Cooley's Cyclopædia of Practical Receipts and Collateral Information in the Arts, Manufactures, Professions, and Trades..., Sixth Edition, Volume II (part 3 of 12)

Uses. Nickel is chiefly employed in the manufacture of German silver. Some of its salts have been recently introduced into medical practice, and appear likely to prove most valuable additions to the materia medica. It has also been recently used for deposition by electrolysis on other metals, forming a hard, brilliant, non-tarnishing coating.

=Nickelic Oxide.= Ni_{2}O_{3}. Syn. SESQUIOXIDE OF NICKEL, PEROXIDE OF NICKEL. Prep. By passing chlorine through water holding the hydrate in suspension; or by mixing a salt of nickel with bleaching powder. An insoluble, black powder, which is decomposed by heat.

=Nick′elous Ace′tate.= Ni(C_{2}H_{3}O_{2})_{2}. Syn. NICKELII ACETAS, L. Prep. By neutralising acetic acid with nickelous carbonate, and gently concentrating by evaporation, so that crystals may form. Small green crystals, soluble in 6 parts of water.

=Nickelous Car′bonate.= NiCO_{3} Syn. NICKELII CARBONAS, L. Prep. This salt may be obtained in the manner described above in connection with the preparation of metallic nickel, or by simply adding carbonate of sodium to a solution of nickelous chloride of sulphate, but in this case some hydrate is precipitated along with it. The following is another formula which produces a nearly pure carbonate, but one which may still contain a little cobalt, the entire separation of which is a matter of extreme difficulty, and can best be effected in the manner recommended by Rose, described above:——

The mineral (crude speiss or kupfernickel) is broken into small fragments, mixed with from one fourth to one half its weight of iron filings, and the whole dissolved in aqua regia; the solution is gently evaporated to dryness, the residue treated with boiling water, and the insoluble ferrous arseniate removed by filtration; the liquid is next acidulated with hydrochloric acid, treated with sulphuretted hydrogen, in excess, to precipitate the copper, and, after filtration, is boiled with a little nitric acid, to bring back the iron into ferric salts; to the cold and largely diluted liquid a solution of bicarbonate of sodium is gradually added, and the ferric oxide separated by filtration; lastly, the filtered solution is boiled with carbonate of sodium in excess, and the pale green precipitate of carbonate collected, washed, and dried.

Uses, &c. It is freely soluble in the acids, and is chiefly employed to prepare the salts and other compounds of nickel.

=Nickelous Chlo′′ride.= NiCl_{2}. Syn. NICKELII CHLORIDUM, L. Prep. From nickelous carbonate and hydrochloric acid, as the acetate. Small green crystals, of the formula NiCl_{2},9Aq., which are rendered yellow and anhydrous by heat, unless they contain cobalt, when the salt retains a tint of green.

DOUBLE CHLORIDES. Nickelous chloride unites with the chlorides of ammonium, potassium, and sodium, to form pale green crystallisable salts, which have been used for depositing nickel in iron, lead, copper, &c.

=Nickelous Hy′drate.= Ni(HO)_{2}. By precipitating a soluble salt of nickel with caustic potassa. Hydrated. An ash-gray powder, freely soluble in acids, forming the ordinary salts of nickel.

=Nickelous Ox′alate.= NiC_{2}O_{4}. Syn. NICKELII OXALAS, L. Prep. By adding a strong solution of oxalic acid to a like solution of nickelous sulphate, and collecting the pale bluish-green precipitate which forms after a time. Used to prepare both metallic nickel and its oxide.

=Nickelous Oxide.= NiO. Syn. PROTOXIDE OF NICKEL. Prep. 1. By heating the nitrate, carbonate, or oxalate, to redness in open vessels. Anhydrous.

=Nickelous Sulphate.= NiSO_{4}. Syn. SULPHATE OF NICKEL. Prep. Dissolve nickelous carbonate or oxide in dilute sulphuric acid, evaporate down, and crystallise. Pale green prismatic crystals, and of the formula NiSO_{4},7Aq., or small pale green octahedrons, when crystallised at a higher temperature, containing NiSO_{4},6Aq.

=Nickelous and Potassium Sulphate.= NiSO_{4} K_{2}SO_{4},6Aq. Syn. DOUBLE SULPHATE OF NICKEL AND POTASSIUM. Prep. By crystallising a mixture of nickelous and potassium sulphates. Pale green crystals, readily soluble in water. Sodium and ammonium sulphates form similar compounds with nickelous sulphate.

=NICK′EL SIL′VER.= See GERMAN SILVER.

=NIC′OTINE.= C_{10}H_{14}N_{2}. Syn. NICOTINA, NICOTIA, L. A volatile base, discovered by Reiman and Posselt in tobacco.

Prep. (Ortigosa.) Infuse tobacco leaves for 24 hours in water acidulated with sulphuric acid, strain, evaporate to a syrup, add 1/6 of its volume of a strong solution of potassa, and distil in an oil bath at 288°, occasionally adding a little water to assist the process, and prevent the too great concentration of the solution of potassa in the retort; next saturate the distilled product with oxalic acid, evaporate to dryness, digest in boiling absolute alcohol, evaporate the resulting tincture to a syrup, and decompose the oxalate of nicotine thus obtained by adding potassa to it in a close vessel, and agitate the mass with ether, repeating the process with more ether until all the nicotine is dissolved out; lastly, distil the mixed ethereal solution in an oil bath. At first ether comes over, then water, and, lastly, nicotina, which, towards the end of the process, assumes a yellowish tint.

2. (Schloesing.) This chiefly differs from the preceding by directing the concluding distillation to be conducted in a retort, by the heat of an oil bath, at the temperature of 284° Fahr., in a current of hydrogen, for 12 hours; after which, by raising the heat to 356° Fahr., the nicotine distils over pure, drop by drop.

3. (Kirchmann). A tin vessel provided with two tubulures, is filled with tobacco, which is previously damped with sodium carbonate. One of the tubulures admits a glass tube reaching nearly to the bottom of the vessel; the other is provided with a glass tube merely penetrating the cork.

The vessel is made air-tight, placed into a boiling hot steam bath, and a rapid stream of carbonic acid gas passed through it, entering the vessel by the longer and leaving it by the shorter tube; the latter dips into a mixture of alcohol and dilute sulphuric acid.

In this manner a large yield of perfectly colourless nicotine is obtained. In order to obtain the pure alkaloid, caustic baryta is added to the solution, the latter evaporated to dryness, and the pure nicotine extracted with ether.

To estimate nicotine, weigh out 15 gr. of tobacco, digest for twenty-four hours with alcohol of 85 per cent. acidified with 15 drops of sulphuric acid, so as to make 150 cubic centimètres. Evaporate 50 cubic centimètres of the filtered liquid, and add iododydrargyrate of potassium to the residue. The number of cubic centimètres employed, multiplied by 0·00405 (0·001 of the equivalent of nicotine), gives the quantity of alkaloid contained in 5 grams of tobacco. (Linoffsky.)

Prop., &c. Nicotina is a colourless, volatile liquid; highly acrid and pungent; smelling strongly of tobacco; boiling at 375° Fahr. (482°——Pereira); soluble in water, ether, alcohol, and oils; and combining with the acids, forming salts, many of which are crystallisable. It is a frightful poison; 1/4 of a drop will kill a rabbit; a single drop will kill a large dog. Nicotina is the substance which was employed by the Count Bocarmé for the purpose of poisoning his brother-in-law, Gustave Fougnies, the particulars of which were developed in the celebrated trial, in Belgium, of that nobleman, in 1851. Good Virginia and Kentucky tobacco, dried at 212° Fahr., contain from 6% to 7% of nicotina; Havannah tobacco (cigars) less than 2%. (Schloesing.)

=NIGHT′MARE.= Syn. INCUBUS, EPHIALTES, L. The common causes of nightmare are indigestion and the use of narcotic and intoxicating substances. Its prevention consists in the selection of proper food, and in duly attending to the state of the stomach and bowels. Heavy and late suppers should be particularly avoided, as well as all articles of diet that are of difficult digestion, or apt to induce flatulency. When it arises from strong drink, tobacco, or opium, these should be abandoned, or employed in smaller quantities. A teaspoonful of aromatic spirits of ammonia, magnesia, or bicarbonate of soda, taken in a glass of cold water on going to bed, is a good and simple preventive. In cases accompanied by restlessness, a few drops of laudanum or tincture of henbane may be added. An occasional aperient is also excellent. See CHAMOMILE.

=NIGHT′SHADE (Deadly).= Syn. BELLADONNA (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.). “The leaf, fresh and dried (leaves and root——Ph. D.), of Atropa belladonna, Linn.” “The fresh leaves and branches to which they are attached; also the leaves separate from the branches, carefully dried, of Atropa belladonna, gathered, when the fruit has begun to form, from wild or cultivated plants in Britain” (B. P.). “Oval, acute, very perfect, glabrous, when bruised, exhaling a disagreeable odour. The herb which grows spontaneously in hedges and uncultivated places is to be preferred to that which is cultivated in gardens.” (Ph. L.)

Belladonna is a powerful narcotic, and is used as an anodyne, antispasmodic, and discutient, in a variety of diseases,——neuralgia, arthritic pains, migratory rheumatic pains, spasmodic rigidity and strictures, angina pectoris, hooping-cough, fevers, phthisis, &c.; also as a prophylactic of scarlet fever, as a resolvent in enlarged and indurated glands, to produce dilatation of the pupil, &c., &c.——Dose. Of the powder, commencing with 1 gr., gradually and cautiously increased until dryness of the throat or dilation of the pupil occurs, or the head is affected. See ATROPIA.

=NIGHTSHADE (Woody).= Syn. BITTERSWEET; DULCAMARA (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), L. The “new shoots (caules) of Solanum Dulcamara, Linn.” “The dried young branches of the Solanum Dulcamara (Bittersweet) from indigenous plants which have shed their leaves” (B. P.). “It is to be collected in autumn, after the leaves have fallen.” (Ph. L.) Diaphoretic, diuretic, and (in large doses) narcotic. See INFUSION OF DULCAMARA.

=NIO′BIUM.= See TANTALUM.

=NIP′PLES (Sore).= The most common form of this affection is that termed “chapped nipples” by nurses. As a preventive measure, the part may be moistened morning and evening, for some weeks before the period of lactation, with a little rum or brandy, which is more effective if slightly acidulated with a few drops of dilute sulphuric acid. Some persons employ tincture of tolu, or compound tincture of benzoin (Friar’s balsam) for this purpose.

When chaps, cracks, or like sores, arising from lactation, are once developed, one of the safest and most effective remedies is tincture of catechu, applied 3 or 4 times a day, by means of a camel-hair pencil.

The celebrated nostrum of Liebert for cracked nipples, “Cosmétique infaillible et prompt contre les gerçures ou crevasses aux seins et autres,” is a lotion formed of 10 gr. of nitrate of lead dissolved in 4 fl. oz. of rose water, and tinged with a little cochineal. The parts are moistened with the liquid, and are then covered with fine leaden nipple-shields, two of which are provided for the purpose. This is repeated soon after each time the child leaves the breast; and the nipple is carefully washed with a soft sponge and lukewarm water, and gently dabbed dry with a very soft towel, before the infant is again applied to it. This remedy is very successful, and has acquired great popularity and patronage in Brussels, Paris, Frankfort, and other parts. It must be recollected, however, that all applications of an active or poisonous nature should be employed with the greatest possible caution, as, unless unusual care is taken, a portion of the remedy may remain concealed within the delicate pores of the skin, and be sucked off by the infant, to the serious disturbance of its health.

=NITRAN′ILINE.= This substance is obtained by acting on nitrobenzol with a mixture of fuming nitric acid and oil of vitriol; Dinitro-benzol is formed, which is dissolved in alcohol, and the resulting solution subjected to the reducing action of ammonia and sulphuretted hydrogen, as described under aniline. Nitraniline forms yellow, acicular crystals, little soluble in cold water, but freely soluble in alcohol and ether. Its salts are crystallisable.

=NI′TRATE.= Syn. NITRAS, L. A salt of nitric acid (e.g. AgNO_{3}, nitrate of silver). The nitrates are very easily prepared by the direct solution of the metal, or its oxide, or carbonate, in nitric acid, which, in most cases, should be previously diluted with water. By evaporation, with the usual precautions, they may be obtained either in the pulverulent or crystalline form.

The nitrates are characterised by deflagrating when thrown on red-hot charcoal; also by their aqueous solutions, after being mixed with half their bulk of strong sulphuric acid and thoroughly cooled, yielding a brown cloud with a crystal or concentrated solution of ferrous sulphate. See NITRIC ACID, and the respective metals.

=NI′TRE.= Nitrate of Potassa. See POTASSIUM.

=NI′TRIC ACID. HNO_{3}.= Syn. AZOTIC ACID; ACIDUM NITRICUM (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.); AQUAFORTIS.

Prep. 1. (Ph. E. and Ph. L. 1836.) Purified nitre (dried) and sulphuric acid, equal parts; mix in a glass retort, and distil with a moderate heat, from a sand bath (or naked gas flame——Ph. E.) into a cool receiver, as long as the fused materials continue to evolve vapours. “The pale yellow acid thus obtained may be rendered nearly colourless (if desired) by gently heating it in a retort.” (Ph. E.) Sp. gr. 1·500. In the present Ph. L. this acid is included in the materia medica. (See below.)

2. (Ph. D.) The nitrate of potassa is dissolved in water, the solution treated with a little nitrate of silver, filtered, evaporated to dryness, weighed, and then treated as above.

3. Nitrate of soda (cubic nitre, Chili saltpetre) is introduced, in quantities varying between 4 and 10 lbs., into a cylindrical iron retort, which it will only half fill, and after the lid is luted on and the connection made with the condensers, an equivalent of oil of vitriol is poured in through an aperture provided for the purpose, and the charge is worked off with a gradually increased heat. The condensing apparatus consists of a series of 5 or 6 salt-glazed stoneware receivers, about 1/6th part filled with cold water. The product of this process is the strongest brown and fuming ‘NITROUS ACID’ of commerce (AQUAFORTIS, FUMING NITRIC ACID; ACIDUM NITROSUM; ACIDUM NITRICUM FUMANS), and has usually the sp. gr. 1·45. It is rendered colourless by gently heating it in a glass retort, when it forms COMMERCIAL NITRIC ACID (sp. gr. 1·37 to 1·4.)

4. (PURE MONOHYDRATED NITRIC ACID.) By mixing the strongest commercial acid with about an equal quantity of oil of vitriol; redistilling; collecting apart the first portion which comes over, and exposing it, in a vessel slightly warmed and sheltered from the light, to a current of dry air made to bubble through it until the nitrous acid is completely removed.

Prop. Pure liquid nitric acid is colourless, highly corrosive, and possesses powerful acid and oxygenising properties. The sp. gr. of the strongest liquid acid (monohydrated nitric acid) has the sp. gr. 1·517 at 60° Fahr. “On boiling nitric acid of different degrees of concentration at the ordinary atmospheric pressure, a residue is left boiling at 249° Fahr., and 29 in. barometer, having a sp. gr. 1·414 at 60° Fahr.” (Fownes.) Acid of less density than 1·414 parts with water, and gradually becomes stronger by boiling; but acid of less sp. gr. than 1·414 is weakened by exposure to heat. When exposed to intense cold, liquid nitric acid freezes. It is rapidly decomposed, with loss of oxygen, by contact with most organic and many metallic and non-metallic bodies. In many cases these reactions occur with considerable violence, and the production of light and heat.

Pur. The nitric acid of commerce is generally contaminated by hydrochloric acid, nitrous acid, sulphuric acid, or chlorine, or by their soda or potassa salts, and, occasionally, iodine, together with an excess of water. The last is readily detected by the sp. gr., and the others by the appropriate tests. “Colourless. Contains 70% of HNO_{3}. Sp. gr. 1·42. 90 gr. by weight, mixed with 1/2 oz. of distilled water, require for neutralisation 1000 grain measures of the volumetric solution of soda. Evaporated, it leaves no residue. Diluted with six volumes of distilled water, it gives no precipitate with chloride of barium or nitrate of silver——indicating absence of sulphuric and hydrochloric acids.” (B. P.) 5 measures of acid, sp. gr. 1·5, mixed with 2 of water, condensed into 6-1/2 measures, and makes the sp. gr. 1·42. “Free from colour. Sp. gr. 1·42. Exposed to the air, it emits very acrid vapours. Totally volatilised by heat. Diluted with 3 times its volume of water, it gives no precipitate with either nitrate of silver or chloride of barium. 100 gr. of this acid (sp. gr. 1·42) are saturated by 161 gr. of crystallised carbonate of soda.” (Ph. L.) The Ph. E. states the density of commercial nitric acid is 1·380 to 1·390. “If diluted with distilled water it precipitates but slightly, or not at all, with solution of nitrate of baryta or nitrate of silver.” The best ‘double aquafortis’ of the shops (aquafortis duplex) has usually the sp. gr. 1·36; and the single aquafortis (aquafortis simplex), the sp. gr. 1·22; but both are commonly sold at much lower strengths.

Tests.——1. It stains the skin yellow.——2. When mixed with a little hydrochloric acid or chloride of ammonium, it acquires the power of dissolving gold leaf.——3. Morphia, brucia, and strychnia, give it a red colour, which is heightened by ammonia in excess.——4. When placed in a tube, and a solution of protosulphate of iron is cautiously added, a dark colour is developed at the line of junction, which is distinctly visible when only 1/24,000th part of nitric acid is present. This test may be often conveniently modified by dropping into the liquid a crystal of protosulphate of iron; the fluid immediately surrounding this crystal then acquires a dark brown colour, which disappears upon simple agitation of the fluid, or by heating it.——5. When mixed with a weak solution of sulphate of indigo, and heated, the colour of the latter is destroyed.——6. When saturated with carbonate of potassium or sodium, and evaporated to dryness, the residuum deflagrates when thrown on burning coals.——7. When the mixture of a nitrate with cyanide of potassium, in powder, is heated on a piece of platinum, a vivid deflagration follows, attended with distinct ignition and detonation. (Fresenius.) It is stated that sulphate of aniline is an extremely delicate test for nitric acid. The following is the method of its application:——About a cubic centimètre of pure concentrated sulphuric acid (sp. gr. 1·84) is placed in a watch-glass; half a cubic centimètre of a solution of sulphate of aniline (formed by adding ten drops of commercial aniline to 50 c.c. of diluted sulphuric acid in the proportion of 1 to 6) is poured on, drop by drop; a glass tube is moistened with the liquid to be tested, and moved circularly in the watch-glass. By blowing on the mixture during the circular agitation, when a trace of nitric acid is present, circular striæ are developed of a very intense red colour, tinting the liquid rose. With more than a trace of nitric acid the colour becomes carmine, passing to a brownish red. This process serves to detect the presence of nitric acid in the sulphuric acid of commerce. It will also reveal the presence of nitrates in water.[46]——8. Take a quantity of diphenylamine, about the size of a mustard seed, put it into a test-tube, and pour a little sulphuric acid over it, then add a drop or two of water, so as to increase the temperature sufficiently to effect the solution of the diphenylamine, and the test is ready for use. Now add very gently the solution to be tested, and if only a trace of nitric or nitrous acid be present, a beautiful and very permanent blue colouration is produced at the junction of the two liquids, but if there be any quantity of the nitrogen compound, the colour becomes almost black. This reaction is so delicate and certain that, in the case of a solution of nitric acid containing about 1 part B. P. acid in 10,000 of water, the reaction is most distinct; one part of nitrite of potassium in 30,000 of water gives also almost unmistakable evidence of the presence of the nitrogen acid.

[Footnote 46: ‘Pharmaceutical Year Book.’]

The following process for the quantitative estimation of nitric acid is by Fischer:[47]——Indigotin prepared by reduction of indigo by means of grape sugar, alcohol, and caustic soda, oxidation in the air, and solution in sulphuric acid, may be kept unchanged for years. Five c.c. of such a solution, diluted with water and mixed with 30 c.c. of pure sulphuric acid, is titrated by adding a standard nitric acid solution until the blue colour gives place to a light green; the indigo solution is then diluted, so that 1 c.c. shall be equal to 0·0025 milligramme equivalents of nitric acid, or 0·2525 milligramme of potassium nitrate. If a water is being examined it is run into 4 c.c. of the titrated indigo solution, mixed with 20 c.c. of sulphuric acid, until the blue colour changes to light green. Ten, divided by the number of c.c. of water used, expresses the milligramme equivalents of nitric acid per litre; thus, if 4 c.c. of water are used, there are 2·5 milligramme equivalents of nitric acid, equal to 252·5 milligrammes of potassium nitrate per litre. If a preliminary test with brucine has shown that the water contains very little nitric acid, 2 c.c. only of the indigo solution must be used, or sometimes as little as 1 c.c. If more than 8 c.c. of water is required to destroy the blue colour, 100 c.c. must be evaporated down to the volume of 8 c.c. and then titrated. The volume of sulphuric acid must be at least double the sum of the volumes of indigo and water; the temperature must not sink under 110°.

[Footnote 47: Dingl., ‘Polyt. Journ.’ ccxiii, 423-427; ‘Journ. Chem. Soc.,’ 2nd series, xiii, 481.]

The nitrates may all be tested as above by first adding a small quantity of pure sulphuric acid, which will liberate the nitric acid of the salt.

Estim.——The strength of nitric acid may be roughly estimated by its sp. gr.; but more accurately by ascertaining the amount of carbonate of sodium, or other salt of known composition, which is required to neutralise it. To render this assay trustworthy, it must be, in all cases, also tested to detect the presence of impurities. See ACIDIMETRY.

Ant., &c. See ACIDS.

Uses. Nitric acid is employed in assaying, in dyeing, in etching on copper, in the preparation of gun-cotton, oxalic and sulphuric acids, &c. In medicine it is used as a caustic to corns and warts; and in doses of 1 to 10 drops, in a tumbler of water, in liver complaints, fevers, dyspepsia, syphilis, to remove the effects of mercury, or as a substitute for that drug, &c. Externally, it is employed in the form of baths, lotions, and ointment. Dr Collier states that a strong lotion of nitric acid is almost a specific in lepra, and several other kindred skin diseases.

Concluding Remarks.——The common source of nitric acid is nitrate of potassium, but it may also be obtained from other nitrates by a similar process. Nitrate of sodium is frequently used instead of nitrate of potassium, and is more convenient in some respects, as the residuum is more easily dissolved out of the retort or cylinder. The residuum of the common process with nitre (‘sal enixum’) is chiefly employed as a flux by the glass-houses, and as a source of potash in the manufacture of alum.

By proper management nitre yields more than 2/3 of its weight of pure nitric acid, sp. gr. 1·500; and nitrate of soda, its own weight of acid, sp. gr. 1·4.

By the patent process of M. Mallet, dried nitrate of soda is decomposed by dried or monohydrated boracic acid, by heating the two together. The products are liquid nitric acid, which distils over, and biborate of soda (borax), which remains in the retort.

The crude coloured nitric acid of commerce (aquafortis) was originally prepared by distilling a mixture of nitre and copperas, and is still sometimes obtained in this way.

The nitric acid of commerce may be freed from the impurities alluded to above by one or other of the following methods:——

1. By the addition of a little nitrate of silver, as long as it produces any cloudiness, and, after repose, decanting the clear acid, and rectifying it at a heat under 212°. To ensure a perfectly colourless product, a small portion of pure black oxide of manganese should be put into the retort. (Murray.)

2. By agitating the acid with a little red oxide of lead, and then rectifying it, as before.

3. By adding 1% of bichromate of potassa to the acid before rectifying it. This answers well for acid not stronger than sp. gr. 1·48.

4. By rectification at a gentle heat, rejecting the first portion that comes over, receiving the middle portion as genuine acid, and leaving a residuum in the retort. (Ure.)

According to Apjohn and others, the strongest liquid nitric acid, sp. gr. 1·520, is a monohydrate; that of the sp. gr. 1·500, a sesquihydrate; that of 1·486, a binhydrate; and that of 1·244, a quadrihydrate; or containing respectively 1, 1-1/2, 2, and 4 atoms of water. (See below.)

=Nitric Acid, Anhy′drous.= N_{2}O_{5}. Syn. NITRIC ANHYDRIDE. This interesting substance was first obtained in a separate form by M. Deville, in 1849.

Prep. (M. Deville.) Nitrate of silver is dried by exposure to a current of dry carbonic acid at a temperature of 356° Fahr., and the tube containing it is then immersed in a water bath heated to 203° Fahr.; pure dry chlorine gas is next passed through the apparatus, and, as soon as the reaction commences, the temperature is retraced to 154° or even 136°, but not lower; the production of crystals in the receiver, which must be cooled by a powerful freezing mixture, soon commences; lastly, the liquid portion of the product is removed by a current of dry carbonic-acid gas.

Prop., &c. Colourless prismatic crystals, which melt at 86° Fahr., boil at about 115°, and at 122° begin to suffer decomposition; added to water, much heat is generated; it rapidly attacks organic bodies, even caoutchouc; sometimes it explodes spontaneously. The process for its preparation is tedious and difficult.

=Nitric Acid, Dilute.= ACIDUM NITRICUM DILUTUM (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·42), 3 fl. oz.; distilled water, 17 fl. oz.; mix. Sp. gr. 1·082. “1 fl. oz. is saturated by 154 gr. of the crystals of carbonate of soda.” It contains about 12% of pure anhydrous acid.

2. (Ph. E.) Nitric acid (1·500), 1 fl. oz.; distilled water, 9 fl. oz. Or, commercial nitric acid (1·390), 1 fl. oz. 5-1/2 dr.; water, 9-1/2 fl. oz. Sp. gr. 1·077. It contains 11·16% of pure dry nitric acid.

3. (Ph. D.) Nitric acid (1·500), 4 fl. oz.; water, 29 fl. oz. Contains about 9·7% of pure acid. The above are used for convenience in dispensing.——Dose, 15 drops to 1/2 fl. dr., or more. The above must not be confounded with the acidum nitricum dilutum, Ph. D. 1826, which had the sp. gr. 1·280, nor with the following:——

4. (Henry’s.) Sp. gr. 1·143; equal in saturating power to hydrochloric acid sp. gr. 1·074, and sulphuric acid 1·135. Used in assaying.

5. (B. P.) Nitric acid, 6; distilled water sufficient to make the mixture when cooled to 60° Fahr., measure 31. Contains 15 per cent. of anhydrous nitric acid. Test. Sp. gr. 1·101. Six fluid drachms (361·3 grains) by weight require for neutralisation 1000 grain measures of the volumetric solution of soda, and, therefore, contain exactly one equivalent in grains of anhydrous acid, namely, 54 gr.——Use. Tonic, astringent, lithonlytic.——Dose, 10 to 30 minims.

=Nitric Acid, Fuming.= Syn. NITROUS ACID‡; ACIDUM NITRICUM FUMANS, L. The red fuming nitrous or nitric acid of commerce is simply nitric acid loaded with nitric peroxide (which see). That of the Ph. Bor. is distilled from nitre, 2 parts; oil of vitriol, 1 part.

=NI′TRIC ANHY′DRIDE.= See NITRIC ACID, ANHYDROUS.

=NI′TRIC OXIDE.= See NITROGEN, OXIDES OF.

=NI′TRITE.= A salt of nitrous acid; e.g. KNO_{2}, nitrite of potassium.

=NITRO-BEN′ZOL.= C_{2}H_{5}NO_{2}. Prep. By treating benzol with strong fuming nitric acid, with heat; after the violence of the reaction is over, the liquid is diluted with water, and the heavy oily fluid which separates is collected, washed, and dried.

Prop., &c. Yellowish, very sweet; smells of bitter almonds; insoluble in water; little affected by reagents; boils at 415° Fahr.; sp. gr. 1·209. Heated with an alcoholic solution of caustic potassa, and the mixture submitted to distillation, it yields a red, oily liquid, from which large red crystals of azobenzol separate. These are nearly insoluble in water, freely soluble in alcohol and ether, melt at 149° Fahr., and boil at 559·4° Fahr. BINITROBENZOL is made by dissolving benzol in a mixture of equal volumes of the strongest nitric and sulphuric acids, and boiling the liquid for a few minutes; the crystals (dinitrobenzol) which form as it cools are insoluble in water, but are freely soluble in alcohol. Nitro-benzol is extensively used as a substitute for the essential oil of bitter almonds, in perfumery. It is very poisonous, a quality, which Letheby asserts, it acquires owing to its conversion in the animal economy into aniline. M. Ferrand states that the presence of nitro-benzol in essence of bitter almonds may be detected as follows:——Heat to ebullition, in a test tube, three or four c.c. of a 20 per cent. alcoholic solution of potash, together with ten drops of the suspected essence. If nitro-benzol be present, the mixture takes a red colour; if the essence of bitter almonds be pure, it becomes a pale straw colour.

=NI′TROGEN.= N. Syn. AZOTE; NITROGENIUM, AZOTUM, L. A gaseous elementary substance, discovered by Rutherford, in 1722, and found to be a constituent of the atmosphere by Lavoisier, 1755. It is found both in the organic and inorganic kingdoms of nature; it forms about 4/5, or 78% of the bulk of the atmosphere, enters largely into the composition of most animal substances, and is a constituent of gluten, the alkaloids, and other vegetable principles.

Prep. 1. A small piece of phosphorus is placed in a capsule floating on the surface of the water of the pneumatic trough, and after setting it on fire a gas or bell-jar is inverted over it; as soon as the combustion is over, and the fumes of phosphoric anhydride have subsided, the residual gas is washed by agitation with recently boiled distilled water, or with a solution of pure potassa. It may be dried by either letting it stand over fused chloride of calcium, or, what is better, by passing it through concentrated oil of vitriol.

2. A porcelain tube is filled with copper turnings, or, preferably, with spongy copper (obtained by reducing the oxide with hydrogen), and is then heated to redness, a stream of dry atmospheric air being at the same time directed through it. By repeating the process with the same air, and finally passing it over fragments of pumice moistened with strong solution of potassa to absorb carbonic anhydride, the product is rendered quite pure.

3. Chlorine gas is passed into a solution of pure ammonia, care being taken to employ a considerable excess of the latter; the evolved gas, after being dried, is pure nitrogen. There is some danger of producing the explosive compound, chloride of nitrogen, with this process.

4. (Corenwinder.) From solution of nitrate of potassium, 1 volume; concentrated solution of chloride of ammonium, 3 vols.; gently heated together in a flask, and the evolved gas passed through sulphuric acid. Pure.

5. By boiling a solution of nitrite of ammonium, or, which amounts to the same thing, a mixture of one measure of a solution of nitrite of potassium and three measures of a solution of chloride of ammonium. Both solutions must be concentrated. This is the easiest method of preparing nitrogen and of obtaining the gas in a pure state.

Note.——The nitrite of potassium to be employed in this process is best prepared by passing nitrous anhydride, evolved from starch and nitric acid, into a solution of potassa (sp. gr. 1·38) till it imparts an acid reaction to test-paper, and then neutralising by the addition of potassa.

6. From lean flesh digested in nitric acid, at a gentle heat.

Prop., &c. Pure nitrogen is a colourless, odourless, tasteless gas, neither combustible nor capable of supporting combustion or respiration. It is neutral to test-paper, does not affect lime water, and is only slightly absorbed by pure water. Its sp. gr. is ·9713. It is recognised by its purely negative qualities.

=Nitrogen, Chlo′′ride of.= NCl_{3}. Syn. NITROGEN TRICHLORIDE, TERCHLORIDE OF NITROGEN. This compound was discovered by Dulong in 1811, but its nature was first accurately determined by Sir H. Davy.

Prep. (Liebig.) Dissolve chloride of ammonium, 1 oz., in hot water, 12 or 14 oz., and as soon as the temperature has fallen to 90° Fahr., invert a wide-mouthed glass bottle full of chlorine over it. The gas is gradually absorbed, the solution acquires a yellowish colour, and in the course of 15 to 20 minutes yellow, oil-like globules of chloride of nitrogen form upon the surface of the liquid, and ultimately sink to the bottom. The globules, as they descend, should be received in a small leaden saucer, placed under the mouth of the bottle for the purpose.

Prop., &c. Chloride of nitrogen should consequently be only prepared in very small quantities at a time. Both its discoverer and Sir H. Davy met with severe injuries while experimenting on it. Its sp. gr. is 1·653; it volatilises at 160° Fahr., and between 200° and 212° fulminates violently. Contact with combustible bodies at ordinary temperatures immediately causes detonation. The explosive power of this compound seems to exceed that of every known substance, not even excepting fulminating silver: A minute globule, no larger than a grain of mustard seed, placed on a platina spoon, and touched with a piece of phosphorus stuck on the point of a penknife, immediately explodes, and shivers the blade into fragments, at the same time that the vessel that contains it is broken to pieces. Olive oil, naphtha, and oil of turpentine, have a similar effect. See NITROGEN, IODIDE OF (below).

=Nitrogen, I′odide of.= NI_{2}. Syn. NITROGEN TRI-IODIDE, TERIODIDE OF NITROGEN. A dark brown or black insoluble powder, which is most safely and conveniently prepared by saturating alcohol (sp. gr. ·852) with iodine, adding a large quantity of the strongest pure solution of ammonia, and agitating the mixture; water must now be added, when iodide of nitrogen will be precipitated, and must be carefully washed with cold distilled water. The filter containing the precipitate should be spread out on a sheet of glass and torn into small pieces while the iodide is still moist. The precipitate should be simply exposed to air only.

Prop., &c. It detonates violently as soon as it becomes dry, by the slightest pressure or friction, even that of a feather, and often spontaneously; but this explosion is scarcely so powerful as that of the chloride of nitrogen. It also explodes whilst moist, though less readily. It should only be prepared in very small quantities at a time. Recent researches induce the belief that both the above compounds contain hydrogen.

=Nitrogen, Ox′ides of.= Nitrogen forms 5 distinct compounds with oxygen.

1. =Nitrous ox′ide.= Syn. PROTOXIDE OF NITROGEN; LAUGING GAS; NITROGENII PROTOXYDUM, L. Prep. From fused nitrate of ammonium, introduced into a glass retort, or a flask furnished with a bent tube, and then exposed, over a spirit-lamp, or charcoal-chauffer, to a temperature of about 389° Fahr.; the evolved gas may be collected in bladders, gas-bags, a gasometer, or in the pneumatic trough over warm water. The gas may be purified by pouring it through three wash-bottles, one containing water, one a solution of sulphate of iron, and the other a solution of potassa.

Prop., &c. Colourless; possesses an agreeable odour, and a sweetish taste; at 32°, under a pressure of 30 atmospheres, it is liquid; this, when exposed under the receiver of a powerful air-pump, changes into a snow-like solid; at -180° Fahr., it is a transparent, colourless, crystalline body; it supports combustion, and is absorbed by cold water. Sp. gr. 1·520. Its most remarkable property is its action on the system when inspired. A few deep inspirations are usually succeeded by a pleasing state of excitement, and a strong propensity to laughter and muscular exertion, which soon subside, without being followed by languor or depression. Its effects, however, vary with different constitutions. From 4 to 12 quarts may be breathed with safety. It produces temporary insensibility to pain, like chloroform or ether; but its use is dangerous when affections of the heart, lungs, or brain are present. This gas is now successfully and extensively employed as an anæsthetic in dental surgery.

Obs. No particular caution is required in preparing the above compound, except the use of too much heat. The temperature should be so arranged as to keep the melted mass in a state of gentle ebullition, and should not be allowed, under any circumstances, to exceed about 500° Fahr. Should white fumes appear within the retort after the evolution of the gas has commenced, the heat should be at once lowered, as, when heated to about 600°, nitrate of ammonia explodes with violence.

Nitrous oxide may also be made in the same way, from crystallised nitrate of ammonia, or by exposing nitric oxide for some days over iron filings moistened with water, but, without great care, the product is not always fit for respiration. When pure, it is colourless, has an agreeable odour, and does not affect solution of nitrate of silver. See ANÆSTHETICS.

2. =Nitric oxide.= NO. Syn. DEUTOXIDE OF NITROGEN, NITROUS GAS, BINOXIDE OF NITROGEN; NITROGENEE BINOXYDUM, L. Prep. By pouring nitric acid, sp. gr. 1·2, on metallic copper, in the form of turnings, clippings, or wire. Effervescence ensues, and nitric oxide is evolved, and may be collected over water or mercury in the pneumatic trough. The residual liquid yields crystals of nitrate of copper on evaporation.

Prop., &c. A colourless, tasteless, inodorous, irrespirable, and incombustible gas. In contact with free oxygen, it produces dense orange or red vapours of nitric peroxide (NO_{2}), which are freely absorbed by water. Nitric oxide is absorbed by a solution of ferrous sulphate, which it turns of a deep brown or nearly black colour, which is removed by boiling. Sp. gr. 1·039.

=Nitrous Anhydride.= N_{2}O_{3}. Syn. NITROGEN TRIOXIDE, ANHYDROUS NITROUS ACID. The easiest method of obtaining this compound consists in heating 1 part of powdered starch with 8 parts of nitric acid of sp. gr. 1·25, and passing the evolved gases, first through a drying tube two feet long containing fused chloride of calcium, and then into a dry and empty U-tube cooled to 20° Fahr. by surrounding it with a mixture of pounded ice and crystallised chloride of calcium. Nitrous anhydride thus produced is a blue liquid which emits red fumes, and which on admixture with water at ordinary temperatures is decomposed, producing nitric acid and nitric oxide. If nitrous anhydride be mixed with water at temperatures below 0° Fahr. the two combine, and a blue solution is formed which (probably) contains nitrous acid (HNO_{2}). See NITROUS ACID.

=Nitrogen Pentoxide.= N_{2}O_{5}. Syn. NITRIC PENTOXIDE, NITRIC ANHYDRIDE, ANHYDROUS NITRIC ACID. See NITRIC ACID (ANHYDROUS).

=Nitrogen Peroxide.= NO_{2}. Syn. NITRIC PEROXIDE, PEROXIDE OF NITROGEN, NITROGEN TETROXIDE, HYPONITRIC ANHYDRIDE. This compound forms the chief constituent of the red fumes which develop on mixing nitric oxide with air or oxygen. It is most readily prepared by heating thoroughly dried nitrate of lead in a retort, and conducting the evolved gases into a U-tube surrounded with a freezing mixture of ice and salt for the purpose of condensing the nitric peroxide. If the U-tube be perfectly dry, and the cold intense, the nitric peroxide obtained assumes the form of transparent crystals, but the presence of the slightest trace of moisture prevents their formation and produces instead a colourless liquid which, as the temperature rises, acquires a yellow and ultimately a red colour. Nitric peroxide dissolves in nitric acid and turns it of a yellow or red hue. The so-called ‘nitrous acid’ or ‘fuming nitric acid’ of commerce owes its deep red colour to the presence of this compound. At very low temperatures water converts nitric peroxide into nitric and nitrous acids; at ordinary temperatures it transforms it into nitric acid, nitrous acid, and nitric oxide.

=NITRO-GLYCERIN.= Syn. GLONOIN, NITRATE OF GLYCERYL, TRINITRITE, NITROLEUM, FULMINATING OIL, TRI-NITROGLYCERIN. This dangerously explosive compound, from the use of which in mining, quarrying, and such like operations so many fatal accidents have occurred, is glycerin in which 3 atoms of hydrogen have been replaced by 3 molecules of nitroxyl (NO_{2}), as illustrated by the following formulæ:

Glycerin. Nitro-glycerin. C_{3}H_{5} } (H } ) = C_{3}H_{5} } (H } ) }O_{3} + 3 ( }O ) } O_{3} + 3 ( } O) H_{3} } (NO_{2} } ) (NO_{2})_{3} } (H } )

It was discovered in 1847 by Dr. Sobrero, a pupil of Pelouze.

Kopp prepares nitro glycerin by mixing 3 parts of sulphuric acid, of sp. gr. of 1·767, with 1 part of fuming nitric acid. 2800 grammes of the mixed acids are added to 350 grammes of glycerin, great care being necessary to avoid any elevation of temperature, which would lead to a violent reaction, resulting in the conversion of the glycerin into oxalic acid.

After standing 5 or 10 minutes, the mixture is poured into four or six times its bulk of very cold water to which a rotatory motion has been imparted. The nitro-glycerin falls to the bottom of the vessel as an oily-looking liquid, which is washed by decantation. The manufacture of nitro-glycerin is attended with considerable danger, since very slight friction or pressure is sufficient to determine its explosion. Hence many methods have been suggested for guarding against accidents from it during storage. One of these consists in mixing it with finely powdered glass.

Wurtz advises the nitro-glycerin to be mixed with solutions of nitrate of lime, zinc, or magnesia, the solutions to have a sp. gr. equal to the nitro-glycerin. By this means a harmless emulsion would be formed, and the nitro-glycerin would be recoverable when required for use by simply adding water. Nobel’s plan consists in dissolving it in wood spirit.

Prop. Nitro-glycerin is a fluid of a yellow or brownish colour, having a sp. gr. of 1·6. It dissolves in alcohol, ether, and wood naphtha, from all of which it may be recovered by the addition of water. Dissolved in either of these solutions it becomes converted into a crystalline mass when exposed to a low temperature. If subjected to a blow it explodes with fearful violence, a single drop placed upon paper, and struck upon an anvil, giving rise to a report that is almost deafening. Neither a spark nor the application of a lighted body is said to cause its ignition, which takes place with difficulty even if it be applied to a thin layer of the substance. 100 parts of nitro-glycerin yield on combustion:

Water 20 parts. Carbonic acid 58 ” Oxygen 3·5 ” Nitrogen 18·5 ” —————— 100·0[48]

[Footnote 48: Wagner.]

As the specific gravity of nitro-glycerin is 1·6, one part by bulk will yield by combustion:——

Aqueous vapour 554 volumes. Carbonic acid 469 ” Oxygen 39 ” Nitrogen 236 ” —————— 1298[48] ”

Other experimenters affirm that, instead of free oxygen, nitrous oxide is one of the products of the combustion of nitro-glycerin. According to Nobel the heat liberated when nitro-glycerin is exploded, causes the expansion of the gases to be eight times their original bulk; therefore, one volume of the substance will yield 10,384 volumes of gas, whilst one part by bulk of gunpowder only yields 800 volumes of gas. If these data be correct the explosive force of nitro-glycerin is thirteen times greater than that of powder, bulk for bulk, and eight times greater weight for weight.

Böttger has devised a process for the preparation of nitro-glycerin, which being, as he affirms, entirely free from danger, adapts it for lecture experiments:——A few grains of pure glycerin, free from water, is poured into a test-tube, which is surrounded by a freezing mixture, and containing a mixture of one volume of the most concentrated nitric acid (1·52 sp. gr.), and two volumes of the strongest sulphuric acid (1·83 sp. gr.). Then, as quickly as possible, the whole is poured into a larger quantity of cold water. The nitro-glycerin, which has formed like oil drops, sinks rapidly to the bottom, being specifically the heavier liquid. It is then washed several times by decantation with fresh water, and, lastly, with a weak solution of soda.

Remove the water with a few pieces of fused chloride of calcium. Then the nitro-glycerin is in such purity that it may, without danger, be kept any length of time for lecture experiments.

=NITRO-HYDROCHLO′RIC ACID.= Syn. NITRO-MURIATIC ACID; AQUA REGIA, ACIDUM NITRO-HYDROCHLORICUM (B. P.), A NITRO-MURIATICUM, L.; EAU RÉGALE, Fr. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Nitric acid, 3; hydrochloric acid, 4; water, 25. Mix the acids twenty-four hours before adding the water. (This precaution is necessary to allow of the development of the chlorine, and the chloronitrous and chloronitric gases which result from the mutual decomposition of the two acids, and upon which the therapeutic activity of the agent depends). Colourless. Keep the mixture in a cool and dark place.

2. (Ph. D. 1826). Nitric acid, 1 part; hydrochloric acid, 2 parts (both by measure); mix in a refrigerated bottle, and keep the mixture in a cold and dark place. Used to dissolve gold and platinum; and in medicine, in liver complaints, syphilis, the exanthemata, &c., either externally, in doses of 5 to 15 drops in water, or externally, as a foot- or knee-bath. It is also occasionally employed as a caustic.

3. (AQUA REGIA WITH SAL AMMONIAC.) Nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·2), 16 fl. oz.; sal ammoniac, 4 oz.; dissolve. Occasionally used by dyers; does not keep well.

4. (DYERS’ AQUAFORTIS.) Colourless nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·17), 10 lbs.; hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1·19), 1 lb.; mix. Used by dyers.

=NITRO-PRUS′SIDES.= A series of salts discovered by Dr Playfair, and obtained by the action of nitric acid on the ferrocyanides and ferridcyanides. The most important of these salts is the nitroprusside of sodium (NA_{2} (NO) FeCy_{5}. 2Aq.). Prep. Dissolve 2 parts of powdered ferrocyanide of sodium in 5 parts of common nitric acid, previously diluted with its own volume of water. When the evolution of gas has ceased, digest the solution on a water bath until it no longer yields a blue but slate-coloured precipitate with ferrous sulphate. Cool the liquid, filter, neutralise the filtrate with carbonate of sodium, and again filter. This filtrate, on evaporation, yields crystals consisting of a mixture of nitro-prusside of sodium and nitrate of potassium; the former, which may be recognised by their rhombic shape and their fine ruling colour, should be picked out and preserved.——Use. As a test for soluble sulphides, with which nitro-prusside of sodium strikes a beautiful violet tint. According to Playfair this is the most delicate test for alkaline sulphides.

=NI′TROUS ACID.= HNO_{2} See NITROUS ANHYDRIDE, under NITROGEN, OXIDES OF.

=NITROUS OXIDE.= See NITROGEN, OXIDES OF.

=NODE.= Syn. NODUS, L. A hard tumour proceeding from a bone, and caused by the swelling of its external membrane. The bones of the leg, forehead, and forearm, are those most commonly attacked. Nodes are generally accompanied with considerable pain, and often with caries and loss of vitality.

=NOLI ME TANGERE.= See LUPUS.

=NOMENCLATURE (Chemical).= The following information will doubtless prove useful to many of our readers, as serving to explain terms which are necessarily of frequent occurrence in this work:

ACIDS.——a. When a substance produces only one acid compound, the name of this acid is formed by adding the termination -IC to that of the radical, or to the leading or characteristic portion of it; as sulphuric acid, an acid of sulphur. This is Latinised by changing -IC into -ICUM; as, _acidum, sulphur_ICUM.——b. When a body forms two acid compounds containing oxygen, the name of the one containing the smaller proportion of that substance ends in -OUS; as _nitr_OUS acid, which contains 1 atom of nitrogen and 2 of oxygen; _nitr_IC acid, containing 1 atom of nitrogen and 3 of oxygen. In this case the Latin name ends in -OSUM; as, _acidum nitr_OSUM.——c. When a substance forms more than two acids with oxygen, the Greek preposition HYPO- (below or under) is prefixed to the name of the acid in -OUS or -IC next above it; as, HYPO_chlorous acid_.——d. When a new acid compound of a substance is discovered, containing more oxygen than another acid of the same substances already known, the name of which ends in -IC, the prefix PER- or HYPER- is added; as, PER_iodic acid_. This may be illustrated by the oxygen acids of chlorine:——

Hypochlorous acid (acidum hypochlorosum) HClO Chlorous ” ( ” chlorosum) HClO_{2} Chloric ” ( ” chloricum) HClO_{3} Perchloric or} Hyperchloric } ” ( ” perchloricum) HClO_{4}

=OXIDES.= The names of these have, in general, reference to the number of atoms of oxygen which they contain. When a metal forms only one basic compound with oxygen, this compound is simply called the oxide of such base; but as most substances form more than one compound with oxygen, certain prefixes are introduced to express the proportions. In such cases it is generally found that one out of the number has a strongly marked basic character, and contains 1 atom of each of its constituents. This is called the oxide, protoxide, or monoxide, and forms the standard to which those both above and below it are preferred. Thus, supposing M to be the metal, we may have:——

Suboxide or dioxide (suboxydum, dioxydum) M_{2}O Oxide, protoxide, or monoxide (oxydum, protoxydum) MO Sesquioxide (sesquioxydum) M_{2}O_{3} Binoxide, dioxide, or deutoxide (binoxydum, deutoxydum) MO_{2} Teroxide or trioxide (teroxydum, tritoxydum) MO_{3} {That containing {the largest Peroxide (peroxydum) {proportion of {oxygen.

SALTS.——a. Acids having names ending in -IC give rise to salts whose names end in ATE; thus _nitr_IC acid yields _nitr_ATES, e.g. nitrate of silver. -ATE is Latinised by -AS, e.g. nitrate of silver becomes _argenti nitr_AS.

b. Acids possessing names ending in -OUS form salts having names ending in -ITE; thus _sulphur_OUS acid produces _sulph_ITES, e.g. sulphite of sodium. -ITE is Latinised by -IS; e.g. sulphite of sodium becomes _sulph_IS.

c. The preceding names are presumed to refer to neutral compounds. In acid salts the prefixes noticed above are added to express the preponderance of the acid radical over the metal. KHSO_{4} is called acid sulphate of potassium, BI_sulphate of potassium_, or BI_sulphate of potash_, the neutral sulphate being K_{2}SO_{4}.

d. In basic salts, or those in which the metal is in excess of the acid radical, the prefixes -SUB and -DI are employed; e.g. the formula of neutral acetate of lead is PbĀ_{2}. This salt, when boiled with oxide of lead (a base), furnishes [PbĀ_{2}PbO] and [PbĀ_{2}2PbO]. They are both, therefore, basic acetates; and to distinguish one from the other the former is called DI_acetate_ and the latter TRI_acetate_ of lead; -di referring to the presence of two atoms of lead and -tri to three.

Formerly the salts of the metals of the alkalies and alkaline earths received names which indicated the existence in them of the oxides of such metals. Thus, the terms carbonate of soda, nitrate of potash, carbonate of lime, sulphate of magnesia, names by which these fluids are still designated by some chemists are now substituted by the more systematic and less speculative names of carbonate of sodium, nitrate of potassium, carbonate of calcium, and sulphate of magnesium. Another, and in the opinion of the editor, a still better system of nomenclature is that in which the metallic or basic radical is mentioned first; e.g. calcium sulphate instead of sulphate of calcium, ammonium chloride for chloride of ammonium. When the same radicals form more than one series of salts, each series is distinguished by appending the terminations -IC and -OUS to that part of the name which refer to the basic radical; e.g. _mercur_OUS chloride (HgCl), _mercur_IC chloride(HgCl_{2}); _ferr_OUS sulphate (FeSO_{4}), _ferr_IC sulphate(Fe_{2}(SO_{4})_{3}).

NON-METALLIC BODIES, &c. The names of the compounds formed by the union of the non-metallic elements, and certain other bodies, with the metals and with each other, either terminate in -IDE, Latinised by -IDUM, or in -URET, Latinised by -URETUM; as, _arsen_IDE or _arseni_URET (_arsen_IDUM, _arseni_URETUM), _brom_IDE, _carb_IDE or _carb_URET, _chlor_IDE, _cyan_IDE _fluor_IDE, _hydr_IDE, _iod_IDE, _sulph_IDE or _sulph_URET, &c. The first of these terminations now prevails among English scientific chemists. The prefixes already noticed are also employed here.

METALS. The names of the metals (those of them, at least, that have been given during the present century) end in -IUM or (less frequently) in -UM; as _potass_IUM, _sod_IUM, _platin_UM. The Latin names of several of the non-metallic elementary bodies also end in -IUM; as, _iodin_IUM, _nitrogen_IUM, &c.

ALKALOIDS. The names of the organic bases which resemble the alkalies in their properties end either in -IA, -NA, or -INE; as, _morph_IA, _qui_NA, _strychn_INE. These terminations are now limited, as much as possible, to substances exhibiting basic properties, but were formerly very loosely applied.

Many chemists reject the first two terminations, and apply -INE to every substance of this class; as, _morph_INE, _quin_INE, _anil_INE, &c.

OTHER ORGANIC SUBSTANCES. The names of organic radicles generally terminate in -YL; as, _eth_YL, _meth_YL, _benz_OYL, &c.; they mostly contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Compounds corresponding to the electro-negative elements have the termination -OGEN, as _cyan_OGEN, _amid_OGEN. Neutral compounds of carbon and hydrogen, mostly liquid, have the termination -OL, or -OLE; as, _benz_OL, _pyr_OLE. Other neutral substances, generally solid, have the termination -IN; as, _paraff_IN, _naphthal_IN. Compounds resembling ammonia, and generally considered as ‘substitution compounds’ of that body, terminate in -AMINE; as, _ethyl_AMINE, _propyl_AMINE.

The Latin genitive or possessive of the above compounds in——

-as is -atis -is ” -itis -icum ” -ici -osum ” -osi -idum ” -idi -etum ” -eti -ium ” -ii -um ” -i -ia } -a } ” -æ -na }

Ex. Acetas (acetate), acetatis of acetate; arsenis, arsenitis; citricum, citrici; arseniosum, arseniosi; iodidum, iodidi; sulphuretum, sulphureti; sodium, sodii; platinum, platini; morphia, morphiæ; quina, quinæ; narcotina, narcotinæ. The genitives of common names vary with the termination. Most of those ending in -a make æ, and most of those in -us and -um make -i; but there are many exceptions, among which cornu (a horn) and spiritus (spirit) which are unaltered in the genitive singular, may be mentioned as examples.

=NORFOLK FLUID.= Prep. Take of linseed oil, 3 pints; black resin, 1/2 lb.; yellow wax, 12 oz.; melt, and add, of neat’s-foot oil, 1 quart; oil of turpentine, 1 pint. Used to preserve and soften leather.

=NOR′IUM.= An unexamined metal, the oxide of which, according to Svanberg, exists in certain varieties of ZIRCON.

=NOS′TRUMS.= See PATENT MEDICINES, &c.

=NOTICES.= The following sections of the Public Health Act refer to serving and delivery of notices under that Statute:

(S. 266.) Notices, orders, and other such documents under the Public Health Act may be in writing or print, or partly in writing and partly in print; and if the same require authentication by the local authority, the signature thereof by the clerk to the local authority or their surveyor or inspector of nuisances shall be sufficient authentication.

(S. 267.) Notices, orders, or any other documents required or authorised to be served under the said Act may be served by delivering the same to or at the residence of the person to whom they are respectively addressed, or where addressed to the owner or occupier of premises, by delivering the same or a true copy thereof to some person on the premises, or if there is no person on the premises who can be so served, by fixing the same on some conspicuous part of the premises; they may also be served by post by a prepaid letter, and if served by post shall be deemed to have been served at the time when the letter containing the same would have been delivered in the ordinary course of post, and in proving such service it shall be sufficient to prove that the notice, order, or other document was properly addressed and put into the post.

Any notice required to be given to the owner or occupier of any premises may be addressed by the description of the ‘owner’ or ‘occupier’ of the premises (naming them) in respect of which the notice is given, without further name or description.

Enforcing the Drainage of Houses.

(S. 23.) Notice is to be given to the owner or occupier, but in case of the failure of either to comply, and the authority having to do the work, the expenses fall on the owner.

Insufficient Privy Accommodation.

(SS. 36 and 37.) The same procedure as under the above section.

The Cleansing and Whitewashing of Houses.

(S. 46.) Notice to the owner or occupier.——

The person on whom the notice is served is liable to a penalty if it is not complied with.

_The Removal of Manure or Filth, &c., in an Urban District._

(S. 49.) Notice to be served on the person to whom the manure belongs, or to the occupier of the premises whereon it exists. If the urban authority have to remove it themselves, the expense of removal falls upon the owner of the manure, &c., or the occupier of the premises, or where there is no occupier, the owner of the premises.

In the case of Nuisances.

(S. 94.) Notice is to be served upon the person causing or permitting the nuisance to remain, or, if he cannot be found, on the owner or occupier of the premises on which the nuisance arises; but if the nuisance arises from the want or defective construction of any structural convenience, or where there is no occupier, notice is to be served on the owner.

In the case of Houses, &c., requiring Disinfection.

(S. 120.) Notice is to be given to the owner or occupier, and in case of non-compliance, the person on whom the notice is served is liable to penalties, and the expenses of the authority doing the necessary works falls upon that person (with certain exceptions, in case of poverty).

=NOVAR′GENT.= Prep. From recently precipitated chloride of silver by dissolving it in a solution of either hyposulphite of sodium or of cyanide of potassium. Used chiefly to restore old plated goods. The liquid is rubbed over the metal to be coated with a little prepared chalk, and the part is afterwards polished off with a piece of soft leather. A powder recently sold under the same name is formed by mixing the preceding article with chalk, and drying the mass. It is made into a paste with a little water, spirit of wine, or gin, before applying it.

=NOVAUR′UM.= From a solution of neutral trichloride of gold, as the last.

=NOYAU.= Syn. CRÈME DE NOYAU. This is a pleasant nutty-tasted liqueur; but from the large proportion of prussic acid which it contains, a small quantity only should be taken at a time.

Prep. 1. Bitter almonds (bruised), 3 oz.; spirit (22 u. p.), 1 quart; sugar, 1 lb.; (dissolved in) water, 3/4 pint; macerate for 10 days, frequently shaking the vessel; then allow it to repose for a few days, and decant the clear portion.

2. As the last, but substituting apricot or peach kernels (with the shells, bruised), for the almonds.

3. To either of the above, add of coriander seed and ginger, of each, bruised, 1 dr.; mace and cinnamon, of each 1/2 dr.

4. (Wholesale.) To plain cordial, at 54 to 60 u. p., containing 3 lbs. of sugar per gallon, add, gradually, essence of bitter almonds, q. s. to flavour.

5. (CRÊME DE NOYAU DE MARTINIQUE.) Loaf sugar, 24 lbs.; water, 2-1/2 galls.; dissolve, add, of proof spirit, 5 galls.; orange-flower water, 3 pints; bitter almonds (bruised), 1 lb.; essence of lemons, 2 dr.; as above. See LIQUEURS.

=NUISANCE.= The following are the chief clauses of the Public Health Act respecting nuisances:

Definition of Nuisances.

1. Any premises in such a state as to be a nuisance or injurious to health.

2. Any pool, ditch, gutter, water-course, privy, urinal, cesspool, drain, or ashpit, so foul as to be a nuisance or injurious to health.

3. Any animal so kept as to be a nuisance or injurious to health.

4. Any accumulation or deposit which is a nuisance or injurious to health.

5. Any house, or part of a house, so overcrowded as to be dangerous or injurious to the health of the inmates, whether or not members of the same family.

6. Any factory, workshop, or workplace (not already under the operation of any general Act for the regulation of factories or bakehouses) not kept in a cleanly state, or not ventilated in such a manner as to render harmless as far as practicable any gases, vapours, dust, or other impurities generated in the course of the work carried on therein that are a nuisance or injurious to health, or so overcrowded while work is carried on as to be dangerous and injurious to the health of those employed therein.

7. Any fireplace or furnace which does not, as far as practicable, consume the smoke arising from the combustible used in such fireplace or furnace, and is used for working engines by steam, or in any mill, factory, dye-house, brewery, bakehouse, or gaswork, or in any manufacturing or trade process whatsoever; and——

Any chimney (not being the chimney of a private dwelling-house) sending forth black smoke in such quantity as to be a nuisance;

Shall be deemed to be nuisances liable to be dealt with summarily under the Public Health Act: Provided——

First. That a penalty shall not be imposed on any person in respect of any accumulation or deposit necessary for the effectual carrying on any business or manufacture, if it be proved to the satisfaction of the court that the accumulation or deposit has not been kept longer than is necessary for the purposes of the business or manufacture, and that the best available means have been taken for preventing injury thereby to the public health.

Secondly. That where a person is summoned before any court in respect of a nuisance arising from a fireplace or furnace which does not consume the smoke arising from the combustible used in such fireplace or furnace, the court may hold that no nuisance is created within the meaning of this Act, and dismiss the complaint, if it is satisfied that such fireplace or furnace is constructed in such a manner as to consume as far as practicable, having regard to the nature of the manufacture or trade, all smoke arising therefrom, and that such fireplace or furnace has been carefully attended to by the person having the charge thereof. (P. H., s. 91.)

The Act also defines and specifies:——1. The duty and powers of a local authority to inspect a district with the view to an abatement of any nuisance. 2. The process of information to be pursued in representing a nuisance to any local authority. 3. Procedure on failing to comply with notice. 4. The power of the court to make an order dealing with such nuisance. 5. The penalty for neglecting to obey such order. 6. The power of complaint by private individuals. 7. The power of the police to proceed in certain cases. 8. The cost and expense of executing the provisions relating to nuisances. 9. The power of sale of manure, &c. 10. The supervision of nuisances caused by drains, privies &c. 11. The proceedings to be taken in certain cases against nuisances in ships, &c.

=NUR′SING.= Milk is the natural food of the mammalia during the earlier period of their existence. It contains all that is necessary for the nourishment of their bodies, and on it they thrive and grow. Its secretion only actively commences at the time when it is required for the sustenance of the offspring, and it either materially lessens in quantity, or wholly disappears, as soon as the necessity of its existence has passed away, and the little being who depended on it has acquired sufficient age and strength to exist on cruder aliment. The nursing mother, when in a state of perfect health, and properly supplied with a sufficiency, without excess, of nutritious food, elaborates this secretion in the fittest condition to ensure the health and vigour of her offspring. Her bosom is the fountain whence flows the beauty and stamina of the future adult, and whilst giving strength and life to another, she increases and prolongs her own.

The milk of woman varies with the food, health, age, &c., of the nurse. That produced from a mixed animal and vegetable diet, neither acesces nor coagulates spontaneously, like cows’ milk; and when gently evaporated in an open vessel, “the last drop continues thin, sweet, and bland.” Acids and rennet, however, coagulate it readily, and so does the gastric juice of the infant, as shown by the condition in which it is often ejected by the latter. The milk of a woman who lives wholly on vegetable food acesces and coagulates with equal readiness and in a precisely similar manner to cows’ milk. The quality of the milk also varies with the progress of the digestion. Within the first hour or two after a meal it is thin and serous, and then gradually improves in richness and flavour, until at about the fourth or fifth hour it possesses these qualities in the highest degree. This, then, is the period at which the infant should be applied to the breast, which, according to the present habits of society, would be during the hour immediately preceding each meal, except the breakfast. After about the fifth or sixth hour the milk gradually loses its peculiar colour and odour, until towards the tenth or twelfth hour after eating food it becomes yellowish, bitter, and often nauseous; and in this condition is frequently refused by the infant. This points out the impropriety of a nurse fasting longer than 4 to 5 hours, except during the night, when the period may be extended to 7 or 8 hours, but never longer. The time after accouchement is another matter that influences the character of human milk in respect of its wholesomeness for the infant. The milk secreted soon after delivery is very thin and serous, but in the course of a few days it becomes thicker, richer, and more nutritious; and a gradual change in the same direction proceeds during the usual period of suckling. When the mother suckles her own infant, or the “age of the milk,” as the nurses say, corresponds to that of the child, all goes on well; but when the former much exceeds the latter, the reverse is the case. Thus, it is found that an infant is incapable of completely digesting the milk of a nurse whose own child is much older than itself; and that an infant of a few weeks old will often starve on the milk intended by nature for one several times its age. It is, therefore, necessary, in selecting a wet-nurse, to be certain that her condition, in this respect, closely corresponds to that of the mother of the infant, or that it does not differ, on this point, more than 3 or 4 weeks. In respect of the use of high-flavoured or improper food and beverages, medicine, &c., it appears that all these substances immediately affect the milk, and impart to it more or less of their peculiar flavour and properties; and, except with remedies administered under medical advice, in nearly all cases prove injurious to the infant. The diet of a nurse should be nutritious and succulent, and its healthy digestion should be promoted by exercise and pure air. Strong liquors, more especially spirits, act like slow poisons on the infant, and their habitual use by a nurse should, therefore, be considered as a positive disqualification for the duties of her office. The care of the mother or wet-nurse should be particularly directed to the maintenance of her own health and equanimity, by which both the health and good temper of the infant will be, as far as possible, ensured. A grieving, irritable, or angry mother forces her bad qualities on her offspring, in the shape of fits, convulsions, or hopeless marasmus. See INFANCY, MILK, INFANTS, FOOD FOR, &c.

=NUT′MEG.= Syn. MYRISTICÆ NUCLEUS, NUCISTA, NUX MOSCHATA, N. MYRISTICA, N. AROMATICA, MYRISTICA (B. P., Ph. L.), L. “The shelled seed of Myristica officinalis (Linn.; M. moschata——Thunberg),or nutmeg-tree.” It is chiefly used as a spice and condiment, but it is also esteemed as an aromatic in flatulency and diarrhœa.——Dose. Half a teaspoonful, or more, grated. The distilled and expressed oils (OLEUM MYRISTICÆ) are also officinal.

Of the different varieties of nutmegs met with in commerce, those known as Penang are the most valuable. Next to these rank the Dutch or Batavian kind, and after these the Singapore nutmegs. In the Dutch or Batavian variety the exterior is composed of a number of white furrows, with brown projections, which aspect is caused by their having been dusted over with lime previous to their exportation. Besides the above, there is also a very inferior description, known as the long or wild nutmeg, which are met with either in the shell, out of the shell, or in the shell with the mace attached.

Nutmegs are subject to the ravages of a worm which would seem to devour or destroy their aromatic principle, since when attacked by this parasite they lose both their odour and taste.

In 100 parts sound nutmegs contain——

Volatile oil 6·0 Liquid fat 7·6 Solid fat 24·0 Acid 0·8 Starch 2·4 Gum 1·2 Ligneous fibre 54·0 Loss 4·0 —————— 100·0 (BONASTRE.)

=NUTRI′′TION.= The phenomena of life are accompanied by the constant and unceasing waste of the materials of which the animal body is composed. Every act of volition, every exertion of muscular power, every functional action of the organism, whether perceptible or imperceptible and involuntary, every play of chemical affinity and decomposition, even thought itself, occasions the disorganisation and destruction, as living matter, of a portion of ourselves. But the process of respiration, and the various important changes with which it is connected, tends, more than all the other vital functions, to waste the substance of the body, the temperature of which it is its special office to support. This loss, this change, which commences with life and terminates only with death, is compensated for by the constant renewal of the whole frame by the deposition and assimilation, or organisation, of matter from the blood, which thus becomes gradually thinner and impoverished, unless, in its turn, it receives a corresponding supply of its vital elements. This it does from the food, which, by the functions of digestion, is converted into a ‘chyle,’ and after being taken up by the ‘lacteals,’ passes into the blood, of which it then becomes a part, and after being animalised and rendered similar to the being it is destined to nourish, by the peculiar action of the vital affinities, it attaches itself to those organs or tissues, the loss of which it is intended to supply. This constitutes nutrition.

