The 2001 CIA World Factbook (part 11 of 17)
American Samoa: none (territory of the US)
Andorra: chief of mission: Ambassador (vacant)
chancery: 2 United Nations Plaza, 25th Floor, New York, NY 10017
telephone: [1] (212) 750-8064
FAX: [1] (212) 750-6630
Angola: chief of mission: Ambassador Josefina Perpetua Pitra DIAKIDI
chancery: 1615 M Street, NW, Suite 900, Washington, DC 20036
telephone: [1] (202) 785-1156
FAX: [1] (202) 785-1258
consulate(s) general: New York
Anguilla: none (overseas territory of the UK)
Antigua and Barbuda: chief of mission: Ambassador Lionel Alexander HURST
chancery: 3216 New Mexico Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20016
telephone: [1] (202) 362-5211
FAX: [1] (202) 362-5225
consulate(s) general: Miami
Argentina: chief of mission: Ambassador Guillermo Enrique GONZALEZ
chancery: 1600 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20009
telephone: [1] (202) 238-6400
FAX: [1] (202) 332-3171
consulate(s) general: Atlanta, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New York
Armenia: chief of mission: Ambassador Arman KIRAKOSIAN
chancery: 2225 R Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 319-1976
FAX: [1] (202) 319-2982
consulate(s) general: Los Angeles
Aruba: none (represented by the Kingdom of the Netherlands)
Ashmore and Cartier Islands: none (territory of Australia)
Australia: chief of mission: Ambassador Michael THAWLEY
chancery: 1601 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20036
telephone: [1] (202) 797-3000
FAX: [1] (202) 797-3168
consulate(s) general: Atlanta, Honolulu, Los Angeles, New York, and San Francisco
Austria: chief of mission: Ambassador Peter MOSER
chancery: 3524 International Court NW, Washington, DC 20008-3035
telephone: [1] (202) 895-6700
FAX: [1] (202) 895-6750
consulate(s) general: Chicago, Los Angeles, and New York
Azerbaijan: chief of mission: Ambassador Hafiz Mir Jalal PASHAYEV
chancery: (temporary) Suite 700, 927 15th Street NW, Washington, DC 20005 or P. O. Box 28790, Washington, DC 20038-8790
telephone: [1] (202) 842-0001
FAX: [1] (202) 842-0004
Bahamas, The: chief of mission: Ambassador Joshua SEARS
chancery: 2220 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 319-2660
FAX: [1] (202) 319-2668
consulate(s) general: Miami and New York
Bahrain: chief of mission: Ambassador (vacant)
chancery: 3502 International Drive NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 342-0741
FAX: [1] (202) 362-2192
consulate(s) general: New York
Bangladesh: chief of mission: Ambassador-designate A. Tariq KARIM
chancery: 3510 International Drive NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 244-0183
consulate(s) general: Los Angeles and New York
Barbados: chief of mission: Ambassador Michael KING
chancery: 2144 Wyoming Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 939-9200
FAX: [1] (202) 332-7467
consulate(s) general: Miami and New York
consulate(s): Los Angeles
Belarus: chief of mission: Ambassador Valeriy TSEPAKLO
chancery: 1619 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20009
telephone: [1] (202) 986-1604
FAX: [1] (202) 986-1805
consulate(s) general: New York
Belgium: chief of mission: Ambassador Alexis REYN
chancery: 3330 Garfield Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 333-6900
FAX: [1] (202) 333-3079
consulate(s) general: Atlanta, Chicago, Los Angeles, and New York
Belize: chief of mission: Ambassador Lisa M. SHOMAN
chancery: 2535 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 332-9636
FAX: [1] (202) 332-6888
consulate(s) general: Los Angeles
Benin: chief of mission: Ambassador Lucien Edgar TONOUKOUIN
chancery: 2737 Cathedral Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 232-6656
FAX: [1] (202) 265-1996
Bermuda: none (overseas territory of the UK)
Bhutan: none; note - Bhutan has a Permanent Mission to the UN; address: 2 United Nations Plaza, 27th Floor, New York, NY 10017; telephone [1] (212) 826-1919; the Bhutanese mission to the UN has consular jurisdiction in the US
consulate(s) general: New York
Bolivia: chief of mission: Ambassador Marlene FERNANDEZ del Granado
chancery: 3014 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 483-4410
FAX: [1] (202) 328-3712
consulate(s) general: Los Angeles, Miami, New York, and San Francisco
Bosnia and Herzegovina: chief of mission: Ambassador Igor DAVIDOVIC
chancery: 2109 E Street NW, Washington, DC 20037
telephone: [1] (202) 337-1500
FAX: [1] (202) 337-1502
consulate(s) general: New York
Botswana: chief of mission: Ambassador Kgosi SEEPAPITSO IV
chancery: 1531-1533 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20036
telephone: [1] (202) 244-4990
FAX: [1] (202) 244-4164
Brazil: chief of mission: Ambassador Rubens Antonio BARBOSA
chancery: 3006 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 238-2700
FAX: [1] (202) 238-2827
consulate(s) general: Boston, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New York, and San Francisco
British Indian Ocean Territory: none (overseas territory of the UK)
British Virgin Islands: none (overseas territory of the UK)
Brunei: chief of mission: Ambassador Pengiran Anak Dato Haji PUTEH Ibni Mohammad Alam
chancery: 3520 International Court NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 342-0159
FAX: [1] (202) 342-0158
Bulgaria: chief of mission: Ambassador Philip DIMITROV
chancery: 1621 22nd Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 387-7969
FAX: [1] (202) 234-7973
consulate(s): New York
Burkina Faso: chief of mission: Ambassador Bruno ZIDOUEMBA
chancery: 2340 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 332-5577
FAX: [1] (202) 667-1882
Burma: chief of mission: Ambassador-designate U LINN MYAING
chancery: 2300 S Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 332-9044
FAX: [1] (202) 332-9046
consulate(s) general: New York
Burundi: chief of mission: Ambassador Thomas NDIKUMANA
chancery: Suite 212, 2233 Wisconsin Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20007
telephone: [1] (202) 342-2574
FAX: [1] (202) 342-2578
Cambodia: chief of mission: Ambassador Roland ENG
chancery: 4500 16th Street NW, Washington, DC 20011
telephone: [1] (202) 726-7742
FAX: [1] (202) 726-8381
Cameroon: chief of mission: Ambassador Jerome MENDOUGA
chancery: 2349 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 265-8790
FAX: [1] (202) 387-3826
Canada: chief of mission: Ambassador Michael KERGIN
chancery: 501 Pennsylvania Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20001
telephone: [1] (202) 682-1740
FAX: [1] (202) 682-7726
consulate(s) general: Atlanta, Boston, Buffalo, Chicago, Dallas, Detroit, Los Angeles, Minneapolis, New York, and Seattle
consulate(s): Miami, Princeton, San Francisco, and San Jose
Cape Verde: chief of mission: Ambassador Ferdinand Amilcar Spencer LOPES
chancery: 3415 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20007
telephone: [1] (202) 965-6820
FAX: [1] (202) 965-1207
consulate(s) general: Boston
Cayman Islands: none (overseas territory of the UK)
Central African Republic: chief of mission: Ambassador Emmanuel TOUABOY
chancery: 1618 22nd Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 483-7800
FAX: [1] (202) 332-9893
Chad: chief of mission: Ambassador Hassaballah Abdelhadi Ahmat SOUBIANE
chancery: 2002 R Street NW, Washington, DC 20009
telephone: [1] (202) 462-4009
FAX: [1] (202) 265-1937
Chile: chief of mission: Ambassador Andres BIANCHI
chancery: 1140 Connecticut Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20036
telephone: [1] (202) 785-1746
FAX: [1] (202) 887-5579
consulate(s) general: Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New York, Philadelphia, San Francisco, and San Juan (Puerto Rico)
China: chief of mission: Ambassador-designate YANG Jiechi
chancery: 2300 Connecticut Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 328-2500
consulate(s) general: Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, New York, and San Francisco
Christmas Island: none (territory of Australia)
Cocos (Keeling) Islands: none (territory of Australia)
Colombia: chief of mission: Ambassador Luis Alberto MORENO Mejia
chancery: 2118 Leroy Place NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 387-8338
FAX: [1] (202) 232-8643
consulate(s) general: Boston, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New Orleans, New York, San Francisco, San Juan (Puerto Rico), and Washington, DC
consulate(s): Atlanta
Comoros: chief of mission: Deputy Permanent Representative Mahmoud Mohamed ABOUD (acting)
chancery: (temporary) care of the Permanent Mission of the Federal and Islamic Republic of the Comoros to the United Nations, 420 East 50th Street, New York, NY 10022
telephone: [1] (212) 972-8010
FAX: [1] (212) 983-4712
Congo, Democratic Republic of the: chief of mission: Ambassador Faida MITIFU
chancery: 1800 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20009
telephone: [1] (202) 234-7690, 7691
FAX: [1] (202) 234-2609
Congo, Republic of the: chief of mission: (vacant); Charge d'Affaires ad interim Serge MOMBOULI
chancery: 4891 Colorado Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20011
telephone: [1] (202) 726-5500
FAX: [1] (202) 726-1860
Cook Islands: none (self-governing in free association with New Zealand)
Coral Sea Islands: none (territory of Australia)
Costa Rica: chief of mission: Ambassador Jaime DAREMBLUM Rosenstein
chancery: 2114 S Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 234-2945
FAX: [1] (202) 265-4795
consulate(s) general: Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Denver, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New Orleans, New York, Phoenix, San Antonio, San Francisco, St. Paul, and Tampa
consulate(s): Austin
Cote d'Ivoire: chief of mission: Ambassador Youssouf BAMBA
chancery: 3421 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20007
telephone: [1] (202) 797-0300
Croatia: chief of mission: Ambassador Ivan GRDESIC
chancery: 2343 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 588-5899
FAX: [1] (202) 588-8936
consulate(s) general: Chicago, Cleveland, Los Angeles, New York
Cuba: none; note - Cuba has an Interests Section in the Swiss Embassy, headed by Principal Officer Fernando REMIREZ DE ESTENOZ; address: Cuban Interests Section, Swiss Embassy, 2630 16th Street NW, Washington, DC 20009; telephone: [1] (202) 797-8518
Cyprus: chief of mission: Ambassador Erato KOZAKOU-MARCOULLIS
chancery: 2211 R Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 462-5772
FAX: [1] (202) 483-6710
consulate(s) general: New York
note: representative of the Turkish Cypriot area in the US is Ahmet ERDENGIZ; office at 1667 K Street NW, Washington, DC; telephone [1] (202) 887-6198
Czech Republic: chief of mission: Ambassador Alexsandr VONDRA
chancery: 3900 Spring of Freedom Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 274-9100
FAX: [1] (202) 966-8540
consulate(s) general: Los Angeles and New York
Denmark: chief of mission: Ambassador Ulrik Andreas FEDERSPIEL
chancery: 3200 Whitehaven Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 234-4300
FAX: [1] (202) 328-1470
consulate(s) general: Chicago, Los Angeles, and New York
Djibouti: chief of mission: Ambassador ROBLE Olhaye Oudine
chancery: Suite 515, 1156 15th Street NW, Washington, DC 20005
telephone: [1] (202) 331-0270
FAX: [1] (202) 331-0302
Dominica: chief of mission: Ambassador Nicholas J. O. LIVERPOOL (resident in Dominica)
chancery: 3216 New Mexico Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20016
telephone: [1] (202) 364-6781
FAX: [1] (202) 364-6791
consulate(s) general: New York
Dominican Republic: chief of mission: Ambassador Roberto Bienvenido SALADIN-SELIN
chancery: 1715 22nd Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 332-6280
FAX: [1] (202) 265-8057
consulate(s) general: Boston, Chicago, Mayaguez (Puerto Rico), Miami, New Orleans, New York, Philadelphia, San Francisco, and San Juan (Puerto Rico)
consulate(s): Houston, Jacksonville, Mobile, and Ponce (Puerto Rico)
Ecuador: chief of mission: Ambassador Ivonne A-BAKI
chancery: 2535 15th Street NW, Washington, DC 20009
telephone: [1] (202) 234-7200
FAX: [1] (202) 667-3482
consulate(s) general: Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New Orleans, New York, Newark, Philadelphia, and San Francisco
Egypt: chief of mission: Ambassador Nabil FAHMY
chancery: 3521 International Court NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 895-5400
FAX: [1] (202) 244-4319, 5131
consulate(s) general: Chicago, Houston, New York, and San Francisco
El Salvador: chief of mission: Ambassador Rene Antonio LEON Rodriguez
chancery: 2308 California Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 265-9671
consulate(s) general: Chicago, Dallas, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New Orleans, New York, and San Francisco
consulate(s): Boston
Equatorial Guinea: chief of mission: Ambassador Teodoro BIYOGO NSUEA
chancery: 2020 16th Street NW, Washington, DC 20009
telephone: [1] (202) 518-5700
FAX: [1] (202) 528-5252
Eritrea: chief of mission: Ambassador GIRMA Asmerom
chancery: 1708 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20009
telephone: [1] (202) 319-1991
FAX: [1] (202) 319-1304
Estonia: chief of mission: Ambassador Sven JURGENSON
chancery: 2131 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 588-0101
FAX: [1] (202) 588-0108
consulate(s) general: New York
Ethiopia: chief of mission: Ambassador (vacant)
chancery: 3506 International Drive NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 364-1200
FAX: [1] (202) 686-9857
Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas): none (overseas territory of the UK; also claimed by Argentina)
Faroe Islands: none (self-governing overseas administrative division of Denmark)
Fiji: chief of mission: Ambassador (vacant); Charge d'Affaires ad interim Salaseini Lelelvawalu VOSAILAGI
chancery: Suite 240, 2233 Wisconsin Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20007
telephone: [1] (202) 337-8320
FAX: [1] (202) 337-1996
Finland: chief of mission: Ambassador Jaakko Tapani LAAJAVA
chancery: 3301 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 298-5800
FAX: [1] (202) 298-6030
consulate(s) general: Los Angeles and New York
France: chief of mission: Ambassador Francois V. BUJON DE L'ESTANG
chancery: 4101 Reservoir Road NW, Washington, DC 20007
telephone: [1] (202) 944-6000
FAX: [1] (202) 944-6166
consulate(s) general: Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New Orleans, New York, and San Francisco
French Guiana: none (overseas department of France)
French Polynesia: none (overseas territory of France)
French Southern and Antarctic Lands: none (overseas territory of France)
Gabon: chief of mission: Ambassador Paul BOUNDOUKOU-LATHA
chancery: Suite 200, 2034 20th Street NW, Washington, DC 20009
telephone: [1] (202) 797-1000
FAX: [1] (202) 332-0668
consulate(s): New York
Gambia, The: chief of mission: Ambassador John P. BOJANG
chancery: Suite 1000, 1155 15th Street NW, Washington, DC 20005
telephone: [1] (202) 785-1399
FAX: [1] (202) 785-1430
Georgia: chief of mission: Ambassador Tedo JAPARIDZE
chancery: Suite 300, 1615 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20009
telephone: [1] (202) 387-2390
FAX: [1] (202) 393-4537
Germany: chief of mission: Ambassador Juergen CHROBOG
chancery: 4645 Reservoir Road NW, Washington, DC 20007
telephone: [1] (202) 298-8141
FAX: [1] (202) 298-4249
consulate(s) general: Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Detroit, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New York, San Francisco, Seattle
consulate(s): Wellington (America Samoa)
Ghana: chief of mission: Ambassador Kobena KOOMSON
chancery: 3512 International Drive NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 686-4520
FAX: [1] (202) 686-4527
consulate(s) general: New York
Gibraltar: none (overseas territory of the UK)
Glorioso Islands: none (possession of France)
Greece: chief of mission: Ambassador Alexandros PHILON
chancery: 2221 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 939-5800
FAX: [1] (202) 939-5824
consulate(s) general: Boston, Chicago, Los Angeles, New York, and San Francisco
consulate(s): Atlanta, Houston, and New Orleans
Greenland: none (self-governing overseas administrative division of Denmark)
Grenada: chief of mission: Ambassador Denis G. ANTOINE
chancery: 1701 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20009
telephone: [1] (202) 265-2561
consulate(s) general: New York
Guadeloupe: none (overseas department of France)
Guam: none (territory of the US)
Guatemala: chief of mission: Ambassador Ariel RIVERA Irias
chancery: 2220 R Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 745-4952
FAX: [1] (202) 745-1908
consulate(s) general: Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New York, and San Francisco
Guernsey: none (British crown dependency)
Guinea: chief of mission: Ambassador Mohamed Aly THIAM
chancery: 2112 Leroy Place NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 483-9420
FAX: [1] (202) 483-8688
Guinea-Bissau: chief of mission: Ambassador Mario LOPES DA ROSA
chancery: Suite 519, 1511 K Street, NW, Washington, DC 20005
telephone: [1] (202) 347-3950
FAX: [1] (202) 347-3954
Guyana: chief of mission: Ambassador Dr. Ali Odeen ISHMAEL
chancery: 2490 Tracy Place NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 265-6900
consulate(s) general: New York
Haiti: chief of mission: Ambassador (vacant); Charge d'Affaires Louis Harold JOSEPH
chancery: 2311 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 332-4090
FAX: [1] (202) 745-7215
consulate(s) general: Boston, Chicago, Miami, New York, and San Juan (Puerto Rico)
Heard Island and McDonald Islands: none (territory of Australia)
Holy See (Vatican City): chief of mission: Apostolic Nuncio Archbishop Gabriele MONTALVO
chancery: 3339 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 333-7121
Honduras: chief of mission: Ambassador Hugo NOE PINO
chancery: Suite 4-M, 3007 Tilden Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 966-7702
FAX: [1] (202) 966-9751
consulate(s) general: Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New Orleans, New York, San Francisco, San Juan (Puerto Rico)
honorary consulate(s): Boston, Detroit, and Jacksonville
Hong Kong: none (special administrative region of China)
Hungary: chief of mission: Ambassador Geza JESZENSZKY
chancery: 3910 Shoemaker Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 362-6730
FAX: [1] (202) 966-8135
consulate(s) general: Los Angeles and New York
Iceland: chief of mission: Ambassador Jon-Baldvin HANNIBALSSON
chancery: Suite 1200, 1156 15th Street NW, Washington, DC 20005
telephone: [1] (202) 265-6653
FAX: [1] (202) 265-6656
consulate(s) general: New York
India: chief of mission: Ambassador Naresh CHANDRA
chancery: 2107 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008; note - Embassy located at 2536 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 939-7000
FAX: [1] (202) 483-3972
consulate(s) general: Chicago, Houston, New York, and San Francisco
Indonesia: chief of mission: Ambassador DORODJATUN Kuntjoro-Jakti
chancery: 2020 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20036
telephone: [1] (202) 775-5200
FAX: [1] (202) 775-5365
consulate(s) general: Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, New York, and San Francisco
Iran: none; note - Iran has an Interests Section in the Pakistani Embassy; address: Iranian Interests Section, Pakistani Embassy, 2209 Wisconsin Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20007; telephone: [1] (202) 965-4990
Iraq: none; note - Iraq has an Interest Section in the Algerian Embassy headed by Akram AL DOURI; address: Iraqi Interests Section, Algerian Embassy, 1801 P Street NW, Washington, DC 20036; telephone: [1] (202) 483-7500; FAX: [1] (202) 462-5066
Ireland: chief of mission: Ambassador Sean O'HUIGINN
chancery: 2234 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 462-3939
FAX: [1] (202) 232-5993
consulate(s) general: Boston, Chicago, New York, and San Francisco
Israel: chief of mission: Ambassador David IVRY
chancery: 3514 International Drive NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 364-5500
FAX: [1] (202) 364-5607
consulate(s) general: Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New York, Philadelphia, and San Francisco
Italy: chief of mission: Ambassador Ferdinando SALLEO
chancery: 3000 Whitehaven Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 612-4400
FAX: [1] (202) 518-2154
consulate(s) general: Boston, Chicago, Houston, Miami, New York, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, and San Francisco
consulate(s): Detroit
Jamaica: chief of mission: Ambassador Richard Leighton BERNAL
chancery: 1520 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20036
telephone: [1] (202) 452-0660
FAX: [1] (202) 452-0081
consulate(s) general: Miami and New York
Japan: chief of mission: Ambassador Shunji YANAI
chancery: 2520 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 238-6700
FAX: [1] (202) 328-2187
consulate(s) general: Anchorage, Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Denver, Detroit, Hagatna (Guam), Honolulu, Houston, Kansas City (Missouri), Los Angeles, Miami, New Orleans, New York, Portland (Oregon), San Francisco, and Seattle
consulate(s): Saipan (Northern Mariana Islands)
Jersey: none (British crown dependency)
Jordan: chief of mission: Ambassador Marwan Jamil MUASHER
chancery: 3504 International Drive NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 966-2664
FAX: [1] (202) 966-3110
Juan de Nova Island: none (possession of France)
Kazakhstan: chief of mission: Ambassador Kanat SAUDABAYEV
chancery: 1401 16th Street, NW, Washington, DC 20036
telephone: [1] (202) 232-5488
FAX: [1] (202) 232-5845
consulate(s): New York
Kenya: chief of mission: Ambassador Yusuf Abdulraham NZIBO
chancery: 2249 R Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 387-6101
FAX: [1] (202) 462-3829
consulate(s) general: offices in Los Angeles and New York are closed; mission to the UN remains open
Kiribati: Kiribati does not have an embassy in the US; there is an honorary consulate in Honolulu
Korea, North: none; note - North Korea has a Permanent Mission to the UN in New York, headed by YI Hyong-chol
Korea, South: chief of mission: Ambassador YANG Song-chol
chancery: 2450 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 939-5600
FAX: [1] (202) 387-0205
consulate(s) general: Anchorage, Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Honolulu, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New York, San Francisco, and Seattle
consulate(s): Hagatna (Guam)
Kuwait: chief of mission: Ambassador (vacant)
chancery: 2940 Tilden Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 966-0702
FAX: [1] (202) 966-0517
Kyrgyzstan: chief of mission: Ambassador Bakyt ABDRISAYEV
chancery: 1732 Wisconsin Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20007
telephone: [1] (202) 338-5141
FAX: [1] (202) 338-5139
Laos: chief of mission: Ambassador VANG Rattanavong
chancery: 2222 S Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 332-6416
FAX: [1] (202) 332-4923
Latvia: chief of mission: Ambassador Aivis RONIS
chancery: 4325 17th Street NW, Washington, DC 20011
telephone: [1] (202) 726-8213, 8214
FAX: [1] (202) 726-6785
Lebanon: chief of mission: Ambassador Dr. Farid ABBOUD
chancery: 2560 28th Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 939-6300
FAX: [1] (202) 939-6324
consulate(s) general: Detroit, New York, and Los Angeles
Lesotho: chief of mission: Ambassador Lebohang Kenneth MOLEKO
chancery: 2511 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 797-5533 through 5536
FAX: [1] (202) 234-6815
Liberia: chief of mission: Ambassador William BULL
chancery: 5201 16th Street NW, Washington, DC 20011
telephone: [1] (202) 723-0437
FAX: [1] (202) 723-0436
consulate(s) general: New York
Libya: Libya does not have an embassy in the US
Liechtenstein: Liechtenstein's Ambassador to the US, Claudia FRITSCHE, is dually accredited to the UN in New York
Lithuania: chief of mission: Ambassador Vygaudas USACKAS
chancery: 2622 16th Street NW, Washington, DC 20009
telephone: [1] (202) 234-5860
FAX: [1] (202) 328-0466
consulate(s) general: Chicago and New York
Luxembourg: chief of mission: Ambassador Arlette CONZEMIUS
chancery: 2200 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 265-4171
FAX: [1] (202) 328-8270
consulate(s) general: New York and San Francisco
Macau: none (special administrative region of China)
Macedonia, The Former Yugoslav Republic of: chief of mission: Ambassador Ljubica Z. ACEVSKA
chancery: 3050 K Street, NW, Suite 210, Washington, DC 20007
telephone: [1] (202) 337 3063
FAX: [1] (202) 337-3093
consulate(s) general: New York
Madagascar: chief of mission: Ambassador Zina ANDRIANARIVELO-RAZAFY
chancery: 2374 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 265-5525, 5526
consulate(s) general: New York
Malawi: chief of mission: Ambassador Paul Tony Steven KANDIERO
chancery: 2408 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 797-1007
Malaysia: chief of mission: Ambassador GHAZZALI Sheikh Abdul Khalid
chancery: 2401 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 328-2700
FAX: [1] (202) 483-7661
consulate(s) general: Los Angeles and New York
Maldives: Maldives does not have an embassy in the US, but does have a Permanent Mission to the UN in New York
Mali: chief of mission: Ambassador Cheick Oumar DIARRAH
chancery: 2130 R Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 332-2249, 939-8950
FAX: [1] (202) 332-6603
Malta: chief of mission: Ambassador George SALIBA
chancery: 2017 Connecticut Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 462-3611, 3612
FAX: [1] (202) 387-5470
consulate(s): New York
Man, Isle of: none (British crown dependency)
Marshall Islands: chief of mission: Ambassador Banny DE BRUM
chancery: 2433 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 234-5414
FAX: [1] (202) 232-3236
consulate(s) general: Honolulu
Martinique: none (overseas department of France)
Mauritania: chief of mission: Ambassador Ahmed Ben Khalifa BEN JIDOU
chancery: 2129 Leroy Place NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 232-5700
FAX: [1] (202) 319-2623
Mauritius: chief of mission: Ambassador Usha JEETAH
chancery: Suite 441, 4301 Connecticut Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 244-1491, 1492
FAX: [1] (202) 966-0983
Mayotte: none (territorial collectivity of France)
Mexico: chief of mission: Ambassador Juan Jose BREMER Martino
chancery: 1911 Pennsylvania Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20006
telephone: [1] (202) 728-1600
FAX: [1] (202) 728-1698
consulate(s) general: Atlanta, Austin, Boston, Chicago, Dallas, Denver, El Paso, Houston, Laredo (Texas), Los Angeles, Miami, New Orleans, New York, Nogales (Arizona), Phoenix, Sacramento, San Antonio, San Diego, San Francisco, San Juan (Puerto Rico)
consulate(s): Albuquerque, Brownsville (Texas), Calexico (California), Corpus Christi, Del Rio (Texas), Detroit, Douglas (Arizona), Eagle Pass (Texas), Fresno (California), McAllen (Texas), Midland (Texas), Orlando, Oxnard (California), Philadelphia, Portland (Oregon), St. Louis, Salt Lake City, San Bernardino, San Jose, Santa Ana (California), Seattle, Tucson
Micronesia, Federated States of: chief of mission: Ambassador Jesse Bibiano MAREHALAU
chancery: 1725 N Street NW, Washington, DC 20036
telephone: [1] (202) 223-4383
FAX: [1] (202) 223-4391
consulate(s) general: Honolulu and Tamuning (Guam)
Moldova: chief of mission: Ambassador Ceslav CIOBANU
chancery: 2101 S Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 667-1130
FAX: [1] (202) 667-1204
Monaco: Monaco does not have an embassy in the US
consulate(s) general: New York
Mongolia: chief of mission: Ambassador Jalbuugiyn CHOINHOR
chancery: 2833 M Street NW, Washington, DC 20007
telephone: [1] (202) 333-7117
FAX: [1] (202) 298-9227
consulate(s) general: New York
Montserrat: none (overseas territory of the UK)
Morocco: chief of mission: Ambassador Abdullah MAAROUFI
chancery: 1601 21st Street NW, Washington, DC 20009
telephone: [1] (202) 462-7979 through 7982
FAX: [1] (202) 265-0161
consulate(s) general: New York
Mozambique: chief of mission: Ambassador Marcos Geraldo NAMASHULUA
chancery: Suite 570, 1990 M Street NW, Washington, DC 20036
telephone: [1] (202) 293-7146
FAX: [1] (202) 835-0245
Namibia: chief of mission: Ambassador Leonard Nangolo IIPUMBU
chancery: 1605 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20009
telephone: [1] (202) 986-0540
FAX: [1] (202) 986-0443
Nauru: Nauru does not have an embassy in the US, but does have a UN office at 800 2nd Avenue, Suite 400 D, New York, New York 10017; telephone: (212) 937-0074
consulate(s): Hagatna (Guam)
Nepal: chief of mission: Ambassador Damodar Prasad GAUTAM
chancery: 2131 Leroy Place NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 667-4550
FAX: [1] (202) 667-5534
consulate(s) general: New York
Netherlands: chief of mission: Ambassador Joris M. VOS
chancery: 4200 Linnean Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 244-5300
FAX: [1] (202) 362-3430
consulate(s) general: Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, New York
consulate(s): Boston
Netherlands Antilles: none (represented by the Kingdom of the Netherlands)
New Caledonia: none (overseas territory of France)
New Zealand: chief of mission: Ambassador James Brendan BOLGER
chancery: 37 Observatory Circle NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 328-4800
FAX: [1] (202) 667-5227
consulate(s) general: Los Angeles, New York
Nicaragua: chief of mission: Ambassador Alfonso ORTEGA Urbina
chancery: 1627 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20009
telephone: [1] (202) 939-6570
FAX: [1] (202) 939-6542
consulate(s) general: Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New Orleans, New York
Niger: chief of mission: Ambassador Joseph DIATTA
chancery: 2204 R Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 483-4224 through 4227
Nigeria: chief of mission: Ambassador Jibril AMINU
chancery: 1333 16th Street NW, Washington, DC 20036
telephone: [1] (202) 986-8400
FAX: [1] (202) 775-1385
consulate(s) general: Atlanta and New York
Niue: none (self-governing territory in free association with New Zealand)
Norfolk Island: none (territory of Australia)
Norway: chief of mission: Ambassador Knut VOLLEBAEK
chancery: 2720 34th Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 333-6000
FAX: [1] (202) 337-0870
consulate(s) general: Houston, Miami, Minneapolis, New York, and San Francisco
Oman: chief of mission: Ambassador Abdallah bin Muhammad bin Aqil al-DHAHAB
chancery: 2535 Belmont Road, NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 387-1980 through 1981, 1988
FAX: [1] (202) 745-4933
Pakistan: chief of mission: Ambassador Maleeha LODHI
chancery: 2315 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 939-6200
FAX: [1] (202) 387-0484
consulate(s) general: Los Angeles and New York
Palau: chief of mission: Ambassador Hersey KYOTA
chancery: 1150 18th Street NW, Suite 750, Washington, DC 20036
telephone: [1] (202) 452-6814
FAX: [1] (202) 452-6281
Panama: chief of mission: Ambassador Alfredo BOYD
chancery: 2862 McGill Terrace NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 483-1407
consulate(s) general: Atlanta, Houston, Miami, New Orleans, New York, Philadelphia, San Francisco, Tampa
Papua New Guinea: chief of mission: Ambassador Susan JACOBS
chancery: 1779 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20036
telephone: [1] (202) 745-3680
FAX: [1] (202) 745-3679
Paraguay: chief of mission: Ambassador Leila RACHID
chancery: 2400 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 483-6960 through 6962
FAX: [1] (202) 234-4508
consulate(s) general: Detroit (honorary), Los Angeles, Miami, New Orleans, New York, San Juan (honorary)
Peru: chief of mission: Ambassador Alfonso RIVERO Monsalve
chancery: 1700 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20036
telephone: [1] (202) 833-9860 through 9869
FAX: [1] (202) 659-8124
consulate(s) general: Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New York, Paterson (New Jersey), San Francisco
Philippines: chief of mission: Ambassador (vacant); Acting Ambassador Ariel ABADILLA
chancery: 1600 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20036
telephone: [1] (202) 467-9300
FAX: [1] (202) 467-9317
consulate(s) general: Chicago, Honolulu, Los Angeles, New York, San Francisco
consulate(s): San Diego
Pitcairn Islands: none (overseas territory of the UK)
Poland: chief of mission: Ambassador Przemyslaw GRUDZINSKI
chancery: 2640 16th Street NW, Washington, DC 20009
telephone: [1] (202) 234-3800 through 3802
FAX: [1] (202) 328-6271
consulate(s) general: Chicago, Los Angeles, and New York
Portugal: chief of mission: Ambassador Joao Alberto Bacelar ROCHA PARIS
chancery: 2125 Kalorama Road NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 328-8610
FAX: [1] (202) 462-3726
consulate(s) general: Boston, New York, Newark (New Jersey), and San Francisco
consulate(s): Los Angeles, New Bedford (Massachusetts), Providence (Rhode Island)
Puerto Rico: none (commonwealth associated with the US)
Qatar: chief of mission: Ambassador Badr Umar al-DAFA
chancery: 4200 Wisconsin Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20016
telephone: [1] (202) 274-1600
FAX: [1] (202) 237-0061
consulate(s) general: Houston
Reunion: none (overseas department of France)
Romania: chief of mission: Ambassador (vacant)
chancery: 1607 23rd Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 332-4846, 4848, 4851
FAX: [1] (202) 232-4748
consulate(s) general: Chicago, Los Angeles, and New York
Russia: chief of mission: Ambassador Yuriy Viktorovich USHAKOV
chancery: 2650 Wisconsin Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20007
telephone: [1] (202) 298-5700, 5701, 5704, 5708
FAX: [1] (202) 298-5735
consulate(s) general: New York, San Francisco, and Seattle
Rwanda: chief of mission: Ambassador Richard SEZIBERA
chancery: 1714 New Hampshire Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20009
telephone: [1] (202) 232-2882
FAX: [1] (202) 232-4544
Saint Helena: none (overseas territory of the UK)
Saint Kitts and Nevis: chief of mission: Ambassador Dr. Osbert W. LIBURD
chancery: 3216 New Mexico Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20016
telephone: [1] (202) 686-2636
FAX: [1] (202) 686-5740
Saint Lucia: chief of mission: Ambassador Sonia Merlyn JOHNNY
chancery: 3216 New Mexico Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20016
telephone: [1] (202) 364-6792 through 6795
FAX: [1] (202) 364-6728
consulate(s) general: Miami and New York
Saint Pierre and Miquelon: none (territorial collectivity of France)
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines: chief of mission: Ambassador Ellsworth JOHN
chancery: 3216 New Mexico Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20016
telephone: [1] (202) 364-6730
FAX: [1] (202) 364-6736
Samoa: chief of mission: Ambassador Tuiloma Neroni SLADE
chancery: 800 Second Avenue, Suite 400D, New York, NY 10017
telephone: [1] (212) 599-6196, 6197
FAX: [1] (212) 599-0797
San Marino: San Marino does not have an embassy in the US
honorary consulate(s) general: Washington, DC, and New York
honorary consulate(s): Detroit
Sao Tome and Principe: Sao Tome and Principe does not have an embassy in the US, but does have a Permanent Mission to the UN, headed by First Secretary Domingos Augusto FERREIRA, located at 122 East 42nd Street, Suite 1604, New York, NY 10168, telephone [1] (212) 317-0533
Saudi Arabia: chief of mission: Ambassador BANDAR bin Sultan bin Abd al-Aziz Al Saud
chancery: 601 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20037
telephone: [1] (202) 342-3800
consulate(s) general: Houston, Los Angeles, and New York
Senegal: chief of mission: Ambassador Mamadou Mansour SECK
chancery: 2112 Wyoming Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 234-0540
Seychelles: chief of mission: Ambassador Claude Sylvestre MOREL
chancery: 800 Second Avenue, Suite 400C, New York, NY 10017
telephone: [1] (212) 972-1785
FAX: [1] (212) 972-1786
Sierra Leone: chief of mission: Ambassador John Ernest LEIGH
chancery: 1701 19th Street NW, Washington, DC 20009
telephone: [1] (202) 939-9261 through 9263
FAX: [1] (202) 483-1793
Singapore: chief of mission: Ambassador CHAN Heng Chee
chancery: 3501 International Place NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 537-3100
FAX: [1] (202) 537-0876
consulate(s) general: Los Angeles, San Francisco
consulate(s): New York
Slovakia: chief of mission: Ambassador Martin BUTORA
chancery: Suite 250, 2201 Wisconsin Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20007; note - new chancery opening in June 2001 at International Court NW, Washington, DC
telephone: [1] (202) 965-5161
FAX: [1] (202) 965-5166
Slovenia: chief of mission: Ambassador Davorin KRACUN
chancery: 1525 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20036
telephone: [1] (202) 667-5363
FAX: [1] (202) 667-4563
consulate(s) general: New York
consulate(s): Cleveland
Solomon Islands: chief of mission: Ambassador (vacant); Charge d'Affaires ad interim Jeremiah MANELE
chancery: 800 Second Avenue, Suite 400L, New York, NY 10017
telephone: [1] (212) 599-6192, 6193
FAX: [1] (212) 661-8925
Somalia: Somalia does not have an embassy in the US (ceased operations on 8 May 1991)
South Africa: chief of mission: Ambassador Makate Sheila SISULU
chancery: 3051 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 232-4400
FAX: [1] (202) 265-1607
consulate(s) general: Chicago, Los Angeles, and New York
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands: none (overseas territory of the UK, also claimed by Argentina)
Spain: chief of mission: Ambassador Francisco Javier RUPEREZ
chancery: 2375 Pennsylvania Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20037
telephone: [1] (202) 452-0100, 728-2340
FAX: [1] (202) 833-5670
consulate(s) general: Boston, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, Miami, New Orleans, New York, San Francisco, and San Juan (Puerto Rico)
Sri Lanka: chief of mission: Ambassador Warnasena RASAPUTRAM
chancery: 2148 Wyoming Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 483-4025 (through 4028)
FAX: [1] (202) 232-7181
consulate(s) general: Los Angeles
consulate(s): New York
Sudan: chief of mission: Ambassador Mahdi Ibrahim MAHAMMAD (recalled to Khartoum in August 1998)
chancery: 2210 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 338-8565
FAX: [1] (202) 667-2406
Suriname: chief of mission: Ambassador (vacant)
chancery: Suite 460, 4301 Connecticut Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 244-7488
FAX: [1] (202) 244-5878
consulate(s) general: Miami
Swaziland: chief of mission: Ambassador Mary Madzandza KANYA
chancery: 3400 International Drive NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 362-6683
FAX: [1] (202) 244-8059
Sweden: chief of mission: Ambassador Jan ELIASSON
chancery: 1501 M Street NW, Washington, DC 20005-1702
telephone: [1] (202) 467-2600
FAX: [1] (202) 467-2699
consulate(s) general: Los Angeles and New York
Switzerland: chief of mission: Ambassador Alfred DEFAGO
chancery: 2900 Cathedral Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 745-7900
FAX: [1] (202) 387-2564
consulate(s) general: Atlanta, Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, New York, and San Francisco
consulate(s): Boston
Syria: chief of mission: Ambassador Rustum al-ZU'BI
chancery: 2215 Wyoming Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 232-6313
FAX: [1] (202) 234-9548
Tajikistan: Tajikistan does not have an embassy in the US, but does have a permanent mission to the UN: address - 136 East 67th Street, New York, NY 10021, telephone - [1] (212) 472-7645, FAX - [1] (212) 628-0252; permanent representative to the UN is Rashid ALIMOV
Tanzania: chief of mission: Ambassador Mustafa Salim NYANG'ANYI
chancery: 2139 R Street NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 939-6125
FAX: [1] (202) 797-7408
Thailand: chief of mission: Ambassador TEJ Bunnag
chancery: 1024 Wisconsin Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20007
telephone: [1] (202) 944-3600
FAX: [1] (202) 944-3611
consulate(s) general: Chicago, Los Angeles, and New York
Togo: chief of mission: Ambassador Akoussoulelov BODJONA
chancery: 2208 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 234-4212
FAX: [1] (202) 232-3190
Tokelau: none (territory of New Zealand)
Tonga: Tonga does not have an embassy in the US; Ambassador Fetu'utolo TUPOU, resides in London; address: Embassy of the Kingdom of Tonga, c/o Tonga High Commission, 36 Molyneux Street, London W1H 6AB, telephone [44] (171) 724-5828, FAX [44] (171) 723-9074
consulate(s) general: San Francisco
Trinidad and Tobago: chief of mission: Ambassador (vacant)
chancery: 1708 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20036
telephone: [1] (202) 467-6490
FAX: [1] (202) 785-3130
consulate(s) general: Miami and New York
Tunisia: chief of mission: Ambassador Hatem ATALLAH
chancery: 1515 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20005
telephone: [1] (202) 862-1850
Turkey: chief of mission: Ambassador Baki ILKIN
chancery: 2525 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 612-6700
FAX: [1] (202) 612-6744
consulate(s) general: Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, and New York
Turkmenistan: chief of mission: Ambassador Mered ORAZOV
chancery: 2207 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 588-1500
FAX: [1] (202) 588-0697
Turks and Caicos Islands: none (overseas territory of the UK)
Tuvalu: Tuvalu does not have an embassy in the US
Uganda: chief of mission: Ambassador Edith Grace SSEMPALA
chancery: 5911 16th Street NW, Washington, DC 20011
telephone: [1] (202) 726-7100 through 7102, 0416
FAX: [1] (202) 726-1727
Ukraine: chief of mission: Ambassador Konstantin Ivanovych HRYSHCHENKO
chancery: 3350 M Street NW, Washington, DC 20007
telephone: [1] (202) 333-0606
FAX: [1] (202) 333-0817
consulate(s) general: Chicago and New York
United Arab Emirates: chief of mission: Ambassador Asri Said Ahmad al-DHAHIRI
chancery: Suite 700, 1255 22nd Street NW, Washington, DC 20037
telephone: [1] (202) 955-7999
United Kingdom: chief of mission: Ambassador Sir Christopher J. R. MEYER
chancery: 3100 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 588-6500
FAX: [1] (202) 588-7870
consulate(s) general: Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Cleveland, Houston, Los Angeles, New York, and San Francisco
consulate(s): Dallas, Denver, Miami, Orlando (reports to Atlanta), San Juan, and Seattle
Uruguay: chief of mission: Ambassador Hugo FERNANDEZ Faingold
chancery: 2715 M Street, NW, Washington, DC 20007
telephone: [1] (202) 331-1313 through 1316
FAX: [1] (202) 331-8142
consulate(s) general: Chicago, Los Angeles, Miami, and New York
Uzbekistan: chief of mission: Ambassador Shavkat HAMRAKULOV
chancery: 1746 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20036
telephone: [1] (202) 887-5300
FAX: [1] (202) 293-6804
consulate(s) general: New York
Vanuatu: Vanuatu does not have an embassy in the US, it does, however, have a Permanent Mission to the UN
Venezuela: chief of mission: Ambassador Alfredo TORO Hardy
chancery: 1099 30th Street NW, Washington, DC 20007
telephone: [1] (202) 342-2214
FAX: [1] (202) 342-6820
consulate(s) general: Boston, Chicago, Houston, Miami, New Orleans, New York, San Francisco, and San Juan (Puerto Rico)
Vietnam: chief of mission: Ambassador-designate Nguyen Tam CHIEN
chancery: 1233 20th Street NW, Washington, DC 20036, Suite 400
telephone: [1] (202) 861-0737
FAX: [1] (202) 861-0917
consulate(s) general: San Francisco
Virgin Islands: none (territory of the US)
Wallis and Futuna: none (overseas territory of France)
Western Sahara: none
Yemen: chief of mission: Ambassador Abd al-Wahhab Abdallah al-HAJRI
chancery: Suite 705, 2600 Virginia Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20037
telephone: [1] (202) 965-4760
FAX: [1] (202) 337-2017
Yugoslavia: chief of mission: Ambassador Milan PROTIC
chancery: 2410 California St. NW, Washington, DC 20008
note: Yugoslavia restored its diplomatic mission in the US in November 2000 after temporarily ceasing its operations at the beginning of the March 1999 NATO bombing campaign
Zambia: chief of mission: Ambassador Atan SHANSONGA
chancery: 2419 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
telephone: [1] (202) 265-9717 through 9719
FAX: [1] (202) 332-0826
Zimbabwe: chief of mission: Ambassador Simbi Veke MUBAKO
chancery: 1608 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20009
telephone: [1] (202) 332-7100
FAX: [1] (202) 483-9326
Taiwan: none; unofficial commercial and cultural relations with the people of the US are maintained through a private instrumentality, the Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office (TECRO) in the US with headquarters in Taipei and field offices in Washington and 12 other US cities
======================================================================
@Disputes - international
Afghanistan: support to Islamic militants worldwide by some factions; question over which group should hold Afghanistan's seat at the UN
Albania: the Albanian Government supports protection of the rights of ethnic Albanians outside of its borders but has downplayed them to further its primary foreign policy goal of regional cooperation; Albanian majority in Kosovo seeks independence from Yugoslavia; Albanians in The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia claim discrimination in education, access to public-sector jobs, and representation in government
Algeria: part of southeastern region claimed by Libya; Algeria supports exiled West Saharan Polisario Front and rejects Moroccan administration of Western Sahara
American Samoa: none
Andorra: none
Angola: none
Anguilla: none
Antarctica: Antarctic Treaty freezes claims (see Antarctic Treaty Summary in Government type entry); sections (some overlapping) claimed by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and UK; the US and most other nations do not recognize the territorial claims of other nations and have made no claims themselves (the US and Russia reserve the right to do so); no claims have been made in the sector between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west
Antigua and Barbuda: none
Arctic Ocean: some maritime disputes (see littoral states)
Argentina: claims UK-administered Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas); claims UK-administered South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands; territorial claim in Antarctica partially overlaps British and Chilean claims
Armenia: Armenia supports ethnic Armenians in the Nagorno-Karabakh region of Azerbaijan in the longstanding, separatist conflict against the Azerbaijani Government; traditional demands regarding former Armenian lands in Turkey have subsided
Aruba: none
Ashmore and Cartier Islands: none
Atlantic Ocean: some maritime disputes (see littoral states)
Australia: territorial claim in Antarctica (Australian Antarctic Territory)
Austria: minor disputes with Czech Republic and Slovenia over nuclear power plants and post-World War II treatment of German-speaking minorities
Azerbaijan: Armenia supports ethnic Armenians in the Nagorno-Karabakh region of Azerbaijan in the longstanding, separatist conflict against the Azerbaijani Government; Caspian Sea boundaries are not yet determined among Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Turkmenistan
Bahamas, The: none
Bahrain: in March of 2001, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) awarded the Hawar Islands to Bahrain and also adjusted Bahrain's maritime boundary with Qatar
Baker Island: none
Bangladesh: a portion of the boundary with India is indefinite; exchange of 151 enclaves along border with India subject to ratification by Indian parliament; dispute with India over South Talpatty/New Moore Island
Barbados: none
Bassas da India: claimed by Madagascar
Belarus: none
Belgium: none
Belize: Guatemala periodically asserts claims to territory in southern Belize; to deter cross-border squatting, both states in 2000 agreed to a "line of adjacency" based on the de facto boundary, which is not recognized by Guatemala
Benin: none
Bermuda: none
Bhutan: refugee issue over the presence in Nepal of approximately 98,700 Bhutanese refugees, 90% of whom are in seven United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) camps
Bolivia: has wanted a sovereign corridor to the South Pacific Ocean since the Atacama area was lost to Chile in 1884; dispute with Chile over Rio Lauca water rights
Bosnia and Herzegovina: none
Botswana: none
Bouvet Island: none
Brazil: none
British Indian Ocean Territory: the Chagos Archipelago is claimed by Mauritius and Seychelles
British Virgin Islands: none
Brunei: possibly involved in a complex dispute over the Spratly Islands with China, Malaysia, Philippines, Taiwan, and Vietnam; in 1984, Brunei established an exclusive fishing zone that encompasses Louisa Reef in the southern Spratly Islands, but has not publicly claimed the island
Burkina Faso: none
Burma: sporadic border hostilities with Thailand over border alignment and ethnic Shan rebels operating in cross-border region
Burundi: none
Cambodia: portions of boundary with Vietnam are disputed; parts of border with Thailand are indefinite
Cameroon: delimitation of international boundaries in the vicinity of Lake Chad, the lack of which led to border incidents in the past, is complete and awaits ratification by Cameroon, Chad, Niger, and Nigeria; tripartite maritime boundary and economic zone dispute with Equatorial Guinea and Nigeria is currently before the ICJ
Canada: maritime boundary disputes with the US (Dixon Entrance, Beaufort Sea, Strait of Juan de Fuca, Machias Seal Island)
Cape Verde: none
Cayman Islands: none
Central African Republic: none
Chad: delimitation of international boundaries in the vicinity of Lake Chad, the lack of which led to border incidents in the past, has been completed and awaits ratification by Cameroon, Chad, Niger, and Nigeria
Chile: Bolivia has wanted a sovereign corridor to the South Pacific Ocean since the Atacama area was lost to Chile in 1884; dispute with Bolivia over Rio Lauca water rights; territorial claim in Antarctica (Chilean Antarctic Territory) partially overlaps Argentine and British claims
China: most of boundary with India in dispute; dispute over at least two small sections of the boundary with Russia remains to be settled, despite 1997 boundary agreement; portions of the boundary with Tajikistan are indefinite; 33-km section of boundary with North Korea in the Paektu-san (mountain) area is indefinite; involved in a complex dispute over the Spratly Islands with Malaysia, Philippines, Taiwan, Vietnam, and possibly Brunei; maritime boundary agreement with Vietnam in the Gulf of Tonkin awaits ratification; Paracel Islands occupied by China, but claimed by Vietnam and Taiwan; claims Japanese-administered Senkaku-shoto (Senkaku Islands/Diaoyu Tai), as does Taiwan
Christmas Island: none
Clipperton Island: none
Cocos (Keeling) Islands: none
Colombia: maritime boundary dispute with Venezuela in the Gulf of Venezuela; territorial disputes with Nicaragua over Archipelago de San Andres y Providencia and Quita Sueno Bank
Comoros: claims French-administered Mayotte; the island of Anjouan (Nzwani) has moved to secede from Comoros
Congo, Democratic Republic of the: the Democratic Republic of the Congo is in the grip of a civil war that has drawn in military forces from neighboring states, with Uganda and Rwanda supporting the rebel movements that occupy much of the eastern portion of the state; most of the Congo river boundary with the Republic of the Congo is indefinite (no agreement has been reached on the division of the river or its islands, except in the Pool Malebo/Stanley Pool area)
Congo, Republic of the: most of the Congo river boundary with the Democratic Republic of the Congo is indefinite (no agreement has been reached on the division of the river or its islands, except in the Stanley Pool/Pool Malebo area)
Cook Islands: none
Coral Sea Islands: none
Costa Rica: legal dispute over navigational rights of Rio San Juan on border with Nicaragua
Cote d'Ivoire: none
Croatia: Croatia and Italy made progress toward resolving a bilateral issue dating from World War II over property and ethnic minority rights; progress with Slovenia on discussions of adjustments to land boundary, but problems remain in defining maritime boundary in Gulf of Piran; Croatia and Yugoslavia are negotiating the status of the strategically important Prevlaka Peninsula, which is currently under a UN military observer mission (UNMOP)
Cuba: US Naval Base at Guantanamo Bay is leased to US and only mutual agreement or US abandonment of the area can terminate the lease
Cyprus: 1974 hostilities divided the island into two de facto autonomous areas, a Greek Cypriot area controlled by the internationally recognized Cypriot Government (59% of the island's land area) and a Turkish-Cypriot area (37% of the island), that are separated by a UN buffer zone (4% of the island); there are two UK sovereign base areas mostly within the Greek Cypriot portion of the island
