Part 2 (part 4 of 5)

Part 2 (part 4 of 5)

According to Messrs Oxland’s method (patented 1849) of defecating and bleaching the juice of beet-root, cane, &c., acetate of aluminium, formed by dissolving 4 lbs. of that earth in acetic acid, is boiled with each ton of sugar, and as soon as the acetic acid is nearly all driven off, a solution of tannin, formed from 1 lb. of bruised valonia and 2 galls. of hot water, is added to the boiling syrup; the excess of aluminium is afterwards separated by lime, and the usual method of further procedure adopted. By their second patent (1851), superphosphate of aluminium or of calcium is substituted for acetate of aluminium, in the proportion of about 6 lbs. of aluminium, dissolved in phosphoric acid, for each ton of sugar.

The presence of certain saline bodies in a solution of cane sugar, exercises a very prejudicial effect upon it, since these, by combining with the sugar, give rise to compounds which contribute to the more or less reduction of the sugar to the uncrystallisable condition, and to a consequent increase of the molasses.

Of one of the chief constituents of the sugar-cane that possesses this objectionable property is potash in combination with acids, both organic and inorganic. Last year a patent for the removal of these potash salts was taken out by the Messrs Newlands. The patentees proceed upon the facts that the solubility of alum in water is very trifling, and that it contains only 1/10th part of its weight of potash. They add to a concentrated syrup a strong solution of sulphate of alumina (having by a previous examination of the syrup determined the quantity required). Sulphate of potash is thereby formed, and this, uniting with the sulphate of alumina, the resulting alum after a time deposits in a crystalline form at the bottom of the vessel containing the sugar solution. This being run off into another receptacle, the free acid, of which it now contains a large quantity, is neutralised with lime or chalk, boiled, filtered, and passed through charcoal.

The addition of the lime has also thrown down the alumina liberated by the reaction, which has carried with it and removed certain injurious nitrogenous principles previously present in the saccharine liquid.

Some few years back Messrs Dubrunfaut and Péligot being cognisant of the fact of the insolubility, in boiling water, of the compounds of sugar with lime, based upon it a method of separating crystallisable sugar from treacle. Péligot has obtained from common treacle one fourth of its weight of crystallised sugar, by dissolving the precipitated sugar lime in water, and separating the lime by passing into the mixture a stream of carbonic acid.

Sugar may be obtained from nearly all sweet vegetable substances, by a process essentially similar to that described above.

_Table showing the Specific Weight of Sugar Solutions with the corresponding percentage of Cane Sugar at 17·5° C._——GERLACH.

------------------------+-------------------------+---------------------- Percentage, Specific |Percentage, Specific |Percentage, Specific Cane Sugar. Weight |Cane Sugar. Weight |Cane Sugar. Weight of Sol. | of Sol. | of Sol. | | 75 1·383,342 | 49 1·227,241 | 24 1·101,377 74 1·376,822 | 48 1·221,771 | 23 1·096,792 73 1·370,345 | 47 1·216,339 | 22 1·092,240 72 1·363,910 | 46 1·210,945 | 21 1·087,721 71 1·357,518 | 45 1·205,589 | 20 1·083,234 70 1·351,168 | 44 1·200,269 | 19 1·078,779 69 1·344,860 | 43 1·194,986 | 18 1·074,356 68 1·338,594 | 42 1·189,740 | 17 1·069,965 67 1·332,370 | 41 1·184,531 | 16 1·065,606 66 1·326,188 | 40 1·179,358 | 15 1·061,278 65 1·320,046 | 39 1·174,221 | 14 1·056,982 64 1·313,946 | 38 1·169,121 | 13 1·052,716 63 1·307,887 | 37 1·164,056 | 12 1·048,482 62 1·301,868 | 36 1·159,026 | 11 1·044,278 61 1·295,890 | 35 1·154,032 | 10 1·040,104 60 1·289,952 | 34 1·149,073 | 9 1·035,961 59 1·284,054 | 33 1·144,150 | 8 1·031,848 58 1·278,197 | 32 1·139,261 | 7 1·027,764 57 1·272,379 | 31 1·134,406 | 6 1·023,710 56 1·266,600 | 30 1·129,586 | 5 1·019,686 55 1·260,861 | 29 1·124,800 | 4 1·015,691 54 1·255,161 | 28 1·120,048 | 3 1·011,725 53 1·249,500 | 27 1·115,330 | 2 1·007,788 52 1·243,877 | 26 1·110,646 | 1 1·003,880 51 1·238,293 | 25 1·105,995 | 0 1·000,000 50 1·232,748 | | ------------------------+-------------------------+----------------------

=Sugar, Al′um.= Syn. SACCHARUM ALUMINATUM, ALUMEN SACCHARINUM, L. From alum and white sugar, in fine powder, equal parts, formed into minute sugar-loaf shaped lumps with mucilage of gum Arabic made with rose water. Used to make astringent lotions and eye-waters.

=Sugar. Bar′ley.= Syn. SACCHARUM HORDEATUM, PENIDIUM, SACCHARUM PENIDIUM, L. Prep. Take of saffron, 12 gr.; hot water, q. s.; sugar, 1 lb.; boil to a full ‘candy height,’ or that state called ‘crack,’ or ‘crackled sugar,’ when 2 or 3 drops of clear lemon juice or white vinegar must be added, and the pan removed from the fire and set for a single minute in cold water, to prevent its burning; the sugar must be then at once poured out on an oiled marble slab, and either cut into pieces or rolled into cylinders and twisted in the usual manner. One drop of oil of citron, orange, or lemon, will flavour a considerable quantity. White barley sugar is made with a strained decoction of barley instead of water, or starch is added to whiten it.

=Sugar, Beet-root.= Syn. SACCHARUM BETÆ, L. Sugar obtained from the white beet.

In the following table the names of the countries in which this plant is cultivated are given, together with the amount of sugar annually produced in each:

France 280,000 tons.[207] Germany 260,000 ” Austria and Hungary 180,000 ” Russia and Poland 130,000 ” Belgium 50,000 ” Holland and other countries 17,000 ”

[Footnote 207: British Manufacturing Industries, Glanford.]

The white beet is used in preference to the red varieties, not only because of the colour of its juice, but also in consequence of its being richer in sugar. The roots vary in their yield of sugar according to quality and the season of the year. They are generally in best condition in October. The root is made up of a series of small cells, which are filled with the saccharine fluid. According to Wagner the constituents of the sugar-beet are as follows:

Water 82·7 Sugar 11·3 Cellulose 0·8 Albumen, casein, and other bodies 1·5 Fatty matter 0·1 Organic substances, citric acid, pectin, and pectic acid. Asparagin, } aspartic acid, and betain, a substance having, according to } Schiebler, the formula C_{15}H_{33}N_{3}O_{6} } Organic salts, oxalate and pectate of calcium, oxalate and pectate } of potassium and sodium } 3·7 Inorganic salts, nitrate and sulphate of potash, phosphate of lime } and magnesia } Twelve and a half hundred weight of beet yield on an average 1 cwt. of raw sugar, or 8 per cent.

The first operation in the manufacture of beet-root sugar after washing and cleansing the roots (an operation which sometimes reduces their weight 10 or 20 per cent.) is the extraction from them of the juice. This may be effected either by:

1. Pressure. 2. Centrifugal power. 3. Dialysis.

1. Pressure. The roots being put into a proper crushing machine are soon reduced to an uniform pulp, which in some manufactories is subjected to pressure wrapped in linen cloths under stone or iron rollers, and in others is placed in bags and placed under the Bramah or hydraulic press, the resulting juice being collected in proper receptacles.

2. Centrifugal power. This method is that generally employed for separating the juice from the pulp, which thus yields between 50 or 60 per cent. of juice. A weak saccharine solution, also used in sugar manufacture, is afterwards obtained by mixing the residue of the pulp with water, and subjecting it to the same process.

3. Dialysis. The application of the principle of diffusion for the extraction of the sugar from the beet-root originated with M. Robert. The fresh roots, cut into thin slices, are immersed in a little more than their own weight of water heated to about 120° F. The crystalloid sugar thus diffuses out through the cell membrane which encloses it into the surrounding water, leaving the pectous and colloid matters, such as albumen, gum, &c., behind. The operation which is so managed as to bring the same water into contact with successive quantities of root, yields a saccharine solution of nearly the same strength as the natural juice. The solution so obtained is, after concentration and the usual methods, converted into sugar. The same process is said to have been tried with cane sugar, and with equally satisfactory results.

The succeeding stages of the manufacture of beet sugar, such as refining, liming, decolorising, &c., are the same as those already described under cane sugar.

Beet sugar is in every respect identical with cane. It was discovered in 1747 by Marggraf, of Berlin, but it did not come into use until about the beginning of the present century, its manufacture at this period in France being necessitated by an edict of the first Napoleon’s, which prohibited the importation of cane sugar into that country.

The engraving represents a vacuum pan much used in the French sugar refineries.

Fig. 1 gives a perspective, and fig. 2 a sectional view of this evaporating pan.

The boiling-pan (B) consists of two air-tight hemispheres, surmounted by a funnel, connected by the tube (l) with the condenser (A). The apparatus is supplied by steam by (r s), the steam circulating in the boiling-pan by means of the pipes (g), fig. 2. By opening the lever valves (f) the juice can be run by means of the pipe (o) into the pan (p). When the pan, after continued boiling, requires to be refitted, the pipes (l and w) are connected to an air-pump. The manometer (h) shows the state of the air pressure, which can be regulated by opening the pipes connected to the vacuum chamber. By means of the gauge cylinder (G) the quantity of syrup in the boiling-pan can be ascertained, the gauge cylinder being connected to the boiling-pan by the pipes (a and i), and the height read off from the gauge tube (n). The syrup can be removed, for the purpose of ascertaining its consistency, from the gauge cylinder by means of either of the three pipes (b, c, d). By u steam can be admitted to the boiling-pan and condenser. e is generally of stout glass, and enables the state of the juice to be seen. g is the grease cock, f the manhole. The condenser consists of the jacket (B), arranged to prevent the mixing of the juice with the water used for condensation. x is the gauge. The pipe (m) conveying water to the condenser terminates in a rose. z is a thermometer showing the interior temperature of the boiling-pan.

The air-pump being set in operation the tube (c) is opened, and the gauge cylinder filled by the juice rising from q. By closing m and opening y the juice is admitted to the boiling-pan. When this is half full the steam pipe (s) is opened, the steam quickly heating the contents of the pan to the boiling point. The condenser is then placed in working; by opening the pipe (l) the steam of the juice passes into the condenser, where it is speedily condensed, passing with the water through β.

=Sugar, Diabet′ic.= Grape sugar found in the urine of persons labouring under diabetes. In diabetes insipidus, a substance having the general properties of a sugar, but destitute of a sweet taste, appears to be produced (Thénard.)

=Sugar, Gel′atin.= See GLYCOCINE.

=Sugar, Grape=, C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}.H_{2}O. Syn. GLUCOSE, FRUIT SUGAR; SACCHARUM UVÆ, S. FRUCTUS, L. This substance is found in the juice of grapes and other fruit, in the urine of diabetic patients, and in the liquid formed by acting on starch and woody fibre with dilute sulphuric acid.

Prep. 1. From the juice of ripe grapes or an infusion of the ripe fruit (raisins), by saturating the acid with chalk, decanting the clear liquid, evaporating to a syrup, clarifying with white of egg or bullock’s blood, and then carefully evaporating to dryness; it may be purified for chemical purposes by solution and crystallisation in either water or boiling alcohol. Like other sugar, it may be decoloured by animal charcoal.

2. From honey, by washing with cold alcohol, which dissolves the fluid syrup and leaves the solid crystallisable portion.

Prop. It is less sweet and less soluble than cane sugar, requiring 1-1/2 part of cold water for its solution; instead of bold crystals, it forms granular warty masses, without distinct crystalline faces; it does not easily combine with either oxide of calcium or oxide of lead; with heat, caustic alkaline solutions turn it brown or black, but it dissolves in oil of vitriol without blackening, the reverse being the case with cane sugar; with chloride of sodium it forms a soluble salt, which yields large, regular, and beautiful crystals. Sp. gr. 1·400.

The various fruits contain grape sugar in the following proportions:

Per Cent. Peach 1·57 Apricot 1·80 Plum 2·12 Raspberry 4·00 Blackberry 4·44 Strawberry 5·73 Bilberry 5·78 Currant 6·10 Plum 6·26 Gooseberry 7·16 Cranberry 7·45 (according to Fresenius). Pear 8·02 to 10·8 (E. Wolff). Apple 8·37 (Fresenius). ” 7·28 to 8·04 (E. Wolff). Sour cherry 8·77 Mulberry 9·19 Sweet cherry 10·79 Grape 14·93

Obs. Cane sugar is converted into grape sugar during the process of fermentation, and by the action of acids. See SUGAR, and SUGAR, STARCH (below).

=Sugar, Maple.= Syn. SACCHARUM ACERINUM, L. From the juice of the sugar maple. It is identical with cane sugar.

In the United States and the British Colonies of North America considerable quantities of this sugar are made. The juice is obtained by boring through the bark of the tree to a depth of about a quarter or half an inch. Each tree has generally two perforations made in it, and they are always made on that side of the tree which faces towards the south, and at a distance of about 20 inches from the ground. The juice flows into suitable vessels, into which it is conducted by reeds placed under the perforations. The period chosen for tapping the trees is that during which it is known the sap is ascending, from March to May. Sometimes the tree undergoes a second tapping in the autumn, but this is not generally practised, inasmuch as it is injurious to the tree. A daily yield of 6 galls, of juice from each incision is looked upon as a ‘good run,’ and if this 6 gall. be the produce of an old tree or ‘old bush’ they will yield 1 lb. of sugar. In a young tree or ‘young bush’ the yield of sugar from the same quantity of sap is only half. By proper care the same tree may be tapped 20 or 30 years following. Unlike the sugar-cane the juice in the maple is the richest in sugar the higher it is found from the ground. The concentrated saccharine liquid is concentrated every 24 hours. The raw crystallised sugar undergoes no refining, and being made into blocks is then sent to market.

=Sugar, Milk.= C_{12}H_{22}O_{11}.H_{2}O. Syn. SUGAR OF MILK, LACTIN; SACCHARUM LACTIS (Ph. D.), L. Prep. Gently evaporate clarified whey until it crystallises on cooling, and purify the crystals by digestion with animal charcoal and repeated crystallisations.

Prop., &c. White, translucent, very hard cylindrical masses or four-sided prisms; soluble in about 6 parts of cold and in 2 parts of boiling water; nearly insoluble in alcohol and ether; ammoniacal plumbic acetate precipitates it from its solutions. When an alkaline solution of grape sugar is boiled with the salts of copper, silver, or mercury, it reduces them; it produces right-handed rotation of a ray of polarised light; by boiling with dilute acid it is converted into galactose (C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}); treated with nitric acid it yields mucic acid, with small quantities of saccharic, oxalic, and tartaric acid. Milk sugar is unsusceptible of the vinous fermentation, except under the action of dilute acids, which convert it into grape sugar; in solution, it is converted into lactic or butyric acid by the action of caseine and albuminous matter. Milk contains about 5% of it. (Boussingault.)

Obs. Sugar of milk is chiefly imported from Switzerland. In this country it is chiefly used as a vehicle for more active medicines, especially among the homœopathists.

=Sugar, Starch.= Syn. POTATO SUGAR, FÆCULA S. This is grape sugar obtained by the action of diastase on starch, in the manner noticed under GUM (British), or by the action of dilute sulphuric acid on starch, or of the strong acid on lignin, or on substances containing it.

Prep. 1. From corn. The corn is first steeped in soda lye; it is then ground wet and passed through revolving sieves to separate the husks and gluten. The starch is carried through long troughs, in which are placed transverse pieces of wood, against which the solid particles of starch lodge, and are thus separated from the washing waters. These wash waters run into a large cistern, where it undergoes fermentation into weak vinegar. The starch in the wet state is then put into a mash tub and treated for from 3 to 8 hours with 1 per cent. of sulphuric acid. The acid liquor is neutralised with chalk and evaporated in vacuum pans; and after being separated from the sulphate of lime it is run into barrels and allowed to crystallise. The grape sugar is sometimes manufactured in blocks 6 inches square, and dried on plaster plates in a current of dry air, as hot air would decolorise it. Large quantities of grape sugar manufactured as above are now produced in the United States, particularly in New Orleans, Buffalo, and Brooklyn. A considerable amount from the same source reaches this country from the Continent, and is employed in our breweries. When specially prepared for the use of the latter the blocks are crushed into small pieces about the size of malt grains. Our excise authorities prohibit the entrance of glucose into a brewer’s premises in the liquid state. In the brewing of pale sparkling ales grape is esteemed more than either cane sugar or malt, and is said to yield a more sound and wholesome liquor, and one free from the acidity, impurity, and treacly sweetness frequently found in beers brewed from raw or inferior sugars. Glucose may also be obtained from cellulose, but the process is too expensive to admit of being practically worked.

2. Potato starch, 100 parts; water, 00 parts; sulphuric acid, 6 parts; mix, boil for 35 or 40 hours, adding water, to make up for evaporation; then saturate the acid with lime or chalk, decant or filter, and evaporate the clear liquor. Under pressure the conversion is more rapid. Prod. 105%.

3. “The starch of potatoes can be converted into glucose by digestion for a few hours with parings of the potato. This operation is largely practised by German farmers in the preparation of food for fattening hogs. An excellent starch sugar can be prepared from Indian corn, which will yield alcohol one eighth cheaper, and quite as pure as that from cane sugar.”[208]

[Footnote 208: ‘Journ. of Applied Chemistry.’]

4. Shreds of linen or paper, 12 parts; strong sulphuric acid, 17 parts (Braconnot; 5 of acid, and 1 of water——Vogel); mix in the cold; in 24 hours dilute with water, and boil it for 10 hours; then neutralise with chalk, filter, evaporate to a syrup, and set the vessel aside to crystallise. Prod. 114%. Sawdust, glue, &c., also yield grape sugar by like treatment. See LIGNIN.

=Sugar from other Sources.= Considerable quantities of East Indian cane sugar are yielded by certain Indian palms, the principal of which are the Arenga saccharifera and the Phœnix sylvestris or wild date. Another source whence large quantities of cane sugar are procured is the Sorghum saccharatum or sugar grass. This plant is exclusively grown in Ohio, and yields annually more than 15,000,000 gall. of juice, which is made into sugar.

Melezitose (C_{12}H_{22}O_{11}). From larch manna.

Mycose or trehalose (C_{12}H_{22}O_{11}). From Turkish manna.

Melitose (C_{12}H_{24}O_{12}). From the eucalyptus.

Maltose (C_{12}H_{24}O_{12}). From malt.

Eucalen (C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}). By fermentation of melitose.

Sorbin (C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}). From the berries of the service tree.

Effects of the varieties of Sugar on Polarised Light. Both sucrose, or cane sugar, and dextrose produce rotation upon a ray of polarised light. The plane of rotation is rotated to the right by sucrose rather more powerfully than by dextrose. It is remarkable that the uncrystallisable sugar of fruits produces an opposite rotation, viz. to the left. Since the degree of rotation is proportionate in columns of equal length to the quantity of sugar present, it has been proposed to employ this property in order to determine the quantity of sugar present in syrups.[209] The following, according to Berthelot, are the rotatory powers of the different varieties of sugar, if equal weights of each are dissolved in an equal bulk of water; the quantities of each sugar are calculated for the formulæ annexed:

[Footnote 209: Miller.]

+----------------------+--------------------+-----------+-----------------+ | | | | Temperature. | | Variety. | Formula. | Rotation. | | | | | |° Fahr. |° Cent. | +----------------------+--------------------+-----------+--------+--------+ | | | | | | |Sucrose (cane sugar) |(C_{12}H_{22}O_{11})|Right 73·8°| | | |Melezitose |(C_{12}H_{22}O_{11})| ” 94·1°| | | |Mycose |(C_{12}H_{22}O_{11})| ” 193° | | | |Melitose |(C_{12}H_{24}O_{12})| ” 102° | | | |Dextrose (grape sugar)|(C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}) | ” 57·4°| | | |Malt sugar |(C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}) | ” 172° | | | |Lœvulose (fruit | | | | | | sugar) |(C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}) |Left 106° | 56 | 13·3 | |Eucalin |(C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}) |Right 50° | | | |Sorbin |(C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}) |Left 46·9°| | | |Lactose (milk sugar) |(C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}) |Right 56·4°| | | |Glucose of ditto | | | | | | (galactose) |(C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}) | ” 83·3°| | | |Inverted cane sugar |(C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}) |Left 28° | 57 | 13·9 | | | | | | | +----------------------+--------------------+-----------+--------+--------+

=SUGAR-BOILING.= The art or business of the confectioner or sugar-baker; the candying of sugar. The stages are as follow:——Well clarified and perfectly transparent syrup is boiled until a ‘skimmer’ dipped into it, and a portion ‘touched’ between the forefinger and thumb, on opening them, is drawn into a small thread, which crystallises and breaks. This is called a ‘weak candy height.’ If boiled again, it will draw into a larger string, and if bladders may be blown through the ‘drippings’ from the ladle, with the mouth, it has acquired the second degree, and is now called ‘bloom sugar.’ After still further boiling, it arrives at the state called ‘feathered sugar.’ To determine this re-dip the skimmer, and shake it over the pan, then give it a sudden flirt behind, and the sugar will fly off like feathers. The next degree is that of ‘crackled sugar,’ in which state the sugar that hangs to a stick dipped into it, and put directly into a pan of cold water, is not dissolved off, but turns hard and snaps. The last stage of refining this article reduces it to what is called ‘carmel sugar,’ proved by dipping a stick first into the sugar, and then into cold water, when, on the moment it touches the latter, it will, if matured, snap like glass. It has now arrived at a ‘full candy height.’ Care must be taken throughout that the fire is not too fierce, as, by flaming up against the sides of the pan, it will burn and discolour the sugar; hence the boiling is best conducted by steam heat.

Any flavour or colour may be given to the candy by adding the colouring matter to the syrup before boiling it, or the flavouring essences when the process is nearly complete. See STAINS, &c.

=SUGAR CAN′DY.= Syn. SACCHARUM CANDIDUM, S. CRYSTALLINUM, S. CRYSTALLIZATUM, L. Sugar crystallised by leaving the saturated syrup in a warm place (90 to 100° Fahr.), the shooting being promoted by placing sticks, or threads, at small distances from each other in the liquor; it is also deposited from compound syrups, and does not seem to retain much of the foreign substances with which they are loaded. Brown sugar candy is prepared in this way from raw sugar; white do., from refined sugar; and red do., from a syrup of refined sugar which has been coloured red by means of cochineal.

Sugar candy is chiefly used as a sweetmeat; and, being longer in dissolving than sugar, in coughs, to keep the throat moist; reduced to powder, it is also blown into the eye, as a mild escharotic in films or dimness of that organ.

=SUGAR OF LEAD.= Acetate of lead.

=SUGAR PLUMS.= Syn. BON-BONS, DRAGÉES, Fr. These are made by various methods, among which are those noticed under DROPS (Confectionery), LOZENGES, and PASTILS, to which may be added the following:——Take a quantity of sugar syrup, in the proportion to their size, in that state called a ‘blow’ (which may be known by dipping the skimmer into the sugar, shaking it, and blowing through the holes, when parts of light may be seen), and add a drop or two of any esteemed flavouring essence. If the ‘bon-bons’ are preferred white, when the sugar has cooled a little, stir it round the pan till it grains and shines on the surface. When all is ready, pour it through a funnel into little clean, bright, leaden moulds, which must be of various shapes, and be previously slightly moistened with oil of sweet almonds; it will then take a proper form and harden. As soon as the plums are cold, take them from the moulds; dry them for two or three days in the air, and put them upon paper. If the bon-bons are required to be coloured, add the colour just as the sugar is ready to be taken off the fire.

CRYSTALLISED BON-BONS are prepared by dusting them with powdered double-refined lump sugar before drying them.

LIQUEUR BON-BONS, now so beautifully got up by the Parisian confectioners, are obtained by pressing pieces of polished bone or metal into finely powdered sugar, filling the hollow spaces so formed with saturated solutions of sugar in the respective liqueurs, and then spreading over the whole an ample layer of powdered sugar. In the course of three or four days the bon-bons may be removed, and tinted by the artist at will. Instead of white powdered sugar ordered above, coloured sugar may be used. These bon-bons are found to be hollow spheres, containing a small quantity of the spirit or liqueur employed, and will bear keeping for many months. See SWEETMEATS, &c.

=SUGARS (Medicated).= Syn. SACCHARIDES; SACCHARA MEDICATA, L.; SACCHAROLÉS, SACCHARURES, Fr. Some of these are prepared by moistening white sugar with the medicinal substance, then gently drying it, and rubbing it to powder; in other cases they are obtained in the manner noticed under PULVERULENT EXTRACTS, or OLEOSACCHARUM. The most valuable preparation of this class in British pharmacy is the saccharated carbonate of iron (FERRI CARBONAS CUM SACCHARO——Ph. L.).

=SUINT, Gas from.= By this is understood a gas prepared from the fatty materials present in the soap-suds used in washing raw wool and spun yarns. The water containing the suint and soap-suds is run into cisterns, and is there mixed with milk of lime, and left to stand for twelve hours. A thin precipitate is formed, which, after the supernatant clear liquor has been run off, is put upon coarse canvas for the purpose of draining off any impurities, sand, hair, &c., while the mass which runs through the filter is put into a tank, in which it forms, after six or eight days, a pasty mass, which, having been dug out and moulded into bricks, is dried in open air. At Rheims the first wash-water of the wool is used for making both gas and potash, because the water contains no soap and only suintate of potash. Havrez, at Verviers, has recently proposed to employ suint——which, by-the-bye, is very rich in nitrogen——for the purpose of making ferrocyanide of potassium.

The dried brick-shaped lumps are submitted to distillation, yielding a gas which does not require purification, and which possesses an illuminating power three times that of good coal gas. The wash-water of a wool-spinning mill with 20,000 spindles yields daily, when treated as described, about 500 kilos of dried suinter, as the substance is technically called. One kilo of this substance yields 210 litres of gas. Annually about 150,000 kilos of suinter are obtained, and this quantity will yield 31,500,000 litres = 1,112,485 cubic feet of gas. Every burner consuming 35 litres of gas per hour, and taking the time of burning at 1200 hours, the quantity of gas will suffice for 750 burners, and as a spinning mill of 20,000 spindles only requires 500 burners, there is an excess of gas supply available for 250 other burners, or the owner may dispose of 5000 kilos of suinter, which is valued at Augsburgh at about 3s. per 50 kilos, and at about 4s. at Mulhouse.[210]

[Footnote 210: Wagner’s ‘Chemical Technology.’]

=SUL′PHATE.= Syn. SULPHAS, L. A salt of sulphuric acid.

=SUL′PHIDE.= A salt consisting of sulphur and a metal or other basic radical. See SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN.

=SULPHINDYL′IC ACID.= Syn. SULPHINDIGOTIC ACID. An intensely blue pasty mass, formed by dissolving 1 part of indigo in about 15 parts of concentrated sulphuric acid. See SULPHATE OF INDIGO.

=SUL′PHITE.= A salt of sulphurous acid.

=SULPHOCARBOLIC ACID.= (SULPHOCARBOLATES.) Carbolic acid, when acted upon by bases, yields a class of salts termed carbolates. These compounds are very unstable; they readily absorb water from the air, which sets free carbolic acid; they usually have the powerful odour of the latter. When, however, equivalent weights of carbolic and sulphuric acids are mixed, union takes place, a definite double acid (sulphocarbolic) results, and the salts formed by this double acid with the various bases are entirely different from the simple salts of carbolic acid. They are very stable, very soluble, possess neither odour nor taste of carbolic acid, and are singularly beautiful in crystalline form.

=Sulphocarbolic Acid= (HC_{6}H_{3}SO_{4}) is obtained by the crystallisation in long colourless needles; unlike carbolic acid, it is soluble in water, alcohol, and ether, in any proportions.

=Sulphocarbolate of Calcium= [Ca(C_{6}H_{5}SO_{4})_{2} + Aq.] is obtained in very long, fine, densely interlacing crystals, which form in bulk, by their interlacement, a porous mass. Unlike the usual lime-salts, this is exceedingly soluble. This fact overcomes the great difficulty of treatment when in disease there is a deficiency of lime in the body, especially in rickets, in which disease the want of lime in the bones gives rise to distortions. The sulphocarbolate of magnesium crystallises in large, clear, rhombic prisms, easily soluble in water.

=Sulphocarbolate of Copper= [Cu(C_{6}H_{5}SO_{4})_{2}] forms fine prismatic crystals of a blue colour. It is used as the zinc sulphocarbolate, chiefly as a lotion and dressing, in the proportion of 3 to 10 grains to the ounce of distilled water.

=Sulphocarbolate of Iron= [Fe(C_{6}H_{5}SO_{4})_{2}] is in colourless or pale green rhombic plates. It is readily administered, and seems in some instances to be preferred to other salts of iron. It seems to have been of especial use in the skin diseases of children, wherein there is much formation of matter.

=Sulphocarbolate of Sodium= [Na(C_{6}H_{5})SO_{4}.Aq] is in brilliant, clear, rhombic prisms. The salt is very soluble in water. This salt can be administered as a medicine in doses of 20 to 60 gr.; it is slowly decomposed in the textures, carbolic acid being evolved. It thus becomes a very simple means of obtaining the beneficial effects of the administration of this antiseptic without the difficulties and dangers which attend it in its uncombined irritant and caustic form. It has proved of great service in the treatment of infectious diseases. Administered in the severest cases of diphtheria, malignant scarlet fever, typhoid, erysipelas, &c., the remedy has proved of extreme value.

=Sulphocarbolate of Zinc= [Zn(C_{6}H_{5}SO_{4})_{2}] is chiefly employed in solution as a lotion. By high surgical authorities it is considered to answer all the purposes of the antiseptic dressing of carbolic acid. It is inodorous, and has very slight irritating action.

=The Sulphocarbolates of Potassium= [KC_{6}H_{5}SO_{4}] =and Ammonium= [NH_{4}C_{6}H_{5}SO_{4}] are also brilliant crystals; they are freely soluble, administered with the greatest ease, and have been used with success as remedial agents.

=SULPHOCYAN′OGEN.= A well-defined salt radical, containing sulphur united to the elements of cyanogen. Its compounds are the sulphocyanides, most of which may be formed by directly saturating hydrosulphocyanic acid with the oxide or hydrate of the base; or, from the sulphocyanide of potassium and a soluble salt of the base, by double decomposition.

=SULPHOFORM.= Syn. SULPOFORMUM. An oily liquid obtained by distilling one part of iodoform with three of sulphide of mercury.

=SULPHOPHE′NIC ACID.= A synonym of sulphocarbolic acid. See SULPHOCARBOLATES.

=SULPHOVIN′IC ACID.= C_{2}H_{5}HSO_{4}. Syn. SULPHETHYLIC ACID; ACIDUM SULPHOVINICUM, L. This substance is formed by the action of heat on a mixture of alcohol and sulphuric acid; it is the intermediate product which is developed in the preparation of ether. The salts are called sulphovinates or sulphothylates.

=SUL′PHUR.= [Eng., L.] Syn. BRIMSTONE; SOUFRE, Fr. An elementary substance. That of commerce is chiefly imported from Sicily and Italy, and is a volcanic production.

Var. The principal of these are:

AMORPHOUS SULPHUR, BROWN S.; SULPHUR AMORPHUM, S. FUSCUM, S. INFORME, S. RUBRUM, L. Prepared from sublimed sulphur, by melting it, increasing the heat to from 320° to 350° Fahr., and continuing it at that temperature for about half an hour, or until it becomes brown and viscid, and then pouring it into water. In this state it is ductile, like wax, may be easily moulded in any form, is much heavier than usual, and when it has cooled does not again become fluid until heated to above 600° Fahr. The same effect is produced more rapidly by at once raising the temperature of the melted mass to from 430° to 480° Fahr.

PRECIPITATED SULPHUR, HYDRATE OF SULPHUR, MILK OF S.; SULPHURIS HYDRAS, LAC SULPHURIS, SULPHUR PRÆCIPITATUM (Ph. L.). Prep. 1. From sublimed sulphur, 1 part; dry and recently slaked lime, 2 parts; water, 25 parts, or q. s.; boil for 2 or 3 hours, dilute with 25 parts more of water, filter, and precipitate with dilute hydrochloric acid; drain, and well wash the precipitate, and dry it by a gentle heat. Resembles sublimed sulphur in its general properties, but is much paler, and in a finer state of division.

2. (B. Ph.) Sublimed sulphur, 5 oz.; slaked lime, 3 oz.; hydrochloric acid, 3 fl. oz., or q. s.; distilled water, q. s. Heat the sulphur and lime, previously well mixed, in 1 pint of water, stirring diligently with a wooden spatula, boil for 15 minutes and filter. Boil the residue again in 1/2 pint of water and filter. Let the united filtrates cool, dilute with 2 pints of water, and in an open place, or under a chimney, add in successive quantities the hydrochloric acid previously diluted with 1 pint of water until effervescence ceases, and the mixture acquires an acid reaction. Allow the precipitate to settle, decant off the supernatant liquid, pour on fresh distilled water, and continue the purification by affusion of distilled water and subsidence, until the fluid ceases to have an acid reaction, and to precipitate with oxalate of ammonia. Collect the precipitated sulphur on a calico filter, wash it once with distilled water, and dry it at a temperature not exceeding 120° Fahr.

Prop. A greyish-yellow powder free from grittiness, and with no smell of sulphuretted hydrogen.

Obs. Many pharmacists regard LAC SULPHURIS and SULPHUR PRECIPITATUM as distinct substances, and assume that by milk of sulphur is intended a preparation made by an old pharmacopœial process, in which sulphuric acid being employed, the sulphur so precipitated contains from 50 to 75 per cent. of sulphate of lime. Pareira, Royle, Atfield, and some other authorities, hold that LAC SULPHURIS and SULPHUR PRECIPITATUM are synonymous; whilst others, including Professor Redwood (one of the compilers of the B. P.) entertain a contrary opinion.

ROLL SULPHUR, CANE S., STICK S.; SULPHUR IN BACCULIS, S. IN ROTULIS, S. ROTUNDUM, L. This is crude sulphur, purified by melting and skimming it, and then pouring it into moulds. That obtained during the roasting of copper pyrites, and which forms the common roll sulphur of England, frequently contains from 3 to 7% of yellow arsenic.

SUBLIMED SULPHUR, FLOWERS OF SULPHUR; FLORES SULPHURIS, SULPHUR (Ph. L.), SULPHUR SUBLIMATUM (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L. Prepared by subliming sulphur in iron vessels. For medical purposes, it is ordered to be well washed with water, and dried by a gentle heat. “A slightly gritty powder, of a fine greenish-yellow colour, without taste and without odour till heated.” (B. P.)

SULPHUR VIVUM, BLACK SULPHUR, CRUDE S., HORSE BRIMSTONE; SULPHUR NIGRUM, S. CABALLINUM, S. GRISEUM, L. This is crude native sulphur. It is a grey or mouse-coloured powder. The residuum in the subliming pots from the preparation of flowers of sulphur is now commonly substituted for it. It generally contains much arsenic, and is consequently very poisonous.

Pur. The sublimed sulphur of the shops is now, in general, of respectable quality, but the precipitated sulphur frequently contains about 2/3 of its weight of sulphate of lime (plaster of Paris), owing to the substitution of sulphuric acid for hydrochloric acid in its manufacture.[211] This is readily detected by strongly heating a little of the suspected sample in an iron spoon or shovel, when the sulphur is burnt or volatilised, and leaves behind the sulphate of lime as a white ash; this, when mixed with water, and gently dried, gives the amount of the adulteration. A still simpler plan is to dissolve out the sulphur in the sample with a little hot oil of turpentine or liquor of potassa; the undissolved portion is foreign matter.

[Footnote 211: See PRECIPITATED SULPHUR, above.]

Prop. Sulphur melts to a clear thin fluid, and volatilises at about 232° Fahr., and in open vessels rapidly takes fire, burning with a bluish flame. It is insoluble in both water and alcohol; it is soluble in oil of turpentine and the fatty oils, and freely so in bisulphide of carbon and hot liquor of potassa. With oxygen it unites to form sulphurous anhydride, and with the metals to form sulphides. Sp. gr. 1·982 to 2·015.

Estim. The determination of the quantity of sulphur, phosphorus, and chlorine, in a state of combination, especially in organic mixtures, is often rather troublesome. The proportion of sulphur is best determined by oxidising a known weight of the substances by strong nitric acid, or by fusing it in a silver vessel with 10 or 12 times its weight of pure hydrate of potassa and about half as much nitre. The sulphur is thus converted into sulphuric acid, the quantity of which can be determined by dissolving the fused mass in water, acidulating the solution with nitric acid, adding a salt of baryta, and weighing the resulting sulphate. Phosphorus is, in like manner, oxidised to phosphoric acid, the quantity of which is determined by precipitation in combination with sesquioxide of iron, or otherwise. The chlorine is correctly determined by placing a small weighed portion in a combustion-tube, which is afterwards filled with fragments of pure quicklime. The lime is then brought to a red heat, and the vapour of the liquid driven over it, when chloride of calcium is formed. The contents of the tube, when cold, are dissolved in dilute nitric acid, filtered, the chlorine precipitated by nitrate of silver, and the chlorine weighed under the form of chloride of silver. See ORGANIC SUBSTANCES.

Uses, &c. Sulphur is extensively used in the manufacture of gunpowder, in bleaching, &c., &c. When swallowed, it acts as a mild laxative and stimulating diaphoretic; and has hence been long taken in various chronic skin diseases, in pulmonary, rheumatic, and gouty affections, and as a mild purgative in piles, prolapsus ani, &c. Externally, it is extensively used in skin diseases, especially the itch, for which it appears to be a specific.——Dose, 20 to 63 gr., in sugar, honey, treacle, or milk.

=Sulphur, Chlo′′rides of.= Several of these compounds exist but the following are the most important. 1. (DICHLORIDE, S_{2}Cl_{2}.) Prepared by passing dry chlorine gas over the surface of sulphur melted in a bulbed-tube or small retort connected with a well-cooled receiver. The product is a deep orange-yellow and very mobile liquid, which possesses a disagreeable odour, and boils at 280° Fahr. It is soluble in bisulphide of carbon, and in benzol, without decomposing. It dissolves sulphur in large quantities, especially when heated. A solution of the dichloride with excess of sulphur in crude benzol is used for vulcanising caoutchouc.

2. (CHLORIDE, HYPOCHLORIDE, or HYPOCHLORITE of the shops; SULPHURIS CHLORIDUM, S. HYPOCHLORIDUM, S. HYPOCHLORITIS, L.) This is prepared by spreading washed sulphur thinly on the bottom of a wooden box, or other chamber, and passing chlorine gas slowly over until it ceases to be absorbed.

Obs. This last compound is of variable and undetermined constitution. It has been recommended for internal use, by Derksengi, in old gouty affections, combined with pains in the stomach, and in severe nervous fever.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 gr.; dissolved in ether, and taken with old Hungary wine. It is also used externally in psoriasis inveterata, and other skin diseases.

=Sulphur, I′odide of.= S_{2}I_{2}. Syn. BINIODIDE OF SULPHUR; SULPHURIS IODIDUM (Ph. L.), SULPHUR IODATUM (Ph. D.), L. Prep. Into a glass flask put 1 part of sublimed sulphur, and over it place 4 parts of iodine; insert the cork loosely, and place the flask in a water bath; as soon as its contents melt, stir them with a glass rod, replace the cork, remove the bath from the fire, and let the whole cool together. When cold, break the iodide into pieces, and place it in a wide-mouthed stoppered bottle. In this way a beautiful semi-crystalline, dark grey mass, resembling antimony, is obtained. The formulæ of the B. P., Ph. L., E., & D., Ph. U. S., & P. Cod., are essentially similar. The Ph. D. orders the two substances to be powdered and mixed before heating them.

Uses, &c. It is stimulant and alterative. An ointment made of it has been recommended by Biett and others in tuberculous affections of the skin, in lepra, psoriasis, lupus, porrigo, &c.

Iodide of sulphur stains the skin like iodine, and is readily decomposed by contact with organic substances.

=SULPHURA′TION.= The process by which silk, cotton, and woollen goods, straw plait, &c., are subjected to the fumes of burning sulphur, or sulphurous acid, for the purpose of bleaching or decolouring them. On the large scale, this is effected in closed apartments, called ‘sulphuring rooms,’ to which sufficient air only is admitted to keep up the slow combustion of the sulphur. On the small scale, as for straw hats, bonnets, &c., a large wooden chest is frequently employed in the same way.

=SUL′PHURET.= Syn. SULPHIDE; SULPHURETUM, SULPHIDUM, L. See SULPHIDE.

=SULPHURET′TED HY′DROGEN= (H_{2}S). Syn. HYDROGEN SULPHIDE, DIHYDRIC SULPHIDE, HYDRIC SULPHIDE; HYDROSULPHURIC ACID. Sulphuretted hydrogen occurs in nature amongst the gaseous products given off by volcanoes, as well as in many mineral waters, amongst which may be instanced those of Harrogate, in England, of Moffat, in Scotland, and of Barèges, Eaux Bonnes, St. Sauveur, &c., in the Pyrenees. It is also evolved from decaying animal matter containing albumen, such as white-of-egg, as well as from putrisable animal and vegetable substances, when in contact with a soluble sulphate, and is always one of the gases present in the air of drains and sewers. Sulphuretted hydrogen may be procured by the direct union of hydrogen and sulphur, as by passing hydrogen into boiling sulphur. But this method of procuring it is rarely, if ever, adopted. The much readier process of acting upon a metallic sulphide by an acid constitutes the means by which the chemist almost invariably obtains this gas.

The details of the process are as follows:

1. About an ounce of ferrous sulphide, previously reduced to small pieces, is placed in a bottle, and then there is poured on to it a fluid ounce of sulphuric acid diluted with 8 times its bulk of water, when the following reaction ensues:——FeS + H_{2}SO_{4} = H_{2}S + FeSO_{4}.

The gas which is immediately and copiously given off may be collected in an apparatus, a drawing and description of which are given below.

The diluted acid, having become cool, is poured through the bulb-shaped aperture down the glass tube upon the ferrous sulphide, and the evolved gas passing through the small intermediate wash-bottle into the bottle at the reader’s right hand, is absorbed by the water therein contained, the operation being continued until the water has become saturated with the gas. The glass tubes are connected with vulcanised india rubber, as shown in the above plate. Diluted hydrochloric acid is frequently substituted for sulphuric.

2. In the above process, the gas obtained, owing to the contamination of the iron sulphide, is more or less impure. When sulphuretted hydrogen is required in a state of purity, 1 oz. of antimonious sulphide must be employed instead of the iron sulphide, and instead of sulphuric 3 or 4 parts of hydrochloric acid. As heat must be applied to the mixture, it will be necessary to substitute a flask for the larger bottle, and to support it on a retort stand. In other respects the apparatus needs no alteration.

3. Sulphuretted hydrogen is also obtainable when paraffin is heated at a moderately elevated temperature with sulphur, the reaction being attended with an abundant evolution of the gas, and a simultaneous separation of carbon.

⁂ The solution of sulphuretted hydrogen, which is so indispensable to the chemist, and consequently in such constant requisition in the laboratory, unfortunately very quickly decomposes into water, and sulphur, which deposits at the bottom of the vessel containing it. To diminish as much as possible the tendency to deterioration, the solution should be made either with boiled water, or with the clear spoilt solution.

Qualities, &c. Sulphuretted hydrogen is a colourless inflammable gas, somewhat heavier than air, its specific gravity being 1·174. When ignited, it burns with a bluish flame, to water and sulphurous anhydride if the combustion take place in a sufficient quantity of air, but if the supply of air be too limited, sulphur is deposited. Under a pressure of 17 atmospheres it is condensed to a colourless and very mobile fluid, which boils at 79·6° F., and freezes at 72·8° F. to a transparent solid. Both the gas and its aqueous solution exercise a feebly acid reaction on litmus.

Sulphuretted hydrogen is highly poisonous; when inhaled in any quantity it causes fainting; and in smaller quantities, even when considerably diluted by air, if breathed for any length of time, it acts as a dangerous depressant and insiduous poison. Upon the lower animals it acts with fatal rapidity, even if diluted with 800 or 1000 parts of atmospheric air. Transmitted through tubes heated to redness, sulphuretted hydrogen becomes partially decomposed into its elements, hydrogen and sulphur. Water at 32° F. takes up 4·37 times its bulk of this gas, and at 59, 3·23 times its hulk, hence the importance of collecting it, over warm water, if required in the gaseous form.

In the presence of moisture, sulphurous anhydride and sulphuretted hydrogen, if equivalent quantities of each react upon each other, become decomposed into sulphur, water, and pentathronic acid; hence the value of sulphurous acid as a disinfectant. The deposited sulphur is found always to occur in the electro-positive condition. Chlorine, bromine, and iodine, also decompose sulphuretted hydrogen with deposition of sulphur, and formation of hydrochloric, hydrobromic, and hydriodic acids.

Hydrosulphates or Sulphides. Sulphuretted hydrogen or hydrosulphuric acid, as it is sometimes called, when brought into contact with bases in solution, gives rise to compounds, which by some chemists are regarded as hydrosulphates, or combinations of the base with hydrosulphuric acid; and by others as sulphides or combinations of the metal with sulphur, the latter reaction being attended with the elimination of water, as when a base is acted upon by hydrochloric acid. By those who hold the former view the reaction would be as follows:

K_{2}O + H_{2}S = K_{2}O_{1}H_{2}S.

In the latter case it would be thus represented:

K_{2}O + H_{2}S = K_{2}S + H_{2}O.

The latter is the more general opinion, and it receives support from the fact that when sulphuretted hydrogen is passed into the solution of a metallic salt, an insoluble precipitate of a sulphide of the metal is thrown down. Thus, when the gas is passed into a solution of cupric sulphate, the precipitate consists of hydrated cupric sulphide, the liberated sulphuric acid renders the liquid which was before neutral, acid. The larger number of sulphides so formed, combining with water at the instance of their precipitation, occur as hydrates.

There is also a class of sulphides known as hydrosulphides, sulphydrates, or double sulphides, in which an equivalent of the metal is replaced by an equivalent of hydrogen. Examples of these are the potassic hydrosulphide (KHS), sodic hydrosulphide (NaHS), and ammonic hydrosulphide (H_{4}NHS). No such combinations occur with hydrogen and the metals of the earth proper, and of the iron group.

Tests. Many of the hydrosulphates or sulphides may be detected, by dropping on them some hydrochloric acid, when the characteristic smell of sulphuretted hydrogen will be immediately evolved from them. Very small quantities of a sulphide may be detected as follows:——Place the suspected sulphide in a small test tube, on the upper part of which is inserted a piece of blotting paper moistened with a solution of plumbic acetate, then carefully pour some hydrochloric acid on to the substance, when, if it be a sulphide, the paper will become. immediately browned or blackened.

Many small quantities of the soluble sulphides are revealed in neutral or alkaline solutions by the rich purple colour which they form on the addition of a solution of sodic nitro-prusside. Most of them, when heated before the blow-pipe, give off the smell of sulphurous acid.

The quantitative determination of free sulphuretted hydrogen, or of a soluble sulphide in any solution, is conducted as follows:——The liquid to be tested is mixed with a small quantity of a cold solution of starch, made slightly acid with acetic acid. A solution of iodine of known strength, dissolved in potassic iodide is then added, until the liquid just begins to turn blue from the action of the excess of iodine on the starch. In this process the sulphuretted hydrogen converts the iodine into hydriodic acid, whilst sulphur is liberated.

Of course the quantity of sulphuretted hydrogen is calculated from the quantity of iodine employed. The reaction is——

2H_{2}S + 2I_{2} = 4HI + S_{2}.

The value of sulphuretted hydrogen as a reagent has already been alluded to. It throws down most of the metals from solutions of their salts in the form of insoluble sulphides; and each of the sulphides so produced in many cases being distinguished from the others by a special and characteristic colour. The sulphuretted hydrogen thus presents the metal in a form in which it can, in many instances, be easily and with certainty recognised. Thus sulphide of lead is black, of arsenic yellow, of antimony orange, of manganese salmon colour, and of zinc white. By means of sulphuretted hydrogen, also, the chemist is enabled to separate the metals into groups.

For instance, from solutions containing certain metallic salts, sulphuretted hydrogen throws down the metals as sulphides, provided the solution has been previously made slightly acid. Copper, arsenic, tin, and cadmium, are some of the metals thrown down under these conditions.

The salts of iron, nickel, cobalt, and certain others, although they do not yield precipitates under like circumstances, are found to do so if their solutions are made alkaline instead of acid. Again, there are other salts, those of the alkalies and alkaline earths, which, when sulphuretted hydrogen is passed through these solutions, give no precipitates either in acid or alkaline solutions. The chemist, therefore, in the course of an analysis, frequently avails himself of a knowledge of these facts to separate certain metals from each other.

=Hydrogen, Persulphide of.= Syn. HYDRIC PERSULPHIDE, HYDROGEN DISULPHIDE. To procure this substance, calcium disulphide (CaS_{2}) in solution is poured into hydrochloric acid diluted with twice its bulk of water. The solution being gently warmed, the persulphide subsides at the bottom as an oily fluid. Hydric persulphide has a great resemblance to hydric peroxide in qualities. It bleaches, and is decomposed, with violence, when brought into contact with the oxides of manganese and silver. It easily decomposes into sulphur and sulphuretted hydrogen.

=SULPHU′RIC ACID.= H_{2}SO_{4}. Syn. OIL OF VITRIOL, BRITISH O. OF V., VITRIOLIC ACID†; ACIDUM SULPHURICUM (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), ACIDUM SULPHURICUM VENALE (Ph. D.), ACIDUM VITRIOLICUM†, L. This acid, in a concentrated form, was discovered by Basil Valentine towards the end of the 15th century. At first it was obtained by the distillation of green vitriol, but is now made by the oxidation of sulphurous anhydride, obtained by the combustion either of sulphur or of certain sulphides. In consequence of the growing demand for sulphur in the manufacture of gunpowder, ultramarine, and for the destruction of the vine parasites in the vineyards of France, Italy, and Spain, sulphuric acid is now seldom made by burning sulphur, but, with few exceptions, by roasting iron pyrites, or bisulphide of iron.

The following table will convey an idea of the enormous consumption of this mineral in vitriol making in England alone. The quantities given represent tons.

+-----+-----------------------------------------------------------+-------+ | | Pyrites from[212] | | |Date.+-------+--------+--------+---------+--------+------+-------+ Sum | | |Norway.|Germany.|Belgium.|Portugal.| Spain. |Italy.|Sundry |Total. | | | | | | | | |Places.| | +-----+-------+--------+--------+---------+--------+------+-------+-------+ |1862 | 4,975 | 6,817 | 9,860 | 53,296 | 33,717 | ... | 2,187 |110,852| |1863 | 6,736 | 15,409 | 12,059 | 109,180 | 33,213 | ... | 2,628 |179,225| |1864 |16,087 | 12,751 | 7,069 | 118,489 | 15,529 | ... | 1,065 |170,990| |1865 |22,229 | 14,727 | 2,121 | 137,787 | 16,393 | ... | 369 |193,626| |1866 |38,262 | 21,574 | 4,006 | 165,993 | 11,910 | ... | 1,625 |244,596| |1867 |77,895 | 34,592 | 2,299 | 105,556 | 50,222 | ... | 2,134 |272,698| |1868 |63,007 | 41,559 | ... | 75,883 | 47,458 | 794 | 1,019 |229,720| |1869 |63,091 | 13,983 | ... | 140,805 | 99,648 | ... | 2,420 |319,947| |1870 |67,464 | 14,914 | ... | 174,459 |150,990 | ... | 3,676 |411,512| |1871 |74,416 | 12,809 | ... | 120,573 |242,163 | ... | 4,581 |454,542| |1872 |71,665 | 5,682 | ... | 180,329 |257,429 | ... | 2,521 |517,626| +-----+-------+--------+--------+---------+--------+------+-------+-------+

[Footnote 212: “Development of the Chemical Arts during the last Ten Years,” by Dr A. W. Hofman (‘Chemical News,’ vol. xxv, 1879).]

Of the other sulphides employed in vitriol making may be mentioned galena, or native sulphide of lead, which, when roasted, is made to give up half its sulphur. The chief consumption of this mineral is in the Harz. Copper pyrites is also used in the Harz, as well as in Swansea and Glasgow. Blende, or native sulphide of zinc, is also occasionally had recourse to.

In addition to the above sulphides, the vitriol maker in England, France, and Germany has lately largely availed himself of a compound known as ‘Laming’s mixture,’ which is an impure oxide of iron that has been used in gas manufacture for the removal from the gas of the sulphur. Laming’s mixture is consequently rich in this last element.

Associated with the pyrites in small quantities are various substances, some of which, becoming volatilised when the ore is burnt, enter the chambers with the mixed gases, and thus find their entrance into the acid, whilst others remain behind in the iron residue of impure ferric oxide, left on the hearth of the furnace after roasting. The former of these foreign bodies, which are found in most commercial acids, are described below under the section “Purification.” Amongst the solid non-volatile matters, the extraction of which from the burnt iron has been found in many works to yield a profit, are zinc, copper, silver and thallium.

At Wolcrum, in Germany, the zinc which exists in the residue in the form of sulphate is extracted by lixiviation, and then treated with common salt, the reaction giving rise to the production of sulphate of soda and chloride of zinc. The soda obtained is sufficient to pay for the working of the operation, whilst a good profit is made by the sale of the large quantities of chloride of zinc which are thus yielded.[213]

[Footnote 213: Ibid.]

The copper, which in some residues is met with to the amount of 4 per cent., also pays for extraction, and is sold to the smelter. It is first converted into chloride, and then precipitated by iron. The silver is recovered by Claudet’s process, which consists in precipitating it from a saline solution in which it is in the state of a soluble chloride, by iodide of potassium.

In the Widnes Copper Works the silver so extracted yields an annual profit of £3000.[214]

[Footnote 214: Ibid.]

Thallium is found in the fine dust caused by the combustion of the pyrites, which dust deposits in the flues between the furnace and the chambers. The metal is extracted from the dust by treating this latter with dilute sulphuric acid. The resulting sulphate is converted into chloride, and again reconverted alternately into sulphate and chloride several times, the sulphate last obtained being reduced by metallic zinc.[215]

[Footnote 215: Ibid.]

Selenium is also a frequent constituent in the flue dust. Some ores, after being subjected to roasting, yield iron capable of being worked. This is more particularly the case with the Spanish and Portuguese pyrites.

The following is an outline of the process by which sulphuric acid is obtained, and of the chemical changes which occur during its manufacture:

The sulphur or sulphide being placed on the hearth of the furnace, shown at A in the accompanying cut, when heated from below, soon takes fire, and combining with the oxygen of the atmospheric air, the admission of which into the furnace is regulated by an experienced workman, by the door shown in the plate, forms sulphurous anhydride. An iron pot, standing on the hearth of the furnace, contains a mixture of nitrate of soda and oil of vitriol, and this becoming heated by the burning sulphur, decomposition of the salt ensues, and fumes of nitric acid are given off. The sulphurous anhydride and nitric acid gases thus formed together with air are carried into large leaden chambers, standing on, and supported by, massive frameworks of stout timber. Steam is admitted continuously by several jets (see plate) into these chambers, which are covered at the bottom with water to a depth of about three inches.

As soon as the mixed gases enter the chamber and come into contact with the steam, the sulphurous anhydride acts on the nitric acid, forming sulphuric acid, which falls into and is absorbed by the water on the floor of the chamber, and nitric oxide, which is liberated in the chamber.

The following equation will illustrate the reaction:

2HNO_{3} + 3SO_{2} + 2H_{2}O = 3H_{2}SO_{4} + 2NO.

170 parts by weight of nitrate of soda are required to oxidise to sulphuric acid 96 parts of sulphur, whereas rarely more, and frequently less, than 5 parts of soda are required by the vitriol maker. This saving of material is effected by the function performed in the chamber by the nitric oxide resulting from the decomposition of the nitric acid.

The nitric oxide reacting upon the air in the chamber abstracts oxygen from it and becomes converted into nitric peroxide, thus:

2NO + O_{2} = 2NO_{2}.

Nitric peroxide is a very unstable compound, and directly it comes into contact with the fresh sulphurous anhydride entering the chamber, it oxidises it in the presence of water to sulphuric acid, thus:

2NO_{2} + 2SO_{2} + 2H_{2}O = 2H_{2}SO_{4} + 2NO.

This deportment of the nitric oxide being continuous, it will be seen it acts the part of a carrier of oxygen from the atmospheric air contained in the chamber to the sulphurous acid, and by so doing (theoretically) renders any further supply of nitrate of soda than that required to start the process unnecessary.

As soon as the water, or rather liquid acid on the floor of the leaden chambers, has acquired the sp. gr. of 1·35 to 1·50, it is drawn off, and concentrated by boiling in shallow leaden pans to the density of about 1·72, after which it is further concentrated in green-glass or platinum retorts, until the sp. gr. reaches 1·842 to 1·846. When of sp. gr. from 1·35 to 1·50 it is called chamber acid, and when of the last strength, is used in the manufacture of salt-cake, sulphate of ammonia, some kinds of manure, and nitric acid. Sulphuric acid of sp. gr. 1·720 is mostly employed in the preparation of superphosphate of lime. After concentration to 1·842 or 1·846, the clear acid is put into large globular bottles of green glass (carboys), surrounded with straw and basket-work, and is sent into the market under the name of ‘oil of vitriol.’

The leaden chambers in which the chemical changes take place, that result in the formation of the acid, vary greatly in dimensions in different works, being sometimes as much as 12 or 15 feet high, 15 or 20 wide, and from 150 to 300 feet long. They are mostly partially divided by incomplete leaden partitions, known as curtains, so arranged on the roof and the floor as to cause the currents of mixed gases to come into collision, and thus cause their admixture. Where there are a number of small separate chambers they are connected by means of leaden tubes. A chamber having a capacity of 25,000 cubic feet will yield 10 tons of acid weekly.

The sheets of lead used in the construction of the chambers are united by fusion, or melting together of their edges. If cement were used it would be speedily attacked and destroyed by the acid and gaseous products.

The process for the manufacture of sulphuric acid above described, was devised in 1774 by a calico printer of Rouen, and improved by Chaptal.

In 1776 the first vitriol factory was set up at Prestonpans, by Dr Roebuck, of Birmingham, with whom originated the idea of the leaden chambers.

Various attempts have been at different times unsuccessfully made to supersede the old process. Of these we may mention:

1. The proposal to oxidise sulphurous acid by means of chlorine in the presence of steam.

2. Persoz’s method to oxidise sulphurous acid by means of nitric acid, and to regenerate the nitric oxide resulting from the reduction of the acid by the oxygen of the air in the presence of steam.

3. a, by the decomposition of gypsum by superheated steam at a red heat; or b, by decomposing the gypsum by chloride of lead.

The failure of the above and other efforts has led to the chemist turning his attention to the elaboration and perfection of the old process, in the working of which considerable improvements have been introduced within the last ten or fifteen years; improvements resulting not only in a diminished cost of production, but in the manufacture of a purer, and therefore better acid.

The proper construction of the furnaces, ovens, and grates on which the firing of the sulphur or pyrites takes place, together with the flues, is an important condition in the manufacture of the acid; and to this end a great deal of scientific knowledge and experience have lately been applied with excellent effect. Of the many improvements in this direction for burning poor ores of pyrites is a contrivance much used in Germany, where the furnace on which it is carried out is known as Gerstenhöfer’s oven. It is shown in the accompanying drawing.

The furnace is fitted inside with a number of little fire-clay projections, arranged as shown in the plate, in banks or terraces, the function of which is to prolong the exposure of the pyrites to heat. The furnace having been previously raised to a red heat, by means of a coal or wood fire (which is then extinguished), the pyrites are admitted into it through the hoppers (a). At the base of the hoppers are grooved iron rollers, which crush the lumps of ore as they enter the chambers, and by thus reducing their size, expose a larger amount of surface to the action of heat. The greater part of the sulphur of the pyrites is thus burnt off, as the lumps pass from terrace to terrace, the heat at the same time generated by their combustion being sufficient to keep up that of the furnace. A moderate blast of air is admitted at c, whilst the sulphurous acid formed ascends through d into the leaden chambers, the spent pyrites falling out through the apertures at c.

Another improved furnace is Perret’s, which is largely used in France. In this, small lumps of pyrites are placed on horizontal plates, and exposed to the hot gases generated in kilns below. The gases, on their way to the chambers, sweep over the pyrites and rob them of their sulphur.

The most important and noticeable improvement, however, of late years in sulphuric acid manufacture is that resulting from the addition to the plant of a contrivance of Gay-Lussac. Previous to this invention, the sulphuric acid of commerce, amongst other impurities, always contained appreciable quantities of certain oxides of nitrogen, the results of which were not only the contamination of the acid, but a waste of substances, which, properly utilised, are essential for the conversion of the sulphurous and sulphuric acid, and the loss of which leads to an increased consumption of nitrate of soda. Under the old method, these valuable oxides of nitrogen, which, with a large amount of nitrogen and a small quantity of oxygen, constituted the spent air of the last leaden chamber, were carried off into the air, and consequently lost. Now, instead of being allowed to diffuse into the atmosphere, they are made to pass through a tower or chamber (shown at C in the plate below) filled with coke, through which a thin stream of sulphuric acid is made to trickle. In passing through the coke, therefore, the expiring spent gases come into contact with the sulphuric acid, to which they give up their oxides of nitrogen. From the tower (C) the acid flows into a cistern (D), whence it is pumped up to the top of another tower (E), either filled with coke, or arranged with inclined shelves, as shown in the plate. In this tower the acid meets with a current of hot sulphurous acid and air coming up from the furnace, which deprive it of the oxides of nitrogen, and the gaseous mixture enters the chambers, whilst the denitrafied acid flows off into a suitable reservoir.

Since the introduction of the above, the consumption of nitrate of soda is sometimes lessened by more than half.

Another very recent improvement, the invention of a German chemist named Sprengel, is the substitution of water spray, blown in by steam, for steam jets, in the leaden chambers. By this method a saving of coal to the extent of one third is said to be effected.

In theory, 1 molecule of sulphur requires only 3 molecules of oxygen to convert it into sulphuric acid, viz. 2 to form sulphurous anhydride, and 1 to convert the latter into sulphuric anhydride, which combines with 1 molecule of water to form the acid. Thus, 1 kilogram of sulphur requires 1500 grams or 1055 litres of oxygen, which is equivalent to 5275 litres of air containing 4220 litres of nitrogen; when pyrites is used, a far larger quantity of air is required, for the obvious reason that the pyrites becomes converted into ferric peroxide. 1 kilogram of pyrites requires for its combustion nearly 6600 litres of air.

In well-regulated works the spent and escaping gases should not contain more than 2 per cent. of oxygen. If from 100 kilograms of sulphur 306 kilograms of strong acid of sp. gr. 1·84 be obtained, the result is regarded as very satisfactory; more frequently the product from 100 kilograms of sulphur does not exceed 280 or 290 kilograms.

Purif. Commercial sulphuric acid frequently contains nitrous acid and other oxides of nitrogen, arsenic, lead, and saline matter. The nitrous acid may be removed by adding a little sulphate of ammonia, and heating the acid to ebullition for a few minutes. Both nitric and nitrous acid are thus entirely decomposed into water and nitrogen gas. The arsenic may be got rid of by adding a little sulphide of barium to the acid, agitating the mixture well, and, after repose, decanting and distilling it. Lead, which exists as sulphate, may be separated as a white precipitate by simply diluting the acid with water. Saline matter may be removed by simple rectification. A good way of purifying oil of vitriol is to heat it nearly to the boiling point, and pass a current of hydrochloric acid through it; the arsenic is thus carried over as the volatile chloride of arsenic, while the nitrous and nitric acids are expelled almost completely. To obtain a perfectly pure acid, it should be distilled after the removal of the nitrous acid and arsenic by the methods indicated above. “The distillation is most conveniently conducted, on the small scale, in a glass retort, containing a few platinum chips, and heated by a sand bath or gas-flame, rejecting the first 1/2 fl. oz. that comes over.” (Ph. E.) In the Ph. D. the first tenth of the distillate is ordered to be rejected, and the process to be stopped when no more than about 1 fl. oz. is left in the retort.

According to Dr Ure, the capacity of the retort should be from 4 to 8 times as great as the volume of the acid, and connected with a large tubular receiver by a loosely fitting glass tube, 4 feet long and 1 to 2 inches in diameter. “The receiver should not be surrounded with cold water.” We find that fragments of glass, or of rock crystals, may be advantageously substituted for platinum foil, to lessen the explosive violence of the ebullition. Sulphuric acid which has become brown by exposure may be decolorised by heating it gently, the carbon of the organic substances being thus converted into carbonic acid.

Prop. Commercial sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) is a colourless, odourless, and highly corrosive liquid, the general properties of which are well known. Its sp. gr. at 60° should never be greater than 1·848, or less than 1·840. (Miller and Odling give the sp. gr. of the pure and concentrated acid as 1·842; Abel and Bloxam, as 1·848; Apjohn gives it as 1·846, and Hardwich about 1·845.) It is immediately coloured by contact with organic matter. It attracts water so rapidly from the atmosphere when freely exposed to it, as to absorb 1-3rd of its weight in 24 hours, and 6 times its weight in a few months. When 3 volumes are suddenly mixed with 2 of water, the temperature of the mixture rises more than 180° Fahr. Its freezing point appears to be about 60° below that of water (Miller and Odling give that of the rectified acid as -30° Fahr.; Apjohn and Abel and Bloxam, -29°). It boils at about 620° Fahr. (620·6°, Odling; 620°, Hardwich and Fownes; 617°, Apjohn; 590·6°, Abel and Bloxam). It exhibits all the properties of the acids in an exalted degree. Its salts are called sulphates.

In the following table is given the quantity of anhydrous sulphuric acid contained in sulphuric acid at 60°F. (15·5°C.).