The food of animals, or, rather, the nutritious portion of that food on which we live, is wholly organic matter, and is either directly or indirectly produced by the powers of vegetation from the inorganic world. The plant elaborates food for the herbivora, and these, in their turn, serve as food for the flesh-eating animals. In both cases the leading alimentary principles are the same; the difference is in their proportions. Flesh is identical in composition with blood, and with the body of the animal that blood is destined to nourish. It abounds in albumen, casein, and fibrin. The vegetable substances used as food also contain nitrogenised principles of a precisely similar character and chemical constitution to those found in flesh, and which we are, therefore, bound to believe are absolutely the same. The gluten of wheat, when purified from gliadin, presents all the characteristics of pure fibrin. The albumen extracted from vegetable juices, when coagulated by heat, cannot be distinguished from the boiled white of egg in a divided condition. The legumen or vegetable casein of almonds, peas, beans, and many of the oily seeds, bears the most striking resemblance to the casein of milk. These facts clearly show that the leading nitrogenised principles of animal bodies pre-exist in vegetables, and that the substances employed as food must have the same, or nearly the same, chemical composition as the body itself. The striking contrast of animal and vegetable food, as far as this point is concerned, is more apparent than real. The actual difference between the two is to be found in the existence of a large quantity of non-nitrogenised matter (sugar, starch, &c.) in the last, which is not contained in the other——matter which abounds in carbon, and which, by its combustion in the system, serves to support the animal heat at a less sacrifice of the organic fabric. In the flesh-eating animal the waste of the organic tissues is very rapid, and the tax upon the vital energies proportionate; for the temperature of its body is kept up, for the most part, by the burning of the nitrogenised matter of which these tissues are composed.

The process of digestion is that by which the available portions of the food are reduced to a form adapted for absorption by the vessels by which it is introduced into the system. In the flesh-eating animal this process is extremely simple, and consists in the mere comminution of the food by the teeth, and its reduction to the liquid state in the stomach, after which, from the nature of its composition, it is nearly all taken up, and at once conveyed into the blood. In the herbivora, however, the process of digestion is much more complicated, and occupies a longer period. Besides the ordinary principles of flesh, their food contains starch, sugar, gum, &c., mixed with much inert vegetable fibre and other useless substances, from which it must be separated. The first of these supply materials for the waste and growth of the body, the second meet the requirements of respiration, and the last pass unaltered through the alimentary canal.

The nature of the digestive process is not clearly established. The principal objects effected appear to be the conversion of starch, coagulated albumen, fibrin, casein, &c., into a liquid form. It is known that the saliva contains a peculiar principle (ptyalin) resembling diastase, capable of transmuting starch into sugar, and that when a little starch is held in the mouth for a short time this change actually occurs. It is also known that the gastric juice contains a peculiar organic principle named ‘pepsin,’ and that this substance, in conjunction with dilute hydrochloric acid, which is likewise present in the stomach, possesses the property of dissolving the albuminous principles of food. (See PEPSIN.) These changes occur whenever these conditions are established out of the body, and hence it is inferred that the process of digestion is effected by similar means. Of this, however, there is no direct evidence.

The use of food, as already noticed, is twofold. It supplies the materials of nutrition to balance the waste of the tissues continually taking place in the body, and it conveys into the system those elements which, by their chemical combinations, produce heat. To effect this purpose in the most beneficial manner, the food should not only be sufficient in quantity, but the proportions of its nitrogenised and carbonaceous principles should bear such relations to each other as to amply meet the demands of the system for each, without the existence, however, of an undue excess of either.

When the muscular movements of a healthy animal are restrained, a genial temperature kept up, and an ample supply of food containing much amylaceous or oily matter given, an accumulation of fat in the system rapidly takes place; this is well seen in the case of stall-fed cattle. On the other hand, when food is deficient, and much exercise is taken, emaciation results. These effects are ascribed to differences in the activity of the respiratory function. In the first instance, the heat-food is supplied faster than it is consumed, and hence accumulates in the form of fat; in the second, the conditions are reversed, and the creature is kept in a state of leanness by its rapid consumption. The fat of an animal appears to be the provision of nature for the maintenance of life during a certain period under circumstances of privation. Hence it is that a lean animal suffers more from cold than a fat one, and is also sooner starved.

“The origin of fat in the animal body has recently been made the subject of much animated discussion; on the one hand, it was contended that satisfactory evidence exists of the conversion of starch and saccharine substances into fat, by separation of carbon and oxygen, the change somewhat resembling that of the vinous fermentation; it was argued, on the other side, that oily or fatty matter is invariably present in the food supplied to the domestic animals, and that this fat is merely absorbed and deposited in the body in a slightly modified state. The question has now been decided in favour of the first of these views, which was enunciated by Professor Liebig, by the very chemist who formerly advocated the second opinion. By a series of very beautiful experiments, MM. Dumas and Milne-Edwards proved that bees exclusively feeding upon sugar were still capable of producing wax, which was pointed out as a veritable fact.”

Professor Liebig divided the principles found in food into two classes:——plastic elements of nutrition, or flesh-and-blood-making principles; and elements of respiration, or those which, by their decomposition or combustion in the system, generate heat. They are as follows:——

This division is in the main warranted by fact, but, no doubt, the nitrogenous elements of food produce heat as well as the non-nitrogenous.

=NUX VOMICA.= Syn. KOOCHLA NUT, POISON N., VOMIT N.; NUCES VOMICÆ, NUX VOMICA (B. P., Ph., L., E., & D.), L. “The seed of Strychnos Nux vomica, Linn.” (Ph. L.), imported from the East Indies (B. P.). This drug is chiefly known as a violent excitant of the cerebro-spinal system. In small doses, frequently repeated, it is tonic, diuretic, and, occasionally, laxative; in slightly larger ones, it is emetic; and, in large doses, it is an energetic and fearful poison.——Dose, 1 to 3 gr.; in paralysis, nervous affections, impotence, chronic dysentery, chronic diarrhœa, &c. Its frequent use is said to render the system proof against the poison of serpents. See STRYCHNINE, its active principle.

=OAK.= The British oak is the Quercus Robur of Linnæus, of which there are two varieties, Q. peduncata and Q. sessiflora. The wood of the oak is more durable than that of any other tree, and “for at once supporting a weight, resisting a strain, and not splintering by a cannon shot, it is superior to every other kind.” It, nevertheless, “warps and twists much in drying; and, in seasoning, shrinks about 1-32nd of its width.” Foreign oak is less durable, but more brittle and workable. The bark (OAK BARK; QUERCÛS CORTEX, QUERCUS——B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.) is used as an astringent and febrifuge, in doses of 30 to 120 gr., frequently; an astringent decoction is also made of it, but its chief employment is in tanning leather. The peculiar appearance of old oak or ‘wainscoting’ is given to the new wood by exposing it, whilst very slightly damp, to the fumes of ammonia.

=OAT.= Syn. AVENA, L. The common cultivated oat is the Avena sativa (Linn.), a graminaceous plant, of which there are several varieties, as the Avena sativa alba, or white oat; A. s. nigra, or black oat; the potato oat, &c. Other species are also cultivated, as Avena nuda (Linn.), pilcorn, or naked oat; A. strigosa, or Spanish oat, &c. The seed (OATS; CARYOPSIDES, SEMINA AVENÆ CRUDA) form the common horse-corn of this country, but in the northern parts of the country it is extensively used as food for man. The husked grain constitutes GROATS, and its meal OATMEAL. The latter does not form a dough with water, as wheaten meal or flour does.

Oats consist of from 24% to 28% of husk, and 74% to 78% of grain. According to M. Payen, they contain of starch, 60·59%; azotised matter, 14·39%; saccharine and gummy matter, 9·25%; fatty matter, 5·50%; cellulose, 7·60%; silica and saline matter, 3·25%. The husks contain between 6 and 7% of saline matter. (Prof. Norton.) The ash amounts to 2·18%, and consists of potassa and soda, 26·18%; lime, 5·95%; magnesia, 9·95%; oxide of iron, ·40%; phosphoric acid, 43·84%; sulphuric acid, 10·45%; chlorine,·26%; silica, 2·67%; alumina, ·06%. (Johnston.)

The yield of oats is from 20 bushels per acre in poor soils, up to 60, 70, and even 80 bushels per acre in rich soils. The weight per bushel varies from 35 to 45 lbs., and the product in meal is about one half the weight of the oats.

A large proportion of the oats given to horses passes off undigested. It has hence been proposed to prevent this loss, by either coarsely bruising them in a mill, or by pouring boiling water over them, and allowing them to macerate till cold, when they are to be given to the horses without straining off the water. It is stated on good authority that oats thus treated will not only fatten quicker, but go twice as far as without preparation. Oat bruisers are now manufactured by most agricultural implement makers.

Under the microscope the oat is seen to consist of two or three envelopes; the outer being composed of longitudinal cells; the second obliquely transverse and not very clearly seen; in this, the cells are wanting in part or pass into the cells of the third coat; the third envelope consists of a layer, usually single, of cells, like wheat. Before the envelopes are searched for the husks must be removed. The starch-cells are small, many sided, and cohere into round composite bodies, which are very characteristic, and which, by pressure, may be divided into separate grains. A high power is necessary for the examination of these latter. The starch of the oat does not polarise light.

=OAT′MEAL.= Syn. AVENÆ FARINA, F. EX SEMINIBUS AVENÆ (Ph. D), L.

Oatmeal is the grain of the oat deprived of the skin, kiln-dried, and afterwards ground. It is regarded as one of the most nutritious of our cereals, being rich in nitrogenous matter, fat, starch, and sugar. According to Letheby it contains in 100 parts:——

Nitrogenous matter 12·6 Carbo-hydrates 63·8 Fatty matter 5·6 Saline matter 3·0 Water 15·0 —————— 100·0

Kreusler has shown that the nitrogenous principle of oatmeal contains gluten-casein, a substance very similar to the legumin of peas and beans. Letheby points out that, although it contains more nutrient material than wheat, its higher price renders it less economical as an article of diet. Oatmeal forms the staple of the food of the farm labourer both in Scotland and in England, being consumed more largely by the Scotch than the English peasant. Scotch oatmeal is superior to English in nutritive value. Oatmeal, when mixed with water, does not possess sufficient tenacity to enable it to be made into bread. It can, however, be baked into excellent cakes, which, when made in Yorkshire, are leavened, and when in Scotland, unleavened.

The qualities of indigestibility and a tendency to produce irritability of the bowels and skin, have been ascribed to oatmeal; before it was so prepared as to effectually remove from it the husk and hairs by efficient screening, it was in Scotland a frequent source of intestinal concretion. These concretions, the nature of which was unravelled by Dr Wollaston, consisted principally of phosphate of lime mixed with the hairs and husks of the oat.

Of thirty samples of oatmeal examined by the ‘Lancet Sanitary Commissioner,’ no fewer than sixteen samples, or more than one half, were adulterated. The substance generally used for this purpose is barley meal, which is only half the price of oatmeal. Husks of barley, wheat, and of the oat itself, are also frequently used. Rice and maize are also sometimes added. That supplied to the army, navy, and the workhouses, was very commonly adulterated with whiting, plaster of Paris, or ground bones. The mineral sophisticant may be detected by the excess of ash, which should not exceed 2·36 per cent. These frauds are readily detected by the microscope.

Grits or Groats are the decorticated grain of the oat, which when bruised or crushed constitute Embden groats. Flummery (known in Scotland as sowans) is made by steeping the husks of the grain in water, until they become slightly sour, the strained liquid being boiled down to the consistence of gruel. Oatmeal soon becomes sour and rancid. It should be purchased at such shops as have a quick sale for it. See ACARI, STIR-ABOUT.

=OBE′′SITY.= Syn. OBESITAS, POLYSARCA, L. Unhealthy or troublesome fatness or corpulency. Sometimes the secretion of fat, and its accumulation in the adipose membrane, is almost as rapid as that of water in anasarca; on which account some of the old writers have called obesity a dropsy of fat. Persons in easy circumstances, of indolent habits, who live freely, and who are of a cheerful and contented deposition, are those most liable to obesity. The treatment consists in the very gradual reduction of the diet, until it falls rather below the average quantity required by a healthy adult; the very gradual disuse of fermented liquors, more especially beer; the gradual abridgment of the time devoted to repose, until it does not exceed 5 or 6 hours; the employment of several hours daily in exercise in the open air, at first moderate, but increased day by day in energy, until it becomes laborious; and, lastly, arousing the mind from a state of lethargy to one of active or even harassing employment.

In some cases the accumulation of fat has been enormous. Bright, of Maldon, weighed 728 lbs.; Daniel Lambert, of Leicester, 739 lbs.; a girl, 4 years old, noticed in the ‘Phil. Trans.,’ 1813, weighed 256 lbs.

Persons affected with obesity are generally short-lived.

=OBSTRUCTION OF LOCAL AUTHORITY.= Various penalties are mentioned in different sections of the Public Health Act for the offence of obstructing officers, &c., representing the local authority, in carrying out the Act. The following section, which we select, deals with the subject generally:——

Sec. 306. “Any person who wilfully obstructs any member of the local authority, or any person duly employed in the execution of this Act, or who destroys, pulls down, injures, or defaces any board on which any bye-law, notice, or other matter is inscribed, shall, if the same was put up by authority of the Local Government Board or of the local authority, be liable for every such offence to a penalty not exceeding £5.

“Where the occupier of any premises prevents the owner thereof from obeying or carrying into effect any of the provisions of this Act, any justice, to whom application is made in this behalf, shall by order in writing require such occupier to permit the execution of any works required to be executed, provided that the same appear to such justice to be necessary for the purpose of obeying or carrying into effect the provisions of this Act; and if within 24 hours after the making of the order such occupier fails to comply therewith, he shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding £5 for every day during the continuance of such non-compliance.

“If the occupier of any premises, when requested by or on behalf of the local authority to state the name of the owner of the premises occupied by him, refuses or wilfully omits to disclose, or wilfully misstates the same, he shall (unless he shows cause to the satisfaction of the court for his refusal) be liable to a penalty not exceeding £5.”

=O′CHRES.= These are native earthy compounds of clay, coloured with oxide of iron, with frequently a little chalk, or magnesia. The differences in the colour arise partly from the quantity of iron present, and partly from the state of oxidation in which the iron is found. Several varieties are known in commerce——BROWN OCHRE, FRENCH O., OXFORD O., RED O., ROMAN O., YELLOW O. All these, with the exception of the first and fourth, have a yellow colour. ARMENIAN BOLE, INDIAN RED, VENETIAN R., and SPANISH BROWN, are also ochres.

All the ochres are darkened by calcination. The yellow ochres acquire a red or reddish-brown colour by this treatment. The pigment called ‘light red’ is thus prepared from yellow ochre.

=ODONTAL′GIA.= See TOOTHACHE.

=O′DORAMENTS.= Syn. ODORAMENTA, L. Substances employed in medicine on account of their odour. They differ from disinfectants, in only disguising, but not destroying, noxious vapours, &c. AMMONIA, STRONG VINEGAR, and PASTILLES, furnish the most familiar examples of this class of substances. See DISINFECTANTS, PERFUMES, &c.

=O′DOUR.= The emanation of an odoriferous or scent-giving body. See PERFUMES.

=ŒNAN′THIC ETHER.= See ETHER (Œnanthic).

=OFFIC′INAL.= Syn. OFFICINALIS, L. A term applied to substances or medicines ordered in the Pharmacopœia.

=OIL.= Syn. OLEUM, L.; HUILE, Fr. This name is given to numerous liquid or semi-liquid substances, expressed or drawn from animal or vegetable bodies; to various products of the distillation of bituminous minerals; and to several unctuous mixtures in perfumery and pharmacy. To facilitate reference, we have grouped the principal substances generally called ‘oils’ into classes, under the following heads:——OILS (Drying); OILS (Empyreumatic): OILS (Fixed); OILS (Medicated); OILS (Mineral); OILS (Mixed); OILS (Perfumed); OILS (Volatile). See these articles also below:——

=Oil, Consol′idated.= Syn. CAMPTICON, FACTITIOUS CAOUTCHOUC. A substance having most of the properties of india rubber, prepared by oxidising boiled linseed oil, or any other oil that hardens on exposure to the atmosphere. To obtain the solid oil, plates of glass are dipped into linseed oil, the films are then allowed to dry, and the process is repeated again and again until the plates are coated with many layers of perfectly oxidised oil. Instead of plates of glass, extensive surfaces of prepared cloth are employed when the manufacture is carried out on a large scale. The solid oil, having been scraped or peeled off the surfaces, is worked with a small proportion of shell-lac, by means of a mixing machine with hot rollers, until a material singularly like caoutchouc is produced. The consolidated oil can be rolled on to fabrics, so as to form a waterproof cloth, having the finish and flexibility of rubber-cloth. By the action of heat the consolidated oil may be converted into a hard substance resembling vulcanite and ebonite. Its useful applications appear to be very numerous, but its manufacture has not as yet made much progress.

=OIL-GAS.= A mixture of several gaseous hydrocarbons, obtained by passing common whale fat, resin, the heavy petroleum or shale oil, or the tarry residues left after the distillation of these two latter substances, or other cheap animal oil, through red-hot tubes, or by allowing it to fall in drops on red-hot stones or bricks arranged in an iron retort, or other suitable apparatus. The gas has great illuminating power, requires no purification, and is quite free from the ammoniacal and sulphur compounds which vitiate coal-gas. The sp. gr. of oil-gas varies with the heat employed in its production. It averages from 0·76 to 0·90, but it may rise as high as 1·1.

The composition of coal gas, as given by Payen, is as follows:——

+----------------------------+--------+-----------+ | | | Gas from | | |Oil Gas.| Petroleum | | | | residues. | +----------------------------+--------+-----------| | Olefiant gas and homologues| 22·5 | 17·4 | | Marsh gas | 50·3 | 58·3 | | Hydrogen | 7·7 | 24·3 | | Carbonic oxide | 15·5 | —— | | Nitrogen | 4·0 | —— | +----------------------------+--------+-----------+

=OILS (Drying).= All the fixed oils have an attraction more or less powerful for oxygen, and, by exposure to the air, they either become hard and resinous, or they only thicken slightly, and become sour and rancid. Those which exhibit the first property in a marked degree, as the oils of linseed, poppy, rape, and walnut, are called ‘drying oils,’ and are used as vehicles for colours in painting. The others are frequently termed ‘glutinous’ or ‘non-drying oils.’

The resinifying or drying property of oils is greatly increased by boiling them, either alone or along with some litharge, sugar of lead, or white vitriol, when the product forms the ‘boiled oil’ or ‘drying oil’ (oleum desiccativum) of commerce. The efficacy of the process, according to Liebig, depends on the elimination of substances which impede the oxidation of the oil. The following formulæ are adopted for this purpose:——

1. Linseed oil, 1 gall.; powdered litharge, 3/4 lb.; simmer, with frequent stirring, until a pellicle begins to form; remove the scum, and when it has become cold and has settled decant the clear portion. Dark coloured; used by house-painters.

2. Linseed oil and water, of each 1 quart; white vitriol, in powder, 2 oz.; boil to dryness. Paler than the last.

3. Pale linseed or nut oil, 1 pint; litharge or dry sulphate of lead, in fine powder, 2 oz.; mix, agitate frequently for 10 days, then set the bottle in the sun or a warm place to settle, and decant the clear portion. Very pale.

4. Linseed oil, 100 galls.; calcined white vitriol (‘sulphate of zinc’), in fine powder, 7 lbs.; mix in a clean copper boiler, heat the whole to 285° Fahr., and keep it at that temperature, with constant stirring, for at least one hour; then allow it to cool, in 24 hours decant the clear portion, and in 3 or 4 weeks more rack it for use. Used for varnishes.

5. (Liebig.) Sugar of lead, 1 lb., is dissolved in rain water, 1/2 gall.; litharge, in fine powder, 1 lb., is then added, and the mixture is gently simmered until only a whitish sediment remains; levigated litharge, 1 lb., is next diffused through linseed oil, 2-1/2 galls., and the mixture is gradually added to the lead solution, previously diluted with an equal bulk of water; the whole is now stirred together for some hours, with heat, and is, lastly, left to clear itself by exposure in a warm place. The lead solution which subsides from the oil may be used again for the same purpose, by dissolving in it another lb. of litharge, as before.

6. (Wilks.) Into linseed oil, 236 galls., pour oil of vitriol, 6 or 7 lbs., and stir the two together for 3 hours; then add a mixture of fuller’s earth, 6 lbs., and hot lime, 14 lbs., and again stir for 3 hours; next put the whole into a copper, with an equal quantity of water, and boil for about 3 hours, lastly, withdraw the fire, and when the whole is cold, draw off the water, run the oil into any suitable vessel, and let it stand for a few weeks before using it. Patent.

7. (‘Allg. Polytech. Zeitung.’) Binoxide of manganese (in coarse powder, but not dusty), 1 part; nut or linseed oil, 10 parts; mix, and keep the whole gently heated and frequently stirred for 24 to 36 hours, or until the oil begins to turn reddish. Recommended for zinc paint, but is equally adapted for other purposes for which boiled oil is employed.

Obs. There is often a difficulty in obtaining the oils ‘bright’ after boiling or heating them with the lead solutions; the best way, on the small scale, is either to filter them through coarse woollen filtering paper, or to expose the bottle for some time to the sun or in a warm place. On the large scale, the finer oils of this kind are often filtered through Canton-flannel bags. The litharge and sulphate of lead used in the above processes may be again rendered available for the same purpose, by washing them in hot water, to remove adhering mucilage.

=OILS (Empyreumat′ic.)= Syn. OLEA EMPYREUMATICA, L. The ’empyreumatic oils’ of the old pharmaceutical writers were oily fluids obtained by the dry distillation of various substances, animal, vegetable, and mineral. But few of them are in use at the present day, though formulæ are given for them in some of the foreign pharmacopœias. Two or three have useful applications in the arts, and it is therefore necessary that we should briefly describe their preparation. When the ingredients are of a liquid or pasty nature, or become so when heated, they are usually mixed with about twice their weight of sand, powdered glass, or other like substance, to divide them, and thus expose them more effectually to the action of the fire. Care must also be taken to provide a well-cooled receiver, which must be furnished with a tube to carry off the non-condensable gases liberated at the same time as the oil. The products of the first distillation are generally purified by rectification, either alone or along with water. In general, they require to be preserved from the light and air.

The following are the principal substances belonging to this class:——

=Oil of Al′oes.= Syn. ALOETIC OIL; OLEUM ALOETICUM, L. 1. From Socotrine or hepatic aloes distilled along with sand.

2. (Batavian——Cadet de Gassincourt.) Olive oil, 1 lb.; hepatic aloes and myrrh, of each in powder, 2 oz.; olibanum, 1/2 oz.; distil in a sand bath, from a stoneware retort. Used as an external vermifuge for children; a portion is rubbed 2 or 3 times a day over the umbilical regions.

=Oil of Am′ber.= Syn. OLEUM SUCCINI, L. From coarse pieces of amber, distilled in an iron retort, either alone or reduced to powder and mixed with sand. The oil is separated from the fetid liquor and succinic acid which passes over, and rectified along with about 6 times its volume of water, by a gentle heat. It then forms ‘RECTIFIED OIL OF AMBER’ (OLEUM SUCCINI——Ph. L. 1836, O. S. RECTIFICATUM——Ph. D. 1826, O. S. PURISSIMUM——Ph. E. 1841). Prod. 20%.

Prop., &c. It has a pale yellow colour, a strong, ungrateful odour, and a hot, acrid taste; heat and air blacken and thicken it; it boils at 186° Fahr. Sp. gr. ·758 at 75° Fahr. It is antispasmodic, rubefacient, and stimulant.——Dose, 5 to 12 drops, made into an emulsion with mucilage; in hysteria, epilepsy, and convulsive affections. Externally, as a friction, either alone or combined with laudanum or sweet oil, in rheumatism, tic douloureux, hooping-cough, &c.

=Oil of Amber, Oxydated= (Artificial Musk). Pat into a cup 1 dr. of oil of amber, and add to it, drop by drop, 3-1/2 fl. dr. of strong nitric acid; let it stand for 36 hours, then separate and wash the resinous matter. Antispasmodic and nervine.——Dose, 5 to 10 gr. For children, 1/2 gr. to 1 gr.

=Oil, An′imal.= 1. (Empyreumatic or Fetid; OIL OF HARTSHORN, DIPPEL’S O.; OLEUM ANIMALE EMPYREUMATICUM, O. CORNU CERVI, O. DIPPELII, L.) Chiefly obtained as a secondary product in the manufacture of bone-black. Fetid and dark coloured. Used chiefly to make lampblack.

2. (Ethereal; RECTIFIED OIL OF HARTSHORN; OLEUM ANIMALE ÆSTHERIUM, O. CORNU CERVI RECTIFICATUM, LOCO OLEI ANIMALIS DIPPELII, L.)——a. A finer kind of animal oil, made by slowly distilling oil of hartshorn, and collecting only the first portion that comes over. Pale and limpid. Exposure to light discolours it.

b. (Ph. Bor.) Fetid animal oil distilled in a sand bath, and the product rectified with four times its volume of water. White, limpid, fragrant. Light discolours it.

Prop. The refined product is said to be antispasmodic, anodyne, and diaphoretic.——Dose, 5 to 30 drops, in water; in large doses it acts as an irritant poison.

=Oil of Birch.= Syn. OLEUM BETULÆ, L. From the inner bark of the birch, by heating it in an earthen pot with a hole in the bottom, to allow the oil to flow through into another jar sunk in the ground and luted to it. Thick, balsamic, fragrant. Used chiefly to dress russia leather.

=Oil of Box-wood.= Syn. OLEUM BUXI, O. B. EMPYREUMATICUM (Ph. L. 1746), L. From box-wood sawdust. Reputed resolvent; anodyne, antispasmodic, and diaphoretic.——Dose, 5 to 20 drops; in convulsions, epilepsy, gonorrhœa, &c. Externally, in toothache, &c.

=Oil of Bricks.= Syn. OLEUM LATERITIUM (Ph. L. 1746), L. From olive oil, mixed with brickdust, and distilled; or, from hot bricks steeped in olive oil, then broken to pieces, and distilled.

=Oil of Bricks (Factitious).= Syn. OLEUM LATERITIUM FACTITIUM, L. From linseed oil, 1 lb.; oil of turpentine, 1/2 lb.; oil of bones or of hartshorn and Barbadoes tar, of each 1 oz.; simply stirred well together. This is generally substituted for the preceding in the shops.

=Oil of Cade.= Syn. OLEUM CADINUM, L.; HUILE DE CADE, Fr. From the Juniperus oxycedrus or Languedoc juniper. Used as oil of tar, which is commonly sold for it.

=Oil of Coal.= Syn. COAL OIL. From the gas-works. See NAPHTHA.

=Oil of Gua′iacum.= Syn. OLEUM GUAIACI, O. G. EMPYREUMATICUM, L. From guaiacum shavings or raspings. Reputed balsamic, pectoral, and resolvent.

=Oil of Harts′horn.= Bone oil and rectified bone oil are commonly sold for it, but are inferior to it. See OIL, ANIMAL (above).

=Oil, Paper.= Syn. RAG OIL, PYROTHONIDÆ; OLEUM CHARTÆ, L. On the small scale, by burning paper on a cold tin plate, and collecting the oil; on the large scale, by the destructive distillation of paper or linen rags. In baldness, toothache, ear-ache, &c.

=Oil, Par′affin.= See OILS, MINERAL.

=Oil, Petro′′leum.= See OILS, MINERAL, PETROLEUM.

=Oil, Rag.= See OIL, PAPER, above.

=Oil, Rock.= See NAPHTHA, OILS, MINERAL, PETROLEUM.

=Oil, Shale.= See OILS, MINERAL.

=Oil of Soot.= Syn. OLEUM FULIGINIS (Ph. L. 1746), L. From wood-soot. Fetid; reputed antispasmodic and nervine.

=Oil of Tar.= Syn. SPIRIT OF T.; OLEUM PINI, O. P. RUBRUM, O. TÆDÆ, O. PICIS LIQUIDÆ, L. By simple distillation from wood-tar. Reddish and strong scented. By one or more rectifications it becomes colourless and limpid. It soon gets thick. Used in ringworm and several other skin diseases, made into an ointment with lard. It is poisonous if swallowed in large doses.

=Oil of Tobac′co (Empyreumatic).= Syn. OLEUM TABACI EMPYREUMATICUM (Ph. U. S.), L. From tobacco, in coarse powder, gradually heated in a green-glass retort to dull redness, and kept at that temperature as long as any oil passes over; the oily portion is then separated from the water in the receiver, and kept for use. Highly narcotic and poisonous.

=Oil of Wax.= Syn. OLEUM CERÆ, L. From beeswax and sand distilled together; the product is rectified once or oftener. Reputed diuretic.——Dose, 3 to 6 drops.

=OILS (Fixed).= Syn. FAT OILS, UNCTUOUS O.; OLEA FIXA, O. EXPRESSA, L.; HUILES GRASSES, Fr. The fixed oils are compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (oxyhydro-carbons), obtained from the organic kingdom, and characterised by their insipidity, unctuosity, insolubility in water, and being lighter than that fluid. Olive oil, which is obtained from the vegetable kingdom, and spermaceti oil, which is obtained from the animal kingdom, may be taken as types of the rest.

The fixed oils are chiefly found in the fruit and seeds of plants, and in thin membranous cells, forming what is called the adipose tissue, in the bodies of animals. According to their consistence, they may be classed into ‘OILS,’ ‘BUTTERS,’ and ‘TALLOWS,’

Prop., &c. Among the best-known properties of the fixed oils are——the permanent stain they give to paper, which they render translucid; their non-volatility at the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere, or at that of boiling water, or, indeed, at any temperature insufficient for their decomposition; their constantly floating on the surface of water when added to it; and, lastly, their inability to mix with that fluid. Some of them, as palm oil and cocoa-nut oil, are solid at ordinary temperatures; but the majority are fluid, unless they have been considerably cooled, when they separate into two portions——the one solid, consisting chiefly of stearin, or some analogous substance, and the other liquid, consisting chiefly of olein or elain. Nearly all of them, when exposed to the air, absorb oxygen rapidly, and either gradually harden or become rancid and nauseous. From the first are selected the ‘drying oil’ used by painters; the last are used as food, in cookery, and for machinery, lamps, &c. The whole of these oils, when heated to their boiling points (500° to 600° Fahr.), suffer decomposition, yielding various hydrocarbons; and when suddenly exposed to a red heat, they furnish a gaseous product (oil-gas), which was formerly employed for illumination. It is owing to this property of oil and liquid fats that candles and lamps give their light. The wick is a gas-producing apparatus in miniature. With the caustic alkalies and water the fixed oils unite to form soap. When some of these oils are absorbed by porous bodies, and thus expose a vastly increased surface to the air, they absorb oxygen with such rapidity as to generate a considerable degree of heat. Paper, tow, cotton, wool, straw, shavings, &c., slightly embued with oil, and left in a heap, freely exposed to the air or sun, often spontaneously inflame. In this way many extensive fires have arisen. The above is more particularly the case with linseed, rape, nut, and olive oil. The first, made into a paste with manganese, rapidly becomes hot, and ultimately inflames spontaneously.

The specific gravities of the fixed oils range between ·865 and ·970, water being 1·000.

Prep. The fixed oils, except where otherwise directed, are obtained from the bruised or ground fruit or seed, by means of powerful pressure, in screw or hydraulic presses, and are then either allowed to clarify themselves by subsidence or are filtered. Both methods are frequently applied to the same oil. In some cases the impurities are removed by ebullition with water, and subsequent separation of the pure oil. Heat is frequently employed to increase the liquidity of the oil, and thus lessen the difficulty of its expulsion from the mass. With this object the bruised mass, placed in bags, is commonly exposed to the heat of steam, and then pressed between heated plates of metal. This is always necessary with the ‘butyraceous oils.’

Another method is by boiling the bruised seed in water, and skimming off the oil as it rises to the surface. This is the plan adopted for castor oil in the West Indies.

In a few cases, for medicinal purposes, the bruised mass is mixed with 1/2 its weight, or an equal weight, of alcohol or ether, and after 24 hours’ digestion the whole is submitted to pressure, and the alcohol or ether removed by distillation at a gentle heat. The first menstruum is commonly employed for croton oil on the Continent; the second, for that of ergot of rye.

Purif. Several methods are adopted for refining or purifying the fixed oils, among which are the following:——

1. The oil is violently agitated along with 1-1/2 to 2% of concentrated sulphuric acid, when it assumes a greenish colour, and, after about a fortnight’s repose, deposits much colouring matter, becomes paler, and burns with greater brilliancy, particularly if well washed with steam or hot water, and clarified by subsequent repose or by filtration. This answers well for most of the recently expressed vegetable oils. It also greatly improves most of the fish oils.

2. A modification of the last method is to well mix the acid with the oil, then to blow steam through the mixture for some time, and afterwards to otherwise proceed as before.

3. FISH OIL (WHALE, SEAL, &c.) is purified by——

a. Violently agitating it with boiling water or steam, by placing it in a deep vessel with perforated bottom, through which high pressure steam is forced for some time; it is afterwards clarified by repose, and filtered through coarse charcoal.

b. The oil is violently agitated with a boiling hot and strong solution of oak bark, to remove albumen and gelatin, and next with high-pressure steam and hot water; it is, lastly, dried and filtered.

c. The oil, gently heated, is stirred for some time with about 1% of good chloride of lime, previously made into a milk by trituration with water; about 1-1/2% of oil of vitriol, diluted with 20 times its weight of water, is then added, and the agitation renewed and maintained for at least 2 hours; it is, lastly, well washed with steam or hot water.

d. Mr Davidson treats the oil first with a strong solution of tan, next with water and chloride of lime, then with dilute sulphuric acid, and lastly, with hot water.

e. Mr Dunn’s method, which is very effective, and admirable on account of its simplicity, is to heat the oil by steam to from 180° to 200° Fahr., and then to force a current of air of corresponding temperature through it, under a flue or chimney, until it is sufficiently bleached and deodorised; it is, lastly, either at once filtered or is previously washed with steam or hot water.

f. Another method, formerly very generally adopted and still in use, is to violently agitate the oil for some time with very strong brine, or with a mixed solution of blue vitriol and common salt, and then either to allow it to clarify by repose or to filter it through freshly burnt charcoal.

4. ALMOND, CASTOR, LINSEED, NUT, OLIVE, RAPE, and some other vegetable oils, are readily bleached by either of the following processes:——

a. Exposure in glass bottles to the sun’s rays, on the leads or roofs of houses, or in any other suitable position, open to the south-east and south. This is the method employed by druggists and oilmen to whiten their castor and linseed oils. 14 to 21 days’ exposure to the sun in clear weather during summer is usually sufficient for castor oil when contained in 2 to 4-quart pale green glass bottles (preferably the former), and covered with white gallipots inverted over them. The oil is filtered before exposing it to the light, as, if only in a slight degree opaque, it does not bleach well. Almond and olive oil are, when thus treated, apt to acquire a slight sulphurous smell; but this may be removed by filtration through a little animal charcoal, or, still better, by washing the oil with hot water.

b. Another method employed to decolour these oils is to heat them in a wooden, tinned, or well-glazed earthen vessel along with some dry ‘filtering powder’ (1 to 2 lbs. per gall.), with agitation for some time, and lastly, to filter them in the usual manner through an oil-bag. In this way the West-end perfumers prepare their ‘WHITE ALMOND OIL’ (OLEUM AMYGDALÆ ALBUM), and their ‘WHITE OLIVE OIL’ (OLEUM OLIVÆ ALBUM). Formerly, freshly burnt animal charcoal was used for this purpose, and is still so employed by some houses.

5. Mr Bancroft refines OILS FOR MACHINERY AND LUBRICATING PURPOSES generally, by agitating them with a lye of caustic soda of the sp. gr. 1·2. A sufficient quantity is known to have been added when, after repose, a portion begins to settle down clear at the bottom. About 4% to 8% is commonly required for lard oil and olive oil. After 24 hours’ repose the clear supernatant oil is decanted from the soapy sediment, and filtered.

6. Not only the oils above referred to, but all other oils and fats, may be rendered perfectly colourless by the use of a little chromic acid; or, what is the same, by a mixture of a solution of bichromate of potassa and sufficient sulphuric, hydrochloric, or nitric acid, to seize on all the alkali, and thus liberate the chromic acid.

7. PALM OIL and COCOA-NUT OIL are generally refined and bleached by either chromic acid or chlorine, or by heat:——

a. The ‘butyraceous oil’ is liquefied by heat in a wooden vessel, and 7% to 9% of good chloride of lime, previously made into a smooth cream with water, is added, and the whole assiduously stirred until the ingredients appear united; the mixture is then allowed to cool, and is next cut up into small lumps, which are exposed to a free current of air for 2, 3, or even 4 weeks; these are melted in a wooden vessel heated by high-pressure steam circulating through leaden pipes, or in a cast-iron boiler lined with lead, and an equal weight of oil of vitriol (diluted with about 20 times its weight of water) is poured in, and the whole gently boiled until the oil is discoloured and runs clear; the fire is then moderated, and the whole allowed to settle; lastly, the fire is removed, and the oil is left to cool very slowly.

b. The process with chromic acid has been already noticed, but is more fully explained below.

c. The oil, heated to the temperature of about 250° Fahr., is exposed to the action of high-pressure steam, which is continuously ‘blown’ through it for 10 or 12 hours, or even longer. The process is greatly facilitated by the introduction of some chromic acid.

8. Mr Watt’s methods of purifying fats and oils are very effective, more especially for those intended for illumination. They are as follows:——

a. (For FISH OILS.) Each ton is boiled for 1/2 an hour with caustic soda, 1/2 lb., previously made into a weak lye with water; or steam is blown through the mixture for a like period; oil of vitriol, 1/2 lb., diluted with 6 times its weight of water, is next added, the whole again boiled for 15 minutes, and allowed to settle for an hour or longer, when the clear oil is run off from the water and sediment into the bleaching tubs; here solution of bichromate of potash, 4 lbs., in oil of vitriol, 2 lbs., previously diluted with water, q. s., together with a little nitric acid and some oxalic acid, are added, and after thorough admixture of the whole, by blowing steam through it, strong nitric acid, 1 lb., diluted with water, 1 quart, is poured in, and the boiling continued for 1/2 an hour longer; a small quantity of naphtha or rectified spirit of turpentine is then mixed in, and the oil is, finally, well washed with hot water, and left to settle.

b. (For PALM OIL.) The oil is melted by the heat of steam, and, after it has settled and cooled down to about 130° Fahr., is carefully decanted from the water and sediment into the steaming tubs; here a mixture of a saturated solution of bichromate of potash, 25 lbs., and oil of vitriol, 8 or 9 lbs., is added, and after thorough admixture, hydrochloric acid, 50 lbs., is poured in; the whole is then constantly stirred until it acquires a uniform greenish colour, or is sufficiently decoloured, a little more of the bleaching materials being added if the latter is not the case, after which it is allowed to repose for half an hour to settle; it is next run into a wooden vat, where it is washed, &c., as before.

c. (For VEGETABLE OILS.) These are treated with a solution of chromic acid, or with a solution of bichromate of potassa, or some mineral acid, as noticed at No. 6. For COLZA, LINSEED, MUSTARD, NUT, and RAPE OIL, a little hydrochloric acid is added; but for ALMOND, CASTOR, OLIVE OIL, and POPPY OIL, no such addition (at least in excess) is required.

9. RANCID OILS and FATS are recovered by boiling them for about 15 minutes with a little water and calcined magnesia; or, by filtering them through freshly burnt charcoal.

In reference to the above processes, it may be useful to remark, that chlorine, the common bleacher and deodoriser of other substances, cannot be well employed directly in the purification of oils, as certain chemical reactions occur when these substances are brought together, which increase the colour instead of removing it, and are often otherwise injurious. The same remarks apply to the use of the ‘chlorides,’ which frequently fails in unskilful hands, and is, indeed, of questionable utility, except, perhaps, in the case of palm oil. Even charcoal exerts little of its usual energy on the oils, and whilst it removes or lessens their offensive odour, sometimes increases their colour. The addition of 1% or 2% of very pure and recently rectified naphtha or oil of turpentine (camphine) to lamp oil is a real improvement, since it increases its combustibility and its illuminative power.

OILS FOR MEDICAL PURPOSES, as CASTOR OIL, COD-LIVER OIL &c., must not be subjected to any process beyond mere clarification by subsidence, filtration through Canton flannel or porous paper, or, at the utmost, washing with warm water, as otherwise their active and valuable properties, if not wholly removed, will be considerably lessened. See FILTRATION.

Purity. The fixed oils vary greatly in their value, and hence the constant inducement which leads the unprincipled dealer to adulterate the more expensive ones with those of a similar character, but of an inferior kind of grade. Various methods are adopted to detect these frauds, among which the following are the most valuable of those capable of general application. Others referring to individual oils will be found under the respective heads.

1. (From the odour.) The method of applying this test is to heat a few drops of the oil under examination in a small porcelain, platinum, or silver spoon or capsule (a watch-glass answers well), and to carefully compare the odour evolved with that arising from a known pure sample of the same kind and quality of the oil similarly treated. The odour of the two, when each is pure, is precisely alike, and immediately suggests the plant or animal from which it has been obtained. The presence of LINSEED, NUT, RAPE, SEAL, TRAIN, or WHALE OIL, is thus readily detected, and the imperfections of the sample, even if pure, rendered much more perceptible.

2. (From the density.)——a. According to M. Penot, every oil supposed to come from the same plant, or the same animal, has its own particular density, which, at the same temperature, never deviates more than a few thousandths. To apply this test, the relative density or specific gravity of the sample must be determined. This may be done by means of a thousand-grain bottle or an ordinary ‘AREOMETER,’ or, more conveniently, by an ‘ELAÏOMETER’ or ‘OLEOMETER,’ constructed and graduated for the purpose. ‘Fischer’s ELAÏOMETER’ or ‘OIL-BALANCE’ is much employed on the Continent for this purpose, and is a very useful instrument. On the large scale, the weight of an accurately measured imperial gallon of the oil may be taken.

b. M. Lauret, an eminent Parisian chemist, a short time since observed that the variations of the density of an oil from adulteration are rendered much more apparent when it is examined in a heated state. To render this discovery practically available, he plunges an ‘elaïometer,’ graduated for the given temperature, into a small tin cylinder nearly filled with the oil, and then places this in a vessel containing boiling water; as soon as the whole has acquired a uniform temperature, he observes the point on the scale of the instrument at which it floats. This point for——

Colza oil is 0° Fish oil 83° Poppy oil 124° Hemp-seed oil 136° Linseed oil 210°

c. By employing a specific gravity bottle or small glass globe, fitted with a stopper in which is hermetically fixed a capillary tube of about 8 or 9 inches in length, we may apply the above principle of M. Lauret with the greatest accuracy. This little apparatus is filled with the oil, and then immersed in boiling water for a sufficient length of time for it to acquire that temperature; it is then removed and weighed. The smallest adulteration is, it is said, in this way immediately detected.

When the density of the given sample has been taken, and the name of the oil used to adulterate it is known, the quantity of the latter present may be approximately determined from the specific gravities by the common method of alligation.[49]

[Footnote 49: See MIXTURES, Arithmetic of.]

3. (Sulphuric-acid test.)——a. Heidenreich was the first person who gave a useful and general application to the reactions which occur when oil of vitriol is mixed with the fatty oils. As soon as these substances are placed together, very intense chemical action commences, the temperature of the mixture rises, and the mass becomes coloured. These changes are sufficiently varied in the case of the different oils to furnish us with the means of identifying many of them, and of determining their purity. The method of M. Heidenreich is to lay a plate of white glass over a sheet of white paper; on the glass he places 10 or 15 drops of oil, and then adds to it a small drop of concentrated sulphuric acid (‘oil of vitriol’). The appearances which follow differ with the character of the fatty oil examined, and whether the acid is allowed to act on the oil undisturbed (without stirring) or the two are stirred together with a glass rod. In many cases, as with tallow oil, a peculiar odour as well as a change of colour is developed, and a further means of detection supplied. M. Heidenreich has minutely described these reactions, which, for the most part, closely resemble those given in the table, p. 1129. It is necessary, however, in order to ensure great accuracy, to compare the effect of the reagent on the sample with those which it produces on pure oil of the same kind and character under precisely similar circumstances.

b. M. Penot, who has followed up the researches of M. Heidenreich with considerable success, recommends the employment of 20 drops of oil, instead of only 10 or 15; and the use of a small capsule of white porcelain, instead of a plate of glass. He also employs a saturated solution of bichromate of potash in sulphuric acid, which he uses in the same proportion as before; but in this case the oil and the reagent are always stirred together.

The observations of M. Penot have been repeated in many cases by Mr Cooley, and the results, with additions, and rearranged, are given in the table, p. 1129.

“By perusing this table,” writes M. Penot, “it will be observed that the same oil does not, under all circumstances, yield precisely similar results with the same reagent. This depends on the place of growth, the age, and the manner of pressing. If, however, any oil be examined comparatively with a perfectly pure one, the proof of adulteration may be rendered, if not certain, at least probable, by noting the difference. Thus I obtained, by adding 1 part of either whale-train, or linseed oil, or oleic acid, or 10 parts of rapeseed oil, the following results:——

“The adulteration being ascertained as far as is possible, the oil is then tested by endeavouring to discover the adulterating oil, either by reagents or by its odour when gently heated, as before described. This having been found out, small quantities of the suspected oil are added to a perfectly pure oil of the kind under examination. Every mixture is then tested by the reagents, until precisely similar results are obtained as those yielded by the oil under examination. Thus, the proportions of the two mixed oils will be discovered by approximation.” (M. Penot.) A simpler method of finding the proportions of the so mixed oils is referred to above.

4. (From increase of temperature.) M. Maumené proposed the increase of temperature arising from the admixture of monohydrated sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol, sp. gr. 1·845) with the fatty oils as a test of their purity, but a sufficient number of observations have not yet been made to furnish data for a general application of this method. According to MM. Faisst and Knauss, who have re-examined the subject, the following are the results when 15 grammes of oil are mixed with 5 grammes of the acid:

Rise of Temperature. Almond oil 72·5° Olive oil 68·0° Poppy oil 127·0° Rape or colza oil 100·0° Linseed oil (with Nordhausen or fuming acid only) 133·0°

The above method is less liable to error when a larger quantity of the substances are thrown together.

5. The presence of FISH OIL in the vegetable oils may be readily detected by passing a stream of chlorine through them; the pure vegetable oils are not materially altered, but a mixture of the two turns dark brown or black.

6. Mr Coleman states that the presence of mineral oils in animal or vegetable oils can be easily detected by two characteristic tests——(1) the fluorescent properties they impart to all animal or vegetable oils. (2) The strongly marked aromatic burning flavour they communicate to mixtures containing them. The first-mentioned property is brought out by smearing a metallic surface, such as tin plate or steel, with the oil, and then viewing it at different angles in the open air or sunlight. Mr Coleman suggests that, in examining a dark-coloured oil, it may first be necessary to refine the sample by successive treatments with concentrated sulphuric acid and weak soda solution or lime water, so small a quantity as 2-1/2 per cent. may then be detected by the bluish colour noticed on viewing the oil at certain angles and by tasting it.

The absence of resin oil must also be proved. Nitric acid is said to be a good test, as the colour developed is much greater than in pure oils. Sometimes it may be detected by the smell. The presence of 10 per cent. of resin or mineral oil in non-drying oils delays their solidification with the nitrate of mercury test.[50]

[Footnote 50: ‘Journal of Applied Chemistry,’ Dec., 1874.]

7. Miss Kate Crane[51] states that the cohesion figures of oils may be usefully employed as tests of the identity and purity of the oils. She says, “A number of experiments on this subject have led her to the conclusion that a little patient practice will teach the eye of the observer in a short time to detect the characteristic differences of the figures. To make these perfect it is necessary to observe the time in forming, for at different periods some varieties form figures very like; but with this precaution each is entirely characteristic.

[Footnote 51: ‘American Journal of Pharmacy,’ iv, 406.]

“It is essential that the dish used, &c., be perfectly clean, so that when filled with water no dust or lint floats upon the surface, as this materially interferes with the perfect formation of the figure.

“A single drop is let fall from a burette or glass rod held steadily above the water, upon the centre of the surface. The experiments made with fixed oils are as follows:——Poppy-seed oil spreads instantly to a large figure, retaining an entire outline, and for a few seconds the surface is unbroken, except the bare intimation of a beaded edge.

“In a few moments little holes appear round the edge, and soon the whole surface is broken in like manner; these increase in size very slowly. In fifteen minutes the edge begins to open, forming indentations, which gradually work their way across the figure. As they increase in length these begin to curve, and in three quarters of an hour have doubled themselves two or three times.

“Cod-liver oil spreads in a large film; a little way from the edge a row of small holes appears, and in a minute or two the surface is covered with them; these gradually enlarge, assuming irregular shapes, soon separated by branching lines.

“Cod-liver oil with lard oil spreads very like the former, but in a few moments the edge opens, and the film separates partly across; in a moment one of the projecting points begins to curve itself towards the centre, bending more and more until it forms a coil; meanwhile a few holes have appeared, which spread irregularly, throwing out projecting points.

“Castor oil spreads instantly, the edge remaining entire; openings appear quickly in thirty seconds, and increase gradually, but unevenly, those nearer the edge being larger, and lengthening out irregularly as they spread. The figure lasts some time.

“Castor with a little lard oil makes a smaller figure, and not nearly so much broken; in five minutes the holes open into each other, and the figure breaks up from the edge.

“A mixture of castor and poppy-seed oils spreads to form a lacework border, but smooths out to an entire edge soon, and within a few seconds openings appear. The figure, in size and general appearance, is more like castor oil alone, but the holes spread less uniformly in a given time, a few being larger, but the greater portion much smaller. In fifteen minutes there is a general tendency to break up.

“Castor with a little croton oil throws out a spray, which in a few moments unites into a thin film. The spray, as it spreads, draws out the inner portion into radiate points, which open into a beautiful network, the centre cohering closely.

“Croton oil throws out, in spreading, a fine spray in advance of the more closely cohering portion, which follows quickly. The outer edge breaks up unevenly into little indentations, the border of the inside portion being quite broken, but gradually becomes nearly entire. The surface, too, has openings, which increase quite rapidly in size, the outer ones being much the larger. In the final breaking up, before the holes open one into another, the outlines are beautifully fringed.

8. “Spontaneous combustion ensues when a handful of cotton waste is embued with oil and placed in an air bath at 130° to 200° F. Boiled linseed oil required 1-1/4 hour; raw linseed oil, 4 hours; lard oil, 4 hours; refined rape about 9 hours.”[52]

[Footnote 52: J. J. Coleman, ‘Journal of Applied Chemistry,’ Dec., 1874.]

Mr Gellatly found that an admixture of 20 per cent. of mineral oil retarded combustion, and 50 per cent. prevented it completely.

M. Burstyn,[53] believing that the value of a fatty oil as a lubricant depends on the amount of acid it contains, has invented a method for volumetrically determining the acidity. The process is as follows:——A tall cylindrical vessel, provided with a ground-glass stopper, and having two marks on it to indicate respectively 100 cubic centimètres, and 200 cubic centimètres, is filled to the first mark with the oil to be tested, and to the second mark with 88 to 90 per cent. alcohol. The cylinder is then closed and well shaken. Equal quantities other than 100 cubic centimètres can be employed without any other change in the process. After standing two or three hours the oil settles, and the clear alcohol, which contains in solution the free acids and a little of the oil, rises to the top perfectly clear; 25 cubic centimètres of the clear alcohol is taken from the top by means of a pipette. A few drops of alcohol extract of turmeric is added, and the acid determined by means of a standard solution of potash, as in acetometry. The change from yellow to brownish red takes place with great sharpness when neutralisation is reached.

[Footnote 53: Ure’s ‘Dictionary of Arts,’ &c.]

The number of cubic centimètres of potash employed, multiplied by four, gives the quantity of normal solution requisite to neutralise the free acid in 100 cubic centimètres of oil. As it is not an individual acid, but a variable mixture of acids, it is not possible to calculate the percentage of acids present. These numbers, however, may be taken as degrees of acidity. For instance, an oil of 3° of acidity is one which contains enough free acid to neutralise 3 cubic centimètres of normal alkali.

If we assume that oleic acid predominates, which in most cases is the fact, 1° of acidity correspond to 0·28 per cent. by weight of oleic acid. The olive oil of commerce has an acidity ranging from 0·4° to 12°. The first passes as very fine, and is called free from acid or salad oil, while the latter is known by smell and taste as very rancid. Oil that has 4° to 6° of acidity has been found to answer very well as a lubricator.

What relation there exists between the degree of acidity and any injurious effect upon metals is shown by the following experiments:——Four shallow vessels of sheet brass, having a surface of 40 square centimètres each, at the bottom, were filled to the depth of 2 millimètres, with oils of different acidity, and exposed to the air at the ordinary temperature. The vessels were soon more or less covered with green fatty salts, and the oil too acquired a green colour. Oil and vessel No. 1 were the only ones in which no change could be perceived. At the end of 3 days the vessels were cleaned with ether and weighed. The following table shows the amounts of action:

Vessel No. 1, filled with oil of 0·8° lost 0·03 gr. ” No. 2, ” 4·6° ” 0·22 ” ” No. 3, ” 7·8° ” 0·36 ” ” No. 4, ” 8·8° ” 0·04 ”

The quantity of metal destroyed, in equal times and under equal conditions, increases with the acidity of the oil.

The table on page 1128, by Mr Bottome, describes the most striking physical properties of some of the principal fixed oils.

⁂ The following are the principal fixed oils met with in commerce, or which are objects of interest or utility:

=Oil of Al′monds.= Syn. OLEUM AMYGDALÆ (B. P., Ph. L), O. AMYGDALARUM (Ph. D.), O. AMYGDALI COMMUNIS (Ph. E.), L. “The oil expressed from the kernels.” (Ph. L.) “Bruise the fresh almonds in a stone mortar, then put them into a hempen sack, and express the oil, without heat.” (Ph. E.) The oil of almonds B. P. and of commerce is obtained from either the bitter or sweet almond, but chiefly from the first, on account of their less value, and the marc being employed in the manufacture of essential oil.

Prop., &c. Oil of almonds is black, demulcent, emollient, and nutritious; possesses a purely oleaginous taste, and is one of the most agreeable of the fixed oils; when taken in quantity it is mildly laxative; it is little affected by cold, and congeals with difficulty; is soluble in 35 parts of cold and 6 parts of boiling alcohol; ether dissolves it freely. Sp. gr. ·915 to ·918. Av. prod. Sweet almonds, 46%; bitter a., 41%.

Pur. It is extensively adulterated with poppy, nut, and teel oil, and not unfrequently with refined rape or colza oil. (See above.)

=Oil of Bay.= 1. (EXPRESSED O. OF B.; OLEUM LAURI, O. LAURINUM, L.) By expression from either fresh or dried bayberries, as castor oil. Limpid; insipid.

2. (By decoction; BUTTER OF B.; OLEUM LAURI NOBILIS, O. L. VERUM, L.) From the berries, by boiling them in water, and skimming off the oil. Green, buttery; chiefly imported from Italy. Used by the vulgar in bruises, sprains, rheumatism, deafness, &c. Prod. 20%.

=Oil of Beech.= Syn. OLEUM FAGI, L. From the nuts of Fagus sylvatica (Linn.) or beech mast. Clear; keeps well; when washed with hot water, it is used for salads, and burnt in lamps. Sp. gr. ·9225. Prod. 16%.

=Oil of Belladon′na.= Syn. OLEUM BELLADONNÆ SEMINUM, O. B. BACCÆ, L. From the seeds or berries of Atropa belladonna or deadly nightshade. Yellow; insipid. Used for lamps in Swabia and Wurtemberg, and as an application to bruises. The marc is poisonous. It freezes at 34° Fahr. Sp. gr. ·9250.

=Oil of Ben.= Syn. OIL OF BEHEN; OLEUM BALATINUM. From the seeds of Moringa pterygosperma (ben nuts). Scentless, colourless; keeps long without growing rank; by standing, it separates into two parts, one of which freezes with difficulty, and is hence much used in perfumery.

=Oil of Benne Seed.= See OIL OF GINGELLY.

=Oil of Brazil-nuts.= Syn. OLEUM BERTHOLLETIÆ. From the kernels of the fruit of Bertholletia excelsa, or Brazil-nuts. An oil of a bright amber colour, congealing at 24° Fahr. Sp. gr. ·917. It has been used as a substitute for olive oil in plasters and ointments.

=Oil of Caca′o.= Syn. BUTTER OF C.; OLEUM CACAO CONCRETUM, BUTYRUM CACAO, L. From the seeds of Theobroma Cacao, or chocolate nuts, gently heated over the fire, and then decorticated, and pressed between hot iron plates. Sp. gr. ·892.

Column headings:

A. Name of Oil. B. Specific Gravity at 15°C., Water = 1,000. C. Combustibility. Grms. consumed per hour in a Lamp with Wick. D. Freezing Point in degrees Centigrade. E. Colour. F. Taste. G. Smell. H. Limpidity. Time (in seconds) required to trickle a given distance. I. Drying Power.

+-------------+------+----+------+-------------+-------------+------------+------+-------------+ | A. | B. | C. | D. | E. | F. | G. | H. | I. | +-------------+------+----+------+-------------+-------------+------------+------+-------------+ |Plum kernel |0·9127|68 | -9 |Brownish |Amygdalaceous|Very slight | 93 |Non-drying. | | | | | | yellow | | | | | |Rape seed |0·9128|30 | -4 |Yellow |Nauseous |Nauseous | 159 |Non-drying. | |Colza |0·9136|40 | -9·25|Yellow |Nauseous |Nauseous | 162 |Non-drying. | |Cabbage seed |0·9139|48·5| -8 |Yellow |Nauseous |Nauseous | 148 |Non-drying. | |White mustard|0·9142|29·8|-16·25|Light |Pleasant |Very slight | 157 |Non-drying. | | | | | | yellow | | | | | |Ground nut |0·9163| ? | -3 |Pale greenish|Like peas |Like peas |Not |Non-drying. | | | | | | yellow | | |tested| | |Black mustard|0·9170|25 |-17·5 |Yellow |Pleasant |Very slight | 141 |Non-drying. | |Olive |0·9176|62 | -6[54]|Yellow |Sweet |Peculiar | 195 |Non-drying. | |Sweet almond |0·9180|52·8|-21·5 |Amber |Agreeable |None | 150 |Non-drying. | |Horse-radish | | | | | | | | | | seed |0·9187|43 |-16·25|Yellowish |Pleasant |None | 143 |Non-drying. | | | | | | brown | | | | | |Grape seed |0·9202|37 |-16·25|Gold yellow |Sweet |None | 99 |Dries slowly.| |Beech nut |0·9225|50 |-17·5 |Amber |Very sweet |None | 158 |Non-drying. | |Pumpkin |0·9231|43 |-15 |Pale brown |Sweet |None | 185 |Dries slowly.| | | | | | yellow | | | | | |Land-cress |0·9240|42 |-15 |Brownish |Acrid |Disagreeable| 103 |Dries slowly.| | | | | | yellow | | | | | |Hazel nut |0·9242|53·4|-10 |Amber |Sweet |None | 166 |Non-drying. | |Poppy |0·9243|31 |-18[55]|Pale yellow |Flat |None | 123 |Drying. | |Camelina |0·9252|34 |-18 |Yellowish |Peculiar |Peculiar | 119 |Drying. | |Walnut |0·9260|45 |-27·5 |Light yellow |Flat |None | 88 |Drying. | |Sunflower |0·9262|51·8|-16 |Colourless |Sweet |None | 114 |Dries slowly.| |Hemp seed |0·9276|46 |-27·5 |Dark greenish|Disagreeable |Disagreeable| 87 |Drying. | | | | | | yellow | | | | | |Cotton seed |0·9316| ? | -2·5 |Reddish brown|Strong |None |Not | | | | | | | | | |tested|Drying. | |Sesame |0·9320| ? | -5 |Bright yellow|Pleasant, |None |Not |Non-drying. | | | | | | | slightly | |tested| | | | | | | | piquant | | | | |Linseed |0·9347|38 |-27 |Dark greenish|Strong |Disagreeable| 88 |Drying. | | | | | | yellow | | | | | |Wood |0·9358|44 |Not |Green |Unpleasant |None | 73 |Drying. | | | | |noted | | | | | | |Spindle |0·9360|61 |-20 |Reddish brown|Acrid |Slight | 143 |Non-drying. | |Castor |0·9611|47 |-18 |Colourless |Sickly |Very slight |1,830 |Dries slowly.| +-------------+------+----+------+-------------+-------------+------------+------+-------------+

[Footnote 54: Though these oils do not become quite solid till the point indicated is reached, yet they begin to become grainy at +4° C.]

[Footnote 55: Once solidified, this oil does not liquify until the temperature reaches 2°C.]

TABLE giving the reactions of various OILS with SULPHURIC ACID and with a saturated solution of BICHROMATE OF POTASH in sulphuric acid. Re-arranged from M. PENOT’s table, with additions, by Mr COOLEY.

⁂ The result indicated is obtained in each case by the action of one drop of the REAGENT on twenty drops of OIL.

---------------------+--------------------------------------------------------+ | REAGENTS | +--------------------------------------------------------+ | | Saturated Solution of | NAME OF OIL | Sulphuric Acid | Bichromate of Potassa | | | in Sulphuric Acid | +------------------+-------------+-----------------------+ | Not stirred | Stirred | Stirred | ---------------------+------------------+-------------+-----------------------+ Almond oil |Greenfinch yellow,| Dirty green |Yellowish, small lumps | |with orange spots | | | | | | | Castor oil |Yellow, with |Little |Slightly green | |slight spots |reaction | | | | | | Cod-liver oil |Deep purple in |Deep purple, |Reddish-brown clots, | (fine sample |the centre, |passing into |changing to a clear | of pale oil) |rapidly turning |purple brown,|bright green | |brown, whilst |reddish | | |violet or purple |brown, and | | |clouds or streaks |gradually | | |spread out towards|deepening to | | |the circumference,|an intense | | |the colour of |brown, | | |which remains |approaching | | |minutes after the |black | | |central portion | | | |turned nearly | | | |black | | | | | | | Hemp-seed oil |Small brown lumps |Greenish |Small yellow lumps or | |or clots on a |brown |clots on a green | |yellow ground | |ground | | | | | Linseed oil | | | | (from the | | | | Upper Rhine) |Dark reddish brown|Brown small |Brown small lumps on | | |lumps on a |an almost colourless | | |grey ground |ground | | | | | | | | | (from Paris) |Reddish brown, |Brown clots |Brown small lumps on a | |less dark coloured|on a green |green ground | | |ground | | | | | | (English) |Chestnut brown |Brown clots |Brown lumps on a | | |on a |greenish-grey ground | | |greenish-grey| | | |ground | | | | | | Liver-train oil |Dark red |Dark red |Dark red | | | | | Madia-sativa oil |Slightly reddish |Olive green |Light brown small lumps| |brown underneath | |on an olive-coloured | |a thin greyish | |ground | |film | | | | | | | Black-mustard oil |Bluish green |Olive green |Olive brown | | | | | Neat’s-foot oil |Yellow slight |Dirty brown |Brown spots on a | |spots | |brownish ground | | | | | Nut oil | | | | (recent) |Yellowish brown |Clotted, dark|Small brown lumps or | | |brown |clots | | | | | (one year old) | Yellow |Dirty brown, |Small brown lumps | | |less dark | | | |coloured | | | | | | (still older) |Orange yellow |Dirty brown |Small brownish lumps | | | | | Olein, oleic acid, | | | | lard, or tallow oil |Reddish spots, |Reddish brown|Bright chestnut colour | |with reddish | | | |circles | | | | | | | Olive oil |Yellow |Dirty brown |Olive brown | | | | | (another | | | | sample) |Orange yellow |Brownish grey|Brown | | | | | (from fermented | | | | olives) |Orange yellow |Brownish grey|Brown | | | | | Poppy oil | | | | (recent cold | | | | drawn) |Yellow spots |Olive brown |Small yellow lumps on a| | | |white ground | | | | | (recent | | | | expressed with slight| | | | heat) |Greenish-yellow |Olive brown, |Small yellow lumps on a| |spots |turning more |greenish-grey ground | | |on the green | | (one year old, | | | | expressed with | | | | heat) |Greenish spots |Olive green |Small yellow lumps on a| | | |green ground | | | | | Rape or colza oil | | | | (trade) |Yellowish-brown |Brownish, |Yellow small lumps on a| |streaks surrounded|turning on |green ground | |by a bluish-green |the olive | | |ring |green | | | | | | (recent) |Green |Bluish green |Yellow small lumps on a| | | |green ground | | | | | (one year old) |Green |Bluish green |Yellow lumps on a | | | |brighter green ground | | | | | (one year old, | | | | rough | | | | hot-pressed) |Green |Olive green |Small yellow lumps, | | | |more numerous, on an | | | |olive-green ground | | | | | Whale-train oil |Small reddish |Resembles |Small, bright, | |lumps on a |wine lees |chestnut-coloured lumps| |brownish ground | |on a brown ground | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------

=Oil, Cas′tor.= Syn. RICINI OLEUM (B. P.), OLEUM CASTOREI, O. RICINI (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. “The oil prepared by heat, or by pressure, from the seed” of “Ricinis communis, Linn.” (Ph. L.), the Palma Christi, or Mexican oil-bush.

The best castor oil (COLD-DRAWN CASTOR OIL; OLEUM RICINI SINE IGNE)is prepared by pressing the shelled and crushed fruit (seed) in hemp bags, in an hydraulic press, and heating the oil thus obtained along with water in well tinned vessels, until the water boils and the albumen and gum separate as a scum; this is carefully removed, and the oil as soon as it has become cold is filtered through Canton flannel, and put into canisters. The commoner kinds are prepared by gently heating the crushed seeds, and pressing them whilst hot. Another method, sometimes adopted, is to put the crushed seed into loose bags, to boil these in water, and to skim off the floating oil.

Prop. It is the most viscid of all the fixed oils; when pure it mixes in all proportions with alcohol and ether, and also dissolves, to a certain extent, in rectified spirit, but a portion of the oil separates on standing. Camphor and benzoic acid increase its solubility in spirit. By long exposure to the air it becomes rancid, thick, and is ultimately transformed into a transparent yellow mass; light hastens these changes. Exposed to cold, a solid, white crystalline fat separates from the liquid portion, and when cooled to 0° it congeals into a yellow transparent mass, which does not again liquefy until the temperature rises to about 18° Fahr. Sp. gr. ·9611 to ·9612, at 60°; ·9690, at 55° (Saussure); ·9575, at 77° (Saussure). Prod. 38% to 40% (62%——Ure).

Pur. Castor oil is sometimes adulterated with rape oil or with lard oil, a fraud which may be detected by its diminished density; and, when the added oil exceeds 33%, by its insolubility in its own weight of alcohol of ·820. In many cases croton oil is added to increase the purgative quality of the mixture. A compound of this kind is vended in gelatine capsules under the name of ‘CONCENTRATED CASTOR OIL,’ the use of which is fraught with danger. “I have heard of several cases in which very violent and dangerous effects were produced by these capsules.” (Pereira.) The best is imported from the East Indies in tin canisters. The oil obtained from the seeds of Ricinus viridis (Willd.), or lamp-oil seeds, is often mixed with or sold for castor oil.