Czech Republic: Liechtenstein's royal family claims restitution for 1,600 sq km of land in the Czech Republic confiscated in 1918; individual Sudeten German claims for restitution of property confiscated in connection with their expulsion after World War II; Austria has minor dispute with Czech Republic over nuclear power plants and post-World War II treatment of German-speaking minorities
Denmark: Rockall continental shelf dispute involving Iceland and the UK (Ireland and the UK have signed a boundary agreement in the Rockall area); dispute with Iceland over the Faroe Islands fisheries median line boundary within 200 NM; disputes with Iceland, the UK, and Ireland over the Faroe Islands continental shelf boundary outside 200 NM
Djibouti: none
Dominica: none
Dominican Republic: none
Ecuador: none
Egypt: Egypt asserts its claim to the "Hala'ib Triangle," a barren area of 20,580 sq km under partial Sudanese administration that is defined by an administrative boundary which supersedes the treaty boundary of 1899
El Salvador: with respect to the maritime boundary in the Golfo de Fonseca, the ICJ referred to the line determined by the 1900 Honduras-Nicaragua Mixed Boundary Commission and advised that some tripartite resolution among El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua likely would be required
Equatorial Guinea: tripartite maritime boundary and economic zone dispute with Cameroon and Nigeria is currently before the ICJ; maritime boundary dispute with Gabon because of disputed sovereignty over islands in Corisco Bay
Eritrea: as a result of the 12 December 2000 peace agreement ending a two-year war with Ethiopia, the UN will administer a 25-km wide temporary security zone within Eritrea until a joint boundary commission delimits and demarcates a final boundary
Estonia: Estonian and Russian negotiators reached a technical border agreement in December 1996 which has not been signed nor ratified by Russia as of February 2001
Ethiopia: most of the southern half of the boundary with Somalia is a Provisional Administrative Line; as a result of the 12 December 2000 peace agreement ending a two year war with Eritrea, the UN will administer a 25-km wide temporary security zone within Eritrea until a joint boundary commission delimits and demarcates a final boundary; dispute over alignment of boundary with Eritrea led to armed conflict in 1998; a peace accord signed in December 2000 provides for UN-assisted arbitration and demarcation of the border
Europa Island: claimed by Madagascar
Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas): claimed by Argentina
Faroe Islands: Faroese are considering proposals for full independence
Fiji: none
Finland: none
France: Madagascar claims Bassas da India, Europa Island, Glorioso Islands, Juan de Nova Island, and Tromelin Island; Comoros claims Mayotte; Mauritius claims Tromelin Island; territorial dispute between Suriname and French Guiana; territorial claim in Antarctica (Adelie Land); Matthew and Hunter Islands east of New Caledonia claimed by France and Vanuatu
French Guiana: Suriname claims area between Riviere Litani and Riviere Marouini (both headwaters of the Lawa)
French Polynesia: none
French Southern and Antarctic Lands: "Adelie Land" claim in Antarctica is not recognized by the US
Gabon: maritime boundary dispute with Equatorial Guinea because of disputed sovereignty over islands in Corisco Bay
Gambia, The: none
Gaza Strip: West Bank and Gaza Strip are Israeli-occupied with current status subject to the Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement - permanent status to be determined through further negotiation
Georgia: none
Germany: none
Ghana: none
Gibraltar: source of friction between Spain and the UK
Glorioso Islands: claimed by Madagascar
Greece: complex maritime, air, and territorial disputes with Turkey in Aegean Sea; Cyprus question with Turkey; dispute with The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia over its name
Greenland: none
Grenada: none
Guadeloupe: none
Guam: none
Guatemala: Guatemala periodically asserts claims to territory in southern Belize; to deter cross-border squatting, both states in 2000 agreed to a "line of adjacency" based on the de facto boundary, which is not recognized by Guatemala
Guernsey: none
Guinea: border incursions by Revolutionary United Front combatants from Sierra Leone; civil war in that country has engendered a massive flow of refugees to southern Guinea and Liberia
Guinea-Bissau: none
Guyana: all of the area west of the Essequibo (river) claimed by Venezuela; Suriname claims area between New (Upper Courantyne) and Courantyne/Kutari [Koetari] rivers (all headwaters of the Courantyne)
Haiti: claims US-administered Navassa Island
Heard Island and McDonald Islands: none
Holy See (Vatican City): none
Honduras: with respect to the maritime boundary in the Golfo de Fonseca, the ICJ referred to the line determined by the 1900 Honduras-Nicaragua Mixed Boundary Commission and advised that some tripartite resolution among El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua likely would be required; the maritime boundary dispute with Nicaragua in the Caribbean Sea is before the ICJ
Hong Kong: none
Howland Island: none
Hungary: Gabcikovo/Nagymaros Dam dispute with Slovakia is before the ICJ
Iceland: Rockall continental shelf dispute involving Denmark and the UK (Ireland and the UK have signed a boundary agreement in the Rockall area); dispute with Denmark over the Faroe Islands fisheries median line boundary within 200 NM; disputes with Denmark, the UK, and Ireland over the Faroe Islands continental shelf boundary outside 200 NM
India: boundary with China in dispute; status of Kashmir with Pakistan; water-sharing problems with Pakistan over the Indus River (Wular Barrage); a portion of the boundary with Bangladesh is indefinite; exchange of 151 enclaves along border with Bangladesh subject to ratification by Indian parliament; dispute with Bangladesh over New Moore/South Talpatty Island
Indian Ocean: some maritime disputes (see littoral states)
Indonesia: Sipadan and Ligitan Islands in dispute with Malaysia
Iran: Iran and Iraq restored diplomatic relations in 1990 but are still trying to work out written agreements settling outstanding disputes from their eight-year war concerning border demarcation, prisoners-of-war, and freedom of navigation and sovereignty over the Shatt al Arab waterway; Iran occupies two islands in the Persian Gulf claimed by the UAE: Lesser Tunb (called Tunb as Sughra in Arabic by UAE and Jazireh-ye Tonb-e Kuchek in Persian by Iran) and Greater Tunb (called Tunb al Kubra in Arabic by UAE and Jazireh-ye Tonb-e Bozorg in Persian by Iran); Iran jointly administers with the UAE an island in the Persian Gulf claimed by the UAE (called Abu Musa in Arabic by UAE and Jazireh-ye Abu Musa in Persian by Iran) - over which Iran has taken steps to exert unilateral control since 1992, including access restrictions and a military build-up on the island; the UAE has garnered significant diplomatic support in the region in protesting these Iranian actions; Caspian Sea boundaries are not yet determined among Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Turkmenistan
Iraq: Iran and Iraq restored diplomatic relations in 1990 but are still trying to work out written agreements settling outstanding disputes from their eight-year war concerning border demarcation, prisoners-of-war, and freedom of navigation and sovereignty over the Shatt al Arab waterway; in November 1994, Iraq formally accepted the UN-demarcated border with Kuwait which had been spelled out in Security Council Resolutions 687 (1991), 773 (1993), and 883 (1993); this formally ends earlier claims to Kuwait and to Bubiyan and Warbah islands although the government continues periodic rhetorical challenges; dispute over water development plans by Turkey for the Tigris and Euphrates rivers
Ireland: Northern Ireland issue with the UK (historic peace agreement signed 10 April 1998); disputes with Iceland, Denmark, and the UK over the Faroe Islands continental shelf boundary outside 200 NM
Israel: West Bank and Gaza Strip are Israeli-occupied with current status subject to the Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement - permanent status to be determined through further negotiation; Golan Heights is Israeli-occupied (Lebanon claims the Shab'a Farms area of Golan Heights)
Italy: Croatia and Italy made progress toward resolving a bilateral issue dating from World War II over property and ethnic minority rights
Jamaica: none
Jan Mayen: none
Japan: islands of Etorofu, Kunashiri, and Shikotan, and the Habomai group occupied by the Soviet Union in 1945, now administered by Russia, claimed by Japan; Liancourt Rocks (Takeshima/Tokdo) disputed with South Korea; Senkaku-shoto (Senkaku Islands) claimed by China and Taiwan
Jarvis Island: none
Jersey: none
Johnston Atoll: none
Jordan: none
Juan de Nova Island: claimed by Madagascar
Kazakhstan: Caspian Sea boundaries are not yet determined among Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Turkmenistan
Kenya: administrative boundary with Sudan does not coincide with international boundary
Kingman Reef: none
Kiribati: none
Korea, North: 33-km section of boundary with China in the Paektu-san (mountain) area is indefinite; Demarcation Line with South Korea
Korea, South: Demarcation Line with North Korea; Liancourt Rocks (Takeshima/Tokdo) disputed with Japan
Kuwait: in November 1994, Iraq formally accepted the UN-demarcated border with Kuwait which had been spelled out in Security Council Resolutions 687 (1991), 773 (1993), and 883 (1993); this formally ends earlier claims to Kuwait and to Bubiyan and Warbah islands
Kyrgyzstan: territorial dispute with Tajikistan on southwestern boundary in Isfara Valley area; periodic target of Islamic insurgents from Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and Afghanistan
Laos: parts of the border with Thailand are indefinite
Latvia: draft treaty delimiting the boundary with Russia has not been signed; has not ratified 1998 maritime boundary agreement with Lithuania (primary concern is oil exploration rights)
Lebanon: Syrian troops in northern, central, and eastern Lebanon since October 1976; Lebanese government claims Shab'a Farms area of Israeli-occupied Golan Heights as a part of Lebanon from which Hizballah conducts cross-border attacks
Lesotho: none
Liberia: large refugee population from civil war in Sierra Leone
Libya: Libya claims about 19,400 sq km in northern Niger and also a part of southeastern Algeria
Liechtenstein: Liechtenstein's royal family claims restitution for 1,600 sq km of land in the Czech Republic confiscated in 1918
Lithuania: Latvia has not ratified a 1998 maritime boundary agreement with Lithuania (primary concern is oil exploration rights); 1997 border agreement with Russia not yet ratified by Russia
Luxembourg: none
Macau: none
Macedonia, The Former Yugoslav Republic of: dispute with Greece over its name; February 2001 agreement with Yugoslavia settled alignment of boundary, stipulating implementation within two years
Madagascar: claims Bassas da India, Europa Island, Glorioso Islands, Juan de Nova Island, and Tromelin Island (all administered by France)
Malawi: dispute with Tanzania over the boundary in Lake Nyasa (Lake Malawi)
Malaysia: involved in a complex dispute over the Spratly Islands with China, Philippines, Taiwan, Vietnam, and possibly Brunei; Philippines have not fully revoked claim to Sabah State; Pulau Batu Putih (Pedra Branca Island) disputed with Singapore; Sipadan and Ligitan Islands in dispute with Indonesia
Maldives: none
Mali: none
Malta: none
Man, Isle of: none
Marshall Islands: claims US territory of Wake Island
Martinique: none
Mauritania: none
Mauritius: claims the Chagos Archipelago (UK-administered British Indian Ocean Territory); claims French-administered Tromelin Island
Mayotte: claimed by Comoros
Mexico: none
Micronesia, Federated States of: none
Midway Islands: none
Moldova: separatist Transnistria region, comprising the area between the Nistru (Dniester) River and Ukraine, has its own de facto government, dominated by Moldovan Slavs
Monaco: none
Mongolia: none
Montserrat: none
Morocco: claims and administers Western Sahara, but sovereignty is unresolved and the UN is attempting to hold a referendum on the issue; the UN-administered cease-fire has been in effect since September 1991; Spain controls five places of sovereignty (plazas de soberania) on and off the coast of Morocco - the coastal enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla which Morocco contests, as well as the islands of Penon de Alhucemas, Penon de Velez de la Gomera, and Islas Chafarinas
Mozambique: none
Namibia: none
Nauru: none
Navassa Island: claimed by Haiti
Nepal: refugee issue over the presence in Nepal of approximately 98,700 Bhutanese refugees, 90% of whom are in seven United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) camps
Netherlands: none
Netherlands Antilles: none
New Caledonia: Matthew and Hunter Islands east of New Caledonia claimed by France and Vanuatu
New Zealand: territorial claim in Antarctica (Ross Dependency)
Nicaragua: territorial disputes with Colombia over the Archipelago de San Andres y Providencia and Quita Sueno Bank; with respect to the maritime boundary question in the Golfo de Fonseca, the ICJ referred to the line determined by the 1900 Honduras-Nicaragua Mixed Boundary Commission and advised that some tripartite resolution among El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua likely would be required; maritime boundary dispute with Honduras in the Caribbean Sea is before the ICJ; legal dispute over navigational rights of San Juan River on border with Costa Rica
Niger: Libya claims about 19,400 sq km in northern Niger; delimitation of international boundaries in the vicinity of Lake Chad, the lack of which led to border incidents in the past, has been completed and awaits ratification by Cameroon, Chad, Niger, and Nigeria
Nigeria: delimitation of international boundaries in the vicinity of Lake Chad, the lack of which led to border incidents in the past, has been completed and awaits ratification by Cameroon, Chad, Niger, and Nigeria; dispute with Cameroon over land and maritime boundaries around the Bakasi Peninsula is currently before the ICJ; tripartite maritime boundary and economic zone dispute with Equatorial Guinea and Cameroon is currently before the ICJ
Niue: none
Norfolk Island: none
Northern Mariana Islands: none
Norway: territorial claim in Antarctica (Queen Maud Land); Svalbard is the focus of a maritime boundary dispute between Norway and Russia
Oman: boundary with the UAE has not been bilaterally defined; northern section in the Musandam Peninsula is an administrative boundary
Pacific Ocean: some maritime disputes (see littoral states)
Pakistan: status of Kashmir with India; water-sharing problems with India over the Indus River (Wular Barrage)
Palau: none
Palmyra Atoll: none
Panama: none
Papua New Guinea: none
Paracel Islands: occupied by China, but claimed by Taiwan and Vietnam
Peru: none
Philippines: involved in a complex dispute over the Spratly Islands with China, Malaysia, Taiwan, Vietnam, and possibly Brunei; claim to Malaysia's Sabah State has not been fully revoked
Pitcairn Islands: none
Poland: none
Puerto Rico: none
Qatar: in March of 2001, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) awarded the Hawar Islands to Bahrain and adjusted its maritime boundary with Qatar; a final border resolution was agreed to with Saudi Arabia in March of 2001
Reunion: none
Romania: none
Russia: dispute over at least two small sections of the boundary with China remains to be settled, despite 1997 boundary agreement; islands of Etorofu, Kunashiri, and Shikotan and the Habomai group occupied by the Soviet Union in 1945, now administered by Russia, claimed by Japan; Caspian Sea boundaries are not yet determined among Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Turkmenistan; Estonian and Russian negotiators reached a technical border agreement in December 1996, which has not been signed or ratified by Russia as of February 2001; draft treaty delimiting the boundary with Latvia has not been signed; 1997 border agreement with Lithuania not yet ratified; has made no territorial claim in Antarctica (but has reserved the right to do so) and does not recognize the claims of any other nation; Svalbard is the focus of a maritime boundary dispute between Norway and Russia
Rwanda: Rwandan military forces are supporting the rebel forces in the civil war in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Saint Helena: none
Saint Kitts and Nevis: none
Saint Lucia: none
Saint Pierre and Miquelon: none
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines: none
Samoa: none
San Marino: none
Sao Tome and Principe: none
Saudi Arabia: a final border resolution was agreed to with Qatar in March of 2001; location and status of boundary with UAE is not final, de facto boundary reflects a 1974 agreement; a June 2000 treaty delimited the boundary with Yemen, but final demarcation requires adjustments based on tribal considerations
Senegal: none
Seychelles: claims the Chagos Archipelago (UK-administered British Indian Ocean Territory)
Sierra Leone: civil war has engendered massive refugee movements into neighboring Guinea and Liberia
Singapore: Pedra Branca Island (Pulau Batu Putih) disputed with Malaysia
Slovakia: Gabcikovo/Nagymaros Dam dispute with Hungary is before the ICJ
Slovenia: progress with Croatia on discussions of adjustments to land boundary, but problems remain in defining maritime boundary in Gulf of Piran; Austria has minor dispute with Slovenia over nuclear power plants and post-World War II treatment of German-speaking minorities
Solomon Islands: none
Somalia: most of the southern half of the boundary with Ethiopia is a Provisional Administrative Line; territorial dispute with Ethiopia over the Ogaden
South Africa: Swaziland has asked South Africa to open negotiations on reincorporating some nearby South African territories that are populated by ethnic Swazis or that were long ago part of the Swazi Kingdom
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands: claimed by Argentina
Southern Ocean: Antarctic Treaty defers claims (see Antarctic Treaty Summary in the Antarctica entry); sections (some overlapping) claimed by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and UK; the US and most other nations do not recognize the maritime claims of other nations and have made no claims themselves (the US and Russia have reserved the right to do so); no formal claims have been made in the sector between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west
Spain: Gibraltar issue with UK; Spain controls five places of sovereignty (plazas de soberania) on and off the coast of Morocco - the coastal enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla, which Morocco contests, as well as the islands of Penon de Alhucemas, Penon de Velez de la Gomera, and Islas Chafarinas
Spratly Islands: all of the Spratly Islands are claimed by China, Taiwan, and Vietnam; parts of them are claimed by Malaysia and the Philippines; in 1984, Brunei established an exclusive fishing zone that encompasses Louisa Reef in the southern Spratly Islands, but has not publicly claimed the island; in 2000, China joined ASEAN discussions towards creating a South China Sea "code of conduct" - a non-legally binding confidence building measure
Sri Lanka: none
Sudan: administrative boundary with Kenya does not coincide with international boundary; Egypt asserts its claim to the "Hala'ib Triangle," a barren area of 20,580 sq km under partial Sudanese administration that is defined by an administrative boundary which supersedes the treaty boundary of 1899
Suriname: area disputed by French Guiana between Riviere Litani and Riviere Marouini (both headwaters of the Lawa); area disputed by Guyana between New (Upper Courantyne) and Courantyne/Koetari [Kutari] rivers (all headwaters of the Courantyne)
Svalbard: focus of a maritime boundary dispute between Norway and Russia
Swaziland: Swaziland has asked South Africa to open negotiations on reincorporating some nearby South African territories that are populated by ethnic Swazis or that were long ago part of the Swazi Kingdom
Sweden: none
Switzerland: none
Syria: Golan Heights is Israeli occupied; dispute with upstream riparian Turkey over Turkish water development plans for the Tigris and Euphrates rivers; Syrian troops in northern, central, and eastern Lebanon since October 1976
Tajikistan: portions of Tajikistan's northern and western border with Uzbekistan and its eastern border with China have not been officially demarcated; territorial dispute with Kyrgyzstan on northern boundary in Isfara Valley area
Tanzania: dispute with Malawi over the boundary in Lake Nyasa (Lake Malawi); a resurvey of the latitudinal boundary with Uganda in 2000 revealed a 300-meter discrepancy that both sides are currently adjudicating
Thailand: parts of the border with Laos are indefinite; parts of border with Cambodia are indefinite; sporadic border hostilities with Burma over border alignment and ethnic Shan rebels operating in cross-border region
Togo: none
Tokelau: none
Tonga: none
Trinidad and Tobago: none
Tromelin Island: claimed by Madagascar and Mauritius
Tunisia: none
Turkey: complex maritime, air, and territorial disputes with Greece in Aegean Sea; Cyprus question with Greece; dispute with downstream riparian states (Syria and Iraq) over water development plans for the Tigris and Euphrates rivers; traditional demands regarding former Armenian lands in Turkey have subsided
Turkmenistan: Caspian Sea boundaries are not yet determined among Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Turkmenistan
Turks and Caicos Islands: none
Tuvalu: none
Uganda: the Ugandan military is deployed to the Democratic Republic of Congo in support of rebel forces in that country's civil war; a resurvey of the latitudinal boundary with Tanzania in 2000 revealed a 300-meter discrepancy that both sides are currently adjudicating
Ukraine: has made no territorial claim in Antarctica (but has reserved the right to do so) and does not recognize the claims of any other nation
United Arab Emirates: location and status of boundary with Saudi Arabia is not final, de facto boundary reflects 1974 agreement; boundary with Oman has not been bilaterally defined; northern section in the Musandam Peninsula is an administrative boundary; claims two islands in the Persian Gulf occupied by Iran: Lesser Tunb (called Tunb as Sughra in Arabic by UAE and Jazireh-ye Tonb-e Kuchek in Persian by Iran) and Greater Tunb (called Tunb al Kubra in Arabic by UAE and Jazireh-ye Tonb-e Bozorg in Persian by Iran); claims island in the Persian Gulf jointly administered with Iran (called Abu Musa in Arabic by UAE and Jazireh-ye Abu Musa in Persian by Iran) - over which Iran has taken steps to exert unilateral control since 1992, including access restrictions and a military build-up on the island; the UAE has garnered significant diplomatic support in the region in protesting these Iranian actions
United Kingdom: Northern Ireland issue with Ireland (historic peace agreement signed 10 April 1998); Gibraltar issue with Spain; Argentina claims Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas); Argentina claims South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands; Mauritius and the Seychelles claim Chagos Archipelago (UK-administered British Indian Ocean Territory); Rockall continental shelf dispute involving Denmark and Iceland; territorial claim in Antarctica (British Antarctic Territory) overlaps Argentine claim and partially overlaps Chilean claim; disputes with Iceland, Denmark, and Ireland over the Faroe Islands continental shelf boundary outside 200 NM
United States: maritime boundary disputes with Canada (Dixon Entrance, Beaufort Sea, Strait of Juan de Fuca, Machias Seal Island); US Naval Base at Guantanamo Bay is leased from Cuba and only mutual agreement or US abandonment of the area can terminate the lease; Haiti claims Navassa Island; US has made no territorial claim in Antarctica (but has reserved the right to do so) and does not recognize the claims of any other nation; Marshall Islands claims Wake Island
Uruguay: none
Uzbekistan: occasional target of Islamic insurgents based in Tajikistan and Afghanistan
Vanuatu: claims Matthew and Hunter Islands east of New Caledonia
Venezuela: claims all of Guyana west of the Essequibo (river); maritime boundary dispute with Colombia in the Gulf of Venezuela
Vietnam: maritime boundary with Cambodia not defined; involved in a complex dispute over the Spratly Islands with China, Malaysia, Philippines, Taiwan, and possibly Brunei; maritime boundary agreement with China in the Gulf of Tonkin awaits ratification; Paracel Islands occupied by China but claimed by Vietnam and Taiwan; portions of boundary with Cambodia are in dispute; agreement on land border with China was signed in December 1999, but details of alignment have not yet been made public
Virgin Islands: none
Wake Island: claimed by Marshall Islands
Wallis and Futuna: none
West Bank: West Bank and Gaza Strip are Israeli-occupied with current status subject to the Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement - permanent status to be determined through further negotiation
Western Sahara: claimed and administered by Morocco, but sovereignty is unresolved and the UN is attempting to hold a referendum on the issue; the UN-administered cease-fire has been in effect since September 1991
Yemen: a June 2000 treaty delimited the boundary with Saudi Arabia, but final demarcation requires adjustments based on tribal considerations
Yugoslavia: Albanian majority in Kosovo seeks independence from Yugoslavia; Croatia and Yugoslavia are negotiating the status of the strategically important Prevlaka Peninsula, which is currently under a UN military observer mission (UNMOP); the February 2001 agreement with the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia settled alignment of boundary, stipulating implementation within two years
Taiwan: involved in complex dispute over the Spratly Islands with China, Malaysia, Philippines, Vietnam, and possibly Brunei; Paracel Islands occupied by China, but claimed by Vietnam and Taiwan; claims Japanese-administered Senkaku-shoto (Senkaku Islands/Diaoyu Tai), as does China
======================================================================
@Economic aid - donor
Australia: ODA, $1.43 billion (FY97/98)
Austria: ODA, $472 million (1999)
Belgium: ODA, $764 million (1997)
Canada: ODA, $1.3 billion (1999)
Denmark: ODA, $1.63 billion (1999)
Finland: ODA, $379 million (1997)
France: ODA, $6.3 billion (1997)
Germany: ODA, $5.6 billion (1998)
Iceland: $NA
Ireland: ODA, $245 million (2000)
Italy: ODA, $1.3 billion (1997)
Japan: ODA, $9.1 billion (1999)
Luxembourg: ODA, $160 million (1999)
Netherlands: ODA, $3.5 billion (2000 est.)
New Zealand: ODA, $123 million (1995)
Norway: ODA, $1.4 billion (1998)
Portugal: ODA, $271 million (1995)
Saudi Arabia: pledged $100 million in 1993 to fund reconstruction of Lebanon; since 1993, Saudi Arabia has committed $208 million for assistance to the Palestinians
Spain: ODA, $1.3 billion (1995)
Sweden: ODA, $1.7 billion (1997)
Switzerland: ODA, $1.1 billion (1995)
United Kingdom: ODA, $3.4 billion (1997)
United States: ODA, $6.9 billion (1997)
======================================================================
@Economic aid - recipient
Afghanistan: US provided about $70 million in humanitarian assistance in 1997; US continues to contribute to multilateral assistance through the UN programs of food aid, immunization, land mine removal, and a wide range of aid to refugees and displaced persons
Albania: $NA; aid for energy from China, Germany, Norway (2000)
Algeria: $100 million (1999 est.)
American Samoa: important financial support from the US, more than $40 million in 1994
Andorra: none
Angola: $493.1 million (1995)
Anguilla: $3.5 million (1995)
Antigua and Barbuda: $2.3 million (1995)
Argentina: IMF offer of $13.7 billion (January 2001)
Armenia: $245.5 million (1995)
Aruba: $26 million (1995); note - the Netherlands provided a $127 million aid package to Aruba and Suriname in 1996
Azerbaijan: ODA, $113 million (1996)
Bahamas, The: $9.8 million (1995)
Bahrain: $48.4 million (1995)
Bangladesh: $1.575 billion (2000 est.)
Barbados: $9.1 million (1995)
Belarus: $194.3 million (1995)
Belize: $NA
Benin: $274.6 million (1997)
Bermuda: $27.9 million (1995)
Bhutan: $73.8 million (1995)
Bolivia: $588 million (1997)
Bosnia and Herzegovina: $1 billion (1999 est.)
Botswana: $73 million (1995)
Brazil: NA
British Virgin Islands: $2.6 million (1995)
Brunei: $4.3 million (1995)
Bulgaria: $1 billion (1999 est.)
Burkina Faso: $484.1 million (1995)
Burma: $99 million (FY98/99)
Burundi: $1.344 billion (1999 est.)
Cambodia: $548 million pledged in grants and concessional loans for 2001 by international donors
Cameroon: on 23 January 2001, the Paris Club agreed to reduce Cameroon's debt of $1.3 billion by $900 million; total debt relief now amounts to $1.26 billion
Cape Verde: $111.3 million (1995)
Cayman Islands: $NA
Central African Republic: $172.2 million (1995); note - traditional budget subsidies from France
Chad: $238.3 million (1995); note - $125 million committed by Taiwan (August 1997); $30 million committed by African Development Bank
Chile: ODA, $40 million (2001 est.)
China: $NA
Christmas Island: $NA
Cocos (Keeling) Islands: $NA
Colombia: $40.7 million (1995)
Comoros: $28.1 million (1997)
Congo, Democratic Republic of the: $195.3 million (1995)
Congo, Republic of the: $159.1 million (1995)
Cook Islands: $13.1 million (1995); note - New Zealand continues to furnish the greater part
Cote d'Ivoire: ODA, $1 billion (1996 est.)
Croatia: $NA
Cuba: $68.2 million (1997 est.)
Cyprus: Greek Cypriot area - $17 million (1998); Turkish Cypriot area - $700 million from Turkey in grants and loans (1990-97) that are usually forgiven
Czech Republic: $NA
Djibouti: $106.3 million (1995)
Dominica: $24.4 million (1995)
Dominican Republic: $239.6 million (1995)
Ecuador: $695.7 million (1995)
Egypt: ODA, $2.25 billion (1999)
El Salvador: total $252 million; $57 million from US (1999 est.)
Equatorial Guinea: $33.8 million (1995)
Eritrea: $77 million (1999)
Estonia: $137.3 million (1995)
Ethiopia: $367 million (FY95/96)
Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas): $1.7 million (1995)
Faroe Islands: $135 million (annual subsidy from Denmark) (1999)
Fiji: $40.3 million (1995)
French Guiana: $NA
French Polynesia: $367 million (1997)
Gabon: $331 million (1995)
Gambia, The: $45.4 million (1995)
Gaza Strip: $121 million disbursed (2000) (includes West Bank)
Georgia: $212.7 million (1995)
Ghana: $477.3 million (1995)
Gibraltar: $NA
Greece: $5.4 billion from EU (1997 est.)
Greenland: $380 million subsidy from Denmark (1999)
Grenada: $8.3 million (1995)
Guadeloupe: $NA; note - substantial annual French subsidies
Guam: Guam receives large transfer payments from the US Federal Treasury ($143 million in 1997) into which Guamanians pay no income or excise taxes; under the provisions of a special law of Congress, the Guam Treasury, rather than the US Treasury, receives federal income taxes paid by military and civilian Federal employees stationed in Guam
Guatemala: $212 million (1995)
Guernsey: $NA
Guinea: $359.2 million (1998)
Guinea-Bissau: $115.4 million (1995)
Guyana: $84 million (1995), Heavily Indebted Poor Country Initiative (HIPC) $253 million (1997)
Haiti: $730.6 million (1995)
Holy See (Vatican City): none
Honduras: $557.8 million (1999)
Hungary: $122.7 million (1995)
India: $2.9 billion (FY98/99)
Indonesia: $43 billion from IMF program and other official external financing (1997-2000)
Iran: $116.5 million (1995)
Iraq: $327.5 million (1995)
Israel: $1.1 billion from the US (1999)
Jamaica: $102.7 million (1995)
Jersey: none
Jordan: ODA, $850 million (1996 est.)
Kazakhstan: $409.6 million (1995)
Kenya: $457 million (1997)
Kiribati: $15.5 million (1995), largely from UK and Japan
Korea, North: $NA; note - an estimated $200 million to $300 million in humanitarian aid from US, South Korea, Japan, and EU in 1997 plus much additional aid from the UN and non-governmental organizations; substantial continuing humanitarian aid, 1998-2000
Korea, South: $NA
Kuwait: $27.6 million (1995)
Kyrgyzstan: $329.4 million (1995)
Laos: $345 million (1999 est.)
Latvia: $96.2 million (1995)
Lebanon: $3.5 billion (pledges 1997-2001)
Lesotho: $123.7 million (1995)
Liberia: $200 million pledged (1998)
Libya: $8.4 million (1995)
Liechtenstein: none
Lithuania: $228.5 million (1995)
Macau: $NA
Macedonia, The Former Yugoslav Republic of: $100 million from the EU (2000)
Madagascar: $838 million (1997)
Malawi: $427 million (1999)
Maldives: $NA
Mali: $596.4 million (1995)
Malta: $NA
Man, Isle of: $NA
Marshall Islands: approximately $65 million annually from the US
Martinique: $NA; note - substantial annual aid from France
Mauritania: $300 million (1998)
Mauritius: $42 million (1997)
Mayotte: $107.7 million (1995); note - extensive French financial assistance
Mexico: $1.166 billion (1995)
Micronesia, Federated States of: under terms of the Compact of Free Association, the US will provide $1.3 billion in grant aid during the period 1986-2001
Moldova: $100.8 million (1995); note - $547 million from the IMF and World Bank (1992-99)
Monaco: $NA
Mongolia: $200 million (1998 est.)
Montserrat: $9.8 million (1995); note - about $100 million (1996-98) in reconstruction aid from the UK; Country Policy Plan (1999) is a three-year program for spending $122.8 million in British budgetary assistance
Morocco: $565.6 million (1995)
Mozambique: $1.04 billion (1998)
Namibia: $127 million (1998)
Nauru: $2.25 million from Australia (FY96/97 est.)
Nepal: $411 million (FY97/98)
Netherlands Antilles: IMF provided $61 million in 2000, and the Netherlands continued its support with $40 million
New Caledonia: $880 million annual subsidy from France
Nicaragua: NA
Niger: $341 million (1997)
note: the IMF approved a $73 million poverty reduction and growth facility for Niger in 2000 and announced $115 million in debt relief under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative
Nigeria: ODA $250 million (1998)
Niue: $8.3 million (1995)
Norfolk Island: $NA
Northern Mariana Islands: extensive funding from US
Oman: $76.4 million (1995)
Pakistan: $2 billion (FY99/00)
Palau: $155.8 million (1995); note - the Compact of Free Association with the US, entered into after the end of the UN trusteeship on 1 October 1994, will provide Palau with up to $700 million in US aid over 15 years in return for furnishing military facilities
Panama: $197.1 million (1995)
Papua New Guinea: $400 million (1999 est.)
Paraguay: $NA
Peru: $895.1 million (1995)
Philippines: ODA, $1.1 billion (1998)
Pitcairn Islands: $NA
Poland: $NA
Puerto Rico: $NA
Qatar: $NA
Reunion: $NA; note - substantial annual subsidies from France
Russia: $8.523 billion (1995)
Rwanda: $591.5 million (1997); note - in summer 1998, Rwanda presented its policy objectives and development priorities to donor governments resulting in multiyear pledges in the amount of $250 million
Saint Helena: $12.6 million (1995); note - $5.3 million from UK (1997)
Saint Kitts and Nevis: $5.5 million (1995)
Saint Lucia: $51.8 million (1995)
Saint Pierre and Miquelon: approximately $65 million in annual grants from France
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines: $47.5 million (1995); note - EU $34.5 million (1998)
Samoa: $42.9 million (1995)
San Marino: $NA
Sao Tome and Principe: $200 million in December 2000 under the HIPC program
Senegal: $647.5 million (1995)
Seychelles: $16.4 million (1995)
Sierra Leone: $203.7 million (1995)
Singapore: $NA
Slovakia: $421.9 million (1995)
Slovenia: ODA, $5 million (1993)
Solomon Islands: $47 million (1999 est.), mainly from Japan, Australia, China, and NZ
Somalia: $191.5 million (1995)
South Africa: $676.3 million
Sri Lanka: $577 million (1998)
Sudan: $187 million (1997)
Suriname: Netherlands provided $37 million for project and program assistance, European Development Fund $4 million, Belgium $2 million (1998)
Svalbard: $8.2 million from Norway (1998)
Swaziland: $55 million (1995)
Syria: $199 million (1997 est.)
Tajikistan: $64.7 million (1995)
Tanzania: $963 million (1997)
Thailand: $131.5 million (1998 est.)
Togo: $201.1 million (1995)
Tokelau: $3.8 million (1995)
Tonga: $38.8 million (1995)
Trinidad and Tobago: $121.4 million (1995)
Tunisia: $933.2 million (1995); note - ODA, $90 million (1998 est.)
Turkey: ODA, $195 million (1993)
Turkmenistan: $27.2 million (1995)
Turks and Caicos Islands: $4.1 million (1997)
Tuvalu: $13 million (1999 est.); note - major donors are Japan and Australia
Uganda: $1.4 billion (2000)
Ukraine: $637.7 million (1995); IMF Extended Funds Facility $2.2 billion (1998)
United Arab Emirates: $NA
Uruguay: $NA
Uzbekistan: $276.6 million (1995)
Vanuatu: $45.8 million (1995)
Venezuela: $35 million with more assistance likely as a result of flooding (1999)
Vietnam: $2.1 billion in credits and grants pledged by international donors for 2000
Virgin Islands: $NA
Wallis and Futuna: assistance from France
West Bank: $121 million disbursed (includes Gaza Strip) (2000)
Western Sahara: $NA
World: traditional worldwide foreign aid $50 billion (1997 est.)
Yemen: $176.1 million (1995)
Yugoslavia: $NA
Zambia: $1.99 billion (1995)
Zimbabwe: $200 million (2000 est.)
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@Economy - overview
Afghanistan: Afghanistan is an extremely poor, landlocked country, highly dependent on farming and livestock raising (sheep and goats). Economic considerations have played second fiddle to political and military upheavals during two decades of war, including the nearly 10-year Soviet military occupation (which ended 15 February 1989). During that conflict one-third of the population fled the country, with Pakistan and Iran sheltering a combined peak of more than 6 million refugees. In early 2000, 2 million Afghan refugees remained in Pakistan and about 1.4 million in Iran. Gross domestic product has fallen substantially over the past 20 years because of the loss of labor and capital and the disruption of trade and transport; severe drought added to the nation's difficulties in 1998-2000. The majority of the population continues to suffer from insufficient food, clothing, housing, and medical care. Inflation remains a serious problem throughout the country. International aid can deal with only a fraction of the humanitarian problem, let alone promote economic development. In 1999-2000, internal civil strife continued, hampering both domestic economic policies and international aid efforts. Numerical data are likely to be either unavailable or unreliable. Afghanistan was by far the largest producer of opium poppies in 2000, and narcotics trafficking is a major source of revenue.
Albania: Poor by European standards, Albania is making the difficult transition to a more open-market economy. The economy rebounded in 1993-95 after a severe depression accompanying the end of the previous centrally planned system in 1990 and 1991. However, a weakening of government resolve to maintain stabilization policies in the election year of 1996 contributed to renewal of inflationary pressures, spurred by the budget deficit which exceeded 12% of GDP. The collapse of financial pyramid schemes in early 1997 - which had attracted deposits from a substantial portion of Albania's population - triggered severe social unrest which led to more than 1,500 deaths, widespread destruction of property, and a 7% drop in GDP. The government has taken measures to curb violent crime and to revive economic activity and trade. The economy is bolstered by remittances from some 20% of the labor force that works abroad, mostly in Greece and Italy. These remittances supplement GDP and help offset the large foreign trade deficit. Most agricultural land was privatized in 1992, substantially improving peasant incomes. In 1998, Albania recovered the 7% drop in GDP of 1997 and pushed ahead by 8% in 1999 and by 7.5% in 2000. International aid helped defray the high costs of receiving and returning refugees from the Kosovo conflict. Privatization scored some successes in 2000, but other reforms lagged.
Algeria: The hydrocarbons sector is the backbone of the economy, accounting for roughly 60% of budget revenues, 30% of GDP, and over 95% of export earnings. Algeria has the fifth-largest reserves of natural gas in the world and is the second largest gas exporter; it ranks fourteenth for oil reserves. Algiers' efforts to reform one of the most centrally planned economies in the Arab world stalled in 1992 as the country became embroiled in political turmoil. Algeria's financial and economic indicators improved during the mid-1990s, in part because of policy reforms supported by the IMF and debt rescheduling from the Paris Club. Algeria's finances in 2000 benefited from the spike in oil prices and the government's tight fiscal policy, leading to a large increase in the trade surplus, the near tripling of foreign exchange reserves, and reduction in foreign debt. The government continues efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector, but has had little success in reducing high unemployment and improving living standards.
American Samoa: This is a traditional Polynesian economy in which more than 90% of the land is communally owned. Economic activity is strongly linked to the US, with which American Samoa conducts the great bulk of its foreign trade. Tuna fishing and tuna processing plants are the backbone of the private sector, with canned tuna the primary export. Transfers from the US Government add substantially to American Samoa's economic well-being. Attempts by the government to develop a larger and broader economy are restrained by Samoa's remote location, its limited transportation, and its devastating hurricanes. Tourism, a developing sector, has been held back by the recurring financial difficulties in East Asia.
Andorra: Tourism, the mainstay of Andorra's tiny, well-to-do economy, accounts for roughly 80% of GDP. An estimated 9 million tourists visit annually, attracted by Andorra's duty-free status and by its summer and winter resorts. Andorra's comparative advantage has recently eroded as the economies of neighboring France and Spain have been opened up, providing broader availability of goods and lower tariffs. The banking sector, with its "tax haven" status, also contributes substantially to the economy. Agricultural production is limited by a scarcity of arable land, and most food has to be imported. The principal livestock activity is sheep raising. Manufacturing output consists mainly of cigarettes, cigars, and furniture. Andorra is a member of the EU Customs Union and is treated as an EU member for trade in manufactured goods (no tariffs) and as a non-EU member for agricultural products.
Angola: Angola is an economy in disarray because of a quarter century of nearly continuous warfare. Despite its abundant natural resources, output per capita is among the world's lowest. Subsistence agriculture provides the main livelihood for 85% of the population. Oil production and the supporting activities are vital to the economy, contributing about 45% to GDP and 90% of exports. Violence continues, millions of land mines remain, and many farmers are reluctant to return to their fields. As a result, much of the country's food must still be imported. To fully take advantage of its rich resources - gold, diamonds, extensive forests, Atlantic fisheries, and large oil deposits - Angola will need to end its conflict and continue reforming government policies. Despite the increase in the pace of civil warfare in late 1998, the economy grew by an estimated 5% in 2000. The government introduced new currency denominations in 1999, including 1 and 5 kwanza notes. Internal strife discourages investment outside of the petroleum sector, which is producing roughly 800,000 barrels of oil per day. Angola has entered into a Staff Monitored Program (SMP) with the IMF. Continued growth depends on sharp cuts in inflation, further economic reform, and a lessening of fighting.
Anguilla: Anguilla has few natural resources, and the economy depends heavily on luxury tourism, offshore banking, lobster fishing, and remittances from emigrants. The economy, and especially the tourism sector, suffered a setback in late 1995 due to the effects of Hurricane Luis in September but recovered in 1996. Increased activity in the tourism industry, which has spurred the growth of the construction sector, has contributed to economic growth. Anguillan officials have put substantial effort into developing the offshore financial sector. A comprehensive package of financial services legislation was enacted in late 1994. In the medium term, prospects for the economy will depend on the tourism sector and, therefore, on continuing income growth in the industrialized nations as well as favorable weather conditions.
Antarctica: Fishing off the coast and tourism, both based abroad, account for the limited economic activity. Antarctic fisheries in 1998-99 (1 July-30 June) reported landing 119,898 metric tons. Unregulated fishing landed five to six times more than the regulated fishery, and allegedly illegal fishing in antarctic waters in 1998 resulted in the seizure (by France and Australia) of at least eight fishing ships. Companies interested in commercial fishing activities in Antarctica have put forward proposals. The Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources determines the recommended catch limits for marine species. A total of 13,193 tourists visited in the 1999-2000 summer, up from the 10,013 who visited the previous year. Nearly all of them were passengers on 24 commercial (nongovernmental) ships and several yachts that made 143 trips during the summer. Most tourist trips lasted approximately two weeks.
Antigua and Barbuda: Tourism continues to be the dominant activity in the economy accounting directly or indirectly for more than half of GDP. The budding offshore financial sector has been seriously hurt by financial sanctions imposed by the US and UK as a result of the loosening of its money-laundering controls. The government has made efforts to comply with international demands in order to get the sanctions lifted. Antigua and Barbuda was listed as a tax haven by the OECD in 2000. The dual island nation's agricultural production is mainly directed to the domestic market; the sector is constrained by the limited water supply and labor shortages that reflect the pull of higher wages in tourism and construction. Manufacturing comprises enclave-type assembly for export with major products being bedding, handicrafts, and electronic components. Prospects for economic growth in the medium term will continue to depend on income growth in the industrialized world, especially in the US, which accounts for about one-third of all tourist arrivals.
Arctic Ocean: Economic activity is limited to the exploitation of natural resources, including petroleum, natural gas, fish, and seals.
Argentina: Argentina benefits from rich natural resources, a highly literate population, an export-oriented agricultural sector, and a diversified industrial base. However, when President Carlos MENEM took office in 1989, the country had piled up huge external debts, inflation had reached 200% per month, and output was plummeting. To combat the economic crisis, the government embarked on a path of trade liberalization, deregulation, and privatization. In 1991, it implemented radical monetary reforms which pegged the peso to the US dollar and limited the growth in the monetary base by law to the growth in reserves. Inflation fell sharply in subsequent years. In 1995, the Mexican peso crisis produced capital flight, the loss of banking system deposits, and a severe, but short-lived, recession; a series of reforms to bolster the domestic banking system followed. Real GDP growth recovered strongly, reaching 8% in 1997. In 1998, international financial turmoil caused by Russia's problems and increasing investor anxiety over Brazil produced the highest domestic interest rates in more than three years, halving the growth rate of the economy. Conditions worsened in 1999 with GDP falling by 3%. President Fernando DE LA RUA, who took office in December 1999, sponsored tax increases and spending cuts to reduce the deficit, which had ballooned to 2.5% of GDP in 1999. Growth in 2000 was a disappointing 0.8%, as both domestic and foreign investors remained skeptical of the government's ability to pay debts and maintain its fixed exchange rate with the US dollar. One bright spot at the start of 2001 was the IMF's offer of $13.7 billion in support.
Armenia: Under the old Soviet central planning system, Armenia had developed a modern industrial sector, supplying machine tools, textiles, and other manufactured goods to sister republics in exchange for raw materials and energy. Since the implosion of the USSR in December 1991, Armenia has switched to small-scale agriculture away from the large agroindustrial complexes of the Soviet era. The agricultural sector has long-term needs for more investment and updated technology. The privatization of industry has been at a slower pace, but has been given renewed emphasis by the current administration. Armenia is a food importer, and its mineral deposits (gold, bauxite) are small. The ongoing conflict with Azerbaijan over the ethnic Armenian-dominated region of Nagorno-Karabakh and the breakup of the centrally directed economic system of the former Soviet Union contributed to a severe economic decline in the early 1990s. By 1994, however, the Armenian Government had launched an ambitious IMF-sponsored economic program that has resulted in positive growth rates in 1995-2000. Armenia also managed to slash inflation and to privatize most small- and medium-sized enterprises. The chronic energy shortages Armenia suffered in recent years have been largely offset by the energy supplied by one of its nuclear power plants at Metsamor. Armenia's severe trade imbalance, importing three times its exports, has been offset somewhat by international aid, domestic restructuring of the economy, and foreign direct investment.
Aruba: Tourism is the mainstay of the Aruban economy, although offshore banking and oil refining and storage are also important. The rapid growth of the tourism sector over the last decade has resulted in a substantial expansion of other activities. Construction has boomed, with hotel capacity five times the 1985 level. In addition, the reopening of the country's oil refinery in 1993, a major source of employment and foreign exchange earnings, has further spurred growth. Aruba's small labor force and less than 1% unemployment rate have led to a large number of unfilled job vacancies, despite sharp rises in wage rates in recent years.
Ashmore and Cartier Islands: no economic activity
Atlantic Ocean: The Atlantic Ocean provides some of the world's most heavily trafficked sea routes, between and within the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. Other economic activity includes the exploitation of natural resources, e.g., fishing, the dredging of aragonite sands (The Bahamas), and production of crude oil and natural gas (Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, and North Sea).
Australia: Australia has a prosperous Western-style capitalist economy, with a per capita GDP at the level of the four dominant West European economies. Rich in natural resources, Australia is a major exporter of agricultural products, minerals, metals, and fossil fuels. Commodities account for 57% of the value of total exports, so that a downturn in world commodity prices can have a big impact on the economy. The government is pushing for increased exports of manufactured goods, but competition in international markets continues to be severe. While Australia has suffered from the low growth and high unemployment characterizing the OECD countries in the early 1990s and during the recent financial problems in East Asia, the economy has expanded at a solid 4% annual growth pace in the last five years. Canberra's emphasis on reforms is a key factor behind the economy's resilience to the regional crisis and its stronger than expected growth rate. Growth in 2001 will depend on key international commodity prices, the extent of recovery in nearby Asian economies, and the strength of US and European markets.
Austria: Austria with its well-developed market economy and high standard of living is closely tied to other EU economies, especially Germany's. Membership in the EU has drawn an influx of foreign investors attracted by Austria's access to the single European market and proximity to EU aspirant economies. In 2000, Austria moved to further cut government spending and raise taxes to meet EMU deficit targets after facing unexpected difficulties in reducing the public deficit. To meet increased competition from both EU and Central European countries, Austria will need to emphasize knowledge-based sectors of the economy and continue to deregulate the service sector. Growth is expected to remain at about 3% in 2001.