+--------------------------------+----------------------------------+ |Hydrated Sp. Gr. Anhydrous | Hydrated Sp. Gr. Anhydrous | |Sulphuric Acid. | Sulphuric Acid. | |Acid. | Acid. | | | | | 100 1·8485 81·54 | 76 1·6630 61·97 | | 99 1·8475 80·72 | 75 1·6520 61·15 | | 98 1·8460 79·90 | 74 1·6415 60·34 | | 97 1·8439 79·09 | 73 1·6321 59·55 | | 96 1·8410 78·28 | 72 1·6204 58·71 | | 95 1·8376 77·40 | 71 1·6090 57·89 | | 94 1·8336 76·65 | 70 1·5975 57·08 | | 93 1·8290 75·83 | 69 1·5868 56·26 | | 92 1·8233 75·02 | 68 1·5760 55·45 | | 91 1·8179 74·20 | 67 1·5648 54·63 | | 90 1·8115 73·39 | 66 1·5503 53·82 | | 89 1·8043 72·57 | 65 1·5390 53·00 | | 88 1·7962 71·75 | 64 1·5280 52·18 | | 87 1·7870 70·94 | 63 1·5170 51·37 | | 86 1·7774 70·12 | 62 1·5066 50·55 | | 85 1·7673 69·31 | 61 1·4960 49·74 | | 84 1·7570 68·49 | 60 1·4860 48·92 | | 83 1·7465 67·68 | 59 1·4760 48·11 | | 82 1·7360 66·86 | 58 1·4660 47·29 | | 81 1·7245 66·05 | 57 1·4560 46·58 | | 80 1·7120 65·23 | 56 1·4460 45·68 | | 79 1·6993 64·42 | 55 1·4360 44·85 | | 78 1·6870 63·60 | 54 1·4265 45·03 | | 77 1·6750 62·78 | 53 1·4170 43·22 | +--------------------------------+----------------------------------+

Pur. “Free from colour and odour. Sp. gr. 1·843. 100 gr. are saturated by 285 gr. of crystallised carbonate of soda.” (Ph. L.) “What remains after the acid is distilled to dryness does not exceed 1/400th part of its weight. Diluted sulphuric acid is not discoloured by sulphuretted hydrogen.” (Ph. L. 1836.) “Diluted with its own volume of water, only a scanty muddiness arises, and no orange fumes escape. Sp. gr. 1·840.” (Ph. E.) “The rectified acid (ACIDUM SULPHURICUM PURUM——Ph. E. & D.) is colourless; dilution causes no muddiness; solution of sulphate of iron shows no reddening at the line of contact when poured over it. Sp. gr. 1·845.” (Ph. E.) Sp. gr. 1·846——Ph. D.; 1·843——B. P.; 1·842——Ure.

Tests.——See SULPHATE.

Uses, &c. “The uses of sulphuric acid are so numerous that it would be impossible to mention all of them, sulphuric acid being to chemical industry what iron is to the mechanical. Sulphuric acid is employed in preparing a great many other acids——among them, nitric, hydrochloric, sulphurous, carbonic, tartaric, citric, phosphoric, stearic, oleic, and palmitic. Further, sulphuric acid is used in making superphosphates, soda, sulphate of ammonia, alum, sulphates of copper and iron, in paraffin and petroleum refining, silver refining, manufacture of garacine, garanceux, and other madder preparations, manufacture of glucose from starch, to dissolve indigo, &c.[216] In the diluted state it is used in medicine. When swallowed, it acts as a violent corrosive poison. The antidotes are chalk, whiting, magnesia, carbonate of soda, or carbonate of potash, mixed with water, or any bland diluent, and taken freely, an emetic being also administered.

[Footnote 216: Wagner.]

Estim. The strength of sulphuric acid is most correctly ascertained by its power of saturating bases. In commerce, it is usually determined from its sp. gr. The quantity of sulphuric acid present in a compound may be determined by weighing it under the form of sulphate, as explained in a former part of this volume. See ACIDIMETRY.

Concluding Remarks. According to most of our standard works on chemistry, British oil of vitriol, when purified and brought to its maximum strength by distillation, is a definite chemical compound, having the formula H_{2}SO_{4}, and designated normal sulphuric acid by Odling. Marignac, however, asserts that the distilled acid always contains an excess of water, and that the true monohydrate can only be obtained by submitting fuming sulphuric acid (‘Nordhausen s. a,’) to congelation. According to this chemist, the true monohydrate readily freezes in cold weather, and remains solid up to 51° Fahr. Two other definite hydrates of sulphuric acid are generally recognised by chemists, viz.——Bihydrated sulphuric acid (‘glacial s. a,’), having a sp. gr. of 1·78; freezing at about 40° Fahr. (47°, Miller); and boiling at about 435° (Apjohn; 401° to 410°, Odling): Terhydrated sulphuric acid, having a sp. gr. of 1·632, and the boiling-point 348° Fahr. See also SULPHURIC ACID, NORDHAUSEN (below).

=Sulphuric Acid, Al′coholised.= Syn. ACIDUM SULPHURICUM ALCOHOLISATUM, L.; EAU DE RABEL, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) To rectified spirit, 3 parts, add, very gradually, sulphuric acid, 1 part. It is generally coloured by letting it stand over a little cochineal. Refrigerent, and, externally, escharotic.——Dose, 1/2 fl. dr. to water, 1 pint; as a cooling drink in fevers, &c.

=Sulphuric Acid, Anhy′drous.= SO_{3}. Syn. SULPHURIC ANHYDRIDE, DRY SULPHURIC ACID; ACIDUM SULPHURICUM SINE AQUÂ, L. Prep. 1. By heating Nordhausen acid to about 100° Fahr. in a glass retort connected with a well-cooled receiver.

2. By distilling anhydrous bisulphate of soda, which has previously been raised to a low red heat in an earthen retort, to which a receiver is fitted without the aid of corks.

3. (Barreswill.) 2 parts of the strongest oil of vitriol are gradually added to 3 parts of anhydrous phosphoric acid, contained in a retort surrounded by a freezing mixture; when the compound has assumed a brown colour, the retort is removed from the bath, and connected with a receiver which is set there in its place; a gentle heat is now applied to it, when white vapours pass over into the receiver, and condense there under the form of beautiful silky crystals. The product equals in weight that of the phosphorus originally employed. “If a few drops of water be added, a dangerous explosion ensues.”

Prop. White, silky, asbestos-like crystals, deliquescing rapidly, and fuming in the air; put into water, it hisses like a red-hot iron; it melts at 77°, and rapidly volatilises at 86° Fahr.; it does not redden dry litmus paper; sp. gr. 1·97 at 78° Fahr.

=Sulphuric Acid, Aromat′ic.= Syn. ELIXIR OF VITRIOL, ACID E. OF V.; ACIDUM SULPHURICUM AROMATICUM (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E. & D.) Oil of vitriol, 3-1/2 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 1-1/2 pint; mix, add of powdered cinnamon, 1-1/2 oz.; powdered ginger, 1 oz.; digest for 6 days (7 days——Ph. D.), and filter. Sp. gr. ·974——Ph. D.

2. (Wholesale.) From compound tincture of cinnamon, 1 gall.; oil of vitriol, 1 lb.; mix, and in a week filter——Dose, 10 to 30 drops, in the same case as the dilute acid.

3. (B. P.) Sulphuric acid, 3; rectified spirit, 40; cinnamon, in powder, 2; ginger, in powder, 1-1/4; mix the acid gradually with the spirit, add the powders, macerate for 7 days, and filter.——Dose, 5 to 30 minims.

=Sulphuric Acid, Dilute′.= Syn. SPIRIT OF VITRIOL; ACIDUM SULPHURICUM DILUTUM (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Take of sulphuric acid, 15 fl. dr., and dilute it gradually with distilled water, q. s. to make the whole exactly measure a pint. Sp. gr. 1·103. “1 fl. oz. of this acid is exactly saturated by 216 gr. of crystallised carbonate of soda.”

2. (Ph. E.) Sulphuric acid, 1 fl. oz.; water, 13 fl. oz. Sp. gr. 1·090.

3. (Ph. D.) Pure sulphuric acid, 1 fl. oz.; distilled water, 13 oz. Sp. gr. 1·084.

4. (B. P.) Sulphuric acid, 3; distilled water, q. s. to measure 35-3/4; mix by adding the acid gradually to the water.——Dose, 4 to 20 minims.

Prop., &c. Antiseptic, tonic, and refrigerant.——Dose, 10 to 30 drops, largely diluted with water, several times daily; in low typhoid fevers, passive hæmorrhages, profuse perspiration, in various skin diseases to relieve the itching, in dyspepsia, &c. It is also used externally.

=Sulphuric Acid, Nordhausen.= Syn. FUMING SULPHURIC ACID; ACIDUM SULPHURICUM FUMANS, L. Prep. By distilling calcined ferrous sulphate (‘green vitriol’) in earthen retorts. The retorts, which are shown at A in the plate after the ‘green vitriol’ has been put into them, are placed in a galley-furnace, as shown below, the necks passing through the wall of the furnace, and being properly secured to the necks of the receivers (B B.). Into each of the flasks 2-1/2 lbs. of green vitriol are put; on the first application of heat only sulphurous acid and weak hydrated sulphuric acid come over, and are usually allowed to escape, the receivers not being securely luted until white vapours of anhydrous sulphuric acid are seen. Into each of the receiving flasks 30 grams of water are poured, and the distillation continued for 24 to 36 hours. The retort flasks are then again filled with raw material, and the operation repeated four times before the oil of vitriol is deemed strong enough. The residue in the retorts is red (peroxide) of iron, still retaining some sulphuric acid. The product is a brown oily liquid, which fumes in the air, is intensely corrosive, and has a sp. gr. about 1·900. When heated to about 100° Fahr. the anhydrous acid is given off, and ordinary oil of vitriol is left. According to Marignac, crystals of normal sulphuric acid (H_{2}SO_{4}) are formed in this acid when it is submitted to a low temperature. Nordhausen acid is so called from the place of its manufacture in Saxony. It may be regarded as a mixture or compound of H_{2}SO_{4} and SO_{2}. It is chiefly used for dissolving indigo.

=SULPHURIC ANHYDRIDE.= See SULPHURIC ACID, ANHYDROUS.

=SULPHURIC E′THER.= See ETHER.

=SUL′PHUROUS ACID.= SO_{2}. Syn. SULPHURUS ANHYDRIDE; ACIDUM SULPHUROSUM, B. P. This compound is freely evolved in the gaseous form when sulphur is burnt in air or oxygen, and when the metals are digested in hot sulphuric acid; and, mixed with carbonic acid, when charcoal, chips of wood, cork, and sawdust, are treated in the same way.

Prep. 1. By heating together sulphur and strong sulphuric acid.

2. By the action of sulphuric acid on chippings of copper or mercury at a gentle heat. Pure.

3. (Berthier.) By heating, in a glass retort, a mixture of black oxide of manganese, 100 parts, and sulphur, 12 or 14 parts. Pure. The gas evolved should be collected over mercury, or received into water.

4. (Redwood.) Pounded charcoal, 1/2 oz.; oil of vitriol, 4 fl. oz.; mix in a retort, apply the heat of a spirit lamp, and conduct the evolved gases by means of a bent tube into a bottle containing water. The sulphurous acid is absorbed, whilst the carbonic acid gas passes off.

5. (B. P.) Distilled water, saturated with sulphurous anhydride. It is colourless and emits a pungent odour. Used as a deoxidiser, disinfectant, and antiseptic. Diluted with from 1 to 2 parts of water it is employed as a lotion for wounds, cuts, ulcers, bed-sores, scalds, and burns; with from 1 to 5 of water it is used as a gargle, also as a lotion in parasitic skin diseases; from 1/2 to 1 dr., in a wine-glassful of water, 3 times a day, relieves constant sickness.

Prop., &c. Water absorbs 30 times its volume of this gas. Pure liquid sulphurous acid can only be obtained by passing the pure dry gas through a glass tube surrounded by a powerful freezing mixture. Its sp. gr. is 1·45; boiling point, 14° Fahr.; it causes intense cold by its evaporation. Sulphurous acid forms salts called sulphites.

Uses. To bleach silks, woollens, straw, &c., and to remove vegetable stains and iron-moulds from linen. For these purposes it is prepared from sawdust or any other refuse carbonaceous matter.

Several preparations containing sulphurous acid have recently been invented by the Editor and introduced to the public as agents in sanitation under the name of Sporokton (germ-killer). To understand the nature and merits of these preparations it is desirable to explain the true and individual meanings of ‘Deodoriser,’ ‘Antiseptic,’ and ‘Disinfectant,’——words which are too often improperly employed as if they had the same signification, and as if, in fact, they were convertible terms.

A deodoriser is a substance which will absorb or destroy bad smells; an antiseptic is an agent which will prevent or retard putrefaction; and a disinfectant is an agent which will render harmless the virus of smallpox, scarlet fever, measles, diphtheria, influenza, pleuro-pneumonia, cattle plague, glanders, distemper in dogs, and other infectious or contagious diseases.

Now, medical authorities and sanitarians are of opinion that the most potent disinfectant with which we are acquainted is sulphurous acid, a gas which has been used for ages, as a fumigator. Sulphurous acid has not, however, been so generally employed for disinfecting purposes as one might from these circumstances have expected, on account of the difficulties and inconveniences which formerly attended its generation.

To remove these drawbacks, and to render sulphurous acid, both as a gas and in solution, easily and cheaply available for the above-named and many other applications, sporokton has been invented. Several varieties are made; they are as follows:

Liquid No. 1.——This preparation consists of a colourless solution of a non-volatile antiseptic, usually a salt of zinc, impregnated with eighty times its bulk of sulphurous acid gas; in other words, one pint of the liquid contains ten gallons of gas. Liquid sporokton is, in fact, a combination of one of the most powerful antiseptics with the disinfectant; the former ingredient will effectually prevent the putrefaction of any solid or liquid animal or vegetable matter with which it may come in contact, while the sulphurous acid will rapidly pass off in the gaseous state into the surrounding air and act as an energetic destroyer of noxious atmospheric impurities.

Liquid sporokton absorbs ammonia and sulphuretted hydrogen, destroys bad smells, and prevents the spread of infectious diseases; it is, consequently, a valuable agent for the deodorisation and disinfection of wards of hospitals, sick rooms, dairies, larders, ship, stables, cow-houses, kennels, piggeries, slaughter-houses, urinals, water-closets, privies, cesspools, sewers, drains, and other similar buildings and places.

After it has parted with the whole of its sulphurous acid gas, liquid sporokton leaves an odourless, non-volatile antiseptic and absorber of ammonia and sulphuretted hydrogen.

Liquid sporokton evolves its sulphurous acid by simple exposure to air, without the aid of heat, so that no risk of fire attends its use, as is the case when rooms, buildings, holds of ships, &c., are fumigated with this gas by the old plan; it will not stain or in any other way injure undyed woollen, linen, or cotton goods. It is consequently well adapted for the disinfection of underclothing, sheets, blankets, bed-furniture, &c.

Liquid sporokton may be employed for the instantaneous preparation of a bath or lotion of sulphurous acid, to be used, under medical direction, in the treatment of itch, ringworm, chronic eczema, lepra, psoriasis, impetigo, pityriasis, &c., in man, as well as mange, scab, and other skin affections in the lower animals.

Liquid sporokton is clean, it requires no skill in using it, and its action is perfectly controllable.

Liquid, No. 2.——This preparation is specially made for the disinfection and purification of old beer barrels, wine casks, and the like. It is similar in composition to, and may be used for the same purpose as No. 1; except, however, that as No. 2, unlike No. 1, is liable, from its containing iron instead of zinc, to stain linen, wood, &c., it should not be employed for disinfecting clothing or sprinkling over floors, decks of ships, and the like.

Solid.——This is a powder, usually a mixture of calcium sulphite and ferric chloride, which, by simple expose to air, will slowly and steadily, or when sprinkled with water, rapidly give out 25 per cent. of its weight of sulphurous acid and leave no unpleasant smell behind it.

Sulphurous acid gas, unlike non-volatile disinfectants, quickly mingles with the air, and seeks out, as it were, the noxious atmospheric impurities it is capable of destroying.

Solid sporokton, in addition to evolving sulphurous acid, contains an excess of ferric chloride which, together with this gas, renders it a most useful and efficient antiseptic.

=Sulphurous Anhydride.= See SULPHUROUS ACID.

=SU′MACH.= This dye stuff is chiefly used as a substitute for galls. With a mordant of acetate of iron, it gives grey or black; with tin or acetate of alumina, yellow; and with sulphate of zinc, a yellowish-brown; alone, it gives a greenish-fawn colour.

=SUM′BUL.= Syn. MUSK ROOT, JATAMANSI, SUMBUL ROOT; SUMBUL RADIX (B. P.). A substance introduced to British medicine by Dr A. B. Granville, in 1850. It occurs in circular pieces, varying from 1 to 3 or 4 inches in diameter; has a musk-like odour, and a sweet balsamic taste. It acts as a powerful stimulant, especially of the nervous system. In India and Persia it has long been used as a medicine, a perfume, and as incense.——Dose, 15 gr. to 1 dr., either masticated, or made into an infusion, electuary, or tincture; in cholera, hysteria, neuralgia, epilepsy, low fevers, and various other spasmodic and nervous disorders.

=SUMMER DRINKS.= See LEMONADE, SHERBET, &c.

=SU′PER-.= See NOMENCLATURE.

=SUP′PER.= The evening meal; the last meal of the day. Supper is generally an unnecessary meal, and, when either heavy, or taken at a period not long before that of retiring to rest, proves nearly always injurious, preventing sound and refreshing sleep, and occasioning unpleasant dreams, nightmare, biliousness, and all the worst symptoms of imperfect digestion. The last meal of the day should be taken at least three hours before bedtime. Even when it consists of some ‘trifle,’ as a sandwich or biscuit, an interval of at least an hour should elapse before retiring to rest. In this way restlessness and unpleasant dreams will become rare.

=SUPPOS′ITORY.= Syn. SUPPOSITORIUM, L. A medicine placed in the rectum for the purpose of affecting the lower intestine, or, by absorption, the system generally. Suppositories are rounded, usually elongated masses, having the active medicine combined with some substance which will retain the proper shape, as soap, spermaceti cerate, or cacao-butter. The latter substance is, perhaps, the best vehicle for remedies prescribed in this form. It is, however, rather too soft to be used without admixture. According to Dorvault, the addition of one eighth part by weight of wax imparts the proper hardness.

All difficulty of removing suppositories from the mould may be obviated by having the moulds previously dusted with lycopodium.

The mode of proportioning the doses of active ingredients has been noticed in the article ENEMA.

=Suppository, Astringent.= Syn. SUPPOSITORIUM ASTRINGENS (Reuss). Prep. Powdered oak bark, 2 dr.; tormentil, 2 dr.; honey, q. s. For 8 suppositories.

=Suppository of Carbolic Acid.= Syn. SUPPOSITORIUM ACIDI CARBOLICI (Ph. U. S.). Prep. Carbolic acid, 12 gr.; oil of theobroma, 348 gr.; water, q. s. Dissolve the acid in a few drops of water, and mix it with 1 dr. of oil of theobroma; then add it to the remainder of the theobroma previously melted, and cooled to the temperature of 95° F., and pour the whole immediately into moulds of 30 gr. each, standing in iced water.

=Suppository of Copaiba.= Syn. SUPPOSITORIUM COPAIBA (Colombat). Prep. Solidified copaiba, 1 dr.; butter of cacao, 1 dr.; extract of opium, 1/2 gr.

=Suppository of Elaterium.= Syn. SUPPOSITORIUM ELATERII (St B. H.). Prep. Extract of elaterium, 2 gr.; hard soap, 10 gr.; water, q. s. Mix.

=Suppository, Emollient.= Syn. SUPPOSITORIUM EMOLLIENS. Prep. Butter of cacao and spermaceti in equal parts; melted together.

=Suppository of Iodide of Potassium.= Syn. SUPPOSITORIUM POTASSII IODIDII (Mr Stafford). Prep. Iodide of potassium, 1 gr. to 4 gr.; extract of henbane, 6 gr.; extract of hemlock, 6 gr. In enlarged prostate.

=Suppository, Irritant.= Syn. SUPPOSITORIUM IRRITANS (Richard). Prep. Butter of cacao, 2 dr.; aloes, 4 gr.; tartarised antimony, 1 gr. To restore the hæmorrhoidal flux.

=Suppository of Lead (Compound).= Syn. SUPPOSITORIUM PLUMBI COMPOSITUM (B. P.). Prep. Acetate of lead, in powder, 36; opium, in powder, 12; benzoated lard, 42; white wax, 10; oil of theobroma, 80; melt the wax and oil of theobroma with a gentle heat, then add the other ingredients, previously rubbed together in a mortar, and, having mixed them thoroughly, pour the mixture while it is fluid into suitable moulds of the capacity of 15 gr. The above makes 12 suppositories.

=Suppository of Mercury.= Syn. SUPPOSITORIUM HYDRARGYRI (B. P.). Prep. Ointment of mercury, 60 gr.; benzoated lard, 20 gr.; white wax, 20 gr.; oil of theobroma, 80 gr.; melt all but the mercurial ointment together, then add the ointment of mercury, stir till well mixed, and immediately pour into moulds of the capacity of 15 gr. The above makes 12 suppositories.

=Suppository of Morphia.= Syn. SUPPOSITORIUM MORPHIÆ (B. P.). Prep. Hydrochlorate of morphia, 6 gr.; oil of theobroma, 90 gr.; benzoated lard, 64 gr.; white wax, 20 gr.; melt the wax and oil of theobroma with a gentle heat, then add the hydrochlorate of morphia and benzoated lard, previously rubbed together in a mortar, and mix all the ingredients thoroughly; pour the mixture, while it is fluid, into suitable moulds of the capacity of 15 gr., or the fluid mixture may be allowed to cool, and then be divided into 12 equal parts, each of which should be made into a conical form.

=Suppository of Opium.= Syn. SUPPOSITORIUM OPII (Ph. U. S.). Prep. Extract of opium, 12 gr.; oil of theobroma, 348 gr.; water, q. s. Proceed as for carbolic acid suppository.

=Suppository for Piles.= Syn. SUPPOSITORIUM HÆMORRHOIDALE, S. SEDATIVUM, L. Prep. 1. Powdered opium, 2 gr.; finely powdered galls, 10 gr.; spermaceti cerate, 1 dr.

2. (Ellis.) Powdered opium, 2 gr.; soap, 10 gr.; mix.

3. (Richard.) Extracts of opium and stramonium, of each 1 gr.; cacao-butter, 2 dr. Used when the piles are very painful.

=Suppository, Pur′gative.= Syn. SUPPOSITORIUM CATHARTICUM, L. Prep. 1. Soap, 1 dr.; elaterium, 1 to 2 gr.; mix. As a strong purge.

2. (Niemann.) Soap, 2 dr.; common salt, 1 dr.; honey, q. s.; mix. As a mild cathartic.

=Suppository of Quinine.= Syn. SUPPOSITORIUM QUINÆ (Boudin). Prep. Sulphate of quinine, 15 gr.; butter of cacao, 1-1/2 dr. Mix.

=Suppository, Resol′vent.= Syn. SUPPOSITORIUM RESOLVENS, L. Prep. (Stafford.) Iodide of potassium, 3 to 4 gr.; extracts of henbane and hemlock, of each 6 gr. In enlargement or induration of the prostate gland.

=Suppository of Rhatany.= Syn. SUPPOSITORIUM RHATANIÆ (P. Cod). Prep. Butter of cacao, 1 dr.; extract of rhatany, 15 gr., for 1 suppository.

=Suppository, Sed′ative.= See above.

=Suppository of Sulphate of Soda.= Syn. SUPPOSITORIUM SODÆ SULPHATIS (Phœbus). Prep. Dried sulphate of soda, 2 dr.; powdered soap, 4 dr.; honey, q. s. For 4 suppositories. To be smeared over with oil when applied.

=Suppository of Tannic Acid.= Syn. SUPPOSITORIUM ACIDI TANNICI (B. P.). Prep. Tannic acid, 36 gr.; benzoated lard, 44 gr.; white wax, 10 gr.; oil of theobroma, 90 gr.; melt the wax and oil with a gentle heat, then add the tannic acid and benzoated lard, previously rubbed together, and mix thoroughly. Pour the mixture while it is fluid into suitable moulds of the capacity of 15 gr. The above makes 12 suppositories.

=Suppository, Ver′mifuge.= Syn. SUPPOSITORIUM ANTHELMINTICUM, S. VERMIFUGUM, L. Prep. (Swediaur.) Aloes, 4 dr.; common salt, 3 dr.; flour, 2 dr.; honey, q. s. to make a stiff mass; divide into proper-shaped pieces, weighing about 15 gr. each. One to be used after each motion.

=Suppositories of Aloes.= Syn. SUPPOSITORIA ALOES (B. P.). Prep. Aloes in fine powder. 1 dr.; oil of theobroma, 300 gr. Proceed as for carbolic acid suppository, omitting the water.

=Suppositories of Assafœtida.= Syn. SUPPOSITORIA ASSAFŒTIDÆ (Ph. U. S.). Prep. Tincture of assafœtida, 1 oz.; oil of theobroma, 320 gr. Let the tincture evaporate by exposure to the air until of the consistence of a thick syrup, and proceed as for suppositories of carbolic acid.

=Suppositories of Belladonna.= Syn. SUPPOSITORIA BELLADONNÆ (Ph. U. S.). Prep. Alcoholic extract of belladonna, 6 gr.; oil of theobroma, 354 gr. Proceed as for carbolic acid suppositories.

=Suppositories of Carbolic Acid with Soap.= Syn. SUPPOSITORIA ACIDI CARBOLICI CUM SAPONE (B. P.). Prep. Carbolic acid, 12 gr.; curd soap, in powder, 180 gr.; starch, q. s.; mix the carbolic acid with the soap, and add starch, q. s., to make of a suitable consistency; divide into 12 equal parts, and make each suppository into a conical or other convenient form.

=Suppositories of Colocynth.= Syn. SUPPOSITORIA COLOCYNTHIDIS (Sp. Ph.). Prep. Colocynth, 30 gr.; salt, 1 dr. Evaporate to a due consistence.

=Suppositories of Morphia with Soap.= Syn. SUPPOSITORIA MORPHIÆ CUM SAPONE (B. P.). Prep. Hydrochlorate of morphia, 6 gr.; glycerin of starch, 50 gr.; curd soap in powder, 100 gr.; starch, q. s. Mix the hydrochlorate with the glycerin of starch and soap, and add starch q. s. to form a paste of suitable consistence. Divide into 12 equal parts, each of which is to be made into a conical or other convenient form of suppository.

=Suppositories of Tannic Acid with Soap.= Syn. SUPPOSITORIA ACIDI TANNICI CUM SAPONE (B. P.). Prep. Tannic acid, 36 gr.; glycerin of starch, 50 gr.; curd soap in powder, 100 gr.; starch, q. s. Mix the tannic acid with the glycerin of starch and soap, and add starch q. s. to form a paste of suitable consistence, divide into 12 equal parts, each of which is to be made into a conical or other convenient form of suppository.

=Suppositories, Vaginal.= Syn. SUPPOSITORIA VAGINALE (Guadrist). Prep. Liquid chloride of zinc, 5 minims; sulphate of morphia, 1/2 gr.; mix with 2 dr. of the following paste:——Thick mucilage of tragacanth, 6 parts; white sugar, 3 parts; starch, 9 parts. Mr Druitt prescribes in leucorrhœa:——Tannin, 10 gr., with mucilage of tragacanth, q. s.

=SURGERY.= “This word,” says Brande, “in its modern acceptation, may be defined as the practical application of science, in the use of all mechanical and instrumental means, for the removal of diseases and the relief of human suffering.”

One of the earliest professors of the ancient art of surgery, of whom history affords a reliable record, was Hippocrates, a Greek, who lived in the fifth century of our era, and who seems to have been a man of considerable skill for the period in which he flourished, since he could set fractures, reduce dislocations, and perform other important operations. About two centuries after Hippocrates the studies of surgery, anatomy, and medicine were prosecuted with evident success at Alexandria. The Alexandrian school produced some able surgeons, one of whom, Ammianus, invented an instrument for crushing the stone in the bladder, and was thus the first to practise the now important surgical operation known as lithotrity. At the beginning of the Christian era Celsus practised the art of surgery in Rome; he appears to have been the first to operate for cataract, and to apply ligatures to arteries after operations. It is curious to note that so practical a people as the Romans held the art of surgery in comparative contempt, and banished its professors, whose services they discarded, for the practice of spells, incantations, and charms.

In the sixth century lived Œtius, who conceived the idea of dissolving urinary calculi by the administration of internal remedies; and in the tenth, Avicenna, who, it has been conjectured, invented the flexible catheter, and was the inventor of the instrument now known as Hey’s saw. In 1271 the Paris College of Surgeons was founded, and the College of Surgeons of London in 1460, and the Edinburgh College in 1505.

The most prominent figure in the annals of surgery of the 16th century was Paré, a man of great originality of thought, whose works exercised a considerable influence over his own contemporaries, and for many years subsequently. Towards the end of the 17th century lived Wiseman, serjeant surgeon to Charles II. Wiseman was a man of considerable ability, and was the first to demonstrate that gun-shot wounds were not of a poisonous nature; and that therefore the old practice of applying painful and caustic dressings to them might most advantageously be abandoned. A contemporary of Wiseman was Young, of Plymouth, who merits notice as being the first who performed the flap-operation in amputation.

In the 17th century also lived Frère St Cosme, a French monk, who obtained considerable fame as an operator for lithotomy, for the performance of which he regarded himself as especially chosen by Heaven. In the 18th century lived in England Cheselden and Douglas, two eminent lithotomists; John Hunter, Pott and Ley; in Scotland, Benjamin and John Bell and Monro; and in Ireland, O’Halloran and Deases; whilst in France flourished Petit, celebrated for his treatise on diseases of the bones; from Germany, Rechter and Haller.

In this century (1784) was founded the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland. In the present century there are few branches of science in which greater progress has been made than that of surgery. From amongst the most eminent of the English surgeons of the present century we may select the following names:——Abernethy, Blizard, Astley Cooper, Brodie, Dalrymple, Guthrie, Aston Key, Liston, Stanley, Travers, Arnott, Bowman, Erichsen, Fergusson, Prescott Hewett, Hilton, Lane, Lawrence, Paget, Spencer Wells, Marshall, Christopher Heath, Durham, Bryant, Nunn, Lee, H. Smith, Mason, and Pollock.

=SUSPENDED ANIMATION.= See ASPHYXIA.

=SWAL′LOW.= Three or four species of hirundo (Linn.) pass under this name. It was once held in great repute in medicine. Even the excrement was included among the simples of the Ph. L. 1618. The swallow is an insectivorous bird, but, like the sparrow and rook, is much persecuted for its good services. It has been calculated that, directly and indirectly, a single swallow is the humble means of lessening the race of one kind of insect alone to the extent of 560,970,489,000,000,000 of its race in one year.

=SWEEPING.= Before commencing to sweep, the floor should be strewed with a good amount of damp tea-leaves, saved for the purpose; these collect the dust and thereby save the furniture, which as far as practicable should be covered up during the process. Tea-leaves may also be advantageously used upon druggets and short-piled carpets. Light sweeping and soft brooms are desirable if these latter are to be operated upon. Many a carpet is prematurely worn out by over-violent sweeping.

In sweeping thick-piled carpets, such as Axminster and Turkey carpets, the servant should always be instructed to brush the way of the pile; by following this advice the carpets may be kept clean for years; but if the broom is used in a contrary direction, all the dust will be forced into the carpet, and soon spoil it.

=SWEET BALLS.= Prep. Take of Florentine orris root, 3 oz.; cassia, 1 oz.; cloves, rhodium wood, and lavender flowers, of each 1/2 oz.; ambergris and musk, of each 6 gr.; oil of verbena, 10 or 12 drops; beat them to a paste, form this into balls with mucilage of gum tragacanth made with rose water, pierce them, whilst soft, with a needle, and, when they are quite dry and hard, polish them. Worn in the pocket as a perfume. Some persons varnish them, but that keeps in the smell.

=SWEET BAY.= Syn. LAUREL; LAURUS NOBILIS (Linn.), L. The fruit (LAURI BACCÆ; LAURUS——Ph. L.), as well as the leaves (LAURI FOLIA), are reputed aromatic, stimulant, and narcotic. They were formerly very popular in coughs, colic, hysteria, suppressions, &c.; and externally, in sprains, bruises, &c.

=SWEET′BREAD.= The thymus gland of the calf. When boiled, it is light and digestible; but when highly dressed and seasoned it is improper both for dyspeptics and invalids. (Pereira.)

=SWEET FLAG.= Syn. ACORUS CALAMUS, L. A plant of the natural order Orontiaceæ. The rhizome (‘root’) is an aromatic stimulant, and is regarded by some as a valuable medicine in agues, and as a useful adjunct to other stimulants and bitter tonics. It is sometimes employed by the rectifiers of gin. The volatile oil obtained from it by distillation is employed for scenting snuff and in the preparation of aromatic vinegar.

=SWEET′MEATS.= Under this head are properly included confections, candies, and preserves, in sugar; but, as generally employed, the word embraces all the sweet compounds of the confectioner.

Sweetmeats, as well as cakes, blancmange, and jellies, are not unfrequently coloured with deleterious substances, the consequences of which are always pernicious, and in many instances have proved fatal. Gamboge, a drastic cathartic; chrome yellow, red lead, orpiment, emerald green, and various other pigments containing lead, arsenic, copper, or other poisons, have been thus employed. The whole of these may be readily detected by the tests and characteristics appended to their respective names.

The colours and stains which may be safely employed to increase the beauty of these articles are noticed under STAINS and LIQUEUR.

=SWEETS.= Home-made wines: British wines.

=SWINE-POX.= See POX.

=SYDENHAM’S LEN′ITIVE.= Prep. Take of rhubarb (recently grated or powdered), 3 dr.; tamarinds, 2 oz.; senna, 1/2 oz.; coriander seeds (bruised), 2 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint; macerate for 3 hours in a covered vessel, and strain. An excellent stomachic and laxative.——Dose, 1/2 to 1 wine-glassful.

=SYL′VIC ACID.= Syn. SILVIC ACID. The portion of common resin or colophony which is the least soluble in cold and somewhat dilute alcohol.

=SYMBOLS.= In chemistry are representations of one atom of each of the elementary bodies, by the capital initial letter with or without the addition of a small letter of their Latin names. As C, for carbon; Fe (ferrum), iron; O, oxygen, &c.

Symbols, Alchemical[217]——

[Footnote 217: This list of alchemical and botanical symbols and abbreviations is a reprint of that contained in the ‘Lexicon of Terms used in Medicine and the Allied Sciences,’ now being published by the New Sydenham Society, under the Editorship of Henry Power, M.B., and Leonard W. Sedgwick, M.D.]

Acetum [symbol] Acetum destillatum [symbol] Acidum [symbol] Aër [symbol] Aerugo [symbol] Alumen [symbol] Alembic [symbol] Æther [symbol] Amalgama [symbol] Ammonium [symbol] Aqua [symbol] Aqua fortis [symbol] Aqua pluvialis [symbol] Aqua regia [symbol] Arena [symbol] Argentum [symbol] Arsenicum [symbol] Auripigmentum [symbol] Aurum [symbol] Aurantium [symbol] Baln. arenæ [symbol] Baln. mariæ [symbol] Baln. vaporis [symbol] Baryta [symbol] Bismuth [symbol] Borax [symbol] Calcaria [symbol] Calcaria usta [symbol] Camphora [symbol] Cancer [symbol] Caput mortuum [symbol] Carbo [symbol] Carbonicum [symbol] Carduus benedictus [symbol] Card. marianus [symbol] Cera [symbol] Cinis clavelatum [symbol] Cinis [symbol] Cinnabar [symbol] Cornu cervi [symbol] Cristalli [symbol] Crucibulum [symbol] Cuprum [symbol] Distillare [symbol] Ferrum [symbol] Fictile [symbol] Fixum [symbol] Flores [symbol] Gummi [symbol] Hora [symbol] Hydrargyrum [symbol] Hydr. chloridum [symbol] Hydr. corrosivum [symbol] Ignis [symbol] Kali [symbol] Lapis [symbol] Lithargyrum [symbol] Magnet [symbol] Magnesia [symbol] Menstruum [symbol] Natrum [symbol] Nitrum [symbol] Oleum [symbol] Oxidatum [symbol] Oxidulatum [symbol] Per deliquium [symbol] Plumbum [symbol] Precipitare [symbol] Preparare [symbol] Pulvis [symbol] Regulus [symbol] Resina [symbol] Retorta [symbol] Saccharum [symbol] Sal [symbol] Sal kali [symbol] Sal ammoniac [symbol] Sal medius [symbol] Sapo [symbol] Spiritus [symbol] Spiritus vini [symbol] Spiritus rectificatissimus [symbol] Spiritus rectificatus [symbol] Stannum [symbol] Stibium [symbol] Stratum super stratum [symbol] Sublimare [symbol] Succinum [symbol] Sulphur [symbol] Tartarus [symbol] Terra [symbol] Terra foliata [symbol] Tinctura [symbol] Vitriolum [symbol] Vitrum [symbol] Volatile [symbol] Urina [symbol] Ustare [symbol] Zincum [symbol]

=Symbols and Abbreviations, Botanical.=

[symbol] Monocarp. A plant which produces seed only once during its life. The symbol representing the sun.

=A=, [symbol] Annual. A monocarp which dies in the same year that it germinated, e.g. Mustard.

=B=, [symbol] Biennial. A monocarp which produces leaves only the first year and perfects its seed the next, e.g. Mullein.

=P= Perennial. A plant which produces seed for an indefinite number of years, e.g. Apple.

[symbol] Rhizocarp. A perennial the stems of which die down to the ground every year, e.g. Rhubarb, Mint. The symbol representing Jupiter, which has a period of revolution round the sun of 12 years.

[symbol] Caulocarp. A perennial, the stems of which are persistent throughout the whole of its life, e.g. Apple. The symbol representing Saturn, the period of revolution of which round the sun is 30 years.

=H= Herb. A plant, the stems of which remain soft or succulent, e.g. Mint or Rhubarb.

=S=, [symbol] Shrub. A plant in which the stems are woody, and which usually divide near the ground into numerous branches and twigs, e.g. Lilac.

[symbol] Under shrub. A small shrub; one that does not grow more than 3 feet in height, e.g. Gooseberry.

=T=, [symbol] Tree. A plant which grows to 20 feet or more in height, having a woody stem forming a distinct trunk, e.g. Oak.

[symbol] A climbing plant which follows the sun, e.g. Hop.

[symbol] A climbing plant which moves against the sun, e.g. Scarlet-runner.

[symbol] Flowers having stamens only (unisexual, staminiferous, or male), e.g. male flowers of Box. The symbol representing Mars, the period of revolution of which is 2 years.

[symbol] Flowers having pistils only (unisexual, pistillate, or female), e.g. female flowers of Box. The symbol representing Venus.

[symbol] Flowers having both stamens and pistils (bisexual or hermaphrodite), e.g. Buttercup.

[symbol] Abortive staminiferous flowers (neuter).

[symbol] Abortive pistillate flowers (neuter), e.g. the florets of the ray in Daisy.

[symbol] Monœcious plants, producing male and female flowers upon the same individual, e.g. Box.

[symbol] Diœcious plants, producing male and female flowers, but upon separate individuals, e.g. Willow.

[symbol] Polygamous plants, which produce hermaphrodite and unisexual flowers upon the same or different individuals, e.g. Atriplex.

[symbol] Indefinite in number; applied to stamens and other parts of flowers.

[symbol] Cotyledons accumbent, radicle lateral.

[symbol] Cotyledons incumbent, radicle dorsal.

[symbol] Cotyledons conduplicate, radicle dorsal.

[symbol] Cotyledons twice folded, radicle dorsal.

[symbol] Cotyledons thrice folded, radicle dorsal.

[symbol] Trimerous, applied to flowers when the whorls of the flower are multiples of three, as in most endogens.

[symbol] Pentamerous, applied to flowers when the whorls of the flower are multiples of five, as in exogens generally.

Bab., Babington. Berk., Berkeley. Br., Brown. Cal., calyx. Caul, caulis, stem. Cl., Classis, class. Cor., corolla. Cuv., Cuvier. D. C., or De Cand., De Candolle. Endl., Endlicher. Fam., family. Fr., fructus, fruit. Gen., genus, genus. Hook., Hooker. Juss., Jussieu. D. or Linn., Linnæus. Lindl., Lindley. Nat. Ord., Natural order. O. or Ord., ordo, order. Per., perianthus, perianth. Rad., radix, root. Rich., Richard. Sp. or Spec, species, species. Subord., Suborder. Subk., Subkingdom. Var., varietas, variety, V. s. c., vidi siccam cultam, a dry cultivated plant seen. V. s. s., vidi siccam spontaneam, a dried specimen seen. V. v. c, vidi vivam cultam, a living cultivated plant seen. V. v. s., vidi vivam spontaneam, a living wild plant seen. Willd., Willdenow. With., Withering.

=SYMPATHET′IC INK.= See INK.

=SYN′APTASE.= Syn. EMULSIN. The name given by Robiquet to the EMULSIN, a nitrogenised or albuminoid principle existing in both the bitter and sweet almond. It possesses the remarkable property of converting amygdalin, in the presence of water, into hydrocyanic acid and the essential oil of bitter almonds. 100 gr. of amygdalin yield, under the influence of synaptase and water, 47 gr. of raw oil, and 5·9 gr. of anhydrous hydrocyanic acid. (Liebig.)

=SYN′COPE.= See FAINTING.

=SYR′UP.= Syn. SIRUP, SIROP; SYRUPUS, L. A saturated, or nearly saturated, solution of sugar in water, either simple, flavoured, or medicated.

In the preparation of syrups care should be taken to employ the best refined sugar, and either distilled water or filtered rain water; by which they will be rendered much less liable to spontaneous decomposition, and will be perfectly transparent, without the trouble of clarification. When inferior sugar is employed, clarification is always necessary. This is best done by dissolving the sugar in the water, or other aqueous menstruum, in the cold, and then beating up a little of the cold syrup with some white of egg, and an ounce or two of cold water, until the mixture froths well; this must be added to the syrup in the boiler, and the whole ‘whisked up’ to a good froth; heat should now be applied, and the scum which forms removed from time to time with a clean ‘skimmer.’ As soon as the syrup begins to slightly simmer it must be removed from the fire, and allowed to stand until it has cooled a little, when it should be again skimmed, if necessary, and then passed through clean flannel. When vegetable infusions or solutions enter into the composition of syrups, they should be rendered perfectly transparent by filtration or clarification, before being added to the sugar.

M. Magnes-Lahens[218] describes below a process for the clarification of syrups, the originator of which was M. Demarest, a pharmacien. The process is as follows:——White unsized paper is beaten up into a pulp with a portion of the syrup, and then mixed with the bulk. The proportion of paper should be one gram to every litre of syrup; and the latter should be maintained at a temperature of 35° to 40° C.

[Footnote 218: ‘Germ. Pharm. Chem.,’ 4th Series, xv, 140 (‘Year Book, Phar.,’ 1872).]

A filter of moleskin capable of holding about one third of the volume of the syrup, and having the form of an inverted sugar-loaf, is supported over a suitable receptacle; the syrup with the pulp is poured rapidly into it, so as to fill it as quickly as possible; and the filter is kept full so long as any of the syrup remains. When the greater part has run through, and but little remains in the filter, and consequently the ‘felting’ of the paper pulp is complete, the syrup which has already run through, is again poured into the filter. The liquid which now passes is perfectly bright, and may be collected. In pouring the syrup into the filter, the stream should be directed into the middle, and not upon the sides, so as to avoid disarranging the felt, which would interfere with the success of the operation.

The author very strongly recommends this method for the clarification of all kinds of syrups; its advantages being that it results in a perfectly limpid liquid, and that it involves neither trouble nor loss of time or material. He states that in 4 or 5 hours, with a filter of 8 litres in capacity, 24 litres of syrup may be clarified.

The small quantity of syrup retained in the filter and pulp, may be recovered by pouring on a sufficient quantity of warm water, pressing strongly, evaporating the liquid to a syrupy consistence, beating up with a little paper pulp, and passing, it again through a small filter.

The proper quantity of sugar for syrups will, in general, be found to be 2 lbs. (avoir.) to every imperial pint of water or thin aqueous fluid. These proportions, allowing for the water that is lost by evaporation during the process, are those best calculated to produce a syrup of the proper consistence, and possessing good ‘keeping qualities.’ They closely correspond to those recommended by Guibourt for the production of a perfect syrup, which, he says, consists of 30 parts of sugar to 16 parts of water.

In the preparation of syrups it is of great importance to employ as little heat as possible, as a solution of sugar, even when kept at the temperature of boiling water, undergoes slow decomposition. The plan which we adopt is to pour the water (cold) over the sugar, and to allow the two to lie together for a few hours, in a covered vessel, occasionally stirring, and then to apply a gentle heat (preferably that of steam or water bath) to finish the solution. Some persons (falsely) deem a syrup ill prepared unless it has been allowed to boil well; but if this method be adopted, the ebullition should be only of the gentlest kind (‘simmering’), and should be checked after the lapse of 1 or 2 minutes.

Mr Orynski recommends the preparation of all syrups without the application of heat, as follows:

Introduce 30 or 32 oz. of sugar (according to the temperature) into a percolator, in which has been previously introduced a piece of lint or sponge, well adjusted, and gradually pour on 16 ounces of liquid, so as to make the percolate (syrup) pass drop by drop. If the first liquid is turbid pour it back into the percolator till the syrup passes clear.

The advantages claimed for this process are: First, the syrups are clear; and there is no necessity for purifying them.

Secondly, they possess their medicinal properties unaltered; since many drugs may be injured by heat, more especially aromatics, and those containing readily volatile substances; and——

Thirdly, the syrups will neither crystallise nor ferment; and may be prepared in large quantity, provided the vessels or bottles are clean before filling them with syrup.

When it is necessary to thicken a syrup by boiling, a few fragments of glass should be introduced, in order to lower the boiling point.

To make highly transparent syrups, the sugar should be in a single lump, and, by preference, taken from the bottom or broad end of the loaf, as, when taken from the smaller end, or if it be powdered or bruised, the syrup will be more or less cloudy.

Syrups are judged, by the laboratory man, to be sufficiently boiled when some taken up in a spoon, pours out like oil, or a drop cooled on the thumb-nail gives a proper ‘thread’ when touched. When a thin skin appears on blowing upon the syrup, it is judged, by the same party, to be completely saturated. These rude tests often lead to errors, which might be easily prevented by employing the proper proportions, or determining the sp. gr.

A fluid ounce of SATURATED SYRUP weighs 577-1/2 gr.; a gallon weighs 13-1/5 lbs. (avoir.); its sp. gr. is 1·319 to 1·321, or 35° of Baumé’s aërometer; its boiling-point is 221° Fahr., and its density at the temperature of 212° is 1·260 to 1·261, or 30° Baumé. The syrups prepared with the juices of fruits, or which contain much extractive matter, as those of sarsaparilla, poppies, &c., mark about 2° or 3° more on Baumé’s scale than the other syrups.

In most pharmaceutical works directions are given to completely saturate the water with sugar. Our own experience, which is extensive, leads us to disapprove of such a practice, since we find that, under all ordinary circumstances, a syrup with a very slight excess of water keeps better than one fully saturated. In the latter case a portion of sugar generally crystallises out on standing, and thus, by abstracting sugar from the remainder of the syrup, so weakens it, that it rapidly ferments and spoils. This change proceeds at a rapidity proportionate to the temperature. Saturated syrup kept in a vessel that is frequently uncorked or exposed to the air soon loses sufficient water, by evaporation from its surface, to cause the formation of minute crystals of sugar, which, falling to the bottom of the vessel, continue to increase in size at the expense of the sugar in the solution. We have seen a single 6-gallon stone bottle, in which syrup has been kept for some time, the inside of which, when broken, has been found to be entirely cased with sugar candy, amounting in weight to 16 or 18 lbs. On the other hand, syrups containing too much water also rapidly ferment, and become acescent; but of the two this is the less evil, and may be more easily prevented. The proportions of sugar and water given above will form an excellent syrup, provided care be taken that an undue quantity be not lost by evaporation.

The decimal part of the number denoting the sp. gr. of a syrup, multiplied by 26, gives the number of pounds of sugar it contains per gallon, very nearly. (Ure.)

In boiling syrups, if they appear likely to boil over, a little oil, or rubbing the edges of the pan with soap, will prevent it.

Syrups may be decoloured by agitation with, or filtration through, recently burnt animal charcoal. Medicated syrups should not, however, be treated in this way.

The preservation of syrups, as well as of all other saccharine solutions, is best promoted by keeping them in a moderately cool, but not a very cold, place. “Let syrups be kept in vessels well closed, and in a situation where the temperature never rises above 55° Fahr.” (Ph. L.) They are better kept in smaller rather than in large bottles, as the longer a bottle lasts the more frequently it will be opened, and, consequently, the more it will be exposed to the air. By bottling syrups whilst boiling hot, and immediately corking down and tying the bottles over with bladder perfectly air-tight, they may be preserved, even at a summer heat, for years, without fermenting or losing their transparency.

The ‘candying,’ or crystallisation, of syrup, unless it be oversaturated with sugar, may be prevented by the addition of a little acetic or citric acid (2 or 3 dr. per gall.).

The fermentation of syrups may be effectually prevented by the addition of a little sulphite of potassa or of limes. Chlorate of potassa has been proposed for this purpose by Dr Macculloch, on theoretical grounds. M. Chereau recommends the addition of some (about 3 to 4%) sugar of milk, with the same intention. Dr Durand asserts that by adding about 1 fl. dr. of ‘Hofmann’s anodyne’ to each pint of syrup, the accession of fermentation may not only be prevented, but arrested when it occurs, fermenting syrups may be immediately restored by exposing the vessel containing them to the temperature of boiling water. The addition of a little spirit is ordered in the new ‘London Pharmacopœia.’

In making the above additions to syrup, care must be had not to mix incompatible substances. Thus, in general the two methods referred to cannot be practised together.

Syrup is, perhaps, the worst possible form of medicine, owing to the difficulty of accurately saturating it with active medicinals, and its liability to change. Few persons think that “sweetness renders a nauseous drug more palatable.” See also Squire’s ‘Companion to the British Pharmacopœia.’

=Syrup of Ac′etate of Mor′phia.= Syn. SYRUPUS MORPHIÆ ACETATIS, L. Prep. (Ph. D.) Solution of acetate of morphia, 1 fl. oz.; simple syrup, 15 fl. oz.; mix. Each fl. oz. contains 1/4 gr. of acetate.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 teaspoonfuls.

=Syrup of Al′mond.= Syn. BARLEY SYRUP, ORGEAT; SYRUPUS AMYGDALÆ, L.; SIROP D’ORGEAT, Fr. Prep. 1. Sweet almonds, 1 lb.; bitter almonds, 1 oz.; blanch, beat them to a smooth paste, and make an emulsion with barley water, 1 quart; strain, to each pint add of sugar, 2 lbs., and a table-spoonful or two of orange-flower water; put the mixture into small bottles, and preserve it in a cool place. Some persons add a little brandy.

2. (Ph. Bor.) Sweet almonds, 8 oz.; bitter almonds, 2 oz.; blanch them, after cold maceration, then beat them in a marble mortar, with a wooden pestle, to a paste, adding, gradually, of water, 16 fl. oz.; orange-flower water, 3 fl. oz.; after straining through flannel, dissolve 3 lbs. of sugar in each pint of the emulsion. An agreeable pectoral and demulcent.

=Syrup of Aniseed.= Syn. SYRUPUS ANISI. Prep. Infuse 1/2 oz. of bruised aniseed in 4 oz. of hot water, strain, and add 2 dr. of sugar.

=Syrup, Antiscorbutic.= Syn. SYRUPUS ANTISCORBUTICUS (P. Cod.) Prep. Scurvy-grass, watercresses, horseradish, all fresh, of each 10 oz.; buckbean, 1 oz.; bitter orange peel, 2 oz.; cinnamon, 1/2 oz.; white wine, 40 oz. (by weight); macerate 2 days and distil off 10 oz. (by weight); then add to the distillate, sugar, 25 oz.; strain the residue left in the retort, decant and make into a syrup with another 25 oz. of sugar; clarify with white of egg, and when cold, add to it the former syrup.——Dose, 4 dr.

=Syrup of Balsam of Peru.= Syn. SYRUPUS BALSAMI PERUVIANI. (Ph. G.) Prep. Balsam of Peru, 1 oz.; boiling water, 11 oz.; digest with frequent agitation till cold, and form 10 oz. of the filtered liquid into a syrup, with 18 oz. of sugar.

=Syrup of Bark.= Syn. SYRUPUS CINCHONÆ. (P. Cod.) Prep. Calisaya bark, 1 oz.; percolate, with 10 oz. of proof spirits (·996), and then with water, so as to yield 10 oz. of liquid; distil off spirit, filter, and add 10 oz. of sugar; reduce by a gentle heat, so as to obtain 15-1/4 oz. (by weight) of product.

=Syrup of Bark, Vinous.= Syn. SYRUPUS CINCHONÆ VINOSUS. (P. Cod.) Prep. Soft extract of bark, 1 oz.; white wine, 2 pints 3 oz.; dissolve, filter, add 3-1/2 lbs. of white sugar, and dissolve by a water bath.

=Syrup of Belladonna.= Syn. SYRUPUS BELLADONNÆ. (P. Cod.) Tincture of belladonna (P. Cod), 3/4 oz. (by weight); syrup, 10 oz. (by weight).

=Syrup, Boyle’s.= See SYRUP, SYMPHYTIC.

=Syrup of Buck′thorn.= Syn. SYRUPUS RHAMNI (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), S. RHAMNNI CATHARTICI, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Juice of Buckthorn, defecated by 3 days’ repose, 2 quarts; ginger and allspice, of each (bruised) 6 dr.; macerate the spice in 1 pint of the juice, at a gentle heat, for 4 hours, and filter; boil the remainder of the juice to 1-1/2 pint, mix the liquors, dissolve therein of white sugar, 6 lbs.; and add to the (nearly cold) syrup 6 fl. oz. of rectified spirit. In the Ph. E. the spirit is omitted.

2. (B. P.) Buckthorn juice, 97; ginger, sliced, 1; pimento, bruised, 1; refined sugar, 97; rectified spirit, 8 oz.; evaporate the juice to nearly half (5/8); add the ginger and pimento, digest at a gentle heat for four hours, and strain; when cold add the spirit, let the mixture stand for two days, then decant off the clear liquor, and in this dissolve the sugar at a gentle heat; sp. gr. 1·32.——Dose, 1 dr.

3. (Wholesale.)——a. Take of buckthorn juice, 3 gall.; bruised pimento and ginger (sifted from the dust), of each 1/2 lb.; simmer for 15 minutes, strain, and add of sugar, 44 lbs.

b. Take of buckthorn juice, 3 galls.; boil to 2 gall.; add of bruised pimento and ginger gruffs (free from dust), of each 3/4 lb.; boil to 1 gall., strain, add molasses, 72 lbs., and finish the boiling.

Obs. Syrup of buckthorn is a brisk but unpleasant cathartic. It is now chiefly used in veterinary practice.——Dose, 1/2 fl. oz. to 1 fl. oz. Should the colour be dull, the addition of a few grains of citric or tartaric acid will brighten it.

=Syrup of Cabbage-tree Bark.= Syn. SYRUPUS GEOFFROYÆ. (Dr Wright.) Prep. Decoction of cabbage-tree bark made into a syrup with twice its weight of sugar. Vermifuge.——Dose, 1 to 4 tablespoonfuls.

=Syrup of Cahinca.= Syn. SYRUPUS CAHINCÆ. (Soubeiran.) Prep. Alcoholic extract of cahinca, 64 gr.; syrup, 16 oz.; dissolve the extract in a little water, and add the solution to the boiling syrup.——Dose, 1 oz. daily.

=Syrup of Cap′illaire.= Syn. SYRUP OF MAIDENHAIR; SYRUPUS ADIANTHI, SYRUPUS CAPILLORUM VENERIS, L.; CAPILLAIRE, SIROP DE CAPILLAIRE, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Canadian maidenhair (Adiantum pedatum——Linn.), 4 oz.; boiling water, 2-1/2 pints; infuse, strain, add of white sugar, 5 lbs., and pour the boiling clarified syrup over 2 oz. more of maidenhair; re-infuse for 2 hours, and again strain.

Obs. Demulcent. Clarified syrup flavoured with orange-flower water or curaçoa is now commonly sold for CAPILLAIRE. It is usually ‘put up’ in small bottles of a peculiar shape, known in the trade as ‘capillaires.’ It is now chiefly used to sweeten and flavour grog. See CAPILLAIRE.

=Syrup of Car′rageen.= Syn. SYRUP OF ICELAND MOSS. Prep. Boil horehound, 1 oz., liverwort, 6 dr., in water, 4 pints, for 15 minutes; express and strain; then add carrageen (previously softened with cold water), 6 dr.; again boil for 15 minutes, strain through flannel, and add sugar, 1 lb., to each pint. An agreeable demulcent in coughs.

=Syrup of Castor, Compound.= Syn. SYRUPUS CASTORII COMPOSITUS. (Lebron.) Prep. Valerian water, 5 oz.; cherry laurel water, 2-1/2 oz.; castor (dissolved in a sufficient quantity of spirit), 3 dr.; white sugar, 15 oz. In spasmodic asthma.

=Syrup of Catechu.= Syn. SYRUPUS CATECHU. (P. Cod.) Prep. Extract catechu, 2-1/2 oz.; syrup, 6 lbs.; dissolve the extract in double its weight of water, and add to the syrup.

=Syrup of Chamomile.= Syn. SYRUPUS ANTHEMIDIS. (P. Cod.) Prep. Chamomile flowers, dried, 1 lb.; boiling water, 10 lbs.; macerate, strain with expression, and form the infusion into a syrup with twice its weight of sugar.

=Syrup of Chloral Hydrate.= Syn. SYRUPUS CHLORALIS HYDRATIS. (B. Ph.) Prep. Hydrate of chloral, 80 gr.; distilled water, 4 fl. dr. Syrup to measure, 1 fl. oz.——Dose, 1/2 fl. dr. to 2 fl. dr.

=Syrup of Chloride of Lime.= Syn. SYRUPUS CHLORIDI CALCIS. (Dr Reid.) Prep. Liquid chloride of lime, 1 dr.; mucilage, 2 dr.; syrup of orange peel, 10 dr.

=Syrup of Cinchonine.= Syn. SYRUPUS CINCHONINÆ. (P. Cod.) Prep. Sulphate cinchonine, 20 gr.; syrup, 16 oz. (by weight).

=Syrup of Citrate of Caffeine.= Syn. SYRUPUS CAFFEINÆ CITRATIS. (Hannon.) Prep. Citrate of caffeine, 1 scruple; syrup, 1 oz.

=Syrup of Citrate of Iron and Ammonia.= Syn. SYRUPUS FERRI ET AMMONIÆ CITRATIS. (Beral.) Prep. Ammonio-citrate of iron, 1/4 oz.; syrup 9-1/2 oz. (by weight); cinnamon water, 1/4 oz.

=Syrup of Citrate of Iron and Quinine.= Syn. SYRUPUS FERRI ET QUINIÆ CITRATIS. A syrup is prepared by Mr Bullock under this name, but its composition has not been made known. Another form is citrate of iron and quinine, 1 oz.; syrup of orange peel, 1 pint. (Beasley.)

=Syrup of Cit′ric Acid.= Syn. SYRUPUS ACIDI CITRICI (Ph. D.), L. Prep. (Ph. D.) Take of citric acid (in powder) and distilled water, of each, 2-1/2 oz.; dissolve, add the solution, together with tincture of lemon peel, 5 fl. dr., to simple syrup, 3 pints, and mix with agitation. An agreeable refrigerant. Used for sweetening barley water, &c., and for flavouring water to be used as a beverage in fevers and other inflammatory diseases.

=Syrup of Cloves.= Syn. SYRUPUS CARYOPHYLLI. (Ph. E.) Prep. Clove, July flowers, 1 troy oz.; boiling water, 4 oz.; macerate for 12 hours, strain, and add sugar, 7 oz.; make a syrup. Used for its colour and flavour.

=Syrup of Cochineal.= Syn. SRYUPUS COCCINELLÆ, SYRUPUS COCCI (Ph. L.), L. Prep. (Ph. L.) Take of cochineal (bruised), 80 gr.; boiling distilled water, 1 pint; boil for 15 minutes in a closed vessel, strain, and add of sugar, 3 lbs., or twice that of the strained liquor; lastly, when the syrup has cooled, add of rectified spirit, 2-1/2 fl. oz., or 1/2 fl. dr. to each fl. oz. of syrup. Used as a colouring syrup, and often sold for SYRUP OF CLOVE-PINKS.

=Syrup of Cochineal, Alkaline.= Syn. SYRUPUS COCCI ALKALINUS. Prep. Cochineal in powder, 2 scruples; carbonate of potash in powder, 4 scruples; triturate, and add boiling distilled water, 16 oz.; strain, and add 4 oz. of sugar candy. A popular domestic remedy for hooping cough.——Dose. From a teaspoonful to a tablespoonful, according to the age of the child, 3 or 4 times a day.

=Syrup of Cod-liver Oil.= Syn. SYRUPUS OLEI MORRHUÆ. (Duclos.) Prep. Mix 5 parts of powdered gum with 4 of simple syrup; add 8 parts of cod-liver oil, triturate till perfectly mixed, gradually adding 12 parts of water; lastly, dissolve in the emulsion, 24 oz. of sugar by means of a gentle heat. In the same manner may be prepared syrups from the oil of skate, castor oil, &c.

=Syrup of Coffee.= Syn. SYRUPUS CAFFEÆ. Prep. Concentrated infusion of fresh-roasted coffee, 4 oz.; refined sugar, 8 oz.; dissolved in a closed vessel by a gentle heat.

=Syrup of Colchicum.= Syn. SYRUPUS COLCHICI. (Ph. E., 1817.) Prep. Fresh colchicum, 1 oz.; vinegar, 16 oz.; macerate for 2 days, and strain with gentle expression; add to the clear liquor 26 oz. of sugar, and boil.

=Syrup of Colts′foot.= Syn. SYRUPUS TUSSILAGINIS, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Flowers of coltsfoot, 1 lb. (or dried flowers, 2 oz.); boiling water, 2 lbs.; macerate for 12 hours; strain, press, filter, and add of white sugar, 4 lbs. A popular remedy in coughs, colds, &c.——Dose, 1 to 2 table-spoonfuls, ad libitum.

=Syrup of Copaiba.= Syn. SYRUPUS COPAIBÆ. (Puche.) Prep. Triturate 2 oz. of copaiba with 1/2 oz. of powdered gum and 1-1/2 oz. of water; add 32 drops of essence of peppermint, and 12 oz. of simple syrup.

=Syrup of Corsican Moss.= Syn. SYRUPUS HELMINTHOCORTI. (P. Cod.) Macerate 1 lb. of cleansed Corsican moss in 2-1/2 lbs. of boiling water; in six hours strain. Macerate the residue in sufficient boiling water, so as to obtain, including the product of the first maceration, 2-3/4 lbs., in which dissolve 5 lbs. of sugar.

=Syrup of Cream.= Finely powdered lump sugar mixed with an equal weight of fresh cream. It will keep for a long time if put into bottles, and closely corked and sealed over. It is commonly placed in 2-oz. wide-mouthed phials, and taken on long voyages, a fresh phial being opened at every meal.

=Syrup of Cyanide of Potassium.= Syn. SYRUPUS POTASSII CYANIDI; SYROP DE HYDROCYANATE DE POTASSE. Prep. Clarified syrup, 16 oz.; medicinal hydrocyanate of potash (a solution of 1 part of cyanide of potassium in 8 of water), 1 dr.

=Syrup of Dittany.= Syn. SYRUPUS DIOTAMNI. From Dittany of Crete, as SYRUP OF HYSSOP.

=Syrup of Dulcamara.= Syn. SYRUP OF BITTER SWEET, SYRUPUS DULCAMARÆ. As SYRUP OF CORSICAN MOSS.

=Syrup, Easton’s.= This preparation is said to contain in each fluid drachm——1 gr. of phosphate of iron, 1 gr. of phosphate of quinia, and a 1/32 gr. of strychnia. The dose is 1 dr. A precipitate, which consists of phosphate of quinine, sometimes forms in this syrup. This may be obviated by avoiding as much as possible exposure of the syrup to the air, caused by filtration of the quinine solution into the syrup.

=Syrup of Eggs.= Syn. SYRUPUS OVORUM. (Fuller.) Prep. Beat the whites of 3 eggs with 6 oz. of plantain water, and work it in a mortar with 6 oz. of powdered sugar till they form a syrup.

=Syrup of Emetina.= SYRUPUS EMITINÆ. (P. Cod.) Prep. Coloured emetine, 12 gr.; syrup, 17-1/2 oz. (by weight); mix.

=Syrup, Empyreumat′ic.= Treacle.

=Syrup of Ergotine.= Syn. SYRUPUS ERGOTINÆ (Bonjean.) Ergotine (watery extract of ergot), 2 dr.; orange-flower water, 1 oz.; dissolve, and add the solution to 16 oz. (by weight) of boiling syrup.——Dose, 2 to 4 spoonfuls in the day.

=Syrup of E′ther.= Syn. SYRUPUS ÆTHERIS, S. Æ. SULPHURICI, L.; SIROP D’ÆTHER, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Sulphuric ether, 1 part; white (simple) syrup, 16 parts; place them in a glass vessel having a tap at the bottom, shake them frequently for 5 or 6 days, and then draw off the clear syrup into small bottles.——Dose, 1/2 to 3 fl. dr.

=Syrup of Eucalyptus.= Syn. SYRUPUS EUCALYPTI GLOBULI. Prep. 1. 100 gr. of the chopped leaves are infused for 6 hours in 1 litre of boiling water, the liquid expressed, and after allowing it to deposit, it is made into a syrup by the addition of 190 grams of sugar, for 100 grams of the clear liquid.

2. (Dorvault.) Distilled water of eucalyptus, 50 parts; sugar, 95 parts; dissolve.

=Syrup, Euston’s.= See SYRUP OF PHOSPHATE OF IRON, WITH QUININE AND STRYCHNIA.

=Syrup of Fennel.= Syn. SYRUPUS FŒNICULI. (Ph. G.) Prep. Infuse bruised fennel seed, 2 oz., in 12 oz. of boiling water for three hours; strain off 10 oz., and dissolve it in 18 oz. sugar.

=Syrup of Foxglove.= Syn. SYRUPUS DIGITALIS. (P. Cod.) Prep. Tincture of foxglove (P. Cod), 1/2 oz. (by weight); syrup, 20 oz. (by weight).

=Syrup of Fumitory.= Syn. SYRUPUS FUMARIÆ. (P. Cod.) Clarified juice of fumitory, 1 lb.; white sugar, 2 lbs.; boil to a syrup.

=Syrup of Garlic.= Syn. SYRUPUS ALLII. (Ph. U. S.) Prep. Garlic, 6 oz. troy; distilled vinegar, 16 oz. (o. m.); macerate for 4 days; express, and form a syrup with the clear liquor and sugar, 2 troy lbs.

=Syrup of Garlic, Compound.= Syn. SYRUPUS ALLII COMPOSITUS. Dr WILL’S SYRUP. Prep. Garlic, cut small, 1/2 oz.; bruised aniseed, 1/2 oz.; elecampane root, 3 dr.; liquorice root, 2 dr.; brandy, 24 oz.; digest for 2 or 3 days, strain, and form a syrup with 1-1/2 lb. of sugar.

=Syrup of Gin′ger.= Syn. SYRUPUS ZINGIBERIS (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Bruised ginger, 2-1/2 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint; macerate for 4 hours, strain, and add of white sugar, 2-1/2 lbs., or q. s.; and rectified spirit, as directed for syrup of cochineal. The Ph. E. omits the spirit.

2. (Ph. D.) Tincture of ginger, 1 fl. oz.; simple syrup, 7 fl. oz.; mix. Stimulant and carminative. Chiefly used as an adjuvant, in mixtures.

3. (B. P.) Strong tincture of ginger, 1; syrup, 25; mix.——Dose, 1 to 4 dr.