Uses, &c. Castor oil is an exceedingly useful mild purgative, particularly when abdominal irritation should be avoided, as in inflammations of the stomach and bowels, pregnancy, surgical operations, &c.——Dose, 2 fl. dr. to 1 fl. oz.

=Oil, Cocoa-nut.= Syn. COCOA-NUT BUTTER; OLEUM COCOIS NUCIFERÆ, L. By expression from the kernels of the cocoa nut, or fruit of the Cocos nucifera.

=Oil, Cod-liver.= Syn. MORRHUÆ OLEUM (B. P.), COD-FISH OIL; OLEUM JECORIS ASELLI, O. GADI, O. G. MORRHUÆ, OLEUM MORRHUÆ (Ph. L.), L. “The oil extracted from the fresh liver of the Gadus morrhua by a steam heat or water bath not exceeding 180° Fahr. Yellow.” “The oil prepared from the liver of Gadus morrhua, Linn.” (Ph. L.)

The common cod-liver oil of commerce drains from the livers of the cod-fish when freely exposed to the sun, and just beginning to putrefy. It is dark coloured, strong, and nauseous, and is now chiefly employed in this country by the curriers, for dressing leather. It is the ‘OLEUM JECORIS ASELLI FUSCUM’ of Continental writers. Formerly, the less fetid varieties of this crude oil, after the impurities were removed, either by subsidence or filtration, constituted the only cod-liver oil used in medicine. As its employment as a remedy increased, its revolting flavour, and its great tendency to permanently disorder the stomach and bowels, was found, however, to be a serious obstacle to its general use. It was observed that the oil as it exists in the liver of the cod is bland and nearly colourless, and has only a slight fishy, but not a disagreeable flavour. The attention of persons interested was therefore immediately directed to the subject, and improved methods of obtaining the oil were suggested, and ere long adopted on the large scale.

The methods of preparing cod-liver oil are noticed in another part of this work, but we think it advisable to add to these a description of the plan adopted by Messrs Charles Fox and Co., of Newfoundland, Scarborough, and London, the well-known manufacturers and importers of cod-liver oil:——

“The Newfoundland fisheries are entirely carried on in small boats, principally by the hand-line system, and quite close to the shore. The boats go out early in the morning, and return about four o’clock in the afternoon. The fish, on landing, are handed over to a ‘fish-room keeper,’ whose duty it is to split and open the fish, and to deposit the livers in small tubs holding 17 or 18 gallons each. The tubs are soon afterwards collected from the different ‘fish-rooms,’ and conveyed to the manufactory. The livers are here thrown into tubs filled with clean cold water, and, after being well washed and jerked over, are placed on galvanised iron-wire sieves to drain. They are next put into covered steam-jacket-pans, and submitted to a gentle heat for about three quarters of an hour, after which the steam is turned off, cold air again admitted, and the whole allowed to repose for a short time, during which the livers subside, and the oil separates and floats on the top. The oil is then skimmed off into tin vessels, and passed through flannel strainers into tubs, where it is left to subside for about 24 hours. From these the purer upper portion of oil is run into a very deep, galvanized-iron cistern, and again left to clarify itself by defecation for a few days. It is now further refined by carefully passing it through clean and very stout mole-skin filters, under pressure. The transparent filtered oil is received in a clean, galvanised-iron cistern containing a pump, from which the casks are filled for exportation. The latter, before being filled, are carefully seasoned and cleaned, to prevent their imparting either flavour or colour to the pure oil.”

The superiority of the oil prepared as above consists essentially in every part of the process of extraction being performed whilst the livers are fresh, and in no chemical means being adopted to give the oil a factitious appearance. Its natural pale colour is thus preserved from contamination, and its medicinal virtues maintained intact.

Much of the light brown oil of commerce is obtained from Gadus callarius (the dorse). G. carbonarius (the coal-fish), and G. pollachius (the pollack).

Pur., &c. “The finest oil,” remarks Dr Pereira, “is that which is most devoid of colour, odour, and flavour. The oil, as contained in the cells of the fresh liver, is nearly colourless, and the brownish colour possessed by ordinary cod-liver oil is due to colouring matters derived from the decomposition (putrefying) of hepatic tissues and fluids, or from the action of the air on the oil (age). Chemical analysis lends no support to the opinion, at one time entertained, that the brown oil was superior, as a therapeutic agent, to the pale oil. Chemistry has not discovered any substance in the brown oil that would confer on it superior activity as a medicine. On the other hand, the disgusting odour and flavour and nauseating qualities of the brown oil preclude its repeated use. Moreover, there is reason to suspect that, if patients could conquer their aversion to it, its free use, like that of other rancid and empyreumatic fats, would disturb the digestive functions, and be attended with injurious effects.”[56]

[Footnote 56: ‘Elem. Mat. Med.,’ &c., 3rd edit., iii, 2339.]

Among the tests of purity, that generally relied on is known as the ‘sulphuric acid test.’ See OILS (Fixed): Purity.

DORSE OIL, and other FISH OIL, sold as ‘LIGHT-BROWN COD-LIVER OIL,’ exhibit with this test much lighter reactions, which closely resemble those of LIVER-TRAIN and WHALE-TRAIN OIL.

To detect the presence of combined iodine, upon which, by some, the therapeutic value of cod-liver oil is thought to depend, the sample is saponified by trituration with a little caustic potassa and hot water, the resulting soap cautiously incinerated, the ashes digested with water, and the whole thrown on a filter. The usual tests for iodine may be then applied to the filtered liquid.

The presence of iodine artificially added is best detected by agitating the oil with a little rectified spirit, and then testing this last for iodine. Or, a little solution of starch and a few drops of sulphuric or nitric acid may be at once added to the oil, when a blue colour will be developed if iodine, or an iodide, has been mixed with the sample.

The sp. gr. of the pale oil is ·9230 to ·9238; of the light-brown oil, ·9240 to ·9245; of the dark-brown oil, ·9290 to ·9315. The density is, however, apt to vary a little with the quantity of moisture present.

Uses, &c. Cod-liver oil is a most valuable medicine in a great variety of diseases, more especially in glandular indurations and enlargements, scrofula, phthisis, rheumatism, gout, certain cutaneous diseases, amenorrhœa, chlorosis, caries, rickets, &c. To be of service, however, its use must be continued for several weeks, and the oil must be recent.——Dose, 1 to 2 table-spoonfuls, 3 or 4 times daily, or oftener.

=Oil, Col′za.= From the seeds of Brassica campestris, var. oleifera, or colza de printemps, a variety of Brassica campestris (Linn.). It may be regarded as a superior sort of rape oil. Burns well in lamps, especially after being refined. Sp. gr. ·9136. Prod. 39%. The term ‘colza oil’ is commonly applied to ordinary refined rape.

=Oil, Cottonseed.= Syn. OLEUM GOSSIPII SEMINUM, L. From the seeds of Gossypium Barbadense. Drying.

=Oil, Croton.= Syn. CROTONIS OLEUM (B. P.), OLEUM CROTONIS (Ph. E.), O. TIGLII (Ph. L.), L. From the shelled seeds of Croton tiglium or Molucca grains. Imported chiefly from the East Indies. It is one of the most powerful cathartics known, and acts when either swallowed or merely placed in the mouth. Externally, it is a rubefacient and counter-irritant, often causing a crop of painful pustules, like tartar emetic.——Dose, 1 to 2 drops, on sugar; in apoplexy, &c. It is poisonous in larger doses. Sp. gr. ·947 to ·953. Prod. Unshelled seeds, 22% to 25%; shelled do., 32% to 35%.

Pure croton oil is soluble in an equal volume of alcohol of ·796, but in 2 or 3 days about 96% of the oil separates. In France the marc is exhausted with alcohol, and the oil thus obtained is added to that previously obtained from the same seeds by expression. The East Indian oil (OLEUM CROTONIS EXOTICUM) is usually of a pale yellow; that pressed in England (O. CROTONIS ANGLICANUM) is much darker.

=Oil of Cu′cumber.= Syn. OLEUM CUCURBITÆ, L. From the seeds of Cucurbita pepo or squash, and the C. melopepo or pumpkin. Pale; used in lamps; and, sometimes, as a soothing application to piles. Sp. gr. ·9231. Prod. 24%.

=Oil of Eggs.= Syn. OLEUM OVI, O. O. VITELLI, O. OVORUM, L. From the yolks of eggs, gently heated until they coagulate and the moisture has evaporated, and then pressed or broken up, digested in boiling rectified spirit, the tincture filtered whilst hot, and the spirit distilled off. Bland; emollient. The common plan is to fry the yolks hard; but the oil is then darker coloured and stronger. The P. Cod. orders them to be exhausted with ether, by displacement. Formerly commonly used to ‘kill’ quicksilver, and still held in great esteem in some parts of England for sore nipples and excoriations. Prod. 10 to 12 eggs yield 1 oz. See MIXED OILS.

=Oil of Garden Cress.= Syn. OLEUM LEPIDII SATIVI, L. From the seed. Drying. Sp. gr. ·9240. Prod. 54%.

=Oil of Gar′den Spurge.= Syn. OLEUM LATHYRIS, O. EUPHORBIÆ L., L. From the seeds of Euphorbia lathyris or garden spurge. Cathartic.——Dose, 3 to 8 drops. Sp. gr. ·9281. Prod. 30% to 41%. Croton oil mixed with 6 times its weight of nut or rape oil is usually sold for it.

=Oil of Gingel′ly.= Syn. OIL OF SESAMUM, BENNE OIL, TEEL O., TEL O.; OLEUM SESAMI, L. From the seeds of Sesamum orientale (Willd.), or gingelly. Pale; bland. Used in salads, paints, &c.; also to adulterate oil of almonds. Prod. 46%.

=Oil, Gourd.= See OIL OF CUCUMBER.

=Oil of Ground Nuts.= From the nuts of Arachis hypogæa. Glutinous.

=Oil of Gurgun.= See BALSAM, GURGUN.

=Oil of Hemp.= Syn. OLEUM CANNABIS, L. From the seed of Cannabis sativa (Linn.), or common hemp. Mawkish. Sometimes used for frying, but chiefly for paints, soaps, &c. Freely soluble in boiling alcohol; does not thicken until cooled to 5° Fahr. Sp. gr. ·9276. Prod. 18% to 24%.

=Oil of Jatro′pha.= Syn. OIL OF WILD CASTOR SEEDS; OLEUM JATROPHÆ, L. From the seeds of Jatropha purgans. Somewhat resembles CROTON OIL. Used for lamps in the East Indies.

=Oil, Kundah.= Syn. TALLICOONAH O.; OLEUM TOULOUCOUNÆ, L. From the fruit of Carapa Touloucouna. Rancid, nauseous, vermifuge, rubefacient, emetic, and purgative. Chiefly used in lamps.

=Oil, Lard.= Syn. TALLOW O., CRUDE OLEIN, C. OLEIC ACID; OLEUM ADIPIS, L. By separating the olein of lard from the stearin by means of boiling alcohol. Only applicable where spirit is cheap. The product is, however, excellent. The crude oleic acid, or lard oil of commerce, is chiefly obtained as a secondary product in the manufacture of stearin. It is purified by agitation with sulphuric acid, and subsequently by steaming it, or washing it with hot water. Burns well in lamps, if the wick-tube is kept cool. Sp. gr. ·9003.

=Oil, Linseed.= Syn. OLEUM LINI (B. P., Ph. L., E. & D.), L. 1. (COLD-DRAWN LINSEED OIL; OLEUM LINI SINE IGNE.) From the seed of Linum usitatissimum (Linn.), or common flax, bruised or crushed, and then ground and expressed without heat. Pale, insipid, viscous; does not keep so well as the next. Prod. 17% to 20%.

2. As the last, but employing a steam heat of about 200° Fahr. Amber coloured; less viscous than the last; congeals at 2°; soluble in 5 parts of boiling and 40 parts of cold alcohol. Both are drying and cathartic.——Dose, 1 to 2 oz.; in piles, &c. Chiefly used in paints, varnishes, &c. Sp. gr. ·9347. Prod. 22% to 27%.

3. (BOILED LINSEED OIL.) See OILS (Drying).

=Oil of Mace (Expressed).= See OIL OF NUTMEG (Expressed).

=Oil of Male Fern.= See EXTRACT OF MALE FERN.

=Oil of Mustard.= Syn. OLEUM SINAPIS, L. 1. (OIL OF WHITE MUSTARD.) From Sinapis alba, or white mustard, but chiefly from Sinapis arvensis, S. chinensis, S. dichotoma, S. glauca, S. ramosa, and S. tori. Sweet. Used for the table. Sp. gr. ·9142 (·2160——Ure). Prod. 36%.

2. (OIL OF BLACK MUSTARD; OLEUM SINAPIS NIGRI, L.) From the ‘hulls’ of black-mustard seed. Viscid, stimulant. Used in rheumatism, Sp. gr. ·9168 to ·9170. See OILS (Volatile).

3. (OIL OF WHITE MUSTARD; OLEUM RAPHANI, L.) From the seed of Raphanus raphanistrum (Linn.), or jointed charlock or wild mustard. Prod. 30%.

=Oil, Neat’s-foot.= Syn. NERVE OIL, TROTTER O.; OLEUM BUBULUM, O. NERVINUM, AXUNGIA PEDUM TAURI, L. From neat’s-feet and tripe, by boiling them in water, and skimming off the oil. Does not thicken by age. Used to soften leather, to clean fire-arms, and for other purposes.

OIL, NUT. Syn. HAZEL-NUT O.; OLEUM NUCIS, O. CORYLI, L. From the kernels of Corylus Avellana (Linn.), or hazel-nut tree. Pale, mild tasted, drying; superior to linseed oil for paints and varnishes. It is commonly sold for oil of almonds and oil of ben, and is extensively employed to adulterate both. Walnut oil is also frequently sold for nut oil. Sp. gr. ·9260. Prod. 63%(Ure).

=Oil of Nut′meg (Expressed).= Syn. EXPRESSED OIL OF MACE, BUTTER OF M.; OLEUM MYRISTICÆ (CONCRETUM) (Ph. L.), MYRISTICÆ ADEPS (Ph. E.), M. BUTYRUM, O. MYRISTICÆ EXPRESSUM (B. P.), O. MOSCHATÆ, O. NUCISTÆ, L. “The concrete oil expressed from the seed of Myristica officinalis,” Linn. (Ph. L.), or common nutmeg. The nutmegs are beaten to a paste, enclosed in a bag, exposed to the vapour of hot water, and then pressed between heated iron plates. Orange coloured, fragrant, spicy; butyraceous, or solid. It is a mixture of the fixed and volatile oils of the nutmeg. When discoloured and hardened by age, it is called ‘BANDA SOAP’ (OL. MACIS IN MASSIS). When pure, it is soluble in 4 parts of boiling alcohol and in 2 parts of ether. It has been used in rheumatism and palsy, but is now chiefly employed for its odour and aromatic qualities. From the East Indies. Prod. 17% to 20%.

=Oil, Ol′ive.= Syn. SALAD OIL, SWEET O.; OLIVÆ OLEUM (B. P.), OLEUM OLIVARUM, O. OLIVÆ (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. The “oil expressed from the fruit” of “Olea europœa, Linn.” (Ph. L.), or common olive. Five different methods are employed to obtain the oil, from the fruit:

1. (VIRGIN OIL; O. O. VIRGINEUM, L.); (HUILE VIERGE, Fr.) From olives, carefully garbled, either spontaneously or only by slight pressure, in the cold. That yielded by the pericarp of the fruit is the finest.

2. (Ordinary ‘FINE OIL,’) This is obtained by either pressing the olives, previously crushed and mixed with boiling water, or by pressing, at a gentle heat, the olives from which the virgin oil has been obtained. The above processes furnish the finer salad oils of commerce. The cake which is left is called ‘GRIGNON,’

3. (SECOND QUALITY.) By allowing the bruised fruit to ferment before pressing it. Yellow; darker than the preceding; but mild and sweet tasted. Much used for the table.

4. (‘GORGON.’) By fermenting and boiling the pressed cake or marc in water, and skimming off the oil. Inferior.

5. (OIL OF THE INFERNAL REGIONS; OLEUM OMPHACINUM) is a very inferior quality of oil, which is skimmed off the surface of the water in the reservoirs into which the waste water which has been used in the above operations is received, and allowed to settle. The last two are chiefly used for lamps, and in soap-making, &c.

Of the principal varieties of olive oil known in commerce, and distinguished by the place of their production, ‘PROVENCE OIL’ is the most esteemed; ‘FLORENCE OIL’ and ‘LUCCA OIL’ are also of very fine quality; ‘GENOA OIL’ comes next, and then ‘GALLIPOLI OIL,’ which forms the mass of what is used in England; ‘SICILY OIL,’ which has a slightly resinous flavour, is very inferior; and ‘SPANISH OIL’ is the worst imported.

Prop., &c. Olive oil is a nearly inodorous, pale greenish-yellow, unctuous fluid, with a purely oleaginous taste, peculiarly grateful to the palate of those who relish oil. It does not suffer active decomposition at a heat not exceeding 600° Fahr.; and when cooled to 36°it congeals into a granular solid mass. It is very slightly soluble in alcohol, but its solubility is increased by admixture with castor oil. It is soluble in 1-1/2 part of ether. When pure it has little tendency to become rancid. Sp. gr. ·9170 to ·9173; ·9192, at 53-1/2° (Saussure); ·9176, at 59° (Heidenreich); and ·9109, at 77° Fahr. (Saussure). Prod. 32%, of which 21% is furnished by the pericarp, and the remainder, which is inferior, by the seed and woody matter of the fruit.

Pur. Olive oil, with the exception of that of almonds, being the most costly of the ordinary fixed oils of commerce, is, consequently, the one most subject to adulteration. Nut, poppy, rape, and lard oil, are those most commonly used for this purpose. Refined tallow olein, including that obtained from the ‘knackers’ yards’ of Paris, is said to have been used in the same way. The addition of any other oil to olive oil renders it far less agreeable to the palate, and, by increasing its tendency to rancidity, much more likely to offend and derange the stomach and bowels of those who consume it. Parties who indulge themselves in the use of this luxury would, therefore, do well to ascertain that what they purchase is pure. When pure, and also fresh, olive oil is most wholesome as an article of food or us a condiment.

The detection of the sophistication of salad oil is a matter of no great difficulty. The palate of the connoisseur will readily perceive the slightest variation in the quality of his favourite condiment. Other methods, however, of a more accurate and certain description, and of more general application, are adopted. Amongst these, in addition to those mentioned above, are the following:——

a. When pure olive oil is shaken in a phial, only half filled, the ‘bead’ or bubbles rapidly disappear; but if the sample has been mixed with poppy or other oil, the bubbles continue longer before they burst.

b. Olive oil congeals at 36° Fahr., and is completely solidified when a small bottle containing it is surrounded by ice, or a freezing mixture; but when mixed with poppy oil, it remains partly liquid, even when the latter forms only 1-4th of the mass; if more than 1-3rd of poppy oil is present, it does not solidify at all, unless cooled much below the freezing point of water.

c. (Ph. E.) When olive oil is “carefully mixed with 1/12th part of its volume of a solution of 4 oz. of mercury in 8 fl. oz. 6 dr. of nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·500), it becomes in 3 or 4 hours like a firm fat, without any separation of liquid oil.”

d. M. Pontet recommends the mercurial solution to be made by dissolving 6 parts of mercury in 7-1/2 parts of nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·35), without heat; of this solution he adds 1 part to every 48 parts of the oil, and well shakes the mixture every 30 minutes, until it begins to solidify. This it does after about 7 hours in summer and 4 or 5 hours in winter, and when the oil is pure it will have formed, in 24 hours, a mass so hard that some little force must be employed to thrust a glass rod into it. The other edible oils do not furnish a hard mass with nitrate of mercury. The solidity of the mass is exactly in proportion to the quantity of foreign oil present. When the sophistication is equal to 1-8th of the whole, a distinct liquid layer separates; when the mixture contains half its volume of an inferior oil, one half only of the mixture becomes solid, and the other half continues liquid. A temperature of about 90° Fahr. is the best to cause the oil and coagulum to separate perfectly from each other. When the oil has been adulterated with animal oil, the mixture solidifies in about five hours; but in this case the coagulum consists of the animal oil, whilst the olive oil floats on the surface, and may be decanted for further examination. This coagulum, on being heated, exhales the well-known odour of rancid fat or melted tallow.

e. Dr Ramon Cordina Langlies states that the best reagent for the examination of olive oil is that of Hauchecorne.

This reagent is composed of three parts of pure nitric acid at 40° with one part of distilled water. The following is Dr Langlies’ process for proving that olive oil does not contain seed oil, and more especially cotton oil:——

He mixes three grammes of the oil to be tested with one gramme of the reagent in a test tube, or a small stoppered flask, and heats the liquid in a water bath. If the oil is pure the mixture becomes clearer, and takes a yellow colour, like purified oil; if it is adulterated with seed oil, it acquires the same transparency as the pure oil, but becomes red. With 5 per cent. of seed oil the reddish colouring is characteristic; with 10 per cent. it is decided. The reaction does not require more than from 15 to 20 minutes.

The colouring of the oils lasts for three days.

Uses, &c. The dietetical uses of olive oil are well known. In Spain and Italy it is commonly employed as a substitute for butter. It is highly nutritious, but is digested with difficulty by some persons, and hence should be avoided by the dyspeptic. Like almond oil, it is occasionally employed as a laxative and vermifuge, and is, perhaps, one of the mildest known. In pharmacy it is extensively employed in the preparation of cerates, liniments, ointments, and plasters.——Dose. For an adult, 1/2 to 1 wine-glassful as a mild aperient; for an infant, 1/2 to 1 teaspoonful, mixed up with an equal quantity of honey, syrup of roses, or syrup of violets. The white fibrous sediment which forms in the recently expressed oil is the ‘AMURCA’ of Pliny, and was formerly highly esteemed in medicine.

=Oil, Olive, Droppings.= Syn. SWEET-OIL D. The ‘foots’ or ‘deposits,’ and the ‘drippings’ of the casks, cisterns, and utensils. Used for machinery, making soap, &c.

=Oil, Olive (Oxygenated).= Syn. OLEUM OLIVÆ OXYGENATUM (Ph. Batav.), L. Olive oil, 16 oz., is placed in a receiver surrounded with ice or very cold water, and chlorine is slowly transmitted through it for several days, or until it becomes thick and viscid, after which it is well washed with warm warm.

=Oil, Palm.= Syn. PALM BUTTER; OLEUM PALMÆ;, L. From the fruit of Elais Guineensis, and E. melanococca, the Guinea oil palms. Orange or red coloured; butyraceous or solid; smells of violets; unchanged by alkalies; bleached by sunlight, age, exposure, chlorine, chromic acid, and oil of vitriol; melts at 117-1/2° Fahr. Sp. gr. ·968. Demulcent. Used to colour and scent ointments, pomades, &c.; but chiefly to make soap and candles. From Africa.

=Oil, Pi′′ney.= Syn. PINEY TALLOW, P. DAMMAR, P. RESIN. From Vateria Indica (Linn.) or pænoe tree. Resinous flavoured, fragrant, made into candles. Sp. gr. ·926.

=Oil, Pop′py.= Syn. OLEUM PAPAVERIS, L.; OLIETE, HUILE BLANCHE, Fr. From the seeds of Papaver somniferum (Linn.), or white poppy. Sweet; pale; dries and keeps well. Used for salads, paints, and soaps; also (extensively) to adulterate almond oil, for the inferior qualities of which it is frequently sold. It does not freeze until cooled to 0° Fahr. Sp. gr. ·9243 to ·9245. Prod. 48% to 54%.

=Oil of Pumpkin.= Syn. OLEUM CUCURBITÆ. Expressed from the seeds of the pumpkin; a soothing application to piles.

=Oil, Rape.= Syn. COLZA OIL, BROWN O.; OLEUM RAPÆ, L. From the seed of Brassica napus (Linn.; cole or rape), and from Brassica campestris (Linn.; wild navew or rape). Glutinous; buttery at 25° Fahr. Dries slowly; makes soft soaps and good ointments, but bad plasters; smokes much in burning, unless well refined. Sp. gr. ·9135 to ·9136. Prod. 32%.

OIL, REFINED or PALE RAPE (OLEUM RAPÆ REFINUM, OL. R. ALBUM) is prepared from crude rape oil, by agitating it with about 2% of oil of vitriol, previously diluted with about twice its weight of water, and, after 10 or 12 days’ repose, decanting the clear oil, and filtering it through Canton flannel or felt. The quality is improved by washing it with hot water or steam before filtration. Used for lamps, blacking, and machinery; also extensively employed to adulterate both almond and olive oil. It forms the common ‘SWEET OIL’ of the oilmen and druggists. Sp. gr. ·9136 to ·9140.

=Oil, Seal.= Syn. OLEUM PHOCÆ, L. From the hood seal, and harp seal, and other species of Phocidæ. PALE SEAL OIL is that which drains from the blubber before putrefaction commences, and forms about 60% of the whole quantity of oil obtained. It is very clear, free from smell, and, when recently prepared, not unpleasant in its taste. REFINED SEAL OIL is the last, washed and filtered. Ranks close after sperm oil. BROWN or DARK SEAL OIL is that which subsequently drains from the putrid mass. It is very strong-scented and nauseous, and smokes in burning. Both are used for lamps and dressing leather. A full-grown seal yields 8 to 12 galls. of oil; a small one, 4 to 5 galls.

=Oil of Ses′amum.= Syn. OIL OF GINGELLY (above).

=Oil, Shark-liver.= The lightest of the fixed oils. Sp. gr. ·865 to ·867.

=Oil, Skate.= Syn. OLEUM RALÆ, L. From the livers of Raia batis (Linn.), or common skate, as cod-liver oil; also from Raia rhinobatus, or white skate, and Raia clavata, or thornback. Often sold and mixed with cod-liver oil.

=Oil, Spermace′ti.= Syn. SPERM OIL; OLEUM CETACEI, L. From the ‘head matter’ of Physeter macrocephalus, or spermaceti whale; a species once common in all the principal seas, but now chiefly confined to the Southern Ocean. It is very limpid, smells little, and burns well; and has long been reputed the best oil for lamps and machinery, as it does not thicken by age or friction. It is frequently adulterated with refined seal oil. Sp. gr. ·875.

=Oil, Sun′flower.= Syn. OLEUM HELIANTHI, L. From the seeds of Helianthus annuus and H. perennis. Clear, pale yellow, tasteless; thickens at 60° Fahr. Used for salads and lamps. Sp. gr. ·9261. Prod. 15%.

=Oil, Teel.= See OIL, GINGELLY.

=Oil, Tobac′co-seed.= Syn. OLEUM TABACI (EXPRESSUM), L. From the seeds of Nicotiana tabacum (Linn.), or true tobacco plant. Pale; dries well; equal to nut oil. Its production has recently been carried on with considerable success in some parts of Russia. Sp. gr. ·9232.

=Oil of Touloucou′na.= See OIL, KUNDAH.

=Oil, Train.= See OIL, WHALE.

=Oil, Wal′nut.= Syn. OLEUM JUGLANDIS, O. NUCIS J., L. From the kernels of the nuts of Juglans regia (Linn.), or common walnut tree. Soon gets rank; dries well. Used in paints, and occasionally in plasters. When ‘cold drawn’ and washed it is sometimes eaten with salad. Sp. gr. ·9260 to ·9262. Prod. 48% to 52%.

=Oil of Wax.= Syn. BUTTER OF WAX; OLEUM CERÆ, L. From beeswax, by quick distillation in a close vessel. Butyraceous. By rectification along with quicklime it yields a liquid oil.

=Oil, Whale.= Syn. TRAIN OIL, WHALE-TRAIN O.; OLEUM BALÆNÆ, O. CETI, L. From the blubber of the Balæna mysticetus (Linn.), or the common or Greenland whale, by heat. Coarse; stinking. SOUTHERN WHALE OIL is the best. Used for lamps, machinery, &c. Sp. gr. ·9231. Prod. per fish, about 1-1/2 ton for each foot of bone.

=Oil of Wheat.= Syn. OLEUM TRITICI, L. From bruised Colne wheat, with heat. In chilblains, ringworm, and several other skin diseases.

=Oil of Wine-stones.= Syn. GRAPE-STONE OIL; OLEUM VITIS VINIFERÆ LAPIDUM, L. From the seeds of grapes, separated from the marc. Pale yellow, bland, emollient. Used for salads and lamps. Sp. gr. ·9202. Prod. 14% to 18%.

⁂ The numbers given above, under ‘products,’ unless when otherwise stated, refer to the respective fruits, kernels, nuts, seeds, &c., deprived of their husks, pods, shells, and every other portion destitute of oil.

=OILS (Medicated).= Syn. OLEA COCTA, O. INFUSA, O. MEDICATA, L. These are prepared by infusion or decoction. The bruised ingredients are either simply digested in 2 to 4 times their weight of olive oil for some days, or they are gently boiled in it until they become dry and crisp, great care being taken that the heat towards the end of the process is not greater than that of boiling water. As soon as the process is complete, the oil is allowed to drain from the ingredients, which are then (if necessary) submitted to the action of the press. The product is commonly run through flannel or a hair sieve whilst still warm, after which it is allowed to repose for a week or ten days, when the clear portion is decanted from the dregs. The green or recent plants are usually employed for this purpose, but, in many cases, the dried plants, reduced to powder, and digested for 6 or 8 hours in the oil, at the heat of hot water, with frequent agitation, yield a much more valuable product. They are nearly all employed as external applications only.

⁂ The following are the most important preparations of this class:——

=Oil of Adder’s Tongue.= Syn. OLEUM OPHIO GLOSSI, L. From the herb, as OIL OF BELLADONNA. A popular vulnerary.

=Oil of Ants.= Syn. OLEUM FORMICARUM. Digest 4 oz. of ants in 16 oz. (by weight) of olive oil with a gentle heat, and strain.

=Oil of Bal′sam Apple.= Syn. OLEUM BALSAMINÆ. Prep. Balsam apple (deprived of seeds), 1 oz.; oil of almonds, 4 oz.; digest and strain.

=Oil of Belladon′na.= Syn. OLEUM BELLADONNÆ (P. Cod.), L. Prep. From the fresh leaves, bruised, 1 part; olive oil, 4 parts; digested together at a gentle heat until the moisture is evaporated; the oil is then strained off with pressure, and filtered.

=Oil of Cantha′rides.= Syn. OLEUM CANTHARIDIS, O. CANTHARIDIBUS, L. Prep. (P. Cod. 1839). From Spanish flies (powdered), 1 part; olive oil, 8 parts; as OIL OF BELLADONNA. Stimulant and rubefacient. Used as a dressing to indolent sores, blisters, &c.; and in dropsy, rheumatism, gout, &c., OIL OF THE OIL-BEETLE (Meloe proscarabæus——Linn.) is prepared in a similar manner.

=Oil of Cap′sicum.= Syn. OLEUM CAPSICI, L. Prep. (Dr Turnbull.) From powdered capsicum or Cayenne pepper, 4 oz., olive oil, 1 pint; digested together for 6 hours, with heat, and strained. Stimulant; rubefacient in colic, cholera, &c.

=Oil of Cham′omile.= Syn. OLEUM ANTHEMIDIS, OL. CHAMÆMELI, L. From the dried flowers (rubbed to pieces), 1 part, olive oil, 8 parts; digested together, with heat, for 6 hours. Stimulant, emollient, and vermifuge.

=Oil of Col′ocynth.= Syn. OLEUM COLOCYNTHIDIS, L. From the pulp, as OIL OF CHAMOMILE. Diuretic. In dropsy, neuralgia, rheumatism, worms, &c.

=Oil of Earth′worms.= Syn. OLEUM LUMBRICORUM. (E. Ph. 1744.) Washed earthworms, 1/2 lb.; olive oil, 1-1/2 pint; white wine, 1/2 pint. Boil gently till the wine is consumed, and press and strain.

=Oil of Elder-flowers.= Syn. WHITE OIL OF ELDER; OLEUM SAMBUCI ALBUM, O. SAMBUCINUM (P. Cod.), L. Prep. From the flowers, as OIL OF CHAMOMILE. Emollient and discussive.

=Oil of Elder-leaves.= Syn. GREEN OIL, GREEN OIL OF ELDER, OIL OF SWALLOWS; OLEUM VIRIDE, O. SAMBUCI VIRIDE, L. Prep. 1. Green elder leaves, 1 lb.; olive oil, 1 quart; boil gently until the leaves are crisp, press out the oil, and again heat it till it turns green.

2. As before, but by maceration, at a heat under 212° Fahr. More odorous than the last.

3. Elder leaves, 1 cwt.; linseed oil, 3 cwt.; as No. 1.

Obs. The last form is the one usually employed on the large scale. It is generally coloured with verdigris, 1/2 lb. to the cwt., just before putting it into the casks, and whilst still warm; as, without great skill and a very large quantity of leaves, the deep-green colour so much admired by the ignorant cannot be given to it. The oil is got from the leaves by allowing them to drain in the pan or boiler (with a cock at the bottom), kept well heated. Emollient; in great repute among the vulgar as a liniment, in a variety of affections.

=Oil of Fen′ugreek.= Syn. OLEUM FŒNUGRÆCI, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From the seeds, as OIL OF CANTHARIDES or of CHAMOMILE. Emollient and resolvent.

=Oil of Fox′glove.= Syn. OLEUM DIGITALIS, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From the fresh leaves, as OIL OF BELLADONNA. Used as an application to chronic ulcers and indurations, painful swellings &c. As usually met with, it is nearly inert.

=Oil of Garden Night′shade.= Syn. OLEUM SOLANI, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From the leaves, as OIL OF BELLADONNA. Anodyne and discussive.

=Oil of Gar′lic.= Syn. OLEUM ALLII INFUSUM, L. From garlic, as OIL OF BELLADONNA. Used as a liniment in deafness, diarrhœa, infantile convulsions, palsy, rheumatism, &c.

=Oil, Green.= Syn. OLEUM VIRIDI, L. From bay leaves, origanum, rue, sea wormwood, and elder leaves, of each 2-1/2 oz.; olive oil, 1 quart; as OIL OF ELDER. Detergent, stimulant, and resolvent. Green oil of elder is now usually sold for it.

=Oil of Hem′lock.= Syn. OLEUM CONII, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) As OIL OF BELLADONNA. Anodyne and emollient; in painful ulcers, glandular tumours, &c.

=Oil of Hen′bane.= Syn. OLEUM HYOSCYAMI, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) As OIL OF BELLADONNA. Used as the last, in various painful local affections.

=Oil Iodizeo, Marshall’s.= Syn. OLEUM IODATUM. Prep. Oil of almonds, 15 parts; iodine, 1 part. Triturate and digest till dissolved.

=Oil of Ju′′niper (by Infusion).= Syn. OLEUM JUNIPERI INFUSUM, L. From the crushed berries, as OIL OF BELLADONNA. Diuretic and vulnerary; in frictions, &c.

=Oil of Lil′ies.= Syn. OLEUM LILIORUM, L. From white lilies, 1 lb.; olive oil, 3 lbs.; as OIL OF BELLADONNA. Emollient; used to soften and ripen tumours, indurations, &c.

=Oil of Mel′ilot.= Syn. OLEUM MELILOTI, L. As the last, avoiding much heat. Emollient and resolvent.

=Oil of Mu′cilages.= Syn. OLEUM MUCILAGINUM, O. CUM MUCILAGINIBUS, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. 1746.) Marshmallow root, 1/2 lb.; linseed and fenugreek seed, of each, bruised, 3 oz.; water, 1 quart; boil 1 hour, add of olive oil, 2 quarts, and boil until the water is consumed.

2. Fenugreek seeds, 8 oz.; linseed oil, 1 quart; infuse a week, and strain. Once a highly popular emollient application in various local affections.

=Oil of Mu′dar.= Syn. OLEUM MUDARIS, L. From mudar bark (in coarse powder), 1 dr.; warm olive oil, 1/4 pint; digest 24 hours and strain. Used as an application to cutaneous ulcers, the bites of venomous animals, &c., and as a friction in worms.

=Oil of O′′pium.= Syn. ANODYNE OIL, OPIATED O.; OLEUM OPIATUM, L. Prep. From opium (in powder), 1 dr.; olive oil, 2-1/2 fl. oz.; digest at a gentle heat, with frequent agitation, for 5 or 6 hours. The powder should be rubbed in a mortar with a few drops of the oil before adding the remainder. As a local anodyne. The above is the only reliable formula for this preparation. Others are extant, but whilst the products of several are much stronger, those from others have only 1-5th or 1-6th the strength.

=Oils, Ozonised.= (Dr Thompson.) Syn. OLEO OZONATA. Prep. Pass oxygen gas into the oil (cocoa nut, sunflower, cod-liver oil, &c.) until it will dissolve no more. Then expose for a considerable time in the direct rays of the sun. Used in phthisis.

=Oil of Pel′litory.= Syn. OLEUM PYRETHRI, L. From bruised pellitory root, as OIL OF BELLADONNA. Used as the last.

=Oil of Black Pep′per (by Infusion).= Syn. OLEUM PIPERIS INFUSUM, L. From black pepper, in coarse powder, as OIL OF CAPSICUM. Stimulant and rubefacient; in frictions.

=Oil of Poison Oak.= Syn. OLEUM RHOIS TOXICODENDRI, L. From the leaves, as OIL OF BELLADONNA Externally; in paralysis, &c.

=Oil of Rhu′barb.= Syn. OLEUM RHEI, L. From rhubarb (in powder), 1 part; oil of almonds, 8 parts; digested together in a gentle heat for 4 hours, and strained, with expression. As an application to indolent ulcers, and as a friction over the abdomen in diarrhœa, English cholera, &c., or as a laxative when the stomach will not bear medicine.

=Oil of Ro′′ses.= Syn. OLEUM ROSÆ, O. ROSACEUM, O. R. INFUSUM, O. ROSATUM, L. Prep. From the fresh petals, pulled to pieces, crushed, and digested for 2 or 3 days in the sun, or a warm situation, in 4 times their weight of olive oil, and then pressed; the process being repeated with fresh roses. Ph. E. 1744 and P. Cod. are nearly similar. ALMOND, BEN, or OLIVE OIL, coloured with ALKANET, and scented with attar of roses, is now almost universally sold for it. Used for the hair.

=Oil of Rue.= Syn. OLEUM RUTÆ (INFUSUM), L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From fresh rue, bruised, as OIL OF CHAMOMILE. Reputed antispasmodic, emmenagogue, stimulant, and vermifuge. In frictions.

=Oil of St John’s Wort.= Syn. OLEUM HYPERICI (Ph. L. 1746), O. H. SIMPLEX, BALSAMUM H., L. From the flowers, 1 part; olive oil, 6 parts; digested together until the oil is well coloured. Antispasmodic, stimulant, and resolvent. A mixture of equal parts of RAPE OIL and GREEN ELDER OIL is usually sold for it.

=Oil of Scam′mony.= Syn. OLEUM SCAMMONII, O. PURGANS, L. Prep. (Van Mons.) From scammony (in powder), 1 dr.; hot oil of almonds, 3 fl. oz.; triturate together until cold, and the next day decant the clear portion.——Dose, 1/2 to 1 table-spoonful.

=Oil of Stramo′′nium.= Syn. OLEUM STRAMONII, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From the leaves of thorn apple or stramonium, as OIL OF BELLADONNA. Anodyne and discussive; as an application to painful tumours, joints, &c.

=Oil of Tobac′co (by Infusion).= Syn. OLEUM TABACI, O. T. INFUSUM, L. From fresh tobacco leaves (bruised), like OIL OF CHAMOMILE. As an application in ringworm, irritable ulcers, pediculi, &c.; and as a friction in itch, neuralgia, painful indurations, &c. It must be used with extreme caution, as it is poisonous.

=Oil of Tooth′wort.= Syn. OLEUM SQUAMARIÆ, L. From the herb of Lathræa squamaria (Linn.), as OIL OF ST JOHN’S WORT. Astringent and vulnerary. This must not be confounded with another preparation sometimes called ‘OIL OF TOOTHWORT’ (OLEUM PLUMBAGINIS EUROPÆÆ),and which has been occasionally used in itch, as the latter is acrid and apt to cause much irritation.

=Oil of Worm′wood.= Syn. OLEUM ABSINTHII, L. From the fresh herb, as OIL OF LILIES. The P. Cod. and Ph. Wurtem. order only part of the herb to 8 parts of oil. Applied to the abdomen in dyspepsia, diarrhœa, heartburn, worms, &c. It is seldom used in this country.

=OILS (Mineral).= Syn. HYDROCARBON OILS. An important class of liquids, consisting solely of carbon and hydrogen——the elements of ordinary coal-gas, and obtained by the distillation of coal, lignite, petroleum, and other bituminous substances. For the purposes of illumination, many of these oils are in most respects superior to the fixed or fat oils containing oxygen. They give a whiter and more brilliant light, and are produced at a much lower cost. The lamps in which they are burnt, when properly constructed, are less liable to get out of order than those adapted for the combustion of fat oils, and require less attention when in use. The experiments of Dr Frankland on the relative value of the ordinary illuminating agents[57] prove that the mineral oils are cheaper than all other portable illuminating agents in common use, and that they give, while burning, the largest amount of light with the least development of heat, and the smallest production of carbonic acid. With the oils adapted for burning in lamps other oils are produced. Some are very volatile and highly inflammable, and the safety of the burning oils depends on their proper extraction. These volatile liquids, when isolated, are used in the arts as substitutes for spirits of turpentine, as solvents for various substances, and to increase the illuminating power of coal-gas. Others are of a greasy nature, and are too heavy to be conveniently used in lamps. These, however, are well adapted for lubricating fine machinery, and are extensively employed instead of sperm oil by the cotton manufacturers of Lancashire. When the more volatile ingredients are separated from the burning oils, the latter are perfectly safe. Most of the mineral burning oils now in use are, we believe, free from danger in this respect. (See Tests, below.)

[Footnote 57: See article ILLUMINATION.]

Hist. For many years the manufacture of burning oils by the distillation of bituminous schists has been extensively carried out on the Continent, but the discovery which formed the foundation of the modern manufacture was made nearly thirty years ago by our countryman, Mr James Young. This gentleman took the lease of a spring of petroleum in 1847, and after numerous experiments succeeded in obtaining two useful oils from the crude liquid; the one being adapted for lubricating machinery, and the other for burning in lamps. The almost total cessation of the flow of petroleum terminated the business after two years’ working, and led Mr Young to institute a series of experiments to try if petroleum could be produced artificially by the destructive distillation of coal. These experiments resulted in the discovery of an oil which Mr Young named ‘Paraffin oil,’ as it had many of the chemical properties of the solid body of paraffin, discovered twenty years before by Reichenbach in beech-wood tar. Young’s patent (dated Oct. 7, 1850) involved the slower distillation of coals, at a lower temperature than had hitherto been employed for the purpose, and this novelty in practice was followed by the novel result of a copious production of liquid hydrocarbons. The gas or cannel coals were found to yield the liquids in largest quantities, that variety known as Boghead coal or Torbane Hill[58] mineral being specially adapted for the patented process. (See PARAFFIN OIL, below.) Soon after Young’s discovery native petroleum was brought from Rangoon, and purified by distillation, so as to produce oils very similar to the coal products. During the last few years, however, rich sources of petroleum have been discovered in North America, and from whence are imported the greater part of the vast quantities of petroleum oil (both for burning and lubricating purposes), together with the paraffin spirit, or naphtha, which are consumed in this country.

[Footnote 58: This species of coal is now exhausted.——ED.]

In the following table are given the quantities of these substances sent into England and Scotland during the year 1875:——

+---------+---------------+----------------+---------+-----------------+ | |Refined burning|Lubricating Oil.|Residuum.|Petroleum Spirit.| | | Oil. | | | | +---------+--------+------+----------------+---------+-------+---------+ | |Barrels.|Cases.|Barls. & Casks. |Barrels. |Cases. |Barrels. | |London | 169,762| 3,250| 2,511 | 1,000 | ... | 53,173 | |Liverpool| 95,853| 2,830| 300 | 29,358 | ... | 30,913 | |Hull | 20,226| 8| ... | ... | ... | ... | |Bristol | 36,889| 1,392| ... | ... | ... | 17,203 | |Clyde and| | | | | | | | Leith | 4,233| 4| 535 | 9,387 | ... | ... | +---------+--------+------+----------------+---------+-------+---------+ | Total | 326,963| 7,484| 3,346 | 39,745 | ... |101,289 | +---------+--------+------+----------------+---------+-------+---------+

This amounts to about 17 millions of gallons. In 1874 it exceeded 20 millions of gallons, but the stock in hand at the end of 1874 was about 5 millions of gallons, and the end of 1875 was only 1-1/2 million. The difference was mainly due to overtrading in 1874, which brought refined petroleum to the lowest price yet known in England, viz. 7-3/4d. per gallon in December, 1874, and checked its subsequent importation.[59]

[Footnote 59: W. Matthieu Williams.]

Tests, Precautions. The Sanitary Commission of the ‘Lancet’ took as the limit of safety an oil that gave off inflammable vapour when heated to 130° Fahr., and this has been generally accepted by dealers. If an oil gives off inflammable vapours before being heated up to 130°, it is considered unsafe for domestic use.

1. The plan for testing this, recommended in the ‘Lancet,’ is to heat a portion of the suspected oil in a gallipot placed in boiling water, ascertaining by a thermometer suspended in the oil the temperature at which it will take fire on the surface when a lighted wax vesta is applied to it. This is a troublesome and dangerous process, and has little practical value.

2. A rough-and-ready method of testing the inflammability of a sample is to pour a little out on a dry flat board, and try whether it can be ignited readily by a lighted paper. If it catches fire like turpentine or brandy, the oil is dangerous.

3. The following plan, proposed by Mr Tegetmeier, requires no scientific knowledge and no apparatus but what is to be found in every house, while it is sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes:——

“Take an earthenware dish, holding about half a pint (a breakfast cup will do), fill the cup full from a kettle of boiling water, pour this into an earthenware quart jug, then fill the same cup again with boiling water from the kettle, and pour it also into the quart jug, then fill the cup with cold water, put it into the jug, shake the jug to mix the hot and cold water, then pour the tepid water from the jug into the cup till the cup is half full, then pour about a table-spoonful of the oil to be tested on the tepid water in the cup, take the oil-can with the oil out of the room, then touch the surface of the oil in the cup with a lighted splinter of wood, or a match without sulphur. If the match causes a flash of flame to appear on the surface of the oil, the oil is below the standard of safety, and should not be used; if no flame appears, the oil is up to the standard. We may mention that in this trial no time should be lost after pouring the boiling water from the kettle, as the water may get too cold, but the whole may be gone through in from two to three minutes. It is well to have a saucer at hand, and if the oil should be a bad oil, and ignite with the match, place the saucer on the mouth of the cup, and the flame is extinguished. This trial should be done by daylight, and at a distance from a fire, and the directions must be followed exactly in the order as given above.”

4. Provided that the oils to be examined have been produced by careful fractional distillation, their relative volatility, as indicated by their specific gravity, shows to a great extent the facility with which they ignite. The lightest oils are more volatile and more easily inflamed than those which are heavier. Oils much under ·800 inflame directly a lighted match is thrown into them, whereas oils at about ·815 to ·823 (if unmixed products) cannot be set on fire in this manner. The specific gravity test cannot, however, be depended on to determine the inflaming point of any commercial oil. A heavy oil, badly rectified, may contain a proportion of very volatile vapour, and have a low inflaming point; whereas a much lighter oil may be perfectly safe, from its having the more volatile portions carefully removed.

5. (Van der Weyde.) The oil to be tested is placed in a graduated tube closed at one end; the open end is then closed with the finger, and is then placed mouth downwards in a vessel of water that is heated from 43°——44° C. The vapour from the portion volatilised at this temperature then collects in the upper part of this tube, and expels a corresponding quantity of oil. See PETROLEUM.

In Great Britain petroleum is defined by Act of Parliament as being any oil which gives off all inflammable vapour at a temperature less than 100° F.

To prevent accidents with paraffin or petroleum lamps, the following precautions ought to be observed:——

The lamps should be filled and trimmed by daylight.

They should never be overfilled; the oil should not be allowed to come into contact with the metal work of the burner.

Any portion of oil spilled on the outside of the lamp should be carefully wiped away.

When not in use the wick should be turned down into the wick-holder.

⁂ The principal products noticed below rank high among the numerous varieties of mineral oil now in the market, but there are doubtless many others equally good and safe. Their properties are described in accordance with the results obtained by Mr W. B. Tegetmeier, who has devoted much time to the examination of the mineral oils:——

=Oil, Al′bertite.= From ‘Albertite,’ a lustrous black mineral found in New Brunswick. A sample was shown in the Colonial Department of the International Exhibition of 1862, but the oil has not yet appeared in the English market.

Prop. Odour very slight; illuminating power high; boiling point 338° Fahr., or 126° above that of water.

=Oil, American.= See PETROLEUM OIL (below).

=Oil, Apyroec′tic.= Syn. NON-EXPLOSIVE OIL. A burning oil, introduced by F. Tall, of Hull, and prepared, we believe, from American petroleum.

Prop. Slightly coloured; perfectly limpid; odour slight, but not perceivable during combustion. The most remarkable property of this oil is that, in spite of its limpidity, the point at which it gives off inflammable vapour is 180° Fahr., or 80° above the requirements of the Petroleum Act.

=Oil, Bel′montine.= From Rangoon tar, or Burmese petroleum, by distillation; superheated steam being employed as the heating agent.

Prop. Colourless; odour not unpleasant; sp. gr. ·847; but although so heavy, the oil is altogether free from viscosity, and will rise rapidly in a comparatively long wick; inflaming point 134° Fahr.; burns with an exceedingly white light, and possesses a very high illuminating power.

Obs. The distillation of the Rangoon tar is carried on by Price’s Patent Candle Company under a patent. Besides the above lamp oil, several beautiful and useful products are obtained. At first there comes over a very volatile liquid, termed SHERWOOD OIL, used as a detergent for removing grease from fabrics, cleaning gloves, &c.; then comes the BELMONTINE OIL, already noticed; then two lubricating oils, the one light and the other heavy; and, last of all, when the temperature is considerably elevated, the beautiful white, translucent solid known as BELMONTINE, distils over. This last is a kind of paraffin, and is used for making ornamental candles.

=Oil, Caz′eline.= An excellent burning oil, probably prepared from American petroleum, introduced by Cassell, Smith, and Co., of London.

Prop. Bright, limpid, with scarcely a trace of colour; odour very slight, and quite free from any objectionable character; sp. gr. ·805; lowest point of ignition 144° Fahr.; burns with a pure white light, free from smoke and smell.

=Oil, Col′zarine.= A heavy hydrocarbon oil, adapted for burning in lamps constructed from the old ‘Moderators’ and ‘Carcels,’ formerly so much used for the fat oils.

Prop. Limpid; quite inodorous; of a pale amber colour; sp. gr. about ·838; temperature at which the vapour can be permanently ignited, 250° Fahr. Tested in the altered moderator, it gives an intense white light, without smoke or smell. Compared with vegetable colza oil, its illuminating power is in the proportion of 3 to 2.

Obs. This oil is manufactured by Cassell, Smith, and Co., under Martin’s patent for the modification of mineral oils, to fit them for burning in lamps where ‘colza’ and other vegetable and animal oils have been usually consumed. Similar oils are prepared by other firms.

=Oil, Machin′ery.= Syn. LUBRICATING OIL, SHAFTING O., SPINDLE O. The heavier hydrocarbon, oils obtained in distilling coal, shale, and petroleum, have almost superseded the fat oils for lubricating purposes. They have no chemical action on the ordinary metals, and are not affected by cold. The lightest of these comparatively heavy oils are used for spindles, or other kinds of rapid machinery; the heaviest for the bearing parts of heavy machinery; and those of an intermediate character for such things as printing-presses, agricultural steam-engines, &c. In America and on the Continent this oil is also used for making gas. The firm of Whitmore and Craddock is favorably known for the manufacture and purification of these machinery oils. See OIL, BELMONTINE (above), and OIL, PARAFFIN (below).

=Oil, Pa′raffin.= Syn. PARAFFINE OIL. This name was given by Mr Young to the oil produced by the distillation of cannel coal, Boghead coal, &c., at a temperature considerably lower than that employed in the manufacture of illuminating gas. The following is a brief outline of Mr Young’s process:——

Manuf. (Young’s patent.) Boghead coal, broken into small fragments, is introduced into perpendicular tubes or retorts, about eleven feet in height, by conical hoppers at their upper extremities. Four of these tubes constitute a set, being built into one furnace, and charged by a single workman. They pass completely through the furnace, and are closed below by dipping into shallow pools of water, while the openings into the hoppers above may be shut by spherical valves. The coal in each tube is gradually heated as it descends to that part which passes through the furnace, and when it reaches the bottom of the tube it has parted with its volatile constituents, and is raked away as refuse, the coal from above descending as it is removed. Thus, the action of these perpendicular retorts is continuous, and the distillation goes on uninterruptedly both day and night. The vapours produced are conducted by iron tubes to the main condensers, which consist of a series of syphon pipes freely exposed to the air. The quantity of incondensible gas formed is inconsiderable; and it is this result, so different from that obtained in the ordinary gasworks, that marks the great value of Young’s process. The crude oil, a dark-coloured, thick liquid, is then distilled to dryness in large iron cylindrical stills, and is thus freed from the excess of carbon which is left behind as coke. The oil, after distillation, is further purified by being acted upon by strong sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol), which chars the principal impurities, and causes them to subside in the form of a dense black, heavy acid tar. To separate the remaining impurities, and that portion of the sulphuric acid which remains in the oil, it is next subjected to the action of caustic soda. As thus purified, the paraffin oil contains four distinct commercial products. To effect their separation, the process of fractional distillation is first employed. The first elevation of temperature drives over the lighter and more volatile portions, which, when purified by a subsequent distillation, yields the fluid known as ‘paraffin naphtha,’ ‘petroleum spirit,’ ‘benzoline.’ This product is used as a substitute for ‘turps,’ as a solvent for india rubber for cleaning gloves, and for burning in those naphtha lamps so much employed by costermongers, and workmen in railway tunnels and similar situations. On the perfect separation of this naphtha the safety of the burning oil depends. This burning oil, the ‘paraffin oil’ of commerce, comes over at a much higher temperature than the naphtha. It is a perfectly safe lamp oil, and has a greater illuminating value than any other oil in the market. Its properties are noticed below. The third product in point of volatility is a comparatively heavy liquid (machinery oil), largely used for lubricating purposes in the Lancashire factories. From this oil, and others which come over at a very high temperature, the fourth commercial product is separated by the action of artificial cold. This last product is the beautiful translucent solid, paraffin, now much used as a candle material.[60] (See OIL, PARAFFIN, PETROLEUM.)

[Footnote 60: For a detailed account of the processes carried on at the Bathgate works, see Mr Tegetmeier’s paper in ‘England’s Workshops,’——Groombridge and Sons.]

In the preparation of paraffin oil, from native petroleum, the oil is obtained by direct distillation from the petroleum, and subsequently separated from the more or less volatile hydrocarbons (the paraffin naphtha, the lubricating oils and the solid paraffin) that are associated with it by fractional distillation as in Young’s process; whereas, when procured from bituminous minerals, it is derived from the tar or crude oil, which has to be previously extracted from the bituminous matters by destructive distillation. There are various methods for obtaining this tar or crude oil, which, although differing in detail, are in general principles very similar to that described in Young’s patent. Thus, whilst in many works closed horizontal retorts are employed, in other establishments vertical ones, to the bottoms of which are attached receptacles for the receipt of the exhausted coal or other material as it falls from the retort, the same as in Young’s apparatus, are extensively adopted. When horizontal retorts are employed they are made of cast iron, and vary in length from 8 to 10 feet, being from 28 to 34 inches wide and from 9 to 14 inches deep. The charge is introduced by an opening in the end of the retort, by which aperture the exhausted residue is removed when necessary. This aperture is closed by a tightly fitting cast iron cover while the distillation is going on. At the other end of the retort is a pipe for carrying off the products of distillation. This communicates with a larger pipe, and this latter with the condensing apparatus. A number of these retorts are set together in a row, with a furnace at one end, and flues extending beneath the retorts, while the upper parts of the retorts are covered with brickwork, to prevent the oil vapours from being decomposed by the heat of the waste furnace gas passing to the chimney through the flues above the retorts.

The gaseous products of the distillation of the tar, leaving the retort by the exit tube already described, are cooled by being made to pass through a number of iron pipes exposed to the air, or surrounded by water, and thus becoming condensed pass into a reservoir in the form of the oil, which forms the material from which the various hydrocarbons are separated by fractional distillation. Accompanying the oil vapours are certain uncondensable gases; these escape through a properly contrived outlet which is made in the condensing pipes; in some works these escaping gases are utilised as fuel, and in others for purposes of illumination.

In other works superheated steam is driven into the retorts during the process of distillation; but although this has the effect of sweeping the oil vapour more quickly out of the retort into the condenser, it is questionable whether this advantage covers the extra cost of the production of the steam.[61]

[Footnote 61: Payne’s ‘Industrial Chemistry.’ Edited by Dr Paul.]

In many parts of Germany the extraction of the crude oil or tar from bituminous substances is effected in ovens. In these ovens the bituminous body is thrown upon a layer of burning fuel which covers the bottom of the oven, the result being that the bituminous matter is resolved into gaseous bodies which are lost, and tar which flows downwards toward the burning fuel, which being covered with a layer of clay is prevented from entering into violent combustion. This method, however, is only had recourse to on a small scale, since it is found that in most cases the tar obtained by means of it is not of a kind suited for yielding paraffin and paraffin oils.

The preparation of the tar or crude oil from fossil fuel, of the character already specified, constitutes one of the most delicate and difficult branches in the manufacture of paraffin oils, and paraffin, &c. The chief sources of failure to be avoided are the overheating of the oil vapour, and its consequent decomposition (varying in amount) into useless gaseous products; and its inefficient condensation.

It has been shown by Vohl that even when the construction of the retorts is not of the best, an average yield of tar may be obtained by the proper condensation of the vapours. “The complete condensation of the vapours of the tar is one of the most difficult problems the mineral oil and paraffin manufacturer has to deal with, while the means usually adopted for condensation, such as large condensing surfaces, injection of cold water, and the like, have proved ineffectual. It has often been attempted to condense the vapours of tar in the same manner as those of alcohol, but there exist essential differences between the distillation of fluids and dry distillation. In the former case the vapours soon expel all the air completely from the still and from the condenser, and provided, therefore, that, in reference to the size of the still and bulk of the boiling liquid, the latter be large and cool enough, every part of the vapour must come into contact with the condensing surfaces. In the process of dry distillation the process is entirely different, because with the vapours, say of tar, permanent gases are always generated. On coming into contact with the condensing surfaces a portion of the vapours is liquefied, leaving a layer of gas as a coating, as it were, on the condensing surface. The gas being a bad conductor of heat prevents to such an extent the further action of the condensing apparatus, that a large proportion of the vapours are carried on, and may be altogether lost. A sufficient condensation of the vapours of tar can be obtained only by bringing all the particles of matter which are carried off from the retorts into contact with the condensing surface, which need neither be very large nor exceedingly cold, because the latent heat of the vapours of tar is small, and consequently a moderately low temperature will be sufficient to condense those vapours to the liquid state. The mixture of gases and vapours maybe compared to an emulsion such as milk, and as the particles of butter may be separated from milk by churning, so the separation of the vapours of tar from the gases can be greatly assisted by the use of exhausters acting in the manner of blowing fans. It is of the utmost importance in condensing the vapours of tar that the molecules of the vapours be kept in continuous motion, and thus made to touch the sides of the condenser. The condenser should not be constructed so that the vapours and gases can flow uninterruptedly in one and the same direction.”[62]

[Footnote 62: B. Wagner.]

An important condition for the safe and quiet distillation of the tar or crude oil when obtained is that it should be free from water. Unless the removal of the water is effectually accomplished, during its distillation, the tar may boil over, and coming into contact with the fire under the still may give rise to an alarming conflagration. The dehydration of the tar is effected in an apparatus constructed for the purpose, consisting of an iron tank placed within a larger tank, a space of about two inches intervening between the two tanks is filled with water, which is heated to, and kept at a temperature of between 60° and 80° C., for 10 hours, by the end of which time the ammoniacal water having separated from the lighter tar is drawn off by a stop-cock placed at the bottom of the tank, whilst the tar is decanted through a valve at the top.

In America the distillation of the natural petroleum oils is carried out in cylindrical stills capable of holding as much as 1600 gallons each. The retorts employed in the distillation of the tar or crude oils obtained from shale and other bituminous compounds are often constructed of large cast-iron flanged pans, each capable of containing from 1-1/2 to 3 tons of the oil, “and forming the body of the retort. The pan is set in brickwork with flues running round the upper portion, and beneath it is a perforated dome of brickwork, through which the flame and hot gas from the furnace pass up round the bottom of the pan before entering the flues by which the upper portion of the pan is heated. To the flange of the pan is fitted a flanged cover having on one side a discharge pipe through which the vapour is passed to the worm of the condenser. In the centre of the cover is a manhole. The oil condensed in the worm is discharged through a pipe into a receiver, and the uncondensable gas escapes through an ascending pipe.”[63]

[Footnote 63: Palen.]

The processes to which the crude oil or tar and the natural petroleum are next submitted differ only in the degree of treatment with certain agents to which these products are subjected when, after similar methods of fractional distillation, they have been isolated from each other. The benzoline and paraffin oils (both for burning and lubricating purposes) separately yielded by the natural oils seldom require purification, or if so in a minor degree only, whilst the same bodies as obtained from the crude shale oil or tar must be submitted to various processes of depuration before they are fit for the market. Thus, the crude petroleum or burning oil derived from tar is characterised by a more or less dark colour and disagreeable smell——properties which are partly due to the presence of carbolic acid and its homologues. By agitating the paraffin oil with a solution of caustic soda these objectionable substances are removed.

The oil, being next separated from the alkali by subsidence, and any remains of the soda being removed from it by washing with water, is next mixed with an aqueous solution of sulphuric acid in the proportion of 5 per cent. of acid of sp. gr. 1·70. The acid removes from the oil certain basic substances derived from the tar, which, like the carbolic acid, give to it a bad odour and a dark colour. In this operation thorough admixture of the acid with the oil is important, and this is generally effected by mixing the two in vessels furnished with puddles. After a time, and when the mixture has separated into two layers, the upper one or the paraffin oil is drawn off from the lower or acid one, and well washed with water; in some instances lime water is used for the washing, in others the water is impregnated with caustic alkali. With some samples of crude paraffin oil the above operations have to be repeated two or three times, and even redistilled before the oil becomes sufficiently pure and colourless for sale. When redistilled, the last portions which come over are often found to yield some solid paraffin in addition to that furnished by the first fractional distillation. The ‘paraffin,’ ‘naphtha,’ ‘petroleum,’ ‘spirit,’ or ‘benzoline’ (by all of which names it is known), which forms the more volatile portion of the tar, and which is the first to pass over from the retort, is subjected to the same treatment as that used for burning oil; as for the denser lubricating oil, which passes over after the burning portion, this being freed from any of the latter, is set aside in a cool place, in order that any solid paraffin it contains may crystallise out, and be separated from it.

The waste carbolate of soda resulting from the treatment of the oil with the caustic alkali, being decomposed by sulphuric acid, the liberated carbolic acid is utilised either as a disinfectant, or for saturating railway sleepers; and sometimes as a source of certain tar colours; or it may be used in the manufacture of gas, the soda which remains in the coke being extracted by lixiviation. The waste sulphuric acid combined with the ammoniacal liquors that always accompany the first stages of the distillation of the tar is made into sulphate of ammonia.

Prop. The paraffin oil of commerce is of a very pale amber colour; is bright, perfectly transparent, and remarkably limpid. Its sp. gr. is ·823. Its point of temporary ignition is 150° Fahr., that of permanent ignition being a few degrees higher. Its odour is very slight. Its rate of combustion is slow, as may be inferred from the absence of the lighter oils, as indicated by its high sp. gr. and inflaming point. At the same time its limpidity proves the absence of the heavier oils, and accounts for its rising through a long wick with freedom, and burning without charring the cotton.

=Oil, Petro′leum.= Syn. KEROSENE OIL, REFINED PETROLEUM, PARAFFIN OIL. Most of the burning oils now in the market are derived from American petroleum. That obtained from natural petroleum is now manufactured solely in America. The native petroleums vary greatly in properties, and numerous methods of refining are employed by the manufacturers. The Canadian petroleum contains sulphuretted hydrogen, which imparts to it a very disagreeable smell, and is difficult of removal. Some make use of both acids and alkalies, others employ alkalies alone, and steam is applied at various degrees of heat. Some of the oils produced are of excellent quality, but others are inferior, and do not ascend the wick in sufficient quantity to afford a constant light. None of the native petroleums contain carbolic acid and other impurities which exist in the oils distilled from coals and shales; hence their purification is simple and comparatively cheap. “The oil prepared from petroleum is almost colourless; it has a specific gravity of about ·810, and when of good quality only a slight and rather aromatic odour.” (Payen.) See PETROLEUM, and above.

=Oil, Shale.= As we have stated, products analogous to those derived from cannel coal are obtained by the destructive distillation of bituminous shales and schists, and lignites or brown coals. On the Continent the production of shale oils has of late years declined considerably, owing to their unsuccessful competition, in point of price, with the American petroleum oils. The oil obtained from bituminous shale or from coal is generally of higher specific gravity than that procured from petroleum; it is deeper in colour, and not so pleasant in smell.

=OILS (Mixed).= Syn. COMPOUND OILS; OLEA COMPOSITA, OLEA MIXTA, L. Under these names are commonly included various mixtures of oils and other substances that possess an unctuous appearance. When not otherwise stated, they are prepared by simply agitating the ingredients together, and, after a sufficient time, decanting the clear portion, which, in some cases, is then filtered. A few of them only possess any importance. Some of them are highly esteemed as remedies among the vulgar, and the use of others is confined to veterinary medicine.

The following include the principal mixed oils of the shops, to which the names of a few other compounds, which are frequently called ‘oils’ by the ignorant, are added, for the purpose of facilitating a reference to them:——

=Oil of Turpentine, Sulphurated.= Syn. OLEUM TEREBINTHINÆ SULPHURATUM. Prep. Sulphurated linseed oil, 1 part; oil of turpentine, 3 parts.

=Oil of Turpentine (for acoustic use).= Syn. OLEUM TEREBINTHINÆ ACOUSTICUM. (Mr Manle.) Oil of almonds, 4 drams; oil of turpentine, 40 minims.

=Oil, Acou′stic.= Syn. EAR OIL; OLEUM ACOUSTICUM, O. TEREBINTHINÆ ACOUSTICUM, L. Prep. From oil of turpentine, 1 part; oil of almonds, 6 parts; mix. In atonic deafness, accompanied with induration of the wax. 1 or 2 drops are poured into the ear, or on a piece of cotton wool, which is then gently placed in it.

=Oil, Black.= Syn. OLEUM NIGRUM, L. Prep. 1. Oil of turpentine, 1 pint; rape oil, 3 pints; oil of vitriol, 1/4 lb.; agitate well together with care; then add of Barbadoes tar, 3 oz.; again agitate well, and in 10 days decant the clear portion. Linseed oil is preferred for the above by many persons.