Azerbaijan: Azerbaijan's most prominent products are oil, cotton, and natural gas. Azerbaijan's oil production declined through 1997 but has registered an increase every year since. Negotiation of 19 production-sharing arrangements (PSAs) with foreign firms, which have thus far committed $60 billion to oil field development, should generate the funds needed to spur future industrial development. Oil production under the first of these PSAs, with the Azerbaijan International Operating Company, began in November 1997. Azerbaijan shares all the formidable problems of the former Soviet republics in making the transition from a command to a market economy, but its considerable energy resources brighten its long-term prospects. Baku has only recently begun making progress on economic reform, and old economic ties and structures are slowly being replaced. An obstacle to economic progress, including stepped up foreign investment, is the continuing conflict with Armenia over the Nagorno-Karabakh region. Trade with Russia and the other former Soviet republics is declining in importance while trade is building up with Turkey, Iran, UAE, and the nations of Europe. Long-term prospects will depend on world oil prices, the location of new pipelines in the region, and Azerbaijan's ability to manage its oil wealth.
Bahamas, The: The Bahamas is a stable, developing nation with an economy heavily dependent on tourism and offshore banking. Tourism alone accounts for more than 60% of GDP and directly or indirectly employs 40% of the archipelago's labor force. Moderate growth in tourism receipts and a boom in construction of new hotels, resorts, and residences led to an increase of the country's GDP by an estimated 3% in 1998, 6% in 1999, and 4.5% in 2000. Manufacturing and agriculture together contribute only 10% of GDP and show little growth, despite government incentives aimed at those sectors. Overall growth prospects in the short run will depend heavily on the fortunes of the tourism sector and continued sturdy growth in the US, which accounts for the majority of tourist visitors.
Bahrain: In Bahrain, petroleum production and refining account for about 60% of export receipts, 60% of government revenues, and 30% of GDP. With its highly developed communication and transport facilities, Bahrain is home to numerous multinational firms with business in the Gulf. Bahrain is dependent on Saudi Arabia for oil revenue granted as aid. A large share of exports consists of petroleum products made from imported crude. Construction proceeds on several major industrial projects. Unemployment, especially among the young, and the depletion of both oil and underground water resources are major long-term economic problems.
Baker Island: no economic activity
Bangladesh: Despite sustained domestic and international efforts to improve economic and demographic prospects, Bangladesh remains one of the world's poorest, most densely populated, and least developed nations. Although more than half of GDP is generated through the service sector, nearly two-thirds of Bangladeshis are employed in the agriculture sector, with rice as the single most important product. Major impediments to growth include frequent cyclones and floods, inefficient state-owned enterprises, inadequate port facilities, a rapidly growing labor force that cannot be absorbed by agriculture, delays in exploiting energy resources (natural gas), insufficient power supplies, and slow implementation of economic reforms. Reform is stalled in many instances by political infighting and corruption at all levels of government. Even so, Prime Minister Sheikh HASINA's Awami League government has made some headway improving the climate for foreign investors and liberalizing the capital markets. Progress on other economic reforms has been halting because of opposition from the bureaucracy, public sector unions, and other vested interest groups.
Barbados: Historically, the Barbadian economy had been dependent on sugarcane cultivation and related activities, but production in recent years has diversified into manufacturing and tourism. The start of the Port Charles Marina project in Speightstown helped the tourism industry continue to expand in 1996-2000. Offshore finance and information services are important foreign exchange earners, and there is also a light manufacturing sector. The government continues its efforts to reduce unemployment, encourage direct foreign investment, and privatize remaining state-owned enterprises. Growth should remain steady in 2001, with new tourist facilities a plus factor.
Bassas da India: no economic activity
Belarus: Belarus has seen little structural reform since 1995, when President LUKASHENKO launched the country on the path of "market socialism." In keeping with this policy, LUKASHENKO reimposed administrative controls over prices and currency exchange rates and expanded the state's right to intervene in the management of private enterprise. In addition to the burdens imposed by extremely high inflation, businesses have been subject to pressure on the part of central and local governments, e.g., arbitrary changes in regulations, numerous rigorous inspections, and retroactive application of new business regulations prohibiting practices that had been legal. Further economic problems are two consecutive bad harvests, 1998-99, and persistent trade deficits. Close relations with Russia, possibly leading to reunion, color the pattern of economic developments. For the time being, Belarus remains self-isolated from the West and its open-market economies.
Belgium: This modern private enterprise economy has capitalized on its central geographic location, highly developed transport network, and diversified industrial and commercial base. Industry is concentrated mainly in the populous Flemish area in the north, although the government is encouraging investment in the southern region of Wallonia. With few natural resources, Belgium must import substantial quantities of raw materials and export a large volume of manufactures, making its economy unusually dependent on the state of world markets. About three-quarters of its trade is with other EU countries. Belgium's public debt is expected to fall below 100% of GDP in 2002, and the government has succeeded in balancing is budget. Belgium became a charter member of the European Monetary Union (EMU) in January 1999. Economic growth in 2000 was broad based, putting the government in a good position to pursue its energy market liberalization policies and planned tax cuts.
Belize: The small, essentially private enterprise economy is based primarily on agriculture, agro-based industry, and merchandising, with tourism and construction assuming greater importance. Sugar, the chief crop, accounts for nearly half of exports, while the banana industry is the country's largest employer. The government's tough austerity program in 1997 resulted in an economic slowdown that continued in 1998. The trade deficit has been growing, mostly as a result of low export prices for sugar and bananas. The tourist and construction sectors strengthened in early 1999, supporting growth of 6% in 1999 and 4% in 2000. Aided by international donors, the government's key short-term objective remains the reduction of poverty.
Benin: The economy of Benin remains underdeveloped and dependent on subsistence agriculture, cotton production, and regional trade. Growth in real output averaged a sound 5% in 1996-99, but a rapid population rise offset much of this growth. Inflation has subsided over the past several years. Commercial and transport activities, which make up a large part of GDP, are vulnerable to developments in Nigeria, particularly fuel shortages. The Paris Club and bilateral creditors have eased the external debt situation in recent years. While high fuel prices constrained growth in 2000, increased cotton production - enabled by a major restructuring program - and an expansion of the Cotonou port, may lead to increased growth in 2001.
Bermuda: Bermuda enjoys one of the highest per capita incomes in the world, having successfully exploited its location by providing financial services for international firms and luxury tourist facilities for 360,000 visitors annually. The tourist industry, which accounts for an estimated 28% of GDP, attracts 84% of its business from North America. The industrial sector is small, and agriculture is severely limited by a lack of suitable land. About 80% of food needs are imported. International business contributes over 60% of Bermuda's economic output; a failed independence vote in late 1995 can be partially attributed to Bermudian fears of scaring away foreign firms. Government economic priorities are the further strengthening of the tourist and international financial sectors.
Bhutan: The economy, one of the world's smallest and least developed, is based on agriculture and forestry, which provide the main livelihood for more than 90% of the population. Agriculture consists largely of subsistence farming and animal husbandry. Rugged mountains dominate the terrain and make the building of roads and other infrastructure difficult and expensive. The economy is closely aligned with India's through strong trade and monetary links. The industrial sector is technologically backward, with most production of the cottage industry type. Most development projects, such as road construction, rely on Indian migrant labor. Bhutan's hydropower potential and its attraction for tourists are key resources. The Bhutanese Government has made some progress in expanding the nation's productive base and improving social welfare. Model education, social, and environment programs in Bhutan are underway with support from multilateral development organizations. Each economic program takes into account the government's desire to protect the country's environment and cultural traditions. Detailed controls and uncertain policies in areas like industrial licensing, trade, labor, and finance continue to hamper foreign investment.
Bolivia: Bolivia, long one of the poorest and least developed Latin American countries, has made considerable progress toward the development of a market-oriented economy. Successes under President SANCHEZ DE LOZADA (1993-97) included the signing of a free trade agreement with Mexico and joining the Southern Cone Common Market (Mercosur), as well as the privatization of the state airline, telephone company, railroad, electric power company, and oil company. His successor, Hugo BANZER Suarez has tried to further improve the country's investment climate with an anticorruption campaign. Growth slowed in 1999, in part due to tight government budget policies, which limited needed appropriations for anti-poverty programs, and the fallout from the Asian financial crisis. In 2000, major civil disturbances in April, and again in September and October, held down overall growth to 2.5%.
Bosnia and Herzegovina: Bosnia and Herzegovina ranked next to The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia as the poorest republic in the old Yugoslav federation. Although agriculture is almost all in private hands, farms are small and inefficient, and the republic traditionally is a net importer of food. Industry has been greatly overstaffed, one reflection of the socialist economic structure of Yugoslavia. TITO had pushed the development of military industries in the republic with the result that Bosnia hosted a large share of Yugoslavia's defense plants. The bitter interethnic warfare in Bosnia caused production to plummet by 80% from 1990 to 1995, unemployment to soar, and human misery to multiply. With an uneasy peace in place, output recovered in 1996-98 at high percentage rates from a low base; but output growth slowed appreciably in 1999 and 2000, and GDP remains far below the 1990 level. Economic data are of limited use because, although both entities issue figures, national-level statistics are not available. Moreover, official data do not capture the large share of activity that occurs on the black market. The marka - the national currency introduced in 1998 - has gained wide acceptance, and the Central Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina has dramatically increased its reserve holdings. Implementation of privatization, however, has been slower than anticipated. Banking reform accelerated in early 2001 as all the communist-era payments bureaus were shut down. The country receives substantial amounts of reconstruction assistance and humanitarian aid from the international community but will have to prepare for an era of declining assistance.
Botswana: Botswana has maintained one of the world's highest growth rates since independence in 1966. Through fiscal discipline and sound management, Botswana has transformed itself from one of the poorest countries in the world to a middle-income country with a per capita GDP of $6,600 in 2000. Diamond mining has fueled much of Botswana's economic expansion and currently accounts for more than one-third of GDP and for three-fourths of export earnings. Tourism, subsistence farming, and cattle raising are other key sectors. The government must deal with high rates of unemployment and poverty. Unemployment officially is 19%, but unofficial estimates place it closer to 40%. HIV/AIDS infection rates are the highest in the world and threaten Botswana's impressive economic gains.
Bouvet Island: no economic activity; declared a nature reserve
Brazil: Possessing large and well-developed agricultural, mining, manufacturing, and service sectors, Brazil's economy outweighs that of all other South American countries and is expanding its presence in world markets. In the late eighties and early nineties, high inflation hindered economic activity and investment. "The Real Plan", instituted in the spring of 1994, sought to break inflationary expectations by pegging the real to the US dollar. Inflation was brought down to single digit annual figures, but not fast enough to avoid substantial real exchange rate appreciation during the transition phase of the "Real Plan". This appreciation meant that Brazilian goods were now more expensive relative to goods from other countries, which contributed to large current account deficits. However, no shortage of foreign currency ensued because of the financial community's renewed interest in Brazilian markets as inflation rates stabilized and the debt crisis of the eighties faded from memory. The maintenance of large current account deficits via capital account surpluses became problematic as investors became more risk averse to emerging market exposure as a consequence of the Asian financial crisis in 1997 and the Russian bond default in August 1998. After crafting a fiscal adjustment program and pledging progress on structural reform, Brazil received a $41.5 billion IMF-led international support program in November 1998. In January 1999, the Brazilian Central Bank announced that the real would no longer be pegged to the US dollar. This devaluation helped moderate the downturn in economic growth in 1999 that investors had expressed concerns about over the summer of 1998. Brazil's debt to GDP ratio for 1999 beat the IMF target and helped reassure investors that Brazil will maintain tight fiscal and monetary policy even with a floating currency. The economy continued to recover in 2000, with inflation remaining in the single digits and expected growth for 2001 of 4.5%. Foreign direct investment set a record of more than $30 billion in 2000.
British Indian Ocean Territory: All economic activity is concentrated on the largest island of Diego Garcia, where joint UK-US defense facilities are located. Construction projects and various services needed to support the military installations are done by military and contract employees from the UK, Mauritius, the Philippines, and the US. There are no industrial or agricultural activities on the islands. When the Ilois return, they plan to reestablish sugarcane production and fishing.
British Virgin Islands: The economy, one of the most stable and prosperous in the Caribbean, is highly dependent on tourism, which generates an estimated 45% of the national income. An estimated 350,000 tourists, mainly from the US, visited the islands in 1997. In the mid-1980s, the government began offering offshore registration to companies wishing to incorporate in the islands, and incorporation fees now generate substantial revenues. An estimated 250,000 companies were on the offshore registry by yearend 1997. The adoption of a comprehensive insurance law in late 1994, which provides a blanket of confidentiality with regulated statutory gateways for investigation of criminal offenses, is expected to make the British Virgin Islands even more attractive to international business. Livestock raising is the most important agricultural activity; poor soils limit the islands' ability to meet domestic food requirements. Because of traditionally close links with the US Virgin Islands, the British Virgin Islands has used the dollar as its currency since 1959.
Brunei: This small, wealthy economy is a mixture of foreign and domestic entrepreneurship, government regulation and welfare measures, and village tradition. Exports of crude oil and natural gas account for over half of GDP. Per capita GDP is far above most other Third World countries, and substantial income from overseas investment supplements income from domestic production. The government provides for all medical services and subsidizes rice and housing. Brunei's leaders are concerned that steadily increased integration in the world economy will undermine internal social cohesion although it became a more prominent player by serving as chairman for the 2000 APEC (Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation) forum. Plans for the future include upgrading the labor force, reducing unemployment, strengthening the banking and tourist sectors, and, in general, a further widening of the economic base beyond oil and gas.
Bulgaria: Bulgaria, a former communist country struggling to enter the European market economy, suffered a major economic downturn in 1996 and 1997, with triple digit inflation and GDP contraction of 10.6% and 6.9%. The current government - which took office in May 1997 after pre-term parliamentary elections - stabilized the economy and promoted growth by implementing a currency board, practicing sound financial policies, invigorating privatization, and pursuing structural reforms. Additionally, strong assistance from international financial institutions - most notably the IMF which approved a three-year Extended Fund Facility worth approximately $900 million in September 1998 - played a critical role in turning the economy around. After several years of tumult, Bulgaria's economy has stabilized. Its better-than-expected economic performance in 1999 - despite the impact of the Kosovo conflict, the 1998 Russian financial crisis, and structural reforms - and strong growth in 2000 portends solid growth over the next few years; this assumes continued fiscal restraint, additional structural reforms, aid from abroad, and prosperous times in the EU economy.
Burkina Faso: One of the poorest countries in the world, landlocked Burkina Faso has a high population density, few natural resources, and a fragile soil. About 90% of the population is engaged in (mainly subsistence) agriculture which is highly vulnerable to variations in rainfall. Industry remains dominated by unprofitable government-controlled corporations. Following the African franc currency devaluation in January 1994 the government updated its development program in conjunction with international agencies, and exports and economic growth have increased. Maintenance of its macroeconomic progress in 2001-02 depends on continued low inflation, reduction in the trade deficit, and reforms designed to encourage private investment.
Burma: Burma has a mixed economy with private activity dominant in agriculture, light industry, and transport, and with substantial state-controlled activity, mainly in energy, heavy industry, and the rice trade. Government policy in the 1990s has aimed at revitalizing the economy after three decades of tight central planning. Private activity markedly increased in the early to mid-1990s, but began to decline in the past several years due to frustrations with the unfriendly business environment and political pressure from western nations. Published estimates of Burma's foreign trade are greatly understated because of the volume of black-market, illicit, and border trade. A major ongoing problem is the failure to achieve monetary and fiscal stability. Burma remains a poor Asian country and living standards for the majority have not improved over the past decade. Short-term growth will continue to be restrained because of poor government planning and minimal foreign investment.
Burundi: Burundi is a landlocked, resource-poor country with an underdeveloped manufacturing sector. The economy is predominantly agricultural with roughly 90% of the population dependent on subsistence agriculture. Its economic health depends on the coffee crop, which accounts for 80% of foreign exchange earnings. The ability to pay for imports therefore rests largely on the vagaries of the climate and the international coffee market. Since October 1993 the nation has suffered from massive ethnic-based violence which has resulted in the death of perhaps 250,000 persons and the displacement of about 800,000 others. Only one in four children go to school, and one in nine adults has HIV/AIDS. Foods, medicines, and electricity remain in short supply.
Cambodia: Cambodia's economy slowed dramatically in 1997-98 due to the regional economic crisis, civil violence, and political infighting. Foreign investment and tourism fell off. In 1999, the first full year of peace in 30 years, progress was made on economic reforms and growth resumed at 4%. GDP growth for 2000 had been projected to reach 5.5%, but the worst flooding in 70 years severely damaged agricultural crops, and high oil prices hurt industrial production, and growth for the year is estimated at only 4%. Tourism is Cambodia's fastest growing industry, with arrivals up 34% in 2000. The long-term development of the economy after decades of war remains a daunting challenge. The population lacks education and productive skills, particularly in the poverty-ridden countryside, which suffers from an almost total lack of basic infrastructure. Fear of renewed political instability and corruption within the government discourage foreign investment and delay foreign aid. On the brighter side, the government is addressing these issues with assistance from bilateral and multilateral donors.
Cameroon: Because of its oil resources and favorable agricultural conditions, Cameroon has one of the best-endowed primary commodity economies in sub-Saharan Africa. Still, it faces many of the serious problems facing other underdeveloped countries, such as a top-heavy civil service and a generally unfavorable climate for business enterprise. Since 1990, the government has embarked on various IMF and World Bank programs designed to spur business investment, increase efficiency in agriculture, improve trade, and recapitalize the nation's banks. In June 2000, the government completed an IMF-sponsored, three-year structural adjustment program; however, the IMF is pressing for more reforms, including increased budget transparency and privatization. Higher oil prices in 2000 helped to offset the country's lower cocoa export revenues. A rebound in the cocoa market should increase growth to over 5% in 2001.
Canada: As an affluent, high-tech industrial society, Canada today closely resembles the US in its market-oriented economic system, pattern of production, and high living standards. Since World War II, the impressive growth of the manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy into one primarily industrial and urban. Real rates of growth have averaged nearly 3.0% since 1993. Unemployment is falling and government budget surpluses are being partially devoted to reducing the large public sector debt. The 1989 US-Canada Free Trade Agreement (FTA) and 1994 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) (which included Mexico) have touched off a dramatic increase in trade and economic integration with the US. With its great natural resources, skilled labor force, and modern capital plant Canada enjoys solid economic prospects. Two shadows loom, the first being the continuing constitutional impasse between English- and French-speaking areas, which has been raising the possibility of a split in the federation. Another long-term concern is the flow south to the US of professional persons lured by higher pay, lower taxes, and the immense high-tech infrastructure.
Cape Verde: Cape Verde's low per capita GDP reflects a poor natural resource base, including serious water shortages exacerbated by cycles of long-term drought. The economy is service-oriented, with commerce, transport, and public services accounting for almost 70% of GDP. Although nearly 70% of the population lives in rural areas, the share of agriculture in GDP in 1998 was only 13%, of which fishing accounts for 1.5%. About 90% of food must be imported. The fishing potential, mostly lobster and tuna, is not fully exploited. Cape Verde annually runs a high trade deficit, financed by foreign aid and remittances from emigrants; remittances constitute a supplement to GDP of more than 20%. Economic reforms, launched by the new democratic government in 1991, are aimed at developing the private sector and attracting foreign investment to diversify the economy. Prospects for 2001 depend heavily on the maintenance of aid flows, remittances, and the momentum of the government's development program.
Cayman Islands: With no direct taxation, the islands are a thriving offshore financial center. More than 40,000 companies were registered in the Cayman Islands as of 1997, including almost 600 banks and trust companies; banking assets exceed $500 billion. A stock exchange was opened in 1997. Tourism is also a mainstay, accounting for about 70% of GDP and 75% of foreign currency earnings. The tourist industry is aimed at the luxury market and caters mainly to visitors from North America. Total tourist arrivals exceeded 1.2 million visitors in 1997. About 90% of the islands' food and consumer goods must be imported. The Caymanians enjoy one of the highest outputs per capita and one of the highest standards of living in the world.
Central African Republic: Subsistence agriculture, together with forestry, remains the backbone of the economy of the Central African Republic (CAR), with more than 70% of the population living in outlying areas. The agricultural sector generates half of GDP. Timber has accounted for about 16% of export earnings and the diamond industry for nearly 54%. Important constraints to economic development include the CAR's landlocked position, a poor transportation system, a largely unskilled work force, and a legacy of misdirected macroeconomic policies. The 50% devaluation of the currencies of 14 Francophone African nations on 12 January 1994 had mixed effects on the CAR's economy. Diamond, timber, coffee, and cotton exports increased, leading an estimated rise of GDP of 7% in 1994 and nearly 5% in 1995. Military rebellions and social unrest in 1996 were accompanied by widespread destruction of property and a drop in GDP of 2%. The IMF approved an Extended Structure Adjustment Facility in 1998 and the World Bank extended further credits in 1999 and approved a $10 million loan in early 2001. The government has set targets of 3.5% GDP growth in 2001 and 2002. As of January 2001, many civil servants were owed as much as 30 months pay, leading them to go on strike and further damaging the economy.
Chad: Landlocked Chad's economic development suffers from its geographic remoteness, drought, lack of infrastructure, and political turmoil. About 85% of the population depends on agriculture, including the herding of livestock. Of Africa's Francophone countries, Chad benefited least from the 50% devaluation of their currencies in January 1994. Financial aid from the World Bank, the African Development Fund, and other sources is directed largely at the improvement of agriculture, especially livestock production. The World Bank's decision to back the Doba oil field development and the Chad-Cameroon pipeline will add Chad to the group of already booming West African oil exporters. However, the rank and file may not benefit much from the oil development projects.
Chile: Chile has a market-oriented economy characterized by a high level of foreign trade. During the early 1990s, Chile's reputation as a role model for economic reform was strengthened when the democratic government of Patricio AYLWIN - which took over from the military in 1990 - deepened the economic reform initiated by the military government. Growth in real GDP averaged 8% during 1991-97, but fell to half that level in 1998 because of tight monetary policies implemented to keep the current account deficit in check and lower export earnings - the latter a product of the global financial crisis. A severe drought exacerbated the recession in 1999, reducing crop yields and causing hydroelectric shortfalls and electricity rationing, and Chile experienced negative economic growth for the first time in more than 15 years. Despite the effects of the recession, Chile maintained its reputation for strong financial institutions and sound policy that have given it the strongest sovereign bond rating in South America. By the end of 1999, exports and economic activity had begun to recover, and growth rebounded to 5.5% in 2000. Unemployment remains stubbornly high, however, putting pressure on President LAGOS to improve living standards. Meanwhile, Chile has launched free trade negotiations with the US.
China: In late 1978 the Chinese leadership began moving the economy from a sluggish Soviet-style centrally planned economy to a more market-oriented system. Whereas the system operates within a political framework of strict Communist control, the economic influence of non-state managers and enterprises has been steadily increasing. The authorities have switched to a system of household responsibility in agriculture in place of the old collectivization, increased the authority of local officials and plant managers in industry, permitted a wide variety of small-scale enterprise in services and light manufacturing, and opened the economy to increased foreign trade and investment. The result has been a quadrupling of GDP since 1978. In 2000, with its 1.26 billion people but a GDP of just $3,600 per capita, China stood as the second largest economy in the world after the US (measured on a purchasing power parity basis). Agricultural output doubled in the 1980s, and industry also posted major gains, especially in coastal areas near Hong Kong and opposite Taiwan, where foreign investment helped spur output of both domestic and export goods. On the darker side, the leadership has often experienced in its hybrid system the worst results of socialism (bureaucracy and lassitude) and of capitalism (windfall gains and stepped-up inflation). Beijing thus has periodically backtracked, retightening central controls at intervals. The government has struggled to (a) collect revenues due from provinces, businesses, and individuals; (b) reduce corruption and other economic crimes; and (c) keep afloat the large state-owned enterprises many of which had been shielded from competition by subsides and had been losing the ability to pay full wages and pensions. From 80 to 120 million surplus rural workers are adrift between the villages and the cities, many subsisting through part-time low-paying jobs. Popular resistance, changes in central policy, and loss of authority by rural cadres have weakened China's population control program, which is essential to maintaining growth in living standards. Another long-term threat to continued rapid economic growth is the deterioration in the environment, notably air pollution, soil erosion, and the steady fall of the water table especially in the north. China continues to lose arable land because of erosion and economic development. Weakness in the global economy in 2001 could hamper growth in exports. Beijing will intensify efforts to stimulate growth through spending on infrastructure--such as water control and power grids--and poverty relief and through rural tax reform aimed at eliminating arbitrary local levies on farmers.
Christmas Island: Phosphate mining had been the only significant economic activity, but in December 1987 the Australian Government closed the mine. In 1991, the mine was reopened by union workers. With the support of the government, Australian-based Casinos Austria International Ltd. built a $34 million casino on Christmas Island, which opened in 1993. As of yearend 1999, gaming facilities at the casino were temporarily closed but were expected to reopen in early 2000. Another economic prospect is the possible location of a space-launching site on the island.
Clipperton Island: Although 115 species of fish have been identified in the territorial waters of Clipperton Island, the only economic activity is tuna fishing.
Cocos (Keeling) Islands: Grown throughout the islands, coconuts are the sole cash crop. Copra and fresh coconuts are the major export earners. Small local gardens and fishing contribute to the food supply, but additional food and most other necessities must be imported from Australia.
Colombia: Colombia is poised for muted growth in the next several years, marking continued recovery from the severe 1999 recession when GDP fell by about 4%. President PASTRANA's well-respected economic team is working to keep the economy on track, maintaining low interest rates, for example. In accordance with its IMF loan agreement, the administration also is taking steps to improve the public sector's fiscal health. However, many challenges to improved prosperity remain. Unemployment was stuck at a record 20% in 2000, contributing to the extreme inequality in income distribution. Two of Colombia's leading exports, oil and coffee, face an uncertain future; new exploration is needed to offset declining oil production, while coffee harvests and prices are depressed. The lack of public security is a key concern for investors, making progress in the government's peace negotiations with insurgent groups an important driver of economic performance. Colombia is looking for continued support from the international community to boost economic and peace prospects.
Comoros: One of the world's poorest countries, Comoros is made up of three islands that have inadequate transportation links, a young and rapidly increasing population, and few natural resources. The low educational level of the labor force contributes to a subsistence level of economic activity, high unemployment, and a heavy dependence on foreign grants and technical assistance. Agriculture, including fishing, hunting, and forestry, is the leading sector of the economy. It contributes 40% to GDP, employs 80% of the labor force, and provides most of the exports. The country is not self-sufficient in food production; rice, the main staple, accounts for the bulk of imports. The government is struggling to upgrade education and technical training, to privatize commercial and industrial enterprises, to improve health services, to diversify exports, to promote tourism, and to reduce the high population growth rate. Continued foreign support is essential if the goal of 4% annual GDP growth is to be met. Remittances from 150,000 Comorans abroad help supplement GDP.
Congo, Democratic Republic of the: The economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo - a nation endowed with vast potential wealth - has declined drastically since the mid-1980s. The new government instituted a tight fiscal policy that initially curbed inflation and currency depreciation, but these small gains were quickly reversed when the foreign-backed rebellion in the eastern part of the country began in August 1998. The war has dramatically reduced national output and government revenue and has increased external debt. Foreign businesses have curtailed operations due to uncertainty about the outcome of the conflict and because of increased government harassment and restrictions. The war has intensified the impact of such basic problems as an uncertain legal framework, corruption, raging inflation, and lack of openness in government economic policy and financial operations. A number of IMF and World Bank missions have met with the government to help it develop a coherent economic plan but associated reforms are on hold.
Congo, Republic of the: The economy is a mixture of village agriculture and handicrafts, an industrial sector based largely on oil, support services, and a government characterized by budget problems and overstaffing. Oil has supplanted forestry as the mainstay of the economy, providing a major share of government revenues and exports. In the early 1980s, rapidly rising oil revenues enabled the government to finance large-scale development projects with GDP growth averaging 5% annually, one of the highest rates in Africa. Moreover, the government has mortgaged a substantial portion of its oil earnings, contributing to the government's shortage of revenues. The 12 January 1994 devaluation of Franc Zone currencies by 50% resulted in inflation of 61% in 1994, but inflation has subsided since. Economic reform efforts continued with the support of international organizations, notably the World Bank and the IMF. The reform program came to a halt in June 1997 when civil war erupted. Denis SASSOU-NGUESSO, who returned to power when the war ended in October 1997, publicly expressed interest in moving forward on economic reforms and privatization and in renewing cooperation with international financial institutions. However, economic progress was badly hurt by slumping oil prices and the resumption of armed conflict in December 1998, which worsened the Republic of the Congo's budget deficit. Even with the IMF's renewed confidence and high world oil prices, Congo is unlikely to realize growth of more than 5% in 2001-02. With the return to fragile peace, the IMF approved a $14 million credit in November 2000 to aid post-conflict reconstruction.
Cook Islands: Like many other South Pacific island nations, the Cook Islands' economic development is hindered by the isolation of the country from foreign markets, the limited size of domestic markets, lack of natural resources, periodic devastation from natural disasters, and inadequate infrastructure. Agriculture provides the economic base with major exports made up of copra and citrus fruit. Manufacturing activities are limited to fruit processing, clothing, and handicrafts. Trade deficits are made up for by remittances from emigrants and by foreign aid, overwhelmingly from New Zealand. In the 1980s and 1990s, the country lived beyond its means, maintaining a bloated public service and accumulating a large foreign debt. Subsequent reforms, including the sale of state assets, the strengthening of economic management, the encouragement of tourism, and a debt restructuring agreement, have rekindled investment and growth.
Coral Sea Islands: no economic activity
Costa Rica: Costa Rica's basically stable economy depends on tourism, agriculture, and electronics exports. Poverty has been substantially reduced over the past 15 years, and a strong social safety net has been put into place. Foreign investors remain attracted by the country's political stability and high education levels, and tourism continues to bring in foreign exchange. However, traditional export sectors have not kept pace. Low coffee prices and an overabundance of bananas have hurt the agricultural sector. The government continues to grapple with its large deficit and massive internal debt and with the need to modernize the state-owned electricity and telecommunications sector.
Cote d'Ivoire: Cote d'Ivoire is among the world's largest producers and exporters of coffee, cocoa beans, and palm oil. Consequently, the economy is highly sensitive to fluctuations in international prices for these products and to weather conditions. Despite government attempts to diversify the economy, it is still largely dependent on agriculture and related activities, which engage roughly 68% of the population. After several years of lagging performance, the Ivorian economy began a comeback in 1994, due to the 50% devaluation of the CFA franc and improved prices for cocoa and coffee, growth in nontraditional primary exports such as pineapples and rubber, limited trade and banking liberalization, offshore oil and gas discoveries, and generous external financing and debt rescheduling by multilateral lenders and France. Moreover, government adherence to donor-mandated reforms led to a jump in growth to 5% annually in 1996-99. Growth was negative in 2000 because of the difficulty of meeting the conditions of international donors, continued low prices of key exports, and post-coup instability. In 2001-02, a moderate rebound in the cocoa market could boost growth back above 3%; however, political instability could impede growth again.
Croatia: Before the dissolution of Yugoslavia, the Republic of Croatia, after Slovenia, was the most prosperous and industrialized area, with a per capita output perhaps one-third above the Yugoslav average. Croatia faces considerable economic problems stemming from: the legacy of longtime communist mismanagement of the economy; damage during the internecine fighting to bridges, factories, power lines, buildings, and houses; the large refugee and displaced population, both Croatian and Bosnian; and the disruption of economic ties. Stepped-up Western aid and investment, especially in the tourist and oil industries, would help bolster the economy. The economy emerged from its mild recession in 2000 with tourism the main factor. Massive unemployment remains a key negative element. The government's failure to press the economic reforms needed to spur growth is largely the result of coalition politics and public resistance, particularly from the trade unions, to measures that would cut jobs, wages, or social benefits.
Cuba: The government, the primary player in the economy, has undertaken limited reforms in recent years to stem excess liquidity, increase enterprise efficiency, and alleviate serious shortages of food, consumer goods, and services, but prioritizing of political control makes extensive reforms unlikely. Living standards for the average Cuban, without access to dollars, remain at a depressed level compared with 1990. The liberalized farmers' markets introduced in 1994, sell above-quota production at market prices, expand legal consumption alternatives, and reduce black market prices. Income taxes and increased regulations introduced since 1996 have sharply reduced the number of legally self-employed from a high of 208,000 in January 1996. Havana announced in 1995 that GDP declined by 35% during 1989-93 as a result of lost Soviet aid and domestic inefficiencies. The slide in GDP came to a halt in 1994 when Cuba reported growth in GDP of 0.7%. Cuba reported that GDP increased by 2.5% in 1995 and 7.8% in 1996, before slowing down in 1997 and 1998 to 2.5% and 1.2% respectively. Growth recovered with a 6.2% increase in GDP in 1999 and a 5.6% increase in 2000. Much of Cuba's recovery can be attributed to tourism revenues and foreign investment. Growth in 2001 should continue at the same level as the government balances the need for economic loosening against its concern for firm political control.
Cyprus: Economic affairs are affected by the division of the country. The Greek Cypriot economy is prosperous but highly susceptible to external shocks. Erratic growth rates in the 1990s reflect the economy's vulnerability to swings in tourist arrivals, caused by political instability on the island and fluctuations in economic conditions in Western Europe. Economic policy is focused on meeting the criteria for admission to the EU. As in the Turkish sector, water shortage is a growing problem, and several desalination plants are planned. The Turkish Cypriot economy has about one-fifth the population and one-third the per capita GDP of the south. Because it is recognized only by Turkey, it has had much difficulty arranging foreign financing, and foreign firms have hesitated to invest there. It remains heavily dependent on agriculture and government service, which together employ about half of the work force. Moreover, the small, vulnerable economy has suffered because the Turkish lira is legal tender. To compensate for the economy's weakness, Turkey provides direct and indirect aid to tourism, education, industry, etc.
Czech Republic: Basically one of the most stable and prosperous of the post-Communist states, the Czech Republic has been recovering from recession since mid-1999. The economy grew about 2.5% in 2000 and should achieve somewhat higher growth in 2001. Growth is led by exports to the EU, especially Germany, and foreign investment, while domestic demand is reviving. Uncomfortably high fiscal and current account deficits could be future problems. Unemployment is down to 8.7% as job creation continues in the rebounding economy; inflation is up to 3.8% but still moderate. The EU put the Czech Republic just behind Poland and Hungary in preparations for accession, which will give further impetus and direction to structural reform. Moves to complete banking, telecommunications and energy privatization will add to foreign investment, while intensified restructuring among large enterprises and banks and improvements in the financial sector should strengthen output growth.
Denmark: This thoroughly modern market economy features high-tech agriculture, up-to-date small-scale and corporate industry, extensive government welfare measures, comfortable living standards, and high dependence on foreign trade. Denmark is a net exporter of food and energy and has a comfortable balance of payments surplus. The center-left coalition government has reduced the formerly high unemployment rate and attained a budget surplus as well as followed the previous government's policies of maintaining low inflation and a stable currency. The coalition has lowered marginal income tax rates and raised environmental taxes thus maintaining overall tax revenues. Problems of bottlenecks, and longer term demographic changes reducing the labor force, are being addressed through labor market reforms. The government has been successful in meeting, and even exceeding, the economic convergence criteria for participating in the third phase (a common European currency) of the European Monetary Union (EMU), but Denmark, in a September 2000 referendum, reconfirmed its decision not to join the 11 other EU members in the euro. Even so, the Danish currency remains pegged to the euro.
Djibouti: The economy is based on service activities connected with the country's strategic location and status as a free trade zone in northeast Africa. Two-thirds of the inhabitants live in the capital city, the remainder being mostly nomadic herders. Scanty rainfall limits crop production to fruits and vegetables, and most food must be imported. Djibouti provides services as both a transit port for the region and an international transshipment and refueling center. It has few natural resources and little industry. The nation is, therefore, heavily dependent on foreign assistance to help support its balance of payments and to finance development projects. An unemployment rate of 40% to 50% continues to be a major problem. Inflation is not a concern, however, because of the fixed tie of the franc to the US dollar. Per capita consumption dropped an estimated 35% over the last seven years because of recession, civil war, and a high population growth rate (including immigrants and refugees). Faced with a multitude of economic difficulties, the government has fallen in arrears on long-term external debt and has been struggling to meet the stipulations of foreign aid donors. The year 2001 will see only small growth as port activity should decrease now that Ethiopia has more trade route options.
Dominica: The economy depends on agriculture and is highly vulnerable to climatic conditions, notably tropical storms. Agriculture, primarily bananas, accounts for 21% of GDP and employs 40% of the labor force. Development of the tourist industry remains difficult because of the rugged coastline, lack of beaches, and the lack of an international airport. Hurricane Luis devastated the country's banana crop in September 1995; tropical storms had wiped out one-quarter of the crop in 1994 as well. The subsequent recovery has been fueled by increases in construction, soap production, and tourist arrivals. The government is attempting to develop an offshore financial industry in order to diversify the island's production base.
Dominican Republic: The Dominican economy experienced dramatic growth over the last decade, even though the economy was hit hard by Hurricane Georges in 1998. Although the country has long been viewed primarily as an exporter of sugar, coffee, and tobacco, in recent years the service sector has overtaken agriculture as the economy's largest employer, due to growth in tourism and free trade zones. The country suffers from marked income inequality; the poorest half of the population receives less than one-fifth of GNP, while the richest ten percent enjoy 40% of national income. In December 2000, the new MEJIA administration passed broad new tax legislation which it hopes will provide enough revenue to offset rising oil prices and to service foreign debt.
Ecuador: Ecuador has substantial oil resources and rich agricultural areas. Because the country exports primary products such as oil, bananas, and shrimp, fluctuations in world market prices can have a substantial domestic impact. Ecuador joined the World Trade Organization in 1996, but has failed to comply with many of its accession commitments. In recent years, growth has been uneven due to ill-conceived fiscal stabilization measures. The aftermath of El Nino and depressed oil market of 1997-98 drove Ecuador's economy into a free-fall in 1999. The beginning of 1999 saw the banking sector collapse, which helped precipitate an unprecedented default on external loans later that year. Continued economic instability drove a 70% depreciation of the currency throughout 1999, which eventually forced a desperate government to "dollarize" the currency regime in 2000. The move stabilized the currency, but did not stave off the ouster of the government. The new president, Gustavo NOBOA has yet to complete negotiations for a long sought IMF accord. He will find it difficult to push through the reforms necessary to make "dollarization" work in the long run.
Egypt: A series of IMF arrangements - along with massive external debt relief resulting from Egypt's participation in the Gulf war coalition - helped Egypt improve its macroeconomic performance during the 1990s. Sound fiscal and monetary policies through the mid-1990s helped to tame inflation, slash budget deficits, and build up foreign reserves, while structural reforms such as privatization and new business legislation prompted increased foreign investment. By mid-1998, however, the pace of structural reform slackened, and lower combined hard currency earnings resulted in pressure on the Egyptian pound and sporadic US dollar shortages. External payments were not in crisis, but Cairo's attempts to curb demand for foreign exchange convinced some investors and currency traders that government financial operations lacked transparency and coordination. Monetary pressures have since eased, however, with the 1999-2000 higher oil prices, a rebound in tourism, and a series of mini-devaluations of the pound. The development of a gas export market is a major plus factor in future growth.
El Salvador: El Salvador is a struggling Central American economy which has been suffering from a weak tax collection system, factory closings, the aftermaths of Hurricane Mitch of 1998 and the devastating earthquakes of early 2001, and weak world coffee prices. On the bright side, in recent years inflation has fallen to single digit levels, and total exports have grown substantially. The trade deficit has been offset by remittances (an estimated $1.6 billion in 2000) from Salvadorans living abroad and by external aid. As of 1 January 2001, the US dollar was made legal tender alongside the colon.
Equatorial Guinea: The discovery and exploitation of large oil reserves have contributed to dramatic economic growth in recent years. Forestry, farming, and fishing are also major components of GDP. Subsistence farming predominates. Although pre-independence Equatorial Guinea counted on cocoa production for hard currency earnings, the deterioration of the rural economy under successive brutal regimes has diminished potential for agriculture-led growth. A number of aid programs sponsored by the World Bank and the IMF have been cut off since 1993 because of the government's gross corruption and mismanagement. Businesses, for the most part, are owned by government officials and their family members. Undeveloped natural resources include titanium, iron ore, manganese, uranium, and alluvial gold. The country responded favorably to the devaluation of the CFA franc in January 1994. Boosts in production and high world oil prices stimulated growth in 2000, with oil accounting for 90% of greatly increased exports.
Eritrea: With independence from Ethiopia on 24 May 1993, Eritrea faced the economic problems of a small, desperately poor country. The economy is largely based on subsistence agriculture, with 80% of the population involved in farming and herding. The small industrial sector consists mainly of light industries with outmoded technologies. Domestic output (GDP) is substantially augmented by worker remittances from abroad. Government revenues come from custom duties and taxes on income and sales. Road construction is a top domestic priority. In the long term, Eritrea may benefit from the development of offshore oil, offshore fishing, and tourism. Eritrea's economic future depends on its ability to master fundamental social and economic problems, e.g., by reducing illiteracy, promoting job creation, expanding technical training, attracting foreign investment, and streamlining the bureaucracy. Eritrea's agriculture over the last two years was severely weakened by war and drought, and many farmlands must wait to be demined. Another major difficulty is the ports, which prior to the war were Ethiopia's preferred outlets but since have seen trade dry up.
Estonia: In 2000, Estonia rebounded from the Russian financial crisis by scaling back its budget and reorienting trade away from Russian markets into EU member states. After GDP shrank 1.1% in 1999, the economy made a strong recovery in 2000, with growth estimated at 6.4% - the highest in Central and Eastern Europe. Estonia joined the World Trade Organization in November 1999 - the second Baltic state to join - and continues its EU accession talks. For 2001, Estonians predict GDP to grow around 6%, inflation of between 4.2%-5.3%, and a balanced budget. Substantial gains were made in completing privatization of Estonia's few remaining large, state-owned companies in 2000, and this momentum is expected to continue in 2001. Estonia hopes to join the EU during the next round of enlargement tentatively set for 2004.
Ethiopia: Ethiopia's economy is based on agriculture, which accounts for half of GDP, 90% of exports, and 80% of total employment. The agricultural sector suffers from frequent periods of drought and poor cultivation practices, and as many as 4.6 million people need food assistance annually. Coffee is critical to the Ethiopian economy, and Ethiopia earned $267 million in 1999 by exporting 105,000 metric tons. According to current estimates, coffee contributes 10% of Ethiopia's GDP. More than 15 million people (25% of the population) derive their livelihood from the coffee sector. Other exports include live animals, hides, gold, and qat. In December 1999, Ethiopia signed a $1.4 billion joint venture deal to develop a huge natural gas field in the Somali Regional State. The war with Eritrea forced the government to spend scarce resources on the military and to scale back ambitious development plans. Foreign investment has declined significantly. Government taxes imposed in late 1999 to raise money for the war depressed an already weak economy. The war forced the government to improve roads and other parts of the previously neglected infrastructure, but only certain regions of the nation benefited. Recovery from the war is mostly contingent on natural factors. A drought has continued into the end of 2000 and food relief is expected to be needed through mid-2001 at least. Ethiopia may receive Highly Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) debt relief by the end of the year.
Europa Island: no economic activity
Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas): The economy was formerly based on agriculture, mainly sheep farming, but today fishing contributes the bulk of economic activity. In 1987 the government began selling fishing licenses to foreign trawlers operating within the Falklands exclusive fishing zone. These license fees total more than $40 million per year, which goes to support the island's health, education, and welfare system. Squid accounts for 75% of the fish taken. Dairy farming supports domestic consumption; crops furnish winter fodder. Exports feature shipments of high-grade wool to the UK and the sale of postage stamps and coins. To encourage tourism, the Falkland Islands Development Corporation has built three lodges for visitors attracted by the abundant wildlife and trout fishing. The islands are now self-financing except for defense. The British Geological Survey announced a 200-mile oil exploration zone around the islands in 1993, and early seismic surveys suggest substantial reserves capable of producing 500,000 barrels per day; to date no exploitable site has been identified. An agreement between Argentina and the UK in 1995 seeks to defuse licensing and sovereignty conflicts that would dampen foreign interest in exploiting potential oil reserves.
Faroe Islands: The Faroese economy has had a strong performance since 1994, mostly as a result of increasing fish landings and high and stable export prices. Unemployment is falling and there are signs of labor shortages in several sectors. The positive economic development has helped the Faroese Home Rule Government produce increasing budget surpluses which in turn help to reduce the large public debt, most of it owed to Denmark. However, the total dependence on fishing makes the Faroese economy extremely vulnerable, and the present fishing efforts appear in excess of what is required to ensure a sustainable level of fishing in the long term. Oil finds close to the Faroese area give hope for deposits in the immediate Faroese area, which may eventually lay the basis for a more diversified economy and thus less dependence on Denmark and Danish economic assistance. Aided by a substantial annual subsidy (15% of GDP) from Denmark, the Faroese have a standard of living not far below the Danes and other Scandinavians.
Fiji: Fiji, endowed with forest, mineral, and fish resources, is one of the most developed of the Pacific island economies, though still with a large subsistence sector. Sugar exports and a growing tourist industry are the major sources of foreign exchange. Sugar processing makes up one-third of industrial activity. Roughly 300,000 tourists visit each year, including thousands of Americans following the start of regularly scheduled non-stop air service from Los Angeles. Fiji's growth slowed in 1997 because the sugar industry suffered from low world prices and rent disputes between farmers and landowners. Drought in 1998 further damaged the sugar industry, but its recovery in 1999 contributed to robust GDP growth. Long-term problems include low investment and uncertain property rights. The political turmoil in Fiji has had a severe impact with the economy shrinking by 8% in 1999 and over 7,000 people losing their jobs. The interim government's 2001 budget is an attempt to attract foreign investment and restart economic activity. The government's ability to manage the budget and fulfill predictions of 4% growth for 2001 will depend on a return to stability, a regaining of investor confidence, and the absence of international sanctions (which could cripple Fiji's sugar and textile industry).
Finland: Finland has a highly industrialized, largely free-market economy, with per capita output roughly that of the UK, France, Germany, and Italy. Its key economic sector is manufacturing - principally the wood, metals, engineering, telecommunications, and electronics industries. Trade is important, with exports equaling more than one-third of GDP. Except for timber and several minerals, Finland depends on imports of raw materials, energy, and some components for manufactured goods. Because of the climate, agricultural development is limited to maintaining self-sufficiency in basic products. Forestry, an important export earner, provides a secondary occupation for the rural population. Rapidly increasing integration with Western Europe - Finland was one of the 11 countries joining the euro monetary system (EMU) on 1 January 1999 - will dominate the economic picture over the next several years. Growth in 2001 will be bolstered by strong private consumption, yet may be 1 or 2 points lower than in 2000, largely because of a weakening in export demand.
France: France is in the midst of transition, from an economy that featured extensive government ownership and intervention to one that relies more on market mechanisms. The government remains dominant in some sectors, particularly power, public transport, and defense industries, but it has been relaxing its control since the mid-1980s. The Socialist-led government has sold off part of its holdings in France Telecom, Air France, Thales, Thomson Multimedia, and the European Aerospace and Defense Company (EADS). The telecommunications sector is gradually being opened to competition. France's leaders remain committed to a capitalism in which they maintain social equity by means of laws, tax policies, and social spending that reduce income disparity and the impact of free markets on public health and welfare. The government has done little to cut generous unemployment and retirement benefits which impose a heavy tax burden and discourage hiring. It has also shied from measures that would dramatically increase the use of stock options and retirement investment plans; such measures would boost the stock market and fast-growing IT firms as well as ease the burden on the pension system, but would disproportionately benefit the rich. In addition to the tax burden, the reduction of the work week to 35-hours has drawn criticism for lowering the competitiveness of French companies.
French Guiana: The economy is tied closely to that of France through subsidies and imports. Besides the French space center at Kourou, fishing and forestry are the most important economic activities. The large reserves of tropical hardwoods, not fully exploited, support an expanding sawmill industry which provides sawn logs for export. Cultivation of crops is limited to the coastal area, where the population is largely concentrated; rice and manioc are the major crops. French Guiana is heavily dependent on imports of food and energy. Unemployment is a serious problem, particularly among younger workers.
French Polynesia: Since 1962, when France stationed military personnel in the region, French Polynesia has changed from a subsistence economy to one in which a high proportion of the work force is either employed by the military or supports the tourist industry. Tourism accounts for about one-fourth of GDP and is a primary source of hard currency earnings. The small manufacturing sector primarily processes agricultural products. The territory benefited from a five-year (1994-98) development agreement with France aimed principally at creating new jobs.
French Southern and Antarctic Lands: Economic activity is limited to servicing meteorological and geophysical research stations and French and other fishing fleets. The fish catches landed on Iles Kerguelen by foreign ships are exported to France and Reunion.
