s flanks. If the first line has the advantage, it should continue to act, and attack the enemy’s second line, terrified by the defeat of their first. The artillery must always accompany the line of battle in the order it was at first distributed, if the ground permit it; and the rest of the army should follow the motions of the first line, when it continues to march on after its first success.

BATTLE-Ax, an offensive weapon, formerly much used by the Danes, and other northern infantry. It was a kind of halbert, and did great execution when wielded by a strong arm.

Main-BATTLE. See BATTLE-Array.

BATTLEMENTS, in military affairs, are the indentures in the tops of old castles or fortified walls, or other buildings, in the form of embrasures, for the greater conveniency of firing or looking through.

BATTRE l’estrade, Fr. to send out scouts.

BATTRE la campagne, Fr. to scour the country or make incursions against an enemy.

BATTRE, Fr. to direct one or more pieces of ordnance in such a manner, that any given object may be destroyed or broken into by the continued discharge of cannon ball, or of other warlike materials; it likewise means to silence an enemy’s fire.

BATTRE de front, Fr. to throw cannon-shot in a perpendicular or almost perpendicular direction against any body or place which becomes an object of attack. This mode of attack is less effectual than any other unless you batter in breach.

BATTRE d’écharpe, Fr. to direct shot, so that the lines of fire make a manifest acute angle with respect to the line of any particular object against which cannon is discharged.

BATTRE en flanc, Fr. is when the shot from a battery runs along the length of the front of any object or place against which it is directed.

BATTRE a dos, Fr. to direct the shot from one or several pieces of cannon so as to batter, almost perpendicularly, from behind any body of troops, part of a rampart or intrenchment.

BATTRE de revers, Fr. to direct shot, in such a manner as to run between the two last mentioned lines of fire. When you batter from behind, the shot fall almost perpendicularly upon the reverse of the parapet. When you batter from the reverse side, the trajectories or lines of fire describe acute angles of forty five degrees or under, with the prolongation of that reverse.

BATTRE de bricole, Fr. This method can only be put in practice at sieges, and against works which have been constructed in front of others that are invested. A good billiard player will readily comprehend what is meant by the bricole or back stroke; it means simply the firing of shot against a wall so that the balls may rebound and in the rebound strike men or objects, that could not be struck directly.

BATTRE la Caisse, Fr. to beat a drum.

Mener battant, to overcome.

Mener quelqu’un au Tambour battant. To overcome by strokes of the drum. To disconcert, to confound, puzzle and perplex any body.

BAVINS, in military affairs, implies small faggots, made of brush-wood, of a considerable length, no part of the brush being taken off. See FASCINES.

BAYARD, Fr. a provincial term used in ancient Languedoc and Roussillon to signify a wheel-barrow.

BAYONET, a kind of triangular dagger, made with a hollow handle, and a shoulder, to fix on the muzzle of a firelock or musket, so that neither the charging nor firing is prevented by its being fixed on the piece. It is of infinite service against horse. At first the bayonet was screwed into the muzzle of the barrel, consequently could not be used during the fire. It is said by some to have been invented by the people of Malacca, and first made use of on quitting the pikes. According to others, it was first used by the fusileers in France, and invented or used at Bayonne. At present it is given to all infantry.

BEACON, a signal for securing and guarding against dangers.

On certain eminent places of the country are placed long poles erect, whereon are fastened pitch-barrels to be fired by night, and smoke made by day, to give notice, in a few hours of an approaching invasion; the Irish are reported to have risen upon and extirpated the Danes by beacons or fires lighted on their hills.

BEAR, in gunnery. A piece of ordnance is said to bear, or come to bear, or brought to bear when pointed directly against the object; that is, pointed to hit the object.

BEARD, the reflected points of the head of an ancient arrow, particularly of such as were jagged.

BEAT, in a military sense, signifies to gain the day, to win the battle, &c.

To BEAT a parley. See CHAMADE.

BEAVER, that part of the ancient helmet which covered the face, and which was moveable so as to expose the face without removing the beaver from the helmet.

BECHE, Fr. a spade used by pioneers.

BEDS, in the military language, are of various sorts, viz.

Mortar-BEDS serve for the same purpose as a carriage does to a cannon: they are made of solid timber, consisting generally of 2 pieces fastened together with strong iron bolts and bars. Their sizes are according to the kind of mortar they carry.

BEDS for Mortars.

+-------------+------------+------------+--------+-------+---------+ | KINDS. | Weight. | Tonnage. | Len. | Br. | Ht. | +-------------+------------+------------+--------+-------+---------+ | |cwt. qr. lb.|ts. cwt. qr.|ft. in. |ft. in.|ft. in. | | Sea | 38 3 13| 3 3 2 | | | | |13{ Land Wood| 21 2 7| 1 6 0 | 7 0 | 2 6 | 2 3 | | { Do. Iron | 50 0 0| 2 10 0 | 6 3 | 3 1 | 1 6 | | Sea | 32 2 14| 2 2 2 | | | | |10{ Land Wood| 10 0 20| 0 14 2 | 6 6 | 1 8 | 1 10 | | { Do. Iron | 23 0 0| 1 3 0 | 4 8 | 2 4 | 1 1¹⁄₂| | 8 {Land Wood| 6 0 20| 0 7 2 | 4 2 | 1 7 | 1 7¹⁄₂| | {Do. Iron | 12 0 0| 0 12 0 | 4 0 | 1 11 | 0 11 | |5¹⁄₂ Wood | 1 0 22| 0 2 0 | 2 9 | 1 4 | 0 10 | |4²⁄₅ Wood | 0 3 11| 0 1 2 | 2 4¹⁄₂| 1 2 | 0 9 | +-------------+------------+------------+--------+-------+---------+

Stool-BEDS for guns.

+------+------+---------+----+-------------+---- | | | | Inch. | In. +------+------+---------+----+-------------+---- 42 Prs.|0 1 20|0 1 0 |2 10|11 to 8³⁄₄|3³⁄₄ 32 ----|0 1 14|0 1 0 |2 10|10 5¹⁄₂|3¹⁄₄ 24 ----|0 1 14|0 1 0 |2 9|10¹⁄₄ 6¹⁄₂|4 18 ----|0 1 12|0 1 0 |2 8| 9¹⁄₂ 6¹⁄₂|3³⁄₄ 12 ----|0 1 10|0 0 2²⁄₃ |2 8|10 6¹⁄₂|4 9 ----|0 1 4|0 0 2 |2 7| 9¹⁄₂ 5³⁄₄|3¹⁄₂ 6 ----|0 1 0|0 0 1³⁄₄ |2 6| 9 4³⁄₄|3¹⁄₂ 4 ----|0 1 0|0 0 1 |2 6| 8¹⁄₄ 5¹⁄₄| +------+------+---------+----+-------------+----

Sea-Mortar-BEDS, are made of solid timber, having a hole in the centre to receive the pintle or strong iron bolt, about which the bed turns. Sea-mortars are mounted on these beds, on board of the bomb-ketches.

These beds are placed upon very strong timber frames, fixed into the bomb-ketch, in which the pintle is fixed, so as the bed may turn about it, to fire any way. The fore part of these beds is an arc of a circle described from the same centre as the pintle-hole.

Stool-BED, is a piece of wood on which the breech of a gun rests upon a truck-carriage, with another piece fixed to it at the hind end, that rests upon the body of the hind axle-tree; and the fore part is supported by an iron bolt. See CARRIAGE.

BEEF-Eaters, the yeomen of the guard to the king of Great Britain are so called, being kept up rather for pageantry, than for any military service. Their arms are a sabre and lance; and the dress of the 13th century.

BEETLES, in a military sense, are large wooden hammers for driving down pallisades, and for other uses, &c.

BEETLESTOCK, the stock or handle of a beetle.

BELLIGERENT, in a state of warfare. Hence any two or more nations at war are called belligerent powers.

BELTS, in the army are of different sorts, and for various purposes, viz.

Sword-BELT, a leathern strap in which a sword hangs.

Shoulder-BELT, a leathern belt, which goes over the shoulder, and to which the pouch is fixed. It is made of stout leather. See POUCH.

Shoulder-BELTS for the light cavalry and dragoons, 2¹⁄₂ inches broad. Regiments that have buff waistcoats, usually have buff-coloured accoutrements, and those which have white waistcoats, wear white.

Waist-BELTS, are 1³⁄₄ inches; to have buckles or clasps.

BELTS are known among the ancient and middle-age writers by divers names, as zona, cingulum, reminiculum, ringa, and baldrellus. The belt was an essential piece of the ancient armor, insomuch that we sometimes find it used to denote the whole armor. In latter ages the belt was given to a person when he was raised to knighthood: whence it has also been used us a badge or mark of the knightly order.

BELTS among the aborigines of America, are the symbols of peace or war; they are made in a rude fanciful taste, of colored beads, and are usually presented at all conferences or talks.

BENDINGS, in military and sea matters, are ropes, wood, &c. bent for several purposes. M. Amontons gives several experiments concerning the bending of ropes. The friction of a rope bent, or wound round an immovable cylinder, is sufficient, with a very small power, to sustain very great weights. Divers methods have been contrived for bending timber, in order to supply crooked planks and pieces for building ships; such as by sand, boiling water, steam of boiling water, and by fire. See M. Du Hamel, in his book called Du Transport, de la Conservation, & de la Force des Bois. M. Delesme ingeniously enough proposed to have the young trees bent, while growing in the forest. The method of bending planks by sand-heat, now used in the British navy yards, was invented by captain Cumberland.

A method has been lately invented and practised for bending pieces of timber, so as to make the wheels of carriages without joints. The bending of boards, and other pieces of timber for curved works in joinery, is effected by holding them to the fire, then giving them the figure required, and keeping them in this figure by tools for the purpose.

BENEFICIARII, in ancient military history, denotes soldiers who attend the chief officers of the army, being exempted from all other duty. In the American service called waiters; each commissioned officer being allowed one.

BENEFICIARII were also soldiers discharged from the military service or duty, and provided with beneficia to subsist on.

BERM, in fortification, is a little space or path, of about 3, 4, 6, or 8 feet broad, according to the height and breadth of the works, between the ditch and the parapet, when made of turf, to prevent the earth from rolling into the ditch; and serves likewise to pass and repass.

To BESIEGE, to lay siege to or invest any place with armed forces.

BESIEGERS, the army that lays siege to a fortified place.

BESIEGED, the garrison that defends the place against the army that lays siege to it. See SIEGE.

To BETRAY, to deliver perfidiously any place or body of troops into the hands of the enemy. To discover that which has been entrusted to secrecy.

BETTY, a machine used for forcing open gates or doors. See PETARD.

BICOQUE, Fr. a term used in France to signify a place ill-fortified and incapable of much defence. It is derived from a place on the road between Lodi and Milan, which was originally a gentleman’s country house surrounded by ditches. In the year 1522, a body of Imperial troops were stationed in it, and stood the attack of the whole French army, during the reign of Francis I. This engagement was called the battle of Bicoque.

BILBO, a rapier, or small sword, was formerly so called: from Bilboa in Spain, where excellent swords are made.

BILL or BILL-HOOK, a small hatchet used for cutting wood for fascines, gabions, bavins, &c.

BILLET, in England is a ticket for quartering soldiers, which intitles each soldier, by act of parliament, to candles, vinegar, and salt, with the use of fire, and the necessary utensils for dressing and eating their meat. The allowance of small beer has been added by a late regulation.

BILLET de logement, Fr. a billet for quarters. This billet or ticket was formerly delivered out to the French troops upon the same general principles that it is issued in England.

BILLETING, in the army, implies the quartering soldiers in the houses of any town or village.

BINACLE, a telescope with 2 tubes, so constructed, that a distant object might be seen with both eyes, now rarely used.

BIVOUAC, BIOUAC, BIOUVAC, or BIOVAC, Fr. [from the German weywacht, a double watch or guard.] A night-guard, or a detachment of the whole army, which during a siege, or in the presence of an enemy, marches out every night in squadrons or battalions to line the circumvallations, or to take post in front of the camp, for the purpose of securing their quarters, preventing surprises, and of obstructing supplies. When an army does not encamp, but lies under arms all night, it is said to bivoac. Thus before the battle of Austerlitz, Bonaparte was all night in bivoac, or with the advanced guard.

BIT, the bridle of a horse, which acts by the assistance of a curb. See CURB and BRIDON.

BLACK-HOLE, a place of confinement for soldiers, in the English discipline, who may be confined therein by the commanding officer, but not by any inferior officer. In this place they are generally restricted to bread and water.

BLANKETS, are made of coarse paper steeped in a solution of saltpetre, and when dry are again dipt in a composition of tallow, resin, and sulphur. They are used only in fire-ships.

BLAST, and BLASTING. See MINE and MINING.

BLINDS, in military affairs, are wooden frames, composed of 4 pieces, either flat or round, two of which are 6 feet long, and the others 3 or 4 feet, which serve as spars to fasten the two first together: the longest are pointed at both ends, and the two others are fastened towards the extremities of the former, at about 10 or 12 inches from their points, the whole forming a rectangular parallelogram, the long sides of which project beyond the other about 10 or 12 inches. Their use is to fix them either upright, or in a vertical position, against the sides of the trenches or saps, to sustain the earth. Their points at the bottom serve to fix them in the earth, and those at top to hold the fascines that are placed upon them; so that the sap or trench is formed into a kind of covered gallery, to secure the troops from stones and grenades.

The term Blind is also used to express a kind of hurdle, made of the branches of trees, behind which the soldiers, miners, or labourers, may carry on their work without being seen. See HURDLE.

BLINDS are sometimes only canvas stretched to obstruct the sight of the enemy. Sometimes they are planks set up, for which see MANTLET. Sometimes they are made of a kind of coarse basket-work; see GABIONS. Sometimes of barrels, or sacks filled with earth. In short, they signify any thing that covers the labourers from the enemy.

BLIND See ORILLON and FORTIFICATION.

BLOCKADE, BLOCKADING, in military affairs, implies the surrounding a place with different bodies of troops, who shut up all the avenues on every side, and prevent every thing from going in or out of the place; this is usually effected by means of the cavalry. The design of the blockade is to oblige those who are shut up in the town, to consume all their provisions, and by that means to compel them to surrender for want of subsistence.

Hence it appears that a blockade must last a long time, when a place is well provided with necessaries; for which reason this method of reducing a town is seldom taken, but when there is reason to believe the magazines are unprovided, or sometimes when the nature or situation of the place permits not the approaches to be made, which are necessary to attack it in the usual way.

Maritime towns, which have a port, are in much the same case as other towns, when their port can be blocked up, and the besiegers are masters of the sea, and can prevent succours from being conveyed that way into the place.

To BLOCKADE, or to block up a place, is to shut up all the avenues, so that it cannot receive any relief either of men or provisions, &c.

To raise a BLOCKADE, is to march from before a place, and leave it free and open as before.

To turn a siege into a BLOCKADE, is to desist from a regular method of besieging, and to surround the place with those troops who had formed the siege.

To form a BLOCKADE, is to surround the place with troops, and hinder any thing from going in or coming out.

A new species of BLOCKADE has been discovered during the French Revolution, a blockade by proclamation.

BLOCUS, Fr. See Blockade.

BLOCK battery, in gunnery, a wooden battery for two or more small pieces, mounted on wheels, and moveable from place to place: very ready to fire en barbet, in the galleries and casemates, &c. where room is wanted.

BLOCK-house, in the military art, a kind of wooden fort or fortification, sometimes mounted on rollers, or on a flat-bottomed vessel, serving either on the lakes or rivers, or in counter-scarps and counter-approaches. This name is sometimes given to a brick or stone building on a bridge, or the brink of a river, serving not only for its defence, but for the command of the river, both above and below.

BLUNDERBUSS, a well known fire-arm, consisting of a wide, short, but very large bore, capable of holding a number of musquet or pistol balls, very fit for doing great execution in a croud, making good a narrow passage, defending the door of a house, stair-case, &c. or repelling an attempt to board a ship.

BOARD of Ordnance. See Ordnance.

BOARD, also implies an office under the government, where the affairs of some departments are transacted; of which there are several sorts in England.

BOAT. See Advice-Boat, Pontoon-Boat, &c.

BODY, in the art of war, is a number of forces, horse or foot, united and marching under one commander.

Main BODY of an army, sometimes means the troops encamped in the center between the two wings, and generally consists of infantry. The main body on a march, signifies the whole of the army, exclusive of the van and rear-guard.

BODY of a Reserve. See Reserve.

BODY of a place, is, generally speaking, the buildings in a fortified town; yet the inclosure round them is generally understood by it.

BOIS de remontage, Fr. every species of timber which is used to new mount cannon, or refit ammunition waggons, &c.

BOIS de chauffage, Fr. the fuel which is distributed among French troops.

BOLT, an iron pin used for strengthening a piece of timber, or for fastening two or more articles together. Bolts in gunnery, being of several sorts, admit of various denominations, which arise from the specific application of them, as

1. Eye } 2. Joint } 3. Transom } 4. Bed } 5. Breeching}BOLTS. 6. Bracket } 7. Stool-bed} 8. Garnish } 9. Axle-tree} 10. Bolster }

{See SHELL. BOMB{Chest. See CAISSON. {Vessels,} (Ketches,}

small vessels, made very strong with large beams, particularly calculated for throwing shells into a town, castle, or fortification, from 13 and 10-inch mortars; two of which are placed on board of each ship. They are said to have been invented by M. Reyneau, a Frenchman, and to have been first put in action at the bombardment of Algiers in 1681: till then it had been judged impracticable to bombard a place from the sea.

BOMB Ketch. The old bomb-ketches carried one 13-inch and 1 10-inch mortar, with 8 six-pounders, besides swivels, for their own immediate defence. The modern bomb-vessels carry 2 10-inch mortars 4 68-pounders, and 6 18-pounders carronades; and the mortars may be fired at as low an angle as 20 degrees; though these mortars are not intended to be used at sea but on very particular occasions; their principal intention, at these low angles, being to cover the landing of troops, and protect coasts and harbours. A bomb-ketch is generally from 60 to 70 feet long from stem to stern, and draws 8 or 9 feet water. The tender is generally a brig, on board of which the party or artillery remain, till their services are required on board the bomb-vessel.

Instructions for their Management and Security in Action.

1. A Dutch pump, filled with water, must be placed in each round-top, one upon the forecastle, one on the main-deck, and one on the quarter-deck; and furnished with leather buckets, for a fresh supply of water.

2. The booms must be wetted by the pumps before the tarpaulins and mortar-hatches are taken off; and a wooden skreen, 5 feet square, is to be hung under the booms, over each mortar, to receive the fire from the vents.

3. The embrasures being fixed and properly secured, the port must be let down low enough to be covered by the sole of the embrasure. Previous to its being let down, a spar must be lashed across it, to which the tackles for raising it again must be fixed; this spar serves to project the tackles clear of the explosion.

4. The mortars must not be fired through the embrasures at a lower angle than 20 degrees, nor with a greater charge than 5 lbs. of powder.

5. Previous to firing, the doors of the bulkhead, under the quarter-deck, must be shut, to prevent the cabin being injured by the explosion.

6. The bed must be wedged in the circular curb, as soon as the mortar is pointed, to prevent re-action; the first wedge being driven tight, before the rear ones are fixed, in order to give the full bearing on the table, as well as the rear of the bed. The holes for dog-bolts must be corked up, to prevent the sparks falling into them.

7. When any shells are to be used on board the bomb, they must be fixed on board the tender, and brought from thence in boxes in her long-boat; and kept along side the bomb-ship till wanted, carefully covered up.

8. In the old constructed bomb-vessels it was necessary to hoist out the booms, and raft them along side previous to firing; but in these new ones, with embrasures, only the boats need be hoisted out; after which the mortars may be prepared for action in 10 minutes.

Proportion of Ordnance and Ammunition for a Bomb Ship, carrying two 10 inch Mortars, to fire at low angles, and at 45 degrees, four 68 Prs. and six 18 Prs. Carronades.

---------------------------------------------------------------------- _In the Bomb KINDS. Ship._ Tender. Total. ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Mortars, sea service, with Beds, &c. 10 inch 2 -- 2 Quoins for do.--2 for 45°--2 for 20° elevation 4 -- 4 Capsquares, with keys, &c. spare 2 -- 2 Handspikes, large 4 -- 4 Spunges, with ram.heads 4 -- 4 Handscrews, small 2 -- 2 Handcrow levers--6 feet 4 -- 4 Handspikes, common 6 -- 6 Linstocks, with cocks 4 -- 4 Powder horns, new pat. 4 -- 4 Match cwts. 1 -- 1 Marline skeins -- 12 12 Budge bar. cop hooped 1 1 2 Lanthorns, Muscovy 2 2 4 Lanthorns, dark 2 2 4 Carronades, 68 Prs. 4 -- 4 Carronades, 18 Prs. 6 -- 6 having sliding carriages, elevating screws, spunges, rammers &c. complete Gun tackles, complete for traversing mortars, 12 Prs. 4 -- 4 Wads, 68 Prs. 270 270 540 Wads, 18 Prs. 480 180 660 Musquets{Bright 32 -- 32 {Black 8 -- 8 Pistols, pairs 15 -- 15 Swords 40 -- 40 Pole axes 6 -- 6 Pikes 40 -- 40 Musquetoons 2 -- 2 Flints, musquet 900 -- 900 Flints, pistol 150 -- 150 Ball cartridges, musq. 2000 -- 2000 Ball cartridges, pistol 2000 -- 2000 Shot, musq. cwt. qr. lb. 1.0.0 -- 1.0.0 Shot, pistol 1.0.0 -- 1.0.0 Round car. fixed, 10 in. 48 152 200 Empty shells, 10 inch. 48 352 400 Iron shot, 1 lb. 1000 4000 5000 Fixed shells, 10 inch 48 -- 48 Case shot, 68 Prs. car. 20 20 40 Emp. sh. 8 in for car. 52 100 152 Shot, round, 68 Prs. 50 50 100 Carcasses do. 68 Prs. 96 104 200 Shot, round, 18 Prs. 300 -- 300 Case shot, 18 Prs. 30 30 60 Carcas. do. fix. 18 Prs. 150 150 300 Hand shells, fixed, sea service -- 150 150 Fuzes for do. spare -- 15 15 Pap. cov. for cart, 10 in. 106 609 715 Pap. cov. for cart, 68 Pr. 293 301 594 Pap. cov. for cart, 18 Pr. 258 198 456 Flan. cartridg. }to hold 5 lb. 106 -- 106 emp. for 10 in. mor. }do. 10.lb. -- 609 609 Flan. cartridg. }to hold 5 lb. 293 151} 594 emp. for 68 Prs. car.}do. 4 lb. -- 150} Flannel cartridges, emp. for 18 Prs. to hold 1¹⁄₂ lbs. 528 148 676 Paper cartridges for bursting, 10 inches, empty, -- 352 352 Paper cartridges, for bursting, 8 inches, empty -- 100 100 Paper cartridges filled with 2 lb. 10 oz for 10 inch. 48 -- 48 Do. filled with 1 lb. 14 oz. for 8 inch 52 -- 52 Fuzes, drove, 10 inch. 52 388 440 Fuzes, drove, 8 inch. 57 110 166 {200 for 10 inch. shells at 14 Valenciennes{oz. each, lbs. -- 175 175 composition {768 for 10 inch. shells, at 9 {oz. each, lbs. -- 42 42 Tube boxes, tin 12 -- 12 Fuze composition, for priming carcasses, lbs. -- 10 10 Powder bags -- 6 6 Portfires -- 200 200 Quick match, cotton, lbs. -- 20 20 Spirits of wine, gals. -- 4 4 Kitt lbs. -- 80 80 Bottoms of wood, 10 in. 10 40 50 Signal rockets, 1 lb. doz. -- 2 2 Blue lights, do. -- 3 3 Gunpowder for the mortars and carronades, half barrels 72 150 222 Powder for priming, do. -- 1 1 Powder for bursting, do. -- 28 28 with all the small articles which usually attend mortars on every service, and the articles necessary for the service of carronades at sea. Laboratory chests, 4 ft. -- 2 2 Laboratory chests, 3 ft. -- 2 2 Handpumps for wetting the rigging, &c. 6 -- 6 Leather buckets 24 -- 24 ----------------------------------------------------------------------

BOMB Tender, a small vessel of war laden with ammunition for the bomb-ketch, and from which the latter is constantly supplied.

BOMBARD, an ancient piece of ordnance, so called, very short, and very thick, with an uncommon large bore. There have been bombards which have thrown a ball or shell of 300 weight: they made use of cranes to load them. The Turks use some of them at present.

To BOMBARD, BOMBARDING, BOMBARDMENT, the act of assaulting a city or fortress, by throwing shells into it in order to set fire to and ruin the houses, churches, magazines, &c. and to do other mischief. As one of the effects of the shell results from its weight, it is never discharged as a ball from a cannon, that is, by pointing it at a certain object: but the mortars are fixed at an elevation of or about 45 degrees; that is, inclined so many degrees from the horizon, that the shell describes a curve, called the military projectile: hence a mortar, whose trunnions are placed at the breech, can have no point-blank range. Mortars should be so contrived, that they may be elevated to any degree required, as much preferable to those fixed at an angle of 45°; because shells should never be thrown at that angle but in one single case only, which seldom happens; that is, when the battery is so far off, that they cannot otherwise reach the works: for when shells are thrown from the trenches into the works of a fortification, or from the town into the trenches, they should have as little elevation as possible, in order to roll along, and not bury themselves; whereby the damage they do, and the terror they cause to the troops, is much greater than if they sink into the ground. On the contrary, when shells are thrown upon magazines, or any other buildings, with an intention to destroy them, the mortar should be elevated as high as possible, that the shells may acquire a greater force in their fall.