2. (Percivall.) Sweet oil, 1 pint; oil of turpentine, 2 oz.; mix, add gradually of oil of vitriol; 1-1/4 oz.; again mix, and leave the bottle open until the next day. Detersive, stimulant. Used by farriers for mange, &c.

=Oil, British.= Syn. COMMON OIL OF PETRE; OLEUM BRITANNICUM, O. PETRÆ VULGARE, L. Prep. From oil of turpentine, 1 quart; Barbadoes tar, 1 lb.; oils of rosemary and origanum, of each 1 oz. Stimulant. Formerly reputed to possess the most astonishing virtues.

=Oil, Camphora′ted.= Liniment of camphor.

=Oil, Car′ron.= Liniment of lime.

=Oil, Chabert’s.= Syn. CHABERT’S EMPYREUMATIC OIL; OLEUM CHABERTI, O. CONTRA TÆNIAM CHABERTI, L. Oil of turpentine, 3 parts; Dippel’s animal oil, 1 part; mix, and distil 3 parts. It must be preserved from the air and light. Used in tapeworm.——Dose, 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls, in water, night and morning, until 5 or 6 fl. oz., or more, have been taken; a cathartic being given every third day.

=Oil, Exeter.= Syn. OLEUM EXCESTRENSE. (Gray.) Green oil, 16 lbs.; euphorbium, mustard seed, castor, pellitory, of each 1 oz.; digest and strain. The original form is more complex. The following is also used:——Rape oil, 1-1/2 pint; green oil, 1/2 pint; oils of wormwood, rosemary, and origanum, of each half a dram.

=Oil, Fur′niture.= Syn. MAHOGANY OIL, OIL STAIN. Prep. 1. From refined linseed oil, 1 pint; alkanet root, 1/4 oz.; digested together in a warm place until the former is sufficiently coloured, when it is poured off and strained.

2. Pale boiled oil, 1 pint; beeswax, 1/4 lb.; melted together, and coloured as before. Gives a superior polish, which becomes very tough by age.

3. Linseed or boiled oil, 1 pint; Venice turpentine (pure), 6 oz.; as before. The above are used for mahogany and other dark-coloured woods.

4. Linseed oil, 8 oz.; vinegar, 4 oz.; oil of turpentine, mucilage, rectified spirit, of each 1/2 oz.; butter of antimony, 1/4 oz.; hydrochloric acid, 1 oz. Mix.

5. Linseed oil, 16 oz.; black resin, 4 oz.; vinegar, 4 oz.; rectified spirit, 3 oz.; butter of antimony, 1 oz.; spirit of salts, 2 oz.; melt the resin, add the oil, take it off the fire, and stir in the vinegar; let it boil for a few minutes, stirring it; when cool put it into a bottle, and add the other ingredients, shaking all together. The last two are specially used for reviving French polish.

6. (Pale.)——a. As the preceding, omitting the alkanet.

b. From nut oil, 3/4 pint; beeswax (finest), 3 oz.; melted together.

c. To the last add of copal varnish, 3 or 4 oz.

The last three are employed for pale woods. They are all applied by means of a rag, and are ‘polished off’ with a ‘woollen rubber’ or ‘furniture brush.’ A little strong vinegar, or a few drops of hydrochloric acid, are sometimes added. See POLISH.

=Oil, Hair.= See OIL (Perfumed).

=Oil and Hartshorn.= Liniment of ammonia.

=Oil, I′ron.= Syn. OLEUM FERRI, O. MARTIS, L. The old name for the liquid formed when perchloride of iron is allowed to deliquesce by free exposure to the air. It is excessively caustic and corrosive.

=Oil, Lime.= See CALCIUM (Chloride).

=Oil, Macas′sar.= See OILS (Perfumed).

=Oil, Mar′row.= Prep. From clarified beef marrow, 1 part; oil of almonds, 3 parts; melted together, and strained through muslin. It is usually scented with ambergris, cassia, or mace, and slightly tinged with palm oil or annotta. Used for the hair.

=Oils, Marshall’s.= Prep. From linseed oil and rape oil, of each 1 lb.; green oil and oil of turpentine, of each 1/2 lb.; oil of origanum, 1/2 fl. oz.; oil of vitriol, 1/4 oz.; well shaken together.

=Oils, Mixed.= Syn. OLEUM MIXTUM COMMUNE, L. Prep. From linseed oil and green oil, of each 1 lb.; oil of turpentine, 1/2 lb.; Barbadoes tar and balsam of sulphur, of each 2 oz.; oils of spike and origanum, of each 1 oz. Stimulant and rubefacient. Used by farriers for sprains, &c. See OILS, STAMFORD’S (below).

=Oils, Newmarket.= Prep. From oils of linseed, turpentine, and St John’s wort, of each 3 lbs.; oil of vitriol, 1-1/2 oz.; well shaken together, and the clear portion decanted in a few days. A favourite remedy for sprains in horses.

=Oils, Nine.= Syn. OLD MIXED OILS; OLEUM EX OMNIBUS, L. Prep. From train oil, 1 gall.; oil of turpentine, 1 quart; oil of amber and oil of bricks, of each 5 oz.; oil of spike and oil of origanum, of each 2 oz.; Barbadoes tar, 2-1/2 lbs.; oil of vitriol, 2 oz.; camphorated spirit, 1/2 pint, mixed together as the last. A favourite remedy with provincial farriers.

=Oil of Petre.= See OIL, BRITISH (above).

=Oil, Phos′phorated.= Syn. OLEUM PHOSPHORATUM, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. Bor.) Phosphorus (dried and sliced small), 6 gr.; oil of almonds, 1 oz.; mix, place the phial in hot water, agitate for some time, and, when cold, decant the clear oil from the undissolved phosphorus.

2. (Magendie.) Phosphorus (sliced), 1/2 dr.; almond oil, 1 oz.; macerate in the dark, with frequent agitation, for 14 days, then, after repose, decant the clear portion, and aromatise it with a little essence of bergamotte.

3. (B. Ph.) Prep. Take of phosphorus and oil of almonds, of each q. s. Heat the oil in a porcelain dish to 300° F., and keep it at this temperature for about 15 minutes, then let it cool and filter it through paper. Put 4 fluid ounces of this oil into a stoppered bottle capable of holding four and a half fluid ounces; then add to it 12 grains of phosphorus. Immerse the bottle in hot water until the oil has acquired the temperature of 180° F., removing the stopper two or three times to allow the escape of expanded air, then shake the oil and phosphorus together, until the latter is entirely dissolved.——Dose, 5 to 10 minims.

Obs. A fl. oz. of oil dissolves rather less than 5 gr. of pure phosphorus. The large excess ordered in the second formula must be merely for the purpose of increasing the extent of surface acted on. It is, however, with the other precautions given, quite unnecessary. The products of both formulæ have the same strength.——Dose, 5 to 10 or 12 drops, in milk, barley water, or gruel, or made into an emulsion; in chronic rheumatism, gout, &c., and as a powerful, diffusible stimulant in various diseases with debility and general prostration of the vital powers, &c. Externally, as a friction. It is chiefly to the presence of phosphorus that cod-liver owes its wonderful remedial power in these affections.

=Oil, Quit′ter.= Prep. 1. Red precipitate, 2 dr.; aquafortis, 1 oz.; dissolve, add of olive oil, oil of turpentine, and rectified spirit, of each 2 oz.; and agitate well and frequently for 3 or 4 hours.

2. Ointment of nitrate of mercury (Ph. L.), 1 part; nut oil, 3 parts; melt together, and stir until the mixture is cold. Used by farriers for quitters, &c.

=Oils, Radley’s.= From Barbadoes tar, 1/2 lb.; linseed oil and oil of turpentine, of each 1/4 pint; gently warmed, and shaken together.

=Oil, Shav′ing.= See ESSENCE OF SOAP.

=Oil, Sheldrake’s.= Prep. From pale boiled nut oil and copal varnish, equal parts, melted together by the heat of hot water, and, when perfectly mixed, placed aside in a bottle for a week to settle, after which the clear portion is decanted. Used by artists to grind their colours in to brighten them.

=Oil of Spike.= 1. (FARRIER’S). From oil of turpentine, 1 quart; Barbadoes tar, 1-1/2 oz.; alkanet root, 1/2 oz.; digested together for a week. Used as a stimulating liniment by farriers.

2. (PAINTER’S.)——a. From rectified oil of turpentine, 3 pints; oil of lavender, 1 pint; mix.

b. Oil of turpentine (warm), 5 parts; lavender oil bottoms (genuine), 3 parts; agitate well together, and in a fortnight decant the clear away. Used by artists and enamellers.

=Oils, Stamford’s.= Syn. LORD STAMFORD’S MIXED OILS. Prep. Dissolve camphor, 1 oz., in rectified spirit of wine, 1/4 pint; add oil of origanum, 2 oz.; oil of turpentine, 1/2 pint; green elder oil, 2 lbs.; and agitate until mixed. The rectified spirit is now generally omitted, the camphor being dissolved in the green oil by aid of heat before adding the other ingredients. Stimulant. Used by farriers.

=Oil, Sul′phurated.= Syn. BALSAM OF SULPHUR; OLEUM SULPHURATUM, BALSAMUM SULPHURIS, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. 1746.) Flowers of sulphur, 1 part; olive oil, 4 parts; boil together in a vessel lightly covered, until they assume the consistence of a thick balsam.

2. (Ph. L. 1824.) Olive oil, 16 fl. oz.; heat it in a sand bath, and gradually add of washed sulphur, 2 oz.; stirring until they combine.

Prop., &c. Balsam of sulphur is a dark, reddish-brown, viscid fluid, having an extremely disagreeable and penetrating odour, and a strong, nauseous taste. The local action of balsam of sulphur is that of an acrid and irritant; its remote effects those of a stimulant, expectorant, and diaphoretic. Externally, it is occasionally used as an application to foul ulcers; and was formerly commonly employed internally in chronic pulmonary affections, in doses of 20 to 50 drops. It is now seldom given internally except in veterinary practice.

=Oils, Three.= Syn. OLEUM DE TRIBUS (Van Mons), L. Oils of brick, lavender, and turpentine, equal parts. As a stimulant liniment.

=Oil of Vit′riol.= Sulphuric acid.

=Oils, Ward’s.= Syn. WARD’S WHITE OILS. From powdered camphor, rape oil, oil of turpentine, rectified spirit, and liquor of potassa, equal parts, agitated together for some time, and again before use. Beef brine was formerly used instead of liquor of potassa.

=Oil, Watchmaker’s.= Prepared by placing a clean strip or coil of lead in a small white-glass bottle filled with pure almond or olive oil, and exposing it to the sun’s rays at a window for some time till a curdy matter ceases to be deposited, and the oil has become quite limpid and colourless. Used for fine work; does not become thick by age.

=Oil, Wedell’s.= Syn. BEZOAR OIL; OLEUM BEZOARDICUM, L. From nut oil, 1/4 pint; camphor, 1/2 oz.; dissolve by a gentle heat, and, when cold, add of essence of bergamot, 1 dr., and let it stand over a little alkanet root until sufficiently coloured.

=Oils, White.= Syn. WHITE EGG-OILS. Prep. 1. Yolks of eggs, 4 in number; oil of turpentine, 1/4 pint; mix, add of liquor of ammonia, 3 fl. oz.; oil of origanum, 1/2 oz.; soaper’s lye, 1/4 pint; water, 3/4 pint; agitate well, and strain through a coarse hair sieve.

2. Rape oil, 3/4 pint; liquor of ammonia and oil of turpentine, of each 3 oz.; agitate until they form a milk.

3. (Redwood.) Whites and yolks of 2 eggs; oil of turpentine, 1-1/2 oz.; triturate together, add of Goulard’s extract, 1/2 oz; mix, next add of distilled vinegar, 1-1/2 pint, and, lastly, of rectified spirit, 1-1/2 fl. oz. Stimulant and detergent. Used by farriers.

=Oil, Worm (Canine).= Syn. OLEUM VERMIFUGUM CANINUM. Prep. From oil of turpentine and castor oil, equal parts; tinged yellow with a little palm oil or annotta.——Dose. For a middle-sized dog, 1/2 oz., repeated in 2 or 3 hours if it does not operate.

=OILS (in Perfumery).= Syn. SCENTED OILS; OLEA FIXA ODORATA, L. The oils which usually form the basis of these articles are those of almonds, ben, or olives; but others are occasionally used. The methods adopted for their preparation vary with the nature of the substances whose fragrance it is intended to convey to the oil. The Continental perfumers employ three different processes for this purpose, which they technically distinguish by terms indicative of their nature. These are as under:——

1. A sufficient quantity of the essential oil of the plant, or of the concentrated essence of the substance, if it does not furnish an oil, is added to the fixed oil which it is desired to perfume, until the latter becomes agreeably fragrant; the whole is then allowed to repose for a few days, and, if any sediment falls (which should not be the case when the ingredients are pure), the clear portion is decanted into another bottle. When alcoholic essences are thus employed, the fixed oil should be gently warmed, and the admixture made in a strong bottle, so as to permit of it being corked and well agitated with safety; and in this case the agitation should be prolonged until the whole has become quite cold. In this way all the ordinary aromatised and perfumed oils of the English druggists and perfumers, as those of bergamotte, cassia, cloves, lavender, lemon, mille-fleurs, neroli, nutmeg, oranges, roses, &c., are made, but those of a few of the more delicate flowers, and of certain other substances, can only be prepared of the first quality by one or other of the processes described below.

In general, 1 to 1-1/2 dr. of the pure essential oil, or 3 to 4 fl. dr. of the alcoholic essences, are found sufficient to render 1 pint of oil agreeably fragrant, 1/2 dr. of pure attar of roses is, however, enough for this purpose, owing to the very powerful character of its perfume; but even a less quantity than this is commonly employed, on account of its costliness, the deficiency being made up by a mixture of the oils of rhodium, rosemary, and bergamotte. Most of the oils of this class are intended for hair cosmetics.

2. (By INFUSION.) Dry substances, after being reduced to powder, or sliced very small——flowers or petals, after being carefully selected, and picked from the stems and other scentless portions——and soft or unctuous matters, as ambergris, civet, or musk, after being rubbed to a paste with a little oil, either with or without the addition of about twice their weight of clean sand or powdered glass, to facilitate the reduction, are digested in the fixed oil for about 1 hour, at a gentle heat obtained by means of a water bath, continual stirring being employed all the time; the mixture is then removed from the heat, covered up, and left to settle until the next day, when the clear portion is decanted into clean bottles. When flowers are employed, the free oil is drained off, and the remainder obtained by the action of a press. The process is then repeated with fresh flowers, 5 or 6 times, or even oftener, until the oil is sufficiently perfumed. For ambergris, musk, or civet, the digestion is generally continued for 15 to 20 days, during which time the vessel is either freely exposed to the sunshine, or kept in an equally warm situation.

The first quality of the oils of ambergris, balsam of Peru, benzoin, cassia, cinnamon, civet, orange flowers, orris, roses, styrax, and vanilla, are made by infusion.

3. (BY THE FLOWERS.)——a. Upon an iron frame a piece of white, spongy, cotton cloth is stretched, and then moistened with almond or olive oil, usually the latter; on the cloth is placed a thin layer of the fresh-plucked flowers; another frame is similarly treated, and in this way a pile of them is made. In 24 or 30 hours the flowers are replaced by fresh ones, and this is repeated every day or every other day, until 7 or 8 different lots of flowers have been consumed, or the oil is sufficiently loaded with their odour. The oil is then obtained from the cotton cloth by powerful pressure, and is placed aside in bottles to settle, ready to be decanted into others for sale. Sometimes thin layers of cotton wool, slightly moistened with oil, are employed instead of cotton cloth.

The oils of honeysuckle, jasmin, or jessamine, jonquil, may-blossom, myrtle-blossom, narcissus, tuberose, violet, and, in general, of all the more delicate flowers, are prepared in the above manner.

b. The native perfumers of India prepare their scented oils of bela, chumbul, jasmin, &c., in the following manner:——A layer of the scented flowers, about 4 inches thick and 2 feet square, is formed on the ground; over this is placed a layer of moistened tel or sesamum seeds, 2 inches thick, and on this another 4-inch layer of flowers. Over the whole a sheet is thrown, which is kept pressed down by weights attached round the edges. The flowers are replaced with fresh ones after the lapse of 24 hours, and the process is repeated a third and even a fourth time, when a very highly scented oil is desired. The swollen sesamum seeds, rendered fragrant by contact with the flowers, are then submitted to the action of the press, by which their bland oil is obtained strongly impregnated with the aroma of the flowers. The expressed oil is then set aside in dubbers (bottles made of untanned hides) to settle. We have employed poppy seed in this country, in a similar manner, with great success.

c. The flowers are crushed in a mortar or mill, with one half their weight of blanched sweet almonds, and the next day the mass is gently heated and submitted to the action of a powerful press; the liquid thus obtained is allowed to repose for a week, when the upper portion of oil is decanted and filtered. This plan is occasionally adopted in this country for the oils of roses and of a few other flowers. (See below.)

The solution of a few grains of benzoic acid, or of gum benzoin (preferably the first), in any of the above oils, will materially retard the accession of rancidity, if it does not prevent it altogether.

The oils of the last two classes (2 and 3) are chiefly used to impart their respective odours to the simple oils, pomades, &c.; and in the manufacture of scented spirits or esprits. The following formulæ are given as examples of both classes of preparations:——

=Oil of Am′bergris.= From ambergris, 2 dr.; oil, 1 pint; by infusion.

=Oil of Ben′zoin.= From gum benzoin, 7 dr.; oil, 1 pint; by infusion.

=Oils for the Hair.= Syn. HUILES ANTIQUES, Fr. These are numerous. All those scented with the simple perfumes are prepared in the way explained under class 1 (above). The selection depends entirely upon the judgment of the operator or the fancy of the purchaser. In general, a mixture of two or three perfumes is preferred in these countries to the pure fragrance of any single flower, and a grossness of taste is exhibited in these matters which surprises our Continental neighbours, and the inhabitants of Italy more particularly. Some of these oils are coloured. A red tinge is given to them by allowing the oil to stand for a few hours over a little alkanet root (2 dr. to the pint) before scenting it. The application of a gentle heat facilitates the process. Yellow and orange are given by a little annotta or palm oil; and green, by steeping a little green parsley or lavender in them for a few days; or by dissolving 2 or 3 dr. of gum guaiacum in each pint by the aid of heat, and, when cold, decanting the clear portion. Huile antique au jasmin, Huile antique à la fleurs d’oranges, Huile antique à la rose, Huile antique à la tuberose, Huile antique à la violette, &c., are simple oils flavoured with the respective perfumes or their preparations.——Huile antique rouge à la rose is the ordinary oil of roses coloured with alkanet root.——Huile antique verte is simple oil coloured green, as above, and scented.——Huile antique aux millefleurs is so scented with several perfumes that none predominate. A mixture of bergamotte, lemons, lavender, neroli, pimento, and ambergris or musk, is commonly employed for the purpose.

=Oil, Macas′sar.= Syn. HUILE DE MACASSAR. Prep. 1. (Rowland’s.) Oil of ben or almonds (reddened by alkanet root), 1 pint; oils of rosemary and origanum (white), of each 1 dr.; oil of nutmeg and attar of roses, of each 15 drops; neroli, 6 drops; essence of musk, 3 or 4 drops.

2. (De Naquet.) Oil of ben, 1 quart; nut oil, 1 pint; rectified spirit, 1/4 pint; essence of bergamotte, 3-1/2 dr.; tincture of musk and esprit de Portugal, of each 2 dr.; attar of roses, 1/2 dr.; alkanet root, q. s. to colour.

=Oil, Mar′row (Perfumed).= 1. Simple marrow oil, scented at will.

2. (FLUIDE DE JAVA.) Marrow oil, coloured with a little palm oil and scented.

3. (HUILE COMOGENE.) Marrow oil, 4 oz.; spirit of rosemary, 1-1/2 oz.; oil of nutmeg, 12 drops.

4. (HUILE PHILOCOME D’AUBRIL.) Cold-drawn nut oil and marrow oil, equal parts; scent at will, q. s.

5. (HUILE DE PHÉNIX.) Clarified beef marrow, lard, pale nut oil, and expressed oil of mace, of each 4 oz.; melt together by the heat of hot water, strain through linen into a warm stone mortar, add, of oils of cloves, lavender, mint, rosemary, sage, and thyme, of each 1/2 dr.; rectified spirit, 1 oz., in which has been dissolved by a gentle heat balsam of tolu, 4 dr.; camphor, 1 dr.; triturate until the whole is cold, and then put it into bottles. All the above are used to make the hair grow, and to prevent it falling off.

=Oil of Musk.= From grain musk, 1 dr.; ambergris, 1/2 dr.; oil of lavender, 20 drops; oil, 1 pint, by infusion. A second quality is made by working the same ingredients, after the oil is poured from them, with 3/4 pint of fresh oil. This also applies to OIL OF AMBERGRIS and HUILE ROYALE.

=Oil of Musk and Am′bergris.= Syn. HUILE ROYALE. From ambergris, 2 dr.; grain musk, 1/2 dr.; oils of cassia, lavender, neroli, and nutmeg, of each 10 drops; oil, 1 pint; by infusion. (See above.)

=Oil of Sty′rax.= From liquid styrax (pure), 5 dr.; oil of nutmeg, 10 drops; ambergris, 6 gr.; oil, 1 pint; by infusion.

=Oil of Vanil′la.= Syn. HUILE À LA VANILLE. From purest olive or almond oil, 1-1/2 pint; vanilla (finest, in powder), 2 oz.; oil of bergamotte, 1 dr.; attar of roses (finest), 15 drops; by infusion.

=OILS (Volatile).=[64] Syn. OLEA DESTILLATA, OLEA DISTILLATA, OLEA ESSENTIALIA, OLEA VOLATILIA, L.; HUILES VOLATILES, Fr. The volatile oils are an extensive and important class of bodies, derived from the vegetable kingdom, and found in almost every part of the majority of the plants which produce them, except the cotyledons of the seeds, in which, in general, the fixed oils are exclusively stored up. Their presence confers upon flowers, leaves, fruit, seeds, roots, bark, and woods their peculiar and characteristic odours; but among these they are not equally distributed in the same individual, and are often altogether absent from some of them. To them we are indebted for our most delightful perfumes, and our choicest spices and aromatics. Some of them are found to possess valuable medicinal properties, and others are invested with the highest possible interest on account of their peculiar chemical constitution, and the reactions which occur when they are brought into contact with other bodies.

[Footnote 64: Although essential oils are volatile oils, volatile oils are not always essential ones as the term is understood. This is the case with the petroleum and paraffin oils obtained by the distillation of native petroleum and bituminous bodies. To describe the two as synonymous is therefore incorrect.——ED.]

The volatile oils are often called ‘essences,’ and the same loose and unmeaning term is also commonly applied to their alcoholic solutions.

Prop. The volatile or essential oils are usually more limpid and less unctuous than the fixed oils; but some of them are butyraceous or crystalline. Nearly all of them consist of two or more oils, differing in their sp. gr. and boiling points, one of which is generally liquid, the other, in some cases, crystalline. All of them, when perfectly pure, are colourless, though before rectification nearly the whole of them have a pale yellow tint, and some of them are brown, blue, or green. Their odour is that of the plants which yield them, and is usually powerful; their taste is pungent and burning. They mix in all proportions with the fixed oils, dissolve freely in both alcohol and ether, and are sparingly soluble in water, forming ‘perfumed’ or ‘medicated waters.’ Their boiling point usually ranges between 310° and 325° Fahr., and is always considerably higher than that of water. They resist saponification, and (excepting oil of cloves) do not combine with the salifiable bases. Their density fluctuates a little on either side of water. The lightest oil is that of citrons (sp. gr. ·847), and the heaviest that of sassafras (sp. gr. 1·096). When cooled sufficiently, they all solidify. The common temperature of the atmosphere is sufficient for this with some of them, as the oils of roses and aniseed; whilst others require to be cooled below the freezing point of water before they assume the solid form. In this state they appear to consist of a crystalline or semi-crystalline substance (stearopten, stearessence), and a fluid portion (eleopten, oleiessence). The two may be separated by pressing the concrete oil between the folds of bibulous paper, in the cold. By exposure to the air the volatile oils rapidly absorb oxygen, and become partially converted into resin. This is the cause of the deposit that usually forms in them (especially in the expressed oil of orange) when kept in an ill-corked vessel. The solid crystalline matter which separates from them when kept in closed vessels is stearoptene.

Class. Chemically considered, the essential oils may be divided into three great classes:——

1. Oils composed of carbon and hydrogen only (binary volatile oils, carbo-hydrogens, hydro-carbons, terebenes, camphenes), of which oil of turpentine may be regarded as the type. These are characterised by being, as a class, less soluble in rectified spirit and in water than the other essential oils. The oils of bergamot, capivi, cubebs, elemi, hops, juniper, lemons, orange peel, pepper, the grass oil of India, the laurel oil of Guiana, and some others, belong to this class.

2. Oils containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (oxygenated oils), including most of those used in medicine and perfumery. These, as a class, are more soluble in rectified spirit and in water than those containing carbon and hydrogen only. To this class belong the oils of almonds, aniseed, cassia, cedar-wood, cinnamon, cumin, jasmin, lavender, meadow-sweet (Spirœa ulmaria), orange flowers, pennyroyal, peppermint, spearmint, rosemary, rose-petals, valerian, winter green (Gaultheria procumbens), and others too numerous to mention. A few of these oxygenated oils contain nitrogen.

3. Oils containing sulphur (sulphuretted oils). These are characterised by their extreme pungency, suffocating odour, vesicating power, property of blacking silver, and being decomposed by contact with most other metallic bodies. The oils of assafœtida, black mustard seed, garlic, horseradish, and onions, are of this kind. Some sulphuretted oils contain nitrogen.

Prep. The volatile oils are generally procured by distilling the odoriferous substances along with water; but in a few instances they are obtained by expression, and still more rarely by the action of alcohol.

According to the common method of proceeding, substances which part freely with their oil are put into the still along with about an equal weight of water, and are at once submitted to distillation. Those substances which give out their oil with difficulty are first soaked for 24 hours, or longer, in about twice their weight of water, to each gallon of which 1 lb. of common salt has been added, in order to raise its boiling point. The distillation is conducted as quickly as possible, and, when one half the water has come over, it is returned into the still, and this cohobation is repeated, when necessary, until the distilled water ceases to be mixed with oil. The heat of steam or a salt-water bath should be preferably employed. When a naked fire is used, the still should be deep and narrow, by which means the bottom will be better protected by the gradually decreasing quantity of water towards the end of the process, and empyreuma prevented. When the distilled water is to be repeatedly cohobated on the ingredients, a convenient and economical plan is to so arrange the apparatus that, after the water has separated from the oil in the receiver, it shall flow back again into the still. An ordinary worm-tub, or other like condensing apparatus, may be employed; but in the case of those oils which readily solidify, the temperature of the water in the condenser must not fall below about 55° Fahr.

The mixed vapours which pass over condense and fall as a milky-looking liquid into the receiver. This separates after a time into two portions, one of which is a solution of a part of the newly eliminated oil in water, and the other is the oil itself. The latter either occupies the upper or the lower portion of the receiver, according as its specific gravity is less or greater than that of distilled water. The separation of the oil and water is effected by allowing the mixed liquids to drop into a ‘Florentine receiver’ (see engr.) when the oil is the lighter of the two, by which means the latter accumulates at a, and the water flows over by the spout b.

The same receiver may be employed for oils heavier than water, by reversing the arrangement; but a glass ‘separator’ (see engr.) is, in general, found more convenient. In this case the oil accumulates at the bottom of the vessel, and may be drawn off by the stop-cock provided for the purpose.

The essential oils of lemons and oranges of commerce, and of some other fruits, are chiefly obtained by submitting the yellow rind to powerful pressure; but in this way they are not so white, nor do they keep so well, as when distilled, although in the case of the fruits referred to the oils are more fragrant than when prepared by any other method.

The London College excluded the usual directions for the preparation of the essential oils from their Pharmacopœia of 1851, on the ground that these substances are seldom prepared by the druggist or apothecary, or at all on the small scale.

“The fruit of anise, caraway, and juniper, the flowers of chamomile, lavender, and elder, the berries of allspice, the tops of rosemary, and the entire recent plants of the other herbs, are to be employed.” “Put any one of these into an alembic, then pour in as much water as will cover it, and distil the oil into a large vessel, kept cool.” (Ph. L. 1836.)

The Edinburgh College directs——“As much water only is to be employed as will prevent empyreuma during the distillation. The distillation may be immediately commenced after a proper maceration, and the oil afterwards separated from the water,” in the manner already noticed.

“It is also necessary to observe, in preparing these oils, as well as the distilled waters, that the quality of the substances, their texture, the season of the year, and similar circumstances, must occasion so many differences, that it is scarcely possible to give any certain and general rules which shall strictly apply to every example. Many things, therefore, must be regulated by the judgment of the operator.”

The Dublin College directs the vegetable substances to be macerated in the still with about 5 times their weight of water, for 24 hours, when one half of the water is to be drawn over. The oil having been separated from this in the usual manner, it is to be returned to the still, and the same quantity drawn over, as before, from which the oil must again be separated.

Chevallier gives the following rules for the distillation of essential oils:——

1. Operate upon as large quantities as possible, in order to obtain a greater product, and one of finer quality.

2. Conduct the distillation rapidly.

3. Divide the substances minutely, in order to facilitate the extrication of the oil.

4. Employ only sufficient water to prevent the matter operated on from burning, and the product from being contaminated with empyreuma.

5. For substances whose oil is heavier than water, saturate or nearly saturate the water in the still with common salt, to raise the boiling point, and thus to enable the vapour to carry over more oil.

6. Employ, when possible, water which has been already distilled from off the same substances, and has thus become saturated with oil.

7. For oils naturally fluid, keep the water in the refrigerator cool; but for those oils which easily become solid, preserve it at 80° to 90° Fahr.(?)

To the above may be added——

8. Collect the oil as soon as possible after it separates from the water with which it passes over, and in its subsequent treatment keep it, as much as possible, from free contact with the air.

Dr Ure remarks, “The narrower and taller the alembic is, within certain limits, the greater will be the proportion of oil, relative to that of the aromatic water, from like proportions of aqueous and vegetable matter employed.” “Some place the plants in baskets, and suspend these immediately over the bottom of the still, under the water, or above its surface in the steam; but the best mode, in my opinion, is to stuff an upright cylinder full of the plants and drive down through them steam of any desired force, its tension and its temperature being further regulated by the size of the outlet-orifice leading to the condenser. The cylinder should be made of strong copper, tinned inside, and encased in the worst conducting species of wood, such as soft deal or sycamore.”

The newly distilled oils may be separated from adhering water, which frequently renders them partially opaque or ‘cloudy,’ by repose in a temperature between 60° and 70° Fahr., and subsequent decantation; but to render them quite dry (anhydrous), it is necessary to let them stand over some fragments of fused chloride of calcium. This is not, however, required with the commercial oils.

The rectification of the volatile oils is commonly performed without water, by the careful application of a heat just sufficient to make them flow over pretty rapidly, so that they may be kept heated for as short a time as possible. One half, or at most two thirds only, is drawn off, that left in the retort being usually mixed with raw oil intended to be sold in that state. This method often leads to much loss and disappointment, and we have known more than one rather dangerous explosion result from its use. A better plan is to rectify the oil from strong brine, and then to separate any adhering water, either by repose or chloride of calcium.

Pres. Volatile oils should be preserved in well-closed and nearly full bottles, in the shade, and should be opened as seldom as possible. By age they darken, lose much of their odour, increase in density, and become thick and clammy. It is then necessary to distil them, by which the undecomposed portion is separated from the resin. Agitation along with animal charcoal will restore their clearness and original colour, but nothing more.

Pur., Tests. The essential or volatile oils of commerce are very frequently adulterated with the fatty oils, resins, spermaceti, or alcohol, or with other essential oils of a cheaper kind or lower grade. The presence of the first three of these may be readily detected by placing a drop of the suspected oil on a piece of white paper, and exposing it for a short time to heat. If the oil is pure, it will entirely evaporate; but if adulterated with one of these substances, a greasy or translucent stain will be left on the paper. These substances also remain undissolved when the oil is agitated with thrice its volume of rectified spirit.

The presence of alcohol may be detected by agitating the oil with a few small pieces of dried chloride of calcium. These remain unaltered in a pure essential oil, but dissolve in one containing alcohol, and the resulting solution separates, forming a distinct stratum at the bottom of the vessel. When only a very little alcohol is present, the pieces merely change their form, and exhibit the action of the solvent on their angles or edges, which become more or less obtuse or rounded.

Another test for alcohol in the essential oils is the milkiness occasioned by agitating them with a little water, as well as the loss of volume of the oil when it separates after repose for a short time.

A more delicate test of alcohol in the essential oils than either of the preceding is potassium, as employed by M. Beral:——12 drops of the oil are placed on a perfectly dry watch-glass, and a piece of potassium, about the size of an ordinary pin’s head, set in the middle of it. If the small fragment of metal retains its integrity for 12 or 15 minutes, no alcohol is present; but if it disappears after the lapse of 5 minutes, the oil contains at least 4% of alcohol; and if it disappears in less than 1 minute, it contains not less than 25% of alcohol.

Boettger states that anhydrous glycerin possesses the property of dissolving in alcohol, without mixing with the volatile oils. The mode of applying the glycerin is as follows:——The oil to be examined is well shaken in a graduated tube, with its own volume of glycerin (sp. gr. 1·25). Upon being allowed to settle, the mixture separates into two layers. The denser glycerin separates rapidly, and if the essence has been mixed with alcohol, this is dissolved in the glycerin, the augmentation in the volume of glycerin showing the proportion of alcohol present.

This species of adulteration is very common, as it is a general practice of the druggists to add a little of the strongest rectified spirit to their oils, to render them transparent, especially in cold weather. Oil of cassia is nearly always treated in this way.

The admixture of an inferior essential oil with one more costly may be best detected by pouring a drop or two on a piece of porous paper or cloth, and shaking it in the air, when, if occasionally smelled, the difference of the odour at the beginning and the end of the evaporation will show the adulteration, especially if the added substance is turpentine. The presence of the latter may also be detected by agitating the oil with rectified spirit, when it will remain undissolved.

The following method, which may also be used as a test for the presence of turpentine, is based upon its power of dissolving fats:——Take about 50 gr. of oil of poppy in a graduated glass tube, and add an equal quantity of the sample of essential oil. Shake the mixture up thoroughly and then allow it to stand; if the essential oil be pure, the mixture becomes milky, and does not clear until after several days have passed, whereas it will remain transparent if even so little as 5 per cent. of essence of turpentine be present.

The purity of essential oils may likewise, in many cases, be determined by taking their sp. gr.; or, with still greater accuracy and convenience, by measuring their index of refraction, as suggested by Dr Wollaston. A single drop of oil is sufficient for the application of the last method.

The adulteration of a heavy oil with a light one, or the reverse, may be detected by agitating the suspected oil with water, when, in most cases, the two will separate and form distinct strata.

Miss Crane believes that the cohesion figures afforded by the volatile oils, like those of the fixed ones, will be found useful indications of their purity. The application of her method is precisely similar to that followed in her examination of the fixed oils as already described. She finds that——

Oil of Turpentine, by itself, spreads instantly to the whole size of the plate (a common soup plate), and almost immediately the edge begins to break into irregular shapes, when a rapid motion takes place over the surface of the film, and there seems to be a contest between the cohesion of the oil particles and the adhesion between them and the water. The oil makes repeated efforts to gather itself closer together, when the water instantly reacts, giving a wavy appearance to the whole figure.

The play of colours at this point is beautiful, and serves to bring out the lines more perfectly. In a few seconds innumerable little holes appear over the surface, which soon are separated only by threaded lines, and the figure is like the most exquisitely fine lace.

Oil of Cinnamon forms a figure not more than half the size of the last-named. In a few seconds small portions are detached, and shortly separate into distinct drops, four or five larger, and a number of smaller ones, scattered about. With mixtures in different proportions of oil of turpentine, the figures formed differently, taking more of the characteristics of the adulterant as it predominated.

Oil of Nutmeg forms a large figure instantly, the edge showing a beaded line. It gathers itself together and spreads again, very like oil of turpentine, but the surface presents more the appearance of watered silk. Within sixty seconds some holes appear, and in eighty more the surface is covered with them; these scarcely spread to more than a sixteenth of an inch in diameter, but from the first each is bordered with a dotted edge. The figure lasts some time without changing materially, except the openings lengthen out into an oblong shape, remaining entirely distinct. The play of colours is very fine. With the addition of one third of the oil of turpentine, the first spreading is little different, but openings appear in half the time, and the dotted border does not come as soon; in about four minutes the figure is most characteristically marked, and soon breaks up entirely, this being the distinctive difference between the pure oil and the mixture.

Oil of Peppermint spreads instantly to a large figure, and in ten or fifteen seconds openings appear, which increase rapidly in size. At first they look somewhat like the last-named, but are not nearly so numerous, and the border soon is more like tiny drops. In one and a half or two minutes they begin to run together, and the figure breaks up.

With the addition of turpentine oil the figure forms more slowly, and the breaking up is less rapid, but in five minutes the outlines only remain.

Oil of Bergamot spreads instantly; in thirty seconds tiny openings appear, not very abundant, and increase in size slowly; in five minutes they are not larger than oil of nutmeg at one and a half minute. At first they have a dotted border, but as they increase in size this changes to a scalloped film, which spreads, until, in eight or ten minutes, they are joined together over the whole surface. This, with the turpentine oil, gives a watered surface in spreading, much more marked, and with a fine play of colours.

Uses, &c. The volatile oils are chiefly used by perfumers and rectifiers, and in medicine. Some of the cheaper kinds are largely employed as vehicles for colours, and in the manufacture of varnishes. The dose of the aromatic and carminative oils is from 1 to 10 drops, on sugar, or dissolved in a little weak spirit. This does not apply to oil of bitter almonds, the dose of which is 1/4 to 1/2 a drop.

⁂ The following list includes short notices of nearly all the volatile oils which have been examined, as well as of some other substances of a similar character, which commonly pass under the name.

=Oil of Allia′ria.= From the roots of Alliaria officinalis, or sauce-alone. Identical with the oil of black mustard.

=Oil of All′spice.= See OIL OF PIMENTO.

=Oil of Al′monds.= See OIL OF BITTER ALMONDS.

=Oil of American Arbor Vitæ.= Syn. HUILE CEDRE BLANC, Fr. From the fresh tops of Thuja occidentalis, or American arbor-vitæ tree. Yellow; fragrant; stimulant. Used in frictions for rheumatism. Prod. 1-1/2 to 2% (nearly).

=Oil of Angel′ica.= From the dried root of Angelica Archangelica. Prod. 25% (fully).

=Oil of An′iseed.= Syn. OLEUM ANISI (Ph. L., E., & D.), O. ESSENTIALE ANISI, L. From the fruit (seeds) of Pimpinella anisum, or anise. Nearly colourless. It is very frequently adulterated with one or other of the cheaper oils, in which case spermaceti or camphor is added to it, to make it ‘candy.’

Prop., &c. When pure it congeals into a solid crystalline mass on being cooled to 50° Fahr., and does not melt again until heated to about 63°. Treated with iodine, it quickly congeals into a solid hard mass, with a perceptible increase of temperature, and the development of orange-coloured and grey fumes. Sulphuric acid, with heat, turns it of a rich purple-red colour, and the compound soon afterwards becomes inspissated and hard (resinified). In alcohol of ·806 it is soluble in all proportions, but rectified spirit (·838) dissolves only 42% of this oil. Sp. gr. (recent) ·9768; (one year old) ·9853 to ·9855; (old) ·9856 to ·9900. The foreign oil is generally the heaviest.

Oil of aniseed is carminative and pectoral; and both itself and preparations have long been in favour with the masses in coughs, colds, &c. In preparing it care must be taken that the temperature of the water in the receiver and refrigerator does not fall lower than about 68° Fahr. Prod. (From the dried fruit of commerce) avoir. 2% (nearly). See OIL OF STAR-ANISE.

=Oil, Ap′ple.= See AMYL (Valerianate of), and ESSENCE OF APPLE.

=Oil of Ar′nica.= Syn. OLEUM ARNICÆ, O. A. RADICUM, L. From the roots of Arnica montana. Yellowish brown. Sp gr. ·940. Prod. 16 lbs. yielded 1 oz. of oil. The oil from the flowers of arnica is blue.

=Oil of Asarabac′ca.= Syn. OLEUM ASABI, O. ASARI LIQUIDUM, L. From the roots of Asarum Europæum. Yellow; glutinous. Two butyraceous oils pass over at the same time.

=Oil of Assafœt′ida.= Syn. OLEUM ASAFŒTIDA, L. From the gum resin. Contains sulphur. Very fetid and volatile.

=Oil of Balm.= Syn. OLEUM MELISSÆ, L. From the herb (Melissa officinalis). Pale yellow; fragrant. Sp. gr. ·970 to ·975. Prod. 100 lbs. of the fresh flowering herb yielding 1/4 oz. of oil (M. Raybaud). A mixture of oil of lemons and rosemary is commonly sold for it.

=Oil of Balsam of Peru.= See CINNAMEINE.

=Oil of Ber′gamot.= Syn. BERGAMOT, ESSENCE OF B.; OLEUM BERGAMII, O. BERGAMOTÆ, L. By expression from the yellow portion of the rind of the fruit of Citrus Bergamia, or bergamot orange. Pale greenish yellow; highly fragrant. It is obtained purer by distillation, but its perfume is then slightly less delicate. Sp. gr. ·875 to ·885. Prod. The rind of 100 bergamot oranges yielded by distillation nearly 3 oz. of oil. (M. Raybaud.)

Oil of bergamot is frequently adulterated with rectified spirit, or with the oils of lemons, oranges, or turpentine. The presence of these substances may be detected in the manner explained under OILS (Volatile), Purity and Tests (anté), as well as by the altered density of the oil. Pure bergamot oil is much more soluble in rectified spirit than either of the others, and is further distinguished from them by its free solubility in solution of potassa, forming a clear solution.

=Oil of Bit′ter Almonds.= Syn. ESSENCE OF B. A.; OLEUM AMYGDALÆ AMARÆ, O. A. ESSENTIALE, L. From the ground cake of bitter almonds from which the fixed oil has been expressed. The common plan is to soak the cake (crumbled to fragments) for about 24 hours in twice its weight of water, to which 1/3rd or 1/4th of its weight of common salt has been added, and then to submit the whole to distillation, allowing the first half of the water that passes over to deposit its oil, and to run back again into the still. Pale golden yellow; colourless when rectified; tastes and smells strongly nutty, like peach-kernels. It consists of 85% to 90% of hydride of benzoyl and 8% to 12% of hydrocyanic acid, with a variable quantity of benzoic acid and benzoin. The density varies a little with the age of the oil, and the temperature and rapidity with which it has been distilled. Sp. gr. (recent) 1·0525; (trade crude oil) 1·079 (G. Wippel); (old) 1·081 (1·0836——Pereira). “Essential oil of almonds, free from adulteration, should have a sp. gr. at most of 1·052.” (Ure.) According to Prof. Redwood, the density may vary from 1·0524 to 1·0822. The light oil contains the most hydride of benzoyl, and the heavy oil the most benzoin. Prod. From less than ·2 to ·5%.

Pur. This oil is generally adulterated with cheaper oils, and in nearly every case with alcohol. When it is pure——Mixed with oil of vitriol, it strikes a clear crimson-red colour, without visible decomposition,——Mixed with an alcoholic solution of potassa, crystals are eliminated.——Iodine dissolves only partially and slowly in it, without further visible results.——Chromate of potassa does not affect it.——Nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·42) causes no immediate reaction, and in the course of 3 or 4 days crystals of benzoic acid begin to appear; but if only 8% or 10% of alcohol or rectified spirit is present, a violent effervescence speedily commences, and nitrous fumes are evolved. By using nitric acid, sp. gr. 1·5, the smallest quantity of alcohol may be detected.

Obs. This oil does not pre-exist in the almond, but is formed by the action of water on a peculiar crystallisable substance, called amygdalin. It is essentially the hydride of benzoyl, but it always contains a portion of hydrocyanic or prussic acid, to which it owes its very poisonous properties. It is occasionally employed as a substitute for hydrocyanic acid in medicine; but its principal consumption is as a flavouring ingredient and a perfume by cooks, confectioners, liquoristes, and perfumers. For this purpose it is dissolved in rectified spirits. See ESSENCE.——Dose, 1/4 to 1 drop.

An oil closely resembling that from bitter almonds is obtained by distillation from the leaves of the peach and cherry-laurel, the bark of the plum-tree, the bruised kernels of cherries, plums, and peaches, the pips of apples, and from several other vegetable substances that possess a nutty odour and flavour.

A NON-POISONOUS OIL OF ALMONDS has been introduced. This is simply the ordinary oil of commerce freed from hydrocyanic acid, and is intended to be substituted for the crude, poisonous oil for domestic purposes. Unfortunately, the purified essence does not keep well, and is often converted after a few months into little else than a solution of benzoic acid, almost devoid of the usual odour and flavour of the bitter almond. “No wonder, then, under such circumstances, that the public preferred the preparations they had been accustomed to, which were not so liable to change.” (Redwood.) The following methods have been adopted for this purpose:——

1. (Liebig.) Agitate the crude distilled oil with red oxide of mercury, in slight excess, and after a few days’ contact, rectify the oil from a little fresh oxide of mercury. The product is quite pure, when the process is properly managed. The cyanide of mercury thus formed may be either employed as such, or reconverted into mercury and hydrocyanic acid.

2. (Mackay.) Commercial oil of almonds, 1 lb.; fresh-slaked lime, q. s. to form a milk-like liquid; afterwards add, of solution of potassa, 1-1/2 lb.; water, 3 pints; agitate occasionally for 48 hours, then distil over the oil, and rectify it from a fresh mixture of lime and potassa.

3. (Redwood.) The oil is mixed with an equal quantity of water, and the mixture is digested in a water bath with red oxide of mercury, and small quantities of fresh-slaked lime and protochloride of iron, with as little access of air as possible; as soon as decomposition of the acid has taken place, the whole is introduced into a copper retort, and submitted to distillation. The product is perfectly free from hydrocyanic acid. The first process is, however, the simplest, cheapest, and best.

The sp. gr. of this non-poisonous oil is 1·051. (G. Whippell.) That of pure colourless hydride of benzoyl is 1·043; it boils at 356° Fahr., is soluble in 35 parts of water, and in all proportions in alcohol and ether. Exposed to the air, it greedily absorbs oxygen, and becomes converted into a mass of crystallised benzoic acid. The purified oil of almonds does the same, only less rapidly.

=Oil of Almonds (Facti′′tious).= Syn. ESSENCE OF MIRBANE, NITROBENZOL. The preparation of this article on the small scale is explained under NITROBENZOL. It is now extensively prepared as a substitute for the oil of almonds obtained by distillation. The following is Mansfield’s process:——The apparatus consists of a large glass worm, the upper end of which is divided into two branches, gradually dilating so as to form two funnel-shaped tubes. Into one of these concentrated nitric acid is poured, and into the other benzol, which need not, for this purpose, be chemically pure. These bodies meet at the point of junction of the two tubes, and the rate of their flow is regulated by any appropriate means. Chemical reaction instantly takes place, and the new compound is cooled by its passage through the worm, which is refrigerated for the purpose. It has then only to be washed with water or a very weak solution of carbonate of soda for the process to be complete. The product has the sp. gr. 1·209, boils at 415° Fahr., has an intensely sweet taste, and an odour closely resembling, but not actually identical with, that of oil of bitter almonds. Unlike genuine oil of almonds or hydride of benzoyl, it is insoluble in water, and does not distil without suffering partial decomposition. It is chiefly used to scent soaps, and to adulterate the genuine oil. The benzol for this purpose is obtained from coal-tar. See BENZOL and NITROBENZOL.

=Oil of Boxwood.= (Ph. L. 1746.) Syn. OLEUM BUXI EMPYREUMATICUM. Distilled from fragments of boxwood in a retort, with a sand bath gradually increased in heat. Anodyne, antispasmodic, and diaphoretic.——Dose, 10 to 20 drops. (Jourdan says 4 to 5 drops in gonorrhœa.) It relieves toothache.

=Oil, Brandy.= See OIL OF GRAPE.

=Oil of Bu′chu.= Syn. OLEUM BAROSMÆ, O. DIOSMÆ, L. From the leaves of Diosma crenata. Yellow; lighter than water; smells of the leaves.

=Oil of Caj′eput.= Syn. CAJEPUTI OIL, KYAPOOTIE O.; CAJEPUTI OLEUM (B. P.), OLEUM CAJEPUTI (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. From the dried leaves of the Melaleuca Cajeputi (Melaleuca minor, B. P.). Colourless, when pure (that of commerce is usually green); odorous; aromatic; taste hot and penetrating. Its odour has been compared to a mixture of those of camphor and cardamoms. It boils at 343° Fahr. Sp. gr. ·925 to ·927. When rectified, about 3/4ths of the quantity passes over colourless, and has the density ·897; the remaining portion is green, and has the density ·920 to ·925. Its green colour is derived from chloride of copper, the presence of which may be recognised by the red precipitate occasioned by agitating the oil with a solution of ferrocyanide of potassium. (Guibourt.) From the East Indies.

Pure oil of cajeput is slightly soluble in water; entirely and freely soluble in alcohol; dissolves iodine; and when dropped on water, rapidly diffuses itself over the surface, and soon completely evaporates. A spurious kind (FACTITIOUS OIL OF CAJEPUT), made of oil of rosemary, flavoured with camphor and the oils of peppermint and cardamoms, and coloured with verdigris, is occasionally met with in the shops.

Oil of cajeput is a powerful antispasmodic and diffusible stimulant.——Dose, 3 to 6 drops, on sugar; in cholera, colic, epilepsy, hysteria, rheumatism, spasms, toothache, &c.

=Oil of Cam′phor.= Syn. LIQUID CAMPHOR; OLEUM CAMPHORÆ, O. C. VOLATILE, L. Obtained from incisions in the wood of the camphor tree of Borneo and Sumatra (Dryobalanops aromatica), in which it exists in cavities in the trunk; also by distillation from the branches of the Camphora officinarum, or laurel camphor tree. Colourless when rectified. Sp. gr. ·910. Prod. 60 lbs. of the crude brown oil yields 40 lbs. of pure white oil and 20 lbs. of camphor. It rapidly oxidises in the air. Used to scent soap. See CAMPHOR (Liquid).

=Oil of Car′away.= Syn. OLEUM CARUI (B. P. Ph. L. E. & D.), O. C. ESSENTIALE, L. From the fruit of Carum Carui (caraway seeds). Nearly colourless; aromatic; carminative. Sp. gr. ·940; (old) ·946 to ·950. Prod. Av. 5% (nearly). It is frequently adulterated with oil of cumin. Added to purgative medicines to prevent griping.

=Oil of Car′damoms.= Syn. OLEUM CARDAMOMI, O. C. ESSENTIALE, L. From the seed of Elettaria cardamomum, or true cardamom. Colourless; fragrant; carminative. Sp. gr. ·943. Prod. 5% (nearly). The capsules (‘lesser cardamoms’) yield only about 1% of oil. (M. Raybaud.)

=Oil of Cascaril′la.= Syn. OLEUM CASCARILLÆ, L. From the bark of Croton eleuteria (Swartz.), or cascarilla tree. Very fragrant. Prod. ·4% to ·75%.

=Oil of Cas′sia.= Syn. OIL OF CHINA CINNAMON; OLEUM CASSIÆ (Ph. E.), L. From cassia buds, or from cassia bark, Golden yellow; aromatic; fragrant. It is generally adulterated with rectified spirit. Nitric acid converts the pure oil into a crystalline mass. Sp. gr. 1·071 to 1·073; (old) 1·078 to 1·090 Prod. From the buds of 1% (barely); from the bark of commerce, ·75%. It is frequently sold for oil of cinnamon.

=Oil of Cebadil′la.= Syn. OIL OF SABADILLA; OLEUM CEBADILLÆ, L. A green butyraceous matter, obtained from Asagræa officinalis.

=Oil of Ce′dar-wood.= From the wood of a species of Cedrus. It consists of two hydrocarbons. One, a volatile liquid (cedrene), and the other a solid, crystalline compound containing oxygen. Prod. ·2% to 25%.

=Oil of Ce′drat.= Syn. ESSENCE OF CEDRA; OLEUM CEDRI, O. CITRI FINUM, L. From the exterior yellow rind of the fruit of Citrus medica (Risso), or citrons, either by expression or distillation, as oil of bergamot. The first portion of oil that comes over is colourless; the latter portion greenish. Very fragrant. Sp. gr. ·847. Prod. 100 citrons yield nearly 1 fl. oz. of pale, and 1/2 fl. oz. of green oil. See OIL OF CITRON (below).

=Oil of Cel′ery Seed.= Syn. OLEUM APII. L. From the fruit (seed) of Apium graveolens. Diuretic; stimulant. Prod. 3/4% to 1% (nearly).

=Oil of Cham′omile.= Syn. OIL OF ROMAN CHAMOMILE; OLEUM ANTHEMIDIS (Ph. L. E. & D.), O. CHAMÆMELI, O. C. FLORUM, O. ESSENTIALE EX FLORIBUS C., L. From the flowers of Anthemis nobilis. In the Ph. L., English oil of chamomile (ANTHEMIDIS OLEUM ANGLICUM) is ordered. Blue; turns yellow and brown by exposure and age; odour characteristic. Sp. gr., English (from the flowers), ·9083; foreign, ·9289. Prod. Fresh flowers, ·1% (barely); recently dried (finest commercial), 5%; av. of 6 dried samples, ·25% (nearly). If much water is employed, even the above small quantities of oil will not be obtained.

Oil of chamomile is reputed antispasmodic, tonic, and stomachic. 1 to 3 drops on a lump of sugar, taken just before retiring to rest, is an excellent preventive of nightmare, and will frequently induce quiet sleep where more active substances have failed. Unfortunately, the oil of the shops is generally either adulterated or old, and commonly both, in which case the oil acts as an irritant. A common plan is to mix it with old oil of lemons, a fraud which may be detected by the lessened density of the oil, and by its diminished solubility in rectified spirit.

=Oil of Cher′ry-laurel.= Syn. OLEUM LAURO-CERASI, L. From the leaves of Cerasus Laurocerasus, or common laurel. Closely resembles oil of almonds, but is said to be weaker. Like that substance, it is powerfully poisonous. Prod. 100 lbs. fresh leaves (undeveloped, June), 10·13 oz.; do. (half grown, June), 7·2 oz.; do. (full-grown, 8 weeks on tree, July), 4·96 oz.; do. (do., 3 months on tree, Sept.), 7·04 oz.; do. (15 months on tree), 2·24. (Christison.)

=Oil of Cher′vil.= Syn. OLEUM CHÆROPHYLLI, L. From the bruised fresh herb, macerated for 2 or 3 days in salt and water, and then distilled.

=Oil of Cincho′na.= Syn. OLEUM CINCHONÆ, L. From cinchona bark. Butyraceous; smells of the bark. 20 lbs. yield only 2 gr. (Trommsdorff.) The odour of bark is imitated by a solution of turmeric in potash, and by chloride of iron.

=Oil of Cin′namon.= Syn. HYDRIDE OF CINNAMYL; OLEUM CINNAMOMI (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), O. C. VERI, L. From the bark of Cinnamomum zeylanicum, macerated for several days in salt and water, and then distilled. Yellowish or red; very aromatic; both odour and taste resemble that of the bark. Sp. gr. 1·035. Prod. 11 lbs. yielded 1 oz.; 100 lbs. yielded 1·56 oz. (M. Raybaud.)

Pur. Oil of cinnamon, owing to its high price, and the consequent premium for its adulteration, can scarcely be obtained pure from the shops of this country. Oil of cassia and highly rectified spirit are the substances usually employed for this purpose. The increased sp. gr. resulting from the first, and the diminished sp. gr. from the second, afford ready means of detecting these frauds. The presence of oil of cassia may also be detected by an experienced person by the odour, which differs a little from that of pure oil of cinnamon. Oil of cassia is less limpid than oil of cinnamon, and it stands a greater degree of cold without becoming turbid or congealing. “Wine-yellow, when recent; cherry-red, when old; odour purely cinnamonic; nitric acid converts it nearly into a uniform crystalline mass.” (Ph. E.) During this reaction the odour of bitter almonds is perceptible. Both oil of cassia and oil of cinnamon are thus converted into a brown balsam; with oil of cassia, however, a brisk decomposition occurs sooner, and at a slighter heat. It also forms a crystalline compound with ammonia. These reactions, unfortunately, are not characteristic. “The most distinguishing characteristic of the cinnamon oils is, perhaps, their relation to the alcoholic solution of caustic potash. Both dissolve in it readily and clear, with a reddish, yellowish-brown colour; after some time, however, the solution becomes very turbid, and a rather heavy undissolved oil precipitates, when the solution gradually becomes clear again. (Ure.) The palest oil is considered the best.

Obs. Oil of cinnamon is chiefly imported from Ceylon, where it is distilled from bark that is unfit for exportation. The dark coloured oil is usually rectified, when two pale oils are obtained, one lighter, and the other heavier, than water; but 10% of oil is lost by the process. The oil distilled from the root of the tree (O. CINNAMOMI RADICIS) is much weaker than that from the bark. The oil from the leaves (O. C. FOLIORUM), also imported from Ceylon, smells of cloves, but has a less density than oil of cloves.

Oil of cinnamon consists essentially of hydride of cinnamyl, but, unless when very recently prepared, it also contains a variable proportion of cinnamic acid formed by the oxidation of the hydride.

=Oil of Cit′ron.= Syn. ESSENCE OF CITRON; OLEUM CITRI, L. From the lees of citron juice; or, from the peels, as oil of lemons or bergamot. The last generally goes by the name of oil of cedrat. Both are fragrant. (See above.)

=Oil of Citron-flowers.= Syn. OLEUM CITRI FLORUM, L. Amber-coloured; highly fragrant. Prod. 60 lbs. yield 1 oz.

=Oil of Cloves.= Syn. ESSENCE OF CLOVES; OLEUM CARYOPHYLLORUM, O. CARYOPHYLLI (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), O. EUGENIÆ C. (Ph. D. 1826), L. From the unexpanded flowers (cloves) of the Caryophylus aromaticus, or Molucca clove-tree, soaked for some time in salt and water, and then submitted to distillation; the distilled water, after having deposited its oil, being returned 3 or 4 times into the still, and again ‘worked off’ from the same materials. Nearly colourless, when recent, gradually becoming pale yellow and ultimately light brown, by age; highly aromatic, with the characteristic odour and flavour of cloves. It is the least volatile of all the essential oils. Sp. gr. 1·055 to 1·061 (1·034 to 1·061, B. P.). Prod. 16% to 22%.

Pur. Oil of cloves is frequently adulterated with inferior essential oils, especially with those of pimento, pinks, and clove-gilly flowers, and, occasionally, with castor oil.——1. Pure oil of cloves forms a butyraceous coagulum when shaken with pure liquor of ammonia, which crystallises after fusion by a gentle heat.——2. Treated with an alcoholic solution of potassa, it entirely congeals into a crystalline mass, with total loss of its characteristic odour.——3. Shaken with an equal volume of strong caustic soda lye, it forms, on repose a mass of delicate lamellar crystals——4. Solution of chromate of potassa converts it into brown flakes, whilst the salt loses its yellow colour.——5. Chlorine turns it first green, and then brown and resinous.——6. Nitric acid turns it red, and a reddish-brown solid mass is formed; with heat, it converts it into oxalic acid.——7. It dissolves freely in sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol), yielding a transparent, deep reddish-brown solution, without any visible decomposition.——8. Mixed, gradually, with about 1/3rd of its weight of oil of vitriol, an acid liquor is formed, together with a resin of a rich purple colour, which, after being washed, is hard and brittle, and forms a red tincture with rectified spirit, which is precipitated of a blood-red colour by water.——9. It dissolves iodine freely, without any marked reaction.——10. It dissolves santaline freely.——11. Mix one drop of the oil with a small trace of solution of aniline by means of a glass rod, and then shake with 5 or 6 c.c. of distilled water. By the addition of a few drops of sodium hypochlorite to the mixture the characteristic blue coloration due to phenol will be developed in a few minutes, if the adulterant be present; whereas with the pure oil nothing but the purplish-violet colour of aniline will be perceived. Stirring or shaking must be avoided after the addition of the hypochlorite. The presence of 1 per cent. of phenol can thus be demonstrated in one drop of the oil.

Obs. Clove oil contains a heavy oil, sp. gr. 1·079 (caryophyllic acid), and a light oil, sp. gr. ·918 (clove hydrocarbon); by rectification, much of the light oil is lost, and the product becomes denser. (1·361——Bonastre.)

=Oil, Cog′nac.= See OIL, GRAPE (below).

=Oil of Copai′ba.= Syn. OIL OF CAPIVI; OLEUM COPAIBÆ (B. P., Ph., L. & E.), L. 1. (Ph. E.) Balsam of capivi, 1 oz.; water, 1-1/2 pint; distil, returning the water into the still, until oil ceases to pass over.

2. (Wholesale.) From the crude oil which separates during the manufacture of ‘specific solution of copaiba’ and ‘soluble capivi,’ by distillation along with a little salt and water.

Pur., &c. Colourless when pure; that of commerce has frequently a greenish tinge, derived from the copper utensils; odour, not disagreeable when recent. Sp. gr. ·876 to ·878. Prod. 50% to 55%. When adulterated with oil of turpentine, its solubility in rectified spirit is greatly diminished, and the solution is turbid.——Dose, 10 to 15 drops, in sugar; in the usual cases in which copaiba is ordered. 20 to 60 minims, three times a day (B. P.).

=Oil of Corian′der.= Syn. OLEUM CORIANDRI, L. From the fruit (seeds) of Coriandrum sativum. Yellowish; aromatic; carminative. Prod. (Dried fruit) 5-1/2 to 6%.

=Oil, Corn.= The name given by Mulder to a peculiar fatty compound found in the fusel oil of the distilleries of Holland. It has a very powerful odour, resembling that of some of the umbelliferous plants, and is unaffected by caustic potassa. See OIL, FUSEL (page 772).

=Oil of Cu′bebs.= Syn. OLEUM CUBEBARAM, O. CUBEBÆ (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L. From the fruit of Cubeba officinalis, or cubebs, coarsely ground. Aromatic, hot, and bitter tasted; odour, that of the fruit; faintly green, colourless when pure. Sp. gr. ·129. Prod. 9% to 11%.

Pur., &c. When pure, iodine has little action on this oil, and immediately gives it a violet colour, without any very marked reaction; nitric acid turns it opaque, and the mixture changes to a pale red when heated; sulphuric acid turns it of a crimson red. When adulterated with oil of turpentine, both its viscidity, solubility in rectified spirit, and its density, are lessened; when mixed with castor oil it leaves a greasy stain on paper.——Dose, 10 to 15 drops, in the usual cases in which cubebs in substance is given. 5 to 20 minims (B. P.), suspended in water by mucilage and sugar.

=Oil of Cumin.= Syn. OLEUM CUMINI, O. CYMINI, L. From the fresh fruit (seed) of Cuminum Cyminum, or cumin. Pale yellow; smells and tastes strongly of the seeds. Sp. gr. ·975. Prod. 2-1/2% to 3%.

Obs. Oil of cumin is a mixture of two oils differing in volatility, and which may be separated by careful distillation. The more volatile one has been named cymol; the other, cuminol.

=Oil of Dill.= Syn. OLEUM ANETHI (Ph. L. & E.), L. From the bruised fruit (seed) of Antheum graveolens. Pale yellow; odour, that of the fruit; taste, hot and pungent; carminative. Sp. gr. ·188 to ·882. Prod. 4% (nearly).

=Oil of El′der.= Syn. ATTAR OF ELDER FLOWERS; OLEUM SAMBUCI, L. From elder flowers (Sambucus nigra). Butyraceous; odour not very marked.

=Oil of El′emi.= Syn. OLEUM ELEMI, L. From the resin. Isomeric with oil of turpentine.

=Oil of Er′got.= Syn. ETHEREAL O. OF E.; OLEUM ERGOTÆ, O. E. ÆTHEREUM, O. SECALIS CORNUTI, L. Prepared by evaporating the ethereal tincture at a very gentle heat, and, preferably, allowing the last portion of the ether to escape by spontaneous evaporation. Brownish-yellow; lighter than water; soluble in ether and solution of potassa; only partly soluble in alcohol. It appears to be a mixture of volatile and fixed oil, with some resinous matter.——Dose, 10 to 20 drops, in hæmorrhages; 10 or 12 drops every 3 or 4 hours, in diarrhœa; 20 to 50 drops, as a parturifacient, &c. Externally, in rheumatism, toothache, &c.

Obs. The above is the oil of ergot now employed in medicine. It must not be confounded with other preparations occasionally called by the same name, but which differ from it in character. Among the latter are the following:

a. A fixed oil obtained by distilling off the spirit from the alcoholic tincture. It has the odour of rancid fish oil, and the distilled spirit has also a putrid odour.

b. A fixed oil, obtained from coarsely powdered ergot by strong pressure between iron plates, at a heat of about 212° Fahr. It is fluid, coloured, smells strongly of the drug, but is nearly destitute of its leading qualities. Both the preceding contain some volatile oil and resinous matter.

c. An empyreumatic oil obtained by distilling ergot per se. It is light brown, viscid, acrid, and nauseous.

d. A volatile oil obtained by digesting powdered ergot in solution of potassa at 125° Fahr., diluting the saponaceous mass thus formed with one half to an equal weight of water, neutralising the alkali with dilute sulphuric acid, and then submitting the whole to distillation in a chloride of sodium or oil bath. It is white, adhesive, butyraceous, and tasteless. It appears a product, rather than a simple educt.

e. This is the ethereal oil, first described, in its purest form. It is colourless, translucent, oily, and acrid-tasted, with the odour of ergot; it has a high boiling-point, at which it suffers partial decomposition, but may be volatilised at a lower temperature, like the other oils. By long exposure to heat, it thickens and partly solidifies; light and air darken it; it is lighter than water, very slightly soluble in water, but sufficiently so to impart to it its peculiar odour; it is soluble in pure alcohol, in ether, the volatile and fixed oils, alkaline lyes, liquor of ammonia, creasote, and naphtha. The dilute mineral acids clear it but do not produce any marked reaction.

=Oil, Ethe′′real.= See OIL OF WINE (below).

=Oil of Eucalyptus.= Syn. OLEUM EUCALYPTI GLOBULI. See EUCALYPTUS.

=Oil of Fen′nel.= Syn. OLEUM FŒNICULI (Ph. L.), O. F. OFFICINALIS (Ph. E. & D.), O. F. DULCIS, L. From the fruit or seed of Fœniculum dulce, or sweet fennel (Ph. L.), Colourless; odour that of the plant; tastes hot and sweetish; congeals at 50° Fahr.; carminative and stomachic. It consists of two oils; the one solid and identical with that of oil of aniseed. When treated with nitric acid, it affords benzoin, Sp. gr. ·997. Prod. Dried fruit (of commerce), 3% to 3·5%. The flowering herb yields ·35% of a similar oil.