Gabon: Gabon enjoys a per capita income four times that of most nations of sub-Saharan Africa. This has supported a sharp decline in extreme poverty; yet because of high income inequality a large proportion of the population remains poor. Gabon depended on timber and manganese until oil was discovered offshore in the early 1970s. The oil sector now accounts for 50% of GDP. Gabon continues to face fluctuating prices for its oil, timber, manganese, and uranium exports. Despite the abundance of natural wealth, the economy is hobbled by poor fiscal management. In 1992, the fiscal deficit widened to 2.4% of GDP, and Gabon failed to settle arrears on its bilateral debt, leading to a cancellation of rescheduling agreements with official and private creditors. Devaluation of its Francophone currency by 50% on 12 January 1994 sparked a one-time inflationary surge, to 35%; the rate dropped to 6% in 1996. The IMF provided a one-year standby arrangement in 1994-95, a three-year Enhanced Financing Facility (EFF) at near commercial rates beginning in late 1995, and stand-by credit of $119 million in October 2000. Those agreements mandate progress in privatization and fiscal discipline. France provided additional financial support in January 1997 after Gabon had met IMF targets for mid-1996. In 1997, an IMF mission to Gabon criticized the government for overspending on off-budget items, overborrowing from the central bank, and slipping on its schedule for privatization and administrative reform. The rebound of oil prices in 1999-2000 helped growth, but drops in production hampered Gabon from fully realizing potential gains. An expected decline in oil output may lead to contraction in GDP in 2001-02.
Gambia, The: The Gambia has no important mineral or other natural resources and has a limited agricultural base. About 75% of the population depends on crops and livestock for its livelihood. Small-scale manufacturing activity features the processing of peanuts, fish, and hides. Reexport trade normally constitutes a major segment of economic activity, but a 1999 government-imposed preshipment inspection plan, instability of the Gambian dalasi, and the stable political situation in Senegal have drawn some of the reexport trade away from Banjul. The government's 1998 seizure of the private peanut firm Alimenta eliminated the largest purchaser of Gambian groundnuts; the following two marketing seasons have seen significantly lower prices and sales. A decline in tourism from 1999 to 2000 has also held back growth. Unemployment and underemployment rates are extremely high. Shortrun economic progress remains highly dependent on sustained bilateral and multilateral aid, on responsible government economic management as forwarded by IMF technical help and advice, and on expected growth in the construction sector.
Gaza Strip: Economic output in the Gaza Strip - which comes under the responsibility of the Palestinian Authority since the Cairo Agreement of May 1994 - declined perhaps one-third between 1992 and 1996. The downturn was largely the result of Israeli closure policies - the imposition of generalized border closures in response to security incidents in Israel - which disrupted previously established labor and commodity market relationships between Israel and the WBGS (West Bank and Gaza Strip). The most serious negative social effect of this downturn was the emergence of high unemployment; unemployment in the WBGS during the 1980s was generally under 5%; by 1995 it had risen to over 20%. Since 1997 Israel's use of comprehensive closures has decreased and, in 1998, Israel implemented new policies to reduce the impact of closures and other security procedures on the movement of Palestinian goods and labor. These changes fueled an almost three-year long economic recovery in the West Bank and Gaza Strip; real GDP grew by 5% in 1998 and 6% in 1999. Recovery was upended in the last quarter of 2000 with the outbreak of Palestinian violence, which triggered tight Israeli closures of Palestinian self-rule areas and a severe disruption of trade and labor movements.
Georgia: Georgia's economy has traditionally revolved around Black Sea tourism; cultivation of citrus fruits, tea, and grapes; mining of manganese and copper; and output of a small industrial sector producing wine, metals, machinery, chemicals, and textiles. The country imports the bulk of its energy needs, including natural gas and oil products. Its only sizable internal energy resource is hydropower. Despite the severe damage the economy has suffered due to civil strife, Georgia, with the help of the IMF and World Bank, has made substantial economic gains since 1995, increasing GDP growth and slashing inflation. The Georgian economy continues to experience large budget deficits due to a failure to collect tax revenues. Georgia also still suffers from energy shortages; it privatized the distribution network in 1998, and deliveries are steadily improving. The country is pinning its hopes for long-term recovery on the development of an international transportation corridor through the key Black Sea ports of P'ot'i and Bat'umi. The growing trade deficit, continuing problems with tax evasion and corruption, and political uncertainties cloud the short-term economic picture.
Germany: Germany possesses the world's third most technologically powerful economy after the US and Japan, but structural market rigidities - including the substantial non-wage costs of hiring new workers - have made unemployment a long-term, not just a cyclical, problem. Germany's aging population, combined with high unemployment, has pushed social security outlays to a level exceeding contributions from workers. The modernization and integration of the eastern German economy remains a costly long-term problem, with annual transfers from western Germany amounting to roughly $70 billion. Growth picked up to 3% in 2000, largely due to recovering global demand; newly passed business and income tax cuts are expected to keep growth strong in 2001. Corporate restructuring and growing capital markets are transforming the German economy to meet the challenges of European economic integration and globalization in general.
Ghana: Well endowed with natural resources, Ghana has twice the per capita output of the poorer countries in West Africa. Even so, Ghana remains heavily dependent on international financial and technical assistance. Gold, timber, and cocoa production are major sources of foreign exchange. The domestic economy continues to revolve around subsistence agriculture, which accounts for 36% of GDP and employs 60% of the work force, mainly small landholders. In 1995-97, Ghana made mixed progress under a three-year structural adjustment program in cooperation with the IMF. On the minus side, public sector wage increases and regional peacekeeping commitments have led to continued inflationary deficit financing, depreciation of the cedi, and rising public discontent with Ghana's austerity measures. Political uncertainty and a depressed cocoa market led to disappointing growth in 2000. A rebound in the cocoa market should push growth over 4% in 2001-02.
Gibraltar: Gibraltar benefits from an extensive shipping trade, offshore banking, and its position as an international conference center. The British military presence has been sharply reduced and now contributes about 11% to the local economy. The financial sector accounts for 20% of GDP; tourism (almost 6 million visitors in 1998), shipping services fees, and duties on consumer goods also generate revenue. In recent years, Gibraltar has seen major structural change from a public to a private sector economy, but changes in government spending still have a major impact on the level of employment.
Glorioso Islands: no economic activity
Greece: Greece has a mixed capitalist economy with the public sector accounting for about half of GDP. Tourism is a key industry, providing a large portion of GDP and foreign exchange earnings. Greece is a major beneficiary of EU aid, equal to about 4% of GDP. The economy has improved steadily over the last few years, as the government has tightened policy in the run-up to Greece's entry into the EU's Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) on 1 January 2001. In particular, Greece has cut its budget deficit to below 1% of GDP and tightened monetary policy, with the result that inflation fell from 20% in 1990 to 3.1% in 2000. Major challenges remaining include the reduction of unemployment and further restructuring of the economy, including the privatization of some leading state enterprises. Growth, 3.8% in 2000, may fall off to 3%-3.5% in 2001.
Greenland: The economy remains critically dependent on exports of fish and substantial support from the Danish Government, which supplies about half of government revenues. The public sector, including publicly owned enterprises and the municipalities, plays the dominant role in the economy. Despite several interesting hydrocarbon and minerals exploration activities, it will take several years before production can materialize. Tourism is the only sector offering any near-term potential, and even this is limited due to a short season and high costs.
Grenada: In this island economy progress in fiscal reforms and prudent macroeconomic management have kept annual growth steady since 1998. The increase in economic activity has been led by construction and trade. Tourist facilities are being expanded; tourism is the leading foreign exchange earner. Major short-term concerns are the rising fiscal deficit and the deterioration in the external account balance. Grenada shares a common central bank and a common currency with seven other members of the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS).
Guadeloupe: The economy depends on agriculture, tourism, light industry, and services. It also depends on France for large subsidies and imports. Tourism is a key industry, with most tourists from the US; an increasingly large number of cruise ships visit the islands. The traditional sugarcane crop is slowly being replaced by other crops, such as bananas (which now supply about 50% of export earnings), eggplant, and flowers. Other vegetables and root crops are cultivated for local consumption, although Guadeloupe is still dependent on imported food, mainly from France. Light industry features sugar and rum production. Most manufactured goods and fuel are imported. Unemployment is especially high among the young. Hurricanes periodically devastate the economy.
Guam: The economy depends on US military spending, tourism, and the export of fish and handicrafts. Total US grants, wage payments, and procurement outlays amounted to $1 billion in 1998. Over the past 20 years, the tourist industry has grown rapidly, creating a construction boom for new hotels and the expansion of older ones. More than 1 million tourists visit Guam each year. The industry has recently suffered setbacks because of the continuing Japanese slowdown; the Japanese normally make up almost 90% of the tourists. Most food and industrial goods are imported. Guam faces the problem of building up the civilian economic sector to offset the impact of military downsizing.
Guatemala: The agricultural sector accounts for about one-fourth of GDP, two-thirds of exports, and half of the labor force. Coffee, sugar, and bananas are the main products. Former President ARZU (1996-2000) worked to implement a program of economic liberalization and political modernization. The 1996 signing of the peace accords, which ended 36 years of civil war, removed a major obstacle to foreign investment. In 1998, Hurricane Mitch caused relatively little damage to Guatemala compared to its neighbors. Ongoing challenges include increasing government revenues, negotiating further assistance from international donors, and increasing the efficiency and openness of both government and private financial operations. Despite low international prices for Guatemala's main commodities, the economy grew by 3% in 2000 and is forecast to grow by 4% in 2001. Guatemala, along with Honduras and El Salvador, recently concluded a free trade agreement with Mexico and has moved to protect international property rights. However, the PORTILLO administration has undertaken a review of privatizations under the previous administration, thereby creating some uncertainty among investors.
Guernsey: Financial services - banking, fund management, insurance, etc. - account for about 55% of total income in this tiny Channel Island economy. Tourism, manufacturing, and horticulture, mainly tomatoes and cut flowers, have been declining. Light tax and death duties make Guernsey a popular tax haven. The evolving economic integration of the EU nations is changing the rules of the game under which Guernsey operates.
Guinea: Guinea possesses major mineral, hydropower, and agricultural resources, yet remains a poor underdeveloped nation. The country possesses over 30% of the world's bauxite reserves and is the second largest bauxite producer. The mining sector accounted for about 75% of exports in 1999. Long-run improvements in government fiscal arrangements, literacy, and the legal framework are needed if the country is to move out of poverty. The government made encouraging progress in budget management in 1997-99, and reform progress was praised in the World Bank/IMF October 2000 assessment. However, escalating fighting along the Sierra Leonean and Liberian borders will cause major economic disruptions. In addition to direct defense costs, the violence has led to a sharp decline in investor confidence. Foreign mining companies have reduced expatriate staff, while panic buying has created food shortages and inflation in local markets. Real GDP growth is expected to fall to 2% in 2001.
Guinea-Bissau: One of the 20 poorest countries in the world, Guinea-Bissau depends mainly on farming and fishing. Cashew crops have increased remarkably in recent years, and the country now ranks sixth in cashew production. Guinea-Bissau exports fish and seafood along with small amounts of peanuts, palm kernels, and timber. Rice is the major crop and staple food. However, intermittent fighting between Senegalese-backed government troops and a military junta destroyed much of the country's infrastructure and caused widespread damage to the economy in 1998; the civil war led to a 28% drop in GDP that year, with partial recovery in 1999-2000. Before the war, trade reform and price liberalization were the most successful part of the country's structural adjustment program under IMF sponsorship. The tightening of monetary policy and the development of the private sector had also begun to reinvigorate the economy. Because of high costs, the development of petroleum, phosphate, and other mineral resources is not a near-term prospect. However, unexploited offshore oil reserves could provide much-needed revenue in the long run.
Guyana: Severe drought and political turmoil contributed to Guyana's negative growth of -1.8% for 1998 following six straight years of growth of 5% or better. Growth came back to a positive 1.8% in 1999 and 3% in 2000. Underlying growth factors have included expansion in the key agricultural and mining sectors, a more favorable atmosphere for business initiative, a more realistic exchange rate, a moderate inflation rate, and continued support by international organizations. President JAGDEO, the former finance minister, is taking steps to reform the economy, including drafting an investment code and restructuring the inefficient and unresponsive public sector. Problems include a shortage of skilled labor and a deficient infrastructure. The government must persist in efforts to manage its sizable external debt and attract new investment.
Haiti: About 80% of the population lives in abject poverty. Nearly 70% of all Haitians depend on the agriculture sector, which consists mainly of small-scale subsistence farming and employs about two-thirds of the economically active work force. The country has experienced little job creation since the former President PREVAL took office in February 1996, although the informal economy is growing. Following legislative elections in May 2000, fraught with irregularities, international donors - including the US and EU - suspended almost all aid to Haiti. This destabilized the Haitian currency, the gourde, and, combined with a 40% fuel price hike in September, caused widespread price increases. Prices appear to have leveled off in January 2001.
Heard Island and McDonald Islands: no economic activity
Holy See (Vatican City): This unique, noncommercial economy is supported financially by contributions (known as Peter's Pence) from Roman Catholics throughout the world, the sale of postage stamps and tourist mementos, fees for admission to museums, and the sale of publications. The incomes and living standards of lay workers are comparable to, or somewhat better than, those of counterparts who work in the city of Rome.
Honduras: Honduras, one of the poorest countries in the Western Hemisphere, is banking on expanded trade privileges under the Enhanced Caribbean Basin Initiative and on debt relief under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative. While reconstruction from 1998's Hurricane Mitch is at an advanced stage, and the country has met most of its macroeconomic targets, it failed to meet the IMF's goals to liberalize its energy and telecommunications sectors. Economic growth has rebounded nicely since the hurricane and should continue in 2001.
Hong Kong: Hong Kong has a bustling free market economy highly dependent on international trade. Natural resources are limited, and food and raw materials must be imported. Indeed, imports and exports, including reexports, each exceed GDP in dollar value. Even before Hong Kong reverted to Chinese administration on 1 July 1997 it had extensive trade and investment ties with China. Per capita GDP compares with the level in the four big countries of Western Europe. GDP growth averaged a strong 5% in 1989-97. The widespread Asian economic difficulties in 1998 hit this trade-dependent economy quite hard, with GDP down 5%. The economy is undergoing a rapid recovery, with growth of 10% in 2000 to be followed by projected growth of 5% in 2001.
Howland Island: no economic activity
Hungary: Hungary continues to demonstrate strong economic growth and to work toward accession to the European Union. The private sector accounts for over 80% of GDP. Foreign ownership of and investment in Hungarian firms is widespread, with cumulative foreign direct investment totaling $23 billion by 2000. Hungarian sovereign debt was upgraded in 2000 to the second-highest rating among all the Central European transition economies. Inflation - a top economic concern in 2000 - is still high at almost 10%, pushed upward by higher world oil and gas and domestic food prices. Economic reform measures such as health care reform, tax reform, and local government financing have not yet been addressed by the ORBAN government.
Iceland: Iceland's Scandinavian-type economy is basically capitalistic, yet with an extensive welfare system, low unemployment, and remarkably even distribution of income. In the absence of other natural resources (except for abundant hydrothermal and geothermal power), the economy depends heavily on the fishing industry, which provides 70% of export earnings and employs 12% of the work force. The economy remains sensitive to declining fish stocks as well as to drops in world prices for its main exports: fish and fish products, aluminum, and ferrosilicon. The center-right government plans to continue its policies of reducing the budget and current account deficits, limiting foreign borrowing, containing inflation, revising agricultural and fishing policies, diversifying the economy, and privatizing state-owned industries. The government remains opposed to EU membership, primarily because of Icelanders' concern about losing control over their fishing resources. Iceland's economy has been diversifying into manufacturing and service industries in the last decade, and new developments in software production, biotechnology, and financial services are taking place. The tourism sector is also expanding, with the recent trends in ecotourism and whale watching. Growth has been remarkably steady over the past five years at 4%-5%.
India: India's economy encompasses traditional village farming, modern agriculture, handicrafts, a wide range of modern industries, and a multitude of support services. More than a third of the population is too poor to be able to afford an adequate diet. India's international payments position remained strong in 2000 with adequate foreign exchange reserves, moderately depreciating nominal exchange rates, and booming exports of software services. Growth in manufacturing output slowed, and electricity shortages continue in many regions.
Indian Ocean: The Indian Ocean provides major sea routes connecting the Middle East, Africa, and East Asia with Europe and the Americas. It carries a particularly heavy traffic of petroleum and petroleum products from the oilfields of the Persian Gulf and Indonesia. Its fish are of great and growing importance to the bordering countries for domestic consumption and export. Fishing fleets from Russia, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan also exploit the Indian Ocean, mainly for shrimp and tuna. Large reserves of hydrocarbons are being tapped in the offshore areas of Saudi Arabia, Iran, India, and western Australia. An estimated 40% of the world's offshore oil production comes from the Indian Ocean. Beach sands rich in heavy minerals and offshore placer deposits are actively exploited by bordering countries, particularly India, South Africa, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.
Indonesia: Indonesia, a vast polyglot nation, faces severe economic problems, stemming from secessionist movements and the low level of security in the regions, the lack of reliable legal recourse in contract disputes, corruption, weaknesses in the banking system, and strained relations with the IMF. Investor confidence will remain low and few new jobs will be created under these circumstances. Growth of 4.8% in 2000 is not sustainable, being attributable to favorable short-term factors, including high world oil prices, a surge in nonoil exports, and increased domestic demand for consumer durables.
Iran: Iran's economy is a mixture of central planning, state ownership of oil and other large enterprises, village agriculture, and small-scale private trading and service ventures. President KHATAMI has continued to follow the market reform plans of former President RAFSANJANI and has indicated that he will pursue diversification of Iran's oil-reliant economy although he has made little progress toward that goal. The strong oil market in 1996 helped ease financial pressures on Iran and allowed for Tehran's timely debt service payments. Iran's financial situation tightened in 1997 and deteriorated further in 1998 because of lower oil prices. The subsequent zoom in oil prices in 1999-2000 afforded Iran fiscal breathing room but does not solve Iran's structural economic problems, including the encouragement of foreign investment.
Iraq: Iraq's economy is dominated by the oil sector, which has traditionally provided about 95% of foreign exchange earnings. In the 1980s, financial problems caused by massive expenditures in the eight-year war with Iran and damage to oil export facilities by Iran led the government to implement austerity measures, borrow heavily, and later reschedule foreign debt payments; Iraq suffered economic losses of at least $100 billion from the war. After the end of hostilities in 1988, oil exports gradually increased with the construction of new pipelines and restoration of damaged facilities. Iraq's seizure of Kuwait in August 1990, subsequent international economic sanctions, and damage from military action by an international coalition beginning in January 1991 drastically reduced economic activity. Although government policies supporting large military and internal security forces and allocating resources to key supporters of the regime have hurt the economy, implementation of the UN's oil-for-food program in December 1996 has helped improve conditions for the average Iraqi citizen. For the first six, six-month phases of the program, Iraq was allowed to export limited amounts of oil in exchange for food, medicine, and some infrastructure spare parts. In December 1999, the UN Security Council authorized Iraq to export under the program as much oil as required to meet humanitarian needs. Oil exports are now more than three-quarters their prewar level. Per capita food imports have increased significantly, while medical supplies and health care services are steadily improving. Per capita output and living standards are still well below the prewar level, but any estimates have a wide range of error.
Ireland: Ireland is a small, modern, trade-dependent economy with growth averaging a robust 9% in 1995-2000. Agriculture, once the most important sector, is now dwarfed by industry, which accounts for 38% of GDP and about 80% of exports and employs 28% of the labor force. Although exports remain the primary engine for Ireland's robust growth, the economy is also benefiting from a rise in consumer spending and recovery in both construction and business investment. Over the past decade, the Irish government has implemented a series of national economic programs designed to curb inflation, reduce government spending, increase labor force skills, and promote foreign investment. Ireland joined in launching the euro currency system in January 1999 along with 10 other EU nations. The Irish economy is in danger of overheating, with the tight labor market driving up wage demands and inflation.
Israel: Israel has a technologically advanced market economy with substantial government participation. It depends on imports of crude oil, grains, raw materials, and military equipment. Despite limited natural resources, Israel has intensively developed its agricultural and industrial sectors over the past 20 years. Israel is largely self-sufficient in food production except for grains. Cuts diamonds, high-technology equipment, and agricultural products (fruits and vegetables) are the leading exports. Israel usually posts sizable current account deficits, which are covered by large transfer payments from abroad and by foreign loans. Roughly half of the government's external debt is owed to the US, which is its major source of economic and military aid. The influx of Jewish immigrants from the former USSR topped 750,000 during the period 1989-99, bringing the population of Israel from the former Soviet Union to 1 million, one-sixth of the total population, and adding scientific and professional expertise of substantial value for the economy's future. The influx, coupled with the opening of new markets at the end of the Cold War, energized Israel's economy, which grew rapidly in the early 1990s. But growth began moderating in 1996 when the government imposed tighter fiscal and monetary policies and the immigration bonus petered out. Growth was a strong 5.9% in 2000. But the outbreak of Palestinian unrest in late September and the collapse of the BARAK Government - coupled with a cooling off in the high-technology and tourist sectors - undercut the boom and foreshadows a slowdown to 2%-3% in 2001.
Italy: Italy has a diversified industrial economy with roughly the same total and per capita output as France and the UK. This capitalistic economy remains divided into a developed industrial north, dominated by private companies, and a less developed agricultural south, with more than 20% unemployment. Most raw materials needed by industry and more than 75% of energy requirements are imported. Since 1992, Italy has adopted budgets compliant with the requirements of the European Monetary Union (EMU); wage moderation agreements by representatives of government, labor, and employers have helped to bring Italy's inflation into conformity with EMU requirements. Italy's economic performance, however, has lagged behind that of its EU partners and it must work to stimulate employment, promote labor flexibility, reform its expensive pension system, and tackle the informal economy.
Jamaica: Key sectors in this island economy are bauxite (alumina and bauxite account for more than half of exports) and tourism. Since assuming office in 1992, Prime Minister PATTERSON has eliminated most price controls, streamlined tax schedules, and privatized government enterprises. Continued tight monetary and fiscal policies have helped slow inflation - although inflationary pressures are mounting - and stabilize the exchange rate, but have resulted in the slowdown of economic growth (moving from 1.5% in 1992 to 0.5% in 1995). In 1996, GDP showed negative growth (-1.4%) and remained negative through 1999. Serious problems include: high interest rates; increased foreign competition; the weak financial condition of business in general resulting in receiverships or closures and downsizings of companies; the shift in investment portfolios to non-productive, short-term high yield instruments; a pressured, sometimes sliding, exchange rate; a widening merchandise trade deficit; and a growing internal debt for government bailouts to various ailing sectors of the economy, particularly the financial sector. Depressed economic conditions in 1999-2000 led to increased civil unrest, including a mounting crime rate. Jamaica's medium-term prospects will depend upon encouraging investment in the productive sectors, maintaining a competitive exchange rate, stabilizing the labor environment, selling off reacquired firms, and implementing proper fiscal and monetary policies.
Jan Mayen: Jan Mayen is a volcanic island with no exploitable natural resources. Economic activity is limited to providing services for employees of Norway's radio and meteorological stations located on the island.
Japan: Government-industry cooperation, a strong work ethic, mastery of high technology, and a comparatively small defense allocation (1% of GDP) have helped Japan advance with extraordinary rapidity to the rank of second most technologically powerful economy in the world after the US and third largest economy in the world after the US and China. One notable characteristic of the economy is the working together of manufacturers, suppliers, and distributors in closely-knit groups called keiretsu. A second basic feature has been the guarantee of lifetime employment for a substantial portion of the urban labor force. Both features are now eroding. Industry, the most important sector of the economy, is heavily dependent on imported raw materials and fuels. The much smaller agricultural sector is highly subsidized and protected, with crop yields among the highest in the world. Usually self-sufficient in rice, Japan must import about 50% of its requirements of other grain and fodder crops. Japan maintains one of the world's largest fishing fleets and accounts for nearly 15% of the global catch. For three decades overall real economic growth had been spectacular: a 10% average in the 1960s, a 5% average in the 1970s, and a 4% average in the 1980s. Growth slowed markedly in the 1990s largely because of the aftereffects of overinvestment during the late 1980s and contractionary domestic policies intended to wring speculative excesses from the stock and real estate markets. Government efforts to revive economic growth have met little success and were further hampered in late 2000 by the slowing of the US and Asian economies. The crowding of habitable land area and the aging of the population are two major long-run problems. Robotics constitutes a key long-term economic strength, with Japan possessing 410,000 of the world's 720,000 "working robots".
Jarvis Island: no economic activity
Jersey: The economy is based largely on international financial services, agriculture, and tourism. Potatoes, cauliflower, tomatoes, and especially flowers are important export crops, shipped mostly to the UK. The Jersey breed of dairy cattle is known worldwide and represents an important export income earner. Milk products go to the UK and other EU countries. In 1996 the finance sector accounted for about 60% of the island's output. Tourism, another mainstay of the economy, accounts for 24% of GDP. In recent years, the government has encouraged light industry to locate in Jersey, with the result that an electronics industry has developed alongside the traditional manufacturing of knitwear. All raw material and energy requirements are imported, as well as a large share of Jersey's food needs. Light taxes and death duties make the island a popular tax haven.
Johnston Atoll: Economic activity is limited to providing services to US military personnel and contractors located on the island. All food and manufactured goods must be imported.
Jordan: Jordan is a small Arab country with inadequate supplies of water and other natural resources such as oil. The Persian Gulf crisis, which began in August 1990, aggravated Jordan's already serious economic problems, forcing the government to stop most debt payments and suspend rescheduling negotiations. Aid from Gulf Arab states, worker remittances, and trade revenues contracted. Refugees flooded the country, producing serious balance-of-payments problems, stunting GDP growth, and straining government resources. The economy rebounded in 1992, largely due to the influx of capital repatriated by workers returning from the Gulf. After averaging 9% in 1992-95, GDP growth averaged only 1.5% during 1996-99. In an attempt to spur growth, King ABDALLAH has undertaken limited economic reform, including partial privatization of some state-owned enterprises and Jordan's entry in January 2000 into the World Trade Organization (WTrO). Debt, poverty, and unemployment are fundamental ongoing economic problems.
Juan de Nova Island: Up to 12,000 tons of guano are mined per year.
Kazakhstan: Kazakhstan, the second largest of the former Soviet republics in territory, possesses enormous fossil fuel reserves as well as plentiful supplies of other minerals and metals. It also is a large agricultural - livestock and grain - producer. Kazakhstan's industrial sector rests on the extraction and processing of these natural resources and also on a growing machine-building sector specializing in construction equipment, tractors, agricultural machinery, and some defense items. The breakup of the USSR in December 1991 and the collapse of demand for Kazakhstan's traditional heavy industry products resulted in a short-term contraction of the economy, with the steepest annual decline occurring in 1994. In 1995-97, the pace of the government program of economic reform and privatization quickened, resulting in a substantial shifting of assets into the private sector. The Caspian Pipeline Consortium agreement to build a new pipeline from western Kazakhstan's Tengiz oil field to the Black Sea increases prospects for substantially larger oil exports in several years. Kazakhstan's economy again turned downward in 1998 with a 2% decline in GDP due to slumping oil prices and the August financial crisis in Russia. The recovery of international oil prices in 1999, combined with a well-timed tenge devaluation and a bumper grain harvest, pulled the economy out of recession in 2000. Astana has embarked upon an industrial policy designed to diversify the economy away from overdependence on the oil sector by developing light industry.
Kenya: Kenya is well placed to serve as an engine of growth in East Africa, but its economy has been stagnating because of poor management and uneven commitment to reform. In 1993, the government of Kenya implemented a program of economic liberalization and reform that included the removal of import licensing, price controls, and foreign exchange controls. With the support of the World Bank, IMF, and other donors, the reforms led to a brief turnaround in economic performance following a period of negative growth in the early 1990s. Kenya's real GDP grew 5% in 1995 and 4% in 1996, and inflation remained under control. Growth slowed after 1997, averaging only 1.5% in 1997-2000. In 1997, political violence damaged the tourist industry, and Kenya's Enhanced Structural Adjustment Program lapsed due to the government's failure to maintain reform or address public sector corruption. Severe drought in 1999 and 2000 caused water and energy rationing and reduced agricultural sector productivity. A new economic team was put in place in 1999 to revitalize the reform effort, strengthen the civil service, and curb corruption. The IMF and World Bank renewed their support to Kenya in mid-2000, but a number of setbacks to the economic reform program in late 2000 have renewed donor and private sector concern about the government's commitment to sound governance. Long-term barriers to development include electricity shortages, inefficient government dominance of key sectors, endemic corruption, and high population growth.
Kingman Reef: no economic activity
Kiribati: A remote country of 33 scattered coral atolls, Kiribati has few national resources. Commercially viable phosphate deposits were exhausted at the time of independence from the UK in 1979. Copra and fish now represent the bulk of production and exports. The economy has fluctuated widely in recent years. Economic development is constrained by a shortage of skilled workers, weak infrastructure, and remoteness from international markets. Tourism provides more than one-fifth of GDP. The financial sector is at an early stage of development as is the expansion of private sector initiatives. Foreign financial aid, largely from the UK and Japan, is a critical supplement to GDP, equal to 25%-50% of GDP in recent years. Remittances from workers abroad account for more than $5 million each year. Performance in 2000 fell short of the 2.5% growth in 1999, which benefited from increased copra production and exceptionally large revenues from fishing licenses.
Korea, North: North Korea, one of the world's most centrally planned and isolated economies, faces desperate economic conditions. Industrial capital stock is nearly beyond repair as a result of years of underinvestment and spare parts shortages. The nation faces its seventh year of food shortages because of weather-related problems, including major drought in 2000, and chronic shortages of fertilizer and fuel. Massive international food aid deliveries have allowed the regime to escape the major consequence of spreading economic failure, such as mass starvation, but the population remains vulnerable to prolonged malnutrition and deteriorating living conditions. Large-scale military spending eats up resources needed for expanding investment and consumption goods. In 2000, the regime placed emphasis on expanding foreign trade links, embracing modern technology, and attracting foreign investment, but in no way at the expense of relinquishing central control over key national assets or undergoing market-oriented reforms.
Korea, South: As one of the Four Dragons of East Asia, South Korea has achieved an incredible record of growth. Three decades ago GDP per capita was comparable with levels in the poorer countries of Africa and Asia. Today its GDP per capita is seven times India's, 16 times North Korea's, and comparable to the lesser economies of the European Union. This success through the late 1980s was achieved by a system of close government/business ties, including directed credit, import restrictions, sponsorship of specific industries, and a strong labor effort. The government promoted the import of raw materials and technology at the expense of consumer goods and encouraged savings and investment over consumption. The Asian financial crisis of 1997-99 exposed certain longstanding weaknesses in South Korea's development model, including high debt/equity ratios, massive foreign borrowing, and an undisciplined financial sector. By 1999 GDP growth had recovered, reversing the substantial decline of 1998. Seoul has pressed the country's largest business groups to restructure and to strengthen their financial base. Growth in 2001 likely will be a more sustainable rate of 5%.
Kuwait: Kuwait is a small, relatively open economy with proved crude oil reserves of about 94 billion barrels - 10% of world reserves. Petroleum accounts for nearly half of GDP, 90% of export revenues, and 75% of government income. Kuwait's climate limits agricultural development. Consequently, with the exception of fish, it depends almost wholly on food imports. About 75% of potable water must be distilled or imported. Higher oil prices put the FY99/00 budget into a $2 billion surplus. The FY00/01 budget covers only nine months because of a change in the fiscal year. The budget for FY01/02, which begins 1 April, contains higher expenditures for salaries, construction, and other general categories. Kuwait continues its discussions with foreign oil companies to develop fields in the northern part of the country.
Kyrgyzstan: Kyrgyzstan is a small, poor, mountainous country with a predominantly agricultural economy. Cotton, wool, and meat are the main agricultural products and exports. Industrial exports include gold, mercury, uranium, and electricity. Kyrgyzstan has been one of the most progressive countries of the former Soviet Union in carrying out market reforms. Following a successful stabilization program, which lowered inflation from 88% in 1994 to 15% for 1997, attention is turning toward stimulating growth. Much of the government's stock in enterprises has been sold. Drops in production had been severe since the breakup of the Soviet Union in December 1991, but by mid-1995 production began to recover and exports began to increase. Pensioners, unemployed workers, and government workers with salary arrears continue to suffer. Foreign assistance played a substantial role in the country's economic turnaround in 1996-97. Growth was held down to 2.1% in 1998 largely because of the spillover from Russia's economic difficulties, but moved ahead to 3.6% in 1999 and an estimated 5.7% in 2000. The government has adopted a series of measures to combat such persistent problems as excessive external debt, inflation, and inadequate revenue collection.
Laos: The government of Laos - one of the few remaining official communist states - began decentralizing control and encouraging private enterprise in 1986. The results, starting from an extremely low base, were striking - growth averaged 7% during 1988-97. Reform efforts subsequently slowed, and GDP growth dropped an average of 3 percentage points. Because Laos depends heavily on its trade with Thailand, it was damaged by the regional financial crisis beginning in 1997. Government mismanagement deepened the crisis, and from June 1997 to June 1999 the Lao kip lost 87% of its value. Laos' foreign exchange problems peaked in September 1999 when the kip fell from 3,500 kip to the dollar to 9,000 kip to the dollar in a matter of weeks. Now that the currency has stabilized, however, the government seems content to let the current situation persist, despite limited government revenue and foreign exchange reserves. A landlocked country with a primitive infrastructure, Laos has no railroads, a rudimentary road system, and limited external and internal telecommunications. Electricity is available in only a few urban areas. Subsistence agriculture accounts for half of GDP and provides 80% of total employment. For the foreseeable future the economy will continue to depend on aid from the IMF and other international sources; Japan is currently the largest bilateral aid donor; aid from the former USSR/Eastern Europe has been cut sharply.
Latvia: In 2000, Latvia's transitional economy recovered from the 1998 Russian financial crisis, largely due to the SKELE government's budget stringency and a gradual reorientation of exports toward EU countries, lessening Latvia's trade dependency on Russia. Latvia officially joined the World Trade Organization in February 1999 - the first Baltic state to join - and was invited at the Helsinki EU Summit in December 1999 to begin accession talks in early 2000. Unemployment fell to 7.8% in 2000, down from 9.6% in 1999, and 9.2% in 1998. Privatization of large state-owned utilities and the shipping industry faced more delays in 2000, and political instability will continue to delay completion of the privatization process over the next year. Latvia projects 6% GDP growth, 2.5%-3.0% inflation, and a 1.7% fiscal deficit in 2001. Preparing for EU membership over the next few years remains a top foreign policy goal.
Lebanon: The 1975-91 civil war seriously damaged Lebanon's economic infrastructure, cut national output by half, and all but ended Lebanon's position as a Middle Eastern entrepot and banking hub. Peace enabled the central government to restore control in Beirut, begin collecting taxes, and regain access to key port and government facilities. Economic recovery was helped by a financially sound banking system and resilient small- and medium-scale manufacturers. Family remittances, banking services, manufactured and farm exports, and international aid provided the main sources of foreign exchange. Lebanon's economy has made impressive gains since the launch in 1993 of "Horizon 2000," the government's $20 billion reconstruction program. Real GDP grew 8% in 1994, 7% in 1995, 4% per year in 1996 and 1997 but slowed to 2% in 1998, -1% in 1999, and 1% in 2000. Annual inflation fell during the course of the 1990s from more than 100% to 0%, and foreign exchange reserves jumped from $1.4 billion to more than $6 billion. Burgeoning capital inflows have generated foreign payments surpluses, and the Lebanese pound has remained very stable for the past two years. Lebanon has rebuilt much of its war-torn physical and financial infrastructure. Solidere, a $2-billion firm, has managed the reconstruction of Beirut's central business district; the stock market reopened in January 1996; and international banks and insurance companies are returning. The government nonetheless faces serious challenges in the economic arena. It has funded reconstruction by tapping foreign exchange reserves and by borrowing heavily - mostly from domestic banks. The newly re-installed HARIRI government's announced policies fail to address the ever-increasing budgetary deficits and national debt burden. The gap between rich and poor has widened in the 1990s, resulting in grassroots dissatisfaction over the skewed distribution of the reconstruction's benefits.
Lesotho: Small, landlocked, and mountainous, Lesotho's primary natural resource is water. Its economy is based on subsistence agriculture, livestock, and remittances from miners employed in South Africa. The number of such mineworkers has declined steadily over the past several years. A small manufacturing base depends largely on farm products that support the milling, canning, leather, and jute industries. Agricultural products are exported primarily to South Africa. Proceeds from membership in a common customs union with South Africa form the majority of government revenue. Although drought has decreased agricultural activity over the past few years, completion of a major hydropower facility in January 1998 now permits the sale of water to South Africa, generating royalties for Lesotho. The pace of substantial privatization has increased in recent years. In December 1999, the government embarked on a nine-month IMF staff-monitored program aimed at structural adjustment and stabilization of macroeconomic fundamentals. The government is in the process of applying for a three-year successor program with the IMF under its Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility.
Liberia: A civil war in 1989-96 destroyed much of Liberia's economy, especially the infrastructure in and around Monrovia. Many businessmen fled the country, taking capital and expertise with them. Some returned during 1997. Many will not return. Richly endowed with water, mineral resources, forests, and a climate favorable to agriculture, Liberia had been a producer and exporter of basic products, while local manufacturing, mainly foreign owned, had been small in scope. The democratically elected government, installed in August 1997, inherited massive international debts and currently relies on revenues from its maritime registry to provide the bulk of its foreign exchange earnings. The restoration of the infrastructure and the raising of incomes in this ravaged economy depend on the implementation of sound macro- and micro-economic policies of the new government, including the encouragement of foreign investment. Recent growth has been from a low base, and continued growth will require major policy successes.
Libya: The socialist-oriented economy depends primarily upon revenues from the oil sector, which contributes practically all export earnings and about one-quarter of GDP. These oil revenues and a small population give Libya one of the highest per capita GDPs in Africa, but little of this income flows down to the lower orders of society. In this statist society, import restrictions and inefficient resource allocations have led to periodic shortages of basic goods and foodstuffs. The nonoil manufacturing and construction sectors, which account for about 20% of GDP, have expanded from processing mostly agricultural products to include the production of petrochemicals, iron, steel, and aluminum. Climatic conditions and poor soils severely limit agricultural output, and Libya imports about 75% of its food requirements. Higher oil prices in 1999 and 2000 led to an increase in export revenues, which improved macroeconomic balances and helped to stimulate the economy. Following the suspension of UN sanctions in 1999, Libya has been trying to increase its attractiveness to foreign investors, and several foreign companies have visited in search of contracts.
Liechtenstein: Despite its small size and limited natural resources, Liechtenstein has developed into a prosperous, highly industrialized, free-enterprise economy with a vital financial service sector and living standards on a par with the urban areas of its large European neighbors. Low business taxes - the maximum tax rate is 18% - and easy incorporation rules have induced 73,700 holding or so-called letter box companies to establish nominal offices in Liechtenstein, providing 30% of state revenues. The country participates in a customs union with Switzerland and uses the Swiss franc as its national currency. It imports more than 90% of its energy requirements. Liechtenstein has been a member of the European Economic Area (an organization serving as a bridge between European Free Trade Association (EFTA) and EU) since May 1995. The government is working to harmonize its economic policies with those of an integrated Europe.
Lithuania: Lithuania, the Baltic state that has conducted the most trade with Russia, has been slowly rebounding from the 1998 Russian financial crisis. High unemployment and weak consumption have held back recovery. GDP growth for 2000 - estimated at 2.9% - fell behind that of Estonia and Latvia, and unemployment is estimated at 10.8%, the country's highest since regaining independence in 1990. For 2001, Lithuanians forecast 3.2% growth, 1.8% inflation, and a fiscal deficit of 3.3%. In early 2001, the Lithuanian Government announced that it will repeg its currency, the litas, to the euro (the litas is currently pegged to the dollar) some time in 2002. Lithuania must ratify 25 agreements along with other legal documents and obligations by 1 May 2001 before gaining World Trade Organization membership. Lithuania was invited to the Helsinki summit in December 1999 and began EU accession talks in early 2000. Privatization of the large, state-owned utilities, particularly in the energy sector, remains a key challenge for 2001.
Luxembourg: The stable, high-income economy features solid growth, low inflation, and low unemployment. The industrial sector, initially dominated by steel, has become increasingly diversified to include chemicals, rubber, and other products. Growth in the financial sector has more than compensated for the decline in steel. Services, especially banking, account for a substantial proportion of the economy. Agriculture is based on small family-owned farms. The economy depends on foreign and trans-border workers for 30% of its labor force. Luxembourg has a custom union with Belgium and the Netherlands, and, as a member of the EU, enjoys the advantages of the open European market. It joined with 10 other EU members to launch the euro on 1 January 1999.
Macau: The economy is based largely on tourism (including gambling) and textile and fireworks manufacturing. Efforts to diversify have spawned other small industries - toys, artificial flowers, and electronics. The tourist sector has accounted for roughly 25% of GDP, and the clothing industry has provided about three-fourths of export earnings; the gambling industry probably represents over 40% of GDP. More than 8 million tourists visited Macau in 2000. Macau depends on China for most of its food, fresh water, and energy imports. Japan and Hong Kong are the main suppliers of raw materials and capital goods. Output dropped 5% in 1998 and 3% in 1999, with a small 2% gain in 2000. Macau reverted to Chinese administration on 20 December 1999. Gang violence, a dark spot in the economy, probably will be reduced in 2000-01 to the advantage of the tourism sector.
Macedonia, The Former Yugoslav Republic of: At independence in November 1991, Macedonia was the least developed of the Yugoslav republics, producing a mere 5% of the total federal output of goods and services. The collapse of Yugoslavia ended transfer payments from the center and eliminated advantages from inclusion in a de facto free trade area. An absence of infrastructure, UN sanctions on its largest market Yugoslavia, and a Greek economic embargo hindered economic growth until 1996. GDP has subsequently increased each year, rising by 5% in 2000. Successful privatization in 2000 boosted the country's reserves to over $700 million. Also, the leadership demonstrated a continuing commitment to economic reform, free trade, and regional integration. Inflation jumped to 11% in 2000, largely due to higher oil prices.
Madagascar: Madagascar faces problems of chronic malnutrition, underfunded health and education facilities, a roughly 3% annual population growth rate, and severe loss of forest cover, accompanied by erosion. Agriculture, including fishing and forestry, is the mainstay of the economy, accounting for 30% of GDP and contributing more than 70% to export earnings. Industry features textile manufacturing and the processing of agricultural products. Growth in output in 1992-97 averaged less than the growth rate of the population. Growth has been held back by antigovernment strikes and demonstrations, a decline in world coffee prices, and the erratic commitment of the government to economic reform. The extent of government reforms, outside financial aid, and foreign investment will be key determinants of future growth. For 2001, growth should again be about 5%.
Malawi: Landlocked Malawi ranks among the world's least developed countries. The economy is predominately agricultural, with about 90% of the population living in rural areas. Agriculture accounts for 37% of GDP and 85% of export revenues. The economy depends on substantial inflows of economic assistance from the IMF, the World Bank, and individual donor nations. In late 2000, Malawi was approved for relief under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) program. The government faces strong challenges, e.g., to fully develop a market economy, to improve educational facilities, to face up to environmental problems, and to deal with the rapidly growing problem of HIV/AIDS.
Malaysia: GDP grew at 8.6% in 2000, mainly on the strength of double-digit export growth and continued government fiscal stimulus. As an oil exporter, Malaysia also benefited from higher petroleum prices. Higher export revenues allowed the country to register a current account surplus, but foreign exchange reserves have been declining - from a peak of $34.5 billion in April 2000 to $29.7 billion by December - as foreign investors pulled money out of the country. Despite this development, Kuala Lumpur is unlikely to abandon its currency peg soon. An economic slowdown in key Western markets, especially the United States, and lower world demand for electronics products will slow GDP growth to 3%-6% in 2001, according to private forecasters. Over the longer term, Malaysia's failure to make substantial progress on key reforms of the corporate and financial sectors clouds prospects for sustained growth and the return of critical foreign investment.
Maldives: Tourism, Maldives largest industry, accounts for 20% of GDP and more than 60% of the Maldives' foreign exchange receipts. Over 90% of government tax revenue comes from import duties and tourism-related taxes. Almost 400,000 tourists visited the islands in 1998. Fishing is a second leading sector. The Maldivian Government began an economic reform program in 1989 initially by lifting import quotas and opening some exports to the private sector. Subsequently, it has liberalized regulations to allow more foreign investment. Agriculture and manufacturing continue to play a minor role in the economy, constrained by the limited availability of cultivable land and the shortage of domestic labor. Most staple foods must be imported. Industry, which consists mainly of garment production, boat building, and handicrafts, accounts for about 18% of GDP. Maldivian authorities worry about the impact of erosion and possible global warming on their low-lying country; 80% of the area is one meter or less above sea level.
Mali: Mali is among the poorest countries in the world, with 65% of its land area desert or semidesert. Economic activity is largely confined to the riverine area irrigated by the Niger. About 10% of the population is nomadic and some 80% of the labor force is engaged in farming and fishing. Industrial activity is concentrated on processing farm commodities. Mali is heavily dependent on foreign aid and vulnerable to fluctuations in world prices for cotton, its main export. In 1997, the government continued its successful implementation of an IMF-recommended structural adjustment program that is helping the economy grow, diversify, and attract foreign investment. Mali's adherence to economic reform and the 50% devaluation of the African franc in January 1994 have pushed up economic growth to a sturdy 5% average in 1996-2000. Growth should remain around 5% in 2001-02, and inflation should stay less than 2%.
Malta: Major resources are limestone, a favorable geographic location, and a productive labor force. Malta produces only about 20% of its food needs, has limited freshwater supplies, and has no domestic energy sources. The economy is dependent on foreign trade, manufacturing (especially electronics and textiles), and tourism. Malta is privatizing state-controlled firms and liberalizing markets in order to prepare for membership in the European Union. However, the island is divided politically over the question of joining the EU. The sizable budget deficit remains a key concern.
Man, Isle of: Offshore banking, manufacturing, and tourism are key sectors of the economy. The government's policy of offering incentives to high-technology companies and financial institutions to locate on the island has paid off in expanding employment opportunities in high-income industries. As a result, agriculture and fishing, once the mainstays of the economy, have declined in their shares of GDP. Banking and other services now contribute 42% to GDP. Trade is mostly with the UK. The Isle of Man enjoys free access to EU markets.
Marshall Islands: US Government assistance is the mainstay of this tiny island economy. Agricultural production is concentrated on small farms, and the most important commercial crops are coconuts, tomatoes, melons, and breadfruit. Small-scale industry is limited to handicrafts, fish processing, and copra. The tourist industry, now a small source of foreign exchange employing less than 10% of the labor force, remains the best hope for future added income. The islands have few natural resources, and imports far exceed exports. Under the terms of the Compact of Free Association, the US provides roughly $65 million in annual aid. Negotiations were underway in 1999 for an extended agreement. Government downsizing, drought, a drop in construction, and the decline in tourism and foreign investment due to the Asian financial difficulties caused GDP to fall in 1996-98.
Martinique: The economy is based on sugarcane, bananas, tourism, and light industry. Agriculture accounts for about 6% of GDP and the small industrial sector for 11%. Sugar production has declined, with most of the sugarcane now used for the production of rum. Banana exports are increasing, going mostly to France. The bulk of meat, vegetable, and grain requirements must be imported, contributing to a chronic trade deficit that requires large annual transfers of aid from France. Tourism has become more important than agricultural exports as a source of foreign exchange. The majority of the work force is employed in the service sector and in administration.
Mauritania: A majority of the population still depends on agriculture and livestock for a livelihood, even though most of the nomads and many subsistence farmers were forced into the cities by recurrent droughts in the 1970s and 1980s. Mauritania has extensive deposits of iron ore, which account for half of total exports. The decline in world demand for this ore, however, has led to cutbacks in production. The nation's coastal waters are among the richest fishing areas in the world, but overexploitation by foreigners threatens this key source of revenue. The country's first deepwater port opened near Nouakchott in 1986. In the past, drought and economic mismanagement have resulted in a buildup of foreign debt. In March 1999, the government signed an agreement with a joint World Bank-IMF mission on a $54 million enhanced structural adjustment facility (ESAF). Mauritania withdrew its membership in the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) in 2000. Privatization and debt relief are in full swing, and the rate of economic growth appears to be accelerating, especially in the construction, telecommunication, and information sectors. Diamonds and petroleum are beginning to be explored and exploited.
Mauritius: Since independence in 1968, Mauritius has developed from a low-income, agriculturally based economy to a middle-income diversified economy with growing industrial, financial, and tourist sectors. For most of the period, annual growth has been in the order of 5% to 6%. This remarkable achievement has been reflected in increased life expectancy, lowered infant mortality, and a much-improved infrastructure. Sugarcane is grown on about 90% of the cultivated land area and accounts for 25% of export earnings. The government's development strategy centers on foreign investment. Mauritius has attracted more than 9,000 offshore entities, many aimed at commerce in India and South Africa, and investment in the banking sector alone has reached over $1 billion. Economic performance since 1991 has continued strong with solid growth and low unemployment.
Mayotte: Economic activity is based primarily on the agricultural sector, including fishing and livestock raising. Mayotte is not self-sufficient and must import a large portion of its food requirements, mainly from France. The economy and future development of the island are heavily dependent on French financial assistance, an important supplement to GDP. Mayotte's remote location is an obstacle to the development of tourism.
