Italy and the War of 1859

Front matter

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Introduction

BY DR. R. SHELTON MACKENZIE.

With a strong faith in the wisdom of old proverbs, I am confident that, as regards the volume which is here laid at the feet of the public, the adage, " Good wine needs no bush," might be quoted, to show that Italy and the War OF 1859 needs no introduction. Yet I cannot restrain from expressing my opinion that such a book is desirable, and will be useful, if not necessary, at this crisis, when the fairest portion of Europe appears likely to regain her nationality, when Napoleon III. is heading French armies upon the battle-fields upon which his illustrious uncle achieved his first renown, and where Austria, so long tho heartless and cruel oppressor of the Italians, has already sustained many defeats, and appears on the eve of expulsion from Lombardy and Venice.

Madame de Marguerittes, the author of this book, well known on account of the ease, grace, and spirit of her vi INTRODUCTION.

writings, and her intimate acquaintance — by residence — with the countries whose armies are now battling for or against Italian Independence, compliments me by a desire that, in consequence of my presumed familiarity with foreign lands and foreign politics, I should officiate as Master of the Ceremonies, and introduce her, in her new, and somewhat difficult position, as historian, politician, statistician, and biographer.

Her design was to describe Italy in general, as well as each distinct Sovereignty and State ; to show the extent, resources, power, and political situation of each ; to describe the leading members of each royal or reigning family ; to point out the relative bearing of every State, each to each, and also each to Sardinia, France, and Austria, the combatants in the battle strife ; to represent, with sufficient fullness and fairness, the military and financial condition, as well as the social and moral standing of each people ; to describe cities and scenery in which she resided, or through which she had travelled ; to state the causes, progress, and probable results of the War ; and to give personal sketches, descriptions, and anecdotes of the leading personages — sovereigns, statesmen, and commanders— with many of whom, in other days and scenes far distant from this country, she had been more or less acquainted. Undoubtedly, this lady's opportunities of

INTRODUCTION. vii

acquiring tlie information necessary to produce such a book as tMs were neither few nor far between. Besides, having observed closely, and remembered well and much, she has read a great deal, and has " combined her information," to use the words of the immortal Mr. Potts.

The result has been an agreeable volume, in which, while a great deal of solid information is given, to satisfy the minds of the more exact and exacting readers, will also be largely found personal sketches and anecdotes, recollections and on dits, which are always acceptable, and particularly in this country, where there is a prevailing curiosity — an heirloom from Eve, I presume — to learn everything about every body. Whoever expects Italy AND THE War of 1859 to be, from its subject, essentially a heavy book, will be greatly and pleasantly disappointed. It touches, lightly and gracefully, upon a variety of subjects, and enters searchingly and minutely enough into many more, all collateral to the principal theme of the work.

Although necessarily written ^jvith great rapidity, the following pages rarely exhibit traces of haste. Indeed, I can bear personal testimony to the industry as well as the ability with which the book was written, and the author's scrupulous anxiety to be accurate upon all matters of fact.

Viii INTRODUCTION.

The statistics of different States, here given, will be found full and accurate, and brought down from the latest published data.

To enhance the interest of the book, portraits of the principal Rulers now engaged in the War, have been introduced. Also, for the purpose of reference, a map, on which the course of the belligerents can readily be traced, and by which the boundaries, comparative extent, and bearings of each Italian State can readily be ascertained.

Neither Author nor Publisher have neglected anything which appeared likely to add to the value or interest of the work. At all events, whatever the issue, the honest and earnest endeavor has been to deserve success.

R. S. M.

Philadelphia, July 2, 1859.

i r

CON-TENTS.