=Syrup of Gold.= Syn. SYRUPUS AURI. (P. Cod.) Prep. Powdered gold, 20 gr.; syrup, 1 oz. As a local application.

=Syrup of Guaiacum Wood.= Syn. SYRUPUS GUAIACI LIGNI. (P. Cod.) Prep. Boil rasped guaiacum wood, 3 oz. twice, and for an hour each time, in 30 oz. of water; strain through a thick cloth; mix the two liquids, and concentrate until they are reduced to 6 oz. (by weight); let cool, filter through paper, and add 10 oz. of sugar.

=Syrup of Guarana.= Syn. SYRUPUS PAULLINIÆ, SYRUPUS GUARANÆ. Prep. Extract of guarana, 2-1/2 dr.; syrup, 32 oz.

=Syrup of Gum.= Syn. SYRUPUS ACACIÆ, L.; SIROP DE GOMME, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Dissolve pale and picked gum Arabic in an equal weight of water, by a gentle heat, add the solution to four times its weight of simple syrup, simmer for 2 or 3 minutes, remove the scum, and cool. A pleasant demulcent. The addition of 1 or 2 fl. oz. of orange-flower water to each pint greatly improves it.

=Syrup of Gum Ammoniacum.= Syn. SYRUPUS GUMMI AMMONIACI. (Wurt. Ph.) Prep. Dissolve 2 oz. of gum ammoniacum in 8 oz. of white wine, by the heat of a water-bath, and add sugar, 16 oz.

=Syrup of Gum Tragacanth.= SYRUPUS GUMMI TRAGACANTHÆ. (Mouchon.) Prep. Gum tragacanth, 1 oz.; water, 32 oz.; macerate for 48 hours, press through a linen cloth, and mix the mucilage with 8 lbs. of syrup, heated to 176° F., and strain through coarse cloth.

=Syrup of Hedge Mustard.= Syn. SYRUPUS ERYSIMI. Prep. From the expressed juice of hedge mustard (clarified), 1 lb.; sugar, 2 lbs.; make into a syrup.

=Syrup of Hedge Mustard, Compound.= Syn. SYRUPUS ERYSIMI COMPOSITUS, SIROP DE VELAR, SIROP DE CHANTRE. (P. Cod.) Prep. Pearl barley, raisins, liquorice root, of each 3/4 oz.; cut and dried leaves of borage and chicory, of each 1 oz.; fresh hedge mustard, 15 oz.; dried elecampane root, 1 oz.; maidenhair, 1/4 oz.; dried lavender and rosemary tops, of each 1/4 oz.; green aniseeds, 1/4 oz.; sugar, 20 oz.; honey, 5 oz. Boil the pearl barley in the water until it bursts, add the raisins and the sliced liquorice, the borage and the chicory, and after just boiling strain and press. Then pour the strained liquid on to the other substances properly bruised and cut, and let the mixture digest for 24 hours over a water bath; then distil, drawing over 2-1/2 oz. liquid (by weight); on the other hand, press and strain the liquor that remains in the retort, clarify with white of egg, add the sugar and honey, and make into a syrup that, when boiling, shall have a sp. gr. of 1·29; when nearly cold add the 2-1/2 oz. of distilled liquid, and strain.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 oz.

=Syrup of Henbane.= Syn. SYRUPUS HYOSCYAMI (P. Cod.). From the tincture (P. Cod.) as syrup of belladonna.

=Syrup, Hive.= Compound syrup of squills.

=Syrup of Horehound.= Syn. SYRUPUS MARUBII, L.; SIROP DE PRASSIO, Fr. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) Dried horehound, 1 oz.; horehound water, 2 lbs.; digest in a water bath for 2 hours, strain, and add of white sugar, 4 lbs.

2. White horehound (fresh), 1 lb.; boiling water, 1 gall.; infuse for 2 hours, press out the liquor, filter, and add of sugar, q. s.

Obs. A popular remedy in coughs and diseases of the lungs.——Dose. A table-spoonful, ad libitum. “It is sold for any syrup of herbs that is demanded, and which is not in the shop.” (Gray.)

=Syrup, Horseradish.= Syn. SYRUPUS ARMORACIÆ. (Dr Cullen.) Prep. Scraped horseradish, 1 oz.; hot water, 8 oz.; digest, strain, and dissolve in the liquor twice its weight of sugar.——Dose, 1 dr. frequently in hoarseness from relaxation.

=Syrup of Houndstongue.= Syn. SYRUPUS CYNOGLOSSI. (Fuller.) Prep. Clarified juice of houndstongue boiled, with its weight of sugar, to a syrup. In catarrhous humours.

=Syrup of Hydrochlo′′rate of Mor′phine.= Syn. SYRUP OF MURIATE OF MORPHINE; SYRUPUS MORPHIÆ MURIATIS (Ph. D.), L. Prep. (Ph. D.) Solution of muriate of morphia, 1 fl. oz.; simple syrup, 17 fl. oz.; mix. Each fl. oz. contains 1/4 gr. of the muriate.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 teaspoonfuls.

=Syrup of Hydrocyanic Acid.= Syn. SYRUPUS ACIDI HYDROCYANICI. The Paris Codex orders a syrup, in which 200 parts (by weight) contain 1 part (by weight) of officinal medicinal hydrocyanic acid, containing 10 per cent. of anhydrous acid.

=Syrup of Hypophosphate of Iron.= Syn. SYRUPUS FERRI HYPOPHOSPHITIS. (Wood.) Prep. Granulated sulphate of iron, 480 gr.; hypophosphite of lime, 326 gr.; diluted phosphoric acid, 1 fl. oz.; water, 1-1/2 oz.; syrup, 3 dr. Dissolve without heat the iron in the acid, mixed with the water; rub the hypophosphite to fine powder, and pour on it the solution of sulphate of iron; rub together for two or three minutes; then pour the mixture on a piece of damp calico, and squeeze out the liquid; filter the solution so obtained, and add to it seven times its volume of syrup.

=Syrup of Hypophosphite of Lime.= Syn. SYRUPUS CALCIS HYPOPHOSPHITIS. (Churchill.) Prep. Hypophosphite of lime, 1 part; syrup, 100 parts.

=Syrup of Hypophosphite of Potash.= See SYRUP OF THE HYPOPHOSPHITES.

=Syrup of Hypophosphite of Soda.= See SYRUP OF THE HYPOPHOSPHITES.

=Syrup of Hyposulphite of Soda.= Syn. SYRUPUS SODÆ HYPOSULPHITIS. (Mouchon.) Prep. Hyposulphite of soda, 1 oz.; water, 12 oz.; sugar, 33 oz. Dissolve with a gentle heat, and filter.

=Syrup of the Hypophosphites.= Syn. SYRUPUS HYPOPHOSPHITICUS. Prep. Hypophosphite of lime, potash, and soda, 1 part each, dissolved with heat in syrup, 100 parts.——Dose, 1 dr.

=Syrup of Hyssop.= Syn. SYRUPUS HYSSOPI. (P. Cod.) Prep. As syrup of coltsfoot.

=Syrup of Iceland Moss.= Syn. SYRUPUS LICHENIS. Iceland moss deprived of its bitterness, 1 oz.; syrup, 32 oz. Make a concentrated decoction of the moss, strain and add the syrup, and boil to a proper consistence.

=Syrup of Indian Sarsaparil′la.= Syn. SYRUPUS HEMIDESMI (B. P., Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. D.) Indian sarsaparilla (Hemidesmus Indicus——Brown), bruised, 4 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint; infuse for 4 hours, and to the strained and defecated infusion add twice its weight of sugar. Tonic, diuretic, &c.——Dose, 2 to 4 fl. dr.; in nephritic complaints, and in some others, instead of sarsaparilla.

2. (B. P.) Hemidesmus, bruised, 1; refined sugar, 7; boiling distilled water, 5; infuse 4 hours, strain, add the sugar, and dissolve. The product should weigh 10-1/2 oz., and measure 8. Sp. gr. 1·335.——Dose, 1 to 4 dr.

=Syrup of I′odide of Iron.= Syn. SYRUPUS FERRI IODIDI (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Mix iodine, 1 oz., and iron wire 3 dr., with distilled water, 8 fl. oz., and heat the solution until it assumes a greenish colour; then strain it, evaporate it to about 4 fl. oz., and add to it of white sugar, 10 oz.; lastly, when the syrup has cooled, add as much water as may be necessary, that it may measure exactly 15 fl. oz., and keep it in a well-stoppered black glass bottle. The formulæ of the Ph. E. & D. are nearly similar, a fl. dr. of each containing about 5 gr. of the pure dry iodide. This syrup is tonic and resolvent, and hæmatinic.——Dose, 15 or 20 drops to 1 fl. dr.; in anæmia, debility, scrofula, &c.

2. (B. P.) Iron wire, 1; iodine, 2; refined sugar, 28; distilled water, 13. Make a syrup with the sugar and 10 of the water, and keep it hot. Put into a strong soda-water bottle, covered with a cloth, the iron wire, the iodine, and 3 of the water, shake them together until the froth of the mixture becomes white, filter whilst still hot into the syrup. The product should be made up by water to weigh 43 or to measure 31-1/2. Sp. gr. 1385.——Dose, 20 to 60 minims.

=Syrup of Iodide of Iron, Compound.= Syn. SYRUPUS FERRI IODIDI COMPOSITUS. (Ricord.) Prep. This may be made by adding 1 oz. of the syrup to 9 oz. of compound syrup of sarsaparilla, both by weight.

=Syrup of Iodide of Iron and Quinine.= Syn. SYRUPUS FERRI ET QUINIÆ IODIDI. (Bouchardat.) Prep. Digest 1 dr. of iodine with 1/2 dr. of iron filings and 4 dr. of water, with a gentle heat and frequent agitation, till the solution is colourless. Filter it rapidly into a vessel containing 28 oz. of simple syrup. Dissolve also 12 gr. of sulphate of quinine in 2 dr. of water acidulated with sulphuric acid, and add to the former.

=Syrup of Iodide of Manganese.= Syn. SYRUPUS MANGANESII IODIDI. (M. Hannon.) Pure hydrated carbonate of manganese, 1 dr.; concentrated hydriodic acid, q. s. to dissolve it. Mix this solution with 16-1/2 oz. of sudorific syrup.——Dose. From 2 to 6 tablespoonfuls daily.

=Syrup of Iodide of Potassium.= Syn. SYRUPUS POTASSII IODIDI. (P. Cod.) Prep. Iodide of potassium, 1/4 oz.; water, 1/4 oz.; syrup, 9-1/4 oz. (by weight).

=Syrup of Iodine.= Syn. SYRUPUS IODINII. (Foy.). Prep. Compound tincture of iodine, 4 dr.; mint water, 4 oz.; syrup, 16 oz.

=Syrup of Iodohydrargyrate of Potassium.= Syn. SYRUPUS IODOHYDRARGYRATIS POTASSII (Puche). Prep. Iodohydrargyrate of potassium, 16 gr.; tincture of saffron, 2-1/2 dr.; syrup, 16 oz.

=Syrup of Ipecacuan′ha.= Syn. SYRUPUS IPECACUANHÆ, L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Ipecacuanha (in coarse powder), 4 oz.; rectified spirit, 15 fl. oz.; digest for 24 hours at a gentle heat, and strain; add of proof spirit, 14 fl. oz., and again digest and strain, and repeat the process with water, 14 fl. oz.; distil off the spirit from the mixed liquors, evaporate to 12 fl. oz., and filter; next add to the residuum rectified spirit, 5 fl. oz., and simple syrup, 7 pints, and mix well.——Dose. As an emetic for infants, 1/2 teaspoonful; for adults, 1 to 1-1/2 fl. oz.; as an expectorant, 1 to 3 teaspoonfuls.

=Syrup of Iron and Iodide of Potassium.= Syn. SYRUPUS FERRI ET POTASSII IODIDI. Prep. Dissolve 1 oz. of iodide of potassium in 6 oz. of hot water, add 12-1/4 oz. (fl.) of syrup of iodide of iron, and sufficient simple syrup to make up 1-1/2 pint.

=Syrup of Jalap.= Syn. SYRUPUS JALAPINUS. (P. Cod.) Prep. Jalap, 10 dr.; coriander, 1/2 dr.; fennel seed, 1/2 dr.; water, 12 oz.; heat to 212° F. for twenty minutes, let it stand 24 hours; strain, and make a syrup with 24 oz. of sugar.

=Syrup of Kermes.= Syn. SYRUPUS KERMETIS, SYRUPUS ANTIMONIATUS. Prep. Kermes mineral, 20 gr.; syrup of squills, 1-1/2 oz.; syrup of marshmallow, 1-1/2 oz. Mix.

=Syrup of Lactate of Iron.= Syn. SYRUPUS FERRI LACTATIS. (Cap.) Prep. Lactate of iron, 1 dr.; boiling distilled water, 6 oz.; pure sugar, 12 oz.——Dose, 2 to 4 dr.

=Syrup of Lacto-phosphate of Lime.= Syn. SYRUPUS CALCIS LACTO-PHOSPHATIS. (P. Vincent.[219]) Prep. Burnt bones, 155 gr.; hydrochloric acid, 310 gr.; liquid ammonia, 200 gr.; concentrated lactic acid, distilled water, of each q. s.; sugar, 18-1/2 oz.; leave together for some time the bone ash and the acid until effervescence ceases, then add distilled water, 500 gr.; precipitate with the ammonia, filter, and well wash the precipitate with distilled water, until the washings cease to give a precipitate with nitrate of silver. Leave to drain for 12 hours, after gently heating in a porcelain capsule, and add sufficient lactic acid to dissolve the precipitate; add sufficient distilled water to make the product weigh 9-1/2 oz.; filter, and add the sugar; make dissolve with a gentle heat.

[Footnote 219: ‘Pharm. Journ.’]

=Syrup of Lactucarium.= Syn. SYRUPUS LACTUCARII. (U. S.) Prep. Lactucarium, 1 troy oz.; syrup, 14 oz. (o. m.); proof spirit, q. s.; rub the lactucarium with the proof spirit to a syrupy consistence, transfer to a percolator and percolate with proof spirit until 8 oz. (o. m.) of tincture have been obtained. Evaporate this portion in a water bath at 160°F. to 2 oz. (o. m.). Mix it with the syrup made hot, and strain immediately.

=Syrup of Le′mon.= Syn. SYRUPUS LIMONIS (B. P.), SYRUPUS LIMONUM (Ph. L. & E.), SYRUPUS CITRI MEDICÆ. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Lemon juice (strained or defecated), 1 pint; white sugar, 2-1/2 lbs.; dissolve by a gentle heat, and set it aside; in 24 hours remove the scum, decant the clear portion, and add of rectified spirit, 2-1/2 fl. oz. The Edinburgh College omits the spirit. A pleasant refrigerant syrup in fevers, &c.——Dose, 1 to 4 fl. dr., in any diluent. With water it forms an excellent extemporaneous lemonade.

2. (B. P.) Fresh lemon peel, 2; lemon juice, strained, 20; refined sugar, 36. Heat the lemon juice to the boiling point, and having put it into a covered vessel with the lemon peel, let them stand until they are cold, then filter and dissolve the sugar in the filtered liquid with a gentle heat. The product should weigh 56 and measure 41.——Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

=Syrup of Lettuce.= Syn. SYRUPUS LACTUCÆ. (P. Cod.) Dissolve 2 oz. of extract of lettuce in 8 times its weight of cold water, filter, and add 6 lbs. 2 oz. of syrup, which, when boiling, has a specific gravity of 1·26.

=Syrup of Lime.= Syn. SYRUPUS CALCIS. (Trousseau.) Prep. Slake, 2-1/2 dr. of quicklime, with 3 oz. of water, and add it to 32 fl. oz. of simple syrup; boil 10 minutes and filter. This is usually diluted with 4 parts of syrup. Given in diarrhœa.

=Syrup of Liquorice.= Syn. SYRUPUS GLYCYRRHIZÆ. Prep. Liquorice root, 4 oz.; boiling water, 16 oz.; digest, strain, and make a syrup with sugar.

=Syrup of Lobelia.= Syn. SYRUPUS LOBELIÆ. (Mr Proctor.) Prep. Vinegar of lobelia, 6 oz.; sugar, 12 oz. Dissolve in a gentle heat.

=Syrup of Malate of Manganese.= Syn. SYRUPUS MANGANESII MALATIS. (M. Hannon.) Prep. Malate of manganese, 1 oz.; simple syrup, 16 oz.; spirit of lemon peel, 2 dr.——Dose, 1/2 dr. to 1 dr.

=Syrup of Manna.= Syn. SYRUPUS MANNÆ. (Ph. G.) Prep. Dissolve 3 oz. of manna in 12 oz. of water, strain and filter; then add 16 oz. of sugar, and make it into a syrup.

=Syrup of Mercury.= Syn. SYRUPUS HYDRARGYRI. Prep. “There are several forms for mercurial syrups, but they all appear liable to serious objection. Plenk:——Quicksilver, 1 dr.; powdered gum Arabic, 3 dr.; syrup, 2 oz.; triturate and gradually add 1 oz. of water. Larrey:——Sudorific syrup, 1 pint; bichloride of mercury, 5 gr.; muriate of ammonia, 5 gr.; extract of opium, 5 gr.; Hofman’s anodyne liquor, 1/2 dr.——Dose, 1/2 oz. to 1 oz. Creron’s syrup consists of mercurial ether (4 gr. of sublimate to 2 dr. of ether), 2 dr.; syrup, 8 oz.” (Beasley.)

=Syrup of Marshmal′low.= Syn. SYRUPUS ALTHÆÆ (Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Marshmallow root, fresh and sliced, 1-1/2 oz.; distilled water (cold), 1 pint; macerate for 12 hours, press out the liquor, strain it through linen, and add to the strained liquor twice its weight of white sugar (about 3 lbs.); dissolve by a gentle heat, and, when cold, add of rectified spirit, 2-1/2 fl. oz., or q. s. See SYRUP OF COCHINEAL.

2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Take of fresh marshmallow root, bruised, 8 oz.; water, 4 pints; boil down to one half, and express the liquor when it is cold; set it aside for 24 hours, that the fæces may subside, then decant off the clear liquid, and, having added to it of sugar, 2-1/2 lbs., boil the whole to a proper consistence. The formula of the Ph. E. is similar.

Obs. This is a popular demulcent and pectoral.——Dose, 1 to 4 fl. dr.; in coughs, &c. either alone or added to mixtures.

=Syrup of Milk.= Syn. SYRUPUS LACTIS. Reduce skimmed milk by gentle evaporation to one half, and add twice its weight of sugar.

=Syrup of Monosulphide of Sodium.= Syn. SYRUPUS SODII MONOSULPHIDI. (P. Cod.) Crystallised monosulphide of sodium, 44 gr.; distilled water, 1 oz.; syrup, 94 oz. (by weight).

=Syrup of Mugwort.= Syn. SYRUPUS ARTEMISIÆ. As SYRUP OF WORMWOOD.

=Syrup of Mugwort, Compound.= Syn. SYRUPUS ARTEMISIÆ COMPOSITUS. (P. Cod.) Prep. Take of fresh tops of mugwort, pennyroyal, catmint, and savine, of each 2 oz.; fresh roots of elecampane, lovage, and fennel, of each 88 gr.; fresh tops of wild marjoram, hyssop, feverfew, rue, and basil, of each 1 oz.; aniseed, 1/4 oz.; cinnamon, 1/4 oz.; all properly divided; rectified spirit, 2-1/2 oz. (by weight); water, 30 oz.; syrup of honey, 12-1/2 oz. (by weight). Put the plants in a vessel over a water bath, pour on the water mixed with the spirit, let it stand 24 hours, and then distil over 3-1/2 oz. (by weight). On the other hand, press the residue of the distillation, clarify with white of egg, and add sugar, 25 oz.; then make into a syrup, which, when boiling, has the sp. gr. 1·26. Take the weight and evaporate until it has lost weight, equal to that of the distilled liquid, then add the syrup of honey, and lastly, when nearly cold, the distilled liquid, and strain.——Dose, 2 to 12 dr.

=Syrup of Mul′berries.= Syn. SYRUPUS MORI (B. P., Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Juice of mulberries, strained, 1 pint; sugar, 2-1/2 lbs.; dissolve by a gentle heat, and set the solution by for 24 hours; then remove the scum, decant the clear liquid, and add of rectified spirit, 2-1/2 fl. oz. Used as a colouring and flavouring, when alkalies and earths are not present. Syrup of red poppies (rhœados), slightly acidulated with tartaric or dilute sulphuric acid, is very generally sold for it.

2. (B. P.) Mulberry juice, 20; refined sugar, 32; rectified spirit, 2-1/2; heat the juice to the boiling point, and, when it has cooled, filter it; dissolve the sugar in the filtered liquid by a gentle heat, and add the spirit. The product should weigh 54. Sp. gr. 1·33.——Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

=Syrup of Mu′′riate of Morphia.= See SYRUP OF HYDROCHLORATE OF MORPHINE.

=Syrup of Opium.= Syn. SYRUPUS OPII. (P. Cod.) Prep. Extract of opium, 87-1/2 gr., dissolve in 6 dr. of cold water, and mix with sufficient syrup to make up 6-1/4 lbs. (1 in 500).

=Syrup of Orange Flowers.= Syn. SYRUPUS AURANTII FLORIS (B. P.) Prep. Orange-flower water, 8; refined sugar, 48; distilled water, 16, or a sufficiency; heat the sugar and water together, strain, and when nearly cold add the orange-flower water. When finished should weigh 72 and measure 54. Sp. gr. 1·33.——Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

=Syrup of Orange Juice.= Syn. SYRUPUS E SUCCO AURANTIORUM. (Ph. E., 1744.) Prep. Orange juice, 1 lb.; sugar, 2 lbs. Dissolve by heat.

=Syrup of Or′ange Peel.= Syn. SYRUPUS AURANTII (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), S. CITRI AURANTII, S. É CORTICIBUS AURANTIORUM, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Dried orange peel, 2-1/2 oz.; boiling distilled water, 1 pint; macerate for 12 hours in a covered vessel, press out the liquor, simmer it for 10 minutes, and then complete the process as directed for SYRUP OF COCHINEAL. In the Ph. E. & D., and Ph. L. 1836, no spirit is ordered.

2. (B. P.) Tincture of orange peel, 1; syrup, 7; mix.——Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

3. (Wholesale.)——a. From fresh orange peel, 18 oz. (or dried, 3/4 lb.); sugar, 18 lbs.; water, q. s.

b. From tincture of orange peel, 1 fl. oz.; simple syrup, 19 fl. oz.; mix. An agreeable flavouring and stomachic.——Dose, 1 to 4 fl. dr.

=Syrup, Pectoral.= Syn. SYRUPUS PECTORALIS. (Ph. L. 1746.) Black maidenhair, 5 oz.; liquorice root, 4 oz.; boiling water, 4 pints; macerate for some hours, strain, add to the infusion twice its weight of sugar, and make a syrup.

=Syrup of Pepsine.= Syn. SYRUPUS PEPSINÆ. (Corvisart.) Prep. 6 parts of pepsin in 20 parts of cold water, and added to 70 parts of acidulated syrup of cherries.

=Syrup of Persulphuret of Iron.= SYRUPUS FERRI PERSULPHURETI. (Bouchardat.) Prep. Reduce 10 oz. of syrup by evaporation to 9 oz., and add 2 oz. hydrated persulphuret of iron in a gelatinous state; mix, and keep in a close bottle.——Dose. A teaspoonful two or three times a day in scrofulous and cutaneous affections. As an antidote for poisoning by the salts of lead, mercury and copper. Give a teaspoonful frequently.

=Syrup of Phosphate of Iron.= Syn. SYRUPUS FERRI PHOSPHATIS. (B. P.) Prep. Granulated sulphate of iron, 224 gr.; phosphate of soda, 200 gr.; acetate of soda, 74 gr.; dilute phosphoric acid, 5-1/2 oz.; refined sugar, 8 oz.; distilled water, 8 oz. Dissolve the sulphate of iron in 4 oz. of the water, and the phosphate and acetate of soda in the remainder; mix the two solutions, and, after careful stirring, transfer the precipitate to a calico filter, and wash it with distilled water till the filtrate ceases to be affected with chloride of barium. Then press the precipitate strongly between folds of bibulous paper, and add to it the dilute phosphoric acid. As soon as the precipitate has dissolved, filter the solution, add the sugar, and dissolve without heat. The product should measure exactly 12 fluid ounces. One fluid drachm contains 1 grain of phosphate of iron.

In the preparation of this syrup as much expedition as possible should be used in washing and pressing the precipitate of phosphate of iron formed. It is best washed by decantation. The water employed should be just previously boiled to expel oxygen; the protosulphate of iron should be entirely free from persulphate, and clear crystals of phosphate of soda should be chosen. Mr Howie (whose suggestions the previous ones are in substance) proposes the use of bicarbonate of soda instead of acetate, the phosphate of iron being soluble to a considerable extent in the acetic acid liberated, if acetate of soda be employed. Mr W. H. Jones[220] gives a process for the preparation of this syrup, which consists in dissolving metallic iron in phosphoric acid and water, and then adding the solution to syrup.

[Footnote 220: ‘Pharm. Journ.,’ 3rd series, vol. v, p. 541.]

=Syrup of Phosphate of Iron, Compound.= Syn. SYRUPUS FERRI PHOSPHATIS COMPOSITUS; PARRISH’S CHEMICAL FOOD; SYRUP OF THE COMPOUND PHOSPHATES; SYRUPUS PHOSPHATICUS. (Mr E. Parrish, U. S.) Dissolve sulphate of iron, 10 dr., in boiling water, 2 oz.; and phosphate of soda, 12 dr., in boiling water, 4 oz. Mix, and wash the precipitated phosphate of iron. Dissolve phosphate of lime, 12 dr., in 4 oz. of boiling water, with enough hydrochloric acid to make a clear solution; precipitate with liquid ammonia, and wash precipitate. Add to the fresh precipitates glacial phosphoric acid, 20 dr., dissolved in 4 dr. of water; when clear, add carbonate of soda, 2 scruples, and carbonate of potassa, 1 dr., and then sufficient hydrochloric acid to dissolve the precipitate. Now add water to make the solution measure 22 oz. old measure, and add powdered cochineal, 2 dr.; mixed sugar, 32 troy oz.; apply heat, and, when the syrup is formed, strain it and add orange-flower water, 1 oz.——Dose. A teaspoonful. In addition to phosphate of iron and phosphate of lime this syrup contains smaller quantities of the alkaline phosphates. Mr Howie points out that Parrish is incorrect in stating that this syrup contains 1 gr. of phosphate of iron and 2-1/2 gr. phosphate of lime in the fluid drachm, if this statement be compared with his formula, which by calculation will be found to give ·715 gr. of phosphate of iron and 2 gr. of phosphate of lime for the fluid drachm, even if none of the former were wasted in the process. Mr Howie deprecates the use of hydrochloric acid sometimes had recourse to in preparing the syrup, and he adds that the purest sugar only should be used, and that made from beet-root should be carefully avoided. See a valuable paper by Mr Howie on this subject, ‘Pharm. Journ.,’ 3rd series, vol. vi, p. 804.

=Syrup of Phosphate of Iron and Manganese.= Syn. SYRUPUS FERRIPHOSPHATIS ET MANGANESII. Prep. Dissolve 6 dr. of glacial phosphoric acid in a small quantity of water, add 72 gr. of phosphate of iron, and 48 gr. of phosphate of manganese; apply heat to dissolve, then add sugar, 10 oz., and water up to measure of 12 oz.——Dose, 1 to 4 dr.

=Syrup of Phosphate of Iron, with Quinine and Strychnia.= Syn. SYRUPUS FERRI PHOSPHATIS, CUM QUINIA ET STRYCHNIA.

=Syrup of Phosphate of Manganese.= Syn. SYRUPUS MANGANESII PHOSPHATIS. (M. Hannon.) Prep. Phosphate of manganese, 1/2 dr.; spirit of tolu, 3 oz. 3 dr; syrup of bark, 5 oz.; spirit of lemon peel, 1-1/2 dr.; powder of tragacanth, 10 gr. Mix quickly and preserve in a well-stoppered bottle.

=Syrup of Phosphate of Quinine.= Syn. SYRUPUS QUININIÆ PHOSPHATIS. Prep. Phosphate of quinine, 96 gr.; water, 13-1/2 fl. dr.; syrupy phosphoric acid (sp. gr. 1·500), 2-1/2 fl. dr.; syrup, 10 fl. dr. Mix the acid with the water, add the quinine, and filter into the syrup.

=Syrup of Phosphate of Zinc.= Syn. SYRUPUS ZINCI PHOSPHATIS. Prep. Phosphate of zinc, 192 gr.; water, 11 fl. dr.; syrupy phosphoric acid (sp. gr. 1·500), 5 fl. dr.; syrup, 10 fl. oz. Rub the phosphate with the water, add the acid and filter into the syrup.

=Syrup of Phosphoric Acid.= Syn. SYRUPUS ACIDI PHOSPHORICI. Prep. Phosphoric acid (sp. gr. 1·454), 1/2 oz.; syrup, 32-1/2 oz. (both by weight). Syrup of raspberries may be substituted for simple syrup.

=Syrup of Pomegranate-root Bark.= Syn. SYRUPUS CORTICIS RADICIS GRANATI. (Guibort.) Prep. Obtain from 1 lb. of powdered bark of pomegranate root 4 lbs. of infusion by percolation. Boil this with 28-1/2 oz. of syrup till reduced to 2 lbs.

=Syrup of Pop′pies.= Syn. SYRUP OF WHITE POPPIES; SYRUPUS PAPAVERIS (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), S. P. SOMNIFERI, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Poppy capsules, coarsely powdered, free from seeds, 36; rectified spirit, 16; refined sugar, 64; boiling distilled water, a sufficiency; macerate the poppy capsules in 80 of the water. Infuse for 24 hours, then pack in a percolator, and, adding more of the water, allow the liquor slowly to pass until 320 have been collected or the poppies are exhausted; evaporate the liquor by a water bath until it is reduced to 60; when quite cold add the spirit; let the mixture stand for 12 hours and filter. Distil off the spirit, evaporate the remaining liquor to 40, and then add the sugar. The product should weigh 104 and measure 78-3/4. Sp. gr. 1·32.——Dose, 1 dr.; 10 to 20 minims for children, increasing cautiously.

2. (Ph. L.) Poppy-heads, dried, bruised, and without the seed, 3 lbs.; boiling water, 5 galls.; boil down to 2 galls., press out the liquor, evaporate the expressed liquid to 2 quarts, strain it whilst hot, and set it aside for 12 hours; next decant the clear portion from the fæces, boil this down to 1 quart, and dissolve in it sugar, 5 lbs.; lastly, when cold, add of rectified spirit, 5 fl. oz. “Each fl. oz. is equivalent to 1 gr. of dry extract.” In the Ph. E. & Ph. D. 1826 no spirit is ordered.

3. (Wholesale.) Extract of poppies, 1-1/2 lb.; boiling water, 2-1/2 galls.; dissolve, clarify, or filter, so that it may be perfectly transparent when cold, then add of white sugar, 44 lbs., and dissolve.

Obs. Syrup of poppies is anodyne and soporific.——Dose. For an infant, 1/4 to 1/2 teaspoonful; for an adult, 2 to 4 fl. dr. According to M. Chereau, its tendency to fermentation is prevented by the addition of 32 parts of sugar of milk to every 1000 parts of the syrup.

=Syrup of Potassio-tartrate of Iron.= Syn. SYRUPUS FERRI POTASSIO-TARTRATIS. Prep. Dissolve 4 dr. of potassio-tartrate of iron in 4 dr. of cinnamon water, and mix the solution with 16 oz. of syrup.

=Syrup of Pyrophosphate of Iron.= Syn. SYRUPUS FERRI PYROPHOSPHATIS. (Parrish.) Prep. Pyrophosphate of iron in scales, 16 gr.; syrup, 1 fl. oz.

=Syrup of Pyrophosphate of Iron and Ammonia.= Syn. SYRUPUS FERRI PYROPHOSPHATIS ET AMMONIÆ. (P. Cod.) Prep. Pyrophosphate of iron with citrate of ammonia, 1 dr.; water, 2 dr.; syrup, 12 oz.

=Syrup of Quinine with Coffee.= Syn. SYRUPUS QUINIÆ CUM CAFFEA. Prep. Prepare 1-1/2 pint of clear infusion from 4 oz. of roasted coffee; dissolve it in 5 lbs. of refined sugar, and add to the syrup 1-1/2 dr. of sulphate of quinine dissolved in a little water, with the addition of a few drops of sulphuric acid.

=Syrup of Raspberry.= Syn. SYRUPUS ACETI RUBI IDŒA. (P. Cod.) Prep. Raspberry vinegar, 10 oz. (by weight); sugar, 17-1/2 oz.; boil them together.

=Syrup of Red Pop′pies.= Syn. SYRUPUS RHŒADOS (Ph. L. & E.), S. PAPAVERIS RHŒADOS, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Petals of the red poppy, 1 lb.; boiling water, 1 pint; mix in a water bath, remove the vessel, macerate for 12 hours, press out the liquor, and, after defecation or filtering, complete the process as directed for SYRUP OF COCHINEAL.

2. (Wholesale.) From dried red-poppy petals, 3 lbs,; boiling water, q. s.; white sugar, 44 lbs.; as the last.

Obs. Syrup of red poppies is chiefly employed for its fine red colour. A little acid brightens it. The colour is injured by contact with iron, copper, and all the common metals.

=Syrup of Red Roses.= Syn. SYRUPUS ROSÆ (B. P.), SYRUPUS ROSÆ GALLICÆ (Ph. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Dried petals of the red rose, 2 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint; pure sugar, 20 oz.; as the last.

2. (Ph. D.) Dried petals of the gallic rose, 2 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint; boil in a glass or porcelain vessel until the colour is extracted, strain with expression, and, after defecation, add to the clear decanted liquor twice its weight of white sugar. Astringent and stomachic; chiefly used as an adjunct in mixtures, &c.

3. (B. P.) Dried rose petals, 1; refined sugar, 15; boiling distilled water, 10; infuse the petals in the water 2 hours, squeeze through calico, heat the liquor to the boiling point, and filter; add the sugar and dissolve with heat. The product should weigh 23 and measure 17-1/4. Sp. gr. 1·335.——Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

=Syrup of Rhatany.= Syn. SYRUPUS KRAMERIÆ. (P. Cod.) As syrup of catechu.

=Syrup of Rhu′barb.= Syn. SYRUPUS RHEI (B. P.). Prep. 1. (B. P.). Rhubarb, in coarse powder, 2; coriander fruit, in powder, 2; refined sugar, 24; rectified spirit, 8; distilled water, 24; mix the rhubarb and coriander, pack them in a percolator, pass the spirit and water, previously mixed, slowly through them, evaporate the liquid that has passed until it is reduced to 13, and in this, after it has been filtered, dissolve the sugar with a gentle heat.——Dose, 1 to 4 dr.

2. (P. Cod.) Bruised rhubarb, 3 oz.; cold water, 16 fl. oz.; macerate for 12 hours, filter, and add of white sugar, 32 oz.

3. (Ph. U. S.) Take of rectified spirit, 8 fl. oz.; water, 24 fl. oz.; rhubarb (coarsely powdered), 2 oz.; (mixed with) sand, an equal bulk, or q. s.; make a tincture by percolation, evaporate this, over a water bath, to 13 fl. oz., and dissolve it in 2 lbs. of white sugar. An excellent formula.

4. (Wholesale.) Rhubarb (bruised), 1-3/4 lb.; cold water, q. s.; sugar, 20 lbs.; as No. 1. Stomachic and purgative.——Dose. For an infant, 1/2 to 1 teaspoonful; for an adult, 1/2 to 3/4 fl. oz., or more.

=Syrup of Rhubarb and Senna.= Syn. SYRUPUS RHEI ET SENNÆ. (Ph. E., 1745.) Prep. Rhubarb, 1 oz.; senna, 2 oz.; fennel seed, 2 dr.; cinnamon, 2 dr.; boiling water, 2-1/2 pints; macerate for 12 hours, strain, and boil with 3 lbs. of sugar to a syrup.

=Syrup of Rhubarb (Spliced).= Syn. SYRUPUS RHEI AROMATICUS, L. Prep. (Ph. U. S.) Rhubarb, 2-1/2 oz.; cloves and cinnamon, of each 1/2 oz.; nutmeg, 1/4 oz. (all bruised); proof spirit, 32 fl. oz.; macerate for 14 days (or percolate), strain, gently evaporate to 16 fl. oz., filter whilst hot, and mix the liquid with simple syrup (gently warmed), 4-3/4 pints. A cordial laxative.——Dose, 1/2 to 1 teaspoonful; in infantile constipation, diarrhœa, &c.

=Syrup of Ros′′es.= Syn. SYRUPUS ROSÆ (Ph. L.), SYRUPUS ROSÆ CENTIFOLIÆ (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Dried petals of damask roses (Rosa centifolia), 7 oz.; boiling water, 3 pints; macerate for 12 hours, filter, evaporate in a water bath to 1 quart, and add of white sugar, 6 lbs.; and, when cold, rectified spirit, 5-1/2 fl. oz.

2. (Wholesale.) From rose leaves, 1 lb.; sugar, 19 lbs.; water, q. s.; as the last. Gently laxative.——Dose, 1/4 to 1 fl. oz. It is usual to add a few drops of dilute sulphuric acid, to brighten the colour. Alkalies turn it green.

=Syrup of Rue.= Syn. SYRUPUS RUTÆ, L. Prep. Take of oil of rue, 12 to 15 drops; rectified spirit, 1/2 fl. oz.; dissolve, and add it to simple syrup, 1 pint.——Dose, 1/2 to 1 teaspoonful; in the flatulent colic of children. An infusion of 1/2 oz. of the herb is sometimes substituted for the solution of the essential oil.

=Syrup of Saf′fron.= Syn. SYRUPUS CROCI (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Hay saffron, 5 dr. (10 dr.——Ph. E; 1/2 oz.——Ph. D.); boiling water, 1 pint; macerate in a covered vessel for 12 hours, then strain the liquor, and add of white sugar, 3 lbs., q. s., and rectified spirit, 2-1/2 fl. oz., or q. s. in the manner directed under SYRUP OF COCHINEAL. The Ph. E. & D. omit the spirit.

2. (Wholesale.) Hay saffron, 6 oz.; boiling water, 6 quarts; white sugar, 24 lbs.; as the last. Used for its colour and flavour; the first is very beautiful.

=Syrup of Salicin.= Syn. SYRUPUS SALICINI. Prep. Salicin, 1 dr.; boiling water, 1 oz.; sugar, 2 oz.

=Syrup of Santonate of Soda.= Syn. SYRUPUS SODÆ SANTONATIS. This formula is recommended because of the adaptability of its administration to children; the syrup being of very pleasant taste. It is made as follows:——Powdered santonate of soda, 5 grams; simple syrup, 900 grams; syrup of orange flower, 100 grams. Suspend the santonate in 250 grams of the syrup, and heat it over a spirit-lamp until dissolved; add the remainder of the syrup, then the syrup of orange flower, and mix carefully. A tablespoonful or 20 grams of this syrup will contain 10 centigrams of santonate, or the equivalent of 5 centigrams of santonin. For adults the dose might be double, or a syrup made containing 20 centigrams to the tablespoonful.

=Syrup of Sarsaparil′la.= Syn. SYRUPUS SARZÆ (Ph. L. & E.), SYRUPUS SARSAPARILLÆ, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Take of sarsaparilla (sliced), 3-1/2 lbs.; boil it in water, 2 galls., down to one half; pour off the liquor, and strain it whilst hot; again boil the sarsaparilla. in another gall. of water down to one half, and strain; evaporate the mixed liquors to 1 quart, and in these dissolve of white sugar, 8 oz.; lastly, when the syrup has cooled, add to it of rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz.

2. (Ph. E. & Ph. L. 1836.) Sarsaparilla (sliced), 15 oz.; boiling water, 1 gall.; macerate for 24 hours, boil to 2 quarts, strain, add of sugar, 15 oz., and boil to a syrup.

3. (Wholesale.) Take of extract of sarsaparilla, 3 lbs.; boiling water, 3 quarts; dissolve, strain, and add of white sugar, 12 lbs. Alterative and tonic.——Dose, 2 to 4 dr. See SARSAPARILLA.

=Syrup of Sarsaparil′la, Compound.= Syn. SYRUPUS SARZÆ COMPOSITUS, L.; SYROP DE CUISINIER, Fr. Prep. (Ph. U. S.) Sarsaparilla (bruised), 2 lbs.; guaiacum wood, rasped, 3 oz; damask roses, senna, and liquorice root, bruised, of each 2 oz.; diluted alcohol (proof spirit), 10 wine pints (1 gall. imperial); macerate for 14 days, express, filter through paper, and evaporate in a water bath to 4 wine pints (3-1/4 pints, imperial); then add of white sugar, 8 lbs.; and, when cold, further add of oils of sassafras and aniseed, of each 5 drops, and oil of partridge berry (Gaultheria procumbens), 3 drops, previously triturated with a little of the syrup.

Obs. This is an excellent preparation; but the rose leaves might be well omitted.——Dose, 1/2 fl. oz. 3 or 4 times a day, as an alterative, tonic, and restorative. The syrup of the P. Cod. is made with water instead of spirit, and is inferior as a remedy to the preceding.

=Syrup of Sarsaparilla, Ioduretted.= Syn. SYRUPUS SARSÆ IODURETI. (Ricord.) Prep. Syrup of sarsaparilla, 31 parts; iodide of potassium, 1 part.

=Syrup of Senega.= Syn. SYRUPUS SENEGÆ. (U. S.) Prep. Senega in moderately fine powder, 4 troy oz.; sugar, 15 troy oz.; proof spirit, 2 pints (o. m.) Introduce the senega into a percolator and pour on the proof spirit; when finished, evaporate the percolate by a water bath at 160° F. to 8 oz. (o. m.); filter, add the sugar, dissolve by a gentle heat, and strain whilst hot.

=Syrup of Sen′na.= Syn. SYRUPUS SENNÆ (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Take of senna, 3-1/2 oz.; fennel seed (bruised), 10 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint; macerate for 6 hours, with a gentle heat; then strongly press out the liquid through linen, and dissolve in it of manna, 3 oz.; next add this solution to treacle, 3 lbs., previously evaporated over a water bath until a little of it, on being cooled, almost concretes, and stir them well together.

2. (Ph. E.) Senna, 4 oz.; boiling water, 24 fl. oz.; infuse, strain, add of treacle, 48 oz., and evaporate to a proper consistence. Aperient.——Dose, 1 to 4 dr.

3. (B. P.) Senna, broken small, 8 oz.; oil of coriander, 4-1/2 minims; refined sugar, 12 oz.; distilled water, 50 oz.; or a sufficiency; rectified spirit, 1 oz.; digest the senna in 3/4 of the water twenty-four hours at a temperature of 120°, press, and strain; digest the marc in the remainder of the water six hours, press, and strain; evaporate the mixed liquors to 5 oz.; when cold add the rectified spirit containing the oil of coriander; filter, and wash the filter with water to make up to 8 oz.; add the sugar, and dissolve with gentle heat. The product should weigh 21 oz., and measure 16 oz. Sp. gr. 1·310.——Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

=Syrup of Senna with Manna.= Syn. SYRUPUS SENNÆ CUM MANNA. (Ph. G.) Prep. Infuse 10 oz. of senna leaves and 1 oz. of bruised fennel seeds for some hours in 205 pints of hot water; strain, and dissolve in the strained liquor 15 oz. of manna. Pour off 5-1/2 oz. (by weight) of liquid from the sediment, and dissolve it in 3 lbs. 2 oz. of sugar.

=Syrup, Simple.= Syn. SYRUPUS (B. P., Ph. L.), SYRUPUS SIMPLEX (Ph. E. & D.), L.

1. (Ph. L.) White sugar, 3 lbs.; distilled water, 1 pint; dissolve by a gentle heat.

2. (Ph. E. & Ph. L. 1836.) Pure sugar, 10 lbs.; boiling water, 3 pints.

3. (Ph. D.) Refined sugar (in powder——crushed), 5 lbs.; distilled water, 1 quart.

4. (B. P.) Refined sugar, 6; distilled water, 3; dissolve the sugar in the water with the aid of heat, and when cool add water to make the product weigh 9 and measure very nearly 7. Sp. gr. 1·33.

5. (Wholesale.) Finest double refined sugar, 44 lbs.; distilled water, 2-3/4 gall.; make a syrup.

Obs. This preparation should be as white and transparent as water. Used as capillaire, &c., and to give cohesiveness and consistence to pulverulent substances in the preparation of electuaries, pills, &c.

=Syrup of Snails.= Syn. SYRUPUS LIMACIBUS (P. Cod.) Prep. Vine snails, deprived of their shells and of the black portions, and cut up, 2 oz.; wash in cold water and then boil with 10 oz. of water to 7 oz.; then add 10 oz. of sugar.

=Syrup of Soap Wort.= Syn. SYRUPUS SAPONARIÆ. From the root, the same as syrup of coltsfoot.

=Syrup of Squills.= Syn. SYRUPUS SCILLÆ (B. H., Ph. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Vinegar of squills, 3 pints; white sugar (in powder), 7 lbs.; dissolve by a gentle heat.

2. (Ph. D.) Vinegar of squills, 8 fl. oz.; refined sugar (in powder), 1 lb.; dissolve.

3. (B. P.) Vinegar of squills, 20; refined sugar, 40; dissolve with the aid of heat.——Dose, 1/2 to 1 dr.

4. (Wholesale.) Take of vinegar of squills (perfectly transparent), 14 lbs.; double refined sugar, 28 lbs.; dissolve in a stoneware vessel, in the cold, or at most by a very gentle heat.

Obs. This syrup, like the last, should be as clear as water, and nearly colourless.——Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr., as an expectorant; in chronic coughs and asthma. In large doses it proves emetic.

=Syrup of Squills, Compound.= =Syn.= HIVE SYRUP; SYRUPUS SCILLÆ COMPOSITUS, L. Prep. (Ph. U. S.) Squills and senega, of each, bruised, 5 oz.; water, 1/2 gall.; boil to a quart; add of sugar, 4-1/2 lbs.; evaporate to 3 pints, or a proper consistence, and dissolve in it, whilst hot, of potassio-tartrate of antimony (in powder), 1 dr.

Obs. This syrup is a popular expectorant in the U. S., where it is known as hive syrup.——Dose. As an expectorant, 20 to 30 drops, for adults; for children, 5 to 10 drops; in croup, 10 drops to 1/2 fl. dr., repeated until it vomits.

=Syrup of Stinking Hellebore.= Syn. SYRUPUS HELLEBORI FŒTIDI. Prep. Sprinkle the fresh leaves of bear’s foot with vinegar, and express the juice. Boil this with twice its weight of sugar.

=Syrup of Stramonium.= Syn. SYRUPUS STRAMONII. From the tincture as syrup of belladonna.

=Syrup of Strychnia.= Syn. SYRUPUS STRYCHNIÆ. (P. Cod.) The Paris Codex orders a syrup containing 1/4 gr. of sulphate of strychnia in 1000 gr. of syrup.

=Syrup, Sudorific.= Syn. SYRUPUS SUDORIFICUS. (Foy.) Sarsaparilla, 6 oz.; guaiacum raspings, 6 oz.; water, 3 pints. Macerate for 24 hours, evaporate to 1-1/2 pint; strain, and make into a syrup with 2-1/2 lbs. of sugar.

=Syrup of Sulphate of Iron.= Syn. SYRUPUS FERRI SULPHATIS. (Willis.) Prep. Sulphate of iron, 1 dr.; water, 2 dr.; syrup, 16 oz.

=Syrup of Sulphate of Quinine.= Syn. SYRUPUS QUININÆ SULPHATIS. (P. Cod.) Prep. Dissolve 30 gr. of sulphate of quinine in 4 dr. of water, with 1/2 dr. of dilute sulphuric acid, and mix the solution with 13 oz. of white syrup.

=Syrup of Sulphuret of Potassium.= Syn. SYRUPUS POTASSII SULPHURETI. (P. Cod.) Prep. Liver of sulphur, 8 gr.; water, 16 gr.; syrup, 1 oz.

=Syrup of Superphosphate of Iron.= Syn. SYRUPUS FERRI-SUPERPHOSPHATIS. (Mr Greenish.) Prep. Superphosphate of iron, 2 scruples; simple syrup, 1 fl. oz.

=Syrup, Symphytic.= Syn. SYRUPUS SYMPHYTI; BOYLE’S SYRUP. (Ph. E. 1745.) Prep. Fresh comfrey root, 1/2 lb.; plantain leaves, 1/2 lb.; bruise, express the juice, boil to half, and make a syrup with an equal weight of sugar.

=Syrup of Tannin.= Syn. SYRUPUS TANNINI. (Foy.) Prep. Tannin, 2 oz.; water, 16 oz.; sugar, 32 oz.

=Syrup of Tar.= Syn. SYRUPUS PICIS. (P. Cod.) Prep. Tar water, 5-1/4 oz.; sugar, 10 oz. Dissolve by water bath, and filter through paper.

=Syrup of Tartaric Acid.= Syn. SYRUPUS ACIDI TARTARICI. (P. Cod.) Prep. Tartaric acid, 1 oz.; water, 2 oz,; sugar, 6 lbs. 1 oz. Dissolve in the cold.

=Syrup of Tartrate of Manganese.= Syn. SYRUPUS MANGANESII TARTRATIS. Made with tartrate of manganese, as syrup of malate of manganese.

=Syrup of Tolu′.= Syn. BALSAMIC SYRUP; SYRUPUS TOLUTANUS (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Balsam of Tolu, 10 dr. (1 oz.——Ph. D.); boiling distilled water, 1 pint; boil in a covered vessel for 1/2 an hour, frequently stirring, then cool, strain, and dissolve in the liquor sugar, 2-1/2 lbs.

2. (Ph. E.) Simple syrup (warm), 2 lbs.; tincture of Tolu, 1 oz.; mix by degrees, and agitate them briskly together in a closed vessel.

3. (B. P.) Balsam of Tolu, 1-1/4; sugar, 32; water, 20; boil the balsam half an hour, adding water when required; when cold make up to 16, filter, add the sugar, and dissolve. The product weighs 48 and measures 36. Sp. gr. 1·33.——Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

4. (Wholesale.) To warm water, 23 lbs., add tincture of Tolu, gradually, until it will bear no more without becoming opaque; then cork down the bottle, and occasionally agitate until cold; when quite cold, filter it through paper, and add of the finest double-refined sugar, 44 lbs.; lastly, promote the solution, in a closed vessel, by a gentle heat, in a water bath.

Obs. This syrup should be clear and colourless as water; but, as met with in the shops, it is usually milky. It is strange that the London College should have omitted from their formula the usual addition of rectified spirit, although this syrup, perhaps more than any other, would be benefited by it.

Syrup of Tolu is pectoral and balsamic.

=Syrup of Valerian.= Syn. SYRUPUS VALERIANÆ. (P. Cod.) Prep. Infuse 1 lb. of bruised valerian in 4 lbs. of boiling water for six hours; strain, and press; then pour upon the marc 2 lbs. more of boiling water, or q. s. so as to obtain 4-1/2 lbs. of infusion, including the product of the first infusion; filter, and add 1 lb. of valerian water, and then dissolve in it, by the aid of a water bath, 10 lbs. of sugar.

=Syrup of Vanilla.= Syn. SYRUPUS VANILLÆ. Prep. Vanilla, 2 oz.; white sugar, 18 oz.; water, 9 oz. Beat the vanilla with a few drops of spirit, then with part of the sugar, and water, q. s. to form a soft paste; add the rest of the sugar and water, and digest for 18 or 20 hours in a glass vessel placed in a water bath. Strain and clarify with white of egg if required.

=Syrup, Velno’s Vegetable.= According to Dr Paris and Sir B. Brodie, this celebrated nostrum is prepared as follows:——Young and fresh burdock root, sliced, 2 oz.; dandelion root, 1 oz.; fresh spearmint, senna, coriander seed, and bruised liquorice root, of each 1-1/2 dr.; water, 1-1/2 pint; boil down gently to a pint, strain, add of lump sugar, 1 lb., boil to a syrup; and, lastly, add a small quantity of corrosive sublimate, previously dissolved in a little spirit. Used as an alterative and purifier of the blood.

=Syrup of Vin′egar.= Syn. SYRUPUS ACETI, L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Take of vinegar (French, in preference), 11 fl oz.; white sugar, 14 oz.; and make a syrup.——Dose, 1 dr. to 1 fl. oz.; as an expectorant, in coughs and colds, or diffused through any mild diluent, as a drink in fevers. A more agreeable preparation is that of the P. Cod., made by dissolving 30 parts of sugar in 16 parts of raspberry vinegar.

=Syrup of Vi′olets.= Syn. SYRUPUS VIOLARUM, SYRUPUS VIOLÆ (Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Macerate violet flowers, 9 oz., in boiling water, 1 pint, for twelve hours, then press, strain, and set aside the liquid, that the fæces may subside; afterwards complete the process with sugar, 3 lbs., and rectified spirit, 2-1/2 fl. oz. (or as much of each as may be necessary), in the way which has been ordered concerning syrup of cochineal.

2. (Ph. E.) Fresh violets, 1 lb.; boiling water, 2-1/2 pints; infuse for 24 hours in a covered vessel of glass or earthenware, strain off the liquor (with gentle pressure), filter, and dissolve in the liquid white sugar, 7-1/2 lbs.

3. (Wholesale.) From double-refined white sugar, 66 lbs.; ‘anthokyan,’[221] 11 lbs.; water, 22 lbs., or q. s.; dissolve in earthenware.

[Footnote 221: The expressed juice of violets, defecated, gently heated in earthenware to 192° Fahr., then skimmed, cooled, and filtered; a little spirit is next added, and the next day the compound is again filtered.]

Uses. Syrup of violets is gently laxative.——Dose. For an infant, a teaspoonful.

Obs. Genuine syrup of violet has a lively violet-blue colour, is reddened by acids, turned green by alkalies, and both smells and tastes of the flowers. It is frequently used as a test. A spurious sort is met with in the shops, which is coloured with litmus, and slightly scented with orris root. The purest sugar, perfectly free from either acid or alkaline contamination, should alone be used in the manufacture of this syrup. The Ph. E. orders the infusion to be strained without pressure; and the P. Cod., and some other Ph., direct the flowers to be first washed in cold water.

=Syrup of Wild Cherry Bark.= Syn. SYRUPUS PRIMI VIRGINIANÆ. (U. S.) Prep. Moisten 5 troy. oz. of coarsely powdered bark of wild cherry and water; let it stand 24 hours, then put it into a percolator, adding water till 16 oz. (o. m.) of liquid are obtained. To this add 2-1/4 troy lbs. of sugar in a bottle and agitate until it is dissolved.

=Syrup, Wilks’.= See SYRUP OF GARLIC, COMPOUND.

=Syrup of Worm′wood.= Syn. SYRUPUS ABSINTHII, L.; SIROP D’ABSINTHE, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Tops of wormwood (dried), 1 part; boiling water, 8 parts; infuse for 12 hours, strain, with expression, and dissolve in the liquor twice its weight of sugar. Bitter, tonic, and stomachic.——Dose, 1 to 3 fl. dr.

=Syrups for Aerated Waters.= 1. a. Lemon Syrup.——Dissolve 1 oz. of citric acid in 4 oz. of water, and add to 9 pints of simple syrup; also add 4 fl. oz. of mucilage of acacia and half a fluid ounce of tincture of lemon.

b. Grate off the yellow rind of lemons and beat it up with a sufficient quantity of granulated sugar. Express the lemon-juice; add to each pint of juice 1 pint of water and 3-1/2 lbs. of granulated sugar, including that rubbed up by the rind. Warm until the sugar is dissolved, and strain.

c. Dissolve 6 dr. of tartaric acid and 1 oz. of gum Arabic in pieces in 1 gallon of simple syrup, then flavour with 1-1/2 fl. dr. of best oil of lemon. Or flavour with the saturated tincture of the peel in Cologne spirits.

2. a. Orange Syrup. To be prepared from the fruit in the same manner as b, Lemon Syrup.

b. Dissolve 6 dr. of citric acid in 1 gall. of simple syrup, and add 2 fl. dr. of fresh oil of orange in 2 oz. of alcohol, or, instead of the alcohol solution of the oil, use the saturated tincture, obtained by macerating the fresh peel for ten days in sufficient Cologne spirits to cover. The lemon and orange syrups made from the fruit, after being strained, may be diluted with an equal bulk of simple syrup. One dozen of the fruit is sufficient to make 1 gallon of finished syrup.

3. Vanilla Syrup. See SYRUP.

4. Syrup of Coffee. See SYRUP.

5. Strawberry and Raspberry Syrups. Mash the fresh fruit, express the juice, and to each quart add 3-1/2 lbs. of granulated sugar. The juice, heated to 180° Fahr. and strained or filtered previous to dissolving the sugar, will keep for an indefinite time. See also STRAWBERRY ESSENCE, FACTITIOUS.

6. Pine-apple Syrup. Expressed juice of pine-apple, 1 pint; sugar, 2 lbs. Boil gently, and when cold, filter.

7. Nectar Syrup. Mix 3 parts of vanilla syrup with 1 each of pine-apple and lemon syrup.

8. Sherbet Syrup. Mix equal parts of orange, pine-apple, and vanilla syrup.

9. Grape Syrup. Mix 1/2 pint of brandy, 1/4 oz. of tincture of lemon, and sufficient tincture of red sanders, with 1 gall. of syrup.

10. Cream Syrup. Condensed milk, 1 pint; water, 1 pint; sugar, 1-1/2 lb. Heat to boiling, and strain.

11. Orgent Syrup. Cream syrup and vanilla syrup, of each 1 pint; oil of bitter almonds, 4 minims.

12. Ginger Syrup. Syrup, 7-1/2 fl. oz.; essence of ginger (1 part of ginger to 4 of spirit), 1/2 oz.

13. Syrup of Chocolate. Chocolate, 8 oz.; syrup, sufficient; water, 1/2 pint; white of 1 egg. Grate the chocolate and rub it in a mortar with the egg. When thoroughly mixed, add the water gradually, and triturate till a uniform mixture is obtained. Finally, add syrup to 4 pints, and strain.

=TABASHEER.= A deposit chiefly composed of silica, found in the joints of the bamboo. When dry it is opaque, but possesses the property of becoming transparent when placed in water. Its deposition in the nodes and joints of the bamboo appears to be due to a diseased condition of these parts. Tabasheer is much and unduly prized by the natives of India as a tonic and constitutional restorative, and is chewed mixed with betel. It has the least refractive power on light of any body known.

=TABES DORSALIS.= A disease of the posterior column of the spinal cord, resulting in incoordination of the movements of the legs, sometimes spreading to the upper limbs, so that the patient in walking throws out the legs with a jerk, and brings them down violently upon the heels. Such patients are popularly called “Stampers.”

=TABLETTES.= [Fr.] See LOZENGES and SAVONETTES.

=TACAMAHACA.= The resinous substance known by this name, is believed to be obtained from the Fagara octandra (of Linnæus), a large tree growing in the island of Curaçoa and in Venezuela. The juice, which exudes from the tree spontaneously, becomes hard upon exposure. The commercial article varies greatly in size, sometimes occurring in irregular-shaped pieces of one or two inches in diameter, whilst at others it is met with no larger than a mustard seed. The pieces are usually of a reddish-brown or light yellow colour. They have a resinous agreeable odour, with a balsamic, bitter, slightly acrid taste. Tacamahaca dissolves partially in alcohol, and entirely so in ether and fixed oils. It is composed of resin and a little volatile oil. There are several varieties of this substance. At one time Tacamahaca enjoyed a high reputation as an internal remedy for urinary and scorbutic affections. It is now only occasionally employed in medicine as an ingredient in ointments and plaster. Sometimes it enters into the composition of incense. In properties it is very similar to the turpentines.

=TAF′FETAS.= Plasters on silk are occasionally so called. For TAFFETAS ANGLICUM, see COURT PLASTER; for TAFFETAS VESICANS, see VESICANTS.

=TALC.= Syn. FOLIATED TALC; UBRUC. A transparent, foliated, siliceous magnesian mineral, flexible, but not elastic, found in Scotland, the Tyrol, and elsewhere. It is used as a cosmetic, to impart a silky whiteness to the skin; also in the composition of rouge végétal, and to give a flesh-like polish to alabaster figures. A second and harder species of this mineral (FRENCH CHALK, SOAPSTONE, STEATITE; CRETA GALLICA) is employed as a crayon by carpenters, glaziers, and tailors, and forms the boot-powder of the boot-makers. Writing executed with it on glass, even after being apparently removed by friction, becomes again visible when breathed upon.

=TAL′LOW= and other fats are commonly purified by melting them along with water, passing the mixed fluids through a sieve, and letting the whole cool slowly, when a cake of cleansed fat is obtained.——Another plan is to keep the tallow melted for some time, along with about 2% of oil of vitriol, largely diluted with water, employing constant agitation, and allowing the whole to cool slowly; then to remelt the cake with a large quantity of hot water, and to wash it well.——Another method is to blow steam for some time through the melted fat. By either this or the preceding process a white hard tallow may be obtained.——Some persons add a little nitre to the melted fat, and, afterwards, a little dilute nitric or sulphuric acid, or a solution of bisulphate of potash. Others boil the fat along with water and a little dilute nitric or chromic acid, or a mixture of bichromate of potash and sulphuric acid; and afterwards wash it thoroughly with water. These methods answer well for the tallow or mixed fats of which ordinary candles are made.

Tallow converted into stearic acid by saponification is readily hardened and bleached, if moderately pure. A mixture composed of 1 part of oxalic acid and 2000 parts of water is sufficient to bleach 1000 parts of stearic acid. The mode of operating is as follows:——Throw the stearic acid, cut into small pieces, into a vessel of cold water, and turn on steam; as soon as it has melted and assumed a turbid appearance, add the solution of oxalic acid, and boil the mixture. After boiling for 3/4 hour, long threads appear in the liquid; the liquid itself, which previously was of a greyish colour, becomes black, and the threads unite together. The boiling must now be discontinued, and the contents of the vessel, having been allowed to settle for three or four hours, must be drawn off into the coolers.

As commercial stearic acid frequently contains undecomposed tallow, as well as various foreign matters, this process is occasionally unsuccessful. To obviate the inconveniences connected with the use of this impure material, the candle may be run at two operations, as follows:——“The stearic acid, treated as above, is exposed for a month to the sun, by which means the foreign matters are oxidised, and the bleached stearic acid acquires a dirty yellow colour; the oxidised blocks are then melted in water containing a little sulphuric acid, at about 150° Fahr.; an addition of about 10 per cent. of good white wax (or spermaceti) is next made, and the whole boiled for half an hour; the white of an egg, previously beaten up in a quart of water, is then added to each 1 cwt. of stearic acid, the temperature of the mass having been reduced to 100°, or at most 120° Fahr., after which the mixture is again well stirred and boiled, when the liquid soon becomes clear, which is seen by the dark colour it assumes.

“This mixture of stearic acid and wax or spermaceti is very suitable for forming the exterior coating of the candle; it is transparent, and of perfect whiteness, and, as it is devoid of oxalic acid, it does not injure the moulds; whilst at the same time, as it is less fusible than pure stearic acid, candles made with it do not run. The first coating may be run hot without crystallising; the interior of the candle, being protected from without against too sudden a cooling, may also be run somewhat hot; by this means the candle acquires a whiteness and a transparency which cannot be realised by other processes.” (‘Le Moniteur Industriel.’)

The sulphuric acid saponification of inferior tallow and other solid or semi-solid fatty bodies is now carried out on a very large scale for producing the cheaper varieties of ‘stearine candles.’ For this purpose, the tallow or fat is mixed with 5 or 6% of concentrated sulphuric acid, and exposed to a steam heat of 350° to 360° Fahr. After cooling, the black mass thus obtained crystallises to a tolerably solid fat, which is well washed once or twice with water, or high-pressure steam, and is then submitted to distillation by the aid of steam heated to about 560° Fahr. The product of the distillation is beautifully white, and may be at once used for making candles. It is better, however, to first submit it to the processes of cold and hot pressing, whereby a much more solid fat is obtained.

According to M. Pohl, palm oil or palm tallow is most easily purified by simple exposure to a high temperature, provided it has been first well defecated. When quickly heated to about 465° Fahr., and kept at that temperature for from 5 to 15 minutes, it is completely decoloured. The product has a slight empyreumatic odour, but this disappears by age, exposure, or saponification, and the natural violet odour of the oil returns. Cast-iron pans should be employed in the process, and should be only 2-3rds filled, and well covered during the operation.

By the distillation of sulphurated palm oil in closed vessels, at a heat ranging from 570° to 600° Fahr., from 68% to 75% of a mixture of palmitic and palm-oleic acid passes over, of which 25% to 30% is colourless, hard, and crystalline, and the rest darker and softer. (Pohl.) The residuum in the still is a fine hard pitch. See CANDLES, FAT, GLYCERIN, OILS (Fixed), STEARIC ACID, &c.

=TAMAR′A.= A mixed spice used in Italian cookery, consisting of cinnamon, cloves, and corianders, of each 2 parts; aniseed and fennel seed, of each 1 part.

=TAM′ARIND.= Syn. TAMARINDUS (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. The pulp or preserved fruit or pod of the Tamarindus Indica, or tamarind tree.

Tamarind pulp is refrigerant and gently laxative. Mixed with water, it forms a grateful acidulous drink in fevers.——Dose, 1/4 oz. and upwards.

Composition of the Tamarind.——Vanquelin.

Citric acid 9·40 per cent. Tartaric ” 1·55 ” Malic ” 0·45 ” Bitartrate of potash 3·25 ” Sugar 12·50 ”

Besides gum, vegetable jelly, parenchyma, and water.

=TANKS.= The difference between water-tanks and cisterns is not very obvious. Perhaps the definition the most nearly representing the general idea respecting them would be, that whilst both were receptacles for water, in tanks water would be stored for a longer period than in cisterns, which supplying the constantly recurring needs of a house or a building of any kind would be more frequently filled and emptied; although in many instances there might be no such distinction between them, and they might be regarded as synonymous. In whatever sense the terms may be understood, the remarks that follow as to their construction and management have a common application.

The materials for tanks and cisterns for the reception of water consist of stone, cement, brick, slate, iron, zinc, and lead. Of these materials, the best, although the dearest, is slate. The slate cistern, however, is occasionally liable to leakage, a defect mostly arising from the employment of mortar instead of cement for joining the slabs.

Wrought-iron cisterns and tanks as well as the pipes in connection with them are in very general use. The tendency of both to corrosion by the action of the water is considerably reduced by coating the insides with Portland cement or a vitreous glaze.

Mr Burn advocates the employment of a compound of tar, which, he says, most effectually protects them. Zinc, although cheap, and little acted upon by water, is seldom employed for cisterns. Dr Osborne says he has seen several cases of zinc poisoning, caused by drinking water that had passed through zinc pipes, or had stood in zinc pails. Equal, if not greater risk is incurred when drinking-water is kept in lead cisterns, or is made to run through lead pipes. In setting up cisterns or tanks made of stone or cement, common mortar must not be used, as lime is taken up and the water is rendered hard in consequence.

In seasons of drought it is by no means an unusual occurrence for many rural districts to lack a sufficiency of water, the limited supply of which entails considerable suffering, sometimes terminating fatally upon farm stock, with frequent loss to the owners. Few persons, perhaps, can form a correct idea of the immense quantity of water that in the shape of rain falls even in the least humid portions of our islands. If this rain, which is now allowed to run waste, were properly collected and stored, it would form a valuable resource in times and at places where there was a dearth or scarcity of this necessary element.

Mr Bayley Denton, writing on this subject, says:——“Take an ordinary middle-class house in a village with stabling and outbuildings, the space of ground covered by the roofs will frequently reach 10 poles, while the space covered by a farm-labourer’s cottage and outbuildings will be 2-1/2 poles.

Assuming that the roof is slate and the water dripping from it is properly caught by eave-troughing, and conducted by down-pipes and impervious drain-pipes into a water-tight tank sufficiently capacious to prevent overflow under any circumstances, and that by this method 20 inches of water from rain and dew are collected in the course of the year, the private houses will have the command of 28,280 gallons, and the cottage 7070 gallons in a year.... A tank 16 feet long, and ten feet wide, will hold 1000 gallons in every foot of depth, and where the water is not wanted for drinking, it need not be covered, except with a common boarded floating roof of half-inch boards fastened together. This floating roof keeps the water clean, and prevents evaporation.”[222]

[Footnote 222: ‘On the Storage of Water,’ by Bayley Denton.]

Leakage of pipes of any kind into a cistern or tank should be particularly guarded against. Another important precaution claiming adoption is to see that the overflow-pipe is not directly connected with the sewer, for if it be, the sewer gases will rise through it, and being prevented escaping from the cistern because of its covering, will become absorbed by the water. To obviate this, the overflow-pipe is curved, so as to force a syphon trap; but this device conduces to a sense of false security, since it mostly fails owing to the evaporation of the water in it, or to the gases forcing their way through it. The overflow-pipe, therefore, should never have direct communication with the sewer, but should always end above ground, and discharge over a trapped grating into it. For similar reasons the same tanks or cisterns should never supply the water used for culinary or drinking purposes and also the water-closets.

To the water in the tanks attached to these latter, some disinfectant substance should from time to time be added; more particularly during hot weather.

Unless a cistern be efficiently protected, particularly if it be placed in an exposed situation, various disgusting and filthy substances, such as the ordure of birds, cats, rats, and dead insects, &c., will be liable to fall into it, and foul its contents. This must not only be guarded against by the proper means, but even where the contamination may not be suspected, or likely to occur, the cistern should be frequently examined and periodically cleansed; part of the proper carrying out of which should consist in always running off the water remaining in it and renewing it with fresh.

The London and General Water Purifying Company have adopted an excellent idea in connection with tanks and cisterns; they fit them with filters, so that the water drawn from the pipes shall have been submitted to filtration previous to delivery.

=TAN′NATE.= A salt of tannic acid.

=TAN′NER’S BARK.= The best of this is oak bark; but the bark of the chestnut, willow, and larch, and other trees which abound in tannin, are also used for preparing leather.

=TAN′NIC ACID.= C_{27}H_{22}O_{17}. Syn. TAN, TANNIN, GALLO-TANNIC ACID†; TANNINUM, ACIDUM TANNICUM (B. P., Ph. L., D., & U. S.), L. A peculiar vegetable principle, remarkable for its astringency and its power of converting the skins of animals into leather.

Prep. 1. (Pelouze.) From galls, in moderately fine powder, by percolation, in a closed vessel, with sulphuric ether that has been previously agitated with water. After some time the percolated liquid will be found divided into two distinct portions, the lower and heavier one being a watery solution of tannic acid, and the upper one an ethereal solution of gallic acid and colouring matter. Fresh ether must be passed through the powder as long as the lower stratum of liquid continues to augment. The two fluids are now carefully separated, and after the heavier one has been well washed with ether, it is gently evaporated to dryness, preferably under the receiver of an air pump, or over sulphuric acid. The ether may be recovered unaltered from the ethereal solution, by cautious distillation in a retort connected with a Liebig’s condenser supplied with ice-cold water. Prod. About 40%.

2. (Ph. D.) From galls, in tolerably fine powder, 8 oz., and a mixture of sulphuric ether, 3 pints, with water, 5 fl. oz.; by percolation, in successive portions, like the last; the aqueous solution of tannic acid being evaporated, and finally dried at a heat not exceeding 212° Fahr.

Prop., &c. Pure tannic acid is perfectly white, but as ordinarily met with it has a slight yellowish colour, owing to the action of the air; it is uncrystallisable; possesses a powerful and purely astringent taste, without bitterness; is freely soluble in water, less so in alcohol, and only very slightly in ether; it reddens vegetable blues; when boiled with acids, it assimilates water and splits into gallic acid and grape sugar; when heated in the dry state, it suffers decomposition, metagallic and pyrogallic acids being formed; it unites with the bases, forming salts called tannates, which are characterised by striking a deep black with the persalts of iron (ink), and forming a white precipitate with gelatin.

E. Schmidt[223] gives the following comparative method of determining tanning materials, stating, preliminarily, “that the question to be solved is, knowing that a certain weight of pure tannin is required to obtain a certain result, how much of another tanning body, e.g. the extract of a wood, is required to produce the same result? None of the published methods for the determination of tannin is sufficiently precise, easy, and rapid for industrial purposes.”

[Footnote 223: Chem. News, from ‘Bull. de la Soc. Chem. de Paris.’]

The author proposes a modification of Pibram’s method with sugar of lead, the modification being as follows:

A. Preparation of the Test Liquor. Fifty grams neutral acetate of lead are dissolved in 400 grams of alcohol, of 92 per cent., and distilled water is added to make up 1 litre.

On the other hand, 1 gram of tannin is dissolved in 40 grams of alcohol of the same strength, and the solution is made up with water to the bulk of 100 c.c. This being done, 10 c.c. of the tannin solution are mixed with 20 c.c. of water, and heated to 60°. The lead liquor is then run into the hot solution from a burette, graduated to tenths of a c.c., so long as a precipitate is formed. At this temperature, and with these alcoholised liquids, the precipitate forms and settles rapidly. Iodide of potassium may be used as an indicator to show excess of lead, proceeding in the same manner as is done with ferrocyanide in titrating phosphates with nitrate of uranium. If we suppose that to precipitate 10 c.c. of the tannin solution 28° of the lead liquor have been required, then 2·8 c.c. of the latter = 0·10 gram of tannin.

B. Preparation of the Sample to be tested. Suppose that chestnut bark is to be examined. It is coarsely powdered, and 10 grams are mixed with an equal volume of washed sand, and exhausted with water at 50° or 60° C. The filtered liquid is evaporated to dryness in a water bath in a tarred porcelain capsule. After evaporation the capsule is weighed, which shows the yield of the bark in aqueous extract. This is taken up in 40 grams of alcohol at 92°, and water is added to make up 100° c.c. The liquid is filtered if needful. In this manner the resinous, albuminoid, pectic, and gummy matters are got rid of.

C. Titration. The liquid thus prepared is divided into two parts. The first, one third of the entire volume, serves for direct determination of the acetate of lead. Suppose that a gram of the dry extract of chestnut has required, for 10 c.c. of the tannin liquor, in three successive experiments, 16°, 17°, and 16° of the burette, which corresponds to 57 per cent. of tannin. Thus figure 57 represents not only tannin, but every other substance capable of precipitating acetate of lead.

The tannin is then absorbed with bone black, previously washed with hydrochloric acid, and dried at 100° C. in the following manner:——We act with bone black upon the tannin liquor, and on a solution of pure tannic, prepared at a standard somewhat lower than that indicated for the extract by the first direct titration. In the present case this solution of tannin should be prepared at 55 per cent.

From one and the same glass tube, about 1 centimètre in diameter, we cut off two lengths of 20 centimètres each, and we draw out each at one of its ends. The two tubes are fixed perpendicularly with the points downwards, and plugged with a little carded cotton. Into each is put 10 grams of the bone black, pouring into one of them the second part of the tannin liquor under examination, and into the other the same volume of the pure solution of pure tannin at 55 per cent.

Twenty c.c. of the tannin liquor (which will be found to have retained its original brown colour in spite of the bone black) are now heated to 60° C., and the standard lead liquor is added from the burette as before. Two successive trials show 16° = 8° for 10 c.c. in place of the 16° found for 10 c.c. on direct titration. On the other hand, 20 c.c. of the solution of pure tannin require 14°, or 7° for 10 c.c. Thus we see that in the tannin liquor (chestnut extract) there is a certain quantity of matter which acts upon the standard lead solution like tannin, corresponding to 1° of the lead liquor, i. e. to 357 thousandths of a centigram of tannin; 28°, therefore, correspond to 10 centigrams. The figure 57, obtained by direct titration, is, therefore, too high by 3·57 per cent., and the extract contains 57 - 3·57 = 53·43 per cent. of tannin.

Uses, &c. The value of substances containing tannin in the preparation of leather is well known. In its pure form it is used as an astringent in medicine; internally, in diarrhœa, hæmorrhages, as a tonic in dyspepsia, &c.; externally, made into a gargle, injection, or ointment.——Dose, 1 to 10 gr., in the form of pills or solution. See GALLIC ACID, &c.

=TAN′NIN.= See TANNIC ACID.

=TAN′NING.= When the skin of an animal, carefully deprived of hair, fat, and other impurities, is immersed in a dilute solution of tannic acid, the gelatin gradually combines with that substance as it penetrates inwards, forming a perfectly insoluble compound, which resists putrefaction completely; this is tanned leather. In practice, lime water is used for cleansing and preparing the skin, water acidulated with oil of vitriol for ‘raising’ or opening the pores, and an infusion of oak bark, or sometimes of catechu, or other astringent matter, as the source of tannic acid. The process itself is necessarily a slow one, as dilute solutions only can be safely used. Skins intended for the curriers, to be dressed for ‘uppers,’ commonly require about 3 weeks; and ‘thick hides,’ from 12 to 18 months.

Of late years various ingenious contrivances have been adopted, with more or less success, to hasten the process of tanning skins and hides. Among these may be mentioned the employment of stronger tan solutions, the application of a gentle heat, puncturing the skins to afford more ready access for the liquid to their interior parts, and maceration in the tan liquor under pressure, either at once or after the vessel containing them has been exhausted of air by means of an air-pump. On the merit of these several methods it has been remarked “that the saturated infusions of astringent barks contain much less extractive matter, in proportion to their tannin, than the weak infusions; and when the skins are quickly tanned in the former, common experience shows that it produces leather which is less durable than leather slowly formed.” (Sir H. Davy.) “100 lbs. of skin, quickly tanned in a strong infusion of bark, produce 137 lbs. of leather; while 100 lbs., slowly tanned in a weak infusion, produce only 117-1/2 lbs.” “Leather thus highly (and hastily) charged with tannin is, moreover, so spongy as to allow moisture to pass readily through its pores, to the great discomfort and danger of persons wearing shoes made of it.” (Ure.)

According to Mr G. Lee, much of the original gelatin of the skin is wasted in the preliminary processes to which they are subjected, more especially the ‘liming’ and ‘bating,’ He says, that 100 lbs. of perfectly dry hide, cleaned from extraneous matter, should, on chemical principles, afford at least 180 lbs. of leather.

MOROCCO LEATHER is prepared from goat or sheep skins, which, after the action of lime water and a dung bath, are slightly tanned in a bath of sumach. They are subsequently grained, polished, &c.

RUSSIA LEATHER is generally tanned with a decoction of willow bark, after which it is dyed, and curried with the empyreumatic oil of the birch tree. It is the last substance which imparts to this leather its peculiar odour and power of resisting mould and damp. See LEATHER, TANNIC ACID, TAWING, &c.

=TANTALIC ACID.= Syn. TANTALIC ANHYDRIDE; COLUMBIC ACID. Rose believed this substance to be a dioxide, to which he gave the formula TaO_{2}; but the subsequent researches of Marignac, and the crystalline form of potassic tantalic fluoride 2KF, TaF_{5}, seem to show that it is to be regarded rather as Ta_{2}O_{5}.

=TAN′TALUM.= Ta. Syn. COLUMBIUM. A rare metal discovered by Mr Hatchett, in 1801, in a mineral from Massachusetts; and by M. Ekeberg, in 1803, in tantalite, a mineral found in Sweden. It exists in most of its ores in combination with oxygen.

=TAPEWORM.= See WORMS.

=TAPEWORM CURE= (Bloch, Vienna). Coarsely powdered pomegranate root bark, 125 grammes, boiled for half an hour in 800 grammes water. To this add solution of ammonia, 5 grammes; boil again for a quarter of an hour. Add kousso flowers 25 grammes. Again boil for a few minutes, and when cold add citric acid, 1 gramme; and alcohol, 30 grammes. Press, filter, and set aside. The product should weigh about 500 grammes. Klinger says this remedy is merely a concentrated essence of pomegranate root bark, and contains neither ammonia nor citric acid.

=Tapeworm Cure= (Jacoby, Berlin). A box containing 20 grammes of kousso powder and directions for use. (Hager.)

=Tapeworm Cure= (Mix). (a) A mixture containing 3 decigrammes of sulphate of quinine, with a few drops of hydrochloric acid to dissolve it in 200 grammes water. To be taken in the course of three days. (b) A box with 12 grammes kousso powder. A teaspoonful to be taken each morning in black coffee. (Schädler.)

=Tapeworm Cure= (Richard Mohrmann, Frankenberg, Saxony). This Mohrmann travels about in the fashion of the old charlatans, to sell his medicines. These consist of two varieties, the first being 10 grammes of extract of male fern, the second a mixture of 8 grammes each of raspberry juice and castor oil. These remedies have been used for tapeworm for almost 100 years. The doctor’s directions for use are to mix 30 grammes of the extract with the castor oil and raspberry compound, and 30 drops of the mixture to be taken every quarter of an hour, until purging occurs.

=Tapeworm Cure= (Mork, Berlin). A decoction of about 110 grammes of pomegranate root bark, yielding 400 grammes of liquid, and mixed 1 gramme of extract of male fern. The directions order that on one day one or two tablespoonfuls of castor oil should be taken, a herring salad in the evening, and the following morning, after coffee, a third of the contents of the bottle, another third half an hour later, and the remainder in yet another half hour. (Hager.)

=Tapeworm Cure for Children and Adults= (E. Karig, Berlin). Burned oxide of copper, 1 gramme; cassia powder, 1-1/2 gramme; sugar of milk, 10 grammes. Divide in 24 powders. (Schädler.)

=Tapeworm Pills, Laffon’s=, are compounded of the ethereal extract of the root of Aspidium Lonchitis, Asp. Helveticum, and Asp. Filixmas, together with the alcoholic extract of the flowers of Achillea mutellina and maschata, and the powder of the flowers of Arnica Doronicum. (Wittstein.)

=Tapeworm Pills, Peschier’s.=——Ethereal extract and powder of the rhizome of male fern, of each gramme 1·6 make 20 pills. Take ten at night and ten in the morning.

=TAPIO′CA.= Syn. TAPIOCA (Ph. E. & D.), L. The fecula of the root of Janipha manihot (Jatropha manihot——Linn.), which has been well washed in water, and dried on hot plates, by which it assumes the appearance of warty-looking granules.

Pure tapioca is insipid, inodorous, only slightly soluble in cold water, but entirely soluble in boiling water, forming a translucent and highly nutritious jelly. Its granules are muller-shaped, about 1/2000 of an inch in diameter, and display very marked hilums. It is used in a similar manner to sago and arrow-root. See CASSAVA.

=TAPS, WOODEN (to prevent their cracking).= The taps are placed in mother paraffin, heated to from 110° to 120°; by this means the water is eliminated from the wood, and the wood becomes thoroughly impregnated with paraffin. The taps are heated in this bath until all the aqueous vapour has been expelled, and are left in it, after the removal of the vessel from the fire, up to the very moment the paraffin begins to solidify. Wooden taps thus prepared are very durable, do not become soaked with liquids, keep very tight, and are not liable to become mouldy. The excess of paraffin is wiped off with care, and the taps are next rubbed clean with a piece of flannel. (Dr E. Kopp.)[224]

[Footnote 224: ‘Chemical News.’]

=TAR.= Syn. PIX LIQUIDA (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. A liquid bitumen prepared from the wood of Pinus sylvestris, and other species, by heat. The chemical constitution of tar is very complicated. Its uses in the arts are well known. As a medicine it is stimulant, diuretic, sudorific, and vermifuge.——Dose, 20 to 60 minims, made into pills with flour; in ichthyosis, &c. Externally, in lepra, psoriasis, foul ulcers, &c. See OINTMENT and INFUSION.

=Tar, Barbadoes.= Syn. PIX LIQUIDA BARBADENSIS, PETROLEUM BARBADENSE, PETROLEUM (Ph. L. and E.), L. “Black liquid bitumen, exuding spontaneously from the earth.” (Ph. L.) Its properties for the most part resemble those of the last.——Dose, 10 to 30 drops; in asthma, chronic coughs, tapeworm, &c. Externally, in chilblains, chronic and rheumatic pains, &c. See PETROLEUM.

=Tar, Coal.= Produced during the distillation of bituminous coal for gas. See NAPHTHA, &c.

=TARAX′ACUM.= See DANDELION.

=TAR COLOURS.= Syn. COAL TAR COLOURS, ANILINE COLOURS, &c. Coal tar, the source of the aniline colours, consists of the oily fluid obtained in the destructive distillation of coal, during the manufacture of ordinary illuminating gas, and collected in a tank from the hydraulic main and condensers.

The composition of coal tar is highly complex, the most important constituents being, however, a series of homologous hydrocarbons obtained by distilling coal tar, and known as ‘coal naphtha.’ Naphtha, by rectification between 180° and 250° Fahr. (82 and 121 Cent.), yields a light yellow oily liquid, of sp. gr. ·88, the benzol of commerce.

By the action of a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids on benzol, nitro-benzol, a heavy oily liquid with an odour of oil of bitter almonds is obtained. In commerce this substance is made in large cast-iron pots, fitted with tight covers, and provided with stirrers worked by steam power. By means of pipes the reagents are admitted and the nitrous fumes are carried off, while the nitro-benzol and the spent reagents are drawn off from the bottom. The entire charge of benzol is first placed into the vessels, and the mixed acids are, as the reaction is very energetic, cautiously run in, the whole being well stirred throughout. When finished, the contents are drawn off, and the nitro-benzol collected, washed with water, and, if necessary, neutralised with a solution of soda. See BENZOL.

Nitro-benzol is converted into aniline in a similar apparatus, only provided with means of admitting a current of superheated steam, and condensing the aniline as it distils over. Into the vessel iron borings are placed, and acetic acid and nitro-benzol cautiously run in as the reduction is violent, stirring well all the time. A current of superheated steam is passed through, and the aniline collected as it distils over as a pale, sherry-coloured oily liquid, boiling at 360° Fahr. (182 Cent.), and of sp. gr. 1·02. See ANILINE.

MAUVE, INDISINE, VIOLINE, PHENAMINE, the first-discovered coal tar, or aniline colour, was obtained by Mr Perkins during some experiments directed towards the artificial formation of quinine, and was also first practically manufactured by Mr Perkins. Commercially, mauve is made as follows:

Aniline and sulphuric acid in proper proportions are dissolved in water in a vat by aid of heat, and when cold a solution of bichromate of potassium added, and the whole allowed to stand a day or two, when a black precipitate is obtained, which, after collecting on shallow filters, is washed and well dried. This black resinous substance is digested with dilute methylated spirit in a suitable apparatus, to dissolve out the mauve, and the major portion of the spirit distilled off. The mauve is precipitated from the aqueous solution left behind by hydrate of sodium, and after washing is either drained to a paste or dried.

The amount of mauve thus obtained is but small in comparison with the raw material, coal tar, as 100 lbs. of coal yield 10 lbs. 12 oz. of coal tar; 8-1/2 oz. of mineral naphtha, 2-3/4 oz. of benzol; 4-1/4 oz. of nitro-benzol, 2-1/4 oz. of aniline, and 1/4 oz. of mauve. Mauve is usually sent into the market in paste or solution, the expense of the crystals being heavy, and offering no corresponding advantages.

Other salts than the bichromate of potassium have been employed to convert aniline into mauve, as chloride of copper, permanganate of potassium, &c.; but experience has shown none to possess the same advantages as the bichromate of potassium.

MAUVEINE, the organic base of mauve or aniline purple, is a black crystalline powder, of the formula C_{27}H_{24}N_{3}, yielding a dull violet solution. The moment, however, mauveine is brought in contact with an acid, it turns a magnificent purple colour. The salts of mauveine form beautiful crystals possessing a splendid green metallic lustre, soluble very readily in alcohol, and less so in water. The commercial salt, or mauve, is the acetate, or sometimes the hydrochlorate.

=Magenta.= Syn. ANILINE RED, ROSEINE, FUCHSINE, AZALEINE, SOLFERINO, TYRALINE. Various processes have been proposed and patented for the preparation of this commercially important coal-tar colour. Amongst these processes are——

1. Gerber-Keller’s, patented in France, October 29th, 1859. By this the aniline is treated with mercuric nitrate.

2. Lauth and Depouilly used nitric acid.

3. Medlock (patent dated January, 1860). Nicholson, and Messrs Girard and De Laire, all in 1860, separately patented the use of arsenic acid. This process, being the one now almost exclusively employed, is thus described in Crace Calvert’s work, ‘Dyeing and Calico Printing,’ edited by Messrs Stenhouse and Grove. “The manufacture of magenta, as it is now conducted in the large colour works, is a comparatively simple process, the apparatus employed consisting of a large cast-iron pot set in a furnace, provided with means of carefully regulating the heat. It is furnished with a stirrer, which can be worked by hand or by mechanical means, the gearing for the stirrer being fixed to the lid, so that by means of a crane the lid may be removed, together with the stirrer and gearing. There is also a bent tube passing through the lid for the exit of the vapours, which can be easily connected or disconnected with a worm at pleasure; lastly, there are large openings at the bottom of the pot, closed by suitable stoppers, so that the charge can be removed with facility as soon as the reaction is complete. Into this apparatus, which is capable of holding about 500 gallons, a charge of 2740 lbs. of a concentrated solution of arsenic acid, containing 72% of the anhydrous acid, is introduced, together with 1600 lbs. of commercial aniline. The aniline selected for this purpose should contain about 25% of the toluidine.

“After the materials have been thoroughly mixed by the stirrer the fire is lighted, and the temperature gradually raised to about 360° F. In a short time water begins to distil, then aniline makes its appearance along with the water, and, lastly, aniline alone comes over, which is nearly pure, containing, as it does, but a very small per centage of toluidine. The operation usually lasts about eight or ten hours, during which time about 170 gallons of liquid pass over, and are condensed in the worm attached to the apparatus; of this about 150 lbs. are aniline. The temperature should not exceed 380° F. at any period during the operation. When this is complete steam is blown in through a tube, in order to sweep out the last traces of the free aniline, and boiling water is gradually introduced in quantity sufficient to convert the contents into a homogenous liquid. When this occurs the liquid is run out of the openings at the bottom into cisterns provided with agitators; here more boiling water is added, in the proportion of 300 galls. to every 600 lbs. of crude magenta, and also 6 lbs. of hydrochloric acid. The mass is then boiled for four or five hours by means of steam pipes, the agitators being kept in constant motion. The solution of hydrochloride, arsenite, and arseniate of rosaniline thus obtained is filtered through woollen cloth, and 720 lbs. of common salt added to the liquid (which is kept boiling) for each 600 lbs. of crude magenta. By this means the whole of the rosaniline is converted into hydrochloride, which, being nearly insoluble in the strong solution of arseniate and arsenite of sodium produced in the double decomposition, separates and rises to the surface; a further quantity is deposited from the saline solution on allowing it to cool and stand for some time. In order to purify the crude rosaniline hydrochloride it is washed with a small quantity of water, redissolved in boiling water slightly acidulated with hydrochloric acid, filtered, and allowed to crystallise.”

If in the treatment of aniline with arsenic acid the latter be considerably beyond the proportion of aniline employed, VIOLET and BLUE dyes may be formed. The production of such has been patented by Girard and De Laire.

4. Laurent and Casthélaz have obtained aniline red direct from benzol, without the preliminary isolation of aniline. Nitrobenzol is treated with twice its weight of iron finely divided, and half its weight of concentrated hydrochloric acid. The colouring matter obtained by this process is said to be inferior in beauty to that procured from aniline.

5. Messrs Renard Brothers include in their patent the ebullition of aniline with stannous, stannic, mercurous, and mercuric sulphates, with ferric and uranic nitrates and nitrate of silver, and with stannic and mercuric bromides.

6. Messrs Dale and Curo’s (patent dated 1860) consists in the treatment of aniline or hydrochlorate of aniline with nitrate of lead.

7. Mr Smith claims the ebullition of aniline with perchloride of antimony, or the action of antimonic acid, peroxide of bismuth, stannic, ferric, mercuric, and cupric oxides, upon hydrochlorate or sulphate of aniline, at the temperature of 180°.

Coupier’s process for the manufacture of magenta without the use of arsenic acid is as follows:——He heats together pure aniline, nitrotoluene, hydrochloric acid, and a small quantity of finely-divided metallic iron, to a temperature of about 400° F. for several hours. The pasty mixture soon solidifies to a friable mass resembling crude aniline red——ordinary commercial aniline. The above processes are for the preparation of crude aniline red only. The crude colours contain some undecomposed aniline, mostly in the form of salts. They are also contaminated with tarry matters, some insoluble in water and dilute acids; others soluble in bisulphide of carbon, naphtha, or in caustic or carbonated alkalies. If, therefore, the crude red be boiled with an excess of alkali the undecomposed aniline is expelled, the acid which exists in the product being fixed. On treating the residue with acidulated boiling water the red is dissolved, while certain tarry matters remain insoluble. If now the boiling solution be filtered, and then saturated with an alkali, the colouring matter is precipitated in a tolerable state of purity. By redissolving the precipitated red in an acid, not employed in excess, a solution is obtained which frequently crystallises, or from which a pure red may be thrown down by a new addition of chloride of sodium or other alkaline salt.

Dr Hofmann and Mr Nicholson have demonstrated that pure aniline, from whatever source obtained, is incapable of furnishing a red dye, but that it does so when mixed with its homologue toluidine——toluidine by itself being equally incapable of yielding it. From this it will be evident that an aniline rich in toluidine is an essential condition for obtaining aniline red.

Magenta consists of brilliant large crystals, having a beautiful golden-green metallic lustre, and soluble in water to an intense purplish-red solution. It is a salt of a colourless base, rosaniline, which is prepared from magenta by boiling with hydrate of potassium, and allowing the solution to cool, when it crystallises out in colourless crystals, having the formula C_{20}H_{19}N_{3}H_{2}O. All the salts of rosaniline have a splendid purple-red colour, and that usually met with as magenta is the hydrochlorate, although the nitrate, oxalate, and acetate are also to be obtained.

Sugar, previously dyed with magenta, is sometimes used as an adulterant of crystallised magenta. If present, the larger crystals of dyed sugar may be readily detected by their colour being paler at the edges, when the suspected sample is spread out on a sheet of white paper in the sunshine. One of the best methods of testing magenta is to make a comparative dyeing experiment with the sample under examination, and with one of known purity, using white woollen yarn.

From magenta or hydrochlorate of rosaniline a large number of colouring matters are produced, the most important of which will be briefly described below.

ANILINE BLACK. “Dissolve 20 parts of potassium chlorate, 40 parts of sulphate of copper, 16 parts of chloride of ammonium, and 40 parts of aniline hydrochloride, in 500 parts of water, warming the liquid to about 60°, and then removing it from the water bath. In about three minutes the solution froths up and gives off vapours which strongly attack the breathing organs. If the mass does not become quite black after the lapse of a few hours it is again heated to 60°, and then exposed in an open place for a day or two, and afterwards carefully washed out till no salts are found in the filtrate. For use in printing, the black paste is mixed with a somewhat large quantity of albumen, and the goods after printing are strongly steamed. The paste can be pressed into moulds, and used as a substitute for Indian ink.” (A. Müller.) “Mix equal weights of aniline (containing toluidine), hydrochloric acid, and potassium chlorate, with a minute quantity of cupric chloride and a sufficient quantity of water, and leave the mixture to evaporate spontaneously, when a black powder will be obtained.” (Rheineck.)

ANILINE BLUE, or BLEU DE LYONS. This dye is prepared by heating a mixture of magenta, acetate of sodium, and aniline in iron pots, provided with stirrers, &c., in an oil bath, to 370° Fahr. (190° C.), and the excess of aniline distilled over. When a good blue has been obtained the heat is removed, and the thick treacly fluid purified. This is effected for the commoner varieties by treating the crude product with hydrochloric acid, to dissolve all the excess of aniline, and the various red and purple impurities; but for the better qualities by mixing the crude product with methylated spirit, and pouring the whole into water acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and then thoroughly washing the colouring matter that is precipitated, with water and drying.

This blue, like magenta, is a salt of a colourless base, which has been named Triphenyl-rosaniline. C_{38}H_{31}N_{3}, or C_{20}H_{16}(C_{6}H_{5}){3}N{3}. Aniline blue, or Lyons blue, is sent into the market either as a coarse powder of a coppery lustre, or in alcoholic solution; as it is insoluble in water, which necessitates it being added to the dye bath in solution in spirit, a great drawback.

Mr Nicholson, by treating Lyons blue in the same manner as indigo is converted into sulphindigotic acid, has succeeded in rendering it soluble; dissolving in alkalies to form colourless salts, and decomposed by acids into its original blue colour.

By a modification of this method ‘NICHOLSON’S BLUE’ is prepared, a fine soluble blue dye. Another colouring matter called Paris blue or bleu de Paris was obtained by heating stannic chloride with aniline for 30 hours at a temperature of 356° Fahr. (180 C.). It is a fine pure blue, soluble in water, and crystallising in large blue needles with a coppery lustre.

Another method pursued in manufacture of this colour on a large scale is carried out by allowing a mixture of a salt of rosaniline, with an excess of aniline, to digest at a temperature of 150° to 160° for a considerable time. If a mixture of 2 kilogrammes of dry hydrochlorate of rosaniline, and 4 kilogrammes of aniline be employed, the operation is completed in four hours. The crude blue is purified by treating it successively with boiling water, acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and with pure water, until it is of the purest blue colour. ‘Nicholson’s blue’ is obtained by digesting triphenyl rosaniline——mono-sulphonic acid (made by dissolving triphenyl rosaniline hydrochloride in strong sulphuric acid, and heating the solution for five or six hours. On the addition of water, the acid is obtained as a dark blue precipitate, and dried at 100°), with a quantity of soda-lye not quite sufficient for saturation, filtering the solution and evaporating. It is dried at 100°. Wool dipped into a hot aqueous solution of Nicholson’s blue, especially if borax or water-glass be added, extracts it in a colourless state, and holds it so fast that it cannot be washed out with water, but on dipping the wool thus prepared into an acid the salt is decomposed, and the colouring matter is set free.

ANILINE BLUE FOR PRINTING. Blumer-Zweefel gives the following process:——“Mix 100 parts of starch with 1000 parts of water, and add to it while warm 40 parts of potassium chlorate, 3 to 4 parts of ferrous sulphate, and 10 parts of sal ammoniac. The well-mixed paste, when quite cold, is mixed with 70 parts of aniline hydrochloride, or an equivalent quantity of tartrate, and immediately used. The printed goods are oxidised, then passed through warm or faintly alkaline water, whereby the blue colour is developed.”

VIOLET IMPERIAL. If the action of the aniline and magenta in the process of manufacturing aniline blue be stopped before it is finished, and the resulting product treated with dilute acid, a colouring matter called violet imperial is obtained. It is now, however, replaced by the Hofmann violets.

Mr Nicholson obtains another violet from aniline red, by heating it in a suitable apparatus to a temperature between 200° and 215° C. The resulting mass is exhausted with acetic acid, and the deep-violet solution diluted with enough alcohol to give the dye a convenient strength. Aniline violet, although it resists the action of light to a very considerable extent, has been shown by Chevreul to be inferior in this particular than either madder, cochineal, or indigo.

HOFMANN VIOLETS. On a large scale these violets are produced in deep cast-iron pots, surrounded by a steam jacket, and provided with a lid, having a perforation for distilling over the excess of reagents.

These vessels are charged with a solution of magenta in methylated or wood spirit, and iodide of ethyl or methyl, in proportions according to the shade required, and the whole heated by steam for five or six hours, when the excess of alcohol and iodide of ethyl is distilled over. The resulting product is dissolved in water, filtered, precipitated with common salt, and well washed.

Like most of the other colours, Hofmann violets are salts of colourless bases. That of a red shade has a formula of C_{22}H_{23}N_{3}, or C_{20}H_{18}(C_{2}H_{5})N_{3}; of a true violet shade C_{24}H_{27}N_{3}, or C_{20}H_{17}(C_{2}H_{5}){2}N{2}; and of a blue shade of violet, of C_{26}H_{31}N_{3}, or C_{20}H_{16}(C_{2}H_{5}){3}N{3}. They are all moderately fast on wool and silk, although less so on cotton, and, as they can be produced in nearly every shade of violet, are in great use, having replaced most of the other violets.

The following processes have also been proposed for the production of aniline violet:

1. Oxidation of an aniline salt by means of a solution of permanganate of potassium. (Williams.)

2. Oxidation of an aniline salt by means of a solution of ferricyanide of potassium. (Smith.)

3. Oxidation of a cold and dilute solution of hydrochlorate of aniline, by means of a dilute solution of chloride of lime. (Bolley, Beale, and Kirkmann.)

4. Oxidation of a salt of aniline by means of peroxide of lead under the influence of an acid. (Price.)

5. Oxidation of a salt of aniline in an aqueous solution of peroxide of manganese. (Kay.)

6. Oxidation of a salt of aniline by free chlorine or free hypochlorous acid. (Smith.)

DAHLIA. This is prepared from mauve and iodide of ethyl, in the same manner as the Hofmann violets, and is a purple-red violet. It is a good colour, but the expense precludes its general use.

BRITANNIA VIOLET. This is obtained in the same manner as the Hofmann violets, by acting on an alcoholic solution of magenta, with a thick, viscid, oily fluid of the formula C_{10}H_{15}Br_{3}, obtained by cautiously acting with bromine on oil of turpentine. It is a beautiful violet, capable of being manufactured of every shade, from purple to blue, and most extensively used.

ALDEHYDE GREEN. Prepared by dissolving one part of magenta in three parts of sulphuric acid, diluted with one part of water, adding by degrees one and a half part of aldehyde, and heating the whole on a water bath until a drop put in water turns a fine blue. It is then poured into a large quantity of hot water containing three parts of hyposulphite of sodium, boiled and filtered. The filtrate contains the green, which can either be kept in solution or be precipitated by means of tannic acid or acetate of sodium. Like the other colours, this green is a salt of a colourless base, containing sulphur, the formula of which is not known, and is principally used for dyeing silk, being very brilliant in both day and artificial light.

IODIDE GREEN. Produced during the manufacture of the Hofmann colours, and is now used for dyeing cotton and silk; its colour being bluer than that of aldehyde green, it is more useful. Iodide green, not being precipitated by carbonate of sodium, is usually sold in alcoholic solution.

PERKINS GREEN. This is also a magenta derivative, and a salt of a powerful colourless base. It resembles the iodide green, but is precipitated by alkaline carbonates and picric acid. This colour is used chiefly for calico printing, and is quite as fast as the Hofmann colours.

ANILINE GREEN. When treated with chlorate of potassium, to which a quantity of hydrochloric acid has been added, aniline assumes a rich indigo-blue colour. The same result occurs if the aniline be treated with a solution of chlorous acid. Similar blues have been obtained by Messrs Crace Calvert, Lowe, and Clift. Most of these blues possess the property, when subjected to the action of acids, of acquiring a green tint, called EMERALDINE. Dr Calvert obtained this colour directly upon cloth, by printing with a mixture of an aniline salt and chlorate of potassium, and allowing it to dry. In about twelve hours the green colour is developed. This colour may be converted into blue by being passed through a hot dilute alkaline solution, or through a bath of boiling soap.

ANILINE YELLOW. Amongst the secondary products obtained during the preparation of aniline red, there occurs a well-defined base of a splendid yellow colour, to which the name chrysaniline has been given. It is prepared by submitting the residue, from which the rosaniline has been extracted, to a current of steam for some time, when a quantity of the chrysaniline passes into solution. By adding nitric acid to the solution, the chrysaniline is thrown down in the form of a difficultly soluble nitrate. The intimate relation between chrysaniline, rosaniline, and leucaniline has been shown by Hofmann.

Chrysaniline C_{20}H_{17}N_{3}. Rosaniline C_{20}H_{19}N_{3}. Leucaniline C_{20}H_{21}N_{3}.

SAFFRANINE. This dye stuff is of a bright red-rose colour. Mené says it may be prepared commercially by treatment of heavy aniline oils successively with nitrous and arsenic acids; or two parts of the aniline may be heated with one of arsenic acid, and one of an alkaline nitrate for a short time, to 200° or 212° F. The product is extracted with boiling water, neutralised with an alkali, filtered, and the colour thrown down by common salt.

Besides the above products obtained from aniline, a series of colours have been obtained from phenol, or carbolic acid, another substance obtained from coal tar.

PICRIC ACID. This is obtained by treating in a suitable apparatus, with proper precautions, carbolic acid with nitric acid. It is a pale yellow crystalline acid, forming dark orange explosive salts, and dyeing silk a fine yellow.

ISOPURPURATE OF POTASSIUM. GRENATE BROWN. GRENATE SOLUBLE. By treating picric acid with cyanide of potassium a very explosive salt is obtained, used to dye wool a dark maroon colour.

AURINE, or ROSOLIC ACID. This is obtained by heating a mixture of sulphuric, oxalic, and carbolic acids, and purifying the products. It is a beautiful reddish, resinous substance, with a pale green lustre, and yielding an orange coloured solution, changed by alkalies to a splendid crimson. Owing to the difficulty in using it, however, it is not very extensively employed.

PEONINE, or CORALLINE. This dye is formed when rosolic acid and ammonia are heated to between 248° and 284° Fahr. (120° to 140° C.). It is a fine crimson dye, forming shades similar to safflower on silk, but, owing to the bad effects of acids, not much used.

AZULINE. Prepared by heating coralline and aniline together. A coppery coloured resinous substance, soluble, in alcohol, and with difficulty in water, and dyeing silk a blue colour. The aniline blues, however, have superseded it to a great extent.

There are other substances obtained from coal tar that have been employed to form dyes, but of which we shall only refer to one——naphthaline. By treating this in exactly the same manner as benzol, it is converted into aniline. A solid crystalline white base, termed naphthylamine, is produced. From this substance is obtained the following dye.

DINITRONAPHTHAL, or MANCHESTER YELLOW. Naphthylamine is converted into diazynaphthol by treatment with nitrate of potassium, and the latter, when heated with nitric acid, yields the colour. It is a weak acid, and the salt employed in commerce is the beautiful yellow crystalline calcium salt which dyes silk and wool a magnificent golden-yellow colour.

=TARPAU′LIN.= Syn. TARPAWLING. Canvas covered with tar or any composition to render it waterproof.

=TAR′RAS.= Syn. TERRAS. A volcanic product resembling puzzolano, that imparts to mortar the property of hardening under water. Several other argillo-ferruginous minerals possess the same power, and are used under this term.

=TAR′TAR.= Syn. ARGAL, ORGOL; TARTARUM, TARTARUS, L. Impure bitartrate of potassa. Crude tartar is the concrete deposit formed upon the sides of the casks and vats during the fermentation of grape juice. That obtained from white wine is white argol; that from red wine, red argol. After purification it forms cream of tartar.

=Tartar, Ammo′′niated.= Syn. AMMONIO-TARTRATE OF POTASSA, SOLUBLE TARTAR (Ammoniated); TARTARUS AMMONIATUS, TARTARUM SOLUBILE AMMONIATUM, L. Prep. Neutralise a solution of cream of tartar with ammonia in slight excess, then evaporate, and crystallise. Very soluble in water. A favourite laxative on the Continent.

=Tartar, Bo′′raxated.= Syn. SOLUBLE CREAM OF TARTAR, BORO-TARTRATE OF POTASSA AND SODA; TARTARUM BORAXATUM, CREMOR TARTARI SOLUBILIS, POTASSÆ ET SODÆ TARTRAS BORAXATA, L. Prep. From borax, 2 lbs; cream of tartar, 5 lbs. (both in powder); dissolved in water, evaporated, and crystallised. See POTASSIUM BOROTARTRATE.

=Tartar, Chalybea′ted.= Potassio-tartrate of iron.

=Tartar, Cream of.= Bitartrate of potassa.

=Tartar, Emet′ic.= Potassio-tartrate of antimony.

=Tartar, Oil of.= Deliquesced carbonate of potassa.

=Tartar, Reduced.= Syn. CREMOR TARTARI REDUCTUS, L. An article is sold, under the name of ‘British cream of tartar,’ which contains 1/4 its weight or more of bisulphate of potassa.

=Tartar, Salt of.= Carbonate of potassa.

=Tartar, Sol′uble.= Neutral tartrate of potassa.

=Tartar, Spirit of.= Pyrotartaric acid.

=TARTAR′IC ACID.= H_{2}C_{4}H_{4}O_{6}. Syn. ACID OF TARTAR, ESSENTIAL SALT OF T.†; ACIDUM TARTARICUM (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), SAL ESSENTIALE TARTARI†, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. 1836.) Take of cream of tartar, 4 lbs.; boiling water, 2 gall.; dissolve by boiling; add, gradually, of prepared chalk, 12 oz. 7 dr. (made into a milk with water), and, when the effervescence ceases, add another like portion of prepared chalk, dissolved in hydrochloric acid, 26-1/2 fl. oz., or q. s., diluted with water, 4 pints; collect the precipitate (‘tartrate of lime’), and, after well washing it with water, boil it for 15 minutes in dilute sulphuric acid, 7 pints and 17 fl. oz.; next filter, evaporate the filtrate (to the density of 1·38), and set it aside to crystallise; redissolve the crystals in water, concentrate the solution by evaporation, and recrystallise a second and a third time. The Edinburgh formula is nearly similar. In the Ph. L. & D. tartaric acid is placed in the Materia Medica.

2. (Gatty.) The solution of argol or tartar is first neutralised with carbonate of potassa, and to every 300 gall. of the clear liquid, at 5° Twaddell, 34 gall. of milk of lime (1 lb. of lime per gall.) are added; carbonic acid gas is then forced in, with agitation; decomposition ensues, with the formation of ‘bicarbonate of potassa’ and ‘tartrate of lime,’ the last is converted into tartaric acid in the usual manner, and the former is evaporated in iron pans, and roasted in a reverberatory furnace for its potassa.

Prop. Tartaric acid forms inodorous, scarcely transparent, oblique rhombic prisms, more or less modified, which are permanent in the air; it possesses a purely sour taste, dissolves in about 2 parts of water at 60° Fahr., and in about its own weight of boiling water; it is slightly soluble in alcohol; the aqueous solution exhibits right-handed polarisation, and suffers gradual decomposition by age.

It is free from colour; is entirely, or almost entirely, dissipated by ignition; and is entirely soluble in water.

Tests. 1. Tartaric acid is known to be such by its solution giving white precipitates with solutions of caustic lime, baryta, and strontia, which dissolve in excess of the acid.——2. A solution of potassa causes a white granular precipitate of cream of tartar, soluble by agitation in excess of the precipitant.——3. Nitrate of silver and acetate of lead give white precipitates, which, when heated, f nine, and yield the pure metal.——4. If to a solution of tartaric acid, or a tartrate, solution of a ferric or aluminum salt be added, and subsequently ammonia or potassa, no precipitate is formed.——5. At about 570° Fahr. all the tartrates are blackened, and yield a peculiar and characteristic odour.

Uses, &c. Tartaric acid is chiefly employed in calico printing, and, in medicine, as a substitute for citric acid and lemon juice in the preparation of cooling drinks and saline draughts. For the latter purpose, bicarbonate of soda is the alkaline salt commonly employed.——Dose, 10 to 30 grains.

Concluding Remarks. On the large scale the decomposition of the tartar is usually effected in a copper boiler, and that of the tartrate of lime in a leaden cistern. This part of the process is often performed by mere digestion for a few days, without the application of heat. Leaden or stoneware vessels are used as crystallisers. Good cream of tartar requires 26% of chalk and 28·5% of dry chloride of calcium for its perfect decomposition. Dry tartrate of lime requires 75% of oil of vitriol to liberate the whole of its tartaric acid. A very slight excess of sulphuric acid may be safely, nay, advantageously, employed. Some manufacturers bleach the coloured solution of the first crystals by treating it with animal charcoal; but for this purpose the latter substance should be first purified by digesting it in hydrochloric acid, and afterwards by edulcorating it with water, and exposing it to a dull red heat in a covered vessel. The general management of this manufacture resembles that of citric acid. To obtain a large product, care must be taken that the whole of the tartrate of lime be thoroughly decomposed, a matter not always effected by clumsy manipulators, who do not adapt their quantities or practice to the circumstances before them.

=TAR′TRATE.= A salt of tartaric acid.

=TARTS.= These may be regarded as miniature pies, consisting of fruit, either fresh or preserved, baked or spread on puff-paste.

=TARTS.= To make an apple tart take about 2 lbs. of apples, peel them, cut each into four pieces, and remove the cores; then let each of the quarters be subdivided into two or three pieces, according to the size of the apple. Having done this, put half the pieces into a pie-dish, press them evenly down, and sprinkle over them two ounces of brown sugar; then add the remaining apples, and afterwards another 2 oz. of sugar, so that the apples shall form a kind of dome, the centre of which is about two inches above the sides, now add a wineglassful of water, and cover the top over with short paste. Let bake in a moderately heated oven from half to three quarters of an hour.

The quantity of sugar must depend upon the quality, and the degree of sweetness, or the reverse, of the apples used. If they are of the sweet kind or very ripe, use less sugar, but a double quantity of water; in the latter case a little of the juice of lemon will improve the flavour. Chopped lemon-peel, or cinnamon, or cloves, may also be added to the tart with advantage.

On making green rhubarb or greengage tarts it will be necessary to use a little more sugar, and to proceed as for apple tart, taking care, however, to omit the lemon juice and peel, cinnamon, or cloves. Tarts of ripe currants, raspberries, cherries, damsons, and mulberries, may be made in the same manner as rhubarb tart. Pink rhubarb does not require peeling.

=TAU′RIN.= C_{2}H_{7}NSO_{3}. Obtained when purified bile is boiled for some hours with an excess of hydrochloric acid. By filtration, evaporation, and dissolving the dry residuum in about 6 parts of boiling alcohol, nearly pure taurin crystallises out as the solution cools. It forms with crystalline needles, which are soluble in water, and sparingly soluble in alcohol. It is remarkable for containing fully 25% of sulphur.

=TAUROCHOLAL′IC ACID.= See CHOLEIC ACID.

=TAW′ING.= In the preparation of the TAWED LEATHER used for gloves, housings, &c., the skins are first soaked, scraped, and hung in a warm room until they begin to exhale an ammoniacal odour, and the wool readily comes off; they are then de-haired, and soaked in water with some quicklime for several weeks, the water being changed two or three times during that period; they are then again beamed, smoothed, and trimmed, after which they are rinsed, and resoaked in a vat of bran-and-water, where they are kept in a state of gentle fermentation for some weeks (in this state they are called ‘pelts’); the skins are next well worked about in a warm solution of alum and salt, again fermented in bran-and-water for a short time, and are then stretched on hooks, and dried in a stove-room; they are, lastly, again soaked in water and trodden or worked in a pail or tub containing some yolks of eggs beaten to a froth with water, after which they are stretched and dried in a loft, and are smoothed with a warm smoothing-iron. Sometimes the process is shortened by soaking the skins in the following mixture after the first steep with bran:——Common salt, 3-1/2 lbs.; alum, 8 lbs.; boiling water, q. s.; dissolve, add of wheaten flour, 21 lbs.; yolks of 9 dozen eggs; make a paste. For use, a portion is to be largely diluted with water.

CHAMOIS or SHAMMY LEATHER is generally prepared from either sheep or doe-skins, which, after dressing, liming, &c., are well oiled on the grain side, then rolled into balls, and thrown into the trough of the fulling-mill, where they are beaten for 2, 3, or 4 hours. They are next aired, and again oiled and fulled, and this is repeated a third time, or oftener, as circumstances may direct. The oiled skins are then exposed to a fermenting process, or heating in a close chamber, and are afterwards freed from redundant oil by being scoured in a weak alkaline lye. They are, lastly, rinsed in clean water, wrung at the peg, dried, and ‘finished’ at the stretcher-iron.

TAWED LEATHER differs from TANNED LEATHER in yielding size or glue under the influence of heat and moisture, in nearly the same way as the raw skins.

=TAXIDERMY, Practical.= The following review on the excellent work on this subject is from ‘The Bazaar,’ ‘Practical Taxidermy; a manual of instruction to the amateur in collecting, preserving, and setting up Natural History Specimens of all kinds. By Montagu Browne.’

“The author of this little book begins at the beginning, and, before detailing the process of skinning, preserving, and mounting any given vertebrate, he starts with a chapter on ‘Trapping and Decoying Birds and Animals.’ In this chapter descriptions are given of various forms of springs, snare, ‘figure-4 trap,’ clap-net, glade-net, bow-net, and box trap; and some wrinkles are imparted which may be useful to wildfowl shooters, to say nothing of gamekeepers, whose livelihood depends on their success in destroying what they are pleased to regard as ‘vermin.’ Chapter 3 is devoted to ‘Necessary Tools,’ of which not only descriptions, but figures are given, and those who have no knowledge of taxidermy will probably be surprised to learn how few tools are really necessary for the purpose.

“On the subject of preservative soaps and powders, Mr Browne has a good deal to say, and gives no less than seventeen different receipts. Many of these, however, are only noticed to be condemned, for the author has been a great experimentalist, and has tested the efficiency or otherwise of all the preparations he names, with a view of ascertaining the best, and at the same time that which is most harmless to the operator. For the preservation of birds he pins his faith to the fourth formula (p. 46), which is a preservative soap for the inside of the skin, composed of 1-1/2 lb. whiting or chalk, 1 lb. of soft soap, and 2 oz. of chloride of lime, finely pounded. These ingredients are boiled together in a pint of water, and the mixture, when properly applied, is said to be so efficacious as to completely supersede arsenical paste or soap. Presuming that it is used only for such specimens as are to be immediately cased up in air-tight cases, nothing further is needed; but as regards such specimens as are left exposed or uncased, ‘a wash of benzoline liberally applied from time to time——say twice a year——to the outside,’ is recommended.

“We have long since proved the efficacy of this fluid, not only in repelling the attacks of moths, and the larvæ of destructive beetles such as Dermestes lardarius, but in killing them in skins that have been already attacked by them. We can therefore indorse Mr Browne’s remarks, and may supplement them by a ‘wrinkle’ which he has probably discovered by this time, although he does not refer to it. It is this. If the amateur in search of benzoline applies to the nearest chemist for it, he will be served with the ‘rectified’ fluid, and will be asked three shillings or three and sixpence for an ordinary medicine bottlefull. If he proceeds, however, to an oil and colour shop, and asks for it as supplied for burning in the sponge lamps, he may get a pint for about a tithe of the cost.

“The best way to apply it is to pour some out in a saucer, saturate a pinch of cotton wool with it, and dab it on all over the fur or feathers. The great advantage about it is that, while killing or repelling insects, it does not in the least injure the specimen to which it is applied. We have seen a mounted specimen of a bird almost saturated with it, so that the feathers looked quite draggled; but as soon as the moisture had evaporated, the feathers all resumed their former shape and glossy appearance. Care should be taken not to use it by candle light, as the vapour is inflammable.

“Amongst the seventeen receipts for ‘preservatives’ of different kinds, we do not see a very simple powder which we have used with success for very small bird skins, which were almost too delicate to stand the application of a brush and paste, or soap. It is composed of burnt alum and sugar of lead, and mixed in the proportion of two thirds of the former to one third of the latter. The alum dries, the sugar of lead preserves, and if the specimen while being skinned be dusted with this mixture, it will absorb all moisture as it arises, for which purpose plaster of Paris is usually employed. A very little goes a long way, and it is desirable not to apply too much, lest the astringent nature of the alum should cause the skin to become brittle and crack.

“Possibly Mr Browne has not referred to this mixture on account of the poisonous nature of the sugar of lead. He justly remarks that too much care cannot be exercised in the employment of poisonous preservatives, and we fully agree with him.

“On the subject of his instructions for skinning birds we have not much criticism to offer, except perhaps as regards his mode of filling out the skin after the preservative has been applied, and before the skin is sewn up. We have found by experience that, after the artificial neck of tow or cotton wool has been inserted, and the wing bones tied inside, the skin is much better filled by degrees with little bits of cotton wool inserted piecemeal, instead of with an artificial body ‘as nearly as possible shaped to the original body of the bird.’ The advantage of the former plan is that it is much more quickly executed, and a nice soft skin is the result, instead of a comparatively hard one. By introducing the wool piecemeal, too, scarcely any portion of the skin is left without support on the inside, as is often the case when a ‘made body’ is inserted. This is material; for if there be any want of inside support at a given point, pressure upon that point from the outside will cause the skin to crack. These remarks, however, must be taken to apply only to such specimens as are intended to be preserved as skins, and are not to be set up.

“Few amateurs, probably, give much time to mounting their specimens, for they can get them so well done by professional taxidermists, at prices varying to suit all purses. The art of skinning wild animals and birds, however, and curing or dressing animal hides, should be acquired by every sportsman and naturalist who intends to travel and collect and bring home trophies. To such a one we may specially recommend the chapters which are devoted to this portion of the subject. In this, as in other respects, Mr Browne’s book is a ‘practical’ manual of taxidermy.”

=TAXINE.= A poisonous alkaloid present in the leaves and seeds of the yew (Taxus faccata).

=TEA.= Syn. THEA, L. The dried leaves of the Chinese tea plants (_Thea Bohea_ and Thea viridis).

It was formerly supposed that BLACK TEAS could only be obtained from T. Bohea, and GREEN TEAS from T. viridis, but Fortune and others have proved that both sorts may be made from either species, and that the differences in colour and flavour depend chiefly on the age of the leaves and the treatment they undergo in the drying process. Another species, named Thea Assamica, furnishes ASSAM TEA.

Mulder gives the following as the composition of tea:

Black Green Tea. Tea. Essential oil 0·60 0·79 Chlorophyll 1·84 2·22 Wax 0·00 0·28 Resin 3·64 2·22 Gum 7·28 8·56 Tannin 12·88 17·80 Theine 0·46 0·43 Extractive matter 21·36 22·80 Colouring substances 19·19 23·60 Albumen 2·80 3·00 Fibre 28·33 17·80 Ash (mineral substances) 5·24 5·56

Dr Walter Blyth, commenting upon the above, says, the amount of theine is certainly understated.

Pur. The chief adulteration of tea which is extensively practised at the present day is mixing it with a certain portion of exhausted tea-leaves, which have been redried and curled. The collection and preparation of these occupy several hundred persons, chiefly women and children, in and about London. The leaves which have been found in the possession of the manufacturers of imitation tea are those of the sloe tree, ash tree, elder bush, and white thorn. According to Mr Warrington, a most extensive system of adulterating tea is practised in China. Many samples directly imported from that country, examined by him, did not contain a single grain of tea, being made up entirely of other leaves. The ordinary green teas he found, for the most part, spurious, being manufactured out of the cheaper black teas. These are ‘faced up’ or ‘painted’ with various colouring substances, powdered porcelain, clay, &c., which are readily perceived under the microscope, and even admit of being separated, and chemically examined.

It is a general practice among the grocers in this country to impart what they call a ‘bloom’ to their green teas by ‘rouncing’ them up with a little calcined magnesia, or finely powdered talc or French chalk. The quantity that adheres to the tea is very trifling, but it, greatly improves its appearance. Black teas are ‘faced,’ in a similar manner, with finely powdered plumbago or black-lead.

Pure China tea is not turned black by being put into water impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen gas, nor does it tinge a solution of ammonia blue. The infusion is amber-coloured, and is not reddened by the addition of an acid. The ashes left from the combustion of genuine tea are white, and do not exceed 5 to 5-1/2%. If they exceed this they may be chemically examined with the usual tests for alumina, chromate of lead, copper, cyanide of potassium, gypsum, lime, magnesia, &c. Many of these substances may be detected by simply agitating the tea with a little cold water, when they will be detached from its surface, and render the water turbid, or, by their gravity, sink to the bottom.

Mr A. H. Allen[225] arranges the adulteration of tea under four heads, giving at the same time directions for their detection:

[Footnote 225: ‘Chemical News,’ xxix, 123, 167, 189, 221; and xxx, 2.]

1. Mineral additions for increasing weight or bulk: (a) Magnetic matter. Detected by drawing a magnet under a weighted portion of the tea spread upon paper, whereby the magnetic matter is separated from the tea and may be weighed.

(b) Siliceous matter. The ash must be estimated by igniting a weighed portion of the tea. The ash of genuine tea varies from 5·24 to 6·0 per cent. The ash is then boiled with water, the insoluble part again treated with hydrochloric acid, and the silica collected and weighed. Genuine tea does not contain, on an average, more than 0·30 per cent. of ash insoluble in acid; adulterated teas sometimes contain as much as 10 per cent.

2. Organic adulterations for increasing weight or bulk: (a) Exhausted tea leaves. Best detected by estimating the tannin, gum, soluble ash, insoluble matter, &c.

α. Tannin. 5 gr. of lead acetate are dissolved in 1 litre of water, and the solution filtered after standing; 5 mgms. of pure potassium ferricyanide are dissolved in 5 c.c. of water, and an equal bulk of strong ammonia solution is added. The lead solution is standardised by diluting 10 c.c. to 100 c.c. with boiling water, and adding to it from a burette a solution of 0·1 pure tannin in 100 c.c. of water, until a few drops, when allowed to fall through a filter on to a drop of the ferricyanide solution, spotted on a slab, produce a pink colour. A solution of the tea is made by repeatedly boiling about 2 grams of the finely-powdered sample with 80 c.c. of water, until it is completely exhausted. The solution is filtered and made up to 250 c.c., and used as already described.

The amount of tannin in genuine black tea averages about 10 per cent. A small quantity of tannin, about 2 per cent., remains in the exhausted leaves. The percentage of exhausted leaves, E, in a sample may be estimated, when the per cent. of tannin, T, is known by the equation:

E = (10 - T) / 8 × 100.

β. Insoluble matter is best estimated by boiling the pounded sample repeatedly with water, and drying the residue at 120° C., until the weight is constant. The insoluble matter in black tea varies from 46·7 to 53·6 per cent., while in previously infused leaves it varies between 72 to 75 per cent.

γ Gum. The aqueous decoction is evaporated nearly to dryness, the residue treated with methylated spirit, filtered, washed with spirit, rinsed off the filter with hot water, the liquid evaporated at a steam heat, weighed, ignited, and weighed again. The loss represents gum.

δ. Soluble ash. The aqueous solution of the ash is evaporated, gently ignited, and weighed. Genuine tea contains not less than 3 per cent. of soluble ash, while in exhausted leaves this item falls as low as 0·52 per cent. If S represents the percentage of soluble ash, the percentage of exhausted leaves E may be approximately found in the absence of foreign leaves by the equation:

E = (6 - 2S) × 20.

(b) Foreign leaves. The presence of leaves, other than those of the tea plant, may be detected with some accuracy by estimating the insoluble matter, tannin, gum, and ash; but the microscope must decide this question.

3. Adulterants for imparting a fictitious strength. (a) Extraneous tannin matters, such as catechu, &c., are detected by an unusually high percentage of tannin, as indicated by the lead process. Tea, adulterated with catechu, gives an infusion which quickly becomes muddy on cooling. 1 gram of the sample and 1 gram of pure tea are each infused in 100 c.c. of water, and the solutions poured off from the leaves are precipitated, while boiling, with a slight excess of neutral lead acetate, filtered, and tested as follows:——About 20 c.c. of the pure tea infusion, when gently heated with a few drops of silver nitrate, gives a slight cloudiness only; while tea, containing catechu, gives a copious brownish precipitate, and the liquid acquires a distinct yellow tinge. One drop of ferric chloride gives a light green colour if catechu is present, and a greyish-green precipitate on standing; the solution from pure tea gives a reddish colour with ferric chloride, due to acetate, and no precipitate on standing. These tests are applicable only when catechu is present in tolerably large quantities.

(b) Lie tea, when thrown into hot water, falls to powder, because the gum or starch used to keep it in a compact form is dissolved. The liquid may be acidified with sulphuric acid, decolourised with permanganate, and tested for starch. The ash of lie tea is often as high as 30 or 40 per cent.

(c) Caper tea is made into little glossy masses by the aid of gum or starch; it is usually much adulterated. The insoluble matter is usually much less than in genuine tea; the gum amounts to 15 or 20 per cent. The soluble ash often falls below 2 per cent.

(d) Soluble iron salts are added to give an appearance of strength by the formation of tannate of iron. They are detected by shaking the powdered leaves with cold dilute acetic acid, filtering, and testing for iron, in the filtrate.

(e) Alkaline carbonates are sometimes added to tea. The soluble ash gives the yellow sodium flame, if sodium salts have been added; the alkalinity may also be determined in the soluble ash. The average amount of potash (K_{2}O) in tea is about 1·62 per cent.

4. Facing and colouring materials. These may be detected under the microscope, or the leaves may be washed with warm water, the colouring matter collected and examined. Indigo is best detected by the microscope; Prussian blue, by boiling with caustic alkali, filtering, and testing for ferrocyanide by ferric chloride. The residue, insoluble in alkali, is fused with alkaline carbonate, evaporated to dryness with hydrochloric acid; the residue tested for silica, and the filtrate tested for lime and magnesia.

Moisture varies from 6 to 8 per cent.

Among domestic substitutes for tea are——the leaves of speedwell, wild germander, black currant, syringa or mock orange, purple-spiked willow herb, winter green, sweetbriar, cherry tree, sloe, &c., all of which are used for tea, either singly or mixed. The addition of a single bud of the black currant to the infusion of ordinary black tea imparts to it a flavour closely resembling that of green tea.

The brownish-coloured powder vended under the name of ‘la veno beno’ is a mixture of 2 parts of tea-dust with 5 parts of powdered catechu or terra japonica. A few grains of this substance thrown into the teapot are described in the advertisements as being capable of more than doubling the strength of the beverage.

=Tea, Lie.= Of this compound, Dr Hassall says:——“It is so called because it is a spurious article and not tea at all. It consists of dust of tea leaves, sometimes of foreign leaves and sand made up by means of starch or gum into little masses, which are afterwards painted and coloured, so as to resemble either black or green gunpowder. The skill exhibited in the fabrication of this spurious article is very great, and we have met with at least a dozen varieties of it, differing from each other in the size and colouring of the little masses.”

The once notorious ‘PARAQUAY PLANT,’ sold in packets, was simply new meadow-hay that had been wetted with a strong infusion of catechu, then dried, chopped small, and strongly compressed. See THEINE and CAFFEINE.

=Tea.= “The tea is not a meal; when it is properly used, it should not be a meal; but it has a special purpose to fulfil, which I will now explain. Tea——and under the generic term tea I include coffee——tea is usually taken three hours after dinner. This is the moment which corresponds with the completion of digestion, when, the food having been conveyed away from the stomach, nothing remains behind but the excess of the acid juices employed in digestion, these acid juices create an uneasy sensation at the stomach, and a call is made for something to relieve the uneasiness; tea fulfils that object.” “On the same principle, after the business of the dining-room, the antacid and refreshing beverage, either in the shape of tea or coffee, is prepared in the drawing-room. In taking either, the nearer they approach to the simple infusion the better; little milk or cream, and less sugar, should be the principle. But, seeing the purpose of tea, how unreasonable to make it the excuse for a meal, to conjoin with it toast, muffins, bread and butter, and id genus omne.” “Three meals a day may be taken as the standard of habit and custom; tea and coffee having a specific place and purpose as a beverage, but none as a meal.” (Eras. Wilson.) See MEALS, &c.

Although tea is undoubtedly prejudicial to children and to adults of nervous and irritable temperament, there can be no question that, if its use be not abused, it possesses valuable physiological properties. On the nervous system it acts as a pleasant stimulant and restorative, its moderate use not being followed by depression. Dr Parkes says these effects are in some measure due to the warmth of the infusion. According to the same authority its use is followed by very little quickening of the pulse, whilst there is an increase in the amount of perspiration, and a slightly diminished action on the bowels. Cases, however, are not uncommon in which this latter effect is reversed.

Dr Edward Smith says that tea increases the excretion of pulmonary carbonic acid. The contention that the elimination of urea is lessened, does seem to have been not satisfactorily established. If so, the diminution is very trifling. Sir Ranald Martin says tea is most useful against excessive fatigue, especially in hot climates. The traveller in the Australian bush speaks highly of its renovating effects at the end of a long day passed in the saddle.

A cup of strong green tea without milk or sugar is a popular and frequently by no means inefficient remedy for a severe nervous headache. According to Liebig, tea and coffee resemble soup in their effect on the system. Lehmann’s experiments seem to show that they lessen the waste of tissue in the human body. Tea taken too continuously, or in excess, produces indigestion, flatulence, and constipation, besides rendering its votaries anæmic and depressed in spirits.

It is a fallacy to suppose that soft water makes the best tea. It certainly yields a darker infusion than that made from moderately hard water, but this is owing to the soft water taking up a large quantity of bitter, physiologically inert, extractive matter from the tea, the delicate flavour of which becomes thereby greatly impaired. This is why connoisseurs object to an infusion of too dark a colour. Moderately hard boiling water, on the contrary, fails to dissolve this objectionable ingredient, and hence produces a beverage in which the characteristic taste of the pleasant aromatic principle of the tea is not masked by the bitter substance. London water, which, when boiled, has a hardness of about 5 degrees (equal to 5 grains of lime salts to the gallon), makes excellent tea——better, in fact, than a water of half the hardness, the latter yielding a slightly bitter infusion. In the use of moderately hard water, it is essential that it should be allowed to remain on the tea sufficiently long. The Chinese never employ either very soft or immoderately hard water, but a water of medium hardness.

“Experimentally it is found that infusions of tea and coffee are strong enough when the former contains 0·6 per cent. of extractive matter, and the latter 3 per cent., so that a moderate-sized cup (5 oz.) should contain about 13 grains of the extract of tea, or 66 grains of coffee. These proportions will be obtained when 263 grains of tea (about 2-1/2 teaspoonfuls) or 2 oz. of freshly-roasted coffee are infused in a pint of boiling water; and the amounts of the several constituents dissolved are about as follows:——

“Constituents. Tea. Coffee. grs. grs. Nitrogenous matters 17·2 44·0 Fatty matter —— 3·0 Gum, sugar, and extractive 31·7 103·2 Mineral matters 9·1 22·8 ———— —————— Total extracted 58·8 173·0

“So that tea yields, to a pint of fresh water, about 22 per cent. of its weight, and coffee about 20 per cent. Lehmann found that only 15-1/2 per cent. of tea was dissolved by water, whereas Sir Humphry Davy estimated it at 33-1/2 per cent. No doubt the quality of the water, as well as that of the tea, affects the results, for cold distilled water will extract from 40 to 44 per cent. of black tea, and nearly 50 per cent. of green; but, for all this, about 22 per cent. is a good average with boiling water.”[226]

[Footnote 226: Letheby, ‘Lectures on Food.’ Longmans.]

Dr Edward Smith has shown in the following table that, when the usual custom of measuring tea into the teapot by the spoonful is followed, very varying weights of tea are employed. Thus he found that the weight of a spoonful of tea was for——

Black Teas.

Oolong 39 grains. Congou (inferior) 52 ” Flowery Pekoe 62 ” Souchong 70 ” Congou (fine) 87 ”

Green Teas.

Hyson 66 grains. Twankay 70 ” Fine Imperial 90 ” Scented Caper 103 ” Fine Gunpowder 123 ”

The attempt to make good tea will prove a failure unless the water employed is boiling. Previously to making the infusion, the teapot should always be warmed up by means of boiling water. The kettle should be filled from the tap, and not the boiler. It should also be borne in mind that neither good tea nor coffee can be obtained if they are made with water that has been in the kettle for many hours. The tea is ready to be drank after the boiling water has stood on it for five minutes.

=Tea, Beef.= Syn. INFUSUM CARNIS BUBULÆ, JUSCULUM CUM CARNE BOVIS, L. This is merely a very concentrated soup formed of lean beef. According to the common plan, lean beef, 1 lb., is gently simmered in water, 1 quart, for about 1/2 an hour, when spices, salt, &c., are added, and in a few minutes the whole is strained for use. The following are other formulæ:

1. (Dr A. T. Thomson.) Take good rump steak, 1/2 lb.; cut it into thin slices, spread these over a hollow dish, sprinkle a little salt on them, add a pint of boiling water, and place the dish (covered) near the fire for 1/2 an hour; then remove the whole to a saucepan, and boil it gently for 15 minutes; lastly, strain through a hair sieve.

2. (Prof. Liebig.) Beef, free from fat, 1 lb., is to be minced very small, mixed with an equal weight of cold water, and, after digestion and agitation in the cold for about 1/2 an hour, heated slowly to boiling; when it has boiled for a minute or two, strain it through a cloth. It may be coloured with roasted onion or burnt sugar, and spiced and salted to taste.

Obs. Similar preparations are ordered in some foreign Pharmacopœias from calves’ lights, crayfish, frogs, mutton, pullets, snails, tortoise, veal, &c. In the Ph. L. 1746 a form was given for viper broth (JUSCULUM VIPERINUM). See ESSENCE OF BEEF, EXTRACT OF MEAT, &c.

=TEETH (The).= Syn. DENTES, L. An object very subservient to health, and which merits due attention, is the preservation of the teeth; the care of which, considering their importance in preparing the food for digestion, is, in general, far from being sufficiently appreciated. Comparatively very few persons wash their mouth and clean their teeth even once a day; a feat which ought always to be practised at the conclusion of a meal, when either animal food or vegetables are eaten; for the first is apt to leave behind it a rancid acrimony, and the other an acidity, both of them hurtful to the teeth. Those who abhor a fetid breath, rotten teeth, and the toothache, would do well to invariably clean their teeth before retiring to rest. With smokers, this practice is almost obligatory. Washing the mouth frequently with cold water is not only serviceable in keeping the teeth clean, but in strengthening the gums, the firm adhesion of which to the teeth is of the greatest importance in preserving them sound and secure. Some persons think it serviceable to add a few drops of spirit or essence of camphor to the water thus employed, a plan we certainly approve of. See BREATH, DENTIFRICES, PASTES, POWDERS, TOOTH CEMENTS, WASHES, &c.

=Teeth, Stoppings for.= See DENTISTRY.

=TEETH′ING.= Syn. DENTITION. Children are sometimes born with one or more teeth; but, in general, the teeth, at birth, consist of mere pulpy rudiments buried in the gum. Their development is gradual. About the third or fourth month they begin to assume shape and hardness. At this period children become fretful, the saliva flows copiously, the gums grow turgid, and there is a fondness of biting hard cold objects. In nearly all cases there is more or less fever, frequently a cough or diarrhœa, and a rash commonly appears, which is called by nurses the ‘red gum.’ These symptoms generally abate after a fortnight or three weeks, and the child remains undisturbed until the seventh or eighth month. About this period the gums again become red, tender, and swollen, and often extremely sensitive, and painful. The upper part of the gum gradually becomes attenuated and pale, and, just before the tooth appears, even covered with a blister. These changes are usually attended by an increased flow of saliva, or ‘drivelling,’ and a lax state of the bowels, both of which are regarded as favorable symptoms. Sometimes, however, the diarrhœa is excessive, when it may be cautiously restrained by a dose or two of rhubarb-and-magnesia, with a little dill or peppermint water; or, better, by the daily use of a little arrow-root, to which a few drops of pure port wine may be added. Sometimes the local irritation is considerable, or there are spasms or convulsions, in which case the practice is to lance the gums. When there is drowsiness, stupor, or oppressed respiration, one or two leeches may be applied to the temples, and a small blister to the back of the neck, or behind the ear. Sluggishness of the bowels may be removed by a little castor oil; or, when there is actual constipation, by a little calomel or mercurial powder and rhubarb. Excessive irritability, without other marked symptoms, is best combated by a drop or two of tincture of hops in sweetened water. Throughout the whole period of dentition the use of warm dry clothing, freedom from tight bandages, with thorough ventilation, good nursing, exercise, fresh air without undue exposure, abundance of crawling on the carpet, and frequent warm baths, will be found most advantageous. Indeed, the last, without other treatment, are often sufficient to subdue the most distressing convulsions and the most obstinate diarrhœa, and in no case can they do harm. See NURSING, STROPHULUS, &c.

=TELEPHONE.= Within the memory of the present generation Sir Charles Wheatstone made some experiments on the transmission of sound, which were subsequently repeated and enlarged upon by Professor Henry in America. Connecting together by means of a bar of wood the sounding boards of two pianos placed in houses on opposite sides of the street, Henry found that when the piano on one side of the street was played upon the musical sounds it gave out were reproduced by that on the other side. The next research in this direction was that of Page, in 1837, who, setting up vibrations in bars of iron, by rapidly magnetising and demagnetising them elicited from them musical notes corresponding with the velocity of the vibration. Similar effects, but more marked in character, were produced by De la Rive, in 1843, by means of a succession of electric currents transmitted through a copper wire stretched through a cylinder made of insulated copper wire.

In 1861 Reiss, of Freidrichsdorf, perfected an instrument which, by means of the vibrations of a diaphragm alternately completing and breaking the continuity of a galvanic circuit, reproduced musical sounds in an iron bar at a distance.

Varley, in 1870, obtained similar results to Reiss by the rapid charging and discharging of a condenser.

In the first of these experiments——viz. Henry’s——the sound was mechanically conducted along the bar of wood from the strings of one piano to those of the other, which, being thrown into similar vibratory movements gave rise to similar sounds.

In the other experiments, on the contrary, the sounds were not due to the chemical conduction at all, but to currents of electricity. It has been explained that Reiss’ instrument was capable of reproducing musical sounds at a distance from their origin. Reiss’ may, therefore, be regarded as the original telephone. But, although able to reproduce a musical note or sound originating at a distance, this instrument failed altogether in the case of a word or a sentence, for the simple reason that the current of electricity which passes through the wires is an intermittent one. Musical sounds differ in tone, in intensity, and quality. The tone depends upon the number of vibrations produced in the air per second; when these are less than sixteen no sound is produced. The intensity is due to the extent or amplitude of the vibrations; and the quality or timbre, to the form of the undulations made by the vibrating particles of the atmosphere. Now, of all these qualities or varieties of sound, the first only, or the tone, can be reproduced by a current of intermittent electricity, so that Reiss’ is a tone telephone, and as such is only capable of redelivering a number of musical notes. To Professor A. Graham Bell alone belongs the merit of having invented an articulating or speaking telephone, or an apparatus by means of which not only tone, but intensity and timbre of sound——in short, speech in its entirety can be electrically conveyed from one point to another, no matter how distant. The practical result of this is that a conversation can be carried on, the distance by which the speakers may be separated being of no import. To the particular species of electricity by which this is accomplished Professor Bell has given the name ‘undulatory,’ in contradistinction to ‘intermittent’ or ‘pulsatory.’ The annexed plate, which is half the actual size of Bell’s articulating telephone, represents that instrument in section.

m m is a permanent bar-magnet, to the upper end of which is attached a soft iron core, which becomes magnetised by the permanent magnet. Surrounding the iron core is a coil of very fine insulated copper wire (b), the two ends of which are carried to the terminals (t t), by means of which one is connected with the line wire, and the other with the earth, d is a disc of thin iron plate, either tinned or japanned, about the size of a crown piece, and c is the cavity or mouth-piece. Upon applying the lips to this and speaking into it, the iron disc (d) vibrates towards the soft iron core, the result being that a current of induced electricity is set up in the coil (b), Which, being in connection by means of the telegraph wire with a precisely similar arrangement at the other end of the line, reproduces there the spoken words by means of a corresponding disc. The magnet with its attachments are enclosed in a wooden case (a a, a a, a a); n n are screws which secure the iron disk (b); s is a screw for adjusting the distance between the polo of the magnet and the disk (b).

The extreme simplicity of Professor Bell’s telephone was the outcome of several antecedent experiments, worked out by forms of apparatus gradually diminishing in complexity.

The German physicist Helmholtz had previously shown that by the agency of a current of intermittent electricity passed through a tuning-fork, he could produce simultaneous vibrations in a number of other forks connected with the first by a wire, and that by varying the loudness of these vibrations by means of resonators, so as to combine the musical notes in different proportions, the resulting sound was an imitation of certain vowel sounds, or a copy of the timbre of sound.

Professor Bell’s first telephone was an extension of Helmholtz’s device for producing vowel or composite sounds. A number of steel wires of different pitch were made into a harp, and connected by a powerful permanent magnet, the same arrangement being repeated at the other end of the circuit. In the magnetic field of the permanent magnet was an electro-magnet. When a permanent magnet is vibrated in the neighbourhood of an electro-magnet, this latter will have a current of electricity generated in it, the intensity of which will vary with the velocity of the vibrations in the permanent magnet, whilst it will be either positive or negative according to the direction of these same vibrations. So that a vowel sound, if produced by causing a number of the rods of the harp to vibrate at the same time, can be transmitted by a current of electricity, and will be reproduced by the harp at the other end of the connecting wire. If a piano were sung into whilst the pedal was down, not only would the pitch of the voice be echoed back, but an approach to the quality of the vowel would also be obtained. And theory teaches that if the piano had a very much larger number of strings to the octave, we should get not only an approximation to, but an exact vocal reproduction of the vowel. If, therefore, in the harp there were a large number of steel rods to the octave, and you were to speak in the neighbourhood of such a harp, the rods would be thrown into vibration with different degrees of amplitude, producing currents of electricity, and would throw into vibration the rods at the other end with the same relative amplitude, and the timbre of the voice would be reproduced.

The effect when you vibrate more than one of these rods simultaneously is to change the shape of the electrical undulation, and a similar effect is produced when a battery is included in the circuit. In this case the battery current is thrown into waves by the action of the permanent magnets. Hence you will see that the resultant effect on the current of a number of musical-tones, is to produce a vibration which corresponds in every degree to the moving velocity of the air. Suppose, for instance, you vibrate two rods in the harp, you have two musical notes produced, but of course if you pay attention to a particle of air, it is impossible that any particle of air can vibrate in two directions at the same time; it follows the resultant form of vibration. One curve would show the vibration of a particle of air for one musical tone, the next one for another, and the third the resulting motion of a particle of air when both musical tones are sounded simultaneously. You have by the harp apparatus the resultant effect produced by a current of electricity, but the same resultant effect could be produced in the air. There is an instrument called the phonantograph. It consists of a cone which, when spoken into, condenses the air from the voice. At the small end of the cone there is a stretched membrane which vibrates when a sound is produced, and in the course of its vibration it controls the movement of a long style of wood, about one foot in length. If a piece of glass with a smoked surface is rapidly drawn before the style during its movement, a series of curves will be drawn upon the glass. I myself uttered the vowels e, ay, eh, ah, aah. These vowels were sung at the same pitch and the same force, but each is characterised on the glass by a shape of vibration of its own. In fact, when you come to examine the motion of a particle of air, there can be no doubt that every sound is characterised by a particular motion. It struck me that if, instead of using that complicated harp, and vibrating a number of rods tuned to different pitches, and thus creating on the line of wire a resultant effect, we were at once to vibrate a piece of iron, to give to that piece of iron not the vibration of a musical tone, but to give it the resultant vibration of a vowel sound, we could have an undulatory current produced directly, not indirectly, which would correspond to the motion of the air in the production of a sound.

The difficulty, however, was how to vibrate a piece of iron in the way required.

The following apparatus gave me the clue to the solution of the problem in the attempt to improve the phonantograph. I attempted to construct one modelled as nearly as possible on the mechanism of the human ear, but on going to a friend in Boston, Dr Clarence J. Blake, an aurist, he suggested the novel idea of using the human ear itself as a phonantograph, and this apparatus we constructed together. It is a human ear. The interior mechanism is exposed, and to a part of it is attached a long style of hay. Upon moistening the membrane and the little bones with a mixture of glycerin and water, the mobility of the parts was restored, and on speaking into the external artificial ear a vibration was observed, and after many experiments we were enabled to obtain tracings of the vibration on a sheet of smoked glass drawn rapidly along. This apparatus gave me the clue to the present form of the telephone. What I wanted was an apparatus that should be able to move a piece of iron in the way that a particle of air is moved by the voice.[227]

[Footnote 227: From Professor Bell’s lecture at the Society of Arts, Nov. 28th, 1877, published in the Journal of the Society, vol. 26, p. 17.]

We need not follow Professor Bell through the various stages by which he arrived at his most successful solution of this problem further than to state that the simplicity of construction exhibited in the present form of instrument did not characterise the earlier articulatory telephones. Amongst the causes contributing to this simplicity may be mentioned the abandonment of an animal membrane attached to the iron plate, the diminution of the coil of insulated wire, and the substitution for the galvanic battery which formerly formed part of the circuit, of the permanent magnet.

Professor Bell records the curious fact that hardly any difference is observable in the results by varying the size, thickness, and force of the permanent magnet, and that beyond a remarkable effect in the quality of the voice, distinct articulations might be obtained from iron plates of from 1 inch to 2 feet in diameter and from 1/64th to 1/4th inch in thickness. With plates of uniform thickness, but of varying diameter, he obtained the following results. With a plate of small diameter the articulation was perfectly distinct, but the sound emitted was as if a person were speaking through the nose. By gradually enlarging the diameter of the plate this nasal effect as gradually disappeared, until when a certain diameter was attained a very good quality of voice manifested itself.

By continuing to enlarge the diameter, a coarse, hollow, drum-like effect was produced, until when the diameter became very large, the sound resembled that one hears when the head is inside a barrel, and was accompanied with a reverberating sound. By reversing the above conditions——that is, by keeping the diameter constant, and varying the thickness——it was found that with a very thin plate the drum-like sound was produced; by gradually increasing the thickness this effect passed off; then followed distinct articulation, until at a certain increase of thickness the peculiar nasal quality again developed itself.

In practice it has been found desirable, in establishing speaking communication between two distant places, to employ two telephones instead of a single one; one being applied to the mouth and the other to the ear during a conversation.

With one telephone it was no unusual occurrence for confusion to arise in consequence of the two speakers talking or listening at the same time.

So faithful is the transmission by the telephone of every variety of sound, that Mr Preece states, when in telephonic communication with Prof. Bell, through a quarter of a mile he has heard him “laugh, sneeze, cough, and, in fact, make any sound the human voice can produce.” It must be borne in mind, however, that the transmitted speech can only be distinctly heard in the immediate vicinity of the receiving apparatus; the keenest hearing fails to detect it at the distance of little more than a foot away. Hence, when a message is expected, the recipient has to place his ear to the mouthpiece of the instrument, and use it as an ear-trumpet.

A circumstance tending to impair the satisfactory working of Bell’s telephone is, that the line wire to which the ends of the coil are attached becomes inductively affected by the currents of electricity passing through the parallel and contiguous telegraph wires, the effect, on a line where there is an active transmission of telegraphic messages, being that the telephone “emits sounds that are very like the pattering of hail against a window, and which are so loud as to overpower the effects of the human voice.”[228]

[Footnote 228: Preece.]

This inconvenience can, however, it is stated, be remedied.

If all the arrangements of the instrument were perfect, there should be no limits to the distance through which speech could be conveyed by the telephone. Professor Bell says that in laboratory experiments “no difficulty has been found in using an apparatus of this construction through a circuit of 6000 miles;” and that he had found it act efficiently between New York and Boston, a distance of 258 miles, subject to the condition that the neighbouring telegraph wires were not in action.

Mr Preece has carried on conversations between Dublin and Holyhead, a distance of 100 miles.

Two useful applications of the telephone are recorded by Professor Bell, the one its employment in connection with the diving bell; the other as a means of communication between those above and below ground in mines. It has been largely adopted in extensive factories and in commercial houses both in America and in this country, supplementing, because of its much greater simplicity and easy application, the electric telegraphs previously in use in such establishments.

We extract the following from the ‘Journal of the Society of Arts,’[229]

[Footnote 229: Vol. 26, p. 887.]

“THE TELEPHONE AND THE TORPEDO.

“A novel application of the Bell telephone is one which has been made in connection with torpedoes by Captain C. A. M’Evoy, of 18, Adam Street, Adelphi. The torpedoes to which the telephone has been applied are those of the buoyant contact class——that is, floating torpedoes, which are used for the protection of rivers and harbours. These torpedoes are held in position beneath the surface of the water by mooring lines and anchors, and it is necessary to ascertain from time to time that these deadly agents are in active working order. They are, of course, connected to the shore by electric wires by which they may be exploded. They are also arranged so that they may be exploded electrically by contact with passing vessels. For this latter purpose they are fitted with what is known as a circuit closer, which is placed in the middle of the charge within the torpedo. The testing is ordinarily performed by sending a current of electricity through the torpedo and fuse; but, in order that the fuse may not be fired, and the torpedo consequently exploded during the process of testing, an extremely weak current has to be used in connection with a sensitive galvanometer. The consequence is that the indications received are so very delicate that they are not always to be relied on. Now, what Captain M’Evoy does is to supplement the electrical test by the test of sounds, and to this end he encloses an ordinary Bell telephone in each torpedo. The telephone is so placed that the vibrating diaphragm is in a horizontal plane, and upon it are laid a few shot or particles of metal, and these are boxed in. Every motion of the torpedo causes the shot to shift their position upon the face of the diaphragm and to cause a slight noise, which is distinctly heard in the receiving telephone on shore. Thus each torpedo two or three miles away, in the restless waters of a channel, is continually telling the operator on shore of its own condition in language sometimes excited, according to the state of calmness or agitation of the water at the time. Should the torpedoes be sunk, they would lie motionless on the bottom, and the silence of the telephone would indicate the fact of their inoperativeness. The telephones are connected to the ordinary electric wires of the torpedoes, but this does not prevent them from being tested in the usual way from the battery on shore.”

=TELLU′RIUM.= A rare greyish-white elementary substance, found only in small quantities, associated with gold, silver, lead, and bismuth, in the gold mines of Transylvania. It has often been described as a metal, but is now commonly classed with the non-metals.

1. Tellurium may be obtained from the bismuth ore (the telluride of bismuth) by strongly heating the ore with a mixture of carbonate of potash and charcoal. A potassium telluride is formed which dissolves in water, forming a solution of a purplish-red colour, from which the tellurium deposits on exposure of the liquid to the atmosphere.

2. Schrötter gives the following method for the obtainment of metallic tellurium:——The raw material is treated with dilute hydrochloric acid as long as carbon dioxide is evolved, then with strong acid until all sulphuretted hydrogen is driven off.

The liquid is decanted from the residue, which is washed with hydrochloric acid and hot water, then boiled with aqua regia until the insoluble matter is white. From the aqua regia solution any gold that may be present is precipitated by means of ferrous sulphate, and afterwards zinc is added to precipitate the tellurium. The precipitate on the zinc is washed, dried, and heated to redness, treated with sulphuric acid to remove any silver, and the remaining tellurium is then collected.

Tellurium bears a great resemblance to bismuth in appearance, having a pinkish metallic lustre; it further resembles bismuth in being crystalline and brittle.

Below a red heat it enters into a state of fusion; at a high temperature it becomes converted into a yellow vapour. It burns in air, when strongly heated, with a blue flame having a green rim, and giving off white fumes that have a peculiar odour. When taken internally, even in very minute quantities, tellurium imparts to the breath an offensively powerful odour of garlic. Tellurium dissolves in cold concentrated sulphuric acid, to which it imparts a rich purple-red colour. If the acid solution be diluted with water the tellurium precipitates unchanged. There are two oxides of tellurium: the dioxide (TeO_{2}) and the trioxide (TeO_{3}), the first of which corresponds to sulphurous, and the second to sulphuric anhydride.

Tellurous acid (H_{2}TeO_{3}) is obtained by pouring a solution of tellurium on nitric acid of 1·25 into water, when the tellurous acid is precipitated as a bulky hydrate. This hydrate is slightly soluble in water and reddens litmus. It forms salts called tellurites.

Telluric acid (H_{2}TeO_{4}). When tellurium or tellurous acid is gently heated with nitre a potassic tellurate is formed, this being decomposed by a salt of barium, whilst the resulting barium tellurate is in its turn decomposed, and the telluric acid separated by sulphuric acid. The telluric acid occurs in hexagonal prismatic crystals, which, when heated usually to redness, becoming converted into telluric anhydride, which then assumes an orange-yellow colour. This telluric anhydride (TeO_{3}) is entirely insoluble in water, nitric and hydrochloric acids, and alkaline solutions. Although it has but a feeble attraction for bases, telluric acid forms salts which are called tellurates. There are two chlorides of tellurium: the dichloride (TeCl_{2}) and the tetrachloride (TeCl_{4}). They may both be obtained by the direct action of chlorine on tellurium.

Telluretted hydrogen, or dihydric telluride. (H_{2}Te). This compound presents a striking analogy to seleniuretted and sulphuretted hydrogen. Like both of these it is gaseous, but resembles the latter in smell more than the former. It burns with a blue flame, reddens litmus, and when fused into water forms a colourless solution, which becomes brown by exposure to the air, owing to the oxidation of hydrogen and the deposition of tellurmin. The salts of most of the metals are decomposed when a current of telluretted hydrogen is passed through these solutions, from which the metals are then thrown down as tellurides. These tellurides present a close resemblance to the corresponding sulphides. The tellurides of the alkali metals, like the sulphides, are soluble in water.

Tests. The most distinctive character of tellurium compounds is the reddish-purple solution of potassium telluride they furnish when fused with potassic carbonate and charcoal and treated with water.

=TEM′PERATURE.= In English pharmacy it is customary to measure the degree of heat by Fahrenheit’s thermometer. When a boiling heat is directed, 212° is meant. A gentle heat is that which is denoted by any degree between 90° and 100° Fahr.

Whenever specific gravity is mentioned, the substance spoken of is supposed to be of the temperature of 62° Fahr. (Ph. L.)

In the B. P., Ph. E., & D., and in chemical works in this country generally, the specific gravities of bodies are taken at, or referred to, the temperature of 60° Fahr. See THERMOMETERS.

The following data may be of use to the pharmacist:

Degree of Fahr. 2786 Cast iron melts (Daniell). 2016 Gold melts (Daniell). 1996 Copper melts (Daniell). 1873 Silver melts (Daniell). 1750 Brass (containing 25% of zinc) melts (Daniell). 1000 Iron, bright cherry red (Poillet). 980 Red heat, visible in daylight (Daniell). 941 Zinc begins to burn (Daniell). 773 Zinc melts (Daniell). 644 Mercury boils (Daniell), 662 (Graham). 640 Sulphuric acid boils (Marignac), 620 (Graham). 630 Whale oil boils (Graham). 617 Pure lead melts (Rudberg). 600 Linseed oil boils. 518 Bismuth melts (Gmelin). 442 Tin melts (Crichton). 380 Arsenious acid volatilises. 356 Metallic arsenic sublimes. 315 Oil of turpentine boils (Kaure). 302 Etherification ends. 257 Saturated sol. of sal ammoniac boils (Taylor). 256 Saturated sol. of acetate of soda boils. 239 Sulphur melts (Miller), 226 (Fownes). 238 Saturated sol. of nitre boils. 221 Saturated sol. of salt boils (Paris Codex). 220 Saturated sol. of alum, carb. soda, and sulph. zinc, boil. 218 Saturated sol. of chlorate and prussiate potash, boil. 216 Saturated sol. of sulph. iron, sulph. copper, nitrate of lead, boil. 214 Saturated sol. of acetate lead, sulph. and bitartrate potash, boil. 213 or (213·5) Saturated sol. of water begins to boil in glass. 212 Water boils in metal, barometer at 30°. 211 Alloy of 5 bismuth, 3 tin, 2 lead, melts. 201 Alloy of 8 bismuth, 5 lead, 3 tin, melts (Kane). 207 Sodium melts (Regnault). 145 White of egg begins to coagulate. 185 Nitric acid 1·52 begins to boil. 180 (about) Starch forms a gelatinous compound with water. 176 Rectified spirit boils, benzol distils. 173 Alcohol (sp. gr. ·796 to ·800) boils. 151 Beeswax melts (Kane), 142 (Lepage). 150 Pyroxylic spirit boils (Scanlan). 141·8 Chloroform, and ammonia of ·945, boil. 44·5 Potassium melts (Bunsen). 132 Acetone (pyroacetic spirit) boils (Kane). 122 Mutton suet and styracin melt. 116 Bisulphuret of carbon boils (Graham). 115 Pure tallow melts (Lepage), 92 (Thomson). 112 Spermaceti and stearin of lard melt. 111 Phosphorus melts (Miller). 98 Temperature of the blood. 95 Ether (·720) boils. 95 Carbolic acid crystals become an oily liquid. 88 Acetous fermentation ceases, water boils in vacuo. 77 Vinous ferm. ends, acetous ferm. begins. 64·4 Oil of anise liquefies. 59 Gay Lussac’s Alcoomètre graduated at. 55 Syrups to be kept at (P. L.). 30 (about) Olive oil becomes partially solid. 32 Water freezes. ·5 Cold produced by snow 2 parts and salt 1 part. -37·9 Mercury freezes.

=TENT.= A piece of lint, or compressed sponge, used to dilate openings, wounds, &c.

=TERBIUM.= A rare metal found by Prof. Mosander, associated with erbium and yttrium in ordinary yttria. See ERBIUM and YTTRIUM.

=TER′RA.= [L.] Earth. TERRA JAPONICA, catechu; TERRA PONDEROSA, sulphate of baryta, &c.

=TER′RA COT′TA.= Literally, baked clay; a term applied to statues, architectural ornaments, &c., made of pure white clay, fine sand, and powdered potsherds, slowly dried, and baked to a strong hardness.

=TEST.= Syn. REAGENT. Any substance employed to determine the name or character of any other substance, or to detect its presence in compounds.

=TEST SOLUTIONS.= The test solutions here given are those of the British Pharmacopœia, which are used for determining the strength of various Pharmacopœial preparations by volumetric analysis. In the Pharmacopœia it is stated: The processes for volumetric estimations may be performed either with British or with metrical weights and measures, and the solutions are so arranged that they will be of the same strength, and the same indications will be obtained in using them, whichever system is employed, without the necessity of altering any of the figures by which the quantities of the substances tested or of the test solutions required in the process are expressed.

According to the British system, the quantities of the substances to be tested are expressed in grains by weight, whilst the quantities of the test solutions employed in testing are expressed in grain-measures, the grain-measure being the volume of a grain of distilled water.

According to the metrical system, the quantities of the substances to be tested are expressed in grammes by weight, whilst the quantities of the test solutions employed in testing are employed in cubic centimètres, the cubic centimètre being the volume of a gramme of distilled water.

As the cubic centimètre bears the same relation to the gramme that the grain-measure bears to the grain, the one system may be substituted for the other, with no difference in the results excepting that, by the metrical system, all the quantities will be expressed in relation to a weight (the gramme) which is more than fifteen times as great as the British grain.

In practice it will be found convenient in substituting metrical for British weights and measures, to reduce the values of all numbers to one-tenth by moving the decimal points, and this has been done in the tables appended to the descriptions of the volumetric solutions. The quantities indicated in the Pharmacopœia, which in grains and grain-measures can be conveniently used, would be found inconveniently large if the same numbers of grammes and cubic centimètres were employed.

The following apparatus is required in the preparation and use of these solutions.

For British weights and measures:

1. A flask, which, when filled to a mark on the neck, contains exactly 10,000 grains of distilled water at 60°. The capacity of the flask is therefore 10,000 grain-measures.

2. A graduated cylindrical jar which, when filled to O, holds 10,000 grains of distilled water, and is divided into 100 equal parts.

3. A burette. A graduated glass tube which, when filled to O, holds 1000 grains of distilled water, and is divided into 100 equal parts. Each part therefore corresponds to 10 grain-measures.

For metrical weights and measures:

1. A glass flask which, when filled to a mark on the neck, contains 1 litre, or 1000 cubic centimètres.

2. A graduated cylindrical jar which, when filled to O, contains 1 litre (1000 cubic centimètres), and is divided into 100 equal parts.

3. A burette. A graduated tube which, when filled to O, holds 100 cubic centimètres, and is divided into 100 equal parts.

(One cubic centimètre is the volume of one gramme of distilled water at 4° C.[230], 1000 cubic centimètres equal 1 litre).

[Footnote 230: It is customary to make the measurements with metrical apparatus at 60° Fahr.]

Volumetric solutions, before being used, should be shaken in order that they may be throughout of uniform strength. They should also be preserved in stoppered bottles. All measurements should be made at 60°.

VOLUMETRIC SOLUTION OF BICHROMATE OF POTASH (Bichromate of potash, KO,2CrO_{3} = 147·5, or K_{2}Cr_{2}O_{7} = 295).

Take of—— Bichromate of potash 147·5 grains. Distilled water a sufficiency.

Put the bichromate of potash into the 10,000 grain flask, and, having half filled the flask with water, allow the salt to dissolve; then dilute the solution with more water, until it has the exact bulk of 10,000 grain-measures: 1000 grain-measures of this solution contain 14·75 grains of the bichromate (1/10th of K_{2}CrO_{3}, or 1/20th of K_{2}Cr_{2}O_{7} in grains), and, when added to a solution of a protosalt of iron, acidulated with hydrochloric acid, are capable of converting 16·8 grains (1/10th of 6Fe, or 1/20th of 6Fe in grains) from the state of protosalt to that of persalt grammes, and cubic centimètres may be employed instead of grains and grain-measures; but for convenience 1/10th of the numbers should be taken. Thus, 14·75 grammes of bichromate of potash should be made to form 1000 cubic centimètres of solution. 100 cubic centimètres of this solution contain 1·475 grammes of the bichromate (1/100th of KO,2CrO_{3}, or 1/200th of K_{2}Cr_{2}0_{7} in grammes), and, when added to a solution of protosalt of iron acidulated with hydrochloric acid, are capable of converting 1·68 grammes of iron (1/100th of 6Fe, or 1/200 of 6Fe, in grammes) from the state of protosalt to that of persalt.

This solution is used for determining the proportion of protoxide of iron in the following preparations. It is known that the whole of the protosalt has been converted into a persalt when a minute drop of the liquid, placed in contact with a solution of red prussiate of potash on a white plate, ceases to strike with it a blue colour.

British Weights Metrical Weights and Measures. and Measures. /-----------/\-------------\ or /---------/\--------\ Grains weight = Grain measures Grams weight = C. C. of of substance. of vol. sol. of substance. vol. sol.

Ferri arsenias 20 = 170 or 2·0 = 17·0 ” carb. sacch. 20 = 330 ” 2·0 = 33·0 ” oxid. magn. 20 = 83 ” 2·0 = 8·3 ” Phosphas 20 = 250 ” 2·0 = 25·0

VOLUMETRIC SOLUTION OF HYPOSULPHITE OF SODA (hyposulphite of soda crystallised, NaO_{1}S_{2}O_{2} + 5HO = 124, or Na_{2}H_{2}S_{2}O_{4}.4H_{2}0 = 248).

Take of—— Hyposulphite of soda, in crystals 280 grains. Distilled water a sufficiency.

Dissolve the hyposulphite of soda in 10,000 grain-measures of water. Fill a burette with this solution and drop it cautiously in 1000 grain-measures of the volumetric solution of iodine until the brown colour is just discharged. Note the number of grain-measures (n) required to produce this effect; then put 8000 grain-measures of the same solution into a graduated jar, and augment this quantity by the addition of distilled water until it amounts to (8000 × 1000) / n grain-measures. If, for example, n=950, the 8000 grain-measures of solution should be diluted to the bulk of (8000 × 1000) / 950 = 8·421 grain-measures. 1000 grain-measures of this solution contains 24·8 grains of the hyposulphite (1/10th of 2(NaO,S_{2}O_{2} + 5HO), or 1/10th of =Na_{2}H_{2}S_{2}O_{4},4H_{2}O= in grains), and therefore corresponds to 12·7 grains of iodine (1/10th of an equivalent).

Grammes and cubic centimètres may be employed instead of grains and grain-measures, but for convenience 1/10th of the numbers should be taken. 100 cubic centimètres of this solution contain 2·48 grammes of the hyposulphite (1/100 of 2(NaO,S_{2}O_{2}+ 5HO), or 1/100th of Na_{2}H_{2}S_{2}O_{4}.4H_{2}O in grammes), and therefore corresponds to 1·27 grains of iodine (1/100th of an equivalent).

This solution is used for testing the following substances. In each case, except that of iodine, a solution of iodide of potassium and hydrochloric acid are added to the substance, and the amount of iodine so liberated is indicated by this solution:

British Weights Metrical Weights and Measures. and Measures. /------------/\------------\ or /---------/\---------\ Grains weight = Grain-measures Grams weight = C. C. of of substance. of vol. sol. of substance. vol. sol.

Calx Chlorata 10·0 = 850 or 1·00 = 85·0 Iodum 12·7 = 1000 ” 1·27 = 100·0 Liq. calc. chloratæ 60·0 = 500 ” 6·00 = 50·0 Liq. chlori 439·0 = 750 ” 43·90 = 75·0 Liq. Sodæ chloratæ 70·0 = 500 ” 7·00 = 50·0

VOLUMETRIC SOLUTION OF IODINE (iodine, I = 127, or I = 127).

Take of iodine 127 grains. Iodide of potassium 180 ” Distilled water a sufficiency.

Put the iodide of potassium and the iodine into the 10,000 grain flask, fill the flask to about two thirds its bulk with distilled water, gently agitate until solution is complete, and then dilute the solution with more water, until it has the exact volume of 10,000 grain-measures. 1000 grain-measures of this solution contain 1/10th of an equivalent in grains (12·7 grains) of iodine, and therefore correspond to 1·7 grains of sulphuretted hydrogen, 3·2 grains of sulphurous acid, and 4·95 grains of arsenious acid.

Grammes and cubic centimètres may be employed instead of grains and grain-measures, but for convenience 1/10th of the numbers should be taken. 100 cubic centimètres contain 1·27 grammes of iodine, and correspond to 0·17 grammes of sulphuretted hydrogen, 0·32 grammes of sulphurous, and 0·495 grammes of arsenious acid. This solution is for testing the following substances. It is dropped from the burette into the liquid to be tested, until free iodine begins to appear in the solution.

British Weights Metrical Weights and Measures. and Measures. /------------/\------------\ or /---------/\--------\ Grains weight = Grain-measures Grams weight = C. C. of of substance. of vol. sol. of substance. vol. sol.

Acid. arsenios 4·0 = 808 or 0·40 = 80·8 Acid. sulphurosum 34·7 = 1000 ” 3·47 = 100·0 Liquor arsenicalis 441·5 = 808 ” 44·15 = 80·8 Liquor arsenici } hydrochloricus} 441·5 = 810 ” 44·15 = 81·0

VOLUMETRIC SOLUTION OF NITRATE OF SILVER (nitrate of silver, AgO, NO_{5} = 170, or AgNO_{3}* = 170).

Take of nitrate of silver 170 grains. Distilled water a sufficiency.

Put the nitrate of silver into the 10,000 grain flask, and having filled half the flask with water, allow the salt to dissolve; then dilute the solution with more water until it has the exact bulk of 10,000 grain-measures.

The solution should be kept in an opaque stoppered bottle. 1000 grain-measures of this solution contain 1/10th of an equivalent in grains of nitrate of silver (or 1·70 grains). Grammes and cubic centimètres may be employed instead of grains and grain-measures, but for convenience 1/10th of the numbers should be taken. 100 cubic centimètres contain 1/10th of an equivalent in grammes of nitrate of silver (or 1·7 grammes).

It is used in testing the following substances.

British Weights Metrical Weights and Measures. and Measures. /------------/\------------\ or /--------/\---------\ Grains weight = Grain-measures Grams weight = C. C. of of substance. of vol. sol. of substance. vol. sol.

Acid. hydrocyan. 270 = 1000 or 27·0 = 100·0 Potass. bromid. 10 = 840 ” 1·0 = 84·0 Sodæ arsenias (dry) 10 = 1613 ” 1·0 = 161·3

VOLUMETRIC SOLUTION OF OXALIC ACID (crystallised oxalic acid, 2HO, C_{4}H_{6} + 4HO = 126, or H_{2}C_{2}O_{4}2H_{2}O = 126). Take of——

Purified oxalic acid in } crystals, quite dry, but } 630 grains. not effloresced } Distilled water a sufficiency.

Put the oxalic acid into the 10,000 grain flask, fill the flask to about two thirds of its bulk with water, allow the acid to dissolve, and then dilute the solution with more water until it has the exact volume of 10,000 grain-measures. 1000 grain-measures of this solution contain half an equivalent in grains (63 gr.) of oxalic acid, and are therefore capable of neutralising an equivalent in grains of an alkali or alkaline carbonate. Grammes and cubic centimètres may be employed instead of grains and grain-measures, but for convenience 1/10th of the numbers should be taken. 100 cubic centimètres contain 1/20th of an equivalent in grammes (6·3 grammes) of oxalic acid, and will neutralise 1/10th of an equivalent in grammes of an alkali. The following substances are tested with this solution:

British Weights Metrical Weights and Measures. and Measures. /-------/\-------\ or /--------/\--------\ Grains = Grain- Grams = C. C. of weight of measures weight of vol. sol. substance. of vol. sol. substance.

Ammoniæ carb. 59·0 = 1000 or 5·90 = 100·0 Borax 191·0 = 1000 ” 19·10 = 100·0 Liq. ammon. 85·0 = 500 ” 8·50 = 50·0 Liq. ammon. fort. 52·3 = 1000 ” 5·23 = 100·0 Liq. calcis 4380·0 = 200 ” 438·00 = 20·0 Liq. calcis sacchar 460·2 = 254 ” 46·02 = 25·4 Liq. plumbi subacet. 413·3 = 810 ” 41·33 = 81·0 Liq. potassæ 462·9 = 482 ” 46·29 = 48·2 Liq. potassæ efferves. 4380·0 = 150 ” 438·00 = 15·0 Liq. sodæ 458·0 = 470 ” 45·80 = 47·0 Liq. sodæ efferves. 4380·0 = 178 ” 438·00 = 17·8 Plumbi acetas 38·0 = 200 ” 3·80 = 20·0 Potassa caustica 56·0 = 900 ” 5·60 = 90·0 Potassæ bicarb. 50·0 = 500 ” 5·00 = 50·0 Potassæ carb. 83·0 = 980 ” 8·30 = 98·0 Potassæ citras 102·0 = 1000 ” 10·20 = 100·0 Potassæ tartras 113·0 = 1000 ” 11·30 = 100·0 Potassæ tartras acida 188·0 = 1000 ” 18·80 = 100·0 Soda caustica 40·0 = 900 ” 4·00 = 90·0 Soda tartarata 141·0 = 1000 ” 14·10 = 100·0 Sodæ bicarb. 84·0 = 1000 ” 8·40 = 100·0 Sodæ carb. 143·0 = 960 ” 14·30 = 96·0

VOLUMETRIC SOLUTION OF SODA (hydrate of soda, NaO, HO = 40, or NaHO = 40).

Take of solution of soda a sufficiency. Distilled water a sufficiency.

Fill a burette with the solution of soda, and cautiously drop this into 63 gr. of purified oxalic acid, dissolved in about 2 oz. of water, until the acid is exactly neutralised as indicated by litmus.

Note the number of grain-measures (n) of the solution used, and having then introduced 9000 grain-measures of the solution of soda in a graduated jar, augment this quantity by the addition of water until it becomes

9000 × 1000 / n grain-measures =

If, for example, n = 930, the 9000 grain-measures should be augmented to

9000 × 1000 / 930 = 9,677 grain-measures.

One thousand grain-measures of this solution contain one equivalent in grains (40 gr.) of hydrate of soda, and will therefore neutralise one equivalent in grains of any monobasic acid.

Grammes and cubic centimètres may be employed, instead of grains and grain-measures; but for convenience 1/10th of the numbers should be taken. 1000 cubic centimètres contain 1/10th of an equivalent in grammes (4 grammes) of hydrate of soda, and will neutralise 1/10th of an equivalent in grammes of an acid.

This solution is used for testing the following substances:

British Weights Metrical Weights and Measures. and Measures. /--------/\-------\ or /--------/\--------\ Grains = Grain- Grams C. C. of weight of measures weight of = vol. sol. substance. of vol. substance. sol.

Acetum 445·4 = 402 or 44·54 = 40·2 Acid. acet. 182·0 = 1000 ” 18·20 = 100·0 Acid. acet. dil. 440·0 = 313 ” 44·40 = 31·3 Acid. acet. glac. 60·0 = 990 ” 6·00 = 99·0 Acid. citric 70·0 = 1000 ” 7·00 = 100·0 Acid. hydrochloric 114·8 = 1000 ” 14·48 = 100·0 Acid. hydrochloric dil. 345·0 = 1000 ” 34·50 = 100·0 Acid. nitric 90·0 = 1000 ” 9·00 = 100·0 Acid. nitric dil. 361·3 = 1000 ” 36·13 = 100·0 Acid. nitro-hydrochlor. dil. 352·4 = 920 ” 35·24 = 92·0 Acid. sulph. 50·6 = 1000 ” 5·06 = 100·0 Acid. sulph. arom. 304·2 = 830 ” 30·42 = 83·0 Acid. sulph. dil. 359·0 = 1000 ” 35·90 = 100·0 Acid. tart. 75·0 = 1000 ” 7·50 = 100·0

=TE′TANUS.= Spasm with rigidity. When it affects the under jaw, it is called TRISMUS, or locked-jaw; when the body is drawn backward by the contraction of the muscles, it is called OPISTHOTONOS; when the body is bent forward, EMPROSTHOTONOS; and when the body is drawn to one side, PLEUROSTHOTONOS.

The cause of tetanus, in temperate climates, is generally irritation of the nerves, arising from local injuries, especially punctured or lacerated wounds. Of these the most trivial are occasionally sufficient to produce locked-jaw. In hot climates the disease is occasionally produced by exposure to cold, or by suddenly suppressed perspiration. The last variety is curable; the former one scarcely ever so. The proper treatment is a matter still undetermined. Sedatives, antispasmodics, and powerful stimulants, have each had their advocates. Large doses of wine and spirits, in conjunction with opium, have occasionally been administered with success. Electricity and the vapour bath have also proved useful. In all cases the bowels should be moved by active aperients, either by the mouth or per anum. Dr Shrimpton[231] recommends the Chinese mode of treating tetanus, which is as follows:——From four to five grains of solid opium are mixed with tea-leaves, or dried roses, and carefully beaten together with molasses. The patient smokes this mixture, and endeavours to draw the smoke into the lungs, leaving off when the narcotic effects are produced. These last generally from three to four hours. The same operation should be repeated whenever there are any signs of returning spasms.

[Footnote 231: ‘Lancet,’ 1871, vol. ii, page 547.]

=TET′TERS.= The popular name of several cutaneous diseases, the treatment of which can only be properly undertaken by the experienced medical man.

=THAL′LIUM.= Tl. [Eng., L.] A heavy metal, belonging to the mercury, silver, and lead group, discovered by Crookes in the early part of 1861, and displayed by him as “a new metallic element” at the opening of the International Exhibition, on the 1st of May, 1862. Thallium is a widely-diffused metal, being found in many minerals, particularly in iron- and copper-pyrites and native sulphur. It has recently been obtained in comparatively large quantities from the dust of the flues leading to sulphuric acid chambers. The spectrum of thallium consists of a single most characteristic line of a beautiful green colour. The spectrum produced when the metal is burnt in the electric arc is, however, more complicated, and consists of several green, blue, and other lines.

Thallium melts at 550° Fahr., and at a less heat may be readily welded, a property that has hitherto been regarded as peculiar to iron and platinum. Its specific gravity varies from 11·8 to 11·9, according to the mode of preparation. When freshly cut it has a dull white colour, destitute of the brilliancy of polished silver. Exposed to the air, it tarnishes rapidly, a straw-coloured oxide making its appearance on the surface. The oxide is alkaline and caustic to the taste, and much more soluble than the oxides of silver and lead. The metal is remarkable for its strongly marked diamagnetic characters, resembling bismuth in this respect. The alloys of thallium are very remarkable. Copper, alloyed with only one half per cent, of thallium, becomes quite brittle; but the alloy with tin is malleable. Mr Crookes has prepared a great number of the salts of this interesting metal. These need not be described here, as they have not yet been applied to any use in the arts. See SULPHURIC ACID.

=THALLOGENS.= Thallogens or Thallogenous plants are structurally the simplest of the acotyledonous, or flowerless plants, consisting simply of a collection of cellular tissue, called a thallus. They are entirely destitute of woody fibre. The Algæ, Characeæ, Fungi, and Lichens are thallogenous plants.

=THEBA′INE.= C_{19}H_{21}NO_{3}. Syn. THEBAIA, PARAMORPHIA. A crystalline substance obtained by Thibourméry from an infusion of opium that has had its morphia extracted by acting on it by an excess of lime.

=THE′INE.= C_{8}H_{10}N_{4}O_{2}. Syn. THEINA. An alkaloid extracted from tea. It is identical with caffeine, and may be obtained from tea in the same manner as that substance is from coffee. The best ‘gunpowder tea’ contains fully 6% of theine, about one half of which is lost in the present careless mode of making infusion of tea for the table.

Mr Lewis Thompson, M.R.C.S., in a contribution to the ‘Medical Times and Gazette’ for 1871, directs attention to the value of theine as a therapeutic agent, as well as gives an easy method for its preparation. He writes as follows:——“I wish to direct the attention of the medical profession to a valuable agent which has hitherto escaped notice, although its powers are most unquestionable, and its cost price very trivial. The article to which I allude is theine, a substance existing in tea and coffee, and, as I believe, in many other vegetable products.

“As a medicine, theine is powerfully tonic and stimulant, and appears to possess the tonic virtues of the disulphate of quinia united to the stimulating power of wine, but with this difference, that the stimulus from theine is not followed by depression, as in the case of wine and alcohol.

“Theine seems to act chiefly on the great sympathetic or ganglionic system of nerves, and but slightly on the brain. I have used it in doses of from 1 to 5 grams, with very marked advantage, in the low stage of typhoid fevers, confluent smallpox, and that form of mortification of the toes which is so singularly fatal to old people. But, in addition to this, different medical friends of mine have found it useful in hemicrania, neuralgia, and what has been called relapsing fever; and in the case of an overdose of opium, it appeared to relieve the narcotic symptoms speedily.

“With regard to the cost of this medicine, I have discovered that in the ordinary process of roasting coffee, the whole of the theine is driven off before the torrefaction of the coffee is completed; and thus theine may be cheaply collected by making the axis of the coffee roaster tubular. If, instead of a solid axis, we employ at one end of the roasters a tube passing away to the distance of about three feet, the theine is condensed in this tube by the refrigerating power of the atmosphere, and may afterwards be easily dissolved out by a little water, and purified in the manner about to be indicated.

“As the result of much experience, I have obtained on an average, 75 grains of theine from the roasting of 1 lb. of raw coffee; and when we reflect that in Great Britain alone, there are more than 13,000 tons of coffee roasted annually, we see that about 140 tons of theine are wasted and lost every year by sheer ignorance. It may, perhaps, be thought that the saving of the theine will damage the flavour of the coffee, but from experience I know that it has no such effect; and, in point of fact, it is an advantage to the flavour of the coffee to make both the axes of the roaster tubular, and to cause a gentle current of air to pass through the apparatus during the roasting of the coffee, so as to expel the empyreumatic products that are formed. I will now relate the fact upon which the purification of theine depends, and when this is once clearly understood, the manufacture of theine from either tea or coffee becomes an extremely simple matter. Theine is absolutely insoluble in a concentrated solution of the carbonate of potash, and thus we may precipitate it from its admixture with sugar, mucilage, and vegetable extract. If, then, by means of the subacetate of lead, we have removed from a vegetable infusion the tannin, malic acid, &c., we have only to evaporate the filtered solution to a small bulk, and add to it its own weight of dry carbonate of potash, and the whole of the theine becomes at once insoluble; so that having collected this insoluble product, and boiled it in rectified spirits of wine, we have a solution of pure theine, which, after distilling off the spirit, furnishes crystals fit for immediate use. In conclusion, I will merely mention a distinctive test for theine, sufficiently delicate to detect the one thousandth of a grain of that substance. Dissolve the theine in a small quantity of water, and pass through this a stream of euchlorine, then allow the fluid to evaporate at a steam heat; a blood-coloured substance will remain, which, on the application of a few drops of cold water, forms a beautiful scarlet solution like red ink. It is, I apprehend, almost unnecessary for me to say that euchlorine gas is formed by the action of hydrochloric acid upon the chlorate of potash.

“I ought, perhaps, to add that theine collected as a waste product of coffee, and purified by myself, has cost me less than threepence per ounce troy.”

=THENARD’S BLUE.= See ULTRAMARINE (Cobaltic).

=THEOBROMÆ OLEUM.= Syn. CACAO BUTTER. A concrete oil, obtained by expression and heat from the ground seeds of Theobroma Cacao. Occurs in cakes of a yellowish colour, of a pleasant cacao odour. Does not become rancid from exposure to air. Contained in all the suppositories.

Not official.——The following form good bases for suppositories:——Theobroma oil, when melted, begins to solidify at 72° Fahr.; stearine of cocoa-nut oil at 75° Fahr.; 4 of stearine and 2 of mutton fat at 77° Fahr.; 4 of stearine and 1 spermaceti at 80° Fahr. Stearine alone is, perhaps, a better substance than cacao butter for making suppositories. It begins to solidify at 78° Fahr., but there is stearine that solidifies at 120° Fahr.; this will not answer for suppositories.

=THEOBRO′MINE.= A peculiar principle, closely resembling caffeine or theine, found by Woskresensky in the seed of the Theobroma Cacao, or the nuts from which chocolate is prepared. Its form is that of a light, white, crystalline powder, which is rather less soluble than caffeine. It is obtained like caffeine. See COCOA.

=THERI′ACA.= A name given in ancient pharmacy to various compound medicines, chiefly electuaries or confections, employed as antidotes to poisons or infection. The THERIACA ANDROMACHI, Ph. L. 1746, contained above 60 ingredients. Mithridate and Venice treacle are examples of this class. See TREACLE.

=THERMOM′ETERS.= FAHRENHEIT’S scale is the one generally employed in England, while that of CELSIUS, or the CENTIGRADE scale, is principally used on the Continent. REAUMUR’S is another scale occasionally employed. DE LISLE’S thermometer was formerly used in Russia, and some other parts of the north of Europe. As references to these scales are frequently met with in books, it is useful to know their relative value, and the method of reducing the one to the other. The boiling point of water is indicated by 212° on Fahrenheit’s scale, 100° on the Centigrade scale, 80° on that of Reaumur, and O° on that of De Lisle; the freezing point of water marks 32° Fahrenheit, and 0°, or zero, on the Centigrade and Reaumur, and 150° on the scale of De Lisle. The 0°, or zero of Fahrenheit, is 32° below the freezing point of water.

1. To reduce Centigrade degrees to those of Fahrenheit, multiply them by 9, divide the product by 5, and to the quotient add 32; that is——

Cent.° × 9 / 5 + 32 = Fahr.°

2. To reduce Fahrenheit’s degrees to Centigrade:

(Fahr.° - 32) × 5 / 9 = Cent.°

3. To reduce Reaumur’s to Fahrenheit’s:

Reau.° × 9 / 4 + 32 = Fahr.°

4. To convert Fahrenheit’s to Reaumur’s:——

(Fahr.° - 32) × 4 / 9 = Reaumur.°

Thermometers intended to register extreme degrees of heat are called PYROMETERS (which see)

=THIBANT’S BALSAM.= FOR WOUNDS. Digest flowers of St John’s wort, one handful in 1/2 pint of rectified spirit; then express the liquor, and dissolve in it myrrh, aloes, and dragon’s blood, of each 1 dr., with Canada balsam, 1/2 oz.

=THO′RIUM.= Th. Syn. THORINUM. A very rare element, belonging to the group of earthy metals. Metallic base of thoria. It is obtained by the action of potassium on the chloride of thorium, and washing the resulting mass in water.

=THORN-APPLE.= See DATURA.

=THROAT AFFECTIONS.= We intend here only to allude to those arising from exposure or cold. The list is, therefore, a short one. CROUP, one of the most important, has been already briefly noticed.

QUINSY, or INFLAMMATORY SORE THROAT, commonly commences with stiffness and pain on one side of the throat, and swelling of the tonsils, attended by febrile symptoms, which increase as tumefaction advances, and sometimes become extreme. There is great restlessness and anxiety, considerable difficulty in swallowing even liquids, the respiration is painful and laborious, and the speech obstructed. When the inflammation is not resolved, these symptoms rapidly increase in severity, the patient suffers the greatest misery, the tumour suppurates rapidly, the abscess bursts, and with the rupture comes almost immediate relief. It occasionally happens that the other side of the throat then becomes affected, and goes through the same stages; but in general this is not the case, and the patient rapidly recovers, a few detergent gargles and a light nutritious diet being all that is required. Sometimes, at the very commencement of the attack, the inflammation may be resolved by the patient sucking a lozenge or powder, every hour or two, containing 1/4 or 1/2 grain of tartarised antimony carefully triturated with about 20 gr. of lump sugar, so as to keep up a constant state of nausea or vomiting for hours.

MALIGNANT SORE THROAT is marked by the inflammation of the tonsils being more superficial; but no sooner does it occur than it passes into small ulcers of varied colours and appearance, extending to the pharynx, and spreading over the whole fauces into the nostrils, and even around the glottis and down the œsophagus. These ulcers rapidly slough, and the febrile symptoms of a typhoid character, which are present throughout, become more or less severe. In this way the disease often hastens to a fatal termination, and, being highly contagious, often extends itself to all, or nearly all, the members of a family. The treatment must be similar to that adopted for typhus fever. Stimulating gargles, containing capsicum, the mineral acids, or port wine, are useful local remedies. See DIPHTHERIA.

=THRUSH.= Syn. APHTHA, L. A disease of infancy, which, in its common form, is marked by small white ulcers upon the tongue, palate, and gums. In some cases it extends through the whole course of the alimentary canal, and, assuming a malignant form, proves fatal. The treatment consists of a gentle emetic of ipecacuanha wine, followed by an occasional dose of rhubarb and magnesia, to keep the bowels clear, and to arrest diarrhœa. The ulcerations may be touched with a little honey or borax; and if they assume a dark colour, or there be much debility, astringents and tonics should be had recourse to. In all cases the diet should be light, but supporting, as imperfect nutrition is a common cause of the disease.

In Animals. Topical applications of alum or borax, glycerine, Condy’s fluid; laxatives. The food should be cooling and digestible.

=THYMOL.= Syn. THYMIC ACID, C_{10}H_{14}O. This substance is the oxygenated constituent of the essential oils of thyme (Thymus vulgaris), horse mint (Monarda punctata), and (Ptychotis ajowan) a common umbelliferous plant growing in India. Thymol is isomeric with cymilic alcohol, and homologous with phenyl.

Thymol may be procured from either of the above sources by treatment with caustic potash or soda, as described below, or by submitting the essential oils to a low temperature for some days. When prepared by the first process thymol occurs as an oily fluid; and when by the second, as a crystalline solid.

The following are the details of the preparation of the liquid variety of thymol as given by the Paris Pharmaceutical Society in their formulæ for new remedies published in 1877:——

“Treat essential oil of thyme with an equal volume of an aqueous solution of potash or soda, and shake several times to facilitate combination. The thymol dissolves, forming a soluble compound, whilst the thymene, a carbide of hydrogen, that accompanies it in the essence, does not combine with the alkali and separates. Filter the solution obtained and treat with an acid——hydrochloric acid, for example——which sets free the thymol. The product should be purified by washing, dried, and distilled. Thymol was obtained in fine tubular crystals by Flückiger and Hanbury, who exposed oil of ajowan to a temperature of 0° C.; the oil so treated yielded 35 per cent. of its weight of crystallised thymol. Mr Gerrard says it is stated that oil of thyme yields as much as 50 per cent.

“As found in commerce, thymol consists of irregular broken crystals, nearly transparent and colourless; the taste is burning and aromatic, sp. gr. 1·028, but lighter than water when fused; its melting point is about 44° C. When once completely fused and allowed to cool to the ordinary temperature, it will maintain itself in the fluid condition for several days, but the contact of a crystal will at once cause it to crystallise. It is freely soluble in alcohol, ether, chloroform, benzol, carbon bisulphide, fats, and oils, and but sparingly in water and glycerin. The alkaline hydrates of potash and soda are powerful solvents of thymol; ammonia dissolves it but sparingly.

“The potash and soda solutions are spoken of by some authors as chemical combinations; but the following test will demonstrate them otherwise. When shaken with ether the thymol can be entirely removed, and obtained as a neutral volatile residue.”[232]

[Footnote 232: “Thymol and its Pharmacy,” by A. W. Gerrard, F.C.S., ‘Ph. Journ.,’ vol. viii, 3rd series, 645.]

With sulphuric acid thymol forms crystallisable colugated acid, the thymol sulphuric having the formula HC_{10}H_{13}SO_{4}. Undiluted thymol is an energetic caustic. According to Bucholz, thymol possesses ten times the septic power of carbolic acid, over which it also has the advantage of being non-poisonous, and of giving off an agreeable odour. Although considerably dearer than carbolic acid, the much smaller quantity required to produce an equivalent effect nearly equalises it in point of cost. It is said to have been successfully employed in the antiseptic treatment of wounds in destroying the fœtor arising from ulcerated surfaces and carious bones; in the form of spray during surgical applications, as well as for certain throat affections, and as an ointment and lotion in psoriasis and other skin diseases. When thymol is to be used for lotions, injections, inhalations, or spray solutions, the Paris Pharmaceutical Society recommends 1 part of thymol to be dissolved in 4 parts of alcohol at 90°, and this to be added to 995 parts of distilled water.

Dr Crocker, of University College Hospital, strongly recommends thymol lotion to be prepared with glycerin, which, he says, obviates the drying effect upon the skin produced by aqueous or spirituous solutions of the thymol alone. According to Mr Gerrard, this lotion is prepared by dissolving 1 part of thymol in 120 parts of glycerin, and reducing by water to 600 parts. Dr Symes says he finds milk to be an excellent solvent for thymol, of which it will take up readily to nearly 10 per cent. of its weight. In cases, therefore, in which solutions are required of greater strength than aqueous ones, he recommends the employment of the fluid.

An ointment varying in strength from 1 to 5 parts of thymol to 100 of lard, is said by Mr Gerrard to be employed in our hospitals. In the preparation of this ointment, it is of importance to first dissolve the thymol in a few drops of spirits, and then to mix it with the lard. The neglect of this precaution causes the undissolved particles of thymol present in the ointment to act as a caustic irritant on the skin, and to eat little holes in it. Mr Gerrard found vaseline an unsuitable and objectionable vehicle for the application of thymol, since, after a few days, an ointment prepared with it had its surface covered with minute crystals of thymol.

The ‘Medical Times’ contains the following formula for the preparation of thymol gauze for dressing wounds:——“Bleached gauze, 1000 parts; spermaceti, 500; resin, 50; thymol, 16 parts.” This is said to yield an extremely soft and pliant preparation, excellently adapted for wounds, fitting accurately to them, and absorbing at the same time the blood and secretions from them like a sponge would do. Dr Ranke has pointed out that, in consequence of the great reduction in the amount of secretion from wounds caused by the use of thymol, the consequent consumption of bandages becomes so much less as to more than compensate for the great difference in price between thymol and carbolic acid.

Another advantage possessed by thymol over carbolic acid is that the redness, vesication, and eczema, frequently induced when dressings of the latter agent are used, does not follow the application of thymol dressings.

Mr Squire prepares an antiseptic adhesive plaster, containing 1 part of thymol to a 1000 of plaster.

Mr Gerrard in operating upon nine different samples of commercial oil of thyme (so-called oil of origanum) by means both of caustic soda and refrigeration, states, that except in one doubtful case, he was unable to obtain the slightest trace of thymol. From this circumstance Mr Gerrard infers that thymol is not present in the English oils of thyme of commerce, from which it must have been removed in the countries where it is produced, the residual cymene and thymene being sent us is an oil of thyme.

Large quantities of thymol are prepared in Germany, principally from the seeds of the Ptychotis ajowan. One firm of chemical manufacturers residing in Leipzig is reported to have sent out during the months of September and November last year more than a ton of it. Thymol wadding is also in extensive demand.

=TIC DOULOUREUX′.= [Fr.] According to a writer in one of the medical periodicals, a solution of atropia, 2 gr., in water, 1 fl. dr., to which nitric acid, 1 drop (minim), has been previously added, applied as a paint, by means of a camel-hair pencil, to the part of the face over the spot affected, immediately and completely subdues the pain, or, at all events, within 3 to 5 minutes, in all accidental cases, and affords considerable relief in others. The application is to be continued until some relief is experienced. The solution, being very poisonous, must not be taken internally, nor applied to the skin when broken. See ATROPIA and NEURALGIA.

=TIN.= Sn. Syn. STANNUM (Ph. E. & D.), L. This metal has been known from the most remote antiquity, being mentioned in the books of Moses (Numb. xxxi, 22), and by Homer (‘Iliad,’ x, 25), and other early writers. The ancients obtained it principally, if not solely, from Cornwall. The Phœnicians traded with England for this metal at least 1000 years before the birth of Christ.

Tin occurs in nature in the state of oxide, and, more rarely, as sulphide (TIN PYRITES). In Cornwall it is found under the form of peroxide (MINE-TIN, TIN-STONE), associated with copper ore, in the slate and granite rocks, and as an alluvial deposit (STREAM-TIN) in the beds of rivers.

Prep., &c. The ore is first reduced to powder in stamping-mills, washed to remove earthy matter, and then roasted to expel arsenic and sulphur; it is next deoxidised or reduced by smelting it with about 1-6th of its weight of powdered culm, and a little slaked lime; it is, lastly, refined by ‘liquation,’ followed by a second smelting of the purer portion, which, after being treated in a state of fusion, for some time with billets of green wood, or ‘tossed,’ as the workmen call it, is allowed to settle, and is then cast into large blocks, which, after being assayed, receive the stamp of the duchy. Two varieties of commercial tin are known, called respectively grain tin and bar tin. The first is the best, and is prepared from the stream ore.

Prop. Tin approaches silver in whiteness and lustre; in hardness it is intermediate between gold and lead; it is very malleable when pure, but the presence of a very small quantity of any other metal, particularly lead, deprives it of this property; when rubbed it evolves a peculiar odour, and when bent backwards and forwards it emits a peculiar crackling noise; it melts at 442° Fahr.; volatilises at a white heat; and when heated above its melting-point, with free access of air, is speedily converted into a yellowish-white powder, which is the peroxide, or the ‘putty powder’ of polishers. Sp. gr. 7·29 to 7·31.

Pur. It is almost entirely dissolved by hydrochloric acid, yielding a colourless solution; the precipitate thrown down by hydrate of potassium is white, and soluble in excess of the precipitant. If it contain arsenic, brownish-black flocks will be separated during the solution, and arseniuretted hydrogen evolved, which may be inflamed and tested in the usual manner. The presence of other metals in tin may be detected by treating the hydrochloric solution with nitric acid, sp. gr. 1·16, first in the cold, and afterwards with heat, until all the tin is thrown down in the state of insoluble stannic oxide. The decanted acid solution from pure tin leaves no residuum on evaporation. If, after all the acid has been dissipated by heat, dilution with water occasion a heavy white precipitate, the sample contained bismuth; if, after dilution, a solution of sulphate of ammonium or of sodium produce a similar white precipitate (sulphate of lead), it contained lead; if ammonia, added in excess, occasion reddish-brown flocks, or if ferricyanide of potassium give a blue precipitate, it contained iron; and, if the clear supernatant liquid leave a residuum on evaporation, copper.

Tests. The stannous salts are characterised as follows:——1. Hydrate of potassium gives a bulky white precipitate, readily soluble in excess of the precipitant; on concentrating the solution, the precipitate is changed from stannous hydrate into stannic hydrate, which remains in solution, and metallic tin, which separates in brown flakes.——2. Ammonia, and the carbonates of potassium, sodium, and ammonium, give white precipitates, insoluble in excess.——3. Sulphuretted hydrogen gives, in neutral and acid solutions, a dark brown precipitate, which is soluble in hydrate of potassium, in the alkaline sulphides (especially when they contain an excess of sulphur), and in strong hot hydrochloric acid; and insoluble in nitric acid, even when boiling.——4. Sulphide of ammonium produces a like brown precipitate, soluble in excess of the precipitant, provided the latter contains an excess of sulphur.——5. Terchloride of gold gives, in the cold, on the addition of a little nitric acid, a precipitate of the purple of Cassius.——6. Mercuric chloride gives a black precipitate, but in excess it produces a white one.

=Stannous Chloride.= SnCl_{2}. Syn. PROTOCHLORIDE OF TIN. Prep. (ANHYDROUS.) Distil a mixture of tin and mercuric chloride. Grey, resin-like, solid, fusible, and volatile.

(HYDRATED; TIN SALT.) Boil an excess of tin in hydrochloric acid. A powerful deoxidising agent. It is somewhat extensively used as a mordant in dyeing.

=Stannous Hydrate.= Sn(HO)_{2}. Syn. HYDRATED OXIDE OF TIN. Prep. Precipitate stannous chloride with carbonate of potassium, well wash, and dry under 196°. Greyish-white powder, soluble in acids and alkaline hydrates, except ammonia.

=Stannous Iodide.= SnI_{2}. Syn. PROTIODIDE OF TIN. Heat tin and iodine together. A fusible brownish-red, translucent substance, soluble in water.

=Stannous Oxide.= SnO. Syn. PROTOXIDE OF TIN. Prep. Ignite the hydrate in an atmosphere of carbonic anhydride. Black powder, inflammable in air, and insoluble in acids.

=Stannous Sulphide.= SnS. Syn. PROTOSULPHIDE OF TIN. A brittle bluish-grey substance, obtained by heating tin and sulphur.

The stannous salts behave with reagents as follows:——1. Hydrate of potassium, ammonia and alkaline carbonates, give a white precipitate, which is freely soluble in an excess of hydrate of potassium and in acids, sparingly soluble in excess of ammonia, only very slightly soluble in excess of carbonate of potassium, and insoluble in excess of carbonate of ammonium.——2. Sulphuretted hydrogen gives, in acid neutral solutions, a golden-yellow precipitate, either at once or on heating the liquid, which is readily soluble in pure hydrate of potassium, the alkaline sulphides, and boiling hydrochloric acid; less soluble in ammonia, and insoluble in nitric acid.——3. A plate of metallic zinc throws down metallic tin, under the form of grey scales or a spongy mass, from solutions free from nitric acid; and from those containing free nitric acid, white stannic hydrate.——4. Mercuric chloride gives a white precipitate.——5. Ferrocyanide of potassium gives no precipitate at first, but after a time the whole forms a thick jelly.

Assay. Each grain of stannic oxide (see above), after being washed and gently ignited, is equivalent to ·78365 gr. of pure tin. The loss of weight represents the impurities. Each gr. of sulphate of lead, so treated, is equiv. to ·683 gr. of metallic lead (nearly).

Uses. The uses of tin in the arts are well known. In medicine, 1 to 3 dr. of the filings or powder, made into an electuary with treacle, are sometimes given in tapeworm, for 2 or 3 successive mornings, followed by an aperient.

=Stannic Chloride.= SnCl_{4}. Syn. BICHLORIDE OF TIN, TETRACHLORIDE OF TIN, PERCHLORIDE OF TIN, PERMURIATE OF T.†; STANNI BICHLORIDUM, STANNI PERMURAS, L. Prep. 1. (Liebig.) By dissolving grain tin in a mixture of hydrochloric acid, 2 parts; nitric acid and water, of each 1 part (all by volume); observing to add the tin by degrees, and to allow one portion to dissolve before adding another, as without this precaution the action is apt to become violent, and stannic oxide of tin to be deposited.

2. (ANHYDROUS; LIBAVIUS’S FUMING LIQUOR.) By heating stannous chloride in chlorine gas; or, by distilling a mixture of powdered tin, 1 part, with corrosive sublimate, 3 parts (5 parts——Fownes). A very volatile, colourless, mobile liquid, which fumes in the air, and boils at 248° Fahr.; when mixed with 1-3rd of its weight of water, it solidifies to a crystalline mass.

Obs. Solution of stannic chloride is much used by dyers, under the names of ‘SPIRITS OF TIN,’ ‘DYERS’ SPIRITS,’ ‘TIN MORDANT,’ &c., the proportions of the ingredients and the state of dilution being various, according to circumstances or the caprice of the manufacturer. A process, which has been highly recommended, and which seems preferable to all others, is to prepare a simple solution of the stannous chloride, and to convert it into a solution of the stannic chloride, either by the addition of nitric acid and a gentle heat, or by passing chlorine through it. See TIN MORDANTS.

=Stannic Hydrate.= Sn(HO)_{4}. Syn. HYDRATED PEROXIDE OF TIN, STANNIC ACID. Prep. By adding hydrate of potassium or an alkaline carbonate to a solution of stannic chloride. Soluble in acids and pure alkalies. Its compound with the latter are sometimes called STANNATES.

=Stannic Iodide.= SnI_{4}. By dissolving stannic hydrate in hydriodic acid. Yellow, silky crystals.

=Stannic Oxide.= SnO_{2}. Syn. BINOXIDE OF TIN, PEROXIDE OF TIN. Prep. By the action of nitric acid on metallic tin, the resulting white powder being well washed with water; or, by heating metallic tin above its melting-point, in the air. Yellow; anhydrous; insoluble.

Obs. Frémy has given the name of METASTANNIC ACID to the oxide prepared by the action of nitric acid on metallic tin; the hydrate he calls STANNIC ACID. See POLISHERS’ PUTTY.

=Stannic Sulphide.= SnS_{2}. Syn. BISULPHIDE OF TIN, BRONZE POWDER, MOSAIC GOLD; AURUM MUSIVUM, AURUM MOSAICUM, STANNI BISULPHURETEM, L. Prep. 1. To pure tin, 12 oz., melted by a gentle heat, add of mercury, 6 oz.; to the powdered mass, when cold, add of chloride of ammonium, 6 oz.; flowers of sulphur, 7 oz; and after thorough admixture place the compound in a glass flask or matrass, and gradually heat it, imbedded in sand, to low redness, and continue the heat for several hours, or until white fumes cease to be disengaged; the ‘aurum musivum’ remains at the bottom of the vessel, under the form of soft and very brilliant gold-coloured flakes.

2. (Berzelius.) Stannic oxide and sulphur, of each 2 parts; chloride of ammonium, 1 part; mix, and expose it to a low red heat, in a glass or earthenware retort, until sulphurous fumes cease to be evolved.

Used as a metallic gold colour, or substitute for powdered gold, in bronzes, varnish work, sealing-wax, &c.

=TIN FI′LINGS.= See TIN POWDER (below).

=TINFOIL, Lead in.= Tinfoil very rarely consists of pure tin; generally it contains more or less lead. According to the recent analysis of August Vogel, who has examined a great number of samples from very different sources, it contains from 1 to 19 per cent. of lead. There are, however, specimens of tinfoil which contain so little lead that it hardly gives a reaction with the appropriate tests.

Since tinfoil is so much used for covering articles of diet, or of confectionery, or of perfumery, it was a matter of some interest to determine whether or not there was any danger of transference of lead from the wrapper to the contents. A number of experiments upon soap, chocolate, and different kinds of dry sugar, which had been enveloped in tinfoil very highly charged with lead, showed that there was no contamination with lead. Cheese, on the other hand, on account of its being moist, and being closely in contact with the foil, did take up lead.

Of course the lactic acid of the cheese would also favour the taking up of the metal. A point worthy of being recorded in connection with this matter is the rapid diminution of the lead toward the centre of the cheese. Often plenty of lead was found in the rind, and none a little way in the cheese.[233]

[Footnote 233: ‘Repertorium für Pharmacie,’ Von Buchnee.]

=TIN GLASS†.= See BISMUTH.

=TIN MOR′DANTS.= Syn. DYERS’ SPIRIT, SOLUTION OF TIN, SPIRIT OF T., NITROMURIATE OF T.† These, as noticed above, vary greatly in their composition and character.

Prep. 1. Take of aquafortis, 8 parts; sal ammoniac or common salt, 1 part; dissolve, and add, very gradually, of grain tin, 1 part; and, when dissolved, preserve it in stoppered bottles from the air. This is the common ‘SPIRIT OF TIN’ of the dyers.

2. (Berthollet.) Nitric acid, at 30° Baumé, 8 parts; sal ammoniac, 1 part; dissolve, then add by degrees, of tin, 1 part; and when dissolved, dilute the solution with 1-4th of its weight of water.

3. (Dambourney.) Hydrochloric acid, at 17° Baumé, 4 parts; nitric acid, at 30° Baumé, 1 part; mix, and add by degrees, of Molucca tin, 1 part.

4. (Hellot.) Nitric acid and water, of each 1 lb.; sal ammoniac, 1 oz.; nitre, 1/2 oz.; dissolve, then add, by degrees, of granulated tin, 2 oz.

5. (Poerner.) Nitric acid and water, of each 1 lb.; sal ammoniac, 1-1/2 oz.; dissolve, then add, by very slow degrees, of pure tin. beaten into ribands, 2 oz.

6. (Schoeffer.) Nitric acid and water, of each 2 lbs.; sal ammoniac, 2 oz.; pure tin, 4-1/2 oz.; as last. All the above are used chiefly for dyeing scarlet, more particularly with cochineal.

7. (LAC SPIRIT.) From grain tin, 1 lb, slowly dissolved in hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1·19), 20 lbs. Recommended as a solvent for lac dye. For use, 3/4 to 1 lb. of the liquid is digested on each lb. of the dye for 5 or 6 hours, before adding it to the dye bath.

8. Hydrochloric acid, 6-3/4 lbs.; aquafortis, 1/2 lb.; grain tin, gradually added, 1 lb. Recommended for lac dye.

=TIN-PLATE.= Iron-plate covered with a coating of tin, by dipping it into a bath of that metal.

=TIN POW′DER.= Syn. TIN FILINGS, TIN DUST; STANNI PULVIS (Ph. E & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Melt grain tin in an iron vessel, pour it into an earthenware mortar heated a little above its melting-point, and triturate briskly as the metal cools; lastly, sift the product, and repeat the process with what remains in the sieve.

2. (Ph. D.) Melt grain-tin in a black-lead crucible, and, whilst it is cooling, stir it with a rod of iron until it is reduced to powder; let the finer particles be separated by means of a sieve, and when, after having been several times in succession shaken with distilled water, the decanted liquor appears quite clear, let the product be dried for use.

Obs. Powdered tin is also prepared by filing and rasping.——Dose, 2 to 4 dr., as a vermifuge. POLISHERS’ PUTTY, coloured with ivory black, is frequently substituted for this powder, and hence arises the ill effects that sometimes follow its use.

=TIN′NING.= Proc. 1. Plates or vessels of brass or copper, boiled with a solution of stannate of potassa, mixed with turnings of tin, become, in the course of a few minutes, covered with a firmly attached layer of pure tin.

2. A similar effect is produced by boiling the articles with tin filings and caustic alkali or cream of tartar.

Obs. By either of the above methods chemical vessels made of copper or brass may be easily and perfectly tinned.

3. The following method for tinning copper, brass, and iron in the cold, and without apparatus, is by F. Stolba.[234]

[Footnote 234: ‘The Pharmacist,’ iv, 86.]

The requisites for accomplishing this object are:——1st. The object to be coated with tin must be entirely free from oxide. It must be carefully cleaned and care be taken that no grease spots are left; it makes no difference whether the object be cleaned mechanically or chemically. 2nd. Zinc powder; the best is that prepared artificially by melting zinc, and pouring it into an iron mortar. It can be easily pulverised immediately after solidification; it should be about as fine as writing sand. 3rd. A solution of protochloride of tin containing 5 or 10 per cent., to which as much pulverised cream of tartar must be added as will go on to the point of a knife. The object to be tinned is moistened with the tinned solution, after which it is rubbed hard with the zinc powder. The tinning appears at once. The tin-salt is decomposed by the zinc, metallic tin being deposited. When the object tinned is polished brass or copper, it appears as beautiful as if silvered, and retains its lustre for a long time. 4th. (C. Paul.)[235] The zinc or iron articles are immersed in a mixture of 1 part sulphuric or nitric acid with 10 parts of water; a solution of copper sulphate or acetate is then slowly added. After the deposition of a thin layer of copper, the articles are removed, washed, moistened with a solution of 1 part ‘tin crystals,’ in 2 parts water and 2 parts hydrochloric acid, and then shaken up with a mixture of fine chalk and copper. Ammonium sulphate, which is prepared by dissolving 1 part of copper sulphate in 16 parts of water, and adding ammonia until a clear dark blue liquid is obtained.

[Footnote 235: Dingl. Polyt, J., ccviii, 47-49, ‘Journ. Chem. Soc.’]

The articles may now be tinned by immersion in a solution of 1 part of tin crystals with 3 parts white argol in water. Brass, copper, or nickel goods, also iron and zinc articles which have been copper-plated, may be silvered by treatment (after thorough cleansing), with a solution of 14 grams silver in 26 grams of nitric acid, to which is added a solution of 120 grams of potassium cyanide in 1 litre water, and also 28 grams of finely powdered chalk.

=TINS, To Clean.= All kinds of tins, moulds, measures, &c., may be cleaned by being well rubbed with a paste made of whiting and water. They should then be rubbed with a leather, and any dust remaining on them should be removed by means of a soft brush. Finally, they must be polished with another leather. Always let the inside of any vessel be cleaned first, since in cleaning the inside the outside always becomes soiled. For very dirty or greasy tins, grated bath-brick and water must be used.

=TINC′TURE.= Syn. TINCTURA, L.; TEINTURE, Fr. Tinctures (TINCTURÆ; ALCOOLÉS, ALCOOLATURES) are solutions of the active principles of bodies, obtained by digesting them in alcohol more or less dilute. ETHEREAL TINCTURES (TINCTURÆ ÆTHEREÆ; ETHÉROLÉS, ETHÉROLATURES) are similar solutions prepared with ether.

Prep. “Tinctures are usually prepared by reducing the solid ingredients to small fragments, coarse powder, or fine powder, macerating them for 7 days, or longer, in proof spirit or rectified spirit, straining the solution through linen or calico (or paper), and finally expressing the residuum strongly, to obtain what fluid is still retained in the mass. They are also advantageously prepared by the method of displacement or percolation.” (Ph. E.) “All tinctures should be prepared in closed glass (or stoneware) vessels, and be shaken frequently during the process of maceration.” (Ph. L.) Cooper’s patent jars are very convenient for the preparation of tinctures, as they are made with wide mouths large enough to admit the hand, and yet may be closed in an instant, with as much ease and certainty as an ordinary stoppered bottle.

Tinctures are better clarified by repose than by filtration, as in the latter case a considerable portion is retained by the filtering medium, and lost by evaporation. The waste in this way is never less than 10% of spirit. In all ordinary cases, it is sufficient to allow the tincture to settle for a few days, and then to pour off the clear supernatant portion through a funnel loosely choked with a piece of sponge or tow; after which the remaining foul portion of the liquid may be filtered through bibulous paper in a covered funnel. The filtration should be conducted as rapidly as possible, for the double purpose of lessening the amount lost by evaporation and the action of the air on the fluid. Tinctures which have been long exposed to the air frequently lose their transparency within a few days after being filtered, owing to the oxidisement and precipitation of some portion of the matter previously held in solution, a change which occurs even in stoppered bottles. Resinous and oily tinctures, as those of myrrh, tolu, and lavender (comp.), may be generally restored to their former brightness by the addition of a quantity of rectified spirit, equal to that which they have lost by evaporation; but many tinctures resist this mode of treatment, and require refiltering.

Ethereal tinctures are best prepared by percolation, and should be both made and kept in stoppered bottles.

Mr Umney says:——It must always be remembered that the quantity of spirit required to make the measure of tinctures to a given bulk, will only be strictly uniform, in so far as the operators proceed under precisely the same circumstances.

No causes will be found to influence results more than the manufacture of tinctures upon a small, as compared with a large, scale, and the use of the screw as compared with the hydraulic press, in the final removal of the spirit from the mare; even the temperature of summer and winter may cause a variation in the results.

Qual. The tinctures of the shops are usually very uncertain and inferior preparations, owing to their manufacture being carelessly conducted, and refuse drugs and an insufficient quantity of spirit being employed in their production. It is a general practice among the druggists to substitute a mixture of equal parts of rectified spirit and water, or a spirit of about 26 u. p., for proof spirit; and a mixture of 2 galls. of water with 5 galls. of rectified spirit, for rectified spirit. In some wholesale drug-houses all the simple tinctures (except those that are of a very active or valuable kind, as LAUDANUM, for instance) are made with 1 lb. of the dry ingredient to the gall. of spirit, irrespective of the instructions in the Pharmacopœia. Appearance is the object which is alone aimed at, without reference to quality. If the tincture be perfectly transparent, and has a good colour, the conscience of the seller and the stomach of the consumer are alike satisfied.

Assay. 1. The RICHNESS in ALCOHOL may be readily determined by Brande’s method of alcoholometry; but more accurately by the method of M. Gay-Lussac (see ALCOHOLOMETRY). That of tinctures containing simple extractive, saccharine, or like organic matter, in solution, may be approximately found from the boiling-point, or from the temperature of the vapour of the boiling liquid.

2. The QUANTITY of SOLID MATTER per cent. may be ascertained by evaporating to dryness 100 grains-measure, in a weighed capsule, by the heat of boiling water.

3. The QUANTITY of the INGREDIENTS used in the preparation of tinctures may be inferred from the weight last found, reference being had to the known per-centage of extract which the substances employed yield to spirit of the strength under examination. When the ingredients contain alkaloids, or consist of saline or mineral matter, an assay may be made for them.

Uses, &c. Tinctures, from the quantity of alcohol which they contain, are necessarily administered in small doses, unless in cases where stimulants are indicated. The most important and useful of them are those that contain very active ingredients, such as the tincture of opium, foxglove, hemlock, henbane, &c. In many instances the solvent, even in doses of a few fluid drachms, acts more powerfully on the living system than the principles it holds in solution; and, when continued for some time, produces the same deleterious effects as the habitual use of ardent spirits. When the action of a substance is the reverse of stimulant, it cannot with propriety be exhibited in this form, unless the dose be so small that the operation of the spirit cannot be taken into account, as with the narcotic tinctures. Hence, this class of remedies are in less frequent use than formerly.

The following list embraces all the formulæ of the tincturæ of the London, Edinburgh, Dublin, and British Pharmacopœias, with a few others likely to be useful to the reader. These will furnish examples for the preparation of others in less general use, care being had to proportionate the ingredients with due reference to the proper or usual dose of tinctures of that class.

=Tincture of Ac′etate of I′ron.= Syn. TINCTURA FERRI ACETATIS (B. P., Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Solution of persulphate of iron, 5; acetate of potash, 4; rectified spirit, q. s.; dissolve the acetate of potash in 20 of water and add 16 of spirit to the solution of iron; mix the two liquids, and shake well occasionally for an hour, then filter, and add to the filtered liquid sufficient rectified spirit to make up 40.——Dose, 5 to 30 minims.

2. (Ph. D.) To water, 9 fl. oz., add of pure sulphuric acid, 6 fl. dr.; and in the mixture, with the aid of a gentle heat, dissolve sulphate of iron, 8 oz.; next add of pure nitric acid, 1/2 fl. oz., previously diluted with water, 1 fl. oz., and evaporate the resulting solution to the consistence of a thick syrup; dissolve this in rectified spirit, 1 quart; also dissolve of acetate of potash, 8 oz., in another quart of rectified spirit; and having thoroughly mixed the solutions, by frequent agitation in a large bottle, filter the whole, with expression, first through calico, and then through paper. Sp. gr. ·891.——Dose, 15 to 60 drops, in water, in the same cases as in the other chalybeates.

=Tincture of Acetate of Zinc.= Syn. TINCTURA ZINCI ACETATIS, L. Prep. (Ph. D. 1826.) Acetate of potash and sulphate of zinc, of each 1 oz.; rub them together, then add of rectified spirit, 16 fl oz.; macerate for a week, and filter. Astringent. Diluted with water, it is used as a collyrium and injection.

=Tincture of Ac′onite.= Syn. TINCTURA ACONITI (Ph. L.), TINCT. ACONITI RADICIS (B. P., Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Powdered root, 1; rectified spirit to percolate, 8; macerate for 48 hours with three fourths of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator and let it drain, then pour on the remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, press the marc and add spirit to make up 8.——Dose, 5 to 15 minims, twice or thrice a day.

2. (Ph. L.) Take of aconite root, coarsely powdered, 15 oz. (20 oz.——Ph. D.); rectified spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days, press, and filter.

Obs. These tinctures differ materially in strength.——Dose. Of the Ph. L., 5 to 10 drops; of the Ph. D., 3 to 6 drops, two or three times daily (carefully watching its effects); in rheumatism, gout, syphilis, &c., where a narcotic sedative is indicated. Diluted with water, it forms an excellent embrocation in rheumatism, neuralgia, &c. It should be applied by means of a small sponge, tied to the end of a stick or glass rod. The Ph. D. formula is nearly the same as that for Dr Turnbull’s concentrated tincture of aconite root, and that given by Dr Pereira. The TINCTURA ACONITI FOLIORUM of the Ph. U. S. is made with 1 oz. of the dried leaves to 8 fl. oz. of rectified spirit.

=Tincture of Aconite, Ethereal.= Syn. TINCTURA ACONITI ÆTHEREA. (P. Cod.) Prep. Powdered aconite, 4 oz.; sulphuric ether, 16 oz. (by weight). It is best prepared by percolation.

=Tincture of Ailanthus Bark.= Syn. TINCTURA AILANTHI CORTICIS. Prep. Take Of ailanthus bark, bruised, 1-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint; macerate for seven days in a closed vessel with occasional agitation, then strain, press, filter, and add sufficient spirit to make 1 pint.——Dose. From 1/2 to 2 fl. dr.

=Tincture of Al′oes.= Syn. TINCTURA ALOËS (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Socotrine aloes, 1; extract of liquorice, 3; proof spirit, 40; macerate seven days, press, and wash the marc with spirit to make 40.——Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Socotrine or hepatic aloes, coarsely powdered, 1 oz.; extract of liquorice, 3 oz.; water, 1-1/2 pint; rectified spirit, 1/2 pint; macerate for 7 days, and filter. The formula of the Ph. E. is nearly similar. Purgative and stomachic.——Dose, 1/4 to fl. oz.

=Tincture of Aloes, Alkaline.= Syn. TINCTURA ALOËS ALKALINA. (Swediaur.) Prep. Aloes, 1/2 oz.; extract of liquorice, 1-1/2 dr.; cinnamon water, 8 oz.; proof spirit, 8 oz.; carbonate of soda, 1 oz. Digest, and strain.——Dose, 1 dr. to 4 dr.

=Tincture of Aloes (Compound).= Syn. TINCTURE OF ALOES AND MYRRH; TINCTURA ALOËS COMPOSITA (Ph. L.), TINCTURA ALOËS ET MYRRHÆ (Ph. E.), ELIXIR ALOËS†, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. & E.) Socotrine or hepatic aloes, coarsely powdered, 4 oz.; hay saffron, 2 oz.; tincture of myrrh, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days, with occasional agitation, and strain. The Dublin College (1826) omits the saffron.

2. (Wholesale.) From aloes, 1 lb.; myrrh, 3/4 lb.; hay saffron, 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 5 pints; water, 3 pints; as the last. Purgative, stomachic, and emmenagogue.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 fl. dr.

=Tincture of Amber.= Syn. TINCTURA SUCCINI. (P. Cod.) Prep. Amber, in fine powder, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 6 oz. Digest for 6 days and filter.——Dose, 20 to 30 drops.

=Tincture of Amber, Alkaline.= Syn. TINCTURA SUCCINI ALKALINA. (Ph. E. 1744.) Prep. Rub 2 oz. of amber with a sufficient quantity of carbonate of potash to form a soft paste; dry this, and digest it in 16 oz. of rectified spirit for 8 days.

=Tincture of Ambergris.= Syn. TINCTURA AMBERGRISEÆ. (P. Cod.) Prep. Ambergris, 1 part; rectified spirit, 10 parts. Macerate 10 days.

=Tincture of Ammo′′nia (Compound.)= Syn. TINCTURA AMMONIÆ COMPOSITA (Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Mastic, 2 dr.; rectified spirit, 9 fl. dr.; digest until dissolved, decant, add, of oil of lavender, 14 drops; stronger solution of ammonia, 1 pint; and mix well.

2. (Ph. L. 1836; AQUA LUCIÆ; EAU DE LUCE.) As the last, but adding 4 drops of oil of amber along with the oil of lavender.

Obs. This preparation is reputed antacid, antispasmodic, and stimulant.——Dose, 10 to 20 drops, in water; in hysteria, low spirits, &c. In the East Indies, eau de luce is regarded almost as a specific for the bite of the cobra di capello and other venomous reptiles.

=Tincture of Ammo′′nia-chlo′′ride of I′ron.= Syn. AMMONIATED TINCTURE OF IRON, MYNSIGHT’S A. T. OF I.; TINCTURA FERRI AMMONIO-CHLORIDI (Ph. L.). TINCTURA FERRI AMMONIATI, L. Prep. (Ph. L.) Ammonio-chloride of iron, 4 oz.; proof spirit and distilled water, of each 1 pint; dissolve.——Dose, 20 to 60 drops, or more; as a stimulant, chalybeate tonic. “A fl. oz. of this, on potassa being added, yields 5·8 gr. of sesquioxide of iron.” (Ph. L.)

=Tincture of Ammoniacum.= Syn. TINCTURA GUMMI AMMONIACI. (P. Cod.) Prep. Gum ammoniacum, 4 oz.; rectified spirit, 20 oz. (by weight). Digest 10 days, and strain.

=Tincture of Angelica.= Syn. TINCTURA ANGELICA. (Aust. Ph.) Prep. Dried angelica root, 1 oz.; proof spirit, 6 oz. Digest, and filter.——Dose, 1 dr.

=Tincture of Angostu′ra.= Tincture of cusparia.

=Tincture, Antiscorbutic.= Syn. TINCTURA ANTISCORBUTICA, TINCTURA ARMORACUE COMPOSITA. (P. Cod.) Prep. Fresh horseradish root, 8 oz.; black mustard seed, 4 oz.; muriate of ammonia, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 16 oz. (by weight); compound spirit of scurvy grass, 16 oz. (by weight). Macerate 10 days.

=Tincture of Ants.= Syn. TINCTURA FORMICARUM. (Ph. G.) Prep. Ants recently collected, cleaned, and bruised, 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 3 oz. (by weight). Digest 8 days.

=Tincture of Ar′nica.= Syn. TINCTURA ARNICAE, T. A. FLORUM, L. Prep. (Ph. Bor. and Hamb. Cod.) Flowers of Arnica montana, 1-1/2 oz.; spirit, sp. gr. ·900 (15-1/2 o. p.), 1 lb.; digest for 8 days, and strain, with expression.——Dose, 10 to 30 drops; in diarrhœa, dysentery, gout, rheumatism, paralysis, &c.

=Tincture of Arnica Root.= Syn. TINCTURA ARNICAE (B. P.), TINCTURA ARNICÆ RADICIS, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Bruised root, 1; rectified spirit to percolate, 20; macerate forty-eight hours with 15 of the spirit, agitating occasionally; pack in a percolator, and, when it ceases to drop, pour on the remaining spirit, let it drain, wash the marc, press, filter, and make up to 20——Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

2. From arnica root, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint; as the last.

=Tincture, Aromatic.= Syn. TINCTURA AROMATICA. (Gr. Ph.) Prep. Cinnamon, 4 oz.; cardamoms, 1 oz.; cloves, 1 oz.; galangal root, 1 oz.; ginger, 1 oz.; all in coarse powder; proof spirit, 3 lbs. 2 oz. (by weight). Macerate 8 days, and strain.

=Tincture, Aromat′ic.= Compound tincture of cinnamon.

=Tincture of Artichoke.= Syn. TINCTURA CYNARÆ. Prep. Fresh artichoke leaves, bruised, 2 lbs.; rectified spirit, 1 lb. Digest for 7 days, express and filter.

=Tincture of Assafœtida.= Syn. TINCTURA ASSAFŒTIDÆ (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Assafœtida (small fragments), 1; rectified spirit, 8; macerate seven days, strain, filter, and add spirit to make 8.——Dose, 1/2 dr. to 1 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Assafœtida (small), 5 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days——Ph. D), and filter. “It cannot be made by percolation with delay.” (Ph. E.)

3. (Wholesale.) Assafœtida, 2-1/2 lbs.; boiling water, 2 quarts; dissolve, add of rectified spirit, 1-1/2 gall.; agitate well for 3 or 4 days, then let it settle, and decant the clear portion.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 fl. dr.; in hysteria, flatulent colic, &c.

=Tincture of Assafœtida (Ammo′′niated).= See FETID SPIRIT OF AMMONIA.

=Tincture of Assafœtida, Ethereal.= Syn. TINCTURA ASSAFŒTIDÆ ETHEREA. (P. Cod.) Prep. Assafœtida, 1 part; alcoholised ether, 5 parts (by weight). Macerate for 10 days. The ether is made by mixing equal weights of ether and rectified spirit.

=Tincture, Asthmat′ic.= Compound tincture of camphor.

=Tincture, Astringent.= Syn. TINCTURA ASTRINGENS. (Dr Copland.) Prep. Catechu, 1/2 oz.; myrrh, 1/2 oz.; Peruvian bark, 2 dr.; balsam of Peru, 1-1/2 dr.; spirit of horseradish, 1-1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1-1/2 oz. Digest. For sponginess of the gums.

=Tincture, Balsamic.= Syn. TINCTURA BALSAMICA. (P. E. 1744.) Prep. Copaiba, 1 oz.; balsam of Peru, 3 dr.; balsam of Tolu, 2 dr.; benzoin, 1/2 dr.; saffron, 1 scruple; rect. spirit, 16 oz.; digest 4 days in a sand bath, and strain.

=Tincture, Balsam of Copaiba.= Syn. TINCTURA BALSAMI COPAIBÆ. (Guibourt.) Prep. One part of copaiba to 8 of alcohol. Digest and filter.

=Tincture of Balsam of Gilead.= Syn. TINCTURA BALSAMI GILEADENSIS. (Guibourt.) Prep. One part of balsam to 8 of rectified spirit.

=Tincture of Bal′sam of Peru.= Syn. TINCTURA BALSAMI PERUVIANI, L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1788.) Balsam of Peru, 4 oz.; rectified spirit, 16 fl. oz.; dissolve. Pectoral, stimulant, and fragrant.——Dose, 10 to 30 drops.

=Tincture of Balsam of Tolu.= Tincture of Tolu.

=Tincture of Bark.= Tincture of cinchona.

=Tincture of Belladon′na.= Syn. TINCTURA BELLADONNÆ (B. P., Ph. L. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) The dried leaves in coarse powder, 1; proof spirit, 20; macerate forty-eight hours in 15 of the spirit, agitating occasionally; pack in a percolator, and when it ceases to drop, add the remaining spirit, let it drain, wash and press the marc; filter and make up 20.——Dose, from 5 to 20 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Dried leaves of belladonna, 4 oz. (5 oz. in coarse powder——Ph. D.); proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14——Ph. D.), press, and filter.

3. (Wholesale.) From the dried leaves, 1 lb.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; macerate 14 days.——Dose, 5 to 10 drops, gradually increased; also externally, diluted with water.

=Tincture of Benzoin.= Syn. TINCTURA BENZOINI. (Ph. G.) Prep. Benzoin, 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 10 oz. (by weight). Digest for 8 days, frequently shaking; then filter.

=Tincture of Ben′zoin (Compound.)= Syn. FRIAR’S BALSAM, TRAUMATHC B., BALSAM FOR CUTS, COMMANDER’S BALSAM, VERVAIN’S B., WOUND B., JESUITS’ DROPS, WADE’S D.; TINCTURA BENZOINI COMPOSITA (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), TINCT. BENZOËS COMP., BALSAMUM TRAUMATICUM, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Benzoin, 8; prepared storax, 6; balsam of Tolu, 2; socotrine aloes, 1-1/2; rectified spirit, 80; macerate seven days, filter, and wash the marc with spirit to make up 80.——Dose, 1/2 to 1 dr., triturated with mucilage or yolk of egg.

2. (Ph. L.) Gum benzoin, coarsely powdered, 3-1/2 oz.; prepared storax, 2-1/2; balsam of Tolu, 10 dr.; Socotrine or hepatic aloes, in coarse powder, 5 dr.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; macerate, with frequent agitation, for 7 days, and strain.

3. (Ph. E.) Benzoin, 4 oz.; balsam of Peru, 2-1/2 oz.; East Indian (hepatic) aloes, 1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart.

Obs. Either of the above formulæ produces a most beautiful tincture, truly balsamic. The following is, however, very generally employed by the wholesale druggists, and the product, though possessing a very rich colour, is thin and watery.

4. (Wholesale.) From gum benzoin, 4 lbs.; aloes (lively coloured), 1-1/4 lb.; liquid storax, 1 lb.; balsam of Tolu, 1/4 lb.; powdered turmeric (best), 9 oz.; rectified spirit, 5-1/2 galls.; digest with frequent agitation for 10 days, then add of hot water, 1-1/2 gall., again digest for 4 days, and, after 24 hours’ repose, decant the clear portion.

Dose, 10 drops to 2 fl. dr.; as a stimulating expectorant, in chronic coughs, and various breath affections. It is also employed to stop the bleeding from cuts, &c., and promote their healing.

=Tincture, Bitter.= Syn. TINCTURA AMARA (Ph. G.) Prep. Unripe oranges, 2 oz.; centaury, 2 oz.; gentian root, 2 oz.; zedoary root, 1 oz.; proof spirit, 35 oz. (by weight). Digest 8 days, and strain.

=Tincture, Bitter Stomach′ic.= Tincture of gentian.

=Tincture of Black Snake-root.= Syn. TINCTURA CIMICIFUGÆ, TINCTURA ACTÆÆ RACEMOSÆ. Prep. Bruised root of black snake-root, 4 oz.; proof spirit, 16 oz.——Dose, 1 dr. to 2 dr.

=Tincture of Blessed Thistle.= Syn. TINCTURA CARDUI BENEDICTI. (Ph. Bruns) Prep. Blessed thistle, 6 oz.; rectified spirit, 2 pints.

=Tincture of Blood Root.= Syn. TINCTURA SANGUINARIÆ. (Ph. U. S.) Prep. Blood root in moderately fine powder, 4 oz.; proof spirit, 32 oz.; made by percolation.——Dose. As a stimulant and alterative, 30 to 60 drops; as an emetic, 3 to 4 dr.

=Tincture, Brandish’s.= Alkaline tincture of rhubarb.

=Tincture of Buchu.= Syn. TINCTURA DIOSMÆ, T. BUCKU (Ph. E.), T. BUCHU (B. P., Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Buchu bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate for forty-eight hours with 3/4 of the spirit, pack in a percolator and let it drain, then pour on the rest of the spirit; when it ceases to drop, press and wash the marc, filter and make up to 8.——Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. E.) Buchu leaves, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate 7 days (14 days——Ph. D.); or proceed by the method of percolation.——Dose, 1 to 4 fl. dr.; as a tonic, sudorific, and diuretic. It is inferior to the fresh infusion.

=Tincture of Calum′ba.= Syn. TINCTURA CALUMBÆ (B. P., Ph. L. &. E.), T. COLOMBÆ (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Bruised calumba, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate forty-eight hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally; pack in a percolator, and let it drain, then pour on the remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, press, and wash the marc with spirit to make up 8.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Calumba root, finely sliced, 3 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate a week (14 days.——Ph. D.), press, and filter. “Or, more conveniently, by percolation, allowing the calumba, in moderately fine powder, to first soak in a little spirit for 6 hours.” (Ph. E.)

Obs. This tincture is commonly made with 1 lb. of calumba root to the gallon of a mixture of equal parts of rectified spirit and water.——Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr.; as a stomachic bitter and tonic, usually joined with soda or chalybeates.

=Tincture of Cam′phor.= Syn. SPIRIT OF WINE AND CAMPHOR, CAMPHORATED SPIRIT; TINCTURA CAMPHORÆ; (Ph. E. & D.), SPIRITUS CAMPHORÆ (Ph. L.), SPIRITUS CAMPHORATUS, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Camphor, 2-1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; dissolve. This is only one half as strong as the Ph. L. preparation.

2. (Ph. D.) Camphor, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 8 fl. oz. Stimulant and anodyne.——Dose, 10 to 60 drops. Also as a liniment for sprains, bruises, chronic rheumatism, &c. For the Ph. L. formula, see SPIRIT.

=Tincture of Camphor (Compound).= Syn. CAMPHORATED TINCTURE OF OPIUM ASTHMATIC ELIXIR, PAREGORIC E., ASTHMATIC TINCTURE; TINCTURA CAMPHORÆ COMPOSITA (B. P., Ph. L.), TINCTURA OPII CAMPHORATA (Ph. E. & D.), ELIXIR PAREGORICUM, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Opium, in coarse powder, 40 gr.; benzoic acid, 40 gr.; camphor, 30 gr.; oil of anise, 1/2 dr.; proof spirit, 20 oz.; macerate seven days, strain, wash the marc with spirit, and filter 20 oz.——Dose, 15 to 60 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Camphor, 50 gr.; powdered opium and benzoic acid, of each 72 gr.; oil of aniseed, 1 fl. dr.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days, and filter. The formulæ of the Ph. E. & D. are nearly similar. The oil of aniseed, probably one of the most useful and characteristic of the ingredients, was omitted in the Ph. L. 1824, but was restored in that of 1836.

3. (Wholesale.) From powdered opium, 3 oz.; benzoic acid, camphor, and oil of aniseed, of each 2 oz.; rectified spirit and water, of each 3 galls.; as before.

Obs. This tincture is a popular and excellent pectoral and anodyne, where there are no inflammatory symptoms.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 fl. dr.; in troublesome coughs, &c. 1/2 fl. oz. contains about 1 gr. of opium.

=Tincture of Canthar′ides.= Syn. TINCTURA CANTHARIDIS (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), TINCTURA LYTTÆ, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Cantharides, in coarse powder, 1; proof spirit, 80; macerate, agitating occasionally, for seven days, in a closed vessel, strain, press, filter, and add sufficient proof spirit to make up 80.——Dose, 5 to 20 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Powdered cantharides, 4 dr. (1/2 oz.——Ph. D.), and strain, with expression.

3. (Wholesale.) From powdered cantharides, 2-1/4 oz.; rectified spirit and water, of each 1/2 gall.; as the last.——Dose, 10 drops, gradually raised to 1 fl. dr., in any bland liquid; in fluor albus, gleets, incontinence of urine, lepra, &c. It should be used with caution. The Ed. College recommends it to be prepared by displacement.

=Tincture of Cantharides (Ethereal).= Syn. TINCTURA CANTHARIDIS ETHEREA. (P. Cod.) Prep. Powdered cantharides, 1 oz.; acetic ether, 10 oz. (by weight). Macerate for 10 days in a stoppered bottle, express, and filter.

=Tincture of Capsicum.= Syn. TINCTURE OF CAYENNE PEPPER; TINCTURA CAPSICI (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Capsicum, bruised, 1; rectified spirit, 27; macerate 48 hours with three fourths of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, and let it drain, then pour on the remaining spirit; as soon as it ceases to drop, wash the marc with spirit to make up 27.——Dose, 10 to 20 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Capsicum, bruised, 10 dr.; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest 14 days (or percolate,——Ph. E.).——Dose, 10 to 60 drops; in atonic dyspepsia, scarlet fever, ulcerated sore throat, &c. It is also made into a gargle.

3. (Ph. D.) Cayenne pods, bruised, 1-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint; macerate for 14 days. This is of fully twice the strength of the preceding.

=Tincture of Capsicum (Concentrated).= See ESSENCES.

=Tincture of Capsicum with Veratria.= Syn. TINCTURA CAPSICI CUM VERATRIA. (Dr Turnbull.) Prep. Dissolve 4 gr. of veratria in 1 oz. of concentrated tincture of capsicum.

=Tincture of Card′amoms.= Syn. TINCTURA CARDAMOMI (Ph. E.), TINCT. AMOMI REPENTIS, L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1836.) Cardamom seeds, 3-1/2 oz. (4-1/2 oz.——Ph. E.); proof spirit, 1 quart; digest for 14 days (or percolate——Ph. E.).

Obs. The shells should be sifted from the seeds before maceration, and the latter are preferably ground in a pepper-mill instead of being bruised in a mortar. Aromatic and carminative.——Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr., as an adjunct to purgative mixtures.

=Tincture of Cardamoms (Compound).= Syn. STOMACHIC TINCTURE; TINCTURA CARDAMOMI COMPOSITA (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D), TINCTURA STOMACHICA, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Cardamom seeds, freed from their pericarps, bruised, 1; caraway, bruised, 1; raisins, freed from their seeds, 8; bruised cinnamon, 2; cochineal, in powder, 1/2; proof spirit, 80; macerate 48 hours with 3/4 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, and let it drain, pour upon it the remainder of the spirit, and, when it ceases to drop, press, wash the marc with spirit to make up 80.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 dr.

2. (P. L.) Cardamoms (without the shells), caraways, and cochineal, of each, bruised, 2-1/2 dr.; cinnamon, bruised, 5 dr.; raisins, stoned, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate 7 days, then strain, with expression.

3. (Ph. E., and Ph. L. 1836.) As the last, but using only 1 dr. of cochineal, and macerating 14 days; or, “it maybe prepared by the method of displacement.” (Ph. E.)

4. (Wholesale.) From cardamoms and caraway seeds, of each 4 oz.; cochineal (s. g.), 6 oz.; cassia, 8 oz.; sultana raisins, 5 lbs.; proof spirit, 4 galls. (or rectified spirit and water, of each, 2 galls.); macerate, &c., as before.

Obs. The Dublin College omitted the cochineal and raisins in their Ph. of 1826, but have restored them in their new one. The order of the London College to stone the raisins is seldom adopted in practice; by which the tincture is rendered unfit to be employed in dispensing prescriptions containing quinine or other alkaloids. When pharmaceutists are too lazy to follow the instructions in their Pharmacopœia, they had better use sultana raisins, which have no stones.——Dose, 1 to 4 fl. dr.; as a cordial and stomachic, but chiefly as an adjunct, for its colour and flavour.

=Tincture of Cascaril′la.= Syn. TINCTURA CASCARILLÆ (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Cascarilla, bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally; pack in a percolator, let it drain, and pour on the remainder of the spirit, and, when it ceases to drop, wash the marc, press, filter, and make up 8.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Cascarilla, bruised, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days——Ph. D.; or percolate——Ph. E.). An excellent tonic and stomachic; chiefly employed as an adjunct to mixtures, &c.——Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr.

=Tincture of Cas′sia.= Syn. TINCTURE CASSIÆ (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Cassia, 3-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days, or percolate. Stomachic and carminative.——Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr.

=Tincture of Castor.= Syn. TINCTURA CASTOREI (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), TINCT. CASTOREI ROSSICI, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Castor, in coarse powder, 1; rectified spirit, 20; macerate seven days, strain, and wash the marc with spirit sufficient to make up to 20.——Dose, 1/2 to 1 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Castor, bruised, 2-1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (or percolate——Ph. E.).

Obs. The Dublin College ordered Russian castor in their Ph. of 1826; but the scarcity and high price of that variety, we fear, too often precludes its use. The tincture of the shops is usually made with only 8 oz. of castor to the gall. of proof spirit. Nervine and antispasmodic.——Dose, 20 drops to 2 fl. dr.; in hysteria, epilepsy, &c.

=Tincture of Castor (Ammo′′niated).= Syn. ELIXIR FŒTIDUM, TINCTURA CASTOREI COMPOSITA, T. C. AMMONIATA (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Castor, bruised, 2-1/2 oz.; assafœtida, in small fragments, 10 dr.; spirit of ammonia, 1 quart; digest 7 days in a well-closed vessel. Stimulant and antispasmodic.——Dose and uses, as the last. With the addition of 1/2 oz. of opium, it forms the Elixir Uterinum, or Elixir Castorei Thebaicum of foreign Pharmacopœias.

=Tincture of Castor (Ethereal).= Syn. TINCTURA CASTOREI ÆTHEREA. (P. Cod.) Prep. Castor, in powder, 1 oz.; alcoholised ether (see ETHEREAL TINCT. OF ASSAFŒTIDA), 10 oz. (by weight).

=Tincture of Castor Oil Seeds.= Syn. TINCTURA RICINI. Castor oil seeds bruised are digested with five times their weight of rectified spirit. This tincture is stated to be 4 times the strength of the oil.

=Tincture of Cat′echu.= Syn. COMPOUND TINCTURE OF CATECHU; TINCTURA CATECHU COMPOSITA (Ph. L.), T. CATECHU (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Pale catechu, in coarse powder, 2-1/2; cinnamon, bruised, 1; proof spirit, 20: macerate for seven days with agitation, strain, press, and filter, and add spirit to make up 20.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Catechu, in powder, 3-1/2 oz. (4 oz.——Ph. D.); cinnamon, bruised, 2-1/2 oz. (2 oz.——Ph. D.); proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (or percolate——Ph. E.).

3. (Wholesale.) From catechu, 2 lbs.; oil of cassia, 3 fl. dr.; rectified spirit and water, of each 1 gall.; macerate for 10 days.——Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr., as a warm astringent; in diarrhœa, &c., either alone, or combined with chalk.

=Tincture of Cevadilla.= Syn. TINCTURA SABADILLÆ. (Dr Turnbull.) Prep. Digest the seeds of cevadilla (freed from their capsules), and bruised, for ten days in as much rectified spirit as will cover them; express and filter. For external use only in rheumatism.

=Tincture of Chamomile.= Syn. TINCTURA ANTHEMIDIS. (Aust. Ph.) Dried chamomile flowers, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint.

=Tincture of Chiret′ta.= Syn. TINCTURA CHIRAYTÆ (B. P.), TINCTURA CHIRAYTA, T. CHIRETTÆ (Ph. D.), L. Prep. (B. P.) Chiretta, cut small and bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, and let it drain, then pour on the remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, press, and wash the marc with spirit to make up 8.——Dose, 15 to 60 minims; B. Ph. dose 1/2 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. D.) Chiretta or chirayta (bruised), 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days. Tonic and stomachic.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 fl. dr.

=Tincture of Chloroform (Compound).= Syn. TINCTURA CHLOROFORMI COMPOSITA. (B. P.) Prep. Mix 2 fl. oz. of chloroform with 8 fl. oz. of rectified spirit and 10 fl. oz. of compound tincture of cardamoms.——Dose, 20 to 40 minims.

=Tincture of Cinchona.= Syn. TINCTURE OF BARK; TINCTURA CINCHONÆ (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), T. CORTICIS PERUVIANI, T. C. P. SIMPLEX, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Yellow cinchona bark, in coarse powder, 4; proof spirit, 20; macerate 48 hours with 15 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator and let it drain, then pour on the remaining spirit, and when it ceases to drop, press, and wash the marc with spirit to make 30.——Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Yellow cinchona bark (bruised), 8 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days (or percolate——Ph. E.).

Obs. The Dublin College orders pale bark, and the Edinburgh either species, according to prescription.——Dose, 1 to 3 fl. dr.; as a tonic, stomachic, and febrifuge.

=Tincture of Cinchona (Ammoniated).= Syn. TINCTURA CINCHONÆ AMMONIATÆ. (Ph. L. 1824.) Prep. Peruvian bark, 4 oz.; aromatic spirit of ammonia, 32 fl. oz. Macerate for 10 days.——Dose, 1/2 dr. to 1 dr.

=Tincture of Cinchona (Compound).= Syn. COMPOUND TINCTURE OF BARK, HUXHAM’S T. OF B., FEVER TINCTURE; TINCTURA CINCHONÆ COMPOSITÆ (B. P.), TINCTURA CINCHONÆ COMPOSITÆ (Ph. L., E., & D.), TINCT. CORTICIS PERUVIANI COMPOSITA, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Pale cinchona bark, in coarse powders; bitter orange peel, cut small and bruised, 2; serpentary, bruised, 1; saffron, 1/4; cochineal, 1/8; proof spirit, 40: macerate 48 hours with 30 of spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator and let it drain, then pour on the remainder of the spirit; when it ceases to drop, press, and wash the marc with spirit to make up 40.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Pale bark, bruised, 4 oz.; dried bitter orange-peel, 3 oz. (2 oz.——Ph. D.); serpentary root, bruised, 6 dr.; hay saffron, 2 dr.; cochineal, in powder, 1 dr.; macerate for 7 days (14 days——Ph. D.; or percolate——Ph. E.); press, and filter.

3. (Wholesale.) From pale bark, 3-1/2 lbs.; dried orange peel, 2 lbs.; serpentary root, 4 oz.; hay saffron, 1 oz.; cochineal, 1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 4 galls. (or rectified spirit and water, of each 2 galls.); macerate for 14 days.

Obs. in the Ph. E. yellow bark is ordered.——Dose and use, as the last.

=Tincture of Cinchona (Pale).= Syn. TINCTURE OF PALE BARK; TINCTURA CINCHONÆ PALLIDÆ (Ph. L.), L. Prep. From pale bark, as the last.

=Tincture of Cinna′mon.= Syn. TINCTURA CINNAMOMI (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Cinnamon, in coarse powder, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator and let it drain, then pour on the remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, press, and wash the marc with spirit to make up 8.

2. (Ph. L.) Cinnamon, bruised, 3-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (or percolate——Ph. E.). In the shops cassia is usually substituted for cinnamon, and spirit 26 u. p. for proof spirit.——Dose, 1 to 4 fl. dr.; as a cordial, aromatic, and stomachic.

=Tincture of Cinnamon (Compound).= Syn. AROMATIC TINCTURE; TINCTURA CINNAMOMI COMPOSITA (Ph. L., E., & D.), T. AROMATICA, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Cinnamon, bruised, 1 oz.; cardamoms (bruised, without the shells), 1/2 oz.; long pepper and ginger, of each 2-1/2 dr.; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest for 7 days (or percolate——Ph. E.). The Ph. E. omits the ginger, and uses 1/2 oz. more cardamoms.

2. (Ph. D.) Cinnamon, 2 oz.; cardamoms, 1 oz.; ginger, 1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days. The following form is current in the wholesale houses.

3. Cassia, 1 lb.; cardamoms, 6 oz.; long pepper and ginger, of each 1/4 lb.; oil of cassia, 1-1/2 fl. dr.; proof spirit, 4 galls, (or rectified spirit and water, of each 2 galls.). Cordial, aromatic, stomachic.——Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr.; in atonic gout, debility, flatulence, &c.

=Tincture of Cloves.= Syn. TINCTURA CARYOPHYLLI. (Guibourt.) Prep. Cloves, 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 16 oz. Macerate 10 days.

=Tincture of Coch′ineal.= Syn. TINCTURA COCCI CACTI (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Cochineal, in powder, 1; proof spirit, 8: macerate 7 days; strain, and wash the marc with spirit to make up 8.——Dose, 30 to 90 minims twice a day. Used chiefly for colouring medicines.

2. (Ph. D.) Cochineal, in fine powder, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint. Antispasmodic and sedative; but chiefly employed for its colour.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 fl. dr.

=Tincture of Cochineal (Ammoniated).= Syn. TINCTURA COCCI AMMONIATA. (Dr Eberle.) Prep. Cochineal, 1/2 oz.; water of ammonia, 1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 8 fl. oz.——Dose, 5 drops in hooping-cough.

=Tincture of Col′chicum.= Syn. GOUT TINCTURE, TINCTURE OF MEADOW SAFFRON; TINCTURA COLCHICI SEMINUM (B. P.); TINCTURA COLCHICI (Ph. L., & E.), T. SEMINUM COLCHICI (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. Colchicum seed, bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8: macerate 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, and let it drain, then pour on the remainder of the spirit; when it ceases to drop, wash the marc with spirit to make up 8.——Dose, 15 to 30 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Seeds of meadow saffron (Colchicum autumnale), bruised (finely ground in a coffee-mill——Ph. E.), 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days——Ph. D.; or percolate——Ph. E.); then press, and filter.——Dose, 15 to 20 drops to 1 fl. dr.; in gout, &c.

=Tincture of Colchicum Bulbs.= Syn. TINCTURA COLCHICI E RADICE. (P. Cod.) Prep. Macerate 1 part of the bulbs in 5 parts (by weight) of proof spirit, for 10 days.

=Tincture of Colchicum (Compound).= Syn. TINCTURA COLCHICI COMPOSITA (Ph. L.), SPIRITUS COLCHICI AMMONIATUS, L. Prep. (Ph. L.) Colchicum seeds, bruised, 5 oz.; aromatic spirit of ammonia, 1 quart; digest for 7 days, then press, and filter.——Dose, 20 drops to 1 fl. dr.; in gout, &c.

=Tincture of Colchicum Flowers.= Syn. TINCTURA FLORUM COLCHICI; EAU MEDICINALE D’HUSSON. (Dr Wilson.) Prep. Take of the fresh juice of colchicum flowers, 2 parts; French brandy (or proof spirit), 1 part; mix, and in a few days decant, or filter, and preserve it in small bottles in a cool place.

=Tincture of Colocynth.= Syn. TINCTURA COLOCYNTHIDIS. (Ph. G.) Colocynth, 1 part; rectified spirit, 10 parts. Dose, 6 to 20 drops.

=Tincture of Contrayerva.= Syn. TINCTURA CONTRAYERVÆ. (P. Cod.) Prep. Contrayerva root, 4 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint.

=Tincture of Copai′ba (Alkaline).= Syn. TINCTURA COPAIBÆ ALKALINE, L. Prep. (Lewis Thompson.) Dissolve carbonate of potassa, 2 oz., in water, 1 pint, and add to this balsam of copaiba, in a thin stream, constantly stirring, until the mixture, at first white and milky, becomes clear, like jelly or amber, which will generally take place when about a pint of balsam has been added; set the mixture aside for two or three hours, then pour in of rectified spirit, 1 quart, and mix the whole together. Sweet spirit of nitre may be substituted for spirit of wine, provided it does not contain free acid.——Dose, 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls.

=Tincture of Croton.= Syn. TINCTURA CROTONIS. Prep. Croton seed, 1 part; rectified spirit, 5 parts. (Beasley.)

=Tincture of Cu′bebs.= Syn. ESSENCE OF CUBEBS; TINCTURA CUBEBÆ (B. P., Ph. L. & D.), TINCTURA PIPERIS CUBEBÆ, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Cubebs, in powder, 1; rectified spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator and let it drain; pour on the remaining spirit, and when it ceases to drop, wash the marc with spirit to make up 8.——Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Cubebs (bruised or ground in a pepper-mill), 1 lb.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days, press out the liquor, and filter.——Dose, 1/2 to 1 fl. dr., three or four times a day; in gonorrhœa, &c.

3. (Ph. D., & Ph. L. 1836.) Cubebs, 5 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart (proof spirit——Ph. D. 1826); macerate for 14 days.——Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr.

=Tincture of Cuspa′′ria.= Syn. TINCTURA CUSPARIÆ (Ph. E.), T. ANGOSTURÆ, L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Angostura bark or cusparia, 4-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest or percolate. Tonic, stimulant, and stomachic.——Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr.

=Tincture of Deadly Nightshade.= Tincture of belladonna.

=Tincture, De Coetlogon’s.= Haffenden’s tincture.

=Tincture of Digita′lis.= Tincture of fox-glove.

=Tincture of Elaterium.= Syn. TINCTURA ELATERII. Prep. Extract of elaterium, 8 gr.; rectified spirit, 8 fl. oz.——Dose, 1/2 dr. to 2 dr.

=Tincture of Elecampane′.= Syn. TINCTURA INULÆ, T. HELENII, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Powdered elecampane, 4 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint; macerate for 15 days. Tonic, deobstruent, and expectorant.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 fl. dr.; in dyspepsia, palsy, dropsies, uterine obstructions, &c.

=Tincture of Er′got.= Syn. TINCTURA SECALII CORNUTI, TINCTURA ERGOTÆ (B. P., Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Ergot, bruised, 1; proof spirit, 4; macerate 48 hours with 3 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, let it drain, then pour on the remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, wash the marc with the spirit to make up 4.——Dose, 15 to 60 minims.

2. (Apothecaries’ Hall.) Ergot (ground in a coffee-mill), 2-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint; digest for 7 days.——Dose. A teaspoonful; to excite the action of the uterus in labour.

3. (Ph. D.) Ergot, 8 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days, and strain, with expression.——Dose, 20 drops to 1 fl. dr.; as the last.

=Tincture of Ergot (Ammoniated).= Syn. TINCTURA ERGOTÆ AMMONIATA. (Gore.) Prep. Bruised ergot, 4 oz.; aromatic spirit of ammonia, 10 oz.; macerate for a month, express, and filter.——Dose, 30 drops every 10 minutes till it excites uterine contractions.

=Tincture of Ergot (Ethereal).= Syn. TINCTURA ERGOTÆ ÆTHEREA (Ph. L.), L. Prep. (Ph. L.) Ergot, bruised, 15 oz.; ether, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days, press, and filter.——Dose, 10 drops to 1 fl. dr.

=Tincture of Eucalyptus.= Syn. TINCTURA EUCALYPTI GLOBULI. (Dorvault.) Prep. Eucalyptus (globulus) leaves, cut, 1 part; alcohol (80 per cent.), 5 parts. Digest 5 days, and filter.——Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

=Tincture of Euphorbium.= Syn. TINCTURA EUPHORBII. (Ph. G.) Prep. Euphorbium, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 10 oz. (by weight). Digest 8 days.

=Tincture, Febrifuge.= Syn. TINCTURA FEBRIFUGA. (Dr Clutton.) Prep. Febrifuge spirit, 1/2 pint; angelica root, 1-1/2 dr.; serpentary, 1-1/2 dr.; cardamom seeds, 1-1/2 dr. Digest and filter.

=Tincture of Flea-bane.= Syn. TINCTURA ERIGERONIS. Prep. Dried Canada flea-bane (Erigeron Canadense), 4 oz.; proof spirit, 16 oz. Macerate, express, and filter.

=Tincture of Foxglove.= Syn. TINCTURA DIGITALIS (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Dried foxglove leaves, 4 oz. (5 oz.——Ph. D.); proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days——Ph. D.; or percolate——Ph. E.); then press, and strain.

2. (B. P.) Digitalis leaves in coarse powder, 2-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 part. Proceed as for tincture of aconite. (B. P.)

Obs. This tincture is a powerful sedative, diuretic, and narcotic. The commencing dose should be 10 drops, gradually and cautiously increased to 30, or even 40; in asthmas, dropsies, fevers, phthisis, &c. “If 40 fl. oz. of spirit be allowed to pass (percolate) through the sp. gr. will be ·944; and the solid contents of 1 fl. oz. will amount to 24 gr.” (Ph. E.)

=Tincture of Galanga.= Syn. TINCTURA GALANGÆ. (Ph. Amst.) Prep. Galangal root, 1 oz.; proof spirit, 6 oz.——Dose, 30 to 60 drops.

=Tincture of Gal′banum.= Syn. TINCTURA GALBANI, L. Prep. (Ph. D. 1826.) Galbanum, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 32 fl. oz.; digest 7 days. Stimulant and antispasmodic.——Dose, 1 to 3 fl. dr. “If less nauseous than tincture of assafœtida, it is also less powerful.” (Dr A. T. Thomson.)

=Tincture of Galls.= Syn. TINCTURA GALLÆ (B. P., Ph. L. & D.), TINCTURA GALLARUM (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1 (B. P.) Galls, bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate for 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, let it drain, and then pour on the remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, wash the marc with spirit to make up 8.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Galls, in powder, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days——Ph. D.; or percolate——Ph. E.); then express the liquid, and filter it. Astringent and styptic.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 fl. dr. It is chiefly used as a test for iron.

=Tincture of Garden Marigold.= Syn. TINCTURA CALENDULÆ. Prep. A saturated tincture of the leaves and flowers of the garden marigold is prepared with whisky, and is reputed to be of service as an application for lacerated wounds.

=Tincture of Garden Nightshade (Ethereal).= Syn. TINCTURA SOLANI ÆTHEREA. (P. Cod.) Prep. Powdered leaves of garden nightshade, 4 oz.; sulphuric ether, 16 oz. (by weight). Make by percolation.

=Tincture of Gentian (Ammo′′niated).= Syn. TINCTURA GENTIANÆ AMMONIATÆ, L.; ELIXIR ANTISCROFULEUX, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Gentian, 1 oz.; sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 1/4 oz.; proof spirit, 32 fl. oz. As the last; but preferred in acidity and low spirits.

=Tincture of Gen′tian (Compound).= Syn. BITTER STOMACHIC TINCTURE; TINCTURA GENTIANÆ COMPOSITA (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), TINCTURA AMARA, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Gentian, bruised, 1-1/2; bitter orange peel, bruised, 3/4; cardamom seeds, bruised, 1/4; proof spirit, 20; macerate for 48 hours with 15 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, let it drain, and then pour on the remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, wash the marc with spirit to make up 20.——Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Gentian root, sliced and bruised, 2-1/2 oz.; dried orange peel, 10 dr.; cardamoms, bruised, 5 dr.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (or percolate——Ph. E.). The Edinburgh College substitutes canella for cardamoms, and adds of cochineal, 1/2 dr.

3. (Ph. D.) Gentian root, 3 oz.; dried bitter orange peel, 1-1/2 oz.; cardamoms, 1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days.

4. (Wholesale.) Gentian, 2-1/2 lbs.; dried orange peel, 1-1/4 lb.; bruised cardamoms, 2-1/2 lbs.; proof spirit, 4 galls. (or rectified spirit and water, of each 2 galls.); digest as last.

Obs. This is an excellent and popular stomachic bitter and tonic——Dose, 1 to 2 fl dr.; in dyspepsia, loss of appetite, &c.

=Tincture of Geranium.= Syn. TINCTURA GERANII. Prep. Dried roots of Geranium maculatum, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 2 pints. Astringent. Used chiefly in gargles.

=Tinc′ture of Gin′ger.= Syn. TINCTURA ZINGIBERIS (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.). Prep. 1. (B. P.) Ginger, bruised, 1; rectified spirit, 8; macerate the ginger 48 hours in 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally; pack in a percolator, let it drain, pour on the remaining spirit, and when it ceases to drop press, filter, and add spirit to make 8.——Dose, 10 to 30 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Ginger, bruised, 2-1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (or percolate——Ph. E.).

3. (Wholesale.) Coarsely powdered unbleached Jamaica ginger, 1-1/4 lb.; rectified spirit (or spirit distilled from the essence), 1-1/2 gall.; water, 1/2 gall.; digest as above. Stimulant and carminative.——Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr.

Obs. The formula of the Ph. D. 1826 resembles the above; that of the last Ph. D. orders 8 oz. of ginger to 1 quart of rectified spirit. The product is, consequently, of fully 3 times the strength of that of the others, and is similar to the common ESSENCE OF GINGER of the shops.

=Tincture of Ginger (Stronger).= Syn. TINCTURA ZINGIBERIS FORTIOR. (B. P.) Pack tightly in a percolator, ginger in fine powder, 10 oz., and pour over it carefully 1/2 pint of rectified spirit. After two hours more add more spirit, and let it percolate slowly until 1 pint of tincture has been collected.——Dose, 5 to 20 minims.

=Tincture of Gold-Thread.= Syn. TINCTURA COPTIS. (Dr Wood.) Prep. Gold-thread, 1 oz.; proof spirit, 16 oz.——Dose, 1 dr. Tonic.

=Tincture, Gout.= Syn. TINCTURA ANTARTHRITICA, L. Prep. 1. (Dr. Graves’s.) Take of dried orange peel and powder of aloes and canella, of each 2 oz.; rhubarb, 1 oz.; French brandy (or proof spirit), 1 quart; digest a week, and strain, with expression.——Dose, 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls night and morning.

2. (Dr Wilson’s.) Tincture of colchicum flowers.

3. Tincture of colchicum.

=Tincture of Green Hellebore Root.= Syn. TINCTURA VERATRI VIRIDIS. (B. P.) Prep. Green hellebore root, in coarse powder, 4 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint. Prepared as tincture of aconite. (B. P.)

=Tincture of Gua′iacum.= Syn. TINCTURA GUAIACI (Ph. E. & D.), L. Prep. (Ph. E. & Ph. L. 1836.) Guaiacum resin (powdered), 7 oz. (8 oz.——Ph. D.); rectified spirit, 1 quart; digest for 14 days, and filter. An excellent sudorific; in chronic gout and rheumatism.——Dose, 1 to 3 fl. dr., taken in milk.

=Tincture of Guaiacum (Alkaline).= Syn. TINCTURA GUAIACI ALKALINI. (Dr Dewees.) Prep. Guaiacum, 5 oz.; carbonate of potash or of soda, 3 dr.; pimento, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 2 pints.——Dose. A teaspoonful 3 times a day in dysmenorrhœa.

=Tincture of Guaiacum (Compound).= Syn. AMMONIATED TINCTURE OF GUAIACUM, VOLATILE T. OF G., RHEUMATIC DROPS; TINCTURA GUAIACI COMPOSITA (Ph. L.), T. G. AMMONIATA (B. P., Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Guaiac resin, in fine powder, 4; aromatic spirit of ammonia, 20; macerate 7 days, filter, and wash the filter with the spirit to make up 20.——Dose, 1/2 to 1 dr., with 1 dr. of mucilage or yolk of egg, to form an emulsion.

2. (Ph. L.) Guaiacum, in coarse powder, 7 oz.; aromatic spirit of ammonia (spirit of ammonia——Ph. E.), 1 quart; digest for 7 days, and decant or filter. A powerful, stimulating sudorific and emmenagogue; in chronic rheumatism, gout, amenorrhœa, &c.——Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr. in milk, or some viscid liquid.

=Tincture of Guaiacum Wood.= Syn. TINCTURA GUAIACI LIGNI. (P. Cod.) Prep. One part of the rasped wood to 5 parts by weight of proof spirit. Digest 10 days and strain.

=Tincture of Guarana.= Syn. TINCTURA PAULLINIÆ. (Dorvault.) Prep. Alcoholic extract of guarana, 1 oz.; proof spirit, 16 oz. Dissolve.

=Tincture, Haffenden’s Balsam′ic.= Syn. DE COETLOGON’S BALSAMII TINCTURE. This is a nostrum, of many virtues, prepared from tincture of serpentary (of double strength), 1-1/2 fl. oz.; compound of tincture of benzoin, 1 fl. oz.; tinctures of Tolu and opium, of each 1/2 fl. oz.; with rectified spirits, q. s. to render the mixture ‘bright,’ should it turn milky. (‘Anat. of Quackery.’)

=Tincture, Hatfield’s.= Prep. From gum guaiacum and soap, of each 2 dr.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; digest for a week. Used as TINCTURE OF GUAIACUM; also externally.

=Tincture of Hedge-Hyssop.= Syn. TINCTURA GRATIOLÆ. (Reece.) Prep. Dried hedge-hyssop, 4 oz.; proof spirit, 32 oz.

=Tincture of Hel′lebore.= Syn. TINCTURE OF BLACK HELLEBORE; TINCTURA HELLEBORI (Ph. L.), L. TINCTURA HELLEBORI NIGRI. Prep. (Ph. L.) Black hellebore root, bruised, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate 7 days, then strain, with expression.

Obs. This tincture is a powerful emmenagogue, and was a favourite remedy with Dr Mead in uterine obstructions and certain cutaneous affections.——Dose, 20 drops to 1 fl. dr. See TINCTURE OF VERATRUM.

=Tincture of Hem′lock.= Syn. TINCTURA CICUTÆ, T. CONII (Ph. L. & E.), T. CONII MACULATI, L. Prep. 1, (Ph. L.) Dried hemlock leaves, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest a week, press, and filter. In the Ph. L. 1836, cardamom seeds, 1 oz., was added.

2. (Ph. E.) Fresh hemlock leaves, 12 oz.; express the juice, bruise the residuum, and treat it, by percolation, first with tincture of cardamoms, 10 fl. oz., and next with rectified spirit, 1-1/2 pint; mix the liquids, and filter. Deobstruent and narcotic.——Dose of the Ph. L., 20 to 60 drops; that of the Ph. E. tincture is less, it being a much stronger and certain preparation. See HEMLOCK.

3. (B. P.) Hemlock fruit, bruised, 2-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint. Proceed as for tincture of aconite (B. P.).

=Tincture of Hemp.= Tincture of Indian Hemp.

=Tincture of Hen′bane.= Syn. TINCTURA HYOSCYAMI (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.). Prep. 1. (B. P.) Hyoscyamus leaves, dried and bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, pack in a percolator, and when it has drained pour on the remaining spirit, and when it ceases to drop, press, and wash the marc with spirit to make up 8.——Dose, 15 to 60 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Dried leaves of henbane, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days——Ph. D.; or percolate——Ph. E.), then press, and filter. Anodyne, sedative, soporific, and narcotic.——Dose, 20 drops to 2 fl. dr.

Obs. This, as well as the TINCTURES OF FOXGLOVE, HEMLOCK, HOPS, JALAP, LOBELIA INFLATA, RHATANY, SAVINE, SQUILLS, SENNA, VALERIAN WORMWOOD, &c., is usually prepared by the druggists with 1 lb. of the dried leaves (or dried drugs) to each gall. of a mixture of equal parts of rectified spirit and water.

=Tincture of Hops.= Syn. TINCTURA LUPULI (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), TINCTURA HUMULI, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Hop, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours in 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, let it drain, add the remaining spirit, and when fluid ceases to drop, wash the marc, filter, and make up 8.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. E.) Hops, 6 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest 7 days, then press, and filter. Anodyne, sedative, and soporific.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 fl. dr. For the formula of the Ph. E. and D., see TINCTURE OF LUPULIN.

=Tincture of Hops (Compound).= Syn. TINCTURA LUPULI COMPOSITA, LIQUEUR DES TEIGNEUX. (P. Cod.) Prep. Hops, 1 oz.; smaller centaury, 1 oz.; orange peel, 2 dr.; carbonate of potash, 12 gr.; proof spirit, 18 oz. (by weight).

=Tincture of Horse-Chestnut.= Syn. TINCTURA HIPPOCASTANEI. Prep. Horse-chestnut bark, 4 oz.; proof spirit, 2 pints. Macerate for 10 days, and filter.

=Tincture, Hudson’s.= Tooth tincture.

=Tincture, Huxham’s.= Compound tincture of cinchona.

=Tincture of Indian Hemp.= Syn. TINCTURA CANNABIS INDICÆ (B. P.), TINCTURA CANNABIS, T. C. INDICÆ (Ph. D.), L. Prep. (B. P.) Extract of Indian hemp, 1; rectified spirit, 20; dissolve.——Dose, 5 to 20 minims with 1 dr. of mucilage, adding 1 oz. of water.

2. (Ph. D.) Purified extract of Indian hemp, 1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1/2 pint; dissolve. 21 drops (minims) contain 1 gr. of the extract.

Obs. The formula of O’Shaughnessy and the Bengal Ph. are similar.——Dose, 10 drops every 1/2 hour in cholera; 1 fl. dr. every 1/2 hour in tetanus till the paroxysms cease, or catalepsy is induced.

=Tincture of Indian Tobac′co.= Tincture of lobelia.

=Tincture of I′odine.= Syn. TINCTURA IODINEI (Ph. E.) TINCTURA IODINII, L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Iodine, 2-1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; dissolve, and preserve it in well-closed bottles.——Dose, 5 to 30 drops, twice or thrice daily, where the use of iodine is indicated. Externally, as a paint, &c.

Obs. The formulæ of Magendie, the Ph. U. S., and the Paris Codex, are similar.

=Tincture of Iodine (Colourless).= Syn. TINCTURA IODI DECOLORATA. (Ph. G.) Prep. Iodine, 10 oz.; hyposulphite of soda, 10 oz.; distilled water, 10 oz. Digest with gentle heat, occasionally shaking; and, when the solution is completed, add liquor ammoniæ (·960), 16 oz. (by weight), shake together, and add rectified spirit, 75 oz. (by weight).

=Tincture of Iodine (Compound).= Syn. ANTISCROFULOUS DROPS; TINCTURA IODI (B. P.), TINCTURA IODINII COMPOSITA (Ph. L. & D.), L. Prep. 1. Iodine, 1/2; iodide of potassium, 1/4; rectified spirit, 20; dissolve.——Dose, 5 to 20 minims. Also an excellent application to the throat in diphtheria.

2. (Ph. L. & D.) Iodine, 1 oz.; iodide of potassium, 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; dissolve.——Dose, &c., as the last.

=Tincture of Iodine (Ethereal).= Syn. TINCTURA IODINII ÆTHEREA. Prep. Iodine, 2 scruples, sulphuric ether, 1-1/2 fl. oz.

=Tincture, Iodoform (Ethereal).= Syn. TINCTURA IODOFORMI ÆTHEREA. (Odin & Lemaire.) Prep. Crystallised iodoform, 15 gr.; ether at 60° Baumé, 1 dr. (by weight).

=Tincture of Ipecacuan′ha.= Syn. TINCTURA IPECACUANHA, L. Prep. (Ph. Bor.) Ipecacuanha (coarsely powdered), 1 oz.; spirit, sp. gr. ·897 to ·900 (16 to 17 o. p.), 8 oz.; macerate for 8 days. The tincture of the P. Cod. has twice its strength.——Dose, 10 or 12 drops to 2 fl. dr., according to the intention.

=Tincture of Jaborandi.= Syn. TINCTURA JABORANDI. (‘Ph. Journ.’) Prep. Powdered jaborandi leaves, 10 oz.; rectified spirit, q. s. Percolate until a pint of tincture is obtained.——Dose, 10 minims to 1 or 2 dr.

Mr Shuttleworth, the Editor of the ‘Canadian Pharmaceutical Journal,’ thus utilises the residue left after making tincture of myrrh. He says “that, from fifty-two pounds of the residue of percolation, dissolved in boiling water, strained and allowed to deposit, he obtained twelve gallons of mucilage, forming an excellent substitute for paste, and possessing unlimited keeping qualities. Although scarcely so adhesive as gum Arabic, this latter property may be obtained by the addition of a little molasses.”

=Tincture of Jal′ap.= Syn. TINCTURA JALAPÆ (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Jalap, in coarse powder, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate for 48 hours in six of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, and when the fluid ceases to pass, pour on the remaining spirit, press, filter, and add spirit to make 8.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Jalap, coarsely powdered, 5 oz. (10 oz.——Ph. L. 1836; 7 oz.——Ph. E.); proof spirit, 1 quart (1-1/2 pint——Ph. D.); macerate for 7 days (or percolate——Ph. E.), then press, and filter. Cathartic.——Dose, 1 to 4 fl. dr.

=Tincture of Jalap (Compound).= Syn. TINCTURA JALAPÆ COMPOSITA. (Ph. E. 1744.) Prep. Jalap root, 6 dr.; black hellebore root, 3 dr.; juniper berries, 1/2 oz.; guaiacum shavings, 1/2 oz.; French brandy, 24 oz.; digest for 3 days, and strain. The Eau de Vie Allemande of the Paris Codex is: Jalap, 8 oz.; turpeth root, 1 oz.; scammony, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 96 oz. (by weight).——Dose, 4 dr.

=Tincture of Ki′no.= Syn. TINCTURE KINO (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Kino, in powder, 1; rectified spirit, 10; macerate 7 days, filter, and make up 10.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Powdered kino, 3-1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (or percolate——Ph. E.), and filter. Astringent.——Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr., combined with chalk mixture; in diarrhœa, &c.

A writer in the ‘American Journal of Pharmacy’ says the following formula will yield a tincture which has no tendency to gelatinise like the simple tincture of the B. P.:

Kino, in fine powder, 1-1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 8 fl. oz.; water, 4 oz.; glycerin, 4 fl. oz. Mix the alcohol, water, and glycerin together, and having mixed the kino with an equal bulk of clean sand, introduce in a percolator, and pour on the menstruum.

Mr Haselden says, that for some years past he has preserved tincture of kino from gelatinising by keeping it in bottles holding 2 oz. only.

=Tincture of Lactu′′carium.= Syn. TINCTURA LACTUCARII, L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Powdered lactucarium, 4 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest or percolate. Anodyne, soporific, antispasmodic, and sedative.——Dose, 20 to 60 drops; in cases for which opium is unsuited, 10 drops (minims) contain 1 gr. of lactucarium.

=Tincture of Larch.= Syn. TINCTURA LARICIS. (B. P.) Prep. Larch bark, in coarse powder, 2-1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint. Macerate the bark for 48 hours in 15 oz. of the spirit in a closed vessel, agitating occasionally; then transfer to a percolator, and when the fluid ceases to pass, continue the percolation with the remaining 5 oz. of spirit. Afterwards subject the contents of the percolator to pressure, filter the product, mix the liquid, and add rectified spirit, q. s. to make 1 pint.——Dose, 20 to 30 minims.

=Tincture of Lav′ender (Compound).= Syn. RED LAVENDER, RED LAVENDER DROPS, RED HARTSHORN; TINCTURA LAVENDULÆ COMPOSITA (B. P., Ph. L. & D.), SPIRITUS LAVANDULÆ COMPOSITUS (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) English oil of lavender, 90 minims; English oil of rosemary, 10 minims; cinnamon, bruised, 150 gr.; nutmeg, bruised, 150 gr.; red sandal wood, 300 gr.; rectified spirit, 40 oz.; macerate the cinnamon, nutmeg, and red sandal wood in the spirit for 7 days, then press out and strain; dissolve the oils in the strained tincture, and add sufficient rectified spirit to make 40 oz.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Cinnamon and nutmegs, of each, bruised, 2-1/2 dr.; red sanders wood, sliced, 5 dr.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days, then strain, with expression, and dissolve in the strained liquid, oil of lavender, 1-1/2 fl. dr., oil of rosemary, 10 drops.

3. (Ph. L. 1836.) Spirit of lavender, 1-1/2 pint; spirit of rosemary, 1/2 pint; red sanders wood (rasped), 5 dr.; cinnamon and nutmegs (bruised), of each 2-1/2 dr.; macerate for 14 days.

4. (Ph. E.) Spirit of lavender, 1 quart; spirit of rosemary, 12 fl. oz.; cinnamon, 1 oz.; nutmeg, 1/2 oz.; red sanders, 3 dr.; cloves, 2 dr.; as No. 1.

5. (Ph. D.) Oil of lavender. 3 fl. dr.; oil of rosemary, 1 fl. dr.; cinnamon, 1 oz.; nutmegs, 1/2 oz.; cloves and cochineal, of each 1/4 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days.

6. (Wholesale.) From oil of cassia, 3/4 fl. oz.; oil of nutmeg, 1 fl. oz.; oils of lavender and rosemary, of each 4-1/2 fl. oz.; red sanders (rasped), 3 lbs.; proof spirit, 6 galls., (or rectified spirit and water, of each 3 galls.); digest 14 days. Should it be cloudy, add a little more proof spirit.

Obs. Compound tincture of lavender is a popular stimulant, cordial, and stomachic.——Dose, 1 to 3 teaspoonfuls (1/2 to 2 fl. dr.); in lowness of spirits, faintness, flatulence, hysteria, &c.

=Tincture of Lem′ons.= Syn. TINCTURA LIMONUM (Ph. L.), TINCTURA LIMONIS (B. P., Ph. D., Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Fresh lemon peel, sliced thin, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate for 7 days in a closed vessel with occasional agitation, strain, press, filter, and make up with spirit to 8.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 dr.

2. Fresh lemon peel, 3-1/2 oz. (cut thin, 5 oz.——Ph. D.); proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days——Ph. D.), then express the liquid, and filter it. An aromatic bitter and stomachic.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 fl. dr.

=Tincture of Lobe′′lia.= Syn. TINCTURE OF INDIAN TOBACCO; TINCTURA LOBELIÆ INFLATÆ, TINCTURA LOBELIÆ (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Lobelia, dried and bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, and let it drain, pour on the remaining spirit, and when it ceases to drop, press and wash the marc with spirit to make up 8.——Dose, 10 to 30 minims, but 1 dr. may be given for dyspnœa; 4 dr. as an emetic.

2. (Ph. L.) Dried and powdered lobelia inflata, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days——Ph. D.; or percolate——Ph. E.), press, and filter.——Dose. As an expectorant, 10 to 60 drops; as an emetic and antispasmodic, 1 to 2 fl. dr., repeated every third hour until it causes vomiting. It is principally employed in spasmodic asthma, and some other pulmonary affections.

=Tincture of Lobelia (Ethereal).= Syn. TINCTURA LOBELIÆ ÆTHEREA (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1. Lobelia, dried and bruised, 1; spirit of ether, 8; macerate 7 days, press, and strain 8.——Dose, 10 to 30 minims as an antispasmodic.

2. (Ph. L.) Indian tobacco, powdered, 5 oz.; ether, 14 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 26 fl. oz.; macerate 7 days, press, and filter.

3. (Ph. E.) Dry lobelia, 5 oz.; spirit of sulphuric ether, 1 quart; by digestion for 7 days, or by percolation.——Dose, 6 or 8 drops to 1 fl. dr.

4. (Whitlaw’s.) From lobelia, 1 lb.; rectified spirit and spirit of nitrous ether, of each 4 pints; sulphuric ether, 4 oz.——Dose, &c., as the last.

TINCTURE OF LU′PULIN. Syn. TINCTURE OF HOPS; TINCTURA LUPULI (Ph. E.), TINCTURÆ LUPULINÆ (Ph. D.), L. Prep. (Ph. D.) Lupulin (the yellowish-brown powder attached to the scales of hops, separated by friction and sifting), 5 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days (or proceed by displacement——Ph. E.), press, and filter.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 fl. dr. See TINCTURE OF HOPS.

=Tincture of Malate of Iron.= Syn. TINCTURA FERRI MALATIS; TINCTURA FERRI POMATA. (Ph. G.) Prep. Extract of malate of iron (see EXTRACT OF APPLES), 2 oz.; spirituous cinnamon water, 18 oz. Dissolve and filter.——Dose, 15 to 30 minims.

=Tincture of Mastic.= Syn. TINCTURA MASTICHES. Prep. Mastic, 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 9 fl. oz. Used in making Eau de Luce. If required for stopping hollow teeth, double the quantity of mastic must be used.

=Tincture of Mat′ico.= Syn. TINCTURA MATICO (Ph. D.), L. Prep. (Ph. D.) Matico leaves, in coarse powder, 8 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days, and strain, with expression.——Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr., as an internal astringent or hæmostatic. It is a very feeble remedy, as matico leaves are destitute of either tannin or gallic acid, and derive their power of stopping local bleeding from the peculiar mechanical construction of their surface.

=Tincture of Mea′dow Saf′fron.= Tincture of colchicum.

=Tincture of Mone′sia.= Syn. TINCTURA MONESIÆ, L. Prep. From monesia, 2-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint; macerate a week. Astringent.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 fl. dr.

=Tincture of Musk.= Syn. TINCTURA MOSCHI, L. Prep. (Ph. D. 1826.) Musk, 2 dr.; rectified spirit, 16 fl. oz.; digest 7 days. Antispasmodic; but principally used as a perfume, being too weak for medical use.

=Tincture of Musk (Artificial).= Syn. TINCTURA MOSCHI ARTIFICIALIS. (Van Mons.) Prep. Artificial musk, 1 dr.; rectified spirit, 2 oz.

=Tincture of Musk Seed.= Syn. TINCTURA ABELMOSCHI SEMINUM. (Dr Reece.) Prep. Musk seed, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 16 oz. Digest seven days, and strain.——Dose, 1 fl. dr.

=Tincture of Myrrh.= Syn. GOLDEN TOOTH-DROPS; TINCTURÆ (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Myrrh, in coarse powder, 1; rectified spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, and when it ceases to drop, pour on the remaining spirit, wash the marc, press, and make up to 8.——Dose, 1/2 to 1 dr. More frequently used mixed with water to form a gargle.

2. (Ph. L.) Myrrh, in powder, 3 oz. (3-1/2 oz., Ph. E.; 4 oz.——Ph. D.); rectified spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days,——Ph. D.; or by displacement——Ph. E.), and filter.

3. (Wholesale.) Myrrh (in coarse powder), 2-1/4 lbs.; rectified spirit, 2 galls.; water, 1 gall.; as the last.

Obs. Tincture of myrrh is tonic and stimulant.——Dose, 1/2 to 1 fl. dr., as an adjuvant in mixtures, gargles, &c. Chiefly used diluted with water, as a dentifrice or wash for ulcerated and spongy gums.

=Tincture of Myrrh (Alkaline).= Syn. TINCTURA MYRRHÆ ALKALIZÆ. (Ph. E. 1744.) Prep. Powdered myrrh, 1-1/2 oz.; solution of carbonate of potash, a sufficient quantity; mix into a soft paste, dry it, and add rectified spirit, 1 pint. Digest for 6 days, and strain.

=Tincture of Myrrh (Compound).= Syn. TINCTURA MYRRHÆ COMPOSITA, L. Prep. From myrrh and socotrine aloes, of each 2 lbs.; rectified spirit, 3 galls.; water, 2 galls.; digest for 14 days. This is frequently substituted for ‘COMPOUND TINCTURE OF ALOES’ in the wholesale trade.

=Tincture of Nux Vomi′ca.= Syn. TINCTURA NUCIS VOMICÆ, L. Prep. 1. Nux vomica, 1; rectified spirit, 10; soften the nux vomica by steam, dry rapidly, and reduce to fine powder. Macerate 48 hours in three fourths of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, let it drain, pour on the remaining spirit, and when it ceases to drop, press, filter, and make up to 10.——Dose, 10 to 30 minims.

2. (Ph. D. 1826.) Nux vomica (ground in a coffee-mill), 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 8 fl. oz.; macerate 7 (14) days.——Dose, 5 to 20 drops; in paralysis, &c. It is poisonous.

=Tincture of Nux Vomica (Ethereal).= Syn. TINCTURA NUCIS VOMICÆ ÆTHEREA. (Ph. G.) Prep. Coarsely powdered nux vomica, 1 oz.; spirits of ether, 10 oz. (by weight). Macerate for 8 days.

=Tincture, Odontalgic.= Syn. TOOTHACHE TINCTURE; TINCTURA ODONTALGICA, L. Prep. 1. Tincture of opium, 1 fl. dr.; ether, 2 fl. dr.; oil of cloves, 15 drops.

2. Rectified spirit, 3 fl. dr.; chloroform, 2 dr.; creasote, 1 dr.; mix.

3. (Collier.) Pellitory of Spain, 4 dr.; camphor, 3 dr.; opium, 1 dr.; oil of cloves, 2 fl. dr.; rectified spirit, 16 fl. oz.; digest for a week.

4. (Niemann.) Digest 60 or 80 common lady-birds (Coccinella septempunctata——Linn.) in rectified spirit, 1 fl. oz. for 8 days, and strain.

Obs. The above are commonly applied, on a small piece of lint, in toothache. For other formulæ see DROPS, TINCTURES OF MYRRH and PELLITORY, &c.

=Tincture of O′pium.= Syn. LAUDANUM, LIQUID, L., ANODYNE TINCTURE, THEBAIC T.; TINCTURA OPII (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), THEBAICA, LAUDANUM LIQUIDUM, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Opium, in coarse powder, 1-1/2; proof spirit, 20; macerate 7 days, strain, express, filter, and add spirit to make 20.——Dose, 10 to 30 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Powdered opium, 3 oz. (3 oz.——Ph. D.); proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days——Ph. D.), and strain, with expression.

3. (Ph. E.) Opium, sliced, 3 oz.; boiling water, 13-1/2 fl. oz.; digest, with heat, for 2 hours, break down the opium with the hand, strain, and express the infusion; then macerate the residuum for about 20 hours in rectified spirit, 1 pint 7 fl. oz.; next strain, press, mix the watery and spirituous infusions, and filter.

Obs. This preparation has a deep brownish-red colour, and the characteristic odour and taste of opium. 14 minims or measured drops of the London, and about 15 minims of the Edinburgh and Dublin tinctures, are equivalent to 1 gr. of dry opium, or 1·12 gr. of ordinary opium. 14 minims of this tincture are equal to about 25 drops of it poured from a bottle. Its sp. gr. is ·952 (Phillips).——Dose, 10 to 60 drops; as an anodyne, sedative, or hypnotic. The following form is substituted for that of the Pharmacopœia by many of the wholesale drug houses:——Take of Turkey opium, 2-1/2 lbs.; boiling water, 9 quarts; digest till dissolved or disintegrated, cool; add of rectified spirit, 2 galls.; and, after repose for 24 hours, decant the clear portion. Prod. 4 galls.

=Tincture of Opium (Ammo′′niated).= Syn. AMMONIATED TINCTURE OF OPIUM, SCOTCH PAREGORIC; TINCTURA OPII AMMONIATA (B. P., Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Opium, in powder, 100 gr.; saffron, cut small, 180 gr.; benzoic acid, 180 gr.; oil of anise, 60 minims; strong solution of ammonia, 4 oz.; rectified spirit, 16 oz.; macerate 7 days in a closed vessel, with occasional agitation, strain, and add sufficient rectified spirit to make up 20 oz.——Dose, 1/2 to 1 dr.

2. (Ph. E.) Benzoic acid and hay saffron, of each 6 dr.; opium, sliced, 4 dr.; oil of aniseed, 1 dr.; spirit of ammonia (Ph. E.), 1 quart; digest for a week, and filter. Stimulant antispasmodic, and anodyne.——Dose, 20 to 80 drops; in hysteria, hooping-cough, &c.

Obs. This preparation is called ‘PAREGORIC,’ or ‘PAREGORIC ELIXIR,’ in Scotland, but should be carefully distinguished from the compound tincture of camphor, which passes under the same names in England; as the former contains about 4 times as much opium as the latter. 80 minims, or 145 poured drops, contain about 1 gr. of opium.

=Tincture of Opium (Cam′phorated).= Compound tincture of camphor.

=Tincture of Opium (Ecard’s, or Bamberg’s).= Syn. TINCTURA OPII ECARDI, ECARD’S or BAMBERG’S THEBAIC TINCTURE. Prep. Opium, 2 oz.; cloves, 1 dr.; cinnamon water, 8 oz.; rectified spirit, 4 oz. Digest in a warm room for 6 days, and strain.

=Tincture of Opium (Fetid).= Syn. TINCTURA OPII FŒTIDA. (Ph. Fulda.) Prep. Castor oil, 4 oz.; assafœtida, 2 oz.; salt of hartshorn, 1 oz.; dry opium, 4 dr.; rectified spirit, 32 oz.——Dose, 15 minims to 1 dr.

=Tincture of Opium (Odourless).= Syn. TINCTURA OPII DEODORATA. (Ph. U. S.) Prep. Opium dried, and in moderately fine powder, 2-1/2 troy oz.; ether, rectified spirit, of each 8 oz. (o. m.); water, a sufficient quantity. Macerate the opium with 1/2 pint of the water for 24 hours, and express. Repeat this operation twice with the same quantity of water, mix the express liquids and evaporate to 4 oz. (o. m.); let cool, and shake repeatedly in a bottle with the ether. When it has separated by standing, pour off the ethereal solution, and evaporate the remaining liquid till all the ether has disappeared. Mix the residue with 20 oz. (o. m.) of water, and filter. When the liquid has ceased to pass, add enough water to make the filtrate measure 1-1/2 pint (o. m.). Lastly, mix in the spirit.

=Tincture of Or′ange Peel.= Syn. TINCTURA AURANTII (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), T. CORTICIS AURANTII, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Dried bitter orange peel, cut small and bruised, 1; proof spirit, 10; macerate for 7 days in a closed vessel with occasional agitation, then strain, press, and filter, add sufficient proof spirit to make 10.——Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Dried orange peel, 3-1/2 oz. (4 oz.——Ph. D.); proof spirit, 1 quart; digest for 7 days (14 days——Ph. D.; or by percolation——Ph. E.), press, and filter. A grateful bitter stomachic.——Dose, 1 to 3 fl. dr.; chiefly as an adjuvant in mixtures, &c.

=Tincture of Orange Peel (Fresh).= Syn. TINTURA AURANTII RECENTIS. (B. P.) Prep. Bitter orange, rectified spirit, of each a sufficient quantity. Carefully cut from the orange the coloured part of the rind in thin slices, and macerate 6 oz. of this in 1 pint of spirit for a week, with frequent agitation; then pour off the liquid, press the dregs, mix the liquid products, and filter; finally, add sufficient spirit to make 1 pint.——Dose, 1 dr. to 2 dr.

=Tincture of Orange, with Iron.= Syn. TINCTURA FERRI AURANTIACA. (Ph. Wurt.) Prep. Iron filings, 4 oz,; Seville oranges deprived of their seeds, no. 4. Beat them together, leave them for 2 days; then add Madeira wine, 10 oz.; spirits of orange peel, 2 oz. Digest, express, and filter.

=Tincture of Orris Root.= Syn. TINCTURA IRIDIS. Prep. Freshly powdered orris root, 1 part; proof spirit, 5 parts. Sold as Esprit de Violette.

=Tincture of Ox-gall.= Syn. TINCTURA FELLIS BOVINI. Prep. Inspissated ox-gall, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint. Digest until dissolved.

=Tincture of Paracress.= Syn. TINCTURA SPILANTHI COMPOSITA. Prep. Paracress, dried and bruised, 2 oz.; pyrethrum root in coarse powder, 2 oz.; spirit, 10 oz. (by weight). Digest 8 days. Sialagogue.

=Tincture of Pareira Brava.= Syn. TINCTURA PAREIRÆ BRAVÆ. (Brodie). Prep. Pareira brava root, 2 oz.; French brandy, 1 pint. Digest for 7 days.

=Tincture of Pel′litory.= Syn. TOOTHACHE TINCTURE; TINCTURA PYRETHRI (B. P.) Prep. 1. (B. P.) Pellitory root, in coarse powder, 4; rectified spirit, 20; macerate for 48 hours with 15 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, then pack it in a percolator, let it drain, and pour on the remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, press, filter, and make up to 20.

2. Pellitory of Spain (bruised), 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 1/4 pint; digest a week. In the P. Cod. a tincture is ordered prepared with spirit about 41 o. p., and another prepared with spirit of sulphuric ether.

3. (COMPOUND.——Brande.) Pellitory root, 4 dr.; camphor, 3 dr.; oil of cloves, 2 dr.; opium, 1 dr.; rectified spirit, 6 fl. oz.; digest for eight days. Both the above are used for the toothache. See TINCTURE, ODONTALGIC.

=Tincture of Pepper (Stomachic).= Syn. TINCTURA PIPERIS STOMACHICA; ESSENTIA STOMACHICA POLYCHRESTA (Spielman.) Prep. Capsicum, 1 oz.; black pepper, 2 dr.; long pepper, 2 dr.; white pepper, 2 dr.; solution of acetate of potash, 6 oz.; spirit of ammonia, 1 oz. Digest and filter.

=Tincture of Perchloride of Iron.= Syn. TINCTURA FERRI PERCHLORIDI. (B. P.) Prep. Mix 5 fl. oz. of strong solution of perchloride of iron with 15 fl. oz. of rectified spirit.——Dose, 10 to 30 minims.

=Tincture of Phos′phorus (Ethereal).= Syn. ÆTHER PHOSPHORATUS, TINCTURA PHOSPHORI ÆTHEREA, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. Hann. 1831.) Phosphorus (powdered by agitation with rectified spirit), 16 gr.; ether, 2 oz.; macerate, with agitation, for 4 days, then decant the clear portion, and preserve it in a stoppered bottle, in a cool dark situation.

2. (P. Cod.) Phosphorus, cut small, 1 part; ether, 50 parts; digest with occasional agitation for 1 month, and decant the clear.——Dose, 5 to 15 drops, in any bland vehicle, thrice daily; in impotency, low sinking conditions of the system, &c.

=Tincture of Poplar Buds.= Syn. TINCTURA POPULI. (Van Monc.) Prep. Poplar buds, 4 oz.; rectified spirit, 24 oz. Macerate and filter.

=Tincture of Quas′sia.= Syn. TINCTURA QUASSIÆ (B. P., Ph. E), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Quassia in chips, 3/4; proof spirit, 20; digest 7 days; filter, and make up to 20.——Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. E.) Quassia, in chips, 10 dr.; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest 7 days. Bitter, tonic.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 fl. dr.; in dyspepsia, &c.

=Tincture of Quassia (Compound).= Syn. TINCTURA QUASSIÆ COMPOSITA (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Cardamoms and cochineal, of each, bruised, 1/2 oz.; powdered cinnamon and quassia chips, of each 6 dr.; raisins, 7 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest for 7 days (or by percolation), then press, and filter. Aromatic and tonic.——Dose and use, as the last.

=Tincture of Quinine (Ammoniated).= Syn. TINCTURA QUININÆ AMMONIATA. (B. P.) Prep. Sulphate of quinine, 160 gr.; solution of ammonia, 2-1/2 fl. oz.; proof spirit, 17-1/2 oz.; dissolve the quinine in the spirit with a gentle heat, and add the solution of ammonia.——Dose, 1/2 dr. to 2 dr.

=Tincture of Quinine (Compound).= Syn. FEVER DROPS; TINCTURA QUINÆ (B. P.); TINCTURA QUINÆ COMPOSITA (Ph. L.) Prep. 1. (B. P.) Sulphate of quinia, 1; tincture of orange peel, 60; dissolve with a gentle heat, digest for 3 days with occasional agitation and strain.——Dose, 1 to 1-1/2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Sulphate of quinine, 5 dr. 1 scrup. (or 320 gr.); tincture of orange peel, 1 quart; digest, with agitation, for 7 days, or until solution is complete.

Obs. Unless the tincture employed as the solvent be of the full strength, some of the disulphate remains undissolved. It is an excellent medicine when faithfully prepared.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 fl. dr.; in debility, dyspepsia, &c.

=Tincture of Red Gum.= Syn. TINCTURA GUMMI RUBRI. (Mr Squire.) Prep. Red gum, 1 part; rectified spirit, 4. Digest and strain.——Dose, 20 to 40 minims.

=Tincture of Red Lav′ender.= Compound tincture of lavender.

=Tincture of Rhat′any.= Syn. TINCTURA KRAMERIÆ (B. P., Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Rhatany, bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours in 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator; when it ceases to drop, pour on the remaining spirit, and wash the marc with spirit to make up 8.——Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. D.) Rhatany root, in coarse powder, 8 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days, then press, and filter. Astringent.——Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr. The formula of the Ph. U. S. is similar.

=Tincture of Rhododendron.= Syn. TINCTURA RHODODENDRI. (Niemann.) Prep. Leaves of Rhododendron Chrysanthum, 2 oz.; French brandy, 1/2 lb.; sherry, 1/2 lb. Digest for 15 days.

=Tincture of Rhu′barb.= Syn. TINCTURA RHEI (B. P., Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Rhubarb, bruised, 2; cardamom seeds, bruised, 1/4; coriander, bruised, 1/4; saffron, 1/4; proof spirit, 20; macerate for 48 hours with 15 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, and when it ceases to drop pour on the remaining spirit, press and wash the marc, and add spirit to make up 20.——Dose. As a stomachic, 1 to 2 dr.; as a purgative, 1/2 to 1 oz.

2. (Ph. E.) Powdered rhubarb, 3-1/2 oz.; cardamom seeds, bruised, 1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest, or proceed by the method of displacement.

3. (Ph. L. 1824.) Rhubarb, 2 oz.; cardamoms, 4 dr.; saffron, 2 dr.; proof spirit, 32 fl. oz. Both the above are cordial, stomachic, and laxative.——Dose, 1 fl. dr, to 1 fl. oz.

=Tincture of Rhubarb (Aqueous).= Syn. TINCTURA RHEI AQUOSA. (Ph. G.) Prep. Rhubarb, 10 oz.; borax, 1 oz.; carbonate of potash, 1 oz.; boiling water, 85 oz. Infuse for 1/4 hour, then add rectified spirit, 10 oz. (by weight); let stand 2-1/2 hours, and add cinnamon water, 15 oz.

=Tincture of Rhubarb (Compound).= Syn. TINCTURA RHEI COMPOSITA (Ph. L. & D.). Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Rhubarb, sliced, 2-1/2 oz.; liquorice root, bruised, 6 dr.; ginger (bruised) and hay saffron, of each 3 dr.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days, then press, and filter.

2. (Ph.) Rhubarb, 3 oz.; cardamoms, 1 oz.; liquorice root, 1/2 oz.; saffron, 1/4 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days.

3. (Ph. L. 1824.) Rhubarb, 2 oz.; liquorice root, 4 dr.; ginger and saffron, of each 2 dr.; proof spirit, 16 fl. oz.; water, 12 fl. oz.

Obs. This tincture is a popular remedy in diarrhœa and colic, and is an especial favourite with drunkards.——Dose, as a stomachic, 1 to 3 fl. dr.; as a purgative, 1/2 to 1-1/2 fl. oz. The tincture of rhubarb of the shops is mostly inferior, being generally deficient both in rhubarb and spirit. The following forms we have seen extensively employed in the wholesale trade:——East Indian rhubarb, 20 lbs.; boiling water, q. s. to cover it; infuse for 24 hours, then slice the rhubarb, and put it into a cask with moist sugar, 14 lbs.; ginger, bruised, 3-1/2 lbs.; hay saffron, 1 lb.; carbonate of potash, 1/2 lb.; bruised nutmegs, 1/4 lb.; rectified spirit, 19 galls.; water, 21 galls.; macerate with frequent agitation for 14 days, decant the clear portion, and press and filter the bottoms. Those houses that adhere to the Ph. L. for 1824 substitute cardamom seeds, 5 lbs., for the ginger. For the corresponding Ph. E. formula see the last article.

=Tincture of Rhubarb (Brandish’s Al′kaline).= Syn. TINCTURA RHEI ALKALINA BRANDISHII, L. Prep. From rhubarb, in coarse powder, 1-1/2 oz.; Brandish’s alkaline solution, 1 quart; macerate for a week. In the original formula only 1/2 oz. of rhubarb is ordered.——Dose, 20 drops to 2 fl. dr., in any bland liquid, not acidulous; in acidities, dyspepsia, &c.

=Tincture of Rhubarb and Aloes.= Syn. SACRED ELIXIR†; TINCTURA RHEI ET ALOËS (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph. D.) Rhubarb, in powder, 1-1/2 oz.; Socotrine or East Indian aloes, 6 dr.; cardamom seeds, bruised, 5 dr.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate 7 days, or percolate. A warm stomachic purgative.——Dose, 1/2 fl. oz. to 1 fl. oz.

=Tincture of Rhubarb and Gen′tian.= TINCTURA RHEI AMARA, TINCTURA RHEI ET GENTIANÆ (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Rhubarb, 2 oz.; gentian, 1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; proceed as for the last. Stomachic, tonic, and purgative.——Dose, 1 fl. dr. to 1 fl. oz.

=Tincture of Rhubarb and Sen′na.= Syn. WARNER’S GOUT CORDIAL; TINCTURA RHEI ET SENNÆ (Ph. U. S.), L. Prep. (Ph. U. S.) Rhubarb, 1 oz.; senna and red sanders wood, of each 2 dr.; coriander and fennel seed, of each 1 dr.; saffron and extract of liquorice, of each 1/2 dr.; stoned raisins, 6 oz.; proof spirit, 2-1/2 pints; macerate for 14 days. A popular stomachic and laxative.——Dose, 1/2 to 1-1/2 fl. oz.

=Tincture (Riemer’s Nervous).= Prep. From oil of juniper, 1 part; volatile liquor of hartshorn, 4 parts; rectified spirit, 16 parts.——Dose, 1 teaspoonful in water.

=Tincture of Rose.= Syn. TINCTURA ROSÆ. Prep. Dried red rose, 4 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint. Digest for 10 days.

=Tincture of Rosemary.= Syn. TINCTURA ROSMARINI. (Ph. Bruns.) Prep. Flowering tops of rosemary, 1-1/2 oz.; spirit of rosemary, 6 oz. Digest, express, and filter.

=Tincture, Ruspini’s.= See TINCTURE, TOOTH.

=Tincture of Saf′fron.= Syn. TINCTURA CROCI (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), T. C. SATIVÆ, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Saffron, 1; proof spirit, 20; macerate 48 hours with 15 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, let it drain, and then pour on the remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, wash the marc with spirit to make up 20.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. E.) Hay saffron, 2 oz. (2 oz.——Ph. D.); proof spirit, 1 quart (1 pint——Ph. D.); proceed either by maceration (for 14 days——Ph. D.) or by displacement. Stimulant, and emmenagogue.——Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr. Chiefly used for its colour and flavour.

=Tincture of Saponin.= Syn. TINCTURA SAPONINI. Prep. Bark of Quillai Saponaria, 1 part; alcohol (90 per cent.), 4 parts. Heat to ebullition and filter.

=Tincture of Sarsaparilla (Compound).= Syn. TINCTURA SARZÆ COMPOSITA, LIQUEUR DÉPURATIVE. (François.) Prep. Sarsaparilla, guaiacum, china root, sassafras, of each 1 oz.; proof spirit, 16 oz.

=Tincture of Savine.= Syn. TINCTURA SABINÆ. (B. P.) Prep. Savine tops, dried, and coarsely powdered, 2-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint. Proceed as for tincture of aconite.

=Tincture of Scammony.= Syn. TINCTURA SCAMMONII. (P. Cod.) Prep. Scammony, 4 oz.; rect. spirit, 20 oz. (by weight).

=Tincture of Senega.= Syn. TINCTURA SENEGÆ. (B. P.) Prep. Senega, bruised, 2-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint. Prepared as tincture of aconite.

=Tincture of Senna (Compound).= Syn. TINCTURE OF SENNA, ELIXIR OF HEALTH†; TINCTURA SENNÆ (B. P.), TINCTURA SENNÆ COMPOSITÆ (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Senna, broken small, 5; raisins, freed from seeds, 4; caraway, bruised, 1; coriander, bruised, 1; proof spirit, 40; macerate the ingredients 48 hours in three fourths of the spirit, agitating occasionally; pack in a percolator, and when it ceases to drop, pour on the remaining spirit; press, filter, and make up 40.——Dose, 2 to 8 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Senna, 3-1/2 oz.; caraway seeds, bruised, 3-1/2 dr.; cardamom seeds, bruised, 1 dr.; stoned raisins, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days, press, and filter.

3. (Ph. E.) Senna and stoned raisins, of each 4 oz.; sugar, 2-1/2 oz.; corianders, 1 oz.; jalap, 6 dr.; caraways and cardamoms, of each 5 dr.; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest, or proceed by percolation.

4. (Ph. D.) Senna, 4 oz.; caraway and cardamom seeds, of each, bruised, 1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days.

5. (Wholesale.) From senna, 6 lbs.; treacle, 2 lbs.; caraways, 3/4 lb.; cardamoms, 1/4 lb.; rectified spirit and water, of each 4 galls.; as before. Carminative, stomachic, and purgative.——Dose, 1/4 to 1 fl. oz.

Obs. “If Alexandrian senna be used for this preparation, it must be freed from cynanchum (argol) leaves, by picking.” (Ph. E.)

=Tincture of Ser′pentary.= Syn. TINCTURE OF VIRGINIAN SNAKE ROOT; TINCTURA SERPENTARIE (B. P., Ph. L., & E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Serpentary, bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours, with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator and let it drain; pour on the remaining spirit, and when it ceases to drop, press, and wash the marc to make up 8.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Serpentary, bruised, 3-1/2 oz. (cochineal, 1 dr.——Ph. E); proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (or by percolation——Ph. E.), strain, and filter. Stimulant, tonic, and diaphoretic.——Dose, 1 to 3 fl. dr.

=Tincture of Sesquichloride of Iron.= Syn. TINCTURE OF MURIATE OF IRON, TINCTURE OF STEEL, STEEL DROPS; TINCTURA FERRI PERCHLORIDI (B. P.), TINCTURA FERRI SESQUICHLORIDI (Ph. L. & D.), T. FERRI MURIATIS (Ph. E.), FERRI MURIATIS LIQUOR, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Strong solution of perchloride of iron, 1; rectified spirit, 3; mix.——Dose, 10 to 30 minims in water.

2. (Ph. L.) Sesquioxide of iron, 6 oz.; hydrochloric acid, 1 pint; mix, and digest in a sand bath, frequently shaking (with a gentle heat, for a day——Ph. E.), until solution is complete, then add, when cold, of rectified spirit, 3 pints, and (in a short time) filter. Sp. gr. ·992. “1 fl. oz., potash being added, deposits nearly 30 gr. of sesquioxide of iron.” (Ph. L.)

3. (Ph. D.) Iron wire, 8 oz.; pure hydrochloric acid, 1 quart; distilled water, 1 pint; mix, and dissolve by a gentle heat; next add, in successive portions, of pure nitric acid, 18 fl. dr.; evaporate by a gentle heat to a pint, and, when cold, mix this in a bottle with rectified spirit, 1-1/2 pint; lastly, after 12 hours, filter. Sp. gr. 1·237.

Obs. This tincture is an active ferruginous tonic.——Dose, 10 to 30 drops, gradually increased, taken in water, ale, or wine. In the old tinctura martis, Ph. L., iron filings, and in the T. ferri muriatis, Ph. E. 1817, black oxide of iron, were used instead of the sesquioxide or carbonate. ‘Bestuchef’s nervine tincture’ of the P. Cod. is prepared by dissolving 1 dr. of dry sesquichloride of iron in 7 dr. of spirit of sulphuric ether. See GOLDEN DROPS.

=Tincture of Sesquini′trate of Iron‡.= Syn. TINCTURA FERRI SESQUINITRATIS, L. Prep. (Onion.) Iron filings, 1/2 oz.; nitric acid (1·5), 2-1/4 oz.; dissolve, add of hydrochloric acid (1·16), 6 dr., simmer for 2 or 3 minutes, cool, add of rectified spirit, 8 oz., and filter. Proposed as a substitute for the last preparation, but the name misrepresents its chemical constitution.

=Tincture of Soap.= Syn. TINCTURA SAPONIS. (P. Cod.) Prep. White soap, 3 oz.; carbonate of potash, 1 dr.; proof spirit, 5 oz. (by weight). Dissolve.

=Tincture of Soap with Turpentine.= Syn. TINCTURA SAPONIS TEREBINTHINATA. BAUMÉ DE VIE EXTERNE. Prep. White soap, 3 oz.; oil of turpentine, 3 oz.; spirit of wild thyme, 2 lb.; white of ammonia, 2 oz.

=Tincture of Squills.= Syn. TINCTURA BECHICA, TINCTURA SCILLÆ (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Dried squill, bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate for 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, let it drain, and pour on the remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, press, filter, and make up to 8.——Dose, 15 to 30 minims.

2. (Ph. L.) Squills, recently dried and sliced (or in coarse powder), 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days——Ph. D.; or by percolation——Ph. E.), press and filter. A stimulating expectorant and diuretic.——Dose, 10 to 30 drops; in chronic coughs, and other bronchial affections.

=Tincture of Squills (Alkaline).= Syn. TINCTURA SCILLÆ ALKALINA. (Ph. G.) Prep. Squill, 8 parts; caustic potash, 1 part; rectified spirit, 50 parts; macerate, 8 days.

=Tincture of Stavesacre (Concentrated).= Syn. TINCTURA STAPHISAGRIÆ CONCENTRATA. (Dr Turnbull.) Prep. Digest stavesacre seeds in twice their weight of rectified spirit. For external use in neuralgic and rheumatic affections, as a substitute for solution of delphinia.

=Tincture, Stomach′ic.= Compound tincture of cardamoms. Compound tincture of gentian is also, occasionally, so called.

=Tincture of Stramo′′nium.= Syn. TINCTURE OF THORN-APPLE; TINCTURA STRAMONII (B. P., Ph. D. & U. S.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Stramonium seeds, bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally; pack in a percolator, let it drain, and pour on the remaining spirit. When it ceases to drop, press, filter, and add spirit to make 8.——Dose, 10 to 20 minims.

2. (Ph. D.) Stramonium or thorn-apple seeds (bruised), 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days (or by displacement——Ph. U. S.), then press, and filter. Anodyne.——Dose, 10 to 20 drops; in neuralgia, rheumatism, &c. Said to be superior to laudanum.

=Tincture, Styptic.= Syn. TINCTURA STYPTICA. (Ph. L. 1746.) Prep. Calcined sulphate of iron, 1 dr.; French brandy, coloured by the cask, 2 lbs.

=Tincture, Sudorific.= Syn. TINCTURA SUDORIFICA. (Ph. E. 1744.) Prep. Serpentary root, 5 dr.; cochineal, 4 dr.; castor oil, 1 dr.; saffron, 2 scruples; opium, 1 scruple; spirit of Mindererus, 16 oz. Digest for 3 days and strain.

=Tincture of Sum′bul.= Syn. TINCTURA SUMBULI (B. P.) Prep. 1. (B. P.) Sumbul, bruised fine, 1; proof spirit, 8; digest 7 days and filter.——Dose, 15 to 30 minims.

2. From sumbul, bruised, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for a week, and strain, with expression. Stimulant and tonic.——Dose, 10 to 30 or 40 drops.

=Tincture of Tartrated Iron.= Syn. TINCTURA MARTIS TARTARIZATA. Prep. Pure iron filings, 100 parts; cream of tartar, 250, rectified spirit, 50 parts (by weight). Put the filings and tartar into an iron kettle with sufficient water to form a paste, leave them for 24 hours, add 3000 parts of soft water and boil for 2 hours, stirring constantly and supplying the waste of water. Decant and filter the liquor, and evaporate it till it has the density of 1·286, and add the spirit.——Dose, 3 to 6 drops.

=Tincture of Thorn-apple.= Tincture of stramonium.

=Tincture of Thuja.= Syn. TINCTURA THUJÆ. Fresh leaves of thuja, 1 part; spirit (90 per cent.), 10 parts. Macerate for 10 days, and filter.——Dose, 10 drops in water. The leaves of thuja are collected in June and July. Those of the T. orientalis and T. occidentalis, have the reputation in Belgium of curing smallpox.

=Tincture of Tobac′co.= Syn. TINCTURA NICOTIANÆ, TINCTURA TABACI, L. Prep. From pure manufactured tobacco, 1-1/4 oz,; proof spirit, 1 pint; macerate for 7 days. Compound spirit of juniper is often used instead of proof spirit. Sedative and narcotic.——Dose, 10 to 30 drops. A tincture is also made from the fresh leaves. See VEGETABLE JUICES and TINCTURES (Ethereal).

=Tincture of Tol′u.= Syn. TINCTURA TOLUTANUS (B. P.), TINCTURA TOLUTANA (Ph. L. & D.), T. BALSAMI TOLUTANI, T. TOLUIFERÆ BALSAMI, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Balsam of Tolu, 1; rectified spirit, 8; dissolve, filter, and make up to 8.——Dose, 15 to 30 minims, mixed with mucilage or syrup.

2. (Ph. L.) Balsam of Tolu, 2 oz. (3-1/2 oz.——Ph. E.); rectified spirit, 1 quart (1 pint——Ph. D.); dissolve (by the aid of a gentle heat——Ph. E. & D.), and filter.

Obs. This tincture is reputed pectoral and expectorant; but it is chiefly used as an adjuvant in mixtures, on account of its flavour.——Dose, 10 to 60 drops.

=Tincture, Tooth.= Prep. 1. (Greenhough’s.) From bitter almonds, 2 oz.; Brazil wood, cinnamon, and orris root, of each 1/2 oz.; alum, cochineal, and salt of sorrel, of each 1 dr.; spirit of scurvy grass, 2 fl. oz.; proof spirit, 1-1/2 pint; macerate a week.

2. (Hudson’s.) From the tinctures of myrrh and cinchona, and cinnamon water, equal parts, with a little arquebusade and gum Arabic.

3. (Ruspini’s.) From orris root, 8 oz.; cloves, 1 oz.; ambergris, 20 gr.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; digested for 14 days. The above are used as cosmetics for the teeth and gums. The last has long been a popular dentifrice.

=Tincture, Toothache.= Odontalgic tincture. See also DROPS, ESSENCE, &c.

=Tincture of Turmeric.= Syn. TINCTURA CURCUMÆ. (Dr Wood.) Prep. Turmeric, 1 oz.; proof spirit, 6 oz.

=Tincture of Turpentine.= Syn. TINCTURA TEREBINTHINÆ. (P. Cod.) Prep. Venice turpentine, 4 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint.

=Tincture of Tuyaya.= Syn. TINCTURA TUYAYÆ. Prep. Tuyaya root, in powder, 12 oz.; proof spirit, 36 oz.; macerate for 14 days. If for internal use it must be diluted with four times its volume of spirit.——Dose, 1 to 10 minims. In syphilis.

=Tincture of Vale′rian.= Syn. TINCTURA VALERIANÆ (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Valerian bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate the valerian 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally; pack in a percolator, let it drain, pour on the remainder of the spirit; when it ceases to drop, press and filter, washing the marc with spirit to make up 8.——Dose, 1 to 2 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Valerian root, bruised, 5 oz.; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate 7 days (14 days——Ph. D.; or by percolation——Ph. E.), press, and filter. Tonic and antispasmodic.——Dose, 1 to 3 fl. dr.; in hysteria, epilepsy, &c.

=Tincture of Valerian (Compound).= Syn. AMMONIATED TINCTURE OF VALERIAN, VOLATILE T. OF V.; TINCTURA VALERIANÆ COMPOSITA (Ph. L.), T. V. AMMONIATA (B. P., Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Valerian, bruised, 1; aromatic spirit of ammonia, 8; macerate the valerian 7 days, press, filter, and add spirit to make up 8.——Dose, 1/2 to 1 dr.

2. (Ph. L.) Valerian root, bruised, 5 oz.; aromatic spirit of ammonia (simple——Ph. E.), 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (or by percolation——Ph. E.), then press, and filter. Stimulant, tonic, and antispasmodic.——Dose and use, same as those of the simple tincture, than which it is thought to be more powerful. The tincture of the shops is generally made with only 1 lb. of the root to the gallon.

=Tincture of Vanilla.= Syn. TINCTURA VANILLÆ. (Ph. G.) Prep. Vanilla pods, 1 part; rectified spirit, 5 parts. Macerate 8 days.

=Tincture of Veratria.= Syn. TINCTURA VERATRIÆ. (Magendie.) Prep. Veratria, 4 gr.; rectified spirit, 1 dr.

=Tincture of Vera′trum.= Syn. TINCTURE OF WHITE HELLEBORE; TINCTURA VERATRI VIRIDIS; TINCTURA HELLEBORI ALBI, T. VERATRI (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Green hellebore root, in coarse powder, 4; rectified spirit, 20; macerate the powder with 15 of the spirit 48 hours, agitating occasionally, pack it in a percolator, let it drain, pour on the remainder of the spirit, when it ceases to drop, press, filter, wash the marc with spirit to make up 20.——Dose, 5 to 20 minims.

2. (Ph. E.) White hellebore, 4 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint; digest or percolate.——Dose, 10 drops, 2 or 3 times a day, gradually increased; in gout, rheumatism, &c., as a substitute for colchicum; also, externally.

=Tincture of Virginian Snake Root.= Tincture of serpentary.

=Tincture of Vittie-vayr.= Syn. TINCTURA VETIVERIÆ, L. Prep. From vittie-vayr (roots of Andropogon muricatis), 2-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint; macerate a week. Stimulant, tonic, and sudorific.——Dose, 15 to 30 drops.

=Tincture, Vulnerary.= Syn. TINCTURA VULNERARIA. (P. Cod.) Prep. Fresh leaves of wormwood, angelica, basil, calamint, fennel, hyssop, marjoram, balm peppermint, origanum, rosemary, rue, savory, sage, wild thyme, St John’s wort tops, lavender tops, of each 1 oz. (all cut up); rectified spirit, 20 oz. (by weight). Digest 10 days.

=Tincture of Walnuts.= Syn. TINCTURA INGLANDIS. (Ph. Dan.) Prep. Green shells of walnut, 6 oz.; proof spirit, 24 oz. Digest for 6 days.

=Tincture of Walnut Leaves.= Syn. TINCTURA INGLANDIS FOLIORUM. (Mr Ince.) Prep. Dried walnut leaves, 16 oz.; macerated for 7 days in a gallon of proof spirit.——Dose, 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls. To prevent sickness, or to cover the taste of cod-liver oil.

=Tincture, Warburg’s Fever.= Syn. TINCTURA FEBRIFUGA WARBURGII. The composition was for a long time kept secret; but in 1875 Dr. W. published the following formula for it, through Prof. Maclean:——Aloes (Soc.), lb. j; Rad. Rhei, Sem. Angelic., Conf. Damocrat. āā ℥iv; Rad. Helenii, Croci Sat., Sem. Fœnic., Cretæ ppt. āā ℥ij; Rad. Gent., Rad. Zedoar., Pip. Cubeb., Myrrhæ, Camphoræ, Boleti laric., āā ℥j. Digest with 500 oz. of proof spirit in a water-bath for 12 hours; express, and add quinin. disulph. ℥x. Then replace in water-bath until the quinine is dissolved. Filter when cool. Dose, 1/2 oz. (undiluted) after an aperient.

=Tincture of Wild Cherry Bark.= Syn. TINCTURA PRUNI VIRGINIANÆ. Prep. Wild cherry bark, bruised, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 pint. Digest 14 days, press, and filter. May also be made by percolation.

=Tincture of Winter Cherry.= Syn. TINCTURA PHYSALIS ALKIKENGÆ. Prep. Take of the whole plant, dried, 4 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint. Digest for 10 days, strain, and filter. Diuretic and febrifuge.——Dose, 1/2 dr. to 1 dr.

=Tincture of Wormwood.= Syn. TINCTURA ABSINTHII. (Ph. G.) Prep. Dried wormwood, 6 oz.; proof spirit, 30 oz. (by weight.); macerate for 8 days, and strain.——Dose, 1 dr.

=Tincture of Wormwood (Compound).= Syn. TINCTURA ABSINTHII COMPOSITA. (P. Cod.) Prep. Dried wormwood tops, 1 oz.; gentian, bitter orange peel, of each 1 oz.; germander, 1 oz.; rhubarb, 3/4 oz.; aloes, 2 dr.; cascarilla, 2 dr.; proof spirit, 2 pints.

Loss of Spirit in making Tinctures by the British Pharmacopœia.[236]——MR UMNEY gives the following table, as embodying the result of his experience:——

[Footnote 236: ‘Pharm. Journ,’, 3rd series, 1, 321-379.]

------------------------------+------------+------------+--------+-------- |Alcohol ·838|Alcohol ·920| Loss |Gain Quantity|to make |to make |p. c. by|p. c. by made. |up measure. |up measure. |volume. |volume. ------------------------------+------------+------------+--------+-------- Galls. | Pints. | Pints. | | Tinct. aconit 4 | 2·5 | ... | 7·9 | Tinct. arnicæ 10 | 3·0 | ... | 3·8 | Tinct. aurantii 10 | ... | 5·0 | 6·3 | Tinct. belladonnæ 2 | ... | ·7 | 4·1 | Tinct. benz. comp. 5 | ... | ... | ... | 10·0 Tinct. buchu 2 | ... | 1·0 | 6·3 | Tinct. calumbæ 5 | ... | 3·0 | 7·1 | Tinct. camphor, comp. 10 | ... | ·5 | ·7 | Tinct. cantharid 4 | ... | ·6 | 1·9 | Tinct. capsici 5 | 1·0 | ... | 2·5 | Tinct. cardam. co. 20 | ... | ... | ... | 2·5 Tinct. cascarillæ 5 | ... | 2·0 | 5·0 | Tinct. castor 2 | ·5 | ... | 3·2 | Tinct. catechu 5 | ... | No loss. | ... | Tinct. chirettæ 2 | ... | 2·0 | 12·5 | Tinct. cinchonæ 10 | ... | 12·0 | 15·0 | Tinct. cinchonæ co. 10 | ... | 9·0 | 11·3 | Tinct. cinnam. 5 | ... | 4·0 | 10·0 | Tinct. cocci 1 | ... | ·25 | 3·1 | Tinct. colchici sem. 2 | ... | 1·5 | 9·4 | Tinct. conii 2 | ... | ·75 | 4·6 | Tinct. croci 1 | ... | ·60 | 7·5 | Tinct. cubebæ 2 | ·5 | ... | 3·2 | Tinct. digitatis 5 | ... | 3·0 | 7·5 | Tinct. ergotæ 2 | ... | 2·0 | 12·5 | Tinct. ferri acet. 1 | 1·2 | ... | 15·0 | Tinct. gallæ 1 | ... | ·4 | 5·0 | Tinct. gent. co. 10 | ... | 7·0 | 8·7 | Tinct. hyoscyami 10 | ... | 6·0 | 7·5 | Tinct. jalapæ 5 | ... | 2·0 | 5·0 | Tinct. kino 1 | No loss. | ... | ... | Tinct. krameriæ 5 | ... | 2·0 | 5·0 | Tinct. lavand. comp. 20 | 2·0 | ... | 1·3 | Tinct. limonis 2 | ... | 1·5 | 9·4 | Tinct. lobeliæ 3 | ... | 2·5 | 10·5 | Tinct. lobeliæ æther. 3 | 3·5[237]| ... | 14·5 | Tinct. lupuli 5 | ... | 4·0 | 10·0 | Tinct. myrrhæ 5 | 2·5 | ... | 6·2 | Tinct. nuc. vom. 4 | ·0 | ... | 6·2 | Tinct. opii 10 | ... | ·75 | 1·0 | Tinct. opii ammon. 2·5 | ·5 | ... | 2·5 | Tinct. pyrethri 1 | 1·0 | ... | 12·5 | Tinct. quassiæ 1 | ... | ·7 | 8·7 | Tinct. rhei 10 | ... | 4·0 | 5·0 | Tinct. sabinæ 2 | ... | ·8 | 5·0 | Tinct. scillæ 5 | ... | 3·0 | 7·5 | Tinct. senegæ 1 | ... | ·75 | 9·3 | Tinct. sennæ 10 | ... | 2·0 | 2·5 | Tinct. serpentar 1 | ... | ·9 | 10·9 | Tinct. stramon. 1 | ... | ·5 | 6·3 | Tinct. sambul 3 | ... | 1·0 | 4·2 | Tinct. valer. ammon. 5 | 3·5[238]| ... | 4·4 | Tinct. valerian 5 | ... | 2·3 | 5·7 | Tinct. veratri virid. 2 | 2·5 | ... | 15·6 | Tinct. zingiber 5 | 2·5 | ... | 6·3 | Tinct. zingiber fort. 10 | 3·6 | ... | 37·5 | ------------------------------+------------+------------+--------+--------

[Footnote 237: Sp. æther. sulph.]

[Footnote 238: Sp. ammon. aromat.]

=Tincture of Yellow Jasmine.= Syn. TINCTURA GELSEMII SEMPERVIRENS. Prep. Yellow jasmine, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint.——Dose, 20 to 40 minims.

=Tincture of Zedoary.= Syn. TINCTURA ZEDOARIÆ. (Ph. Amst.) Prep. Zedoary root, 1 part; rectified spirit, 8 parts. Digest and filter.

=Tincture of Zedoary (Compound).= Syn. TINCTURA ZEDOARIÆ COMPOSITA; WEDEL’S ESSENTIA CARMINATIVA. Prep. Zedoary, 4 oz.; calamus, galangal, of each 2 oz.; chamomile, aniseed, caraway seed, of each 1 oz.; bay-berries and cloves, of each 6 dr.; orange-peel and mace, of each 4 dr.; peppermint water and rectified spirit, of each 24 dr. In 6 days strain, and add hydrochloric ether, 4 oz.

=TINCTURES (Concentrated).= Syn. TINCTURÆ CONCENTRATÆ HAENLI, L. Prep. (Ph. Baden.) Digest 8 parts of the vegetable powder in 16 of spirit of the sp. gr. ·857 (45 o. p.), for 4 days, at 72° Fahr., with occasional agitation, then press, and filter; to the marc or residuum add as much spirit as it has absorbed, and again press, and filter; the weight of the mixed liquors should be 16 parts. In this way are prepared concentrated tinctures of aconite leaves; arnica and chamomile flowers; belladonna, digitalis, hemlock, henbane, peppermint, and savine leaves; ipecacuanha and valerian roots, &c.

=TINCTURES (Cu′linary).= See ESSENCES, SPIRITS, &c.

=TINCTURES (Ethe′′real).= Syn. TINCTURÆ ÆTHEREÆ, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From the vegetable substance, 1 oz.; sulphuric ether, 4 oz. (or 6 fl. oz.); by maceration, for 4 days, in a well-closed vessel; or, preferably, by percolation in a cylindrical glass vessel furnished with a stopper, and terminating at the lower end in a funnel, obstructed with a little cotton. The powder being introduced over the cotton, pour on enough ether to moisten it, put in the stopper, fix the tube into the neck of a bottle, and leave it for 48 hours; then add, gradually, the remaining portion of the ether, and, lastly, enough water to displace the ether absorbed. In this manner are prepared the ethereal tinctures of aconite leaves, arnica flowers, belladonna, hemlock, foxglove, tobacco, pellitory, solanum, valerian, stramonium, &c., of the Paris Codex.

The ethereal tinctures of amber, ambergris, assafœtida, cantharides (acetic ether), castor, musk, tolu, &c., are prepared by maceration only.

=TINCTURES (Odorif′erous).= These are prepared from odoriferous substances by the usual processes of digestion or percolation. See SPIRITS.

=TINCTURES from Recent Vegetables.= See VEGETABLE JUICES.

=TIN′DER (German).= See AMADOU.

=TISANE.= [Fr.] Syn. PTISAN; PTISANA, L. This form of medicine is much used in France. Tisanes may be readily prepared by slightly medicating barley, rice, or tamarind water, lemonade, &c. See DECOCTION, INFUSION, JULEP, PTISAN, &c., and below.

=Tisane, Antimonial.= (Brera.) Lemonade, 2 pints; tartar emetic, 2 gr.; sugar, q. s.

=Tisane, Antiscorbutic.= An infusion of buckbean and the fresh roots of horseradish.

=Tisane, Antivenereal.= Various compound decoctions of sarsaparilla are known by this name.

=Tisane of Arnica.= (P. Cod.) As elder flower tisane.

=Tisane of Arnica Flowers.= (P. Cod.) Prep. Arnica flowers, 1/2 oz.; boiling water, 6 pints. Infuse half to an hour and filter through paper. Prepare in the same manner saffron tisane.

=Tisane of Asparagus.= (P. Cod.) Asparagus root, 3/4 oz.; boiling water, 2 pints. Infuse 2 hours, and strain. Tisanes are prepared in the same way from the roots of elecampane, comfrey, strawberries, rhatany, soap-wort, spruce-fir buds, Peruvian bark, dulcamara and burdock root.

=Tisane of Bread.= Syn. DECOCTUM ALBUM. (P. Cod.) Prep. Prepared hartshorn, 1 oz.; bread crumb, 2 oz.; gum Arabic, 1 oz.; water, sufficient quantity to yield 5 pints; boil for 1/2 hour, strain through a coarse sieve, and add white sugar, 6 oz.; orange-flower water, 1 oz.

=Tisane of Cassia.= (P. Cod.) Prep. Extract of cassia, 1 oz.; dissolve in 5 pints of water at 140° F.

=Tisane, Common.= A decoction of pearl-barley and couch-grass, flavoured with liquorice root.

=Tisane of Couch Grass.= (P. Cod.) Prep. Root of couch grass, sliced, 6 dr. Boil for 1/2 hour with water sufficient to yield 2 pints.

=Tisane of Elder Flowers.= (P. Cod.) Prep. Elder flowers, 1 dr.; boiling water, 1-1/4 pint. Macerate for 1/2 hour, and strain.

=Tisane of Gentian.= (P. Cod.) Prep. Gentian, sliced, 1/2 oz.; cold water, 5 pints. Infuse 4 hours, and strain. In the same manner prepare tisanes of quassia, simaruba, and rhubarb.

=Tisane of Groats.= From groats, as tisane of pearl barley.

=Tisane of Guaiacum Wood.= (P. Cod.) Prep. Guaiacum shavings, 1-3/4 oz. Boil for 1 hour with sufficient water to yield 2 pints, and strain.

=Tisane of Gum.= Syn. EAU DE GOMME. Prep. Bruised gum Arabic, 1 oz.; water, 2-1/2 pints. Dissolve without heat, and strain.

=Tisane of Iceland Moss.= (P. Cod.) Prep. Just boil 2-1/2 dr. of Iceland moss in a little water and throw away the first decoction, then wash the remaining moss with cold water; then add a fresh quantity of water, and boil for 1/2 hour, so as to obtain 2 pints.

=Tisane of Irish Moss.= (P. Cod.) Prep. Wash 90 gr. of carrageen in cold water; then, after boiling ten minutes, add water in sufficient quantity so as to yield 2 pints.

=Tisane of Liquorice.= (P. Cod.) Prep. Sliced liquorice, 1 oz.; boiling water, 5 pints. Infuse 2 hours, and strain. Prepare in the same manner (but infusing for 1/2 hour) tisanes from the dried leaves of borage, wormwood, holy thistle, chicory, fumitory, ground ivy, pellitory, wild pansy, soapwort, scabious, from the cones of the hop, aniseed, red-rose leaves, lesser centaury tops, and linseed.

=Tisane of Mezereon.= (P. Cod.) Prep. Mezereon bark, 2 dr.; water, 2-1/2 pints; boil to 1-3/4 pint, and strain.

=Tisane of Orange Leaves.= (P. Cod.) Prep. Leaves of the orange tree, 1/2 oz.; boiling water, 5 pints; infuse 1/2 hour, and strain. Prepare in the same manner tisanes from the leaves of wormwood, maiden-hair, hyssop, balm, mint, and sage; and from the flowers of white mullein, chamomile, red poppy, mallow, marshmallow, lime, coltsfoot, and violet.

=Tisane of Pearl Barley.= (P. Cod.) Prep. Wash 3/4 oz. of pearl barley in cold water; strain off water, and boil in a sufficient quantity of water, so as to yield 2 pints. Tisanes of groats and rice are made in the same manner.

=Tisane, Pectoral.= An infusion of the roots of liquorice and marshmallow, Canadian maidenhair, and the flowers of the red poppy and coltsfoot, in a decoction of rice.

=Tisane of Rice.= (P. Cod.) Prepared in the same manner as tisane of pearl barley.

=Tisane of Rice, with Lemon.= (Augustin.) Prep. Washed rice, 1 oz.; water, 4 lbs.; boil, strain, add barley sugar, 1/2 dr.; lemon juice, 1 oz.

=Tisane of Roses with Milk.= (P. Cod.) Prep. Conserve of roses, 1 oz.; new milk, 1 pint. Rub together, and strain.

=Tisane, Royal.= From senna, fresh chervil, and sulphate of soda, of each 4 dr.; aniseed and cinnamon, of each 1 dr.; 1 lemon, sliced; cold water, 1-3/4 pint; macerate for 24 hours, stirring occasionally, then press and filter. Aperient.——Dose. A wineglassful, or more, repeated every half-hour, until it operates.

=Tisane of Salep.= (P. Cod.) Prep. Boil 1 dr. of salep in 16 oz. of water, and strain.

=Tisane of Senega.= (P. Cod.) Prep. Senega, 1 oz.; boiling water, 5 pints. Infuse for 2 hours, and strain. Prepare in the same manner tisanes of the roots of marshmallow and valerian.

=Tisane of Sulphuric Acid.= (P. Cod.) LIMONADE SULFURÏQUE. Prep. Sulphuric acid (1·84), 72 minims; water, 4-1/2 pints; syrup, 10 oz. (by weight); mix s. a. Prepare in the same manner nitric and phosphoric acid lemonade; the first with acid of sp. gr. 1·42; the second with acid of sp. gr. 1·45.

=Tisane of Tamarinds.= (P. Cod.) Prep. Pulp of tamarind, 1 oz.; boiling water, 2 pints. Infuse 1/2 hour.

=Tisane, Tartaric.= (P. Cod.) Prep. Syrup of tartaric acid, 2 oz.; water, 18 oz. Prepare in the same manner with their respective syrups, lemonades of citric acid, gooseberries, cherries, and raspberries.

=TIS′SUE (Blis′tering).= See VESICANTS.

=TITA′NIUM.= A rare metal, discovered by Klaproth in 1794, and examined by Wollaston in 1822. It is occasionally found at the bottom of the smelting furnaces of iron works, in combination with nitrogen and cyanogen, under the form of minute crystals, having a coppery lustre.

=TOAD-IN-THE-HOLE.= One to six ounces of flour, break the contents of one egg, and stir in by degrees one pint of milk, taking care to keep the mixture free from lumpiness. Place meat or ox kidney cut in slices in a greased pie dish or tin; then pour the batter over the meat after adding a pinch of salt, and let it bake for an hour to an hour and a quarter. The batter should be allowed to stand before being cooked.

=TOAST (Essence of).= This is liquid burnt sugar or spirit colouring. Used to make extemporaneous toast-and-water (3 or 4 drops to the glass), and to flavour soups, gravies, &c.

=TOAST AND WATER.= Toast a crust of bread, taking care not to char it, and put it into a pint of cold water, in a covered vessel. After standing half an hour it will be ready for use.

=TOBAC′CO.= Syn. TABACUM (Ph. L., E., & D.), L.; TABAC, Fr. The prepared leaf of Nicotiana Tabacum (Linn.), or other species of the same genus. The name was given to this herb by the Spaniards, because it was first seen by them at Tabasco, or Tabaco, a province of Yucatan, in Mexico.

The tobacco of commerce is chiefly obtained from Virginia, and other parts of the United States, and recently from Japan and California, but the finest varieties are imported from Havannah and from the East. The plants are gathered when mature, during hot dry weather, and are hung up in pairs, in sheds, to dry. When sufficiently dry, the leaves are separated from the stems, bound up in bundles, and these are formed into bales, or packed in hogsheads, for exportation.

Prep. To impart to the dried leaves the characteristic odour and flavour of tobacco, and to render them agreeable to smokers and snuffers, it is necessary that they should undergo a certain preparation, or kind of fermentation. If a fresh green leaf of tobacco be crushed between the fingers, it emits merely the herbaceous smell common to most plants; but if it be triturated in a mortar along with a very small quantity of quicklime or caustic alkali, it will immediately exhale the peculiar odour of manufactured tobacco. This arises from the active and volatile ingredients being liberated from their previous combination, by the ammonia developed by fermentation, or the action of a stronger base. Tobacco contains a considerable quantity of chloride of ammonium, and this substance, as is well known, when placed in contact with lime or potassa, immediately evolves free ammonia. If we reverse the case, and saturate the excess of alkali in prepared tobacco by the addition of any mild acid, its characteristic odour entirely disappears. In the preparation of tobacco previously to its manufacture for sale, these changes are effected by a species of fermentation. Pure water, without any addition, is quite sufficient to promote and maintain the perfect fermentation of tobacco. The leaves soon become hot and evolve ammonia; during this time the heaps require to be occasionally opened up and turned over, lest they become too hot, take fire, or run into the putrefactive fermentation. The extent to which the process is allowed to proceed varies, for different kinds of snuff or tobacco, from one to three months.

Qual., &c. Tobacco is a powerful narcotic, sedative, and emetic; and is also cathartic and diuretic; but the last in a weaker degree than either squills or foxglove. Its action is violently depressing and relaxing, producing fainting and even death, in comparatively small quantities. Toxicologists rank it among the more active narcotico-acrid poisons; and physicians, when they wish to produce sudden physical prostration, in accidents or spasmodic diseases, order an enema of the infusion or smoke of tobacco. Its deleterious properties depend on the presence of narcotine, one of the most frightful vegetable poisons known, of which ordinary Virginia tobacco contains from 6 to 7%.

“The chief sources of tobacco in Europe are Germany, Holland, Salonica, Hungary, and Russia; in Asia, the principal are China, Japan, the East Indies, Latakia, and other parts of Asiatic Turkey, Persia, Java, Syria, and Manilla; in Africa, Algiers; in South America, Varinas, Brazil, Uruguay, New Grenada, Paraguay, Cumana, and other fields are most productive; while the great tobacco districts of North America are the United States, Mexico, Cuba, Hayti, and Porto Rico. The extent to which these and others are severally laid under contribution by the manufacturers of this country is shown by the following partial analysis of the imports of 1873 and 1874:”[239]

[Footnote 239: ‘British Manufacturing Industries,’ Sandford.]

+------------------------------------------+------------+------------+ | From | 1873. | 1874. | +------------------------------------------+------------+------------+ | | lb. | lb. | | Germany | 687,720 | 856,646 | | Holland | 5,429,511 | 7,356,798 | | France | 1,436,985 | 1,712,839 | | Greece | 330,712 | 84,161 | | Turkey | 1,430,572 | 696,132 | | British India | 3,068,109 | 2,359,987 | | Philippine Islands | 171,803 | 780,098 | | China | 2,136,637 | 1,398,467 | | Japan | 4,846,892 | 2,948,036 | | Spanish West India Islands | 295,654 | 242,304 | | New Grenada (United States of Columbia) | 2,199,885 | 1,617,573 | | Argentine Republic | 340,787 | 663,940 | | United States of America | 57,593,826 | 53,567,555 | | Other countries | 1,404,640 | 1,890,679 | | +------------+------------+ | | 81,382,733 | 76,175,215 | +------------------------------------------+------------+------------+

Most of the so-called Havannah cigars which arrive in England are shipped from German ports. It appears that a higher price is obtainable for dark than for light-coloured cigars, the demand for the former being about three times as large as for the latter. Unfortunately, however, owing in a great measure to the partial failure of the tobacco crops of late years, light-coloured tobacco is much more common than dark. In order, therefore, to render the cigars made of light-coloured tobacco saleable at a higher price, and also to improve the appearance of old and faded cigars, if we are to believe a pamphlet recently published at Bremen, where there are several of these manufactories, various infusions have of late been prepared and largely sold, under the name of “Havanna brown,” “sap brown,” and “condensed sauce.” All these preparations are now openly advertised, and directions given for using them. None of these infusions contain anything particularly injurious, most of them consisting of brown vegetable dyes; nevertheless, they enable the manufacturer to give to cigars made of old and faded leaves the appearance of good Havannah cigars. A German paper states that if a piece of white blotting paper, saturated with diluted sal ammoniac, is passed a few times lightly over the cigar, the colouring matter, if any has been used, will come off on it, whereas the natural brown of the tobacco leaf will remain.

=Tobacco Adulteration.=——The popular belief that bad cigars are made of cabbage leaves is not justified by the last official report on tobacco adulteration. This document contains a tabulated account of the seizures of spurious tobacco made in the United Kingdom since 1864; and in the whole paper there is no mention whatever of the much-suspected vegetable. Its place in the black list is supplied by a variety of ingredients large enough to rejoice the heart of any member of the Anti-Tobacco League. The dishonest dealer in things smokeable is shown by the report to make use of three different sorts of materials besides that which he professes to employ. The first sort is required for the actual substance of the cigar; the second for improving its outward appearance; and the third for imparting to it what is supposed to be a better taste. In the former category the favourite substances seem to be the leaves of the lime tree, the husks of wheat and oats, cotton, yarn, and tonquin bean. But there are numerous cases where the ingredients have been much more curiously selected, and have included cocoa-nut fibre, small seeds, cotton, wood, and bread. At one establishment 50 lbs. of ‘tobacco dust’ were found and analysed, when it was shown to contain string, wood, nails, grindings of tobacco-pipe, dirt, and all sorts of refuse. Another large class of materials is apparently used for securing the adhesion and consistency of the cigar when made. Amongst these starch is the most prominent; but it includes gum and amidine, blue, gum Arabic, glue, glycerin, and essential oils. The colour of the fabrication is the next thing to be attended to, and for this purpose resort is had to yellow ochre, red sandalwood, logwood, lampblack, and Venetian red. As for the flavour of the cigar, it is varied to suit the most diverse tastes; but the usual object seems to be to impart to it a pleasing sweetness of tone. Accordingly saccharine matter, and especially treacle, is very largely pressed into the service. For those who like a rather more decided taste, liquorice, salt, logwood, glycerin, and aniseed are used. It is in Dublin where the latter ingredient is most fashionable, while Edinburgh is fondest of treacle and sugar, and East London is addicted to liquorice. (‘Pall Mall Gazette.’)

=Tobacco, British.= Syn. HERB TOBACCO; TABACUM ANGLICUM, SPECIES STERNUTORIÆ, L. Prep. Take of thyme, marjoram, and hyssop, of each 2 oz.; betony and eyebright, 3 oz.; rosemary and lavender, of each 4 oz.; coltsfoot, 1 lb.; mix, press them together, and cut the mass in imitation of manufactured foreign tobacco. Some asthmatic subjects add 5 or 6 oz. of stramonium or thorn-apple leaves; and others add 1/2 lb. of genuine tobacco.

=Tobacco, Indian.= See LOBELIA.

=TOD′DY.= Obtained from various species of palms, by cutting off the end of the flowering bud, and collecting the sap. Used, fresh, as a cooling beverage; and, after fermentation, as an intoxicating one. Sweetened grog is so called in Cornwall, and in some other parts of England.

=TOF′FY.= Syn. EVERTON TOFFY. A sweetmeat prepared by heating brown sugar, in a saucepan or skillet, with about one half its weight of fresh butter, for 15 to 20 minutes, or until a ‘little of it dropped into cold water forms a lump that breaks crisply,’ it is then poured into a little buttered tin mould.

=TOM′BAC.= An alloy consisting of copper, 16 lbs.; tin, 1 lb.; zinc, 1 lb. Red tombac is composed of copper, 10 lbs.; zinc, 1 lb.

=TON′ICS.= Medicines that increase the tone of the muscular fibre, and impart vigour to the system.

=TON′QUIN REMEDY.= Syn. PULVIS TRUNCHINENSIS, P. ALEXIPHARMICUS SINENSIS, L. Prep. From valerian, 20 gr.; musk, 16 gr.; camphor, 6 gr.; mix. Antispasmodic and alexiterial, in doses of 6 to 12 gr., in hooping-cough, &c.; 1 dr., in hydrophobia, exanthemata, and mania.

=TOOTH′ACHE.= Syn. ODONTALGIA, L. This annoying affection frequently arises from sympathy with a disordered stomach. In such cases a saline purgative should be administered, and an emetic, if required. When cold is the cause, an excellent remedy is a hot embrocation of poppy-heads, followed by the use of flannel and diaphoretics. When it arises from a hollow or decayed tooth, the best application is a piece of lint moistened with creasote, or a strong spirituous solution of creasote, and closely rammed into the cavity of the tooth. Laudanum, the essential oils of cloves, caraway, and cajeput, and essence or tincture of pellitory of Spain, are also used in the same way. To prevent the recurrence of the latter kind of toothache, the cavity should be filled with an amalgam of gold, or with mineral marmoratum, or some other good cement. In many cases, chewing a piece of good ginger, or, still better, a small piece of pellitory, will afford relief in a few minutes. The celebrated John Wesley recommended a ‘few whiffs’ at a pipe containing a little caraway seed mixed with the tobacco. A slight ‘shock’ from a voltaic battery will often instantly remove the toothache after all other means have failed. See DROPS, ESSENCE, TINCTURE, &c.

=TOOTH CEMENTS.= See DENTISTRY.

Obs. It is absolutely necessary for success that the teeth be well cleaned out, and wiped dry, before applying any of the above stoppings or cements.

=TO′PAZ.= See GEMS.

=TOR′MENTIL.= Syn. TORMENTILLÆ RADIX; TORMANTILLA (Ph. L. & E.), L. The root or rhizome of Potentilla Tormentilla, It is astringent and febrifuge, without being stimulant.——Dose, 20 to 60 gr.; in agues, diarrhœa, &c.; also, formerly, in syphilis.

=TORTOISE-SHELL, to Polish.= Dip a soft linen rag into rouge powder, and rub the tortoise-shell with it, and finish off with the hand. Tortoise-shell combs will not lose their polish if they are rubbed with the hand, after removal from the hair.

=TOUCH-NEEDLES.= See ASSAYING.

=TOUCH-WOOD.= See AMADOU.

=TOUS-LES-MOIS.= The fecula of the roots of Canna edulis (Ph. D.); intended as a substitute for arrow-root. To the naked eye, it closely resembles the finest quality of potato-starch, but under the microscope its granules are found to be oblong, oval, with a concentric structure, and larger than those of the potato tuber.

=TOXICOL′OGY.= See POISON.

=TRAG′ACANTH.= See GUM.

=TRANSPA′′RENCIES.= Water-colour pictures on paper, linen, or calico, if executed in non-opaque or glazing colours, may be converted into transparencies by simply brushing over their backs with Canada balsam, thinned down, when necessary, with a little oil of turpentine. For coarse work, boiled oil may be employed.

=TRAPS, HOUSE.= With few exceptions, the endless varieties of traps advertised for house-drains are all modifications of the older forms of the syphon, the midfeather and the ball-trap. The syphon trap consists of a bent tube with a deep curve, in which the water lies and acts as an hydraulic valve.

The following conditions are essential for its proper action. The curve must be of such a depth as to ensure a height of not less than 3/4 inch of water always standing above the highest level of the water in the curve. The outlet pipe attached to the trap should not be too small nor have too sudden a fall as it leaves the trap, otherwise when ‘running full’ of water, all the water will be sucked out of it by the pipe beyond, owing to the too narrow bore and too perpendicular inclination of this latter.

The midfeather trap consists of a round or square box or receptacle, into the upper part of which, on one side, an inlet pipe discharges, whilst at a corresponding height on the opposite side there is an outlet pipe. The upper part of the box is divided by a partition, which dips at least 3/4 inch below the surface of the water, always standing in the receptacle, at the level of the outlet pipe. The principle, therefore, of the midfeather is similar to the syphon trap. The receptacle is so arranged that any heavy substances collected at the bottom can from time to time be removed. A useful variety of the midfeather is ‘Dean’s patent drain-trap,’ manufactured by Edwards, of Ruabon.

The ball-trap is not in very general use. By this arrangement the drain is trapped by means of a hollow ball, which rises with the water in the drain until it is carried against and closes an orifice.

The common ball-trap is stated to be inefficient and unsatisfactory. The facility with which it can be removed or placed out of gear often leads, in the hands of careless servants, to the untrapping of the drain altogether. A good description of common sink trap is Antel and Lock’s, shown in the accompanying engraving, which explains itself.

Amongst the circumstances that impair the efficiency of house-traps may be included the neglect to allow the passage of water through them sufficiently often, and with force enough to flush and cleanse the trap, and renew the water in it. The results are, that the water becomes saturated with sewage exhalations, which escape into and contaminate the air in the house; and that the trap becomes either dry or choked up.

Another contingency to which house-traps are exposed when the drains are made to form a continuous and disconnected system with the sewers, is that of the water being sucked out of the trap, owing to the combined effect of the pressure of sewer air and the aspirating power of the house, into which the sewer-gas would then pass unchecked.

In our articles DRAINAGE and SINKS, we have pointed out the peril attaching to the intimate connection between the house-drains and sewers, and given in the former practical directions for its avoidance.

To rest in the belief that the danger can be removed (although the risk may be slightly diminished) by the use of traps alone, is to entertain a very false sense of security.

=TRAUMAT′IC BALSAM.= Compound tincture of benzoin is known by this name. See TINCTURE.

=TRAUMAT′ICINE.= This article, as manufactured by the Gutta Percha Company, is simply a solution of white and dry unmanufactured gutta percha in bisulphuret of carbon. A small portion dropped on a wound, or raw surface, almost instantly forms a pliable, waterproof, and air-tight defensive covering to the part. The only objection to the preparation is the fetid odour of the menstruum, which, however, is lost in a few seconds, or may be obviated by employing chloroform as the solvent.

=TREA′CLE.= Syn. MOLASSES; THERIACA (B. P.), THERIACA, SACCHARI FÆX (Ph. L. & E.), L. The viscid, brown, uncrystallisable syrup which drains from moist sugar during its formation (molasses), and from the sugar-refining moulds (sugar-house molasses). The last, according to Dr Ure, has generally the sp. gr. 1·4, and contains about 75% of solid matter.

Treacle is more laxative than sugar, and always contains more or less free acid. It is used as the vehiculum in some of the pill-masses of the Ph. L. See SUGAR.

=Treacle, German.= Syn. THERIACA GERMANIÆ, L. An evaporated infusion or decoction of juniper berries. It is sweet-tasted, aromatic, and diuretic.

=Treacle, Venice.= Syn. LONDON TREACLE; THERIACA, T. ANDROCHI, L. The theriaca of the Ph. L. 1746 consists of 61 ingredients, and contains 1 gr. of opium in 75 gr.; that of the Paris Codex consists of 72 ingredients, and contains 1 gr. of opium in 72 gr.; that of the Ph. E. 1744 consists of 10 ingredients, and contains 1 gr. of opium in every 100 gr. It is prepared as follows:——Take of serpentary root, 6 oz.; valerian and contrayerva roots, of each 4 oz.; aromatic powder, 3 oz.; guaiacum resin, castor, and nutmeg, of each 2 oz.; saffron and opium (dissolved in a little wine), of each 1 oz.; clarified honey, 75 oz.; reduce all the dry ingredients to fine powder, then mix them. The confections or electuaries of catechu and opium are the representatives of the above polypharmic compounds in the modern British Pharmacopœias.

=TRI-=, TRIS-. See NOMENCLATURE.

=TRIBASIC PHOSPHATE OF LIME.= Syn. TRICALCIC PHOSPHATE. (Ca_{3}(PO_{4})_{2}.) Tricalcic phosphate occurs nearly pure in the mineral known as OSLEOLITE. See CALCIUM PHOSPHATE for its artificial preparation.

=TRIMETHYLAMINE.= Syn. TRIMETHYLIA.

{ CH_{3} } C_{3}H_{9}N, or { CH_{3} } n. { CH_{3} }

An ammonia found in large quantities in the roe of the herring. It also occurs in putrefying flour and urine, and is the ingredient which gives to the Chenopodium vulvaria its peculiar and disagreeable odour. It may also be obtained by distilling ergot of rye with caustic potash. Trimethylia is a volatile fluid, with a very pungent and unpleasant fishy smell. It boils at about 41° F. It is metameric with propylamine.

=TRIPE.= This is the paunch, or first portion of the ruminant stomach of the ox. It is nutritious and easy of digestion, except when very fat. Letheby gives the following as its composition:

Nitrogenous matter 13·2 Fat 16·4 Saline matter 2·4 Water 68·0 —————— 100·0

=Tripe, Fried in Batter.= “Tripe is cut into pieces about three inches square, and dipped into a batter made of six ounces of flour, one tablespoonful of oil, or one ounce of butter, and half a pint of tepid water. Mix the oil with the flour, add the water by degrees, whip the whites of two eggs to a stiff froth, stir into the batter, dip the tripe in, throw it into a saucepan of boiling fat, let it fry three or four minutes, take it out, and drain.”[240]

[Footnote 240: Tegetmeier’s ‘Scholar’s Handbook of Cookery, &c.,’ Macmillan & Co.]

=TRIP′OLI.= Syn. ROTTEN STONE; ALANA, TERRA CARIOSA, L. A mineral employed as a polishing powder, originally imported from Tripoli, in Barbary. It consists almost entirely of silica, and is composed of the skeletons of minute infusoria, the precise character of which is readily distinguishable under the microscope.

=TRIS′MUS.= See TETANUS.

=TRITURA′TION.= Syn. TRITURA, TRITURATIO, L. The act of rubbing a solid body to powder. See PULVERISATION.

=TRO′CHES.= See LOZENGES.

=TRO′NA.= A native carbonate of soda, found on the banks of the soda-lakes of Sokena, in Africa.

=TROPH′AZOME.= A concentrated infusion of minced lean meat mixed with the fluid obtained from the residuum after being heated for 20 minutes in a water bath, and flavoured with salt and spices, the whole being, lastly, simmered for a few minutes. Excellent for convalescents.

=TROUT.= The Salmo furio of Linnæus, a highly-esteemed fish, found in most of the rivers and lakes of this country. Other members of the genus salmo are also so called, as, S. eriox, the bull or grey trout; S. ferox, the great grey or lake trout; S. trutta, the salmon trout, &c. All of these varieties are in the finest condition from the end of May to late in September.

The trout contains about 6 per cent. of fat. It is desirable to cook this fish as soon as convenient after taking it.

=TRUSSING.= This is a well-known operation performed on poultry or game previous to their being roasted or boiled. It simply consists in drawing or removing the intestines and other objectionable parts. In doing this, care must be taken to avoid rupturing the gall-vessel, which, if broken, would impart a very bitter flavour to the poultry, &c., extremely difficult of removal.

The cook should never take for granted that poultry or game, when it comes from the dealer, has been thoroughly cleansed inside, out, in order to be safe in this matter, should always make a point of cleansing it herself.

=TULUOLE.= Syn. TULUOL; BENZOENE (C_{7}H_{8}.) One of the hydrocarbons homologous with benzol, with which it occurs associated with xylol and isocumole, in the light oil obtained from the distillation of coal tar. It is also one of the products of distillation of balsam of Tolu, and would seem to be identical with the retinaptha obtained by Pelletier and Walter from the distillation of rosin. If oxidised by means of chromic acid it yields benzoic acid. Its boiling point is 230° F., and its sp. gr. 0·87.

=TUMOURS.= Tumours, of which there are a great variety, are abnormal growths, occurring in different parts of the body. Sir Jas. Paget describes them as belonging to the class of overgrowths or hypertrophies, their most constant distinctive characters being——1. Their deviations, both in respect to size and shape, from the normal type of the body in which they are found. 2. Their apparently inherent power and method of growth. 3. Their development and growth being independent of those of the rest of the body, and continuing with no evident purpose, when the rest of the body is only being maintained in its normal type.

Tumours are divided by pathologists into malignant and innocent or benign.

In the former division is included cancer. The most common varieties belonging to the second division are cutaneous cysts, fatty tumours, and fibro-cellular tumours. Cutaneous cysts, which may occur under any part of the skin, are most frequently met with in the scalp. They mostly arise from “the morbid growth of natural ducts or follicles, or by the enormous growth of elementary structures, which increase from the form of cells or nuclei, and become closed sacs with organised walls capable of producing other growths.”[241]

[Footnote 241: ‘Chambers’ Cyclopædia.’]

The most commonly occurring tumour is the fatty one. It usually develops itself on the bodies of persons of from forty to fifty years of age. It seldom occasions inconvenience, and appears to be in no way prejudicial to health; occasionally, however, these tumours are very unsightly and unpleasant to look upon. The fat of which they are composed appears to differ in no respect from ordinary human fat. The uterus is the principal seat of the fibro-cellular tumour. It occurs also in the scrotum, the bones and the subcutaneous tissue. These tumours sometimes attain great size, and grow very rapidly. They are sometimes met with exceeding 40 lbs. in weight. Certain polypi belong to this class of tumour.

A pseudo tumour is occasionally met within surgical practice, which may often be mistaken for a real one, by the unwary or inexperienced practitioner. This, which is known as a phantom tumour, appears to be caused by muscular contraction. Sir Jas. Paget, writing on this subject, says: “The abdominal muscles of hysterical women are most often affected, sometimes with intentional fraud. The imitation of a tumour may be so close as to require great tact for its detection; but chloroform, by relaxing the muscles, dissipates the swelling. Occasionally the apparent tumours move.

=TUNG′STEN.= W. Syn. TUNGSTENUM. WOLFRAMIUM, L. A heavy, grey, brittle metal, discovered by Delhuyart.

The word tungsten, in Swedish, signifies ‘heavy stone’ (tung-sten), the name being applied to the element because the source from which it is obtained is a heavy mineral called Wolfram. Wolfram may be regarded as a variable double tungstate of iron and manganese, and the tungsten occurs in this. A native tungstate of copper has been discovered in Chili. Tungsten is also found in the mineral scheelite, a tungstate of lime. From this latter compound it may be procured by digesting finely-powdered scheelite in hydrochloric acid. Chloride of calcium is formed, together with insoluble tungstic acid. Upon heating the acid to bright redness in a stream of hydrogen gas, the metal is left behind. When thus procured it is of a dark-grey colour, but under the burnisher it may be made to assume a metallic lustre. Metallic tungsten may also be obtained by the reduction of tungstic acid, by means of charcoal at a white heat. When procured by this method it is unaffected by hydrochloric or diluted sulphuric acid, although it becomes reconverted into tungstic by the action of nitric acid.

When tungsten occurs in the pulverulent form, it burns easily into tungstic anhydride, when heated in the air; and is oxidised and dissolved when boiled with the caustic alkalies or their carbonates in solution. An alloy, possessed of extreme hardness, may be procured when tungsten is combined with steel, in the proportion of 1 part of tungsten to 10 parts of steel.

There are two known oxides of tungsten, viz. a dioxide (WO_{2}) and a trioxide (WO_{3}). According to Wöhler there is a third oxide, having the composition (WO_{2}WO_{3}).

=Dioxide, or Binoxide of Tungsten.= (WO_{2}.) This is an indifferent oxide, and is obtained by treating tungstic acid with hydrogen at a low red heat. It occurs as a brown powder, which absorbs oxygen greedily from the air, and is dissolved by boiling with solution of caustic potash, hydrogen being evolved and potassium tungstate being formed.

=Trioxide of Tungsten.= (WO_{3}.) Syn. TUNGSTIC ANHYDRIDE. This may be obtained by decomposing wolfram with aqua regia, and evaporating to dryness. The resulting tungstic acid is dissolved in ammonia, and the ammonic tungstate purified by crystallisation. When this ammonic tungstate is heated in the air, it loses ammonia and water, pure tungstic trioxide being left behind.

=Tungstic Acid.= (H_{2}WO_{4}.) This compound may be procured by adding an excess of hydrochloric acid to a boiling solution of the trioxide in any of the alkalies. It occurs as a yellow powder.

=Tungstic Chloride.= (WCl_{6}.) This may be obtained by heating tungsten in chlorine, when it sublimes in bronze-coloured needles, which are decomposed by water. When gently heated in hydrogen, this chloride becomes converted into tetrachloride (WCl_{4}).

=Bisulphide of Tungsten.= (WS_{2}.) By heating a mixture of bitungstate of potash with sulphur, and washing the product with hot water, a black crystalline substance, having the above composition, may be obtained, resembling plumbago in appearance.

Of the salts of tungsten, tungstate of baryta has been used as a substitute for white lead in painting; but the most important of these is the tungstate of soda, described below. See also TUNGSTIC GLUE.

=TUNGSTATE OF SODIUM.= Na_{2}WO_{4}. This salt is used for rendering linen, cotton, and other fabrics uninflammable; also as a substitute for stannate of sodium as a mordant in dyeing. It may be prepared by adding 9 parts of finely-powdered tungsten to 8 parts of fused carbonate of sodium, and continuing the heat for some time; on boiling the cooled and pulverised mass with water, evaporating the filtrate to dryness, and treating the residue with luke-warm water, the salt dissolves out. Muslin steeped in a 20% solution of this salt is perfectly uninflammable when dry, and the saline film left upon its surface is so smooth that the muslin may be ironed without difficulty.

=TUNGSTIC GLUE.= Tungstic glue has been suggested as a substitute for hard india rubber, as it can be used for all the purposes to which this latter is applied. It is thus prepared:——Mix together a thick solution of glue with tungstate of soda and hydrochloric acid. A compound of tungstic acid and glue is precipitated, which, at a temperature of 86° to 104° F., is sufficiently elastic to be drawn out into very thin sheets.

=TUNNY FISH, a la Parisienne.= As a rule tunny fish is very indigestible, and may be described as “neither fish, flesh, fowl, nor good red herring;” nevertheless, some of our readers may come across this fish, and will be glad to hear of a way in which to make it palatable and digestible. Take three or four pounds of fresh tunny fish, lard it with bacon as you would veal; cook it gently in its own gravy for three hours, with salt, pepper, sweet herbs, little onions, and a small quantity of water. When well cooked, tunny fish makes a nice dish cold for breakfast.

=TUR′BOT.= The Rhombus maximus (Cuvier), said to be the best, and excepting the halibut, the largest of our flat fishes. Dutch turbots are the most esteemed.

Composition of the turbot:

Nitrogenous matter 18·1 per cent. Fat 2·9 ” Saline matter 1·0 ” Water 78·0 ” —————— 100·0

=TUR′KEY.= See POULTRY.

=TUR′MERIC.= Syn. CURCUMA (Ph. L. & D.), L. The rhizome of Curcuma longa. The best is imported from Ceylon. It is stimulant and carminative, but is chiefly used in dyeing yellow, and as an ingredient in curry powder; also as a test for alkalies. It gives a fugitive golden yellow with wold, and an orange tinge to scarlet. It dies wool and silk, mordanted with common salt, or sal ammoniac, a fugitive yellow.——Dose, 10 to 30 gr. See CURCUMINE.

Composition of an average sample of Curcuma longa:

Water 14·249 Curcumin 11·000 Turmeric 12·075 Volatile oil 1·000 Gum 8·113 Starch 3·627 Extractive 3·388 Woody fibre 46·548 Ash, included in above weights [5·463] ———————— 100·000

Under the microscope turmeric presents a very characteristic structure, viz. “a cellular tissue containing large, loose, yellow cells, with here and there small, but very distinct, starch granules, similar in shape and size to those of Curcuma arrowroot, and some woody fibre and dotted ducts. The yellow granular cells can readily be identified whenever they occur.[242]

[Footnote 242: Dr Winter Blyth.]

=TURNBULL’S BLUE.= Syn. FERRICYANIDE OF IRON; FERRI FERRICYANIDUM, L. Prep. Precipitate a solution of protosulphate of iron with another of red prussiate of potash (ferricyanide of potassium.)

Obs. This is a variety of Prussian blue, remarkable for its beautiful colour, and may be distinguished from the ordinary Prussian blue of commerce by its action on the yellow prussiate of potash. When boiled in a solution of the latter it is decomposed, a portion is dissolved, and a grey residue remains.

=TURNER’S YELLOW.= See YELLOW PIGMENTS.

=TURNIP.= The Brassica napus. This vegetable possesses but little nutritive value, as will be inferred from the annexed description of its composition given by Letheby:

Nitrogenous matter 1·2 Starch 5·1 Sugar 2·1 Salt 0·6 Water 91·0 —————— 100·0

Turnips should always be thoroughly cooked, otherwise they are very liable to produce indigestion.

=TURN′SOLE.= See LITMUS.

=TUR′PENTINE.= Syn. TURPENTIN; TEREBINTHINA. (Ph. L., E., D.), L. “An oleo-resin flowing from the trunk, the bark being removed, of Pinus palustris (pitch or swamp pine) and Pinus Tœda (loblolly or old field pine).” (Ph. L.) “From Pinus sylvestris (the Scotch fir).” (Ph. D.) “From various species of Pinus and Abies.” (Ph. E.) It is viscid, of the consistence of honey, and transparent; by distillation it is resolved into oil of turpentine, which passes over into the receiver; and into resin, which remains in the still.

=Turpentine, Bordeaux.= Syn. FRENCH TURPENTINE. From the Pinus maritima, or cluster pine. Solidifies with magnesia. (Lindley.)

=Turpentine, Chian.= Syn. CHIO TURPENTINE, CYPRUS T., SCIO T.; TEREBINTHINA CHIA (Ph. L. & E.), L. “An oleo-resin flowing from the incised trunk of Pistachia terebinthus” (Linn.). (Ph. L.) It is pale, aromatic, fragrant, and has a warm taste, devoid of acrimony or bitterness. It is much adulterated. A factitious article (terebinthina Chia factitia), made as follows, is also very generally sold for it:——Black resin, 7 lbs.; melt, remove the heat, and stir in of balsam of Canada, 7 lbs.; oils of fennel and juniper, of each 1 fl. dr.

=Turpentine, Venice.= Syn. TEREBINTHINA VENETA (Ph. E.), L. Liquid resinous exudation from the Abies Larix, or larch tree. It is sweeter and less resinous-tasted than common turpentine, but is now scarcely ever met with in trade. That of the shops is wholly a factitious article, made as follows:——Black resin, 48 lbs.; melt, remove the heat, and add of oil of turpentine, 2 galls.

=TUR′PETH MINERAL.= Basic sulphate of mercury.

=TURRET OF CHESTNUTS.= A ‘Turret of Chestnuts’ (Tourelle de Marrons) is the name of a most toothsome dish. Take rather over two pounds of chestnuts, peel, and cook them in water, with a pinch of salt therein, then put them, whilst hot, into a colander. Beat into a paste, with a little milk, sugar, and vanille. Put the mixture into a mould in the form of a turret, about an inch thick; when quite firm, open the mould and turn out the contents carefully, glaze with syrup. Fill the middle with whipped cream, flavoured with chocolate or vanille.

=TUR′TLE.= Syn. GREEN TURTLE. The Testuda midas (Linn.), a chelonian reptile, highly esteemed for its flesh, eggs, and fat.

=TUSSILA′GO.= See COLTSFOOT.

=TU′TENAG.= A name sometimes applied to German silver; at others, to pale brass and bell metal. “In India zinc sometimes goes under this name.” (Brande.)

=TUT′TY.= Syn. TUTIA, TUTHIA, IMPURE OXIDE OF ZINC. The sublimate that collects in the chimneys of the furnaces in which the ores of zinc are smelting. Drying; astringent. Used in eye-waters and ointments.

=TYPE METAL.= An alloy formed of antimony, 1 part; lead, 3 parts; melted together. Small types are usually made of a harder composition than large ones. A good stereotype metal is said to be made of lead, 9 parts; antimony, 2 parts; bismuth, 1 part. This alloy expands as it cools, and, consequently, brings out a fine impression.

=TYPHOID FEVER.= Syn. GASTRIC FEVER, ENTERIC or INTESTINAL FEVER, LOW FEVER, COMMON CONTINUED FEVER, INFANTILE REMITTENT, ENDEMIC FEVER, PYTHOGENIC FEVER. Although the term ‘typhoid’ expresses the fact that this particular form of fever resembles typhus, the researches of later pathologists, including Perry, Lombard, Stewart, and Jenner, have satisfactorily demonstrated that the two diseases are altogether distinct.

“Typhus and typhoid fevers differ,” says Sir Thomas Watson, “notably and constantly in their symptoms and course, in their duration, in their comparative fatality, in the superficial markings which respectively belong to them, and which warrant our classing them among the exanthemata, in the internal organic changes with which they are severally attended, and (what is the most important and the most conclusive) in their exciting causes.”

About the beginning of the present century, the French practitioners, after several post-mortem examinations, were the first to point out that the specifically distinguishing feature of this disease was an internal exanthema. This salient characteristic, coupled with the highly infectious nature of typhoid fever, have caused it to be defined by pathologists as “a contagious eruptive fever occurring on the mucous membrane of the intestines, and therefore removed from view.”

The morbid appearance presented by the intestinal mucous membrane, varies with the time that elapses between the period of seizure and death. If the patient dies within the week, the follicles on the membrane present a thickened appearance, and are raised above it, whilst they are seen to be filled with a yellowish, cheesy-looking substance. The result of these details is to give the bowels the appearance of being covered with pustules.

When death has occurred at a later period ulceration more or less extensive has been observed to have set in.

The influence of age in predisposing to typhoid fever is forcibly illustrated in the following table extracted from Dr Walter Blyth’s ‘Dictionary of Practical Hygiène’:

Years of Age. Per cent.

Under 5 0·98 From 5 to 9 9·44 ” 10 ” 14 18·16 ” 15 ” 19 26·86 ” 20 ” 24 19·69 ” 25 ” 29 10·15 ” 30 ” 34 5·36 ” 35 ” 39 3·40 ” 40 ” 44 2·09 ” 45 ” 49 1·08 ” 50 ” 54 0·60 ” 55 ” 59 0·33 ” 60 ” 64 0·33 ” 65 ” 69 0·08 ” 70 ” 79 1·33

Dr Murchison asserts that those under thirty are more than four times as liable to be attacked by typhoid fever as persons over that age. The practical bearing of the above figures is obvious. Typhoid patients should only be nursed by the middle aged.

The season of the year also exercises an influence over the development and spread of this disease. In most countries it prevails with the greatest violence, and is most general, in Autumn, and much more frequently follows a very hot and dry summer than a damp one. The carriers of the typhoid poison are the alvine and possibly the cutaneous and other excretions. The disease may therefore be conveyed by contact with the hands or skin of an infected patient, by his urine, by his body linen, the bed clothes, or by dissemination from these into the surrounding air. But the most fertile and unquestionable cause of propagation is the contamination of drinking water by matter derived from the fœcal discharges of typhoid patients, which having soaked into the soil from the privy into which they had found their way, filtered from thence into a neighbouring well, or by means of drains proceeding from a privy or cesspool, into a stream. We can easily understand that the disease when traced to potable water, should always assume so virulent and frequently fatal a character. The fever poison is thus directly conveyed into the stomach, and hence easily reaches the intestines, whence the disease originates. This will also account for the very small quantity of infected water which it has found communicates the disease.

The outbreak of typhoid fever in Marylebone, in 1874, which attacked some 500 persons, was traced to the milk vended by a certain company; this milk having been placed in cans that had merely been washed out and cooled with water obtained from a well into which it was discovered the excreta from a typhoid patient had percolated from an adjoining privy. After the statement of these facts, the thorough and efficient disinfection of all the excretions, immediately they leave the body of the patient, as well as of his body and bed linen, mattresses, &c., and also of the sick apartment, will be obvious.

The best method of effecting this will be to follow the instructions given by Dr William Budd, for the prevention of the propagation of this disease, which are as follows:

“The means by which typhoid fever may be prevented from spreading are very simple, very sure, and their cost, next to nothing.

“They are founded on the discovery that the poison by which this fever spreads is almost entirely contained in the discharges from the bowels.

“These discharges infect (1) the air of the sick room; (2) the bed and body linen of the patient; (3) privy and the cesspool, or the drains proceeding from them.

“In these various ways, including the contamination of drinking water, already described, the infection proceeding from the bowel discharges often spreads the fever far and wide. The one great thing to aim at, therefore, is to disinfect these discharges on their very escape from the body, and before they are carried from the sickroom. This may be perfectly done by the use of disinfectants. One of the best is made of green copperas.

“This substance, which is used by all shoemakers, is very cheap, and may be had everywhere. A pound and a half of green copperas to a gallon of water is the proper strength. A teacupful of this liquid put into the night-pan every time before it is used by the patient renders the bowel discharge perfectly harmless. One part of Calvert’s liquid carbolic acid in fifty parts of water is equally efficacious.

“To disinfect the bed and body linen, and bedding generally, chloride of lime, or Macdougal’s, or Calvert’s powder is more convenient.

“These powders should be sprinkled by means of a common dredger on soiled spots on the linen, and about the room to purify the air.

“All articles of bed and body linen should be plunged, immediately on their removal from the bed, into a bucket of water containing a tablespoonful of chloride of lime, or Macdougal’s or Calvert’s powder, and should be boiled before being washed; a yard of thin white gutta percha, placed beneath the blanket, under the breech of the patient, by effectually preventing the discharges from soaking into the bed is a great additional safeguard. The privy or closet, and all drains communicating with it, should be flushed twice daily with the green copperas liquid, or with carbolic acid diluted with water.[243]

[Footnote 243: See SPOROKTON.]

“In towns and villages where the fever is already prevalent, the last rule should be put in force for all the houses, whether there be fever in them or not, and for all public drains.

“In the event of death, the body should be placed as soon as possible in a coffin sprinkled with disinfectants. Early burial is on all accounts desirable.

“As the hands of those attending on the sick often become unavoidably soiled by the discharges from the bowels, they should be frequently washed.

“The sick room should be kept well ventilated day and night.

“The greatest possible care should be taken with regard to the drinking water. When there is the slightest risk of its having become tainted with fever poison, water should be got from a pure source, or should at least be boiled before being drunk.

“Immediately after the illness is over, whether ending in death or recovery, the dresses worn by the nurses should be washed or destroyed, and the bed and room occupied by the sick should be thoroughly disinfected. These are golden rules.

“Where they are neglected the fever may become a deadly scourge; where they are strictly carried out it seldom spreads beyond the person first attacked.”

No part of the globe appears to be exempt from the visitations of typhoid fever, since it occurs not only in all the older countries of Europe and Asia and Africa, but in those also included in the North and South American Continents, as well as in Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand. It would appear also to have prevailed in the earliest ages, since it is evidently alluded to in the works of Hippocrates, Galen, and others. Later writers, including Sydenham and Hoffman, also constantly refer to it under a different name.

Pathologists differ as to the time that this disease lies dormant in the system before developing itself. Some practitioners contend that the usual period is from ten to fourteen days, whilst others think it is much less than this, and, in some instances, that it may not exceed one or two days.

The late Dr Murchison entertained the latter opinion. The symptoms, when they show themselves, are as follows:——An irritable condition of the stomach, accompanied by sickness or vomiting; pain, with more or less tenderness, about the abdomen; sometimes the patient suffers from great constipation, at others from diarrhœa; he also experiences great prostration of strength, has a feeble pulse, and a brown furred tongue; he is extremely restless, and at night frequently delirious; the lower limbs are frequently cold; he passes but little urine, and that of an offensive smell; the stools are dark, offensive, and very frequently bloody, this latter being a very characteristic accompaniment of typhoid fever. Bleeding from the nose sometimes occurs. The perspiration has a sour and fetid odour. After seven or eight days, small rose-coloured spots or petechiæ make their appearance on the skin.

Treatment.——The abdomen should be leeched, and mustard poultices applied. If not too prostrated, the patient should be given a hot bath; but if he be not sufficiently strong to venture upon this, ablution of the whole of the body with hot water and soap should be had recourse to, the operation being performed by means either of a sponge or a flannel.

An effervescing draught, consisting of twenty grains of carbonate of ammonia, dissolved in water, to which a tablespoonful of lemon-juice should be added, ought to be administered, and drunk whilst effervescing, every three or four hours. The diet should consist of beef tea, nutritious broth, milk, and eggs.

The necessity of thorough ventilation of the patient’s apartment, together with the methods of disinfection of the bodily discharges, the linen, &c., have been already emphasised in the directions given by Dr Budd for the prevention of the propagation of this fever.

It is, perhaps, needless to state that the outline of treatment given above is intended only for adoption by the emigrant, or of any one so unfortunately situated with regard to locality as to be unable to secure the services of a medical practitioner. Where these are obtainable the patient or his friends should use all speed in procuring them.

Horses.——Horses are occasionally attacked with typhoid fever, the symptoms of which bear a general resemblance to those which characterise the disease in the human subject. The appearances presented after death are also very similar, particularly in the lesions observable in the mucous membrane of the intestines. As in man, the disease is greatly aggravated by insanitary surroundings and depressing external agencies, and by the animals partaking of water containing decaying organic matters.

Upon the commencement of the attack give a few doses of calomel or laudanum, or of tincture of aconite, and if the bowels are costive two or three drachms of aloes, afterwards keeping up the laxative effect by mild clysters and mashes. Afterwards administer, three or four times a day, a drachm each of chlorate of potash and chloride of ammonium, adding to these an ounce of oil of turpentine or ether, or sweet spirit of nitre, if the animal exhibit dulness or weakness. If there is tenderness or pain about the abdomen, apply hot fomentations constantly, and should there be much flatulence give occasional drenches of ammonia, carbonate of ammonia, or whiskey and water.

The food of the animal must be nutritive and generous. He should be kept in a loose box, his legs should be bandaged in flannel, and warm rugs should envelop his body. Rest and quiet are essential. During convalescence let him have small doses of gentian, chloride of iron, with ale.[244]

[Footnote 244: Finlay Dun.]

=TYPHUS FEVER.= This fever is known under various names, such as SPOTTED TYPHUS, JAIL FEVER, SHIP FEVER, CAMP FEVER, MILITARY FEVER, IRISH AGUE, FAMINE FEVER, BRAIN FEVER, PESTILENTIAL FEVER, MALIGNANT FEVER, OCHLOTIC FEVER, TYPHO-RUBEOLOID.

“1. Typhus prevails for the most part in great and wide-spread epidemics.

“2. The epidemics appear during seasons of general scarcity and wants, or amidst hardships and privations arising from local causes, such as warfare, commercial failures, and strikes among the labouring population. The statement that they always last for three years and then subside is erroneous.

“3. During the intervals of epidemics, sporadic cases of typhus occur, particularly in Ireland, and in the large manufacturing towns of Scotland and England.

“4. Although some of the great epidemics of this country have commenced in Ireland, and spread thence to Britain, appearing first in those towns on the west coast of Britain where there was the freest intercourse with Ireland, it is wrong to imagine that all epidemics have commenced in Ireland, or that typhus is a disease essentially Irish. The disease appears wherever circumstances favorable to its development are present.

“5. In many epidemics typhus has been associated with relapsing fever, and the relative proportion of the two fevers has varied greatly.

“6. From the earliest times, typhus has been regarded as a disease of debility, forbidding depletion, and demanding support and stimulation.

“7. The chief exception to the last statement originated in the erroneous doctrines taught in the early part of this century, according to which the disease was looked upon as symptomatic of inflammation or congestion of internal organs.

“8. The success believed at one time to follow the practice of venesection was only apparent. It was due to the practice, for the most part, having been resorted to in cases of relapsing fever and acute inflammations, and to the result having been compared with those of the treatment by stimulation of the much more mortal typhus.

“9. Although typhus fever varies in its severity and duration at different times, and under different circumstances, there is no evidence of any change in its type or essential characters. The typhus of modern times is the same as that described by Fracastorius and Cordames. The period during which epidemic fever was said to present an inflammatory type was that in which relapsing fever was most prevalent, and the times in which the type has been described as adynamic have been those in which relapsing fever has been scarce or absent.” (Murchison.)

In the article ‘Typhoid fever’ it has been stated that its propagation was mainly due, and had been very clearly traced, to the drinking of water contaminated by the alvine discharges of typhoid patients; in the dissemination of typhus, on the contrary, the air in the neighbourhood of the infected person appears to be the great medium for the conveyance of the disease, the poison, it is conceived, being disseminated into the surrounding atmosphere from the surface of the body or the lungs of the patient, or from the cloths, body linen, &c., worn and discarded by him. Hence it is we find, as we should expect, in the past no less than in the present, that the spread and degree of virulence of the malady have always been associated with overcrowding and bad ventilation. Although amongst the causes that predispose and induce susceptibility to its attacks, as shown above, are poverty and consequent deficiency of food and clothing, and squalor, it has been demonstrated that, with all these unfavorable conditions, patients may often recover from typhus provided they are supplied with a sufficiency of fresh air.

The fact that of late years typhus has rarely visited the inmates of our prisons, barracks, or shops, and that their comparative immunity from it has been coincident with improved ventilation and the avoidance of overcrowding, can lead to no other deduction than that previous to this reform these sanitary conditions were altogether neglected. We may narrate some of these outbreaks of typhus that have taken place previous to the application of hygienic principles to the treatment of the disease. During an assize held at Cambridge in 1522, the disease which had broken out amongst the prisoners, spread to the justices, the bailiffs, and other officers, as well as to many people frequenting the court-house, with the result that many of those so seized died.

Another outbreak of a very malignant character occurred at Exeter in 1586. Some Portuguese were captured at sea, and (the words of the old historian who records the fact clearly indicate the cause of the virulent nature of the malady) were “cast into the deep pit and stinking dungeon.” When brought into court they imparted the contagion to those around them. The judge and eleven out of the twelve jurymen who were thus attacked died, whilst the disease spread through and devastated the whole country.

A fourth case is recorded by Howard “at the Lent assizes in Taunton in 1730. Some prisoners who were brought there from Ivilchester Jail infected the court, and Lord Chief Baron Pengelly, Sir James Shepherd, serjeant, John Pigot, Esq., sheriff, and some hundreds besides, died of the jail distemper.”

Another eruption, which broke out during an assize held at the Old Bailey in 1750, resulted in the contraction of the disease by the Judge, the Lord Mayor, and the Alderman, and caused the death of forty persons who were present in the close and narrow court-house during the judicial proceedings. One circumstance recorded in connection with this last attack needs no comment. It is to the effect that “a hundred prisoners were put into two rooms measuring fourteen feet by eleven feet, and seven feet high.” The instances above quoted explain why it was this disease acquired the name of jail fever.

During the present century six different epidemics of typhus have broken out amongst the convicts on board the Toulon Galleys. They occurred in 1820, 1829, 1833, 1845, 1855, and 1856. Although the above statement of facts indisputably points to the intimate connection existing between the prevalence and violent character of typhus and overcrowding, and consequent contamination and vitiation of the air breathed by the patient, it is still a moot point with pathologists whether the disease can be generated de novo by these conditions, or whether they merely assist to disseminate and intensify it. Dr Parkes, writing on this subject, says:——“With reference to the particular kind of fever in Metz, it may be noticed that an important argument against the production of exanthematic typhus from simple overcrowding has been drawn from the experience both of Metz and Paris. In both places during the sieges there was overcrowding, wretchedness, and famine, particularly at Metz; yet, as pointed out by Professor Chauffard to the Académie de Médicine, there was scarcely any or no typhus, as there had been in the wars of the first Napoleon. There was typhus in the German besieging force, but so strict was the blockade that it was not imported into Metz, and was not generated there.”[245]

[Footnote 245: Blyth.]

The mortality which has been caused in large armies by the ravages of typhus has been enormous. During the ‘thirty years’ warfare that desolated Germany from 1619 to 1648, innumerable soldiers fell victims to it, the Bavarian army alone having lost 20,000 men from this cause. Typhus also committed appalling havoc among the legions of the first Napoleon, the Bavarian contingent of the French army in the Campaign in 1812, lost nearly 26,000 men from this cause; whilst in Mayence 25,000 of Napoleon’s soldiers in garrison perished from the same cause in six months. More lately, viz. during the Crimean campaign (in 1856), typhus slew more than 17,000 French soldiers.

It frequently infested the German armies during the Franco German war of 1869-70, and committed great havoc both amongst the hosts of Russia and Turkey in the late war between those countries.

When we turn to the civil population, we find that typhus has been no less ruthless, and has slain its myriads of these also. Confining our attention to our own country, we find it to have especially devastated Ireland, which has suffered from no less than eleven violent outbreaks of typhus within the last 130 years.

In one of these visitations, viz. that of 1840, 80,000 people are estimated to have died from the disease. The largest recorded epidemic of typhus within our islands during the present century was that of 1846. It extended over the whole of the British islands, and the number of persons attacked by it were nearly 1,400,000, out of which 1,000,000 occurred in Ireland. “The Irish flocked to England in thousands, bringing the pestilence with them. It therefore was extremely prevalent in Liverpool, no less than 10,000 persons dying of typhus in that city.”[246] The latest outbreaks in England have been in 1862 and 1869; they were principally confined to London.

[Footnote 246: Blyth.]

Dr Murchison says that 14,000 persons were admitted to the London Fever Hospital during the two epidemics, and that amongst them a small number only were Irish.

All European countries, as well as North America and some parts of Asia, suffer from the ravages of this alarming disease. Africa, however, as well as Australia and New Zealand, are said to be exempt from it.

Symptoms.——The symptoms of typhus are thus described by Dr Murchison:——“More or less sudden invasion, marked by rigors or chilliness; frequent compressible pulse; tongue furred, and ultimately dry and brown; bowels in most cases constipated; skin warm and dry; a rubeloid rash appearing between the fourth and seventh days, the spots never appearing in successive crops, at first slightly elevated, and disappearing on pressure, but after the second day persistent, and often becoming converted into true petechiæ; great and early prostration; heavy flushed countenance; injected conjunctivæ; wakefulness and obtuseness of the mental faculties, followed, at the end of the first week, by delirium, which is sometimes acute and noisy, but oftener low and wandering; tendency to stupor and coma, tremors, subsultus, and involuntary evacuations, with contracted pupils. Duration of the fever from ten to twenty-one days, usually fourteen. In the dead body no specific lesion, but hyperæmia of all the internal organs, softening and disintegration of the heart and voluntary muscles, hypostatic congestion of the lungs, atrophy of the brain, and œdema of the pia mater, are common.”

Treatment.——The following remarks, bearing on this branch of the subject, are suggested for adoption by the non-medical reader, in the event of his being precluded by circumstances from calling in the aid of the medical practitioner. The most important points to be observed are the isolation of the patient and the thorough ventilation of his apartment by the continuous admission into it of fresh air without stint or hindrance. Dr Parkes recommends the patient to be put in the top room of the house or hospital, since there is strong evidence to show that the contagious virus is volatile and ascends through the atmosphere.

The forms of disinfection best suited for adoption in this disease, together with the method of employing them, will be found fully described in the article ‘DISINFECTANTS,’

The body of the patient should also be frequently sponged with Condy’s fluid, properly diluted, or covered with olive oil, to which has been added a small quantity of carbolic acid.

As internal remedies, dilute hydrochloric or nitro-hydrochloric acids have been highly commended. Chlorate of potash, in large doses, was formerly much employed.

These remedies may be supplemented by the use of saline medicines, sudorifics, and moderate purgatives. The diet should consist largely of milk and water, beef tea, broth, and such like digestible and nutritious food.

=UDDER, Inflammation of.= Syn. GARGET MAMMITIS. Amongst domestic animals, cows are the most frequently subject to this affection. It is most common amongst those cows that have lately calved or have been thoroughly milked. Heifers and even young cows that have never had a calf, however, are not exempt from it, and occasionally suffer from its attacks. The inflammation varies in intensity, in some cases only showing itself in a dryness, tenseness, heat and tenderness of the skin of the udder, whilst in others it is much more serious, and extends to the interior parts and vessels; in the latter case, giving rise to hard lumps amongst the softer texture of the udder.

Inflammation of the udder appears to result from various causes——indigestion, over driving, the too long retention of the milk in the udder, and cold; it is also very frequently associated with murrain, rheumatism, and swelling of the joints.

Treatment.——If the disease be constitutional, as indicated by the suddeness of the attack, the best course will be to administer at once a good dose of Epsom or Glauber salts combined with a little ginger, and to give copious doses of nitre. A modified form of this treatment should be kept up for some little time by means of gentle aperients, and smaller doses of nitre. In the milder form of inflammation, viz. in that confined to the exterior of the udder, it will be best to have recourse to spirit lotions or refrigerant applications, such as ice water, or a mixture of chloride of ammonium and nitre applied immediately after mixing with water. The udder should be kept constantly cool by means of these. When the inflammation is deeper seated, as evidenced by the presence of lumps in the udder, the continuous application of warm water is advisable. Whether the cold or hot treatment be indicated, it should be diligently kept up for a day at least. In the adoption of either the cold or hot local remedies, above specified, they should be combined with some means of support (by the agency of a proper bandage) to the udder. It is also important to have the milk removed every three or four hours; if the milking operation cause pain, a syphon should be used. The hard lumps will be found to disperse best under gentle friction applied by the hand twice a day, for an hour each time, the hand being previously anointed with lard. When the surface pits or becomes soft, and very hot, it may be assumed that suppuration has set in, in which case the confined pus must be liberated by means of the lancet.

=ULCERATED SORE THROAT.= This form of sore throat, in which ulcers develop themselves upon the tonsils, is a very frequent accompaniment of scarlatina, syphilis, and other diseases, in which cases to prescribe the method of treatment would be beyond our province. For ordinary ulcerated sore throat arising from cold, chronic inflammation of the part, or a low state of health, the best course will be to gargle the throat four or five times daily with either of the following gargles: 1. Alum, 30 gr.; infusion of rose, 6 oz. 2. Sulphate of zinc, 30 gr.; distilled water, 6 oz. 3. Hydrochloric acid, 1 dr.; water, 6 oz. Should these fail, touch the ulcers every morning with a solution of nitrate of silver, containing ten grains of the nitrate to an ounce of distilled water.

=ULCERS.= These are open sores, mostly accompanied by a discharge of pus, or serous matter. They differ from ordinary wounds by the edges showing no disposition to unite. When they extend or deepen, it is by a process of absorption; while they heal by granulation, whereby they become filled up with little granular growths of flesh. Ulcers may appear on all parts of the body, but they most frequently attack the legs and arms.

In enfeebled states of the body, wounds, boils, and abscesses may degenerate into ulcers; they are also a consequence of enlarged or varicose veins, or the result of some specific poison in the system.

Ulcers may be classed into simple, irritable, indolent, and specific.

Treatment.——When an ordinary wound or sore shows a disinclination to heal, but on the contrary, extends or deepens, it should be poulticed with bread and water or linseed meal. Should these remedies be ineffectual, an old fashioned but useful one, viz. a carrot poultice, may be applied. When the ulceration is irritable or painful, the poultices may be supplemented by the frequent use of a lotion consisting of four parts of water to one of tincture of opium, or of a warm decoction of poppy heads applied by means of a linen rag. Filling the cavity with prepared chalk has been recommended.

It sometimes happens that during poulticing, proud flesh may form in an ulcer. When this is the case, a little sugar in powder may be sprinkled over the unhealthy excrescence, or some red precipitate ointment be applied to it. Taking care not to use too much of either. When the ulcer has a bad or fetid odour, it should be washed with a lotion composed of one part of solution of chlorinated soda to sixteen parts of water; or it may be sprinkled over with charcoal powder; or with a mixture of starch and salicylic acid. The best application to bad smelling ulcers caused by varicose veins is a lotion consisting of nitric acid considerably diluted with water. Directions are given for the treatment of varicose veins, under VARIX, further on. If the veins be ulcerated, the ulcers should be dressed with acetate of lead ointment previous to the application of the bandage. Very irritable ulcers are often greatly relieved by the gentle application to them of lunar caustic, and indolent ones by dressing with yellow basilicon ointment, or by the judicious use of black wash. The general health should be attended to by the administration of tonics consisting of the mineral acids, gentle aperients, and a digestible and nourishing diet. Small ulcers on the mucous membrane of the mouth or on the gums may be made to disappear instantly upon touching them with a piece of lunar caustic. Where any difficulty is experienced in the healing of an ulcer, or if it be at all of a serious nature, the medical practitioner should be consulted.

=UL′MIN, ULMIC ACID.= By boiling sugar in dilute sulphuric acid for a long time, a brownish-black substance is produced. Boullay and Malaguti state that this is a mixture of two distinct bodies——ulmin (sacchulmin——Liebig) and ulmic acid (sacchulmic acid——Liebig). The first is insoluble in solutions of the alkalies; the latter dissolves in them freely. A number of black uncrystallisable substances, produced by the action of powerful chemical agents upon vegetable matter, have been confounded under these names.

=ULTRAMARINE′.= Syn. LAPIS-LAZULI BLUE, ULTRAMARINE B.; CÆRULEUM ULTRAMONTANUM, L. This beautiful pigment is obtained from the blue mineral azure stone, lazulite, or lapis lazuli, the finest specimens of which are brought from China, Persia, and Great Bucharia.

Prep. Pure lapis lazuli (reduced to fragments about the size of a pea, and the colourless pieces rejected), 1 lb., is heated to redness, quenched in water, and ground to an impalpable powder; to this is added, of yellow resin, 6 oz.; turpentine, beeswax, and linseed oil, of each 2 oz.; previously melted together; the whole is next made into a mass, which is kneaded in successive portions of warm water, as long as it colours it blue; from these it is deposited on repose, and is then collected, well washed with clean water, dried, and sorted according to its qualities. The first water, which is usually dirty, is thrown away; the second gives a blue of the first quality; and the third, and following ones, yield samples of less value. The process is founded on the property which the colouring matter of azure-stone has of adhering less firmly to the resinous cement than the foreign matter with which it is associated. When azure-stone has its colour altered by a moderate heat, it is reckoned bad or factitious.

Obs. Ultramarine is the most costly, but at the same time the most splendid and permanent, of our blue pigments, and works well in oil.

=Ultramarine, Artificial.= Syn. AZURE BLUE, MEISSNER ULTRAMARINE, PARIS B., VIENNA B.; CÆRULEUM ULTRAMONTANUM FACTITIUM, L. From the researches of Clement, Desormes, and Robiquet, it has been inferred that the colour of ultramarine depends on the presence of sulphuret of sodium in a peculiar state of combination with the silicates of soda and alumina; but, according to Elsner and Tirnmon, a minute quantity of sulphuret of iron is also an essential ingredient. It is by heating mixtures of this kind that the artificial ultramarine of commerce is prepared. The finer specimens, thus obtained, are quite equal in durability and beauty of colour to those prepared from lazulite, while they are very much less expensive.

Prep. 1. Kaolin, 37 parts; sulphate of soda, 15; carbonate of soda, 22; sulphur, 18; charcoal, 8; intimately mixed and heated from 24 to 30 hours, in large crucibles; the product is then heated again in cast-iron boxes, at a moderate temperature, till the required tint is obtained; it is, finally, pulverised, washed, and dried.

2. (Gmelin.) Sulphur, 2 parts; dry carbonate of soda, 1 part; mix well; gradually heat them in a covered crucible to redness, or till the mixture fuses, then sprinkle in, by degrees, another mixture of silicate of soda and ‘aluminate of soda’ (containing 72 parts of silica and 70 parts of alumina), and continue the heat for an hour. The product contains a little free sulphur, which may be separated by water.

3. (Robiquet.) By exposing to a low red heat, in a covered crucible, as long as fumes are given off, a mixture of pure kaolin, 2 parts; anhydrous carbonate of soda and sulphur, of each 3 parts. Some manufacturers who adopt this process use 1-3rd less carbonate of soda.

4. (Tirnmon.) Take of crystallised carbonate of soda, 1075 gr.; apply a gentle heat, and, when fused in its water of crystallisation, shake in of finely pulverised orpiment, 5 gr., and, when partly decomposed, add as much gelatinous hydrate of alumina as contains 7 gr. of anhydrous alumina; finely sifted clay, 100 gr., and flowers of sulphur, 221 gr., are next to be added, and the whole placed in a covered crucible, and at first gently heated, to drive off the water; but as soon as this is effected, raised to redness, the heat being so regulated that the ingredients only ‘sinter’ together, without actually fusing; the mass is then to be cooled, finely pulverised, suspended in river water, and brought upon a filter; the product has now a very beautiful delicate green or bluish colour, but on being heated in a covered dish, and stirred about from time to time, until the temperature reaches that of dull redness, at which it must be kept for 1 or 2 hours, it changes to a rich blue. If the heat of the first calcination has been properly regulated, the whole of the mass taken from the crucible will have uniform colour; but if too little heat has been used, and the ingredients have not been properly mixed, there will be colourless parts, which should be rejected; if too much heat has been used, or the mass allowed to fuse, brown parts will appear, especially if the crucible is of a bad kind, or easily destroyed; these must also be rejected. (‘Compt. Rend.,’ 1842.)

=Ultramarine Ashes.= Syn. SAUNDER’S BLUE. Obtained from the resinous mass from making ultramarine, by melting it with fresh oil, and kneading it in water containing a little potash or soda; or, by burning away the wax and oil of the mass and well grinding and washing the residue with water. Very permanent, but much less brilliant than ultramarine.

=Ultramarine, Cobal′tic.= Syn. CHINESE BLUE, COBALT B., LOUISA B., HÖFFNER’S B., THÉNARD’S B. A very rich blue pigment, with many synonymes, prepared by slowly drying and heating to dull redness a mixture of freshly precipitated alumina (freed from water as much as possible), 8 to 10 parts; arseniate or phosphate of cobalt, 1 part. By daylight it is of a pure blue, but by artificial light the colour turns on the violet. For other formulæ see BLUE PIGMENTS.

=U′PAS.= The Javan name for several deadly poisons. ‘Bohun upas’ is a gum-resin obtained from the bark of the Antiaris toxicaria. (See ANTIARINE.) The ‘upas tieuté’ is obtained from the Strychnos Tieuté, and owes its fatal power to strychnine. They are both used to poison arrows and other deadly weapons.

=URA′′NIUM.= U. A rare metal, discovered by Klaproth in 1789. It occurs in the pitchblende of Saxony, and the uranite of Cornwall. The chief oxides of uranium are the protoxide and the sesquioxide, or uranic oxide.

=Uranic Oxide= (U_{2}O_{3}) may be obtained in the anhydrous state by heating the hydrated sesquioxide to a temperature of 572° Fahr. The sesquioxide is capable of acting both as an acid and a base. The uranic salts are yellow.

=Uranous Oxide.= (UO.) This may be procured by igniting uranium oxalate in a closed vessel, or in a stream of hydrogen gas. Acids are without action upon this oxide. When, however, it is obtained as an hydrate (which it may be by treatment of its chloride with ammonia) this latter is easily acted upon by acids, and gives rise to salts having a green colour, which rapidly absorb oxygen. Peligot proposed to call this oxide Uranyl (UO.), from the tendency it showed to follow the deportment of a metal when it combined with elementary bodies.

=Chlorides of Uranium.= Uranium forms two chlorides, U_{2}Cl_{3} and UCl_{2}.

Uses. Its ores and oxides are occasionally used to colour glass and enamels.

=U′RATES.= Salts of uric acid.

=U′REA.= COH_{4}N_{2}. Syn. CYANATE OF AMMONIUM (Anomalous). A crystalline, colourless, transparent substance, discovered by Fourcroy and Vauquelin in urine, and by Wöhler as the first organic compound artificially produced.

Urea generally occurs in slender, striated, colourless prisms, as shown on next page. It is slightly deliquescent. It has a neutral reaction and a bitterish taste. It is extremely soluble in water and in hot alcohol, but very slightly so in ether. At about 248° Fahr. it melts. At a little higher temperature it becomes decomposed into ammonia, carbonate, cyanate of ammonium, and cyanuric acid; this latter being left in the retort.

The ammoniacal odour acquired by urine after a few days is due to the conversion of the urea into carbonate of ammonia, as shown by the following equation:

Urea. Water. Carb. Ammonia. CH_{4}ON_{2} + 2H_{2}O = (NH_{4}){2}CO{3}.

This change is effected by the mucus of the bladder present in the urine. A solution of pure urea may be kept at ordinary temperature, or even boiled, without undergoing alteration.

Urea occurs as an essential component of the urine of man and animals, being more particularly abundant in the urinary excretion of the flesh-eating mammalia; nor is it altogether absent from the urine of birds and amphibia. According to Bischoff and Voit, urea is the result of tissue metamorphosis. The greater number of inquirers, however, hold an opposite opinion, and believe that it is derived from the albuminous constituents of the food, when these preponderate over the quantity required for the nutrition of the body. Dr Lionel Beale says his “own researches render it probable that all pabulum entering the system must, before its elements can he applied to the nutrition of the tissues, or removed by the organs of respiration or secretion, be first of all taken up by cells (chyle-corpuscles, white blood-corpuscles), and become living or germinal matter, which, after passing through certain definite stages of existence, becomes serum of the blood, and the formed matter of the red blood-corpuscles.

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