Mexico: Mexico has a free market economy with a mixture of modern and outmoded industry and agriculture, increasingly dominated by the private sector. The number of state-owned enterprises in Mexico has fallen from more than 1,000 in 1982 to fewer than 200 in 2000. The ZEDILLO administration privatized and expanded competition in seaports, railroads, telecommunications, electricity, natural gas distribution, and airports. A strong export sector helped to cushion the economy's decline in 1995 and led the recovery in 1996-2000. Private consumption became the leading driver of growth in 2000, accompanied by increased employment and higher real wages. Mexico still needs to overcome many structural problems as it strives to modernize its economy and raise living standards. Income distribution is very unequal, with the top 20% of income earners accounting for 55% of income. Trade with the US and Canada has tripled since NAFTA was implemented in 1994. Mexico completed free trade agreements with the EU, Israel, El Salvador, Honduras, and Guatemala in 2000, and is pursuing additional trade agreements with countries in Latin America and Asia to lessen its dependence on the US.
Micronesia, Federated States of: Economic activity consists primarily of subsistence farming and fishing. The islands have few mineral deposits worth exploiting, except for high-grade phosphate. The potential for a tourist industry exists, but the remoteness of the location and a lack of adequate facilities hinder development. In 1996, the country experienced a 20% reduction in revenues from the Compact of Free Association - the agreement between the US and Micronesia in which Micronesia receives $1.3 billion in financial and technical assistance over a 15-year period until 2001 - as a result of the second step-down under the agreement. Since these revenues accounted for 57% of consolidated government revenues, reduced Compact funding resulted in a severe depression. While Micronesia's economy appears to have bottomed out in 1999, the country's medium-term economic outlook remains fragile due to likely further reductions in external grants made under the US Compact funding. Geographical isolation and a poorly developed infrastructure remain major impediments to long-term growth.
Midway Islands: The economy is based on providing support services for the national wildlife refuge activities located on the islands. All food and manufactured goods must be imported.
Moldova: Moldova enjoys a favorable climate and good farmland but has no major mineral deposits. As a result, the economy depends heavily on agriculture, featuring fruits, vegetables, wine, and tobacco. Moldova must import all of its supplies of oil, coal, and natural gas, largely from Russia. Energy shortages contributed to sharp production declines after the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991. As part of an ambitious reform effort, Moldova introduced a convertible currency, freed all prices, stopped issuing preferential credits to state enterprises, backed steady land privatization, removed export controls, and freed interest rates. Yet these efforts could not offset the impact of political and economic difficulties, both internal and regional. In 1998, the economic troubles of Russia, by far Moldova's leading trade partner, were a major cause of the 8.6% drop in GDP. In 1999, GDP fell again, by 4.4%, the fifth drop in the past seven years; exports were down, and energy supplies continued to be erratic. GDP declined slightly in 2000, with a serious drought hurting agriculture. Growth should turn positive in 2001.
Monaco: Monaco, situated on the French Mediterranean coast, is a popular resort, attracting tourists to its casino and pleasant climate. The Principality has successfully sought to diversify into services and small, high-value-added, nonpolluting industries. The state has no income tax and low business taxes and thrives as a tax haven both for individuals who have established residence and for foreign companies that have set up businesses and offices. The state retains monopolies in a number of sectors, including tobacco, the telephone network, and the postal service. Living standards are high, roughly comparable to those in prosperous French metropolitan areas. Monaco does not publish national income figures; the estimates below are extremely rough.
Mongolia: Economic activity traditionally has been based on agriculture and breeding of livestock. Mongolia also has extensive mineral deposits: copper, coal, molybdenum, tin, tungsten, and gold account for a large part of industrial production. Soviet assistance, at its height one-third of GDP, disappeared almost overnight in 1990-91, at the time of the dismantlement of the USSR. Mongolia was driven into deep recession, which was prolonged by the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party's (MPRP) reluctance to undertake serious economic reform. The Democratic Coalition (DC) government has embraced free-market economics, easing price controls, liberalizing domestic and international trade, and attempting to restructure the banking system and the energy sector. Major domestic privatization programs were undertaken, as well as the fostering of foreign investment through international tender of the oil distribution company, a leading cashmere company, and banks. Reform was held back by the ex-communist MPRP opposition and by the political instability brought about through four successive governments under the DC. Economic growth picked up in 1997-99 after stalling in 1996 due to a series of natural disasters and declines in world prices of copper and cashmere. In August and September 1999, the economy suffered from a temporary Russian ban on exports of oil and oil products, and Mongolia remains vulnerable in this sector. Mongolia joined the World Trade Organization (WTrO) in 1997. The international donor community pledged over $300 million per year at the last Consultative Group Meeting, held in Ulaanbaatar in June 1999. The MPRP government, elected in July 2000, is anxious to improve the investment climate; it must also deal with a heavy burden of external debt.
Montserrat: Severe volcanic activity, which began in July 1995, has put a damper on this small, open economy. A catastrophic eruption in June 1997 closed the airports and seaports, causing further economic and social dislocation. Two-thirds of the 12,000 inhabitants fled the island. Some began to return in 1998, but lack of housing limited the number. The agriculture sector continued to be affected by the lack of suitable land for farming and the destruction of crops. Prospects for the economy depend largely on developments in relation to the volcano and on public sector construction activity. The UK committed to a three year $125 million aid program in 1999 to help reconstruct the economy.
Morocco: Morocco faces the problems typical of developing countries - restraining government spending, reducing constraints on private activity and foreign trade, and achieving sustainable economic growth. Following structural adjustment programs supported by the IMF, World Bank, and the Paris Club, the dirham is now fully convertible for current account transactions, and reforms of the financial sector have been implemented. Drought conditions depressed activity in the key agricultural sector and contributed to a stagnant economy in 1999 and 2000. During that time, however, Morocco reported large foreign exchange inflows from the sale of a mobile telephone license and partial privatization of the state-owned telecommunications company. Favorable rainfalls have led Morocco to predict a growth of 1% for 2001. Formidable long-term challenges include: servicing the external debt; preparing the economy for freer trade with the EU; and improving education and attracting foreign investment to boost living standards and job prospects for Morocco's youthful population.
Mozambique: Before the peace accord of October 1992, Mozambique's economy was devastated by a protracted civil war and socialist mismanagement. In 1994, it ranked as one of the poorest countries in the world. Since then, Mozambique has undertaken a series of economic reforms. Almost all aspects of the economy have been liberalized to some extent. More than 900 state enterprises have been privatized. A value-added tax, introduced in 1999, launched the government's comprehensive tax reform program. Pending are much needed commercial code reform and greater private sector involvement in the transportation, telecommunications, and energy sectors. Since 1996, inflation has been low and foreign exchange rates relatively stable. Albeit from a small base, Mozambique's economy grew at an annual 10% rate in 1997-99, one of the highest growth rates in the world. Growth slowed and inflation rose in 2000 due to devastating flooding in the early part of the year. Both indicators should recover in 2001. The country depends on foreign assistance to balance the budget and to pay for a trade imbalance in which imports greatly outnumber exports. The trade situation should improve in the medium term, however, as trade and transportation links to South Africa and the rest of the region have been improved and sizeable foreign investments are beginning to materialize. Among these investments are metal production (aluminum, steel), natural gas, power generation, agriculture, fishing, timber, and transportation services. Mozambique has received a formal cancellation of a large portion of its external debt through an IMF initiative and is scheduled to receive additional relief.
Namibia: The economy is heavily dependent on the extraction and processing of minerals for export. Mining accounts for 20% of GDP. Namibia is the fourth-largest exporter of nonfuel minerals in Africa and the world's fifth-largest producer of uranium. Rich alluvial diamond deposits make Namibia a primary source for gem-quality diamonds. Namibia also produces large quantities of lead, zinc, tin, silver, and tungsten. Half of the population depends on agriculture (largely subsistence agriculture) for its livelihood. Namibia must import some of its food. Although per capita GDP is four times the per capita GDP of Africa's poorer countries, the majority of Namibia's people live in pronounced poverty because of large-scale unemployment, the great inequality of income distribution, and the large amount of wealth going to foreigners. The Namibian economy has close links to South Africa. GDP growth in 2000 was led by gains in the diamond and fish sectors. Agreement has been reached on the privatization of several more enterprises in coming years, which should stimulate long-run foreign investment. Growth in 2001 could be 5.5% provided the world economy remains stable.
Nauru: Revenues of this tiny island have come from exports of phosphates, but reserves are expected to be exhausted within five to ten years. Phosphate production has declined since 1989, as demand has fallen in traditional markets and as the marginal cost of extracting the remaining phosphate increases, making it less internationally competitive. While phosphates have given Nauruans one of the highest per capita incomes in the Third World, few other resources exist with most necessities being imported, including fresh water from Australia. The rehabilitation of mined land and the replacement of income from phosphates are serious long-term problems. In anticipation of the exhaustion of Nauru's phosphate deposits, substantial amounts of phosphate income have been invested in trust funds to help cushion the transition and provide for Nauru's economic future. The government has been borrowing heavily from the trusts to finance fiscal deficits. To cut costs the government has called for a freezing of wages, a reduction of over-staffed public service departments, privatization of numerous government agencies, and closure of some overseas consulates. In recent years Nauru has encouraged the registration of offshore banks and corporations. Tens of billions of dollars have been channeled through their accounts. Few comprehensive statistics on the Nauru economy exist, with estimates of Nauru's per capita GDP varying widely.
Navassa Island: no economic activity
Nepal: Nepal is among the poorest and least developed countries in the world with nearly half of its population living below the poverty line. Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy, providing a livelihood for over 80% of the population and accounting for 41% of GDP. Industrial activity mainly involves the processing of agricultural produce including jute, sugarcane, tobacco, and grain. Production of textiles and carpets has expanded recently and accounted for about 80% of foreign exchange earnings in the past three years. Agricultural production is growing by about 5% on average as compared with annual population growth of 2.3%. Since May 1991, the government has been moving forward with economic reforms, particularly those that encourage trade and foreign investment, e.g., by reducing business licenses and registration requirements in order to simplify investment procedures. The government has also been cutting expenditures by reducing subsidies, privatizing state industries, and laying off civil servants. More recently, however, political instability - five different governments over the past few years - has hampered Kathmandu's ability to forge consensus to implement key economic reforms. Nepal has considerable scope for accelerating economic growth by exploiting its potential in hydropower and tourism, areas of recent foreign investment interest. Prospects for foreign trade or investment in other sectors will remain poor, however, because of the small size of the economy, its technological backwardness, its remoteness, its landlocked geographic location, and its susceptibility to natural disaster. The international community's role of funding more than 60% of Nepal's development budget and more than 28% of total budgetary expenditures will likely continue as a major ingredient of growth.
Netherlands: The Netherlands is a prosperous and open economy depending heavily on foreign trade. The economy is noted for stable industrial relations, moderate inflation, a sizable current account surplus, and an important role as a European transportation hub. Industrial activity is predominantly in food processing, chemicals, petroleum refining, and electrical machinery. A highly mechanized agricultural sector employs no more than 4% of the labor force but provides large surpluses for the food-processing industry and for exports. The Dutch rank third worldwide in value of agricultural exports, behind the US and France. The Dutch economy has expanded by 3% or more in each of the last four years and real GDP growth is likely to be about 3.6% in 2001. The government in 2001 will implement its most comprehensive tax reform since World War II, designed to reduce high income tax levels and redirect the fiscal burden onto consumption. The Dutch were among the first 11 EU countries establishing the euro currency zone on 1 January 1999.
Netherlands Antilles: Tourism, petroleum refining, and offshore finance are the mainstays of this small economy, which is closely tied to the outside world. Although GDP has declined slightly in each of the past five years, the islands enjoy a high per capita income and a well-developed infrastructure as compared with other countries in the region. Almost all consumer and capital goods are imported, with Venezuela, the US, and Mexico being the major suppliers. Poor soils and inadequate water supplies hamper the development of agriculture.
New Caledonia: New Caledonia has more than 20% of the world's known nickel resources. In recent years, the economy has suffered because of depressed international demand for nickel, the principal source of export earnings. Only a negligible amount of the land is suitable for cultivation, and food accounts for about 20% of imports. In addition to nickel, the substantial financial support from France and tourism are keys to the health of the economy. The situation in 1998 was clouded by the spillover of financial problems in East Asia and by lower prices for nickel. Nickel prices jumped in 1999-2000, and large additions were made to capacity. French Government interests in the New Caledonian nickel industry are being transferred to local ownership.
New Zealand: Since 1984 the government has accomplished major economic restructuring, moving an agrarian economy dependent on concessionary British market access toward a more industrialized, free market economy that can compete globally. This dynamic growth has boosted real incomes, broadened and deepened the technological capabilities of the industrial sector, and contained inflationary pressures. Inflation remains among the lowest in the industrial world. Per capita GDP has been moving up toward the levels of the big West European economies. New Zealand's heavy dependence on trade leaves its growth prospects vulnerable to economic performance in Asia, Europe, and the US. With the FY00/01 budget pushing up pension and other public outlays, the government's ability to meet fiscal targets will depend on sustained economic growth.
Nicaragua: Nicaragua, one of the hemisphere's poorest countries, faces low per capita income, flagging socio-economic indicators, and huge external debt. While the country has made progress toward macro-economic stabilization over the past few years, a banking crisis and scandal has shaken the economy. Managua will continue to be dependent on international aid and debt relief under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative. Donors have made aid conditional on improving governability, the openness of government financial operation, poverty alleviation, and human rights. Nicaragua met the conditions for additional debt service relief in December 2000. Growth should remain moderate to high in 2001.
Niger: Niger is a poor, landlocked Sub-Saharan nation, whose economy centers on subsistence agriculture, animal husbandry, reexport trade, and increasingly less on uranium, because of declining world demand. The 50% devaluation of the West African franc in January 1994 boosted exports of livestock, cowpeas, onions, and the products of Niger's small cotton industry. The government relies on bilateral and multilateral aid - which was suspended following the April 1999 coup d'etat - for operating expenses and public investment. In 2000, the World Bank approved a structural adjustment loan of $35 million to help support fiscal reforms. However, reforms could prove difficult given the government's bleak financial situation.
Nigeria: The oil-rich Nigerian economy, long hobbled by political instability, corruption, and poor macroeconomic management, is undergoing substantial economic reform under the new civilian administration. Nigeria's former military rulers failed to diversify the economy away from overdependence on the capital-intensive oil sector, which provides 20% of GDP, 95% of foreign exchange earnings, and about 65% of budgetary revenues. The largely subsistence agricultural sector has failed to keep up with rapid population growth, and Nigeria, once a large net exporter of food, now must import food. Following the signing of an IMF stand-by agreement in August 2000, Nigeria received a debt-restructuring deal from the Paris Club and a $1 billion loan from the IMF, both contingent on economic reforms. Increases in foreign investment and oil production combined with high world oil prices should push growth over 4% in 2001-02.
Niue: Government expenditures regularly exceed revenues, and the shortfall is made up by critically needed grants from New Zealand that are used to pay wages to public employees. Niue has cut government expenditures by reducing the public service by almost half. The agricultural sector consists mainly of subsistence gardening, although some cash crops are grown for export. Industry consists primarily of small factories to process passion fruit, lime oil, honey, and coconut cream. The sale of postage stamps to foreign collectors is an important source of revenue. The island in recent years has suffered a serious loss of population because of migration of Niueans to New Zealand. Efforts to increase GDP include the promotion of tourism and a financial services industry.
Norfolk Island: Tourism, the primary economic activity, has steadily increased over the years and has brought a level of prosperity unusual among inhabitants of the Pacific islands. The agricultural sector has become self-sufficient in the production of beef, poultry, and eggs.
Northern Mariana Islands: The economy benefits substantially from financial assistance from the US. The rate of funding has declined as locally generated government revenues have grown. The key tourist industry employs about 50% of the work force and accounts for roughly one-fourth of GDP. Japanese tourists predominate. Annual tourist entries have exceeded one-half million in recent years, but financial difficulties in Japan have caused a temporary slowdown. The agricultural sector is made up of cattle ranches and small farms producing coconuts, breadfruit, tomatoes, and melons. Garment production is by far the most important industry with employment of 12,000 mostly Chinese workers and sizable shipments to the US under duty and quota exemptions.
Norway: The Norwegian economy is a prosperous bastion of welfare capitalism, featuring a combination of free market activity and government intervention. The government controls key areas, such as the vital petroleum sector (through large-scale state enterprises). The country is richly endowed with natural resources - petroleum, hydropower, fish, forests, and minerals - and is highly dependent on its oil production and international oil prices; in 1999, oil and gas accounted for 35% of exports. Only Saudi Arabia exports more oil than Norway. Oslo opted to stay out of the EU during a referendum in November 1994. Growth picked up in 2000 to 2.7%, compared to the meager 0.8% of 1999, but may fall back in 2001. The government moved ahead with privatization in 2000, even proposing the sale of up to one-third of the 100% state-owned oil company Statoil. Despite their high per capita income and generous welfare benefits, Norwegians worry about that time in the next two decades when the oil and gas begin to run out. Accordingly, Norway has been saving its oil-boosted budget surpluses in a Government Petroleum Fund, which is invested abroad and now is valued at more than $43 billion.
Oman: Oman's economic performance improved significantly in 2000 due largely to the upturn in oil prices. The government is moving ahead with privatization of its utilities, the development of a body of commercial law to facilitate foreign investment, and increased budgetary outlays. Oman continues to liberalize its markets and joined the World Trade Organization (WTrO) in November 2000.
Pacific Ocean: The Pacific Ocean is a major contributor to the world economy and particularly to those nations its waters directly touch. It provides low-cost sea transportation between East and West, extensive fishing grounds, offshore oil and gas fields, minerals, and sand and gravel for the construction industry. In 1996, over 60% of the world's fish catch came from the Pacific Ocean. Exploitation of offshore oil and gas reserves is playing an ever-increasing role in the energy supplies of Australia, NZ, China, US, and Peru. The high cost of recovering offshore oil and gas, combined with the wide swings in world prices for oil since 1985, has slowed but not stopped new drillings.
Pakistan: Pakistan is a poor, heavily populated country, suffering from internal political disputes, lack of foreign investment, and a costly confrontation with neighboring India. Pakistan's economic outlook continues to be marred by its weak foreign exchange position, which relies on international creditors for hard currency inflows. The MUSHARRAF government will face an estimated $21 billion in foreign debt coming due in 2000-03, despite having rescheduled nearly $2 billion in debt with Paris Club members. Foreign loans and grants provide approximately 25% of government revenue, but debt service obligations total nearly 50% of government expenditure. Although Pakistan successfully negotiated a $600 million IMF Stand-By Arrangement, future loan installments will be jeopardized if Pakistan misses critical IMF benchmarks on revenue collection and the fiscal deficit. MUSHARRAF has complied largely with IMF recommendations to raise petroleum prices, widen the tax net, privatize public sector assets, and improve the balance of trade. However, Pakistan's economic prospects remain uncertain; too little has changed despite the new administration's intentions. Foreign exchange reserves hover at roughly $1 billion, GDP growth hinges on crop performance, the import bill has been hammered by high oil prices, and both foreign and domestic investors remain wary of committing to projects in Pakistan.
Palau: The economy consists primarily of subsistence agriculture and fishing. The government is the major employer of the work force, relying heavily on financial assistance from the US. The population enjoys a per capita income of twice that of the Philippines and much of Micronesia. Long-run prospects for the tourist sector have been greatly bolstered by the expansion of air travel in the Pacific and the rising prosperity of leading East Asian countries.
Palmyra Atoll: no economic activity
Panama: Panama's economy is based primarily on a well-developed services sector that accounts for three-fourths of GDP. Services include the Panama Canal, banking, the Colon Free Zone, insurance, container ports, flagship registry, and tourism. A slump in Colon Free Zone and agricultural exports, high oil prices, and the withdrawal of US military forces held back economic growth in 2000. The government plans public works programs, tax reforms, and new regional trade agreements in order to stimulate growth in 2001.
Papua New Guinea: Papua New Guinea is richly endowed with natural resources, but exploitation has been hampered by the rugged terrain and the high cost of developing infrastructure. Agriculture provides a subsistence livelihood for 85% of the population. Mineral deposits, including oil, copper, and gold, account for 72% of export earnings. The 3.4% average annual growth rate of GDP during 1979-1998 conceals considerable year-to-year variation resulting from external economic shocks, natural disasters, and economic management problems. There has been little growth in the last half of the 1990s, with real GDP in 1999 barely 3% higher than in 1994, not enough to compensate for population growth. A new administration under the leadership of Prime Minister Mekere MORAUTA in July 1999 has promised to restore integrity to state institutions, to stabilize the kina, to restore stability to the national budget, to privatize public enterprises where appropriate, and to ensure ongoing peace on Bougainville. The government has had considerable success in attracting international support, specifically gaining the support of the IMF and the World Bank in securing development assistance loans. Significant challenges remain for MORAUTA, however, including gaining further investor confidence, specifically for the proposed Papua New Guinea-Australia oil pipeline, continuing efforts to privatize government assets, and in maintaining the support from members of Parliament who after 15 July 2001 can dismiss him with a vote of no-confidence.
Paracel Islands: China announced plans in 1997 to open the islands for tourism.
Paraguay: Paraguay has a market economy marked by a large informal sector. The informal sector features both reexport of imported consumer goods to neighboring countries as well as the activities of thousands of microenterprises and urban street vendors. Because of the importance of the informal sector, accurate economic measures are difficult to obtain. A large percentage of the population derives their living from agricultural activity, often on a subsistence basis. The formal economy grew by an average of about 3% annually in 1995-97, but GDP declined slightly in 1998 and 1999. On a per capita basis, real income has stagnated at 1980 levels. Most observers attribute Paraguay's poor economic performance to political uncertainty, corruption, lack of progress on structural reform, substantial internal and external debt, and deficient infrastructure. Growth rebounded slightly in 2000.
Peru: The Peruvian economy has become increasingly market-oriented, with major privatizations completed since 1990 in the mining, electricity, and telecommunications industries. Thanks to strong foreign investment and the cooperation between the FUJIMORI government and the IMF and World Bank, growth was strong in 1994-97 and inflation was brought under control. In 1998, El Nino's impact on agriculture, the financial crisis in Asia, and instability in Brazilian markets undercut growth. And 1999 was another lean year for Peru, with the aftermath of El Nino and the Asian financial crisis working its way through the economy. Political instability resulting from the presidential election and FUJIMORI's subsequent departure from office limited economic growth in 2000.
Philippines: In 1998 the Philippine economy - a mixture of agriculture, light industry, and supporting services - deteriorated as a result of spillover from the Asian financial crisis and poor weather conditions. Growth fell to about -0.5% in 1998 from 5% in 1997, but recovered to about 3% in 1999 and 3.6% in 2000. The government has promised to continue its economic reforms to help the Philippines match the pace of development in the newly industrialized countries of East Asia. The strategy includes improving infrastructure, overhauling the tax system to bolster government revenues, moving toward further deregulation and privatization of the economy, and increasing trade integration with the region.
Pitcairn Islands: The inhabitants of this tiny economy exist on fishing, subsistence farming, handicrafts, and postage stamps. The fertile soil of the valleys produces a wide variety of fruits and vegetables, including citrus, sugarcane, watermelons, bananas, yams, and beans. Bartering is an important part of the economy. The major sources of revenue are the sale of postage stamps to collectors and the sale of handicrafts to passing ships.
Poland: Poland has steadfastly pursued a policy of liberalizing the economy and today stands out as one of the most successful and open transition economies. GDP growth has been strong and steady since 1992 - the best performance in the region. The privatization of small and medium state-owned companies and a liberal law on establishing new firms has allowed for the rapid development of a vibrant private sector. In contrast, Poland's large agricultural sector remains handicapped by structural problems, surplus labor, inefficient small farms, and lack of investment. Restructuring and privatization of "sensitive sectors" (e.g., coal, steel, railroads, and energy) has begun. Structural reforms in health care, education, the pension system, and state administration have resulted in larger than expected fiscal pressures. Further progress in public finance depends mainly on privatization of Poland's remaining state sector. The government's determination to enter the EU as soon as possible affects most aspects of its economic policies. Improving Poland's outsized current account deficit and reining in inflation are priorities. Warsaw leads the region in foreign investment and needs a continued large inflow.
Portugal: Portugal is an upcoming capitalist economy with a per capita GDP two-thirds that of the four big West European economies. The country qualified for the European Monetary Union (EMU) in 1998 and joined with 10 other European countries in launching the euro on 1 January 1999. The year 2000 was marked by moderation in growth, inflation, and unemployment. The country continues to run a sizable trade deficit. The government is working to reform the tax system, to modernize capital plant, and to increase the country's competitiveness in the increasingly integrated world markets. Growth is expected to fall off slightly in 2001. Improvement in the education sector is critical to the long-run catch-up process.
Puerto Rico: Puerto Rico has one of the most dynamic economies in the Caribbean region. A diverse industrial sector has surpassed agriculture as the primary locus of economic activity and income. Encouraged by duty-free access to the US and by tax incentives, US firms have invested heavily in Puerto Rico since the 1950s. US minimum wage laws apply. Sugar production has lost out to dairy production and other livestock products as the main source of income in the agricultural sector. Tourism has traditionally been an important source of income, with estimated arrivals of nearly 5 million tourists in 1999. Prospects for 2001 are clouded by a probable slowing down in both the construction and tourist sectors and by increasing inflation, particularly in energy and food prices; estimated growth will be 2%.
Qatar: Oil accounts for more than 30% of GDP, roughly 80% of export earnings, and 66% of government revenues. Proved oil reserves of 3.7 billion barrels should ensure continued output at current levels for 23 years. Oil has given Qatar a per capita GDP comparable to that of the leading West European industrial countries. Qatar's proved reserves of natural gas exceed 7 trillion cubic meters, more than 5% of the world total, third largest in the world. Production and export of natural gas are becoming increasingly important. Long-term goals feature the development of offshore petroleum and the diversification of the economy. In 2000, Qatar posted its highest ever trade surplus of $6 billion, due mainly to high oil prices and increased natural gas exports.
Reunion: The economy has traditionally been based on agriculture. Sugarcane has been the primary crop for more than a century, and in some years it accounts for 85% of exports. The government has been pushing the development of a tourist industry to relieve high unemployment, which amounts to more than 40% of the labor force. The gap in Reunion between the well-off and the poor is extraordinary and accounts for the persistent social tensions. The white and Indian communities are substantially better off than other segments of the population, often approaching European standards, whereas minority groups suffer the poverty and unemployment typical of the poorer nations of the African continent. The outbreak of severe rioting in February 1991 illustrates the seriousness of socioeconomic tensions. The economic well-being of Reunion depends heavily on continued financial assistance from France.
Romania: Romania, one of the poorest countries in Central and Eastern Europe, began the transition from communism in 1989 with a largely obsolete industrial base and a pattern of output unsuited to the country's needs. Over the past decade economic restructuring has lagged behind most other countries in the region. Consequently, living standards have continued to fall - real wages are down over 40%. Corruption too has worsened. The EU ranks Romania last among enlargement candidates, and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) rates Romania's transition progress the region's worst. The country emerged in 2000 from a punishing three-year recession thanks to strong demand in EU export markets. A new government elected in November 2000 promises to promote economic reform. Bucharest hopes to receive financial and technical assistance from international financial institutions and Western governments; negotiations over a new IMF standby agreement are to begin early in 2001. If reform stalls, Romania's ability to borrow from both public and private sources could quickly dry up, leading to another financial crisis.
Russia: A decade after the implosion of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russia is still struggling to establish a modern market economy and achieve strong economic growth. In contrast to its trading partners in Central Europe - which were able to overcome the initial production declines that accompanied the launch of market reforms within three to five years - Russia saw its economy contract for five years, as the executive and legislature dithered over the implementation of many of the basic foundations of a market economy. Russia achieved a slight recovery in 1997, but the government's stubborn budget deficits and the country's poor business climate made it vulnerable when the global financial crisis swept through in 1998. The crisis culminated in the August depreciation of the ruble, a debt default by the government, and a sharp deterioration in living standards for most of the population. The economy rebounded in 1999 and 2000, buoyed by the competitive boost from the weak ruble and a surging trade surplus fueled by rising world oil prices. This recovery, along with a renewed government effort in 2000 to advance lagging structural reforms, have raised business and investor confidence over Russia's prospects in its second decade of transition. Yet serious problems persist. Russia remains heavily dependent on exports of commodities, particularly oil, natural gas, metals, and timber, which account for over 80% of exports, leaving the country vulnerable to swings in world prices. Russia's agricultural sector remains beset by uncertainty over land ownership rights, which has discouraged needed investment and restructuring. Another threat is negative demographic trends, fueled by low birth rates and a deteriorating health situation - including an alarming rise in AIDS cases - that have contributed to a nearly 2% drop in the population since 1992. Russia's industrial base is increasingly dilapidated and must be replaced or modernized if the country is to achieve sustainable economic growth. Other problems include widespread corruption, capital flight, and brain drain.
Rwanda: Rwanda is a rural country with about 90% of the population engaged in (mainly subsistence) agriculture. It is the most densely populated country in Africa; is landlocked; and has few natural resources and minimal industry. Primary exports are coffee and tea. The 1994 genocide decimated Rwanda's fragile economic base, severely impoverished the population, particularly women, and eroded the country's ability to attract private and external investment. However, Rwanda has made significant progress in stabilizing and rehabilitating its economy. GDP has rebounded, and inflation has been curbed. In June 1998, Rwanda signed an Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility (ESAF) with the IMF. Rwanda has also embarked upon an ambitious privatization program with the World Bank. Continued growth in 2001 depends on the maintenance of international aid levels and the strengthening of world prices of coffee and tea.
Saint Helena: The economy depends largely on financial assistance from the UK, which amounted to about $5 million in 1997 or almost one-half of annual budgetary revenues. The local population earns income from fishing, the raising of livestock, and sales of handicrafts. Because there are few jobs, 25% of the work force has left to seek employment on Ascension Island, on the Falklands, and in the UK.
Saint Kitts and Nevis: The economy has traditionally depended on the growing and processing of sugarcane; decreasing world prices have hurt the industry in recent years. Tourism, export-oriented manufacturing, and offshore banking activity have assumed larger roles. Most food is imported. The government has undertaken a program designed to revitalize the faltering sugar sector. It is also working to improve revenue collection in order to better fund social programs. In 1997 some leaders in Nevis were urging separation from Saint Kitts on the basis that Nevis was paying far more in taxes than it was receiving in government services, but the vote on cessation failed in August 1998. In late September 1998, Hurricane Georges caused approximately $445 million in damages and limited GDP growth for the year.
Saint Lucia: The recent changes in the EU import preference regime and the increased competition from Latin American bananas have made economic diversification increasingly important in Saint Lucia. Improvement in the construction sector and growth of the tourism industry helped expand GDP in 1998-99. The agriculture sector registered its fifth year of decline in 1997 primarily because of a severe decline in banana production. The manufacturing sector is the most diverse in the Eastern Caribbean, and the government is beginning to develop regulations for the small offshore financial sector.
Saint Pierre and Miquelon: The inhabitants have traditionally earned their livelihood by fishing and by servicing fishing fleets operating off the coast of Newfoundland. The economy has been declining, however, because of disputes with Canada over fishing quotas and a steady decline in the number of ships stopping at Saint Pierre. In 1992, an arbitration panel awarded the islands an exclusive economic zone of 12,348 sq km to settle a longstanding territorial dispute with Canada, although it represents only 25% of what France had sought. The islands are heavily subsidized by France to the great betterment of living standards. The government hopes an expansion of tourism will boost economic prospects.
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines: Agriculture, dominated by banana production, is the most important sector of this lower-middle-income economy. The services sector, based mostly on a growing tourist industry, is also important. The government has been relatively unsuccessful at introducing new industries, and a high unemployment rate persists. The continuing dependence on a single crop represents the biggest obstacle to the islands' development; tropical storms wiped out substantial portions of crops in both 1994 and 1995. The tourism sector has considerable potential for development over the next decade. Recent growth has been stimulated by strong activity in the construction sector and an improvement in tourism. There is a small manufacturing sector and a small offshore financial sector whose particularly restrictive secrecy laws have caused some international concern.
Samoa: The economy of Samoa has traditionally been dependent on development aid, family remittances from overseas, and agricultural exports. The country is vulnerable to devastating storms. Agriculture employs two-thirds of the labor force, and furnishes 90% of exports, featuring coconut cream, coconut oil, and copra. The manufacturing sector mainly processes agricultural products. Tourism is an expanding sector, accounting for 15% of GDP; about 85,000 tourists visited the islands in 2000. The Samoan Government has called for deregulation of the financial sector, encouragement of investment, and continued fiscal discipline. Observers point to the flexibility of the labor market as a basic strength for future economic advances. Foreign reserves are in a relatively healthy state, the external debt is stable, and inflation is low.
San Marino: The tourist sector contributes over 50% of GDP. In 1999 more than 3 million tourists visited San Marino. The key industries are banking, wearing apparel, electronics, and ceramics. Main agricultural products are wine and cheeses. The per capita level of output and standard of living are comparable to those of the most prosperous regions of Italy, which supplies much of its food.
Sao Tome and Principe: This small poor island economy has become increasingly dependent on cocoa since independence 25 years ago. However, cocoa production has substantially declined because of drought and mismanagement. The resulting shortage of cocoa for export has created a persistent balance-of-payments problem. Sao Tome has to import all fuels, most manufactured goods, consumer goods, and a significant amount of food. Over the years, it has been unable to service its external debt and has had to depend on concessional aid and debt rescheduling. Sao Tome benefited from $200 million in debt relief in December 2000 under the Highly Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) program. Considerable potential exists for development of a tourist industry, and the government has taken steps to expand facilities in recent years. The government also has attempted to reduce price controls and subsidies, but economic growth has remained sluggish. Sao Tome is also optimistic that significant petroleum discoveries are forthcoming in its territorial waters in the oil-rich waters of the Gulf of Guinea. Corruption scandals continue to weaken the economy. At the same time, progress in the economic reform program has attracted international financial institutions' support, and GDP growth will likely rise to at least 4% in 2001-02.
Saudi Arabia: This is an oil-based economy with strong government controls over major economic activities. Saudi Arabia has the largest reserves of petroleum in the world (26% of the proved reserves), ranks as the largest exporter of petroleum, and plays a leading role in OPEC. The petroleum sector accounts for roughly 75% of budget revenues, 40% of GDP, and 90% of export earnings. About 35% of GDP comes from the private sector. Roughly 5 million foreign workers play an important role in the Saudi economy, for example, in the oil and service sectors. Saudi Arabia was a key player in the successful efforts of OPEC and other oil producing countries to raise the price of oil in 1999-2000 to its highest level since the Gulf war by reducing production. Riyadh expects to have a moderate budget deficit in 2001, in part because of increased spending for education and other social programs. The government in 1999 announced plans to begin privatizing the electricity companies, which follows the ongoing privatization of the telecommunications company. The government is expected to continue calling for private sector growth to lessen the kingdom's dependence on oil and increase employment opportunities for the swelling Saudi population. Shortages of water and rapid population growth will constrain government efforts to increase self-sufficiency in agricultural products.
Senegal: In January 1994, Senegal undertook a bold and ambitious economic reform program with the support of the international donor community. This reform began with a 50% devaluation of Senegal's currency, the CFA franc, which is linked at a fixed rate to the French franc. Government price controls and subsidies have been steadily dismantled. After seeing its economy contract by 2.1% in 1993, Senegal made an important turnaround, thanks to the reform program, with real growth in GDP averaging 5% annually in 1995-99. Annual inflation has been pushed down to 2%, and the fiscal deficit has been cut to less than 1.5% of GDP. Investment rose steadily from 13.8% of GDP in 1993 to 16.5% in 1997. As a member of the West African Economic and Monetary Union (UEMOA), Senegal is working toward greater regional integration with a unified external tariff. Senegal also realized full Internet connectivity in 1996, creating a miniboom in information technology-based services. Private activity now accounts for 82% of GDP. On the negative side, Senegal faces deep-seated urban problems of chronic unemployment, juvenile delinquency, and drug addiction. Real GDP growth is expected to rise above 6%, while inflation is likely to hold at 2% in 2001-02.
Seychelles: Since independence in 1976, per capita output in this Indian Ocean archipelago has expanded to roughly seven times the old near-subsistence level. Growth has been led by the tourist sector, which employs about 30% of the labor force and provides more than 70% of hard currency earnings, and by tuna fishing. In recent years the government has encouraged foreign investment in order to upgrade hotels and other services. At the same time, the government has moved to reduce the dependence on tourism by promoting the development of farming, fishing, and small-scale manufacturing. The vulnerability of the tourist sector was illustrated by the sharp drop in 1991-92 due largely to the Gulf war. Although the industry has rebounded, the government recognizes the continuing need for upgrading the sector in the face of stiff international competition. Other issues facing the government are the curbing of the budget deficit and further privatization of public enterprises. Growth slowed in 1998-2000, due to sluggish tourist and tuna sectors. Tight controls on exchange rates and the scarcity of foreign exchange have hindered short-term economic prospects. The black market value of the Seychelles ruppee is half the official exchange rate; without a devaluation of the currency the tourist sector should remain sluggish as vacationers seek cheaper destinations such as Comoros, Mauritius, and Madagascar.
Sierra Leone: Sierra Leone is an extremely poor African nation with tremendous inequality in income distribution. It does have substantial mineral, agricultural, and fishery resources. However, the economic and social infrastructure is not well developed, and serious social disorders continue to hamper economic development. About two-thirds of the working-age population engages in subsistence agriculture. Manufacturing consists mainly of the processing of raw materials and of light manufacturing for the domestic market. Bauxite and rutile mines have been shut down by civil strife. The major source of hard currency is found in the mining of diamonds, the large majority of which are smuggled out of the country. The resurgence of internal warfare in 1999 brought another substantial drop in GDP, with GNP recovering part of the way in 2000. The fate of the economy depends upon the maintenance of domestic peace and the continued receipt of substantial aid from abroad.
Singapore: Singapore is blessed with a highly developed and successful free-market economy, a remarkably open and corruption-free business environment, stable prices, and the fifth highest per capita GDP in the world. Exports, particularly in electronics and chemicals, and services are the main drivers of the economy. Mainly because of robust exports, especially electronic goods, the economy grew 10.1% in 2000. Forecasters, however, are projecting only 4%-6% growth in 2001 largely because of weaker global demand, especially in the US. The government promotes high levels of savings and investment through a mandatory savings scheme and spends heavily in education and technology. It also owns government-linked companies (GLCs) - particularly in manufacturing - that operate as commercial entities. As Singapore looks to a future increasingly marked by globalization, the country is positioning itself as the region's financial and high-tech hub.
Slovakia: Slovakia continues the difficult transition from a centrally planned economy to a modern market economy. The economic slowdown in 1999 stemmed from large budget and current account deficits, fast-growing external debt, and persistent corruption. Even though GDP growth reached only 2.2% in 2000, the year was marked by positive developments such as foreign direct investment of $1.5 billion, strong export performance, restructuring and privatization in the banking sector, entry into the OECD, and initial efforts to stem corruption. Strong challenges face the government in 2001, especially the maintenance of fiscal balance, the further privatization of the economy, and the reduction of unemployment.
Slovenia: Although Slovenia enjoys one of the highest GDPs per capita among the transition economies of Central Europe, it needs to speed up the privatization process and the dismantling of restrictions on foreign investment. About 45% of the economy remains in state hands, and the level of foreign direct investment inflows as a percent of GDP is the lowest in the region. Analysts are predicting between 4.0% and 4.2% growth for 2001. Export growth is expected to slow in 2001 and 2002 as EU markets soften. Inflation rose from 6.1% to 8.9% in 2000 and remains a matter of concern.
Solomon Islands: The bulk of the population depends on agriculture, fishing, and forestry for at least part of their livelihood. Most manufactured goods and petroleum products must be imported. The islands are rich in undeveloped mineral resources such as lead, zinc, nickel, and gold. However, severe ethnic violence, the closing of key business enterprises, and an empty government treasury have led to a continuing economic downslide. Deliveries of crucial fuel supplies (including those for electrical generation) by tankers have become sporadic due to the government's inability to pay and attacks against ships. Telecommunications are threatened by the lack of technical and maintenance staff many of whom have left the country.
Somalia: One of the world's poorest and least developed countries, Somalia has few resources. Moreover, much of the economy has been devastated by the civil war. Agriculture is the most important sector, with livestock accounting for about 40% of GDP and about 65% of export earnings. Nomads and semi-nomads, who are dependent upon livestock for their livelihood, make up a large portion of the population. Livestock and bananas are the principal exports; sugar, sorghum, corn, fish, and qat are products for the domestic market. The small industrial sector, based on the processing of agricultural products, accounts for 10% of GDP; most facilities have been shut down because of the civil strife. Moreover, ongoing civil disturbances in Mogadishu and outlying areas have interfered with any substantial economic advance and with international aid arrangements. Due to the civil strife, economic data is susceptible to an exceptionally wide margin of error.
South Africa: South Africa is a middle-income, developing country with an abundant supply of resources, well-developed financial, legal, communications, energy, and transport sectors, a stock exchange that ranks among the 10 largest in the world, and a modern infrastructure supporting an efficient distribution of goods to major urban centers throughout the region. However, growth has not been strong enough to cut into the 30% unemployment, and daunting economic problems remain from the apartheid era, especially the problems of poverty and lack of economic empowerment among the disadvantaged groups. Other problems are crime, corruption, and HIV/AIDS. At the start of 2000, President MBEKI vowed to promote economic growth and foreign investment, and to reduce poverty by relaxing restrictive labor laws, stepping up the pace of privatization, and cutting unneeded governmental spending.
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands: Some fishing takes place in adjacent waters. There is a potential source of income from harvesting fin fish and krill. The islands receive income from postage stamps produced in the UK.
Southern Ocean: Fisheries in 1998-99 (1 July to 30 June) landed 119,898 metric tons, of which 85% was krill and 14% Patagonian toothfish. International agreements were adopted in late 1999 to reduce illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing, which in the 1998-99 season landed five to six times more Patagonian toothfish than the regulated fishery. In the 1999-2000 antarctic summer 13,193 tourists, most of them seaborne, visited the Southern Ocean and Antarctica, compared to 10,013 the previous year. Nearly 16,000 tourists are expected during the 2000-01 season.
Spain: Spain's mixed capitalist economy supports a GDP that on a per capita basis is 80% that of the four leading West European economies. Its center-right government successfully worked to gain admission to the first group of countries launching the European single currency on 1 January 1999. The AZNAR administration has continued to advocate liberalization, privatization, and deregulation of the economy and has introduced some tax reforms to that end. Unemployment has been steadily falling under the AZNAR administration but remains the highest in the EU at 14%. The government intends to make further progress in changing labor laws and reforming pension schemes, which are key to the sustainability of both Spain's internal economic advances and its competitiveness in a single currency area. Adjusting to the monetary and other economic policies of an integrated Europe - and further reducing unemployment - will pose challenges to Spain in the next few years.
Spratly Islands: Economic activity is limited to commercial fishing. The proximity to nearby oil- and gas-producing sedimentary basins suggests the potential for oil and gas deposits, but the region is largely unexplored, and there are no reliable estimates of potential reserves; commercial exploitation has yet to be developed.
Sri Lanka: In 1977, Colombo abandoned statist economic policies and its import substitution trade policy for market-oriented policies and export-oriented trade. Sri Lanka's most dynamic sectors now are food processing, textiles and apparel, food and beverages, telecommunications, and insurance and banking. By 1996 plantation crops made up only 20% of exports (compared with 93% in 1970), while textiles and garments accounted for 63%. GDP grew at an annual average rate of 5.5% throughout the 1990s until a drought and a deteriorating security situation lowered growth to 3.8% in 1996. The economy rebounded in 1997-98 with growth of 6.4% and 4.7% - but slowed to 4.3% in 1999. Growth increased to 5.6% in 2000, with growth in tourism and exports leading the way. But a resurgence of civil war between the Sinhalese and the minority Tamils and a possible slowdown in tourism dampen prospects for 2001. For the next round of reforms, the central bank of Sri Lanka recommends that Colombo expand market mechanisms in nonplantation agriculture, dismantle the government's monopoly on wheat imports, and promote more competition in the financial sector.
Sudan: Sudan is buffeted by civil war, chronic instability, adverse weather, weak world agricultural prices, a drop in remittances from abroad, and counterproductive economic policies. The private sector's main areas of activity are agriculture (which employs 80% of the work force), trading, and light industry which is mostly processing of agricultural goods. Most of the 1990s were characterized by sluggish economic growth as the IMF suspended lending, declared Sudan a non-cooperative state, and threatened to expel Sudan from the IMF. Starting in 1997, Sudan began implementing IMF macroeconomic reforms which have successfully stabilized inflation at 10% or less. Sudan continues to have limited international credit resources as over 75% of Sudan's debt of $24.9 billion is in arrears and Khartoum's continued prosecution of the civil war works to isolate Sudan. In 1999, Sudan began exporting oil and in 1999-2000 had recorded its first trade surpluses. Current oil production stands at 185,000 barrels per day, of which about 70% is exported and the rest refined for domestic consumption. Despite its many infrastructure problems, Sudan's increased oil production, the return of regular rainfall, and recent investments in irrigation schemes should allow the country to achieve economic growth of 6% in 2001.
Suriname: The economy is dominated by the bauxite industry, which accounts for more than 15% of GDP and 70% of export earnings. After assuming power in the fall of 1996, the WIJDENBOSCH government ended the structural adjustment program of the previous government, claiming it was unfair to the poorer elements of society. Tax revenues fell as old taxes lapsed and the government failed to implement new tax alternatives. By the end of 1997, the allocation of new Dutch development funds was frozen as Surinamese Government relations with the Netherlands deteriorated. Economic growth slowed in 1998, with decline in the mining, construction, and utility sectors. Rampant government expenditures, poor tax collection, a bloated civil service, and reduced foreign aid in 1999 contributed to the fiscal deficit, estimated at 11% of GDP. The government sought to cover this deficit through monetary expansion, which led to a dramatic increase in inflation and exchange rate depreciation. Suriname's economic prospects for the medium term will depend on renewed commitment to responsible monetary and fiscal policies and to the introduction of structural reforms to liberalize markets and promote competition. The new government of Ronald VENETIAAN has begun an austerity program, raised taxes, and attempted to control spending. the exchange rate has responded by stabilizing. The Dutch Government has restarted the aid flow, which will allow Suriname to access international development financing.
Svalbard: Coal mining is the major economic activity on Svalbard. The treaty of 9 February 1920 gives the 41 signatories equal rights to exploit mineral deposits, subject to Norwegian regulation. Although US, UK, Dutch, and Swedish coal companies have mined in the past, the only companies still mining are Norwegian and Russian. The settlements on Svalbard are essentially company towns. The Norwegian state-owned coal company employs nearly 60% of the Norwegian population on the island, runs many of the local services, and provides most of the local infrastructure. There is also some trapping of seal, polar bear, fox, and walrus.
Swaziland: In this small landlocked economy, subsistence agriculture occupies more than 60% of the population. Manufacturing features a number of agroprocessing factories. Mining has declined in importance in recent years: diamond mines have shut down because of the depletion of easily accessible reserves; high-grade iron ore deposits were depleted by 1978; and health concerns have cut world demand for asbestos. Exports of soft drink concentrate, sugar, and wood pulp are the main earners of hard currency. Surrounded by South Africa, except for a short border with Mozambique, Swaziland is heavily dependent on South Africa from which it receives four-fifths of its imports and to which it sends two-thirds of its exports. Remittances from the Southern African Customs Union and Swazi workers in South African mines substantially supplement domestically earned income. The government is trying to improve the atmosphere for foreign investment. Overgrazing, soil depletion, drought, and sometimes floods persist as problems for the future. Prospects for 2001 are strengthened by government millennium projects for a new convention center, additional hotels, an amusement park, a new airport, and stepped-up roadbuilding and factory construction plans.
Sweden: Aided by peace and neutrality for the whole twentieth century, Sweden has achieved an enviable standard of living under a mixed system of high-tech capitalism and extensive welfare benefits. It has a modern distribution system, excellent internal and external communications, and a skilled labor force. Timber, hydropower, and iron ore constitute the resource base of an economy heavily oriented toward foreign trade. Privately owned firms account for about 90% of industrial output, of which the engineering sector accounts for 50% of output and exports. Agriculture accounts for only 2% of GDP and 2% of the jobs. In recent years, however, this extraordinarily favorable picture has been somewhat clouded by budgetary difficulties, high unemployment, and a gradual loss of competitiveness in international markets. Sweden has harmonized its economic policies with those of the EU, which it joined at the start of 1995. GDP growth is forecast for 4% in 2001.
Switzerland: Switzerland, a prosperous and stable modern market economy with a per capita GDP 20% above that of the big western European economies, experienced solid growth of 3% in 2000, but growth is expected to fall back to about 2% in 2001. The Swiss in recent years have brought their economic practices largely into conformity with the EU's to enhance their international competitiveness. Although the Swiss are not pursuing full EU membership in the near term, in 1999 Bern and Brussels signed agreements to further liberalize trade ties, and the agreements should come into force in 2001. Switzerland is still considered a safe haven for investors, because it has maintained a degree of bank secrecy and has kept up the franc's long-term external value.