Chapter I

Former Position of Italy — The Past and Present of Sardinia — Origin of the House of Savoy — Humbert, the First Count — History of Acquisitions — Piedmont — Assumption of the Title of King of Jerusalem — On what based — Emanuel Filibert — Genoa — Revolt in 1849 — General Delia Marmora — The Island of Sardinia— Geographical Boundaries of the Kingdom — Area — Population— Lakes — Anecdote of Napoleon I. — Rivers — Climate — Fertility — Revenue — Army — Navy — Institution of Royalty — When and how — The Spanish Succession — The Quadruple Alliance. . . . . . . . .13

Chapter II

Victor Emanuel I. — Abdicates — Carlo Felice succeeds — Charles Albert — Prince of Carignan — Education of Charles Albert — Ascends the Throne — Lombardy revolts — Charles Albert at Milan — Defeat at Rivoli — Shameful Retreat — Tuscan Volunteers — Montanelli — Novara — Tragic Scene — Abdication — Retires to Oporto and dies — Victor Emanuel and his Father — Mental Characteristics of Victor Emanuel — His Habits — Dislike to the Clergy — Attachment to the Dogmas of the Catholic Faith — His Court — His Queen and her Mother — Intrigue of the Latter with Marchese d'Adda — Death of the Queen — Her Children — Death of Victor Emanuel's Brother and Mother — His Personal Appearance. - . ... ... 24

Chapter III

Lombardy — Early Invasions — Rivalry between France and Austria concerning its Possession — Title to it discussed — Royal Marriages of the Bourbons and Hapsburgs — EflFect of Alliances with Austria upon France — Austrian Treachery to Napoleon — Treaty of Utrecht and Others — Treaty of 1815 — Anecdote of Sir Robert Wilson and Francis I. concerning Lombardy — Policy of his Successors concerning it — Geography of Lombardy — Its Provinces — Number of Square Miles — Population — Chief City, Milan — Its Rivers, Lakes, System of Irrigation — Rail Roads — Productive Powers — General Description thereof — Manufactures — Austrian Army during Peace — Revenue and Taxation. . . .33

Chapter IV

The Royal Family of Austria — Francis Joseph, Present Emperor — His Ancestry — His Wife Elizabeth — Abdication of his Uncle — Refusal of his Father to accept — The Archduchess Sophia — His Uncle Ferdinand — Vienna and the Revolution — Intellectual Capacity of Sophia — Anecdote of Franz Josef relative to the Accession— Count Schwartzenburg — Count Buol — Personal Appearance of the Emperor — Raab — General Schlick — Order of St. George — Archduke Maximilian — His Wife — Eugene Beauharnais — His noble Refusal — Count Gyulai — His past History — Anecdote of Radetzky — The Archdukes Stephen and John — Description and History of the Iron Crown — Anecdote concerning it during the Present War. . . . . . .40

Chapter V

Venice — Origin of Venice — First Doge — Henri Dandolo — Gradenigo — Change of Government — Hereditary Aristocracy — Acquisition of Brescia, Bergamo, Padua — The League of Cambray — Queen of the Adriatic — A Spanish Bride and Venetian Admiral — The

Contents

Turks — Defeat of the Ottomans — Morosini — Loss of Candia — Takes the Morea — Decline of the Republic — Discovery of the Cape of Good Hope — Peace of Passarovitz — Neutrality of Venice

— Submits to the French — Restored to Austria by the Treaty of Vienna — Reminiscences of Venice — Rome and Venice — Piazza di St. Marco — Body of St. Mark — Curious Mode of ti'ansporting it from Alexandria — Patron Saint of Venice — What became of it — Disturbances of 1848 — Daniele Manini — Nicolo Tommaseo — The Italian Legions defeat Austria — Viva Venezia — Viva Italia — Venice declares her Freedom — Manini Dictator — Peace — Desire for War — Six Volunteers — Surrender to Austi'ia — Death of Manini

— His Son — Geographical Boundaries of Venice — Population Territory — Taxation-:^ Venice and its Commerce.

Chapter VI

Origin of the War — Motives of France, Austria, and Sardinia — The Manifestos of Francis Joseph, Victor Emanuel and Louis Napoleon. . . . . . . . .59

Chapter VII

Louis Napoleon — The Self-deception of the World Relative to his Talents — Early Career given to elucidate the Causes of the World's Ignorance of his Abilities — His Birth and Birth-place — Decree of Banishment — His Mother, Hortense Beauharnais — Her Retreat at Lake Geneva — Description of it — His Teachers and Education— The Attention of his Mother to these things — His Early Character — Augsburg — Arenburg — His Republicanism — Effects of Mountain Scenery upon his Mind — His Brother Napoleon — Reconciliation of Louis and Hortense — Conspiracy of the Brothers relative to Italy — They join the Romagnian Insurrection — Appointed to the Supreme Command — Resign it — The Bolognese, to flatter Louis Philippe, compel them to retire to Forli — Death

1*

CONTENTS.

of Napoleon — Supposed Criminality of Louis Napoleon a gross Error — Fever at Ancona — Ruse of his Mother to conceal him from the Austrians — Escape to England — Offer of Talleyrand — Return to Switzerland — Becomes an Author — His Intercourse "with leading Men — His Attempt at Strasburg — Louis Philippe's Knowledge of the Plot — Failure — Shipped to the United States

— Anecdote of Joseph Bonaparte — Correspondence with his Mother — Affianced to Mathilde — Conduct in the United States — Love to his Mother — Reverence for her Memory — National Air of France — Driven from Switzerland — Goes to England — Reception in London — Count D'Orsay — Lord Eglintoun's Tournament

— Impression he made on great Ladies — Faculty for Child's Play

— Financial Embarrassments — Boulogne Expedition — Ham — His Escape — Return to London — His Friends — His Political Convictions — Manner of living in London — Literary Work — Death of Louis, Ex-King of Holland — The Revolution of 1848 — Louis Napoleon Special Constable — Proposed as Deputy to the National Assembly — Elected by four Departments — Scene in National Assembly — Re-elected — First Speech in National Assembly— Election for Presidency — Conduct during Election — Elected President — Inauguration — Rebillot — General Petit. . 66

Chapter VIII

Louis Napoleon as President — The Difficulties of his Position — How he quelled the Insurrectionary Spirit in Paris — Violations of the Constitution — Contest with the National Assembly — Leon Fauchet — National Assembly Dissolved — Its Successor — Republicanism in Paris in 1851 — Bourbons and Orleanists — President vs. the Assembly — St. Arnaud — Presidential Proclamation — Meeting of the National Assembly — Its Dispersion — Oudinot — — Berryer — The Coup d' Etat — Louis Napoleon's Election to the Presidency for Ten Years — Elevation to the Empire — His Marriage— Carola Wasa of Sweden — Alliance with England — War with Russia — The Empire — Attempts at Assassination — Pianori and Orsini. . . . • . • • .88

Chapter IX

The Family of Napoleon III. — The Empress Eugenie — Her Ancestry and Birth — Her Personal Charms — Peculiar Traits of Character — Unblemished Reputation — Her Courage — Prince Jerome, her Confidential Counsellor — His Marriage with Miss Patterson — His Son — His Grandson — Divorce — Princess Fredrika Caroline of Wurtemburg — Elevation to the Throne of Westphalia — Obtains Money from the Jews — Quarrel with Napoleon — Abandons his Kingdom — Waterloo — Napoleon's Exile — The Father-in-law of Jerome — Title of Prince Montfert — Residence in Florence — In Paris — Marshal of France — Prince Royal — President of the Council of Regency — Prince Napoleon — His Birth — Education — Visit to Paris — Member of the National Assembly — Quarrel with Louis Napoleon — Ambassador to Madrid — Dismissal — Senator — Major — General in Crimea — Attack upon the Plan o^ the War— Expedition to the Polar Seas — His Villa — Unfitness for Military Affairs — Appointment to Algiers — His Marriage — The Princess Mathilde — Her Birth — Character in Early Life — Af&ancedto the Present Emperor — Her Marriage — Prince Demidofi" — Separation — Presides at the Court of Louis Napoleon — Victor Emanuel's Passion — Her Residence — Sons of Lucien and Joseph — Lucien Bonaparte — Pierre Bonaparte — Service under Santander — Character — Desertion — Degradation — Present Residence— Joachim Murat — His Character — Aspirations to the Throne of Naples— Alboni — The Son of Joachim Murat. . 98

Chapter X

Count Baraguay d'Hilliers — Commanding Officer under Napoleon — Birth — Education— First Military Service — Military Exploits — Political Opinions — Character — Count Randon — General Marchand and Napoleon I. — Algiers — Military Talents and Character — General Adolphe Neil — Brilliant Career — Character — General Canrobert — Constantine and African Campaign — Aid-de-Camp to the Emperor — Canrobert and St. Arnaud — Prince Napoleon —

CONTENTS.

The Crimea — His Character and Capacity — M'Mahon — Origin — Constantine — The Kedan — Character and Capacity — Marshal Vaillant — Birth — Exploits — Services in Algiers — E.oine — Character and Capacity — Pelissier — Birth — Exploits — Algiers — Crimea — Character and Capacity — General Forey — Algiers — Crimea — Career — Capacity. ..... Ill

CHAPTER XL

The Sardinian Generals — Garibaldi — Serves in the Sardinian Marine— Bey of Tunis — Republic of Uruguay — Rio Grande — The Italian Legion — Revolutionary Party in Italy — Career in Northern Italy — Defence of Rome — Defeats the Neapolitans — Fall of Rome — Escapes from the Austrians — Returns to America — Goes back to Genoa — Commands a Merchantman — Present Position — His Character — General Ulloa — His Birth and Education — His Services in 1848 — His Present Position — Genei'al Alphonse Delia Marmora — His Education — Plans of Military Reform — His First Services — His Rapid Promotion — Minister of War— Reduces Genoa — Reorganization of the Army — Services in the Crimea — Lord Hardwicke's Opinion of him — Foreign Honors — His Elder Brother — Present Position — General Durando — His Early Life — Commands the Roman Army — His Conduct — Anecdote of Pius IX. — His Desertion of General Ferrara — Defeated by the Austrians— Joins Charles Albert — Opinions — Present Position — Curious Description of the Organization of the Sardinian Army. 135

CHAPTER XIL

Austrian Generals — Baron Hess — Birth — Early Services — Rapid Promotion — Served under Radetzky — His Strategic Talents — Anecdote with the Elector of Hesse — With the Emperor — Probable Position he will assume in this War — General Benedek — His Services — Gallicia — Italy — His Qualities as a Soldier —

CONTENTS.

General Wimpffen — Count Stadion — Edmond Prince Schwartzenburg — Prince Charles Frederic Schwartzenburg — Their Family — Prince Frederic Charles Leichtenstein — Prince Edward Leichtenstein — General Zobel. ...,-. 150

CHAPTER XIII.

Sardinian Statesmen — Count Cavour — Position of his Family — Prince Borghese— Anecdote of Count Cavour's Father — Prince D'Carignan — Cavour's Travels — Return to Sardinia — Enters Politics — Attaches himself to the Liberal Party — Congress of Paris — Count d'Azeglio — His Character as an Artist — His Services to Sardinia — His Position in Italy — Ratazzi — Brofiferios — Valeric, Leader of the Liberal Party. .... 158

CHAPTER XIV.

Austrian Statesmen — Count Buol — Schauenstein — His Early Career

— First Service at London — Rapid Rise in Rank — Attains the Premiership — Peace Congress — Retirement-^ Views of Domestic and Foreign Policy — His Talents — Count Rechberg — His Descent

— Sketch of his Life — His Character and Proclivities — Count Hubner — Connection with the Royal Family — Embassy to Paris

— Count Grunne — Military Talents — Present Position. . . 166

CHAPTER XV.

French Statesmen — Count Walewski — His Relationship to Napoleon — Friendship with the Duke of Orleans — Enters upon a Military Career — Failure in the Drama — Success as an Author — Rise in Diplomacy — Present Position — Count de Morny, reputed Half Brother of Louis Napoleon — Education — His Military Career — Beet Speculation — Share in the Coup d'Etat — Rapid Rise — Financial Speculations — His Appearance — Duke of Padua — His

S CONTENTS.

Traditional Sympathies — OflBce — Present Position — Persigny — Present Position — Early Poverty and Struggles — An Editor — Strange Changes in Politics — Introduction to Louis Napoleon — Their Connection — Position in the Republic and Empire — Marriage — Review of the Characters of de Morny, Walewski and Persigny. ........ 174

CHAPTER XVI.

Duchy of Modena — Boundaries — Population — Resources — Revenue — Army — Metropolis — Its Early History — Conquest by the French — Its Return to the Hapsburgs — Its Present Ruler — His Character — Mirandola Carrara — Present Position of the Duchy. . 185

CHAPTER XVII.

The Duchy of Parma — Geography — Extent — Productions — Government— Army — Revenue — Chief City — University and Students — History of its Early Rulers — How the Bourbons became its Sovereigns — Abdication of Duke Charles — His Early Life — Eccentricities — Baron Ward — Empress Mai-ia Louisa — Her Last years — Duke Charles III. — His Brutality — Louise de Bourbon The Revolution of 1859. . . . . . .190

CHAPTER XVIII.

Grand Duchy of Tuscany — The Recent Revolution — Prince Napoleon at Leghorn — His Proclamation — Extent of the Duchy — Population — Geography — Productions — Elba — Government —

— Trade — Revenue — Army — The City of Florence — Its Palaces

— Pitti — Medicis — How Tuscany came under the Influence of Austria — Leopold II. — 1848 — His Conduct, Then and Since — A Proclamation — City of Leghorn — Its Appearance — Pisa — Her Present Condition — Population. ..... 196

CHAPTER XIX.

The War — Events immediately preceding — Italian Disposition to Conspiracy — Mazzini — Remonstrances of the Western Powers — Declaration of the Emperor — Debate between Palmerston and D'Israeli — Austria and Sardinia Arming — Speech of Count Cavour — England's Interposition — Lord Cowley — Sketch of him — What Conditions Count Buol would accept — Russia proposes a Peace Congress — The Five Great Powers consent — Sudden Invasion of Sardinia by Austria — The French hasten to the Assistance of Victor Emanuel. . . .... 203

CHAPTER XX.

The French and Austrian Armies — Their Navies — French Prizes — The Zouaves — History of their Origin — Marshal Clauzel — The Duke of Orleans — The Appearance of the Zouave — Zouaves in Italy — Anecdotes — The Third Regiment — The Turcos — General Yussup — Turcos Encampment — Notice of General Bourbaki — The Croats — Their Character — Tyrolese Sharpshooters — Their Actions in Italy — How the French Soldier is Fed — Changes in the French Military Costumes. . . . . .211

CHAPTER XXI.

More Austrian and French Generals — The Staff of Napoleon — General Roguet — Duke de Montebello — His Wife and the Empress

— His Brother — Edgar Ney — His Elder Brother — General Fleury — General Reille — Baron Tascher — Marquis de Cadore — M. de Bourgoing — Conneau — Larrey — The Army of the East — Course of Bavaria — General Schramm — General Rostolan — General St. Jean d'Angely — Distinguished Volunteers — The Prince de Rohan

— Duke de Chartres — Feeling of the French People relative to the War — Father Lacordaire — His Discourses to the People — Counts Clam-Gallas and Schaaffgottsche — Marshals Castellane and Magnan. ....... 226

CHAPTER XXII.

Former Wars between Austria and France — Napoleon's Campaigns against Austria. ....... 241

CHAPTER XXIII.

The Papal States — Area — Population — Army — Revenue — Trade — Agriculture — Government — Rome — The Vatican — The Quirinal — St. Peters — San Marino — Pius VII. — Ravaroli — Consalvi — Leo XII.— The Sanfedesti— Revolt of 1831 —National Colors of Italy — Gregory XVI. — Gaetano — Lambruschini — l^ius IX. — His Reforms— Ugo Basso — The Pope's Private History — Count Rossi — Revolution of 1848 — Flight of the Pope — Countess Spaur — Antonelli — Gasperone — Antonelli as Premier — Mamiani — The Administration of Antonelli since 1849 — Mazzini — His Early Life — Expulsion from Italy — The Bandiera and Moro — Sir James Graham — Mazzini's Part in the Revolution of 1848 — His Life Since — The Recent Manifesto. . . . . . 250

CHAPTER XXIV.