Shells should be loaded with no more powder than is requisite to burst them into the greatest number of pieces, and the length of the fuzes should be exactly calculated according to the required ranges; for, should the fuze set fire to the powder in the shell, before it falls on the place intended, the shell will burst in the air, and probably do more mischief to those who fired the mortar, than to those against whom it was discharged. To prevent this, the fuzes are divided into as many seconds as the greatest range requires, consequently may be cut to any distance, at an elevation of 45 degrees.

Mortars are not to be fired with two fires; for when the fuze is properly fixed, and both fuze and shell dredged with mealed powder, the blast of the powder in the chamber of the mortar, when inflamed by the tube, will likewise set fire to the fuze fixed in the shell.

BOMBARDIERS, artillery soldiers, who are employed in mortar and howitzer duty. They are to load them on all occasions; and in most services they load the shells and grenades, fix the fuzes, prepare the composition both for fuzes and tubes, and fire both mortars and howitzers on every occasion. In the English service, shells and grenades, composition for the same, fuzes, &c. are prepared in the laboratory by people well-skilled in that business.

In most other armies both officers and soldiers belonging to the companies of bombardiers, have an extraordinary pay, as it requires more mathematical learning to throw shells with some degree of exactness, than is requisite for the rest of the artillery. In the British service a specific number is attached to each company of artillery, and do not form a separate corps as in other countries.

BONAVOGLIE, Fr. a man that for a certain consideration voluntarily engages to row.

BONNET, in fortification, implies a small but useful work, that greatly annoys the enemy in their lodgments. This work consists of two faces, which make a salient angle in the nature of a ravelin, without any ditch, having only a parapet 3 feet high, and 10 or 12 feet broad. They are made at the salient angles of the glacis, outworks, and body of the place, beyond the counterscarp, and in the faussebray. See FORTIFICATION.

BONNET à Prêtre, or Priest’s Cap, in fortification, is an outwork, having three salient and two inward angles, and differs from the double tenaille only in having its sides incline inwards towards the gorge, and those of a double tenaille are parallel to each other. See FORTIFICATION.

BORDER, in military drawings, implies single or double lines, or any other ornament, round a drawing, &c.

BOOKS. There are different books made use of in the army, for the specific purposes of general and regimental economy.

The general orderly BOOK is kept by the brigade major, from which the leading orders of regiments, conveying the parole and countersign, are always taken.

The regimental orderly BOOK contains the peculiar instructions of corps which are given by a colonel or commanding officer to the adjutant--hence adjutant’s orderly BOOK--and from him to the serjeant-major, who delivers the same to the different serjeants of companies assembled in the orderly room for that purpose--hence the company’s orderly BOOK.

The regimental BOOK is kept by the clerk of the regiment, and contains all the records, &c. belonging to the corps.

The Company BOOK, is kept by the commanding officer of every company; and contains returns of all incidents and payments.

The black BOOK is a sort of memorandum which is kept in every regiment, to describe the character and conduct of non-commissioned officers and soldiers; when and how often they have been reduced or punished, &c.

Every quarter-master belonging to the cavalry and infantry, has likewise a book which may not improperly be called a book or inventory of regimental stores, &c.

Practice BOOK. Every officer of the artillery ought to have a book in which he should note every useful fact that occurs in practice.

BOOM, in marine fortification, is a long piece of timber, with which rivers or harbors are stopped, to prevent the enemy’s coming in: it is sometimes done by a cable or chain, and floated with yards, topmasts, or spars of wood lashed to it.

BORE, in gunnery, implies the cavity of the barrel of a gun, mortar, howitzer, or any other piece of ordnance.

BOSSE, Fr. a term used in the French artillery, to express a glass bottle which is very thin, contains four or five pounds of powder, and round the neck of which four or five matches are hung under, after it has been well-corked. A cord, two or three feet in length, is tied to the bottle, which serves to throw it. The instant the bottle breaks, the powder catches fire, and every thing within the immediate effects of the explosion is destroyed.

BOTTES, Fr. boots.

Grosses BOTTES, Fr. jack-boots.

BOTTINE, Fr. half-boots worn by the hussars and dragoons in foreign armies.

BOUCHE, Fr. means the aperture or mouth of a piece of ordnance, that of a mortar, of the barrel of a musket, and of every species of fire-arms from which a ball or bullet is discharged.

BOUCHES à feu, Fr. is generally used to signify pieces of ordnance.

BOULER la Matiere, Fr. to stir up the different metals which are used in casting cannon.

BOULETS à deux têtes, chain-shot.

BOULEVART, Fr. formerly meant a bastion. It is no longer used as a military phrase, although it sometimes occurs in the description of works or lines which cover a whole country, and protect it from the incursions of an enemy. Thus Strasburgh and Landau may be called two principal boulevarts or bulwarks, by which France is protected on this side of the Rhine.

The elevated line or rampart which reaches from the Champs Elysées in Paris beyond the spot where the bastille was destroyed in 1789, is stiled the Boulevart.

In ancient times, when the Romans attacked any place, they raised boulevarts near the circumference of the walls. These boulevarts were 80 feet high, 300 feet broad, upon which wooden towers commanding the ramparts were erected covered on all sides with iron-work, and from which the besiegers threw upon the besieged stones, darts, fire-works, &c. to facilitate the approaches of the archers and battering rams.

BOULINER, Fr. a French military phrase. Bouliner dans un camp, means to steal or pilfer in a camp. Un soldat boulineur, signifies a thief.

BOURGUIGNOTE, Fr. Is a helmet or morion which is usually worn with a breast-plate. It is proof against pikes and swords.

BOURRELET, Fr. the extremity of a piece of ordnance towards its mouth. It is usually cast in the shape of a tulip on account of its aptitude to fit the construction of embrasures. Bourrelet means likewise a pad or collar.

BOURRER, Fr. to ram the wad or any other materials into the barrel of a fire-arm.

BOURRIQUET, Fr. a basket made use of in mining, to draw up the earth, and to let down whatever may be necessary for the miner.

BOUSSOLE, Fr. a compass which every miner must be in possession of to direct him in his work.

BOUTE-SELLE, Fr. the signal or word which is given to the cavalry to saddle their horses.

BOUTON, Fr. the sight of a musquet.

BOW, an ancient weapon of offence, made of steel, wood, or other elastic matter; which, after being bent by means of a string fastened to its two ends, in returning to its natural state, throws out an arrow with prodigious force.

The use of the bow is, without all doubt, of the earliest antiquity. It has likewise been the most universal of all weapons, having obtained amongst the most barbarous and remote people, who had the least communication with the rest of mankind.

The bow is a weapon of offence amongst the inhabitants of Asia, Africa, and America, at this day; and in Europe, before the invention of fire-arms, a part of the infantry was armed with bows. Lewis XII. first abolished the use of them in France, introducing, in their stead, the halbert, pike, and broadsword. The long-bow was formerly in great use in England, and many laws were made to encourage the use of it. The parliament under Henry VII. complained of the disuse of long bows, theretofore the safeguard and defence of that kingdom, and the dread and terror of its enemies.

Cross-BOW, is likewise an ancient weapon of offence, of the eleventh century. Philip II. surnamed the Conqueror, introduced cross-bows into France. In this reign Richard I. of England, was killed by a cross-bow at the siege of Chalus.

BOWMAN. See ARCHER.

BOWYER. The man who made or repaired the military bows was so called.

BOXES, in military affairs, are of several sorts, and for various purposes.

Battery-BOXES. See BATTERY.

Cartouch-BOXES. See CARTOUCH.

Nave BOXES, are made of iron or brass, and fastened one at each end of the nave, to prevent the arms of the axle-tree, about which the boxes turn, from causing too much friction.

Tin-BOXES, such as are filled with small shot for grape, according to the size of the gun they are to be fired out of.

Wood-BOXES, with lids, for holding grape-shot, &c. each calibre has its own, distinguished by marks of the calibre on the lid.

BOXES for Ammunition. The dimensions of the common ammunition boxes vary according to the ammunition they are made to contain, in order that it may pack tight: this variation, however, is confined to a few inches, and does not exceed the following numbers.

Table of general dimensions of Ammunition Boxes.

----+------------------------+------ | Exterior. |Weight +-------+-------+--------+ when | Len. | Bre. | Depth. |empty. ----+-------+-------+--------+------ |ft. in.|ft. in.|ft. in. | lbs. From| 2 2 | 0 10 | 0 8¹⁄₂| 20 To | 2 9 | 1 6 | 1 6 | 30 ----+-------+-------+--------+------

Weight when filled, and number contained in each.

------------------------------------+--------------+--------- | | No. of | Weight of | Rounds | Boxes when |contained | filled with | in each Kinds of Ammunition. | Ammunition. | Box. ------------------------------------+--------------+--------- |cwt. qrs. lbs.| No. {12 Prs.{ Round | 1 1 10 | 8 Boxes for { { Case. | 0 3 15 | 6 shot fixed { 6 Prs. {Round | 1 2 7 | 12 with { {Case. | 1 0 15 | 12 powder. { 3 Prs.{ Round | 0 2 25 | 16 { { Case. | 0 2 23 | 14 {24 Prs.{ Round | 1 1 26 | 6 { { Case. | 2 0 0 | 6 {12 Prs. {Round | 1 2 20 | 12 Box. for shot{ {Case. | 1 2 22 | 8 fixed to wood{ 6 Prs.{ Round | 1 2 20 | 24 bottoms { { Case. | 1 1 12 | 18 without { 3 Prs. {Round | 1 1 0 | 30 powder. { {Case. | 1 1 0 | 30 {How’r {8 | 1 2 2 | 3 {Case. {5¹⁄₂ | 1 2 12 | 10 { {4¹⁄₂ | 1 2 22 | 20 Boxes {How’r {8 } | 1 2 2 | 3 for {Shells.{5¹⁄₂ }fixed. | 1 2 12 | 10 Shells. { {4¹⁄₂[7]} | 1 2 22 | 20 ------------------------------------+--------------+---------

[7] Shells called four and an half, are really four and two-fifths.

The common ammunition waggon will hold from 9 to 13 of these boxes in one tier.

The tonnage of ammunition in boxes is equal to its weight: about 12 boxes make one ton.

BOYAU, in fortification, is a particular trench separated from the others, which, in winding about, incloses different spaces of ground, and runs parallel with the works of the place, that it may not be enfiladed. When two attacks are made at once, one near to the other, the boyau makes a communication between the trenches, and serves as a line of contravallation, not only to hinder the sallies of the besieged, but likewise to secure the miners.

BRACES, in a military sense, are a kind of armor for the arm: they were formerly a part of a coat of mail.

BRACKETS, in gunnery, are the cheeks of the travelling carriage of a mortar; they are made of strong wooden planks. This name is also given to that part of a large mortar-bed, where the trunnions are placed, for the elevation of the mortar: they are sometimes made of wood, and more frequently of iron, of almost a semicircular figure, well fastened with nails and strong plates.

BRANCH. See MINE and GALLERY.

BRAND, an ancient term for a sword; so called by the Saxons.

BRAQUER, Fr. is improperly used to express the movement of a cannon to any particular side. The correct expression is, to point the cannon, pointer le canon.

BRASSARTS, Fr. thin plates of beaten iron which were anciently used to cover the arms above the coat of mail.

Brassarts and cuirasses were worn in the days of St. Louis.

BRASSER la Matiere, Fr. to mix the different ingredients which are required for the making of gunpowder or other combustible matter.

BREACH, in fortification, a gap, or opening, in any part of the works of a fortified place, made by the artillery or mines of the besiegers, preparatory to the making an assault.

The batteries to make a breach, should commence by marking out as near as possible, the extent of the breach intended to be made; first, by a horizontal line within a fathom of the bottom of the revetement in a dry ditch, and close to the water’s edge in a wet one; and then by lines perpendicular to this line, at short distances from each other, as high as the cordon; then, by continuing to deepen all these cuts, the wall will give way in a body. The guns to produce the greatest effect should be fired as near as possible in salvos or vollies. The breach should be one third the length of the face, from the centre towards the flanked angle. When the wall has given way, the firing must be continued to make the slope of the breach practicable.

Four 24 pounders from the lodgement in the covert way will effect a breach in 4 or 5 days, which may be made practicable in 3 days more.

Another way of making a breach is by piercing the wall sufficiently to admit two or three miners, who cross the ditch, and make their entry during the night into the wall, where they establish two or three small mines, sufficient to make a breach. See ARTILLERY at Siege; see also BATTERY.

To repair a BREACH, is to stop or fill up the gap with gabions, fascines, &c. and prevent the assault.

To fortify a BREACH, is to render it inaccessible by means of chevaux-de-frize, crow’s-feet, &c.

To make a lodgment in the BREACH. After the besieged are driven away, the besiegers secure themselves against any future attack in the breach.

To clear the BREACH, that is, to remove the ruins, that it may be the better defended.

BREAK off, a term used when cavalry or infantry are ordered to diminish its front. It is also used to signify wheeling from line; as BREAKING-off to the left, for wheeling to the left.

BREAK-Ground, the first opening of the earth to form entrenchments, as at the commencement of a siege. It applies also to the striking of tents and quitting the ground on which any troops had been encamped.

To BREAK ground, to begin, to open and work at the trenches in a siege, &c.

BREAST PLATE, in military antiquity, a piece of defensive armor worn on the breast of both men and horses. They are but seldom used now.

BREAST-work See PARAPET.

BREECH of a gun, the end near the vent. See CANNON.

BREVET rank, is a rank in the army higher than that for which you receive pay; and gives a precedence (when corps are brigaded) to the date of the brevet commission.

BREVET, Fr. commission, appointment. Under the old government of France it consisted in letters or appointments signed by the king, by virtue of which every officer was authorised to discharge his particular duty. All officers in the old French service, from a cornet or sub-lieutenant up to a marshal of France were stiled Officiers à Brévet.

BREVET d’Assurance ou de Retenue d’Argent, Fr. certain military and civil appointments granted by the old kings of France, which were distinguished from other places of trust, in as much as every successor was obliged to pay a certain sum of money to the heirs of the deceased, or for the discharge of his debts. Hence the term brevet d’Assurance ou de retenue.

BRICKS, in military architecture, supply the place of stone in common buildings, and are composed of an earthy matter, hardened by art, to a resemblance of that kind: they may be very well considered as artificial stone. The Greeks and Romans, &c. generally used bricks in their buildings, witness the Pantheon, &c. In the east they baked their bricks in the sun. The Romans used them unburnt, having first left them to dry in the air for 3, 4, or 5 years.

The best bricks must not be made of any earth that abounds with sand or gravel, not of such as is gritty or stony; but of a greyish marle, or yellow clay, or at least of reddish earth. But if there is a necessity to use that which is sandy, choice should be made of that which is tough and strong.

The best season for making bricks is the spring; because they are subject to crack, when made in the summer: the loam should be well steeped or soaked, and wrought with water. They are shaped in a mould, and, after some drying in the sun or air, are burnt to a hardness. This is our manner of making bricks; but whether they were always made in this manner admits a doubt. We are not clear what was the use of straw in the bricks for building in Egypt, or why in some part of Germany they mix saw-dust in their clay for bricks.

We are in general tied down by custom to one form, and one size; which is truly ridiculous: 8 or 9 inches in length, and 4 in breadth, is the general measure: but beyond doubt there might be other forms, and other sizes, introduced very advantageously.

Compass BRICKS, are of a circular form; their use is for steening of walls; we have also concave, and semi-cylindrical, used for different purposes.

Grey-Stocks, are made of the purest earth, and better wrought: they are used in front in building, being the strongest and handsomest of this kind.

Place-BRICKS, are made of the same earth, or worse, and being carelessly put out of hand, are therefore weaker and more brittle, and are only used out of sight, and where little stress is laid on them.

Red Stocks, are made of a particular earth, well wrought, and little injured by mixtures: they are used in fine work, and ornaments.

Hedgerly BRICKS, are made of a yellowish colored loam, very hard to the touch, containing a great quantity of sand: their particular excellence is, that they will bear the greatest violence of fire without hurt.

BRICOLE, an improved kind of traces used by the French in drawing and manœuvring artillery; analogous to the old drag rope, but having the addition of a leather strap or girdle with a buckle, to which the drag is affixed; and an iron ring and hook at the end to drag by.

BRIDGES. Manner of laying a pontoon bridge across a river.

The bank on each side, where the ends of the bridge are to be, must be made solid and firm, by means of fascines, or otherwise. One end of the cable must be carried across the river; and being fixed to a picket, or any thing firm, must be drawn tight by means of a capstan, across where the heads of the boats are to be ranged. The boats are then launched, having on board each two men, and the necessary ropes, &c. and are floated down the stream, under the cable, to which they are lashed endwise, by the rings and small ropes, at equal distances, and about their own breadth asunder; more or less, according to the strength required. If the river be very rapid, a second cable must be stretched across it, parallel to the first, and at the distance of the length of the boats; and to which the other ends of the boats must be lashed. The spring lines are then lashed diagonally from one boat to the other, to brace them tight; and the anchors, if necessary, carried out, up the stream, and fixed to the cable or sheer line across the river. One of the chesses is then laid on the edge of the bank, at each end of the bridge, bottom up; these serve to lay the ends of the baulks upon, and as a direction for placing them at the proper distances, to fit the chesses that cover the bridge. The baulks should then be laid across the boats, and keyed together: their numbers proportioned to the strength required in the bridge. If the gangboards are laid across the heads and sterns of the boats from one side of the river to the other, they will give the men a footing for doing the rest of the work. Across the baulks are laid the chesses, one after another, the edges to meet; and the baulks running between the cross pieces on the under side of the chesses. The gangboards are then laid across the ends of the chesses on each edge of the bridge.

Precautions for passing a bridge of boats.

Whatever size the bridge may be, infantry should never be allowed to pass at the same time with carriages or cavalry. The carriages should always move at a certain distance behind each other, that the bridge may not be shook, by being overloaded. The horses should not be allowed to trot over the bridge; and the cavalry should dismount and lead their horses over. Large flocks of cattle must not be allowed to cross at once.

For the dimensions, weight, and equipage of a pontoon, see the word Pontoon.

When bridges are made to facilitate the communication between different parts of the approaches at a siege, they should, if possible, be placed above the town; or the besieged will take advantage of the current to float down large trees, or other bodies, in order to destroy the bridge. Two of such bridges should always be placed close to each other, in order to prevent the confusion of crossing and recrossing on the same bridge; the one being intended to pass over one way, and the other to return. Pontoon bridges will generally not support a greater weight than 4 or 5,000 pounds. Pontoons, when united as a bridge, will no doubt bear more in proportion, than when acted upon separately: but the weight which a pontoon will bear may be easily ascertained, by loading it with water till it sinks to any required depth, and then by calculating the number of cubic feet of water it contains, ascertain the number of pounds required to sink it to that particular depth.

BRIDGES, in military affairs, are of several sorts and denominations, viz.

Rush-BRIDGES, are made of large bundles of rushes, bound fast together, over which planks are laid, and fastened: these are put in marshy places, for an army to pass over on any emergency.

Pendant or hanging BRIDGES, are those not supported by posts, pillars, or butments, but hung at large in the air, sustained only at the two ends; as the new bridge at the Falls of Schuylkill, five miles from Philadelphia, 1809.

Draw-BRIDGE, that which is fastened with hinges at one end only, so that the other may be drawn up (in which case the bridge is almost perpendicular) to hinder the passage of a ditch, &c. There are others made to draw back and hinder the passage; and some that open in the middle; one half of which turns away to one side, and the other half to the other, and both again join at pleasure.

Flying-BRIDGE, is generally made of two small bridges, laid one over the other, in such a manner that the uppermost stretches, and runs out by the help of certain cords running through pullies placed along the sides of the upper bridge, which push it forwards, till the end of it joins the place it is intended to be fixed on. They are frequently used to surprise works, or out-posts that have but narrow ditches. There is a curious bridge of this kind on the Ohio, worthy of attention.

BRIDGE of boats, is a number of common boats joined parallel to each other, at the distance of 6 feet, till they reach across the river; which being covered with strong planks, and fastened with anchors and ropes, the troops march over.

BRIDGE of communication, is that made over a river, by which two armies, or forts, which are separated by that river, have a free communication with one another.

Floating-BRIDGE, a bridge made use of in form of a work in fortification called a redoubt; consisting of two boats, covered with planks, which are solidly framed, so as to bear either horse or artillery. Bridges of this kind are frequently used.

Floating bridges made of large logs of light timber bound together with a floor along them are common in the United States.

Ponton-BRIDGE, a number of tin or copper boats placed at the distance of 7 or 8 feet asunder, each fastened with an anchor, or a strong rope that goes across the river, running through the rings of the pontons. They are covered with baulks, and then with chests or planks, for the army to march over. See PONTON.

Cask, or Barrel BRIDGE, a number of empty casks that support baulks and planks, made as above into a bridge, where pontons, &c. are wanting. Experience has taught us that 5 ton of empty casks will support above water 9000 pounds: hence any calculation may be made.

BRIDGES are made of carpentry or masonry. The number of arches of a bridge is generally made odd; either that the middle of the stream or chief current may flow freely without interruption of a pier; or that the two halves of the bridge, by gradually rising from the ends to the middle, may there meet in the highest and largest arch; or else, for the sake of grace, that by being open in the middle, the eye in viewing it may look directly through there as we always expect to do in looking at it, and without which opening we generally feel a disappointment in viewing it.

If the bridge be equally high throughout, the arches, being all of a height, are made all of a size, which causes a great saving of centering. If the bridge be higher in the middle than at the ends, let the arches decrease from the middle towards each end, but so that each half have the arches exactly alike, and that they decrease in span proportionally to their height, so as to be always the same kind of figure. Bridges should rather be of few and large arches, than of many and small ones, if the height and situation will allow of it.

Names of all the terms, peculiar to BRIDGES, &c.

Abutment. See Butments.

Arch, an opening of a bridge, through or under which the water, &c. passes, and which is supported by piers or butments. Arches are denominated circular, elliptical, cycloidal, caternarian, equilibrial, gothic, &c. according to their figure or curve.

Archivolt, the curve or line formed by the upper sides of the voussoirs or arch-stones. It is parallel to the intrados or under side of the arch when the voussoirs are all of the same length; otherwise not.

By the archivolt is also sometimes understood the whole set of voussoirs.

Banquet, the raised foot-path at the sides of the bridge next the parapet: it is generally raised about a foot above the middle or horse-passage, and 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7, &c. feet broad, according to the size of the bridge, and paved with large stones, whose length is equal to the breadth of the walk.

Battardeau, or Coffer-dam, a case of piling, &c. without a bottom, fixed in the river, water-tight or nearly so, by which to lay the bottom dry for a space large enough to build the pier on. When it is fixed, its sides reaching above the level of the water, the water is pumped out of it, or drawn off by engines, &c. till the space be dry; and it is kept so by the same means, until the pier is built up in it, and then the materials of it are drawn up again. Battardeaux are made in various manners, either by a single inclosure, or by a double one, with clay or chalk rammed in between the two, to prevent the water from coming through the sides: and these inclosures are also made either with piles only, driven close by one another, and sometimes notched or dove-tailed into each other, or with piles grooved in the sides, driven in at a distance from one another, and boards let down between them in the grooves.

Butments, are the extremities of a bridge, by which it joins to, or abuts upon, the land, or sides of the river, &c.

These must be made very secure, quite immoveable, and more than barely sufficient to resist the drift of its adjacent arch, so that, if there are not rocks or very solid banks to raise them against, they must be well re-inforced with proper walls or returns, &c.

Caisson, a kind of chest, or flat-bottomed boat, in which a pier is built, then sunk to the bed of the river, and the sides loosened and taken off from the bottom, by a contrivance for that purpose; the bottom of it being left under the pier as a foundation. It is evident, therefore, that the bottoms of the caissons must be made very strong and fit for the foundations of the piers. The caisson is kept afloat till the pier be built to the height of low water mark; and for that purpose, its sides must either be made of more than that height at first, or else gradually raised to it, as it sinks by the weight of the work, so as always to keep its top above water: and therefore the sides must be made very strong, and kept asunder by cross-timbers within, lest the great pressure of the ambient water crush the sides in, and so not only endanger the work, but also drown the workmen within it. The caisson is made of the shape of the pier, but some feet wider on every side to make room for the men to work; the whole of the sides are of two pieces, both joined to the bottom quite round, and to each other at the salient angle, so as to be disengaged from the bottom, and from each other, when the pier is raised to the desired height, and sunk. It is also convenient to have a little sluice made in the bottom, occasionally to open and shut, to sink the caisson and pier sometimes by, before it be finished, to try if it bottom level and rightly; for by opening the sluice, the water will rush in and fill it to the height of the exterior water, and the weight of the work already built will sink it: then by shutting the sluice again, and pumping out the water, it will be made to float again, and the rest of the work may be completed. It must not however be sunk except when the sides are high enough to reach above the surface of the water, otherwise it cannot be raised and laid dry again. Mr. Labelye states, that the caissons in which he built Westminster bridge, London, contained above 150 load of fir timber, of 40 cubic feet each, and were of more tonnage or capacity than a 40 gun ship of war.

Centres, are the timber frames erected in the spaces of the arches to turn them on, by building on them the voussoirs of the arch. As the centre serves as a foundation for the arch to be built on, when the arch is completed, that foundation is struck from under it, to make way for the water and navigation, and then the arch will stand of itself from its curved figure. The centre must be constructed of the exact figure of the intended arch, convex, as the arch is concave, to receive it on as a mould. If the form be circular, the curve is struck from a central point by a radius; if it be elliptical, it should be struck with a double cord, passing over two pins fixed in the focusses, as the mathematicians describe their ellipses; and not by striking different pieces or arcs of circles from several centres; for these will form no ellipsis at all, but an irregular misshapen curve made up of broken pieces of different circular arches; but if the arch be of any other form, the several abscissas and ordinates should be calculated; then their corresponding lengths, transferred to the centering, will give so many points of the curve; by bending a bow of pliable matter, according to those points, the curve may be drawn.

The centres are constructed of beams of timber, firmly pinned and bound together, into one entire compact frame, covered smooth at top with planks or boards to place the voussoirs on; the whole supported by off-sets in the sides of the piers, and by piles driven into the bed of the river, and capable of being raised and depressed by wedges contrived for that purpose, and for taking them down when the arch is completed. They should also be constructed of a strength more than sufficient to bear the weight of the arch.

In taking the centre down, first let it down a little, all in a piece, by easing some of the wedges; then let it rest a few days to try if the arch makes any efforts to fall, or any joints open, or any stones crush or crack, &c. that the damage may be repaired before the centre is entirely removed, which is not to be done till the arch ceases to make any visible efforts.

Chest. See CAISSON.

Coffer-dam. See BATTARDEAU.

Drift, Shoot, or Thrust, of an arch, is the push or force which it exerts in the direction of the length of the bridge. This force arises from the perpendicular gravitation of the stones of the arch, which being kept from descending by the form of the arch, and the resistance of the pier, exert their force in a lateral or horizontal direction. This force is computed in Prop. 10, of Mr. Hutton’s Principles of Bridges, where the thickness of the pier is determined that is necessary to resist it, and is greater the lower the arch is, cæteris paribus.

Elevation, the orthographic projection of the front of a bridge, on the vertical plane, parallel to its length. This is necessary to shew the form and dimensions of the arches and other parts, as to height and breadth, and therefore has a plain scale annexed to it, to measure the parts by. It also shews the manner of working up and decorating the fronts of the bridge.

Extrados, the exterior curvature or line of an arch. In the propositions of the second section in Professor Hutton’s Principles of Bridges, it is the outer or upper line of the wall above the arch; but it often means only the upper or exterior curve of the voussoirs.

Foundations, the bottoms of the piers, &c. or the bases on which they are built. These bottoms are always to be made with projections, greater or less, according to the spaces on which they are built: and according to the nature of the ground, depth and velocity of water, &c. the foundations are laid and the piers built after different manners, either in caissons, in battardeaux, on stilts with sterlings, &c. for the particular method of doing which, see each under its respective term.

The most obvious and simple method of laying the foundations and raising the piers up to the water-mark, is to turn the river out of its course above the place or the bridge, into a new channel cut for it near the place where it makes an elbow or turn; then the piers are built on dry ground, and the water turned into its old course again; the new one being securely banked up. This is certainly the best method, when the new channel can be easily and conveniently made. This, however, is seldom or never the case.

Another method is, to lay only the space of each pier dry till it be built, by surrounding it with piles and planks driven down into the bed of the river, so close together as to exclude the water from coming in; then the water is pumped out of the inclosed space, the pier built in it, and lastly the piles and planks drawn up. This is coffer-dam work, but evidently cannot be practised if the bottom be of a loose consistence, admitting the water to ooze and spring up through it.

When neither the whole nor part of the river can be easily laid dry as above, other methods are to be used; such as to build either in caissons or on stilts, both which methods are described under their proper words; or yet by another method, which hath, though seldom, been sometimes used, without laying the bottom dry, and which is thus: the pier is built upon strong rafts or gratings of timber, well bound together, and buoyed up on the surface of the water by strong cables, fixed to the other floats or machines, till the pier is built; the whole is then gently let down to the bottom, which must be made level for the purpose; but of these methods, that of building in caissons is best.

But before the pier can be built in any manner, the ground at the bottom must be well secured, and made quite good and safe, if it be not so naturally. The space must be bored into, to try the consistence of the ground; and if a good bottom of stone, or firm gravel, clay, &c. be met with, within a moderate depth below the bed of the river, the loose sand, &c. must be removed and digged out to it, and the foundation laid on the firm bottom on a strong grating or base of timber made much broader every way than the pier, that there may be the greater base to press on, to prevent its being sunk; but if a solid bottom cannot be found at a convenient depth to dig to, the space must then be driven full of strong piles, whose tops must be sawed off level some feet below the bed of the water, the sand having been previously dug out for that purpose; and then the foundation on a grating of timber laid on their tops as before: or, when the bottom is not good, if it be made level, and a strong grating of timber, 2, 3, or 4 times as large as the base of the pier be made, it will form a good base to build on, its great size preventing it from sinking. In driving the piles, begin at the middle, and proceed outwards all the way to the borders or margin; the reason of which is, that if the outer ones were driven first, the earth of the inner space would be thereby so jammed together, as not to allow the inner piles to be driven; and besides the piles immediately under the piers, it is also very prudent to drive in a single, double, or triple row of them round, and close to the frame of the foundation, cutting them off a little above it, to secure it from slipping aside out of its place, and to bind the ground under the pier firmer: for, as the safety of the whole bridge depends on the foundation, too much care cannot be used to have the bottom made quite secure.

Jettée, the border made round the stilts under a pier. See STERLING.

Impost, is the part of the pier on which the feet of the arches stand, or from which they spring.

Key-stone, the middle voussoir, or the arch-stone in the top or immediately over the centre of the arch. The length of the key-stone, or thickness of the archivolt at top, is allowed to be about ¹⁄₁₅th or ¹⁄₁₆th of the span, by the best architects.

Orthography, the elevation of a bridge, or front view, as seen at an infinite distance.

Parapet, the breast-wall made on the top of a bridge to prevent passengers from falling over. In good bridges, to build the parapet but a little part of its height close or solid, and upon that a balustrade to above a man’s height, has an elegant effect.

Piers, the walls built for the support of the arches, and from which they spring as their bases. They should be built of large blocks of stone, solid throughout, and cramped together with iron, which will make the whole as one solid stone. Their faces or ends, from the base up to high-water-mark, should project sharp out with a salient angle, to divide the stream: or, perhaps the bottom of the pier should be built flat or square up to about half the height of low-water-mark, to allow a lodgement against it for the sand and mud, to go over the foundation; lest, by being kept bare, the water should in time undermine, and so ruin or injure it. The best form of the projection for dividing the stream, is the triangle; and the longer it is, or the more acute the salient angle, the better it will divide it, and the less will the force of the water be against the pier; but it may be sufficient to make that angle a right one, as it will make the work stronger; and in that case the perpendicular projection will be equal to half the breadth or thickness of the pier. In rivers, on which large heavy craft navigate and pass the arches, it may, perhaps, be better to make the ends semicircular: for, although it does not divide the water so well as the triangle, it will both better turn off and bear the shock of the craft.

The thickness of the piers should be such as will make them of weight or strength sufficient to support their interjacent arch independent of any other arches; and then, if the middle of the pier be run up to its full height, the centering may be struck to be used in another arch before the hanches are filled up. The whole theory of the piers may be seen in the third section of Professor Hutton’s Principles of Bridges.

They should be made with a broad bottom on the foundation, and gradually diminishing in thickness by off-sets up to low-water-mark.

Piles, are timbers driven into the bed of the river for various purposes, and are either round, square, or flat like planks. They may be of any wood which will not rot under water; but oak and fir are mostly used, especially the latter, on account of its length, straightness, and cheapness. They are shod with a pointed iron at the bottom, the better to penetrate into the ground, and are bound with a strong iron band or ring at top, to prevent them from being split by the violent strokes of the ram by which they are driven down.

Piles are either used to build the foundations on, or they are driven about the pier as a border of defence, or to support the centres on; and in this case, when the centreing is removed, they must either be drawn up, or sawed off very low under water; but it is better to saw them off and leave them sticking in the bottom, lest the drawing of them out should loosen the ground about the foundation of the pier. Those to build on, are either such as are cut off by the bottom of the water, or rather a few feet within the bed of the river; or else such as are cut off at low-water mark, and then they are called stilts. Those to form borders of defence, are rows driven in close by the frame of a foundation, to keep it firm, or else they are to form a case or jettée about the stilts, to keep the stones within it, that are thrown in to fill it up: in this case, the piles are grooved, driven at a little distance from each other, and plank-piles let into the grooves between them, and driven down also, till the whole space is surrounded. Besides using this for stilts, it is sometimes necessary to surround a stone pier with a sterling, or jettée, and fill it up with stones to secure an injured pier from being still more damaged, and the whole bridge ruined. The piles to support the centres may also serve as a border of piling to secure the foundation, cutting them off low enough after the centre is removed.

Pile-driver, an engine for driving down the piles. It consists of a large ram or iron sliding perpendicularly down between two guide posts; which being lifted up to the top of them, and there let fall from a great height, comes down upon the top of the pile with a violent blow. It is worked either with men or horses, and either with or without wheel-work. The bridge on Schuylkill, Philadelphia, is a master-piece of workmanship; and the new bridge at Trenton, over the Delaware, is equally bold and ingenious in its plan--in the latter the floor is suspended from the voussoirs of the arches, by stirrups of iron.

Pitch, of an arch, the perpendicular height from the spring or impost to the key stone.

Plan, of any part, as of the foundations, or piers, or superstructure, is the orthographic projection of it on a plane parallel to the horizon.

Push, of an arch. See DRIFT.

Salient angle, of a pier, the projection of the end against the stream, to divide itself. The right-lined angle best divides the stream, and the more acute, the better for that purpose; but the right angle is generally used, as making the best masonry. A semicircular end, though it does not divide the stream so well, is sometimes better in large navigable rivers, as it carries the craft the better off, or bears their shocks the better.

Shoot, of an arch. See DRIFT.

Springers, are the first or lowest stones of an arch, being those at its feet, and bearing immediately on the impost.

Sterlings, or Jettées, a kind of case made about a pier of stilts, &c. to secure it, and is particularly described under the next word, Stilts.

Stilts, a set of piles driven into the space intended for the pier, whose tops being sawed level off, above low-water mark, the pier is then raised on them. This method was formerly used when the bottom of the river could not be laid dry; and these stilts were surrounded, at a few feet distance, by a row of piles and planks, &c. close to them like a coffer-dam, and called a sterling, or jettée; after which loose stones, &c. are thrown or poured down into the space, till it is filled up to the top, by that means forming a kind of pier of rubble of loose work, and which is kept together by the sides or sterlings: this is then paved level at the top, and the arches turned upon it. This method was formerly much used, most of the large old bridges in England being erected that way, such as London bridge, Newcastle bridge, Rochester bridge, &c. But the inconveniences attending it are so great, that it is now quite disused; for, because of the loose composition of the piers, they must be made very large or broad, or else the arch must push them over, and rush down as soon as the centre was drawn; which great breadth of piers and sterlings so much contracts the passage of the water, as not only very much to incommode the navigation through the arch, from the fall and quick motion of the water; but likewise to put the bridge itself in much danger, especially in time of floods, when the water is too much for the passage. Add to this, that besides the danger there is of the pier bursting out the sterlings, they are also subject to much decay and damage by the velocity of the water and the craft passing through the arches.

Thrust. See DRIFT.

Voussoirs, the stones which immediately form the arch, their undersides constituting the intrados. The middle one, or key-stone, should be about ¹⁄₁₅th or ¹⁄₁₆th of the span, as has been observed; and the rest should increase in size all the way down to the impost: the more they increase the better, as they will the better bear the great weight which rests upon them without being crushed; and also will bind the firmer together. Their joints should also be cut perpendicular to the curve of the intrados. For more information, see Professor Hutton’s Principles of Bridges, in 8vo.

BRIDGE, in gunnery, the two pieces of timber which go between the two transoms of a gun-carriage, on which the coins are placed, for elevating the piece. See CARRIAGE.

BRIDLE-Arm Protect, a guard used by the cavalry, which consists in having the sword-hilt above the helmet; the blade crossing the back of the head, the point of the left shoulder, and the bridle-arm; its edge directed to the left, and turned a little upwards, in order to bring the mounting in a proper direction to protect the hand.

BRIDON, or BRIDOON, the snaffle and rein of a military bridle, which acts independent of the bit and curb at the pleasure of the rider.

BRIGADE, in military affairs, implies a party or division of a body of soldiers, whether horse, foot, or artillery, under the command of a brigadier. There are, properly speaking, three sorts of brigades, viz. the brigade of an army, the brigade of a troop of horse, and the brigade of artillery. A brigade of the army is either foot or dragoons, whose exact number is not fixed, but generally consists of 3, 4, 5 or 6 regiments, or battalions: a brigade of horse may consist of 8, 10 or 12 squadrons; and that of artillery, of 6, 8 or 10 pieces of cannon, with all their appurtenances. The eldest brigade takes the right of the first line, the second of the second line, and the rest in order, the youngest always possessing the centre, unless the commander deems a different arrangement expedient; and in such case mere etiquette always bends to orders. The cavalry and artillery observe the same order.

The Horse Artillery in the British service are called the horse Brigade; and consist of 6 troops, with their guns and stores. Their head-quarters are at Woolwich, where handsome barracks, detached from those of the royal artillery, have been erected for their accommodation.

A BRIGADE, in the French ordination, is the same as our Regiment; but it consists of 3 battalions, each of which is equal to one of our regiments or 1000 men; a demi brigade is half a regiment, or a French battalion.

BRIGADE-Major, an officer appointed by the brigadier, to assist him in the management of his brigade. The most experienced captains are generally nominated to this post; who act in the brigade as major-generals do in the armies, receiving their orders from their commanders.

BRIGADE-Major-General. The military commands in Great Britain being divided into districts, an office has been established for the sole transaction of brigade duties. Through this office all orders from the commander-in-chief to the generals of districts relative to corps of officers, &c. must pass. For further information on this head, see James’s Regimental Companion, 2d edition, vol. i. page 25.

BRIGADE de Boulangers, Fr. It was usual in the old French service, to brigade the bakers belonging to the army. Each brigade consisted of one master baker and three boys; the system is continued in the modern French army.

BRIGADIER, a military officer, whose rank is next above that of a colonel; appointed to command a corps, consisting of several battalions or regiments, called a brigade. This title in England is suppressed in time of peace, but revived in actual service in the field. Every brigadier marches at the head of his brigade upon duty. On the United States establishment, there is only one brigadier-general, who is chief in actual command; provision has been lately made by law for two more in case of war.

BRIGANDINE, or BRIGANTINE, in ancient military history, a coat of mail, or kind of defensive armor, consisting of tin.

BRINGERS-up, an antiquated military expression, to signify the whole rear rank of a battalion drawn up, as being the hindmost men of every file.

BRINS-d’Est, Fr. large sticks or poles resembling small pickets, with iron at each end. They are used to cross ditches, particularly in Flanders.

BRISURE, in fortification, is a line of four or five fathom, which is allowed to the curtain and orillon, to make the hollow tower, or to cover the concealed flank.

BROADSIDE, in a sea fight, implies the discharge of all the artillery on one side of a ship of war.

BROAD-SWORD, a sword with a broad blade, chiefly designed for cutting; not at present much used in the British service, except by some few regiments of cavalry and Highland infantry. Among the cavalry, this weapon has in general given place to the sabre.

The principal guards with the broad-sword are:

The inside guard, (similar to carte in fencing,) which is formed by directing your point in a line about six inches higher than your antagonist’s left eye, the hilt opposite your own breast, the finger-nails turned upwards, and the edge of the sword to the left.

The outside guard, (resembling tierce,) in which, by a turn of the wrist from the former position, the point of the sword is directed above your antagonist’s right eye, the edge of the weapon turned to the right, and the finger-nails downward; the arm sufficiently straightened to the right to protect the outside of your body from the attack.

The medium guard, which is a position between the inside and outside guard, seldom used, as it affords very little protection.

The hanging guard, (similar to prime and seconde) in which the hilt of your sword is raised high enough to view your opponent under the shell, and the point directed towards his body.

The St. George’s guard, which protects the head, and differs from the last-described only in raising the hand somewhat higher, and bringing the point nearer to yourself.

The swords worn by officers of the infantry being constructed either for cutting or thrusting, it is necessary for gentlemen to be acquainted both with the method of attacking and defending with the broad sword and with the rapier. Those who have not opportunity of regular lessons from a professed teacher, may obtain much useful information from a work entitled the Art of Defence on Foot, with the Broad Sword, &c. in which the spadroon or cut and thrust sword play is reduced into a regular system.

BROND. See BRAND.

BROWNBILL, the ancient weapon of the English foot, resembling a battle-ax.

BRUNT. The troops who sustain the principal shock of the enemy in action, are said to bear the brunt of the battle.

BRUSQUER une attaque, Fr. is to open the trenches in the nearest approaches to a place, completing the works from the front towards the rear. This undertaking is extremely hazardous, unless the object invested, or attacked, be ill-garrisoned, have a narrow front to besiege, the ditches be dry, &c.

BRUSQUER l’affaire, Fr. to attack suddenly, and without attending to any regular rule of military manœuvre.

BUCCANEERS, in military history, a name frequently applied to those famous adventurers, consisting of pirates, &c. from all the maritime nations of Europe, who formerly joined together, and made war upon the Spaniards in America.

BUCKETS. Water-buckets are necessary appendages to field-pieces, to cool the gun when hotly engaged; otherwise it might fire itself, or run at the muzzle.

BUCKLER, a piece of defensive armor used by the ancients. It was always worn on the left arm, and composed of wicker-work, of the lightest sort, but most commonly of hides, fortified with plates of brass or other metals. The shape of it varied considerably, being sometimes round, sometimes oval, and often nearly square. The shield of Achilles in the Illiad, as well as the book itself merits the attention of the military student.

BUDGE-Barrels. See BARREL.

BUFF-Leather, in military accoutrements, is a sort of leather prepared from the buffalo, which, dressed with oil, after the manner of shamoy, makes what is generally called buff-skin. Sword-belts were made of this leather.

BUGLE-HORN, the old Saxon horn; it is now used by the light infantry, and particularly by riflemen. By its soundings, their manœuvres are directed, either in advancing, skirmishing, or retreating. It is also used by the horse artillery, and some regiments of light cavalry.

BUILDING, in a general sense, a fabric erected by art, either for devotion, magnificence, conveniency, or defence.

Military BUILDINGS, are of various sorts, viz. powder-magazines, bridges, gates, barracks, hospitals, store-houses, guard-rooms, &c.

Regular BUILDING, is that whose plan is square, the opposite sides equal, and all the parts disposed with symmetry.

Irregular BUILDING, that whose plan is not contained within equal or parallel lines, either by the accident of situation, or the design of the builder, and whose parts are not relative to one another in the elevation.

Insulated BUILDING, that which is not contiguous to any other, but is encompassed with streets, open squares, &c. or any building which stands in a river, on a rock surrounded by the sea, marsh, &c.

Engaged BUILDING, one surrounded with other buildings, having no front to any street or public place, nor any communication without, but by a common passage.

Interred or sunk BUILDING, one whose area is below the surface of the place where it stands, and of which the lowest courses of stone are concealed.

In building there are three things to be considered, viz. commodity or conveniency; secondly, firmness or stability; thirdly, delight.

To accomplish which ends, Wotton considers the whole subject under two heads, namely, the seat or situation, and the work.

1. As for the seat, either that of the whole is to be considered, or that of its parts.

2. As to the situation, regard is to be had to the quality, temperature, and salubrity or healthiness of the air; that it be a good healthy air, not subject to foggy noisomeness from adjacent fens or marshes; also free from noxious mineral exhalations; nor should the place want the sweet influence of the sun-beams, nor be wholly destitute of the breezes of wind, that will fan and purge the air; the want of which would render it like a stagnated pool, and would be very unhealthy.

In the foundations of buildings, Vitruvius orders the ground to be dug up, to examine its firmness; that an apparent solidity is not to be trusted, unless the whole mould cut through be sound and solid: ’tis true, he does not say to what depth it should be dug: but Palladio determines it to be a sixth part of the height of the building.

The great laws of walling are:--1. That the walls stand perpendicular on the ground-work, the right angle being the foundation of all stability. 2. That the largest and heaviest materials be the lowest, as more proper to sustain others than be sustained themselves. 3. That the work diminish in thickness, as it rises, both for the ease of weight and to lessen the expence. 4. That certain courses, or lodges, of more strength than the rest, be interlaid, like bones, to sustain the wall from total ruin, if some of the under parts chance to decay. 5. Lastly, that the angles be firmly bound, they being the nerves of the whole fabric. These are sometimes fortified on each side the corners, even in brick buildings, with square stones; which add both beauty and strength to the edifice. See STONE, BRICKS, LIME, SAND.

BULLETIN, Fr. any official account which is given of public transactions. See GAZETTE.

BULLETS, are leaden balls, wherewith all kinds of small fire-arms are loaded. The diameter of any bullet is found, by dividing 1.6706 by the cube root of the number, which shews how many of them make a pound; or it may be done in a shorter way. From the logarithm .2228756 of 1.6706 subtract continually the third part of the logarithm of the number of bullets in the pound, and the difference will be the logarithm of the diameter required.

Thus the diameter of a bullet, whereof 12 weigh a pound, is found by subtracting .3597270, a third part of the logarithm of 12, from the given logarithm .2228756, or, when the logarithm is less than the former, an unit must be added, so as to have 1.2228756, and the difference .8631486 will be the logarithm of the diameter sought, which is .7297 inches; observing that the number found will always be a decimal, when the logarithm, which is to be subtracted, is greater than that of one pound; because the divisor is greater than the dividend in this case.

Hence, from the specific gravity of lead, the diameter of any bullet may be found from its given weight: for, since a cube foot weighs 11325 ounces, and 678 is to 355 as the cube 1728 of a foot, or 12 inches, is the content of the sphere, which therefore is 5929.7 ounces: and since spheres are as the cubes of their diameters; the weight 5929.7 is to 16 ounces, or 1 pound, as the cube 1728 is to the cube of the diameter of a sphere which weighs a pound; which cube therefore is 4.66263, and its root 1.6706 inches, the diameter sought.

The diameter of musket bullets differs but ¹⁄₅₀th part from that of the musket bore; for if the shot but just rolls into the barrel, it is sufficient. The English allow 11 bullets in the pound for the proof of muskets, and 14 in the pound, or 29 in two pounds, for service; 17 for the proof of carbines, and 20 for service; and 28 in the pound for the proof of pistols, and 34 for service. The proof bullet of the U. S. musket made at Harper’s ferry in Virginia, the barrel of which is 3 feet 8³⁄₄ inches, is one fifteenth of a pound; the service ball one nineteenth. The Rifle of Harper’s ferry, the barrel of which is 2 feet 10 inches; the proof ball is one twenty-eighth of a pound; the service ball is one thirty-secondth part of a pound. See GUN and RIFLE.

Hollow BULLETS, or shells, of a cylindrical shape. These have an opening and a fuze at the end, by which fire is communicated to the combustibles within, and an explosion takes place, similar to that occasioned by the blowing up of a mine.

Chain BULLETS, are two balls which are joined together by a chain, at any given distance from each other.

Branch BULLETS, two balls joined together by an iron bar.

Two-headed BULLETS, sometimes called angles, are two halves of a bullet which are kept together by means of a bar or chain.

BULWARK, the ancient name for bastion or rampart, which words see.

BURDEN, BURTHEN, in a general sense, implies a load or weight, supposed to be as much as a man, horse, &c. can well carry. A sound healthful man can raise a weight equal to his own, can also draw and carry 50lb. a moderate distance. An able horse can draw 350lb. though in length of time 300 is sufficient. Hence all artillery calculations are made. One horse will draw as much as 7 men, and 7 oxen will draw as much as 11 or 12 horses. Burthen likewise in a figurative sense means impost, tax, &c.

BURGANET, or BURGONET, Fr. a kind of helmet used by the French.

BURIALS, as practised by the military, are as follows, in the British service, viz. The funeral of a field-marshal shall be saluted with 3 rounds of 15 pieces of cannon, attended by 6 battalions, and 8 squadrons.

That of a general, with 3 rounds of 11 pieces of cannon, 4 battalions, and 6 squadrons.

That of a lieutenant-general, with 3 rounds of 9 pieces of cannon, 3 battalions, and 4 squadrons.

That of a major-general, with 3 rounds of 7 pieces of cannon, 2 battalions, and 3 squadrons.

That of a brigadier-general, 3 rounds of 5 pieces of cannon, 1 battalion, and 2 squadrons.

That of a colonel, by his own battalion, or an equal number by detachment, with 3 rounds of small arms.

That of a lieutenant-colonel, by 300 men and officers, with 3 rounds of small arms.

That of a major, by 200 men and officers, with 3 rounds of small arms.

That of a captain, by his own company, or 70 rank and file, with 3 rounds of small arms.

That of a lieutenant, by 1 lieutenant, 1 serjeant, 1 drummer, 1 fifer, and 36 rank and file, with 3 rounds.

That of an ensign, by an ensign, a serjeant, and drummer, and 27 rank and file, with 3 rounds.

That of an adjutant surgeon, and quarter-master, the same party as an ensign.

That of a serjeant, by a serjeant, and 19 rank and file, with 3 rounds of small arms.

That of a corporal, musician, private man, drummer, and fifer, by 1 serjeant and 13 rank and file, with 3 rounds of small arms.

All officers, attending the funerals of even their nearest relations, notwithstanding wear their regimentals, and a black crape round the left arm.

The pall to be supported by officers of the same rank with that of the deceased: if the number cannot be had, officers next in seniority are to supply their place.

The order of march to be observed in military funerals is reversed with respect to rank. For instance, if an officer is buried in a garrison town or from a camp, it is customary for the officers belonging to other corps to pay his remains the compliment of attendance. In which case the youngest ensign marches at the head immediately after the pall, and the general, if there be one, in the rear of the commissioned officers, who take their posts in reversed order according to seniority. The battalion, troop or company follow the same rule.

The expence for a regimental burial is to be charged against the captains of the respective troops or companies.

For further particulars, see Reid’s Military Discipline.

BURR, in gunnery, a round iron ring, which serves to rivet the end of the bolt, so as to form a round head.

BURREL-shot, small bullets, nails, and stones discharged from any piece of ordnance.

BUSKINS, a kind of shoe, or half boot, adapted to either foot; formerly a part of the Roman dress, particularly for tragic actors on the stage. They are now much worn by the army.

BUTIN, Fr.. booty or pillage. At the beginning of the French monarchy, and for a long time after its establishment, a particular spot was marked out by the prince or general, to which all persons belonging to the victorious army were directed to bring every species of booty that might have fallen into their hands. This booty was not divided, or appropriated according to the will and pleasure of the prince or general, but was thrown into different lots, and drawn for in common.

BUTMENTS. See BRIDGES.

BUTT, in gunnery, is a solid earthen parapet, to fire against in the proving of guns, or in practice.

BUTTON, in gunnery, a part of the cascable, in either a gun or howitzer, and is the hind part of the piece, made round in the form of a ball. See CANNON.

BUTTRESS. See COUNTERFORT.

BUZE, a wooden, or leaden pipe, to convey the air out of mines.

C.

CABAS, Fr. a basket made of rushes, used in ancient Languedoc and Roussillon, for the purpose of conveying stores and ammunition. This term is adopted in military inventories.

CABINET COUNCIL, a council held with privacy and unbounded confidence.

CABLE ou CHABLE, Fr. a large rope.

CADENCE, in tactics, implies a very regular and uniform method of marching, by the drum and music, beating time; it may not be improperly called mathematical marching; for after the length of a step is determined, the time and distance may be found. It is by a continual practice and attention to this, that the Prussians arrived at that point of perfection, once so much admired in their evolutions.

CADENCE or Cadency, in cavalry, is an equal measure or proportion, which a horse observes in all his motions.

CADET, among the military, is a young gentleman, who applies himself to the study of fortification and gunnery, &c. and who sometimes serves in the army, with or without pay, ’till a vacancy happens for his promotion. The proper signification of the word is, younger brother. See ACADEMY.

CADET, Fr. differs in its signification from the term as it is used in our language. A cadet in the French service did not receive any pay, but entered as a volunteer in a troop or company, for the specific purpose of becoming master of military tactics.

In the reign of Louis XIV. there were companies of Cadets. The sons of noblemen and gentlemen of fashion were received into these companies, and when reported fit to undertake a military function, were nominated cornets, sub-lieutenants or ensigns. In the reign of Louis XV. a regulation was made, by which no cadet could be admitted unless he had passed his fifteenth year and was under twenty.

He was likewise obliged to prove his nobility by the testimony of four gentlemen. Officers’ sons, however, were admitted on proof being given, that their fathers had actually served, or had died in the service.

A chaplain was appointed to every cadet-company, whose duty it was to instruct the cadets in reading and writing. They had likewise a master in mathematics, a drawing master, a fencing master and dancing master.

CADET, Fr. likewise means any officer that is junior to another.

CÆMENT, CEMENT, among engineers, a strong sort of mortar, used to bind bricks or stones together for some kind of moulding; or in cementing a block of bricks for the carving of capitals, scrolls, or the like. There are two sorts, i. e. hot cement, which is the most common, made of resin, beeswax, brick dust, and chalk, boiled together. The bricks to be cemented with this mixture, must be made hot in the fire, and rubbed to and fro after the cement is spread, in the same manner as joiners do when they glue two boards together. Cold cement, made of Cheshire cheese, milk, quick lime, and whites of eggs. This cement is less used than the former, and is accounted a secret known but to very few bricklayers.

CÆSTUS, in military antiquity, was a large gauntlet, composed of raw hides, used by pugilists at the public games.

CAGE de la Bascule, Fr. a space into which one part of the draw-bridge falls, whilst the other rises and conceals the gate.

CAIC, Fr. a skiff or boat belonging to a French galley.

CAIMACAN, in military history, an officer among the Turks, nearly answering to our lieutenant.

CAISSE, Fr. Battre la caisse is used in the French service to express the beating of a drum instead of battre le Tambour.

CAISSON, in military affairs, is a wooden frame or chest, made square, the side planks about 2 inches thick: it may be made to contain from 4 to 20 loaded shells, according to the execution they are to do, or as the ground is firmer or looser. The sides must be high enough, that when the cover is nailed on, the fuzes may not be damaged. Caissons are buried under ground at the depth of 5 or 6 feet, under some work the enemy intends to possess himself of; and when he becomes master of it, fire is put to the train conveyed through a pipe, which inflames the shells, and blows up the assailants. Sometimes a quantity of loose powder is put into the chest, on which the shells are placed, sufficient to put them in motion, and raise them above ground: at the same time that the blast of powder sets fire to the fuze in the shells, which must be calculated to burn from 1 to 2¹⁄₂ seconds. When no powder is put under the shells, a small quantity of mealed powder must be strewed over them, having a communication with the saucisson, in order to convey the fire to the fuzes.

CAISSON, is a covered waggon, to carry bread or ammunition.

CAISSON, Fr. is variously used in the French service.

CAISSON des bombes, is a tub which is filled with loaded shells and buried even with the ground. It is inclined a little on one side, and by means of a quantity of powder which is scattered on the top and connected with the bottom by a saucisson, an explosion may be effected so as to throw the shells into the open air towards any given point. Caissons which are buried in the glacis produce great effect.

CAISSON pour les vivres, Fr. a large chest whose lid rises in the centre somewhat like the capital of a pillar, in order that the rain may run off. The following dimensions were adopted to contain eight hundred rations at least.

The caisson or chest must be 8 French feet 4 inches long at least, 3 feet 4 inches high from the bottom to the extreme point of the lid, or chapiter, 2 feet 6 inches from its square sides to the bottom, 2 feet 5 inches broad at the bottom, outside, 2 feet 9 inches broad at top, and the cover or lid must be 5 feet 4 inches long. Poplar trees afford the best wood for the construction of caissons, because that species has a close grain, and is calculated to keep out rain.

CALATRAVA, a Spanish military order so called from a Fort of that name. The knights of Calatrava bear a cross; gules, fleur-de-lissed with green, &c.

CALCULATION, in military affairs, is the art of computing the amplitudes of shells, time of flight, projectile curve, velocity of shots, charges of mines, &c. together with the necessary tables for practice.

CALIBER, in gunnery, signifies the same as the bore or opening: and the diameter of the bore is called the diameter of its caliber. This expression regards all pieces of artillery.

CALIBER-Compasses, CALLIPER-Compasses, the name of a particular instrument used by gunners, for measuring the diameters of shot, shells, &c. as also the cylinder of cannon, mortars, and howitzers. They resemble other compasses, except in their legs, which are arched, in order that the points may touch the extremities of the arch. To find the true diameter of a circle, they have a quadrant fastened to one leg, and passing through the other, marked with inches and parts, to express the diameter required: the length of each ruler or plate is usually between the limits of 6 inches and a foot. On these rulers are a variety of scales, tables, proportions, &c. such as are esteemed useful to be known by gunners. The following articles are on the completest gunners-callipers, viz. 1. The measure of convex diameters in inches. 2. Of concave ditto. 3. The weight of iron shot from given diameters. 4. The weight of iron shot from given gun bores. 5. The degrees of a semicircle. 6. The proportion of troy and avoirdupois weight. 7. The proportion of English and French feet and pounds. 8. Factors used in circular and spherical figures. 9. Tables of the specific gravity and weights of bodies. 10. Tables of the quantity of powder necessary for proof and service of brass and iron guns. 11. Rules for computing the number of shot or shells, in a finished pile. 12. Rule concerning the fall of heavy bodies. 13. Rules for raising of water. 14. Rules for firing artillery and mortars. 15. A line of inches. 16. Logarithmetic scales of numbers, sines, versed sines and tangents. 17. A sectoral line of equal parts, or the line of lines. 18. A sectoral line of plans, and superficies. 19. A sectoral line of solids.

CALIBRE, Fr. See CALIBER.

CALIBRE, Fr. signifies, in a figurative sense, cast or character; as un homme de ce calibre, a man of this cast.

CALIBRER, Fr. to take the measurement of the calibre of a gun. A particular instrument has been invented for this purpose. It resembles a compass with curved branches, which serve to grasp and measure a ball.

CALIVER, an old term for an arquebuse or musket.

CALOTE, Fr. a species of scull cap which officers and soldiers wear under their hats in the French cavalry, and which are proof against a sabre or sword. Calotes are usually made of iron, wick, or dressed leather, and every officer chuses the sort he likes best. Those delivered out to the troops are made of iron.

CALQUING, CALKING, the art of tracing any kind of a military drawing, &c. upon some plate, paper, &c. It is performed by covering the backside of the drawing with a black or red colour, and fixing the side so covered upon a piece of paper, waxed plate, &c. This done, every line in the drawing is to be traced over with a point, by which means all the outlines of the drawing will be transferred to the paper or plate, &c.

CALTROPS, in military affairs, is a piece of iron having 4 points, all disposed in a triangular form: so that 3 of them always rest upon the ground, and the 4th stands upwards in a perpendicular direction. Each point is 3 or 4 inches long. They are scattered over the ground and passages where the enemy is expected to march, especially the cavalry, in order to embarrass their progress.

CAMARADE. See COMRADE.

CAMION, Fr. a species of cart or dray which is drawn by two men, and serves to convey cannon-balls. These carts are very useful in fortified towns.

CAMISADE or CAMISADO, in military transactions, implies an attack by surprise, either during the night, or at break of day, when the enemy is supposed to be in their shirts asleep, or off his guard. The attack on Cremona was a camisade; the Irish regiment of Macguire, fought in their shirts, and frustrated the attack.

CAMOUFLET, in war, a kind of stinking combustibles blown out of paper cases, into the miners faces, when they are at work in the galleries of the countermines.

CAMPEMENT, Fr. an encampment. This word is also used to denote a detachment sent before the army to mark out the ground for a camp.

CAMP. With some trifling variations, camps are formed after the same manner in all countries. This principle seems general, that there should not be more ground occupied by the camp of a body of men, in front, than the extent of their line when drawn out in order of battle. Intervals are however generally left between battalions of infantry of about one eighth their front, and between squadrons of cavalry of thirty or forty paces. An army is sometimes encamped in two lines, and sometimes in three; the distance between the lines varies according to the face of the country, from 200 to 600 yards, or more.

In the distribution of the front of a camp, two feet are generally allowed for every file of infantry, and three feet for each file of cavalry. When the ground will admit of it, the infantry are usually arranged in rows perpendicular to the front; each row containing the tents of one company; and the cavalry in the same position, each perpendicular row containing the horses of a troop.

The grenadiers and light infantry are usually placed in single rows on the flanks, and the battalion companies in double rows.

A single row, or one company, occupies in front, nine feet; and a double row, or two companies, twenty-one feet, if formed of the old pattern rectangular tents, which hold only five men each. But if the new bell tents are used, 15 feet must be allowed for a single row, and 30 feet for a double row in front.

In the cavalry, a row or troop occupies in front as follows:

Old Tents. New Tents. Tent 3 yards. 5 yards. From the front pole of the tent to picket rope 3 3 For the horse 6 6 For the dung 2 2 -- -- 14 yards. 16 yards.

The breadth of a row in front, whether of infantry or cavalry, being multiplied by the number of rows, and the product subtracted from the whole extent of front for a battalion of infantry, or a squadron of cavalry, will leave the space for the streets, which are generally divided as follows:

For the infantry, 59¹⁄₂ feet each.

For the cavalry, 30 feet each between the tents.

For the cavalry, 46 feet each between the horses.

The following is the distribution of the depth of a camp of infantry or cavalry, when the ground permits.

---------------------------------------------------------------------- Distribution of the Depth of a Camp. Infantry. Cavalry. ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Yards. Yards. From the quarter guard parade to the line of parade of battalion 62

From this first line of parade}serjeant’s tents 16 to the front of the }quarter master’s -- 24 N. B. These tents open to the front.

To the first picket of horses -- 5

Infant. for every tent in depth Infant. old pattern, 9 feet Infant. new pattern, 15 feet

Cavalry: for every horse, 3 feet

The soldiers tents for the infantry open to the streets. The cavalry tents front to the horses heads.

Suppose infantry 12 tents deep, old pattern} 36 60 Suppose cavalry, 60 horses, old pattern }

From the last tent of infantry, or the last horse of the cavalry, to the front of the subalterns’ tents 15 12

These tents open to the rear.

To the front of the line of captains 15 15

These open to the front. The captains and subalterns in the rear of their troops or companies.

To the front of the field officers 10 15

Open to the front, opposite the outside street of the battalion.

To the colonel’s 10 10

Opens to the front, opposite the main street of the battalion.

To the staff officers 10 14

Open up the streets next the main street.

To the first row of batmen’s tents 10} The batmen’s tents front their horses. } To the first row of pickets for bat horses 2} 15 To the second row of ditto 10} To the second row of batmen 2} To the front of the grand sutler’s tent 10}

The grand sutler is in the rear of the colonel.

To the centre of the kitchens 15 20

The kitchens are 16 feet in diameter.

To the front of the petty sutlers 15 15

Directly in the rear of the kitchens: there are allowed 6 yards in front by 8 deep.

To the rear guard 15 15

Opens to the rear. --- --- Total depth required--Yards 253 220

If the ground on which the camp is to be formed will not, from a swamp in the rear, or any other circumstance, admit of each troop or company being formed in one row perpendicular to the front, the distribution of the front of a battalion or squadron must be more contracted than the above, and laid out as follows: Find how many perpendicular rows will be required, by dividing the number of men in the battalion or squadron by the number the ground will admit of in one row; then the number of rows being multiplied by the breadth of one in front, will give that part of the front to be occupied by the rows: and the difference between it and the whole front allowed for the battalion or squadron, will be left for the streets; which, if the streets are to be equal, must be divided by their number, to find a breadth of each; or is otherwise easily divided into streets of unequal breadths. When two guns are attached to a battalion, they are posted on the right in the following order: from the right of battalion to the centre of the first gun, four yards--from this to the second gun, 6 yards.--The muzzles of the guns in a line with the serjeants’ tents.

The subaltern of artillery, if any, in a line with the subalterns of infantry. The rear of the gunner’s tents in a line with the rear of the battalion tents.

For the proper positions for camps, see the word RECONNOITRING; and for the encampment of a park of artillery, see the word PARK.

CAMP, in military affairs, is the whole extent of ground, in general, occupied by an army pitching its tents when in the field, and upon which all its baggage and apparatus are lodged. It is marked out by the quarter-master-general, who allots every regiment its ground. The extent of the front of a regiment of infantry is 200 yards, including the two battalion guns, and depth 520, when the regiment, contains 9 companies, each of 100 private men, and the companies tents in two rows; but when the companies tents stand in one row, and but 70 private men to each row, the front is then but 155 yards. A squadron of horse has 120 yards in front, and 100 for an interval between each regiment.

The nature of the ground must also be consulted, both for defence against the enemy, and for supplies to the army. It should have a communication with that army’s garrisons, and have plenty of water, forage, fuel, and either rivers, marshes, hills, or woods to cover it. An army always encamps fronting the enemy, and generally in two parallel lines, besides a corps de reserve, about 500 yards distant from each other; the horse and dragoons on the wings, and the foot in the centre. Where, and how the train of artillery is encamped, see Park of artillery, and Encampment of a regiment of artillery, under the word ARTILLERY. Each regiment posts a subaltern’s guard at 80 yards from the colors to the officers tent, called the quarter guard, besides a corporal’s guard in the rear: and each regiment of horse or dragoons, a small guard on foot, called the standard-guard, at the same distance. The grand guard of the army consists of horse, and is posted about a mile distant towards the enemy.

In a siege, the camp is placed all along the line of circumvallation, or rather in the rear of the approaches, out of cannon-shot: the army faces the circumvallation, if there be any; that is, the soldiers have the town in their rear.

One thing very essential in the establishing a camp, and which should be particularly attended to, if the enemy is near; is, that there should not only be a commodious spot of ground at the head of the camp, where the army, in case of surprise, may in a moment be under arms, and in condition to repulse the enemy: but also a convenient field of battle at a small distance, and of a sufficient extent for them to form advantageously, and to move with facility.

The arrangement of the tents in camp, is nearly the same all over Europe, which is, to dispose them in such a manner, that the troops may form with safety and expedition.

To answer this end, the troops are encamped in the same order as that in which they are to engage, which is by battalions and squadrons; hence, the post of each battalion and squadron in the line of battle, must necessarily be at the head of its own encampment. Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, was the first who formed encampments according to the order of battle.

By this disposition, the extent of the camp from right to left, of each battalion and squadron, will be equal to the front of each in line of battle; and consequently, the extent from right to left of the whole camp, should be equal to the front of the whole army when drawn up in line of battle, with the same intervals between the several encampments of the battalions and squadrons, as are in the line.

There is no fixed rule for the intervals: some will have no intervals, some small ones, and others are for intervals equal to the front of the battalion or squadron. The most general method is, an interval of 60 feet between each battalion, and of 36 feet between each squadron.

Hence it follows, 1st, That the front line of the camp must be in a direction to face the enemy; 2dly, That at the head of the encampment of each battalion and squadron, there must be a clear space of ground, on which they may form in line of battle; and 3dly, That when the space taken up by the army is embarrassed with woods, ditches, and other obstructions, a communication must be opened for the troops to move with ease to the assistance of each other.

The camps of the Greeks and Romans were either round, square, or oval, or rather of an oblong square figure, with the sharp corners taken off; and to secure them against surprises, it was the prevailing custom to surround them with intrenchments. The camps of the Anglo-Saxons and Danes were generally round, as likewise those of the Anglo-Normans. The camps of the ancient Britons were of an oval form, composed of stakes, earth, and stones, rudely heaped together: but the practice of the present times is quite different; for the security of our camps, whose form is a rectangle, consists in being able to draw out the troops with ease and expedition at the head of their respective encampments.

CAMP of a battalion of infantry, is the ground on which they pitch their tents, &c.

The principal object in the arrangement of a camp is, that both officers and men may repair with facility and expedition to the head of the line; for which reason the tents are placed in rows perpendicular to the front of the camp, with spaces between them, called streets. The general method is, to form as many rows of tents as there are companies in the battalion; those for the private men in the front, and those for the officers in the rear. In the British service the several companies of a battalion are posted in camp, in the same manner as in the line of battle; that is, the company of grenadiers on the right, and that of light-infantry on the left; the colonel’s company on the left of the grenadiers, the lieutenant-colonel’s on the right of the light-infantry, the major’s on the left of the colonel’s, the eldest captain’s on the right of the lieutenant-colonel’s; and so on from right to left, ’till the two youngest companies come into the centre.

The battalion companies are posted two by two: that is, the tents of every two of these companies are ranged close together, to obtain, though they be fewer in number, larger and more commodious streets: the entrances of all the companies tents face the streets, except the first tent of each row belonging to the serjeants, which faces the front of the camp.

The number of tents in each perpendicular row, is regulated by the strength of the companies, and the number of men allowed to each tent, which is 5 men to 7 men: thence it follows, that a company of 60 men will require 9 to 12 tents, a company of 75 men 11 to 15 tents, and a company of 100 men 15 to 20 tents; but as it always happens, that some are on duty, fewer tents may serve in time of necessity.

When the battalion is in the first line of encampment, the privies are opened in the front, and at least 150 feet beyond the quarter-guard; and when in the second line, they are opened in the rear of that line.

To distinguish the regiments, camp colors are fixed at the flanks, and at the quarter and rear guard.

The colors and drums of each battalion are placed at the head of its own grand street, in a line with the bells of arms of the several companies. The officers espontoons were formerly placed at the colors, with the broad part of their spears to the front. The serjeants halberts were placed between, and on each side of the bells of arms, with their hatchets turned from the colors.

When two field-pieces are allowed to each battalion, they are posted to the right of it. Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, was the first who ordered two field-pieces to each battalion, which are generally light 6 pounders.

Distribution of the front and depth of the CAMP for a battalion of infantry. The present mode of encampments differs from what was formerly adopted. The front of the camp for a battalion of 10 companies of 60 men each, is at present 400 feet, and during the late wars only 360 feet; the depth at present 759 feet, and during the late war 960. The front of the camp of a battalion of 10 companies of 100 men each, is at present 668 feet, and formerly only 592. The breadth of the streets from 45 to 55 feet, excepting the main street, which is sometimes from 60 to 90 feet broad.

Of the CAMP of a battalion by a new method. This is, by placing the tents in 3 rows parallel to the principal front of the camp; which is suitable to the 3 ranks in which the battalion is drawn up: the tents of the first row, which front the camp, are for the men of the front rank: the tents of the second row front the rear, and are for the men of the second rank; and the tents of the third row, which front the centre row, are for the men of the rear rank.

CAMP of Cavalry. The tents for the cavalry, as well as for the infantry, are placed in rows perpendicular to the principal front of the camp; and their number is conformable to the number of troops. The horses of each troop are placed in a line parallel to the tents, with their heads towards them.

The number of tents in each row, is regulated by the strength of the troops, and the number of troopers allotted to each tent is 5: it follows, that a troop of 30 men will require 6 tents, a troop of 60 men 12 tents, and a troop of 100 men 20 tents. The tents for the cavalry are of the same form as those of the infantry but more spacious, the better to contain the fire-arms, accoutrements, saddles, bridles, boots, &c. See TENTS.

Distribution of the front and depth of a CAMP of cavalry. Supposing the regiment to consist of 2 squadrons, of 3 troops each, and of 50 men in each troop, the extent of the front will be 450 feet, if drawn up in 2 ranks; but if drawn up in 3 ranks, the front will be only 300 feet, the depth 220, and the breadth of the back streets 30 feet, and the other streets 46 feet each. In the last war 600 feet were allowed each regiment of cavalry in front, 774 feet for the depth, and the breadth of the streets as above.

The standard-guard tents are pitched in the centre, in a line with the quarter-master’s. The camp colors of the cavalry are also of the same color as the facings of the regiment, with the rank of the regiment in the centre: those of the horse are square, like those of the foot; and those of the dragoons are swallow-tailed. The dung of each troop is laid up behind the horses.

CAMP duty, consists in guards, both ordinary and extraordinary: the ordinary guards are relieved regularly at a certain hour every day (generally about 9 or 10 o’clock in the morning) the extraordinary guards are all kinds of detachments commanded on particular occasions for the further security of the camp, for covering the foragers, for convoys, escorts, or expeditions.

The ordinary guards are distinguished into grand guards, standard, and quarter guards; rear guards, picket guards, and guards for the general officers; train of artillery, bread waggons, pay-master general, quarter-master general, majors of brigade, judge advocate, and provost marshal.

The number and strength of the grand guards and out-posts, whether of cavalry or infantry, depend on the situation of the camp, nature of the country, and the position of the enemy. The strength of general officers guards is limited.

CAMP maxims, are 1. The principal rule in forming a camp, is to give it the same front the troops occupy in order of battle.

2. The method of encamping is by battalions and squadrons, except the several corps of artillery, which are encamped on the right and left of the park of artillery. See ARTILLERY PARK, and Encampment of a regiment of artillery.

3. Each man is allowed 2 feet in the ranks of the battalion, and 3 feet in the squadron: thence the front of a battalion of 500 men, formed 3 deep, will be 324 feet; and the front of a squadron of 150 men, formed 2 deep, will be 225 feet.

4. The depth of the camp when the army is encamped in 3 lines, is at least 2750 feet; that is, 750 feet for the depth of each line, and 250 feet for the space between each of those lines.

5. The park of artillery should always be placed on a dry rising ground, if any such situation offers; either in the centre of the front line, or in the rear of the second line; with all the train horses encamped in the rear of the park.

6. The bread-waggons should be stationed in the rear of the camp, and as near as possible to the centre, that the distribution of the bread may be rendered easy.

7. When the commander in chief encamps, it is generally in the centre of the army; and the town or village chosen for his residence is called head quarters.

8. That general is inexcusable, who, for his own personal accommodation, makes choice of quarters that are not properly secured, or at too great a distance to have an easy communication with the camp.

9. If the ground permits, the troops should be encamped as near to good water as possible.

10. When there are hussars or rifle corps, they are generally posted near the head quarters, or in the front of the army.

11. The ground taken up by the encampment of an army, should be equally distributed, and, if possible, in a straight line; for then the whole will have more room: for a crooked line, and an inequality of disposition, afford a very unpleasing view both of the camp, and of the troops when they are under arms.

12. Cleanliness is essentially necessary to the health of a camp, especially when it is to remain for any length of time. To maintain this, the privies should be often filled up, and others opened; at least every 6 days. The offal of cattle, and the carcasses of dead horses, should be buried very deep: and all kinds of corrupt effluvia, that may infect the air and produce epidemical disorders, should be constantly removed.

Choice of CAMPS. 1. At the beginning of a campaign, when the enemy is at too great a distance to occasion any alarm, all situations for camps that are healthy are good, provided the troops have room, and are within reach of water, wood, and provisions. More ground should be allowed to the troops in camps of duration, than in temporary ones.

2. Camps should be situated as near as possible to navigable rivers, to facilitate the conveyance of all manner of supplies; for convenience and safety are the principal objects for camps.

3. A camp should never be placed too near heights, from whence the enemy may overlook it; nor too near woods, from whence the enemy may surprise it. If there are eminences, not commanded by others, they should be taken into the camp; and when that cannot be done, they should be fortified.

4. The choice of a camp depends in a great measure on the position of the enemy, on his strength, and on the nature and situation of the country.

5. A skilful general will avail himself of all the advantages for a camp, which nature may present, whether in plains, mountains, ravines, hollows, woods, lakes, inclosures, rivers, rivulets, &c.

6. The disposition of the troops in camp should depend on the nature and situation of the ground: as there are occasions which require all the infantry to encamp on the right, and the cavalry on the left; and there are others which require the cavalry to form in the centre, and the infantry on the wings.

7. A camp should never be formed on the banks of a river, without the space of at least 2 or 3000 feet, for drawing out the army in order of battle: the enemy cannot then easily alarm the camp, by artillery and small arms from the other side.

8. Camps should never be situated near rivers that are subject to be overflowed, either by the melting of the snow, or by accidental torrents from the mountains. Marshy grounds should also be avoided, on account of the vapors arising from stagnant water, which infect the air.

9. On the choice of camps and posts, frequently depends the success of a campaign, and even sometimes of a war.

CAMP guards. They are of two sorts, the one serves to maintain good order within the camp; and the other, which is stationed without the camp, serves to cover and secure it against the enemy. These guards are formed of both infantry and cavalry; and in proportion to the strength of the army, situations of the camp, and disposition of the enemy. Sometimes it is required, that these guards should consist of the 8th part of the army; at others, of the 3d part; and when an attack from the enemy is apprehended, even of the half.

Manner of stationing the CAMP guards. It is of the utmost consequence to station the guards in such places, as may enable them to discover easily whatever approaches the camp.

2. The guards of the cavalry are generally removed further from the camp, than those of the infantry; but never at so great a distance, as to endanger their being cut off: within cannon-shot is a very good distance. They are often stationed in highways, in open places, and on small heights; but, they are always so disposed, as to see and communicate with one another.

3. The vedettes to the out-posts should be double: for, should they make a discovery, one may be detached to inform the officer commanding the out-post, and the other remain on duty: they should not be at too great a distance from their detachment: probably, about 50 or 60 paces will be sufficient.

4. The guards of infantry have different objects, and are differently stationed: their duty is, to receive and support the guards of cavalry in cases of need: to protect the troops sent out for wood, forage, or water; in short to prevent any approaches from the small parties of the enemy. Some are stationed in the churches or the neighboring villages, in barns, houses, and in passages and avenues of woods: others are stationed on the borders of rivulets, and in every place necessary to secure the camp. Guards that are stationed in churches, in woods or among trees, barns, and houses, should if possible, be seen from the army, or at least from some grand guard in its neighborhood, that signals may be readily perceived and repeated.

5. The guards of infantry are generally fixed; that is, they have the same post both day and night, except such as are to support and protect the guards of cavalry, and to cover the forage grounds. All out-guards should have intrenching-tools with them.

6. The guards of cavalry have generally a day-post and a night-post; the latter is seldom more than 4 or 500 paces from the camp; one third should be mounted, one third bridled, and one third feeding their horses; but when near the enemy, the whole guard should be kept mounted during the night.

7. The security and tranquillity of a camp depending upon the vigilance of the guards, the officers who command them cannot be too active in preventing surprises: a neglect in this particular is often of fatal consequence. Though an officer should, at all times, be strictly attentive to every part of the service, yet he should be more particularly watchful in the night than in the day. The night is the time most favorable for surprises: as those who are not on duty, are generally asleep, and cannot immediately afford assistance; but in the day time, the attention of all the troops is turned to the movements of the enemy: they are sooner under arms, sooner in readiness to march, and in much less danger of being thrown into confusion. Those who wish to be better acquainted with the nature and mode of encampments, may read Mr. Lochée’s useful Essay on Castrametation.

Concerning the healthiness of the different seasons of a campaign, the ingenious Dr. Pringle has the following observations. The first 3 weeks is always sickly; after which the sickness decreases, and the men enjoy a tolerable degree of health throughout the summer, unless they get wet clothes. The most sickly part of the campaign is towards the end of August, whilst the days are still hot, but the nights cold and damp with fogs and dews; then, if not sooner, the dysentery prevails; and though its violence is over by the beginning of October, yet the remitting fever, gaining ground, continues throughout the rest of the campaign, and never entirely ceases, even in winter quarters, ’till the frost begins. He likewise observes, that the last 14 days of a campaign, if protracted ’till the beginning of November, are attended with more sickness than the two first months of the encampment. As to winter expeditions, though severe in appearance, he tells us, they are attended with little sickness, if the men have strong and good shoes, warm quarters, fuel, and provisions enough.

CAMP-Color-men. Each regiment has generally 6, and sometimes 1 per company: they always march with the quarter-master, to assist in making the necessary preparations against the arrival of the regiment in a new encampment. They likewise carry the camp-colors.

CAMP-Fight, an old term for COMBAT.

Flying-CAMP, or army, generally means a strong body of horse and foot, commanded for the most part by a lieutenant-general, which is always in motion both to cover its own garrisons, and to keep the enemy’s army in a continual alarm. It is sometimes used to signify the ground on which such a body of men encamps.

CAMP-Utensils, in war time, are hatchets, shovels, mattocks, blankets, camp-kettles, canteens, tents, poles and pins: that is, each company has 10 shovels, and 5 mattocks; each tent 1 hatchet, 2 blankets, 1 camp-kettle, with its linen bag; and each soldier 1 canteen, 1 knapsack, and 1 havre-sack.

CAMP-diseases are chiefly bilious fevers, malignant fevers, fluxes, scurvy, rheumatism, &c.

CAMP is also used by the Siamese and some other nations in the East Indies, to express the quarters where the persons from different countries, who come to trade with them, usually reside.

CAMPUS Maii, an anniversary assembly which was observed by ancient pagans on May-day, when they mutually pledged themselves to one another for the defence of the country against foreign and domestic foes.

CAMPUS Martius, a public place so called among the Romans from the God Mars.

CAMPAIGN, in military affairs, the time every year that an army continues in the field, in war time. We also say, a man has served so many campaigns, i. e. years: the campaign will begin at such a time; this will be a long campaign, &c. The word is also used for an open country before any towns, &c.

CANNIPERS. See CALLIPERS.

CANNON or pieces of ORDNANCE, in the military art, imply machines having tubes of brass or iron. They are charged with powder and ball, or sometimes cartridges, grape and canister shot, &c.

The length is distinguished by three parts; the first re-inforce, the second re-inforce, and the chace: the first re-inforce is ²⁄₇ths, and the second ¹⁄₇th and a half of the diameter of the shot. The inside hollow, wherein the powder and shot are lodged, is called the bore, &c.

History of CANNON or pieces of ORDNANCE. They were originally made of iron bars soldered together and fortified with strong iron hoops; some of which are still to be seen, viz. one in the tower of London, two at Woolwich, one in the royal arsenal at Lisbon, they are numerous in all parts of Asia; and baron Tott describes them in Turkey. Others were made of thin sheets of iron rolled up together, and hooped; and on emergencies they were made of leather, with plates of iron or copper. These pieces were made in a rude and imperfect manner, like the first essays of many new inventions. Stone balls were thrown out of these cannon, and a small quantity of powder used on account of their weakness. These pieces have no ornaments, are placed on their carriages by rings, and are of cylindrical form. When or by whom they were made, is uncertain; however we read of cannon being used as early as the 13th century, in a sea engagement between the king of Tunis and the Moorish king of Seville. The Venetians used cannon at the siege of Claudia Jessa, now called Chioggia, in 1366, which were brought thither by two Germans, with some powder and leaden balls; as likewise in their wars with the Genoese in 1369. Edward III. of England made use of cannon at the battle of Cressy in 1346, and at the siege of Calais in 1347. Cannon were made use of by the Turks at the siege of Constantinople, then in possession of the Christians, in 1394, or in that of 1452, that threw a weight of 500lb. but they generally burst, either the first, second, or third shot. Louis XII. had one cast at Tours, of the same size, which threw a ball from the Bastille to Charenton. One of those famous cannon was taken at the siege of Diu in 1546, by Don John de Castro, and is in the castle of St. Juiliao da Barra, 10 miles from Lisbon: its length is 20 feet 7 inches, diameter at the centre 6 feet 3 inches, and discharges a ball of 100lb. It has neither dolphins, rings, nor button, is of a curious kind of metal, and has a large Hindustanee inscription upon it, which says it was cast in 1400.

Ancient and present names of CANNON. Formerly they were distinguished by uncommon names; for in 1503, Louis XII. had 12 brass cannon cast, of an uncommon size, called after the names of the 12 peers of France. The Spanish and Portuguese called them after their saints. The emperor Charles V. when he marched before Tunis, founded the 12 Apostles. At Milan there is a 70 pounder, called the Pimontelle; and one at Bois-le-duc, called the devil. A 60-pounder at Dover castle, called Queen Elizabeth’s Pocket-pistol. An 80-pounder in the tower of London (formerly in Sterling castle) called Mounts-meg. An 80-pounder in the royal arsenal at Berlin, called the Thunderer. An 80-pounder at Malaga, called the Terrible. Two curious 60-pounders in the arsenal at Bremen, called the Messengers of bad news. And lastly an uncommon 70-pounder in the castle of St. Angelo at Rome, made of the nails that fastened the copper plates which covered the ancient Pantheon, with this inscription upon it: Ex clavis trabalibus porticus Agrippæ.

In the beginning of the 15th century these uncommon names were generally abolished, and the following more universal ones took place, viz.

Pounders Cwt. Cannon royal, or carthoun = 48 about 90 Bastard cannon, or ³⁄₄ carthoun = 36 79 ¹⁄₂ carthoun = 24 60 Whole culverins = 18 50 Demy culverins = 9 30 Falcon = 6 25 {lowest sort = 6 13 Saker{ordinary = 5 15 {largest size = 8 18 Basilisk = 48 85 Serpentine = 4 8 Aspik = 2 7 Dragon = 6 12 Syren = 60 81 Falconet = 3, 2, & 1 15, 10, 5.

Moyens, which carried a ball of 10 or 12 ounces, &c.

Rabinet, which carried a ball of 16 ounces.

These curious names of beasts and birds of prey were adopted, on account of their swiftness in motion, or of their cruelty; as the falconet, falcon, saker, and culverin, &c. for their swiftness in flying; the basilisk, serpentine, aspik, dragon, syren, &c. for their cruelty. See the Latin poet Forcastarius.

At present cannon or pieces of ordnance take their names from the weight of the ball they discharge: thus a piece that discharges a ball of 24 pounds, is called a 24-pounder; one that carries a ball of 12 pounds, is called a 12-pounder; and so of the rest, divided into the following sorts, viz.

Ship-guns, consisting of 42, 32, 24, 18, 12, 9, 6, and 3 pounders.

Garrison-guns, of 42, 32, 24, 18, 12, 9, and 6 pounders.

Battering-guns, of 24, 18, and 12 pounders.

Field-pieces, of 18, 12, 9, 6, 3, 2, 1¹⁄₂, 1, and ¹⁄₂ pounders.

The British seldom use any of lower calibre than 6 in the field.

The metal of which brass cannon is made, is in a manner kept a secret by the founders; yet, with all their art and secrecy, they have not hitherto found out a composition that will stand a hot engagement without melting, or at least being rendered useless. Those cast at Woolwich bid fair towards this amendment. The respective quantities which should enter into this composition, is a point not decided; every founder has his own proportions, which are peculiar to himself. The most common proportions of the ingredients are the following, viz. To 240lb. of metal fit for casting, they put 68lb. of copper, 52lb. of brass, and 12lb. of tin. To 4200lb. of metal fit for casting, the Germans put 3687³³⁄₄₁lb. of copper, 204¹³⁄₄₁lb. of brass, and 307³⁶⁄₄₁lb. of tin. Others again use 100lb. of copper, 6lb. of brass, and 9lb. of tin; and lastly, others 100lb. of copper, 10lb. of brass, and 15lb. of tin. With respect to iron guns, their structure is the same as that of the others, and they generally stand the most severe engagements, being frequently used on shipboard. Several experiments have taught that the Swedish iron guns are preferable to all others in Europe.

CANNON is now generally cast solid, and the cavity bored afterwards by a very curious machine for that purpose, where the gun is placed in a perpendicular position; but of late these machines have been made to bore horizontally, and much truer than those that bore in a vertical form. This new machine was first invented at Strasburg, and greatly improved by Mr. Verbruggen, a Dutchman, who was head founder at Woolwich, where probably the best horizontal boring machine in Europe has been lately fixed; it both bores the inside, and turns and polishes the outside at once. For length and weight of French and English cannon see GUNS.

Names of the several Parts of a CANNON.

The grand divisions exterior, are as follows, viz.

First re-inforce, is that part of a gun next the breech, which is made stronger, to resist the force of powder.

Second re-inforce. This begins where the first ends, and is made something smaller than the first.

The chace, is the whole space from the trunnions to the muzzle.

The muzzle, properly so called, is the part from the muzzle astragal to the end of the piece.

Small divisions exterior.

The cascable, the hindermost part of the breech, from the base-ring to the end of the button.

The cascable-astragal, is the diminishing part between the two breech mouldings.

The neck of the cascable, is the narrow space between the breech moulding and the button.

The breech, is the solid piece of metal behind, between the vent and the extremity of the base-ring, and which terminates the hind part of the gun, exclusive of the cascable.

The breech-mouldings, are the eminent parts, as squares or rounds, which serve only for ornaments to the piece, &c.

The base-ring and ogee, are ornamental mouldings; the latter is always in the shape of an S, taken from civil architecture, and used in guns, mortars, and howitzers.

The vent-field, is the part from the vent to the first re-inforce astragal.

The vent-astragal and fillets, are the mouldings and fillets at or near the vent.

The charging cylinder, is all the space from the chace-astragal to the muzzle-astragal.

The first re-inforce ring and ogee, is the ornament on the second re-inforce.

The first re-inforce astragal, is the ornament between the first and second reinforce.

The chace-girdle, is the ornament close to the trunnions.

The trunnions, are two solid cylindrical pieces of metal on every gun, which project from the piece, and by which it is supported upon its carriage as an axis.

The dolphins, are the two handles, placed on the second re-inforce ring of brass guns, resembling the fish of that name: they serve for mounting and dismounting the guns.

The second re-inforce ring and ogee, are the two ornaments joining the trunnions.

The second re-inforce astragal, is the moulding nearest the trunnions.

The chase-astragal and fillets, the two last-mentioned ornaments jointly.

The muzzle-astragal and fillets, the joint ornaments nearest the muzzle.

The muzzle-mouldings, the ornaments at the very muzzle of the piece.

The swelling of the muzzle, the projected part behind the muzzle-mouldings.

Interior Parts.

The mouth, or entrance of the bore, is that part where both powder and ball are put in, or the hollow part which receives the charge.

The vent, in all kinds of fire-arms, is commonly called the touch-hole; it is a small hole pierced at the end, or near it, of the bore or chamber, to prime the piece with powder, or to introduce the tube, in order, when lighted, to set fire to the charge.

The chamber, which is only in large calibers, is the place where the powder is lodged, which forms the charge.

Tools for loading and firing CANNON, are rammers, sponges, ladles, worms, hand-spikes, wedges, and screws.

Coins, or Wedges, to lay under the breech of the gun, in order to elevate or depress it.

Hand-spikes, serve to move and to lay the gun.

Ladles, serve to load the gun with loose powder.

Rammers, are cylinders of wood, whose diameter and axis are equal to those of the shot: they serve to ram home the wads put upon the powder and shot.

Sponge, is fixed at the opposite end of the rammer, covered with lamb skin, and serves to clean the gun when fired.

Screws, are used to field-pieces, instead of coins, by which the gun is kept to the same elevation.

Tools necessary for proving CANNON, are, a searcher with a reliever, and a searcher with one point.

Searcher, is an iron, hollow at one end to receive a wooden handle, and on the other end has from four to eight flat springs of about eight or ten inches long, pointed and turned outwards at the ends.

The reliever, is an iron flat ring, with a wooden handle, at right angles to it. When a gun is to be searched after it has been fired, this searcher is introduced; and turned every way, from end to end, and if there is any hole, the point of one or other of the springs gets into it, and remains till the reliever, passing round the handle of the searcher, and pressing the springs together, relieves it.

When there is any hole or roughness in the gun, the distance from the mouth is marked on the outside with chalk.

The other searcher has also a wooden handle, and a point at the fore end, of about an inch long, at right angles to the length: about this point is put some wax, mixed with tallow, which, when introduced into the hole or cavity, is pressed in, when the impression upon the wax gives the depth, and the length is known by the motion of the searcher backwards and forward: if the fissure be one ninth of an inch deep, the gun is rejected. See INSTRUMENTS.

N. B. The strength of gunpowder having been considerably increased by Col. Congreve, of the British Artillery, the quantity for service has been somewhat reduced. That for proof remaining as heretofore.

CANNON Ball. See BALLS.

CANNON Shot. See SHOT.

CANNONIER, a person who manages a gun. See GUNNER.

CANNON-Baskets. See GABIONS.

To nail CANNON. See NAIL.

CANNONADE, in artillery, may be defined the application of artillery to the purposes of a land war, or the direction of its efforts against some distant object intended to be seized or destroyed, as the troops in battle, battery, fortress, or outwork.

Cannonading is therefore used from a battery, to take, destroy, burn, or drive the enemy from the defences, &c. and to batter and ruin the works or fortified towns.

CANON-BIT, that part of the bit which is let into the horse’s mouth.

CANTEENS, in military articles, are tin vessels used by the soldiers on a march, &c. to carry water or other liquor in, each holds about 2 quarts.

CANTONMENTS are distinct situations, where the different parts of an army lie as near to each other as possible, and in the same manner as they encamp in the field. The chief reasons for cantoning an army are, first, when the campaign begins early; on which occasion, in cantoning your troops, two objects demand attention, viz. the military object, and that of subsistence: the second is, when an army has finished a siege early, the troops are allowed to repose till the fields produce forage for their subsistence: the third reason is, when the autumn proves rainy, and forage scarce, the troops are cantoned to protect them from the bad weather.

CANVAS-BAGS. See BAGS, Sand-BAGS, &c.

CAPARISON, under this term is included the bridle, saddle, and housing, of a military horse.

CAPITAINE en pied, Fr. an officer who is in actual pay and does duty.

CAPITAINE reformé, Fr. a reduced officer.

CAPITAINE general des vivres, Fr. the person who has the chief management and superintendance of military stores and provisions.

CAPITAINE des portes, Fr. a commissioned officer who resides in a garrison town, and whose sole duty is to receive the keys of the gates from the governor every morning, and to deliver them to him every night, at appointed hours.

CAPITAL, in fortification, is an imaginary line which divides any work into two equal and similar parts. It signifies also, a line drawn from the angle of a polygon to the point of the bastion, or from the point of the bastion to the middle of the gorge.

To CAPITULATE, to surrender any place or body of troops to the enemy, on certain stipulated conditions.

CAPITULATION, in military affairs, implies the conditions on which the garrison of a place besieged agrees to deliver it up, &. This is likewise the last action, both in the attack and defence of a fortification, the conditions of which may be of various kinds, according to the different circumstances or situations in which the parties may be placed.

As soon as the capitulation is agreed on, and signed, hostages are generally delivered on both sides, for the exact performance of the articles; part of the place is delivered to the besiegers, and a day appointed for the garrison to evacuate the place. The usual and most honorable conditions are, with arms and baggage, drums beating and colors flying, matches lighted, and some pieces of artillery; waggons, and convoys for the baggage, sick and wounded, &c.

CAPONNIER, in fortification, is a passage made from one work to another, of 10 or 12 feet wide, and about five feet deep, covered on each side by a parapet, terminating in a glacis. Caponniers are sometimes covered with planks and earth. See FORTIFICATION.

CAPS, in gunnery, are pieces of leather, or more commonly sheep-skins, to cover the mouth of mortars when loaded, till they are fired, to prevent damps, or rain getting in.

CAP-Squares. See CARRIAGES.

CAP-A-PEE, in military antiquity, implies being clothed in armor from head to foot.

CAPSTERN, CAPSTAN, in military machines, signifies a strong massy piece of timber, in the form of a truncated cone, having its upper part, called the drum-head, pierced with a number of square holes, for receiving the levers. By turning it round, several actions may be performed that require an extraordinary power.

CAPTAIN is a military officer, who is commander of a troop of cavalry, or of a company of foot or artillery. The name of captain was the first term made use of to express the chief or head (caput) of a company, troop, or body of men. He is both to march and fight at the head of his company. A captain of artillery and engineers ought to be master of the attack and defence of fortified places, and captains of infantry or cavalry should acquire some knowlege of those branches; artillerists should be good mathematicians, and understand the raising of all kinds of batteries, to open the trenches, to conduct the sap, to make mines and fougasses, and to calculate their charges. They ought further to be well acquainted with the power of artillery, the doctrine of the military projectile, and the laws of motion, together with the system of mechanics; and should be good draughtsmen. A captain has in most services the power of appointing his own serjeants and corporals, and may by his own authority reduce or break them; but he cannot punish a soldier with death, unless he revolts against him on duty.

The captains of artillery in the Prussian service, rank as majors in the army, and have an extraordinary pay, on account of the great qualifications demanded of them; and the captains of bombardiers, miners, and artificers, in the Portuguese service, have 9 dollars a month more than the captains of artillery in the same regiment.

CAPTAIN-General. The King is captain-general of all the forces of Great Britain. This term implies the first rank, power, and authority in the British army. This power was delegated to the Duke of York, in 1799.

CAPTAIN-Lieutenant, the commanding officer of the colonel’s troop or company in the British army, in case the colonel is absent, or he gives up the command of it to him. He takes rank as full captain, by an order in 1772, and by a late regulation, succeeds to the first vacant troop or company; the price of a captain-lieutenancy being the same as that of a captaincy. This title is still used in foreign services.

CAPTAIN reformed, one who, upon a reduction of the forces, on the termination of war, loses his company, yet keeps his rank and pay, whether on duty or not.

CAPTAIN on half pay, is one who loses his company on the reduction of an army, and retires on half-pay, until seniority puts him into duty and full pay again.

CAPTAIN en second, or second captain, is one whose company has been broke, and who is joined to another, to serve under the captain of it.

In some armies the captain en seconde, is also a second captain to the same company, whose rank is above all the lieutenants, and below all the captains of the same corps.

CAPTURE de deserteurs, Fr. Under the old government of France, a particular order existed, by which every intendant de province or commissaire de guerre was authorised to pay one hundred livres, or twenty dollars, to any person or persons who should apprehend and secure a deserter; and three hundred livres, or seventy dollars for every man that could be proved to have enticed a soldier from the regular army or militia.

CAQUE de poudre, Fr. a term synonymous to a tun or barrel of powder.

CAR, in military antiquity, a kind of small carriage; figuratively, used by the poets for a chariot: it is mounted on wheels, representing a stately throne, used in triumphs and on other solemn occasions.

CARABINIERS, Fr. One complete regiment of carabineers was formed, during the monarchy of France, out of the different corps of cavalry. They were usually distributed among other bodies of troops, and it was their duty to charge the advanced posts of the enemy.

CARABINS, Fr. These were light-armed horsemen, who sometimes acted on foot. They were generally stationed in the out-posts, for the purpose of harrassing the enemy, defending narrow passes, &c. In action, they usually fought in front of the dragoons, or upon the wings of the first line. Their name is derived from the Arabian word Karab, which signifies, generally, any warlike instrument.

CARAVAN; Caravanne, Fr. from a Turkish word, which signifies, a troop of travellers, who go armed by sea or land.

CARBINE, in military affairs, is a fire-arm somewhat smaller than the firelock of the infantry, and used by the cavalry. It carries a ball of 24 in the pound: its barrel is three feet long, and the whole length, including the stock, 4 feet.

Rifled-CARBINES, are generally of the same dimensions with the above, and have their barrels rifled spirally from the breech to the mouth; so that when the ball, which is forced into it, is driven out again by the strength of the powder, it is lengthened about the breadth of a finger, and marked with the rifle of the bore. Fire-arms of this kind have a much greater range than any other, because the rifle of the barrel gives a spiral direction, instead of a rotatory direction to the ball, which by that means makes the greater resistance at the first inflammation of the powder, giving time for the whole charge to take fire, before the ball is out of the bore. These arms are used by horse-riflemen, the chasseurs, or light infantry.

CARBINEERS, or Carabineers. All regiments of light armed horse were formerly called so; but since the establishing of hussars and chasseurs, they have lost that denomination; and now all the cavalry are called carabineers, who carry the carabine.

CARACOLE, a semi-circular motion or half-wheel; chiefly applied to that used either by individuals or squadrons of cavalry, to prevent an enemy from discovering where they intend to make their attack.

CARBON, charcoal. It is the name in the new chemistry given to every body which has the properties or qualities of the carbonic acid or charcoal; impregnated in certain degrees, bodies are called carbonates. See AIGREMORE.

CARBONE. Pure charcoal is called carbone in the new chemical nomenclature. It is the black residuum of vegetables, which have suffered a complete decomposition of their volatile principles by fire. Charcoal is black, brittle, sonorous, and light. It is placed among simple bodies, because no experiment has hitherto shown the possibility of decomposing it. It exists in the animal, vegetable, and mineral regions. When it is required to procure carbone in a state of great purity, it must be dried by strong ignition in a closed vessel.

CARBONIC ACID. Carbonaceous acid. Fixed air. Mephitic gas. Aerial acid. The name of cretaceous acid appears to agree best with this substance, because it is contained in very large quantities in chalk; and there is no other body with which it has so strong an affinity, as with lime, which composes the base of this earthy salt. The carbonic acid possesses all the more obvious qualities of air, and exists in the atmosphere, of which it is a small part.

Atmospheric air. In 100 parts of atmospheric air there are 72 of azote, 27 of oxygene, and 1 of carbonic acid.

CARCASS, a composition of combustibles. Carcasses are of two sorts, oblong and round: the uncertain flight of the first sort has almost rendered them useless. They are prepared in the following manner: boil 12 or 15 lb. of pitch in a glazed earthen pot; mix with that 3 lb. of tallow, 30 lb. of powder, 6 lb. of salt-petre, and as many stopins as can be put in. Before the composition is cold, the carcass must be filled; to do which, smear your hands with oil or tallow, and fill the carcass 1-third full with the above composition; then put in loaded pieces of gun or pistol barrels, loaded grenades, and fill the intervals with composition; cover the whole over with coarse cloth, well sewed together, keeping it in a round form. Then put it into the carcass, having a hollow top and bottom, with bars running between them to hold them together, and composed of four slips of iron joined at top, and fixed at the bottom, at equal distances, to a piece of iron, which, together with the hoops, when filled, form a complete globular body. When quite finished and cold, the carcass must be steeped in melted pitch, and then instantly immerged in cold water. Lastly, bore three or four holes at top, and fill the same with fuze composition, covering the holes with pitch until used. Carcasses are thrown out of mortars, and weigh from 50 to 230 lb. according to the size of the mortars they are to be thrown out of. There are other carcasses for the sea-service, which differ from a shell only in the composition, and in the four holes from which it burns when fired.

CARCASSES were first used by the bishop of Munster, at the siege of Groll, in 1672, where the duke of Luxemburg commanded.

CARCASSES. Their dimensions and weight, 1796.

--------------+------------------------------------+---------- | Weight. | +-----------+------------+-----------+---------- | | Of | |Time each Kinds. | Empty. |composition.| Complete. |will burn. --------------+-----------+------------+-----------+---------- Round for |lb. oz. dr.| lb. oz. dr.|lb. oz. dr.| Min. | | | | Mortars 13|194 10 11| 18 14 --|213 8 16| 11 and 10| 89 13 11| 7 8 11| 97 6 11| 8¹⁄₂ How’rs. 8| 44 9 5| 4 4 11| 48 14 --| 5- 42| 27 3 --| 2 7 11| 29 10 11| 5 | | | | 32| 20 13 5| 1 14 5| 22 11 11| 4- Guns. 24| 14 12 --| 1 9 11| 16 5 11| 4 18| 11 13 11| 1 1 5| 12 15 --| 4 | | | | 68| -- -- --| -- -- --| | 42| 26 -- --| 2 7 --| 28 7 --| 4- Carronades. 32| 21 10 --| 1 13 --| 23 7 --| 4 24| 14 5 --| 2 5 --| 16 10 --| 3- 18| 10 4 --| 1 2 --| 11 6 --| 3 | | | | Oblong for | | | | | | | | Mortars 10| 36 7 5| 35 10 --| 72 1 5| 12 and 8| 16 5 5| 18 2 --| 34 7 5| 10 How’rs. 5¹⁄₂| 1 12 2| 6 15 --| 8 11 3| 6 4-| 1 0 6| 3 11 7| 4 11 13| 4 +-------------+-----------+------------+-----------+----------

Note.--It being found at the siege of Quebec, that the quantity of powder requisite for throwing the carcasses into the town, always destroyed them, the method of filling the interval between the powder and carcass with turf was adopted; and found to preserve the carcass, and to produce every desired effect.

CARIPI, a kind of cavalry in the Turkish army, which to the number of 1000 are not slaves, nor bred up in the seraglio, like the rest, but are generally Moors, or renegado Christians, who have obtained the rank of horse-guards to the Grand Seignior.

CARMINE, a bright scarlet color, which is used in plans of fortification, and serves to describe those lines that have mason work.

CAROUSAL, in military history, signifies a magnificent entertainment, exhibited by princes or other great personages, on some public occasion, consisting of cavalcades of gentlemen richly dressed and equipped, after the manner of the ancient cavaliers, divided into squadrons, meeting in some public place, and performing justs, tournaments, &c.

CARRIAGES, in military affairs, are of various kinds, viz.

Garrison-CARRIAGES, are those on which all sorts of garrison-pieces are mounted. They are made much shorter than field-carriages, and have generally iron trucks instead of wheels.

As the trucks of garrison-carriages are generally made of cast-iron, their axle-trees should have copper-clouts underneath, to diminish the friction of the iron against the wood. Travelling-carriages are in many respects very unfit for garrison service, though they are frequently used.

Travelling-CARRIAGES are such as guns are mounted on for sieges, and for the field; they are much longer, and differently constructed from garrison-carriages; having 4 wheels, 2 for the carriage, and 2 for the limber, which last are only used on marches.

Field-CARRIAGES are both shorter and lighter than those before-mentioned, bearing a proportion to the pieces mounted upon them.

Limbers are two-wheel carriages, sometimes made with shafts, and sometimes with beams for drawing double; they serve to support the trail of field carriages, by means of the pintle or iron bolt, when artillery is transported from one place to another, and are taken off again when the pieces are to be fired, unless upon a march, when harrassed by the enemy, &c.

Galloper-CARRIAGES serve for 1¹⁄₂ pounders. These carriages are made with shafts, so as to be drawn without a limber. In the war of 1756, the King of Prussia, mounted light 3-pounders on these carriages, which answered very well. The horse-artillery is an improvement of this method of the Prussian.

Howitz-CARRIAGES are for transporting howitzers; and those for the 6 and 5-8 inch howitzers, are made with screws to elevate them, in the same manner as the light 6 pounders; for which reason they are made without a bed, and the centre-transom must be 9 inches broad to fix the screw, instead of 4 for those made without: in the centre, between the trail and centre-transom, there is a transom-bolt, which is not in others, because the centre-transom must be made to be taken out; after which, the howitzer can be elevated to any angle under ninety degrees.

Tumbrel-CARRIAGE. See TUMBREL.

Block-CARRIAGE, a carriage which is made from a solid piece of timber, hollowed out so as to receive the gun or howitzer into the cap-squares. The lower part of the cap-square is let into the solid wood, and the gun or howitzer is either elevated or depressed by a screw, as in other carriages. The limber for this carriage carries two large chests for ammunition, and takes four men. The pintle of the limber is so constructed as to receive the gudgeon of the carriage; by which means a greater relief is afforded when the carriage passes over rough ground.

Block-CARRIAGES are also used by the horse-artillery as curricles. They are particularly useful on mountain service. The original inventor of them, is the British Colonel Congreve, author of many other important military inventions.

Truck-CARRIAGES are to carry timber and other heavy burthens from one place to another, at no great distance: they serve also to convey guns or mortars upon a battery, whither their own carriages cannot go, and are drawn by men as well as horses.

Ponton-CARRIAGE. Carriages of this kind are solely for transporting the pontons; they had formerly but two wheels, but are generally now made with four. The making use of two-wheel carriages for travelling a great way, is contrary to sense and reason; because the whole weight lying upon the two wheels, must make them sink deeper into the ground, than those of a four-wheel carriage.

CARRIAGE.--Weight of Field Carriages at present in use.

Horse Artillery Carriages

cwts. qrs. lbs. 12 Prs. gun and carriage complete for service, with two men, and their appointments on the limber, and 16 rounds of ammunition. 45 0 14 Ammunition caisson for do. complete, with two men on the limber, and 1 spare wheel, 2 spare shafts, with 78 rounds of ammunition. 33 3 0 6 Prs. equipped as above with 42 rounds 34 1 21 Ammunition caisson as above, 108 rounds 39 0 21 5¹⁄₂ Inch howitzer, equipped as above, with 20 rounds 35 3 0 Ammunition caisson for do. as above, with 52 rounds 39 2 0 Forge waggon, complete for travelling 19 2 14 Large tilted baggage waggon, empty 18 3 0 Equipage to be carried 12 0 0

Park Carriages.

cwts. qr. lb. cwts. qr. lb. 12 Prs. Med. gun carriage, without box. 16 1 21} Limber to do. 7 2 14} 42 0 7 Gun 18 0 --} 12 Pr. light gun 12 0 -- } Carriage complete 12 3 7 }36 2 21 Limber, with em. box. 12 3 14 } 6 Prs. Desaguliers 12 0 --} Carriage complete 11 0 14} 34 1 13 Limb. to do. em. box. 11 0 27} 6 Prs. light batt. gun 6 0 -- } Carriage without box. iron axletrees 9 2 -- }24 1 21 Limber, with em. box. 8 3 21 } 5¹⁄₂ Inch howit. light 4 3 7 } Carriage, without box. 10 0 7} 24 0 14 Limber, with em. box. 9 1 --} 24 Prs. platform travelling carriage 22 3 -- } Standing carriage for do. iron trucks, }84 2 16 and tackles of the carr. 13 3 16 } Iron gun 48 0 -- } Ball cartridge waggon, Duke of } Richmond’s pattern, with spare pole and } 36 1 17 swingle trees 16 1 17} Charge of musquet ammunition 20 0 --} Common pattern ammunition caisson, } altered 16 2 -- }36 2 -- Charge of ammunition 20 0 -- } New infantry ammunition cart 9 1 14} 21 1 14 Charge of ammunition 12 0 --} Common sling cart, complete 17 1 14 Common truck carriage 12 2 21 Common hand cart 4 1 -- Forge waggon, complete 13 2 14

Dimensions of certain parts of carriages, the knowlege of which may prevent many mistakes in arranging the different pieces for disembarkation, or in other similar situations.

Axletrees.--Most of the field carriages are now made with iron axletrees; the dimensions of which are as follows:

---------------------------------+-------------+------------------- | Dia. of | Len. of | the arm. | arm. ---------------------------------+------+------+-----+------+------ | | | | | Total | | | Box,| |length |At the| | or | | to |shoul-|At the| nave|Washer|linch- Iron Axletrees. | der. |point.|part.| part.| pin. ---------------------------------+------+------+-----+------+------ | in. | in. | in. | in. | inch 6 Pr. Light }| | | | | 3 Pr. Heavy }| | | | | 5¹⁄₂ in. Howitz. }| | | | | Ammu. caisson }| 2³⁄₄ | 1³⁄₄ | 13 | ⁵⁄₈ | 13⁵⁄₈ Ball cartridge do. whether horse}| | | | | artillery or the park, whether }| | | | | limber or carriage }| | | | | Light 12 Pounder and limber | 3¹⁄₄ | 2¹⁄₄ | 16 | ³⁄₄ | 16³⁄₄ Medium 12 Pr. | 3¹⁄₂ | 2¹⁄₂ | 16 | ³⁄₄ | 16³⁄₄ Limber to do. | 2³⁄₄ | 2 | 13 | ⁵⁄₈ | 13⁵⁄₈ ---------------------------------+------+------+-----+------+------

-----------------------+--------------------++-------------------- | Carriage. || Limber. +-------------+------++-------------+------ | Di. of Arm. | || Di. of Arm. | +------+------+ ++------+------+ | At | |Length|| At | |Length Wood |Shoul-| At | of ||Shoul-| At | of Axletrees. | der. |Point.| Nave.|| der. |Point.| Nave. -----------------------+------+------+------++------+------+------ | In. | In. | In. || In. | In. | In. 24 Prs. Heavy | 7 | 4.9 | 18 || 6 | 3.3 | 16 12 Prs. Med | 6 | 4 | 16 || 6 | 4 | 12 6 Prs Des’rs. | 5¹⁄₂ | 3¹⁄₂ | 13¹⁄₂|| 5¹⁄₂ | 3¹⁄₂ | 13¹⁄₂ 6 Prs. Light | 5 | 3 | 13 || 5 | 3 | 13 3 Prs. Des’rs. | 2- | 1¹⁄₄ | || 2- | 1¹⁄₄ | 3 Prs. Light | | | || | | How’r. 8 In. | 6- | | 17 || 5- | | 15 How’r. 5¹⁄₂ in. | 5- | | 13 || 4¹⁄₄ | | 11- How’r. 4²⁄₅ in. | 4- | | 12 || 4 | | 10 | ----fore---- || ----hind---- Ammunition waggon, with| | | || | | folding sides | 5 | 2.9 | 14 || 5 | 2.9 | 13 Close bodied Ammunition| | | || | | caisson | 5 | 3.3 | 14 || 5 | 2.9 | 14 -----------------------+------+------+------++------+------+------

Dimensions and Weight of Standing Gun Carriages.

+--------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ | Kinds. | 32 | 24 | 18 | 12 | 9 | 6 | +--------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ | |Ft. in.|Ft. in.|Ft. in.|Ft. in.|Ft. in.|Ft. in.| |Axletrees, length | 4 9 | 4 7 | 4 3 |3 9¹⁄₂|3 6¹⁄₂| 3 4 | |Side pieces, length | 6 4 | 6 0 | 5 9 | 5 6 |5 3 | 5 0 | |Whole height to | | | | | | | |trunnion beds | 2 9 | 2 7 | 2 6 | 2 3 | 2 1 | 2 0 | |Weight of carriage,}|ct. qr.|ct. qr.|ct. qr.|ct. qr.|ct. qr.|ct. qr.| |bed & coins }| 9 0 | 8 0 | 7 0 | 6 0 | 3 3 | 2 3 | +--------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

Carriages on a march. See MARCHING.

The carriages for horse artillery guns, as 12, 9, and 4 pounders, are constructed lighter than formerly; the two first of these calibres have an additional trunnion plate; and indeed it does not appear why every travelling carriage should not have this important improvement since it eases the horses and saves the carriage; and by lessening the fatigue increases the celerity of the movements, and spares the cattle for service.

Diameter of the wheels of the Field Carriages at present in use:

Diameter. ft. in. All the horse artillery carriages, limbers, and caissons; the heavy 6 Prs. and long 3 Prs. and their limbers; the carriage of a 6 Pr. battalion gun, and a light 5¹⁄₂ inch howitzer; the hind wheels of a common ammunition caisson 5 0

Limber to light 6 Pr. and 5¹⁄₂ howitzer } 4 8 Med. 12 Pr.--limber, 4 ft. 6 in. carriage }

Sling cart 5 8

Fore wheels of an ammunition caisson 4 0

Pontoon carriage }Fore 3 0 }Hind 5 6

8 Inch Howitzer }Limber 4 0 }Carriage 5 0

Ball Ammunition Cart 5 0

24 Prs. Platform Carriage}Fore 4 0 }Hind 4 2

For wood of which carriages are made, see the word WOOD.

CARRIER, a kind of pigeon, so called from its having been used in armies, to carry orders from one division of an army to another, or intelligence to some officer commanding a post or army at a distance.

CARRONADES. Their weight and dimensions.

+-------+-------+--------------+-------------+------------+ | | Dia- | | | Proportion | | | meter | Length in | Weight. | between | | | of +--------+-----+-------------+the shot and| | Kinds.| Bores.|ft. in.|Calr.|cwt. q. lb.| carronade. | +-------+-------+--------+-----+-------------+------------+ |68 Prs.|8.05 --| 5 2 |7.702| 36 -- -- | 59 to 1 | |-- -- | --| 4 0 |5.962| 29 -- -- | | |42 -- |6.84 --| 4 3¹⁄₂|7.518| 22 1 -- | 58 to 1 | |32 -- |6.35 --| 4 0- |7.679| 17 -- 14 | 62 to 1 | |24 -- |5.68 { | 3 7- |7.656| 13 -- -- | 56 to 1 | | | { | 3 0 |6.336| 11 2 25 | | |18 -- |5.16{ | 3 3 |7.587| 9 -- -- | 56 to 1 | | | { | 2 4 |5.447| 8 1 25 | | |12 -- |4.52 --| 2 2 |5.778| 5 3 10 | 56 to 1 | +-------+-------+--------+-----+-------------+------------+

N. B. Carronades have not so much windage as guns. See WINDAGE.

RANGES with Carronades, 1798. The charge is ¹⁄₁₂th the weight of the shot; and with one shot and one wad. The line of fire from 6 to 9 feet above the level of the water.

+--------+---------+---------+---------+------+---------+------+ |Kinds. | 68 | 42 | 32 | 24 | 18 | 12 | +--------+---------+---------+---------+------+---------+------+ |Charge. |5lb. 8oz.|3lb. 8oz.|2lb. 1oz.| 2lb. |1lb. 8oz.| 1lb. | +--------+---------+---------+---------+------+---------+------+ | | Yards. | Yards. | Yards. |Yards.| Yards. |Yards.| |P. Blank| 450 | 400 | 330 | 300 | 270 | 230 | |1 Degree| 650 | 600 | 560 | 500 | 470 | 400 | |2 ---- | 890 | 860 | 830 | 780 | 730 | 690 | |3 ---- | 1000 | 980 | 900 | 870 | 800 | 740 | |4 ---- | 1100 | 1020 | 970 | 920 | 870 | 810 | |5 ---- | 1280 | 1170 | 1087 | 1050 | 1000 | 870 | +--------+---------+---------+---------+------+---------+------+

Note.--The highest charge for carronades is ¹⁄₈th the weight of the shot; the lowest ¹⁄₁₆th.

Ranges with 8 inch shells, from 68 Pr.

+--------+-------+-------+--------+------+-------+ | Shells | | | Ele- | First|Extreme| | Weight.|Charge.|Flight.| vation.|graze.| range.| +--------+-------+-------+--------+------+-------+ | {| 3 lbs.| 1¹⁄₂ | P. B. | 302 | 1365 | |lb. oz.{| 3 -- | -- | 5 deg.| 1140 | | |43 11 {| 4 -- | 1¹⁄₂ | 1 -- | 358 | 1843 | | {|-- -- | 5 | 5 -- | 1137 | 1250 | | {|-- -- | -- |11¹⁄₂ | 1767 | | +--------+-------+-------+--------+------+-------+

To CARRY on the trenches. See TRENCHES.

CART, in a military sense, is a vehicle mounted on two wheels, and drawn by one or more horses; of which there are several sorts, viz.

Powder-CARTS, for carrying powder with the army; they are divided into 4 parts, by boards of an inch thick, which enter about an inch into the shafts. Each of these carts can only stow 4 barrels of powder. The roof is covered with an oil-cloth, to prevent dampness from coming to the powder.

Sling-CARTS, used to carry mortars or heavy guns from one place to another at a small distance, but chiefly to transport guns from the water side to the proof-place, and from thence back again; as also to convey artillery to the batteries in a fortification; they have wheels of a very considerable diameter, and the guns or other heavy articles which they carry are slung in chains from the axle.

CARTE, is a thrust with a sword at the inside of the upper part of the body, with the nails of your sword hand upwards. Low carte, is a thrust at the inside of the lower half of the body; the position of the hand being the same as in the former.

CARTE-blanche Fr. a full and absolute power which is lodged in the hands of a general of an army, to act according to the best of his judgment, without waiting for superior instructions or orders. It likewise strictly means a blank paper; a paper to be filled up with such conditions as the person to whom it is sent thinks proper.

CARTEL, in military transactions, an agreement between two states at war for the exchange of their prisoners of war.

CARTOUCH, in military affairs, is a case of wood about 3 inches thick at bottom, bound about with marline, holding about 400 musquet balls, besides 8 or 10 iron balls of a pound each, to be fired out of a howitzer, for the defence of a pass, &c. See GRAPE SHOT.

CARTOUCHES in artillery, are made of leather, to sling over the shoulder of the matross, who therein carries the ammunition from the magazine or waggon, for the service of the artillery, when at exercise or on real service.

CARTOUCHES ou formules, Fr. military passes which were given to soldiers going on furlough.

CARTRIDGE, a case of paper, parchment, or flannel, fitted to the bore of a piece, and holding exactly its proper charge. Musket and pistol cartridges are always made of strong paper, between 30 and 40 of which are made from 1 pound of powder, including their priming. Ball cartridges should be made of a different coloured paper to what is used for blank. The French musquet ball-cartridges are all capped with flannel. Cannon and howitzer cartridges are sometimes made of parchment, though more generally of flannel: the charges they contain are adapted to the service they are intended for.

Cartridges for cannon, are made with the best effect, when the flannel does not admit the leakage of powder; to effect this the flannels are first sewed to the size of a mandril or wooden roller; and the sewing completed, the end is tied, and hammered on the end of the mandril, the whole is then smeared with a coat of paste made of wheat flour and gum; and then drawn over, so that the pasted side may be inward; then set to dry, before filling they must be examined.

The experiment is worth the trial of making cartridges of cotton saturated with alum; its cheapness, its abundance, and easy formation, all recommend it. The alum would render it fire proof.

CARTRIDGE-Box, a case of wood, made in a circular form, to wear before the body of the soldier, holding 24 or more musket-ball cartridges in rows: it is covered with leather, and worn upon a belt, both on duty, and on the day of battle. See POUCH.

The light infantry in the French service carry a cartridge box in front which covers the abdomen; and contains several rounds; some carry the cartridges on the side one above the other.

CARTRIDGES for guns.

-------------+-----------+--------+----------------------------------- | Weight of | | | one | | Tonnage. Of Paper. | Dozen. | Length.| No. packed ³⁄₄ Ton Vat. -------------+-----------+--------+----------------------------------- Pounders. |lb. oz. dr.|Ft. in. |Number. 42 ---- | 3 0 0 | 2 4 | 1000 32 ---- | 3 0 0 | 2 4 | 1100 24 ---- | 3 0 0 | 2 4 | 1400 18 ---- | 2 14 0 | 2 4 | 1500 12 ---- | 2 4 0 | 2 4 | 1600 9 ---- | 2 4 0 | 2 4 | 1800 6 ---- | 1 5 0 | 2 0 | 2000 4 ---- | 1 1 0 | 1 7 | 2200 3 ---- | 1 1 0 | 1 7 | 2200 Of Flannel. | | | 42 and 32 | 2 2 0 | 2 3 |The tonnage of flannel cartridges {Heavy | 1 12 0 | 1 10 |is 1-fifth more than that of paper. 24{Med. | 1 6 0 | 1 5 | {Light | 1 1 8 | 1 0 | 18 ---- | 1 6 0 | 2 3 | {Heavy | 1 3 0 | 1 6 | 12{Med. | 0 11 0 | 1 2 | {Light | 0 8 0 | 0 10 | 9 ---- | 0 10 0 | 1 4 | {Heavy | 0 14 0 | 1 1 | 6{Med. | -- | -- | {Light | 0 5 0 | 0 9¹⁄₂| 3 ---- | 0 6 0 | 0 8 | 13 in. Morts.| 1 2 8 | 1 6 | 10 -- ---- | 0 10 8 | 1 1- | 8 -- ---- | 0 7 0 | 1 0 | 5¹⁄₂ ---- | 0 4 0 | 0 9 | 4²⁄₅ ---- | 0 3 0 | 0 7 | 8 in. How’r | 0 10 8 | 1 1- | 5¹⁄₂ ---- | 0 4 8 | 0 9- | 4²⁄₅ ---- | 0 4 0 | 0 9- | -------------+-----------+--------+-----------------------------------

CARTRIDGES for small arms.

+-----------+-------+-------+-------------+--------------------+-----+ | | Powder| | No. | | | | | con- | No. of| contained | | One | | |tained | each | in one | Weight of one |Sheet| | |in each| tied | Barrel. | Barrel filled. | of | | | Car- | in one+------+------+-----------+--------+paper| | Kinds. |tridge.|Bundle.|Whole.| Half.| Whole. | Half. |makes| +-----------+-------+-------+------+------+-----------+--------+-----+ | | drs. | No. | No. | No. |ct. qr. lb.|qr. lb.| No. | |Wall pieces| 10 | 6 | 1400 | 500 | 2 2 19 | 3 24| | |Musquet | 6 | 10 | 2100 | 1000 | 1 3 10 | 3 24| 6 | |Carbine | 4 | 10 | 2853 | 1500 | 1 3 7 | 3 26| 12 | |Do. pistol | 3 | 10 | 4400 | 1500 | 1 3 17 | 3 21| 16 | |Com. pistol| 3 | 10 | | 2000 | | 3 11| 24 | |7 bar. guns| 1¹⁄₂| 14 | | 1000 | | | 24 | | | | | | in | | | | | | | | | kegs | | | | +-----------+-------+-------+------+------+-----------+--------+-----+

Musquet CARTRIDGES, by different powers in Europe.

+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | Weight | | | | | of | English. | Hessian. | Austrian. | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+ | |oz. dr. gr.|oz. dr. gr.|oz. dr. gr.| |Powder | 0 6 0 | 0 7 10 | 0 6 13 | |Cartridges,| | | | |complete. | 1 9 11 | 1 7 2 | 1 6 4 | +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+

+-----------+------------+------------+ | Weight | | | | of | Dutch. | French. | +-----------+------------+------------+ | |oz. dr. gr. |oz. dr. gr. | |Powder | 0 10 10¹⁄₂| 0 7 4¹⁄₂| |Cartridges,| | | |complete. | 1 12 4 | 1 6 0 | +-----------+------------+------------+

CASCABLE, in artillery, is the very hindermost knob or button of the cannon, or the utmost part of the breech. See CANNON.

CASCANS, in fortification, holes in the form of wells, serving as entrances to galleries, or giving vent to the enemy’s mines. See FORTIFICATION.

CASEMATE, in fortification, a vault, or arch of mason-work, in that part of the flank of a bastion which is next the curtain, made to defend the ditch, and the face of the opposite bastion. See FORTIFICATION.

CASEMATES nouvelles, Fr. arched batteries which are constructed under all the openings of revetements or ramparts. The different forts at Cherbourg, are defended by these casemates: the works erected round Dover Castle, come likewise under this description; the works at fort Columbus, New York, are erected on the same principles.

CASERNES, in fortification, are buildings for the soldiers of the garrison to live in; generally erected between the houses of fortified towns, and the rampart.

CASERNES, in a general acceptation, signify barracks.

CASE-Shot. See SHOT, and LABORATORY.

CASHIERED. An officer sentenced by a general court-martial, or peremptorily ordered by the king, to be dismissed from the service, is said to be cashiered.

CASK, or CASQUE, the ancient helmet or armor for the head.

CASSINE, in military history, signifies a small house in the country, generally surrounded by a ditch. Cassines are very convenient to post small parties in, where they will be sheltered from any sudden attack, and can even make head till the nearest detachments can come and relieve them.

CASSIONS. See CAISSONS.

CASTING, in founding guns, implies the operation of running any sort of metal into a mould prepared for that purpose.

CASTLE, in military affairs, a fortified place, or strong hold, to defend a town or city from an enemy. English castles are for the most part no higher in antiquity than the Norman conquest; or rather about the middle of king Stephen’s reign. Castles were erected in almost all parts of that kingdom, by the several contending parties; and each owner of a castle was a kind of petty prince, coining his own money, and exercising sovereign jurisdiction over his people. History informs us that 1017 castles were built in one reign.

CASTRAMETATION, is the art of measuring or tracing out the form of a camp on the ground; yet it sometimes has a more extensive signification, by including all the views and designs of a general; the one requires only the knowlege of a mathematician, the other the experience of an old soldier. The ancients were accustomed to fortify their camps by throwing up entrenchments round them. The Turks, and other Asiatic nations, fortify themselves, when in an open country, with their waggons and other carriages. The practice of the Europeans is quite different; for the surety of their camp consists in the facility and convenience of drawing out their troops at the head of their encampment; for which reason, whatever particular order of battle is regarded as the best disposition for fighting, it follows of course, that we should encamp in such a manner as to assemble and parade our troops in that order and disposition as soon as possible. It is therefore the order of battle that should regulate the order of encampment; that is to say, the post of each regiment in the line of battle should be at the head of its own encampment; from whence it follows, that the extent of the line of battle from right to left of the camp, should be equal to the front of the troops in line of battle, with the same intervals in the camp as in the line. By this means every battalion covers its own tents, and they can all lodge themselves, or turn out in case of necessity, at a minute’s warning.

If the front of the camp is greater than the line, the troops must leave large intervals, or expose their flanks; if less, the troops will not have room to form with the proper intervals.

The front or principal line of the camp is commonly directed to face the enemy. See CAMP.

CAT o’ nine tails, a whip with nine knotted cords, with which the British soldiers are punished. Sometimes it has only five cords. A barbarous and unmilitary usage, unknown in any other European army.

CATAFALCO, in military architecture, a scaffold of timber, decorated with sculpture, painting, &c. for supporting the coffin of a deceased hero, during the funeral solemnity

CATAPHRACT, the old Roman term for a horseman in complete armor.

CATAPHRACTA, in the ancient military art, a piece of heavy defensive armor, formed of cloth or leather, fortified with iron scales or links, wherewith sometimes only the breast, sometimes the whole body, and sometimes the horse too, was covered.

CATAPULTA, in military antiquity, an engine contrived for throwing of arrows, darts and stones, upon the enemy. Some of these engines were so large, and of such force, that they would throw stones of an hundred weight. Josephus takes notice of the surprising effects of these engines, and says, that the stones thrown out of them beat down the battlements, knocked off the angles of the towers, and had force sufficient to level a very deep file of soldiers

CATATROME. See CRANE.

CATERVA, in ancient military writers, a term used in speaking of the Gaulish or Celtiberian armies, denoting a body of 6000 armed men. The word is also used to denote a party of soldiers in disarray; in opposition to cohort or turma, which signify in good order.

CATTUS, CATHOUSE, in ancient military history, was a kind of covered shed, sometimes fixed on wheels, and similar to the Vinca and Pluteus of the ancients.

CAVALCADE, in military history, implies a pompous procession of horsemen, equipages, &c. by way of parade, to grace a triumph, public entry, or the like.

CAVALIER, in fortification, is a work generally raised within the body of the place, 10 or 12 feet higher than the rest of the works. Their most common situation is within the bastion, and made much in the same form: sometimes they are placed in the gorges, or on the middle of the curtain; they are then made in the form of a horse-shoe. See FORTIFICATION. Their use is to command all the adjacent works and country round about it; they are seldom, or never, made but when there is a hill or rising ground, which overlooks some of the works.

Trench-CAVALIER, in the attacks, is an elevation which the besiegers make by means of earth or gabions, within halfway, or two thirds of the glacis, to discover, or to enfilade the covert way.

CAVALRY, in military affairs, that body of soldiers which serves and fights on horseback: under this denomination are included,

Horse, that is, regiments or troops of horse. The first English troop of horse was raised in 1660.

Dragoons, are likewise regiments of horse, but distinguished from the former by being taught to fight both on foot and on horseback. The first English regiment of dragoons was raised in 1681. See American Mil. Lib. Art. CAVALRY.

Hunters. See LIGHT-HORSE.

Light-horse, are regiments of cavalry, mounted on light, swift horses, whose men are but small, and lightly accoutred. They were first raised by the British, in 1757.

Hussars, generally Hungarian horse; their uniform is a large furred cap, adorned with a cock’s feather; those of the officers, either with an eagle’s or a heron’s; a very short waistcoat, with a pair of breeches and stockings in one; short light boots, generally of red or yellow leather; with a curious doublet, having five rows of buttons, which hang loosely on the left shoulder. Their arms are a long crooked sabre, light carbines, and pistols. Before they begin an attack, they lay themselves so flat on the necks of their horses, that it is hardly possible to discover their force; but being come within pistol-shot of the enemy, they raise themselves with surprising quickness, and fall on with such vivacity, that it is very difficult for the troops to preserve their order. When a retreat is necessary, their horses have so much fire, and are so indefatigable, their equipage so light, and themselves such excellent horsemen, that no other cavalry can pretend to follow them; they leap over ditches, and swim over rivers, with a surprising facility. Most of the German powers have troops under this name, as also France; into which country they were originally introduced under Louis the XIII. and were called Hungarian cavalry. This description of cavalry was accordingly more ancient in the French service, than that of hussars.

CAVEATING, in fencing, implies a motion whereby a person in an instant brings his sword, which was presented to one side of his adversary, to the opposite side.

CAVIN, in military affairs, implies a natural hollow, sufficiently capacious to lodge a body of troops, and facilitate their approach to a place. If it be within musket-shot, it is a place of arms ready made, and serves for opening the trenches, free from the enemy’s shot.

CAUTION, an explanation given previous to the word of command, by which the soldiers are called to attention, that they may execute the movement to be directed with unanimity and correctness.

CAZEMATTE. See CASEMATE.

CAZEMATE, CASEMATE, in fortification, is a certain retired place in the flank of a bastion, for the defence of the ditch, and face of the opposite bastion; not used at present. It also implies a well, having several subterranean branches, which are extended when they suspect the enemy is forming a mine, till they hear the miners at work.

CAZERNES, Fr. See CASERNES.

CEINTURE militaire, Fr. a broad leather belt which was worn round the waist, and was ornamented with gold or silver plates.

CELERES, the life-guards which attended Romulus, in the infancy of Rome, were so called. They were laid aside by Numa Pompilius. Celeres are properly distinguished from other troops, by being lightly armed and acting always on foot. The Celeres cannot be considered under the same head as Velites.

CEMENT. See CÆMENT.

CENOTAPH, in military history, implies the empty tomb of a hero, or a monument erected to the honor of a person, without the body of the deceased being interred in or near it.

CENTESIMATION, in ancient military history, a mild kind of military punishment, in cases of desertion, mutiny, and the like, when only every 100th man was executed.

CENTER, CENTRE, in a general sense, signifies a point equally distant from the extremities of a line, surface, or solid.

CENTRE of a battalion, on parade, is the middle, where an interval is left for the colors; of an encampment, it is the main street: and on a march, is an interval for the baggage, &c.

CENTRE of a bastion, is a point in the middle of the gorge of the bastion, from whence the capital line commences, and which is generally at the inner polygon of the figure.

CENTRE of gravity, in military mechanics, is that point about which the several parts of a body exactly balance each other in any situation.

CENTRE of a conic section, is the point where all the diameters meet.

CENTRE of an ellipsis, is that point where the transverse and conjugate diameters intersect each other.

CENTRE of motion, is that point which remains at rest while all the other parts of the body move about it.

CENTRE of percussion, is that point in which the force of the stroke is the greatest possible. When the moving body revolves round a fixed point, the centre of percussion is the same with the centre of oscillation, and found by the same method; but when the body moves in a parallel direction, the centre of percussion is the same with the centre of gravity.

CENTINEL, CENTRY, is a private soldier from the guard, posted upon any spot of ground, to stand and watch carefully for the security of the guard, or of any body of troops, or post, and to prevent any surprise from the enemy. All centinels are to be very vigilant on their posts; neither are they to sing, smoke, or suffer any noise to be made near them. They are not to sit down, lay their arms out of their hands, or sleep; but keep moving about on their posts during the two hours they stand, if the weather will allow of it. No centry to move more than 50 paces to the right, and as many to the left of his post, and let the weather be ever so bad, he must not get under any other cover, but that of the centry box. No one to be allowed to go from his post without leave from his commanding officer; and, to prevent desertion or marauding, the centries and vedettes must be charged to let no soldier pass.

CENTINEL perdu, a soldier posted near an enemy in some very dangerous post, where he is in perpetual danger of being shot or taken.

CENTRY-box, a sort of box, or hut, to shelter the centinel from the injuries of the weather; in fortifications they are sometimes made of masonry, and of stone, in a circular form.

CENTURION, a military officer among the ancient Romans; who commanded an (centum) hundred men. The term is now obsolete. It answers to the modern captain of a company.

CENTURY, in a military sense, means a hundred soldiers, who were employed in working the battering-ram.

CERCLE, Grand-cercle, Fr. a form observed under the old government of France, by which it was directed, that every evening at a specific hour the serjeants and corporals of a brigade should assemble to receive orders; the former standing in front of the latter. Subsequent to the grand cercle, a smaller one was made in each regiment, when general, or regimental orders were again repeated to the serjeants of each regiment, and from them communicated to the officers of the several companies.

CERTIFICATES, are of various kinds, as applied to officers generally, or to commissaries, commanding officers, or staff. They are a testimonial bearing witness to the existence of some requisite qualifications, or to the performance of some act required by the regulations of the army, and for which the officer who signs is responsible, whether he certifies for himself, or for any other officer.

Military CERTIFICATES are of various denominations, and consist chiefly of the following kinds, viz.

Certificate from a field officer to the commander in chief, affirming the eligibility of a young man to hold a commission.

Certificate of an officer in the English army upon honor, that he does not exceed the regulation in the purchase of his commission.

Certificate from a general officer to affirm and prove the losses which officers may sustain in the field

Certificate from colonels of regiments to the board for admission of proper objects to the hospital.

Certificate from a magistrate to identify the person of a recruit, and to affirm, that he has enlisted himself voluntarily into the service; likewise, that the articles of war have been read to him.

Certificate from regimental surgeons, whether men when they join are proper and fit objects to be enlisted; this is required in the United States army, to be on the back of every paper of enlistment.

Certificate of commanding officers for stores, &c.

Certificate, to enable an officer to receive half pay.

Certificate of surgeons and assistant surgeons, to prove their having passed a proper examination.

CESSATION, or cessation of arms, in a military figurative sense, means a truce, or the total abrogation of all military operations for a limited time.

CHACE of a gun, means the length from the trunnions to the muzzle. See CANNON.

CHAFFERY, that part of the foundry where the forges are placed for hammering iron into complete bars, and thereby bringing it to perfection.

CHAIN for engineers, is a sort of wire chain divided into links of an equal length, made use of for setting out works on the ground, because cord lines are apt to shrink and give way.

There are several sorts of chains made use of in mensuration; as Mr. Rathbone’s, of two perches in length; others, one perch long; some of 1000 feet in length; but that which is most in use amongst engineers is Mr. Gunter’s, which is 4 poles long, and contains 100 links, each link being 7⁹²⁄₁₀₀ inches in length.

CHAIN-shot. See SHOT.

CHALLENGE, a cartel, or invitation to a duel, or other combat; it may with propriety be called a provocation, or summons to fight, when an affront in derogation of honor has been offered.

CHALLENGE is also a term applied to an objection made against any member of a court-martial, on the score of real or presumed partiality. The prisoner, however, in this case, must assign his cause of challenge; of the relevancy, or validity of which the members are themselves the judges; so that peremptory challenges, though allowed in civil cases, are not acknowleged in military law. The privilege of challenging belongs equally to the prisoner and the prosecutor.

CHAMADE, in a military sense, means a signal made by the enemy, either by beat of drum, or sound of trumpet, when they have any matter to propose; such as to bury their dead, &c. See PARLEY.

CHAMBER of a cannon, in artillery, that part of the bore of a cannon which receives the powder with which it is charged. See CANNON.

CHAMBER of a mortar, the space where the powder lies, and generally of several forms and dimensions, such as the conic, spheric, cylindric, parabolic, and concave, or bottled chambers. See MORTARS.

In 1787 and 1789 experiments were made at Woolwich with an 8 inch mortar, with four shifting chambers, to ascertain which form gives the longest range.

The chambers were all of the same capacity, viz. 63.7 cubic inches, and contained two pounds of powder. Their forms were:

1st. Common conical chamber with the circular bottom.

2d. The same reversed.

3d. The cylindric chamber with circular bottom.

4th. The spheric chamber.

The ranges were the medium of 6 rounds; from them it appears, that when the spheric chamber is filled with powder, it has the advantage in point of range; but when smaller charges are used, its ranges are found to be shorter than those of other forms. The conical (No. 1.) chamber of the present British establishment gives the longest range under other circumstances.

CHAMBER of a mine, that place where the charge of powder is lodged, to blow up the works over it. See MINE.

CHAMBER of a battery, is a place sunk under ground for holding powder, loaded shells, and fuzes, where they may be out of danger, and preserved from rain or moisture.

CHAMBRER, faire chambrée, a military phrase among the French, to signify several persons lodged in the same room, barrack, or tent.

CHAMP de bataille, Fr. field of battle; the ground on which two armies meet.

CHAMP de Mars, the field of Mars, an open place in the neighborhood of Paris, where troops are frequently reviewed and in which the public festivals have been held.

CHAMPION, he who undertook to settle the difference of contending armies, by single combat.

CHANDELIERS, in military affairs, a kind of moveable parapet, consisting of wooden frames, on which fascines are laid to cover the workmen when at work on the trenches. They are made of various sorts and sizes, according to the use they are for.

CHANTIER, Fr. a square piece of wood, which is used for the purpose of raising any thing. It serves to place barrels of gunpowder in a proper manner, and frequently to try pieces of ordnance instead of frames.

CHAPE, the metalline part put on the end of a scabbard, to prevent the point of the sword or bayonet from piercing through it.

CHAPELET, Fr. a piece of flat iron with three tenons or ends of timber, which is fixed to the end of a cannon.

CHAPITEAU, Fr. two small boards which are joined together obliquely, and serve to cover the touch-hole of a piece of ordnance.

CHAPPE, Fr. a barrel containing another barrel, which holds gunpowder. It likewise means a composition of earth, horse dung, and wad, that covers the mouth of a cannon, or mortar.

CHARACTER, in a general sense, implies any mark used for representing either ideas, or objects.

Military CHARACTERS, Mathematical CHARACTERS, are certain marks invented for avoiding prolixity, and more clearly conveying the thoughts of the learned in those sciences to beginners; the chief of which are as follow:

+ in algebra is the sign of the real existence of the quality it stands before, and is called an affirmative, or positive sign. It is also the mark of addition, and signifies, that the numbers, or quantities on each side of it are added together.

- This is the note of negation, negative existence, or non-entity. It is the sign of subtraction, and signifies, that the numbers, or quantities which come after it, are to be taken from the numbers, or quantities which stand before it. As + signifies a positive or affirmative quantity, or absolute number, so - signifies a fictitious or negative number or quantity. Thus -3, is 8 times less than nothing. So that any number or quantity with the sign + being added to the same number, or quantity with the sign -, their sum will be equal to nothing. Thus 8 added to -8 is equal to 0, but -8 taken from + 8, is equal to 16.

× is the sign of multiplication. It signifies into, or multiplied by.

÷ is the mark of division, and signifies, that the numbers, or quantities before it are to be divided by the numbers after it.

= are the signs of equality, and signify, that the quantities and numbers on the one side of it are equal to the quantities and numbers on the other.

√ is the sign of radicality, and shews (according to the index of the power that is set over or after it) the square, cube, or other root, that is extracted, or is to be so, out of any quantity.

∛ is the sign of the cube root, and signifies the extraction of it, as in the square root above.

∺ is the sign of continued, or geometrical proportion.

∷ is the mark of geometrical proportion disjunct, and is usually placed between two pair of equal ratio’s; as 3 : 6 ∷ 4 : 8, shews, that 3 is to 6, as 4 is to 8. Or a : b ∷ d : e, and are thus read, as a is to b, so is d to e, &c.

> or ⫍ are signs of majority; thus a > b expresses that a is greater than b.

< or ⫎ are signs of minority; and when we would denote that a is less than b, we write a < b, or a ⫎ b, &c.

± signifies more, or less such a quantity, and is used often in the extraction of roots, completing of squares, &c.

Artillery-CHARACTERS, most generally used, are as follow:

C. qr. lb. which signifies centners, or hundreds of 112 pounds, qr. quarters of 28 pounds, lb. pounds of 16 ounces avoirdupois. Thus a piece of artillery with 14 c. 3 q. 16 lb., is 14 hundred, 3 quarters, and 16 pounds.

Pr. signifies pounder. Thus 24 pr. is a 24 pounder.

T. C. qr. lb. signifies tons, hundreds, quarters, pounds; and 28 lb. is one quarter: 4 qr. is one centner, or 112 pounds; and 20 C. or cwt. is one ton.

lb. oz. dr. means, pounds, ounces and drams: 16 dr. is one ounce, and 16 oz. is one pound avoirdupois.

lb. oz. dwts. gr. is pounds, ounces, penny-weights, and grains; of which 24 gr. make one penny-weight, 20 dwt. make one ounce, and 12 oz. one pound of troy-weight.

CHARACTERS in fire-works, are the following.

M Meal-powder. Э Corned powder. Ө Saltpetre. Z Brimstone. C Z Crude Sulphur. C + Carbon or charcoal. C S Sea-Coal. B R Beech raspings. S X Steel or iron filings. B X Brass-dust. G X Glass-dust. T X Tanners dust. C I Cast-iron. C A Crude antimony. ♓ Camphor. A Y Yellow amber. L S Lapis calaminaris. ᘏ Gum. B L Lamp-black. G I Ising-glass. W Spirit of wine. S T Spirit of turpentine. P O Oil of spike.

CHARACTERS, used in the arithmetic of infinites, are dots over letters, denoting the character of an infinitesimal, or fluxion. Thus the first fluxions of x, y, z, being marked thus, ẋ, ẏ, ż; the second are ẍ, ÿ, z̈, and the third

.: :. :. x, y, z.

Geographical CHARACTERS, are °, ′, ″, ‴ &c. which signify degrees, minutes, seconds, thirds. Thus 40°, 55′, 18″, 55‴, is read 40 degrees, 35 minutes, 18 seconds, 55 thirds. It is also used in the elevation of pieces of artillery.

Characters. See GUNPOWDER.

CHARBON, See AIGREMORE.

CHARGE, Fr. The French technically use this term in two different senses, viz. charge precipitée and charge à volonté. Charge precipitée is given when the four times are expressly marked, as chargez vos armes, un, deux, trois, quatre; and applies chiefly to the drill. Charge à volonté is executed in the same manner as the charge precipitée, with this difference, that the soldiers do not wait for the specific words.

CHARGES for field guns.

lbs. 42 Prs. med and heavy for Rnd. Shot 4 Case 3¹⁄₂ 12 Prs. Light Round Shot 3 Case 3 6 Prs. Desaguliers Round Shot 2¹⁄₄ Case 2 6 Prs. Medium Round Shot 2 Case 6 Prs. light Round Shot 1¹⁄₂ Case 1¹⁄₄ 3 Prs. Heavy Round Shot 1 Case 3 Prs. Light Round 12 oz.

The charge for battering guns is one third the weight of the round shot, for round shot, and one fourth of it for case shot.

The charge for carronades is usually one twelfth the weight of the shot. The highest is one eighth, and the lowest one sixteenth.

By the experiments made at Woolwich in March 1801, it is recommended, that when cylinder powder is used on service, the charges of field ordnance with round shot, shall be reduced to the usual quantities for case shot. The same experiments recommend, that the thickness or length of the wood bottom be varied, in order to change the position of the shot, and thereby save the bore; and that the paper cap which is usually thrown away on service, shall be put over the shot before it is introduced into the piece.

For charges for small arms see the word CARTRIDGES.

Charges of French guns in French weights.

lbs. 24 Prs. 8 }Siege 16 Prs. 5¹⁄₂}

12 Prs. 4 } 8 Prs. 2¹⁄₂}Field}¹⁄₄ less for Case Shot. 4 Prs. 1¹⁄₂} }

CHARGE de mine, Fr. the disposition of a certain quantity of powder, which is used for the explosion of a mine.

CHARGE, in gunnery, implies the quantity of powder, shot, ball, shells, grenades, &c. with which a gun, mortar, or howitzer, is loaded.

Charges for heavy guns from a 42-pounder to a 3 pounder, both brass and iron, in proof, service, saluting, and ricochet.

------+---------------+---------------+-------+------- | Proof. | Service. | | +-------+-------+-------+-------+ Salut-| Rico- Kinds.| Brass.| Iron. | Brass.| Iron. | ing. | chet. ------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- Prs. |lb. oz.|lb. oz.|lb. oz.|lb. oz.|lb. oz.|lb. oz. ------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- 42 |31 8 |25 0 |14 0 |12 0 |10 4 | 3 4 ------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- 32 |26 12 |21 8 |10 10 | 9 4 | 8 0 | 2 12 ------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- 24 |21 0 |18 0 | 8 0 | 8 0 | 6 0 | 2 0 ------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- 18 |18 0 |15 0 | 6 0 | 8 0 | 4 8 | 1 12 ------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- 12 |12 0 |12 0 | 4 0 | 4 0 | 3 0 | 1 6 ------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- 9 | 9 0 | 9 0 | 3 0 | 3 0 | 2 8 | 1 4 ------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- 6 | 6 6 | 6 0 | 2 8 | 2 8 | 2 0 | 1 0 ------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- 3 | 3 0 | 3 0 | 1 0 | 1 0 | 0 12 | 0 6 ------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------

Charges for Medium Guns.

------+---------------+---------------+-------+------- | Proof. | Service. | | +-------+-------+-------+-------+ Salut-| Rico- Kinds.| Brass.| Iron. | Brass.| Iron. | ing. | chet. ------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- Prs. |lb. oz.|lb. oz.|lb. oz.|lb. oz.|lb. oz.|lb. oz. ------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- 24 |18 0 |18 0 | 8 0 | 8 0 | 4 0 | 1 12 ------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- 12 | 9 0 | 9 0 | 3 8 | 0 0 | 2 8 | 1 4 ------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- 6 | 6 6 | 6 0 | 2 0 | 2 4 | 1 4 | 1 12 ------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- 3 | 3 0 | 3 0 | 1 0 | 1 0 | 0 14 | 0 8 ------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------

Charges for light Guns.

------+---------------+---------------+-------+------- | Proof. | Service. | | +-------+-------+-------+-------+ Salut-| Rico- Kinds.| Brass.| Iron. | Brass.| Iron. | ing. | chet. ------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- Prs. |lb. oz.|lb. oz.|lb. oz.|lb. oz.|lb. oz.|lb. oz. ------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- 24 |10 0 | 5 0 | 5 0 | 0 0 | 4 0 | 1 12 ------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- 12 | 6 0 | 0 0 | 3 0 | 0 0 | 2 8 | 1 4 ------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- 6 | 3 0 | 0 0 | 1 8 | 0 0 | 1 4 | 0 12 ------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- 3 | 1 8 | 1 12 | 0 12 | 0 0 | 0 14 | 0 8 ------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------

As pieces of artillery are of various denominations, and consequently made use of on several occasions, their charges must of course have many variations.

CHARGE, is also the attack of cavalry; and charge bayonet is a word of command given to infantry, to force the enemy whom they are to charge at the point of the bayonet. To sound a charge, is the sound of the trumpet as a signal for cavalry to begin the attack.

CHARGE, in military law, is the specification of any crime, or offence for which a non-commissioned officer or soldier is tried before a court martial. In all charges of this nature, the time and place, when and where the crime, or offence was committed, must be set forth with accuracy and precision.

CHARGED Cylinder, in gunnery, implies that part of the chace of a gun, which contains the powder and ball.

CHARGER, any horse belonging to an officer on which he rides in action.

CHARGERS are also either bandoliers, or little flasks that contain powder for charge or priming.

CHARIOT, a car, in which men of arms were anciently placed. These were armed with scythes, hooks, &c. The person who drove the chariot was called the charioteer.

CHARPENTIER, Fr. a carpenter.

CHART, or sea-CHART, is a hydrographical map, or a projection of some part of the earth’s superficies in plano, for the use of navigators and geographers.

Plane-CHART, is a representation of some part of the earth’s superficies of the terraqueous globe, in which the meridians are supposed parallel to each other, the parallels of latitude at equal distances, and consequently the degrees of latitude and longitude every where equal to each other.

CHART of reduction, is that where the meridians are represented by right lines, inclining towards each other; thence it appears by construction, that these charts must correct the errors of the plane ones. But since these parallels should cut the meridians at right angles, and do not, they are defective, inasmuch as they exhibit the parallels inclined to the meridians.

Mercators-CHART, is that where the meridians are straight lines parallel to each other, and equidistant: these parallels are also straight lines, and parallel to each other; but the distance between increases from the equinoctial towards each pole, in the ratio of the secant of the latitude to the radius.

Globular-CHART, a meridional projection, wherein the distance of the eye from the plane of the meridian, upon which the projection is made, is supposed to be equal to the sine of the angle of 45 degrees. This projection comes the nearest of all to the nature of the globe, because the meridians therein are placed at equal distances.

Chorographic-CHARTS, are descriptions of particular countries.

Heliographic-CHARTS, descriptions of the body of the sun, and of the maculæ or spots observed in it.

Selenographic-CHARTS, particular appearances of the spots of the moon, her appearance and maculæ.

Telegraphic-CHARTS, are descriptions of the telegraph on paper.

Topographic-CHARTS, are specific delineations of military positions, in any given tract of country. Companies of topographers have been formed among the French, for the purpose of accurately and expeditiously pointing out to generals and commanding officers, all the relative points of locality, &c. See American Mil. Lib. article RECONNOITRING.

CHASE of a gun. See CHACE.

To CHASE the enemy, means to march after them on horseback in full speed. To pursue a ship at sea.

CHASSEURS. The French light infantry, answering to the American riflemen and German yagers, are called chasseurs a pied; they have also chasseurs a cheval. The word means literally a hunter.

CHAT, Fr. a piece of iron having one, two or three very sharp prongs, or claws; arranged in a triangular shape, when it has three prongs. This piece of iron is fixed to a shaft. It is used in the examination of a piece of ordnance, and by being introduced into the bore, shews whether it be honey-combed, damaged, or otherwise defective.

There is another species of Chat which differs a little from the one we have just described. It consists of two branches of iron, that are fixed to the end of a piece of the same metal, and have, each of them two steel prongs or claws. One of these branches contains a hinge with a spring so fixed, that when the chat is put into the bore, the least cavity releases the spring, and the defect is instantly discovered. Master Founders, who by no means like the invention, call the common chat Le Diable, the devil; and they distinguish the one with two branches, by terming it la màlice du diable, the malice of the devil.

CHATTER les pieces, Fr. to search, to probe, or examine pieces of ordnance with a chat, in order to discover whether there are any defects within the bore of a cannon.

CHAUDIERES, Fr. are vessels made use of in military magazines, to boil pitch in, for various purposes.

CHAUFFE, Fr. a spot where the wood is collected and burnt in a foundry. The chauffe stands three feet under the side of the furnace, the flames which issue from it, spread over every part of the inside of the furnace, and by their intense heat dissolve the metal.

CHAUSSE-Trapes, Fr. are what we call crows-feet, they consist of nails with 4 or 5 points, of which one always stands upwards above the level of the ground; each point is 2, 3, 4 or 5 inches long. They are usually fixed in different parts of a breach, or in any place which is accessible to cavalry; to prevent its approach: sometimes they are of use to obstruct the passage of cavalry through the streets of towns.

CHAUSSEE, or Rès de CHAUSSEE, an old expression for the level of the field or the plain ground.

CHEEKS, a general name among mechanics, for those pieces of timber in their machines, which are double and perfectly corresponding to each other. In the construction of military carriages, &c. the term is used to denote the strong planks which form the sides of gun carriages.

CHEF, Fr. Chef has various significations in the French service. With regard to private soldiers, it serves to mark out the corporal or oldest soldier, who has the management of their provisions in quarters, or in the field; this person was called chef de chambrée. A chef de chambrée among the Romans, was called a decanus, whence our church deacon.

CHEF d’escadre, Fr. a general officer, who commands any part of an army, or division of a fleet. His duty in the sea-service is nearly the same as that of a commodore or a brigadier general on shore. Chefs d’escadre sit upon all general courts-martial, and rank according to the dates of their commissions.

CHEFS de files, Fr. the front rank of a battalion, consisting generally of the best and bravest soldiers. When an engagement takes place, par file, by files, as in the action of riflemen, the order of the battalion is necessarily changed; that which was rank becomes file, and what was file becomes rank.

CHELSEA HOSPITAL, a noble edifice which was built by Charles the 2d of England on his restoration, and afterwards improved by his successor James the 2d. Non-commissioned officers and private men, who have been wounded or maimed in the service, are entitled to the benefit of this hospital. There are in and out-pensioners belonging to the establishment, and the provisions of it extend to the militia under the following restrictions: serjeants who have served fifteen years, and corporals or drummers who have served twenty, may be recommended to the bounty. Serjeants on the establishment may likewise receive that allowance, with their pay in the militia. But serjeants who have been appointed subsequent to the passing of the 26th of George the 3d, are not entitled to it under twenty years service.

CHEMIN-Couvert. See COVERT-WAY.

CHEMIN des rondes, in fortification, space between the rampart and low parapet under it, for the rounds to go about it.

CHEMISE, Fr. an obsolete term to signify the revetement made of brick work, which was formerly constructed to secure works made of earth, especially those that were formed of sandy soil, and would necessarily require too large a talus to support the weight. The modern term is ouvrage revetu, place revetüe.

CHEMISE de feu, Fr. a French sea-term, to signify several pieces of old sails of various sizes, which after they have been pitched, and thoroughly soaked in other combustible matter, such as oil of petrol, camphor, &c. may be nailed to an enemy’s ship on boarding her, and when set fire to, will consume the same.

CHEMISE de maille, Fr. a shirt of mail, or body lining made of several scales or iron rings, which was worn under the coat to protect the body of a man.

CHEMISTRY, the art of examining bodies, and of extracting from them any of their component parts; a science of the first importance to military men; it opens to the mind so many sources of knowlege applicable to military uses.

CHESS, a nice and abstruse game, supposed to have been invented during the siege of Troy. This game is particularly adapted to military capacities.

CHEVAL de Bois, Fr. a wooden-horse, a military chastisement, which prostitutes who followed the French army, were subject to undergo, by exposing them, we presume, on a wooden-horse.

CHEVALER, in the manege, is said of a horse, when, in passing upon a walk or trot, his off fore leg crosses the near fore leg every second motion.

CHEVALET, Fr. a sort of bell-tent, formerly used in the French service, when an army encamped. It resembled in some degrees the wigwam of the Indian.

CHEVALIER, in a general sense, signifies a knight or horseman.

CHEVAUX-de frize, in fortification, a large joist or piece of timber, about 5 or 6 inches square, and 10 or 12 feet in length; into the sides whereof are driven a great number of wooden pins, about 6 feet long, and 1¹⁄₂ inch diameter, crossing one another at right angles, and pointed with iron. They are used on numberless occasions, as to stop up breaches, to secure avenues to a camp from the inroads both of horse and foot. They are sometimes mounted on wheels, with artificial fires, to roll down in an assault, &c. They were first used at the siege of Groningen, in 1658.

CHEVAUX-de-frize. The body or beam of a cheval-de-frize is generally made 9 feet long, and 6 inches square, and weighs 41 lbs. The spears are 33 in number, weighing 2 lb. each, are 5 feet long, and 1¹⁄₄ inches square. They are placed 9¹⁄₂ inches asunder.

CHEVET, Fr. a small wedge which is used in raising a mortar, it is placed between the frame and swell of the mortar.

CHEVISANCE, Fr. enterprize, feat, or atchievement.

CHEVRE, Fr. a crab or gin. See CHEVRETTE.

CHEVRETTE, a kind of gin. Among the many inventions for raising guns or mortars into their carriages this engine is very useful; it is made of two pieces of wood about four feet long, standing upright upon a third, which is square: they are about a foot asunder, and parallel; pierced with holes opposite one another, to hold a strong bolt of iron, which may be raised higher or lower at pleasure: it may be used with a hand-spike, which takes its poise over this bolt, to raise any thing by force.

CHEVROTINES, Fr. leaden bullets of small calibre; there are generally sixty to a pound weight.

CHIEF or CHIEFTAIN, the head leader, or commander of any clan in time of war, was so called, especially among the Scotch.

CHIORME, Fr. the crew of galley slaves and bonavogliers or volunteers.

CIMIER, Fr. a heavy ornament, which the ancient knights or chevaliers in France and in other countries were accustomed to wear upon their helmets; small figures were afterwards substituted in their stead.

CHOROGRAPHY, in engineering, is the art of making a drawing or map of a country, province or district.

CIMETAR, See SCIMITAR.

CINQUAIN, in ancient military history, was an order of battle, to draw up 5 battalions, so that they might make 3 lines; that is, a van, main-body, and reserve. Supposing the 5 battalions, to be in a line, the 2d and 4th advance and form the van, the 3d falls back and forms the rear, the 1st and 5th form the main body upon the same ground. Lastly, every battalion ought to have a squadron of horse on both the right and left wings. Any number of regiments, produced by multiplying by 5, may be drawn up in the same manner.

CIRCLE, in mathematics, is a plane figure, comprehended under one line only, to which all right lines drawn from a point in the middle of it are equal to one another.

CIRCUMFERENTER, an instrument used by engineers for measuring angles.

CIRCUMVALLATION, or line of circumvallation, in military affairs, implies a fortification of earth, consisting of a parapet and trench, made round the town intended to be besieged, when any molestation is apprehended from parties of the enemy, which may march to relieve the place.

Before the attack of a place is begun, care is to be taken to have the most exact plan of it possible; and upon this the line of circumvallation and the attack are projected. This line, being a fortification opposed to an enemy that may come from the open country to relieve the besieged, ought to have its defence directed against them; that is, so as to fire from the town: and the besiegers are to be encamped behind this line, and between it and the place. The camp should be as much as possible out of the reach of the shot of the place; and the line of circumvallation, which is to be farther distant from the place than the camp, ought still more to be out of the reach of its artillery.

As cannon are never to be fired from the rear of the camp, this line should be upwards of 1200 fathoms from the place: we will suppose its distance fixed at 1400 fathoms from the covert way. The depth of the camp may be computed at about 30 fathom, and from the head of the camp to the line of circumvallation 120 fathoms, that the army may have room to draw up in order of battle at the head of the camp, behind the line. This distance added to the 30 fathoms, makes 150 fathoms, which being added to the 1400, makes 1550 fathoms constitute the distance of the line of circumvallation from the covert-way. The top of this line is generally 12 feet broad, and 7 feet deep: the parapet runs quite round the top of it; and at certain distances is frequently strengthened with redoubts and small forts; the base 18 feet wide, the height within 6, and on the outside 5 feet, with a banquette of 3 feet wide, and 1¹⁄₂ high. See CONTRAVALLATION, or COUNTERVALLATION.

CIRCUS, in military antiquity, a very capacious building, of a round or oval form, erected by the ancients for exhibiting shews to the people.

CISEAUX, Fr. chissels made use of by miners, to loosen earth from the sides of the excavation, without making a noise, which the miner effects by striking the handle.

CITADEL, is a fort with 4, 5, or 6 bastions, raised on the most advantageous ground about a city, the better to command it; and commonly divided from it by an esplanade, the better to hinder the approach of an enemy; so that the citadel defends the inhabitants if they continue in their duty, and punishes them if they revolt. Besiegers always attack the city first, that, being masters of it, they may cover themselves the better against the fire of the citadel. Its having bastions distinguishes it from a castle. Sometimes the citadel stands half within, and half without the ramparts of the place.

CIVIC-CROWN, among the ancient Romans, was a crown given to any soldier who had saved the life of a citizen. It was composed only of oaken boughs, but accounted more honorable than any other.

CIVIERE, Fr. a small hand-barrow, which is carried by 2 men, and is much used by the artillery.

CLARENCIEUX, a silly pageant which has survived the feudal and heraldic ages, and kept up for shew in the court of England, he is called the second king at arms, from the duke of Clarence, third son of king Edward III.

CLARIGATION, in Roman antiquity, a ceremony which always preceded a formal declaration of war. It was performed in the following manner: the chief of the heralds went to the territory of the enemy; where, after some solemn prefatory indication, he, with a loud voice, intimated, that he declared war against them for certain reasons specified; such as injury done to the Roman allies, or the like.

CLAN, a term used among the Scotch for a number of families subject to one head, or chief, who led them to war. The word is claöwn Celtic signifying Children.

CLATES. CLAYES. See HURDLES.

CLAYONAGES, Fr. a species of hurdle, with which the timber work of a gallery is covered. It is likewise used in saps.

CLEAR, to clear the trenches. See TRENCHES.

CLERK, in the general acceptation of the term, a writer in a public office; military departments have persons of this description. See Regimental BOOK.

CLOCHE, Fr. a bell.

CLOTHING. Clothing of the army of the United States is provided under the order of the war department, by a purveyor of public supplies, who buys and sees the clothing made; it is then placed in the military stores and issued upon order. The clothing of the British army is determined by a permanent board, composed of the commander in chief, and a certain number of general officers, who act under the king’s immediate authority: The annual clothing of the infantry of the line, or fencible infantry, serving in Europe, in North America, or at the Cape of Good Hope, (Highland corps excepted) consists in a coat, waistcoat, or waistcoat front, a pair of breeches, unlined, except the waistband, and with one pocket only: a cap made of felt and leather, with brass plate, cockade and tuft. The felt crown of the cap, cockade, and tuft to be supplied annually, the leather part and brass plate, every two years. Two pair of good shoes, of the value of 5_s._ 6_d._ each pair, are to be supplied annually in lieu of the half mounting, and each serjeant is to be credited with the sum of 3_s._ being the difference between the value of the former articles of half mounting for a serjeant and private man. Some exceptions are made with respect to highland corps, and regiments serving in the East and West Indies.

CLOY, or to cloy guns. See To NAIL.

CLOU, Fr. See NAILS.

CLOUTS. See AXLE-TREE.

To CLUB a Battalion implies generally a temporary inability in the commanding officer to restore any given body of men to their natural front in line or column. This occurs after some manœuvre has been performed, and is occasioned by false directions being given to the different component parts. Ignorant and inexperienced officers may frequently commit this error; sometimes however, the circumstance may arise from an erroneous movement of a division or company, notwithstanding that the word of command was correct. An able officer in that case will instantly know how to unravel the several parts. The less informed and the less capable may find a relief in sounding the disperse, which see. It does not, however, always follow, that because an officer may occasionally commit this error with respect to the minute movements of a battalion, he must therefore be unequal to the superior functions of command; or that when a man, who has risen from the ranks, is perfectly master of the mechanical arrangement of inferior movements, he should be able to act upon the enlarged scale of locality and position. The military science which is required in each of these cases essentially differs in its appropriate exercise, but both are necessary. In the confusion of a manœuvre, the best mode would be to halt those parts which are not disordered, and bring the rest either forward in line--under separate officers in detachments different ways, or to rear, right, and left: and halt each as they recover some order; and then marching the parts to the positions analogous to those from which they had been deranged; it would be a useful exercise to create this disorder, in order to be ready at correcting it.

CLEY-MORE, (Celtic, the large sword) a great sword, formerly in use among the highlanders, two inches broad, doubly edged: the length of the blade, 3 feet 7 inches; the handle, 14 inches; of a plain transverse guard, 1 foot; the weight, 6 pounds and a half. These swords were the original weapons of England, as appears by the figure of a soldier found among the ruins of London, after the great fire in 1666.

COALITION, see CONFEDERACY.

COAT of Mail, armor made of scales or iron rings.

COCK, that part of the lock of a musket, which sustains the two small pieces of iron called jaws, between which the flint is fixed.

To COCK, to fix the cock of a musquet or pistol, so as to have it ready for an instant discharge.

COCKADE, a ribbon worn in the hat. This military mark succeeded the scarf that was formerly worn by the officers and soldiers belonging to European nations, which are principally distinguished in the following manner. In the army and navy of Great Britain, black silk riband for the officers, and hair cockades for the non-commissioned officers, private soldiers and mariners; light blue, pink and white ribands mixed, called tricolor or three-colored, distinguish the French; red marks the Spaniard, black the Prussian and Austrian, green the Russian, &c. Under the old government of France, officers were not permitted to wear a cockade, unless they were regimentally dressed; and, singular as it may appear, the officers and men belonging to a certain number of old regiments in the Prussian service do not wear any mark in their hats. In the United States the cockade is worn, in and out of regimentals, by every species of military character.

COFFER, in fortification, a hollow lodgment sunk in the bottom of a dry ditch, from 6 to 7 feet deep, and from 16 to 18 feet broad, and the length of it, the whole breadth of the said ditch, from side to side. The besieged generally make use of these coffers to repulse the besiegers, when they attempt to pass the ditch: they are distinguished only by their length from Caponiers; the difference between coffers and the traverse and gallery, consists in this, that the latter are made by the besiegers, and the former by the besieged. They are covered with joists, hurdles, and earth, raised 2 feet above the bottom of the ditch; which rising serves instead of a parapet, with loop-holes in it.

COFFRE. See COFFER.

COGNIZANCE. Judicial notice, trial, judicial authority. In a military sense, implies the investigation to which any person or action is liable. During the suspension of civil authority, every offence comes under military cognizance, is subject to military law, and may be proceeded upon according to the summary spirit of its regulation. Hence, a drum-head court-martial is the strongest instance of military cognizance.

COHORT, in Roman antiquity, a name given to part of the Roman legion, comprehending about 600 men.

COINS, in gunnery, are a kind of wedges to lay under the breech of a gun, to raise or depress the metal.

COLLET, Fr. that part of a cannon which is between the astragal and the muzzle.

COLONEL, the commander in chief of a regiment, whether of horse, foot, dragoons, or artillery: but in France, Spain, and some other southern nations, the colonels of horse are called Mâitres de Camp; in Germany, and most northern nations, they are called Ritmeesters. Colonels of foot in the English army take place, and command one another, according to the seniority of their regiments, and not of their commissions; but those of horse, on the contrary, according to the dates of their commissions.

COLONEL of horse, who is the first officer of the regiment; hence his attention ought to be given to keeping the regiment complete, to have it composed of both men and horses fit for service, and to take particular care to have them well exercised and taught the different evolutions; to be able on all occasions to form themselves according to the ground, or manner in which they may attack, or be attacked.

COLONEL of foot, or infantry. His functions are more extensive than those of the cavalry, as the infantry are employed to more and different purposes. A colonel of infantry should understand something of fortification, and be well acquainted with field engineering. He cannot be too careful to maintain union and harmony among his officers; and, to succeed in this, he must acquire their esteem and confidence, and make himself to be respected. The true way to succeed in this, is to keep up subordination with unalterable firmness; to do justice to every one, to employ all his credit to procure favors to the corps in general, and to the officers in particular, without ever losing sight of the health, comfort, and contentment of his men.

COLONEL of dragoons is nearly connected with that of horse, to which word we refer the reader.

COLONEL of artillery. The commander of a battalion of artillery is one of the most laborious employments both in war and peace, requiring the greatest ability, application, and experience. He is supposed to be a very able mathematician and engineer, to be thoroughly acquainted with the power of artillery, to understand the attack, and defence of fortifications in all the different branches; to be able on all occasions to form the artillery according to the ground or manner in which they may attack or be attacked; in short, he should be master of every thing belonging to that important corps.

COLONEL of engineers, should be a very able mathematician and mechanician, he should be master of fortification, and be correctly versed in the art of planning, constructing, attacking, and defending. See ENGINEER.

Lieutenant COLONEL, is the second person in command of a regiment. Under his direction all the affairs of the regiment are conducted. His military qualifications should be adequate to the size and the importance of the corps in which he has the honor to serve.

COLONEL general of the French infantry. An appointment of great trust and authority, which was suppressed during the old government of France. A colonel-general was formerly entitled to the nomination of every commission and place of trust in the infantry. He could order courts-martial, and enforce the sentences awarded by them without ulterior reference; and he had a company in every regiment which was called the colonel-general’s company.

This appointment was created during the reign of Francis I. in 1544, and became an immediate gift of the king, under Henry III. in 1584.

There was likewise a colonel-general of the cavalry; which appointment was entrusted to two officers under the reign of Louis XIII. One commanded the French and the other the German cavalry.

The appointment of colonel-general of dragoons was created by Louis XIV. in 1688.

COLONELLE, Fr. was formerly the first company in a French regiment. Madame la Colonelle is still the colonel’s wife.

COLORS in the military art, are large silk flags fixed on half pikes, and carried by the ensigns; when a battalion is encamped, they are placed in its front; but in garrison they are lodged with the commanding officer.

The size of the colors to be 6 feet 6 inches flying, and 6 feet deep on the pike. The length of the pike (spear and ferril included) to be 9 feet 10 inches. The cords and tassels of the whole to be of the standard color, mixed with gold or silver; silver for the infantry and cavalry; gold for the artillery, rifle corps, and engineers.

Camp-COLORS, are a small sort of colors placed on the right and left of the parade of a regiment when in the field; one or two to each company; they are 18 inches square, and of the color of the facing of the regiment, with the number of the regiment upon them. The poles to be 7 feet 6 inches long, except those of the quarter and rear-guards, which are to be 9 feet. See BANNEROLLS.

COLOR-guard. See GUARD.

COLORS, used in the drawings of fortification. It is necessary to use colors in the drawings of plans and profiles of a fortification, in order to distinguish every particular part, and separate, as it were, the one from the other, so as to make their difference more sensible. The different sorts of colors, generally used in these kinds of drawings, are, Indian-ink, carmine, verdigrease, sap-green, gum-bouge, Prussian blue, indigo, and umber.

Indian-ink is the first and most necessary thing required in drawing; for it serves, in drawing the lines, to express hills or rising grounds, and, in short, for all what is called shading in drawings. The best sort of Indian ink is of a bluish black, soft and easily reduced into a liquid, free from sand or gravel. It is made in oblong squares. The manner of liquefying it, is by putting a little clear water into a shell or tea-cup, and rubbing it gently ’till the water is black, and of a consistence much like common ink: when it is used for drawing lines, it must be made very black, though not too thick, otherwise it will not easily flow out of the camel hair pencil; but when it is for shading, it must be pale, so as to go over the same shade several times, which adds a beauty to the shading.

Carmine, is an impalpable powder, and the fairest red we know of: it serves for coloring the sections of masonry, the plans of houses, and all kinds of military buildings; as likewise their elevation; but then it is made of a paler color. It is also used for drawing red lines in plans, to represent walls. It is of a high price, but a little will go a great way. It must be mixed with a little gum-water.

Verdigrease, or sea-green, used in drawings, is either liquid in small phials, or mixed in little pots or shells, &c. it serves to color wet ditches, rivers, seas, and in general to represent all watery places; it is most soluble in vinegar; and mixed with vinegar makes a fine green ink.

Sap-green, is a stone of a faint yellowish green, when liquefied with clear water: but when mixed with a little sea green, it makes a beautiful grass-green; but, as all mixed colors are liable to fade, if verdigrease can be had, it will be much better. Sap-green is very cheap.

Gum-bouge, is a fine yellow gum. It may be dissolved in water, but requires no other gum: it serves to color all projects of works; as likewise to distinguish the works unfinished from those that are complete. It serves also to color the trenches of an attack.

Indigo, is in small cakes, and very cheap; it serves to color iron, and roofs of buildings which are covered with slates: it must be well ground upon a smooth stone or glass, and mixed with a little gum-water.

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