Syria: Syria's predominantly statist economy is on a shaky footing because of Damascus's failure to implement extensive economic reform. The dominant agricultural sector remains underdeveloped, with roughly 80% of agricultural land still dependent on rain-fed sources. Although Syria has sufficient water supplies in the aggregate at normal levels of precipitation, the great distance between major water supplies and population centers poses serious distribution problems. The water problem is exacerbated by rapid population growth, industrial expansion, and increased water pollution. Private investment is critical to the modernization of the agricultural, energy, and export sectors. Oil production is leveling off, and the efforts of the nonoil sector to penetrate international markets have fallen short. Syria's inadequate infrastructure, outmoded technological base, and weak educational system make it vulnerable to future shocks and hamper competition with neighbors such as Jordan and Israel. The government recognizes the need to open the economy to additional domestic and foreign investment.
Tajikistan: Tajikistan has the lowest per capita GDP among the 15 former Soviet republics. Cotton is the most important crop. Mineral resources, varied but limited in amount, include silver, gold, uranium, and tungsten. Industry consists only of a large aluminum plant, hydropower facilities, and small obsolete factories mostly in light industry and food processing. The Tajikistani economy has been gravely weakened by six years of civil conflict and by the loss of subsidies from Moscow and of markets for its products. Most of its people live in abject poverty. Tajikistan depends on aid from Russia and Uzbekistan and on international humanitarian assistance for much of its basic subsistence needs. The future of Tajikistan's economy and the potential for attracting foreign investment depend upon stability and continued progress in the peace process.
Tanzania: Tanzania is one of the poorest countries in the world. The economy is heavily dependent on agriculture, which accounts for half of GDP, provides 85% of exports, and employs 80% of the work force. Topography and climatic conditions, however, limit cultivated crops to only 4% of the land area. Industry is mainly limited to processing agricultural products and light consumer goods. The World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and bilateral donors have provided funds to rehabilitate Tanzania's deteriorated economic infrastructure. Growth in 1991-2000 featured a pick up in industrial production and a substantial increase in output of minerals, led by gold. Natural gas exploration in the Rufiji Delta looks promising and production could start by 2002. Recent banking reforms have helped increase private sector growth and investment. Continued donor support and solid macroeconomic policies should allow Tanzania to achieve real GDP growth of 6% in 2001 and in 2002.
Thailand: After enjoying the world's highest growth rate from 1985 to 1995 - averaging almost 9% annually - increased speculative pressure on Thailand's currency in 1997 led to a crisis that uncovered financial sector weaknesses and forced the government to float the baht. Long pegged at 25 to the dollar, the baht reached its lowest point of 56 to the dollar in January 1998 and the economy contracted by 10.2% that same year. Thailand entered a recovery stage in 1999, expanding 4.2% and grew about the same amount in 2000, largely due to strong exports - which increased about 20% in 2000. An ailing financial sector and the slow pace of corporate debt restructuring, combined with a softening of global demand, is likely to slow growth in 2001.
Togo: This small sub-Saharan economy is heavily dependent on both commercial and subsistence agriculture, which provides employment for 65% of the labor force. Some basic foodstuffs must still be imported. Together, cocoa, coffee, and cotton generate some 40% of export earnings, with cotton being the most significant cash crop despite falling prices on the world market. In the industrial sector, phosphate mining is by far the most important activity. Togo is the world's fourth largest producer, and geological advantages keep production costs low. The recently privatized mining operation, Office Togolais des Phosphates (OTP), is slowly recovering from a steep fall in prices in the early 1990's, but continues to face the challenge of tough foreign competition, exacerbated by weakening demand. Togo serves as a regional commercial and trade center. It continues to expand its duty-free export-processing zone (EPZ), launched in 1989, which has attracted enterprises from France, Italy, Scandinavia, the US, India, and China and created jobs for Togolese nationals. The government's decade-long effort, supported by the World Bank and the IMF, to implement economic reform measures, encourage foreign investment, and bring revenues in line with expenditures has stalled. Progress depends on following through on privatization, increased openness in government financial operations, progress towards legislative elections, and possible downsizing of the military, on which the regime has depended to stay in place. Lack of foreign aid, deterioration of the financial sector, energy shortages, and depressed commodity prices continue to constrain economic growth; however, Togo did realize a 3% gain in GDP in 1999. The takeover of the national power company by a Franco-Canadian consortium in 2000 should ease the energy crisis and if successful legislative elections pave the way for increased aid, growth should rise to 5% a year in 2001-02.
Tokelau: Tokelau's small size (three villages), isolation, and lack of resources greatly restrain economic development and confine agriculture to the subsistence level. The people must rely on aid from New Zealand to maintain public services, annual aid being substantially greater than GDP. The principal sources of revenue come from sales of copra, postage stamps, souvenir coins, and handicrafts. Money is also remitted to families from relatives in New Zealand.
Tonga: Tonga has a small, open economy with a narrow export base in agricultural goods, which contributes 30% to GDP. Squash, coconuts, bananas, and vanilla beans are the main crops, and agricultural exports make up two-thirds of total exports. The country must import a high proportion of its food, mainly from New Zealand. The industrial sector accounts for only 10% of GDP. Tourism is the primary source of hard currency earnings. The country remains dependent on sizable external aid and remittances from Tongan communities overseas to offset its trade deficit. The government is emphasizing the development of the private sector, especially the encouragement of investment, and is committing increased funds for health and education. Tonga has a reasonable basic infrastructure and well-developed social services.
Trinidad and Tobago: Trinidad and Tobago has earned a reputation as an excellent investment site for international businesses. Successful economic reforms were implemented in 1995, and foreign investment and trade are flourishing. Persistently high unemployment remains one of the chief challenges of the government. The petrochemical sector has spurred growth in other related sectors, reinforcing the government's commitment to economic diversification. Tourism is growing, especially in the pleasure boat sector. New investment and construction also will continue to drive the economy.
Tromelin Island: no economic activity
Tunisia: Tunisia has a diverse economy, with important agricultural, mining, energy, tourism, and manufacturing sectors. Governmental control of economic affairs while still heavy has gradually lessened over the past decade with increasing privatization, simplification of the tax structure, and a prudent approach to debt. Real growth averaged 5.5% in the past four years, and inflation is slowing. Growth in tourism and increased trade have been key elements in this steady growth. Tunisia's association agreement with the European Union entered into force on 1 March 1998, the first such accord between the EU and Mediterranean countries to be activated. Under the agreement Tunisia will gradually remove barriers to trade with the EU over the next decade. Broader privatization, further liberalization of the investment code to increase foreign investment, and improvements in government efficiency are among the challenges for the future.
Turkey: Turkey's dynamic economy is a complex mix of modern industry and commerce along with traditional agriculture that still accounts for nearly 40% of employment. It has a strong and rapidly growing private sector, yet the state still plays a major role in basic industry, banking, transport, and communication. The most important industry - and largest exporter - is textiles and clothing, which is almost entirely in private hands. In recent years the economic situation has been marked by erratic economic growth and serious imbalances. Real GNP growth has exceeded 6% in most years, but this strong expansion was interrupted by sharp declines in output in 1994 and 1999. Meanwhile the public sector fiscal deficit has regularly exceeded 10% of GDP - due in large part to the huge burden of interest payments, which now account for more than 40% of central government spending - while inflation has remained in the high double digit range. Perhaps because of these problems, foreign direct investment in Turkey remains low - less than $1 billion annually. Prospects for the future are improving, however, because the ECEVIT government since June 1999 has been implementing an IMF-backed reform program, including a tighter budget, social security reform, banking reorganization, and accelerated privatization. As a result, the fiscal situation is greatly improved and inflation has dropped below 40% - the lowest rate since 1987. The country experienced a financial crisis in late 2000, including sharp drops in the stock market and foreign exchange reserves, but is recovering rapidly, thanks to additional IMF support and the government's commitment to a specific timetable of economic reforms.
Turkmenistan: Turkmenistan is largely desert country with intensive agriculture in irrigated oases and huge gas (fifth largest reserves in the world) and oil resources. One-half of its irrigated land is planted in cotton, making it the world's tenth largest producer. Until the end of 1993, Turkmenistan had experienced less economic disruption than other former Soviet states because its economy received a boost from higher prices for oil and gas and a sharp increase in hard currency earnings. In 1994, Russia's refusal to export Turkmen gas to hard currency markets and mounting debts of its major customers in the former USSR for gas deliveries contributed to a sharp fall in industrial production and caused the budget to shift from a surplus to a slight deficit. With an authoritarian ex-communist regime in power and a tribally based social structure, Turkmenistan has taken a cautious approach to economic reform, hoping to use gas and cotton sales to sustain its inefficient economy. Privatization goals remain limited. In 1998-2000, Turkmenistan suffered from the continued lack of adequate export routes for natural gas and from obligations on extensive short-term external debt. At the same time, however, total exports rose sharply because of higher international oil and gas prices. Prospects in the near future are discouraging because of widespread internal poverty and the burden of foreign debt. IMF assistance would seem to be necessary, yet the government is not as yet ready to accept IMF requirements. Turkmenistan's 1999 deal to ship 20 billion cubic meters (bcm) of natural gas through Russia's Gazprom pipeline helped alleviate the 2000 fiscal shortfall. Inadequate fiscal restraint and the tenuous nature of Turkmenistan's 2001 gas deals, combined with a lack of economic reform, will limit progress in the near term.
Turks and Caicos Islands: The Turks and Caicos economy is based on tourism, fishing, and offshore financial services. Most capital goods and food for domestic consumption are imported. The US was the leading source of tourists in 1996, accounting for more than half of the 87,000 visitors; tourist arrivals had risen to 93,000 by 1998. Major sources of government revenue include fees from offshore financial activities and customs receipts.
Tuvalu: Tuvalu consists of a densely populated, scattered group of nine coral atolls with poor soil. The country has no known mineral resources and few exports. Subsistence farming and fishing are the primary economic activities. Government revenues largely come from the sale of stamps and coins and worker remittances. About 1,000 Tuvaluans work in Nauru in the phosphate mining industry. Nauru has begun repatriating Tuvaluans, however, as phosphate resources decline. Substantial income is received annually from an international trust fund established in 1987 by Australia, NZ, and the UK and supported also by Japan and South Korea. Thanks to wise investments and conservative withdrawals, this Fund has grown from an initial $17 million to over $35 million in 1999. The US government is also a major revenue source for Tuvalu, with 1999 payments from a 1988 treaty on fisheries at about $9 million, a total which is expected to rise annually. In an effort to reduce its dependence on foreign aid, the government is pursuing public sector reforms, including privatization of some government functions and personnel cuts of up to 7%. In 1998, Tuvalu began deriving revenue from use of its area code for "900" lines and in 2000, from the sale of its ".tv" Internet domain name. Royalties from these new technology sources could raise GDP three or more times over the next decade. In 1999, with merchandise exports falling and financing reaching less than 5% of imports, continued reliance was placed on fishing and telecommunications license fees, remittances from overseas workers, official transfers, and investment income from overseas assets to cover the trade deficit.
Uganda: Uganda has substantial natural resources, including fertile soils, regular rainfall, and sizable mineral deposits of copper and cobalt. Agriculture is the most important sector of the economy, employing over 80% of the work force. Coffee is the major export crop and accounts for the bulk of export revenues. Since 1986, the government - with the support of foreign countries and international agencies - has acted to rehabilitate and stabilize the economy by undertaking currency reform, raising producer prices on export crops, increasing prices of petroleum products, and improving civil service wages. The policy changes are especially aimed at dampening inflation and boosting production and export earnings. In 1990-2000, the economy turned in a solid performance based on continued investment in the rehabilitation of infrastructure, improved incentives for production and exports, reduced inflation, gradually improved domestic security, and the return of exiled Indian-Ugandan entrepreneurs. Ongoing Ugandan involvement in the war in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, corruption within the government, and slippage in the government's determination to press reforms raise doubts about the continuation of strong growth. In 2000, Uganda qualified for enhanced HIPC debt relief worth $1.3 billion and Paris Club debt relief worth $145 million. These amounts combined with the original Highly Indebted Poor Countries HIPC debt relief add up to about $2 billion. Growth for 2001 should be somewhat lower than in 2000, because of a decline in the price of coffee, Uganda's principal export.
Ukraine: After Russia, the Ukrainian republic was far and away the most important economic component of the former Soviet Union, producing about four times the output of the next-ranking republic. Its fertile black soil generated more than one-fourth of Soviet agricultural output, and its farms provided substantial quantities of meat, milk, grain, and vegetables to other republics. Likewise, its diversified heavy industry supplied the unique equipment (for example, large diameter pipes) and raw materials to industrial and mining sites (vertical drilling apparatus) in other regions of the former USSR. Ukraine depends on imports of energy, especially natural gas, to meet some 85% of its annual energy requirements. Shortly after independence in late 1991, the Ukrainian Government liberalized most prices and erected a legal framework for privatization, but widespread resistance to reform within the government and the legislature soon stalled reform efforts and led to some backtracking. Output in 1992-99 fell to less than 40% the 1991 level. Loose monetary policies pushed inflation to hyperinflationary levels in late 1993. Ukraine's dependence on Russia for energy supplies and the lack of significant structural reform have made the Ukrainian economy vulnerable to external shocks. Now in his second term, President KUCHMA has pledged to reduce the number of government agencies and streamline the regulation process, create a legal environment to encourage entrepreneurs and protect ownership rights, and enact a comprehensive tax overhaul. Reforms in the more politically sensitive areas of structural reform and land privatization are still lagging. Outside institutions - particularly the IMF - have encouraged Ukraine to quicken the pace and scope of reforms and have threatened to withdraw financial support. GDP in 2000 showed strong export-based growth of 6% - the first growth since independence - and industrial production grew 12.9%. As the capacity for further export-based economic expansion diminishes, GDP growth in 2001 is likely to decline to around 3%.
United Arab Emirates: The UAE has an open economy with a high per capita income and a sizable annual trade surplus. Its wealth is based on oil and gas output (about 33% of GDP), and the fortunes of the economy fluctuate with the prices of those commodities. Since 1973, the UAE has undergone a profound transformation from an impoverished region of small desert principalities to a modern state with a high standard of living. At present levels of production, oil and gas reserves should last for more than 100 years. Despite higher oil revenues in 1999-2000, the government has not drawn back from the economic reforms implemented during the 1998 oil price depression. The government has increased spending on job creation and infrastructure expansion and is opening up its utilities to greater private-sector involvement.
United Kingdom: The UK, a leading trading power and financial center, deploys an essentially capitalistic economy, one of the quartet of trillion dollar economies of Western Europe. Over the past two decades the government has greatly reduced public ownership and contained the growth of social welfare programs. Agriculture is intensive, highly mechanized, and efficient by European standards, producing about 60% of food needs with only 1% of the labor force. The UK has large coal, natural gas, and oil reserves; primary energy production accounts for 10% of GDP, one of the highest shares of any industrial nation. Services, particularly banking, insurance, and business services, account by far for the largest proportion of GDP while industry continues to decline in importance. The economy has grown steadily, at just above or below 3%, for the last several years. The BLAIR government has put off the question of participation in the euro system until after the next election, in June of 2001; Chancellor of the Exchequer BROWN has identified some key economic tests to determine whether the UK should join the common currency system, but it will largely be a political decision. A serious short-term problem is foot-and-mouth disease, which by early 2001 had broken out in nearly 600 farms and slaughterhouses and had resulted in the killing of 400,000 animals.
United States: The US has the largest and most technologically powerful economy in the world, with a per capita GDP of $36,200. In this market-oriented economy, private individuals and business firms make most of the decisions, and government buys needed goods and services predominantly in the private marketplace. US business firms enjoy considerably greater flexibility than their counterparts in Western Europe and Japan in decisions to expand capital plant, lay off surplus workers, and develop new products. At the same time, they face higher barriers to entry in their rivals' home markets than the barriers to entry of foreign firms in US markets. US firms are at or near the forefront in technological advances, especially in computers and in medical, aerospace, and military equipment, although their advantage has narrowed since the end of World War II. The onrush of technology largely explains the gradual development of a "two-tier labor market" in which those at the bottom lack the education and the professional/technical skills of those at the top and, more and more, fail to get comparable pay raises, health insurance coverage, and other benefits. Since 1975, practically all the gains in household income have gone to the top 20% of households. The years 1994-2000 witnessed solid increases in real output, low inflation rates, and a drop in unemployment to below 5%. Long-term problems include inadequate investment in economic infrastructure, rapidly rising medical costs of an aging population, sizable trade deficits, and stagnation of family income in the lower economic groups. Growth weakened in the fourth quarter of 2000; growth for the year 2001 almost certainly will be substantially lower than the strong 5% of 2000. The outlook for 2001 is further clouded by the continued economic problems of Japan, Russia, Indonesia, Brazil, and many other countries.
Uruguay: Uruguay's economy is characterized by an export-oriented agricultural sector, a well-educated workforce, relatively even income distribution, and high levels of social spending. After averaging growth of 5% annually in 1996-98, in 1999-2000 the economy suffered from lower demand in Argentina and Brazil, which together account for about half of Uruguay's exports. Despite the severity of the trade shocks, Uruguay's financial indicators remained more stable than those of its neighbors, a reflection of its solid reputation among investors and its investment-grade sovereign bond rating - one of only two in Latin America. Challenges for the government of President Jorge BATLLE include expanding Uruguay's trade ties beyond its MERCOSUR trade partners and reducing the costs of public services. GDP fell by 1.1% in 2000 and will grow by perhaps 1.5% in 2001.
Uzbekistan: Uzbekistan is a dry, landlocked country of which 10% consists of intensely cultivated, irrigated river valleys. More than 60% of its population lives in densely populated rural communities. Uzbekistan is now the world's third largest cotton exporter, a large producer of gold and oil, and a regionally significant producer of chemicals and machinery. Following independence in December 1991, the government sought to prop up its Soviet-style command economy with subsidies and tight controls on production and prices. Faced with high rates of inflation, however, the government began to reform in mid-1994, by introducing tighter monetary policies, expanding privatization, slightly reducing the role of the state in the economy, and improving the environment for foreign investors. The state continues to be a dominating influence in the economy and has so far failed to bring about much-needed structural changes. The IMF suspended Uzbekistan's $185 million standby arrangement in late 1996 because of governmental steps that made impossible fulfillment of Fund conditions. Uzbekistan has responded to the negative external conditions generated by the Asian and Russian financial crises by tightening export and currency controls within its already largely closed economy. Economic policies that have repelled foreign investment are a major factor in the economy's stagnation. A growing debt burden, persistent inflation, and a poor business climate led to stagnant growth in 2000, with little improvement predicted for 2001.
Vanuatu: The economy is based primarily on subsistence or small-scale agriculture which provides a living for 65% of the population. Fishing, offshore financial services, and tourism, with about 50,000 visitors in 1997, are other mainstays of the economy. Mineral deposits are negligible; the country has no known petroleum deposits. A small light industry sector caters to the local market. Tax revenues come mainly from import duties. Economic development is hindered by dependence on relatively few commodity exports, vulnerability to natural disasters, and long distances from main markets and between constituent islands. The most recent natural disaster, a severe earthquake in November 1999 followed by a tsunami, caused extensive damage to the northern island of Pentecote and left thousands homeless. GDP growth has risen less than 3% on average in the 1990s. In response to foreign concerns, the government is moving to tighten regulation of its offshore financial center.
Venezuela: The petroleum sector dominates the economy, accounting for roughly a third of GDP, around 80% of export earnings, and more than half of government operating revenues. Venezuelan officials estimate that GDP grew by 3.2% in 2000. A strong rebound in international oil prices fueled the recovery from the steep recession in 1999. Nevertheless, a weak nonoil sector and capital flight undercut the recovery. The bolivar is widely believed to be overvalued by as much as 50%. The government is still rebuilding after massive flooding and landslides in December 1999 caused an estimated $15 billion to $20 billion in damage.
Vietnam: Vietnam is a poor, densely populated country that has had to recover from the ravages of war, the loss of financial support from the old Soviet Bloc, and the rigidities of a centrally planned economy. Substantial progress was achieved from 1986 to 1996 in moving forward from an extremely low starting point - growth averaged around 9% per year from 1993 to 1997. The 1997 Asian financial crisis highlighted the problems existing in the Vietnamese economy but, rather than prompting reform, reaffirmed the government's belief that shifting to a market oriented economy leads to disaster. GDP growth of 8.5% in 1997 fell to 6% in 1998 and 5% in 1999. Growth continued at the moderately strong level of 5.5%, a level that should be matched in 2001. These numbers mask some major difficulties in economic performance. Many domestic industries, including coal, cement, steel, and paper, have reported large stockpiles of inventory and tough competition from more efficient foreign producers; this problem apparently eased in 2000. Foreign direct investment fell dramatically, from $8.3 billion in 1996 to about $1.6 billion in 1999. Meanwhile, Vietnamese authorities have moved slowly in implementing the structural reforms needed to revitalize the economy and produce more competitive, export-driven industries.
Virgin Islands: Tourism is the primary economic activity, accounting for more than 70% of GDP and 70% of employment. The islands normally host 2 million visitors a year. The manufacturing sector consists of petroleum refining, textiles, electronics, pharmaceuticals, and watch assembly. The agricultural sector is small, with most food being imported. International business and financial services are a small but growing component of the economy. One of the world's largest petroleum refineries is at Saint Croix. The islands are subject to substantial damage from storms. The government is working to improve fiscal discipline, support construction projects in the private sector, expand tourist facilities, and protect the environment.
Wake Island: Economic activity is limited to providing services to contractors located on the island. All food and manufactured goods must be imported.
Wallis and Futuna: The economy is limited to traditional subsistence agriculture, with about 80% of the labor force earning its livelihood from agriculture (coconuts and vegetables), livestock (mostly pigs), and fishing. About 4% of the population is employed in government. Revenues come from French Government subsidies, licensing of fishing rights to Japan and South Korea, import taxes, and remittances from expatriate workers in New Caledonia.
West Bank: Economic output in the West Bank is governed by the Paris Economic Protocol of April 1994 between Israel and the Palestinian Authority. Real per capita GDP for the West Bank and Gaza Strip (WBGS) declined by 36.1% between 1992 and 1996 owing to the combined effect of falling aggregate incomes and rapid population growth. The downturn in economic activity was largely the result of Israeli closure policies - the imposition of border closures in response to security incidents in Israel - which disrupted established labor and commodity market relationships between Israel and the WBGS. The most serious social effect of this downturn was rising unemployment; unemployment in the WBGS during the 1980s was generally under 5%; by 1995 it had risen to over 20%. Since 1997 Israel's use of comprehensive closures has decreased and, in 1998, Israel implemented new policies to reduce the impact of closures and other security procedures on the movement of Palestinian goods and labor. These changes fueled an almost three-year long economic recovery in the West Bank and Gaza Strip; real GDP grew by 5% in 1998 and 6% in 1999. Recovery was upended in the last quarter of 2000 with the outbreak of Palestinian violence, which triggered tight Israeli closures of Palestinian self-rule areas and a severe disruption of trade and labor movements.
Western Sahara: Western Sahara, a territory poor in natural resources and lacking sufficient rainfall, depends on pastoral nomadism, fishing, and phosphate mining as the principal sources of income for the population. Most of the food for the urban population must be imported. All trade and other economic activities are controlled by the Moroccan Government. Incomes and standards of living are substantially below the Moroccan level.
World: Growth in global output (gross world product, GWP) rose to 4.8% in 2000 from 3.5% in 1999, despite continued low growth in Japan, severe financial difficulties in other East Asian countries, and widespread dislocations in several transition economies. The US economy continued its remarkable sustained prosperity, growing at 5% in 2000, although growth slowed in fourth quarter 2000; the US accounted for 23% of GWP. The EU economies grew at 3.3% and produced 20% of GWP. China, the second largest economy in the world, continued its strong growth and accounted for 10% of GWP. Japan grew at only 1.3% in 2000; its share in GWP is 7%. As usual, the 15 successor nations of the USSR and the other old Warsaw Pact nations experienced widely different rates of growth. The developing nations also varied in their growth results, with many countries facing population increases that eat up gains in output. Externally, the nation-state, as a bedrock economic-political institution, is steadily losing control over international flows of people, goods, funds, and technology. Internally, the central government often finds its control over resources slipping as separatist regional movements - typically based on ethnicity - gain momentum, e.g., in many of the successor states of the former Soviet Union, in the former Yugoslavia, in India, and in Canada. In Western Europe, governments face the difficult political problem of channeling resources away from welfare programs in order to increase investment and strengthen incentives to seek employment. The addition of 80 million people each year to an already overcrowded globe is exacerbating the problems of pollution, desertification, underemployment, epidemics, and famine. Because of their own internal problems and priorities, the industrialized countries devote insufficient resources to deal effectively with the poorer areas of the world, which, at least from the economic point of view, are becoming further marginalized. Continued financial difficulties in East Asia, Russia, and many African nations, as well as the slowdown in US economic growth, cast a shadow over short-term global economic prospects; GWP probably will grow at 3-4% in 2001. The introduction of the euro as the common currency of much of Western Europe in January 1999, while paving the way for an integrated economic powerhouse, poses serious economic risks because of varying levels of income and cultural and political differences among the participating nations. (For specific economic developments in each country of the world in 2000, see the individual country entries.)
Yemen: Yemen, one of the poorest countries in the Arab world, reported strong growth in the mid-1990s with the onset of oil production, but was harmed by low oil prices in 1998. Yemen has embarked on an IMF-supported structural adjustment program designed to modernize and streamline the economy, which has led to foreign debt relief and restructuring. Aided by higher oil prices in 1999-2000, Yemen worked to maintain tight control over spending and implement additional components of the IMF program. A high population growth rate of nearly 3.4% and internal political dissension complicate the government's task.
Yugoslavia: The swift collapse of the Yugoslav federation in 1991 was followed by highly destructive warfare, the destabilization of republic boundaries, and the breakup of important interrepublic trade flows. Output in Yugoslavia dropped by half in 1992-93. Like the other former Yugoslav republics, it had depended on its sister republics for large amounts of energy and manufactures. Wide differences in climate, mineral resources, and levels of technology among the republics accentuated this interdependence, as did the communist practice of concentrating much industrial output in a small number of giant plants. The breakup of many of the trade links, the sharp drop in output as industrial plants lost suppliers and markets, and the destruction of physical assets in the fighting all have contributed to the economic difficulties of the republics. Hyperinflation ended with the establishment of a new currency unit in June 1993; prices were relatively stable from 1995 through 1997, but inflationary pressures resurged in 1998. Reliable statistics continue to be hard to come by, and the GDP estimate is extremely rough. The economic boom anticipated by the government after the suspension of UN sanctions in December 1995 has failed to materialize. Government mismanagement of the economy is largely to blame, but the damage to Yugoslavia's infrastructure and industry by the NATO bombing during the war in Kosovo have added to problems. All sanctions now have been lifted. Yugoslavia is in the first stage of economic reform. Severe electricity shortages are chronic, the result of lack of investment by former regimes, depleted hydropower reservoirs due to extended drought, and lack of funds. GDP growth in 2000 was perhaps 15%, which made up for a large part of the 20% decline of 1999.
Zambia: Despite progress in privatization and budgetary reform, Zambia's economy has a long way to go. Privatization of government-owned copper mines relieved the government from covering mammoth losses generated by the industry and greatly improved the chances for copper mining to return to profitability and spur economic growth. In late 2000, Zambia was determined to be eligible for debt relief under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative. Inflation and unemployment rates remain high, but the GDP growth rate should rise in 2001.
Zimbabwe: The government of Zimbabwe faces a wide variety of difficult economic problems as it struggles to consolidate earlier moves to develop a market-oriented economy. Its involvement in the war in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, for example, has already drained hundreds of millions of dollars from the economy. Badly needed support from the IMF suffers delays in part because of the country's failure to meet budgetary goals. Inflation rose from an annual rate of 32% in 1998 to 59% in 1999 and 60% in 2000. The economy is being steadily weakened by excessive government deficits and AIDS; Zimbabwe has the highest rate of infection in the world. Per capita GDP, which is twice the average of the poorer sub-Saharan nations, will increase little if any in the near-term, and Zimbabwe will suffer continued frustrations in developing its agricultural and mineral resources.
Taiwan: Taiwan has a dynamic capitalist economy with gradually decreasing guidance of investment and foreign trade by government authorities. In keeping with this trend, some large government-owned banks and industrial firms are being privatized. Real growth in GDP has averaged about 8% during the past three decades. Exports have grown even faster and have provided the primary impetus for industrialization. Inflation and unemployment are low; the trade surplus is substantial; and foreign reserves are the world's fourth largest. Agriculture contributes 3% to GDP, down from 35% in 1952. Traditional labor-intensive industries are steadily being moved offshore and replaced with more capital- and technology-intensive industries. Taiwan has become a major investor in China, Thailand, Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, and Vietnam. The tightening of labor markets has led to an influx of foreign workers, both legal and illegal. Because of its conservative financial approach and its entrepreneurial strengths, Taiwan suffered little compared with many of its neighbors from the Asian financial crisis in 1998-99. Growth in 2001 will depend largely on conditions in Taiwan's export markets and may be about 5%.
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@Electricity - consumption
Afghanistan: 480.6 million kWh (1999)
Albania: 5.379 billion kWh (1999)
Algeria: 21.613 billion kWh (1999)
American Samoa: 120.9 million kWh (1999)
Andorra: NA kWh
Angola: 1.372 billion kWh (1999)
Anguilla: NA kWh
Antigua and Barbuda: 88.4 million kWh (1999)
Argentina: 77.111 billion kWh (1999)
Armenia: 6.201 billion kWh (1999)
Aruba: 418.5 million kWh (1999)
Australia: 178.306 billion kWh (1999)
Austria: 53.231 billion kWh (1999)
Azerbaijan: 15.432 billion kWh (1999)
Bahamas, The: 1.362 billion kWh (1999)
Bahrain: 5.752 billion kWh (1999)
Bangladesh: 11.216 billion kWh (1999)
Barbados: 667.7 million kWh (1999)
Belarus: 27.647 billion kWh (1999)
Belgium: 75.089 billion kWh (1999)
Belize: 172.1 million kWh (1999)
Benin: 510.2 million kWh (1999)
Bermuda: 511.5 million kWh (1999)
Bhutan: 191.1 million kWh (1999)
Bolivia: 3.377 billion kWh (1999)
Bosnia and Herzegovina: 2.684 billion kWh (1999)
Botswana: 1.517 billion kWh (1999)
Brazil: 353.674 billion kWh (1999)
British Indian Ocean Territory: NA kWh
British Virgin Islands: 39.1 million kWh (1999)
Brunei: 2.274 billion kWh (1999)
Bulgaria: 33.182 billion kWh (1999)
Burkina Faso: 265.1 million kWh (1999)
Burma: 4.476 billion kWh (1999)
Burundi: 160.1 million kWh (1999)
Cambodia: 136.7 million kWh (1999)
Cameroon: 3.227 billion kWh (1999)
Canada: 497.532 billion kWh (1999)
Cape Verde: 37.2 million kWh (1999)
Cayman Islands: 306.9 million kWh (1999)
Central African Republic: 94.9 million kWh (1999)
Chad: 83.7 million kWh (1999)
Chile: 35.426 billion kWh (1999)
China: 1.084 trillion kWh (1999)
Christmas Island: NA kWh
Cocos (Keeling) Islands: NA kWh
Colombia: 40.532 billion kWh (1999)
Comoros: 15.8 million kWh (1999)
Congo, Democratic Republic of the: 4.55 billion kWh (1999)
Congo, Republic of the: 406.9 million kWh (1999)
Cook Islands: 19.5 million kWh (1999)
Costa Rica: 5.303 billion kWh (1999)
Cote d'Ivoire: 3.183 billion kWh (1999)
Croatia: 13.643 billion kWh (1999)
Cuba: 13.353 billion kWh (1999)
Cyprus: 2.744 billion kWh (1999); Turkish Cypriot area: NA kWh
Czech Republic: 52.898 billion kWh (2000)
Denmark: 32.916 billion kWh (1999)
Djibouti: 167.4 million kWh (1999)
Dominica: 57.7 million kWh (1999)
Dominican Republic: 6.78 billion kWh (1999)
Ecuador: 9.386 billion kWh (1999)
Egypt: 60.157 billion kWh (1999)
El Salvador: 3.638 billion kWh (1999)
Equatorial Guinea: 19.5 million kWh (1999)
Eritrea: 153.5 million kWh (1999)
Estonia: 6.807 billion kWh (1999)
Ethiopia: 1.511 billion kWh (1999)
Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas): 11.2 million kWh (1999)
Faroe Islands: 158.1 million kWh (1999)
Fiji: 474.3 million kWh (1999)
Finland: 81.611 billion kWh (1999)
France: 398.752 billion kWh (1999)
French Guiana: 409.2 million kWh (1999)
French Polynesia: 399.9 million kWh (1999)
Gabon: 948.6 million kWh (1999)
Gambia, The: 69.8 million kWh (1999)
Gaza Strip: NA kWh
Georgia: 7.117 billion kWh (1999)
Germany: 495.181 billion kWh (1999)
Ghana: 5.573 billion kWh (1999)
Gibraltar: 88.4 million kWh (1999)
Greece: 43.343 billion kWh (1999)
Greenland: 232.5 million kWh (1999)
Grenada: 111.6 million kWh (1999)
Guadeloupe: 1.209 billion kWh (1999)
Guam: 744 million kWh (1999)
Guatemala: 3.295 billion kWh (1999)
Guernsey: NA kWh
Guinea: 697.5 million kWh (1999)
Guinea-Bissau: 51.2 million kWh (1999)
Guyana: 423.2 million kWh (1999)
Haiti: 625 million kWh (1999)
Holy See (Vatican City): NA kWh
Honduras: 3.232 billion kWh (1999)
Hong Kong: 32.202 billion kWh (1999)
Hungary: 35.234 billion kWh (1999)
Iceland: 6.574 billion kWh (1999)
India: 424.032 billion kWh (1999)
Indonesia: 73.167 billion kWh (1999)
Iran: 95.84 billion kWh (1999)
Iraq: 27.361 billion kWh (1999)
Ireland: 18.414 billion kWh (1999)
Israel: 31.899 billion kWh (1999)
Italy: 272.35 billion kWh (1999)
Jamaica: 6.073 billion kWh (1999)
Japan: 947.038 billion kWh (1999)
Johnston Atoll: NA kWh
Jordan: 6.594 billion kWh (1999)
Kazakhstan: 44.132 billion kWh (1999)
Kenya: 4.075 billion kWh (1999)
Kiribati: 6.5 million kWh (1999)
Korea, North: 26.598 billion kWh (1999)
Korea, South: 232.767 billion kWh (1999)
Kuwait: 29.357 billion kWh (1999)
Kyrgyzstan: 10.236 billion kWh (1999)
Laos: 173.6 million kWh (1999)
Latvia: 4.316 billion kWh (1999)
Lebanon: 7.86 billion kWh (1999)
Lesotho: 55 million kWh (1999)
Liberia: 401.8 million kWh (1999)
Libya: 17.577 billion kWh (1999)
Liechtenstein: NA kWh
Lithuania: 9.817 billion kWh (1999)
Luxembourg: 6.149 billion kWh (1999)
Macau: 1.422 billion kWh (1999)
Macedonia, The Former Yugoslav Republic of: 5.992 billion kWh (1999)
Madagascar: 753.3 million kWh (1999)
Malawi: 950 million kWh (1999)
Malaysia: 54.872 billion kWh (1999)
Maldives: 93.9 million kWh (1999)
Mali: 413.9 million kWh (1999)
Malta: 1.534 billion kWh (1999)
Martinique: 1.023 billion kWh (1999)
Mauritania: 140.4 million kWh (1999)
Mauritius: 1.172 billion kWh (1999)
Mayotte: NA kWh
Mexico: 170.754 billion kWh (1999)
Micronesia, Federated States of: NA kWh
Moldova: 5.78 billion kWh (1999)
Monaco: NA kWh
Mongolia: 2.767 billion kWh (1999)
Montserrat: 9.3 million kWh (1999)
Morocco: 13.441 billion kWh (1999)
Mozambique: 307 million kWh (1999)
Namibia: 1.948 billion kWh (1999)
Nauru: 27.9 million kWh (1999)
Nepal: 1.309 billion kWh (1999)
Netherlands: 97.76 billion kWh (1999)
Netherlands Antilles: 1.032 billion kWh (1999)
New Caledonia: 1.414 billion kWh (1999)
New Zealand: 35.295 billion kWh (1999)
Nicaragua: 2.265 billion kWh (1999)
Niger: 401 million kWh (1999)
Nigeria: 17.372 billion kWh (1999)
Niue: 2.8 million kWh (1999)
Norfolk Island: NA kWh
Northern Mariana Islands: NA kWh
Norway: 110.795 billion kWh (1999)
Oman: 8.026 billion kWh (1999)
Pakistan: 57.732 billion kWh (1999)
Panama: 4.049 billion kWh (1999)
Papua New Guinea: 1.693 billion kWh (1999)
Paraguay: 1.915 billion kWh (1999)
Peru: 17.565 billion kWh (1999)
Philippines: 37.893 billion kWh (1999)
Pitcairn Islands: NA kWh
Poland: 120.007 billion kWh (1999)
Portugal: 37.915 billion kWh (1999)
Puerto Rico: 15.587 billion kWh (1999)
Qatar: 8.37 billion kWh (1999)
Reunion: 1.023 billion kWh (1999)
Romania: 44.768 billion kWh (1999)
Russia: 728.2 billion kWh (1999)
Rwanda: 191.8 million kWh (1999)
Saint Helena: 5.6 million kWh (1999)
Saint Kitts and Nevis: 83.7 million kWh (1999)
Saint Lucia: 102.3 million kWh (1999)
Saint Pierre and Miquelon: 37.2 million kWh (1999)
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines: 76.3 million kWh (1999)
Samoa: 93 million kWh (1999)
San Marino: NA kWh
Sao Tome and Principe: 15.8 million kWh (1999)
Saudi Arabia: 111.6 billion kWh (1999)
Senegal: 1.181 billion kWh (1999)
Seychelles: 148.8 million kWh (1999)
Sierra Leone: 223.2 million kWh (1999)
Singapore: 25.464 billion kWh (1999)
Slovakia: 21.471 billion kWh (1999)
Slovenia: 10.024 billion kWh (1999)
Solomon Islands: 27.9 million kWh (1999)
Somalia: 241.8 million kWh (1999)
South Africa: 172.393 billion kWh (1999)
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands: NA kWh
Spain: 189.57 billion kWh (1999)
Sri Lanka: 5.604 billion kWh (1999)
Sudan: 1.637 billion kWh (1999)
Suriname: 1.801 billion kWh (1999)
Svalbard: NA kWh
Swaziland: 198 million kWh (1999)
Sweden: 128.819 billion kWh (1999)
Switzerland: 51.862 billion kWh (1999)
Syria: 16.684 billion kWh (1999)
Tajikistan: 14.729 billion kWh (1999)
Tanzania: 2.134 billion kWh (1999)
Thailand: 83.991 billion kWh (1999)
Togo: 511.6 million kWh (1999)
Tokelau: NA kWh
Tonga: 32.6 million kWh (1999)
Trinidad and Tobago: 4.557 billion kWh (1999)
Tunisia: 8.677 billion kWh (1999)
Turkey: 119.5 billion kWh (2000 est.)
Turkmenistan: 4.785 billion kWh (1999)
Turks and Caicos Islands: 4.6 million kWh (1999)
Uganda: 1.06 billion kWh (1999)
Ukraine: 146.675 billion kWh (1999)
United Arab Emirates: 34.131 billion kWh (1999)
United Kingdom: 333.012 billion kWh (1999)
United States: 3.45 trillion kWh (1999)
Uruguay: 5.89 billion kWh (1999)
Uzbekistan: 43.455 billion kWh (1999)
Vanuatu: 32.6 million kWh (1999)
Venezuela: 75.53 billion kWh (1999)
Vietnam: 21.376 billion kWh (1999)
Virgin Islands: 948.6 million kWh (1999)
Wallis and Futuna: NA kWh
West Bank: NA kWh
Western Sahara: 83.7 million kWh (1999)
Yemen: 2.232 billion kWh (1999)
Yugoslavia: 33.006 billion kWh (1999)
Zambia: 5.926 billion kWh (1999)
Zimbabwe: 6.939 billion kWh (1999)
Taiwan: 129.899 billion kWh (1999)
======================================================================
@Electricity - exports
Afghanistan: 0 kWh (1999)
Albania: 100 million kWh (1999)
Algeria: 307 million kWh (1999)
American Samoa: 0 kWh (1999)
Andorra: NA kWh
Angola: 0 kWh (1999)
Antigua and Barbuda: 0 kWh (1999)
Argentina: 1.08 billion kWh (1999)
Armenia: 0 kWh (1999)
Aruba: 0 kWh (1999)
Australia: 0 kWh (1999)
Austria: 13.507 billion kWh (1999)
Azerbaijan: 600 million kWh (1999)
Bahamas, The: 0 kWh (1999)
Bahrain: 0 kWh (1999)
Bangladesh: 0 kWh (1999)
Barbados: 0 kWh (1999)
Belarus: 2.62 billion kWh (1999)
Belgium: 8.207 billion kWh (1999)
Belize: 0 kWh (1999)
Benin: 0 kWh (1999)
Bermuda: 0 kWh (1999)
Bhutan: 1.55 billion kWh (1999)
Bolivia: 4 million kWh (1999)
Bosnia and Herzegovina: 150 million kWh (1999)
Botswana: 0 kWh (1999)
Brazil: 5 million kWh (1999)
British Virgin Islands: 0 kWh (1999)
Brunei: 0 kWh (1999)
Bulgaria: 2.2 billion kWh (1999)
Burkina Faso: 0 kWh (1999)
Burma: 0 kWh (1999)
Burundi: 0 kWh (1999)
Cambodia: 0 kWh (1999)
Cameroon: 0 kWh (1999)
Canada: 42.911 billion kWh (1999)
Cape Verde: 0 kWh (1999)
Cayman Islands: 0 kWh (1999)
Central African Republic: 0 kWh (1999)
Chad: 0 kWh (1999)
Chile: 0 kWh (1999)
China: 7.2 billion kWh (1999)
Colombia: 27 million kWh (1999)
Comoros: 0 kWh (1999)
Congo, Democratic Republic of the: 404 million kWh (1999)
Congo, Republic of the: 0 kWh (1999)
Cook Islands: 0 kWh (1999)
Costa Rica: 165 million kWh (1999)
Cote d'Ivoire: 593 million kWh (1999)
Croatia: 1 billion kWh (1999)
Cuba: 0 kWh (1999)
Cyprus: 0 kWh (1999)
Czech Republic: 18.744 billion kWh (2000)
Denmark: 7.28 billion kWh (1999)
Djibouti: 0 kWh (1999)
Dominica: 0 kWh (1999)
Dominican Republic: 0 kWh (1999)
Ecuador: 0 kWh (1999)
Egypt: 0 kWh (1999)
El Salvador: 208 million kWh (1999)
Equatorial Guinea: 0 kWh (1999)
Eritrea: 0 kWh NA kWh (1999)
Estonia: 530 million kWh (1999)
Ethiopia: 0 kWh (1999)
Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas): 0 kWh (1999)
Faroe Islands: 0 kWh (1999)
Fiji: 0 kWh (1999)
Finland: 232 million kWh (1999)
France: 68.7 billion kWh (1999)
French Guiana: 0 kWh (1999)
French Polynesia: 0 kWh (1999)
Gabon: 0 kWh (1999)
Gambia, The: 0 kWh (1999)
Gaza Strip: 0 kWh (1999)
Georgia: 850 million kWh (1999)
Germany: 39.5 billion kWh (1999)
Ghana: 400 million kWh (1999)
Gibraltar: 0 kWh (1999)
Greece: 1.65 billion kWh (1999)
Greenland: 0 kWh (1999)
Grenada: 0 kWh (1999)
Guadeloupe: 0 kWh (1999)
Guam: 0 kWh (1999)
Guatemala: 435 million kWh (1999)
Guernsey: NA kWh
Guinea: 0 kWh (1999)
Guinea-Bissau: 0 kWh (1999)
Guyana: 0 kWh (1999)
Haiti: 0 kWh (1999)
Honduras: 0 kWh (1999)
Hong Kong: 633 million kWh (1999)
Hungary: 2.35 billion kWh (1999)
Iceland: 0 kWh (1999)
India: 200 million kWh (1999)
Indonesia: 0 kWh (1999)
Iran: 0 kWh (1999)
Iraq: 0 kWh (1999)
Ireland: 50 million kWh (1999)
Israel: 1.061 billion kWh (1999)
Italy: 530 million kWh (1999)
Jamaica: 0 kWh (1999)
Japan: 0 kWh (1999)
Jordan: 4 million kWh (1999)
Kazakhstan: 200 million kWh (1999)
Kenya: 0 kWh (1999)
Kiribati: 0 kWh (1999)
Korea, North: 0 kWh (1999)
Korea, South: 0 kWh (1999)
Kuwait: 0 kWh (1999)
Kyrgyzstan: 2.02 billion kWh (1999)
Laos: 705 million kWh (1999)
Latvia: 400 million kWh (1999)
Lebanon: 0 kWh (1999)
Lesotho: 0 kWh (1999)
Liberia: 0 kWh (1999)
Libya: 0 kWh (1999)
Liechtenstein: NA kWh
Lithuania: 3.2 billion kWh (1999)
Luxembourg: 655 million kWh (1999)
Macau: 3 million kWh (1999)
Macedonia, The Former Yugoslav Republic of: 30 million kWh (1999)
Madagascar: 0 kWh (1999)
Malawi: 3 million kWh (1999)
Malaysia: 50 million kWh (1999)
Maldives: 0 kWh (1999)
Mali: 0 kWh (1999)
Malta: 0 kWh (1999)
Martinique: 0 kWh (1999)
Mauritania: 0 kWh (1999)
Mauritius: 0 kWh (1999)
Mexico: 11 million kWh (1999)
Moldova: 0 kWh (1999)
Mongolia: 80 million kWh (1999)
Montserrat: 0 kWh (1999)
Morocco: 0 kWh (1999)
Mozambique: 1.9 billion kWh (1999)
Namibia: 56 million kWh (1999)
Nauru: 0 kWh (1999)
Nepal: 68 million kWh (1999)
Netherlands: 3.97 billion kWh (1999)
Netherlands Antilles: 0 kWh (1999)
New Caledonia: 0 kWh (1999)
New Zealand: 0 kWh (1999)
Nicaragua: 20 million kWh (1999)
Niger: 0 kWh (1999)
Nigeria: 19 million kWh (1999)
Niue: 0 kWh (1999)
Norway: 8.28 billion kWh (1999)
Oman: 0 kWh (1999)
Pakistan: 0 kWh (1999)
Panama: 95 million kWh (1999)
Papua New Guinea: 0 kWh (1999)
Paraguay: 46.03 billion kWh (1999)
Peru: 0 kWh (1999)
Philippines: 0 kWh (1999)
Poland: 8.43 billion kWh (1999)
Portugal: 4.49 billion kWh (1999)
Puerto Rico: 0 kWh (1999)
Qatar: 0 kWh (1999)
Reunion: 0 kWh (1999)
Romania: 1.935 billion kWh (1999)
Russia: 20 billion kWh (1999)
Rwanda: 1 million kWh (1999)
Saint Helena: 0 kWh (1999)
Saint Kitts and Nevis: 0 kWh (1999)
Saint Lucia: 0 kWh (1999)
Saint Pierre and Miquelon: 0 kWh (1999)
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines: 0 kWh (1999)
Samoa: 0 kWh (1999)
San Marino: 0 kWh
note: electric power supplied by Italy (1999)
Sao Tome and Principe: 0 kWh (1999)
Saudi Arabia: 0 kWh (1999)
Senegal: 0 kWh (1999)
Seychelles: 0 kWh (1999)
Sierra Leone: 0 kWh (1999)
Singapore: 0 kWh (1999)
Slovakia: 930 million kWh (1999)
Slovenia: 2.2 billion kWh (1999)
Solomon Islands: 0 kWh (1999)
Somalia: 0 kWh (1999)
South Africa: 3.884 billion kWh (1999)
Spain: 6.23 billion kWh (1999)
Sri Lanka: 0 kWh (1999)
Sudan: 0 kWh (1999)
Suriname: 0 kWh (1999)
Swaziland: 852 million kWh (1999)
Sweden: 15.9 billion kWh (1999)
Switzerland: 31.955 billion kWh (1999)
Syria: 0 kWh (1999)
Tajikistan: 3.9 billion kWh (1999)
Tanzania: 0 kWh (1999)
Thailand: 200 million kWh (1999)
Togo: 0 kWh (1999)
Tonga: 0 kWh (1999)
Trinidad and Tobago: 0 kWh (1999)
Tunisia: 19 million kWh (1999)
Turkey: 350 million kWh (2000 est.)