Naples — Montanelli's Description of it — Boundaries — Population — Physical Features — Agriculture — Trade — Government — Army — Sicily — Etna — Early History of Sicily — City of Naples — Its Public Places — The Lazzaroni — The King's Palaces — San Carlos — How the Bourbons came to the Throne — Don Carlos — Ferdinand I. — His Queen — Acton — Ruffo — The King's Vacillation and Treachery — Francis I. — Caretto — Code — Ferdinand II. — Poerio — Francis II. and his Queen — General Filangieri. . 287

CHAPTER XXV.

The Franco-Russian Alliance — Manifesto of Gortschakoff — Windischgratz — England and Prussia — The Minor German Powers. 313

CHAPTER XXVI.

March of the French Army to Piedmont — Their Numbers — Their Routes — Anecdotes of the Soldiers — Departure of the Imperial Guard from Paris, and Reception in Piedmont. . . . 317

CHAPTER XXVII.

Napoleon's Departure for Italy — Greetings of the People — Reception at Marseilles — Genoa — Enthusiasm of the Piedmontese — Ladies of Genoa and the Empress — Spirit of the People in Paris — The Marseillaise in Italy — The Late Battles — Beuret — Cialdini — Espinasse — Conclusion. ..... 322

Appendix

Bulletins of the Battles — Battle of Montebello — How General Beuret was Killed — Count Gyulai's Official Report — Garibaldi's Descent on Lombardy — The Battle of Palestro — Additional Details— The Battle of Magenta — French Official Report — Austrian Account. .... . .... 341

Chapter I. Former Position Of Italy — The Past And Present Of Sardinia

ORIGIN OF THE HOUSE OF SAVOY — HUMBERT, THE FIRST COUNT — HIS- TORY OF ACQUISITIONS PIEDMONT ASSUMPTION OF THE TITLE OP

KING OF JERUSALEM ON WHAT BASED EMANUEL FILIBERT GENOA

REVOLT IN 1849 GENERAL DELLA MARMORA THE ISLAND OF SAR- DINIA GEOGRAPHICAL BOUNDARIES OF THE KINGDOM AREA POPU- LATION LAKES ANECDOTE OF NAPOLEON I. RIVERS CLIMATE — •

FERTILITY REVENUE ARMY — NAVY INSTITUTION OF ROYALTY — ■

WHEN AND HOW — THE SPANISH SUCCESSION — THE QUADRUPLE ALLI- ANCE.

Italy, from a very early period, has occupied a large space in history. When the Phrygians, Tyrians, and Greeks — the ancient filibusters of the Eastern Seas — roamed at will, they were attracted to her shores by the salubrity of her climate, the beauty of her skies, the fertility of her soil, and the abundance of her wealth. But it was not alone whilst sea-kings ravaged her soil or despoiled her people that she attracted the attention of the world. Her own sons in turn became the invaders of other lands ; called into existence the magnificent "mother of empires," conquered the world, and brought home the spolia opima of nations to adorn her palaces and clothe her temples in gorgeous splendor.

Through the long line of warriors and Caesars, the poison of extravagance and corruption was slowly entering the veins of the great Roman Empire, until it wrought exhaustion and decline. From its grave arose a new despotism— that of the Papal Hierarchy — under which, though the Arts have flourished, Freedom has not revived.

The medieval times witnessed short intermittent resurrections of the old Roman spirit of endurance, of firmness, of fiery energy and generous aspirations. Venice, Genoa, Milan, Florence, and other sovereign municipalities, strove to eliminate the cultivation of liberalism. At one time even Rome itself, under the lead of Rienzi, seemed to see a return to the days of her pristine power. But these efforts seem to have been irregular and spasmodic, and now, as for a long time past, pontifical, kingly, or foreign rule, presses Italy with the worst and deadliest forms of personal oppression and political slavery: — to use the striking phraseology of another, "they have produced universal terror and desolation, and call it a return to peace and social order."

One little kingdom in North- Western Italy alone forms an exception to this dominating despotism. That kingdom is Sardinia. Bound to Austria by many ties of kindred, and largely bordered by her territory, Sardinia has had the courage to forget the traditions of the past, ignore her family connexion with the House of Hapsburg, and embrace free constitutional government, with fervor and energy. Pursuing the last ten years a persistent and devoted course of devotion to liberal principles, she has been a living protest against the Austrian system of misrule, a fiery reproach to her outrages upon humanity, and beaconlight of hope to all the aspiring, generous hearts of the

Peninsula. By her bold course she has, in recent years, attained an unusually high position in European affairs. She has even been admitted to an equal voice and vote at the same continental council board with her haughty and hated rival, Austria. Within the last few months she has once more thrown down the gauntlet of defiance to this old and potent empire, and a second time entered the lists of combat with her. The stake is her existence as a Nationality : the prize if victorious — Italian redemption from the misrule of the Emperor Francis Joseph. Such a contest challenges the attention, and claims for her the sympathies, of the civilized world.

The past history of Sardinia is as curious and interesting as her present. The former receives its interest, however, from sources widely differing in temper and tone from the latter. Her early annals are marked by the energy and vigor of her chiefs. A long line of illustrious diplomats, second to none in their skillful use of all the Machiavelian subtleties which characterized the different international policies of the Middle Ages ; stern strategetic warriors who have left names imperishable on the records of blood ; and rulers ever anxious to steal territory from their neighbors, and thereby consolidate their power and aggrandize the House of Savoy.

To trace rapidly the origin of the Duchy of Savoy, the union consummated with Piedmont, the various other accessions of territory, and the consolidation of all these into the kingdom of Sardinia is necessary here.

The founder of the House of Savoy was Humbert of the White Hands. He lived about the beginning of the

Eleventh Century. He seems not to have been troubled with any nice scruples as to the rights of property. He had raised himself, as most men of those days did, by the strong hand, to a countship, marquisate, or some title of equivalent rank. Of his origin or descent little or nothing is known. The probability is that it was plebeian. Up to this time, Savoy had been governed by a number of bishops of the Church of Rome, each independent within his own diocese, and owing feudal allegiance to Conrad of Germany, surnamed the Salic. Whilst this Emperor was absent in Hungary, one of the Counts of Champagn, of a race notorious throughout centuries for turbulence and revolt, induced these pastoral lambs to rebel. Humbert of the White Hands fought the bishop of a mountain district of Savoy, called Maurienne, and conquered him. As a reward for this service, he received from the Teutonic Emperor the investiture of the county of Maurienne.

The fourth Count of Savoy married fortunately, and obtained thereby the Marquisate of Susa and Duchy of Turin. When the dynasty got possession of Chamberry they made it for awhile their capital. Turin did not become the residence of the ducal family until 1484.

Piedmont, one of the largest and finest provinces of the Sardinian Monarchy, lies South of Savoy. It descends from the tops of the lofty ranges known as the Cottian and Maritime Alps, and from the Appenines, in splendid terraces, to the fertile vallies which gently undulate until they are lost in the magnificent plains watered by the Po. It was slowly absorbed by Savoy, whose rulers were ever on the alert to "annex" territory from their neighbors.

This proclivity is certainly the best proof which could have been given of the truth of the theory of one who spent years in writing a huge folio to prove that the Princes of that family were of Saxon origin. Sometimes they lost what they had gained ; and then, after years of patient tigilance, recovered their spoil. Divided, as Piedmont was, into small Duchies, Marquisates, Lordships and Republics, it easily fell a prey to a race of princes who were ever ready to buy, obtain territory by marriage, diplomacy or conquest.