Obs. The oil of fennel of the shops is the product of the fruit of Fœniculum vulgare, or common, wild, or bitter fennel. It closely resembles that of sweet fennel, but is scarcely so agreeable either in taste or smell. It is chiefly used to scent soaps.

=Oil of Firwood.= Syn. OLEUM PINI SYLVESTRIS. An essential oil, distilled from the leaves of Pinus sylvestris.

=Oil of Fleabane.= (Ph. U. S.) Syn. OLEUM ERIGERONIS CANADENSIS. An essential oil, distilled from Canada erigeron.——Dose, 5 minims in hæmorrhage.

=Oil, Fu′sel.= Noticed at page 772.

=Oil of Gal′banum.= Syn. OLEUM GALBANI (Ph. Bor.), L. From galbanum, 2 lb.; water, 16 fl. oz.; distilled together. Yellow; resembles oil of asafœtida, but milder.

=Oil of Gar′lic.= Syn. SULPHIDE OF ALLYL. From the bruised bulbs or ‘cloves’ of Allium sativum, or garlic. It possesses the peculiar odour, taste, and other properties of the bulbs, in a highly exalted degree.

Obs. When a mixture of oil of black mustard and sulphide of potassium is exposed in a sealed glass tube to a temperature above that of 212° Fahr., sulphocyanide of potassium and garlic oil are formed. On the other hand, when the compound of garlic oil and chloride of mercury (formed by adding to an alcoholic solution of the oil a like solution of the chloride) is gently heated with sulpho-cyanide of potassium, mustard oil, with all its characteristic properties, is called into existence.

=Oil of Gaulthe′′ria.= See OIL OF PARTRIDGE BERRY (below).

=Oil of Gen′tian.= Syn. OLEUM GENTIANÆ, L. From the root. Butyraceous; smells strongly of gentian. 3 cwt. yield 1 dr. (barely).

=Oil of Gera′′nium.= Syn. OIL OF GINGER GRASS, O. OF SPIKENARD. The oil of commerce which passes under this name and which was formerly imported from the East Indies, was not obtained from any species of Geranium or Pelargonium, but probably from a species of Andropogon. Of recent years, however, genuine geranium oil, obtained from the rose geranium (Pelargonium roseum) has been and continues to be met with in our markets. This essential oil is manufactured in immense quantities, at La Trappe de Staonelli not far from the Bay of Sidi Ferruch, in Algiers, where about forty acres of the plant are in cultivation. “Three harvests are gathered every year, and each yields from 170 to 200 kilograms of oil, or equal to 500 to 600 kilograms per annum. The value of this product never falls below forty francs the kilogram, the average gross value being therefore from 20,000 to 25,000 francs or at least £20 per acre. Seven distillatory apparatus are employed in this manufactory.”[65] A finer oil is yielded by the rose geranium, when grown in France, but it is much dearer. It is often employed to adulterate otto of roses. See OIL, GRASS (below).

[Footnote 65: “The Paris Exhibition,” ‘Pharmaceutical Journal,’ 3rd series, No. 433.]

=Oil of Gin′ger.= Syn. OLEUM ZINGIBERIS, L. From the dried root (rhizome) of Zingiber officinale, or ginger of commerce. Bluish-green; possesses a less agreeable odour than that of good ginger, without any pungency. Prod. 11/16 of 1% (M. Raybaud).

=Oil of Goosefoot.= (Ph. U. S.) Syn. OLEUM CHENOPODII. Distilled from the seeds of Chenopodium anthelminticum.——Dose. From 4 to 8 drops, with treacle or milk, for 3 nights in succession, for children. For adult, 1/2 dr. Vermifuge.

=Oil of Grain-spirit.= Syn. GRAIN OIL. Two distinct substances are found in spirit distilled from fermented grain; one of which is butyraceous and highly offensive (corn oil of Mulder————?), the other liquid (crude fusel oil). The relative proportions of these substances to each other, and to the spirits which they contaminate, vary with the materials and the management of the process. The ‘GRAIN OIL’ of the London rectifiers consists chiefly of fusel or potato oil, mixed with alcohol and water, and with small and variable proportions of solid ethyl and amyl-compounds of certain fatty acids (œnanthic and margaric). The latter are said to be similar to the butyraceous matter before referred to, as well as the solid fat of the whisky distilleries conducted on the old plan. According to Mr. Rowney, the fusel oil of the Scotch distilleries contains capric acid. See OIL OF CORN (above), and FUSEL OIL.

=Oil, Grape.= Syn. BRANDY OIL, COGNAC O. This is essentially the sulphate of amyl. It is prepared by dissolving the fusel oil of marc-brandy in strong rectified spirit, and then adding concentrated sulphuric acid; alcohol and excess of acid is removed by washing the newly formed compound with water. Dissolved in rectified spirit, it forms ‘BRANDY ESSENCE,’ which is used to impart the Cognac flavour to plain spirit. See SULPHATE OF AMYL and AMYL-ETHER, also OIL OF MARC-BRANDY (below).

=Oil, Grass.= Several of the grasses (Graminaceæ) yield fragrant volatile oils. See OIL OF GERANIUM, GRASS OIL (of Namur), OIL OF LEMON-GRASS, OIL OF SPRING-GRASS, &c.

=Oil, Grass (of Namur).= Syn. INDIA GRASS OIL. From Andropogon Calamus aromaticus (Royle), supposed to have been the “sweet cane” and “rich aromatic reed from a far country” of Scripture; formerly supposed to be obtained from Andropogon Iwarancusa. Stimulant and highly fragrant. See OIL OF SPIKENARD.

=Oil of Hops.= Syn. OLEUM LUPULI, L. From commercial hops, by distillation along with water. It may also be collected during the brewing of beer. Odorous; acrid; narcotic; soluble in water; becomes resinous by exposure and age. Sp. gr. ·910. Chiefly used to increase the aroma and flavour of old or damaged hops.

=Oil of Horse-mint.= Syn. OLEUM MONARDÆ (Ph. U. S.), L. From the fresh herb of Monarda punctata, a plant indigenous in the U.S. of America. Dark amber-coloured; fragrant; pungent; carminative; rubefacient; and vesicant.

=Oil of Horse-rad′ish.= Syn. OLEUM ARMORACIÆ, L. From the fresh roots of Cochlearia armoracia (Linn.), or common horse-radish. Pale yellow; heavier than water; acrid; vesicant; identical with that from black mustard. Prod. ·5% (nearly).

=Oil of Hyssop.= Syn. OLEUM HYSSOPI, L. From the flowering herb of Hyssopus officinalis. Aromatic; stimulant. Prod. ·25% to ·33%.

=Oil of Jargonelle Pear.= See AMYL (Acetate).

=Oil of Jas′min.= Syn. OIL OF JESSAMINE; OLEUM JASMINI, O. J. VOLATILE, L. From the flowers of Jasminum grandiflorum and J. Fragrans, carefully picked, by placing them in alternate layers with cotton wadding imbued with olive oil, in any suitable vessel, and renewing the flowers till the fixed oil becomes strongly odorous, and then distilling the wadding along with a little water. The volatile oils of hyacinths, jonquil, tuberose, violets, and most of the more delicate flowers, are obtained in the same way. Used in perfumery. From the East Indies.

=Oil of Ju′niper.= Syn. JUNIPERI OLEUM (B. P.), OLEUM JUNIPERI (Ph. L. E. & D.), O. È. BACCIS J., O. ESSENTIALE È. B. J., L. From either the wood, tops, or berries, preferably the last. The berries should be chosen fully grown, but still slightly green, and should be bruised before being placed in the still. In the Ph. L., English oil of juniper (O. JUNIPERI ANGLICUM) is ordered. Colourless, or very pale greenish-yellow; odour and taste, sweet and terebinthinate; rather viscid; soluble in rectified spirit; rendered opaque and resinous by exposure and age. It is reputed carminative and diaphoretic, and possesses powerful diuretic properties, Sp. gr. ·911 (English, ·8688; foreign, ·8834——Brande). Prod. Green berries, ·25%; ripe do. (one year old), 3/4 to 1% (fully).

Pur. It is frequently adulterated with oil of turpentine, a fraud readily discovered by the lessened density, viscidity, and solubility, in rectified spirit, of the oil.

Obs. Oil of juniper consists of two oils——one, white and most volatile, sp. gr. ·8393; the other, dark-coloured and less volatile, sp. gr. ·8784; together with some resin left in the retort.

=Oil, Krumholz.= Syn. OLEUM TEMPLINUM, L. From Hungarian balsam, a terebinthinate exudation from the Pinus pumilio, or mountain pine of Southern Europe. Fragrant; golden yellow; tastes oily, acidulous, and resinous.

=Oil of Lau′rel.= Syn. OIL OF SWEET BAY; OLEUM LAURI VOLATILE, O. L. ESSENTIALE L. From either the berries or leaves of Laurus nobilis (Linn.), or sweet bay-tree. Pale yellow, clear, odorous, aromatic, stimulant, and narcotic. Sp. gr. ·871. Prod. From the leaves, 3/4 to 1% (fully).

=Oil of Lavender.= Syn. ESSENCE OF L.; LAVANDULÆ OLEUM (B. P.), OLEUM LAVANDULÆ (Ph. L.), O. L. VERÆ (Ph. E. & D.), O. L. SPICÆ, O. L. ESSENTIALE, O. L. FLORUM, L. The oil (OLEUM LAVANDULÆ ANGLICUM) distilled from the flowers of ‘Lavandula vera’ (Ph. L.). Very pale lemon-yellow; highly fragrant; taste, warm and not disagreeable; carminative, antispasmodic, and stimulant. Sp. gr. ·877 to ·905. According to Brande, the sp. gr. of the oil obtained from the flowers only is ·8960; that from the whole plant, ·9206. The lightest is esteemed the best. Prod. Flowers, 1-1/2 to 2% (nearly). The whole of the flowering herb is commonly distilled. According to Raybaud, the herb, after flowering (Sept.), yields the most oil.

Pur. Alcohol is the substance commonly used to adulterate this oil; but, occasionally, oil of bergamot is used for the same purpose. If the density is below ·87, there is reason to suspect adulteration. When pure——1. Sulphuric acid turns it reddish-brown, and the reaction is accompanied by strong inspissation.——2. It fulminates quickly and violently with iodine, and the thick syrupy residue possesses a pungent, acid, balsamic odour. The oils of the other labiate plants fulminate much less powerfully with iodine. The presence of alcohol weakens, but does not destroy, the action of this test, unless it is added in an equal volume, when only a lively effervescence and a disengagement of orange-coloured vapours are produced by the iodine, without fulmination.——3. Santaline is nearly insoluble in pure oil of lavender, and exerts no marked action on it, but is freely soluble in oil of lavender adulterated with alcohol or rectified spirit.

Obs. English oil of lavender possesses the purest fragrance; and of this, the variety known as “MITCHAM OIL OF LAVENDER,” from the place of its preparation, is esteemed the best. The foreign oil of lavender is inferior. This last is improved by rectification. See OIL OF SPIKE.

=Oil of Lem′ons.= Syn. ESSENCE OF L.; OLEUM LIMONIS (B. P.), OLEUM LIMONIS, O. LIMONUM (Ph. L. E. & D.). From the yellow portion of the rind, grated, placed in hair bags, and exposed to powerful pressure; also by distillation, but the product is then less agreeably fragrant and sweet, but keeps better. Nearly colourless; odour that of the fruit. Sp. gr. ·8752 to ·8785. Expressed oil, ·8517, distilled do., ·845, at 72° Fahr. (Ure.) Prod. 100 lemons yield, by expression, 1-3/4 to 2 oz. (nearly); by distillation 1-1/4 to 1-1/2.

Pur. Commonly adulterated with oil of turpentine, and occasionally with nut or poppy oil. These may be detected in the manner already explained. When pure, it is soluble in all proportions in absolute alcohol, but rectified spirit only dissolves 16% of it. It also boils at 148° Fahr., whereas oil of turpentine boils at 312°, and mixtures of the two at intermediate temperatures, depending on the proportions.

=Oil of Le′mon Grass.= Syn. ESSENCE OF L. G., INDIAN GRASS-OIL, OIL OF VERBENA. Probably from Andropogon citratum, the Indian lemon-grass. Pale yellow; powerfully fragrant. CITRONELLE OIL is also the product of this or of an allied species of Andropogon.

=Oil of Lemon Thyme.= Syn. OLEUM SERPYLLI, L.; HUILE DE TAIN, Fr. From the fresh flowering herb of Thymus serpyllum, the lemon or wild thyme of our hills and pastures. Very fragrant, used to scent soaps &c. Sp. gr. ·867. Prod. 100 lbs. yield 2-1/2 to 5-1/2 oz. of oil. When pure, it is scarcely affected by iodine, but solution of chromate of potassa acts on it with energy.

=Oil of Let′tuce.= Syn. OLEUM LACTUCÆ VIROSÆ, L. From Lactusa virosa (Linn.), or strong-scented wild lettuce. Closely resembles the odorous matter of opium.

=Oil of Limes.= Syn. OLEUM LIMETTÆ, L. From the rind of the fruit of Citrus limetta, or lime, as oil of lemons, which it somewhat resembles. Prod. 100 limes yield 2-1/4 to 2-1/2 oz. of oil.

=Oil of Lov′age.= Syn. OLEUM LEVISTICI, L. From the leaves of fruit of Levisticum officinale, Lovage. Pale yellow, aromatic, carminative. Prod. Fresh herb, ·1% to ·15%.

=Oil of Mace.= Syn. OLEUM MACIDIS, O. M. ESSENTIALE, O. M. STILLATITIUM, L. From the arillus of Myristica officinale (commercial mace). Nearly colourless; fragrant; lighter than water; closely resembles oil of nutmeg. Sp. gr. ·945. Prod. 4-1/2 to 9%.

=Oil of Marc-brandy.= Syn. FUSEL OIL OF M.-B., O. OF GRAPE SPIRIT. Obtained after the spirit (marc-brandy) has passed over during the distillation of the fermented residuum of expressed grapes. Limpid; odorous; acrid; offensive; soon turns yellow in the air; soluble in 1000 parts of water, and in all proportions in rectified spirit; 6 or 7 drops will spoil a hogshead of brandy. According to M. Balard, this oil is a mixture of potato oil and œnanthic ether.

=Oil of Mar′joram.= Syn. OIL OF SWEET M.; OLEUM MARJORANÆ, O. ORIQANI M. (Ph. E.), L. From the fresh flowering herb of Origanum marjorana, or sweet or knotted marjoram. Pale yellow; odorous; tonic; stimulant. Sp. gr. ·925 (·940——Baumé). Prod. ·33 to ·35%. See OIL OF ORIGANUM.

=Oil of Mea′dow-sweet.= Syn. OLEUM SPIRÆÆ ULMARIÆ, L. From the flowers or flowering tops of Spiræa ulmaria (Linn.), or common meadow-sweet. This oil is a native hydride of salicyl. It is yellow, sweet-scented, and slightly soluble in water, which then strikes a deep violet colour with the persalts of iron. It boils at 385° Fahr. Sp. gr. 1·172. (See below.)

=Oil of Mea′dow-sweet (Facti′′tious).= This is prepared as follows:——Salicin, 1 part, is dissolved in distilled water, 10 parts, and being placed in a glass retort, bichromate of potassa (in powder), 1 part, is added, followed by oil of vitriol, 2-1/2 parts, previously diluted with 4 times its weight of water; a gentle heat is next applied to the retort, and after the first effervescence resulting from the mutual reaction of the ingredients is over, the heat is increased, and the mixture is distilled for the oil in the usual manner. The product is absolutely identical with the natural oil of meadow-sweet. (See above.)

=Oil of Mil′foil.= Syn. OLEUM MILLEFOLII, L. From the flowers of Achillæa millefolium (Linn.), or yarrow. Blue. Sp. gr. ·852. Prod. 14 lbs. of the dried flowers yield 3 dr. of oil.

=Oils, Mixed (Essential).= Syn. OLEA MIXTA ESSENTIALIA. From the oils of bergamot and lemons, of each 1 oz.; oils of lavender and pimento, of each 1/2 oz. Used to scent ‘sal volatile drops,’ smelling-bottles, &c.

=Oil of Mus′tard (Volatile).= Syn. SULPHO-CYANIDE OF ALLYL; OLEUM SINAPIS NIGRÆ, O. S. ESSENTIALE, L. From the seeds of Sinapis nigra(Linn.), or black mustard, as oil of bitter almonds. Nearly colourless; intensely acrid, pungent, rubefacient, and vesicant; slightly soluble in water; boils at 289° Fahr. It contains sulphur. Sp. gr. 1·035 to 1·038; 1·015, at 68° Fahr. Prod. Av. ·6% (fully).

Obs. This oil, like that of bitter almonds, does not pre-exist in the seed, but is the result of the action of myronic acid on a peculiar substance, myrosin, in the presence of water. Oil of black mustard has been used as a stimulant or counter-irritant in palsy, &c.; and the distilled water, or a solution of the oil in water, is said to be an excellent and cleanly remedy for the itch.

=Oil of Myrrh.= Syn. OLEUM MYRRHÆ, O. M. ESSENTIALE, L. Colourless; thin; heavier than water; stimulant; smells strongly of the drug.

=Oil of Myr′tle (Volatile).= Syn. ESSENCE OF M.; OLEUM MYRTÆ ESSENTIALE, L. From the flowers and leaves of Myrtus communis. 100 lbs. of the fresh leaves yield 2-1/2 to 5 oz.

=Oil of Namur Grass.= See OIL OF GRASS (NAMUR).

=Oil of Narcis′sus.= Syn. ESSENCE OF JONQUIL; OLEUM NARCISSI, L. As OIL OF JASMINE. Delightfully odorous.

=Oil of Nero′li.= See OIL OF ORANGE FLOWERS.

=Oil of Nut′meg (Volatile).= Syn. OLEUM MYRISTICÆ (B. P., Ph. E.), O. M. MOSCHATÆ (Ph. D.), L. From the officinal nutmeg or kernel of the fruit of Myristica moschata. Nearly colourless; odour and flavour that of the fruit, but more powerful. By agitation with water, it is separated into two oils——one lighter, the other heavier, than water; the last is butyraceous. Sp. gr. ·948. Prod. 4-1/2 to 7%. It is reputed to make the hair grow, and to prevent baldness.

OIL OF ON’IONS. From the bulbs of Allium cepa, or common onion. Contains sulphur, and smells strongly of the herb.

=Oil of Or′ange.= Syn. ESSENCE OF O.; OLEUM AURANTII, O. AURANTIORUM, O. A. CORTICIS, L. From the yellow portion of the rind of either the Seville or sweet orange, preferably of the last; as oil of bergamot or lemons. Closely resembles oil of lemons, but is more agreeably fragrant. The expressed oil is very apt to become opaque, and deposit a stearopten, especially in cold weather, unless well kept from the air. Sp. gr. ·875. Prod. 100 fruits yield 4 to 5 oz. (See below.)

=Oil of Orange Berries.= Syn. OLEUM AURANTII BACCÆ, L. From the small unripe fruit of the orange-tree. Does not keep well. (See below.)

=Oil of Orange Flowers.= Syn. NEROLI, OIL OF N., ESSENCE OF N.; OLEUM NAPHÆ, O. AURANTII FLORUM, AURANTII OLEUM (Ph. E. and D.), L. From the flowers of either the bitter (Seville)or sweet orange (Citrus vulgaris or C. aurantium), by distillation with water. That from the fruit is said to be preferred, but there does not appear any actual difference between the two. Very fluid; lighter than water, in which it is slightly soluble; it is delightfully aromatic and fragrant, but the odour differs slightly from that of the flowers. Prod. 100 lbs. of flowers gathered in May or December yield 3 to 6 oz. of oil; 6 cwt. of the fresh flowers yield 1 lb. of oil.

Pur. Neroli is commonly adulterated with alcohol or essence de petit grain, and generally with both of them. The presence of the first is easily determined (see above): that of the second can only be discovered by comparing the odour evolved during the evaporation of a drop of the suspected oil, placed on a piece of white paper, with a like drop of pure neroli similarly treated. (See above and below.)

=Oil of Orange-leaf.= Syn. OLEUM AURANTII FOLII, L.; ESSENCE DE PETIT GRAIN, Fr. From the leaves of either the bitter or sweet orange; that from the first being preferred. Delightfully fragrant. Extensively used to adulterate oil of neroli, and is itself commonly sophisticated with both alcohol and oil of orange-berries. (See above.)

=Oil of Orig′anum.= Syn. OLEUM ORIGANI, O. O. ESSENTIALE, L. From the flowering herb of Origanum vulgare, or common or winter marjoram. Pale yellow colour; fragrant; acrid, pungent, and rubefacient. Sp. gr. ·927 (·940——Baumé). Prod. ·5% to ·75%. The dark-coloured oil of origanum of the shops is obtained from Thymus vulgare. The oil of origanum (Ph. E.) is oil of Origanum marjorana. See OILS OF MARJORAM, THYME, and LEMON THYME.

=Oil of Or′ris.= Syn. ESSENCE OF VIOLET; OLEUM IRIDIS, L. From the dried rhizomes of Iris Florentina, or Florentine orris-root. Fragrant. Sold for oil and essence of violets.

=Oil of Par′sley.= Syn. OLEUM PETROSELINI, L. From the fresh herb or dried fruit (seed) of Apium petroselinum, or garden parsley. Yellowish; smells strongly of the plant. It consists of two oils, separable by agitation with water, one of which is concrete, and melts at 80° Fahr.; the other, liquid. Prod. Herb, ·50 to 1% (nearly).

=Oil of Par′tridge-berry.= Syn. OIL OF WINTER-GREEN, METHYLO-SALYCILIC ETHER, SALICYLATE OF OXIDE OF METHYL; OLEUM GAUL-THERIÆ (Ph. U. S.), L. From the leaves or the whole plant of Gaultheria procumbens, a herb common in North America, and otherwise known by the names——Box-berry, chequer-berry, partridge-berry, mountain tea, winter-green, &c. Pale yellow, growing brown by exposure and age; aromatic; sweet; highly pungent; when diluted, agreeably fragrant; mixed with a dilute solution of potassa, it solidifies to a crystalline mass (salicylate of methyl and potassa), from which the oil may be again separated by the addition of an acid. It is the heaviest of all the essential oils. Sp. gr. 1·173. Boils at 412°, and, when purified, at 435° Fahr.

Oil of partridge-berry, dissolved in rectified spirit, is in common use in the United States of America as an antispasmodic, carminative, diuretic, emmenagogue, and stimulant; chiefly as an adjunct to mixtures, &c.; and also with the view of increasing the flow of milk during lactation. It is likewise extensively used in perfumery, and is an object of great interest to the organic chemist, on account of its peculiar constitution and reaction.

=Oil of Partridge-berry (Facti′′tious).= See SALICYLIC ACID.

=Oil, Pearl.= See AMYLE (Acetate of), and ESSENCE OF JARGONELLE PEAR.

=Oil of Pennyroy′al.= Syn. OLEUM PULEGII (Ph. L.), O. MENTHÆ P. (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), O. P. ESSENTIALE, L. From the flowering herb of Mentha Pulegium, or the common pennyroyal of our gardens. Pale yellow, growing reddish yellow by age and exposure; antispasmodic, carminative, and emmenagogue. Boils at 395° Fahr. Sp. gr. ·925 to ·931. Prod. 3/4 to 1%. (See below.)

=Oil of Pennyroyal (American).= Syn. OLEUM HEDEOMÆ (Ph. U. S.), L. From Hedeoma pulegioides, as the last. Light yellow; closely resembles oil of pennyroyal, for which it passes in the U. S. Sp. gr. ·945 to ·948.

=Oil of Pepper.= Syn. OIL OF BLACK P.; OLEUM PIPERIS, O. P. NIGRI, L. From bruised black pepper (Piper nigrum). Colourless, turning yellow; odorous; pungent; not so hot as the spice. Sp. gr. ·9932. Prod. 1·25% to 1·5%. White pepper (of commerce), 1% (barely).

=Oil of Pep′permint.= Syn. OLEUM MENTHÆ PIPERITÆ (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), O. ESSENTIALÆ M. PIPERITIDIS, L. From the fresh flowering herb of Mentha piperita, or garden peppermint. Nearly colourless, or at most a very pale greenish yellow; powerfully odorous; tastes pungent, at the same time imparting a sensation of coldness to the tongue and palate. Boils at 365° Fahr. Sp. gr. ·902 to ·905. Prod. Fresh flowering herb, ·25% to ·4%; dried do., 1% to 1·25% (fully). In a warm dry season, 5 lbs. of the fresh flowering herb yield 1 oz. of oil; in a wet and unfavorable one, 11 lb. yield barely the same quality.

Pur. The oil of commerce usually contains fully a third part of rectified spirit, and is also frequently adulterated with the oils of rosemary, spearmint, and turpentine. When pure——1. It is soluble in its own weight of rectified spirit.——2. Mixed with 1-4th its volume of nitric acid, a rich purple-red colour is developed.——3. Chromate of potash, in solution, turns it of a deep reddish-brown colour, and converts it into a soft coagulum, which assumes a flaky form when divided with a glass rod, whilst the solution of the salt loses its yellow colour or becomes greenish yellow.——4. With iodine it forms a homogeneous mass, without fulmination. If it explodes with iodine, it contains turpentine. The yellowish, resinous oil, sold under the name of ‘American’ or ‘crude oil of peppermint,’ consists chiefly of oil of turpentine, and on evaporation leaves a residuum of pine resin.

Obs. English oil of peppermint is the best, a fact clearly shown by its price in the market being so greatly above that of the imported oil. The oil distilled at Mitcham, in Surrey (Mitcham oil of peppermint), is the most esteemed. It has usually a very pale greenish colour, which is often imitated by steeping a leaf or two of green mint or parsley in the oil. Old dark-coloured oils are commonly bleached by exposure to the light, to the destruction of a portion of their other properties.

According to a recent and valuable report upon those articles in the Paris Exhibition of 1878, more particularly interesting to the pharmacist, the chemical manufacturer, the perfumer, &c., which lately appeared in the ‘Pharmaceutical Journal,’ the above statement is open to question. Of late years it seems that a considerable industry has sprung up at Arzin in the Department du Nord, in France, where large quantities of libiate plants are cultivated, and subsequently submitted to distillation.

An acre of land generally yields every year from 3 to 4 tons of the peppermint plant; and from 500 parts of this, one part of essential oil is usually obtained, which it is alleged by M. Hanart, the distiller of the oil in question, after being carefully bottled and kept for some years, successfully rivals the English oil both in quality and price.

Of late years an essential oil of peppermint manufactured by Messrs Holchkiss, of New York, has lately come into considerable demand.

This, which is said to be a very pure article, differs from the other peppermint oils in becoming thick when first mixed with spirit of wine. After a short time, however, the mixture clears and becomes perfectly bright.

Oil of peppermint is stimulant, antispasmodic, and carminative, and has always been a favourite remedy in flatulence, nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, cramp of the stomach, colic, griping pains, diarrhœa, the early stage of cholera, &c.——Dose, 1 to 3 drops, on sugar.

=Oil of Petro′leum.= See NAPHTHA, OILS (Mineral), PETROLEUM, &c.

=Oil of Pim′ento.= Syn. OIL OF ALLSPICE; OLEUM PIMENTÆ (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. From the bruised fruit of Eugenia pimenta, allspice, or Jamaica pepper. Pale yellow, growing reddish brown by age; odour, a combination of cloves and cassia; taste pungent. Sp. gr. 1·021. Prod. 5% to 8%.

Obs. Oil of pimento contains two oils similar to those found in clove oil. When pure, nitric acid turns it red, with active effervescence and the assumption of a rusty brown colour. It combines with the salifiable bases in a nearly similar manner to oil of cloves. It is much used in perfumery, especially in hair cosmetics.

=Oil of Pim′pernel.= Syn. OLEUM PIMPINELLÆ, L. From the root of Sanguisorba officinalis, or pimpernel. Blue; carminative.

=Oil, Pine-ap′ple.= This artificial essential oil dates its commercial importance from the Great Exhibition of 1851. It is essentially butyric ether, and may be regarded as simply the crude form of that substance. On the large scale it is prepared by saponifying butter or crude butyric acid with a strong lye of caustic potassa, and dissolving the resulting soap in the smallest possible quantity of hot alcohol; to the solution is added a mixture of alcohol and oil of vitriol in excess, and the whole is then submitted to distillation as long as the product has an aromatic fruity odour; the product is rectified from dried chloride of calcium and a little litharge. Dissolved in rectified spirit it is much used as a flavouring substance by confectioners and liquoristes. See ETHER (Butyric) and ESSENCE OF PINE-APPLE, &c.

=Oil of Pota′to Spirit.= See FUSEL OIL.

=Oil of Ravensa′ra.= Syn. OLEUM RAVENSARÆ, L. From the roots of Ravensara aromatica. Chiefly used to adulterate oil of cloves, which it somewhat resembles.

=Oil of Rho′dium.= Syn. OLEUM RHODII, L. Said to be derived from the wood of a species of Rhodoriza. Very fluid and limpid; pale yellow; soon darkens by age and exposure; tastes bitter and aromatic; has a modified odour of roses. Chiefly used as a substitute for otto of roses in cheap perfumery, and to adulterate it. Oil of sandal-wood is frequently sold for it. Prod. 1% to 16%. See OIL OF ROSES (below).

=Oil of Ro′′ses.= Syn. OLEUM ROSÆ, L. Prep. 1. From the petals of Rosa sempervirens (Linn.), or the musk rose, as oil of cloves, observing to keep the water in the worm-tub at 85° Fahr., and afterwards subjecting the water in the receiver to refrigeration. Resembles otto of roses, of which it is merely a variety. Prod. 1/20 to 1/16 of 1%.

2. (ATTAR OF ROSES, OTTO OF R.; OLEUM ROSÆ——Ph. E.) From the petals of Rosa centifolia and Rosa sempervirens (damask and musk rose), principally the first, by saturating the water, by returning it repeatedly on fresh flowers, and then exposing it to a low temperature. In the East Indies it is obtained by stratifying gingelly seeds in alternate layers with rose petals, for some days, and repeating the arrangement with fresh roses till the seeds are saturated, when the oil is expressed and distilled along with water. In the neighbourhood of Mecca the rose leaves are macerated in salt-and-water for 2 or 3 days, and then distilled, the water being received in separate receivers at different parts of the process. The water is afterwards exposed in porous earthenware vessels, tied over with linen, in trenches dug in the earth, and over which moistened straw is thrown, when in a short time the otto separates and floats on the surface.

Prop., &c. Colourless, or nearly so; odour intense, penetrating, and diffusive, and in a concentrated state far from pleasant, but when dilute very agreeable; taste, bland and sweetish; when pure, it congeals at 80°, and does not remelt until heated to fully 85° Fahr.; 1000 parts of alcohol of ·806 dissolve only 7 parts of otto at 57° Fahr., and only 33 parts at 72°. Sp. gr. ·832 at 90°, to water 1·000 at 60° Fahr. Prod. 100 lbs. of roses yield 2 to 3 dr.

Pur. Otto of roses is frequently adulterated with the oils of rhodium, sandal-wood, and geranium, and with camphor; and occasionally with spermaceti, to give the spurious compound the usual crystalline appearance. The following are reliable tests:——1. Pure otto has a bland, sweet taste; if it is bitter, it contains oil of rhodium or sandal-wood; if it is pungent, or ‘bites,’ the palate, it contains either oil of geranium or camphor, and probably both; if it imparts an unctuous sensation, it contains spermaceti.——2. Exposed for some hours to the fumes of a small quantity of iodide under a bell-glass in the cold, pure otto remains white, and continues so when exposed to the air; an adulterated sample, on the contrary, becomes yellow or brown, and afterwards, on exposure to the air, continues to darken in colour, until it becomes of a deep brown, or even perfectly black, according to the quantity of foreign oil present. A single drop may be thus tested.——3. (Guibourt.) One or two drops of the suspected oil are put into a watch-glass; the same number of drops of concentrated sulphuric acid are added, and the two fluids are mixed with a glass-rod. All the oils are rendered more or less brown by this proceeding; but, otto of roses retains the purity of its odour——oil of geranium acquires a strong and disagreeable odour, which is perfectly characteristic——the odour of the oil of rhodium is increased, and becomes somewhat unctuous, and, in general, it acquires an odour distinctly like that of cubebs.

=Oil of Rose′mary.= Syn. ROSMARINI OLEUM (B. P.), OLEUM ANTHOS, O. RORISMARINI, O. ROSMARINI (Ph. L. E. & D.), O. RORISMARINI ESSENTIALÆ, L. From the flowering tops of Rosmarinus officinalis. In the Ph. L. English oil of rosemary (O. ROSMARINI, ANGLICUM) is ordered, as it is superior to that from abroad. Colourless; strongly fragrant, but scarcely agreeable unless compounded; carminative and stimulant. Boils at 365° Fahr. Sp. gr. ·910; recent,·897; rectified, ·8887. Prod. 3/4 to 1% (nearly).

Pur., &c. It is frequently adulterated with oil of turpentine. When pure it dissolves in all proportions in spirit of ·830. By age it deposits a crystalline stearoptene, and acquires a terebinthinate odour. It is chiefly used as a stimulant in liniments, hair oil, pomatums, &c.

=Oil of Rose′wort.= Syn. OIL OF ROSE-ROOT; OLEUM RHODIOLÆ, L. From the roots of Rhodiola rosea. Yellowish; odour resembles that of oil of rhodium, for which it is often sold, as well as the distilled water for rose water. 1-1/2 lb. yields about 1 dr.

=Oil of Rue.= Syn. RUTÆ OLEUM (B. P.), OLEUM RUTÆ (Ph. L. & E.), L. The “oil distilled from the fresh herb of Ruta graveolens” (B. P.), or common rue. Pale yellow, turning brown by age, and depositing a brownish, resinous sediment; congeals at about 40° Fahr.; acrid, bitter; odour that of the plant; stimulant, antispasmodic, and emmenagogue. Sp. gr. ·909 to ·911. Prod. 1/4 to 1%(nearly). According to Raybaud, the recent dried seeds yield fully four times as much oil as the flowering herb.

Pur. Nearly always adulterated. When pure——1. It forms a clear solution with rectified spirit.——2. It does not form a camphor with gaseous hydrochloric acid.——3. Iodine dissolves in it slowly, without any apparent reaction, beyond a darkening and a slight increase of viscidity.——4. It is unaffected by a solution of chromate of potassa.——5. Nitric acid very slowly changes it into a greenish-yellow liquid balsam.——6. If it forms a reddish-brown solution with liquor of potassa and a still darker one with oil of vitriol, or if it fulminates with iodine, it is adulterated with the oil of some labiate plant.——7. It is more soluble in both rectified spirit and water than any of the oils used to adulterate it.

=Oil of Saf′fron.= Syn. OLEUM CROCI, L. From the pistils of Crocus sativus (saffron). Yellow; heavier than water; acrid, pungent, and narcotic; decomposed by exposure to light and age, with the formation of a white solid matter, which is lighter than water.

=Oil of Sage.= Syn. OLEUM SALVIÆ, L. From the herbaceous portion of Salvia officinalis, or common sage.

=Oil of San′dal-wood.= Syn. OLEUM SANTALI, O. S. ALBI, L. From the wood of Santalum album, or sandal-tree, and preferably from that of Malabar. It has an odour somewhat resembling that of oil of rhodium, for which it is commonly used; also used to adulterate otto of roses. Prod. 9 lbs. yield 1 oz.; 100 lbs. yield 5 oz. (Raybaud).

=Oil of Sarsaparil′la.= Syn. OLEUM SARZÆ, L. From the root bark, distilled along with salt-and-water. Acrid; odour and flavour same as the root.

=Oil of Sas′safras.= Syn. VOLATILE OIL OF S.; OLEUM SASSAFRAS (Ph. E.), O. LAURI S., O. S. OFFICINALIS, L. From bruised sassafras chips, the sliced root of Sassafras officinale, as oil of cloves. Pale yellow; highly odorous; hot, pungent, rubefacient, and stimulant; reputed alterative, sudorific, and diuretic, and, as such, occasionally given in rheumatism, cutaneous affections, &c. Sp. gr. 1·094 to 1·096. Prod. 1-1/2 to 2% (fully).

Pur., &c.——1. If the density is lower than 1·094, it is adulterated.——2. Nitric acid acts on this oil, at first slowly, merely turning it of an orange-red, but afterwards with violence, and a reddish-brown resin is formed.——3. Mixed with about one half its weight of sulphuric acid, a green colour is at first developed, which, by heat, is changed to a blood red. A large quantity of sulphuric acid acts at once violently, white fumes are given off, and mere charcoal is left.——4. With iodine it forms a permanently clear solution, or at least one that remains so for some time.——5. By agitation with water, it separates into two oils——one lighter, the other heavier, than that fluid.

=Oil of Sav′ine.= Syn. OLEUM SABINÆ (B. P.), OLEUM JUNIPERI SABINÆ, O. SABINÆ (Ph. E. & D.), L. From the fresh tops or leaves of Juniperus sabina, or common savin. Pale yellow; limpid; acrid, pungent, and stimulant. It possesses the general properties of the plant in a highly exalted degree. Sp. gr. ·915. Prod. Fresh herb, 1·25% to 1·5%; dried do. (recent), 2-1/2% to 3%. Dose, 2 to 6 drops; as an anthelmintic, diaphoretic, and emmenagogue. Its use must be carefully avoided during pregnancy or disease of the abdominal viscera.

Pur., &c. It is less frequently adulterated than the other volatile oils. Its high sp. gr. and free solubility in rectified spirit offer the means of detecting the presence of either oil of turpentine or alcohol, the substances occasionally added to it. A mixture of equal parts of oil of savin and oil of vitriol, by distillation from milk of lime, furnishes an oil apparently identical with oil of thyme. (Winckler.)

=Oil of Sen′na.= Syn. OLEUM SENNÆ VOLATILE, L. Possesses the nauseous odour and flavour of the leaves, and, as well as the distilled water, is purgative.

=Oil of Spear′mint.= Syn. ENGLISH OIL OF SPEARMINT (B. P.), OIL OF MINT, OIL OF GREEN M.; MENTHÆ VIRIDIS OLEUM (B. P.); OLEUM MENTHÆ VIRIDIS (Ph. L., E., & D.), O. M. SATIVÆ, O. ESSENTIALE MENTHÆ S., L. From the fresh flowering herb of Mentha viridis (Linn.) or garden spearmint. Pale yellow; reddened by age; odour and general properties resemble those of oil of peppermint, but it is less grateful. It boils at 320° Fahr. Sp. gr. ·915 (·9394, Brande). Prod. ·2% to ·25%. Its common adulterants are alcohol and oil of turpentine.

=Oil of Spike (True).= Syn. FOREIGN OIL OF LAVENDER; OLEUM SPICÆ, O. S. VERUM, O. STÆCHADIS, O. LAVANDULÆ S., L.: HUILE D’ASPIC, Fr. Chiefly from Lavandula spica and L. stæchas, or French and Alpine lavenders. It differs from English oil of lavender by its darker green colour and inferior odour. From France. Used by artists to mix their colours in, and to make varnishes. Oil of turpentine scented with lavender is commonly sold for it. Prod. From L. spica (fresh), 3/4 to 1-1/2%; L. stæchas (dried), 3/4 to 1% (fully).

=Oil of Spike′nard.= Syn. OLEUM NARDI, L. The precious oil mentioned under this name in Scripture is supposed to have been derived from Andropogon Iwaracusa. The commercial oil of geranium (see above) is also called by this name.

=Oil of Spring Grass.= Syn. OLEUM ANTHOXANTHI ODORATI, L. From Anthoxanthum odoratum, or sweet-scented vernal grass. It is this oil that gives the very agreeable odour to new hay.

=Oil of Star-an′ise.= Syn. BADIAN OIL; OLEUM BADIANI, O. ANISI STELLATI, L. From the capsules of Illicium anisatum, or star-anise. It continues liquid at 35-1/2° Fahr. This, and its weaker reaction with iodine, distinguish it from the preceding compound, which it is commonly used to adulterate. Prod. 2% (fully).

=Oil of Sweet Fen′nel.= See OIL OF FENNEL.

=Oil of Sweet Flag.= Syn. OLEUM ACORI, O. A. AROMATICA, L. From the rhizomes or roots of Acorus calamus (Linn.), or sweet flag. Yellow; agreeably fragrant. Used to scent snuff, aromatic vinegar, &c. Prod. Fresh rhizomes, 3/4 to 1%; dried (recent), 1 to 1·25%.

=Oil of Tan′sy.= Syn. OLEUM TANACETI, L. From the flowering herb of Tanacetum vulgare (Linn.), or tansy. Pale greenish yellow; very odorous; bitter; aromatic. Sp. gr. ·946 to ·950. Prod. Fresh, ·25% to ·5%; dried (recent), 3/4 to 1%(fully).

=Oil of Thyme.= Syn. OLEUM THYMI; OIL OF ORIGANUM; OLEUM ORIGANI (of the shops). From the flowering herb of Thymus vulgaris (Linn.), or garden thyme. Nearly colourless; the imparted oil has a reddish colour, which it loses by rectification; very fragrant; acrid; hot tasted, stimulant, and rubefacient; boils at 354° Fahr. Sp. gr. ·867 to ·875. Prod. ·5% to ·75%.

Obs. This is the dark-coloured ‘OIL OF ORIGANUM’ of the shops. It is frequently adulterated with oil of turpentine. It is occasionally used in toothache and in stimulating liniments; but its chief consumption is in perfumery, more particularly for hair oils, pomatums, and hair-washes, as it is reputed to make the hair grow and to prevent baldness.

=Oil of Tobac′co (Volatile).= From the leaves of Nicotiana tabacum (Linn.), or the tobacco plant. Concrete.

=Oil of Turpentine.= Syn. SPIRIT OF T., ESSENCE OF T., TURPS, CAMPHENE, CAMPHINE; TEREBINTHINÆ OLEUM (B. P.), SPIRITUS TEREBINTHINÆ, ESSENTIA T., OLEUM TEREBINTHINÆ (Ph. L. & D.), O. T. PURIFICATUM (Ph. E.), L. The oil of turpentine of commerce is obtained by distilling strained American turpentine along with water. The residuum in the still is ‘resin’ or ‘rosin.’ The product in oil varies from 14% to 16%. The colleges order it to be rectified before being employed for medicinal purposes. This is effected by redistilling it along with 3 or 4 times its volume of water, observing not to draw over quite the whole. The portion remaining in the retort (balsam of turpentine) is viscid and resinous. A better plan is to well agitate it with an equal measure of solution of potassa or milk of lime before rectifying it. This is the plan adopted for the camphine used for lamps. By agitating crude oil of turpentine with about 5% of sulphuric acid, diluted with twice its weight of water, and after repose and decantation rectifying it from 5 or 6 times its volume of the strongest lime water, a very pure and nearly scentless oil may be obtained. Dr Nimmo recommends oil of turpentine to be purified by agitation with 1/8th part of rectified spirit, after repose to decant the spirit, and to repeat the process 3 or 4 times. The product retains, however, fully 1/5th part of spirit in solution, and hence this method is objectionable, except for medicinal purposes, for which, according to Dr Garrod, it is better than the oil purified by rectification. The sweet spirits of turpentine (SPIRITUS TEREBINTHINÆ DULCIS), vended of late years in the shops, is simply the common oil which has been agitated with, and rectified from, somewhat dilute sulphuric acid.

Prop. Pure oil of turpentine is colourless; limpid; very mobile; neutral to test-paper; has an odour neither powerful nor disagreeable when recently prepared, but becoming so by exposure to the air; dissolves 1/5th part of alcohol of ·830; is soluble in 6 parts of ether and in 7-1/2 parts of rectified spirit; hot strong alcohol dissolves it freely, but the greater part separates in globules as the liquid cools. Oil of vitriol chars it, and strong nitric acid attacks it violently, even with flame. It congeals at 14°, and boils at 312° Fahr. Sp. gr. ·867; that of the oil of the shops varies from ·872 to ·878. It possesses a very high refractive power. At 72° it absorbs 163 times its volume of hydrochloric-acid gas (if kept cool), and in 24 hours from 26% to 47% of crystals (KIND’S CAMPHOR) separate. These have a camphoraceous odour, and, after being washed with water, and sublimed along with some dry chalk, lime, or charcoal, assume the form of a white, translucent, flexible, crystalline mass, which is volatile, soluble in alcohol, and possesses a considerable resemblance to camphor. A nearly similar substance is produced by the action of oxygen gas on oil of turpentine.

Uses, &c. Oil of turpentine is extensively used in the manufacture of varnishes and paints. Under the name of ‘camphine’ it is occasionally employed for burning in lamps. For the last purpose it must be newly rectified and preserved from the air. By exposure it rapidly absorbs oxygen, resin is formed, its density increases, and it gives a dull fuliginous flame. In medicine it is employed as a diaphoretic, stimulant, vermifuge, &c.——Dose, 6 to 30 or 40 drops; in rheumatism, hemicrania, &c., 1 fl. dr. every four hours, in combination with bark or capsicum; in tapeworm, 3 fl. dr. to 1 fl. oz., either alone or combined with a little syrup of orange peel, every 8 hours, until the worm is expelled. The common symptoms of large doses of this oil are dizziness and a species of temporary intoxication, and occasionally nausea and sickness, which subside after two or three alvine evacuations, leaving no other effect, when the oil is pure, than a certain degree of languor for a few hours. In tapeworm a little castor-oil may be advantageously combined with the second and subsequent doses. Oil of turpentine imparts a violent odour to the urine. To prevent loss by evaporation and resinification, this oil should be kept in tin cans or glass bottles. For store vessels, closely covered tin cisterns are the best. To prevent accidents it is proper to caution the operator of the extremely penetrating and inflammable nature of the vapour of this oil, even in the cold. During the process of its distillation, without the greatest precautions are taken, an explosion is almost inevitable.

=Oil of Vale′′rian.= Syn. OLEUM VALERIANÆ (Ph. Bor.), L. From the root of Valeriana officinalis (Linn.), or wild valerian. Yellowish; viscid; lighter than water; smells strongly of the plant. By exposure to the air it is partly converted into valerianic acid, and more readily so under the influence of an alkali. In its usual form it consists of valerol, a neutral oily body; borneene, a volatile liquid hydrocarbon; and valerianic acid. It is powerfully antispasmodic, emmenagogue, tonic, and stimulant, and, in large doses, narcotic.——Dose, 2 to 6 drops; in epilepsy, hysteria, hemicrania, hypochondriasis, low fevers, &c. Prod. 1-1/4% to 2% (nearly).

=Oil of Ver′bena.= Syn. OLEUM VERBENÆ, L. From the fresh flowering herb of Verbena odorata. Prod. 2% to 5%. The ‘OIL OF VERBENA’ of the shops is imported from India, and is obtained from Andropogon citratum. See OIL OF LEMON GRASS.

=Oil of Wine.= SYN. HEAVY OIL OF WINE, ETHEREAL OIL, OILY ETHEREAL LIQUOR, SULPHATE OF ETHER AND ETHEROLE; OLEUM ÆTHEREUM (Ph. L.), OLEUM VINI, LIQUOR ÆTHEREUS OLEOSUS, L. This is an artificial production which, for convenience, may be included under this head.

1. (Ph. L.) Rectified spirit, 2 pints, and sulphuric acid, 36 fl. oz., are cautiously mixed together in a glass retort, and submitted to distillation until a black froth appears, when the retort is immediately removed from the fire (sand heat); the lighter, supernatant, liquor is next separated from the fluid in the receiver, and exposed to the air for 24 hours; it is then agitated with a mixture of solution of potassa and water, of each 1 fl. oz., or q. s., and, when, sufficiently washed, is, lastly, separated from the aqueous liquid from which it has subsided. The formula of the Ph. L. 1836 is nearly similar.

2. (Ph. D.) Rectified spirit and oil of vitriol (commercial), of each 1-1/2 pint; as the last, employing a Liebig’s condenser, and a capsule for the exposure to the air; the oil is then transferred to a moistened paper filter, and washed with a little cold water, to remove any adhering acid.

3. (Ph. D. 1826.) From the residuum in the retort after the process of preparing ether, distilled to one half, by a moderate heat, and the oil treated as before.

4. From rectified spirit (sp. gr. ·833), 2 parts; oil of vitriol, 5 parts; mix and distil, as before; wash the product with distilled water, and free it from adhering water and undecomposed alcohol by exposure in the vacuum of an air-pump, between two open capsules, the one containing fragments of solid potassa, and the other concentrated sulphuric acid. Pure.

5. By distilling a mixture of ether and oil of vitriol, and treating the product as before.

6. By the destructive distillation of dry sulphovinate of calcium; the product is freed from alcohol, &c., by washing it. This process yields the largest product.

Prop., &c. An oily liquid, nearly colourless, neutral, with an aromatic taste, and an odour resembling that of oil of peppermint. It is insoluble in water, but freely soluble in both alcohol and ether; boiling water converts it into sulphovinic acid, and a volatile liquid called light or sweet oil of wine; with an alkaline solution, this effect is produced with even greater facility. Sp. gr. 1·05 (Hennel & Ph. L.); 1·13 (Serullas). Boils at 540° Fahr. “Dropped into water, it sinks, the form of the globule being preserved.” (Ph. L.) Prod. 1·25 to 1·5%; 33 lbs. of rectified spirit, and 64 lbs. of oil of vitriol, yield 17 oz. of this oil (Hennel).

Uses. Oil of wine is reputed anodyne, but is only used in the preparation of other compounds. See SPIRIT OF ETHER (Compound), &c.

=Oil of Wine (Light).= Syn. SWEET OIL OF WINE. See ETHERIN, ETHEROLE, and above.

=Oil, Wood (of India).= From the Chloroxylon Swietenia (De Cand.), the tree which yields the satin-wood of the cabinet-makers. Another wood oil (GŪRJUN BALSAM) is obtained by incision from various species of Dipterocarpus. This balsam yields about 38% of a volatile oil by distillation, which in its general properties closely resembles OIL OF COPAIBA. (O’Shaughnessey.)

=Oil of Worm′seed.= Syn. OLEUM CHENOPODII (Ph. U. S.), L. From the seeds of Chenopodium anthelminticum, or Jerusalem oak (American wormseed). Light yellow, or greenish; powerfully anthelmintic. Sp. gr. ·908.——Dose. For an adult, 25 to 30 drops, in sugar, honey, or milk, night and morning, for 3 or 4 days, followed by a good dose of castor oil, or some other suitable purgative.

=Oil of Worm′wood.= Syn. OLEUM ABSINTHII, L. From the herbaceous portion of Artemisia absinthium, or common wormwood; green or brownish-green; odorous; acrid; bitter; stomachic. Sp. gr. ·9703 (Brisson); ·9720 (Pereira); ·9725 (Brande). Prod. Fresh herb (picked), 1/4 to 1/3%, dry herb (a year old), 1/2% (fully); do. (recent), 3/4 to 1% (fully).

Pur. That of the shops is nearly always either adulterated or partly spoiled by age; hence the discrepancies in the densities given for this oil by different authorities. A specimen of this oil distilled by Mr Cooley from the green plant had the sp. gr. ·9712; but after being kept for 12 months, it had increased to ·9718. Nitric acid of 1·25 colours the pure oil first green, then blue, and, lastly, brown. The positive character of these reactions is in direct proportion to the purity and freshness of the sample.

=OILY EMUL′SION.= See LINCTUS (Emollient).

=OILY ETHE′′REAL LIQ′UOR.= See OIL OF WINE (above).

=OINT′MENT.= Syn. UNGUENTUM, L. Any soft, fatty substance applied to the skin by inunction. The term is now commonly restricted to those which are employed in medicine.

Ointments (unguenta) differ from ‘cerates’ chiefly in their consistence, and in wax not being a constant or essential constituent; and they are made and used in a nearly similar manner to that class of preparations. Their proper degree of solidity is that of good butter, at the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere. When the active ingredients are pulverulent substances, nothing can be more suitable to form the body of the ointment than good fresh lard, free from salt; but when they are fluid or semi-fluid, prepared suet, or a mixture of suet and lard, will be necessary to give a due consistence to the compound. In some instances wax is ordered for this purpose. Another excellent ‘vehicle’ for the more active ingredients is a simple ointment, formed by melting together 1 part of pure white wax with about 4 parts of olive oil. The use of the last excludes the possibility of the irritation sometimes occasioned by the accession of rancidity, when inferior lard is employed. In a few cases butter is employed to form the body of the ointment.

Some ointments are made from recent vegetable substances by infusion or coction, in the manner adopted for medicated oils. See OILS, MEDICATED.

The precautions to be used in the choice of lard are noticed in the article devoted to this substance. Lard is included in the Materia Medica of the London College. In the last Ph. D. lard for medicinal use (ADEPS SUILLUS PRÆPARATUS——Ph. D.) is ordered to be prepared by melting it in twice its weight of boiling water, stirring it constantly for some time, then setting the mixture aside to cool; and, lastly, separating the fat when it has solidified.

Ointments are best preserved by keeping them in salt-glazed earthen or stoneware jars, covered with tin foil, in a cool situation.

The accession of rancidity in ointments and other unctuous preparations may be greatly retarded, if not wholly prevented, by previously dissolving in the fat about 2% of gum-benzoin, in fine powder, or rather less quantity of benzoic acid by the aid of heat. This addition renders the ointment peculiarly soothing to irritable or highly sensitive skins. Poplar buds act in a similar manner.

⁂ The formulæ for all the more useful and generally employed ointments are given below. Those not included in the list may be prepared of the proper strength for all ordinary purposes, by combining about 12 to 15 times the medium dose of the particular medicinal with 1 oz. of lard or simple ointment. For substances which possess little activity, 1/2 to 1 dr. per oz., or even more, may be taken. See CERATE, FAT, &c.

=Ointment of Ac′etate of Lead.= Syn. UNGUENTUM PLUMBI ACETATIS (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Acetate of lead, in fine powder, 1 oz.; simple ointment, 20 oz.; mix them thoroughly (by trituration).

2. (Ph. D.) Ointment of white wax, 1 lb.; melt by a gentle heat, then add, gradually, of acetate of lead, in very fine powder, 1 oz., and stir the mixture until it concretes.

3. (B. P.) Acetate of lead, in fine powder, 12 gr.; benzoated lard, 1 oz.; mix.

Obs. A useful, cooling, astringent, and desiccative ointment. For the formula of Ph. L., see CERATE.

=Ointment, Ace′tic.= See OINTMENT, VINEGAR.

=Ointment of Ac′onite.= Syn. UNGUENTUM ACONITI, L. Prep. 1. (Dr Turnbull.) Alcoholic extract of aconite, 1 part; lard, 2 parts; carefully triturated together. In neuralgia, &c.

2. (Ammoniated; UNGUENTUM ACONITI AMMONIATUM——Turnbull.) Ammoniated extract of aconite, 1 part; lard, 3 parts. In neuralgia, paralysis, old rheumatic affections, &c. The use of the above preparations of aconite requires the greatest caution. They are intended as substitutes for OINTMENT OF ACONITINE, a still more dangerous preparation.

=Ointment of Acon′itine.= Syn. UNGUENTUM ACONITINÆ, L. Prep. 1. (Dr Garrod.) Pure aconitine, 1 gr.; lard, 1 dr.; mix by careful trituration.

2. (Dr Turnbull.) Aconitine, 2 gr.; rectified spirit, 6 or 7 drops; triturate together, then add of lard, 1 dr., and mix well.

3. (B. P.) Aconitia (aconitine), 8 gr.; rectified spirit, 1/2 dr.; dissolve and add lard, 1 oz.; mix.

Use, &c. As a topical benumber in neuralgic affections, rheumatic pains, &c. Its application generally occasions considerable tingling, and sometimes redness of the part to which it is applied, followed by temporary loss of sensation in the skin and the cessation of the pain. For slight cases Dr Paris formerly employed only 1 gr. to the oz. Owing to the intensely poisonous nature of aconitine, this ointment must be both prepared and used with great caution, and must never be applied to an abraded surface. It is seldom employed, owing to its extreme costliness. See ACONITIA, and above.

=Ointment, Ague.= See OINTMENT, ANTIPERIODIC.

=Ointment, Albinolo’s.= See PATENT MEDICINES.

=Ointment, Alkaline.= Syn. UNGUENTUM ALKALINUM, L. Prep. 1. (Biett.) Carbonate of soda, 2 dr.; fresh-slaked lime, 1 dr.; powdered opium, 2 gr.; lard, 2 oz.; mix by trituration. In prurigo, ringworm, and some other cutaneous affections.

2. (Cazenave.) Carbonate of potassa, 1 dr.; lard, 1 oz. In psoriasis, lepra, and scorbutic eruptions.

3. (Devergie.)——a. From carbonate (not sesquicarbonate) of soda, 10 to 15 gr.; lard, 1 oz. In lichen.

b. From carbonate of soda, 20 to 30 gr.; lard, 1 oz. In ichthyosis, lepra, psoriasis, and some other scaly skin diseases.

c. From carbonate of soda, 1/2 to 1 dr.; lard, 1 oz. In porrigo favosa, especially when occurring in adults.

4. (Soubeiran.) Carbonate of soda, 1 to 2 dr.; wine of opium, 1 fl. dr.; lard, 1 oz. In any of the above affections, when there is much pain or irritation.

Obs. Carbonate of potassa is thought to be preferable to carbonate of soda, when the above affections occur in scorbutic habits. A little camphor is also occasionally added.

=Ointment of Aloes.= See OINTMENT FOR WORMS.

=Ointment of Aloes, Compound.= See OINTMENT FOR WORMS.

=Ointment of Al′um.= Syn. UNGUENTUM ALUMINIS, L. Prep. 1. Alum, in very fine powder, 1 dr.; lard, 1-1/2 oz. In piles.

2. To the last add of powdered opium, 7 gr. In piles, when there is much pain. See OINTMENT, BANYER’S.

=Ointment, Ammoni′acal.= Syn. UNGUENTUM AMMONIACALE, U. AMMONIÆ, L.; LIPAROLE D’AMMONIAQUE, POMMADE DE GONDRET, Fr. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) Suet and lard, of each 1 oz.; melt in a strong wide-mouthed bottle, add of liquor of ammonia (sp. gr. ·923), 2 oz., at once close the bottle, and agitate it until its contents concrete. As little heat as possible should be employed, to prevent unnecessary loss of ammonia.

2. (Gondret.) Lard, 3 parts; suet, 2 parts; almond oil, 1 part; strong solution of ammonia, 6 parts; mix, as before. Rubefacient, vesicant, and counter-irritant. Smeared over the skin and covered so as to prevent evaporation, it raises a blister in 5 or 6 minutes. Its general effects and uses are similar to those of compound liniment of ammonia.

=Ointment of Car′bonate of Ammo′′nia.= Syn. UNGUENTUM AMMONIÆ CARBONATIS, U. A. SESQUICARBONATIS, L. Prep. From carbonate of ammonia, 1 dr.; lard, 9 dr. An excellent application to painful joints, indolent tumours, scrofulous sores, &c.

=Ointment of Ammo′niated Mercury.= Syn. UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI AMMONIATI (B. P.). Ammoniated mercury, 62 gr.; simple ointment, 1 oz.; mix. See next preparation.

=Ointment of Ammo′′nio-chloride of Mercury.= Syn. WHITE PRECIPITATE OINTMENT; UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI AMMONIO-CHLORIDI (Ph. L.), U. H. PRECIPITATI ALBI, U. PRECIP. A. (Ph. E.), U. H SUBMURIATIS AMMONIATI (Ph. D. 1826), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Ammonio-chloride of mercury, 2 dr.; lard, 3 oz.; triturate together.

2. (Ph. E.) As the last, but employing heat.

Uses, &c. Alterative; detergent; stimulant. In itch, scald-head, and various other skin diseases; in inflammation of the eyes; as an application to scrofulous and cancerous tumours; to destroy vermin on the body, &c. It “may be safely used” (in small quantities) “on infants.” (A. T. Thomson.)

=Ointment, An′′glo-Saxon.= Prep. Heat olive oil, 1 pint, and beeswax, 1/4 lb., until the mixture acquires a reddish-brown colour; then add red lead (levigated), 1/4 lb., and continue the heat, with constant stirring; when the union appears complete, add of amber and burnt alum, of each, in fine powder, 1/2 oz.; lastly, when considerably cooled, add of powdered camphor, 3 dr. As a dressing to foul ulcers.

=Ointment, An′odyne.= See OINTMENT OF OPIUM, HEMLOCK, &c.

=Ointment of An′thracoka′li.= Syn. POMADE DE ANTHRACOKALI, Fr. Prep. (Dr Polya.) Anthracokali, in very fine powder, 1 part; lard, 30 parts. See ANTHRACOKALI.

=Ointment, Antiherpet′ic.= Syn. UNGUENTUM ANTIHERPETICUM, L. Prep. 1. (Alibert.) Red sulphide of mercury, 3 dr.; powdered camphor, 1 dr.; lard, 3 oz.

2. (Chevallier.) ‘Subsulphate of mercury’ (Turpeth mineral), 2 dr.; chloride of lime, 3 dr.; almond oil, 6 dr.; lard, 2 oz. In herpes or tetters.

=Ointment, Antimo′nial.= See OINTMENT OF POTASSIO TARTRATE OF ANTIMONY.

=Ointment, Antiperiod′ic.= Syn. AGUE OINTMENT; UNGUENTUM ANTIPERIODICUM, U. FEBRIFUGUM, L. Prep. 1. Disulphate of quinine, 1-1/2 dr.; saccharine carbonate of iron, 1 dr.; oil of cajeput, 30 drops; fresh butter, 1 oz.

2. (Antonini.) Sulphate of quinine, 1 oz.; rectified spirit and sulphuric acid, of each q. s.; lard, 1 oz.

Uses, &c. About 1/4 oz. of either of the above to be rubbed on the vertebral regions once every 2 or 3 hours for 3 or 4 days, in intermittent fevers, more especially in those accompanied by vomiting; or, into the epigastrium, in cholera, diarrhœa, or dysentery.

=Ointment of Araroba.= See ARAROBA.

=Ointment, Aromat′ic.= Syn. BALSAMUM STOMACHALE WACKERI, UNGUENTUM AROMATICUM, L. Prep. (Ph. Austr. 1836.) Simple ointment, 2-1/2 lbs.; yellow wax and oil of laurel, of each 3 oz.; melt together, and, when considerably cooled, add of oils of juniper, mint, lavender, and rosemary, of each 2 dr. Anodyne, balsamic, and stimulant.

=Ointment, Arsen′ical.= Syn. OINTMENT OF WHITE ARSENIC; UNGUENTUM ARSENICALE, U. ARSENICI, U. ACIDI ARSENIOSI, L. Prep. 1. Arsenious acid (levigated), 3 gr.; lard or simple ointment, 1 oz. In lepra, psoriasis, malignant whitlows, &c.

2. (Hosp. F.) Levigated white arsenic, 15 to 20 gr.; lard, 1 oz. As a dressing for cancerous sores.

2. (Soubeiran.) White arsenic, 1 dr.; lard, and spermaceti ointment, of each 6 dr. In malignant cancer. The above must be carefully prepared, and used with great caution. See CERATE.

=Ointment of Arse′′niate of I′ron.= Syn. UNGUENTUM FERRI ARSENIATIS, L. Prep. 1. (Carmichael.) Arseniate of iron, 1/2 dr.; phosphate of iron, 2 dr.; spermaceti ointment, 6 dr.

2. (Dr Pereira.) Arseniate of iron, 1/2 dr.; lard, 1-1/2 oz. In cancer.

=Ointment of Arseniate of Soda.= Syn. UNGUENTUM SODÆ ARSENIATIS. Prep. Arseniate of soda, 1 dr.; lard, 2 oz. Mix.

=Ointment, Astrin′gent.= Syn. UNGUENTUM ASTRINGENS, L. Prep. Triturate powdered catechu, 1-1/2 dr., with boiling water, 2 fl. dr., add, gradually, of spermaceti ointment (melted), 1-1/4 oz., and continue the trituration until the mass concretes. An excellent dressing for ill-disposed sores and ulcers, especially during hot weather. See the several LEAD OINTMENTS, OINTMENT OF GALLS, &c.

=Ointment of Atro′′pia.= Syn. UNGUENTUM ATROPIÆ (B. P.), L. Prep. 1. Atropia, 1-1/2 gr; simple ointment, 1 dr.; mix by careful trituration.

2. (Dr Brookes.) Atropia, 5 gr.; lard, 3 dr.; otto of roses, 1 drop. In neuralgia, rheumatic pains, &c., when the affection is not deeply seated.

3. (B. P.) Atropia, 8 gr.; rectified spirit, 1/2 dr.; lard, 1 oz.; dissolve the atropia in the spirit and mix with the lard.

=Ointment, Bailey’s.= See OINTMENT, ITCH.

=Ointment of Bal′sam of Peru.= Syn. UNGUENTUM BALSAMI PERUVIANI, L. Prep. 1. Lard or spermaceti ointment, 1 oz.; balsam of Peru, 1 dr.; melt together by the heat of boiling water, stir for 5 or 6 minutes, allow it to settle, and pour off the clear portion. In chaps and abrasions.

2. (Compound; UNG. B. P. COMPOSITUM——Copland.) Lard, 1 oz.; white wax, 1/4 oz.; balsam of Peru, 1 dr,; melt as before, and when nearly cold, add of oil of lavender, 10 or 12 drops. As the last, and to restore the hair.

=Ointment, Banyer’s.= Syn. COMPOUND ALUM OINTMENT; UNGUENTUM ALUMINIS COMPOSITUM, U. CALOMELANOS, U. BANYERI, L. Prep. From burnt alum and calomel, of each 1-1/2 oz.; carbonate of lead, or litharge (levigated), 2 oz.; Venice turpentine, 1/2 lb.; lard, 2 lbs.; carefully triturated together. In milk-scald, porrigo, &c.

=Ointment of Bark.= See OINTMENT OF CINCHONA.

=Ointment, Basil′icon.= Syn. BASILICON, YELLOW B.; UNGUENTUM BASILICUM; U. B. FLAVUM, L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1746.) Olive oil, 16 fl. oz.; yellow wax, yellow resin, and Burgundy pitch, of each 1 lb.; melt, remove the vessel from the fire, and stir in of common turpentine, 3 oz. This form is still occasionally employed in some shops, but is generally superseded by the resin cerate and resin ointment of the Pharmacopœias. A nearly similar preparation under the name of ‘basilicon ointment,’ is contained in the Ph. Bor. 1847. (See below.)

=Ointment, Basilicon (Black).= See OINTMENT OF PITCH.

=Ointment, Basilicon (Green).= Syn. UNGUENTUM BASILICUM VIRIDE, L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1746). Prepared verdigris, 1 oz.; yellow basilicon, 8 oz.; olive oil, 3 fl. oz. Detergent. Used to keep down fungous growths, to dress syphilitic ulcers, &c. See CERATE and OINTMENT OF VERDIGRIS.

=Ointment, Bateman’s.= See OINTMENT, ITCH.

=Ointment of Bay-leaves.= See OINTMENT, LAUREL.

=Ointment of Belladon′na.= Syn. UNGUENTUM BELLADONNÆ (B. P., Ph. L.). Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Extract of belladonna (deadly nightshade), 1 dr.; lard, 1 oz.; mix by trituration.

2. (Soubeiran.) Fresh belladonna leaves (bruised), 1 part; lard, 2 parts; simmer together until the leaves become crisp, and, after digestion, for a short time longer, drain with pressure.

3. (B. P.) Extract of belladonna, 1; rubbed with a few drops of water and mix with lard, 5-1/2.

Uses, &c. As a local anodyne, in painful and indolent tumours, nervous irritations, &c. Also as an application to the neck of the uterus in cases of rigidity. (Chaussier.)

4. Compound; UNGUENTUM BELLADONNÆ COMPOSITUM, L.——a. (W. Cooley.) Compound iodine ointment, 7 dr.; extract of belladonna, 1 dr. Powerfully discutient. A most excellent application to all glandular tumours and indurations, buboes, &c., which it is desirable to disperse instead of mature, more especially where there is much pain. It is particularly suitable to cases occurring on shipboard, and when its application (at least twice a day) is accompanied with the internal use of the mixture of iodine and gold (See ANTISCROFULOUS MIXTURE), this treatment has seldom failed, even when the parties were dieted chiefly on salt food.

b. (Debreyne.) Extract of belladonna and lard, of each 3 dr.; powdered opium, 1/2 dr. As an external anodyne and benumber, more especially in neuralgia, painful cancerous tumours, &c. A small piece is to be applied to the part, and the friction continued for 6 or 8 minutes. The above preparations are useless unless the extract employed is recent, and of good quality.

=Ointment of Benzoin.= (Ph. U. S.) Syn. OINTMENT OF BENZOIN. Prep. Tincture of benzoin, 2 oz.; lard, 16 oz.; melt the lard over a water bath and add the tincture, stirring constantly, and when the spirit has evaporated, remove from the water bath, and stir whilst cooling.

=Ointment of Bismuth.= Syn. UNGUENTUM BISMUTHI, L. Prep. 1. Nitrate of bismuth (‘white bismuth’), 1 dr.; simple ointment, 1 oz.

2. (Fuller.) Nitrate of bismuth, 1 dr.; spermaceti ointment, 19 dr. In itch, and some chronic cutaneous diseases.

=Ointment, Blist′ering.= See OINTMENT OF CANTHARIDES, and VESICANTS.

=Ointment, Blue.= This is the vulgar name in England of mercurial ointment. On the Continent, an ointment made of smalts and Goulard water is commonly so called.

=Ointment of Bo′′rax.= Syn. UNGUENTUM BORACIS, L. Prep. From borax (in very fine powder), 1 dr.; simple ointment or lard, 7 dr. In excoriations, chaps, &c.

=Ointment of Bromide of Potas′sium.= Syn. UNGUENTUM POTASSII BROMIDI, U. POTASSÆ HYDROBROMATIS, L. Prep. (Magendie.) Bromide of potassium, 1/2 dr.; lard, 1 oz. Resolvent; in bronchocele, scrofula, &c.

=Ointment of Bro′mine.= Syn. UNGUENTUM BROMINII, U. B. COMPOSITUM, L. Prep. (Magendie.) Bromide of potassium, 20 gr.; bromine, 6 to 12 drops; lard, 1 oz. As the last, but more active.

=Ointment, Brown.= Syn. FRENCH POOR-MAN’S FRIEND; UNGUENTUM FUSCUM, U. HYDRARGYRI, F., L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Nitric oxide of mercury (levigated), 1/2 dr.; resin ointment, 1 oz. In ophthalmia (cautiously), after the inflammatory stage is over; as an application to sore legs, &c.

=Ointment of Cad′mium.= Syn. UNGUENTUM CADMII, U. C. SULPHATIS, L. Prep. (Radius.) Sulphate of cadmium, 1 to 2 gr.; pure lard, 1 dr.; carefully triturated together. In specks on the cornea.

=Ointment of Cadmium, Iodide of.= (B. Ph.) Syn. UNGUENTUM CADMII IODIDI. Prep. Mix thoroughly iodide of cadmium in fine powder, 62 gr., with simple ointment, 1 oz.

=Ointment of Caffeine.= Syn. UNGUENTUM CAFFEINÆ. Prep. Citrate of caffeine, 8 gr.; lard, 10 oz. Mix.

=Ointment of Cala′mine.= Syn. UNGUENTUM CALAMINÆ, U. LAPIS CALAMINARIS, U. ZINCI CARBONATIS IMPURI, L. Prep. (Ph. D. 1826.) Prepared calamine, 1 lb.; ointment of yellow wax, 5 lbs. Desiccative and healing. This is the old Dublin form for Turner’s cerate.

=Ointment of Cal′omel.= Syn. UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI SUBCHLORIDI (B. P.), UNGUENTUM CALOMELANOS, U. HYDRARGYRI CHLORIDI, L. Prep. 1. From calomel, 1 dr.; lard, or simple ointment, 1 oz.

Obs. “Were I required to name a local agent pre-eminently useful in skin diseases generally, I should fix on this. It is well deserving a place in the Pharmacopœia.” (Pereira.) Dr Underwood uses elder-flower ointment as the vehicle.

2. (Compound; UNGUENTUM CALOMELANOS COMPOSITUM——Dr A. T. Thomson.) Calomel, 1 dr.; tar ointment, 4 dr.; spermaceti ointment, 1 oz.

3. (B. P.) Calomel, 1; prepared lard, 5-1/2; mix. In lepra.

=Ointment of Cam′phor.= Syn. UNGUENTUM CAMPHORÆ, L. Prep. 1. Camphor, 1 to 2 dr.; lard, 1 oz.; dissolve by a gentle heat and stir until the mass is nearly cold. Stimulant and anodyne; in prurigo, psoriasis, &c.

2. (Compound.) From powdered opium, 1/2 dr.; powdered camphor, 1-1/2 dr.; lard, 1-1/4 oz.; mix by trituration. As an anodyne friction in rheumatic pains, swelled joints, colic, &c.

=Ointment of Canthar′ides.= Syn. UNGUENTUM CANTHARIDIS (B. P., Ph. L., D., & U. S.), U. LYTTÆ, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Cantharides (in very fine powder), 3 oz.; distilled water, 12 fl. oz.; mix, boil to one half, to the strained liquid add of resin cerate, 1 lb., and evaporate to a proper consistence.

2. (Ph. D.) Liniment of Spanish flies, 8 fl. oz.; white wax, 3 oz.; spermaceti, 1 oz.; melt together with a gentle heat, and stir until it concretes.

3. (Ph. E.)——a. UNGUENTUM INFUSUI CANTHARIDIS——Ph. E. Powdered Cantharides 1 oz.; boiling water, 1/4 pint; infuse one night (12 hours), strain with expression, add of lard 2 oz., and boil until the water is expelled; then add beeswax and resin, of each 1 oz., and when these are liquefied, remove the vessel from the fire, and further add of Venice turpentine, 2 oz.

b. (UNGUENTUM PULVERIS CANTHARIDIS——Ph. E.) Resin ointment, 7 oz.; melt, add of cantharides (in fine powder), 1 oz., and stir until the whole is nearly cold.

4. (B. P.) Cantharides, in fine powder, 1; olive oil, 6; yellow wax, 1; digest the cantharides in the oil for 12 hours, and for 1/4 hour at 212°; strain, add the melted wax, and stir till cold.

Obs. The above preparations are frequently called ‘blister ointment’ or ‘epispastic ointment.’ They are used to keep blisters open after they have been produced by stronger compounds. The first three compounds are regarded as milder than the last (3, b), which contains the flies in substance. The P. Cod. contains an ointment (UNG. EPISPASTICUM FLAVUM) which is weaker than the above, prepared by digesting the bruised flies in lard, for 3 hours, over a warm bath; about 1/6th part of wax is next added to the strained fat, which is then coloured with turmeric, and scented with oil of lemon. See CERATE, POMMADE, VESICANTS, and below.

=Ointment of Cantharides, Extract of.= (M. Cap.) Syn. UNGUENTUM CUM EXTRACTO CANTHARIDIS. Prep. Alcoholic extract of cantharides, 8 gr.; oil of roses, 1 dr.; beef marrow, 2 oz.; oil of lemon, 40 minims. To promote the growth of the hair.

=Ointment of Cantharides with Mercury.= Syn. UNGUENTUM CANTHARIDIS CUM HYDRARGYRO. Prep. Lard, 65 parts; Spanish flies, 29 parts; strong mercurial ointment, 6 parts. Mix. Used in Normandy to indolent tumours.

=Ointment of Canthar′idine.= Syn. UNGUENTUM CANTHARIDINÆ, L. Prep. (Soubeiran.) Cantharidine, 1 gr.; white wax, 1 dr.; lard, 7 dr.; mix thoroughly. (See above.)

=Ointment of Cap′sicum.= Syn. UNGUENTUM CAPSICI, L. Prep. (Dr Turnbull.) Tincture of capsicum (pure), q. s.; gently evaporate it until it begins to gelatinise, then mix the extract with twice its weight of lard. As a powerful stimulant and rubefacient. When very freely used, it vesicates.

=Ointment of Car′bonate of Am′′monia.= See OINTMENT, AMMONIACAL.

=Ointment of Carbolic Acid.= (Ph. U. S.) Syn. UNGUENTUM ACIDI CARBOLICI. Prep. Carbolic acid, 60 gr.; simple ointment, 480 gr.

=Ointment of Car′bonate of Lead.= Syn. WHITE LEAD OINTMENT; UNGUENTUM PLUMBI CARBONATIS (P. B., Ph. E. & D.), U. CERUSSÆ, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Carbonate of lead, 1 oz.; simple ointment, 5 oz.; mix thoroughly.

2. (Ph. D.) Carbonate of lead, 3 oz.; ointment of white wax, 1 lb.; mix with heat.

3. (B. P.) Carbonate of lead, in fine powder, 1; simple ointment, 7. Mix.

4. UNGUENTUM PLUMBI CAMPHORATUM——(E., 1744). Add to the last 2 scruples of camphor ground with a little oil.

Uses, &c. Cooling; desiccative. Useful to promote the healing of excoriated parts and slight ulcerations. The camphorated white ointment of old pharmacy (UNG. ALBUM CAMPHORATUM——Ph. L. 1744) was made by adding 40 gr. of camphor to the first of the above.

=Ointment of Cat′echu.= Syn. UNGUENTUM CATECHU, L. Prep. From alum, 1 oz.; catechu, 3 oz.; (both in very fine powder;) added to olive oil, 1/2 pint, and yellow resin, 4 oz., previously melted together. Used to dress ulcers in hot climates, where the ordinary fat ointments are objectionable; also in this country during hot weather. See OINTMENT, ASTRINGENT.

=Ointment of Chalk.= Syn. UNGUENTUM CRETÆ. Prep. Prepared chalk, 1 oz.; lard, 4 oz. Mix.

=Ointment of Chamomile.= (M. Bazin.) Syn. UNGUENTUM ANTHEMIDIS. Prep. Freshly powdered chamomile flowers, olive oil, and lard, in equal quantities. For the cure of itch.

=Ointment of Char′coal.= Syn. UNGUENTUM CARBONIS, L. Prep. 1. Resin ointment, 10 dr.; recently burnt charcoal (levigated), 3 dr. As a dressing to foul ulcers, especially those of the legs.

2. (Caspar.) Lime tree charcoal and dried carbonate of soda, of each 2 dr,; rose ointment, 1 oz., or q. s. In scald-head.

3. (Radius.) Animal charcoal (recent), 1 part; mallow ointment, 2 parts. As a friction in glandular enlargements and indurations, as a dressing to fetid ulcers, &c.

=Ointment of Cher′ry-Laurel.= Syn. UNGUENTUM LAURO-CERASI, L. Prep. (Soubeiran.) Essential oil of cherry-laurel, 1 dr.; lard, 1 oz. To alleviate the pain in cancer, neuralgia, and other local affections.

=Ointment, Chil′blain.= Syn. UNGUENTUM AD PERNIONES, L. Prep. 1. From made mustard (very thick), 2 parts; almond oil and glycerine, of each 1 part; triturated together. To be applied night and morning.

2. (Cottereau.) Acetate of lead, camphor, and cherry-laurel water, of each 1 dr.; tar, 1-1/2 dr.; lard, 1 oz.

3. (Devergie.) Creasote and Goulard’s extract, of each 12 drops; extract of opium, 1-1/2 gr.; lard, 1 oz. Twice or thrice daily.

4. (Giacomini.) Sugar of lead, 2 dr.; cherry-laurel water (distilled), 2 fl. dr.; lard, 1 oz.

5. (Linnæus.) Balsam of Peru, 1 dr.; hydrochloric acid, 2 dr.; spermaceti ointment, 2-1/2 oz.

Obs. For Swediaur’s, Vance’s, and Wahler’s ointments, see article CHILBLAIN.

=Ointment of Chloral Hydrate.= (Dowault.) Syn. UNGUENTUM CHLORALIS HYDRAS. Prep. Chloral hydrate, 2 parts; lard, 20 parts. Stimulant; stronger if required as a rubefacient.

=Ointment of Chlo′′ride of Cal′cium.= Syn. UNGUENTUM CALCII CHLORIDI, U. CALCIS MURIATIS†, L. Prep. (Sundelin.) Chloride of calcium (dry), 1 dr.; strong vinegar, 40 gr.; foxglove (recent, in fine powder), 2 dr.; lard, 1 oz. In bronchocele, scrofulous tumours, &c.

=Ointment of Chloride of Lead.= Syn. UNGUENTUM PLUMBI CHLORIDI, L. Prep. (Tuson). Chloride of lead, 1 part; simple cerate, 8 parts; carefully triturated together. In painful cancerous ulcerations and neuralgic tumours. See LEAD (Chloride).

=Ointment of Chloride of Lime.= See OINTMENT OF HYPOCHLORITE OF LIME.

=Ointment of Chloride of Mercury.= See OINTMENTS OF CALOMEL and CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE.

=Ointment of Chlo′′rine.= Syn. UNGUENTUM CHLORINII, L. Prep. (Augustin.) Chlorine water, 1 part; lard, 8 parts; well triturated together. In itch, lepra, ringworm, fetid ulcers, &c.

=Ointment of Chlor-i′odide of Mercury.= Syn. UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI CHLORIODIDI, L. Prep. (M. Recamier.) Chloriodide (iodo-chloride) of mercury, 3 gr.; lard, 5 dr. Recommended as a powerful discutient or resolvent. See OINTMENT OF IODO-CHLORIDE OF MERCURY.

=Ointment of Chlo′′roform.= Syn. UNGUENTUM CHLOROFORMI, L. Prep. (M. Louis.) Chloroform, 1 dr.; simple ointment, 1 oz. In neuralgia and rheumatic pains, &c. It must be kept in a stoppered, wide-mouthed phial.

=Ointment of Cin′chona.= Syn. OINTMENT OF BARK; UNGUENTUM CINCHONÆ, L. Prep. (Biett.) Red cinchona bark (in very fine powder) and almond oil, of each 1 part; beef marrow (prepared), 3 parts. In the variety of scald-head termed porrigo decalvans. A little oil of mace or tar is a useful addition.

=Ointment, Cit′rine.= See OINTMENT OF NITRATE OF MERCURY.

=Ointment of Cobalt, Oxide of.= (Amst. Ph.) Syn. UNGUENTUM OXIDI COBALTI. Prep. Simple cerate, 16 oz.; liquid subacetate of lead, 4 oz.; powdered smalt, 4 oz.

=Ointment of Coc′culus In′dicus.= Syn. UNGUENTUM COCCULI (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Kernels of Cocculus indicus, 1 part; beat them to a smooth paste in a mortar, first alone, and next with a little lard; then further add of lard, q. s., so that it may be equal to 5 times the weight of the kernels. Used to destroy pediculi, and in scald-head, &c.

=Ointment of Cod-liver Oil.= Syn. UNGUENTUM OLEI MORRHUÆ, U. O. JECORIS ASELLI, L. Prep. Cod-liver oil (pale and recent), 7 parts; white wax and spermaceti, of each 1 part; melted together. In ophthalmia and opacity of the cornea, either alone or combined with a little citrine ointment; as a friction or dressing for scrofulous indurations and sores; in rheumatism, stiff joints, and in several skin diseases. It often succeeds in porrigo or scald-head when all other remedies have failed. Scented with oil of nutmeg and balsam of Peru, it forms an excellent pomade for strengthening and restoring the hair.

=Ointment of Col′ocynth.= Syn. UNGUENTUM COLOCYNTHIDIS, L. Prep. (Chrestien.) Colocynth pulp (in very fine powder), 1 part; lard, 8 parts. Used in frictions on the abdomen as a hydragogue purgative, in mania, dropsy, &c.

=Ointment of Corrosive Sub′limate.= Syn. OINTMENT OF CHLORIDE OF MERCURY; UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI CHLORIDI, L. Prep. 1. From corrosive sublimate, 2 to 5 gr.; rub it to powder in a glass or wedgwood-ware mortar; add of rectified spirit, 6 or 7 drops, or q. s.; again triturate; lastly add, gradually, of spermaceti ointment (reduced to a cream-like state by heat), 1 oz., and continue the trituration until the whole concretes. Used as a stimulant, detergent, and discutient application in various local affections; in lepra, porrigo, acne, &c., and as a dressing to syphilitic and some other ulcers.

2. (Ph. Chirur.) Corrosive sublimate, 10 gr.; yolk of 1 egg; lard, 1 oz. As a dressing.

3. (POMMADE DE CIRILLO——P. Cod.) Corrosive sublimate, 1 dr.; lard, 1 oz. Caustic; must not be confounded with the preceding.

=Ointment, Cosmet′ic.= Syn. UNGUENTUM COSMETICUM, L.; POMMADE DE LA JEUNESSE, Fr. Prep. (Quincey.) Spermaceti, 3 dr. (better, 4-1/2 dr.); oil of almonds, 2 oz.; melt together, and, when cooled a little, stir in of nitrate of bismuth (‘white bismuth’), 1 dr.; and, lastly, of oil of rhodium, 6 drops. In itch and some other cutaneous eruptions; but chiefly as a pomade for the hair. Its frequent use is said to turn the latter black.

=Ointment of Cre′asote.= Syn. UNGUENTUM CREASOTI (B. P., Ph. L. E. D. & U. S.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Creasote, 1/2 fl. dr.; lard, 1 oz.; triturate together.

2. (Ph. E.) Lard, 3 oz.; melt it by a gentle heat; add of creasote, 1 dr., and stir the mixture until it is nearly cold.

3. (Ph. D.) Creasote, 1 fl. dr.; ointment of white wax, 7 dr.; as the last.

4. (B. P.) Creasote, 1; simple ointment, 8. Mix.

Uses, &c. In several skin diseases, especially ringworm; as a friction in tic-douloureux; a dressing for scalds and burns; an application to chilblains, &c.

=Ointment of Cro′ton Oil.= Syn. UNGUENTUM CROTONIS, L. Prep. 1. Croton oil, 15 to 30 drops; lard (softened by heat), 1 oz.; mix well. This is the usual and most useful strength to prepare the ointment. Rubefacient and counter-irritant; in rheumatism and various other diseases. When rubbed repeatedly on the skin, it produces redness and a pustular eruption. It also often affects the bowels by absorption. The only advantage it possesses over other preparations of the class is the rapidity of its action.

2. (RUBEFACIENT POMADE——Caventou.) White wax, 1 part; lard, 5 parts; melt together, and, when quite cold, mince it small, add of croton oil, 2 parts, and mix by trituration. Stronger than the last.

=Ointment of Cy′anide of Mer′cury.= Syn. UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI CYANIDI, L. Prep. 1. (Cazenave.) Cyanide of mercury, 8 gr.; lard, 1 oz.; carefully triturated together.

2. (Pereira.) Cyanide of mercury, 10 to 12 gr.; lard, 1 oz. As a dressing for scrofulous and syphilitic ulcers, &c.; as an application in psoriasis, moist tetters, and some other skin diseases, &c. Biett orders the addition of a few drops of essence of lemon.

=Ointment of Cyanide of Potas′sium.= Syn. UNGUENTUM POTASSII CYANIDI, L. Prep. (Cazenave.) Cyanide of potassium, 12 gr.; oil of almonds, 2 dr.; triturate, add of cold cream (dry), 2 oz., and mix by careful trituration. As an anodyne in neuralgia, rheumatism, swelled joints, &c.; also as a friction over the spine in hysteria, and over the epigastrium in gastrodynia, &c.

=Ointment of Delphin′ine.= Syn. UNGUENTUM DELPHINIÆ, L. Prep. (Dr Turnbull.) Delphinine or delphinia, 10 to 30 gr.; olive oil, 1 dr.; lard, 1 oz.; mix as the last. Used as a friction in rheumatism, and the other cases in which veratrine is employed.

=Ointment, Depil′atory.= Syn. UNGUENTUM DEPILATORIUM, L. See DEPILATORY (Cazenave’s).

=Ointment, Desic′cative.= Syn. DRYING OINTMENT; UNGUENTUM DESICCATIVUM, U. EXSICCANS, L. See the OINTMENTS OF CALAMINE, LEAD, ZINC, &c.

=Ointment, Deter′gent.= Syn. UNGUENTUM DETERGENS, L. The OINTMENTS OF NITRATE OF MERCURY, NITRIC OXIDE OF MERCURY, TAR, VERDIGRIS, &c., when not too strong, come under this head.

=Ointment, Diges′tive.= Syn. UNGUENTUM DIGESTIVUM, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) Venice turpentine, 2 oz.; yolks of 2 eggs; mix, and add of oil of St John’s wort, 1/2 oz.

2. (DIGESTIF ANIMÉ——P. Cod.) As the last, with an equal weight of liquid styrax.

3. (DIGESTIF MERCURIEL——P. Cod.) As No. 1, with an equal weight of mercurial ointment.

4. (UNG. D. VIRIDE——Dr Kirkland.) Beeswax, gum elemi, and yellow resin, of each 1 oz.; green oil, 6 oz.; melt them together, and, when considerably cooled, add of oil of turpentine 2 dr.

=Ointment, Edinburgh.= Two compounds are known under this name:——1. (BROWN.) From black basilicon, 6 parts; milk of sulphur, 2 parts; sal ammoniac, 1 part.

2. (WHITE.) From white hellebore, 3 oz.; sal ammoniac, 2 oz.; lard, 1 lb. Both are used in itch.

=Ointment of Eggs.= Syn. UNGUENTUM OVORUM, L. Prep. 1. Yolk of 1 egg; honey and fresh linseed oil, of each 1 oz.; balsam of Peru, 1/2 dr.; mix well.

2. (Soubeiran.) Beeswax, 4 dr.; oil of almonds, 1-1/2 oz.; yolk of 1 egg. As an emollient and soothing dressing to excoriations, irritable ulcers, &c.

=Ointment, Egyp′tian.= Prep. (Giordano.) Burnt alum, 1 part; verdigris, 10 parts; strong vinegar, 14 parts; purified honey (thick), 32 parts; mix by heat and agitation. As a detergent application to foul ulcers. It is a modification of the ‘UNGUENTUM ÆGYPTIACUM’ of old pharmacy.

=Ointment of Elder-flowers.= Syn. WHITE ELDER-OINTMENT; UNGUENTUM SAMBUCI FLORUM, U. SAMBUCI (Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Elder flowers and lard, of each 1 lb.; boil them together until the flowers become crisp, then strain, with pressure, through a linen cloth. The same precautions must be observed as are necessary in the preparation of the medicated oils, by infusion. Emollient; less white and odorous than the following:——

2. (Wholesale.) Take of lard (hard, white, and sweet), 25 lbs.; prepared mutton suet, 5 lbs.; melt them in a well-tinned copper or earthen vessel, add of elder-flower water 3 galls., agitate briskly for about 1/2 an hour, and set it aside; the next day gently pour off the water, remelt the ointment, and add of benzoic acid, 5 dr.; otto of roses, 20 drops; oil of bergamot and oil of rosemary, of each 1 dr.; again agitate well, let it settle for 10 minutes, and then pour off the clear portion into pots for sale. Very agreeable, and keeps well.

Obs. The last formula is the one now generally adopted by the large wholesale houses.

=Ointment of Elder-leaf.= Syn. ELDER OINTMENT, GREEN E. O.; UNGUENTUM VIRIDE, U. SAMBUCI VIRIDE, U. SAMBUCI (Ph. D. 1826), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. D. 1826.) Fresh elder leaves (bruised), 3 lbs.; suet, 4 lbs.; lard, 2 lbs.; boil together, as above.

2. (Wholesale.) Good fresh lard, 1 cwt.; fresh elder leaves, 56 lbs.; boil till crisp, strain off the oil, put it over a slow fire, add hard prepared mutton suet, 14 lbs., and gently stir it until it acquires a bright green colour.

Obs. The above ointment is reputed to be emollient and cooling, and has always been a great favourite with the common people. Both elder-flower and elder-leaf ointment are, however, unnecessary preparations. “They are vestiges of the redundant practice of former times.” (A. T. Thomson.) The above formulæ are those now almost exclusively employed in trade. The ointment should be allowed to cool very slowly, and after its temperature has fallen a little, and it begins to thicken, it should not be stirred, in order that it may ‘grain’ well, as a granular appearance is much admired. It is a common practice to add powdered verdigris to deepen the colour, but then the ointment does not keep well. This dangerous fraud may be detected in the manner noticed under CERATE, SAVINE.

=Ointment of Elecampane.= Syn. UNGUENTUM INULÆ. Prep. Fresh elecampane root (boiled till soft and pulped), 1-1/2 oz.; lard, 1 oz. Mix.

=Ointment of El′emi.= Syn. BALSAM OF ARCÆUS†, UNGUENTUM ELEMI (B. P., Ph. L. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Elemi, 3 oz.; suet, 6 oz.; melt them together, remove the vessel from the fire, and stir in of common turpentine, 2-1/2 oz.; olive oil, 1/2 fl. oz.; lastly, strain the whole through a linen cloth.

2. (Ph. D.) Resin of elemi, 4 oz.; ointment of white wax, 1 lb; melt them together, strain through flannel, and stir the mixture constantly until it concretes.

3. (B. P.) Elemi, 1; simple ointment, 4; melt and strain.

Uses, &c. Stimulant and digestive. It is frequently employed to keep open issues and setons, and as a dressing for old and ill-conditioned sores. The ‘UNG. ELEMI CUM ÆRURINE’ of St George’s Hospital is made by adding 1 dr. of finely powdered verdigris to every 6 oz. of the ointment.

=Ointment of Emetina.= (Dr Turnbull.) Syn. UNGUENTUM EMETINÆ. Prep. Emetine, 15 gr.; rectified spirit, q. s.; lard, 1/2 oz. Used as a rubefacient.

=Ointment Escharot′ic.= Syn. UNGUENTUM ESCHAROTICUM, L. Prep. 1. (Sir B. Brodie.) Corrosive sublimate, 1 dr.; nitric oxide of mercury, sulphate of copper, and verdigris, of each 2 dr. (all in very fine powder); lard, q. s. See OINTMENT, and CERATE, ARSENICAL.

=Ointment of Euphorbium.= (Dr Neligan.) Syn. UNGUENTUM EUPHORBII. Prep. Powdered euphorbium, 25 to 30 gr.; lard, 1 oz.; mix. To keep up a discharge from issues.

=Ointment of Glycerin.= Syn. UNGUENTUM GLYCERINI. Prep. Glycerin, 4 fl. oz.; oil of almonds, 8 fl. oz.; wax and spermaceti, of each 1/2 oz.

=Ointment, Eye.= Syn. EYE SALVE; UNGUENTUM OPHTHALMICUM, L. Prep. 1. (Dr Collier.) Burnt alum, 1/2 dr.; powdered opium, 20 gr.; olive oil, 1 fl. dr.; spermaceti ointment, 2 dr. In inflammation of the eyelids, purulent ophthalmia, &c.

2. (W. Cooley.) Chloride of barium, 6 gr.; calomel, 10 gr.; simple ointment, 1 oz.; otto of roses, 1 or 2 drops. In scrofulous ophthalmia.

3. (Dessault.) Nitric oxide of mercury, carbonate of zinc, acetate of lead, and dried alum, of each 1 dr.; corrosive sublimate, 10 gr.; rose ointment, 1 oz. In chronic ophthalmia, profuse discharges, &c.; in general, diluted.

4. (Dupuytren.) Red oxide of mercury, 10 gr.; sulphate of zinc, 20 gr.; lard, 2 oz. For chronic inflammation of the eyelids, chronic ulcers, &c.

5. (Fricke). Nitrate of silver, 10 gr.; zinc ointment, 2 dr.; balsam of Peru, 1/2 dr. In ulceration of the cornea, and in acute, purulent, and chronic ophthalmia, &c., employing great caution in its use.

6. (Guthrie.) Spermaceti ointment, 1 dr.; solution of diacetate of lead, 15 drops; nitrate of silver, 2 to 10 gr. As the last, and in cases wherein a direct caustic action is desired. The stronger ointment often occasions intense pain.

7. (Hufeland.) Black oxide of mercury, 2 gr.; spermaceti cerate and walnut oil, of each 1 dr. In chronic affections of the eyes or eyelids, particularly in those of a syphilitic character.

8. (Janin.) Ammonio-chloride of mercury, 1 dr.; tutty and bole, of each 2 dr.; lard, 1 oz. In debility of the conjunctiva, in chronic inflammation with excessive secretion, &c.

9. (Marshall.) See CERATE (Marshall’s).

10. (Parker.) Iodine, 1 gr.; iodide of potassium, 5 gr.; simple ointment, 3 dr. In scrofulous ophthalmia, thickening of the conjunctiva, opacity of the cornea, &c.

11. (Pellier.) Nitric oxide of mercury and carbonate of zinc, of each 1-1/2 dr.; tutty, 1/2 dr.; red sulphuret of mercury, 20 gr.; lard, 2 oz; balsam of Peru, 15 drops. In specks in the eye arising from small ulcers which have healed up; in excessive defluxions, &c.

12. (Ratier.) Liquor of diacetate of lead, 1/2 dr.; wine of opium, 1 dr.; lard, ·5 dr. In excoriations, and the variety of chronic ophthalmia popularly termed ‘blear eye.’

13. (Regent). Acetate of lead and red precipitate, of each 1 dr.; camphor, 6 gr.; washed fresh butter, 2-1/2 oz. As the last, and in chronic ulcerations.

14. (Singleton’s GOLDEN OINTMENT.) According to Dr Paris, this compound consists of lard medicated with orpiment (native yellow sulphuret of arsenic). There appears, however, to be some mistake in this, as that sold us under the name had nearly the same composition as the OINTMENT OF NITRIC OXIDE OF MERCURY of the Pharmacopœia. It did not contain even a trace of either arsenic or sulphur. The action of this nostrum, and the reputation which it has acquired, fully justify this conclusion.

15. (Smellome.) From verdigris (levigated), 1/2 dr.; olive oil, 1 fl. dr.; triturate together; add of yellow basilicon, 1 oz, and again triturate until it begins to concrete. A popular nostrum, sometimes useful in chronic inflammation and ulcerations of the eyelids, &c., especially in those of a scrofulous character.

16. (Spielmann.) Acetate of lead, 20 gr.; spermaceti cerate, 5 dr.; compound tincture of benzoin, 40 gr. Cooling; desiccative. In inflamed eyelids, excoriations, &c.

17. (St Yve.) Fresh butter (washed), 1 oz.; white wax, 1 dr.; camphor, 15 gr.; melt by a gentle heat, and, when cooled a little, add of red precipitate (levigated), 1/2 dr.; oxide of zinc, 20 gr. In chronic inflammation of the coats of the eye, or of the eyelids, specks on the cornea, &c.

18. (Thomson.) Levigated oxide of zinc, 1 dr.; lard, 9 dr.; wine of opium, 20 drops. In chronic ophthalmia depending on want of tone in the vessels and integuments of the eye.

19. (Velpeau.) Precipitated sesquioxide of iron (recent, but dry), 1/2 dr.; lard, 5 dr.; oil of almonds, 1 fl. dr.; balsam of Peru, 15 drops. As the last, especially in ‘blear eye.’

20. (Ware.) Wine of opium, 1 fl. dr.; simple ointment, 3 dr. In ophthalmia, after the inflammatory symptoms have subsided, and the vessels remain red and turgid.

Obs. The ingredients entering into the composition of all the above ointments must be reduced to the state of impalpable powder before mixing them; and the incorporation should be made by long trituration in a wedgwood-ware mortar, or, preferably, for those that contain substances that are very gritty, by levigation on a porphyry slab, with a muller. The most serious consequences, even blindness, have resulted from the neglect of these precautions. They should all be employed in exceedingly small quantities at a time, and they should be very carefully applied by means of a camel-hair pencil or a feather; and, in general, not until acute inflammation has subsided. The stronger ones, in most cases, require dilution with an equal weight to twice their weight of lard or simple ointment, and should only be used of their full strength under proper medical advice. Various other formulæ for OPHTHALMIC OINTMENTS will be found under the names of their leading ingredients.

=Ointment of Fig′wort.= See OINTMENT OF SCROPHULARIA.

=Ointment of Fox′glove.= Syn. UNGUENTUM DIGITALIS, L. Prep. 1. From fresh foxglove as ointment of hemlock——Ph. L. As an application to chronic ulcers, glandular swellings, &c.

2. (Rademacher.) Extract of foxglove, 2 dr.; lard, 1 oz. In croup; spread on lint, and applied as a plaster to the throat.

=Ointment of Fu′ligokali.= See FULIGOKALI.

=Ointment of Galls.= Syn. UNGUENTUM GALLÆ (B. P., Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. D.). Gall-nuts (in very fine powder), 1 dr.; ointment of white wax, 7 dr.; rub them together until a uniform mixture is obtained.

2. (B. P.) Galls, in very fine powder, 80 gr.; benzoated lard, 1 oz. Mix. An excellent application to piles, either alone or mixed with an equal quantity of zinc ointment; also highly useful in ringworm of the scalp.

=Ointment of Galls and Opium.= UNGUENTUM GALLÆ CUM OPIO (B. P.); UNGUENTUM GALLÆ OPIATUM, U. GALLÆ COMPOSITUM——Ph. L., U. GALLÆ ET OPII——(Ph. E.)——Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Gall-nuts (very finely powdered), 6 dr.; powdered opium, 1-1/4 dr.; lard, 6 oz.; rub them together.

2. (Ph. E.) Galls, 2 dr.; opium, 1 dr.; lard, 1 oz.; as the last.

3. (B. P.) Ointment of galls, 1 oz.; opium (in powder), 32 gr. Mix.

Uses, &c. A most valuable astringent and anodyne in blind piles, slight cases of prolapsus ani, &c. Some practitioners add 1 dr. of camphor. The ointment of the Ph. E. is much the strongest.

OINTMENT OF GALLS WITH MORPHIA. UNGUENTUM GALLÆ ET MORPHIÆ——(Dr Paris.) Morphia, 2 gr.; olive oil (hot), 2 fl. dr.; triturate, add of zinc ointment (Ph. L.), 1 oz.; powdered galls, 1 dr.; and mix thoroughly. In piles. The quantity of galls should be doubled.

=Ointment of Galls with Camphor.= Syn. UNGUENTUM GALLÆ CUM CAMPHORÂ. Prep. Galls, 2 dr.; camphor, 1/2 dr.; lard, 1 oz. Mix them.

=Ointment of Garlic.= Syn. UNGUENTUM ALLII, L. Prep. 1. Fresh garlic (bruised), 2 parts; lard, 3 parts; simmer together for 1/2 an hour, and then strain with expression. Rubbed on the abdomen in chronic diarrhœa and colic, and over the chest and spine in hooping-cough.

2. (Beasley.) Fresh garlic and lard, equal parts; beaten together. Applied to the feet in hooping-cough.

=Ointment, Giacomini’s.= See OINTMENT, CHILBLAIN.

=Ointment of Gold.= Syn. UNGUENTUM AURI, L.; POMMADE D’OR, Fr. Prep. 1. (Legrand.) Gold (in powder), 12 gr.; lard, 1 oz. As a dressing for syphilitic ulcers; and as a friction in glandular indurations, &c.; also endermically.

2. (Magendie.) Amalgam of gold, 1 dr.; lard, 1 oz. For endermic use, chiefly. When the surface becomes dry, the ointment of terchloride of gold is to be substituted as a dressing. In rheumatic pains, neuralgia, &c.

=Ointment, Gold′en.= See OINTMENT, EYE, CITRINE O., &c.

=Ointment, Gondret’s.= See OINTMENT, AMMONIACAL.

=Ointment, Goulard’s.= Syn. UNGUENTUM GOULARDI, U. LITHARGYRI ACETATIS, L. Prep. (Ph. Chirur.) Goulard’s extract, 1 dr.; simple ointment, 2 oz. See CERATE (Lead).

=Ointment, Green.= See OINTMENT, ELDER.

=Ointment of Guarana.= Syn. UNGUENTUM GUARANÆ. Prep. One part of extract of guarana to eight parts of lard.

=Ointment of Hel′lebore.= Syn. OINTMENT OF WHITE HELLEBORE; UNGUENTUM VERATRI, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. 1836.) White hellebore (in very fine powder), 2 oz.; lard, 8 oz.; oil of lemons, 20 drops. In itch, lepra, ringworm, &c.; and to destroy insects in the hair of children. It should be used with caution, and, preferably, diluted with an equal weight of lard.

2. (Compound; UNGUENTUM VERATRI COMPOSITUM.)——a. (Rayer.) White hellebore, 1 oz.; sal ammoniac, 1/2 oz.; lard, 8 oz. Used as the last.

b. See SULFUR OINTMENT (Compound)——Ph. L.

=Ointment of Hem′lock.= Syn. UNGUENTUM CONII (Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Fresh hemlock leaves and lard, of each 1 lb.; boil them together (very gently) until the leaves become crisp, then strain through linen, with pressure. See OILS (Medicated).

2. Extract of hemlock, 1 dr.; lard, 9 dr.; triturate together.

Uses, &c. As a local anodyne in neuralgic and rheumatic pains, glandular enlargements, painful piles, &c.; and as a dressing to painful and irritable ulcers, cancerous sores, &c.

=Ointment of Hen′bane.= Syn. UNGUENTUM HYOSCYAMI, L. Prep. 1. Fresh henbane leaves, 1 lb.; lard, 2 lbs.; boil until nearly crisp.

2. (Taddei.) Extract of henbane, 1 dr.; lard, 1 oz. Anodyne; in painful piles, sores, &c., as the last.

=Ointment, Holloway’s.= See PATENT MEDICINES.

=Ointment of Hops.= Syn. UNGUENTUM LUPULI, L. Prep. (Swediaur.) Hops (commercial), 2 oz.; lard, 10 oz.; as extract of hemlock, Ph. L. In painful piles and cancerous sores.

=Ointment of Hydri′odate of Ammo′′nia.= Syn. UNGUENTUM AMMONIÆ HYDRIODATIS, L. Prep. From hydriodate of ammonia (iodide of ammonium), 1/2 dr.; simple ointment, 1 oz. Used chiefly as an application to scrofulous tumour and ulcers, in irritable subjects.

=Ointment of Hydrochlo′′ric Acid.= Syn. UNGUENTUM ACIDI HYDROCHLORICI, L. Prep. (Dr Corrigan.) Hydrochloric acid, 1 dr.; simple ointment, 1 oz. As a dressing for scald-head, after the scabs have been removed by emollient liniments or poultices.

=Ointment of Hypochlo′′rite of Lime.= Syn. OINTMENT OF CHLORIDE OF LIME; UNGUENTUM CALCIS HYPOCHLORITIS, U. C. CHLORINATÆ, L. Prep. 1. From chlorinated lime (chloride of lime), 1 dr.; lard, 1 oz.; carefully triturated together. In scrofulous swellings, goitre, chilblains, indolent glandular tumours, &c.

2. Chlorinated lime, 1 dr.; powdered foxglove, 2 dr.; simple ointment, 2 oz. As an application to fetid and malignant ulcers, &c.

=Ointment of Hypochlo′′rite of Sul′phur.= Syn. UNGUENTUM SULPHURIS HYPOCHLORITIS, L. Prep. (Dr Copland.) Hypochlorite of sulphur, 1 dr.; simple ointment, 1 oz. It is generally scented with oil of almonds. Used in psoriasis inveterata, and some other skin diseases.

=Ointment of I′odide of Ar′senic.= Syn. UNGUENTUM ARSENICI IODIDI, L. Prep. (Biett.) Iodide of arsenic, 2 to 3 gr.; lard, 1 oz.; carefully triturated together. In lepra, psoriasis, &c.; and in corroding tubercular diseases. It should be used with caution, and not more than 1/2 dr. applied at once.

=Ointment of Iodide of Ba′′rium.= Syn. UNGUENTUM BARII IODIDE, L. Prep. (Magendie.) Iodide of barium, 3 to 4 gr.; lard, 1 oz. As a friction to scrofulous swellings and indurations. The usual proportions are now 5 gr. to the oz.

=Ointment of Iodide of Iron.= (Pierquin.) Syn. UNGUENTUM FERRI IODIDI. Prep. Iodide of iron, 1 dr.; lard, 1 oz. Mix them.

=Ointment of Iodide of Lead.= Syn. UNGUENTUM PLUMBI IODIDI (B. P., Ph. L., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Iodide of lead, 1 oz.; lard, 8 oz.; rub them together.

2. (Ph. D.) Iodide of lead (in fine powder), 1 dr.; ointment of white wax, 7 dr.

3. (B. P.) Iodide of lead, in fine powder, 62 gr.; simple ointment, 1 oz. Mix. An excellent application to scrofulous tumours and swelled glands, especially when accompanied with pain.

=Ointment of Green Iodide of Mer′cury.= Prep. 1. (OINTMENT OF SUBIODIDE OF MERCURY, O. OF PROTIODIDE OF M.*; UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI IODIDI——Ph. L.) a. (Ph. L.) White wax, 2 oz.; lard, 6 oz.; melt them together, add of iodide (green iodide) of mercury, 1 oz., and rub them well together.

2. (Magendie.) Green iodide of mercury, 23 gr.; lard, 1-1/2 oz.

Uses, &c. In tubercular skin diseases, as a friction in scrofulous swellings and indolent granular tumours, and as a dressing for ill-conditioned ulcers, especially those of a scrofulous character.

=Ointment of Red Iodide of Mercury.= UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI IODIDI RUBRI, B. P., O. OF BINIODIDE OF M.*; UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI BINIODIDI,* U. H. IODIDI RUBRI——(Ph. D.)——1. (Ph. D.) Red iodide of mercury, 1 dr.; ointment of white wax, 7 dr.; mix by careful trituration.

2. (Soubeiran.) Red iodide of mercury, 20 gr.; lard, 1-1/2 oz.

3. (B. P.) Red iodide of mercury (in very fine powder), 16 gr.; simple ointment, 1 oz. Mix.

Uses, &c. Similar to those of the preceding, but it is much more stimulant, and is regarded as better adapted for obstinate syphilitic sores. Largely diluted with lard or almond oil, it is applied to the eyes in like cases.

=Ointment of Iodide of Potas′sium.= Syn. UNGUENTUM POTASSII IODIDI (B. P., Ph. L. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Iodide of potassium, 2 dr., dissolved in boiling distilled water, 2 fl. dr.; lard (softened by heat), 2 oz.; triturate together until united.

2. (Ph. D.) Iodide of potassium, 1 dr.; distilled water, 1/2 fl. dr.; ointment of white wax, 7 dr.; as before.

3. (Magendie.) Iodide of potassium, 1 dr.; lard, 12 dr.

4. (Le Gros.) Iodide, 1-1/2 dr.; lard, 1 oz.

5. (B. P.) Iodide of potassium, 64 gr.; carbonate of potash, 4 gr.; distilled water, 1 dr.; prepared lard, 1 oz.; dissolve the carbonate and the iodide in the water, and mix thoroughly with the lard.

Uses, &c. As a friction in scrofula, bronchocele, glandular enlargements, indurations, &c.; as a dressing to scrofulous ulcers, as an application in scrofulous ophthalmia, and in most of the other applications in which the employment of iodine is indicated. The last formula has been successfully employed by M. Le Gros in itch.

Obs. The strength of this ointment, as prescribed by different parties varies greatly, the proportions of the iodide ranging from 1/32 to 1/8 of the whole, to adapt it to particular cases. When other ingredients are added, the iodide must be used in a perfectly dry state, and in fine powder, instead of being dissolved in water. This is particularly necessary when it is to be mixed with mercurial ointment.

=Ointment of Iodide of Sulphur.= Syn. UNGUENTUM SULPHURIS IODIDI (B. P., Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Iodide of sulphur (in fine powder), 1/2 dr.; lard, 1 oz.; mix by trituration.

2. (Cazenave.) Iodide of sulphur, 12 to 15 gr.; lard, 1 oz.

3. (B. P.) Iodide of sulphur, 1; lard, 16. Mix.

Uses, &c. As a local stimulant and alterative in the chronic forms of lepra, lupus, porrigo, psoriasis, itch, &c.; also a remedy for acne punctata. A few drops of oil of cloves or nutmeg are commonly added.

=Ointment of Iodide of Zinc.= Syn. UNGUENTUM ZINCI IODIDI, L. Prep. 1. From iodide of zinc, 12 gr.; simple ointment, 1 oz. In scrofulous excoriations, and in the chronic ophthalmia of scrofulous subjects, arising from a relaxed state of the tissues and vessels.

2. (Dr Ure.) Iodide of zinc, 1 dr.; lard, 1 oz. As a friction to glandular tumours and indurations, and as a dressing to flabby and obstinate scrofulous ulcers.

=Ointment of I′odine.= Syn. UNGUENTUM IODI (B. P.), UNGUENTUM IODINII (Ph. U. S.). Prep. 1.——(B. P.) Iodine, 32 gr.; iodide of potassium, 32 gr.; proof spirit, 1 dr.; rub together and add prepared lard, 2 oz. See OINTMENT OF IODINE (Compound).

2. (Ph. U. S.) Iodine, 20 gr.; rectified spirit, 20 drops; rub them together, then add of lard, 1 oz.

=Ointment of Iodine (Compound).= Syn. OINTMENT OF IODURETTED IODIDE OF POTASSIUM; UNGUENTUM POTASSI IODIDI IODURETUM U. IODINII COMPOSITUM——Ph. L. & D., U. IODINII——Ph. E.——a. (Ph. L.) Iodine of potassium (in very fine powder), 1 dr.; lard, 2 oz.; mix, then add of iodine, 1/2 dr., dissolved in rectified spirit, 1 fl. dr., and mix all together. See OINTMENT OF IODINE (B. P.)

b. (Ph. E.) Iodine, 1 dr.; iodide of potassium, 2 dr.; rub them together, then gradually add of lard, 4 oz.

c. (Ph. D.) Pure iodine, 1/2 dr.; iodide of potassium, 1 dr.; rub them well together in a glass or porcelain mortar, then gradually add of ointment of white wax, 14-1/2 dr., and continue the trituration until a uniform ointment is obtained.

Uses, &c. The compound ointment is an excellent friction in goitre, and in enlarged or indurated glands or tumours, more especially those of a scrofulous character; in the quantity of 1/2 to 1 dr., night and morning. It may be advantageously combined with extract of belladonna in the incipient bubo of scrofulous subjects, and in the early stages of cancer; and, with an equal weight of mercurial ointment, as a friction in cases of enlarged liver and spleen, and ovarian dropsy. The simple ointment of the Ph. U. S. is generally regarded as weaker and less efficacious than the compound.

=Ointment of Iodo-chlo′′ride of Mercury.= Syn. UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI IODO-BICHLORIDI*, L. Prep. From iodo-chloride of Mercury, 16 gr.; simple ointment, 1 oz. Discutient; probably one of the most powerful known in syphilitic cases complicated with scrofula. See OINTMENT OF CHLORIODIDE OF MERCURY.

=Ointment of Iodoform= (Dr Glover). Syn. UNGUENTUM IODOFORMI. Prep. Iodoform 1/2 to 1 dram, simple cerate 8 drams. Mix.

=Ointment, Iodo-hydrar′gyrate of Potassa.= Syn. UNGUENTUM POTASSE IODO-HYDRARGYRATIS, L. Prep. 1. (Lamothe.) Iodo-hydrargyrate of potassa, 20 gr.; lard, 1 oz.

2. (Puche.) Red iodide of mercury and iodide of potassium, of each 8 gr.; lard, 1 oz. As a powerful stimulant discutient; in tumours, inflammatory sore throat, &c.

=Ointment, Iodo-narcot′ic.= Syn. UNGUENTUM IODO-NARCOTICUM, L. Prep. (Purvis.) Iodine, 20 gr.; iodide of potassium, 2 dr.; oil of tobacco (by infusion), 1-1/2 dr.; lard, 3 dr. To relax rigid muscles.

=Ointment of Ipecacuan′ha.= Syn. UNGUENTUM IPECACUANHÆ, L. Prep. (Dr. Turnbull.) Ipecacuanha (in fine powder), 2 dr.; olive oil, 2 fl. dr.; lard or simple ointment, 4 dr. Counter-irritant; when frequently employed as a friction, it occasions an eruption, but one of a milder character than that from either croton oil or tartar emetic.

=Ointment, Is′sue.= Syn. UNGUENTUM ADFONTICULOS, L. Prep. (Golding Bird.) Ointment of cantharides (Ph. L.), 1-1/2 oz.; tartar emetic (in impalpaple powder), 8 gr.; spermaceti ointment, 2 oz. As a stimulating application to issues, to promote the discharge. See ELEMI OINTMENT, CERATE, PLASTER, &c.

=Ointment, Itch.= Syn. UNGUENTUM ANTIPSORICUM, L. Several excellent formulæ for itch ointments will be found under the names of their leading ingredients. The following are additional ones, including some nostrums:——

1. (Bailey.) From alum, nitre, and sulphate of zinc, of each, in very fine powder, 1-1/4 oz.; vermilion, 1/2 oz.; mix, add gradually of sweet oil, 1/4 pint; triturate together until perfectly mixed, then further add of lard (softened by heat), 1 lb., with oils of aniseed, lavender, and origanum, q. s. to perfume.

2. (Bateman.) Carbonate of potassa, 1/2 oz.; rose water, 1 fl. oz.; red sulphuret of mercury, 1 dr.; oil of bergamot, 1/2 fl. dr.; sublimed sulphur, and hog’s lard, of each 11 oz.; mix them. (Bateman, ‘Cutaneous Diseases.’) The nostrum vended under the name is made as follows:——Carbonate of potash, 1 oz.; vermilion, 3 dr.; sulphur, 1 lb.; lard, 1-1/2 lb.; rose water, 3 fl. oz.; oil of bergamot, 1-1/2 dr.

3. (French Hosp.) Chloride of lime, 1 dr.; rectified spirit, 2 fl. dr.; sweet oil, 1/2 fl. oz.; common salt and sulphur, of each 1 oz.; soft soap, 2 oz.; oil of lemon, 20 drops. Cheap, effectual, and inoffensive.

4. (De la Harpe.) Sulphur, 2 oz.; powdered white hellebore, 1/2 oz.; sulphate of zinc, 1/4 do.; soft soap, 4 oz.; lard, 8 oz.

5. (Jackson.) From palm oil, flowers of sulphur, and white hellebore of each 1 part; lard, 2 parts.

6. (Nugent.) From white lead, 2 oz.; orris root, 1 oz.; corrosive sublimate, in very fine powder, 1/2 oz.; palm oil, 4 oz.; lard, 1-1/2 lb.

7. (Ph. E., 1744.) Elecampane root and sharp-pointed dock (Rumex acutus——Linn.), of each bruised, 3 oz.; water, 1 quart; vinegar, 3/4 pint; boil to one half, add of water-cress, 10 oz.; lard, 4 lb.; boil to dryness, and stain with expression; to the strained liquid add of beeswax and oil of bays, of each 4 oz.; and stir the mixture until nearly cold.

8. (UNG. A. COMP.——Ph. E. 1744.) To each lb. of the last add of strong mercurial ointment, 2 oz.

9. (Robertson.) Soft soap, 1 oz.; rum, 1 table-spoonful; chloride of lime (dry and good), 1/4 oz.; mix, and add of lard, 2 oz.

10. (Swediaur.) Stavesacre (in powder), 1 oz.; lard, 3 oz.; digest with heat for 3 hours, and then strain. The formula of the Ph. Bruns. is nearly similar. Very useful in itch; also to destroy pediculi.

11. (Thomson.) Chloride of lime and common salt, of each, in fine powder, 1 dr.; soft soap, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 2 fl. dr.; mix, add of lard, 1 oz.; and, lastly, of strong vinegar, 3 fl. dr. Very cleanly and effective; but should not be made in quantity, as it does not keep well.

12. (Vogt.) Chloride of lime (dry), 2 dr.; burnt alum, 3 dr.; lard, 9 dr. To be mixed with an equal quantity of soft soap at the time of fusing it.

Obs. The products of the preceding formulæ are used by well rubbing them into the part affected, night and morning, as long as necessary, the number of applications required depending greatly on the manner in which this is done.

=Ointment of I′vy.= Syn. UNGUENTUM HEDERÆ, L. Prep. From the leaves of common ivy, by infusion, as ointment of henbane. Used as an application to soft corns, in itch, and as a dressing to indolent ulcers and tissues.

=Ointment of Jatropha= (PHYSIC-NUT). The milky juice of the English Physic nut (Jatropha curcas) mixed with half its weight of lard. In piles.

=Ointment of Juniper.= Syn. UNGUENTUM JUNIPERI. Prep. Juniper leaves, 1 part, resin ointment, 6 parts; boil gently and strain.

=Ointment of Ju′′niper-tar.= Syn. UNGUENTUM OLEI PYROLIGNI JUNIPERI, U. CADINUM, L. Prep. (Eras. Wilson.) Lard and suet, of each 6 parts; beeswax, 4 parts; liquefy by heat, and add of pyroligneous oil of juniper (‘huile de cade’) 16 parts; with a few drops of any fragrant essential oil, to conceal the smell. In ringworm, and as a stimulant ointment in some other skin diseases.

=Ointment, Kirkland’s.= See LEAD OINTMENT (Compound).

=Ointment of Labdanum.= (Quincy.) Syn. UNGUENTUM CRINISCUM. Prep. Labdanum, 6 dr.; bears’ grease, 2 oz.; powdered southernwood, 3 dr.; oil of mace, 1 dr.; balsam of Peru, 2 dr.

=Ointment of Lard.= Syn. UNGUENTUM ADIPIS, L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1788.) Prepared lard, 2 lbs.; melt, add of rose water, 3 fl. oz.; beat the two well together, then set the vessel aside, and when the whole is cold, separate the congealed fat. A simple emollient. See OINTMENT, ELDER.

=Ointment of Lau′rel.= Syn. LAURINE OINTMENT; UNGUENTUM LAURINUM, U. LAURI NOBILIS, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. Lusit.) Suet (softened by heat), 8 oz.; laurel oil (expressed oil of bay), 1 lb.; oil of turpentine, 1-1/2 oz. This is the ‘nervine balsam’ and ‘nervine ointment’ of the shops in the Peninsula, and in some other parts of Southern Europe. The Ph. Bat. 1805 added 1/2 oz. of rectified oil of amber.

2. (P. Cod.) Fresh bay leaves and berries (bruised), of each 1 lb.; lard, 2 lbs.; as hemlock ointment——Ph. L. Highly esteemed on the Continent as a stimulating friction, in bruises, strains, stiff joints, &c.; and in deafness.

3. (Trade.) From fresh bay leaves, 2 lbs.; bay berries, 1 lb.; neat’s-foot oil, 5 pints; boil as last; to the strained oil add, of lard suet, 3 lbs., true oil of bay, 1/4 lb., and allow it to cool very slowly, in order that it may ‘grain’ well. Sold for laurel ointment and common oil of bay.

=Ointment of Lavender= (Baume). Syn. OLEUM LAVANDULÆ. Prep. Lard, 2-1/2 lbs.; lavender flowers, 10 lbs.; white wax, 3 oz. Melt the lard, digest with 2 lbs. of the flowers for two hours, and strain; repeat this with fresh flowers till all are used; melt the ointment and leave it at rest to cool; separate the moisture and dregs, and melt the ointment with the wax.

=Ointment of Lead.= Syn. (UNGUENTUM PLUMBI, U. LITHARGYRI——P. Cod.) Prep. 1. Litharge, 3 oz.; distilled vinegar, 4 oz.; olive oil, 9 oz.; mix with heat, and stir until they combine. Camphor, morphia, and opium are common additions to lead ointment, when an anodyne effect is desirable.

2. (Compound; NEUTRAL OINTMENT, HIGGIN’S O., KIRKLANDS’ O.; UNGUENTUM NEUTRALE, U. PLUMBI COMPOSITUM——Ph. L.) Lead plaster, 2 lbs.; olive oil, 18 fl. oz.; mix by a gentle heat, and add of prepared chalk, 6 oz.; lastly, add of dilute acetic acid, 6 fl. oz., and stir well until the mass has cooled. As a dressing in indolent ulcers, “but its utility is doubtful.” (Dr Garrod.)

Obs. It will be observed that the College has already modified the old formula of this ointment. The vinegar is now the last ingredient added to the mass. “Gradually add the chalk, separately mixed with the vinegar, the effervescence being finished, and stir,” &c. (Ph. L. 1836.) See ACETATE OF LEAD, CARBONATE OF L., CHLORIDE OF L., IODIDE OF L.; EYE, GOULARD’S, LE MORT’S, and other OINTMENTS containing lead.

=Ointment, Le Mort’s.= Carbonate of lead, corrosive sublimate, litharge, and Venice turpentine, of each 1 oz.; alum, 1/2 oz.; lard, 1/2 lb.; vermilion, q. s. to colour.

=Ointment of Lu′puline.= Syn. UNGUENTUM LUPULINÆ, L. Prep. (Soubeiran.) Lupuline, 1 part; lard, 3 parts; digest by the heat of a water bath for 5 or 6 hours, and strain. As an anodyne dressing to cancerous ulcers, and as a friction to swollen and painful joints.

=Ointment of Lycopo′dium.= Syn. UNGUENTUM LYCOPODII, L. Prep. Lycopodium, 1 dr.; balsam of Peru, 1/2 dr.; simple ointment, 1 oz. In chaps and excoriations.

=Ointment of Mace.= Syn. UNGUENTUM MACIDIS, L. Prep. From mace (beaten to a paste) and palm oil, of each 1 lb.; purified beef marrow, 3 lbs.; gently melted together, and strained. Emollient and stimulant; chiefly used as a pomade for the hair. Sold for ‘common oil of mace.’

=Ointment of Marshmal′low.= Syn. UNGUENTUM ALTHÆÆ, DIALTHÆÆ, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. 1746.) Oil of mucilages, 2 lbs.; beeswax, 1/2 lb.; yellow resin, 3 oz.; melt them together, then add of Venice turpentine, 1/2 oz.; and stir the mixture until it concretes.

2. (Wholesale.) From palm oil, 1/2 lb.; yellow resin, 1-1/4 lb.; beeswax, 2-1/4 lbs.; pale linseed oil, 9 lbs. (say 1 gall.); melt together and stir until it is nearly cold.

Uses, &c. Emollient and stimulant; seldom used in regular practice, but in great repute amongst the common people. Linseed oil is now almost universally substituted for the oil of mucilages.

=Ointment of Master-wort.= Syn. POMMADE ANTI-CANCÉREUSE DE MILIUS; UNGUENTUM IMPERITORIÆ, L. Prep. (Beasley.) Powdered master-wort (Imperatoria Ostruthium), 1-1/2 oz.; tincture of master-wort, 1 oz.; lard, 2 oz.

=Ointment of Matico= (Mr Young). Syn. UNGUENTUM MATICO. Prep. Powdered matico, 3 drams; opium, 3 gr.; lard, 1 oz.

=Ointment, Mercu′′rial.= Syn. (Strong MERCURIAL OINTMENT, BLUE O., NEAPOLITAN O.; UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI——B. P., Ph. L. E. & D., U. H. FORTIUS, U. CÆRULEUM.) Prep. 1. (B. P.) Mercury, 16; prepared lard, 16; prepared suet, 1; rub together until metallic globules cease to be visible. See also OINTMENT, MERCURIAL (Compound).

2 (Ph. L. & E.) Mercury; 1 lb.; lard, 11-1/2 oz.; suet, 1/2 oz.; rub the mercury with the suet and a little of the lard, until globules are no longer visible; then add the remaining lard, and triturate altogether.

3. (Ph. D.) Pure mercury and lard, of each 1 lb.; as before.

Pur., &c. The ‘stronger mercurial ointment’ of the shops is usually made with a less quantity of mercury than that ordered by the Colleges, and the colour is brought up with finely ground blue black or wood charcoal. This fraud may be detected by its inferior sp. gr., and by a portion being left undissolved when a little of the ointment is treated first with ether or oil of turpentine, to remove the fat, and then with dilute nitric acid, to remove the mercury. When made according to the instructions of the Ph., its sp. gr. is not less than 1·781 at 60° Fahr. It “is not well prepared so long as metallic globules may be seen in it with a magnifier of 4 powers.” (Ph. E.) When rubbed on a piece of bright copper or gold, it should immediately give it a coating of metallic mercury, and a silvery appearance.

The Ung. hyd. fort. of the wholesale houses is generally made of mercury, 12 lbs., suet, 1-1/2 lb., and lard, 16-1/2 lbs. It thus contains only 1/3 instead of 1/2 its weight of mercury. That of the same houses labelled ‘Ung. hyd. partes æquales’ is prepared with mercury, 12 lbs.; suet, 1-1/2 lb.; lard, 13-1/2 lbs.

Uses. This ointment is chiefly used to introduce mercury into the system when the stomach is too irritable to bear it; in syphilis, hepatic affections, hydrocephalus, &c. For this purpose, 1/2 to 1 dr. is commonly rubbed into the inside of one of the thighs until every particle of the ointment disappears. This operation is repeated night and morning until the desired effect is produced, and should be, if possible, performed by the patient himself. During its administration the patient should avoid exposure to cold, and the use of fermented or acidulous liquors, and his diet should consist chiefly of toast, broth, gruel, milk-and-water, and other inoffensive matters. This ointment has been employed to prevent the ‘pitting’ in smallpox; and, diluted with 3 or 4 times its weight of lard, in several skin diseases, as a dressing for ulcers, to destroy pediculi, &c. Camphor is often added to this ointment to increase its activity. With the addition of a little extract of belladonna, or hydrochlorate of ammonia, it forms an excellent anodyne and resolvent friction in painful syphilitic tumours and glandular enlargements.

Obs. The preparation of mercurial ointment according to the common plan is a process of much labour and difficulty, and usually occupies several days. The instructions in the Pharmacopœias are very meagre and unsatisfactory, and, so far as details go, are seldom precisely carried out. Employers grumble, and operatives become impatient, when they find the most assiduous trituration apparently fails to hasten the extinction of the globules. To facilitate matters, various tricks are resorted to, and various contraband additions are often clandestinely made. Among the articles referred to, sulphur and turpentine are those which have been longest known, and, perhaps, most frequently employed for the purpose; but the first spoils the colour, and the other the consistence, of the ointment; whilst both impart to it more or less of their peculiar and respective odours. On the Continent, oil of eggs was formerly very generally used for the purpose, and is even now occasionally so employed. Nearly half a century ago Mr W. Cooley clearly showed that the difficulty might be satisfactorily overcome by simply triturating the quicksilver with 1/8 to 1/4 of its weight of old mercurial ointment, before adding the lard; and that the effective power of this substance was in direct proportion to its age, or the length of time it had been exposed to the air. His plan was to employ the ‘bottom’ and ‘scraping’ of the store pots for the purpose. At a later period (1814-15) Mr Higginbottom, of Northampton, repeated this recommendation, and at length the plan has been imported into the Pharmacopœia Borussica. About twenty years since, “we reopened an investigation of the subject, which extended over several months, during which we satisfied ourselves of the accuracy of the assertion of M. Roux, that the mercury in mercurial ointment exists entirely, or nearly so, in the metallic state, and not in the form of oxide, as was generally assumed. We succeeded in preparing an excellent sample of mercurial ointment by agitating washed suet and quicksilver together in vacuo. The quantity of oxide present at any time in this ointment is variable and accidental, and is largest in that which has been long prepared; but in no case is it sufficient to materially discolour the fat after the metallic mercury is separated from it. We were led to conclude that the property alluded to, possessed by old ointment, depends solely on the peculiar degree of consistence or viscidity of the fat present in it, and on the loss of much of the thoroughly greasy, ‘anti-attritive’ character, possessed by the latter in a recent state. In practically working out this idea we obtained pure fats (MAGNETIC ADEPS; SEVUM PRÆPARATUM), which, without any addition, were capable of reducing, in a few minutes, 8, 16, 32, and even 48 times their weight of mercury. We also found that the formula of the Pharmacopœia might be adopted, and that a perfect ointment might be readily obtained by skilful management in from half an hour to an hour, even without these resources. All that was necessary was to employ a very gentle degree of heat by either performing the operation in a warm apartment or by allowing the mortar to remain filled with warm water for a short time before using it. Suet or lard, reduced either by gentle warmth or by the addition of a little almond oil to the consistence of a thick cream, so that it will hang to the pestle without running from it, will readily extinguish 7 or 8 times its weight of running mercury by simple trituration. The exact temperature must, however, be hit upon, or the operation fails. This fact was afterwards noticed in the ‘Ann. de Chim.,’ and some other journals.” (A. J. Cooley.)

M. Pomonti has proposed a method of preparing strong mercurial ointment, which, modified to suit the English operator, is as follows:——Fresh lard, 8 parts; solution of nitre (see below), 1 part; mix by trituration, add of mercury, 32 parts, and again triturate. The globules disappear after a few turns of the pestle, but reappear in a few minutes, and then again disappear to return no more. When this happens, the trituration is to be continued for a few minutes longer, when lard, 24 parts, is to be rubbed in, and the ointment at once put into pots. It is said that the globules are so completely extinguished as to escape detection, even when the ointment is examined by a microscope of low power. The SOLUTION.——Nitre, 100 gr.; water, 1 fl. oz.; dissolve. This quantity is sufficient for a kilogramme of mercury.

M. Lahens strongly recommends for the rapid preparation of mercurial ointment the application of oil of almonds in the following proportions:——Mercury, 1000 parts; oil of almonds, 20 parts; lard, 980 parts. The mercury is first triturated with the oil for about fifteen minutes, after which its globules are said to be no longer discernible by the naked eye; 200 parts of the melted lard are now added, and the trituration continued to the complete extinction of the metal, which is generally accomplished within an hour. The ointment is then mixed with the remainder of the lard. SEE OINTMENT OF OXIDE OF MERCURY.

=Ointment, Mercurial= (Milder). MILDER BLUE OINTMENT, TROOPER’S O., UNCTION; UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI MITIUS, U. CÆRULEUM MITIUS. Prep. 1. Stronger mercurial ointment, 1 lb.; lard, 2 lbs.

Dose, &c. In the itch and several other cutaneous diseases, as a dressing to syphilitic ulcers, to destroy pediculi on the body, &c. Each drachm contains 10 gr. of mercury. That of the shops generally contains considerably less.

2. (With SOAP; UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI SAPONACEUM; SAVON MERCURIEL).——a. (Draper.) Mercurial ointment (softened by a gentle heat), 1 oz.; hydrate of potassa, 1 dr., dissolved in water, 1/2 fl. oz.; triturate them together until the mass solidifies.

b. (Swediaur.) Milder mercurial ointment, 8 parts; soft soap, 2 parts; camphor, 1 part. In periostitis, engorgements of the testicles, soft corns, &c. See OINTMENT OF NITRATE OF MERCURY, &c.

=Ointment, Mercurial (Compound).= (B. P.) Mercurial ointment, 6; yellow wax, 3; olive oil, 3; camphor, 1-1/2. Melt the wax and oil, and when the mixture is nearly cold, add the camphor in powder and the mercurial ointment, and mix.

=Ointment, Mercurial, with Hydrochlorate of Ammonia.= (Dupuytren.) Syn. UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI CUM AMMONIÆ MURIATE. Prep. Stronger mercurial ointment, 2 oz.; hydrochlorate of ammonia, 1 dr.

=Ointment, Mercurial, with Soda.= (F. H.) Syn. UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI CUM SODA, SAVON MERCURIEL. Prep. Mercurial ointment, 3-1/2 oz.; solution of soda, 3 oz.; triturate until they combine.

=Ointment of Mercury, Oleate of.= (U. C. Hosp.) Syn. LINIMENTUM HYDRARGYRI OLEATIS, UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI OLEATIS. (10 per cent.) Prep. Yellow peroxide of mercury, 1 dr.; pure oleic acid, 10 dr. To the oleic acid kept agitated in a mortar, sprinkle in the peroxide gradually, and triturate frequently during 24 hours, until the peroxide is dissolved, and a gelatinous solution is formed, 20 per cent. as above, using double the quantity of yellow oxide. To be applied with a brush, or spread lightly over the part with the finger. In persistent inflammation of the joints, Professor Marshall adds to ʒj of the above preparation, 1 gr. of morphia——the pure alkaloid——not one of its salts, which are insoluble in oleic acid.

In the preparation of ointment of oleate of mercury it is of the utmost importance that the mercuric oxide should be thoroughly dry, and further that it should be sifted in small portions at a time upon the surface of the oleic acid, each fresh portion being well incorporated before another is added. Solution should be promoted by frequent stirring, at ordinary temperatures, since experience has shown that all heating is positively injurious.[66]

[Footnote 66: C. Rice.]

=Ointment of Mercury, Yellow Oxide of.= (U. S. Ph.) Syn. UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI, =Oxydi flavi=. Prep. Yellow oxide of mercury, 1 dr.; simple ointment, 420 gr.

=Ointment of Meze′reon.= Syn. UNGUENTUM MEZEREI, L. Prep. 1. (Hamb. Cod.) Alcoholic extract of mezereon, 2 dr.; dissolve in rectified spirit, q. s.; add it to white wax, 1 oz.; lard, 8 oz., and mix by a gentle heat.

2. (P. Cod.) Mezereon (dried root-bark), 4 oz.; moisten it with rectified spirit, bruise it well, and digest it for 12 hours, at the heat of boiling water, in lard, 14-1/2 oz.; then strain with pressure, and allow it to cool slowly; lastly, separate it from the dregs, remelt it, and add of white wax, 1-1/2 oz. Used as a stimulating application to blistered surfaces and indolent ulcers.

3. (P. Cod.) Ethereal extract of mezereon, 176 gr.; lard, 9 oz.; white wax, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 oz.; dissolve the extract in the alcohol, add the lard and wax, heat moderately, stir until the spirit is driven off, strain and stir till cold.

=Ointment of Monesia.= Syn. UNGUENTUM MONESIÆ. Prep. Oil of almonds, 4 parts; white wax, 2 parts; extract of monesia, 1 part; water, 1 part.

=Ointment of Mustard.= Syn. UNGUENTUM SINAPIS, L. Prep. 1. Flour of mustard, 3/4 oz.; water, 1 fl. oz.; mix, and add, of resin cerate, 2 oz; oil of turpentine, 1/2 oz. Rubefacient and stimulant. As a friction in rheumatism, &c.

2. (Frank.) Flour of mustard, 3 oz.; oil of almonds, 1/2 fl. oz.; lemon juice, q. s. In sunburn, freckles, &c.

=Ointment of Naph′thalin.= Syn. UNGUENTUM NAPHTHALINÆ, L. Prep. (Emery.) Naphthalin, 1/2 dr.; lard, 7-1/2 dr. In dry tetters, lepra, psoriasis, &c.

=Ointment, Neapolitan.= See OINTMENT, MERCURIAL.

=Ointment, Nervine.= Syn. BALSAMUM NERVINUM, UNGUENTUM N., L.; BAUME NERVAL, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Expressed oil of mace and ox marrow, of each 4 oz.; melt by a gentle heat, and add, of oil of rosemary, 2 dr.; oil of cloves, 1 dr.; camphor, 1 dr.; balsam of tolu, 2 dr.; (the last two dissolved in) rectified spirit, 4 dr. In rheumatism, &c. A somewhat similar preparation was included in the Ph. E. 1744.

=Ointment, Narcotic and Balsamic= (G. Ph.). Syn. UNGUENTUM NARCOTICO-BALSAMICUM HELLMUNDI. Prep. Acetate of lead, 10 drams; extract of hemlock, 30 drams; wax ointment, 33 oz.; balsam of Peru, 30 drams; wine of opium, 5 drams.

=Ointment, Neu′tral.= See OINTMENT OF LEAD (Compound).

=Ointment of Ni′trate of Mercury.= Syn. CITRINE OINTMENT, YELLOW O., MERCURIAL BALSAM; UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI NITRATIS (B. P., Ph. L. & D.), U. H. N., or U. CITRINUM (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Mercury, 2 oz.; nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·42), 4 fl. oz.; dissolve and mix the solution, whilst still hot, with lard, 1 lb., and olive oil, 8 fl. oz., melted together. (For the MILDER OINTMENT, see below.)

2. (Ph. E.) Mercury, 4 oz.; nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·500), 8 fl. oz. 6 fl. dr.; dissolve by a gentle heat, add the liquid to lard, 15 oz,; olive oil, 32 fl. oz.; melted together, and whilst the whole are still hot, and mix them thoroughly. “If the mixture does not froth up, increase the heat a little until this takes place. Keep the ointment in earthenware vessels, or glass vessels, secluded from the air.” This admirable formula is a modification of that originally introduced into Pharmacy by the late Dr Duncan, of Edinburgh. (For the milder ointment, see below.)

3. (Ph. D.) Mercury 1 oz.; nitric acid, (1·500), 1 fl. oz.; (diluted with) water, 1/2 fl. oz.; dissolve by a gentle heat, and add the liquid to lard, 4 oz.; olive oil, 8 fl. oz.; melted together, and still hot; next “let the temperature of the mixture be raised so as to cause effervescence, and then, withdrawing the heat, stir the mixture with a porcelain spoon until it concretes on cooling.”

4. (P. Cod.) Mercury, 3 parts; nitric acid (1·321), 6 parts; lard and oil, of each 24 parts; as above.

5. (Ph. U. S.) Mercury, 1 oz.; nitric acid (1·42), 14 fl. oz.; lard, 3 oz.; fresh neat’s-foot oil, 9 fl. oz.; mix the mercurial solution with the melted fat and oil at 200° Fahr.

6. (B. P.) Mercury, 4; nitric acid, 12; prepared lard, 15; olive oil, 32; dissolve the mercury in the nitric acid with the aid of a gentle heat; melt the lard in the oil by a steam or water bath in a porcelain vessel capable of holding six times the quantity, and while the mixture is hot add the solution of mercury, also hot, and mix them together thoroughly. If the mixture does not froth up, increase the heat till this occurs. (The heat required for this is from 170° to 180° Fahr.)

Uses, &c. Detergent and stimulant. In ringworm, herpes, itch, porrigo, psoriasis, and some other chronic skin diseases; in various chronic affections of the eyes, especially chronic inflammation and ulceration of the eyelids, ‘blear eye,’ &c. It “may almost be regarded as specific in psorophthalmia, in the purulent ophthalmia of infants producing ectropium (eversion of the eyelids), and in ulcerations of the tarsi (edges of the eyelids).” (A. T. Thomson.) As a dressing to old ulcers, more especially those of a syphilitic character, it is superior to all the other ointments containing mercury; in sore legs, assisted by the internal use of the pill of soap with opium (PIL SAPONIS CUM OPIO), it often acts like a charm when all other modes of treatment have failed. For most of these purposes it should be diluted with from twice to seven times its weight of some simple fatty matter. One of the principal reasons why this ointment is in less general use than its merits deserve, is the very inferior quality of that vended in the shops under the name, arising from almost every druggist preparing some mess of his own, instead of adhering to the College formulæ.

Obs. Ointment of nitrate of mercury, faithfully prepared according to the instructions in the Pharmacopœia, possesses a rich golden-yellow colour, and a buttery consistence, and keeps well. Unfortunately, clumsy and careless operators, who regard the Pharmacopœia as a foolish book, which it is quite unnecessary to look into, often fail in their attempts to produce an article of good quality. The difficulty is immediately surmounted by employing pure ingredients, in the proportions ordered, and mixing them at the proper temperature. The acid should be of the full strength, or, if somewhat weaker than that directed, an equivalent quantity should be employed. A slight excess of acid is not injurious, rather the contrary; but a deficiency of acid, in all cases, more or less damages the quality of the product. If, on stirring the mercurial solution with the melted lard and oil, the mixture does not froth up, the heat should be increased a little, as, unless a violent frothing and reaction take place, the ointment will not turn out of good quality, and will rapidly harden and lose its colour. The most favorable temperature for the union of the ingredients is from 185° to 200° Fahr., and in no case should it exceed 212°; whilst below 180° Fahr., the reactions are feeble and imperfect.

Stoneware or glass vessels must alone be employed in the preparation of this ointment, and the stirrers or spatulas should be either of glass or white deal. The best plan is to keep the whole exclusively for the purpose, and when out of use to preserve them from dust and dirt. (See below.)

=Ointment of Ni′trate of Mercury.= (Milder.) Syn. MILDER CITRINE OINTMENT; UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI NITRATIS MITIUS (Ph. L.), U. H. N. M., Or U. CITRINUM M. (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Ointment of nitrate of mercury, 1 oz.; lard, 7 oz.; rub them together. “This ointment is to be used recently prepared.”

2. (Ph. E.) As the stronger ointment, Ph. E., but using a triple proportion of oil and lard. Uses, &c. See the STRONGER OINTMENT (above).

=Ointment of Ni′trate of Sil′ver.= Syn. UNGUENTUM ARGENTI NITRATIS, L. Prep. 1. (M. Jobert.) Nitrate of silver, 2, 4, or 6 parts; lard, 20 parts. These ointments are respectively numbered 1, 2, and 3, and are used in white-swelling.

2. (Macdonald.) Nitrate of silver, 1 part; lard, 7 to 8 parts. To smear bougies, in gonorrhœa, &c.

3. (Mackenzie.) Nitrate of silver, 5 gr.; lard, 1 oz. In purulent and chronic ophthalmia, ulcers on the cornea, &c.

4. (Velpeau.) Nitrate of silver, 1 gr.; lard, 1 dr. In acute ophthalmia, &c. The above compounds require to be used with caution.

=Ointment of Ni′tric Acid.= Syn. OXYGENISED FAT†; UNGUENTUM OXYGENATUM, U. A. NITRICI, L.; POMMADE D’ALYON, Fr. Prep. (Ph. D. 1826.) Olive oil, 1 lb.; lard, 4 oz.; melt them together, add, gradually, of nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·500), 5-1/2 fl. dr., and stir the mixture constantly with a glass rod until it concretes.

Uses, &c. In itch, porrigo, and some other chronic skin diseases; and as a dressing for syphilitic and herpetic ulcers, old sores, &c. It is frequently employed as a substitute for the ointment of nitrate of mercury, which it somewhat resembles in appearance; but it is less active and useful.

=Ointment of Ni′tric Ox′ide of Mer′cury.= Syn. OINTMENT OF RED OXIDE OF MERCURY (B. P.), RED PRECIPITATE OINTMENT; UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI NITRICO-OXYDI (Ph. L.), U. H. OXYDI (Ph. E.), U. H. O. RUBRI (B. P., Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) White wax, 2 oz.; lard, 6 oz.; mix, by heat, add of nitric oxide of mercury, in very fine powder, 1 oz., and rub them together.

2. (Ph. E.) Nitric oxide of mercury, 1 oz.; lard, 8 oz.; mix by trituration.

3. (Ph. D.) Red oxide of mercury (nitric oxide), 1 dr.; ointment of white wax, 7 dr.; as the last.

4. (B. P.) Red oxide of mercury, in very fine powder, 62 gr.; yellow wax, 1/4 oz.; oil of almonds, 3/4 oz.; melt the wax, add the oil, and mix.

Uses, &c. An excellent stimulant application to indolent and foul sores, ulcers, &c.; and, when diluted, as an eye ointment in chronic inflammation and ulceration of the eyes and eyelids, and especially in psorophthalmia; also in specks on the cornea, and the other affections noticed under OINTMENT OF NITRATE OF MERCURY. It forms the basis of numerous quack medicines. See also OINTMENT OF OXIDE OF MERCURY (below).

=Ointment, Obstet′ric.= Syn. UNGUENTUM OBSTETRICUM, L.; POMMADE OBSTETRICALE, Fr. Prep. 1. (Chaussier.) Extract of belladonna, 1 dr.; water, 2 dr.; lard, 1 oz. To promote the dilatation of the os uteri.

2. (POMMADE POUR LE TOUCHER.) From yellow wax and spermaceti, of each 1 oz.; olive oil, 16 oz.; melt them together, strain, add of solution of caustic soda, 1 fl. oz., and stir until the whole is nearly cold.

=Ointment of O′pium.= Syn. UNGUENTUM OPIATUM, U. OPII (Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Powdered opium, 20 gr.; lard, 1 oz.; mix by trituration. As a simple anodyne friction or dressing.

2. (Augustin.) Opium, 2 dr.; ox-gall, 2 oz.; digest 2 days, strain, and add, of melted lard, 2 oz.; oil of bergamot, 10 drops.

3. (Brera.) Opium, 1 dr.; gastric juice of a calf, 1/2 oz.; digest 24 hours, and add of melted lard, 1 oz.

=Ointment of Oxide of Lead.= See OINTMENT, LEAD.

=Ointment of Oxide of Man′′ganese.= Syn. UNGUENTUM MANGANESII OXYDI, U. M. BINOXYDI, L. Prep. 1. Black oxide of manganese (levigated), 1 dr.; lard, 1 oz.; mix by patient trituration. As a friction in scrofulous swellings and indurations; and in itch, scald-head, chilblains, &c.

2. (W. Cooley.) Binoxide of manganese, 1 dr.; sulphur, 2 dr.; lard, 9 dr.; cajeput oil, 15 drops. As the last; also as a friction in rheumatism, swelled joints, &c., and in porrigo, and some other skin diseases.

=Ointment of Oxide of Mer′cury.= Under this name the two ointments noticed below are often confounded, owing to the different opinions held respecting the atomic weight of mercury:——

1. =Ointment of Grey Oxide of Mer′cury.= Syn. OINTMENT OF SUBOXIDE OF MERCURY, O. OF PROTOXIDE OF M.†; UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI OXYDI, U. H. SUBOXYDI, U. H. O. CINEREI, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E. 1817.) Grey oxide of mercury, 1 oz.; lard, 3 oz.; triturate together. Formerly proposed as a substitute for mercurial ointment, but in practice it has been found useless as a friction, owing to the unctuous matter only being absorbed, whilst the oxide is left on the surface. This objection does not apply to the following preparations:——

2. (Donovan.) Grey oxide of mercury, 20 gr.; lard, 1 oz.; mix, and expose them to the temperature of 320° Fahr. for 2 hours, constantly stirring. Grey coloured. It may also be made from the nitric- or red-oxide in the same way, by keeping the ointment heated to about 300° for some hours. Cleaner and stronger than Ung. hyd. fort.——Ph. L.

3. (Tyson.) Black oxide of mercury (prepared by decomposing precipitated calomel with liquors of potassa and ammonia), 2 oz.; lard, 1 lb.; triturate together. Inferior in activity to the last. It closely resembles in appearance a fine sample of mercurial ointment.

2. =Ointment of Red Oxide of Mercury.= Syn. UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI BINOXIDI†, U. H. OXYDI RUBRI, L. Prep. (Cazenave.) Red oxide of mercury, 30 gr.; camphor, 5 gr.; lard, 1 oz. Closely resembles ointment of nitric oxide of mercury, over which it, perhaps, possesses some advantage from the oxide being in a more minutely divided state.

=Ointment of Oxide of Sil′ver.= UNGUENTUM ARGENTI OXYDI, L. Prep. (Serre.) OXIDE OF SILVER, 16 to 20 gr.; lard, 1 oz. As a dressing for scrofulous and syphilitic sores, &c.

=Ointment of Oxide of Zinc.= Syn. ZINC OINTMENT; NIHIL ALBUM OINTMENT†; UNGUENTUM ZINCI (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), U. OXYDI ZINCI, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Oxide of zinc, 1 oz.; lard, 6 oz.; mix them together.

2. (Ph. E.) Oxide of zinc, 1 oz.; simple liniment (Ph. E.), 6 oz.

3. (Ph. D.) Ointment of white wax, 12 oz.; melt it by a gentle heat, add of oxide of zinc, 2 oz.; and stir constantly until the mixture concretes.

4. (B. P.) Oxide of zinc, in very fine powder, 1; benzoated lard, 5-1/2; mix.

Uses, &c. Astringent, desiccative, and stimulant; in excoriations, burns, various skin diseases attended by profuse discharges, in chronic inflammation of the eyes depending on relaxation of the vessels, in sore nipples, indolent sores, ringworm of the scalp, &c. It is an excellent and very useful preparation. See OINTMENT, TUTTY (below).

=Ointment of Pep′per.= Syn. UNGUENTUM PIPERIS NIGRI, L. Prep. 1. Black pepper (bruised), 1 oz.; lard, 2 oz.; suet, 1 oz.; digest together in a covered vessel, by the heat of a water bath, for six hours, then strain, with pressure, add of expressed oil of mace, 2 dr., and stir until the mixture concretes. In piles, itch, as a friction in rheumatism, &c.

2. (Ph. D. 1826.) Black pepper (in fine powder), 4 oz.; lard, 1 lb.; mix. In scald-head, &c.

=Ointment of Phosphor′ic Acid.= Syn. UNGUENTUM ACIDI PHOSPHORICI, L. Prep. (Soubeiran.) Phosphoric acid, 1 dr.; lard (softened by heat), 1 oz; triturate carefully together. As a friction in caries, osseous tumours, &c.

=Ointment of Phos′phorus.= Syn. UNGUENTUM PHOSPHORI, U. PHOSPHORATUM, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Phosphorus, 1 dr.; lard, 6 oz. 3 dr.; melt together (in a wide-mouthed bottle) by the heat of a water bath, remove the vessel from the heat, and shake it briskly until the ointment concretes. As a friction in gout, chronic rheumatism, and several skin diseases.

=Ointment of Picrotox′in.= Syn. UNGUENTUM PICROTOXINÆ, L. Prep. (Jäjer.) Picrotoxin, 10 gr.; lard, 1 oz. In ringworm of the scalp, and to destroy pediculi. It should be used with care.

=Ointment for Piles.= Syn. UNGUENTUM HÆMORRHOIDALE, U. ANTI-HÆMORRHOIDALE, L. Prep. 1. Burnt alum and oxide of zinc, of each 1/2 dr.; lard, 7 dr.

2. (Bories.) Acetate of lead, 15 gr.; freshly burnt cork, 1/2 oz.; washed fresh butter, 2 oz.; triturate well together.

3. (W. Cooley.) Morphia, 8 gr.; melted spermaceti ointment, 1 oz.; triturate together until solution is complete, then add, of galls (in impalpable powder), 1-1/2 dr., essential oil of almonds (genuine crude), 12 to 15 drops, and stir until the mass concretes. In painful piles, prolapsus, &c. It is not only very effective, but does not soil the linen so much as most other ointments.

4. (Dr Gedding.) Carbonate of lead, 4 dr.; sulphate of morphia, 15 gr.; stramonium ointment, 1 oz.; olive oil, q. s. When there is much pain and inflammation.

5. (Sir H. Halford.) Ointment of nitrate of mercury and oil of almonds, equal parts, triturated together.

6. (Mazzini.) Nitrate of morphia, 15 gr.; citrine ointment, 1 dr.; fresh butter, 1 oz. As the last.

7. (Vallez.) Extract of elder leaves, 1/2 dr.; burnt alum, 16 gr.; poplar ointment, 1 oz. For other formulæ, see the respective names of their leading ingredients.

8. (Ware.) Camphor, 1 dr.; simple ointment, 1 oz.; dissolve by heat, add of powdered galls, 2 dr.; mix well, further add of tincture of opium, 2 fl. dr., and stir until the whole is cold. In flabby mucous and painful piles.

9. (Zanin.) Spermaceti ointment, 1 oz.; powdered galls, 1 dr.; powdered opium, 18 gr.; solution of diacetate of lead, 1 fl. dr. When there is both pain and inflammation.

10. (From New Remedies.) Yellow wax, 8 parts; resin, 4 parts; lard, 12 parts; oil of sassafras, 2 parts. Melt the wax, resin, and lard, remove from the fire, add the oil of sassafras, and stir until the mass is solid. This is said to be a most excellent application for painful or itching piles.

=Ointment of Pitch.= Syn. BLACK BASILICON, OINTMENT OF BLACK PITCH; UNG. PICIS (B. P., Ph. L.), U. PICIS NIGRÆ, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Black pitch, resin, and beeswax, of each 11 oz.; olive oil, 1 pint; melt together, strain through a linen cloth (and stir until the mass concretes).

2. (B. P.) Tar, 5; yellow wax, 2; melt together, and stir till cold.

Uses, &c. Stimulant and detergent; very useful in indolent ulcerations, scald-head, and various foul eruptions. In itch and psoriasis, and other scaly skin diseases, a little sulphur is commonly added to it.

=Ointment of Plat′inum.= Syn. UNGUENTUM PLANTINI, L. Prep. (Hœfer.) Bichloride of platinum, 15 gr.; extract of belladonna, 1/2 dr.; lard, 1 oz. As a dressing for painful indolent ulcers.

=Ointment of Plumbago.= Syn. OINTMENT OF GRAPHITE; UNGUENTUM GRAPHITIS, U. PLUMBAGINIS, L. Prep. From pure plumbago (‘black-lead’), 1-1/2 dr.; lard, 1 oz. As a dressing to ulcers, and in certain skin diseases.

=Ointment, Plunket’s.= Prep. (Original formula.) Crowsfoot, 1 handful; dog’s fennel, 3 sprigs; pound well, add of flowers of sulphur and white arsenic, of each 3 thimblefuls; beat them well together, form the mass into boluses, and dry them in the sun. For use, powder them; and mix the powder with yolk of egg, spread a little on a small piece of pig’s bladder (size of half a crown), and apply it to the sore, where it must remain until it falls off by itself. Poisonous; in cancer; with great caution.

=Ointment, Poma′tum.= See OINTMENT, LARD.

=Ointment of Pop′lar Buds.= Syn. UNGUENTUM POPULEUM, L. Prep. 1. Fresh poplar buds (bruised), 1 part; lard, 4 parts; boil until crisp, and strain. It never gets rancid. Emollient and stimulant.

2. (Compound——P. Cod.) Poplar buds, 12 oz.; fresh leaves of belladonna, common nightshade (Solanum nigrum), henbane, and poppies, of each 8 oz.; lard, 4-1/2 lbs.; as the last. Emollient, stimulant, and anodyne.

=Ointment of Potas′sio-tar′trate of An′timony.= Syn. ANTIMONIAL OINTMENT, TARTAR EMETIC O.; UNGUENTUM ANTIMONII TARTARATI (B. P.), UNGUENTUM ANTIMONII POTASSIO-TARTATRIS (Ph. L.), U. A. TARTARIZATI (Ph. D.), U. ANTIMONIALE (Ph. E.), U. TARTARI EMETICI, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. & E.) Potassic tartrate of antimony, rubbed to a very fine powder, 1 oz.; lard, 4 oz.; mix by trituration.

2. (Ph. D.) Tartar emetic, in very fine powder, 1 dr.; ointment of white wax, 7 dr.

3. (B. P.) Tartrated antimony (in fine powder), 1; simple ointment, 4. Mix.

Uses, &c. Counter-irritant; in phthisis, chronic rheumatism, certain liver affections, and other deep-seated pains and diseases. A portion about the size of a nut is rubbed on the skin night and morning, until a crop of pustules is produced. The part should be well rubbed with a coarse towel, so as to be reddened, before applying the ointment. The product of the Dublin formula is of only half the strength of those of the other Colleges.

Obs. Before adding the tartar emetic to the lard it should be reduced to the state of an impalpable powder. The precipitated salt is the best for this purpose. As the pustules formed by this ointment permanently mark the skin, it should only be applied to those parts of the person which are covered by the dress.

=Ointment, Pur′gative.= See OINTMENT OF COLOCYNTH, WORM O., &c.

=Ointment of Quinine′.= Syn. UNGUENTUM QUINIÆ, U. QUINIÆ SULPHATIS, L. Prep. 1. Sulphate of quinine, 1 dr.; lard, 3 dr. In the agues of children.

2. (Beasley ex Antonini.) Sulphate of quinine, 1 dr.; alcohol (rectified spirit), 2 dr.; sulphuric acid, 10 drops; dissolve, and mix it with lard, 1/2 oz. In malignant intermittents; 2 to 4 dr. at a time, rubbed into the groin or axilla.

=Ointment of Red Sul′phuret of Mer′cury.= Syn. UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI BISULPHURETI, U. H. SULPHURETI RUBRI, L. Prep. 1. (Alibert.) Red sulphuret of mercury, 1 dr.; camphor, 20 gr.; simple ointment, 1 oz. In herpes, applied twice a day.

2. (Collier.) Bisulphuret of mercury, 1-1/2 dr.; sal ammoniac, 1/2 dr.; lard, 1 oz.; rose water, 1 fl. dr. In several skin diseases, to diminish the itching, destroy pediculi, &c.

3. (Radius.) As the last, with 1 oz. more lard.

=Ointment of Res′in.= Syn. YELLOW BASILICON; UNGUENTUM RESINÆ (Ph. D.), U. RESINOSUM (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. D.) Yellow wax, 1/4 lb.; yellow resin, in coarse powder, 1/2 lb.; prepared lard, 1 lb.; melt them together by a gentle heat, strain the mixture, whilst hot, through flannel, and stir it constantly until it concretes.

2. (Ph. E.) Beeswax, 2 oz.; resin, 5 oz.; lard, 8 oz.

Obs. A useful stimulant dressing to foul and indolent ulcers. For the corresponding preparation of the Ph. L., see CERATE, RESIN.

=Ointment, Resol′vent.= See OINTMENT, DISCUTIENT.

=Ointment of Rhatany= (Trousseau). Syn. UNGUENTUM RHATTINIÆ. Prep. Extract of rhatany, 1-1/2 dr.; cacao butter, 5 dr. Mix.

=Ointment, Ring′worm.= UNGUENTUM CONTRA-TINEAM, L. Prep. 1. Carbonate of soda, 1 part; fresh-slaked lime, 4 parts; lard, 120 parts.

2. Ointment of nitrate of mercury, 1 dr.; tar ointment and lard, of each 1/2 oz.

3. (Henke.) Hydrochloric acid, 1 fl. dr.; juniper-tar ointment, 1/2 oz.; marshmallow do., 1 oz.

4. (Pereira.) Tar, 3 dr.; lard, 1-1/2 oz.; melt them together, and stir in of acetic acid (Ph. L.), 2 fl. dr.

5. (Thompson.) Carbonate of soda and sulphuret of potassium, of each 1 dr.; creasote, 1/2 dr.; lard, 1-1/4 oz.

Obs. The hair must be cut off close, and the part washed clean before each application. For other forms, see above.

=Ointment of Rose.= Syn. ROSE POMMADE, ROSE LIP-SALVE; UNGUENTUM ROSÆ, U. ROSATUM, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) Washed lard (melted), and roses (centif.), of each 2 lbs.; mix, and in 2 days remelt the mass, and press out the fat; to this last add of fresh roses, 2 lbs., and repeat the process; lastly, colour it with alkanet root if required red.

2. (UNG. AQUÆ ROSÆ——Ph. U. S.) This is spermaceti ointment melted and beaten up with about 2/3rds of its weight of rose water until they congeal. Both the above are simple emollients. The last is an officinal ‘cold cream.’

=Ointment of Rosemary= (Compound). (Ph. G.) Syn. UNGUENTUM ROSMARINI COMPOSITUM. Prep. Lard, 16 oz.; suet, 8 oz.; yellow wax, 2 oz.; oil of mace, 2 oz.; liquefy in a vapour bath, and when nearly cold, add oil of rosemary and oil of juniper, of each 1 oz., by weight.

=Ointment of Rue= (Span. Hosp.) Syn. UNGUENTUM RUTÆ. Prep. Fresh rue, 2 oz.; wormwood, 2 oz.; nitre, 2 oz.; lard, 16 oz.; boil till the moisture is expelled.

=Ointment, Rust’s.= Prep. Calcined alum, 1-1/2 dr.; camphor, 1/2 dr.; powdered opium, 20 gr. balsam of Peru, 1 dr.; lead ointment, 5 dr.; triturate together. In chilblains, frostbites, frosted limbs, &c.

=Ointment of Sabadil′line.= Syn. UNGUENTUM SABADILLINÆ, L. Prep. (Dr Turnbull.) Sabadilline, 15 to 20 gr.; lard, 1 oz. Intended as a substitute for ointment of veratrine.

=Ointment of Sav′ine.= Syn. UNGUENTUM SABINÆ (B. P., Ph. L. & D.), CERATUM SABINÆ, L. Prep. (Ph. L.) White wax, 3 oz.; lard, 1 lb.; melt them together, mix in of fresh savine (bruised), 1/2 lb., and press through a linen cloth.

2. (Ph. D.) Savine tops, dried and in fine powder, 1 dr.; ointment of white wax, 7 dr.; mix by trituration. For the formula of the Ph. E., the uses, &c., see CERATE.

=Ointment of Scrophula′′ria.= Syn. UNGUENTUM SCROPHULARIÆ, L. Prep. (Ph. D. 1826.) Green leaves of knotted rooted figwort and lard, of each 2 lbs.; prepared suet, 1 lb.; boil till crisp, and strain with pressure. In ringworm, ‘burnt holes’ (pemphigus gangrenosus of children), impetigo, and some other cutaneous diseases; also as an application to piles, painful swellings, &c. In the second it is said to be almost specific.

=Ointment, Simple.= Syn. OINTMENT OF WHITE WAX, SIMPLE DRESSING; UNGUENTUM SIMPLEX (B. P., Ph. E.), U. CERÆ ALBÆ (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Olive oil, 5-1/2 fl. oz.; white wax, 2 oz.; melted together, and stirred whilst cooling.

2. (Ph. D.) Prepared lard, 4 lbs.; white wax, 1 lb.; as the last.

3. (B. P.) White wax, 2; prepared lard, 3; almond oil, 8; melt together, and stir till it becomes solid.

Obs. The above are mild emollients, useful in healthy ulcers, excoriations, &c.; but chiefly as forming the basis for other ointments. The corresponding preparation of the Ph. L. is spermaceti ointment. See below, also OINTMENT, LARD, &c.

=Ointment, Singleton’s.= See OINTMENTS, EYE.

=Ointment, Smallpox.= Syn. UNGUENTUM ECTROTICUM, L. Prep. 1. Mercurial ointment, 1-1/2 oz.; beeswax and black pitch, of each 1/2 oz.; expressed oil of mace, 2 dr.; mixed together by a very gentle heat.

2. (Briquet.) Mercurial ointment, 4 parts; powdered starch, 1 part.

3. (Tourriere.) Iodide of potassium (dry and in fine powder), 1 part; expressed oil of mace, 2 parts; black resin, 4 parts; mercurial ointment, 8 parts. Used to prevent the ‘pitting of the pustules.’ See SMALLPOX.

=Ointment, Smellome’s.= See OINTMENTS, EYE.

=Ointment of Soap.= 1. See CERATE.

2. (Camphorated; UNGUENTUM SAPONIS CAMPHORATUM——Hamb. Cod.) White soap (scraped), 1 lb.; water, 1/2 lb.; dissolve by heat; add of olive oil, 5 oz.; and when the mixture has partly cooled, further add of camphor, 1 oz., previously dissolved by heat in olive oil, 1 oz.; lastly, stir until the mass concretes. As an anodyne and stimulating friction in various local affections, as chaps, chilblains, rheumatism, &c.

=Ointment of So′dio-Chlo′′ride of Gold.= Syn. UNGUENTUM AURI SODIO-CHLORIDI, L.; POMMADE DE MURIATE D’OR ET DE SOUDE, Fr. Prep. (Magendie.) Sodio-chloride of gold, 10 gr.; lard, 4 dr. In scrofulous and syphilitic swellings, indurations, ulcers, &c.

=Ointment of Spermace′ti.= Syn. EMOLLIENT DRESSING, SIMPLE OINTMENT, WHITE O.; UNGUENTUM CETACEI (B. P., Ph. L. & D.), U. SPERMATIS CETI, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Spermaceti, 5 oz.; white wax, 14 dr.; olive oil, 1 pint, or q. s.; melt them together by a gentle heat, and stir the mixture until cold.

2. (Ph. D.) White wax, 1/2 lb.; spermaceti, 1 lb.; prepared lard, 3 lbs.; as the last.

3. (B. P.) Spermaceti, 5; white wax, 2; almond oil, 20, or a sufficiency; stir constantly, until it cools.

Uses, &c. As an emollient and healing application or dressing to abrasions, excoriations, blistered surfaces, healthy ulcers, chilblains, chaps, &c. In trade, the Dublin formula, with double the amount of lard, is commonly employed. See OINTMENT, LARD, SIMPLE O., &c.

=Ointment of Squills.= Syn. UNGUENTUM SCILLÆ, L. Prep. 1. (Brera.) Squills (in very fine powder), 1 dr.; mercurial ointment, 2 dr.

2. (Hufeland.) Squills, 1 oz.; liquor of potassia, 2 fl. oz.; reduce to a mucilage by boiling, then add of lard, 2 oz., or q. s. As a resolvent friction to indolent tumours and indurations.

=Ointment of Stavesa′cre.= Syn. UNGUENTUM STAPHISAGRIÆ, L. Prep. (Swediaur.) Powdered stavesacre, 1 oz.; lard, 3 oz.; melt together, digest 3 or 4 hours, and strain. A very cleanly remedy for itch, and to destroy pediculi on the person. A similar ointment is much used by farriers.

=Ointment of Stramo′′nium.= Syn. UNGUENTUM STRAMONII, L. Prep. 1. Fresh thorn-apple leaves, 1 part; lard, 4 parts; as ointment of hemlock.

2. (Pereira.) Powdered leaves, 1 oz,; lard, 4 oz.; mix by trituration.

3. (Ph. U. S.) Extract of stramonium, 1 dr.; lard, 1 oz.; as the last.

Uses, &c. To dress irritable ulcers, and as an application to painful piles.

=Ointment of Strych′nine.= Syn. UNGUENTUM STRYCHNIÆ, L. Prep. 1. (Bouchardat.) Strychnine, 16 gr.; lard, 1 oz.; carefully triturated together.

2. (Wendt.) Nitrate of strychnine, 6 dr.; lard, 1 oz.; as last. Both are used as a friction in paralysed parts, &c. From the extremely poisonous character of strychnine it should be used with caution.

=Ointment of Subac′etate of Cop′per.= See OINTMENT OF VERDIGRIS.

=Ointment of Subacetate of Lead (Compound).= Syn. UNGUENTUM PLUMBI SUBACETATIS COMPOSITUM (B. P.). Prep. Solution of subacetate of lead, 6; camphor 1/8; white wax, 8; almond oil, 20; melt the wax with 16 of the oil on a steam or water bath; remove the vessel, and as soon as the mixture begins to thicken, gradually add the solution of subacetate of lead, and stir the mixture constantly until it cools; then add the camphor, dissolve in the rest of the oil, and mix thoroughly.

=Ointment of Subchloride of Mercury.= See OINTMENT OF CALOMEL.

=Ointment of Subsul′phate of Mercury†.= Syn. UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI SUBSULPHATUS, L. Prep. 1. (Alibert.) Turpeth mineral, 1/2 dr.; lard, 1 oz.

2. (Biett.) Turpeth mineral, 1 dr.; sulphur, 2 dr.; lard, 2 oz.; oil of lemons, 15 drops. In herpes, porrigo, and the scaly diseases.

=Ointment of Sulphate of I′ron.= Syn. UNGUENTUM FERRI SULPHATIS, L. Prep. (Velpeau.) Sulphate of iron, 1-1/2 dr.; simple ointment, 1 oz. In erysipelas.

=Ointment of Sulphate of Man′′ganese.= Syn. UNGUENTUM MANGANESI SULPHATIS, L. Prep. From sulphate of manganese, 1 fl. dr.; lard or simple ointment, 1 oz. Alterative and discutient; in similar cases to those in which MECURIAL OINTMENT is employed.

=Ointment of Sulphate of Zinc.= Syn. UNGUENTUM ZINCI SULPHATIS, L. Prep. (Scarpa.) Sulphate of zinc (in very fine powder), 1 dr.; lard, 1 oz. In some chronic skin diseases attended with a lax state of the tissues, and as a dressing to scrofulous tumours after they have separated and the abscess has been discharged.

=Ointment of Sulphur.= Syn. UNGUENTUM SULPHURIS (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.) Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Sulphur, 1/2 lb.; lard, 1 lb. In the Ph. L. 1836 oil of bergamot, 40 drops, were added. (See 5, Compound.)

2. (Ph. E.) Sulphur, 1 oz.; lard, 4 oz.

3. (Ph. D.) Sulphur, 1 lb.; lard, 4 lbs.

4. (B. P.) Sublimed sulphur, 1; benzoated lard, 4; mix.

Uses, &c. In itch, scald-head, &c., in the first of which it is specific. It should be well rubbed in every night until the disease is cured; “but not more than one fourth part of the body should be covered with it at a time.” (A. T. Thomson.)

5. (Compound; ITCH OINTMENT; UNGUENTUM SULPHURIS COMPOSITUM——Ph. L.)——a. (Ph. L.) Nitrate of potassa (powdered), 40 gr.; white hellebore (powdered), 10 dr.; sulphur and soft soap, of each 4 oz.; lard, 1 lb.; rub them together.

b. (P. Cod.) Alum and sal ammoniac, of each, 1/2 oz.; sulphur, 8 oz.; lard, 16 oz.

Uses, &c. In itch, as the simple ointment (1, 2, and 3.) They are more efficacious, but, owing to the presence of white hellebore, the Ph. L. preparation is apt to cause irritation in persons with delicate skins. See OINTMENT, ITCH.

=Ointment of Sulphuret of Mercury.= See OINTMENT OF RED SULPHURET OF MERCURY.

=Ointment of Sulphurated Potash.= Syn. UNGUENTUM POTASSÆ SULPHURATE (B. P.) Sulphurated potash, 30 gr.; triturate, and add prepared lard, 1 oz.; mix. See also next preparation.

=Ointment of Sulphuret of Potas′sium.= Syn. UNGUENTUM POTASSI SULPHURETI, L. Prep. 1. Sulphuret of potassium (dry and in fine powder), 1 dr.; lard, 9 dr. Alibert adds 1 dr. of carbonate of soda.

2. Sulphuret of potassium, 2-1/2 dr.; lard and soft soap, of each 1 oz.; olive oil, 1/2 oz. In several chronic skin diseases, as itch, psoriasis, ringworm, lepra, eczema, &c.

=Ointment of Sulphuret of So′dium.= Syn. UNGUENTUM SODII SULPHURETI, L. Prep. (Swediaur.) Sulphuret of sodium, 3 dr.; lard, 1-1/2 oz. In itch, for which it is very cleanly and effective. The last two ointments are most powerful when recently prepared.

=Ointment of Sulphuric Ac′id.= Syn. UNGUENTUM ACIDI SULPHURICI, L. Prep. 1. (Dr Duncan.) Sulphuric acid, 1 dr.; lard, 2 oz.

2. (Ph. D. 1826.) Sulphuric acid, 1 dr.; lard, 1 oz.; mix.

Uses, &c. Black, fetid; in itch. It is now seldom used. With oil of turpentine it has been used as a stimulating liniment in rheumatism. An ointment made of 1-1/2 dr. of dilute sulphuric acid to 1 oz. of lard is a good application in prurigo.

=Ointment, Sulta′na.= Spermaceti and white wax, of each 1/4 oz.; oil of almonds and butter of cacao, of each 1/4 lb.; melt together, add of balsam of Peru, 1 dr., stir constantly for a few minutes, and after it has settled pour off the clear portion; to this add of orange-flower water, 2 fl. dr., and stir the mixture constantly until it concretes. A very agreeable species of cold cream.

=Ointment of Tan′nate of Lead.= Syn. UNGUENTUM PLUMBI TANNATIS, L. Prep. 1. Tannate of lead, 1-1/2 dr.; powdered camphor, 20 gr.; spermaceti ointment, 7 dr. In inflamed piles, &c.

2. (Sundelin.) Decoction of oak bark, 6 fl. oz.; solution of diacetate of lead, 1-1/2 oz.; mix, collect and drain the precipitate, and mix it, whilst still moist, with lard, 1 oz.; camphor, 10 gr. In bedsores.

=Ointment of Tan′nin.= Syn. UNGUENTUM TANNINI, U. ACIDI TANNICI, L. Prep. (Richard.) Tannin, 2 dr.; water, 2 fl. dr.; triturate them together, then add of lard, 1-1/2 oz. Astringent and hæmostatic. In piles, prolapsus, &c. It is a very cleanly and effective application.

=Ointment of Tar.= Syn. UNGUENTUM PICIS LIQUIDÆ (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Tar and suet, of each 1 lb.; melt them together, and press the mixture through a linen cloth.

2. (Ph. E.) Tar, 5 oz.; beeswax, 2 oz.; melt together, and stir the mixture briskly until it concretes.

3. (Ph. D.) Tar, 1/2 pint; yellow wax, 4 oz.; as the last.

Uses, &c. As a detergent application in ringworm, scald-head, scabby eruptions, foul ulcers, &c. It should be, in general, at first diluted with half of its weight of lard or oil. See also OINTMENT OF PITCH.

=Ointment of Tartar Emet′ic.= See OINTMENT OF POTASSIO-TARTRATE OF ANTIMONY.

=Ointment of Tin, Chloride= (Nanche). Syn. UNGUENTUM STANNI CHLORIDI. Prep. Perchloride of tin, 1-1/2 grain; lard, 1 oz. Mix.

=Ointment of Tin, Oxide= (Bate). Syn. UNGUENTUM STANNI OXIDI. Oxide of tin rubbed with oil of St John’s wort was formerly applied for the cure of blindness; with Localette’s balsam and honey, for the cure of indolent ulcers.

=Ointment of Tobac′co.= Syn. UNGUENTUM TABACI, L. Prep. 1. (Chippendale.) Extract of tobacco, 1 dr.; lard, 1 oz. As a friction in neuralgia.

2. (Ph. U. S.) Fresh tobacco leaves, 1 oz.; lard, 12 oz.; as ointment of hemlock. As an anodyne application in irritable ulcers, ringworm, prurigo, and some other skin diseases.

=Ointment, Tripharm′ic.= Syn. OINTMENT OF THREE THINGS; UNGUENTUM TRIPHARMACUM, L. Prep. From lead plaster, 4 oz.; olive oil, 2 fl. oz.; distilled vinegar, 1 fl. oz.; melt together, and stir until they combine, and a proper consistence is obtained. Cooling and desiccative; formerly greatly esteemed as a dressing.

=Ointment, Trooper’s.= See OINTMENT, MERCURIAL.

=Ointment of Turpentine.= Syn. UNGUENTUM TEREBINTHINÆ (B. P.) Prep. 1. (Guy’s Hosp.) Camphor, 1 dr.; oil of turpentine, 1 to 2 fl. dr.; dissolve, and add of resin of cerate, 1 oz. As a stimulant and anodyne friction in nephritic and rheumatic pains, engorgements, &c.

2. (Ph. Austr.) Turpentine, 2 lbs.; simple ointment, 1 lb.; mix by a gentle heat. As a stimulant dressing.

3. (B. P.) Oil of turpentine, 16; camphor, 1; soft soap, 2; dissolve the camphor in the turpentine, add the soap, and rub till thoroughly mixed.

=Ointment of Tut′ty.= Syn. UNGUENTUM ZINCI OXYDI IMPURI, U. TUTIÆ, L. Prep. From prepared tutty, 1 part; simple ointment, 5 parts; mix by trituration. Formerly in great repute in ophthalmic practice, more particularly in inflammation, &c., of the eyelids. See OINTMENT OF OXIDE OF ZINC.

=Ointment of Vera′trine.= Syn. UNGUENTUM VERATRIÆ (B. P.); POMMADE DE VERATRINE; Fr. Prep. 1. (Magendie.) Veratrine, 4 gr.; lard, 1 oz.; mixed by careful trituration.

2. (Pereira.) Veratrine, 30 gr.; lard, 1 oz.

3. (Turnbull.) Veratrine, 10 to 20 gr.; olive oil, 1 dr.; triturate, and add of spermaceti ointment, 1 oz.

4. Veratria, 8 gr.; prepared lard, 1 oz.; olive oil, 1/2 dr.; rub the veratria and the oil together, then mix thoroughly with the lard.

Uses, &c. As a friction in neuralgia, neuralgic rheumatism, gout, dropsy, &c. A piece about the size of a hazel nut is to be rubbed for 10 or 15 minutes over the seat of pain, twice a day. It must not be applied where the skin is unsound, nor to a large surface at a time, and the greatest caution must be used, on account of the extremely poisonous character of veratrine.

=Ointment of Ver′digris.= Syn. OINTMENT OF SUBACETATE OF COPPER; UNGUENTUM ÆRUGINIS (Ph. E.), U. CUPRI SUBACETATIS (Ph. D.). L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Resinous ointment, 15 oz.; melt by a gentle heat, sprinkle into it of verdigris (in very fine powder), 1 oz., and stir the mixture briskly until it concretes.

2. (Ph. D.) Prepared subacetate of copper, 1/2 dr.; ointment of white wax, 7-1/2 dr.; mix by trituration.

Uses, &c. Detergent and escharotic; as an occasional dressing to foul and flabby ulcers, to keep down fungous-flesh, and, diluted with oil or lard, in scrofulous ulceration and inflammation of the eyelids.

=Ointment of Vin′egar.= Syn. ACETIC OINTMENT; UNGUENTUM ACETI, U. ACIDI ACETICI, L. Prep. 1. (Dr Cheston.) Olive oil, 1 lb.; white wax, 4 oz.; melt them together by a gentle heat, add of strong vinegar, 2 fl. oz., and stir until the mixture concretes. As a cooling astringent dressing, and as an application in chronic ophthalmia.

2. (W. Cooley.) Acetate of morphia, 6 gr.; acetic acid (Ph. L.) and water, of each 1-1/2 fl. dr.; dissolve, add the solution to simple ointment (melted), 1-1/2 oz., and stir the mixture briskly until nearly cold. In chronic ophthalmia, painful inflamed piles, &c.; also to remove freckles, and to allay itching and irritation in several skin diseases.

=Ointment of Walnut Leaves= (Negrier). Syn. UNGUENTUM JUGLANDIS. Prep. Extract of walnut leaves, 3 drams; lard, 4 drams; oil of bergamot, 1 drop. Mix.

=Ointment, White.= Both SPERMACETI OINTMENT and OINTMENT OF CARBONATE OF LEAD were formerly so called, but the name is now obsolete. The CAMPHORATED WHITE OINTMENT of the Ph. L. of 1746 (UNG. ALBUM CAMPHORATUM) was spermaceti ointment to which a little camphor had been added.

=Ointment of White Precipitate.= Syn. OINTMENT OF AMMONIATED MERCURY; UNGUENTUM HYDRARGYRI AMMONIATI. (B. P.) Ammoniated mercury, 62 gr.; simple ointment, 1 oz. Mix. See OINTMENT OF AMMONIO-CHLORIDE OF MERCURY.

=Ointment of White Wax.= See OINTMENT, SIMPLE.

=Ointment of Wolfsbane.= See OINTMENT OF ACONITE.

=Ointment of Wood Soot.= Syn. UNGUENTUM FULIGINIS. Prep. Wood soot and lard, of each equal parts. Mix.

=Ointment of Wood Soot (Compound).= Syn. UNGUENTUM FULIGINIS COMPOSITUM. Acetic extract of wood soot, 4 dr.; dried salt, 10 dr.; lard, 14 oz. For ringworm.

=Ointment for Worms.= Syn. UNGUENTUM ANTHELMINTICUM, U. VERMIFUGUM, L. Prep. 1. (Boerhaave.) Aloes and ox-gall, of each 1 part; marshmallow ointment, 8 parts.

2. (Fr. Hosp.) Aloes and oil of tansy, of each 1 part; dried ox-gall, 2 parts (both in fine powder); lard, 8 parts.

3. (Ph. Bat.) Aloes, 1 dr.; dried ox-gall and petroleum, of each 1-1/2 dr.; lard, 1-1/2 oz.

4. (Soubeiran.) Powdered aloes, 2 dr.; lard, 1 oz.

Uses, &c. The above are purgative and vermifuge, applied as frictions to the abdomen. They are chiefly employed for children and delicate females. See OINTMENT, COLOCYNTH.

=Ointment of Yel′low Wax.= Syn. UNGUENTUM CERÆ FLAVÆ, L. Prep. (Ph. D. 1826.) Beeswax, 1 lb.; lard, 4 lbs.; melt them together. A mild emollient dressing. Some parties regard it as more ‘healing’ than the OINTMENT OF WHITE WAX.

=Ointment of Zinc.= 1. See OINTMENT OF OXIDE OF ZINC.

2. (Compound); UNGUENTUM ZINCI COMPOSITUM, L.——a. (Hufeland.) Oxide of zinc and lycopodium, of each 1 dr.; simple ointment, 1 oz. In excoriations and simple ulcerations, especially those of the eyelids, nipples, &c.

b. (Thomson.) Oxide of zinc, 1/2 dr.; powdered opium, 5 gr.; lard, 1 oz. As the last, when there is much pain.

=Ointment of Zinc, Cyanide= (Cunier). Syn. UNGUENTUM ZINCI CYANIDI. Prep. Cyanide of zinc, 12 grains; lard, 5 drams; butter of cacao, 5 drams. Mix.

=OINTMENTS (Flower of).= Syn. FLOS UNGUENTORUM, L. Prep. From resin, thus, wax, and suet, of each 1/2 lb.; olibanum and Venice turpentine, of each 2-1/2 oz.; myrrh, 1 oz.; wine, 1/2 pint; boil them together, and, lastly, add of camphor, 2 dr. Suppurative; warming.

=O′LEFIANT GAS.= C_{3}H_{4}. Syn. ETHYLENE, HEAVY CARBONETTED HYDROGEN, HEAVY CARBURETTED H., ELAYL, ETHENE. A substance discovered by some associated Dutch chemists, in 1795, and composed of carbon and hydrogen in the proportions expressed by C_{2}H_{2} or C_{4}H_{4}.

Prep. 1. A mixture of alcohol (rectified spirit), 1 part, and oil of vitriol, 6 parts, is heated in a retort until it blackens, and sulphurous acid begins to be evolved; the product is then passed first through a wash-bottle containing a solution of caustic potassa or milk of lime, and next through a bottle containing concentrated sulphuric acid, the last being furnished with a tube dipping into the water of the pneumatic trough.

2. The vapour of boiling alcohol is passed into a mixture of oil of vitriol diluted with rather less than one half its weight of water, and so heated as to be in a state of tranquil ebullition (320° to 330° Fahr.); the gaseous product is chiefly olefiant gas, and the vapour of water, from which it may be separated as above. No sulphurous acid is formed, nor does the acid blacken as in the last process.

Prop., &c. Colourless; neutral; nearly odourless; nearly insoluble in water; alcohol, ether, and the volatile and fixed oils, absorb a portion of it; burns with a brilliant white flame; at a full red heat it suffers decomposition, with deposit of carbon and liberation of light carburetted hydrogen gas; mixed with twice its volume of chlorine and inflamed, hydrochloric acid is formed, and the carbon of the gas is precipitated in the form of dense black soot; if the mixture (best in equal volumes), instead of being kindled, be left standing over water, it soon condenses into a heavy oily liquid (chloride of olefiant gas, Dutch liquid). Sp. gr. ·981; 100 cubic inches weigh 30·57 gr.

=Olefiant Gas, Bromide of.= Syn. BROMIDE OF ETHYLENE. From bromine and olefiant gas as Dutch liquid. A colourless liquid, with an ethereal odour, boiling at 265°, and solidifying at 0° Fahr. Sp. gr. 2·16.

=Olefiant Gas, Chlo′′ride of.= Syn. DUTCH LIQUID, CHLORIDE OF ETHYLENE. This substance, referred to above, may be easily prepared in any quantity by the following process:——Chlorine and olefiant gas (the latter a little in excess) are conveyed by separate tubes (passing through the same cork) into a glass globe, having a narrow funnel-shaped neck at its lower part, dipping into a small bottle destined to receive the product of their mutual reaction: the newly formed liquid trickles down the sides of the globe into the receiver, and when a sufficient quantity is collected, it is purified by agitating it first with water, and then with sulphuric acid, and, lastly, submitting it to distillation.

Prop., &c. Colourless; sweet-tasted; agreeably fragrant, the odour approaching that of oil of caraway; slightly soluble in water; freely so in alcohol and ether; it sinks in water; boils at 180° Fahr.; burns with a smoky greenish flame; is unaffected by oil of vitriol; but decomposed by solution of caustic potassa. It combines with chlorine, forming new compounds. See CHLORIDES OF CARBON (page 403).

=OLEIC ACID.= HC_{18}H_{33}O_{2}. Syn. ELAIC ACID. One of the fatty acids discovered by Chevreul, and produced by saponifying oils, and then separating the base from the resulting soap by means of a dilute acid. It now forms an important secondary product in the manufacture of stearic acid. Perfectly pure oleic acid may be obtained as follows:——

1. By saponifying olein, as just noticed.

2. Pure almond or olive-oil soap is decomposed by a dilute acid, and the resulting oily acid is digested in a water bath with half its weight of litharge (in very fine powder) for some hours, constantly stirring; the mixture is then agitated with twice its volume of ether in a close vessel, and in 24 hours the clear ethereal solution is decanted, and decomposed with dilute hydrochloric acid; the oleic acid separates, and the ether mixed with it is expelled by evaporation. To render it colourless, the acid is again saponified with caustic soda, and the soap thus retained is repeatedly dissolved in a solution of soda, and as often separated by adding common salt; this soap is, lastly, decomposed by dilute hydrochloric acid, as before.

3. (H. N. Fraser, pharmacist.) Oil of cotton seeds (‘winter oil’), deprived of most of its stearin by chilling and pressure, is first saponified with potassa, using a slight excess of the base. The soap is then treated with tartaric acid, or any other acid which will make a soluble salt with potassa, until the base is completely neutralised; the residue is washed until a mass is left about the consistence and colour of cerate, free from any of the salt; this is heated for several hours with nearly its weight of litharge, and three or four times its bulk of water; the resulting compound is shaken up while yet warm with ether, and allowed to stand until all the soluble matter separates.

This separates the stearate, and leaves a nearly pure oleate of lead. The clear liquor is decanted and briskly shaken with dilute muriatic acid for a few minutes to precipitate all the chloride of lead, the lighter liquid washed to remove traces of muriatic acid and filtered; the filtrate heated slowly in a water bath, and the ether distilled until the residue ceases to have an ethereal odour. The product is about 60 per cent. of the bulk of the oil.

Crude oleic acid may be purified as follows:——Expose it repeatedly to a temperature of about 45° F., and express the liquid portion. With this mix an equal bulk of solution of sulphurous acid, place the mixture in the light, and shake it frequently until no more colour is discharged. After separation the oleic acid is to be washed repeatedly with cold distilled water, and put into bottles, which should be kept filled up and in a cool place.

Prop., &c. A colourless oily acid, insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol, ether, and oil; with the bases it forms salts called oleates. The best kind of oleic acid is known as “pale cloth oil.”

O’LEIN. C_{57}H_{104}O_{6}. Syn. ELAIN; HUILE ABSOLUE, Fr. The liquid portion of the fixed oils and fats. By saponification it yields oleic acid.

Prep. 1. Olive oil or almond oil is digested for 24 hours with a quantity of caustic soda lye, only sufficient to saponify one half of the oil, and the undecomposed oily portion (olein) is then separated from the alkaline solution and newly formed stearine soap.

2. The saponified mixture of oil and alkali (see No. 1) is digested with proof spirit until all the soap is dissolved out, and the olein separates and floats on the surface; the latter, after repose, is decanted.

3. Almond or olive oil is agitated in a stout bottle with 7 or 8 times its weight of strong alcohol (sp. gr. ·798), at nearly the boiling point, until the whole is dissolved; the solution is next allowed to cool, after which the clear upper stratum is decanted from the stearin which has been deposited, and, after filtration, the spirit is removed by distillation at a gentle heat; by exposure at a very low temperature it deposits any remaining stearin, and then becomes pure.

Prop., &c. The products of the last two formulæ have only a very slight yellow colour, but may be rendered quite limpid and colourless by digestion for 24 hours with a little pure, freshly burnt animal charcoal, and subsequent filtration. In this state the olein is perfectly neutral to test paper, does not in the slightest degree affect metallic bodies immersed in it, and does not thicken by exposure to the greatest cold. Olein is used by watchmakers for their fine work. Some years ago the product of the last formula was sold, by a certain metropolitan house, as ‘watchmakers’ oil,’ at 1s. 6d. a drachm. Commercial olein is generally lard oil. The refined oleic acid of the stearin works also commonly passes under the name. Olein burns well in lamps; but oleic acid does not do so unless when well refined, and when the wick-tube is so formed as to remain cool. See LARD OIL and OLEIC ACID.

OLEOM’ETER. Syn. ELAÏOMETER, ELÆOMETER, OIL-BALANCE. A delicate areometer or hydrometer, so weighted and graduated as to adapt itself to the densities of the leading fixed oils. As the differences of the specific gravities of these substances are inconsiderable, to render it more susceptible the bulb of the instrument is proportionately large, and the tube or stem very narrow. The scale of the oleometer in general use (Gobby’s) is divided into 50 degrees, and it floats at 0 or zero in pure poppy oil, at 38 or 38-1/2 in pure almond oil, and at 50 in pure olive oil. The standard temperature of the instruments made in this country is now 60°; those made on the Continent, 54·5° Fahr. The oil must therefore be brought to this normal temperature before testing it, by plunging the glass cylinder containing it into either hot or cold water, as the case may be; or a correction of the observed density must be made. The last is done by deducting 2 from the indication of the instrument for each degree of the thermometer above the normal temperature of the instrument, and adding 2 for every degree below it. Thus: suppose the temperature of the oil at the time of the experiment is 60° Fahr., and the oleometer indicates 61°; then——

60·0° Actual temperature. 54·5° Normal temperature. ———— 5·5° Difference.

Indication of the oleometer 61·0 The difference 5·5 × 2 = 11·0 ———— Real density 50·0

Suppose the temperature observed at the time of the experiment is 52°, and the oleometer indicates 45°; then——

54·5 Normal temperature. 52·0 Actual temperature. ———— 2·5 Difference. ————

Indication of the oleometer 45·0 The difference 2·5 × 2 = 5·0 ———— Real density 50·0 ————

The oil is, therefore, presumed to be pure. See HYDROMETER, OILS (Fixed), and SPECIFIC GRAVITY.

=O′LEO-PHOSPHOR′IC ACID.= An acid compound found by Fremy in the brain and nervous matter.

=OLEO-RES′INS.= The natural compounds of resin and essential oil forming the vegetable balsams and turpentines. Copaiba, Canada balsam, and Venice turpentine are examples. Certain extracts prepared with ether, as the fluid extracts of cubebs and pepper in the Ph. U. S., may be regarded as oleo-resins. See EXTRACT.

=OLEO-SAC′CHARUM.= Syn. ELÆOSACCHARUM. Sugar aromatised or medicated by being rubbed up with an essential oil. The oleosacchara of aniseed, caraway, cinnamon, peppermint, pennyroyal, and the other like essential oils, are made by rubbing 15 to 20 drops of the respective oils with white sugar, 1 oz.——The Ph. Græca 1837 prescribes 1 part of oil to 20 parts of sugar.——The Ph. Austr. 1836 and Ph. Bor. order the same proportions, or 3 drops of oil to the dr., and 24 drops to the oz., of powdered sugar. When intended for making extemporaneous distilled waters, 1 dr. of magnesia is a common addition. The oleosacchara of citrons, lemons, oranges, &c., are made from the peels, as follows:——After cleaning off any specks in the outer rind of the fruit, rub a large piece of loaf sugar on it until the yellow rind is completely removed. Those parts of the sugar which are impregnated with the essence are, from time to time, to be cut away with a knife, and put into an earthen pot. The whole being thus taken off, the sugared essence (oleosaccharum) is to be closely pressed down in the pot, tied over with bladder, and preserved in a cool place for use.

=OLIB′ANUM.= Syn. OLIBAN, INDIAN OLIBANUM, FRANKINCENSE. A gum resin obtained from Boswellia thurifera or serrata. It is stimulant, astringent, and diaphoretic. It is burnt as incense in the temples of India and in Roman Catholic churches. African or Arabian olibanum is produced by Boswellia floribunda. (Royle.) This substance must not be confounded with the resin noticed at page 761.

=Olibanum.= This gum resin is yielded by two varieties of the plant known as Boswellia——one the B. floribunda, being a native of Africa, the other, the B. serrata, growing in Asia. Olibanum occurs in the form of fragments, which are sometimes pale yellow, and at others of a reddish colour; these fragments have a splintery fracture, a mealy surface, a faintly balsamic odour and a bitter taste. “It consists of about 4 or 5 per cent. of a volatile oil, 56 per cent. of a resinous acid, 30 to 36 per cent. of gum, and 6 per cent. of bassorin.”[67] Incense, of which olibanum forms one of the ingredients, owes much of its pleasant balsamic odour when burning to its presence. It is also used in pharmacy.

[Footnote 67: Payen.]

=OL′IVE.= Syn. OLEA, OLIVA, L. The Olea Europæa (Linn.), a native of the South of Europe. The unripe fruit is preserved in brine (SPANISH OLIVES, FRENCH OLIVES); the ripe fruit furnishes olive oil; the bark is bitter, astringent, and febrifuge, and has been used as a substitute for cinchona bark; it yields a gum-like substance (OLIVE GUM), which was formerly reported vulnerary, and contains olivine. The olive tree has in all ages been held in peculiar estimation as the bounteous gift of Heaven to man. Some authors have styled it “a mine on earth.” It is remarkable for yielding a fixed oil from the pericarp instead of from the seed.

=OLLIVIER’S BISCUITS.= See PATENT MEDICINES.

=OLIVINE.= Syn. CHRYSOLITE. A crystallised double silicate of magnesia and iron, found in basaltic and volcanic rocks, and very frequently in masses of meteoric iron. It is sometimes yellow in colour, but mostly green.

=Olivine.= (Dr Landerer.) Syn. OLIVINA. Prep. Treat olive leaves with acidulated water, concentrate, precipitate with ammonia, re-dissolve the washed precipitate in a diluted acid, purify with animal charcoal, filter, and reprecipitate with ammonia.

=OM′ELET.= Syn. OMELETTE, Fr. A variety of pancake or fritter made of eggs and other ingredients. Omelets may contain bacon, ham, herbs, fish, shell-fish, cold meat, cold game, fruit, or anything else at hand at the pleasure of the cook. ‘Spirit omelets’ are made by pouring a little brandy, rum, or whisky over them on serving them up, and setting it on fire for a moment just before placing the dish on the table. “Where is the man or woman cook but says they know how to make an omelette, and that to perfection? But this is rarely the case. It is related of Sarah, the Duchess of Marlborough, that no one could cook a ‘fraise,’ as it was then called, for the great duke but herself. The great point is, if in an iron pan, it should be very clean and free from damp which sometimes comes out of the iron when placed on the fire. The best plan is to put it on the fire, with a little fat, and let it get quite hot, or until the fat burns; remove it, and wipe it clean with a dry cloth, and then you will be able to make the omelette to perfection.” (Soyer.)

The following formula for a plain omelet is by the above culinary authority:——“Break four eggs into a basin, add 1/2 teaspoonful of salt, and 1/4 do. of pepper, and beat them up well with a fork; put into the frying-pan 1-1/2 oz. of butter, lard, or oil, place it on the fire, and, when hot, pour in the eggs, and keep on mixing them quickly with a spoon until they are delicately set; then let them slip to the edge of the pan, laying hold by the handle, and raising it slantways, which will give an elongated form to the omelette; turn in the edges, let it rest a moment to set, turn it over on to a dish, and serve.” “It ought to be of a rich-yellow colour, done to a nicety, and as light and delicate as possible.” “2 table-spoonfuls of milk and 1 oz. of the crum of bread, cut into thin slices, may be added.”

MIXED and FANCY OMELETS are made by simply dropping the ingredients, cut into dice or fragments, into the above. ANCHOVY, OYSTER, and SHRIMP OMELETS are generally prepared by placing a few spoonfuls of the respective sauces in the centre of each when nearly dressed,

=ONGUENT (de la Mère).= A stimulant and digestive ointment, very popular in French pharmacy.

Prep. (P. Cod.) Black pitch, 1 part; butter, lard, litharge, suet and yellow wax, 4 parts; olive oil, 8 parts.

=ON′ION.= Syn. CEPA, L. The bulb of Allium cepa. The onion is diuretic, expectorant, rubefacient, and stimulant. The juice, made into a syrup with sugar (SYRUPUS CEPÆ), has been given in chronic catarrh, diarrhœa, croup, dropsy, and calculus. Roasted and split open, onions have been applied as poultices to suppurating tumours, and applied to the pubes to relieve suppression of urine in children. According to Dr Cullen, “onions are acrid and stimulating, and possess little nutrient power. In bilious constitutions they generally produce flatulence, thirst, headache, and febrile symptoms; but where the temperament is phlegmatic they are of infinite service, by stimulating the system, and promoting the excretions, particularly expectoration and urine.” They also possess antiscorbutic and soporific properties.

=Onions, To Chop.= “Few persons know how to chop onions properly. In the first place all the dry skin must be removed, then a thin slice off the top and bottom, or they will be bitter, then cut them into thin slices, dividing the onion, and cut crossways to form dice. If a very slight flavour is required and the onion is strong, like in the North of England, for it must be remembered that the further north you go the stronger the flavour of the root, and if French receipt books are exactly copied, it is no wonder complaints are made of the preponderance of the flavour of the onion; in which case, when chopped, put them in the corner of a napkin or cloth, wash them in water, squeeze them dry, then put them back on the board, and chop finer, or sometimes only rubbing the pan or the meat with the onion is quite sufficient.” (Soyer.)

=O′NYX.= A sub-species of quartz often wrought into small ornamental articles. Among jewellers, any stone exhibiting layers of two or more colours, strongly contrasted, is called an ‘onyx.’ A regularly and richly banded agate of this class is much prized for cameos. The Sardonyx of the ancients is a variety of onyx. It is so called from Sard or Sarda, a rich dark-red variety of carnelian, stripes of which in the stone alternate with white stripes. See GEMS.

=O′PAL.= A mineral allied to agate and chalcedony, but distinguished by its peculiar resinous lustre. The variety most admired as a gem is the precious or noble opal, which is remarkable for its beautiful play of colours. The finest opals come from Hungary, and although usually very small, will, if of good quality, realise as much as £5 each. Their value increases in a much greater ratio than their increase in size. They are also found in Saxony and in North America. The largest known specimen of an opal is that in the Imperial Cabinet at Vienna, the dimensions of which are five inches by two and a half. Girasol, Cacholong, Hyalite, and Menilite are varieties of opal. See GEMS and PASTES.

=O′OLITE.= A variety of limestone composed of a number of collections of small round particles, bound together by a calcareous cement. The resemblance the mass is supposed to bear to the roe of a fish has caused oolite to be called roestone. When the grains are of larger dimensions it is called peastone. The little spherical bodies of which the stone is composed are mostly formed of concentric layers of carbonate of lime arranged round a grain of sand, a fragment of shell or some other nucleus.

The building stones of Caen, Portland, and Bath are all oolitic limestones. When first quarried they are mostly soft, a circumstance which admits of their being easily sawn and carved. They harden by exposure to the air.

In geology the term “oolite” has a wider signification, and is applied to an important division of the middle secondary rocks of England, underlying the chalk formation and rich in the interesting fossil remains.

=OPHTHAL′MIA.= Syn. OPHTHALMITIS, L. Inflammation of the eye. In ordinary cases this disease is confined to the external membrane of the globe of the eye or to the eyelids; but it occasionally attacks the sclerotica, cornea, choroid coat, and retina.

The common causes of ordinary or conjunctival ophthalmia are the sudden exposure of the organ to a cold easterly wind, to dust, gritty particles, or to any external irritation or injury.

The symptoms are, in part, those common to local inflammation. The eye or eyelids become more or less bloodshot, swollen, and tender, and a sensation resembling that induced by the presence of particles of sand or some gritty substance, accompanied by much heat and a pricking pain, is almost constantly experienced. The secretion becomes yellowish and glutinous, and during the night frequently glues, as it were, the lids together. Sometimes only one eye is attacked, but after two or three days the disease extends to the other.

The treatment of mild cases of conjunctival ophthalmia is extremely simple. In general, it may be relieved by fomentations of warm water or decoction of poppy-heads and the use of aperient medicines, to which leeches and cupping may often be added with advantage.

“To apply a lotion to the eyes,” writes Dr Gardner, “the best way is to use a large camel’s-hair pencil or brush. Fill it with the lotion, draw down the lower lid, and apply the brush; the fluid will now come out of it into the eye.

“In order to get it well within the upper lid, move the latter up and down, and the whole surface will be wetted. This is important, because the usual way of applying lotions to the inside of the eye is very inefficient, if not entirely useless. The brush should be washed in warm water after using it.”[68]

[Footnote 68: ‘Household Medicine.’ Smith, Elder, & Co.]

In cases where the inflammation is very severe, the pain very acute, or the vision in the slightest degree impaired, as well as in those accompanied by a discharge of matter or pus, no time should be lost in seeking the services of the oculist.

Animals.——All animals are liable to attacks of catarrhal or common ophthalmia, which may originate from various causes, such as exposure to cold, influenza, or the presence of foreign substances, such as bits of chaff, the husks of oat, small seeds, &c.

In horses, in addition to the above, it may be caused by a blow from the whip. In animals affected by it the eye becomes watery and half closed, the membrane looks thickened, and the eye is frequently bloodshot. If due to the presence of any foreign body this must be removed, either by means of the fingers, a handkerchief, or a camel’s-hair brush, or, if necessary, by the forceps.

The treatment consists in bathing the eyes with tepid milk and water, after which an alum or zinc lotion may be applied. A mild physic ball should also be administered.

=Ophthalmia, Purulent.= This dreadful disease, which, like the above, is a form of inflammation of the mucous membrane of the eye, differs from ordinary ophthalmia in being accompanied with a discharge of pus, too frequently terminating in total and irrecoverable blindness of one or both eyes, and in being very contagious.

Purulent ophthalmia is very prevalent in India, Persia, and Egypt, and from the circumstance that large numbers of our troops were affected with it on their return from the campaign in Egypt, in the beginning of the present century, before which time it was unknown in England, it acquired the name of “Egyptian ophthalmia.”

Although of late years its ravages amongst the soldiers of our own as well as of other European nations have considerably abated, the disease is still more or less prevalent in the British, French, Prussian, Austrian, Bavarian, Italian, Spanish, Belgian, Swedish, and Russian armies. Purulent ophthalmia is also by no means uncommon amongst the non-military population, such as the poorer classes and their children, and the children in workhouses, asylums, and pauper schools. Dr Parkes says it has evidently been propagated amongst the civil inhabitants by the soldiery.

The following narrative of an outbreak of purulent ophthalmia that occurred on board a vessel freighted with slaves for the West Indies forcibly illustrates the character and infectious nature of this disease.

In the year 1819 the “Le Roideur,” a French vessel, sailed with a cargo of 160 negroes from Bonny, on the coast of Africa, to Guadaloupe. The “Le Roideur’s” crew consisted of 22 men, so that the number of human beings on board, including officers, was 182. No epidemic had been observed amongst the natives from whom the slaves had been taken, and further, at the time of sailing the crew were in perfect health, and the slaves were said to be free from disease of any kind.

The wretched Africans were closely packed in the hold of the vessel, the air of which, as may be imagined, soon became frightfully foul; and after about the thirtieth or fortieth day, the drinking water running scarce, their daily allowance was reduced from 8 oz. to half a wineglassful. Then it was that ophthalmia first showed itself amongst the wretched occupants of the hold, the lids of their eyes becoming red and inflamed. The surgeon of the vessel advised that they should breathe in succession the purer air of the deck. But this course had to be relinquished, since it was found that many of the negroes on leaving the hold jumped over the side of the vessel, and purposely drowned themselves. The disease, which was of a most virulent kind, spread rapidly amongst the negroes, and from these to the crew.

A notable fact demonstrating the propagation of purulent ophthalmia by material particles was the circumstance that the first amongst the crew who was seized was a sailor who guarded the hatch communicating with the hold. The day after another of the crew was attacked, and in three days after this the disease had assailed the captain, and almost the whole of the crew. The disease continued to spread daily, until at last there remained one only of the whole crew unaffected and with sight intact, and to him was deputed the important task of steering the vessel. Great fear was manifested lest he too might eventually be overtaken with the total or partial blindness that had come to the remainder of the crew.

The “Le Roideur” reached Guadaloupe on the 21st of June, when it was found that thirty more of the negroes had entirely lost their sight (thirty-six of whom had been thrown into the sea, since they were unsaleable), twelve had lost the sight of an eye, and fourteen were more or less blind.

Of the crew, twelve including the surgeon were entirely blind, five were blind of one eye, and four partially so.

Three days after the arrival of the vessel in port the steerer of the vessel was seized with the disease.[69]

[Footnote 69: Blythe.]

About thirty years ago a curious discovery in connection with purulent ophthalmia was made by Dr Loffler, a Prussian army surgeon. Many of the soldiers of his regiment being disabled by this disease, he submitted the eyes of all the men to a rigorous daily inspection, and he discovered in the lining membrane of the eyelids of some of them certain small granular bodies resembling boiled sago grains. Furthermore he noticed that, although those soldiers whose eyelids presented this peculiarity showed then no indications of the disease, they were subsequently invariably attacked by it; whilst those from whose eyelids the sago grains were absent as invariably escaped.

Subsequent investigators, amongst whom may be mentioned Drs Welch and Marston, have confirmed the accuracy of Dr Loffler’s observations and the soundness of his conclusions——that the occurrence of the sago grains is always an antecedent condition to an attack of purulent ophthalmia.

As to the nature of the little granular bodies known to pathologists as ‘sago grains,’ it seems to be generally admitted that they are follicles situated directly beneath the epithelium, which, in a healthy condition of the lining membrane, are not apparent, but which become swollen and enlarged when the membrane itself is in an unhealthy and irritable condition. In this respect they resemble the enlarged glands met with in scrofulous and weakly children.

“In a regiment the proneness to the development of sago grains is found to decrease as life advances; that is, to be much greater in young soldiers than in old ones, and by a parity of reasoning it is assumed to be greater in a community of children than in a community of adults. In any individual, and therefore in any community, the sago grains may disappear without producing mischief; but, as a matter of fact, sources of irritation to the eyes abound in the world, and when these sources of irritation act upon eyelids in which sago grains are already present, they often excite the contagious form of ophthalmia.”[70]

[Footnote 70: Brudenell Carter.]

The diffusion into the atmosphere of the purulent discharge accompanying this form of ophthalmia is undoubtedly the means by which the disease is spread.

Hence it is that if one eye be affected the other may be saved from an attack by being hermetically sealed up——a method of prevention sometimes adopted by the ophthalmic surgeon.

Mr Brudenell Carter says “that the secretion passes along the tear-passages into the nostrils, and is driven out with the expired air at every breath; besides the chances of direct contact that must exist when a child with ophthalmia is perpetually sending into the atmosphere what I may describe as a spray of contagious particles.”

Medical opinion is in some measure divided as to the origin of this disease; for whilst there are authorities who believe that its propagation is due to contagion assisted by insanitary environments, there are others who incline to the supposition that these latter conditions alone are sufficient to produce it. Whether this is so or not there can be no question that impure air, overcrowding, filth, and deficient water supply, which implies insufficient ablution, serve to intensify and perpetuate it.

So strongly and confidently impressed are Messrs Welch and Marston of the connection between unhealthy surroundings and prevalent ophthalmia, that they regard the two as cause and effect, and state their belief “that the presence or absence of ‘sago grains’ affords a delicate test of the sanitary state of a school, a regiment, or any similar community.”

Ample and painful confirmation of these views is afforded by the prevalence of the disease amongst the children, more particularly those who live in very poor and crowded districts. The pitiable, blear-eyed little creatures that one meets with in these localities are very frequently the victims of purulent ophthalmia, and as such bear unfailing testimony to the insalubrity and squalor of the homes in which they dwell.

Stromeyer states that he has met with the ‘sago grains’ in the eyelids of many domestic animals, more particularly pigs, the granules being always in proportion to the more or less dirty condition in which the animals were kept.

The above statements plainly indicate the means by which the disease is to be combated. Of these, thorough ventilation and pure air are the most important. Stromeyer records how, by simply ventilating some barracks, he reduced to an amazing extent a number of cases of the disease, which had broken out in the Hanoverian army. Possibly this result was due to the removal, by the current of air from the apartment of the dried particles of contagious matter.

Ablution, which, carefully performed, is, in addition to ventilation, an important curative agent, may, through the neglect of certain precautions, assist to spread the disease.

This it will assuredly do if the basins employed by the patients for washing their eyes are not thoroughly cleansed and disinfected after being used. Furthermore, the towels may be made to spread the infection, unless they too are thrown into some disinfecting solution after use, and unless a separate towel is appropriated to each patient. The danger of reinoculation may ensue if each towel is not changed sufficiently often. The bed-clothes of the affected persons, as well as the pillowcases, should be frequently renewed, the latter every day, since they collect and disseminate the discharges falling on them from the patient.

Medical authorities also strongly recommend the isolation of the patient, and then consequent separation from healthy persons as soon as ever the disease shows itself in a regiment, a school, or amongst any body of persons congregated together; a daily inspection of the eyes of each is recommended, so that whenever the “sago grains” develop themselves, the individuals so attacked may be removed, and placed under proper treatment.

The after effects of the various forms of contagious ophthalmia are thickening and distortion of the eyelids, more or less serious defect of vision, and not unfrequently total blindness.

During the course of the disease relapses from the most trifling causes frequently occur, and Warmolow states that a person who has once been affected with it is not safe against a recurrence, and should be assiduously watched.

=Ophthalmia, Infantile, Purulent.= This disease very frequently attacks infants of 3 or 4 days old. It is distinguished by redness of the edges of the eyes, the lids of which are often glued together. Upon looking into the eye the lining membrane is seen to be swollen and red. Infantile purulent ophthalmia, although yielding much more readily to proper treatment than that which attacks adults, makes rapid progress if neglected, and may jeopardise the sight of the babe; hence the great importance of calling in efficient medical aid as soon as ever it makes its appearance.

=Ophthalmia, Strumous, or Scrofulous.= This form of ophthalmia is generally met with in children of scrofulous habit of from 4 to 10 or 11 years of age. Its most distinctive characteristic is the inability of the sufferer to bear the light, the effect of which is that the eyes are kept spasmodically partially closed. If the eyes are examined, a slight fulness of the vessels usually stopping at the edge of the cornea is observable, and about the line dividing the cornea and sclerotic coat small opaque pimples or pustules are visible. This variety of ophthalmia, being the outcome of a constitutional taint, is frequently very obstinate, and yields with difficulty to medical treatment, besides being very liable to reappear. It is not unfrequently accompanied with a troublesome cutaneous affection known as Crusta lactea, which occurs on the cheeks, and arises from the irritation caused by the flow down the cheeks of the acrid lachrymal secretion. The usual treatment consists in improving the general health and strength of the patient by means of tonics, such as quinine, quinine and iron, cod-liver oil, or syrup of iodide of iron. The diet should be nutritious and easy of digestion, and there should be no stint of fresh air.

=O′′PIATES.= Syn. OPIATA, L. Preparations containing opium. The word is often applied in a general sense to anodynes and soporifics. In French pharmacy the name is commonly used synonymously with confections, as in the following preparations:——

ANTI-DYSENTERIC OPIATE——Quarin. Purified opium, 4 gr.; ipecacuanha, 1/2 dr.; tormentilla, 1 dr.; syrup of whortleberries and conserve of red roses, of each 6 dr.——Dose. A teaspoonful every hour.

ANTI-HYSTERICAL OPIATE——Trousseau and Reveil. Powdered indigo, 1 oz.; white honey, 3 oz.——Dose, 1 tablespoonful daily, gradually increased until the whole is taken in a day. In hysteria, epilepsy, and nervous affections of an epileptic character.

BALSAMIC OPIATE——Trousseau and Reveil. Oleo-resin (balsam) of copaiba, 1 oz.; cubebs (in powder), 3 oz.; potassio-tartrate of iron, 2-1/2 dr.; syrup of quince, q. s. In gleet.——Dose, 3 boluses the size of a nut, thrice daily.

CHARCOAL OPIATE——Ratier. Willow charcoal (recent), 1 oz.; prepared chalk, 1 dr.; powdered white sugar, 2 oz.: rose water, q. s. to form an electuary. In diarrhœa and incipient cholera, in dysentery with fetid stools, and in gastralgia, flatulence, &c. By substituting calcined magnesia for chalk it becomes an excellent remedy for habitual constipation.

CUBEB OPIATE——Deyeaux. Powdered cubebs, 4 dr.; powdered camphor, 1 dr.; mix, and divide it into 18 powders.——Dose. One, 3 or 4 times daily, in gleet, painful and scalding micturition. &c.

=O′′PIUM.= Syn. OPIUM (B. P., Ph. L., E, & D.), L. The juice inspissated by spontaneous evaporation, obtained by incision from the unripe capsules of the Papaver somniferum, grown in Asia Minor.

Hist.——“It is uncertain at what period opium was first known and introduced into medicine. Hippocrates recommends the meconion or poppy juice, in a disease of the uterus; and Dioscorides, on the authority of Erasistratus, tells us that Diagoras (who was contemporary, it is supposed, with Hippocrates) condemned the use of opium. These are, I believe, the most ancient Greek authorities who speak of this substance; and it is impossible, I think, to arrive at any accurate conclusion from their remarks whether opium had, or had not, been known long before their time, though Alston infers, from the little use made of it by Hippocrates, as well as from Diagoras condemning its use in diseases of the eyes, that its virtues were not known long before him. Dioscorides and Pliny mention that the expressed juice of the heads and leaves is termed meconium, and that it is much weaker than opium. Theodore Zwinger, Sprengel, and others have supposed that the nepenthes of Homer was opium. It would appear that opium was not much employed until the time of the Arabs, except in the form of the confections known as Theriaca, Mithridatica, &c. The word opium is derived from otos, the juice.”[71]

[Footnote 71: Pereira.]

Var.——1. EGYPTIAN; in roundish flattened lumps; inferior to Turkish opium.——2. ENGLISH; often equal to the best Smyrna.——3. FRENCH; resembles the last.——4. GERMAN; similar to English opium,——5. INDIAN;——a. BENARES; in large balls;——b. MALWA; in roundish flattened cakes, of 9 or 10 oz. in weight each;——c. PATNA, in balls or square cakes; inferior to Turkey opium.——6. LEVANT; same as Smyrna opium.——7. PERSIAN; in rolls or sticks, 6 × 1/2 inch; inferior; resembles hepatic aloes in appearance.——8. SMYRNA; in irregular, rounded, flattened pieces, varying in weight from 2 or 3 lbs. to only as many oz. It forms the best variety of Turkey opium, and is particularly rich in morphia. It is the only one adapted for the manufacture of the salts of morphia, as it contains on the average from 7 to 9% of that alkaloid, and usually yields about 12 to 12·5% of hydrochlorate of morphia, which is more than can be obtained from any other variety of opium.[72]——9. TURKEY; of which two varieties are known in commerce, viz. Constantinople opium and Levant or Smyrna opium, noticed above. Constantinople opium is generally in small, flattened, roundish cakes, 2 to 2-1/2 inches in diameter, and covered with poppy leaves. It is more mucilaginous and less esteemed than Smyrna opium, from which it may be distinguished by the last being always covered with the reddish capsules of a species of Rumex.

[Footnote 72: Of five kinds of Smyrna opium examined by Merk, the worst were found to yield 3 to 4 per cent. of morphia, and the best from 13 to 13·5 per cent.]

The following account of the method of opium collection, adopted in Asia Minor, is extracted from a paper in the ‘Pharmaceutical Journal,’ contributed by Messrs Maltass and Wilkin.[73] About the end of May the plants arrive at maturity, and the flowers expand. A few days after the petals have fallen the capsule is ready for incision.

[Footnote 73: First series, 14th volume.]

This operation is performed in the afternoon of the day and in the following manner:——A transverse incision is made with a knife in the lower part of the capsule, the incision being carried round until it arrives nearly at the part where it commenced; sometimes it is continued spirally to half way down its starting point. The greatest nicety is required to avoid cutting too deep, and penetrating the interior coating of the capsule, as this would cause the exuding milky juice to flow into the inside.

The following morning those engaged in collecting the opium lay a large poppy leaf on the palm of the left hand, and having a knife in the right hand, they scrape the opium which has exuded from the incision in each capsule, and then transfer it from the knife to the leaf, until a mass of sufficient size has been formed, when a second poppy leaf is placed over the top of the mass. If the dew has been heavy during the night the yield is greater, but the opium is dark in colour; if, on the contrary, there has been no dew, the yield is less, but the opium is of a lighter colour. A high wind is prejudicial, as the dust raised from the pulverised soil adheres to the exudation, and cannot be separated. The poppy capsules are cut but once, but as each plant will from one stem produce several branches, and each branch produce a flower, it is usual to pass over the field a second or a third time, to cut such capsules as were not ready at the first cutting. After the opium is collected it is dried in the shade.

The proceeds arising from the sale of the opium crop in British India form a considerable item in the revenues of our Eastern Empire; hence the poppy as the source of this valuable export, almost the whole of which goes to China, is very extensively cultivated in India.

In the year ending March 31st, 1872, 93,364 chests, valued at £13,365,228, were exported from British India. Of this quantity 49,455 chests were from Bengal, and Bombay 43,909. They were distributed thus:——

To China 85,470 chests. ” the Straits Settlements 7,845 ” ” Ceylon, Java, Mauritius, and Bourbon 38 ” ” the United Kingdom 4 ” ” other countries 7 ” —————— 93,364 ——————

The net revenue to the Indian Government from this source in the year 1871-72 was £7,657,213.[74]

[Footnote 74: Flückiger and Hanbury.]

A large track of country in Bengal, some 600 miles in length and 200 in breadth, watered by the Ganges, embraces the chief opium district of India. A comparatively small quantity of opium is obtained from the mountain parts of the North of India. This latter is yielded by the Papaver somniferum, whilst that from the plains is the produce of the Papaver officinale.

In India the plant is reared in a rich and well-manured soil, and thrives best in mild moist localities. It requires careful weeding and thinning whilst growing, and when necessary the ground is irrigated. As in Asia Minor, when the time comes for making incisions in the capsules for the purpose of collecting the exuding juice, this latter is always found to be less in quantity if it be rainy weather. In India the poppy begins to flower at the end of January, or the commencement of February and about three or four weeks after its effervescence the capsule, which is about as large as a hen’s egg, is in a condition to be tapped. This operation is always performed at early morn, before sunrise, by means of a little iron instrument notched at the smaller end like a saw.

The treatment to which the milky exudation, which subsequently hardens into opium, is subjected differs only in details from that followed in Asia Minor, and in being more carefully and elaborately carried out. For instance, it is first allowed to stand for some time in a shallow brass dish tilted on one side, by which means there drains away a thin watery fluid, the presence of which seriously impairs the quality of the opium. After this it is dried equably by three or four weeks’ exposure to the air, and in this condition is packed in earthen jars and taken by the native cultivators to the factory. Here, after being tested and weighed, it is thrown into immense vats, which contain the accumulated produce of whole districts; and when the several samples have been kneaded together it is removed, and formed into balls or cakes. The soft opium is made into balls by being pressed into brass cup-shaped moulds, lined throughout with petals of the poppy, which are made to adhere to each other as well as to the ball of opium by means of an adhesive fluid obtained from an inferior kind of opium; other petals are then by the same means stuck on to the upper part of the ball so that the whole of this is covered with a thin layer of them. The balls are next removed to the drying-room of the factory, where they are arranged in tiers on lattice-work shelves. During the process of drying they are carefully watched and examined by boys, to keep them from the ravages of insects. When sufficiently desiccated the cakes of opium are packed in casks, and are ready for the market.

The yield of morphia from East Indian opium is usually very small, a circumstance which Messrs Flückiger and Hanbury conceived to be partly due to the climate and partly to the defective method of cultivation.

He believed that the period, three or four weeks, during which the juice was allowed to remain in the wet state was much too long, and exercised a destructive influence on its constituents.

Opium from England, France, and Germany is occasionally met with, but never in considerable quantity. The cultivation of the opium poppy, however, in these three countries is chiefly carried on for the sake of the capsules which are largely employed in medicine; and the oil extracted from the seed, which is highly valued and extensively employed by artists.

Pur. The opium of commerce is not unfrequently adulterated with extract of poppies, extract of lettuce, lactucarium, mucilage of gum tragacanth, dried leaves, starch, water, clay, sand, gravel, and other substances, in order to increase its weight. This fraud is readily detected by inspection, by chemical analysis, and the microscope; and indirectly, with the greatest certainty, by a simple assay of the sample for its morphia (morphiometry). This may be effected by one or other of the following methods:——

1. (Couerbe.) Opium, 4 parts, and quicklime, 1 part, made into a milk with water, q. s., are boiled together, and the solution filtered whilst hot; the filtrate is then saturated with dilute hydrochloric acid and the morphia precipitated by the addition of ammonia, any excess of the latter being expelled by heat; the precipitate is then collected, dried, and weighed. If 100 gr. have been operated on, the given weight will represent (nearly) the per-centage richness of the sample in morphia.

2. (Guilliermond.) 100 gr. of opium are triturated for some time in a mortar along with 4 times its weight of rectified spirit, and the tincture strained through linen, with expression, into a wide-mouthed bottle; the marc is triturated a second time with about 3 times its weight of alcohol, and the tincture strained into the bottle as before; to the mixed tincture is added a fl. dr. of liquor of ammonia, and the whole is agitated for a short time. In about 12 hours the morphia spontaneously separates, accompanied with some narcotina and meconate of ammonium; the morphia covering the interior of the vessel with large, coloured, and gritty crystals, feeling like sand, and the narcotina crystallising in very light, small, white, and pearly needles. These crystals are washed with water, either through a paper filter or linen, to free them from the meconate of ammonia which they contain; after which the narcotina is separated from the morphia by decantation in water, which removes the narcotina, which is the lighter of the two. According to M. Mialhe, however, the morphia is more effectually removed by washing the crystals with 1 to 1-1/2 fl. dr. of ether, by triturating the two together, when the morphia is left in an insoluble state, and may then be dried and weighed.

3. (B. Ph.) Take of opium, 100 gr., slaked lime, 100 gr., distilled water, 4 oz. Break down the opium and steep it in an ounce of the water for 24 hours, stirring the mixture frequently. Transfer it to a displacement apparatus, and pour on the remainder of the water in successive portions, so as to exhaust the opium by percolation. To the infusion thus obtained, placed in a flask, add the lime, boil for ten minutes, place the undissolved matter on a filter, and wash it with an ounce of boiling water. Acidulate the filtered fluid slightly with hydrochloric acid, evaporate it to the bulk of 1/2 an ounce, and let it cool. Neutralise it cautiously with solution of ammonia, carefully avoiding an excess; remove by filtration the brown matter which separates, wash it with an ounce of hot water, mix the washings with the filtrate, concentrate the whole to the bulk of 1/2 an ounce, and add now solution of ammonia in slight excess. After 24 hours collect the precipitated morphia on a weighed filter, wash it with cold water, and dry it at 212°. It ought to weigh at least from 6 to 8 grains.

4. (Cleaver.) Commenting on the above method of opium assay, Mr Cleaver[75] remarks:——“This process, if properly and carefully carried out, is one of the best, as, by the use of lime, the resin and meconate of calcium, also meconic acid, are removed from solution. The objections to it are——

[Footnote 75: ‘Pharmaceutical Year Book,’ 1876.]

“a. That the large quantity of water used, and the subsequent evaporation, cause loss of morphia.

“b. That no account is taken of the loss of morphia by non-precipitation.

“The modifications I would introduce are as follows:——

“a. The opium should be first treated with bisulphide of carbon or benzine.

“b. The dried residue should then be mixed with its own weight of lime and two or three times its bulk of some inert powder, such as pumice or glass. It is then to be percolated with water, the first part of the percolate being returned as fast as it runs through. By this means much less water will be required to exhaust the opium than would otherwise be the case.

“After the opium has been exhausted, which will be known by the liquid dropping through devoid of taste, the solution should be exactly neutralised with dilute sulphuric acid and filtered and the precipitate washed. The clear solution is then to be evaporated over a water bath until its bulk is about 1/2 an ounce, and again filtered if requisite, then ammonia is to be added in slight excess, and the liquid allowed to stand for 24 hours.

“The precipitate can then be collected, washed with ether and dried, and to the amount formed must be added the amount corresponding to the quantity of water used in precipitating and washing.

“The morphia obtained by this process is of a dull white colour, crystalline, perfectly soluble in alcohol, acids, and alkalies.”

5. (Prollius.) This is a very simple process and is said to give very exact results. It is as follows:——The opium is exhausted with 9 or 10 times its weight of spirit of 34 per cent. strength. Of the resulting tincture, 100 parts are well shaken with 5 parts of ether and 2 parts of solution of ammonia in a stoppered bottle, and then allowed to stand from 12 to 24 hours. The liquids separate slowly, and retain, partly in the ether, partly in the alcoholic liquid, the colouring matter, narcotine, and other crystallisable constituents of opium; while the morphia separates in crystals between the two layers, and finally sinks to the bottom. The fluid portion is decanted, the crystals are washed with diluted alcohol, dried and weighed.

6.[76] (Teschemacher.) In employing the following method the use of alcohol to extract the morphia is avoided, and meconic acid is separated at an early stage, which prevents the formation of a basic meconate on precipitation of the morphia. Two special reagents are required for this process; the one prepared by mixing 1 part of ammonia, sp. gr. 0·880, with 20 parts of methylated alcohol, and digesting in this mixture a large excess of morphine; this, when filtered, is termed “morphiated spirit;” the other, morphiated water, is water saturated with excess of morphine, and contains 0·04 per cent. of this alkaloid. 1000 gr. of opium are macerated for 12 to 24 hours in about 4000 grains of cold distilled water, together with 300 gr. of lead acetate, stirring the mixture from time to time. This separates the meconic acid as lead meconate, whilst the morphia is dissolved in the acetic acid set free.

[Footnote 76: ‘Chemical News,’ xxxv, 47.]

After this maceration the opium may be readily ground in a mortar to a paste, and so much more cold distilled water added, raising the pestle and mortar with successive portions of it as to fill with the mixture a measure = 20,250 grains of distilled water; experience has shown that the space occupied by the insoluble matters measures from 200 to 300 gr., so that the limit of possible error, by averaging and allowing 250 gr. for the insoluble portion, amounts to 0·05% in opium containing 10% of morphia. The mixture is to be filtered and 15,000 measured gr. = 750 grains of opium, of the clear solution, are to be evaporated to an extract on a water bath, and this residue to be drenched with 3090 gr. of boiling alcohol or methylated spirit, and the whole digested, with frequent stirring, for about 10 minutes.

This separates the gum, &c., of the opium which is insoluble in alcohol, and so far frees the solution of morphia from impurity.

At this stage of the process it is well to get rid of the excess of lead-salts, and to accomplish this, sulphuric acid is preferable to sulphuretted hydrogen. So much diluted sulphuric acid as may be equal to 30 gr. of oil of vitriol will almost always be sufficient for this purpose, any excess of acid being converted into sulphate of ammonia by the subsequent addition of so much solution of ammonia as shall be equivalent to the 30 gr. of oil of vitriol, thus forming a salt but slightly soluble in the alcoholic solution. This mixture may now be transferred to a beaker and allowed to settle for 12 hours, after which it is to be filtered, and the filter and insoluble residue thoroughly washed with alcohol or methylated spirits. This alcoholic filtrate is then distilled, or evaporated on a water bath, to about 1000 gr.; and mixed, while still hot, with 400 gr. of solution of ammonia, sp. gr. 0·880, stirring rapidly and continuously for at least 20 minutes, whilst the beaker or evaporating dish should be cooled as rapidly as possible by immersion in an external vessel filled with cold water. The rapid and continuous stirring is most important, as the precipitation of the whole of the morphia in fine powder is thereby effected, instead of the granular or mamillated condition so frequently met with, and it thus permits of the easy and thorough separation of all the narcotine which may be mixed with the morphine. When the cooling of the mixture and precipitation of the morphia is thus attained, transfer it quickly and completely to a filter of sufficient capacity to hold the whole, and when the liquid portion has passed through, wash the remainder of the precipitated morphia adhering to the dish or beaker on to the filter, using for this purpose the morphiated spirit already described, and continuing the washing of the precipitate until it is completely freed from the mother-liquor. To do this effectually requires some little care: thus the morphia on the filter must be kept in a spongy condition and never allowed to cohere, which is easily effected by pouring the morphiated spirit round the edges of the filter, so as not to disturb the precipitate, which must not be permitted to drain or solidify until this washing is completed.

The precipitate is now to be washed from off the filter-paper with the morphiated water previously described, and digested therein for a few minutes, which removes some more colouring matter, together with any salts soluble in water, but insoluble in alcohol, which may have adhered to the precipitated morphia; then once more collect the precipitate on a filter, washing it with morphiated spirit, after this once with ether, and finally thrice, or more with benzine; this completely frees it from narcotina, which is very soluble in benzine; morphia, on the contrary, being insoluble in this liquid. It now remains to drain and dry at a low temperature, say 100° F., the resulting pure and white morphia, the weight of which will indicate the amount of this alkaloid present in 750 gr. of the opium under examination.

7. (Ph. E.) Macerate 100 gr. of opium for 24 hours in 2 fl. oz. of water, filter, and strongly squeeze the residue; then precipitate the infusion with carbonate of sodium, 1/2 oz., dissolved in cold water, 2 fl. oz.; gently heat the precipitate until it shrinks and fuses, then cool and weigh it. It should weigh at least 10 gr., and, when powdered, be entirely soluble in a solution of oxalic acid. See also Watts’ ‘Dic. of Chemistry,’ article OPIUM.

Tests. These depend chiefly on the chemical and physical characters of morphia and meconic acid, the tests for which have been already noticed. In operating upon the contents of the stomach, or upon solid organs, in cases of suspected poisoning, the best method or proceeding is that already described under ALKALOID.

Another method is to boil the substances in water slightly acidulated with acetic acid, next to evaporate the solution to the consistence of a thick syrup, and then to treat it twice with boiling rectified spirit; the tincture thus obtained is to be filtered when cold, and again evaporated to the consistence of a syrup; it is now re-dissolved in distilled water, the filtrate treated with solution of subacetate of lead, and the precipitate of meconate of lead, separated by filtration, and carefully preserved. A current of sulphuretted hydrogen is then passed through the solution to precipitate excess of lead, and after again filtering it the liquid is evaporated, at first in a water bath, and afterwards under the receiver of an air-pump. The shapeless mass of crystals thus obtained present all the characters of morphia, if the substance examined contained opium. In the meantime the precipitate of meconate of lead is to be boiled with water acidulated with sulphuric acid, and the insoluble sulphate of lead separated by filtration; the filtered liquid, by evaporation, furnishes meconic acid, either under the form of crystals or an amorphous powder, the solution of which precipitates ferric salts of a deep blood-red.

The following are additional tests to those already noticed:——

1. From the peculiar odour of opium, often perceptible when the drug has been taken only in very small quantities.

2. A solution containing crude opium is turned of a deep red colour, or if coloured, it is turned of a reddish brown, and is darkened by tincture of ferric chloride.

3. (Hare.) A portion of the suspected liquid is poured into a beaker glass, and a few drops of solution of acetate of lead are added to it; the whole is stirred frequently for 10 or 12 hours, and then allowed to settle, after which the supernatant liquid is decanted; 20 or 30 drops each of dilute sulphuric acid and solution of ferric sulphate are next poured on the precipitate (meconate of lead), when a deep and beautiful red colour will be developed if the original liquid contained opium.

4. (Dr Rieget.) The suspected substance is mixed with some potassa, and is then agitated with ether; a strip of white unsized paper is next several times moistened with the solution, and when dry it is re-moistened with hydrochloric acid, and exposed to the steam of hot water. The paper assumes a red colour, more or less deep, if opium is present.

Uses, &c. Opium is one of the most valuable substances employed in medicine. In small doses it acts as a powerful and diffusible stimulant, in somewhat larger ones it is narcotic, and in excessive doses it proves an active narcotic poison. It is also anodyne, antispasmodic, diaphoretic, soporific, and sedative, its peculiar action being greatly modified by the dose and the condition of the patient. Its action as a stimulant is followed by sedative effects, which are, in general, much more marked than could be expected from the degree of previous excitement it induces. It is employed to fulfil a variety of indications——to procure sleep, to lull pain, allay irritation, check morbid discharges, alleviate cough and spasm, &c. &c. It also, when judiciously administered, renders the body less susceptible of external impressions, as those of cold, contagion, &c.; but it is injurious when the pulse is high, the heat of the body above the natural standard, and the skin dry, or when there is a disposition to local inflammation or congestion. When applied externally, in the form of frictions, liniments, ointments, &c., it is absorbed, and produces similar effects to those produced by swallowing it, but in this way it requires to be used in larger quantities.——Dose. As a stimulant, 1/4 gr., every 2 or 3 hours; as an anodyne and antispasmodic, 1/2 to 1 gr.; as a soporific, 1/2 to 2 gr.; in violent spasms, neuralgia, acute rheumatism, &c., 2 to 4 gr., increased in delirium tremens, hydrophobia, mania, tetanus, &c., to several times that quantity, according to circumstances.

The use of opium as a stimulant and intoxicant is common among the nations of the East. The Turks chew it, and the Chinese smoke a watery extract of it, under the name of ‘chundoo,’ the preparation of which from the crude article constitutes a special business. Messrs Flückiger and Hanbury, in their ‘Pharmacographia,’ published in 1874, say this particular business is not confined to the celestials, since, in 1870, a British firm at Amoy opened an establishment for preparing chundoo for the consumption of the Chinese in California and Australia.

The qualities most valued by the Chinese in opium are its fulness and peculiarity of aroma, and its degree of solubility. The amount of morphine it contains is a secondary consideration.

The practice of opium smoking yearly increases in China. It appears to be openly followed, and no odium attaches to it, provided it is not carried so far as to intoxicate or incapacitate the smoker.

In the larger cities and towns adjacent to Amoy the proportion of opium smokers, according to Mr Hughes, Commissioner of Customs at Amoy, is estimated at from 15 to 20 per cent. of the adult population.

In the country districts 5 to 10 per cent. of the population are believed to be opium smokers.

In many of the Western States of America the practice has become so notoriously common that in 1872 the legislature of Kentucky passed a bill by which any person who, through the excessive use of opium, is incapacitated from managing himself or his affairs, may, upon the affidavit of two citizens, be confined in an asylum, and subjected to the same restraint as lunatics or habitual drunkards.[77]

[Footnote 77: Blythe.]

Of late years opium-eating and laudanum-taking have, unfortunately, been greatly on the increase in this country, and the employment of this drug as a soporific for infants and young children has become so general amongst the poor and dissipated as to call for the interference of the legislature.

Of the 250,000 lbs. of opium which, as shown by the recent returns made by the Custom House, are imported into this country, it has been computed that not more than a third of this quantity is used for medicinal purposes.

According to Dr Chevers the practices of opium-eating and opium-smoking are very common among the natives of India. The same authority also states that in that country a large number of female infants are purposely poisoned by it, by introducing the drug into the child’s mouth, and in various other ways.

The first effect of opium as a stimulant is to excite the mental powers and to elevate those faculties proper to man; but its habitual use impairs the digestive organs, induces constipation, and gradually lessens the energy of both the mind and body. In excessive quantities it destroys the memory, induces fatuity and a state of wretchedness and misery, which after a few years is mostly cut short by a premature death. In this respect the effects of the excessive use of opium closely resemble those of fermented liquors.

Opium is somewhat uncertain in its action; some persons being able, sometimes from idiosyncrasy, but more frequently from previous indulgence in it, to take a much larger dose than others. The smallest quantity which is said to have proved fatal with an adult is 4 grains of the crude opium. In contrast with this may be quoted the statement of Dr Garrod, of a young man who not only swallowed 60 gr. of Smyrna opium night and morning, but very frequently, in addition to this, 1 oz. to 1-1/2 oz. of laudanum during the day.

Dr Chapman also cites the case of a patient to whom a wineglass of laudanum had to be administered several times in 24 hours.

Pois.——Symptoms. Headache; drowsiness; stupor; frightful reveries; vertigo; contracted pupil (generally); scanty urine; pruritus or dry itching of the skin, often accompanied by a papular eruption; thirst; dryness of mouth and throat; weak and low pulse; vomiting; respiration, generally, natural. Sometimes the drowsiness or sleep is calm and peaceful.——Ant., &c. Vomiting must be induced as soon as possible, by means of a strong emetic and tickling the fauces. If this does not succeed, the stomach-pump should be applied. The emetic may consist of a 1/2 dr. of sulphate of zinc dissolved in 1/2 pint of warm water, of which one third should be taken at once, and the remainder at the rate of a wine-glassful every 5 or 10 minutes, until vomiting commences. When there is much drowsiness or stupor, 1 or 2 fl. dr. of tincture of capsicum will be found a useful addition; or one of the formulæ for emetic draughts given at page 588 (especially No. 7) may be taken instead. Infusion of galls, cinchona, or oak-bark, should be freely administered before the emetic, and water soured with vinegar and lemon-juice, after the stomach has been well cleared out. To rouse the system, spirit-and-water or strong coffee may be given. To keep the sufferer awake, rough friction should be applied to the skin, an upright posture preserved, and walking exercise enforced, if necessary. When this is ineffectual, cold water may be dashed over the chest, head, and spine, or mild shocks of electricity may be had recourse to. To allow the sufferer to sleep is to abandon him to destruction. Bleeding may be subsequently necessary in plethoric habits, or in threatened congestion. The costiveness that accompanies convalescence may be best met by aromatic aperients; and the general tone of the habit restored by stimulating tonics and the shower bath. The smallest fatal dose of opium in the case of an adult within our recollection was 4-1/2 gr. Children are much more susceptible of the action of opium than of other medicines, and hence the dose of it for them must be diminished considerably below that indicated by the common method of calculation depending on the age. See DOSES, &c.

Concluding Remarks. Opium is a very complicated substance, and contains a number of alkaloids and other proximate vegetable principles, besides a certain portion of saline matter. The substances already detected in it are caoutchouc, codein, fatty matter, lignin, meconic acid, meconia, morphia, narceia, narcotia, odorous matter, opiania, papaveria, pseudomorphia (?), porphyroxin, resin, saline matter, &c. It is doubtful, however, whether some of these substances are not generated from other principles existing in opium during the processes adopted to obtain them.

According to Mulder, 100 parts of ordinary Smyrna opium contain——

Morphia 10·842 Codeia ·678 Narcotia 6·808 Narceia 0·662 Meconia ·804 Meconic acid 5·154 Resin 3·582 Gummy matter 26·242 Mucus 19·086 Fatty matter 2·166 Caoutchouc 6·012 Water 9·846 Matter undetermined and loss 2·118 ———————— 100·

The sp. gr. of Smyrna opium is 1·336.

The following chart, showing the natural alkaloids of opium and a few of their artificial derivatives, is taken from the ‘Pharmacographia’ of Messrs Flückiger and Hanbury:——

+----------------+----------------------------------------------------+——+——+——+——+ | | |C.|H.|N.|O.| |Discovered by | COTARNINE |12|13| 1| 3| | Wöhler, 1844 |Formed by oxidising narcotine, soluble in water. | | | | | | | | | | | | |Hesse, 1871 | 1. Hydrocotarnine |12|15| 1| 3| | | Crystallisable, alkaline, volatile at 100°. | | | | | | | | | | | | |Matthiesen and | APORMORPHINE |17|17| 1| 2| | Wright, 1869 |From morphine by hydrochloric acid, colourless, | | | | | | | amorphous, turning green by exposure to air, | | | | | | | emetic. | | | | | | | | | | | | |Wright, 1871 | DESOXYMORPHINE |17|19| 1| 2| | | | | | | | |Sertürner, 1816 | 2. Morphine |17|19| 1| 3| | | Crystallisable, alkaline, levogyre. | | | | | | | | | | | | |Pelletier and | 3. Pseudomorphine |17|19| 1| 4| | Thibouméry, |Crystallises with H_{2}O, does not unite even with | | | | | | 1835 | acetic acid. | | | | |

+----------------+----------------------------------------------------+——+——+——+——+ | Discovered by | |C.|H.|N.|O.| |Matthiesen and | APOCODEINE |18|19| 1| 2| |Burnside, 1871 |From codeine by chloride of zinc; amorphous, | | | | | | | emetic. | | | | | | | | | | | | |Wright, 1871 | DESOXYCODEINE |18|21| 1| 2| | | | | | | | |Robiquet, 1832 | 4. Codeine |18|21| 1| 3| | | Crystallisable, alkaline, soluble in water. | | | | | | | | | | | | |Matthiesen and | NORNARCOTINE |19|17| 1| 7| |Foster, 1868 | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Thibouméry, 1835| 5. Thebaine |19|21| 1| 3| | |Crystallisable, alkaline, isomeric with buxine. | | | | | | | | | | | | |Hesse, 1870 | THEBENINE |19|21| 1| 3| | | | | | | | |Hesse, 1870 | THEBARCINE |19|21| 1| 3| | |From Thebaine or Thebenine by hydrochloric acid. | | | | | | | | | | | | |Hesse, 1871 | 6. Protopine |20|19| 1| 5| | | Crystallisable, alkaline. | | | | | | | | | | | | |Matthiesen and | METHYLNORNARCOTINE |20|19| 1| 7| |Foster, 1868 | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Hesse, 1871 | DEUTEROPINE |20|21| 1| 5| | | Not yet isolated. | | | | | | | | | | | | |Hesse, 1870 | 7. Laudanine |20|25| 1| 4| | |An alkaloid, which, as well as its salts, forms | | | | | | | large crystals; turns orange by hydrochloric acid.| | | | | | | | | | | | |Hesse, 1870 | 8. Codamine |20|25| 1| 4| | |Crystallisable, alkaline, can be sublimed; becomes | | | | | | | green by nitric acid. | | | | | | | | | | | | |Merck, 1848 | 9. Papaverine |21|21| 1| 4| | |Crystallisable, also its hydrochlorate; sulphate in | | | | | | | sulphuric acid precipitated by water. | | | | | | | | | | | | |Hesse, 1865 | 10. Rhœadine |21|21| 1| 6| | |Crystallisable, not distinctly alkaline, can be | | | | | | | sublimed; occurs also in Papaver Rhœas. | | | | | | | | | | | | |Hesse, 1865 | RHŒAGENINE |21|21| 1| 6| | |From rhœadine, crystallisable, alkaline. | | | | | | | | | | | | |Armstrong, 1871 | DIMETHYLNORNARCOTINE |21|21| 1| 7| | | | | | | | |Hesse, 1870 | 11. Meconidine |21|23| 1| 4| | |Amorphous, alkaline, melts at 58°, not stable, the | | | | | | | salts also easily altered. | | | | | | | | | | | | |T. and H. Smith,| 12. Cryptopine |21|23| 1| 5| |1864 |Crystallisable, alkaline, salts tend to gelatinise, | | | | | | | hydrochlorate crystallises in tufts. | | | | | | | | | | | | |Hesse, 1871 | 13. Laudanosine |21|27| 1| 4| | | Crystallisable, alkaline. | | | | | | | | | | | | |Derosne, 1803 | 14. Narcotine |22|23| 1| 7| | |Crystallisable, not alkaline, salts not stable. | | | | | | | | | | | | |Hesse, 1870 | 15. Lanthopine |23|25| 1| 4| | |Microscopic crystals, not alkaline, sparingly | | | | | | | soluble in hot or cold spirit of wine, ether or | | | | | | | benzol. | | | | | | | | | | | | |Pelletier, 1832 | 16. Narceine |23|29| 1| 9| | |Crystallisable (as a hydrate), readily soluble in | | | | | | | boiling water, or in alkalies, levogyre. | | | | | +----------------+----------------------------------------------------+——+——+——+——+

⁂ The following preparations, once famous, are now nearly obsolete in this country. Those that are made with cold water or by fermentation are supposed to be milder than crude opium, and in this respect to be similar to ‘BLACK DROP,’

=Opium, Homberg’s.= Opium exhausted by repeated coction in 10 or 12 times its weight of water, and the mixed liquors evaporated to one third, and kept boiling for 2 or 3 days, adding water from time to time, then straining and evaporating to a pilular consistence. BAUMÉ’S PURIFIED OPIUM is similar.

=Opium, Launcelotte’s.= Opium, 1 lb.; quince juice, 1 gall.; pure potassa, 1 oz.; sugar, 4 oz.; ferment for some time, evaporate to a syrup, digest in rectified spirit, filter, and evaporate the tincture.

=Opium, Let′tuce.= Lactucarium.

=Opium, Newmann’s.= Infusion of opium, strained, mixed with a little sugar, and fermented for some months in a warm place; and, lastly, strained and evaporated to an extract, or preserved in the liquid form.

=Opium, Powell’s.= Opium, exhausted by coction with water, the residuum treated with spirit of wine, and the mixed tincture and decoction evaporated to an extract.

=Opium, Pu′′rified.= Syn. OPIUM PURIFICATUM, L. The purified opium of old pharmacy is now represented by the aqueous extract of the Pharmacopœias. (See page 703.) Formerly, picked opium, beaten to a pilular consistence, with the addition of a little water or proof spirit, was called ‘SOFT PURIFIED OPIUM’ (OPIUM PURIFICATUM MOLLE); and picked opium, dried in a water bath until brittle enough for powdering, was called ‘HARD PURIFIED OPIUM’ (O. P. DURUM). CORNETTE’S and JOSSE’S PURIFIED OPIUM are similar to the extract of Ph. L.

=Opium, Quercetan’s.= Vinegar of opium evaporated to an extract.

=Opium, Strained.= Syn. EXTRACTUM THEBAICUM, OPIUM COLATUM, OPIUM PURIFICATUM, L. Opium dissolved or softened in an equal weight of water, passed through canvas, and evaporated to the consistence of an extract. It is now superseded by the aqueous extract.

=Opium, Tor′refied.= Syn. ROASTED OPIUM; OPIUM TORREFACTUM, L. Opium, dried, cut into thin slices, and roasted on an iron plate, at a low heat, as long as it emits vapours, care being taken not to burn it.

=OPODEL′DOC.= 1. See LINIMENT OF SOAP.

2. (STEER’S OPODELDOC.) This, which differs from common opodeldoc chiefly in containing more soap, is prepared as follows:——

a. White Castile soap (cut very small), 2 lbs.; camphor, 5 oz.; oil of rosemary, 1 oz.; oil of origanum, 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; mix, and digest in a strong bottle (closely corked), by the heat of a water bath, until solution is complete; when the liquid has considerably cooled, add of liquor of ammonia, 11 oz., and immediately put it into wide-mouthed bottles (Steer’s), cork them close, and tie them over with bladder. Very fine, solid and transparent when cold.

b. Soap, 4 oz.; camphor, 1 oz.; oil of rosemary and origanum, of each 1 dr.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; liquor of ammonia, 1-1/2 fl. oz. Mix.

c. (Phil. Coll. of Phar.) White soap, 28 oz.; camphor, 8 oz.; rectified spirit, 6-1/2 pints; dissolve, suffer the impurities to subside, add of liquor of ammonia, 4 fl. oz.; oils of rosemary and horsemint, of each 1 fl. oz.; and pour it into phials, as before.

=OPOPONAX.= A resinous substance obtained from the roots of the Opoponax chironium. It occurs in lumps of a reddish-yellow or brown colour, and has a waxy fracture. It has a powerful odour, which somewhat resembles garlic, and a bitter taste.

Opoponax is only partially soluble in alcohol, According to Payen it consists of a little volatile oil, a resin that melts it at 100° C., gum, inorganic and organic salts, and mechanical admixtures. It is used in French pharmacy; and was held in great esteem by Hippocrates, Theophrastus, and Dioscorides, all of whom employed it therapeutically.

=ORANGE.= Syn. AURANTIUM, L. The common SWEET ORANGE is the fruit of Citrus Aurantium. The SEVILLE or BITTER ORANGE is produced by Citrus vulgaris or Bigaradia.

Oranges are probably about the most wholesome and useful of all the subacid fruits. Their juice differs from that of lemons chiefly in containing less citric acid and more sugar. In their general properties the two are nearly similar.

FACTITIOUS ORANGE JUICE is made by dissolving citric acid, 1 oz., and carbonate of potassa, 1 dr., in water, 1 quart, and digesting the solution on the peel of half an orange until sufficiently flavoured; Narbonne honey or white sugar is then added to impart the necessary sweetness. Instead of orange peel, 5 or 6 drops of oil of orange peel, with 1/2 fl. oz. of tincture of orange peel, may be used.

ORANGE PEEL (CORTEX AURANTII) is an agreeable, stomachic, bitter tonic, especially useful as an adjunct to more active medicines. That ordered to be used in medicine is the exterior (yellow) rind of the Citrus Bigaradia, or bitter orange, dried in the months of February, March, or April. See CANDYING, INFUSION, ISSUE PEAS, OILS (volatile), &c.

=ORANGEADE′.= Syn. ORANGE SHERBET. 1. Juice of 4 oranges, thin peel of 1 orange, lump sugar, 4 oz.; boiling water, 3 pints.

2. Juice and peel of 1 large orange, citric acid, 15 gr.; sugar, 3 oz.; boiling water, 1 quart.

=Orangeade, Effervescing or Aerated.= 1. Mix 1 lb. of syrup of orange peel, a gallon of water, and 1 oz. of citric acid, and charge it strongly with carbonic acid gas with a machine.

2. Syrup of orange juice, 3/4 fl. oz.; aerated water, 1/2 pint.

3. Simple syrup, 1/2 fl. oz.; tincture of orange peel, 1/2 dr.; citric acid, 1 scruple; fill the bottle with aerated water.

4. Put into a soda-water bottle 1/2 oz. to 1 oz. of syrup of orange peel, 30 gr. of bicarbonate of potash, 8 oz. of water, and, lastly, 40 gr. of citric acid, in crystals, and cork immediately.

5. Put into each bottle 2 or 3 dr. of sugar, 2 drops of oil of orange peel, 30 gr. of bicarbonate of potash, or 25 gr. of bicarbonate of soda water to fill the bottle, and 40 gr. of citric acid, as before.

=OR′ANGE CHROME.= Prep. 1. From a solution of chromate of potash and diacetate of lead, as chrome yellow.

2. From chrome yellow or chromate of lead, by acting on it with a weak alkaline lye, until sufficiently darkened. Used as a pigment.

=ORANGE DYES.= These are produced from mixtures of red and yellow dyes in various proportions; or by passing the cloth, previously dyed yellow, through a weak red bath.

1. A very good fugitive orange may be given with annotta, by passing the goods through a solution made with equal parts of annotta and pearlash, or, still better, through a bath made of 1 part of annotta, dissolved in a lye of 1 part each of lime and pearlash and 2 parts of soda. The shade may be reddened by passing the dyed goods through water acidulated with vinegar, lemon juice, or citric acid, or through a solution of alum. The goods are sometimes passed through a weak alum mordant before immersion in the dye bath.

2. (For COTTON.) For 40 lbs. 2-1/2 lbs. annotta, 24 lbs. of bark, 3 quarts of chloride of tin. Boil the annotta, put off the boil, enter and wince until it has a good body. Then wring out, wash well, wring again, and shake out. Next, in a clean boiler, boil the bark in a bag for a quarter of an hour, add the chloride of tin, and enter, wince at the spring till the required shade is got.

3. (For SILK.) For 10 yards. Annotta, 1-3/4 oz.; bark, 1-1/4 oz.; chloride of tin, 1-1/2 oz. Give a good body of annotta at 212° Fahr.; wash in one water, then top with the bark and chloride of tin.

4. (For WOOL.) For 50 lbs. Boil 10 lbs. of bark and 1-1/2 lbs. of cochineal; add 2 lbs. of tartar, 2-1/2 quarts of yellow spirits. Enter at 200° Fahr.; boil 30 minutes. See ANNOTTA, DYEING, &c.

=ORANGE RED.= Syn. SANDIX. From white lead, by calcination, in a nearly similar manner to that by which red lead is prepared from the protoxide. Brighter than red lead. Used wholly as a pigment.

=OR′ANGERY.= The gallery, building, or enclosure in a garden, in which orange trees are preserved or cultivated, to shield them from the effects of the external winter, or to assist their growth by artificial heat.

=OR′CHARD.= See CIDER.

=OR′CEIN.= C_{7}H_{7}NO_{2}. Syn. LICHEN LAKE. A brownish-red powder, obtained by dissolving orcin in ammonia, exposing the solution to the air, and then precipitating with dilute acetic acid. It is nearly insoluble in water, but dissolves freely in solutions of ammonia and the fixed alkalies, with the production of a rich purple or violet colour. It probably constitutes the leading tinctorial ingredient in ARCHIL, CUDBEAR, and LITMUS. (See below.)

=OR′CHIL.= See ARCHIL.

=OR′CIN.= C_{7}H_{8}O_{2}. The general product of the decomposition of the acids obtained from the tinctorial lichens under the influence of heat or the alkaline earths.

Prep. 1. The powdered lichen is treated with boiling alcohol, the tincture filtered whilst hot, and again after it has become cold; the alcohol is then removed by distillation, and the remainder evaporated to the consistence of a syrup; this is redissolved in water, and the solution is again filtered and evaporated to a syrup; it is then set aside some days in a cool place, and the crystals of orcin which form are collected, and dried by pressure in bibulous paper. Impure.

2. Lecanoric or orsenillic acid (impure will do) is boiled in baryta water, and the excess of baryta is precipitated by carbonic acid; the filtered liquid is then evaporated to a small bulk, and set aside to crystallise, as before.

Prop., &c. Large, square, prismatic crystals; slightly yellowish; intensely sweet; very soluble in both water and alcohol; melt to a syrupy liquid, and then distil unchanged. Alkalies decompose it; when exposed to the air, it gradually reddens. (See above.)

=OREIDE.= A variety of brass, in appearance very much like gold. The following, according to MM. Menrier and Valient, its inventors, is the composition of this alloy:——Copper, 100 parts; zinc, 17 parts; magnesia, 6 parts; sal ammoniac, 3·6 parts; quicksilver, 1·80 parts; tartar of commerce, 9 parts. The copper being first melted, the other ingredients are added by small portions at a time, the whole being kept in fusion for about half an hour, and during which time they are kept skimmed. The oreide has a fine grain, is malleable, is capable of being brilliantly polished, and has its lustre restored by the use of acidulated water.

=OR′ELLIN.= A yellow colouring matter contained together with bixin in annotta. It is soluble in water and in alcohol, slightly soluble in ether, and dyes alumed goods yellow. Also the name sometimes given to purified annotta. The commercial annotta is dissolved in an alkaline solution, either caustic or carbonated, and then precipitated by an acid. See ANNOTTA.

=ORES.= The mineral bodies from which metals are obtained. The processes adopted for this purpose constitute OPERATIVE METALLURGY; those by which their value is determined, MINERAL ASSAYING.

A very small proportion only of the metals are met with in nature in the free or elementary condition, by far the greater number found being united with some non-metallic element or elements, in definite atomic proportions, and as such forming true chemical compounds, in which in almost every instance the physical and chemical properties of the metal are obliterated. In these bodies, which, when they are used as sources of the metals commonly employed by man, are called ORES, the metal is mostly combined with oxygen or sulphur, sometimes with carbonic acid, and less frequently with chlorine, and other negative elements. Thus we have the native combinations of iron and oxygen constituting the minerals known as hæmatite iron ore (Fe_{2}O_{3}), bog iron ore (Fe_{2}O_{3},3H_{2}O), and magnetic iron ore (Fe_{2}O_{3},FeO), of tin and oxygen in tin stone (SnO_{2}), and of copper and oxygen known as red copper ore (Cu_{2}O). Of the principal ores into which sulphur enters as a chemical ingredient, we may mention native sulphide of antimony (Sb_{2}S_{3}); the two native sulphides of arsenic, realgar (As_{2}S_{2}) and orpiment (As_{2}S_{3}); galena, or native sulphide of lead (PbS), blende, or native sulphide of zinc (ZnS), and cinnabar, or native sulphide of mercury (HgS). Besides the above, there are also certain double native sulphides, such as the double sulphide of iron and copper, known as Peacock ore, and having the composition Fe_{2}S_{3},3Cu_{2}S; iron and copper pyrites (Fe_{2}S_{3},Cu_{2}S); and red silver ore (Sb_{2}S_{3},3AgS).

In the state of carbonate, ores occur——as malachite native carbonate of copper (CuCO_{3}.Cu(HO){2}), as calamine, or native carbonate of zinc (ZnCO{3}), and as spathose iron ore, or native carbonate of iron (FeCO_{3}). Horn silver and horn lead, the former having the composition AgCl, and the latter PbCO_{3} + PbCl_{2} are illustrations of ores containing chlorine.

The process of obtaining the metal from the ore of course varies with the nature and character of the latter. Before, however, this operation can be undertaken, the ore itself is subjected to certain mechanical operations, in order to remove the gangue or the adhering earthy, rocky, stony, and other matters with which it is always more or less mixed up. The amount of attention which is given to this preparatory treatment of the ores greatly depends upon their value; those, for instance, of copper and lead as commanding a higher market price than those of zinc and iron being submitted to commensurate treatment. This process of freeing the ores from the gangue, which is termed dressing, is generally conducted as follows, mostly near the pit entrance of the mine whence the ores have been extracted.

If the material brought up to the pit’s mouth is a lead or a copper ore, it mostly contains a number of lumps, which are considered sufficiently pure for the smelting oven, and these are set aside without being dressed. Generally, however, the ore is first broken by hammers into pieces about as large as a walnut, and the best pieces are then selected for smelting.

The remaining or inferior portions are then crushed under the large and horizontal cylinders of a grinding mill, to which they are supplied by hoppers. After being ground the ore is separated by being made to pass through coarse sieves, the coarser portions being set aside for the stampers, whilst the finer ones are subjected to the operation of jigging. This consists in a workman separating the contents of the sieve under water by imparting to them such a movement that the bits of ore (particularly if they are of a friable nature like galena) become broken, and thus pass through the meshes of the sieve to the bottom of the water, whilst the less friable and specifically lighter matter, mostly consisting of gangue, remains behind on the sieve. This residue, being mixed with the coarser portions resulting from the first sifting, and which have not been subjected to the jigging process, is transferred to the stamping mill, whilst those portions of ore found at the bottom of the well are reserved for smelting. If the ore be one containing tin, it does not undergo the above processes, but passes at once to the stamping apparatus.

This stamping apparatus consists of five or six large wooden beams, each weighing 1/8th of a ton. Each beam is covered at the bottom with iron, and is made to rise and fall in succession by means of projections from a horizontal axle, made to revolve either by water or steam power. Behind the stampers is an inclined board, upon which are placed the residue and coarser portions of the ore already described, and when the stampers are in motion the ore slides down the inclined plane under them, and thus gets crushed. When it is thought the ore has been sufficiently crushed, it is, by means of a current of water running through the mill, carried away through a grating in front of the mill into a channel in which there are two pits, with the result that the more valuable and heavier portion of the ore becomes deposited in the first pit, whilst the inferior portion is carried on, and falls into the second one.

The crushed ore has, however, to undergo other operations before it is considered sufficiently pure for the furnace. That part (the purer portion, called the crop by the Cornish miner) which has deposited in the first pit after removal therefrom, is subjected to a series of further washings, the different apparatus by which these are effected being known in Cornish language as a buddle and a kieve.

“The crop is first subjected to washing in the buddle; this is a wooden trough about 8 feet long, 3 wide, and 2 deep, fixed in the ground with one end somewhat elevated. At the upper end a small stream of water enters, and is reduced to a uniform thin sheet by means of a distributing board, on which a number of small pieces of wood are fastened to break the stream. The ore to be washed is placed in small quantities at a time on a board just below the distributing board, and somewhat more inclined than the body of the buddle, and as the ore is spread out into a thin layer the water carries it forward.

“The richer portions subside near the head of the trough, and the light ores are carried further down. ‘The heads’ are then tossed into the kieve, a covered wooden tub, which is filled with water and ore added by a workman, who keeps the contents of the kieve in continual agitation by turning an agitator, the handle of which projects through the lid of the tub. When the vessel is nearly full the agitation is stopped; the kieve is struck sharply upon the side several times, and its contents are allowed to subside; the upper half of the sediment is again passed through the buddle. Various modifications of the washing process are resorted to, but they are all the same in principle.”[78]

[Footnote 78: Miller.]

The water which has been used in washing the ore on the buddle, as well as that in the kieve, contains in addition to the débris of the gangue more or less of small pieces of the ore itself. Hence this water is not allowed to escape, but conveyed into a narrow channel cut at the end of the buddle, where it deposits the solid materials. These being then removed undergo a second washing on an inclined stage, a process by which any remaining mineral is recovered, followed in Cornwall.

The above is the method of dressing the ores of lead and tin, and, with some modifications, those of copper.

Some metals, as, for example, certain iron and zinc ores, previous to being dressed, require a preliminary exposure for some time to the atmosphere. This operation, which is called ‘weathering,’ has the effect of aiding the subsequent removal by water of certain materials of a clayey, slatey, or marly nature, which sometimes adhere very tenaciously to the ores in question.

Again, in some cases weathering is had recourse to for obtaining a metallic compound in a soluble form. It is by this means that iron pyrites if exposed to the air after a time becomes converted into a sulphate of the metal.

Large quantities of commercial sulphate of iron or green vitriol are manufactured from this natural sulphate after it has been dissolved by the rain, and then crystallised. Sometimes the ores after dressing, and previous to roasting or smelting, are subjected to a process of calcination without access of air, with the object of depriving them of water, carbonic acid and bituminous matters, and also of rendering the ore softer and in a favorable condition to be acted upon by the subsequent metallurgic operations.

The ores having been by these various processes sufficiently freed from extraneous matters, are next, according to their composition, either submitted to the operations of roasting or smelting, and in many cases to both.

Roasting. This operation is mostly carried out in a reverbatory furnace. The result of the process upon the ores containing sulphur, which are those chiefly subjected to it, varies with the nature of the ore. Thus, when the sulphides of antimony, arsenic, or zinc are roasted, the sulphur escapes as sulphurous anhydride with the formation of the volatile oxides of arsenic, antimony, or zinc, which sublime, and are afterwards collected and purified with cinnabar or native sulphide of mercury.

Sulphurous anhydride is evolved with the vapours of metallic mercury, these being at the same time condensed by cooling. When copper pyrites (the double sulphide of copper and iron) is placed in the reverbatory furnace, the copper and iron become converted into oxides.

When galena or lead sulphide is exposed to the roasting process, lead oxide and sulphate, with the copious escape of sulphurous acid, are at first formed. The oxide and sulphate become eventually decomposed, leaving behind metallic lead, with a small portion of a subsulphide of the metal. In most cases, however, the effect of roasting on an ore is to convert it into an oxide.

Clay ironstone, which is that from which the greater part of the iron is manufactured in Great Britain, and that known as the black band of the Scotch coal fields, are impure carbonates of iron, and these when roasted yield ferric oxide. The roasting in the case of these minerals is sometimes effected in kilns, but more frequently in the open air; in the latter case by the firing of stacks composed of alternate layers of the ore and of small coal. Calamine or native carbonate of zinc is converted into oxide sometimes by being roasted in kilns, but more frequently in a reverbatory furnace.

Smelting. Except in those cases in which the ore is directly reduced from the state of a sulphide to that of a metal, it is, as has been shown, converted into an oxide. If, therefore, it be required to procure the metal per se, some method must be adopted for the removal of the oxygen from its oxide.

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Cooley's Cyclopædia of Practical Receipts and Collateral Information in the Arts, Manufactures, Professions, and Trades..., Sixth Edition, Volume II (part 3 of 12)