Turkmenistan: 4.1 billion kWh (1999)
Turks and Caicos Islands: 0 kWh (1999)
Uganda: 174 million kWh (1999)
Ukraine: 2.3 billion kWh (1999)
United Arab Emirates: 0 kWh (1999)
United Kingdom: 265 million kWh (1999)
United States: 14 billion kWh (1999)
Uruguay: 215 million kWh (1999)
Uzbekistan: 3.92 billion kWh (1999)
Vanuatu: 0 kWh (1999)
Venezuela: 0 kWh (1999)
Vietnam: 0 kWh (1999)
Virgin Islands: 0 kWh (1999)
Western Sahara: 0 kWh (1999)
Yemen: 0 kWh (1999)
Yugoslavia: 960 million kWh (1999)
Zambia: 1.6 billion kWh (1999)
Zimbabwe: 0 kWh (1999)
Taiwan: 0 kWh (1999)
======================================================================
@Electricity - imports
Afghanistan: 90 million kWh (1999)
Albania: 600 million kWh (2000)
Algeria: 330 million kWh (1999)
American Samoa: 0 kWh (1999)
Andorra: NA kWh
note: most electricity supplied by Spain and France; Andorra generates a small amount of hydropower
Angola: 0 kWh (1999)
Antigua and Barbuda: 0 kWh (1999)
Argentina: 6.5 billion kWh (1999)
Armenia: 0 kWh (1999)
Aruba: 0 kWh (1999)
Australia: 0 kWh (1999)
Austria: 11.605 billion kWh (1999)
Azerbaijan: 800 million kWh (1999)
Bahamas, The: 0 kWh (1999)
Bahrain: 0 kWh (1999)
Bangladesh: 0 kWh (1999)
Barbados: 0 kWh (1999)
Belarus: 7.1 billion kWh (1999)
Belgium: 9.055 billion kWh (1999)
Belize: 0 kWh (1999)
Benin: 300 million kWh (1999)
Bermuda: 0 kWh (1999)
Bhutan: 15 million kWh (1999)
Bolivia: 10 million kWh (1999)
Bosnia and Herzegovina: 430 million kWh (1999)
Botswana: 950 million kWh (1999)
Brazil: 39.86 billion kWh
note: supplied by Paraguay (1999)
British Virgin Islands: 0 kWh (1999)
Brunei: 0 kWh (1999)
Bulgaria: 1.7 billion kWh (1999)
Burkina Faso: 0 kWh (1999)
Burma: 0 kWh (1999)
Burundi: 29 million kWh
note: supplied by the Democratic Republic of the Congo (1999)
Cambodia: 0 kWh (1999)
Cameroon: 0 kWh (1999)
Canada: 12.953 billion kWh (1999)
Cape Verde: 0 kWh (1999)
Cayman Islands: 0 kWh (1999)
Central African Republic: 0 kWh (1999)
Chad: 0 kWh (1999)
Chile: 0 kWh (1999)
China: 90 million kWh (1999)
Colombia: 35 million kWh (1999)
Comoros: 0 kWh (1999)
Congo, Democratic Republic of the: 55 million kWh (1999)
Congo, Republic of the: 126 million kWh (1999)
Cook Islands: 0 kWh (1999)
Costa Rica: 69 million kWh (1999)
Cote d'Ivoire: 0 kWh (1999)
Croatia: 4.45 billion kWh (1999)
Cuba: 0 kWh (1999)
Cyprus: 0 kWh (1999)
Czech Republic: 8.735 billion kWh (2000)
Denmark: 4.963 billion kWh (1999)
Djibouti: 0 kWh (1999)
Dominica: 0 kWh (1999)
Dominican Republic: 0 kWh (1999)
Ecuador: 25 million kWh (1999)
Egypt: 0 kWh (1999)
El Salvador: 460 million kWh (1999)
Equatorial Guinea: 0 kWh (1999)
Eritrea: 0 kWh NA kWh (1999)
Estonia: 100 million kWh (1999)
Ethiopia: 0 kWh (1999)
Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas): 0 kWh (1999)
Faroe Islands: 0 kWh (1999)
Fiji: 0 kWh (1999)
Finland: 11.356 billion kWh (1999)
France: 5 billion kWh (1999)
French Guiana: 0 kWh (1999)
French Polynesia: 0 kWh (1999)
Gabon: 0 kWh (1999)
Gambia, The: 0 kWh (1999)
Gaza Strip: NA kWh; note - electricity supplied by Israel
Georgia: 550 million kWh (1999)
Germany: 40.5 billion kWh (1999)
Ghana: 890 million kWh (1999)
Gibraltar: 0 kWh (1999)
Greece: 1.811 billion kWh (1999)
Greenland: 0 kWh (1999)
Grenada: 0 kWh (1999)
Guadeloupe: 0 kWh (1999)
Guam: 0 kWh (1999)
Guatemala: 210 million kWh (1999)
Guernsey: NA kWh
Guinea: 0 kWh (1999)
Guinea-Bissau: 0 kWh (1999)
Guyana: 0 kWh (1999)
Haiti: 0 kWh (1999)
Holy See (Vatican City): NA kWh; note - electricity supplied by Italy
Honduras: 145 million kWh (1999)
Hong Kong: 7.05 billion kWh (1999)
Hungary: 3.406 billion kWh (1999)
Iceland: 0 kWh (1999)
India: 1.49 billion kWh (1999)
Indonesia: 0 kWh (1999)
Iran: 0 kWh (1999)
Iraq: 0 kWh (1999)
Ireland: 290 million kWh (1999)
Israel: 4 million kWh (1999)
Italy: 42.539 billion kWh (1999)
Jamaica: 0 kWh (1999)
Japan: 0 kWh (1999)
Jersey: NA kWh
note: electricity supplied by France
Jordan: 407 million kWh (1999)
Kazakhstan: 3.077 billion kWh (1999)
Kenya: 146 million kWh (1999)
Kiribati: 0 kWh (1999)
Korea, North: 0 kWh (1999)
Korea, South: 0 kWh (1999)
Kuwait: 0 kWh (1999)
Kyrgyzstan: 184 million kWh (1999)
Laos: 142 million kWh (1999)
Latvia: 1 billion kWh (1999)
Lebanon: 654 million kWh (1999)
Lesotho: 55 million kWh
note: electricity supplied by South Africa (1999)
Liberia: 0 kWh (1999)
Libya: 0 kWh (1999)
Liechtenstein: NA kWh
Lithuania: 400 million kWh (1999)
Luxembourg: 6.201 billion kWh (1999)
Macau: 165 million kWh (1999)
Macedonia, The Former Yugoslav Republic of: 75 million kWh (1999)
Madagascar: 0 kWh (1999)
Malawi: 0 kWh (1999)
Malaysia: 11 million kWh (1999)
Maldives: 0 kWh (1999)
Mali: 0 kWh (1999)
Malta: 0 kWh (1999)
Martinique: 0 kWh (1999)
Mauritania: 0 kWh (1999)
Mauritius: 0 kWh (1999)
Mexico: 1.047 billion kWh (1999)
Moldova: 1.916 billion kWh (1999)
Monaco: NA kWh
note: electricity supplied by France (1999)
Mongolia: 363 million kWh (1999)
Montserrat: 0 kWh (1999)
Morocco: 705 million kWh (1999)
Mozambique: 68 million kWh (1999)
Namibia: 890 million kWh
note: supplied by South Africa (1999)
Nauru: 0 kWh (1999)
Nepal: 210 million kWh (1999)
Netherlands: 22.407 billion kWh (1999)
Netherlands Antilles: 0 kWh (1999)
New Caledonia: 0 kWh (1999)
New Zealand: 0 kWh (1999)
Nicaragua: 100 million kWh (1999)
Niger: 215 million kWh (1999)
Nigeria: 0 kWh (1999)
Niue: 0 kWh (1999)
Norway: 6.467 billion kWh (1999)
Oman: 0 kWh (1999)
Pakistan: 0 kWh (1999)
Panama: 40 million kWh (1999)
Papua New Guinea: 0 kWh (1999)
Paraguay: 0 kWh (1999)
Peru: 1 million kWh (1999)
Philippines: 0 kWh (1999)
Poland: 3.491 billion kWh (1999)
Portugal: 3.628 billion kWh (1999)
Puerto Rico: 0 kWh (1999)
Qatar: 0 kWh (1999)
Reunion: 0 kWh (1999)
Romania: 1.1 billion kWh (1999)
Russia: 6 billion kWh (1999)
Rwanda: 70 million kWh (1999)
Saint Helena: 0 kWh (1999)
Saint Kitts and Nevis: 0 kWh (1999)
Saint Lucia: 0 kWh (1999)
Saint Pierre and Miquelon: 0 kWh (1999)
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines: 0 kWh (1999)
Samoa: 0 kWh (1999)
San Marino: NA kWh
note: electricity supplied by Italy
Sao Tome and Principe: 0 kWh (1999)
Saudi Arabia: 0 kWh (1999)
Senegal: 0 kWh (1999)
Seychelles: 0 kWh (1999)
Sierra Leone: 0 kWh (1999)
Singapore: 0 kWh (1999)
Slovakia: 1.4 billion kWh (1999)
Slovenia: 645 million kWh (1999)
Solomon Islands: 0 kWh (1999)
Somalia: 0 kWh (1999)
South Africa: 2.457 billion kWh (1999)
Spain: 11.945 billion kWh (1999)
Sri Lanka: 0 kWh (1999)
Sudan: 0 kWh (1999)
Suriname: 0 kWh (1999)
Swaziland: 701 million kWh
note: supplied by South Africa (1999)
Sweden: 8.35 billion kWh (1999)
Switzerland: 21.723 billion kWh (1999)
Syria: 0 kWh (1999)
Tajikistan: 4.1 billion kWh (1999)
Tanzania: 43 million kWh (1999)
Thailand: 1.02 billion kWh (1999)
Togo: 426 million kWh
note: electricity supplied by Ghana (1999)
Tonga: 0 kWh (1999)
Trinidad and Tobago: 0 kWh (1999)
Tunisia: 165 million kWh (1999)
Turkey: 3.35 billion kWh (2000 est.)
Turkmenistan: 1.1 billion kWh (1999)
Turks and Caicos Islands: 0 kWh (1999)
Uganda: 1 million kWh (1999)
Ukraine: 2.2 billion kWh (1999)
United Arab Emirates: 0 kWh (1999)
United Kingdom: 14.5 billion kWh (1999)
United States: 43 billion kWh (1999)
Uruguay: 800 million kWh (1999)
Uzbekistan: 7.5 billion kWh (1999)
Vanuatu: 0 kWh (1999)
Venezuela: 0 kWh (1999)
Vietnam: 0 kWh (1999)
Virgin Islands: 0 kWh (1999)
West Bank: NA kWh
Western Sahara: 0 kWh (1999)
Yemen: 0 kWh (1999)
Yugoslavia: 1.923 billion kWh (1999)
Zambia: 419 million kWh (1999)
Zimbabwe: 1.564 billion kWh (1999)
Taiwan: 0 kWh (1999)
======================================================================
@Electricity - production
Afghanistan: 420 million kWh (1999)
Albania: 5.332 billion kWh (1999)
Algeria: 23.215 billion kWh (1999)
American Samoa: 130 million kWh (1999)
Angola: 1.475 billion kWh (1999)
Anguilla: NA kWh
Antigua and Barbuda: 95 million kWh (1999)
Argentina: 77.087 billion kWh (1999)
Armenia: 6.668 billion kWh (1999)
Aruba: 450 million kWh (1999)
Australia: 191.727 billion kWh (1999)
Austria: 59.283 billion kWh (1999)
Azerbaijan: 16.378 billion kWh (1999)
Bahamas, The: 1.465 billion kWh (1999)
Bahrain: 6.185 billion kWh (1999)
Bangladesh: 12.06 billion kWh (1999)
Barbados: 718 million kWh (1999)
Belarus: 24.911 billion kWh (1999)
Belgium: 79.829 billion kWh (1999)
Belize: 185 million kWh (1999)
Benin: 226 million kWh (1999)
Bermuda: 550 million kWh (1999)
Bhutan: 1.856 billion kWh (1999)
Bolivia: 3.625 billion kWh (1999)
Bosnia and Herzegovina: 2.585 billion kWh (1999)
Botswana: 610 million kWh (1999)
Brazil: 337.44 billion kWh (1999)
British Indian Ocean Territory: NA kWh; note - electricity supplied by the US military
British Virgin Islands: 42 million kWh (1999)
Brunei: 2.445 billion kWh (1999)
Bulgaria: 36.217 billion kWh (1999)
Burkina Faso: 285 million kWh (1999)
Burma: 4.813 billion kWh (1999)
Burundi: 141 million kWh (1999)
Cambodia: 147 million kWh (1999)
Cameroon: 3.47 billion kWh (1999)
Canada: 567.193 billion kWh (1999)
Cape Verde: 40 million kWh (1999)
Cayman Islands: 330 million kWh (1999)
Central African Republic: 102 million kWh (1999)
Chad: 90 million kWh (1999)
Chile: 38.092 billion kWh (1999)
China: 1.173 trillion kWh (1999)
Christmas Island: NA kWh
Cocos (Keeling) Islands: NA kWh
Colombia: 43.574 billion kWh (1999)
Comoros: 17 million kWh (1999)
Congo, Democratic Republic of the: 5.268 billion kWh (1999)
Congo, Republic of the: 302 million kWh (1999)
Cook Islands: 21 million kWh (1999)
Costa Rica: 5.805 billion kWh (1999)
Cote d'Ivoire: 4.06 billion kWh (1999)
Croatia: 10.96 billion kWh (1999)
Cuba: 14.358 billion kWh (1999)
Cyprus: 2.951 billion kWh (1999); Turkish Cypriot area: NA kWh
Czech Republic: 67.642 billion kWh (2000)
Denmark: 37.885 billion kWh (1999)
Djibouti: 180 million kWh (1999)
Dominica: 62 million kWh (1999)
Dominican Republic: 7.29 billion kWh (1999)
Ecuador: 10.065 billion kWh (1999)
Egypt: 64.685 billion kWh (1999)
El Salvador: 3.641 billion kWh (1999)
Equatorial Guinea: 21 million kWh (1999)
Eritrea: 165 million kWh (1999)
Estonia: 7.782 billion kWh (1999)
Ethiopia: 1.625 billion kWh (1999)
Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas): 12 million kWh (1999)
Faroe Islands: 170 million kWh (1999)
Fiji: 510 million kWh (1999)
Finland: 75.792 billion kWh (1999)
France: 497.26 billion kWh (1999)
French Guiana: 440 million kWh (1999)
French Polynesia: 430 million kWh (1999)
Gabon: 1.02 billion kWh (1999)
Gambia, The: 75 million kWh (1999)
Gaza Strip: NA kWh; note - electricity supplied by Israel
Georgia: 7.975 billion kWh (1999)
Germany: 531.377 billion kWh (1999)
Ghana: 5.466 billion kWh (1999)
Gibraltar: 95 million kWh (1999)
Greece: 46.432 billion kWh (1999)
Greenland: 250 million kWh (1999)
Grenada: 120 million kWh (1999)
Guadeloupe: 1.3 billion kWh (1999)
Guam: 800 million kWh (1999)
Guatemala: 3.785 billion kWh (1999)
Guernsey: NA kWh
Guinea: 750 million kWh (1999)
Guinea-Bissau: 55 million kWh (1999)
Guyana: 455 million kWh (1999)
Haiti: 672 million kWh (1999)
Honduras: 3.319 billion kWh (1999)
Hong Kong: 27.726 billion kWh (1999)
Hungary: 36.75 billion kWh (1999)
Iceland: 7.069 billion kWh (1999)
India: 454.561 billion kWh (1999)
Indonesia: 78.674 billion kWh (1999)
Iran: 103.054 billion kWh (1999)
Iraq: 29.42 billion kWh (1999)
Ireland: 19.542 billion kWh (1999)
Israel: 35.437 billion kWh (1999)
Italy: 247.679 billion kWh (1999)
Jamaica: 6.53 billion kWh (1999)
Japan: 1.018 trillion kWh (1999)
Johnston Atoll: approximately 1,000,000 kWh weekly; note - there are six 25,000 kWh generators supplied by the base operating support contractor (1999)
Jordan: 6.657 billion kWh (1999)
Kazakhstan: 44.36 billion kWh (1999)
Kenya: 4.225 billion kWh (1999)
Kiribati: 7 million kWh (1999)
Korea, North: 28.6 billion kWh (1999)
Korea, South: 250.287 billion kWh (1999)
Kuwait: 31.567 billion kWh (1999)
Kyrgyzstan: 12.981 billion kWh (1999)
Laos: 792 million kWh (1999)
Latvia: 3.996 billion kWh (1999)
Lebanon: 7.748 billion kWh (1999)
Lesotho: 0 kWh; note - electricity supplied by South Africa (1999)
Liberia: 432 million kWh (1999)
Libya: 18.9 billion kWh (1999)
Lithuania: 13.567 billion kWh (1999)
Luxembourg: 648 million kWh (1999)
Macau: 1.355 billion kWh (1999)
Macedonia, The Former Yugoslav Republic of: 6.395 billion kWh (1999)
Madagascar: 810 million kWh (1999)
Malawi: 1.025 billion kWh (1999)
Malaysia: 59.044 billion kWh (1999)
Maldives: 101 million kWh (1999)
Mali: 445 million kWh (1999)
Malta: 1.65 billion kWh (1999)
Martinique: 1.1 billion kWh (1999)
Mauritania: 151 million kWh (1999)
Mauritius: 1.26 billion kWh (1999)
Mayotte: NA kWh
Mexico: 182.492 billion kWh (1999)
Micronesia, Federated States of: NA kWh
Moldova: 4.155 billion kWh (1999)
Mongolia: 2.671 billion kWh (1999)
Montserrat: 10 million kWh (1999)
Morocco: 13.695 billion kWh (1999)
Mozambique: 2.3 billion kWh (1999)
Namibia: 1.198 billion kWh (1999)
Nauru: 30 million kWh (1999)
Nepal: 1.255 billion kWh (1999)
Netherlands: 85.294 billion kWh (1999)
Netherlands Antilles: 1.11 billion kWh (1999)
New Caledonia: 1.52 billion kWh (1999)
New Zealand: 37.952 billion kWh (1999)
Nicaragua: 2.349 billion kWh (1999)
Niger: 200 million kWh (1999)
Nigeria: 18.7 billion kWh (1999)
Niue: 3 million kWh (1999)
Norfolk Island: NA kWh
Northern Mariana Islands: NA kWh
Norway: 121.084 billion kWh (1999)
Oman: 8.63 billion kWh (1999)
Pakistan: 62.078 billion kWh (1999)
Panama: 4.413 billion kWh (1999)
Papua New Guinea: 1.82 billion kWh (1999)
Paraguay: 51.554 billion kWh (1999)
Peru: 18.886 billion kWh (1999)
Philippines: 40.745 billion kWh (1999)
Pitcairn Islands: NA kWh; note - electric power is provided by a small diesel-powered generator
Poland: 134.351 billion kWh (1999)
Portugal: 41.696 billion kWh (1999)
Puerto Rico: 16.76 billion kWh (1999)
Qatar: 9 billion kWh (1999)
Reunion: 1.1 billion kWh (1999)
Romania: 49.036 billion kWh (1999)
Russia: 798.065 billion kWh (1999)
Rwanda: 132 million kWh (1999)
Saint Helena: 6 million kWh (1999)
Saint Kitts and Nevis: 90 million kWh (1999)
Saint Lucia: 110 million kWh (1999)
Saint Pierre and Miquelon: 40 million kWh (1999)
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines: 82 million kWh (1999)
Samoa: 100 million kWh (1999)
San Marino: NA kWh
Sao Tome and Principe: 17 million kWh (1999)
Saudi Arabia: 120 billion kWh (1999)
Senegal: 1.27 billion kWh (1999)
Seychelles: 160 million kWh (1999)
Sierra Leone: 240 million kWh (1999)
Singapore: 27.381 billion kWh (1999)
Slovakia: 22.582 billion kWh (1999)
Slovenia: 12.451 billion kWh (1999)
Solomon Islands: 30 million kWh (1999)
Somalia: 260 million kWh (1999)
South Africa: 186.903 billion kWh (1999)
Spain: 197.694 billion kWh (1999)
Sri Lanka: 6.026 billion kWh (1999)
Sudan: 1.76 billion kWh (1999)
Suriname: 1.937 billion kWh (1999)
Svalbard: NA kWh
Swaziland: 375 million kWh (1999)
Sweden: 146.633 billion kWh (1999)
Switzerland: 66.768 billion kWh (1999)
Syria: 17.94 billion kWh (1999)
Tajikistan: 15.623 billion kWh (1999)
Tanzania: 2.248 billion kWh (1999)
Thailand: 89.431 billion kWh (1999)
Togo: 92 million kWh (1999)
Tokelau: NA kWh
Tonga: 35 million kWh (1999)
Trinidad and Tobago: 4.9 billion kWh (1999)
Tunisia: 9.173 billion kWh (1999)
Turkey: 125.3 billion kWh (2000 est.)
Turkmenistan: 8.371 billion kWh (1999)
Turks and Caicos Islands: 5 million kWh (1999)
Uganda: 1.326 billion kWh (1999)
Ukraine: 157.823 billion kWh (1999)
United Arab Emirates: 36.7 billion kWh (1999)
United Kingdom: 342.771 billion kWh (1999)
United States: 3.678 trillion kWh (1999)
Uruguay: 5.704 billion kWh (1999)
Uzbekistan: 42.876 billion kWh (1999)
Vanuatu: 35 million kWh (1999)
Venezuela: 81.215 billion kWh (1999)
Vietnam: 22.985 billion kWh (1999)
Virgin Islands: 1.02 billion kWh (1999)
Wake Island: NA kWh
Wallis and Futuna: NA kWh
West Bank: NA kWh; note - most electricity imported from Israel; East Jerusalem Electric Company buys and distributes electricity to Palestinians in East Jerusalem and its concession in the West Bank; the Israel Electric Company directly supplies electricity to most Jewish residents and military facilities; at the same time, some Palestinian municipalities, such as Nablus and Janin, generate their own electricity from small power plants
Western Sahara: 90 million kWh (1999)
Yemen: 2.4 billion kWh (1999)
Yugoslavia: 34.455 billion kWh (1999)
Zambia: 7.642 billion kWh (1999)
Zimbabwe: 5.78 billion kWh (1999)
Taiwan: 139.676 billion kWh (1999)
======================================================================
@Electricity - production by source
Afghanistan: fossil fuel: 35.71%
hydro: 64.29%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Albania: fossil fuel: 3.81%
hydro: 96.19%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Algeria: fossil fuel: 99.14%
hydro: 0.86%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
American Samoa: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Andorra: fossil fuel: NA%
hydro: NA%
nuclear: NA%
other: NA%
Angola: fossil fuel: 32.2%
hydro: 67.8%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Anguilla: fossil fuel: NA%
hydro: NA%
nuclear: NA%
other: NA%
Antigua and Barbuda: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Argentina: fossil fuel: 60.3%
hydro: 30.7%
nuclear: 8.75%
other: 0.25% (1999)
Armenia: fossil fuel: 45.56%
hydro: 23.25%
nuclear: 31.19%
other: 0% (1999)
Aruba: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Australia: fossil fuel: 89.93%
hydro: 8.36%
nuclear: 0%
other: 1.71% (1999)
Austria: fossil fuel: 29.53%
hydro: 67.65%
nuclear: 0%
other: 2.82% (1999)
Azerbaijan: fossil fuel: 86.46%
hydro: 13.54%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Bahamas, The: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Bahrain: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Bangladesh: fossil fuel: 93.7%
hydro: 6.3%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Barbados: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Belarus: fossil fuel: 99.9%
hydro: 0.1%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Belgium: fossil fuel: 40.01%
hydro: 0.42%
nuclear: 58.33%
other: 1.24% (1999)
Belize: fossil fuel: 56.76%
hydro: 43.24%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Benin: fossil fuel: 24.78%
hydro: 75.22%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Bermuda: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Bhutan: fossil fuel: 0.05%
hydro: 99.95%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Bolivia: fossil fuel: 56.61%
hydro: 41.6%
nuclear: 0%
other: 1.79% (1999)
Bosnia and Herzegovina: fossil fuel: 38.68%
hydro: 61.32%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Botswana: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Brazil: fossil fuel: 5.28%
hydro: 90.66%
nuclear: 1.12%
other: 2.94% (1999)
British Virgin Islands: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Brunei: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Bulgaria: fossil fuel: 51.52%
hydro: 8.35%
nuclear: 40.12%
other: 0.01% (1999)
Burkina Faso: fossil fuel: 71.93%
hydro: 28.07%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Burma: fossil fuel: 68.56%
hydro: 31.44%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Burundi: fossil fuel: 0.71%
hydro: 99.29%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Cambodia: fossil fuel: 59.18%
hydro: 40.82%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Cameroon: fossil fuel: 2.59%
hydro: 97.41%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Canada: fossil fuel: 26.38%
hydro: 60%
nuclear: 12.31%
other: 1.31% (1999)
Cape Verde: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Cayman Islands: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Central African Republic: fossil fuel: 20.59%
hydro: 79.41%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Chad: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Chile: fossil fuel: 61%
hydro: 35%
nuclear: 0%
other: 4% (1999)
China: fossil fuel: 79.82%
hydro: 18.98%
nuclear: 1.2%
other: 0.01% (1999)
Christmas Island: fossil fuel: NA%
hydro: NA%
nuclear: NA%
other: NA%
Cocos (Keeling) Islands: fossil fuel: NA%
hydro: NA%
nuclear: NA%
other: NA%
Colombia: fossil fuel: 22.27%
hydro: 76.19%
nuclear: 0%
other: 1.54% (1999)
Comoros: fossil fuel: 88.24%
hydro: 11.76%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Congo, Democratic Republic of the: fossil fuel: 2.05%
hydro: 97.95%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Congo, Republic of the: fossil fuel: 0.66%
hydro: 99.34%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Cook Islands: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Costa Rica: fossil fuel: 2.41%
hydro: 83.32%
nuclear: 0%
other: 14.27% (1999)
Cote d'Ivoire: fossil fuel: 75.37%
hydro: 24.63%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Croatia: fossil fuel: 40.89%
hydro: 59%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0.11% (1999)
Cuba: fossil fuel: 94.2%
hydro: 0.7%
nuclear: 0%
other: 5.1% (1999)
Cyprus: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Czech Republic: fossil fuel: 77.8%
hydro: 3.43%
nuclear: 18.77%
other: 0% (2000)
Denmark: fossil fuel: 88.4%
hydro: 0.07%
nuclear: 0%
other: 11.53% (1999)
Djibouti: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Dominica: fossil fuel: 48.39%
hydro: 51.61%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Dominican Republic: fossil fuel: 87.19%
hydro: 12.4%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0.41% (1999)
Ecuador: fossil fuel: 29.51%
hydro: 70.49%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Egypt: fossil fuel: 76.59%
hydro: 23.41%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
El Salvador: fossil fuel: 45.65%
hydro: 41.01%
nuclear: 0%
other: 13.34% (1999)
Equatorial Guinea: fossil fuel: 85.71%
hydro: 14.29%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Eritrea: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Estonia: fossil fuel: 99.72%
hydro: 0.09%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0.19% (1999)
Ethiopia: fossil fuel: 3.08%
hydro: 96.92%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas): fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Faroe Islands: fossil fuel: 58.82%
hydro: 41.18%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Fiji: fossil fuel: 17.65%
hydro: 82.35%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Finland: fossil fuel: 41.88%
hydro: 16.77%
nuclear: 28.82%
other: 12.53% (1999)
France: fossil fuel: 9.69%
hydro: 14.39%
nuclear: 75.43%
other: 0.49% (1999)
French Guiana: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
French Polynesia: fossil fuel: 51.16%
hydro: 48.84%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Gabon: fossil fuel: 29.9%
hydro: 70.1%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Gambia, The: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Georgia: fossil fuel: 20.38%
hydro: 79.62%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Germany: fossil fuel: 63.29%
hydro: 3.59%
nuclear: 30.3%
other: 2.82% (1999)
Ghana: fossil fuel: 26.82%
hydro: 73.18%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Gibraltar: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Greece: fossil fuel: 89.6%
hydro: 9.72%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0.68% (1999)
Greenland: fossil fuel: 41%
hydro: 59%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0%
note: Greenland is shifting its electricity production from fossil fuel to hydroelectric power production (1999)
Grenada: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Guadeloupe: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Guam: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Guatemala: fossil fuel: 38.31%
hydro: 61.69%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Guernsey: fossil fuel: NA%
hydro: NA%
nuclear: NA%
other: NA%
Guinea: fossil fuel: 46.67%
hydro: 53.33%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Guinea-Bissau: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Guyana: fossil fuel: 98.9%
hydro: 1.1%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Haiti: fossil fuel: 52.83%
hydro: 47.17%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Holy See (Vatican City): fossil fuel: NA%
hydro: NA%
nuclear: NA%
other: NA%
Honduras: fossil fuel: 44.71%
hydro: 55.29%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Hong Kong: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Hungary: fossil fuel: 61.09%
hydro: 0.51%
nuclear: 38.4%
other: 0% (1999)
Iceland: fossil fuel: 0.07%
hydro: 84.64%
nuclear: 0%
other: 15.29% (1999)
India: fossil fuel: 79.41%
hydro: 17.77%
nuclear: 2.52%
other: 0.3% (1999)
Indonesia: fossil fuel: 80.36%
hydro: 14.63%
nuclear: 0%
other: 5.01% (1999)
Iran: fossil fuel: 93.16%
hydro: 6.84%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Iraq: fossil fuel: 97.96%
hydro: 2.04%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Ireland: fossil fuel: 94.42%
hydro: 4.23%
nuclear: 0%
other: 1.35% (1999)
Israel: fossil fuel: 99.89%
hydro: 0.11%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Italy: fossil fuel: 79.09%
hydro: 18.08%
nuclear: 0%
other: 2.83% (1999)
Jamaica: fossil fuel: 92.28%
hydro: 1.36%
nuclear: 0%
other: 6.36% (1999)
Japan: fossil fuel: 58.91%
hydro: 8.35%
nuclear: 30.31%
other: 2.43% (1999)
Jordan: fossil fuel: 99.79%
hydro: 0.21%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Kazakhstan: fossil fuel: 87.12%
hydro: 12.65%
nuclear: 0.23%
other: 0% (1999)
Kenya: fossil fuel: 31%
hydro: 67%
nuclear: 0%
other: 2% (1999 est.)
Kiribati: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Korea, North: fossil fuel: 34.62%
hydro: 65.38%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Korea, South: fossil fuel: 59.22%
hydro: 1.64%
nuclear: 39.12%
other: 0.02% (1999)
Kuwait: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Kyrgyzstan: fossil fuel: 6.67%
hydro: 93.33%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Laos: fossil fuel: 2.78%
hydro: 97.22%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Latvia: fossil fuel: 31.78%
hydro: 68.22%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Lebanon: fossil fuel: 91.29%
hydro: 8.71%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Lesotho: fossil fuel: 0%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Liberia: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Libya: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Liechtenstein: fossil fuel: NA%
hydro: NA%
nuclear: NA%
other: NA%
Lithuania: fossil fuel: 23.89%
hydro: 3.43%
nuclear: 72.68%
other: 0% (1999)
Luxembourg: fossil fuel: 36.88%
hydro: 53.09%
nuclear: 0%
other: 10.03% (1999)
Macau: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Macedonia, The Former Yugoslav Republic of: fossil fuel: 82.25%
hydro: 17.75%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Madagascar: fossil fuel: 37.04%
hydro: 62.96%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Malawi: fossil fuel: 2.44%
hydro: 97.56%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Malaysia: fossil fuel: 91.61%
hydro: 8.39%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Maldives: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Mali: fossil fuel: 44.94%
hydro: 55.06%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Malta: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Marshall Islands: fossil fuel: NA%
hydro: NA%
nuclear: NA%
other: NA%
Martinique: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Mauritania: fossil fuel: 82.78%
hydro: 17.22%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Mauritius: fossil fuel: 91.27%
hydro: 8.73%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Mayotte: fossil fuel: NA%
hydro: NA%
nuclear: NA%
other: NA%
Mexico: fossil fuel: 74.12%
hydro: 17.75%
nuclear: 5.21%
other: 2.92% (1999)
Micronesia, Federated States of: fossil fuel: NA%
hydro: NA%
nuclear: NA%
other: NA%
Moldova: fossil fuel: 93.62%
hydro: 6.38%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Mongolia: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Montserrat: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Morocco: fossil fuel: 89.19%
hydro: 10.81%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Mozambique: fossil fuel: 13.04%
hydro: 86.96%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Namibia: fossil fuel: 2%
hydro: 98%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Nauru: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Nepal: fossil fuel: 9.56%
hydro: 90.44%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Netherlands: fossil fuel: 90.25%
hydro: 0.11%
nuclear: 4.27%
other: 5.37% (1999)
Netherlands Antilles: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
New Caledonia: fossil fuel: 78.95%
hydro: 21.05%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
New Zealand: fossil fuel: 30.49%
hydro: 61.42%
nuclear: 0%
other: 8.09% (1999)
Nicaragua: fossil fuel: 67.26%
hydro: 17.71%
nuclear: 0%
other: 15.03% (1999)
Niger: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Nigeria: fossil fuel: 52.94%
hydro: 47.06%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Niue: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Norfolk Island: fossil fuel: NA%
hydro: NA%
nuclear: NA%
other: NA%
Norway: fossil fuel: 0.63%
hydro: 99.11%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0.26% (1999)
Oman: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Pakistan: fossil fuel: 63.38%
hydro: 36.51%
nuclear: 0.11%
other: 0% (1999)
Panama: fossil fuel: 27.78%
hydro: 71.65%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0.57% (1999)
Papua New Guinea: fossil fuel: 54.95%
hydro: 45.05%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Paraguay: fossil fuel: 0.07%
hydro: 99.79%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0.15% (1999)
Peru: fossil fuel: 23.04%
hydro: 76.43%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0.53% (1999)
Philippines: fossil fuel: 61.03%
hydro: 18.68%
nuclear: 0%
other: 20.29% (1999)
Poland: fossil fuel: 96.43%
hydro: 3.16%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0.41% (1999)
Portugal: fossil fuel: 79.97%
hydro: 17.25%
nuclear: 0%
other: 2.78% (1999)
Puerto Rico: fossil fuel: 98.45%
hydro: 1.55%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Qatar: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Reunion: fossil fuel: 54.55%
hydro: 45.45%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Romania: fossil fuel: 53.99%
hydro: 36.18%
nuclear: 9.81%
other: 0.02% (1999)
Russia: fossil fuel: 66.31%
hydro: 19.79%
nuclear: 13.9%
other: 0% (1999)
Rwanda: fossil fuel: 3.03%
hydro: 96.97%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Saint Helena: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Saint Kitts and Nevis: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Saint Lucia: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Saint Pierre and Miquelon: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines: fossil fuel: 73.17%
hydro: 26.83%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Samoa: fossil fuel: 60%
hydro: 40%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
San Marino: fossil fuel: NA%
hydro: NA%
nuclear: NA%
other: NA%
Sao Tome and Principe: fossil fuel: 41.18%
hydro: 58.82%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Saudi Arabia: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Senegal: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Seychelles: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Sierra Leone: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Singapore: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Slovakia: fossil fuel: 37.56%
hydro: 18.27%
nuclear: 44.17%
other: 0% (1999)
Slovenia: fossil fuel: 34.44%
hydro: 29.58%
nuclear: 35.98%
other: 0% (1999)
Solomon Islands: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Somalia: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
South Africa: fossil fuel: 92.74%
hydro: 0.39%
nuclear: 6.87%
other: 0% (1999)
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands: fossil fuel: NA%
hydro: NA%
nuclear: NA%
other: NA%
Spain: fossil fuel: 57.71%
hydro: 12.1%
nuclear: 28.28%
other: 1.91% (1999)
Sri Lanka: fossil fuel: 29.9%
hydro: 70.1%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Sudan: fossil fuel: 42.05%
hydro: 57.95%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Suriname: fossil fuel: 25.92%
hydro: 74.08%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Svalbard: fossil fuel: NA%
hydro: NA%
nuclear: NA%
other: NA%
Swaziland: fossil fuel: 53.33%
hydro: 46.67%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Sweden: fossil fuel: 5.53%
hydro: 47.24%
nuclear: 45.42%
other: 1.81% (1999)
Switzerland: fossil fuel: 3.44%
hydro: 59.16%
nuclear: 35.43%
other: 1.97% (1999)
Syria: fossil fuel: 57.64%
hydro: 42.36%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Tajikistan: fossil fuel: 1.9%
hydro: 98.1%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Tanzania: fossil fuel: 22.24%
hydro: 77.76%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Thailand: fossil fuel: 91.17%
hydro: 3.81%
nuclear: 0%
other: 5.02% (1999)
Togo: fossil fuel: 97.83%
hydro: 2.17%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Tokelau: fossil fuel: NA%
hydro: NA%
nuclear: NA%
other: NA%
Tonga: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Trinidad and Tobago: fossil fuel: 99.59%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0.41% (1999)
Tunisia: fossil fuel: 99.2%
hydro: 0.8%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Turkey: fossil fuel: 71%
hydro: 29%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (2000 est.)
Turkmenistan: fossil fuel: 99.94%
hydro: 0.06%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Turks and Caicos Islands: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Tuvalu: fossil fuel: NA%
hydro: NA%
nuclear: NA%
other: NA%
Uganda: fossil fuel: 0.98%
hydro: 99.02%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Ukraine: fossil fuel: 47.67%
hydro: 9.65%
nuclear: 42.67%
other: 0.01% (1999)
United Arab Emirates: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
United Kingdom: fossil fuel: 69.38%
hydro: 1.55%
nuclear: 26.68%
other: 2.39% (1999)
United States: fossil fuel: 69.64%
hydro: 8.31%
nuclear: 19.8%
other: 2.25% (1999)
Uruguay: fossil fuel: 3.86%
hydro: 95.44%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0.7% (1999)
Uzbekistan: fossil fuel: 86.4%
hydro: 13.6%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Vanuatu: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Venezuela: fossil fuel: 32.16%
hydro: 67.84%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Vietnam: fossil fuel: 47.71%
hydro: 52.29%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Virgin Islands: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Wallis and Futuna: fossil fuel: NA%
hydro: NA%
nuclear: NA%
other: NA%
West Bank: fossil fuel: NA%
hydro: NA%
nuclear: NA%
other: NA%
Western Sahara: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
World: fossil fuel: NA%
hydro: NA%
nuclear: NA%
other: NA%
Yemen: fossil fuel: 100%
hydro: 0%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Yugoslavia: fossil fuel: 70%
hydro: 30%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Zambia: fossil fuel: 0.55%
hydro: 99.45%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Zimbabwe: fossil fuel: 69.98%
hydro: 30.02%
nuclear: 0%
other: 0% (1999)
Taiwan: fossil fuel: 67.26%
hydro: 6.32%
nuclear: 26.42%
other: 0% (1999)
======================================================================
@Elevation extremes
Afghanistan: lowest point: Amu Darya 258 m
highest point: Nowshak 7,485 m
Albania: lowest point: Adriatic Sea 0 m
highest point: Maja e Korabit (Golem Korab) 2,753 m
Algeria: lowest point: Chott Melrhir -40 m
highest point: Tahat 3,003 m
American Samoa: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: Lata 966 m
Andorra: lowest point: Riu Runer 840 m
highest point: Coma Pedrosa 2,946 m
Angola: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Morro de Moco 2,620 m
Anguilla: lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Crocus Hill 65 m
Antarctica: lowest point: Bentley Subglacial Trench -2,540 m
highest point: Vinson Massif 5,140 m
note: the lowest known land point in Antarctica is hidden in the Bentley Subglacial Trench; at its surface is the deepest ice yet discovered and the world's lowest elevation not under sea water
Antigua and Barbuda: lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Boggy Peak 402 m
Arctic Ocean: lowest point: Fram Basin -4,665 m
highest point: sea level 0 m
Argentina: lowest point: Salinas Chicas -40 m (located on Peninsula Valdes)
highest point: Cerro Aconcagua 6,960 m
Armenia: lowest point: Debed River 400 m
highest point: Aragats Lerr 4,095 m
Aruba: lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Mount Jamanota 188 m
Ashmore and Cartier Islands: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
highest point: unnamed location 3 m
Atlantic Ocean: lowest point: Milwaukee Deep in the Puerto Rico Trench -8,605 m
highest point: sea level 0 m
Australia: lowest point: Lake Eyre -15 m
highest point: Mount Kosciuszko 2,229 m
Austria: lowest point: Neusiedler See 115 m
highest point: Grossglockner 3,798 m
Azerbaijan: lowest point: Caspian Sea -28 m
highest point: Bazarduzu Dagi 4,485 m
Bahamas, The: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Mount Alvernia, on Cat Island 63 m
Bahrain: lowest point: Persian Gulf 0 m
highest point: Jabal ad Dukhan 122 m
Baker Island: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: unnamed location 8 m
Bangladesh: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
highest point: Keokradong 1,230 m
Barbados: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Mount Hillaby 336 m
Bassas da India: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
highest point: unnamed location 2.4 m
Belarus: lowest point: Nyoman River 90 m
highest point: Dzyarzhynskaya Hara 346 m
Belgium: lowest point: North Sea 0 m
highest point: Signal de Botrange 694 m
Belize: lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Victoria Peak 1,160 m
Benin: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Mont Sokbaro 658 m
Bermuda: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Town Hill 76 m
Bhutan: lowest point: Drangme Chhu 97 m
highest point: Kula Kangri 7,553 m
Bolivia: lowest point: Rio Paraguay 90 m
highest point: Nevado Sajama 6,542 m
Bosnia and Herzegovina: lowest point: Adriatic Sea 0 m
highest point: Maglic 2,386 m
Botswana: lowest point: junction of the Limpopo and Shashe Rivers 513 m
highest point: Tsodilo Hills 1,489 m
Bouvet Island: lowest point: South Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Olav Peak 935 m
Brazil: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Pico da Neblina 3,014 m
British Indian Ocean Territory: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
highest point: unnamed location on Diego Garcia 15 m
British Virgin Islands: lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Mount Sage 521 m
Brunei: lowest point: South China Sea 0 m
highest point: Bukit Pagon 1,850 m
Bulgaria: lowest point: Black Sea 0 m
highest point: Musala 2,925 m
Burkina Faso: lowest point: Mouhoun (Black Volta) River 200 m
highest point: Tena Kourou 749 m
Burma: lowest point: Andaman Sea 0 m
highest point: Hkakabo Razi 5,881 m
Burundi: lowest point: Lake Tanganyika 772 m
highest point: Mount Heha 2,670 m
Cambodia: lowest point: Gulf of Thailand 0 m
highest point: Phnum Aoral 1,810 m
Cameroon: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Fako 4,095 m
Canada: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Mount Logan 5,959 m
Cape Verde: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Mt. Fogo 2,829 m (a volcano on Fogo Island)
Cayman Islands: lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: The Bluff 43 m
Central African Republic: lowest point: Oubangui River 335 m
highest point: Mont Ngaoui 1,420 m
Chad: lowest point: Djourab Depression 160 m
highest point: Emi Koussi 3,415 m
Chile: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: Nevado Ojos del Salado 6,880 m
China: lowest point: Turpan Pendi -154 m
highest point: Mount Everest 8,850 m (1999 est.)
Christmas Island: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
highest point: Murray Hill 361 m
Clipperton Island: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: Rocher Clipperton 29 m
Cocos (Keeling) Islands: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
highest point: unnamed location 5 m
Colombia: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: Pico Cristobal Colon 5,775 m
note: nearby Pico Simon Bolivar also has the same elevation
Comoros: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
highest point: Le Kartala 2,360 m
Congo, Democratic Republic of the: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Pic Marguerite on Mont Ngaliema (Mount Stanley) 5,110 m
Congo, Republic of the: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Mount Berongou 903 m
Cook Islands: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: Te Manga 652 m
Coral Sea Islands: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: unnamed location on Cato Island 6 m
Costa Rica: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: Cerro Chirripo 3,810 m
Cote d'Ivoire: lowest point: Gulf of Guinea 0 m
highest point: Mont Nimba 1,752 m
Croatia: lowest point: Adriatic Sea 0 m
highest point: Dinara 1,830 m
Cuba: lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Pico Turquino 2,005 m
Cyprus: lowest point: Mediterranean Sea 0 m
highest point: Olympus 1,951 m
Czech Republic: lowest point: Elbe River 115 m
highest point: Snezka 1,602 m
Denmark: lowest point: Lammefjord -7 m
highest point: Yding Skovhoej 173 m
Djibouti: lowest point: Lac Assal -155 m
highest point: Moussa Ali 2,028 m
Dominica: lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Morne Diablatins 1,447 m
Dominican Republic: lowest point: Lago Enriquillo -46 m
highest point: Pico Duarte 3,175 m
Ecuador: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: Chimborazo 6,267 m
Egypt: lowest point: Qattara Depression -133 m
highest point: Mount Catherine 2,629 m
El Salvador: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: Cerro El Pital 2,730 m
Equatorial Guinea: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Pico Basile 3,008 m
Eritrea: lowest point: near Kulul within the Denakil depression -75 m
highest point: Soira 3,018 m
Estonia: lowest point: Baltic Sea 0 m
highest point: Suur Munamagi 318 m
Ethiopia: lowest point: Denakil Depression -125 m
highest point: Ras Dejen 4,620 m
Europa Island: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
highest point: unnamed location 24 m
Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas): lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Mount Usborne 705 m
Faroe Islands: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Slaettaratindur 882 m
Fiji: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: Tomanivi 1,324 m
Finland: lowest point: Baltic Sea 0 m
highest point: Haltiatunturi 1,328 m
France: lowest point: Rhone River delta -2 m
highest point: Mont Blanc 4,807 m
French Guiana: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Bellevue de l'Inini 851 m
French Polynesia: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: Mont Orohena 2,241 m
French Southern and Antarctic Lands: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
highest point: Mont Ross on Iles Kerguelen 1,850 m
Gabon: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Mont Iboundji 1,575 m
Gambia, The: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: unnamed location 53 m
Gaza Strip: lowest point: Mediterranean Sea 0 m
highest point: Abu 'Awdah (Joz Abu 'Auda) 105 m
Georgia: lowest point: Black Sea 0 m
highest point: Mt'a Mqinvartsveri (Gora Kazbek) 5,048 m
Germany: lowest point: Freepsum Lake -2 m
highest point: Zugspitze 2,963 m
Ghana: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Mount Afadjato 880 m
Gibraltar: lowest point: Mediterranean Sea 0 m
highest point: Rock of Gibraltar 426 m
Glorioso Islands: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
highest point: unnamed location 12 m
Greece: lowest point: Mediterranean Sea 0 m
highest point: Mount Olympus 2,917 m
Greenland: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Gunnbjorn 3,700 m
Grenada: lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Mount Saint Catherine 840 m
Guadeloupe: lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Soufriere 1,467 m
Guam: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: Mount Lamlam 406 m
Guatemala: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: Volcan Tajumulco 4,211 m
Guernsey: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: unnamed location on Sark 114 m
Guinea: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Mont Nimba 1,752 m
Guinea-Bissau: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: unnamed location in the northeast corner of the country 300 m
Guyana: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Mount Roraima 2,835 m
Haiti: lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Chaine de la Selle 2,680 m
Heard Island and McDonald Islands: lowest point: Southern Ocean 0 m
highest point: Big Ben 2,745 m
Holy See (Vatican City): lowest point: unnamed location 19 m
highest point: unnamed location 75 m
Honduras: lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Cerro Las Minas 2,870 m
Hong Kong: lowest point: South China Sea 0 m
highest point: Tai Mo Shan 958 m
Howland Island: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: unnamed location 3 m
Hungary: lowest point: Tisza River 78 m
highest point: Kekes 1,014 m
Iceland: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Hvannadalshnukur 2,119 m
India: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
highest point: Kanchenjunga 8,598 m
Indian Ocean: lowest point: Java Trench -7,258 m
highest point: sea level 0 m
Indonesia: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
highest point: Puncak Jaya 5,030 m
Iran: lowest point: Caspian Sea -28 m
highest point: Qolleh-ye Damavand 5,671 m
Iraq: lowest point: Persian Gulf 0 m
highest point: Haji Ibrahim 3,600 m
Ireland: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Carrauntoohil 1,041 m
Israel: lowest point: Dead Sea -408 m
highest point: Har Meron 1,208 m
Italy: lowest point: Mediterranean Sea 0 m
highest point: Mont Blanc (Monte Bianco) 4,807 m
Jamaica: lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Blue Mountain Peak 2,256 m
Jan Mayen: lowest point: Norwegian Sea 0 m
highest point: Haakon VII Toppen/Beerenberg 2,277 m
Japan: lowest point: Hachiro-gata -4 m
highest point: Fujiyama 3,776 m
Jarvis Island: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: unnamed location 7 m
Jersey: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: unnamed location 143 m
Johnston Atoll: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: Summit Peak 5 m
Jordan: lowest point: Dead Sea -408 m
highest point: Jabal Ram 1,734 m
Juan de Nova Island: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
highest point: unnamed location 10 m
Kazakhstan: lowest point: Vpadina Kaundy -132 m
highest point: Khan Tangiri Shyngy (Pik Khan-Tengri) 6,995 m
Kenya: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
highest point: Mount Kenya 5,199 m
Kingman Reef: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: unnamed location 1 m
Kiribati: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: unnamed location on Banaba 81 m
Korea, North: lowest point: Sea of Japan 0 m
highest point: Paektu-san 2,744 m
Korea, South: lowest point: Sea of Japan 0 m
highest point: Halla-san 1,950 m
Kuwait: lowest point: Persian Gulf 0 m
highest point: unnamed location 306 m
Kyrgyzstan: lowest point: Kara-Darya 132 m
highest point: Jengish Chokusu (Pik Pobedy) 7,439 m
Laos: lowest point: Mekong River 70 m
highest point: Phou Bia 2,817 m
Latvia: lowest point: Baltic Sea 0 m
highest point: Gaizinkalns 312 m
Lebanon: lowest point: Mediterranean Sea 0 m
highest point: Qurnat as Sawda' 3,088 m
Lesotho: lowest point: junction of the Orange and Makhaleng Rivers 1,400 m
highest point: Thabana Ntlenyana 3,482 m
Liberia: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Mount Wuteve 1,380 m
Libya: lowest point: Sabkhat Ghuzayyil -47 m
highest point: Bikku Bitti 2,267 m
Liechtenstein: lowest point: Ruggeller Riet 430 m
highest point: Grauspitz 2,599 m
Lithuania: lowest point: Baltic Sea 0 m
highest point: Juozapines/Kalnas 292 m
Luxembourg: lowest point: Moselle River 133 m
highest point: Buurgplaatz 559 m
Macau: lowest point: South China Sea 0 m
highest point: Coloane Alto 174 m
Macedonia, The Former Yugoslav Republic of: lowest point: Vardar River 50 m
highest point: Golem Korab (Maja e Korabit) 2,753 m
Madagascar: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
highest point: Maromokotro 2,876 m
Malawi: lowest point: junction of the Shire River and international boundary with Mozambique 37 m
highest point: Sapitwa 3,002 m
Malaysia: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
highest point: Gunung Kinabalu 4,100 m
Maldives: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
highest point: unnamed location on Wilingili island in the Addu Atoll 2.4 m
Mali: lowest point: Senegal River 23 m
highest point: Hombori Tondo 1,155 m
Malta: lowest point: Mediterranean Sea 0 m
highest point: Ta'Dmejrek 253 m (near Dingli)
Man, Isle of: lowest point: Irish Sea 0 m
highest point: Snaefell 621 m
Marshall Islands: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: unnamed location on Likiep 10 m
Martinique: lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Montagne Pelee 1,397 m
Mauritania: lowest point: Sebkha de Ndrhamcha -3 m
highest point: Kediet Ijill 910 m
Mauritius: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
highest point: Mont Piton 828 m
Mayotte: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
highest point: Benara 660 m
Mexico: lowest point: Laguna Salada -10 m
highest point: Volcan Pico de Orizaba 5,700 m
Micronesia, Federated States of: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: Totolom 791 m
Midway Islands: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: unnamed location 13 m
Moldova: lowest point: Nistru (Dnister) River 2 m
highest point: Dealul Balanesti 430 m
Monaco: lowest point: Mediterranean Sea 0 m
highest point: Mont Agel 140 m
Mongolia: lowest point: Hoh Nuur 518 m
highest point: Nayramadlin Orgil (Huyten Orgil) 4,374 m
Montserrat: lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Chances Peak (in the Soufriere Hills) 914 m
Morocco: lowest point: Sebkha Tah -55 m
highest point: Jbel Toubkal 4,165 m
Mozambique: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
highest point: Monte Binga 2,436 m
Namibia: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Konigstein 2,606 m
Nauru: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: unnamed location along plateau rim 61 m
Navassa Island: lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: unnamed location on southwest side 77 m
Nepal: lowest point: Kanchan Kalan 70 m
highest point: Mount Everest 8,850 m (1999 est.)
Netherlands: lowest point: Prins Alexanderpolder -7 m
highest point: Vaalserberg 321 m
Netherlands Antilles: lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Mount Scenery 862 m
New Caledonia: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: Mont Panie 1,628 m
New Zealand: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: Mount Cook 3,764 m
Nicaragua: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: Mogoton 2,438 m
Niger: lowest point: Niger River 200 m
highest point: Mont Greboun 1,944 m
Nigeria: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Chappal Waddi 2,419 m
Niue: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: unnamed location near Mutalau settlement 68 m
Norfolk Island: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: Mount Bates 319 m
Northern Mariana Islands: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: unnamed location on Agrihan 965 m
Norway: lowest point: Norwegian Sea 0 m
highest point: Galdhopiggen 2,469 m
Oman: lowest point: Arabian Sea 0 m
highest point: Jabal Shams 2,980 m
Pacific Ocean: lowest point: Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench -10,924 m
highest point: sea level 0 m
Pakistan: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
highest point: K2 (Mt. Godwin-Austen) 8,611 m
Palau: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: Mount Ngerchelchauus 242 m
Palmyra Atoll: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: unnamed location 2 m
Panama: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: Volcan de Chiriqui 3,475 m
Papua New Guinea: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: Mount Wilhelm 4,509 m
Paracel Islands: lowest point: South China Sea 0 m
highest point: unnamed location on Rocky Island 14 m
Paraguay: lowest point: junction of Rio Paraguay and Rio Parana 46 m
highest point: Cerro Pero (Cerro Tres Kandu) 842 m
Peru: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: Nevado Huascaran 6,768 m
Philippines: lowest point: Philippine Sea 0 m
highest point: Mount Apo 2,954 m
Pitcairn Islands: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: Pawala Valley Ridge 347 m
Poland: lowest point: Raczki Elblaskie -2 m
highest point: Rysy 2,499 m
Portugal: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Ponta do Pico (Pico or Pico Alto) on Ilha do Pico in the Azores 2,351 m
Puerto Rico: lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Cerro de Punta 1,338 m
Qatar: lowest point: Persian Gulf 0 m
highest point: Qurayn Abu al Bawl 103 m
Reunion: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
highest point: Piton des Neiges 3,069 m
Romania: lowest point: Black Sea 0 m
highest point: Moldoveanu 2,544 m
Russia: lowest point: Caspian Sea -28 m
highest point: Gora El'brus 5,633 m
Rwanda: lowest point: Rusizi River 950 m
highest point: Volcan Karisimbi 4,519 m
Saint Helena: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Queen Mary's Peak on Tristan da Cunha 2,060 m
Saint Kitts and Nevis: lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Mount Liamuiga 1,156 m
Saint Lucia: lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Mount Gimie 950 m
Saint Pierre and Miquelon: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Morne de la Grande Montagne 240 m
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines: lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Soufriere 1,234 m
Samoa: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: Mauga Silisili 1,857 m
San Marino: lowest point: Torrente Ausa 55 m
highest point: Monte Titano 755 m
Sao Tome and Principe: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Pico de Sao Tome 2,024 m
Saudi Arabia: lowest point: Persian Gulf 0 m
highest point: Jabal Sawda' 3,133 m
Senegal: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: unnamed feature near Nepen Diakha 581 m
Seychelles: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
highest point: Morne Seychellois 905 m
Sierra Leone: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Loma Mansa (Bintimani) 1,948 m
Singapore: lowest point: Singapore Strait 0 m
highest point: Bukit Timah 166 m
Slovakia: lowest point: Bodrok River 94 m
highest point: Gerlachovsky Stit 2,655 m
Slovenia: lowest point: Adriatic Sea 0 m
highest point: Triglav 2,864 m
Solomon Islands: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: Mount Makarakomburu 2,447 m
Somalia: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
highest point: Shimbiris 2,416 m
South Africa: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Njesuthi 3,408 m
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Mount Paget (South Georgia) 2,934 m
Southern Ocean: lowest point: -7,235 m at the southern end of the South Sandwich Trench
highest point: sea level 0 m
Spain: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Pico de Teide (Tenerife) on Canary Islands 3,718 m
Spratly Islands: lowest point: South China Sea 0 m
highest point: unnamed location on Southwest Cay 4 m
Sri Lanka: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
highest point: Pidurutalagala 2,524 m
Sudan: lowest point: Red Sea 0 m
highest point: Kinyeti 3,187 m
Suriname: lowest point: unnamed location in the coastal plain -2 m
highest point: Juliana Top 1,230 m
Svalbard: lowest point: Arctic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Newtontoppen 1,717 m
Swaziland: lowest point: Great Usutu River 21 m
highest point: Emlembe 1,862 m
Sweden: lowest point: Baltic Sea 0 m
highest point: Kebnekaise 2,111 m
Switzerland: lowest point: Lake Maggiore 195 m
highest point: Dufourspitze 4,634 m
Syria: lowest point: unnamed location near Lake Tiberias -200 m
highest point: Mount Hermon 2,814 m
Tajikistan: lowest point: Syrdariya 300 m
highest point: Pik Imeni Ismail Samani 7,495 m
Tanzania: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
highest point: Kilimanjaro 5,895 m
Thailand: lowest point: Gulf of Thailand 0 m
highest point: Doi Inthanon 2,576 m
Togo: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Mont Agou 986 m
Tokelau: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: unnamed location 5 m
Tonga: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: unnamed location on Kao Island 1,033 m
Trinidad and Tobago: lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: El Cerro del Aripo 940 m
Tromelin Island: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m
highest point: unnamed location 7 m
Tunisia: lowest point: Shatt al Gharsah -17 m
highest point: Jebel ech Chambi 1,544 m
Turkey: lowest point: Mediterranean Sea 0 m
highest point: Mount Ararat 5,166 m
Turkmenistan: lowest point: Vpadina Akchanaya -81.00 m; note - Sarygamysh Koli is a lake in northern Turkmenistan with a water level that fluctuates above and below the elevation of Vpadina Akchanaya (the lake has dropped as low as -110 m)
highest point: Gora Ayribaba 3,139 m
Turks and Caicos Islands: lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Blue Hills 49 m
Tuvalu: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: unnamed location 5 m
Uganda: lowest point: Lake Albert 621 m
highest point: Margherita Peak on Mount Stanley 5,110 m
Ukraine: lowest point: Black Sea 0 m
highest point: Hora Hoverla 2,061 m
United Arab Emirates: lowest point: Persian Gulf 0 m
highest point: Jabal Yibir 1,527 m
United Kingdom: lowest point: Fenland -4 m
highest point: Ben Nevis 1,343 m
United States: lowest point: Death Valley -86 m
highest point: Mount McKinley 6,194 m
Uruguay: lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m
highest point: Cerro Catedral 514 m
Uzbekistan: lowest point: Sariqarnish Kuli -12 m
highest point: Adelunga Toghi 4,301 m
Vanuatu: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: Tabwemasana 1,877 m
Venezuela: lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Pico Bolivar (La Columna) 5,007 m
Vietnam: lowest point: South China Sea 0 m
highest point: Ngoc Linh 3,143 m
Virgin Islands: lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
highest point: Crown Mountain 474 m
Wake Island: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: unnamed location 6 m
Wallis and Futuna: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
highest point: Mont Singavi 765 m
West Bank: lowest point: Dead Sea -408 m
highest point: Tall Asur 1,022 m
Western Sahara: lowest point: Sebjet Tah -55 m
highest point: unnamed location 463 m
World: lowest point: Bentley Subglacial Trench -2,540 m
highest point: Mount Everest 8,850 m (1999 est.)
Yemen: lowest point: Arabian Sea 0 m
highest point: Jabal an Nabi Shu'ayb 3,760 m
Yugoslavia: lowest point: Adriatic Sea 0 m
highest point: Daravica 2,656 m
Zambia: lowest point: Zambezi river 329 m
highest point: unnamed location in Mafinga Hills 2,301 m
Zimbabwe: lowest point: junction of the Runde and Save rivers 162 m
highest point: Inyangani 2,592 m
Taiwan: lowest point: South China Sea 0 m
highest point: Yu Shan 3,997 m
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@Environment - current issues
Afghanistan: soil degradation; overgrazing; deforestation (much of the remaining forests are being cut down for fuel and building materials); desertification
Albania: deforestation; soil erosion; water pollution from industrial and domestic effluents
Algeria: soil erosion from overgrazing and other poor farming practices; desertification; dumping of raw sewage, petroleum refining wastes, and other industrial effluents is leading to the pollution of rivers and coastal waters; Mediterranean Sea, in particular, becoming polluted from oil wastes, soil erosion, and fertilizer runoff; inadequate supplies of potable water
American Samoa: limited natural fresh water resources; the water division of the government has spent substantial funds in the past few years to improve water catchments and pipelines
Andorra: deforestation; overgrazing of mountain meadows contributes to soil erosion; air pollution; wastewater treatment and solid waste disposal
Angola: overuse of pastures and subsequent soil erosion attributable to population pressures; desertification; deforestation of tropical rain forest, in response to both international demand for tropical timber and to domestic use as fuel, resulting in loss of biodiversity; soil erosion contributing to water pollution and siltation of rivers and dams; inadequate supplies of potable water
Anguilla: supplies of potable water sometimes cannot meet increasing demand largely because of poor distribution system
Antarctica: in 1998, NASA satellite data showed that the antarctic ozone hole was the largest on record, covering 27 million square kilometers; researchers in 1997 found that increased ultraviolet light coming through the hole damages the DNA of icefish, an antarctic fish lacking hemoglobin; ozone depletion earlier was shown to harm one-celled antarctic marine plants
Antigua and Barbuda: water management - a major concern because of limited natural fresh water resources - is further hampered by the clearing of trees to increase crop production, causing rainfall to run off quickly
Arctic Ocean: endangered marine species include walruses and whales; fragile ecosystem slow to change and slow to recover from disruptions or damage; thinning polar icepack
Argentina: environmental problems (urban and rural) typical of an industrializing economy such as soil degradation, desertification, air pollution, and water pollution
note: Argentina is a world leader in setting voluntary greenhouse gas targets
Armenia: soil pollution from toxic chemicals such as DDT; energy blockade, the result of conflict with Azerbaijan, has led to deforestation when citizens scavenged for firewood; pollution of Hrazdan (Razdan) and Aras Rivers; the draining of Sevana Lich (Lake Sevan), a result of its use as a source for hydropower, threatens drinking water supplies; restart of Metsamor nuclear power plant without adequate (IAEA-recommended) safety and backup systems
Aruba: NA
Ashmore and Cartier Islands: NA
Atlantic Ocean: endangered marine species include the manatee, seals, sea lions, turtles, and whales; drift net fishing is hastening the decline of fish stocks and contributing to international disputes; municipal sludge pollution off eastern US, southern Brazil, and eastern Argentina; oil pollution in Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Lake Maracaibo, Mediterranean Sea, and North Sea; industrial waste and municipal sewage pollution in Baltic Sea, North Sea, and Mediterranean Sea
Australia: soil erosion from overgrazing, industrial development, urbanization, and poor farming practices; soil salinity rising due to the use of poor quality water; desertification; clearing for agricultural purposes threatens the natural habitat of many unique animal and plant species; the Great Barrier Reef off the northeast coast, the largest coral reef in the world, is threatened by increased shipping and its popularity as a tourist site; limited natural fresh water resources
Austria: some forest degradation caused by air and soil pollution; soil pollution results from the use of agricultural chemicals; air pollution results from emissions by coal- and oil-fired power stations and industrial plants and from trucks transiting Austria between northern and southern Europe
Azerbaijan: local scientists consider the Abseron Yasaqligi (Apsheron Peninsula) (including Baku and Sumqayit) and the Caspian Sea to be the ecologically most devastated area in the world because of severe air, water, and soil pollution; soil pollution results from the use of DDT as a pesticide and also from toxic defoliants used in the production of cotton
Bahamas, The: coral reef decay; solid waste disposal
Bahrain: desertification resulting from the degradation of limited arable land, periods of drought, and dust storms; coastal degradation (damage to coastlines, coral reefs, and sea vegetation) resulting from oil spills and other discharges from large tankers, oil refineries, and distribution stations; no natural fresh water resources so that groundwater and sea water are the only sources for all water needs
Baker Island: no natural fresh water resources
Bangladesh: many people are landless and forced to live on and cultivate flood-prone land; water-borne diseases prevalent in surface water; water pollution, especially of fishing areas, results from the use of commercial pesticides; ground water contaminated by naturally-occurring arsenic; intermittent water shortages because of falling water tables in the northern and central parts of the country; soil degradation and erosion; deforestation; severe overpopulation
Barbados: pollution of coastal waters from waste disposal by ships; soil erosion; illegal solid waste disposal threatens contamination of aquifers
Bassas da India: NA
Belarus: soil pollution from pesticide use; southern part of the country contaminated with fallout from 1986 nuclear reactor accident at Chornobyl' in northern Ukraine
Belgium: the environment is exposed to intense pressures from human activities: urbanization, dense transportation network, industry, intense animal breeding and crop cultivation; air and water pollution also have repercussions for neighboring countries; uncertainties regarding federal and regional responsibilities (now resolved) have impeded progress in tackling environmental challenges
Belize: deforestation; water pollution from sewage, industrial effluents, agricultural runoff; solid waste disposal
Benin: inadequate supplies of potable water; poaching threatens wildlife populations; deforestation; desertification
Bermuda: asbestos disposal; water pollution; preservation of open space
Bhutan: soil erosion; limited access to potable water
Bolivia: the clearing of land for agricultural purposes and the international demand for tropical timber are contributing to deforestation; soil erosion from overgrazing and poor cultivation methods (including slash-and-burn agriculture); desertification; loss of biodiversity; industrial pollution of water supplies used for drinking and irrigation
Bosnia and Herzegovina: air pollution from metallurgical plants; sites for disposing of urban waste are limited; water shortages and destruction of infrastructure because of the 1992-95 civil strife
Botswana: overgrazing; desertification; limited fresh water resources
Bouvet Island: NA
Brazil: deforestation in Amazon Basin destroys the habitat and endangers the existence of a multitude of plant and animal species indigenous to the area; air and water pollution in Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, and several other large cities; land degradation and water pollution caused by improper mining activities
note: President CARDOSO in September 1999 signed into force an environmental crime bill which for the first time defines pollution and deforestation as crimes punishable by stiff fines and jail sentences
British Indian Ocean Territory: NA
British Virgin Islands: limited natural fresh water resources (except for a few seasonal streams and springs on Tortola, most of the islands' water supply comes from wells and rainwater catchment)
Brunei: seasonal smoke/haze resulting from forest fires in Indonesia
Bulgaria: air pollution from industrial emissions; rivers polluted from raw sewage, heavy metals, detergents; deforestation; forest damage from air pollution and resulting acid rain; soil contamination from heavy metals from metallurgical plants and industrial wastes
Burkina Faso: recent droughts and desertification severely affecting agricultural activities, population distribution, and the economy; overgrazing; soil degradation; deforestation
Burma: deforestation; industrial pollution of air, soil, and water; inadequate sanitation and water treatment contribute to disease
Burundi: soil erosion as a result of overgrazing and the expansion of agriculture into marginal lands; deforestation (little forested land remains because of uncontrolled cutting of trees for fuel); habitat loss threatens wildlife populations
Cambodia: illegal logging activities throughout the country and strip mining for gems in the western region along the border with Thailand have resulted in habitat loss and declining biodiversity (in particular, destruction of mangrove swamps threatens natural fisheries); soil erosion; in rural areas, a majority of the population does not have access to potable water; toxic waste delivery from Taiwan sparked unrest in Kampong Saom (Sihanoukville) in December 1998
Cameroon: water-borne diseases are prevalent; deforestation; overgrazing; desertification; poaching; overfishing
Canada: air pollution and resulting acid rain severely affecting lakes and damaging forests; metal smelting, coal-burning utilities, and vehicle emissions impacting on agricultural and forest productivity; ocean waters becoming contaminated due to agricultural, industrial, mining, and forestry activities
Cape Verde: overgrazing of livestock and improper land use such as the cultivation of crops on steep slopes has led to soil erosion; demand for wood used as fuel has resulted in deforestation; desertification; environmental damage has threatened several species of birds and reptiles; overfishing
Cayman Islands: no natural fresh water resources; drinking water supplies must be met by rainwater catchment
Central African Republic: tap water is not potable; poaching has diminished its reputation as one of the last great wildlife refuges; desertification; deforestation
Chad: inadequate supplies of potable water; improper waste disposal in rural areas contributes to soil and water pollution; desertification
Chile: air pollution from industrial and vehicle emissions; water pollution from raw sewage
China: air pollution (greenhouse gases, sulfur dioxide particulates) from reliance on coal, produces acid rain; water shortages, particularly in the north; water pollution from untreated wastes; deforestation; estimated loss of one-fifth of agricultural land since 1949 to soil erosion and economic development; desertification; trade in endangered species
Christmas Island: NA
Clipperton Island: NA
Cocos (Keeling) Islands: fresh water resources are limited to rainwater accumulations in natural underground reservoirs
Colombia: deforestation; soil damage from overuse of pesticides; air pollution, especially in Bogota, from vehicle emissions
Comoros: soil degradation and erosion results from crop cultivation on slopes without proper terracing; deforestation
Congo, Democratic Republic of the: poaching threatens wildlife populations; water pollution; deforestation; refugees who arrived in mid-1994 were responsible for significant deforestation, soil erosion, and wildlife poaching in the eastern part of the country (most of those refugees were repatriated in November and December 1996)
Congo, Republic of the: air pollution from vehicle emissions; water pollution from the dumping of raw sewage; tap water is not potable; deforestation
Cook Islands: NA
Coral Sea Islands: no permanent fresh water resources
Costa Rica: deforestation and land use change, largely a result of the clearing of land for cattle ranching and agriculture; soil erosion; water pollution (rivers); coastal marine pollution; wetlands degradation; fisheries protection; solid waste management; air pollution
Cote d'Ivoire: deforestation (most of the country's forests - once the largest in West Africa - have been heavily logged); water pollution from sewage and industrial and agricultural effluents
Croatia: air pollution (from metallurgical plants) and resulting acid rain is damaging the forests; coastal pollution from industrial and domestic waste; landmine removal and reconstruction of infrastructure consequent to 1992-95 civil strife
Cuba: pollution of Havana Bay; overhunting threatens wildlife populations; deforestation
Cyprus: water resource problems (no natural reservoir catchments, seasonal disparity in rainfall, sea water intrusion to island's largest aquifer, increased salination in the north); water pollution from sewage and industrial wastes; coastal degradation; loss of wildlife habitats from urbanization
Czech Republic: air and water pollution in areas of northwest Bohemia and in northern Moravia around Ostrava present health risks; acid rain damaging forests
Denmark: air pollution, principally from vehicle and power plant emissions; nitrogen and phosphorus pollution of the North Sea; drinking and surface water becoming polluted from animal wastes and pesticides
Djibouti: inadequate supplies of potable water; desertification
Dominica: NA
Dominican Republic: water shortages; soil eroding into the sea damages coral reefs; deforestation; Hurricane Georges damage
Ecuador: deforestation; soil erosion; desertification; water pollution; pollution from oil production wastes
Egypt: agricultural land being lost to urbanization and windblown sands; increasing soil salination below Aswan High Dam; desertification; oil pollution threatening coral reefs, beaches, and marine habitats; other water pollution from agricultural pesticides, raw sewage, and industrial effluents; very limited natural fresh water resources away from the Nile which is the only perennial water source; rapid growth in population overstraining natural resources
El Salvador: deforestation; soil erosion; water pollution; contamination of soils from disposal of toxic wastes; Hurricane Mitch damage
Equatorial Guinea: tap water is not potable; desertification
Eritrea: deforestation; desertification; soil erosion; overgrazing; loss of infrastructure from civil warfare
Estonia: air heavily polluted with sulfur dioxide from oil-shale burning power plants in northeast; contamination of soil and groundwater with petroleum products, chemicals at former Soviet military bases; Estonia has more than 1,400 natural and manmade lakes, the smaller of which in agricultural areas are heavily affected by organic waste; coastal sea water is polluted in many locations
Ethiopia: deforestation; overgrazing; soil erosion; desertification
Europa Island: NA
Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas): NA
Faroe Islands: NA
Fiji: deforestation; soil erosion
Finland: air pollution from manufacturing and power plants contributing to acid rain; water pollution from industrial wastes, agricultural chemicals; habitat loss threatens wildlife populations
France: some forest damage from acid rain (major forest damage occurred as a result of severe December 1999 windstorm); air pollution from industrial and vehicle emissions; water pollution from urban wastes, agricultural runoff
French Guiana: NA
French Polynesia: NA
French Southern and Antarctic Lands: NA
Gabon: deforestation; poaching
Gambia, The: deforestation; desertification; water-borne diseases prevalent
Gaza Strip: desertification; salination of fresh water; sewage treatment; water-borne disease; soil degradation
Georgia: air pollution, particularly in Rust'avi; heavy pollution of Mtkvari River and the Black Sea; inadequate supplies of potable water; soil pollution from toxic chemicals
Germany: emissions from coal-burning utilities and industries contribute to air pollution; acid rain, resulting from sulfur dioxide emissions, is damaging forests; pollution in the Baltic Sea from raw sewage and industrial effluents from rivers in eastern Germany; hazardous waste disposal; government currently attempting to define mechanism for ending the use of nuclear power; government working to meet EU commitment to identify nature preservation areas in line with the EU's Flora, Fauna, and Habitat directive
Ghana: recent drought in north severely affecting agricultural activities; deforestation; overgrazing; soil erosion; poaching and habitat destruction threatens wildlife populations; water pollution; inadequate supplies of potable water
Gibraltar: limited natural freshwater resources; large concrete or natural rock water catchments collect rainwater
Glorioso Islands: NA
Greece: air pollution; water pollution
Greenland: protection of the arctic environment; preservation of the Inuit traditional way of life, including whaling and seal hunting
Grenada: NA
Guadeloupe: NA
Guam: extirpation of native bird population by the rapid proliferation of the brown tree snake, an exotic species
Guatemala: deforestation; soil erosion; water pollution; Hurricane Mitch damage
Guernsey: NA
Guinea: deforestation; inadequate supplies of potable water; desertification; soil contamination and erosion; overfishing, overpopulation in forest region
Guinea-Bissau: deforestation; soil erosion; overgrazing; overfishing
Guyana: water pollution from sewage and agricultural and industrial chemicals; deforestation
Haiti: extensive deforestation (much of the remaining forested land is being cleared for agriculture and used as fuel); soil erosion; inadequate supplies of potable water
Heard Island and McDonald Islands: NA
Holy See (Vatican City): NA
Honduras: urban population expanding; deforestation results from logging and the clearing of land for agricultural purposes; further land degradation and soil erosion hastened by uncontrolled development and improper land use practices such as farming of marginal lands; mining activities polluting Lago de Yojoa (the country's largest source of fresh water) as well as several rivers and streams with heavy metals; severe Hurricane Mitch damage
Hong Kong: air and water pollution from rapid urbanization
Howland Island: no natural fresh water resources
Hungary: the approximation of Hungary's standards in waste management, energy efficiency, and air, soil, and water pollution with environmental requirements for EU accession will require large investments
Iceland: water pollution from fertilizer runoff; inadequate wastewater treatment
India: deforestation; soil erosion; overgrazing; desertification; air pollution from industrial effluents and vehicle emissions; water pollution from raw sewage and runoff of agricultural pesticides; tap water is not potable throughout the country; huge and growing population is overstraining natural resources
Indian Ocean: endangered marine species include the dugong, seals, turtles, and whales; oil pollution in the Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf, and Red Sea
Indonesia: deforestation; water pollution from industrial wastes, sewage; air pollution in urban areas; smoke and haze from forest fires
Iran: air pollution, especially in urban areas, from vehicle emissions, refinery operations, and industrial effluents; deforestation; overgrazing; desertification; oil pollution in the Persian Gulf; inadequate supplies of potable water
Iraq: government water control projects have drained most of the inhabited marsh areas east of An Nasiriyah by drying up or diverting the feeder streams and rivers; a once sizable population of Shi'a Muslims, who have inhabited these areas for thousands of years, has been displaced; furthermore, the destruction of the natural habitat poses serious threats to the area's wildlife populations; inadequate supplies of potable water; development of Tigris-Euphrates Rivers system contingent upon agreements with upstream riparian Turkey; air and water pollution; soil degradation (salination) and erosion; desertification
Ireland: water pollution, especially of lakes, from agricultural runoff
Israel: limited arable land and natural fresh water resources pose serious constraints; desertification; air pollution from industrial and vehicle emissions; groundwater pollution from industrial and domestic waste, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides
Italy: air pollution from industrial emissions such as sulfur dioxide; coastal and inland rivers polluted from industrial and agricultural effluents; acid rain damaging lakes; inadequate industrial waste treatment and disposal facilities
Jamaica: heavy rates of deforestation; coastal waters polluted by industrial waste, sewage, and oil spills; damage to coral reefs; air pollution in Kingston results from vehicle emissions
Jan Mayen: NA
Japan: air pollution from power plant emissions results in acid rain; acidification of lakes and reservoirs degrading water quality and threatening aquatic life; Japan is one of the largest consumers of fish and tropical timber, contributing to the depletion of these resources in Asia and elsewhere
Jarvis Island: no natural fresh water resources
Jersey: NA
Johnston Atoll: no natural fresh water resources
Jordan: limited natural fresh water resources; deforestation; overgrazing; soil erosion; desertification
Juan de Nova Island: NA
Kazakhstan: radioactive or toxic chemical sites associated with its former defense industries and test ranges are found throughout the country and pose health risks for humans and animals; industrial pollution is severe in some cities; because the two main rivers which flowed into the Aral Sea have been diverted for irrigation, it is drying up and leaving behind a harmful layer of chemical pesticides and natural salts; these substances are then picked up by the wind and blown into noxious dust storms; pollution in the Caspian Sea; soil pollution from overuse of agricultural chemicals and salination from poor infrastructure and wasteful irrigation practices
Kenya: water pollution from urban and industrial wastes; degradation of water quality from increased use of pesticides and fertilizers; water hyacinth infestation in Lake Victoria; deforestation; soil erosion; desertification; poaching
Kingman Reef: none
Kiribati: heavy pollution in lagoon of south Tarawa atoll due to heavy migration mixed with traditional practices such as lagoon latrines and open-pit dumping; ground water at risk
Korea, North: water pollution; inadequate supplies of potable water; water-borne disease; deforestation; soil erosion and degradation
Korea, South: air pollution in large cities; acid rain; water pollution from the discharge of sewage and industrial effluents; drift net fishing
Kuwait: limited natural fresh water resources; some of world's largest and most sophisticated desalination facilities provide much of the water; air and water pollution; desertification
Kyrgyzstan: water pollution; many people get their water directly from contaminated streams and wells; as a result, water-borne diseases are prevalent; increasing soil salinity from faulty irrigation practices
Laos: unexploded ordnance; deforestation; soil erosion; a majority of the population does not have access to potable water
Latvia: air and water pollution because of a lack of waste conversion equipment; Gulf of Riga and Daugava River heavily polluted; contamination of soil and groundwater with chemicals and petroleum products at military bases
Lebanon: deforestation; soil erosion; desertification; air pollution in Beirut from vehicular traffic and the burning of industrial wastes; pollution of coastal waters from raw sewage and oil spills
Lesotho: population pressure forcing settlement in marginal areas results in overgrazing, severe soil erosion, and soil exhaustion; desertification; Highlands Water Project controls, stores, and redirects water to South Africa
Liberia: tropical rain forest subject to deforestation; soil erosion; loss of biodiversity; pollution of coastal waters from oil residue and raw sewage
Libya: desertification; very limited natural fresh water resources; the Great Manmade River Project, the largest water development scheme in the world, is being built to bring water from large aquifers under the Sahara to coastal cities
Liechtenstein: NA
Lithuania: contamination of soil and groundwater with petroleum products and chemicals at military bases
Luxembourg: air and water pollution in urban areas, soil pollution of farmland
Macau: NA
Macedonia, The Former Yugoslav Republic of: air pollution from metallurgical plants
Madagascar: soil erosion results from deforestation and overgrazing; desertification; surface water contaminated with raw sewage and other organic wastes; several species of flora and fauna unique to the island are endangered
Malawi: deforestation; land degradation; water pollution from agricultural runoff, sewage, industrial wastes; siltation of spawning grounds endangers fish populations
Malaysia: air pollution from industrial and vehicular emissions; water pollution from raw sewage; deforestation; smoke/haze from Indonesian forest fires
Maldives: depletion of freshwater aquifers threatens water supplies; global warming and sea level rise; coral reef bleaching
Mali: deforestation; soil erosion; desertification; inadequate supplies of potable water; poaching
Malta: very limited natural fresh water resources; increasing reliance on desalination
Man, Isle of: waste disposal (both household and industrial); transboundary air pollution
Marshall Islands: inadequate supplies of potable water
Martinique: NA
Mauritania: overgrazing, deforestation, and soil erosion aggravated by drought are contributing to desertification; very limited natural fresh water resources away from the Senegal which is the only perennial river
Mauritius: water pollution, degradation of coral reefs
Mayotte: NA
Mexico: natural fresh water resources scarce and polluted in north, inaccessible and poor quality in center and extreme southeast; raw sewage and industrial effluents polluting rivers in urban areas; deforestation; widespread erosion; desertification; serious air pollution in the national capital and urban centers along US-Mexico border
Micronesia, Federated States of: overfishing
Midway Islands: NA
Moldova: heavy use of agricultural chemicals, including banned pesticides such as DDT, has contaminated soil and groundwater; extensive soil erosion from poor farming methods
Monaco: NA
Mongolia: limited natural fresh water resources in some areas; policies of the former communist regime promoting rapid urbanization and industrial growth have raised concerns about their negative effects on the environment; the burning of soft coal in power plants and the lack of enforcement of environmental laws have severely polluted the air in Ulaanbaatar; deforestation, overgrazing, the converting of virgin land to agricultural production have increased soil erosion from wind and rain; desertification and mining activities have also had a deleterious effect on the environment
Montserrat: land erosion occurs on slopes that have been cleared for cultivation
Morocco: land degradation/desertification (soil erosion resulting from farming of marginal areas, overgrazing, destruction of vegetation); water supplies contaminated by raw sewage; siltation of reservoirs; oil pollution of coastal waters
Mozambique: a long civil war and recurrent drought in the hinterlands have resulted in increased migration of the population to urban and coastal areas with adverse environmental consequences; desertification; pollution of surface and coastal waters
Namibia: very limited natural fresh water resources; desertification
Nauru: limited natural fresh water resources, roof storage tanks collect rainwater, but mostly dependent on a single, aging desalination plant; intensive phosphate mining during the past 90 years - mainly by a UK, Australia, and NZ consortium - has left the central 90% of Nauru a wasteland and threatens limited remaining land resources
Navassa Island: NA
Nepal: deforestation (overuse of wood for fuel and lack of alternatives); contaminated water (with human and animal wastes, agricultural runoff, and industrial effluents); wildlife conservation; vehicular emissions
Netherlands: water pollution in the form of heavy metals, organic compounds, and nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates; air pollution from vehicles and refining activities; acid rain
Netherlands Antilles: NA
New Caledonia: erosion caused by mining exploitation and forest fires
New Zealand: deforestation; soil erosion; native flora and fauna hard-hit by species introduced from outside
Nicaragua: deforestation; soil erosion; water pollution; Hurricane Mitch damage
Niger: overgrazing; soil erosion; deforestation; desertification; wildlife populations (such as elephant, hippopotamus, giraffe, and lion) threatened because of poaching and habitat destruction
Nigeria: soil degradation; rapid deforestation; desertification
Niue: increasing attention to conservationist practices to counter loss of soil fertility from traditional slash and burn agriculture
Norfolk Island: NA
Northern Mariana Islands: contamination of groundwater on Saipan may contribute to disease; clean-up of landfill; protection of endangered species conflicts with development
Norway: water pollution; acid rain damaging forests and adversely affecting lakes, threatening fish stocks; air pollution from vehicle emissions
Oman: rising soil salinity; beach pollution from oil spills; very limited natural fresh water resources
Pacific Ocean: endangered marine species include the dugong, sea lion, sea otter, seals, turtles, and whales; oil pollution in Philippine Sea and South China Sea
Pakistan: water pollution from raw sewage, industrial wastes, and agricultural runoff; limited natural fresh water resources; a majority of the population does not have access to potable water; deforestation; soil erosion; desertification
Palau: inadequate facilities for disposal of solid waste; threats to the marine ecosystem from sand and coral dredging, illegal fishing practices, and overfishing
Palmyra Atoll: NA
Panama: water pollution from agricultural runoff threatens fishery resources; deforestation of tropical rain forest; land degradation and soil erosion threatens siltation of Panama Canal
Papua New Guinea: rain forest subject to deforestation as a result of growing commercial demand for tropical timber; pollution from mining projects; severe drought
Paracel Islands: NA
Paraguay: deforestation (an estimated 2 million hectares of forest land were lost from 1958-85); water pollution; inadequate means for waste disposal present health risks for many urban residents
Peru: deforestation (some the result of illegal logging); overgrazing of the slopes of the costa and sierra leading to soil erosion; desertification; air pollution in Lima; pollution of rivers and coastal waters from municipal and mining wastes
Philippines: uncontrolled deforestation in watershed areas; soil erosion; air and water pollution in Manila; increasing pollution of coastal mangrove swamps which are important fish breeding grounds
Pitcairn Islands: deforestation (only a small portion of the original forest remains because of burning and clearing for settlement)
Poland: situation has improved since 1989 due to decline in heavy industry and increased environmental concern by postcommunist governments; air pollution nonetheless remains serious because of sulfur dioxide emissions from coal-fired power plants, and the resulting acid rain has caused forest damage; water pollution from industrial and municipal sources is also a problem, as is disposal of hazardous wastes
Portugal: soil erosion; air pollution caused by industrial and vehicle emissions; water pollution, especially in coastal areas
Puerto Rico: erosion; occasional drought causing water shortages
Qatar: limited natural fresh water resources are increasing dependence on large-scale desalination facilities
Reunion: NA
Romania: soil erosion and degradation; water pollution; air pollution in south from industrial effluents; contamination of Danube delta wetlands
Russia: air pollution from heavy industry, emissions of coal-fired electric plants, and transportation in major cities; industrial, municipal, and agricultural pollution of inland waterways and sea coasts; deforestation; soil erosion; soil contamination from improper application of agricultural chemicals; scattered areas of sometimes intense radioactive contamination; ground water contamination from toxic waste
Rwanda: deforestation results from uncontrolled cutting of trees for fuel; overgrazing; soil exhaustion; soil erosion; widespread poaching
Saint Helena: NA
Saint Kitts and Nevis: NA
Saint Lucia: deforestation; soil erosion, particularly in the northern region
Saint Pierre and Miquelon: NA
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines: pollution of coastal waters and shorelines from discharges by pleasure yachts and other effluents; in some areas, pollution is severe enough to make swimming prohibitive
Samoa: soil erosion
San Marino: NA
Sao Tome and Principe: deforestation; soil erosion and exhaustion
Saudi Arabia: desertification; depletion of underground water resources; the lack of perennial rivers or permanent water bodies has prompted the development of extensive seawater desalination facilities; coastal pollution from oil spills
Senegal: wildlife populations threatened by poaching; deforestation; overgrazing; soil erosion; desertification; overfishing
Seychelles: water supply depends on catchments to collect rainwater
Sierra Leone: rapid population growth pressuring the environment; overharvesting of timber, expansion of cattle grazing, and slash-and-burn agriculture have resulted in deforestation and soil exhaustion; civil war depleting natural resources; overfishing
Singapore: industrial pollution; limited natural fresh water resources; limited land availability presents waste disposal problems; seasonal smoke/haze resulting from forest fires in Indonesia
Slovakia: air pollution from metallurgical plants presents human health risks; acid rain damaging forests
Slovenia: Sava River polluted with domestic and industrial waste; pollution of coastal waters with heavy metals and toxic chemicals; forest damage near Koper from air pollution (originating at metallurgical and chemical plants) and resulting acid rain
Solomon Islands: deforestation; soil erosion; much of the surrounding coral reefs are dead or dying
Somalia: famine; use of contaminated water contributes to human health problems; deforestation; overgrazing; soil erosion; desertification
South Africa: lack of important arterial rivers or lakes requires extensive water conservation and control measures; growth in water usage threatens to outpace supply; pollution of rivers from agricultural runoff and urban discharge; air pollution resulting in acid rain; soil erosion; desertification
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands: NA
Southern Ocean: increased solar ultraviolet radiation resulting from the Antarctic ozone hole in recent years, reducing marine primary productivity (phytoplankton) by as much as 15% and damaging the DNA of some fish; illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing in recent years, especially the landing of an estimated five to six times more Patagonian toothfish than the regulated fishery, which is likely to affect the sustainability of the stock; large amount of incidental mortality of seabirds resulting from long-line fishing for toothfish
note: the now-protected fur seal population is making a strong comeback after severe overexploitation in the 18th and 19th centuries
Spain: pollution of the Mediterranean Sea from raw sewage and effluents from the offshore production of oil and gas; water quality and quantity nationwide; air pollution; deforestation; desertification
Spratly Islands: NA
Sri Lanka: deforestation; soil erosion; wildlife populations threatened by poaching and urbanization; coastal degradation from mining activities and increased pollution; freshwater resources being polluted by industrial wastes and sewage runoff; waste disposal; air pollution in Colombo
Sudan: inadequate supplies of potable water; wildlife populations threatened by excessive hunting; soil erosion; desertification
Suriname: deforestation as timber is cut for export; pollution of inland waterways by small-scale mining activities
Svalbard: NA
Swaziland: limited supplies of potable water; wildlife populations being depleted because of excessive hunting; overgrazing; soil degradation; soil erosion
Sweden: acid rain damaging soils and lakes; pollution of the North Sea and the Baltic Sea
Switzerland: air pollution from vehicle emissions and open-air burning; acid rain; water pollution from increased use of agricultural fertilizers; loss of biodiversity
Syria: deforestation; overgrazing; soil erosion; desertification; water pollution from dumping of raw sewage and wastes from petroleum refining; inadequate supplies of potable water
Tajikistan: inadequate sanitation facilities; increasing levels of soil salinity; industrial pollution; excessive pesticides; part of the basin of the shrinking Aral Sea suffers from severe overutilization of available water for irrigation and associated pollution
Tanzania: soil degradation; deforestation; desertification; destruction of coral reefs threatens marine habitats; recent droughts affected marginal agriculture
Thailand: air pollution from vehicle emissions; water pollution from organic and factory wastes; deforestation; soil erosion; wildlife populations threatened by illegal hunting
Togo: deforestation attributable to slash-and-burn agriculture and the use of wood for fuel; water pollution presents health hazards and hinders the fishing industry; air pollution increasing in urban areas
Tokelau: very limited natural resources and overcrowding are contributing to emigration to New Zealand
Tonga: deforestation results as more and more land is being cleared for agriculture and settlement; some damage to coral reefs from starfish and indiscriminate coral and shell collectors; overhunting threatens native sea turtle populations
Trinidad and Tobago: water pollution from agricultural chemicals, industrial wastes, and raw sewage; oil pollution of beaches; deforestation; soil erosion
Tromelin Island: NA
Tunisia: toxic and hazardous waste disposal is ineffective and presents human health risks; water pollution from raw sewage; limited natural fresh water resources; deforestation; overgrazing; soil erosion; desertification
Turkey: water pollution from dumping of chemicals and detergents; air pollution, particularly in urban areas; deforestation; concern for oil spills from increasing Bosporus ship traffic
Turkmenistan: contamination of soil and groundwater with agricultural chemicals, pesticides; salination, water-logging of soil due to poor irrigation methods; Caspian Sea pollution; diversion of a large share of the flow of the Amu Darya into irrigation contributes to that river's inability to replenish the Aral Sea; desertification
Turks and Caicos Islands: limited natural fresh water resources, private cisterns collect rainwater
Tuvalu: since there are no streams or rivers and groundwater is not potable, most water needs must be met by catchment systems with storage facilities (the Japanese Government has built one desalination plant and plans to build one other); beachhead erosion because of the use of sand for building materials; excessive clearance of forest undergrowth for use as fuel; damage to coral reefs from the spread of the Crown of Thorns starfish; Tuvalu is very concerned about global increases in greenhouse gas emissions and their effect on rising sea levels, which threaten the country's underground water table
Uganda: draining of wetlands for agricultural use; deforestation; overgrazing; soil erosion; water hyacinth infestation in Lake Victoria; poaching is widespread
Ukraine: inadequate supplies of potable water; air and water pollution; deforestation; radiation contamination in the northeast from 1986 accident at Chornobyl' Nuclear Power Plant
United Arab Emirates: lack of natural freshwater resources being overcome by desalination plants; desertification; beach pollution from oil spills
United Kingdom: continues to reduce greenhouse gas emissions (has meet Kyoto Protocol target of a 12.5% reduction from 1990 levels and hopes to reduce even more); small particulate emissions, largely from vehicular traffic, remain a problem; solid waste continues to rise and recycling is very limited
United States: air pollution resulting in acid rain in both the US and Canada; the US is the largest single emitter of carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels; water pollution from runoff of pesticides and fertilizers; very limited natural fresh water resources in much of the western part of the country require careful management; desertification
Uruguay: water pollution from meat packing/tannery industry; inadequate solid/hazardous waste disposal
Uzbekistan: drying up of the Aral Sea is resulting in growing concentrations of chemical pesticides and natural salts; these substances are then blown from the increasingly exposed lake bed and contribute to desertification; water pollution from industrial wastes and the heavy use of fertilizers and pesticides is the cause of many human health disorders; increasing soil salination; soil contamination from agricultural chemicals, including DDT
Vanuatu: a majority of the population does not have access to a potable and reliable supply of water; deforestation
Venezuela: sewage pollution of Lago de Valencia; oil and urban pollution of Lago de Maracaibo; deforestation; soil degradation; urban and industrial pollution, especially along the Caribbean coast; threat to the rainforest ecosystem from irresponsible mining operations
Vietnam: logging and slash-and-burn agricultural practices contribute to deforestation and soil degradation; water pollution and overfishing threaten marine life populations; groundwater contamination limits potable water supply; growing urban industrialization and population migration are rapidly degrading environment in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City
Virgin Islands: lack of natural freshwater resources
Wake Island: NA
Wallis and Futuna: deforestation (only small portions of the original forests remain) largely as a result of the continued use of wood as the main fuel source; as a consequence of cutting down the forests, the mountainous terrain of Futuna is particularly prone to erosion; there are no permanent settlements on Alofi because of the lack of natural fresh water resources
West Bank: adequacy of fresh water supply; sewage treatment
Western Sahara: sparse water and lack of arable land
World: large areas subject to overpopulation, industrial disasters, pollution (air, water, acid rain, toxic substances), loss of vegetation (overgrazing, deforestation, desertification), loss of wildlife, soil degradation, soil depletion, erosion
Yemen: very limited natural fresh water resources; inadequate supplies of potable water; overgrazing; soil erosion; desertification
Yugoslavia: pollution of coastal waters from sewage outlets, especially in tourist-related areas such as Kotor; air pollution around Belgrade and other industrial cities; water pollution from industrial wastes dumped into the Sava which flows into the Danube
Zambia: air pollution and resulting acid rain in the mineral extraction and refining region; chemical runoff into watersheds; poaching seriously threatens rhinoceros, elephant, antelope, and large cat populations; deforestation; soil erosion; desertification; lack of adequate water treatment presents human health risks
Zimbabwe: deforestation; soil erosion; land degradation; air and water pollution; the black rhinoceros herd - once the largest concentration of the species in the world - has been significantly reduced by poaching
Taiwan: air pollution; water pollution from industrial emissions, raw sewage; contamination of drinking water supplies; trade in endangered species; low-level radioactive waste disposal
======================================================================
@Environment - international agreements
Afghanistan: party to: Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban
signed, but not ratified: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Life Conservation
Albania: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
Algeria: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: Nuclear Test Ban
Andorra: party to: Hazardous Wastes
signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
Angola: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection
signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
Antigua and Barbuda: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Whaling
signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
Argentina: party to: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic-Marine Living Resources, Antarctic Seals, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling
signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Marine Life Conservation
Armenia: party to: Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants
Australia: party to: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic-Marine Living Resources, Antarctic Seals, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
Austria: party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
Azerbaijan: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection
signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
Bahamas, The: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
Bahrain: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
Bangladesh: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea
Barbados: party to: Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution
signed, but not ratified: Biodiversity
Belarus: party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea
Belgium: party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic-Marine Living Resources, Antarctic Seals, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
Belize: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
Benin: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
Bhutan: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Nuclear Test Ban
signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea
Bolivia: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: Environmental Modification, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection
Bosnia and Herzegovina: party to: Air Pollution, Climate Change, Law of the Sea, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection
signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
Botswana: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
Brazil: party to: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic-Marine Living Resources, Antarctic Seals, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
Brunei: party to: Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution
signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
Bulgaria: party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic-Marine Living Resources, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
Burkina Faso: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban
Burma: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94
signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
Burundi: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection
signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban
Cambodia: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Marine Life Conservation, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping
Cameroon: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94
signed, but not ratified: Nuclear Test Ban
Canada: party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Antarctic-Marine Living Resources, Antarctic Seals, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Law of the Sea, Marine Life Conservation
Cape Verde: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping
signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
Central African Republic: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 94
signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea
Chad: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping
Chile: party to: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic-Marine Living Resources, Antarctic Seals, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling
signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Nuclear Test Ban
China: party to: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Marine Life Conservation
Colombia: party to: Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping
Comoros: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
Congo, Democratic Republic of the: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: Environmental Modification
Congo, Republic of the: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea
Cook Islands: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Law of the Sea
signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
Costa Rica: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands, Whaling
signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Marine Life Conservation
Cote d'Ivoire: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
Croatia: party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
Cuba: party to: Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution
signed, but not ratified: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Marine Life Conservation
Cyprus: party to: Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution
signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants
Czech Republic: party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
Denmark: party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Law of the Sea
Djibouti: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution