Part 2 (part 3 of 5)

Part 2 (part 3 of 5)

The interpretation of these experiments is as follows: Amorphous selenium retains a very large amount of specific heat, which renders it a non-conductor of electricity: when heated to 80° this amorphous solid mass begins to change its amorphous condition for the crystalline form, in which form it possesses a greatly reduced amount of specific heat, giving rise to the increase of temperature beyond that of surrounding objects when the change of condition is once set in. If care is taken to limit the rise of temperature of the selenium to 100° C., and if it is very gradually cooled after being maintained for an hour or two at that temperature, a mass is obtained which conducts electricity to some extent, and which shows increased conductivity under the influence of light. But in examining the conductivity of selenium so prepared at various temperatures below 80°, and without accession of light, it was found that its conductivity increases with rise of temperature, in which respect it resembles carbon, sulphide of metals, and generally electrolytes. This my brother terms his first modification of selenium.

But in extending the heating influence up to 210°, and in maintaining that temperature by means of a bath of paraffin for some hours before gradually reducing the same, he obtained a second modification of selenium, in which its conductivity increases with fall of temperature, and in which modification it is, therefore, analogous to the metals. This second modification of selenium is a better conductor of electricity than the first, and its sensitiveness to light is so great that its conductivity in sunlight is fifteen times greater than it is in the dark, as will be seen from the following table, in which is given the effects of different intensities of light on selenium (Modification II) obtained at Woolwich on the 14th of February, 1876:——

--------------------------------------------------------------- Selenium in |Relative Conductivities. | Resistance in |-------------------------| Ohms. |Deflections. | Ratio. | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------- 1. Dark | 32 | 1·0 | 10,070,000 2. Diffused | | | daylight. | 110 | 3·4 | 2,930,000 3. Lamplight | 180 | 5·6 | 1,790,000 4. Sunlight | 470 | 14·7 | 680,000 ---------------------------------------------------------------

Unfortunately, however, the second modification is not so stable as the first; when lowered in temperature parts of it change back into the first or metalloid modification by taking up specific heat, and in watching this effect a point is discovered at which ratio of increase of conductivity with fall of temperature changes sign, or where the electrolyte substance appears to predominate over the metallic selenium. If cooled down to 15° C., the whole of the metallic selenium is gradually being converted back into the first variety. The physical conclusions here arrived at may be said to be an extension of Helmholtz’s theory that the conductivity of metals varies inversely as the total heat contained in them. Helmholtz had only the sensible heat of temperature (counting from the absolute zero point) in view, but it has already been shown by Hittorf and Werner Siemens that it applies in the case of tin and some other metals, also to specific heat and to the latent heat of fusion. In selenium the specific heat is an extremely variable quantity, changing in the solid mass at certain temperatures, and, it is contended, under the influence of light. Aided by these experimental researches, my brother arrives at the conclusion that the influence of light upon selenium may be explained by a “change of its molecular condition near the surface, from the first or electrolyte into the second or metallic modification, or in other words, by a liberation of specific heat upon the illuminated surface of crystalline selenium, which liberated heat is reabsorbed when the liberating cause has ceased to act.” Professor Adams, who has likewise investigated this singular action of light upon selenium, ascribes it to a different cause. He says:——

1. That the light falling on the selenium causes an electromotive force in it in the same direction as the battery current passing through it, the effect being similar to the effect due to polarisation in an electrolyte, but in the opposite direction.

2. That the light falling on the selenium causes a change on its surface akin to the change which it produces on the surface of a phosphorescent body, and that in consequence of this change the electro-current is enabled to pass more readily over the surface of the selenium.

=SEM′OLA (Bullock’s).= This preparation consists of wheaten flour deprived of much of its starch by washings with water, and contains the largest amount (48 per cent.) of nitrogenous or albumenoid principles consistent with its adaptability to culinary purposes. It is specially intended as a food for infants, weakly children, and invalids.

=SEMOLI′NA.= Syn. SÉMOULE, SEMOULINA. The large hard grains of wheat flour retained in the bolting machine, after the fine flour has passed through its meshes. “The best sémoule is obtained from the wheat of the southern parts of Europe. With the sémoule the fine white Parisian bread called ‘gruau’ is baked.” (Ure.)

=SEN′EGA.= Syn. SENEKA, SNAKEROOT, RATTLESNAKE R.; SENEGÆ RADIX (B. P.); SENEGA (Ph. L., E., & D.), RADIX SENEGÆ, L. “The root of the Polygala Senega, Linn.” (Ph. L.) A stimulating diaphoretic, and expectorant; in large doses diuretic, cathartic, and emetic. In America it is used as an antidote to the bite of the rattlesnake. Drs Chapman and Hartshorne extol it as an emmenagogue. Dr Pereira says that it is an exceedingly valuable remedy in the latter stages of bronchial or pulmonary inflammation, when this disease occurs in aged, debilitated, or torpid constitutions.——Dose, 10 to 30 gr., in powder or decoction (combined with aromatics, opium, or camphor), thrice daily.

According to Patrouillard senega is occasionally adulterated with the roots of Asclepias vincetoxicum. The branches of the latter root are cylindrical, very white, and almost devoid of taste; those of senega, on the contrary, are yellowish and twisted, and have a very acrid taste. The froth produced by shaking an infusion of senega keeps much longer than that produced by an infusion of the adulterant. In other respects there is a great resemblance between the two roots.

=SEN′EGIN.= Syn. POLYGALIN, POLYGALIC ACID. A white odourless powder, discovered by Gehlin in the bark of seneka root (Polygala Senega).

=SEN′NA.= Syn. SENNA, SENNÆ FOLIA, L. There are three principal varieties:——

1. ALEXANDRIAN SENNA (SENNA ALEXANDRINA——B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), referred in the, Ph. L. to Cassia officinalis and Cassia obovata, in the Ph. D. to Cassia acutifolia (Delile), and in the Ph. E. to various species of cassia. The leaves are “unequal at the base, ovate acute, or obovate mucronate.” (Ph. L.) It is generally mixed with the leaves of Solenostemma Argel (argel leaves), the presence of which is often the occasion of much griping. The leaf of argel is fully an inch long, warty, regular in its formation, and the lateral nerves are imperfectly seen on the under side; whilst that of the true Alexandrian senna never exceeds 3/4 inch in length, is oblique, and the nerves on the under side are very conspicuous.

2. INDIAN SENNA (SENNA INDICA——B. P.; Ph. L., & E.) is referred to Cassia officinalis in the Ph. L., and in the Ph. E. & D. to Cassia elongata (Lemaire, Lisancourt). The leaf is “unequal at the base,” and “Lanceolate.” (Ph. L.)

3. TINNEVELLY SENNA, forming the finest Indian, now introduced into the Ph. D., is therein described as composed of the leaflets of Cassia oblongata. These are pale green, thin, flexible, and from 1 to 2 inches long, and nearly 1/2 inch broad. This variety is equal in medicinal virtue to the best Alexandrian, and is to be preferred, on account of its being imported perfectly free from adulteration.

Senna is purgative in doses of 10 to 30 gr., either in powder or made into an infusion of tea with Water, combined with ginger, caraways, or some other aromatic, to prevent griping. It acts chiefly on the small intestines, and generally effects its purpose within 4 hours after being taken.

=SE′′PIA.= A pigment prepared from the ‘ink’ or black fluid secreted by Sepia officinalis (Linn.), and several other varieties of cuttle-fish. The contents of the ‘ink bags’ are inspissated as soon as possible after collection, and then form the crude sepia of commerce. This is prepared for artists by boiling it for a short time in a weak lye of caustic alkali, precipitating the solution with an acid, and well washing and carefully drying the precipitate by a gentle heat. It possesses a fine brown colour, and is used like Indian ink.

=SER′PENTARY.= Syn. VIRGINIAN SNAKE-ROOT; SERPENTARIA RADIX (B. P.), SERPENTARIÆ RADIX, SERPENTARIA (Ph. L. & E.), ARISTOLOCHIA SERPENTARIA (Ph. D.), L. An excellent stimulating diaphoretic and tonic; in typhoid and putrid fevers, dyspepsia, &c. It is admirably suited to check vomiting and to tranquilise the stomach, particularly in bilious cases. (Dr Chapman.)——Dose, 10 to 20 gr., every third or fourth hour, its use being preceded by an aperient.

=SE′′RUM.= Syn. SERALBUMEN. The clear pale fluid in which the blood-globules float, and which separates from blood during its coagulation. It is, essentially, a feebly alkaline solution of albumen. See ALBUMEN.

=SESQUI-.= See NOMENCLATURE.

=SE′TON.= Syn. SETACEUM. An artificial ulcer, made by passing a portion of silk or thread under the skin by means of a seton needle, a part of which is drawn through daily, and thus keeps up a constant irritation. Occasionally the thread is anointed with some irritating substance for the purpose of increasing the discharge.

=SEVEN SEALS, or Golden Wonder——Dr Radcliffe’s Great Remedy.= According to the prospectus, this remedy is good for cholera morbus, dysentery, diarrhœa, burns, sprains, rheumatism, warts and corns, and all diseases. In a quadrangular bottle we find about 95 grammes of a brownish-orange clear fluid, which is a spirituous tincture of cayenne pepper mixed with ether, chloroform, American oil of peppermint, and a little camphor. The proportion of these ingredients is, approximately, 4 grammes ether, 6 grammes chloroform, 4 gramme camphor or camphoraceous oil, 2 grammes oil of peppermint, 35 grammes tincture of capsicum. 50 grammes spirit of wine (90 per cent.) (Hager.)

=SE′VUM (Prepared).= Syn. SEVUM PRÆPARATUM (B. P.), SEVUM MAGNETICUM, L. Prep. 1. (‘Pharm. Journ.’) Mould candles, at least 2 years old, melted by a very gentle heat, and strained from the wicks.

2. As MAGNETIC ADEPS. Used to make mercurial ointment. Triturated with 8, 12, or 16 times its weight of quicksilver, the globules are completely extinguished in from 10 to 15 minutes.

=SEWAGE, Removal and Disposal of.= The waste and putrescible refuse discharged from dwelling-houses by house-pipes and drains into sewers may be said, in general terms, to consist, besides human fæces and urine,[150] of the dirty water and soapsuds arising from washing our bodies, our houses, and linen, more or less foul, as well as the water which, having been used for cooking operations, necessarily contains variable quantities of mineral and vegetable matter.

[Footnote 150: In the drainage of some towns the fæces are not allowed to enter the sewers. This, however, is the exception.]

The above statement will have prepared us not only for the complex nature of sewage water as shown in the following tables, but also for the variability in the amount of its constituents, this latter condition depending upon locality, and, as experiment shows, the hour of the day at which the sewage was collected.

Composition of Sewer Water (WAY).

+-------------------------------+----------------------------------+ | | Grains per Gallon. | | +--------+-------+-------+---------+ | | 1. | 2. | 3. | 4. | +-------------------------------+--------+-------+-------+---------+ |Organic matters (soluble) | 19·40 | 41·03 | 12·30 | } 9·20 | |Organic matters (suspended) | 39·10 | 17·00 | 24·37 | } | |Lime | 10·13 | 14·71 | 12·52 | 11·25 | |Magnesia | 1·42 | 1·82 | 1·59 | 1·35 | |Soda | 4·01 | 2·40 | 2·41 | 1·89 | |Potash | 3·66 | 3·57 | 3·31 | 1·09 | |Chloride of Sodium | 26·40 | 22·61 | 34·30 | 5·58 | |Sulphuric Acid | 5·34 | 5·31 | 6·40 | 3·43 | |Phosphoric Acid | 2·63 | 5·76 | 2·48 | 0·64 | |Carbonic Acid | 9·01 | 8·92 | 11·76 | } | |Silicia {Oxide of Iron} | 6·20 | 13·55 | 6·46 | } 4·77 | | {Oxide of Zinc} | | | | | |Ammonia | 7·48 | 8·43 | 7·88 | | | +--------+-------+-------+---------+ | |134·78 |145·11 |125·78 | 39·20 | +-------------------------------+--------+-------+-------+---------+

London Sewer Water (LETHEBY).

+-----------------+---------------------------------------------+ | | Grains per gallon. | | +--------------+--------------+---------------+ | | Day Sewage. | Night Sewage.| Storm Sewage. | +-----------------+--------------+--------------+---------------+ |Soluble matters | 55·74 | 65·09 | 70·26 | |Organic matters | 15·08 | 7·42 | 14·75 | |Nitrogen | 5·44 | 5·19 | 7·26 | |Mineral matters | 40·66 | 57·67 | 55·71 | |Phosphoric acid | 0·85 | 0·69 | 1·03 | |Potash | 1·21 | 1·15 | 1·61 | |Suspended matters| 38·15 | 13·99 | 31·88 | |Organic | 16·11 | 7·48 | 17·55 | |Nitrogen | 0·78 | 0·29 | 0·67 | |Mineral | 22·04 | 6·51 | 14·33 | |Phosphoric acid | 0·89 | 0·64 | 0·98 | |Potash | 8·08 | 0·04 | 0·16 | +-----------------+--------------+--------------+---------------+

Letheby states that the sewer water in towns with water-closets has the following average composition per gallon:

Organic matter 27·72 Nitrogen 6·21 Phosphoric acid 1·57 Potash 2·03

Sewer water placed under the microscope reveals various dead decaying matters, besides swarms of bacteria, ciliated infusoria, amœbiform bodies, and fungi, consisting of spores and mycelium. The rotifera, diatoms, and desmids are few in number.[151] That a fluid having a composition such as sewage water has been shown to possess, when mixed with solid excreta, would, from the decomposition that so soon takes place in it, seriously endanger the health of those in whose habitations it was allowed to remain, is so self-evident to the sanitarian and pathologist that it is no wonder every civilised community should endeavour to get rid of this refuse from their habitations as speedily and effectively as possible. But the removal of the home sewage is a proceeding as illogical as it is imperfect if we afterwards neglect so to dispose of it as to render it innocuous or devoid of danger to the public health. The old method of getting rid of sewage (even when deprived of the fæcal matter) by turning it into rivers and streams, has, more particularly since the Report of the Rivers Pollution Commissioners in 1870, been gradually abandoned. That when sewer water passes into a river it undergoes a great amount of purification from oxidation, subsidence, and the agency of water-plants is undeniable.

[Footnote 151: Parkes.]

Letheby considered that if sewage mixed with twenty times its bulk of water flowed for nine miles it would be perfectly oxidised. It appears, however, from the experiments of Frankland, that so far as sewage when mixed with twenty times its volume of water being oxidised during a flow of ten or twelve miles, scarcely two thirds of it would be so destroyed in the flow of 168 miles, at the rate of one mile per hour, or after the lapse of a week. The results of Frankland’s experiments led him to infer that there is no river in the United Kingdom of sufficient length to effect the destruction of sewage by oxidation; and he adds, “there is no process practicable on a large scale by which the noxious material (sewage matter) can be removed from water once so contaminated, and, therefore, I am of opinion that water which has been once contaminated by sewage or manure matter is thenceforth unsuitable for domestic use.”

The discharge of sewage water, whether with or without solid excreta, into our springs and rivers, was a practice so dangerous and prejudicial to health that it is no cause for wonder the Legislature should, during the session of 1876, have passed a measure the object of which was after the lapse of one year to facilitate legal proceedings being instituted against persons who permitted sewage or other deleterious refuse to flow into rivers or streams. This measure, known as the “Rivers Pollution Prevention Act,” is now in force, and permits offenders to be proceeded against; but it still leaves unsolved the important hygienic problem——How are we ultimately and with safety to the community to dispose of our sewage?

The numerous processes (the chief of which will be brought under notice) proposed for the attainment of this end have been divided by writers and authorities on sanitary science into——

1. WET METHODS.

2. DRY METHODS.

1. WET METHODS. These comprise the removal of excreta——(1) By discharging it into running water. (2) By storage in tank with overflow. (3) By carrying it into the sea. (4) By precipitation. (5) By irrigation and filtration.

(1) By discharging it into running water. Our previous remarks have already shown in what respect this proposal is fallacious, and why it has, therefore, been discontinued.

(2) By storage in tank with overflow. In this process the sewage runs into a well-cemented tank fitted with an overflow pipe, which sometimes leads into a second tank arranged in the same manner; the solids subside, and are removed from time to time, whilst the liquid is allowed to run away. Instead of permitting the liquid to escape into a ditch or stream, it has been proposed to carry it into drain pipes, which are buried from half a foot to a foot in the subsoil, where it will be readily sucked up by the roots of grasses. This plan is only suited for small villages, or for a single house or mansion.

(3) By carrying it into the sea. The precautions to be observed in the working of this system are, wherever possible, to let the outlet or discharge pipe, which conveys the sewage to the sea, be always under water even at ebb tide, and to take special care that the wind does not blow up the sewers. A tide-flap, opening outwards, which is usually fixed by a hinge on the sewer at its outlet, will obviate this last contingency. At high water the tide will fill the outfall sewers to its own level, and to that extent will check the discharge of sewage, and thus cause a deposit in the sewers filled with mixed sea water and sewage. It is most important that this should be removed.

“If the sewage cannot be got well out to sea, and if it issues in narrow channels, it may cause a nuisance, and may require to be purified before discharge.”[152]

[Footnote 152: Parkes.]

(4) By precipitation. The simplest of the plans proposed for this method of removal is by subsidence only, and would afterwards permit the discharge of the supernatant sewage water into running water or over the land. The removal of the solid material is effected in a manner somewhat similar to that followed in plan No. 2, but as the thin water which runs off must, when poured into rivers or streams, be almost as dangerous as the sewage itself, the process of precipitation by settlement alone has little to commend it over the old rude and objectionable practice, a circumstance that in these days will doubtless lead to its entire prohibition.

In order to ensure greater purification the sewage in the subsiding tanks is now usually mixed with certain chemical reagents, which, it is believed, have the effect not only of speedily precipitating the solid materials, but also carrying down injurious matters suspended in the sewage water, thus rendering it sufficiently pure to be discharged without risk to health into any watercourse.

Of the numerous precipitants employed for this purpose, we may mention the following:

Lime and salts of lime. Quicklime, in the proportion of 8 gr. to a gallon of water; or 1 lb. to about 600 galls. of sewage; lime, with the addition of about a fortieth of its weight of chloride of lime; calcic phosphate dissolved in sulphuric acid; Whitehead’s patent, which consists of a mixture of mono- and dicalcic phosphate; chloride of calcium.

Aluminous compounds. Bird’s process——A mixture of aluminous earths and sulphuric acid. Andersons and Lenk’s——Impure sulphate of alum; refuse of alum works, either alone or mixed with lime or charcoal. Scott’s cement process——Clay mixed with lime; natural phosphate of aluminium dissolved by sulphuric acid and mixed with lime.

The quantities of the above substances when used as precipitants vary, in some of them fifty, and in others eighty grains to a gallon of sewer water being employed.

Magnesium salts. Impure chloride of magnesium mixed with superphosphate of lime.

Carbon. As vegetable charcoal, peat, seaweed charcoal, carbonised tan, lignite, and Boghead coke.

Iron. In the form of sulphate. Ellerman’s and Dale’s——Perchloride; the sulphate is sometimes mixed with coal dust.

Manganese. Condy’s fluid.

Zinc. As sulphate and chloride.

Sillar’s process. The A. B. C. process, so called because composed of alum, blood, charcoal, and clay.

Hill’s process. Lime and tar are the precipitants. The effluent water is filtered through charcoal. The question now arises as to whether the sewer water after treatment with any of the above substances is in a fit condition to be poured into a stream or river. The Rivers Pollution Commissioners in their first and second reports give a number of analyses, from which it appears that on an average the chemical treatment removes 89·8 per cent. of the matters suspended in the sewage waters, but only 36·6 per cent. of the organic nitrogen is dissolved in them.

Of the A. B. C. process, Mr Crookes states that, when properly carried out, it removes all the phosphoric acid; and Professor Voelcker’s analysis of the effluent water from sewage treated by the acid phosphate of alumina process gives more ammonia than the original sewer water, less organic nitrogen by one half, and less phosphoric acid. Such a water is said by some authorities to be pure enough to be discharged into streams.

General Scott’s process. General Scott proposes to treat the sewer water with lime and clay, and instead of employing the precipitate obtained by this means as a manure, would, after burning it, use it as cement. He argues that the deposit contains so much combustible matter as to considerably reduce the quantity of coal usually expended in the manufacture of cement, and consequently the cement could be sold at a remunerative price.

This, like the ‘carbonisation’ process, possesses the merit of effectually destroying any noxious principles present in the deposit.

Commenting on the various precipitation processes Dr Parkes writes:——“When the sewer water is cleared by any of these plans is it fit to be discharged into streams? In the opinion of some authorities, if the precipitate is a good one it may be so, and it appears certain that in many cases it is chemically a tolerably pure water, and it will no longer silt up the bed nor cause a nuisance. But it still contains, in all cases, some organic matter, as well as ammonia, potash, and phosphoric acid. It has, therefore, fertilising powers certainly, and possibly it has also injurious powers. No proof of this has been given, but also no disproof at present, and when we consider how small the agencies of the specific diseases probably are, and how likely it is that they remain suspended, we do not seem to be in a position to expect that the water, after subsidence of the deposit, will be safe to drink.

(5) By irrigation and filtration. By this process is meant the passing of the sewer water over and through soil, with the object not only of effecting its purification to such an extent as to render it fit to be discharged into a river or stream, but also of employing it as a valuable manure. In the present article we shall treat only of the application of the process to the first of these purposes.

There is ample evidence to show that, if carried out with due attention to detail, no process for the treatment of effluent sewage water, so as to render it innocuous, is equal to that which subjects it to irrigation and filtration.

The Rivers Pollution Commissioners thus report on it:——“We are, therefore, justified in recommending irrigation as a safe as well as profitable and efficient method of cleansing town sewage.”

The conditions necessary for the successful carrying out of this system are thus stated by Mr T. J. Dyke, in explaining “the process of the downward intermittent filtration of sewage at Troedyrhiw, near Merthyr Tydvil:”——“1. The soil of the land to be used must be porous. 2. A main effluent drain, which must not be less than six feet from the surface, must be provided. 3. The surface of the soil to be so inclined as to permit the sewage stream to flow over the whole land. 4. The filtering area should be divided into four equal parts, each part to be irrigated with the sewage for six hours, and then an interval of eighteen hours to elapse before a second irrigation takes place; each of the four parts would thus be used for six hours out of the twenty-four. An acre of land so prepared would purify 100,000 gallons of sewage per day.” At Troedyrhiw the sewage has lime added to it, and the mixture is strained through cinders into tanks. From the tank it flows on to the conduit, by which it is conveyed to the filtering areas.

“These consist of about twenty acres of land, immediately adjoining the road on which the tanks are placed, and have been arranged into filtering areas or beds on a plan devised by Mr J. Bayley Denton. The land is a loamy soil, eighteen inches thick, overlying a bed of gravel. The whole of these twenty acres have been underdrained to a depth of from five to seven feet. The lateral drains are placed at regular distances from each other, and run towards the main or effluent drain. This is everywhere six feet deep. The surface of the land is formed into beds; these have been made to slope towards the main drain by a fall of 1 in 150.

“The surface is ploughed in ridges; on these vegetables are planted or seeds sown. The line of the ridged furrow is in the direction of the under drain. Along the raised margin of each bed, in each area, delivering carriers are placed, one edge being slightly depressed.

“The strained sewage passes from the conduits into the delivery carriers, and as it overflows the depressed edges runs gently into and along the farrows down to the lowest and most distant part of the plot. The sewage continues to be so delivered for six hours, then an interval of rest of eighteen hours takes place, and again the land is thoroughly charged with the fertilising stream. The water percolates through the six feet of earth, and reaches the lateral drains, which convey it to the main effluent drain.

“The result of this plan of disposing of sewage by downward intermittent filtration, may be seen in samples of the effluent water taken from the outlet of the main drain. Such water is bright, perfectly pellucid, free from smell, and tastes only of common salt. It may be safely drunk——in fact, is used by the workmen employed on the farm. During the process of irrigation no nuisance is caused, for the soil quickly absorbs all the fluids passed on to it; in fact, in two or three hours after the water has ceased to flow on the land, an observer would say that the ground had not been wetted for days. The workmen say that no unpleasant smell is noticed, nor has the health of the persons employed, in any one instance, been affected by any presumed poisonous exhalation.

“The only imperfection of the plan is that, at the end of the furrows nearest the lowest corner of a plot, a slight deposit of scum is formed. This scum is formed by the fine insoluble precipitate caused mainly by the addition of lime to the sewage stream.”

The table below, taken from the report of the Rivers Pollution Commissioners, gives the composition of the effluent water after it has passed through the soil.

If those results be compared with the condition of the supernatant sewage water, after treatment by any of the chemical precipitants already enumerated, the inferiority of these latter as methods of removal of the organic impurity of the sewage water will be evident.

The best of these precipitants give a removal of only 65·8 per cent. of organic nitrogen, whilst the A. B. C. process shows a diminution of 58·9 only. It appears from the first and second reports of the Rivers Pollution Commissioners, that on an average the precipitation processes remove 89·8 per cent. of the suspended matters, but only 36·6 per cent. of the organic nitrogen dissolved in the liquid.

The effects of a soil upon sewage water passing through it are the following:——

1. The filtering property of the soil mechanically arrests and retains the suspended particles of the sewage.

2 and 3. The porosity and physical attraction of the soil lead to the oxidation of the organic matter contained in the sewage, as instanced in the discovery of nitrates and nitrites in the effluent water, which did not exist previous to filtration.

4. A chemical reaction takes place between the constituents of the sewage and those of the soil.

If the charges brought against the system of irrigation, viz. that it is detrimental to the health and comfort of those who reside near sewage farms cannot be denied, it seems pretty certain that, in most cases, any ill effects arising from the method may be traced to its defective management. The selection of the soil which is to receive the sewage is a highly important consideration. The best for this purpose seems to be a loose marl, containing oxide of iron and alumina; but sand, as well as chalk, are both said to answer excellently.

+-------------------------------------------+-----------------------+----------+ | |Percentage of dissolved|Percentage| | |Organic Pollution |suspended | | | removed. |Organic | |Results of irrigation, in part per 100,000.+----------+------------+Pollution | | | Organic | Organic |removed | | | Carbon. | Nitrogen. | | +-------------------------------------------+----------+------------+----------+ | | | | | |On fallow land at Chorley (adhesive loam) | 62·3 | 70·2 | 100· | |At Edinburgh (both sand and clay) | 45·3 | 81·1 | 84·9 | |Barking (gravelly soil) | 65·8 | 86·2 | 100· | |Aldershot (light sand)—— | | | | | Best result | 91·8 | 87·3 | 99·7 | | Worst result | 69·9 | 82·9 | 87·7 | | Average result | 80·9 | 85·1 | 93·7 | |Carlisle (light loam) | 77·9 | 59·8 | 100· | |Penrith (light loam) | 75·0 | 77·2 | 100· | |Rugby (adhesive soil) | 72·3 | 92·9 | 96·0 | |Banbury (principally clay)—— | | | | | Best result | 87·8 | 91·3 | 96·0 | | Worst result | 64·1 | 80·1 | 90·3 | | Average result | 76· | 85·7 | 93·2 | |Warwick (stiff clay) | 71·7 | 89·6 | 100· | |Worthing (loam) | 42·7 | 85·3 | 100· | |Bedford (light gravelly soil), | | | | | average result | 71·6 | 81·3 | 100· | |Norwood (clay), average result | 65·0 | 75·1 | 100· | |Croydon (gravelly soil)—— | | | | | Best result | 73·2 | 93·2 | 100· | | Worst result | 61·6 | 90·4 | 100· | | Average result | 67·4 | 91·8 | 100· | +-------------------------------------------+----------+------------+----------+

If the soil be of a stiff clayey nature it must be broken up and mixed with sand, lime, or ashes. The upper parts must be comminuted and rendered porous, and it must be efficiently and deeply drained. At Troedyrhiw, as we have seen, the effluent drain is six feet deep.

The sewer water should be poured over the land in as fresh a condition as possible, having been previously deprived of any solid or grosser parts by straining. At Carlisle, decomposition of the sewage during its flow is prevented by adding carbolic acid to it. Lastly, it is of the utmost consequence that the amount of land used as the filtering medium shall be large. Letheby has shown that where this precaution is neglected, not only is the purification of the sewage incomplete, but the plan becomes a public nuisance. The amount of filtering earth should not be less than one cubic yard for eight gallons of sewage in twenty-four hours, in properly prepared soils; in some soils more than a cubic yard is required.

The late Dr Parkes has given a summary of various reports that have from time to time been issued as to the effects of sewage farms upon the public health and comfort. He says:——“That sewage farms, if too near to houses, and if not carefully conducted, may give off disagreeable effluvia is certain; but it is also clear that in some farms this is very trifling, and that when the sewer water gets on the land it soon ceases. It is denied by some persons that more nuisance is excited than by any other mode of using manure. As regards health, it has been alleged that these farms may——1st, give off effluvia which may produce enteric fever or dysentery, or some allied affection; or, 2nd, and in the spread of entozoic diseases; or, 3rd, make ground swampy and marshy, and may also poison wells, and thus affect health.”

The evidence of Edinburgh, Croydon, Aldershot, Rugby, Worthing, Romford, the Sussex Lunatic Asylum, is very strong against any influence in the production of typhoid by sewage farms effluvia. On the other hand, Dr Clouston’s record of the outbreak of dysentery in the Cumberland Asylum is counter evidence of weight, and so is one of the cases noted by Letheby of typhoid fever outbreak in Copley, when a meadow was irrigated with the brook water containing the sewage of Halifax.

The negative evidence is, however, so strong as to justify the view that the effluvia from a well-managed sewage farm do not produce typhoid fever, or dysentery, or any affection of the kind. In a case at Eton in which some cases of enteric fever were attributed to the effluvia, Dr Buchanan discovered that the sewer water had been drunk; this was more likely to have been the cause.

With regard to the second point, the spread of entozoic diseases by the carriage of the sewer water to the land, has been thought probable by Cobbold, though as solid excreta from towns have been for some years largely employed as manure, it is doubtful whether the liquid plans would be more dangerous. The special entozoic diseases which, it is feared, might thus arise, are tapeworms, round worms, trichina, Bilharzia, and distoma hepaticum in sheep. Cobbold’s latest observations show that the embryos of Bilharzia die so rapidly, that even were it introduced into England there would be little danger.

The trichina disease is only known at present to be produced in men by the worms in the flesh of pigs which is eaten, and it seems doubtful whether pigs receive them from the land. There remain, then, only tapeworms and round worms for men and distoma hepaticum for sheep to be dreaded. With regard to these, the evidence at present is negative; and though much weight must be attached to any opinion of Cobbold’s, this argument against sewage irrigation must be admitted to want evidence from experience.

The third criticism appears to be true.

The land may become swampy and the adjacent wells poisoned, and disease (ague, and perhaps diarrhœa and dysentery) be thus produced. But this is owing to mismanagement, and when a sewage farm is properly arranged it is not damp, and the wells do not suffer.[153]

[Footnote 153: ‘Practical Hygiene.’]

The foregoing processes for the removal of excreta from dwellings necessitates the joint employment of sewers and large quantities of water. It may, however, sometimes happen that the adoption of either of these appliances may be not only difficult, but altogether impracticable; as for instance, in localities where a sufficient fall cannot be obtained for the sewers; or where the supply of water is not adequate; or when the severity of the climate at certain times is such, that for months in the year the water is frozen. Under these conditions the excreta must either be allowed to accumulate about houses, or else be removed by methods other than those we have described, at more or less short intervals. Of course their speedy removal is the best and safest; but in cases where they are permitted to accumulate, it is essential they should be mixed with deodorants, and confined in properly constructed receptacles (as far as possible from dwellings), from which category such pre-eminently unsanitary arrangements as cesspools and dead wells must be excluded.

When excreta are got rid of from houses by other means than those of sewers and water, the processes employed are termed,

2. DRY METHODS. These comprise——

1. Removal of the excreta without admixture.

2. Removal of the excreta after treatment with deodorising and anti-putrescent substances.

1. Removal without admixture. In some cases boxes and tanks receive the ordure and urine, and these are changed more or less frequently.

In Glasgow the excreta from a part of the city containing eighty thousand people is thus collected and removed without admixture,[154] daily.

[Footnote 154: Except that from the garbage of the houses.]

In Edinburgh there are also many closets supplied with movable metal pails, which are likewise removed daily. Many large dwelling-houses in this latter city are entirely without water-closet accommodation; hence the custom of placing pails full of excrement, urine, &c., outside the houses to be taken away by the scavenger. In Rochdale the excrement, &c., is collected in tubs, with tight-fitting lids, which are emptied twice or thrice a week. These tubs are manufactured out of disused paraffin casks. In Leeds, also, the excreta are collected in boxes without being subjected to admixture. In some towns in the north of England the excreta fall into receptacles constructed upon what is termed the ‘Goux’ principle. In this system the pails or receptacles are lined with some absorbent lining, which abstracts the urine;[155] another contrivance is to have the receptacle fitted with a pipe or drain; the object in each case being to render the fæces drier and to delay their decomposition.

[Footnote 155: The refuse of cloth manufacturers is chiefly used for this purpose.]

The pail or tub system (Fosses Mobiles) which is employed in Belgium, has for its object the collection of the fæces in a state of purity, without admixture with water, in a clean and odourless condition.

The apparatus for carrying it out consists of——

1. The seat. This consists simply of a soil-pan of stoneware or faïence, without woodwork, the soil-pan merely projecting from the top of the descent pipe. Its borders are furnished with a groove filled with water or sand, into which the raised rim of the lid fits.

2. The connecting pipe. This pipe is straight without a syphon, and joins the descent pipe at the very acute angle of 22°, and is about 4 inches in diameter inside. It is, like the next, made of stoneware, glazed inside.

3. Descent pipe. This is from 6 to 8 inches in internal diameter; it is vertical, and is composed of a series of pipes, connected with each other by dry sand joints, without cements, fixed to the wall by iron bands.

It rests at the ground-floor level on a strong flagstone. Its prolongation through and below this stone consists of a sliding pipe of wrought copper capable of being lengthened or shortened, and solidly fixed to the stone by a cast-iron connector. A sort of circular shallow dish (ecuelle), which can be hung under this last part of the descent pipe, serves at a given moment to shut its lower orifice.

4. Tub (Tonneau). The excremental matters coming down the descent pipe fall into a tub of from 2 to 3 hectolitres (44 to 66 gallons), in a hole in the top of which the lower part of the pipe fits tightly. A cover fitted with a spring serves to shut and lute the tub when it is full. Placed on a stand furnished with wheels, the tub is easily managed.

When filled it is immediately replaced by another similar contrivance. If the tub is underground, the rails (on which the stand moves) should be placed on an incline, so that the removal and replacement may be easily effected. The underground chamber must be isolated, and the entrance to it placed outside the building. The thorough tarring of the interior of the tub not only preserves the staves, but also partly neutralises the effect of the mephitic gases which the excremental matters discharge.

Ventilation pipe. To prevent the smells and gases which are given off from the mouth of the tub from spreading themselves (in the house) by means of the opening in the privy seat, at the upper extremity of the descent pipe, is fixed a ventilation pipe, which rises above the coping of the roof, and the action of which is increased by means of a vane, or any other contrivance producing the same effect.[156]

[Footnote 156: Corfield.]

It is said that in the working of any of the above processes, little or no nuisance ensues, if only ordinary care and intelligence are used. In many cases the excreta collected by the methods above specified is conveyed to manufactories and then converted into manure.

It does not appear that in England the health of the workmen employed in a manure manufactory or of those who live in the neighbourhood of it suffers in consequence.

Removal of the excreta after treatment with deodorising and antiputrescent substances. This is the method usually adopted when the dry process is followed; the excreta mixed with the deodorising substance when removed from the house being at once applied to the land.

a. Coal and wood ashes. It is a common practice in the north of England to throw coal ashes on the excreta, which fall into closets made with hinged flaps or seats for the purpose of admitting the ashes, as at Manchester and Salford. Wood ashes are far more effective deodorisers than coal ashes, but they are seldom procurable. “In some towns there are receptacles called ‘middens,’ intended both for excreta and ashes; sometimes these are cemented, and there may be a pipe leading into a sewer so as to dry them. The midden system is a bad one; even with every care, the vast heaps of putrefying material which accumulate in some of our towns must have a very serious influence on the health, and the sooner the middens are abolished the better.”[157]

[Footnote 157: Parkes.]

b. Deodorising powders. At some of the Indian stations deodorants, such as M’Dougall’s, or Calvert’s carbolic acid powders, have been successfully employed, a comparatively small quantity being mixed with the excreta.

In Germany a mixture of lime, chloride of magnesium, and tar is largely used for the same purpose, and is known as Süverns’ deodoriser.”

Another deodoriser (the Müller Schür), also used in the dry method, is composed of lime, 100 lbs.; powdered wood charcoal 20 lbs.; peat powder or sawdust, 10 lbs.; and carbolic acid (containing 60 to 70 per cent. of real acid) 1 lb. After having been mixed, the mass is placed under cover for a night to avoid any chance of spontaneous ignition, and when dry it is packed in barrels.

c. Charcoal. The powerfully deodorising properties of charcoal obviously adapt it for the removal of excreta in the dry state, after the admixture with them. But the comparatively high price of animal charcoal, although nearly six times the value of dry earth as a deodorant, prohibits its being extensively used. Peat is, however, cheaper than animal charcoal. To obviate the objection of cost, Mr Stanford, in 1872, proposed to make charcoal for this purpose from seaweed. The charcoal obtained from this source is said to be cheap and of great service as an excretal deodoriser. The mixed charcoal and sewage is sufficiently odourless to be stored for some months in a convenient receptacle outside a dwelling-house.

After the seaweed charcoal has become thoroughly impregnated with fæces and urine, the mixture is recarbonised in a retort, and the carbon can be again used; the distilled products (ammoniacal liquor, containing acetate of lime, tar, and gas) are sufficient to pay the cost, and it is said even to yield a profit.[158]

[Footnote 158: About the same time carbonisation of sewage in retorts, with or without previous admixture with charcoal, was proposed by Mr Hickey, of Darjeeling. There can be little doubt that, regarded in a purely sanitary point of view, carbonisation of sewage matter is an excellent plan. Mr Hickey proposed the utilisation of the ammoniacal products resulting from his process.]

d. Dried earth. The Rev. Mr Moule was the first to direct attention to the value of dried earth as a deodorant of excreta.

Mr Moule’s ‘earth closet’ consists of a box with a receptacle below for the excreta. By pulling a plug dried earth, which is placed in a hopper above, enters the closet and falls upon the excreta, thus disinfecting and deodorising it. The consumption of earth averages from 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 lb. a day. The slop water should not be thrown into the closet, but disposed of in some other way. In another plan, as in Taylor’s improved closet, the urine is carried off without mixing at all with the fæces.

Clay, marl, and vegetable humus form the best kind of earths. When dried the clay may be easily reduced to powder. Chalk and sand are comparatively useless. The receptacle is emptied from time to time, the contents forming a valuable manure.

The earth closet is more particularly adapted for small villages and isolated mansions. One difficulty of its application by cottagers consists in the necessity of collecting, drying, and storing the earth; the cottager’s mostly limited space in his dwelling not permitting this. One great obstacle to the effective carrying out of this system amongst extensive communities is the difficulty of procuring the large supply of earth that its adoption necessitates. With proper supervision and care the ‘earth system’ answers admirably; but if these are not bestowed on it, it as signally fails. It has been adopted with great success in many schools, barracks, and other large buildings.

“It is coming into great use in India, and is carried out with great attention to detail. In those European stations where water is not procurable Mr Moule’s invention has been a boon of great value, and medical officers say that nothing has been done in India of late years which has contributed so much to the health and comfort of the men. The plan of separating the urine from the fæces has been strongly advocated by Dr Cornish, of Madras, and would, no doubt, be attended with great advantages in India if there are means of disposal of the urine. The chief difficulty in the European barracks in India is felt during the rainy season, when the mixed excreta and earth cannot be kept sufficiently dry. In the case of natives of India, however, a serious difficulty arises in the use of the earth system, in consequence of the universal use of water for ablution after using the closet. Every native takes with him a small vessel holding ten to twenty ounces of water, so that a large amount of fluid has to be disposed of. The usual earth closet does not suffice for this. Mr Charles Turner, C.E., of Southampton, has contrived a closet suitable for the native family; it is unfortunately too costly, and possibly a simple iron box, with a pipe to carry off the urine and ablution water, would be better suited for the poorer classes.”[159]

[Footnote 159: Parkes.]

e. Captain Lieurnur’s pneumatic plan. This process, the invention of a Dutch engineer, is in use at Amsterdam, Leyden, Drodrecht, and a few other Continental towns. It is also known as the ‘aspiration plan.’ Its outlines are as follows:——“The pipes and, tubes leading from the various water-closets and privies peculiar to the system are connected with street mains, which mains again communicate with underground horizontal cast-iron cylinders or tanks, these tanks being directly connected with a powerful air-pump worked by steam. Communication between the main and the tanks, as well as between the tanks and the pump, can be made or broken by means of stopcocks. Hence it follows that when access is allowed between one of the tanks and the air-pump, this latter will, when put into action, produce a vacuum in the tank, and if the stopcock of the main leading to the tank be then opened, the contents of all the privies and water-closets, the pipes of which run into the main, will be removed by being swept into the tank by pneumatic force. In this manner each tank is treated in succession. Similarly the sewage is carried to the large reservoirs of a manure manufactory. It is here mixed with a little sulphuric acid to prevent the formation of ammonia, and being evaporated down in vacuo becomes converted, when sufficiently dry, into poudrette. In Lieurnur’s process all deodorants are dispensed with, and its mixture with water is prevented by means of porous drain pipes laid above the sewers, by which contrivance the subsoil water is kept out of the sewers.

=Sewage, Utilisation of.= “Mr Peregrine Birch read before the Institution of Surveyors a paper on ‘The Use of Sewage by Farmers,’ which embodied some facts that deserve to be noticed, as bearing on a question we have repeatedly discussed. It appears that there are at the present time ‘upwards of one hundred owners and occupiers of land in Great Britain who use sewage for the sake alone of what they can get out of it by agricultural means.’ Of these ‘more than sixty are tenant farmers, who continue to use it although they have, annually at least, the option of ceasing to do so,’ It seems five out of six of the tenant farmers purchase the sewage they employ, so that their adhesion to the method proves conclusively that it pays. Nearly four thousand acres of land are under regular cultivation with sewage. Mr Birch is of opinion that ‘advocates of sewage precipitation processes should not regard sewage farmers as their rivals, for a chemical process might be very largely used with advantage when farmers are being persuaded or taught to use sewage. But this should be the distinct aim of all cultivation, for there is no chemical process that could not be worked to greater advantage during two months of the year than twelve, or applied to a small quantity of sewage at less cost than to a large.’ Our primary interest is to see the utilisation of sewage generally adopted; the method employed must be determined by experience on the grounds of cheapness and expediency.”——Lancet.

=SHAD′DOCK.= A large species of orange, the fruit of Citrus Decumana (Linn.).

=SHAGREEN′.= This is prepared from the skins of the horse, wild ass, and camel, as follows:——The skin, freed from epidermis and hair by soaking in water, and, after dressing with the currier’s fleshing-knife, is sprinkled over, whilst still wet and stretched, with the seeds of a species of chenopodium, which are imbedded in it by strong pressure, and in this state it is dried; the seeds are then shaken off, and the surface rubbed or shaved down, nearly to the bottom of the seed-pits or indentations; it is next soaked in water, by which the skin swells, and the recently depressed surface rises into a number of minute prominences; it is, lastly, dyed and smoothed off. Black is given to it with galls and copperas; blue, with a solution of indigo; green, with copper filings and sal ammoniac; and red, with cochineal and alum. Shagreen was formerly very extensively used for covering the cases of watches, spectacles, surgical instruments, &c.

=SHALLOT′.= Syn. ESCHALOT. The Allium ascalonicum (Linn.), a plant allied to the onion, the bulb of which is much used as a sauce or pot-herb.

=SHAMPOO′ING.= A practice common in the East, having for its object the increase or restoration of the tone and vigour of the body, or the mitigation of pain. It is applied either in the bath or immediately after quitting it, generally the latter, and consists in pressing and kneading the flesh, stretching and relaxing the knee-joints, and laboriously brushing and scrubbing the skin.

=SHARPS.= See FLOUR.

=SHA′VING.= The following are Mr Mechi’s instructions for this, to many persons, troublesome operation:——Never fail to well wash your beard with soap and cold water, and to rub it dry, immediately before you apply the lather, of which the more you use the easier you will shave. Never use warm water, which makes a tender face. Place the razor (closed, of course) in your pocket, or under your arm, to warm it. The moment you leave your bed is the best time to shave. Always put your shaving-brush away with the lather on it.

The razor (being only a very fine saw) should be moved in a sloping or sawing direction, holding it nearly flat to your face, care being taken to draw the skin as tight as possible with the left hand, so as to present an even surface and throw out the beard. The practice of pressing on the edge of a razor in stropping generally rounds it; the pressure should be directed to the back, which must never be raised from the strop. If you shave from heel to point of the razor, strop it from point to heel; but if you begin with the point, then strop from heel to point. If you only once put away your razor without stropping or otherwise cleaning the edge, you must no longer expect to shave well, the soap and damp so soon rust the fine teeth or edge. A piece of plate leather should always be kept with the razors.

=SHAVING FLUID.= See ESSENCE OF SOAP.

=SHAWLS, To Scour.= Scrape one pound of soap into thin shavings, and let it be boiled with as much water as will convert into a thin jelly. When cold, beat it with the hand, and mix with it three tablespoonfuls of oil of turpentine, and one of hartshorn. Let the shawl be well washed in this mixture, and afterwards rinsed in cold water, so as to get rid of all the soap.

Next let the shawl be rinsed in salt and water, then wring out the water from it, and fold it between two sheets, being careful not to allow two folds of the shawl to lie together; finally mangle, and iron with a cool iron.

=SHEEP.= Syn. OVIS, L. The Ovis aries, an animal domesticated almost everywhere. Its flesh supplies us with food, its skin with leather, its fleece with wool, and its intestines with catgut. Its fat (sevum) is officinal. See MUTTON, SUET, &c.

=Sheep Washes.= 1. Arsenious acid in powder, carbonate of potash, of each 6 oz.; water, 14 gall. Boil together for half an hour.

2. Arsenious acid in powder, soft soap, and carbonate of potash, of each 6 oz.; sulphur, 4 oz.; bruised hellebore root, 2 oz.; water, 14 gall. Boil the ingredients in a portion of the water for half an hour, or until the arsenic is dissolved, then add the remainder of the water, and strain through a coarse sieve. Mr Youatt says:——“More care than is usually taken should be exercised in order that the fluid may penetrate to every part of the skin, and which should be ensured by a previous washing in soap and water. The arsenic that necessarily remains about the wool when the water has dried away would probably destroy the acari as fast as they are produced. When a greater quantity of arsenic has been used, or the sheep has been kept too long in the water, fatal consequences have occasionally ensued.”

3. A sheep-dipping composition employed on the Continent is:——Arsenious acid, 1 lb.; sulphate of zinc, 10 lbs.; dissolved in 25 gallons of water.

4. The Australian sheep farmers use a weak solution of bichloride of mercury (1 oz. of the bichloride to 4 gall. of water).

5. Water, 40 parts, at the temperature of 50° to 57° C.; to this add 1 part of soluble glass (the soluble silicates). This is recommended as a very efficient and perfectly safe sheep wash by Messrs Baerle and Co., of Worms. In washing the sheep with this preparation care should be taken to cover the eyes of the animal with a bandage, to perform the washing with the solution instantaneously, and to remove the surplus with tepid water.

“Yards into which newly clipped sheep are to be turned should be previously cleared of all green food, hay, and even fresh water; if perfectly empty they are still safer. When the dipping is finished they should be cleaned, washed, and swept, and any of the unused dipping solution at once poured down the drains. Dipped sheep should remain, if possible, in an open exposed place, as on a dry road, or in a large open yard. Over-crowding should be avoided, and every facility given for rapid drying, which is greatly expedited by selecting for the operation fine, clear, drying weather. On no account should sheep be returned to their grazings until they are dry, and all risk of dripping over.[160]

[Footnote 160: Finlay Dunn.]

=SHELL-FISH.= The common name for the Crustacean and Molluscous animals that are used for food. ‘Shell-fish’ are extremely liable to disturb the functions of the stomach and bowels. The oyster (Ostrea edulis), and the cockle (Cardium edule), are, perhaps, the least objectionable. The crab (Cancer pagurus), the crayfish (Astacus fluvialis), the lobster (Homarus vulgaris), the mussel (Mytilus edulis), the prawn (Palæmon serratus), the periwinkle (Littorina littorea), and the shrimp (Crangon vulgaris), with the exception of the claws of the first three, are always suspicious, particularly in hot weather, and often absolutely poisonous. We have seen the most alarming, nay, fatal symptoms, follow the use of mussels, even amongst those habitually accustomed to take them; whilst it is a well known fact that the luscious bodies of the crab and lobster have too often formed the last supper of the epicure. See OYSTER, &c.

=SHEL-LAC.= See LAC.

=SHELLS (Prepared).= Syn. TESTÆ PRÆPARATÆ (Ph. L. 1836), L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1836.) Wash oyster-shells (OSTRÆ——Ph. L.) with boiling water, having previously freed them from extraneous matters; then prepare them in the manner directed for chalk. The product is similar in constitution and properties to prepared chalk.

=Shells, To Polish.= 1. The surface of the shell should be first cleaned by rubbing it over with a rag dipped in hydrochloric acid, till the outer dull skin is removed. It must be then washed in warm water, dried in hot sawdust, and polished with chamois leather. Those shells which are destitute of a natural polished surface, may be either varnished or rubbed with a mixture of tripoli powder and turpentine applied by means of a wash-leather, after which fine tripoli alone should be used, and, finally, a little olive oil, the surface being brought up with the chamois leather as before.

2. “The shells are first boiled in a strong solution of potash, then wound on wheels, sometimes through one strata to show an underlying one, then polished with hydrochloric acid and putty powder. In this operation the hands are in great danger. Shell grinders are generally almost all cripples in their hands. (Spon.)

=SHER′BET.= [Pers.] A cooling drink, used in the East, prepared with the juices of fruit, and water, variously sweetened and flavoured. The word has been, of late years, commonly employed in these countries in a similar manner. See LEMONADE, ORANGEADE, and POWDERS.

=SHER′RY.= Syn. SHERRY WINE, SHERRIS; VINUM XERICUM (Ph. L.), VINUM ALBUM (Ph. E.), VINUM ALBUM HISPANICUM (Ph. D.), L. This is the only wine ordered in the British Pharmacopœias. See WINES.

=SHERRY-COBBLER.= Prep. (Redwood.) Half fill a tumbler with clean pounded ice; add a table-spoonful of powdered white sugar, a few thin slices of lemon with the peel (or some strawberries or other similar fruit, bruised), and a wine-glassful or more of sherry wine; mix them together (lightly), and as the ice melts, suck the liquor through a straw (or a small tube of silver or glass).

Obs. A favourite American drink; very refreshing in hot weather.

=SHIN′′GLES.= Syn. ZOSTER, HERPES ZOSTER, HERPES ZONA, L. A local variety of herpes or tetter, remarkable for forming a kind of belt round or partly round some part of the trunk of the body, chiefly the waist or abdomen. See TETTERS.

=SHODDY.= The epithet (we believe of American origin) is applied to the old, used-up wool and cloth, fraudulently mixed with fresh woollen fabrics. A plan for the examination of a fabric suspected of containing shoddy has been given by a German chemist, Herr Schlesinger, and is as follows:——Examine it with the microscope and note if it contains cotton, silk, or linen, as well as wool. If so dissolve them by ammoniacal solution of copper. A qualitative examination is thus obtained. Then direct attention to the wool. In shoddy both coloured and colourless fibres are often seen, the fibres having been derived from different cloths which have been partially bleached; the colouring matter, if any, instead of consisting of one pigment, will be composed of two or three different kinds, such as indigo, purpurin, or madder. Again, the diameter of the wool is never so regular as in fresh wool, but is seen to vary suddenly or gradually in diameter, and suddenly widens again with a little swelling, and tapers off again, besides which the cross markings or scales are almost always absent. When shoddy-wool is placed in liquor potassæ it is much more speedily attacked than new wool.

=SHOT METAL.= Prep. From lead, 1000 parts; arsenic, 3 parts. When the lead is coarse, 6 to 8 parts of metallic arsenic are required to fit it for this purpose.

=SHOW BOTTLES.= The large ornamental carboys and jars filled with coloured liquids, and displayed in the shop-windows of druggists, may be noticed under this head. They are striking objects when the solutions they contain are bright and of a deep pure tint, especially at night, when they are seen by transmitted light. The following formulæ for the solutions have been recommended by different persons:——

AMBER. From dragon’s blood (in coarse powder), 1 part; oil of vitriol, 4 parts; digest, and, when the solution is complete, dilute the mixture with distilled or soft water, q. s.

BLUE.——a. From blue vitriol, 2 oz.; oil of vitriol, 1/2 oz.; water, 1 pint.——b. A solution of indigo in sulphuric acid, diluted with water, q. s.——c. A solution of soluble Prussian blue in either oxalic or hydrochloric acid, slightly diluted, and afterwards further diluted with water to the proper shade of colour.

CRIMSON.——a. From alkanet root, 1 oz.; oil of turpentine, 1 pint. Used chiefly for the bull’s eyes of lamps.——b. As PINK (b), below.

GREEN.——a. From sulphate of copper, 2 oz.; bichromate of potash, 1 dr., or q. s.; water, 1 pint.——b. A solution of sulphate of copper, 2 oz.; chloride of sodium, 4 oz.; water, 1 pint, or q. s.——c. A solution of distilled verdigris in acetic acid, diluted with water, q. s.——d. Dissolve blue vitriol in water, and add nitric acid until it turns green.

LILAC.——a. Dissolve crude oxide of cobalt (zaffre) in nitric or hydrochloric acid, add sesquicarbonate of ammonia, in excess, and afterwards sufficient ammonio-sulphate of copper to strike the colour.——b. As the purple, but more diluted.

MAGENTA. Acetate of rosaniline, dissolved in water, q. s.

OLIVE. Dissolve sulphate of iron and oil of vitriol, equal weights, in water, and add of nitrate of copper, q. s. to strike the colour.

ORANGE.——a. A solution of bichromate of potash in water, either with or without the addition of some hydrochloric or sulphuric acid.——b. Dissolve gamboge or annotta in liquor of potassa; dilute with water, and add a little spirit.

PINK.——a. To a solution of chloride or nitrate of cobalt, in water, add sesquicarbonate of ammonia, q. s. to dissolve the precipitate at first formed.——b. From madder (washed with cold water), 1 oz.; sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 4 oz.; water, 3 pints; digest, with agitation, for 24 hours, then dilute with more water, and filter.

PURPLE.——a. A solution of sulphate of copper, 1 oz., in water, 1 quart, or q. s., with the addition of sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 1-1/2 oz.——b. To the last add a sufficient quantity of the first pink (above) to turn the colour.——c. To an infusion of logwood, add carbonate of ammonia or of potassa, q. s.——d. Sugar of lead, 3 oz.; powdered cochineal, 1 dr.; water, q. s.——e. Add sulphate of indigo, nearly neutralised with chalk, to an infusion of cochineal, till it turns purple.

RED.——a. Dissolve carmine in liquor of ammonia, and dilute with water.——b. Digest powdered cochineal in a weak solution of ammonia or of sal ammoniac, and afterwards dilute with water.——c. Add oil of vitriol, 4 oz., to water, 1 gall., and digest dried red rose leaves, 8 oz., in the mixture for 24 hours.——d. Dissolve madder lake in a solution of sesquicarbonate of ammonia, and dilute the solution with water.

VIOLET. To a solution of nitrate of cobalt in a solution of sesquicarbonate of ammonia, add solution of ammonio-sulphate of copper, q. s. to strike the colour.

YELLOW.——a. A solution of sesquioxide or rust of iron, 1/2 lb., in hydrochloric acid, 1 quart, diluted with water.——b. To a strong decoction of French berries add a little alum.——c. A simple solution of chromate or bichromate of potash in distilled water.——d. A solution of equal parts of nitre and either chromate or bichromate of potash, in water.

Obs. Most of the above require filtering, which should be done through powdered glass, placed in a glass funnel, and never through paper. They usually need a second filtration, after being exposed to the light for some weeks; hence it is convenient always to make a little more of them than is required to fill the bottle, as several of them, when diluted after filtration, become again turbid. Distilled water or filtered rain water should be used.

=SHRIMP.= See SHELL-FISH.

=SHRUB.= A species of concentrated cold punch, prepared with lemon juice, spirit, sugar, and water. When the word is used in its unqualified form, RUM SHRUB is alluded to.

=Shrub, Brandy.= Prep. 1. Take of brandy, 1 gall.; orange and lemon juice, of each 1 pint; peels of 2 oranges; do. of 1 lemon; digest for 24 hours, strain, and add of white sugar, 4 lbs., dissolved in water, 5 pints; in a fortnight decant the clear liquid for use.

2. As RUM SHRUB (below), but using brandy.

=Shrub, Lemon.= Syn. LEMONADE SHRUB. Concentrated lemonade, either with or without the addition of a little spirit. Used to make lemonade or lemon sherbet.

=Shrub, Punch.= Concentrated punch, made with equal parts of spirit and water. Used to make punch.

=Shrub, Rum.= Prep. 1. As BRANDY SHRUB, but substituting rum for brandy.

2. Take of rum, at proof, 34 gall. (or, if of any other strength, an equivalent quantity); essential oils of orange and lemon, of each 2 oz., dissolved in rectified spirit, 1 quart; good lump sugar, 300 lbs.; dissolved in water, 20 galls.; mix well by ‘rummaging,’ and gradually and cautiously add of Seville orange juice, or of a solution of tartaric acid in water, q. s. to produce a pleasant but scarcely perceptible acidity; next ‘rummage’ well for 15 minutes, then add sufficient water to make the whole measure exactly 100 galls., and again ‘rummage’ well for at least half an hour; lastly, bung the cask down loosely, and allow it to repose for some days. In a fortnight, or less, it will usually be sufficiently ‘brilliant’ to be racked. The product is 100 galls., at 66 u. p.

Obs. Rum shrub is the kind in the greatest demand, and that having a slight preponderance of the orange flavour is the most esteemed. If wholly flavoured with lemon it is apt to acquire a kind of ‘dead’ or ‘musty’ flavour by long keeping. The substitution of a few gallons of brandy for a portion of the rum, or the addition, after racking, of about 1 oz. each of bruised bitter almonds, cloves, and cassia, the peels of about 2 dozen oranges, and a ‘thread’ of the essences of ambergris and vanilla, render it delicious.

=SIAL′OGOGUES.= Medicines which increase the flow of saliva. Mercurials and pellitory of Spain belong to this class.

=SICK′NESS.= Nausea and vomiting frequently arise from the use of improper food, and other articles which offend the stomach; at other times it is symptomatic of some disease, as colic, cholera, dyspepsia, head affections, incipient fever, &c.; in which case the primary affection should be attended to. Nausea lowers the pulse, contracts the small vessels, occasions cold perspiration, severe rigors, and trembling; and diminishes, as long as it lasts, the actions, and even the general powers, of life. The act of retching, and vomiting more especially, on the contrary, rouses rather than depresses, puts to flight all the preceding symptoms, and often restores the system to itself.

The best remedies or palliatives in these affections are effervescing saline draughts, either with or without the addition of a few drops of tincture of henbane, or tincture of opium. A glass of genuine lemonade, iced, or a spoonful of crushed ice in a wine-glassful of mint water, is also very serviceable. Pepsin (Bullock and Reynolds) and oxalate of cerium are said to be most valuable remedies in the sickness of pregnancy. See DRAUGHTS, PREGNANCY, SEA SICKNESS, &c.

=SIFT′ING= is to pulverulent substances what filtration is to liquids; but in this case the medium through which the substance passes is, usually, of a simpler and coarser description. Sieves are commonly employed for the purpose, which are fitted with silk or brass-wire gauze for fine purposes, and horsehair cloth, or wire netting, for coarser ones. Drum sieves are such as are furnished with covers and an enclosed space to receive the fine powder that passes through, by which dust and loss are prevented.

=SIGHT.= See VISION.

=Sight, Effect of Gaslight on.= The German Minister of Instruction has recently issued a report on the influence of gaslight on the eye. The conclusion arrived at in this report——the result of frequent conference with well-known physicians——is that no evil results follow a moderate use of gas, if the direct action of the yellow flame on the eye is prevented. For this purpose screens or shades are employed. Very great objections, however, exist to the use of zinc or lead shades, most evils affecting the eye being traceable to them. Their use, it is said, inevitably tends to blindness or inflammation, and other harmful effects. The milky-white glass shade is the best, as it distributes the light and has a grateful effect on the eyes. The burner should not be too close to the head, as congestions of the forehead and headaches result from the radiated heat. The glass plate below the gas, employed in some places, is especially useful for the purpose, as it causes an equal distribution of the light——necessary where a number are working at one burner——prevents the radiation of heat, and tends to a steady illumination by shielding the flames from currents of air. In cases of highly-inflamed eyes, dark-blue globes can be very beneficially employed. With precautions of this kind no evil effects from the burning of gas need be feared.

=SIG′NATURES (Fac-similes of).= These may be readily obtained as follows:——

1. Let the name be written on a piece of paper, and, while the ink is still wet, sprinkle over it some finely-powdered gum Arabic, then make a rim round it, and pour on it some fusible alloy in a liquid state. Impressions may be taken from the plates formed in this way, by means of printing ink and the copper-plate press.

2. By the use of transfer ink and lithography.

=SILBER LIGHT.= This light is thus described in ‘Dingler’s Polytechnic Journal,’[161]——This mode of illumination is recommended where gas cannot be had.

[Footnote 161: ccix, 79 (‘Journ. Chem. Society,’ vol. xi, new series, 1273).]

The material used is oil, which is converted into gas before combustion takes place, whereby the combustion of the wick is greatly lessened (one wick may last a year); the accumulation of impurity is obviated, and the prevention of smell completely effected. The light is regular and uniform, and of a white colour. The light, with a burner 1-1/4 inch wide, is equal to that of 28 sperm candles, each consuming 120 gr. per hour, and with one 1-3/4 inch wide a light is obtained equal to 50 such candles.

The burning apparatus consists of a row of concentrically enclosed double cylinders, perpendicularly arranged at definite intervals. The innermost cylinder contains the wick between its two walls, the hollow space in the interior serving to convey fresh air to the interior of the flame. The second cylinder conveys air to the outer side of the wick, and the third contains oil, and is in direct communication with both wick and reservoir. The mouths of all these chambers have a dome-shaped head, and form a suitable opening in this; the gas streams forth in such a manner that it comes in contact with a current of air, and thus a complete combustion is attained.

According to the nature of the oil burnt the construction is somewhat varied in its minor details. Rape oil or light hydrocarbon oils are mentioned.

=SIL′ICA.= SiO_{2}. Syn. SILICIC ANHYDRIDE, SILICIC ACID, SILEX, SILICEOUS EARTH†, EARTH OF FLINTS†. This exists in quartz and rock crystal in a nearly pure state. The sands of rivers and the sea-shore, flint, and almost all the scintillating stones, chiefly consist of it.

Silica occurs under two conditions——the crystalline and the amorphous. The former variety has a sp. gr. of 2·642; the amorphous of 2·2-2·3. Some of our well-known native gems and precious stones consist almost wholly of one of the above forms of silica. In agate and calcedony the two varieties are combined. Amethyst is silica, coloured purple by ferric oxide. Onyx is formed of calcedony arranged in layers of different colours. Cornelian is a red or brown variety of silica coloured with ferric oxide, whilst opal is amorphous silica combined with varying quantities of water. Silica is present in the stems of certain plants, such as wheat, many grasses, to which the shining appearance of the stems is due, &c. The Italians polish marble with the ashes of burnt straw, the usefulness of which for such a purpose depends upon the silica contained in the straw; for similar reasons the Dutch rush is thus employed. Silica also occurs in solution in many natural waters. In the geysers, or boiling springs of Iceland, it exists in large quantity.

It may be obtained in a state of absolute purity by passing gaseous fluoride of silicon into water, collecting the resulting gelatinous precipitate on a calico filter, washing it with distilled water, drying it, and heating it to redness. Another method is to precipitate a solution of silicate of soda or potassa (soluble glass) with dilute hydrochloric acid, and to treat the precipitate as before.

Nearly pure silica may also be procured by heating colourless quartz to redness, and plunging it into cold water, by which treatment the quartz is rendered so friable as to be easily reducible to fine powder. Ordinary flints, subjected to this method, are found to yield silica in a condition approaching to purity. Amorphous silica is much more easily attacked by solvents than the crystalline variety. The artificial forms of silica are all amorphous.

The test for a silicate consists in fusing the suspected body with sodic or potassic carbonate, heating the residue with acid, and evaporating to dryness. If the residue be then treated with hot water the silica remains undissolved in the form of a white powder, which will yield a colourless bead when fused with sodic carbonate upon a piece of platinum foil before the blowpipe flame. If silica be fused with borax it becomes slowly dissolved, forming a clear, colourless bead.

Chapman contests Plattner’s opinion that, when silicates are fused with phosphor salt, the ‘silica skeleton’ that results is especially due to the presence of alkalies or earthy bases.

Chapman says: “It is true enough that silicates in which these bases are present exhibit the reaction; but as other silicates——practically all, indeed——exhibit the reaction also, the inference implied in the above statement is quite erroneous.

“The opalescence of the glass arises entirely from precipitated silica.

“If some pure silica (or a silicate of any kind), in a powdered condition, be dissolved before the blowpipe flame in borax until the glass be saturated, and some phosphor salt be then added, and the blowing be continued for an instant, a precipitate of silicate will immediately take place, the bead becoming milky white (or, in the case of many silicates, opaque) on cooling. This test may be resorted to for the detection of silica in the case of silicates, which dissolve with difficulty in phosphor salt alone, or which do not give the pronounced ‘skeleton’ with that reagent.”[162]

[Footnote 162: Chapman on ‘Blow-pipe Reactions.’]

Prop., &c. A fine, white, tasteless, infusible powder, insoluble in all acids, after being heated, except the hydrofluoric; requires the heat of the oxyhydrogen blowpipe for its fusion; approaches the precious stones in hardness; soluble in strong alkaline solutions; its salts are called SILICATES. Sp. gr. 2·66. See GLASS, GLASS, SOLUBLE, &c.

=Silica, Hydrates of.= By pouring a dilute solution of sodium silicate into a considerable excess of hydrochloric acid the whole of the silica is retained in solution, together with the chloride of sodium formed by the action of the hydrochloric acid upon the soda. By subjecting this solution to dialysis (see DIALYSIS) the hydrochloric acid and chloride of sodium are removed, whilst the hydrate of silica is left behind, in solution, in the dialyser. Graham recommends a stratum of the liquid four tenths of an inch in depth, to be subjected for four or five days to dialysis, the water in the outer vessel to be changed every twenty-four hours.

If the solution so obtained be carefully evaporated down in a flask, and any drying of the silicic acid at the edges of the liquid being prevented, a solution may be obtained containing 14 per cent. of silica.

The solution has a very feebly acid reaction, and is without taste or colour. It cannot be preserved in the liquid state for more than a very few days, even in well-closed vessels, but becomes converted into a transparent gelatinous mass, which separates from the water. Hydrochloric acid, as well as small quantities of caustic potash or soda, retard the coagulation.

When the solution is evaporated in vacuo at 59° F. over sulphuric acid, a lustrous transparent glass is left behind, which consists of 22 per cent. of water, which closely accords with the formula SiO_{2}H_{2}O.

By the action of moist air upon silicic ether a transparent glassy hydrate was obtained by Ebelmen, to which this chemist assigned the formula 2SiO_{2},3H_{2}O. Two hydrates of silica were obtained by Fuchs, one having the formula 3SiO_{2},H_{2}O, the other, 4SiO_{2},H_{2}O.

=Silicic Chloride.= Syn. SILICIC TETRACHLORIDE. (SiCl_{4}.) This compound is rarely, if ever, obtained by the direct method, viz. by heating silicon in chlorine, but by the following indirect process:——A paste is made of finely divided silica, oil, and charcoal, and heated in a covered crucible. The fragments of the charred substance (consisting of silica and carbon) are then placed in a porcelain tube, which is raised to a red heat in a furnace, and during the ignition of the fragments a current of dry chlorine is passed into and over them; the silicic chloride which is thus formed being made to distil over into a bent tube surrounded by a freezing mixture of ice and salt, whereby it becomes condensed.

Silicic chloride is a very voluble and strongly fuming gas, transparent and colourless, with an irritating and pungent smell. It is immediately decomposed by water into hydrochloric acid and hydrated silica, which deposits in the vessel.

=Silicic Fluoride.= Syn. SILICIC TETRAFLUORIDE. (SiF_{4}.) This gas is best prepared by heating in a capacious flask or retort equal parts of finely powdered fluorspar and white sand, or glass with ten or twelve times their weight of strong sulphuric acid. This gas must be collected over mercury, and in jars that are free from the least trace of moisture.

Silicic fluoride is a colourless gas, with a very pungent odour, fuming strongly in the air, and neither burning nor supporting combustion. Faraday succeeded in liquefying it under great pressure, and Natterer states that at a temperature of -220° F. it may be solidified. By water it is partially decomposed and partially dissolved, yielding silicic acid and hydrofluosilic acid.

With twice its volume of ammoniacal gas silicic fluoride combines to form a crystalline volatile. Silicic hydride has an acid reaction.

=Silicic Hydride.= (H_{4}Si?) To procure this gas silicide of magnesium is decomposed with cold diluted hydrochloric acid.

The silicide of magnesium may be prepared as follows:——Mix intimately 40 parts of fused magnesic chloride, 35 of dried sodic silico-fluoride, and 10 of fused sodic chloride; these are mixed in a warm, dry tube, with 20 parts of sodium in small fragments, and thrown into a red-hot Hessian crucible, which is immediately covered, the operation being finished when the vapours of sodium cease to burn.

Silicic hydride becomes spontaneously ignited in the air, and in doing so gives off white fumes, which consist of amorphous silica (SiO_{2}). A cold body, such as a piece of porcelain or glass, introduced into the flame, becomes covered with a brown deposit of reduced silicon. Passed into solutions of cupric sulphate, argentic nitrate, and palladium chloride, this gas throws down the metals, in most cases combined with silicon.

=SILICOFLUORIC ACID.= See FLUOSILICIC ACID.

=SIL′ICON.= Si. Syn. SILICIUM. An elementary substance forming the base of silica.

This element was first obtained by Sir Humphry Davy, by acting upon silica with potassium. It is now procured much more easily by the decomposition of silico-fluoride of potassium, at an elevated temperature, with potassium or sodium. By heating a mixture of fluorspar and ground flints with sulphuric acid a gaseous tetra-fluoride of silicon is formed, which, being partially soluble in water, yields an acid solution of the tetra-fluoride. Caustic potash is then added to the acid solution of the tetra-chloride until it becomes neutralised, and the sparingly soluble silico-fluoride of potassium thus formed is thoroughly dried and mixed in a glass or iron tube with eight or nine tenths of its weight of potassium or half its weight of sodium, and heated. The following equation explains the reaction that takes place:

2KF,SiF_{4} + 2K_{2} = Si + 6KF.

The resulting mass, consisting of potassic fluoride, and reduced silicon in partial combination with the excess of potassium, is treated with cold water, when a copious evolution of hydrogen gas ensues, owing to the decomposition of the water by the excess of potassium. The potassic fluoride is got rid of by washing with cold water, its entire removal being indicated by the water ceasing to have an alkaline reaction on test paper, whilst amorphous silicon is left behind in the form of a brown powder.

Another method by which silicon may also be procured is by passing the vapour of silicic chloride over heated potassium or sodium, placed on a porcelain tray in a glass tube. In this operation it is advisable to protect the lining of the tube with thin plates of mica.

The silicon obtained by the above processes is known as amorphous silicon, and, as already stated, occurs as a brown powder. It is dull in colour, and, being heavier than water, as well as insoluble in it, sinks in that fluid. It is a non-conductor of electricity, is unaffected by nitric or sulphuric acid, but dissolves readily in hydrofluoric acid, and in a warm solution of caustic potash. It burns with great brilliancy when heated in air or oxygen, and becomes converted into silica, which, owing to the great heat of combustion, fuses, and thus forms a superficial crust over the unburnt silicon. A crystalline variety of silicon may also be procured by heating the brown amorphous silicon, already described, intensely in a platinum crucible, with exclusion of air. This crystalline silicon so obtained is much darker in colour than the amorphous, and also considerably denser; besides which it differs widely in properties from the latter. It will not take fire if heated strongly in the air or oxygen, even if before the blowpipe flame. Its density is such that it sinks in strong sulphuric acid, and hydrofluoric acid fails to dissolve it, although it is soluble in a mixture of hydrofluoric and nitric acids. It does not become oxidised, even if fused with potassic nitrate or chlorate, unless a white heat is obtained, when it burns brilliantly, giving rise, on so doing, to the formation of silica.

In addition to the above, a graphitoid form of silicon, occurring in plates, has been described by Deville and Wöhler. These chemists obtained this last modification from an alloy of silicon and aluminium, which was treated in succession with boiling hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids. The plates of silicon which are left have a metallic lustre, and a sp. gr. of 2·49. The graphitoid bears a great resemblance in properties to the crystalline silicon. It is a conductor of electricity. Like the crystalline variety, it dissolves in a mixture of hydrofluoric and nitric acids, although slowly, but, unlike the crystalline, it undergoes no change when heated to whiteness in a current of oxygen.

Deville states that silicon requires a temperature between the melting points of iron and steel to fuse it. He effected its fusion in a platinum crucible lined with lime, the platinum crucible being then placed in a clay crucible, which was then exposed to intense heat in a wind furnace.

By passing the vapour of silicic chloride over pure aluminium, placed on a porcelain tray, and raised to an intense heat, the aluminium becomes volatilised as aluminic chloride, whilst the silicon remains behind in crystals possessing a reddish lustre. These crystals occur in regular six-sided prisms, terminated by three-sided pyramids, derived from the octohedra, and are so hard that glass may be cut by them, in the same way as by the diamond.

With oxygen silicon forms only one oxide, silica, described above.

=SILK.= As an article of clothing, as far as “roundness of fibre, softness of texture, absence of attraction for moisture, and power of communicating warmth, are concerned, silk is greatly superior to both linen and cotton; moreover, it gives the sensation of freshness to the touch which is so agreeable in linen. But, with all these advantages, silk (when worn next the body) has its defects; on the slightest friction it disturbs the electricity of the skin, and thus becomes a source of irritation. Sometimes, it is true, this irritation is advantageous, as causing a determination of blood to the surface; but when this action is not required, it is disagreeable, and quite equal, in a sensitive constitution, to producing an eruption on the skin. I have seen eruptions occasioned in this manner, and, when they have not occurred, so much itching and irritation as to call for the abandonment of the garment.” (Eras. Wilson.)

Silk is characterised by its fibres appearing perfectly smooth and cylindrical, without depressions, even under a magnifying power of 160. Its fibres (even when dyed) acquire a permanent straw-yellow colour when steeped in nitric acid of the sp. gr. 1·20 to 1·30. The fibres of white or light-coloured silk are similarly stained by a solution of picric acid. A thread of silk, when inflamed, shrivels and burns with difficulty, evolves a peculiar odour, and leaves a bulky charcoal. By these properties silk is distinguished from cotton and linen.

Cotton, wool, and silk may be easily distinguished from each other by means of the microscope.

The cotton fibre will be seen to consist of only one cell; wool (as well as hair and alpaca) is made up of numerous cells in juxtaposition; whilst silk fibre is similar to the secreted matter of spiders and caterpillars.

The silk fibre (fig. 1) is smooth, cylindrical, devoid of structure, not hollow inside, and equally broad. The surface is glossy, and only seldom are any irregularities seen on it. If it is desired to detect in a woven fabric the genuineness of the silk, it is best to cut a sample to pieces, place it under water under the object-glass of a microscope, magnifying 120 to 200 times, covering it with a thin piece of glass. The round, glazed, equally proportioned silk fibre (fig. 1), is easily distinguished from the unequalled and scaled wool fibre (W in fig. 2), and from the flat, band-like, and spiral cotton fibre (B, fig. 3). Under the microscope also the mixture of inferior with superior fibres of silk can be easily detected.

Black silk, the weight of which has been augmented by extensive sophistication, is not uncommon in English, French, and German markets. It is known as ‘weighted’ or ‘shotted’ silk, and very frequently contains no more——and frequently less——than one third of its weight of silk, the remaining two thirds consisting, according to Persoz, of a combination of iron salts, with some astringent substance, salts of tin, and cyanides. It is easily distinguishable from genuine silk by its want of elasticity and tenacity, and its much greater combustibility. Persoz found a specimen of this adulterated silk to yield, upon incineration, more than 8 per cent. of ferric oxide.

The cleaning and renovation of articles of wearing apparel made of silk are matters requiring some care. No silk goods look well after being washed, however carefully it may be done; and this method should, therefore, never be resorted to but from absolute necessity. It is recommended to sponge faded silks with warm water and curd soap, then to rub them with a dry cloth on a flat board, and afterwards to iron them on the wrong side with an ordinary smoothing iron. Sponging with spirit, benzol, or pure oil of turpentine, also greatly improves old silk, and is often preferable to any other method. The odour of the benzol passes off very quickly, that of the turpentine after exposure for a few days. When the ironing is done on the right side thin paper should be spread over the surface to prevent ‘glazing.’ See DYEING, GILDING, &c.

=Silk Material, a New.= The ‘Textile Manufacturer’ contains the following:——The utilisation of new substances as raw material for manufactures is a distinguishing feature of the scientific investigations of the nineteenth century. One of the most recent suggestions is the result of the researches of Herr Tycho Tulburg, an eminent German naturalist, on the products of the mussel. It will be remembered it was from one of the mussel species the famous purple dye was in past ages obtained, and this colour gained an imperishable renown from its being adopted by the Roman emperors, and the imperial purple became the symbol of sovereignty. In these latter days animal products have been displaced by aniline dyes, and there is no likelihood of their regaining their former celebrity. The researches of Tulburg have not, however, been in the direction of dyes, but in the adaptation of animal products other than the silkworm for silk yarns. The mussel (Mytilus edulis) fastens itself to the rocks by strong threads, called by naturalists byssus, and it is this substance which it is proposed to utilise for the manufacture of silk. The material is of a silky texture and very tough, and the experiments that have been made prove that it is well adapted to be made into yarn. Already the Pinna, one of the mussel tribe, has been already manufactured into fabrics, although it is not of general use, nor at present of much commercial value, and the same obstacles to the use of the byssus of the common mussel are apparent. Notwithstanding the abundant supply of this popular shell fish, it is difficult to see how a sufficient quantity of byssus can be collected to enable manufacturers to purchase the raw material at rates low enough for a marketable remuneration on the manufactured article. But the records of industrial progress testify to greater difficulties than these having been successfully overcome; and should the commercial value of the new material be satisfactorily demonstrated, there is no doubt some agency will be developed whereby the requisite supply may be obtained.

At present it is sufficient to notice the discovery that has been made, and to welcome another instance of the results of scientific labour being for the advantage of manufacturers.

=SILK′WORM, Diseases of.= Silkworms are liable to a disease known as pébrine, which Pasteur has shown to be due to the presence, on the body, the egg, and in the blood of the insect, of peculiar parasitic corpuscles.

Pasteur states that the black specks which constitute these bodies are very easily distinguishable in the moth of the silkworm, but that in the earlier stages of its development, such as in the egg and worm condition, the detection of them becomes difficult, if not impossible. Pasteur further adds that sound moths produce sound eggs, and unsound moths the reverse, and that although the unsound eggs show no sign of disease, they never give rise to healthy worms.

Pasteur advises the silk cultivator, therefore, to ensure breeding from healthy moths at starting, and to abandon the old and useless precaution of hatching apparently healthy eggs.

The loss resulting from the silkworm disease in Italy may be seen from the following tables, which are calculated for bales of 102 lbs. weight:[163]——

[Footnote 163: ‘British Manufactory of Industries,’ Stamford.]

Average production prior to disease, 81,600.

1863 Bales, 50,600 Deficit, 38 per cent. 1864 ” 38,000 ” 53 ” 1865 ” 38,700 ” 52 ” 1866 ” 39,600 ” 51 ” 1867 ” 44,000 ” 46 ” 1868 ” 41,000 ” 49 ” 1869 ” 47,300 ” 42 ” 1870 ” 69,900 ” 14 ” 1871 ” 76,300 ” 6 ” 1872 ” 68,000 ” 16 ”

The value of the cocoons grown in the whole world in 1870 was said to be as follows:——France, £4,334,000; Italy, £11,260,000; Spain and other European countries, £984,000; giving a total for Europe of £16,588,000. China, £17,000,000; India, £4,800,000; Japan, £3,200,000; Persia, £920,000; other Asiatic states, £2,192,000; giving a total for Asia of £28,112,000. Africa, £68,000. America, £20,000. Making a general total of £44,788,000.

=Silkworm Gut.= See GUT.

=SIL′LABUB.= Prep. Grate off the yellow peel of a lemon with lump sugar, and dissolve the sugar in 3/4 pint of wine; add the juice of 1/3 a lemon, and a 1/4 pint of cream; beat the whole together until of a proper thickness, and then put it into glasses.

Obs. 3/4 to 1 pint of new milk is often substituted for the cream, and strong cider or perry for the wine. Grated nutmeg is often added. When ‘whipped’ to a froth it is called ‘WHIPPED SILLABUB,’ See CREAM (Whipped).

=SILVER.= Ag. Syn. ARGENTUM, L. This metal, like gold, appears to have been as much valued in the remotest ages of antiquity of which we have any record, as at the present time. It is found in nature, both in the metallic state and mineralised, in the state of alloy, and combined with sulphur, chlorine, and other metallic sulphurets. In Great Britain it is found in combination chiefly with lead. It is extracted from its ores principally by the process of amalgamation, founded on its easy solubility in mercury, and by subsequent cupellation. It is only prepared on the large scale.

Chemically pure silver may be obtained by the methods noticed subsequently.

Prop. Pure silver has a very white colour, a high degree of lustre, is exceedingly malleable and ductile, and is the best conductor of heat and electricity known. Its hardness is between that of copper and gold; its sp. gr. is 10·475 to 10·500; it melts at about 1873° Fahr.; or bright redness (Daniell); is freely soluble in nitric acid, and dissolves in sulphuric acid by the aid of heat; it refuses to oxidise alone at any temperature, but, when strongly heated in open vessels, it absorbs many times its bulk of oxygen, which is again disengaged at the moment of solidification; its surface is rapidly tarnished by sulphuretted hydrogen and by the fumes of sulphur.

Pur. “Entirely soluble in diluted nitric acid. This solution, treated with an excess of muriate of soda, gives a white precipitate entirely soluble in ammonia water, and a fluid which is not affected by sulphuretted hydrogen.” (Ph. E.)

Tests. 1. The compounds of silver, mixed with carbonate of soda, and exposed on a charcoal support to the inner flame of the blowpipe, afford white, brilliant, and ductile metallic globules, without any incrustation of the charcoal.——2. The salts of silver are non-volatile and colourless, but most of them acquire more or less a black tint by exposure to full daylight.

The soluble salts of silver give——1. A white curdy precipitate (chloride of silver) with hydrochloric acid and the soluble metallic chlorides, which is soluble in ammonia and insoluble in nitric acid, and blackened by exposure to light;——2. White precipitates with solutions of the alkaline carbonates, oxalates, and ferrocyanides;——3. Yellow precipitates with the alkaline arsenites and phosphates;——4. With the arseniates, red precipitates;——5. With the fixed alkalies, brown precipitates;——6. With sulphuretted hydrogen and hydrosulphuret of ammonia, a black powder, which is insoluble in dilute acids, alkalies, alkaline sulphurets, and cyanide of potassium, but readily soluble, with separation of sulphur, in boiling nitric acid; and——7. With phosphorus, and with metallic copper or zinc, pure silver.

Assay. 1. The method of assaying silver by cupellation has been explained under ASSAY and CUPELLATION; and that method is alone applicable when the alloy contains a very small quantity of silver, as a few ounces only per ton. When the reverse is the case, as with the silver of commerce, the following is a much more accurate method:——

2. Humid assay of silver.——a. Dissolve 10 gr. of the silver for assay in 100 gr. of nitric acid, sp. gr. 1·28, by the aid of heat, the solution being made in a tall stoppered glass tube, furnished with a foot; then place it in a very delicate balance, bring it into an exact state of equilibrium, and add the test solution (see below), gradually and cautiously, until the whole of the silver be thrown down, the number of grains now required to restore the equilibrium of the balance or scales gives the exact quantity of pure silver in 1000 parts of the sample.——Obs. To ensure accuracy, after each addition the stopper should be placed in the tube, and the latter violently agitated for a short time, when the liquor will rapidly clear and enable us to see when the operation is concluded. We must then, as a check, add a small quantity of a solution of nitrate of silver to the liquor in the tube, after having first carefully taken the weight. If too much of the test liquor has been added, this will produce a fresh precipitate, and the assay cannot then be depended on.——Instead of weighing the quantity of test liquor used, a tube graduated into 100 parts, and holding 1000 gr., may be employed, every division of which, required to throw down the silver, will represent the 1/10th of a grain. See ALKALIMETRY and ACIDIMETRY.

b. The precipitate of chloride of silver may be collected in a paper filter, and be dried, washed, fused, and weighed. The previous weight of the paper, deducted from the gross weight of the filter and its contents, gives the quantity of chloride of silver present, which multiplied by 0·75278, gives the weight of the pure silver in the sample.

Test liquor. Dissolve 54·27 (54-1/4) gr. of pure sea salt in 9945·73 gr. (or 22 oz. and 320-3/4 gr. avoirdupois) of distilled water; filter, and keep the liquor in a stoppered bottle for use. Pure sea salt is obtained by boiling together, for a few minutes, in a glass vessel, a solution of common salt with a little pure bicarbonate of soda; then adding to the filtered liquor sufficient hydrochloric acid to render it neutral to litmus and turmeric paper, and, lastly, evaporating and crystallising.

Obs. The presence of mercury, lead, or sulphuret of silver, interferes with the accuracy of the above assay. When mercury is present, the precipitate blackens less readily by exposure to light; and when it contains 4/1000 or 5/1000 of chloride of mercury, it remains of a dead white; with 3/1000 it is not sensibly discoloured by the diffused light of a room, with 2/1000 only slightly darkened, with 1/1000 more so, but with pure chloride of silver, the effect is very rapid and intense. When this metal is present, which is, however, seldom the case, the assay sample must be placed in a small crucible, and exposed to a full red heat, before solution in the acid. Another method, proposed by M. Levol, and modified by M. Gay-Lussac, is to add to the nitric solution of the silver sufficient acetate of ammonia or crystallised acetate of soda to saturate all the nitric acid existing in the liquor, either in the free state or combined with the silver. When the alloy contains lead, shown by the precipitated chloride being partly soluble in water, it may either be laminated and subjected to the action of acetic acid before solution in the nitric acid; or, the test solution of chloride of soda should be replaced by one of chloride of lead; (139·355 gr. of the latter are equiv. to 58·732 gr. of the former). The presence of sulphuret of silver is detected whilst dissolving the sample in nitric acid, by the black flakes which may be observed floating about in the liquor in an insoluble state. These flakes may be dissolved by fuming nitric acid, or by adding pure concentrated sulphuric acid to the solution, which should be then heated for about a 1/4 hour in a steam-bath. When thus treated, the precipitate produced by the test liquor represents the whole of the silver contained in the alloy.

Dr Gräger[164] gives the following process of the preparation of pure metallic silver:——He dissolved the alloy of silver in nitric acid, taking care to use as small a quantity of the acid as possible. The solution is then transferred to a large-sized porcelain basin, and gradually neutralised with previously lixiviated chalk free from chlorine. The neutralised liquid is next boiled, and chalk again added to it, while boiling, until the fluid has become colourless. (In order to test more accurately, a drop of the liquid is poured on a piece of white filtering-paper, and next to that drop is placed one of a solution of ferrocyanide of potassium; as long as the well-known red colouration, copper reaction, hereby ensues, chalk is added.) The fluid is next filtered to separate the carbonate of copper, and the filtrate (a solution of nitrate of silver, and nitrate of lime) is again boiled, and either further treated with carbonate of lime, or better still, with carbonate of soda. The bright yellow-coloured precipitate thereby ensuing, a mixture of carbonate of silver, and carbonate of lime, is washed, dried, and ignited, leaving a greyish-white mass of metallic silver, mixed with carbonate of lime. This mixture is treated with dilute hydrochloric acid, washed with distilled water, and then fused along with borax, yielding pure silver. The bright green coloured carbonate of copper can be used as a pigment for painting purposes.

[Footnote 164: ‘Chemical News,’ xxv, No. 641, 119.]

Krüger says:——In frequently experimenting with silver salts, a mixture of solution of precipitates is obtained, in which silver exists in all kinds of combination. When such mixtures are shaken up with an ethereal solution of phosphorus, the solution and the precipitate soon separate, the former being more or less yellow, the latter intensely black. If light-coloured particles are perceived in the precipitate, the quantity of phosphorus solution employed is not sufficient, and more must be added till the precipitate is uniformly black. The precipitate is next filtered, washed, and dried, or placed while still damp, in a porcelain dish and boiled with potash solution. Pure metallic silver is thus obtained. If a solid fused mass is required, pure potassium hydrate is fused in a crucible, and to this the dried precipitate is added in small portions.

Uses, &c. Metallic silver, unless in a state of very minute division, has no action on the human body. A plate of silver is ordered, in the Ph. L., as a test of the presence of nitric acid in the acetic and phosphoric acids; and metallic silver (preferably granulated) is employed by the other colleges in the preparation of the nitrate. Its numerous applications in the arts are well known. The standard silver of England contains 111 parts of silver and 9 parts of copper.

Concluding Remarks. The researches of Tillet, D’Arcet, and Gay-Lussac have clearly shown that the percentage of silver in an alloy, as indicated by cupellation, is always below its real richness in that metal, owing to loss in the process; and, that the cupelled button always retains a trace of lead and copper, the precise quantity of which is variable. The following table exhibits the additions to be made on this score, when the quantity assayed (assay pound) is 20 gr.:——

+-------------------------+---------------+--------------+ | |Actual richness| Percentage | |Weight after cupellation.| in pure |of richness in| | | silver. |pure silver.| +-------------------------+---------------+--------------+ | 19·979 | 20 | 100 | | 18·95 | 19 | 95 | | 17·92 | 18 | 90 | | 16·917 | 17 | 85 | | 15·914 | 16 | 80 | | 14·91 | 15 | 75 | | 13·905 | 14 | 70 | | 12·905 | 13 | 65 | | 11·906 | 12 | 60 | | 10·906 | 11 | 55 | | 9·906 | 10 | 50 | | 7·921 | 8 | 40 | | 5·948 | 6 | 30 | | 3·949 | 4 | 20 | | 1·982 | 2 | 10 | +-------------------------+---------------+--------------+

In assaying lead ores very poor in silver the best quantity to be taken for cupellation is 500 gr.; and from that quantity 0·0148 of silver, including compensation for loss, represents one ounce of silver to the ton. A cupel may absorb its own weight of lead. If the quantity of lead to be absorbed is more considerable, another cupel may be turned topsy-turvy, and the cupel in which the assay is to be made may be placed upon it. See Assay, and M. Gay-Lussac’s elaborate memoir on the ‘Humid Assay of Silver,’

For the recovery or reduction of silver from the chloride and its other compounds, several methods are employed:——

a. The washed chloride is placed in a zinc or iron cup, along with a little water strongly acidulated with sulphuric acid; or in a glass or porcelain cup along with a zinc plate; the whole may then be left to itself for some hours; or, to hasten the reduction, gently heated, or even boiled; the precipitated silver is washed with pure water, and dried.

b. (Hornung.) Digest the chloride with some ammonia and pure copper filings, for 24 hours, then wash and dry the powder.

c. (M. Levol.) The washed chloride is mixed with an equal weight of sugar, and the mixture is digested in an excess of a moderately strong solution of caustic potassa, with occasional agitation for 24 hours; or the whole is boiled for some time; the reduced silver is washed with distilled water.

d. (Mohr.) The dry chloride is mixed with 1-3rd of its weight of powdered black resin, and moderately heated in a crucible until the flame ceases to have a greenish-blue colour; the heat is then suddenly increased so as to melt the metal into a button or ingot.

e. (M. Gay-Lussac.) If the chloride, dry it, and throw it, in successive portions, into twice its weight of carbonate of potassa fused in a red-hot Hessian crucible; effervescence ensues, and the pure silver subsides to the bottom.——If a “soluble salt,” as the nitrate, acidulate the solution, and precipitate it by means of a polished plate of copper; the silver is then obtained in the form of powder. The products of the above processes, when the latter are carefully conducted, are chemically pure silver.

=Silver, Acetate of.= Syn. ARGENTI ACETAS, L. Prep. By adding a solution of acetate of potassa to a like solution of nitrate of silver, washing the precipitate with cold water, redissolving it in a little hot water, and setting the solution aside to crystallise. Small colourless needles.

=Silver, Ammoniuret of.= See FULMINATING SILVER (Berthollet’s, Nos. 1 and 2, page 768).

=Silver, Ammonio-chloride of.= Syn. ARGENTOCHLORIDE OF AMMONIA; ARGENTI AMMONIO-CHLORIDUM, L. Prep. Add, gradually, chloride of silver (recently precipitated and well washed) to concentrated liquor of ammonia, as long as it is dissolved on agitation, applying a gentle heat towards the end; then heat the solution to the boiling-point, concentrate a little, and allow it to cool very slowly; collect the crystals which form, dry them by pressure (with care) between folds of bibulous paper, and at once preserve them from the light and air.——Dose, 1/16 to 1/8 gr.

=Silver, Ben′zoate of.= AgC_{7}H_{5}O_{2}. Thin transparent plates, which are blackened by exposure to the light. See BENZOATE.

=Silver, Bro′mide of.= AgBr. Resembles the chloride.

=Silver, Car′bonate of.= Ag_{2}CO_{3}. Syn. ARGENTI CARBONAS, L. A white insoluble powder, obtained by precipitating a cold solution of nitrate of silver with another of carbonate of sodium. It is decomposed by heat.

=Silver, Chlo′′ride of.= AgCl. Syn. ARGENTIC CHLORIDE. Prep. Precipitate a solution of nitrate of silver by dilute hydrochloric acid or a solution of common salt; wash the precipitate, and dry it in the shade.——Dose, 1/4 to 3 gr., thrice daily; in epilepsy, chronic dysentery, cholera, diarrhœa, &c. Dr Perry regards it as preferable to the nitrate. When fused, chloride of silver forms horn silver, the ‘luna cornea’ of the older writers.

=Silver, Cy′anide of.= AgCN. Syn. ARGENTIC CYANIDE, HYDROCYANATE OF SILVER. Prep. Add dilute hydrocyanic acid to a solution of nitrate of silver, as long as a precipitate falls; wash this with distilled water, and dry it.

Prop., &c. Cyanide of silver is a white powder, soluble in ammonia, and decomposed by contact with vegetable substances; light turns it violet-coloured.——Dose, 1/16 to 1/8 gr.; in syphilis, &c. It has been proposed as a source of hydrocyanic acid. (Everitt.)

=Silver Hyposul′phite of.= Ag_{2}S_{2}O_{3}. Syn. ARGENTI HYPOSULPHIS, L. A white substance, insoluble in water, and very prone to decomposition. It is very soluble in the alkaline hyposulphites, forming compounds possessing an intensely sweet taste. See HYPOSULPHUROUS ACID.

=Silver, I′odide of.= AgI. Syn. ARGENTIC IODIDE; ARGENTI IODIDUM, L. Prep. Precipitate a solution of nitrate of silver with another of iodide of potassium; wash the precipitate with distilled water, and dry it in the shade. Pale greenish-yellow; insoluble in water and in liquor of ammonia; soluble in a solution of hyposulphite of soda. Used in some of the French hospitals in the stomach affections of scrofulous subjects: also in epilepsy.——Dose, 1/12 to 1 gr.

=Silver, Ni′trate of.= AgNO_{3}. Syn. ARGENTI NITRAS, L. This article is found in commerce under two forms:——

1. CRYSTALLISED. Prep. By dissolving grain silver in nitric acid diluted with about twice its weight of water, evaporating the solution until it is strong enough to crystallise on cooling, and then allowing it to cool very slowly. Colourless; transparent, anhydrous rhombic prisms or tables; soluble in an equal weight of cold and in half their weight of boiling water; soluble in alcohol; fuse when heated, and at a higher temperature suffer decomposition; blackened by light, and by contact with organic substances. Its solution in distilled water is not sensibly darkened by light, in the absence of organic matter. Used for solutions, and in photography.

2. FUSED (LUNAR CAUSTIC; ARGENTI NITRAS——B. P., Ph. L. & E., A. N. FUSUM——Ph. D.). Prep. (Ph. D.) Refined silver, 3 oz.; pure nitric acid, 4 fl. oz.; distilled water, 5 fl. oz.; mix in a glass flask, and apply in a gentle heat until the metal is dissolved; transfer the solution to a porcelain capsule (or a large porcelain crucible), decanting it off a heavy black powder which appears at the bottom of the flask, and, having evaporated it to dryness, raise the heat (in a dark room) until the mass liquefies; then pour it into a brass mould (iron moulds——Ph. E. & Ph. L. 1836), furnished with cylindrical cavities of the size of a goose-quill, and which then admits of being opened by a hinge; preserve the concreted salt in well-stopped bottles, impervious to the light. The formulæ of the Ph. E. & Ph. L. 1836 are similar.

Obs. In preparing this salt care should be had that the silver is free from copper. Pure nitrate of silver may, however, be prepared from silver containing copper, by evaporating the nitric solution to dryness, and cautiously heating the mixed nitrates to fusion. A small portion of the melted mass is examined from time to time, until a little dissolved in water, and treated with ammonia in excess, ceases to strike a blue colour. When this point is arrived at, the fused nitrate is allowed to cool, when it is redissolved in water, filtered or decanted from the insoluble black oxide of copper, and evaporated in the usual way.

The heat employed in preparing the fused nitrate should not exceed 420° Fahr., and the fusion should be effected completely, but with moderate expedition, to prevent loss of nitric acid. Formerly, a mass of well-tempered white clay, perforated by means of a well-greased goose-quill, was used instead of metal moulds. In the Ph. E. & Ph. L. 1836 the moulds are ordered to be greased; when this is done, the sticks of caustic should be wiped clean before rolling them in paper. The moulds should be gently heated before pouring the fused nitrate into them. Mr Benzoin, the celebrated Danish pharmaceutist, recommends mould formed of the massive white Bohemian talc or of English slate.

Pur., &c. Pure nitrate of silver, whether crystallised or fused, is entirely soluble in water, yielding a colourless solution, from which metallic silver is precipitated by a piece of bright copper; both are originally white, but are darkened by exposure to light and contact with organic matter.

Uses, &c. Nitrate of silver is a powerful tonic, antispasmodic, astringent and escharotic.——Dose, 1/8 to 1 gr., gradually increased, twice or thrice a day, made into a pill with crum of bread; in cholera, epilepsy, &c., preceded by purgatives. It has been highly extolled by Mr Ross as a remedy in cholera. Its continued use permanently colours the skin. It is also extensively employed externally as a caustic. It is powerfully poisonous. A solution of common salt, emetics, and demulcents, constitute the treatment in such cases. Nitrate of silver is much employed in the manufacture of ‘indelible ink’ for linen, and hair dyes.

=Silver, Di′oxide of.= Ag_{2}O_{2}. Syn. ARGENTI SUBOXYDUM, L. Prep. From dry citrate of silver heated to 212° Fahr., in a stream of hydrogen gas, until it turns dark brown, when it is dissolved in water; the solution is next treated with potassa, and the precipitate is carefully washed and dried. A black powder, easily decomposed, and soluble in ammonia.

=Silver, Oxide of.= Ag_{2}O. Syn. PROTOXIDE OF SILVER; ARGENTI OXYDUM, A. PROTOXYDUM, L. Prep. 1. (Lane.) Nitrate of silver, 2 parts; hydrate of potassa, 1 part; dissolve each separately in distilled water, mix the solutions, and, after frequent agitation during an hour, collect and wash the precipitate, and dry it by a gentle heat in the shade. A pale brown powder.

2. Recently precipitated chloride of silver is boiled in a solution of hydrate of potassium of the sp. gr. 1·25, with frequent stirring and trituration, until, on testing a little of it, it is found to be entirely soluble in dilute nitric acid, when it is washed and dried, as before. A black and very dense powder. Chemically pure.

3. Nitrate of silver, 1/2 oz.; water, 4 fl. oz., dissolve, and pour the solution into a bottle containing lime water, 2 quarts, or q. s.; agitate the mixture well, collect and wash the sediment, and dry it at a heat not exceeding 212° Fahr. A dark olive-brown powder. Pure.

Prop., &c. Very soluble in solutions of ammonia and of the alkaline hyposulphites; slightly soluble in water; reaction alkaline; decomposed by light.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 gr.; in epilepsy, gastralgic irritations, &c. It is much used in France, and has been highly extolled in menorrhagia. By some, however, it is not considered superior to the nitrate.

=Silver Pencils, Nitrate of.= According to A. Huber, very thin pencils of nitrate of silver, such as are sometimes required for intra-uterine applications may be prepared in the following manner:——Silver nitrate is fused in a capsule, and the liquid drawn up by slow and cautious suction into a glass tube, the calibre of which is a trifle larger than the required diameter of the pencil. Especial care is to be taken that no cavities filled with air-bubbles are produced in the contents of the tube. When entirely cold the tube is warmed by turning over a spirit-lamp until the outer surface of the stick has become soft, when it may be easily pushed out by means of a knitting needle. With a little practice very handsome pencils of considerable length may be obtained in this manner.

=Silver, Perox′ide of.= Syn. ARGENTI PEROXYDUM, L. A black crystalline substance which forms on the positive electrode of a voltaic arrangement employed to decompose solution of nitrate of silver.

=Silver, Sul′phate of.= Ag_{2}SO_{4}. Syn. ARGENTI-SULPHAS, L. Prep. By boiling silver in sulphuric acid; or, by precipitating a solution of the nitrate by another of sulphate of sodium. It dissolves in 80 parts of hot water, and falls in small colourless needles as the solution cools.

=Silver, Sul′phide of.= Ag_{2}S. Syn. SULPHURET OF SILVER; ARGENTI SULPHURETUM, L. Prepared by passing sulphuretted hydrogen through a solution of nitrate of silver; or, by melting its constituents together. It possesses a greyish-black colour, and is a strong sulphur-base.

=Silver, Ox′idised.= The high appreciation in which ornamental articles in oxidised silver are now held, renders a notice of the process followed interesting. There are two distinct shades in use, one produced by chlorine, which has a brownish tint, and the other by sulphur, which has a bluish-black tint. To produce the former, it is only necessary to wash the article with a solution of sal ammoniac. A much more beautiful tint may, however, be obtained by employing a solution composed of equal parts of sulphate of copper and sal ammoniac dissolved in vinegar. A fine black tint may be produced by a slightly warm solution of sulphide of potassium or of sodium. (‘Chem. Techn.’)

=SILVER DUST.= Syn. SILVER POWDER; ARGENTI CROCUS, A. PULVIS, L. Prep. 1. Pure pulverulent silver, obtained by any of the methods explained on the previous page. Used to coat pills, by japanners, &c.

2. Heat oxide of silver to dull redness in a porcelain crucible, cool, triturate the powder in an agate mortar, and pass it through a fine sieve. Used at the hospital of Montpellier.

=SILVER SHELLS.= These are prepared and used like gold shells.

=SIL′VERING.= The art of covering the surfaces of bodies with a thin coating of silver. Leather, paper, wood, &c., are silvered by covering them with silver leaf, by a similar process to that employed for gilding them.

=Silvering of Glass.= Two distinct methods are adopted for this purpose——one of which consists in employing a layer of tin-foil and mercury, falsely called ‘silvering,’ the other in using a coating of real silver precipitated from a solution of that metal.

1. Plane surfaces, as those of mirrors, &c., are commonly silvered as follows:——A sheet of tin-foil corresponding to the size of the plate of glass is evenly spread on a perfectly smooth and solid marble table, and every wrinkle on its surface is carefully rubbed down with a brush; a portion of mercury is then poured on, and rubbed over the foil with a clean piece of very soft woollen stuff, or a hare’s foot, after which two rules are applied to the edges, and mercury poured on to the depth of a crown-piece, when any oxide on the surface is carefully removed, and the sheet of glass, made perfectly clean and dry, is slid along over the surface of the liquid metal, so that no air, dirt, or oxide can possibly either remain or get between them. When the glass has arrived at its proper position, gentle pressure is applied, and the table sloped a little to carry off the waste mercury, after which it is covered with flannel and loaded with heavy weights; in 24 hours it is removed to a wooden table and further slanted, and this position is progressively increased during a month, until it becomes perpendicular.

For silvering convex or concave surfaces a mould of plaster of Paris is employed, so that the amalgamated foil may be accurately fitted to the surface.

Globes and other hollow vessels are commonly silvered by the application of one of the silvering amalgams noticed at page 117.

2. In the HUMID WAY.——a. (Drayton.) A mixture is first made of nitrate of silver (in coarse powder), 1 oz., ammonia, 1/2 oz., and water, 2 oz., which, after standing for 24 hours, is filtered (the deposit upon the filter, which is silver, being preserved), and an addition is made thereto of spirit (by preference, rectified spirit at 60% o. p.), or naphtha, 3 oz.; from 20 to 30 drops of oil of cassia are then added; and, after remaining for about 6 hours longer, the solution is ready for use. The glass to be silvered (first well cleaned and polished) is placed in a horizontal position, and a wall of putty, or other suitable material, formed around it; the above solution is then poured over it to the depth of from 1/8 to 1/4 inch; from 6 to 12 drops of a mixture of oil of cloves and spirit of wine (in the proportion of 1 part, by measure, of oil of cloves, to 3 of spirit of wine) are next dropped into it, at different places; or the diluted oil of cloves may be mixed with the solution before it is poured upon the glass, a larger quantity, in both cases, increasing the rate of the deposit. When the glass is sufficiently silvered, the solution is poured off; and as soon as the silver on the glass is perfectly dry, it is varnished with a composition formed by melting together equal quantities of beeswax and tallow. The solution, after being poured off, is allowed to stand for 3 or 4 days, in a close vessel; as it still contains silver, and may be again employed after filtration, and the addition of a sufficient quantity of fresh ingredients to supply the place of those which have been used. 18 gr. of nitrate of silver are sufficient for one square foot of glass. Hollow vessels may he silvered by pouring the solution into them. By the addition of a small quantity of oil of caraway, oil of cloves, or oil of thyme, the colour of the silver may be varied. (‘Patent Journ.’)

b. (Thomson & Mellish.) Nitrate of silver, 2 oz.; water and rectified spirit, of each 3 fl. oz.; dissolve, add of spirit of hartshorn or liquor of ammonia, 1 fl. oz., mix, and after a short time filter the solution; to each ounce of this add of grape sugar, 1/4 oz., previously dissolved in a mixture of rectified spirit and water, of each 1/2 pint; after 3 or 4 hours’ repose it is fit for use. This solution is applied to the glass, heated to about 160° Fahr., in a similar manner to the last. Patented.

c. The best plan of silvering plain or slightly curved surfaces is, however, the method employed for coating the specula of the silvered-glass Newtonian telescopes. This method is very easy, and has the advantages of giving a brilliant and durable surface on both sides, and the film is sufficiently firm to admit of being polished with rouge and fine wash-leather.

One half ounce of pure nitrate of silver is dissolved in 4 oz. of distilled water, and divided into two equal portions. One is treated with dilute ammonia until the brownish precipitate is entirely redissolved; and to this clear solution, 1/2 oz. of pure hydrate of potassium dissolved in 8 oz. of water added; and the brown precipitate, and grey sediment that remains after the brown precipitate disappears, dissolved by the cautious addition of ammonia, stirring well all the time. The remaining nitrate of silver solution is now added, stirring well until it gives a greyish precipitate that does not disappear after well stirring. The bulk of the solution is next made up to 100 oz., and allowed to settle, when the clear solution is poured off for use.

The reducing solution is prepared by dissolving 1/2 oz. of pure milk sugar in 10 oz. of hot water, and adding 10 minims of pure alcohol.

This quantity of silvering solution will coat over two square feet of glass surface with a brilliant film of pure silver. The glass must be perfectly clean, and is to be suspended face downwards on the surface of the solution and allowed to stand one hour; the temperature of the solution being best about 80° Fahr.

d. (R. Siemens.) As a reducing agent, acetic aldehyde is used in the form of aldehyde ammonia, prepared by passing dry ammoniacal gas into aldehyde. Four grams of silver nitrate and 2-1/2 grams of aldehyde ammonia are separately dissolved in a litre of distilled water, and the solutions mixed and filtered. The article to be silvered, after washing out with potassium carbonate, and then with spirits of wine and distilled water, to remove every trace of grease, is filled with this solution (as far as it is desired to silver), and then hung up in the water bath.

It is now gradually heated, and as soon as the temperature reaches 50° C. the separation of the silver mirror begins, and soon spreads over the whole inner glass surface. Its formation is soon finished, usually between 55° or 60°. When the beauty of the silver surface reaches a maximum it is time to withdraw the article from the water bath, and pour off the contents, or the brilliancy of the mirror will be impaired. The article is finally rinsed in distilled water.

e. (Martin.) M. Martin makes use of four liquids, viz., first, a 10 per cent. solution of nitrate of silver; second, liquor ammoniæ, sp. gr. ·970; third, a 4 per cent. solution of caustic soda; and fourth, a 12-1/2 per cent, solution of white sugar, to which he adds 2-1/2 per cent. of nitric acid, and after twenty minutes’ boiling he adds to it 25 parts of alcohol and water, to make up the bulk to 250. The silvering solution is made by mixing together 12 parts of solution No. 1, 8 parts of No. 2, 20 parts of No. 3, and 60 parts of distilled water, and finally, in twenty-four hours, 10 parts of No. 4. The object to be silvered is then immersed, when it will be covered with a film of reduced silver, which in ten minutes’ time will be sufficiently thick for use. After having been washed with distilled water and dried the surface may be polished with chamois leather and rouge.

=Silvering of Metals.= 1. (LEAF SILVERING.) This is performed with leaf silvering in the way described under GILDING for the gilding of polished metals.

3. (COLD SILVERING.) Mix chloride of silver, 1 part, with pearlash, 3 parts, common salt, 1-1/2 part, and whiting, 1 part; and well rub the mixture on the surface of the brass or copper (previously well cleaned), by means of a piece of soft leather, or a cork moistened with water and dipped into the powder. When properly silvered the metal should be well washed in hot water slightly alkalised, and then wiped dry.

3. (ELECTEO-SILVERING.) This is described under ELECTROTYPE.

=Silver, A New Imitation of.= A patent for an alloy has been taken out by M. Lemarquand, which is said to bear a close resemblance to silver in appearance, and to be unaffected by atmospheric influences. It has the following composition:——

Pure copper 750 parts. Nickel 140 ” Black oxide of cobalt 20 ” Tin, in sticks 18 ” Zinc 72 ”

=SIMAROU′BA.= Syn. SIMARUBA (Ph. E. & D.), L. The root-bark of Simaruba amara or officinalis, the mountain damson. Tonic, bitter, and astringent.——Dose, 20 to 30 gr.; in intermittents, obstinate diarrhœa, dysentery, and dyspepsia.

=SIN′AMINE.= C_{4}H_{6}N_{2}. A basic substance formed, along with sulphide of lead, when thiosinamine is treated with oxide of lead. It is very bitter tasted, has a powerful alkaline reaction, and, when slowly obtained from its concentrated aqueous solution, forms brilliant colourless crystals.

=SIN′APISM.= Syn. SINAPISMUS, L. A mustard poultice.

=SIN′APOLINE.= C_{7}H_{12}N_{2}O. A basic substance, formed, along with carbonic acid, when the volatile oil of mustard, or sulphocyanide of allyl, is treated with oxide of lead. It is soluble in water and alcohol, has an alkaline reaction, and crystallises in colourless plates.

=SINKS.= “In no case,” says Mr Eassie,[165] “should the waste pipe of sink, laboratory, or bath lead direct into the drains; yet how frequently is this the case, and a special card sent out to disease and death.

[Footnote 165: ‘Healthy Houses,’ by Wm. Eassie, C.E. Simpkin, Marshall & Co.]

“It must also be remembered it is every whit as dangerous if these waste conduits lead into the soil pipe of a closet. Waste pipes from the above-named places should be led down to within 12 or 18 inches from the ground, and should deliver on to the grating of a gully or yard trap.”

This subject has been already treated in the article on “Sanitation, Domestic,” wherein we have embodied the practical suggestions of Mr Collins, another sanitary house reformer, as well as in our article on “Drainage,” in which will be found details for carrying out the system recommended by Messrs Eassie and Symonds, and thus preventing the admission into our dwelling-houses of the poisonous sewer gas.

The matter has so important a bearing upon health, that we shall make no apology for having thus reiterated and emphasised it by quoting Mr Eassie’s words of warning. See TRAPS.

=SIT′FASTS.= These hard tumours, possessing but little sensibility, are situated in those superficial parts of the horse’s body which have been exposed to the unequal pressure of the collar, the saddle, or the harness. The tumour should be removed by the veterinary surgeon, if the previous application of either blisters, biniodide of mercury ointment, or a seton have been tried and failed to disperse it. The precursor of the sitfast is always a swelling filled with serum and lymph, caused, as before stated, by badly-fitting harness. Hence the soundest treatment is to prevent its development into the hard form, by proper means, directly it shows itself, the best remedies being the application of salt and water or Goulard water, and correcting the defects of the harness.

=SIZE.= Obtained, like glue, from the skins of animals, but is evaporated less, and kept in the soft state. See GOLD and GOLD SIZE.

=Size, Oil.= This may be made by grinding yellow ochre or burnt red ochre with boiled linseed oil, and thinning it with oil of turpentine.

=SKATE.= The Raia batis (Linn.). Other varieties of Raia also pass under the name. It is a coarse fish, and is principally salted and dried for exportation.

=SKIN (The).= Syn. CUTIS, DERMIS, PELLIS, L. Every person must be familiar with the external appearance and general properties of the skin; but there are many of our readers who may not be aware of its peculiar compound character. The skin, then, although apparently a single membrane, is composed of three distinct layers or membranes, each of which performs its special duties:——1. The exterior of these is called the cuticle, epidermis, or scarf-skin. It is an albuminous tissue, possessing no sensibility, and is found thickest on those parts of the body most exposed to friction or injury.——2. The mucous net, or rete mucosum, which is a thin layer of soft pulpy matter, which lies immediately under the cuticle, and is supposed to be the seat of the colour of the skin.——3. The derma, cutis vera, or true skin, is a highly sensitive, vascular, gelatinous texture, the third, and last in succession from the surface of the body. It is this which, when the scarf-skin and hair have been removed, is converted by the process of tanning or tawing into leather.

The skin, because of its tough, elastic, flexible nature and its underlying layer of fat, is admirably adapted for covering the various internal parts and organs, as well as for bodily movement and exertion. Besides this, it exercises, in common with the lungs, the liver, and the kidneys, the important function of a depurator, and may, with the organs above specified, be regarded as one of the main outlets for the waste products of the body; the effete and noxious matters of which, when in a healthy condition, it effects the removal, are those contained in the perspiration, and in addition carbonic acid, and, in the case of unhealthy subjects, nitrogen. The importance of the removal of these substances from the organism will be realised when it is stated that, when this excretory function of the skin has, in the course of experiments upon animals, been prevented by covering their bodies over with a coat of varnish or some other impermeable agent, the animal has quickly perished.

The perspiration is variable in amount, owing to various causes, such as temperature, the amount of exercise taken, the more or less hygroscopic condition of the surrounding atmospheres, the quantity of fluid swallowed, the season of the year, &c., with the exception of that which occurs under the armpits and upon the soles of the feet, it has generally an acid reaction, due to the presence in it of uncombined formic and lactic acids. Under ordinary conditions of life it averages daily about 2 lbs. in quantity, being, as might be expected, more abundant than the urine in summer, and less in winter. The perspiration is of very complex composition, and contains lactates, butyrates, and acetates of sodium and ammonium, sodic chloride, phosphate of calcium, and sulphates——these latter, however, occurring in but small quantities. It also contains a peculiar nitrogenous substance that very quickly decomposes, and a peculiar odorous principle. According to Anselmino the proportion of solid matter in the perspiration varies from 5 to 12·5 parts in 1000.

Various observers have arrived at different conclusions respecting the amount of carbonic acid exhaled from the skin. Professor Scharling believed it to be from a fortieth to a sixtieth the amount given off by the lungs. Recent observations seem, however, to have shown that this estimate was too high. Dr Edward Smith, operating upon himself by placing every part of his body except the head in a caoutchouc bag, and subsequently collecting the evolved carbonic acid (the experiment being performed in the summer time), found the quantity evolved to be 6 grains per hour, or about a hundredth part of that passing off from the lungs.

Aubert’s experiments led him to the conclusion that it was about half the amount given by Smith; whilst Reinhart estimated it at 34 or 35 grains a day.

These excretory processes of the skin are effected by means of very minute vessels called the sudoriparous or sweat-glands. These glands abound in almost every part of the human skin. They are of largest size under the axillæ or arm-pits, where perspiration is most profuse. They are also very abundant upon the palms of the hand. Professor Erasmus Wilson says that as many as 3528 of these sweat-glands exist in a square inch of surface on the palm of the hand; and as every tube, when straightened out, is about a quarter of an inch in length, it follows that, in a square inch of skin from the palm of the hand, there exists a length of tube equal to 882 inches, or 73-1/2 feet. These glands, as we have seen, vary in number for different parts of the human body; but if we take Professor Wilson’s average for the superficial area of a man of ordinary stature, viz., 2800 of them to the square inch, it follows “the total number of pores on such a man’s skin would be about seven millions, and the length of perspiratory tubing would then be 1,750,000 inches, or 145,833 feet, or 48,611 yards, or nearly 28 miles.”[166]

[Footnote 166: Carpenter’s ‘Human Physiology.’]

In addition to the sudoriparous, the skin also possesses sebaceous glands which stud almost every part of its surface except the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet. The sebaceous glands secrete a semi-fluid, greasy kind of substance, the office of which is probably to aid in rendering the skin soft and supple, and to prevent the too rapid evaporation of moisture from it. The sebaceous glands are more particularly found on the scalp, the anus, and the nose, their locality in the skin of this last feature being sometimes marked by small black specs, which when squeezed yield a little white mass resembling a maggot in appearance. This is merely the solidified secretion from the sebaceous gland. A parasite known as the Acarus folliculorum infests the sebaceous glands. In the cartilaginous part of the external passage of the ear are other glands, the ceruminous, which secrete the wax that forms a protective film for the membrane of the tympanum or drum, and guards it against dust, insects, &c. See EXERCISE, PERSPIRATION.

=SKIN BALSAM, Glycerin——Glycerin Haut, Balsam.= A mixture of 1000 parts glycerin, 120 parts orange-flower water, 1 part each oils of neroli and bitter almonds. (Hager.)

=SKIN COSMET′ICS.= The simplest, cheapest, and most generally employed cutaneous cosmetics are soap and water, which at once cleanse and soften the skin. Soap containing a full proportion of alkali exercises a solvent power upon the cuticle, a minute portion of which it dissolves; but when it contains a small preponderance of oily matter, as the principal part of the milder toilet soaps now do, it mechanically softens the skin and promotes its smoothness. Almond, Naples, and Castile soaps are esteemed for these properties, and milk of roses, cold cream, and almond powder (paste), are also used for a similar purpose. To produce an opposite effect, and to harden the cuticle, spirits, astringents, acids, and astringent salts, are commonly employed. The frequent use of hard water has a similar effect. The application of these articles is generally for the purpose of strengthening or preserving some particular part against the action of cold, moisture, &c.; as the lips, or mammæ, from chapping, or the hands from contracting chilblains; but in this respect oils, pommades, and other oleaginous bodies, are generally regarded as preferable.

Another class of cutaneous cosmetics are employed to remove freckles and eruptions. Among the most innocent and valuable of these is Gowland’s lotion, which has long been a popular article, and deservedly so, for it not only tends to impart a delightful softness to the skin, but is a most valuable remedy for many obstinate eruptive diseases which frequently resist the usual methods of treatment. Bitter almonds have been recommended to remove freckles (Celsus), but moistening them with a lotion made by mixing 1 fl. oz. of rectified spirit, and a teaspoonful of hydrochloric acid with 7 or 8 fl. oz. of water, is said to do this more effectually. A safe and excellent cosmetic is an infusion of horseradish in cold milk. (Withering.)

Hermann prescribes the following lotion:——Blanched almonds, 2 oz.; rose water, 8 oz.; orange-flower water, 2 oz. Make an emulsion, strain, and add sal ammoniac, 1 dr.; simple tincture of benzoin, 2 dr.

Skin paints and skin stains are employed to give an artificial bloom or delicacy to the skin. Rouge and carmine are the articles most generally used to communicate a red colour. The first is the only cosmetic that can be employed, without injury, to brighten a lady’s complexion. The other, though possessing unrivalled beauty, is apt to impart a sallowness to the skin by frequent use. Starch powder is employed to impart a white tint, and generally proves perfectly harmless. The American ladies, who are very fond of painting their necks white, use finely-powdered magnesia, another very innocent substance. Several metallic compounds, as the trisnitrate, chloride, and oxide of bismuth (pearl white, Fard’s white, &c), carbonate of lead (flake white), white precipitate, &c., are frequently used to revive faded complexions; but they are not only injurious to the skin, but act as poisons if taken up by the absorbents. Trisnitrate of bismuth (pearl white), probably the least injurious of these articles, has been known to cause spasmodic tremblings of the muscles of the face, ending in paralysis. (‘Voght. Pharm.’) The employment of liquid preparations containing sugar of lead, which are commonly sold under the name of milk of roses, cream of roses, &c., is equally injurious. Another disadvantage of these metallic preparations is, that they readily turn black when exposed to the action of sulphuretted hydrogen gas, or the vapours of sulphur, such as frequently escape into the apartment from coal fires. There are many instances recorded of a whole company being suddenly alarmed by the pearly complexion of one of its belles being thus transformed into a sickly grey or black colour.

In conclusion, it may be remarked that the best purifiers of the skin are soap and water, followed by the use of a coarse but not a stiff cloth, in opposition to the costly and smooth diapers that are commonly employed; and the best beautifiers are health, exercise, and good temper.

=Skin, Goldbeat′er’s.= See GOLDBEATER’S SKIN.

=SKINS (of Animals).= The preparation and preservation of fur skins are noticed under PELTRY; the preparation and uses of the skins of the larger animals under LEATHER, TANNING, TAWING, &c.

=SLACK.= Small coal, such as is used for kilns.

=SLAG.= The semi-vitrified compounds, produced, on the large scale, during the reduction of metallic ores by fluxes. Those from iron and copper works are often used for building materials, mending roads, &c.

According to Egleston[167] the following are some of the industrial applications to which the slag from blast furnaces is put.

[Footnote 167: Dingler’s ‘Polytech. Journ.,’ ‘Journ. Chem. Society.’]

When required for building stones the slag is run from the blast furnace into a semicircular vessel on moving wheels, and having its bottom covered three centimetres deep with sand and coke dust. By means of a bent iron instrument the slag is mixed with sand and coke dust till the escape of gases has nearly ceased and the mass is sufficiently tough. With the same tool it is next pressed into a mould furnished with a lid, which is forced down as soon as the escape of gas ceases. The red-hot stone is then placed in the cooling oven, covered with coke dust, and allowed to remain three or four days to cool completely. These stones are impervious to damp, and make good foundations. According to another method the slag, which should contain from 38 to 44 per cent. of silica, is run down a shoot into a large cavity, and then covered over with sand and ashes, and left to cool from five to ten days, when it is distributed in moulds, and there hardens. In certain parts of Belgium slag is poured upon iron plates and cooled by water, and thus a kind of glass is manufactured.

In other districts the slag is granulated as it flows from the blast furnace by means of a stream of water. The granulated slag is preferred by the puddlers to the sand for the moulds of pig iron. The slag gravel may be advantageously substituted for sand in mortar making, a more rapid hardening being thus secured, a matter of great moment in building foundation walls.

Artificial stone is also manufactured from the granulated slag, and used for building purposes, furnishing warm dry houses of handsome appearance.

When stones for building with enamelled surfaces are required they are obtained in some parts of Europe as follows:——The unburnt bricks are covered with granulated slag, and after drying are burnt in a furnace where they do not come in contact with carbon. The stones are completely glazed, and according to the different kinds of slag used are tinted of different colours. This operation is also employed advantageously with tiles, pipes, and earthenware.

If, in the preparation of fire-proof bricks, a certain proportion of mixture of clay and granulated slag be added to the mixture, very hard and durable fire bricks are obtained. These have been tested in a brass furnace, and experiments are being tried as to their applicability to building puddling furnaces. This granulated slag may also be advantageously used for manure. Blast furnace slag has also been drawn out in fine threads or filaments, furnishing the so-called ‘furnace wool.’ This substance, being a very bad conductor of heat, has suggested various household and other uses. A cheap and valuable cement, said to be equal to Portland cement, has been prepared from the finely granulated slag, which will also resist well the action of acids.

Mr Britten in 1876 patented a process for the manufacture of glass from blast furnace slag. Large works for the purpose of carrying out this invention, under the title of ‘Britten’s Patent Glass Company,’ have been erected at Finedon in Northamptonshire, and are, we believe, successfully worked in manufacturing glass bottles.

The method consists in removing molten slag in a ladle from the blast furnace, and pouring into a Siemen’s furnace, when certain amounts of carbonate of sodium and silica are added, depending upon the quality of the slag used, and of the glass required.

=SLATE.= The excellence of this material for water cisterns deserves a passing notice here.

Irish slate (Lapis Hibernicus) is an argillaceous mineral, said to contain iron and sulphur, found in different parts of Ireland. It is a common remedy, among the vulgar, for internal bruises, taken in a glass of gin.

=SLEEP.= During the period of our waking hours the exercise of the animal functions entails a waste or destruction of tissue in the organs performing them, which, unless duly repaired, would soon lead to the enfeeblement and consequent failure of the powers of the organs themselves. For the animal economy therefore to be maintained in a state of efficiency the repair of the reduced tissues is a necessity; and this essential condition is effected by the agency of sleep, during which respiration, circulation, digestion, &c., continue to be carried on simultaneously with assimilative processes which end in the regeneration of the impaired tissue.

A proper amount of sleep is therefore as great or even a greater necessity than a proper supply of food; and any one failing to obtain it soon perishes of exhaustion. Thus it is that any great mental emotion——such as intense remorse, grief, anxiety, or the depressing effect of a reverse of fortune——so frequently expedites death. Like Macbeth “it murders sleep,” one of the great needs of man’s existence.

Infants and children it is well known require much more sleep than adults. In these latter the organism, being already matured, demands only so much sleep as will enable it to make up for the daily waste of the body, which waste falls very far below the amount of nutrition required by the growing infant. In a still earlier state of development, viz., the fœtal one, life may be said to be passed entirely in slumber; whilst children prematurely born scarcely ever wake except for food. We may assume that, as a general rule, infants take treble the amount of sleep that adults do, and that very young infants thrive the better the larger the amount of sleep they get, is borne out by the experience of medical practitioners, who affirm that they have known many children who were born small and weakly, but who slept the greatest part of their early existence, afterwards became strong and healthy; whilst those children on the contrary who, being born large and strong, were not good sleepers, became subsequently enfeebled and unhealthy. As regards the sleep of adults, if the slumber has been of average length, or the subject of it awakes fully refreshed therefrom, a second sleep instead of being conducive is prejudicial to health, and should never be encouraged.

During sickness a patient, if in a very helpless and enfeebled state, may often be exposed whilst asleep to great peril, unless the nurse who attends him exercises intelligence and a proper amount of vigilance. In his work on ‘Household Medicine’ Dr Gardner has pointed out the dangers that beset the sleeping patient, and the means by which they may be avoided. “Having disposed,” he says, “of the patient in bed in the best manner, be careful that no part of the pillow can project over the mouth or nose, and that the bedclothes do not cover the mouth.

“The attendant should be particularly attentive to these points, when a narcotic has been taken, when the disease is paralysis, fever, head diseases, bronchitis, or any pulmonary complaint. The patient should be watched until he sleeps, and during his sleep, if a nurse is not constantly present, should be visited frequently, to observe whether the mouth and nostrils are free, and nothing obstructs the breathing.

“Very little suffices for an obstruction in such cases, which may extinguish life. Hundreds, perhaps we may say thousands of persons die prematurely from suffocation during sleep, in a low condition of the vital energies.

“How often does it happen that a patient left in a calm sleep is found dead upon being visited an hour or two after. Soft yielding pillows, in which the head and face get buried, are the instruments of suffocation to weakly persons, very, very often.”

The larger amount of sleep indulged in by the very old, over adults, is referable to the incapacity of the aged for exercise, and to their enfeebled powers of nutrition. Besides age, temperament, habit, and surrounding circumstances exercise considerable influence on the amount of sleep necessary for man. Persons of lymphatic temperament are generally great sleepers; whilst those of a nervous and active nature are mostly the reverse. The late Earl Russell was we believe in the years of his active political life a very small sleeper, his slumbers seldom extending over five hours. So, likewise was the Duke of Wellington; General Elliott, the defender of Gibraltar, seldom slept more than four hours out of the twenty-four. As a contrast to these cases may be mentioned that of Dr Reid, the metaphysician, of whom it is stated that he could take as sufficient food and afterwards as much sleep as would suffice for an ordinary man for two days.

Several well-attested cases of excessive slumber are on record in which the sleep lasted in some cases for weeks, and in others even for months.

In the ‘Comptes Rendus’ for 1864 Dr Blanchet records the case of one of his patients, a lady of 24 years of age, who had slept for 40 days when she was 18 years of age. Two years later she had a sleep lasting 50 days. Upon a subsequent occasion she fell asleep on Easter Sunday, 1862, and did not wake till March, 1863. She was fed during this period with milk and soup. She continued motionless and insensible, the pulse was low, the breathing scarcely perceptible, there were no evacuations, and she betrayed no signs of wasting away, whilst her complexion is described as florid and healthy.

This, however, as well as other cases of a similar kind, must not be regarded as an extreme instance of healthy slumber, but as a form of lethargy or coma, as indicative of disease, as the opposite condition or sleeplessness, that is frequently an accompaniment of certain forms of fevers, inflammatory affections, and brain disorders.

Mr Durham, of Guy’s Hospital, seems to have disposed of the condition that sleep is caused by the pressure of the distended veins on the brain.

A piece of bone being removed from a dog’s skull so that the animal’s brain could be observed when sleeping, it was found, 1, the veins were not distended. 2. During sleep the brain is in a comparatively bloodless condition, and the blood in the encephalic vessels is not only diminished in quantity, but moves with diminished rapidity; and this is corroborated by the observations of Dr Hughlings Jackson on the ophthalmoscopic condition of the retina during sleep, the optic disk being then whiter, the arteries smaller, and the retina generally more anæmic than in the waking state. 3. The condition of the cerebral circulation during sleep is from physical causes, that which is most favorable to the nutrition of the brain tissue. See BED, WATCHFULNESS.

=SLEEPLESSNESS AND COLD FEET.= The association betwixt cold feet and sleeplessness is much closer than is commonly imagined. Persons with cold feet rarely sleep well, especially women. Yet the number of persons so troubled is considerable. We now know that if the blood-supply to the brain be kept up, sleep is impossible. An old theologian, when weary and sleepy with much writing, found that he could keep his brain active by immersing his feet in cold water; the cold drove the blood from the feet to the head.

Now, what this old gentleman accomplished by design is secured for many persons much against their will. Cold feet are the bane of many women. Light boots keep up a bloodless condition of the feet in the day, and in many women there is no subsequent dilatation of the blood-vessels when the boots are taken off. These women come in from a walk and put their feet to the fire to warm——the most effective plan of cultivating chilblains. At night they put their feet to the fire, and have a hot bottle in bed. But it is all of no use; their feet still remain cold. How to get their feet warm is the great question of life with them——in cold weather. The effective plan is not very attractive at first sight to many minds. It consists in first driving the blood-vessels into firm contraction, after which secondary dilatation follows. See the snowballer’s hands! The first contact of the snow makes the hands terribly cold; for the small arteries are driven thereby into firm contraction, and the nerve-endings of the finger-tips feel the low temperature very keenly. But as the snowballer perseveres, his hands commence to glow; the blood-vessels have become secondarily dilated, and the rush of warm arterial blood is felt agreeably by the peripheral nerve-endings. This is the plan to adopt with cold feet. They should be dipped in cold water for a brief period; often just to immerse them, and no more, is sufficient; and then they should be rubbed with a pair of hair flesh gloves, or a rough Turkish towel, till they glow, immediately before getting into bed. After this a hot-water bottle will be successful enough in maintaining the temperature of the feet, though without this preliminary it is impotent to do so. Disagreeable as the plan at first sight may appear, it is efficient; and those who have once fairly tried it continue it, and find that they have put an end to their bad nights and cold feet. Pills, potions, lozenges, “night-caps,” all narcotics, fail to enable the sufferer to woo sleep successfully: get rid of the cold feet, and then sleep will come of itself.——British Medical Journal.

=SMALLPOX.= See POX.

=Smallpox in Sheep.= Syn. VARIOLA OVINA. This disease, although bearing the same name as that which attacks the human subject, is a perfectly distinct malady, and incapable of being communicated to man either by inoculation or contagion. In about ten days from the time of the animal’s having imbibed the contagion feverish symptoms set in accompanied with a mucous discharge of a purulent character from the nose. Red inflammatory pimples then begin to develop, first appearing where the skin is thin. After the pimples have been out about three days they assume a white appearance, and are filled with serum and pus. “Some of the vessels dry up, leaving brown scabs; others, especially in the severer cases, run together, and the scarf skin is detached, leaving an ulcerated surface. It is in this ulcerated stage that the prostration reaches its height, and that most sheep die. The mortality from smallpox in sheep ranges from 25 to 90 per cent.”[168]

[Footnote 168: Finlay Dun.]

The disease being a very infectious one, the affected animals must be kept separate from the healthy ones. Thirty grains of chlorate of potash should be given three times a day, whilst the food should be nutritious and such as to tempt the animal’s appetite. It may consist of bruised oilcake, bran, and steeped oats. Professor Simonds recommends inoculation as a prophylactic measure.

=Smallpox Marks, Prevention of.= 1. For preventing disfigurement from smallpox marks, Dr Bernard suggests that the pustules as soon as they have acquired a certain size should be punctured with a fine needle, and then repeatedly washed with tepid water.

2. Dr Thorburn Patterson prescribes the following ointment:——Carbonic acid, 20 to 30 minims; glycerine, 1-1/2 dr.; ointment of oxide of zinc, 6 dr.

3. Cream smeared on the pustules, frequently during the day, with a feather. See also OINTMENTS.

=SMALTS.= Syn. AZURE, POWDER BLUE, SILICEOUS B., SMALT, AZURUM, SMALTA, L. This consists, essentially, of glass coloured by fusing it with oxide of cobalt.

Prep. 1. Cobalt ore is roasted, to drive off the arsenic, then made into a paste with oil of vitriol, and heated to redness for an hour; the residuum is powdered, dissolved in water, and the ferric oxide precipitated with carbonate of potassium, gradually added, until a rose-coloured powder begins to fall; the clear portion is then decanted, and precipitated with a solution of silicate of potassium (prepared by fusing together, for 5 hours, a mixture of 10 parts of potash, 15 parts of finely ground flints, and 1 part of charcoal); the precipitate after being dried is fused, and reduced to a very fine powder. A very rich colour.

2. Roasted cobalt ore and carbonate of potassium, of each 1 part; siliceous sand, 3 parts; fuse them together, and cool and powder the residuum. Used as a blue pigment, also to colour glass, and for ‘blueing’ the starch used to get up linen. See BLUE PIGMENTS.

=SMELL′ING SALTS.= See SALTS, SMELLING.

=SMELT.= A beautiful little abdominal fish abounding in the Thames, and a few other rivers, between the months of November and February. It is esteemed a great delicacy by epicures, but sometimes proves offensive to the delicate and dyspeptic.

=SMOKE PREVEN′TION.= Although the full consideration of this subject belongs to public hygiene and civil engineering, its immediate application and advantages are interesting and important to everybody.

The history of smoke burning scarcely commences before the year 1840, at which date Mr Charles Wye Williams obtained a patent for this purpose. Since that time a ‘thousand-and-one’ schemes, either patented or non-patented, professedly for the same object, have been brought before the public. Most of these have been supported by the most reckless statements regarding their value, made by interested parties; and the most serious inconvenience and losses have often followed their adoption. Williams’s method is to admit an abundant supply of cold air through a large number of small perforations in the door and front part of the furnace. Lark’s method is based on the admission of heated air, under due regulation, both through the door, and at the bridge or back of the furnace, by which means combustion is rendered more complete, and smoke thereby prevented.

Ivison’s plan consists in the introduction of steam by minute jets over the fire, which is thus greatly increased in intensity without the production of smoke, and with a saving of fuel. In Jucke’s arrangement the grate bars of a furnace are replaced by an endless chain web, which is carried round upon two rollers, in such a way that each part of the fuel is exposed to conditions most favorable for perfect combustion. Other inventions are based upon supplying fuel to the fires from beneath, so that the products of combustion must pass through the incandescent coals above.

For household fires, the smokeless grate, invented by Dr Arnott, will be found entirely successful, and most economical. Its general introduction would be a great advance in both domestic and public hygiene; and, being hence of national importance, should be enforced by law.

=SMO′′KING.= This is done, on the large scale, by hanging up the articles (previously more or less salted) in smoking rooms, into which smoke is very slowly admitted from smothered dry-wood fires, kindled in the cellar, for the purpose of allowing it to cool and deposit its cruder part before it arrives at the meat. This process requires from six days to as many weeks to perform it properly, and is best done in winter. In farm-houses, where dry wood is burnt, hams, &c., are often smoked by hanging them up in some cool part of the kitchen chimney. When the meat is cut into slices, or scored deeply with a knife, to allow the smoke to penetrate it, it is called ‘BUCANING,’

“The quality of the wood has an influence upon the smell and taste of the smoke-dried meat; smoke from beech wood and oak being preferable to that from fir and larch. Smoke from the twigs and berries of juniper, from rosemary, peppermint, &c., impart somewhat of the aromatic flavour of these plants.” (Ure.) The occasional addition of a few cloves or allspice to the fuel gives a very agreeable flavour to the meat.

Hung beef, a highly esteemed variety of smoked beef, is prepared from any part, free from bone and fat, by well salting and pressing it, and then drying and smoking it in the usual manner. It is best eaten shredded. See PUTREFACTION, SALTING, &c.

=SNAKE-POISONING, Mortality from.= The ‘Lancet’[169] quoting a letter from T. B. Beighton, Esq., of the Bengal Civil Service, magistrate of the Culna district of the Burdwan province of Bengal, says:——“The Culna district comprises, we presume, 80 or 100 square miles, and has a population of about 300,000. Mr Beighton says that deaths from snakebite are singularly common in the subdivision. An average of one per day is reported through the police. The actual deaths are probably double the number reported. If this daily average is meant to apply the whole year round, we should thus get in a comparatively small district the frightful death of 700 persons from snakebite. It is lamentable to think that despite the supposed remedial discoveries in this direction, we still seem to be without an agent to neutralise the effects of the bites of poisonous snakes.”

[Footnote 169: ‘Analyst,’ 11th, 1870.]

=SNAKE-ROOT.= See SENEGA. For ‘Virginian snake-root’ see SERPENTARY. Snakeweed (Bistortæ radix) is the root of Polygonum Bistorta (Linn.).

=SNIPE.= The Scolopax Gallinago, a well-known bird indigenous to this country. It is fine-flavoured, but rather indigestible.

=SNOW, Foreign Bodies in.= M. Bondier[170] having lately made an examination of snow, records that of the solid matters floating in the air and retained in the snow, the most abundant was found to be soot; next some cells of Protococcus virictis, and spores and filaments of other cryptograms; then granules of starch and cells and fibres of various plants. Epithelial cells and hairs of animals were also present, as well as fibres of wool and silk. These last, being dyed, indicated the presence of man, as did also the fibres of hemp, cotton, and indigo. The amount of foreign matter was greatest in the snow collected at the lowest levels, especially in the vicinity of human habitations and of woods, which are both fertile sources of floating particles. Permanganate of potassium was used to estimate the amount of organic matter dissolved by the filtered snow water.

[Footnote 170: ‘Journ. Ch. Soc.’]

Immediately mixed with the soot were the ferruginous corpuscles observed by Tissandier. These are regarded by the author, in opposition to the opinion of Tissandier, as of terrestrial origin.

=SNUFF.= Syn. PULVIS TABACI, L.; TABAC EN POUDRE, Fr. A powder, prepared from tobacco, for the purpose of being sniffed up the nose as a stimulant or intoxicant.

The finer kinds of snuff are made from the soft portions of the best description of manufactured leaf-tobacco, separated from the damaged portion; but the ordinary snuffs of the shops are mostly prepared from the coarser and damaged portions, the mid-ribs, stems, or stalky parts that remain from the manufacture of ‘shag tobacco,’ the dust or powder sifted from the bales, and the fragments that are unfit for other purposes.

Prep. The proper material being chosen, and if not in a sufficiently mature state rendered so by further fermentation, they are sufficiently dried by a gentle heat or exposure to the air to admit of being pulverised. This is performed, on the large scale, in a mill, and on the small scale, with a kind of pestle and mortar. During the operation the tobacco is frequently sifted, that it may not be reduced to too fine a powder, and is several times slightly moistened with rose or orange-flower water, or eau d’ange, which are the only liquids fit for the superior kinds of snuff. In preparing the dry snuffs no moisture is used. The scent or other like matters are next added, and, after thorough admixture, the snuff is packed in jars or canisters.

Adult. During the grinding of tobacco it is frequently mixed with dark-coloured rotten wood, various English leaves, colouring, and other matter. Ammonia, hellebore, euphorbium, and powdered glass are common additions to snuffs to increase their pungency. We have seen powdered sal ammoniac sent by the hundredweight at one time to a certain celebrated London tobacconist. The moist kinds of snuff are generally drugged with pearlash, for the triple purpose of keeping them damp and increasing their pungency and colour. The dry snuffs, especially ‘Scotch’ and ‘Welsh,’ are commonly adulterated with quicklime, the particles of which may be occasionally distinguished even by the naked eye. This addition causes their biting and desiccating effect on the pituitary membrane. “We were once severely injured by taking snuff which, after our suspicions were awakened, we found to contain a mixture of red lead and umber.” (Cooley.)

The following circumstance related by Dr Garrod[171] in a lecture at King’s College Hospital leads to the inference that the custom of packing snuff in lead is not free from danger. The doctor says:——A gentleman, a resident in India, began to suffer some time since from nervous exhaustion, anæmia, and debility of both extremities; he was a great snuff taker, taking on an average as much as an ounce in the course of a day. He consulted several medical men in India, and they attributed his symptoms to inordinate snuff taking. He, however, continued to take snuff and to get worse, and at last came to England to seek further advice. When Dr Garrod saw him he discovered a blue line on the gums. His suspicions were directed to the snuff, which he found to contain a considerable quantity of lead. To ascertain whether or not the presence of lead in this circumstance was an accidental circumstance, six packets were ordered from the house in Calcutta with which the gentleman had been in the habit of dealing. The snuff was contained in sheet-lead packages, which were all found to contain lead to about the same extent as the first specimen. Dr Garrod exhibited a solution, which he tested in the following way:——Ten grains of snuff were burned in a platinum crucible, and the ash was treated with nitric acid, the crystallised result was dissolved in water with the addition of a small quantity of acetic acid, and then tested with iodide of potassium, which threw down an abundant precipitate of yellow iodide of lead. The leaden packages were labelled ‘best brown rappee,’ and bore the name of a well-known English firm, from which they had been exported to India. The snuff itself was rather moist. Where it adhered to the sides of the case it was dotted with white spots, probably consisting of carbonate of lead, formed by, Dr Garrod suggests, the fermentation of the damp snuff.

[Footnote 171: ‘Lancet.’]

Since Dr Garrod’s attention has been directed to this subject, he has spoken to a medical man recently returned from Calcutta, who told him that he had quite lately met with three cases of lead-poisoning, which, on investigation, were found to be due to the use of snuff.

Var. Snuffs are divided into two kinds——DRY SNUFFS, as ‘Scotch,’ ‘Irish,’ ‘Welsh,’ and ‘Spanish snuff,’ ‘Lundyfoot,’ &c.; and MOIST SNUFFS, or RAPPEES, including ‘black’ and ‘brown rappee,’ ‘carrotte,’ ‘Cuba,’ ‘Hardham’s mixture,’ ‘prince’s mixture,’ ‘princeza,’ ‘queen’s snuff,’ &c. The last three also come under the denomination of SCENTED SNUFFS.

The immense variety of snuffs kept in the shops, independently of the above-named conditions, depend for their distinguishing characteristics on the length of the fermentation, the fineness of the powder, the height to which they are dried, and the addition of odorous substances. Tonquin beans, essence of tonquin bean, ambergris, musk, civet, leaves of orchis fusca, root and oil of calamus aromaticus, powder and essence of orris root, and the essences or oils of bergamot, cedra, cloves, lavender, petit grain, neroli, and roses (otto), as well as several others, either alone or compounded, are thus employed. TABAC PARFUMÉE AUX FLEURS is perfumed by putting orange flowers, jasmins, tuberoses, musk roses, or common roses, to the snuff in a close chest or jar, sifting them out after 24 hours, and repeating the treatment with fresh flowers, as necessary. Another way is to lay paper, pricked all over with a large pin, between the flowers and the snuff.

MACOUBA SNUFF is imitated by moistening the tobacco with a mixture of treacle and water, and allowing it to ferment well.

SPANISH SNUFF is made from unsifted ‘Havannah snuff,’ reduced by adding ground Spanish nutshells, sprinkling the mixture with treacle water, and allowing it to sweat for some days before packing.

YELLOW SNUFF is prepared from ordinary pale snuff moistened with a mixture of yellow ochre diffused in water, to which a few spoonfuls of thin mucilage have been added; when dry, the colour that does not adhere to the snuff is separated with a fine sieve.

RED SNUFF. As last, but using red ochre.

=Snuff, Asarabac′ca.= Syn. CEPHALIC SNUFF, COMPOUND POWDER OF ASARABACCA; PULVIS ASARI COMPOSITUS, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. D. 1826.) Asarabacca leaves, 1 oz.; lavender flowers, 1 dr. (both dried); mix and powder them.

2. (Ph. E. 1817.) Asarabacca leaves, 3 dr.; leaves of marjoram and flowers of lavender, of each 1 dr.; as before. Both are used as errhines in headaches and ophthalmia. See SNUFF, CEPHALIC, ASARABACCA, &c.

=Snuff, Cephal′ic.= Prep. 1. From asarabacca leaves and Lundyfoot snuff, of each 2 oz.; lavender flowers, 1/4 oz.; essence of bergamotte and oil of cloves, of each 2 or 3 drops; mixed and ground to a powder, the perfume being added last.

2. (Boeli’s.) From tobacco or pure snuff and valerian root, of each 1/2 oz.; reduced to powder, and scented with the oils of lavender and marjoram, of each 5 or 6 drops.

Obs. The first formula is an excellent one; and the product is very useful in nervous headaches, dimness of sight, &c. See SNUFF, ASARABACCA (above).

=Snuff, Eye.= Prep. From finely levigated tribasic sulphate of mercury (‘Turpeth mineral’), 1/2 dr.; pure dry Scotch or Lundyfoot snuff, 1 oz.; triturate them well together. A pinch of this, occasionally, has been recommended in inflammation of the eyes, dimness of sight, headache, polypus, &c.; but it should be used with caution, and not too often.

=SOAP.= Syn. SAPO, L.; SAVON, Fr. SPANISH, CASTILE, or HARD SOAP, made with olive oil and soda (SAPO, SAPO EX OLIVÆ OLEO ET SODÂ CONFECTUS——Ph. L.; SAPO DURUS——B. P., Ph. E., & D.), and SOFT SOAP, made with olive oil and potash (SAPO MOLLIS——B. P., Ph. L., & E., SAPO EX OLIVÆ OLEO ET POTASSÂ CONFECTUS——Ph. L.), are the only kinds directed to be employed in medicine. The former is intended whenever ‘soap’ is ordered, and is the one which is principally employed internally; the latter is used in ointments, &c., and in some of the officinal pills.

Prep. The fatty or oleaginous matter is boiled with a weak alkaline lye (soap-lye) rendered caustic by quicklime, and portions of stronger lye are added from time to time, the ebullition being still continued, until these substances, reacting on each other, combine to form a tenacious compound, which begins to separate from the water; to promote this separation and the granulation of the newly-formed soap, some common salt is generally added, and the fire being withdrawn, the contents of the boiler are allowed to repose for some hours, in order that the soap may collect into one stratum, and solidify; when this happens it is put into wooden frames or moulds, and when it has become stiff enough to be handled it is cut into bars or pieces, and exposed to the air, in a warm situation, to further harden and to dry.

In the print works of Alsace, where an immense quantity of egg albumen is consumed, there collect, as a necessary result, enormous quantities of the yolks of egg. Amongst other purposes to which these are applied that of soap-making is one. According to Kingzett, the olein is not the only ingredient of the yolk which reacts upon the soda or potash, and thus produces soap; but the yolk also contains another body, which, absorbing water under the influence of the bases, splits up into oleic and margaric acids.

“Besides the olein contained in the free state, there is,” says Mr Kingzett, “present a body called lecithine of the formula C_{42}H_{84}NPO_{9}.” Gobloy, Diakonow, Strecker, Thudicum, and Kingzett have studied this substance, and express its chemolysis as follows:——

Lecithine. Water. Glycero-phosphoric acid. C_{42}H_{84}NPO_{9} - 3H_{2}O = C_{3}H_{9}PO_{6}

Choline. Oleic acid. Palmitic acid. + C_{5}H_{15}NO_{2} + C_{18}H_{34}O_{2} + C_{16}H_{32}O_{2}.

That is to say, bases have the power, by abstracting water, to split up lecithine into, among other products, oleic and palmitic acid; so that when eggs are used for soap-making this process actually occurs, the soda or potash employed being sufficient to effect the necessary decomposition, and the resulting soap being, therefore, the product from not only the olein, but from the fatty acids so formed.

Tessie du Mothay has proposed a method for the recovery of potash, soda, &c., from soap water, which is as follows:——He decomposes the soap water by calcium, barium, or magnesium carbonate, and then passes carbonic acid through the liquid. The bicarbonate form precipitates organic matter and other impurities, and these settle down. The solution is then evaporated or treated with baryta water, which precipitates the last portion of foreign matters, and leaves a solution of caustic alkali. At a particular stage of the process an acid is used in order to hasten the separation of the resinous substances, and, in certain cases, of the sulphides of sodium and calcium, or barium and calcium and ferric oxide, and then passes carbonic acid into the liquid. The precipitated metallic substances carry down with them the humus-like substances present.

Var. The principal varieties of soap found in commerce are:——

ALMOND SOAP (SAPO AMYGDALINUS), made from almond oil and caustic soda, and chiefly used for the toilet.

The P. Codex gives the following formula for its preparation:——Solution of caustic soda (1·334), by weight, 10 oz.; oil of almonds, by weight, 21 oz.; add the lye to the oil in small portions, stirring frequently; leave the mixture for some days at a temperature of from 64° to 68° Fahr., stirring occasionally, and when it has acquired the consistence of a soft paste, put it into moulds until sufficiently solidified. It should be exposed to the air for one or two months before it is used.

ANIMAL SOAP. SAPO ANIMALIS, CURD SOAP (B. P.). A soap made with soda and a purified animal fat consisting principally of stearin (P. Cod.). Put 5 parts of beef marrow with 10 parts of water into a porcelain or silver basin, heat, and when melted add by portions, with constant stirring, 2-1/2 parts of liquor sodæ (1·33); when saponified, add 1 part of salt; stir, remove the soap from the surface, drain it, melt it with a gentle heat, and pour it into moulds.

CASTILE SOAP, SPANISH S., MARSEILLES S.; SAPO CASTILIENSIS, SAPO HISPANICUS. An olive-oil soda soap, kept both in the white and marbled state. The former is said to be the purest, the latter the strongest.

CURD SOAP, made with tallow (chiefly) and soda (see above).

MEDICATED SOAPS, containing various active ingredients. The chief of these are noticed below.

MOTTLED SOAP, made with refuse kitchen-stuff, &c.

SOFT SOAP (of commerce), made with whale, seal, or cod oil, tallow, and caustic potash.

N. Gräger[172] gives the following method for the easy determination of the fat and alkali in soft (potash) soaps:——25 to 50 grammes of soap are dissolved in 150 c.c. of water by aid of heat, cooled, and mixed with an excess of salt, so that a soda-soap separates out; the latter is washed on a paper filter with a saturated solution of salt. In the filtrate the free alkali is estimated by a normal acid. The precipitate is decomposed by warming with excess of normal acid, and the quantity of acid neutralised by the combined alkali, determined by a standard soda solution. The cake of fat which separates in the last operation, is dried and weighed after adding to it, while melted, a known weight of stearin or paraffin to give it hardness.

[Footnote 172: ‘Dingler’s Journal’ (‘Journ. of Chem. Soc.,’ vol. ix, new]

TOILET SOAPS, prepared from any of the preceding varieties, and variously coloured and scented. Formulæ are given below.

YELLOW SOAP, RESIN SOAP, made with tallow, resin, and caustic soda. Soluble glass is now largely employed in place of resin.

Soaps are also divided into SOFT or POTASH SOAPS, and HARD or SODA SOAPS.

Assay. 1. For the WATER. A piece, fairly taken from the sample, and weighing 100 gr., is reduced to thin shavings, which are dried by the heat of boiling water, until they cease to lose weight. The loss indicates the proportion of free water. This should not exceed 35% for ordinary curd and mottled soap, 45% for yellow soap, and about 15% to 16% for Castile soap.

2. For the ALKALI. 100 gr. of the soap are dissolved in 4 or 5 fl. oz. of boiling water, and the solution tested by the common method of alkalimetry. Curd and yellow soap usually contain from 6% to 7%, mottled soap from 7% to 8%, and Castile soap 8% to 9% of soda.

3. For the OIL or FAT. The solution tested for alkali (see No. 2) is heated, and then allowed to cool slowly; when cold the floating fatty matter is removed, freed from water, and weighed. When the fat or oil has little consistence, 100 gr. of pure white wax is added to the soap solution before heating it. The weight obtained, in grains in the one case, and the excess above 100 gr. in the other, give the proportion of oil or fat present. This, in ordinary mottled soap, should be about 68%; in yellow soap, 65%; in curd soap, 60%; and in Castile soap, 75%.

4. UNSAPONIFIED FATTY MATTER.——a. Pure soap is entirely soluble in distilled water and insoluble in saline solution; if a film of fatty matter forms on its solution in the former, after repose, that portion has not been saponified.

b. The fat separated from soap (see No. 2), when it has been perfectly saponified, is entirely soluble in alcohol.

5. OTHER IMPURITIES. Pure soap is soluble in rectified spirit, forming a colourless or nearly colourless solution. The undissolved portion, if exceeding 1%, is adulteration.

ANOTHER METHOD OF SOAP ASSAY (M. Moffit). The constituents to be determined in an analysis of soap are alkalies (combined and free), carbonates, fatty acids, resin, glycerin, salts, colouring matters, and water.

Three portions of the finely divided soap are weighed off, containing respectively 10 grams, 20 grams, and 40 grams. Ten grams are digested with alcohol on the water-bath and filtered. The residue containing carbonates and other salts, colouring matter, &c., is dried at 100°, weighed, digested with water, and titrated with normal oxalic acid. Every c.c. of acid used indicates 0·053 Na_{2}CO_{3}.

Regard must be had to a slight precipitate of calcium oxalate. The weight of Na_{2}CO_{3} found is subtracted from the total residue insoluble in alcohol, the difference is the weight of the salts and foreign matters. The filtrate is subjected to a stream of carbonic acid, filtered, and the precipitate dissolved in water and titrated with oxalic acid. Each c.c. of acid indicates 0·031 free soda, or 0·042 free potash. No precipitate shows the absence of free alkalies. The filtrate from the precipitate produced by the carbonic acid is, after the addition of 15 c.c. of water, evaporated to remove the alcohol. The aqueous solution, treated with normal oxalic acid to acid reaction, shows for every c.c. of acid 0·031 soda, or 0·042 potash in combination. Sulphuric acid is then added, and the whole is heated on a water bath with pure beeswax to separate the fatty acids and resin, which are then weighed, the weight of the beeswax being subtracted.

Forty grams of the soap are next dissolved in water and mixed with sulphuric acid, as long as any precipitate is formed. On standing the fatty acids separate, and can be dried and weighed. These fatty acids are digested with a mixture of equal volumes of water and alcohol, till the liquid on cooling ceases to appear milky. The solid layer is again weighed, and the difference between the weight and that obtained above shows the weight of the resin.

The melting point of the acids is next determined. Ten grams are then dissolved in alcohol, and sulphuric acid diluted with alcohol is added, till a precipitate is no longer formed. The liquid is filtered, mixed with barium carbonate, and again filtered. The sweet residue left after evaporation of the alcohol is glycerin. The weights of the carbonates, salts, and foreign matters, free and combined alkalies, fatty acids, resin, and glycerin are added together, and the sum subtracted from 10 grams gives the weight of the water.

See also Soap analysis, ‘Chem. News,’ xxxv, 2. The article is too long to allow of insertion here.

Uses, &c. The common uses of soap need not be enumerated. As a medicine it acts as a mild purgative and lithontriptic, and it has been thought by some to be useful in certain affections of the stomach arising from deficiency of bile. Externally it is stimulant and detergent.——Dose, 3 to 20 or 30 gr., made into pills, and usually combined with aloes or rhubarb.

Concluding Remarks. Prior to the researches of Chevreul, no correct ideas were entertained as to the constitution of soap. It was long known that the fixed oils and fats, in contact with caustic alkaline solutions at a high temperature, undergo the remarkable change which is called saponification; but here the knowledge of the matter stopped. Chevreul discovered that if the soap, so produced, be afterwards decomposed by the addition of an acid, the fat which separates is found to be completely changed in character; to have acquired a strong acid reaction when applied in a melted state to test paper, and to have become soluble with the greatest facility in warm alcohol; in other words——that a new substance, capable of forming salts, and exhibiting all the characteristic properties of an acid, has been generated out of the elements of the neutral fat under the influence of the base. Stearin, when thus treated, yields stearic acid, palmitin gives palmitic acid, olein gives oleic acid, and common animal fat, which is a mixture of several neutral bodies, affords, by saponification by an alkali and subsequent decomposition of the soap, a mixture of the corresponding fatty acids. These bodies are not, however, the only products of saponification; the change is always accompanied by the formation of a very peculiar sweet substance called glycerin, which remains in the mother liquor from which the acidified fat has been separated. The process of saponification itself proceeds with perfect facility, even in a closed vessel; no gas is disengaged; the neutral fat, of whatsoever kind, is simply resolved into an alkaline salt of the fatty acid, which is soap, and into glycerin, a neutral body resembling syrup, and, like that liquid, miscible with water in every proportion.

“When yellow soap is made with the cheaper kinds of fat it will hardly acquire a sufficient degree of firmness or hardness to satisfy the thrifty washerwoman. It melts away too rapidly in hot water, a defect which may be well remedied by the introduction into the soap of a little (1·20th) fused sulphate of soda; and this salt concreting gives the soap a desirable hardness, whilst it improves its colour, and renders it a more desirable article for the washing tub.” (Ure.) This process was patented by Dr Normandy, but soon proved a source of annoyance and molestation to him on the part of the Board of Excise, it being an enormous crime in law to attempt to improve and cheapen soap.

“Soda which contains sulphurets is preferred for making mottled or marble soap, whereas the desulphuretted soda makes the best white curd soap.” “The Barillas always contain a small proportion of potash, to which their peculiar value, in making a less brittle or more plastic hard soap than the factitious sodas, may, with great probability, be ascribed.” (Ure.)

The mottled appearance is usually given, in the London Soap-works, by watering the nearly finished soap with a strong lye of crude soda, by means of a watering can furnished with a rose spout. For ‘Castile soap’ a solution of sulphate of iron is so employed. See SOAPS (Medicated and Toilet).

=Soap, Arsen′ical.= Syn. SAPO ARSENICALIS, L. Prep. (Bécœurs.) From carbonate of potash, 12 oz.; white arsenic, white soap, and air-slaked lime, of each 4 oz.; powdered camphor, 3/4 oz.; made into a paste with water, q. s. Used to preserve the skins of birds, and other small animals.

=Soap, Black.= Syn. SAPO NIGER, S. MOLLIS COMMUNIS, L. A crude soft soap, made of fish oil and potash; but the following mixture is usually sold for it:——Soft soap, 7 lbs.; train oil, 1 lb.; water, 1 gall.; boil to a proper consistence, adding ivory black or powdered charcoal, q. s., to colour. Used by farriers.

=SOAPS (Med′icated).= A few only of these deserve notice here:——

=Soap, Antimo′′nial.= Syn. SAPO ANTIMONIALIS, SAPO STIBIATUS, L. Prep. (Hamb. Cod. 1845.) Golden sulphuret of antimony, 2 dr.; solution of caustic potassa, 6 dr. (or q. s.); dissolve and triturate the solution with medicated (Castile) soap (in powder), 1-1/2 oz., until the mass assumes a pilular consistence. It should be of a greyish-white colour.

=Soap, Chlorina′ted.= Syn. SAPO CALCIS CHLORINATÆ, L.; SAVON ANTISYPHILITIQUE, Fr. Prep. From Castile soap (in powder), 11 oz.; chloride of lime (dry and good), 1 oz.; mix, beat them to a mass with rectified spirit, q. s.; (holding in solution) oil of verbena or of ginger grass, 1/4 oz.; lastly, form the mass into flat tablets, and wrap these in thin sheet gutta percha. A most excellent detergent and stimulant soap in various affections, admirably adapted for hospital use, and for removing stains from the skin and rendering it white. It is the most powerful known agent against infection from contagious diseases communicable by contact.

=Soap, Cod-Liver Oil.= Syn. SAPO OLEI JECORIS (Deschamps). Prep. Cod-liver oil, 2 oz.; caustic soda, 2 dr.; water, 5 dr.; dissolve the soda in the water, and mix it with the oil. An ioduretted soap is made by mixing with the above, 1 dr. of iodide of potassium dissolved in 1 dr. of water.

=Soap, Cro′ton.= Syn. SAPO CROTONIS, L. Prep. From croton oil and liquor of potassa, equal parts; triturated together in a warm mortar until they combine. Cathartic.——Dose, 1 to 3 gr.

=Soap of Gamboge.= Syn. SAPO GAMBOGIÆ. (Soubeiran.) Prep. Mix 1 part of gamboge with 2 of soap, dissolve it with a little spirit, and evaporate to a pilular consistence.

=Soap, of Gua′iacum.= Syn. SAPO GUAIACI, SAPO GUAIACINUS, L. Prep. (Ph. Bor.) Liquor of potassa, 1 oz.; water, 2 oz.; mix in a porcelain capsule, apply heat, and gradually add of resin of guaiacum (in powder), 6 dr., or as much as it will dissolve; next decant or filter, and evaporate to a pilular consistence.——Dose, 10 to 30 gr.; in chronic rheumatism, various skin diseases, &c.

=Soap I′odine.= Syn. SAPO IODURATUS, L. Prep. From Castile soap (sliced), 1 lb.; iodide of potassium, 1 oz.; (dissolved in) water, 3 fl. oz.; melt them together in a glass or porcelain vessel, over a water bath. Excellent in various skin diseases; also as a common soap for scrofulous subjects.

=Soap of Jal′ap.= See JALAP, SOAP OF.

=Soap, Larch.= Syn. SAPO LARICIS. (Dr Moore.) Prep. Dissolve 12 oz. of white curd soap in 24 oz. of rose water on a steam bath. Infuse 4 oz. of wheat bran in 10 oz. of cold water for 24 hours, and express. Add to the last, 3 oz. of pure glycerin. Dissolve 6 dr. of extract of larch bark in 1 oz. of boiling water. Mix these solutions with the dissolved soap, evaporate over a steam bath to a proper consistence, and pour into moulds to cool. For the local treatment of psoriasis.

=Soap, Macquer’s Acid.= Syn. SAPO VITRIOLICUS, L. Prep. From Castile soap, 4 oz.; softened by heat and a little water, and then continually triturated in a mortar with oil of vitriol (added drop by drop). Detergent. Used where alkalies would be prejudicial.

=Soap, Marine.= Patent. This is made by substituting cocoa nut oil for the fats and oils used in the manufacture of common soap. It has the advantage of forming a lather with salt water.

=Soap, Mercu′′rial.= Syn. SAPO HYDRARGYRI. (M. Herbert.) 1. Prep. Dissolve 4 oz. of quicksilver in its weight of nitric acid without heat; melt in a porcelain basin by water bath 18 oz. of veal suet, and add the solution, stirring the mixture till the union is complete. To 5 oz. of this ointment, add 2 oz. of solution of caustic soda (1·33), porphyry slag, till a soap is formed, which is completely soluble in water. For external use, alone, or dissolved in water, in some cutaneous diseases.

2. SAPO MERCURIALIS, L. Prep. (SAPO SUBLIMATIS CORROSIVI.) From Castile soap (in powder), 4 oz.; corrosive sublimate, 1 dr.; (dissolved in) rectified spirit, 1 fl. oz.; beaten to a uniform mass in a porcelain or wedgwood-ware mortar.

3. (SAPO HYDRARGYRI, PRECIPITATI ALBI——Sir H. Marsh.) Prep. Beat 12 oz. of white Windsor soap in a marble mortar, add 1 dr. of rectified spirit, 2 dr. of white precipitate, and 10 drops of otto. Beat the whole to a uniform paste.

4. (SAPO HYDRARGYRI, PRECIPITATI RUBRI——Sir H. Marsh.) From white Windsor soap, 2 oz.; nitric oxide of mercury (levigated), 1 dr.; otto of roses, 6 or 8 drops; (dissolved in) rectified spirit, 1 to 2 fl. dr.; as the last. Both the above are employed as stimulant detergents and repellants, in various skin diseases; also as SAVON ANTISYPHILITIQUE.

=Soap of Subacetate of Lead.= Syn. SAPO SATURNI (Bristol Infirmary). Prep. Boil 1 lb. of white soap in 4 pints of rain water; when the soap is dissolved add 1 oz. of camphor pulverised with spirit, and mixed with 2 oz. of liquid subacetate of lead, stir the whole till cold.

=Soap, Sul′phuretted.= Syn. SAPO SULPHURIS, SAPO SULPHURATUS, L. Prep. (Sir H. Marsh.) From white soap, 2 oz.; sublimed sulphur, 1/4 oz.; beaten to a smooth paste in a marble mortar with 1 or 2 fl. dr. of rectified spirit strongly coloured with alkanet root, and holding in solution otto of roses, 10 or 12 drops. In itch and various other cutaneous diseases.

=Soap, Tar.= Syn. SAPO PICIS LIQUIDÆ, SAPO PICEUS, L. Prep. From tar, 1 part; liquor of potassa and soap (in shavings), of each 2 parts; beat them together until they unite. Stimulant. Used in psoriasis, lepra, &c.

=Soap, Tur′pentine.= Syn. STARKEY’S SOAP; SAPO TEREBINTHINÆ, S. TEREBINTHINATUS, L.; SAVON TÉRÉBINTHINE, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Subcarbonate of potash, oil of turpentine, and Venice turpentine, equal parts; triturate them together, in a warm mortar, with a little water, until they combine; put the product into paper moulds, and in a few days slice it, and preserve it in a well-stopped bottle.

=SOAPS (Toilet).= Of toilet soaps there are two principal varieties:——

1. (Hard.) The basis of these is, generally, a mixture of suet, 9 parts, and olive oil, 1 part, saponified by caustic soda; the product is variously scented and coloured. They are also made of white tallow, olive, almond, and palm-oil soaps, either alone or combined in various proportions, and scented.

2. (Soft.) The basis of these is a soap made of hog’s lard and potash, variously scented and coloured.

3. Guido Schnitzer, writing to ‘Dingler’s Journal’ (cciii, 129-132),[173] says that the use of sodium silicate (ordinary water-glass) has proved of great value in the manufacture of palm oil and cocoa-nut oil soaps, as it increases their alkalinity, and gives to them greater hardness and durability. It is for these reasons the silicate is much used in the manufacture of toilette soaps.

[Footnote 173: ‘Journ. of Chem. Soc.,’ new series, vol. x.]

He states that during the American war, when the price of resin soap reached a high price, sodium silicate was much used as a substitute in soap making. The soap is found to be the more active and durable in proportion to the amount of silica in the silicate.

Schnitzer made a series of experiments in order to discover a mixture which, on fusing, will yield a silicate as rich as possible in silica, without being insoluble in boiling water, and he found the following proportions yielded on fusion the best silicate for the above purposes:——

100 parts of soda ash (containing 91 per cent, of Na_{2}CO_{3}), and 180 of sand. In the solution of silicate obtained on treatment with boiling water, the proportion of the Na_{2}O to the SiO_{2} would then be as 1 to 2·9.

After long boiling with water, there ordinarily remains a slimy residue, which, on boiling up with fresh dilute soda-lye for a long time, furnishes a concentrated solution of silicate. This residue, consisting of silica, with insoluble higher silicates, was boiled with soda solution at 6° Baume, and the solution concentrated to 40° Baume, when the proportion therein of Na_{2}O to SiO_{2} was found to be as 1 to 1·, and on cooling those crystallised out, sodium silicate of the formula Na_{2}SiO_{3} × 8H_{2}O, in white foliated crystals.

On the small scale the perfume is generally added to the soap melted in a bright copper pan by the heat of a water bath; on the large scale it is mixed with the liquid soap, at the soap-maker’s, before the latter is poured into the frames.

The following are examples of a few of the leading toilet soaps:[174]

[Footnote 174: See also SAVONETTES.]

=Soap, Bitter Al′mond.= Syn. SAVON D’AMANDE, Fr. Prep. From white tallow soap, 56 lbs.; essential oil of almonds, 3/4 lb.; as before.

=Savon au Bouquet.= [Fr.] Prep. From tallow soap, 30 lbs.; olive-oil soap, 10 lbs.; essence of bergamot, 4 oz.; oils of cloves, sassafras, and thyme, of each 1 oz.; pure neroli, 1/2 oz.; brown ochre (finely powdered), 1/2 lb.; mixed as the last.

=Soap, Cin′namon.= Prep. From tallow soap, 14 lbs.; palm-oil soap, 7 lbs.; oil of cinnamon (cassia), 3 oz.; oil of sassafras and essence of bergamot, of each 1/2 oz.; levigated yellow ochre, 1/2 lb.

=Soap, Float′ing.= Prep. From good oil soap, 14 lbs.; water, 3 pints; melted together by the heat of a steam or water bath, and assiduously beaten until the mixture has at least doubled its volume, when it must be put into the frames, cooled, and cut into pieces. Any scent may be added.

=Soap, Glycerin.= Any mild toilet soap being liquefied, glycerin is intimately mixed with it in the proportion of from a 20th to a 25th of the weight of the soap. Sometimes a red, and others an orange tint is given to it. The scent usually consists of bergamot, or rose geranium, mixed with a little oil of cassia, to which sometimes a little oil of bitter almonds is added.

2. (Spon.) 40 lbs. of tallow, 40 lbs. of lard, and 20 lbs. of cocoa-nut oil, are saponified with 45 lbs. of soda lye, and 5 lbs. of potash lye, of 40° Baume, when the soap is to be made in the cold way. To the paste then add, pure glycerin 6 lbs., oil of Portugal, 1/2 oz., oil of bergamot, 1/3 oz., bitter almond oil, 5 oz., oil of vitivert, 3 oz.

=Soap, Hon′ey.= Prep. 1. From palm-oil soap and olive-oil soap, of each 1 part; curd soap, 3 parts; melted together and scented with the oil of verbena, rose-geranium, or ginger-grass.

2. From the finest bright-coloured yellow soap, scented with the oils of ginger-grass and bergamot.

=Soap, Liquid Glycerin——Glycerinseife, Flüssige.= Sesame or cotton-seed oil is saponified with sufficient caustic potash, and while moist is dissolved in six times its weight of spirit of wine. The solution is filtered, five-sixths of the spirit is distilled from a water bath, and the cooled residue is reduced to the consistence of thin honey, with a mixture of 2 parts glycerin and 1 part spirit. It is then perfumed.

=Soap, Musk.= 1. A good ox suet or tallow soap is generally used for the basis of this. The scent is composed of a mixture of essence of musk, with small quantities of the oils of bergamot, cinnamon, and cloves. The quantity of musk must be regulated by the amount of fragrance required. The soap is usually coloured with caramel.

2. Another kind is made with tallow and palm-oil soap, to which is added a mixture of the powders of cloves, roses, and gilliflowers, oil of bergamot, and essence of musk. The colouring matter is brown ochre.

=Soap, Musk.= As CINNAMON SOAP, but with essence of musk, supported with a little essence of bergamot and oil of cloves, as perfume, and burnt sugar, to colour.

=Soap, Naples.= From olive oil and potash.

=Soap, Orange-flower.= As SAVON À LA ROSE, with oil of neroli or essence de petit grain, supported with a little of the essence of ambergris and Portugal, for perfume.

=Soap, Palm-oil.= Syn. VIOLET SOAP. Made of palm oil and caustic soda lye. It has a pleasant odour of violets and a lively colour.

=Soap, Pearl.= Syn. ALMOND CREAM; CRÊME D’AMANDES, Fr. Prep. From a soap made of lard and caustic potash lye; when quite cold it is beaten in small portions at a time in a marble mortar, until it unites to form a homogeneous mass, or ‘pearls,’ as it is called; essence of bitter almonds, q. s., to perfume, being added during the pounding.

=Savon à la Rose.= [Fr.] Prep. From a mixture of olive-oil soap, 36 lbs.; best tallow soap, 24 lbs. (both new and in shavings); water, 1 quart; melted in a covered bright copper pan, by the heat of a water bath, then coloured with vermilion (finely levigated), 2-1/2 oz.; and, after the mixture has cooled a little, scented with otto of roses, 3 oz.; essence of bergamot, 2-1/2 oz.; oil of cloves and cinnamon, of each 1 oz.

=Soap, Rondeletia.= This is merely cinnamon soap scented with the essence made with mixed essential oils, &c., known as rondeletia. It is coloured with brown or yellow ochre.

=Soap, Sha′′ving.= See PASTE (Shaving).

=Soap, Transpa′′rent.= Prep. From perfectly dry almond, tallow, or soft soap, reduced to shavings, and dissolved, in a closed vessel or still, in an equal weight of rectified spirit, the clear portion, after a few hours’ repose, being poured into moulds or frames; after a few weeks’ exposure to a dry atmosphere, the pieces are ‘trimmed up’ and stamped, as desired. It may be scented and coloured, at will, by adding the ingredients to it while in the soft state. A rose colour is given by tincture of archil; and yellow, by tincture of turmeric or annotta. It does not lather well.

=Soap, Windsor.= Syn. SAPO VINDESORÆ, S. VINDESORIENSIS, L. Prep. 1. (WHITE; S. V. ALBUS.) The best ‘English’ is made of a mixture of olive oil, 1 part, and ox tallow or suet, 9 parts, saponified by caustic soda. ‘French Windsor-soap’ is made of hogs’ lard, with the addition of a little palm oil. That of the shops is merely ordinary curd soap, scented with oil of caraway, supported with a little oil of bergamot, lavender, or origanum. To the finer qualities a little of the essences of musk and ambergris is occasionally added. 1-1/2 lb. of the mixed scents is the common proportion per cwt.

2. (BROWN; S. V. FUSCUS.) This merely differs from the last in being coloured with burnt sugar, or (less frequently) with umber. Originally it was the white variety, that had become mellow and brown with age.

=SO′DA.= See SODIUM.

=SO′DIUM.= Na. Syn. NATRIUM. The metallic base of soda. It was first obtained by Sir H. Davy, in 1807, by means of a powerful galvanic battery; but it may be more conveniently and cheaply procured, in quantity, by the method described under POTASSIUM. The process, when well conducted, is, however, much easier and more certain than that for the last-named metal.

Prep. The anhydrous carbonate of sodium, 6 parts, is dissolved in a little water, and the solution mixed with charcoal in fine powder, 2 parts, and charcoal in small lumps, 1 part; the whole is then evaporated to dryness, transferred to an iron retort, and treated in the manner described at page 1353.

Obs. Very important improvements have been made in the manufacture of this metal by Deville, consisting partly in the simplification of the receiver, and partly in the addition of carbonate of calcium to the mixture, which addition appears to facilitate the reduction of the sodium in a most remarkable manner.

Prop., &c. Sodium is a soft silver-white metal, scarcely solid at common temperatures, fuses at 194° Fahr., and volatilises at a red heat; it oxidises very rapidly in the air; when placed on the surface of cold water, it decomposes that liquid with great violence, but generally without flame, in which it differs from potassium; on hot water it burns with a bright yellow flame——in both cases a solution of pure soda being formed. Sp. gr. ·972; it is more malleable than any other metal, and may be easily reduced into very thin leaves (Ure); its other properties resemble those of potassium, but are of a feebler character. With oxygen it forms two oxides; with chlorine, a chloride (common salt); and——with bromine, iodine, fluorine, &c., bromide, iodide, fluoride, &c., all of which may be obtained by similar processes to the respective compounds of potassium, which, for the most part they resemble.

Uses. Until recently sodium has been regarded as a mere mechanical or philosophical curiosity; it has now, however, become of great practical importance, from being employed in the manufacture of the metals aluminium, magnesium, &c.

Tests. Sodium salts are recognised by their solubility in water, and by their giving a precipitate with none of the ordinary reagents. They give a rich yellow colour to the colourless Bunsen or the pale blue blowpipe flame. They can, to a certain extent, be also distinguished from potassium salts by the carbonate being an easily crystallisable salt, effervescing in dry air; the carbonate of potassium being crystallised with difficulty, and deliquescent. Platinum chloride does not give a precipitate with sodium chloride; neither does picric acid, perchlorate of ammonium, nor tartaric acid.

=Sodium, Acetate of.= NaC_{2}H_{3}O_{2}. Syn. ACETATE OF SODA; SODÆ ACETAS (B. P., Ph. D.), L. Prepared from carbonate of sodium as the corresponding potassium salt; but the resulting solution is evaporated to a pellicle, and set aside to crystallise. Its crystals are striated oblique rhombic prisms; it effloresces slightly in the air, and is soluble in 4 parts of water at 60° Fahr. Diuretic.——Dose, 20 to 40 gr.

=Sodium, Aluminate.= This salt has of late been in extensive demand by the calico printer and dyer. In France it is obtained from banxite, a native hydrate of aluminate, by treatment with caustic or carbonate of soda. If caustic soda be employed, the powdered banxite is boiled with a solution of the alkali, whereas if carbonate of soda be used, it is fused with the banxite in a reverbatory furnace. By the first process the resulting aluminate of soda is dissolved in water, and evaporated to dryness, forms the commercial article. If prepared by ignition, the semifused mass is lixiviated with water, and then evaporated to dryness. Aluminate of soda prepared as above occurs as a white powder, of a greenish-yellow hue, and dry to the touch.

It is equally soluble in both hot and cold water, and readily decomposed by carbonic and acetic acids, bicarbonate and acetate of soda, chloride of ammonia, &c. Dr Wagner states that it is used for the preparation of lake colours, the induration of stone, in the manufacture of artificial stone, and for the saponification of fats in the manufacture of stearin candle manufacture, also in the preparation of an opaque, milky-looking glass, or semi-porcelain.

Aluminate of soda may likewise be procured from cryolite, as described under ALUM.

=Sodium Arseniates.= Syn. SODÆ ARSENIAS (B. P.). Arsenious acid, 10 oz.; nitrate of soda, 8-1/2 oz.; dried carbonate of soda, 5-1/2 oz.; boiling distilled water, 35 fl. oz. Reduce the dry ingredients separately to fine powder, and mix them thoroughly in a porcelain mortar. Put the mixture into a large clay crucible and cover it with the lid. Expose it to a full red heat till all effervescence has ceased, and complete fusion has taken place. Pour out the fused salt on a clean flagstone, and as soon as it has solidified and while it is still warm put it into the boiling distilled water, stirring diligently. When the salt has dissolved filter the solution through paper, and set it aside to crystallise. Drain the crystals, and having dried them rapidly on filtering paper, enclose them in a stoppered bottle.

=Sodium, Benzoate.= Syn. SODÆ BENZOAS. (B. Cod.) Prep. Heat gently benzoic acid and water, and add caustic soda, q. s. to neutralise the acid. Filter, evaporate, and crystallise over sulphuric acid under a bell-glass.

=Sodium, Bisulphate.= Syn. ACID SULPHATE, SODÆ BISULPHIS. Prep. Dissolve crystallised carbonate of soda in twice its weight of water, and pass sulphurous acid in excess through the solution. Set it aside to crystallise. Its solution is used to preserve subjects.

=Sodium, Bromide of.= Syn. SODII BROMIDUM. Prepared as bromide of potassium.

=Sodium, Carbonate of.= Na_{2}CO_{3}. 10Aq. Syn. CARBONATE OF SODA, MONO-CARBONATE OF SODA, SUBCARBONATE OF S.†, Salt of barilla†; SODÆ CARBONAS (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. The carbonate of sodium of commerce (WASHING SODA) was formerly prepared from the ashes of seaweed, and other marine vegetables, in a somewhat similar manner to that by which carbonate of potassium is obtained; but it is now usually obtained from chloride of sodium by the action of heat, sulphuric acid, and carbonaceous matter.

Prep. 1. (From common salt or sulphate of sodium.) The latter is generally obtained by decomposing the former with sulphuric acid, the evolved gas being passed into water, or through flues filled with coke, over which a very small stream of cold water constantly flows, by which it is condensed, and forms ‘LIQUID HYDROCHLORIC ACID,’ a substance afterwards consumed, in large quantities, in the manufacture of chloride of lime, and for other purposes. The sulphate of sodium, obtained from this or any other source, is well mixed with an equal weight of chalk or limestone, and about half its weight of small coal, each being previously ground to powder, and the mixture is exposed to a strong heat in a ‘reverbatory furnace’ (see engr.) until the decomposition of the sulphate is complete, the mass during the calcination being frequently stirred about with a long iron rod; the semi-liquid is now raked into an iron trough, where it is allowed to cool, whilst the furnace is recharged with fresh materials. The crude dark-grey product, thus obtained, is known as ‘ball alkali,’ or ‘British barilla,’ and usually contains about 22 or 23% of pure hydrate of sodium. This is now lixiviated with tepid water, and the solution, after defecation, evaporated to dryness; the residuum is mixed with a certain quantity of sawdust, coal-dust, or charcoal, and roasted in a reverberatory furnace, at a heat not exceeding 700° Fahr., until all the sulphur is expelled. The product is the ‘soda-ash,’ ‘soda salt,’ or ‘British alkali,’ of commerce, and contains about 50% of pure sodium, partly in the state of carbonate, and partly as hydrate, the remainder being chiefly sulphate of sodium and common salt. When this is purified by solution in water, defecation, evaporation, and crystallisation, it furnishes commercial crystallised carbonate of soda. When this last is redissolved, and the filtered solution is carefully crystallised, it constitutes the ordinary carbonate of sodium used in pharmacy and medicine.

Another process for the preparation of commercial carbonate of sodium, known as the ‘ammonia process,’ has of late years met with considerable adoption. The history of this process, together with the process itself, are thus described by Dr R. Wagner:[175] “Six years ago (he was writing in 1873), when the international jury at the Paris Exhibition expressed their opinion upon the state of the soda industry at that time, all the judges, whether practical or theoretical men, believed that Leblanc’s process (that previously described) would hold the field for a long time yet. This seemed still more probable, since a process had just been introduced for recovering the sulphur from the soda residues. At that time all the soda in use was prepared by this process, excepting a comparatively small amount obtained from Chili saltpetre and cryolite, although there were already tangible indications that soda could be made on a larger scale by another method, which would be cheaper than Leblanc’s process.

[Footnote 175: ‘Journal of Applied Chemistry.’]

“The chemical section of the international jury at the Vienna Exposition, under the presidency of Professor A. W. Hofmann, constituted a congress of chemical technology. By its labours during the course of the summer this congress of scientific men was able to authenticate the very important fact that although Leblanc’s process might in the future possess some importance for certain branches of the industry, yet in most places another soda process would be introduced in the immediate future, and entirely supersede that of Leblanc. Since the time of the Paris Exhibition this new process has grown from a small germ to a strong tree.

“The process in question, and which is called by Professor Hofmann ‘the ammonia process,’ is not new, from either a chemical or scientific point of view. It belongs to the same methods as those in which oxide of lead, bicarbonate of magnesia, quicklime, alumina, silicate of alumina, oxide of chromium, or fluosilicic acid are employed to decompose chloride of sodium, and convert it directly into soda or its carbonate. None of these attempts met with a success deserving of notice; although for a century past efforts have been made to render them practically operative. The new process is founded upon a reaction noticed over thirty years ago——that of bicarbonate of ammonia upon a strong solution of common salt. The greater part of the sodium is precipitated as bicarbonate, while chloride of ammonium remains in solution, from which the ammonia for a second operation is expelled by quicklime. The carbonic acid necessary to convert the ammonia into bicarbonate of ammonia, and thus make the process a continuous one, is obtained by heating the bicarbonate of soda to convert it into the simple carbonate.

“The sensation which the ammonia process has created in industrial circles will render a brief history of its development not uninteresting.

“So far as I know, Harrison, Dyer, Grey, and Hemming were the first to patent the ammonia process in Great Britain in 1838. Great expectations were excited by it, but it soon sank into oblivion.

“Thirty or forty years ago the manufacture of soda was by no means at the head of the great branches of industry; at that time, too, ammonia was not to be had cheaply and in immense quantities, and that branch of machine building which has furnished the necessary apparatus for chemical industries did not exist. Besides this, Anton, of Prague, in 1840, claimed to have proved that in the ammonia process a very considerable portion of the common salt still remained undecomposed.

“After a sleep of sixteen years the ammonia process again entered the field. On the 26th of May, 1854, Turck took out a patent in France, and on the 21st June, the same year, Schlœsing, chemist of the Imperial Tobacco Factory at Paris, took out a patent for France and Great Britain. The mechanical portion and machinery for Schlœsing’s process were designed by Engineer E. Rolland, director of the tobacco factory. In 1855 a company was organised to work this process. An experimental manufactory was started at Puteaux, near Paris, but, owing to its situation and arrangements, as well as the salt monopoly, it could not produce soda cheap enough to compete with the other process, and hence, in 1858, the experiment was abandoned. Schlœsing and Rolland were of the opinion that sooner or later the new process must come into use in making soda.

“It must here be noticed that in 1858 Professor Heeren, of Hanover, subjected the ammonia process to a very careful test in his laboratory.

“From his experiments and calculations it was ascertained that this process was better adapted to the manufacture of the bicarbonate than of the simple protocarbonate of soda.

“To render this sketch more complete and historically true, it must be mentioned that T. Bell, of England, took out a patent, Oct. 13th, 1857, for a new soda process, which in principle and practice was almost literally the same as that of Dyer.

“It was known when the jury was working at Paris in 1867 that essential improvements had been introduced into the ammonia process by the efforts of Marguerite and De Sourdeval, of Paris, and James Young, of Glasgow. A more important fact, however, is that Solvay and Co., of Conillet, in Belgium, actually exhibited at the Paris Exhibition carbonate of soda prepared by this new process.

“Since that time the ammonia process has been developed and perfected to such an extent, especially by Solvay, Honigmann, and Prof. Gerstenhœfer, that as early as February, 1873, A. W. Hofmann, in his introduction to the third group of the catalogue of the Exhibition of the German Empire, was able to make this remark:——‘At all events the ammonia process is the only one which threatens to become an important competitor of the now also most exclusively employed process of Leblanc.’ The Vienna Exposition has since proved the truth of this assertion.

“There are now large works in England, Hungary, Switzerland, Westphalia, Thueringia, and Baden, which employ the improved ammonia process, and some of them make fifteen tons of soda per day.

“The advantages of the new process over that of Leblanc are very evident, although the details of the process have not yet been made public.

“The chief advantage consists in the direct conversion of salt into carbonate of soda, and next from the fact, that from a saturated brine only the sodium is precipitated, with none of the other metals of the mother liquor. Besides this, the product is absolutely free from all sulphur compounds, the soda is of a high grade, the apparatus and utensils are very simple, there is a great saving of labour and fuel, and no noxious gases and waste products are produced, which is of importance from a sanitary point of view. The only weak point of the ammonia process is the loss of chlorine, which is converted into worthless chloride of calcium.

“The effect which the general introduction of the new soda process will exert upon large chemical industries in general, and especially upon the consumption of sulphur, the manufacture of sulphuric acid, and chloride of lime, cannot be overlooked.”

3. Another method for the direct preparation of soda and potash from their chlorides is described in the ‘Bayerisches Industrie und Gewerbe Blatt.’[176] The process is thus described by its author, Herr E. Bohlig:

[Footnote 176: ‘New Remedies,’ 1878, 4.]

1. Magnesium oxalate (freshly prepared when newly starting, but, after the first operation, obtained as a dry product in the next step) is allowed to drain, and then mixed in a large vat with the proper quantities of sodium chloride, or concentrated brine and hydrochloric acid, after which it is allowed to stand a few hours. Decomposition takes place almost instantaneously; all the magnesium goes into solution in form of syrupy magnesium chloride, while all the sodium and oxalic acid are deposited as a crystalline acid salt (acid sodium oxalate, or binoxalate of sodium).

Since the magnesium oxalate is always obtained of the same composition and in the same quantity, it is sufficient to determine its weight once for all, and to take each time the previously common amounts of common salt. The acid need not be weighed either; it must be added in just sufficient quantity to destroy the milky appearance which the mixture first assumes.

The reaction is as follows:

MgC_{2}O_{4} + HCl + NaCl = NaHC_{2}O_{4} + MgCl_{2}

Magnesium + Hydrochloric + Sodium = Sodium Magnesium oxalate. acid. chloride. binoxalate. chloride.

The crystalline powder of sodium binoxalate is transferred to large draining filters, washed with water until the acid solution of magnesium chloride is removed, and worked up, as below described, while still moist.

The acid solution of magnesium chloride is made use of several times in succession as so much hydrochloric acid, together with a quantity of fresh acid sufficient for the reaction. Finally, when the magnesium chloride has inconveniently accumulated, it is worked up by itself into magnesia and hydrochloric acid.

2. In order to obtain the soda, the sodium binoxalate is brought together with an equivalent quantity of magnesium carbonate and water in a tight cask. As soon as the remaining air has been nearly expelled by the generated carbonic acid gas, the cask is closed, and a stirring mechanism set in motion.

A pressure gauge attached to the cask indicates a gradual rise of the pressure to two atmospheres, but, on continual stirring, this diminishes, until, finally, the gauge stands again at 0°. The cask now contains a concentrated solution of sodium bicarbonate, and a precipitate of magnesium oxalate, which latter, being coarsely granular, is easily separated from the liquid, and is used over again, after washing, for a new operation.

The solution of sodium bicarbonate is boiled for a short time with magnesia, obtained in distilling magnesium chloride, and both are thereby converted into simple carbonates. Both reactions are shown in the following scheme:

1. NaHC_{2}O_{4} + MgCO_{3} = NaHCO_{3} + MgC_{2}O_{4}

Sodium + Magnesium = Sodium Magnesium binoxalate. carbonate. bicarbonate. oxalate.

2. 2NaHCO_{3} + MgO = Na_{2}CO_{3} + MgCO_{3} + H_{2}O

Sodium + Magnesia. = Sodium + Magnesium + Water bicarbonate. carbonate. carbonate.

As the solution of sodium carbonate, after concentration to 40°B., is incapable of dissolving or retaining in solution any sodium oxalate, it follows that the whole of the oxalic acid is recovered. The magnesia which is required for the purpose is obtained by distilling magnesium chloride, which thereby splits up into hydrochloric acid and magnesia. One half of the latter receives, as we have seen, its carbonic acid by boiling with sodium bicarbonate; the other half is placed, whilst still moist, upon trays in great wooden closets, through which the gases of the furnace pass, and is thereby carbonated. The process may also be so modified that the sodium binoxalate is first decomposed by caustic magnesia, and that magnesium carbonate is afterwards added.

The whole mixture is then transferred to a stirring cask, provided with openings for the passage of cooled furnace gases, whereby the caustic soda present is very soon carbonated.

3. As soon as a large quantity of magnesium chloride solution has accumulated, it is tested as follows:——A small sample is mixed, while boiling, with magnesium oxalate, as long as the latter is dissolved, and then allowed to cool. There should be no crystalline deposit of sodium binoxalate formed, a proof that the solution does not contain any sodium chloride in excess, and is fit for distillation. It is first neutralised by adding some more magnesia, and evaporated over a naked fire in large kettles to a doughy consistence, short of driving off the hydrochloric acid. It is then transferred into the ordinary soda furnace, where it is distilled with a moderate fire. The eliminated hydrochloric acid is condensed in the usual manner.

The residuary mass should not be heated red hot, so as not to impair its porosity or its ready affinity for carbonic acid. If, however, the first-mentioned test shows the magnesium chloride to contain sodium chloride the whole mass must be mixed with magnesium oxalate, and after removal of the precipitated sodium oxalate, saturated with magnesia and distilled. The same process, in all its details, may also be employed for the manufacture of potassa and its carbonate.

4. Another method of manufacture of commercial soda is by treating the mineral cryolite (a double fluoride of sodium and aluminium) with either caustic, or hydrate of lime. The results of the reaction are caustic soda, sodium aluminate, and calcium fluoride.

The aluminate and caustic soda being both soluble in water, a stream of carbonic acid is passed through the solution containing them, whereby all the soda becomes converted into carbonate, whilst the alumina is thrown down as an insoluble precipitate. In the wet way, if enough hydrate of lime be employed, all the soda may be obtained in the caustic condition.

This process is largely used in Germany. Various other processes for the manufacture of commercial soda have been devised, some of which are still followed, whilst others, being impracticable, have collapsed.

Mr Kingzett, in his work on the alkali trade, has described most of them.

When anhydrous carbonate of sodium is required (SODÆ CARBONAS EXSICCATA, B. P., Ph. L.; SODÆ CARBONAS SICCATUM, Ph. E. & D.), the crystallised carbonate is heated to redness, and, when cold, powdered.

Prop., &c. Carbonate of sodium forms large, transparent, oblique rhombic prisms, which, as ordinarily met with, and of the formulæ Na_{2}CO_{3}.10Aq; but by particular management may be had with fifteen, nine, seven, or sometimes with only one molecule of water of crystallisation (Fownes); it is soluble in twice its weight of water at 60°, and less than an equal weight at 212° Fahr. As a medicine it is deobstruent and antacid, and is given in doses of 10 to 30 gr. It is also, occasionally, used to make effervescing draughts. When taken in an overdose it is poisonous. The antidotes are the same as for carbonate of potassium. The crude carbonate is largely employed in the manufacture of soap, glass, &c.

Fifty three gr. of the dried carbonate are equal to 143 of the crystallised salt. The medicinal properties of both are similar. It has, however, the disadvantage of being difficultly soluble in water.

The ordinary carbonate of sodium generally contains either sulphates or chlorides, or both; and these may be detected as under CARBONATE OF POTASSIUM. “When supersaturated with nitric acid, it precipitates only slightly, or not at all, chloride of barium or nitrate of silver; and 143 gr. require at least 960 grain-measures of solution of oxalic acid” (B. P.). At a high temperature 100 gr. lose 62·5 gr. of water.

=Sodium, Bicarbonate of.= NaHCO_{3}. Syn. SESQUICARBONATE OF SODA, SODÆ BICARBONAS (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.). This salt can be prepared in exactly the same manner as the corresponding salt of potassium. Another method is as follows:——Take of crystallised carbonate of sodium, 1 part; dried carbonate of sodium, 2 parts (both in powder); triturate them well together, and surround them with an atmosphere of carbonic acid gas, under pressure; let the action go on until no more gas is absorbed, which will generally occupy 10 to 14 hours, according to the pressure employed, then remove the salt, and dry it at a heat not above 120° Fahr.

Prop., &c. A crystalline white powder; it is soluble in 10 parts of water at 60° Fahr., but it cannot be dissolved in even warm water without partial decomposition; it is more pleasant tasted and more feebly alkaline than the carbonate of the same base. When absolutely pure it does not darken turmeric paper, or only very slightly. The dose is from 10 to 40 gr., as an antacid and absorbent. It is much employed in the preparation of effervescing powders and draughts, for which purpose

20 gr. of commercial bicarbonate of sodium \------------------\/--------------------/ are taken with /------------------/\---------------\ 18 gr. of crystallised tartaric acid;

17 gr. of crystallised citric acid; or

1/2 fl. oz. of lemon juice.

The quantity of bicarbonate any given sample contains may be approximately determined by well washing 100 gr. of the salt with an equal weight of water, and filtering the solution. The residuum left upon the filter, dried at a heat of 120° Fahr., and weighed, gives the per-centage of pure bicarbonate of sodium present (very nearly). The solution of this in water will give only a very trifling white precipitate with corrosive sublimate; whilst the filtered portion, which was used to wash the salt, will give a red one, if it contains the simple carbonate of sodium.

=Sodium, Chloride of.= NaCl. Syn. SODII CHLORIDUM (B. P., Ph. L., & D.), SODÆ MURIAS (Ph. E.), L. This important and wholesome compound appears to have been known in the earliest ages of which we have any record. It is mentioned by Moses (Gen. xix, 26), and by Homer in the Iliad (lib. ix, 214). In ancient Rome it was subjected to a duty (vectigal salinarium); and even at the present day a similar tax furnishes no inconsiderable portion of the revenue of certain nations. Common salt forms no small portion of the mineral wealth of England, and has become an important article of commerce in every part of the known world. The principal portion of the salt consumed in this country is procured by the evaporation of the water of brine springs. It is also prepared by the evaporation of sea-water (hence the term ‘sea-salt’), but this process has been almost abandoned in England, being more suited to hot dry climates or to very cold ones.

Var. BAY SALT; SAL MARINUS, SAL NIGER; imported from France, Portugal, and Spain, and obtained from sea-water evaporated in shallow ponds by the sun; large-grained and dark-coloured.——BRITISH BAY SALT, CHESHIRE LARGE-GRAINED S.; by evaporating native brine at a heat of 130° to 140° Fahr.; hard cubical crystals. Both of the above are used to salt provisions for hot climates, as they dissolve very slowly in the brine as it grows weaker. CHESHIRE STOVED SALT, LUMP S., BASKET S.; obtained by evaporating the brine of salt springs; small flaky crystals.——LONDON’S PATENT SOLID SALT; Cheshire rock salt, melted and ladled into moulds.——ROCK SALT, FOSSIL S.; SAL GEMMÆ, SAL FOSSILIS; found in mineral beds in Cheshire; has commonly a reddish colour; chiefly exported for purification.

Prop. Pure chloride of sodium is fixed in the air; crystallises in anhydrous cubes, which are often grouped into pyramids or steps; dissolves in about 2-1/2 parts of water at 60° Fahr.; its solubility is not increased by heat; it is slightly soluble in proof spirit; insoluble in alcohol; decrepitates when heated; fuses at a red heat, and volatilises at a much higher temperature.

Pur., &c. The common salt of commerce contains small portions of chloride of magnesium, chloride of calcium, and sulphate of calcium; and hence has commonly a slightly bitter taste, and deliquesces in the air. To separate these, dissolve the salt in 4 times its weight of pure water, and drop into the filtered solution, first, chloride of barium, and then carbonate of sodium, as long as any precipitate falls; filter, and evaporate the clear fluid very slowly, until the last crystallises, which is pure chloride of sodium. (‘Thomson’s Chem.,’ ii, 377.) For medical purposes the Ph. E. orders the salt to be dissolved in boiling water, and the solution to be filtered and evaporated over the fire, skimming off the crystals as they form, which must then be quickly washed in cold water, and dried. A solution of pure salt is not precipitated by a solution of carbonate of ammonium, followed by a solution of phosphate of sodium; a solution of 9 gr. in distilled water is not entirely precipitated by a solution of 26 gr. of nitrate of silver. (Ph. E.)

Uses. Common salt is stimulant, antiseptic, and vermifuge, and is hence employed as a condiment, and for preserving animal and vegetable substances. It is also occasionally used in medicine, in clysters and lotions.

=Sodium, Dried Sulphate of.= Syn. SODÆ SULPHAS EXSICCATA, EFFLORESCED GLAUBER SALT. Expose the crystals to a warm dry air till they fall into powder. They lose half their weight. The dose is reduced in like proportion.

=Sodium, Effervescing Citro-tartrate of.= Syn. SODÆ CITRO-TARTRAS EFFERVESCENS. (B. P.) Prep. Mix thoroughly, powdered bicarbonate of soda, 17 oz.; tartaric acid, 8 oz.; and citric acid, 6 oz.; place in a dish or pan of suitable form, heated to between 200° and 220° Fahr., and when the particles begin to aggregate, stir assiduously till they assume a granular form. By means of suitable sieves separate the granules of uniform and most convenient size. Preserve in well-closed bottles.

=Sodium, Ethylate.= Prepared as POTASSIUM ETHYLATE, substituting sodium for potassium. Properties similar to ethylate of potassium.

=Sodium, Hydrate of.= NaHO. Syn. HYDRATE OF SODA, SODIUM HYDRATE, CAUSTIC SODA; SODÆ HYDRAS. Prep. Exactly in the same manner from carbonate of sodium as potassium hydrate is prepared from carbonate of potassium.

The ‘Pharmaceutical Journal’[177] states that a pure hydrate of sodium is now manufactured from metallic sodium by the following method:——A deep silver vessel, of a hemispherical form, and capable of holding about four gallons of water, is employed. Into this vessel, which is cooled externally with a current of cold water, is placed a very little water, and upon the water is placed a cube of metallic sodium, of about half an inch in diameter.

[Footnote 177: 3rd series, i, 65.]

The vessel is made to revolve, so as continually to bring fresh portions of liquid into contact with the metal, and by this means explosion is avoided. When the first cube of metal has dissolved, and yielded a thick syrupy liquid, a little more water and a second cube of metal are added, and the reaction allowed to take place, as before, the vessel being kept in motion all the time. In this manner several pounds of sodium may be worked up into soda.

The thick syrup so resulting is next evaporated down, heated to redness, fused, and poured into a mould.

Inasmuch as the price of sodium is five shillings a pound, the yield of soda from 1 lb. of metal being about 1-3/4 lb., it is plain that the alkali so prepared must be cheap.

The danger of explosions (which, however, are not likely to occur if proper care is taken) necessitates the employment of skilled labour in this manufacture, and constitutes a very serious drawback to the commercial success of the process.

Greyish, semitranslucent, deliquescent masses, very soluble in water, and bearing a very great resemblance to the corresponding potassium compound.

=Sodium, Hypochlo′′rite of.= Syn. CHLORINATED SODA, CHLORIDE OF SODA‡; SODA CHLORINATA, L. Prep. (Dr Christison.) Dried carbonate of sodium, 19 parts, are triturated with water, 1 part, and the mixture placed in a proper vessel, and exposed to the prolonged action of chlorine gas, generated from a mixture of chloride of sodium, 10 parts; binoxide of manganese, 8 parts; sulphuric acid, 14 parts; (diluted with) water, 10 parts.

=Sodium Hypophosphate.= See PHOSPHORUS.

=Sodium, Hyposul′phite of.= Na_{2}S_{2}O_{3}. Syn. SODÆ HYPOSULPHIS, L. Prep. 1. Dried carbonate of sodium, 1 lb.; flower of sulphur, 10 oz.; mix, and slowly heat the powder in a porcelain dish until the sulphur melts; stir the fused mass freely to expose it to the atmosphere until the incandescence flags, then dissolve the mass in water, and immediately boil the filtered liquid with some flowers of sulphur; lastly, carefully concentrate the solution for crystals.

2. A stream of well-washed sulphurous anhydride gas is passed into a strong solution of carbonate of sodium, which is then digested with sulphur at a gentle heat during several days; by evaporating the solution at a moderate temperature, the salt is obtained in large and regular crystals.

3. (Capaun’s process.) Boil a dilute solution of caustic soda with sulphur to saturation, then pass sulphurous acid gas into the solution until a small portion, when filtered, is found to have a very pale yellow colour; when this is the case, it must be filtered and evaporated, as before.

4. (P. Cod.) Dissolve carbonate of sodium, 8 parts, in water, 16 parts; add of sublimed sulphur, 1 part, and pass sulphurous acid gas, in excess, into the solution; next boil the liquid in a glass matrass for a few minutes, filter, gently evaporate the filtrate to 1-3rd its volume, and set it aside in a cool place to crystallise.

Prop., &c. Hyposulphite of sodium crystallises in four-sided prisms, which, in the dry state, are unalterable in the air; it is freely soluble in water. It may be perfectly freed from sulphide of sodium by agitating it with about half its weight of alcohol; the alcohol dissolves out the sulphide, which may then be easily separated. This salt is now very extensively used in the practice of photography, also as an ‘antichlore,’ to extract the last traces from paper pulp.

=Sodium, Iodide of.= NaI. Syn. SODII IODIDUM. Prep. As IODIDE OF POTASSIUM. This, as well as the bromide, crystallises in clear or whitish cubes, deliquescent, and soluble in water. Used in medicine in the same manner as the corresponding potassium salts.

=Sodium and Iron, Pyrophosphate of.= Syn. SODÆ ET FERRI PYROPHOSPHAS, NATRUM PYROPHOSPHORICUM FERRATUM. (Ph. G.) Prep. Dissolve 20 oz. of pyrophosphate of soda in 40 oz. of cold distilled water, and add, gradually, to the solution, and with constant stirring, 8 oz. (by weight) of solution of perchloride of iron (Ph. G.), previously diluted with 22 oz. of distilled water, as long as the precipitate is redissolved. Filter, and to the clear, bright green liquid thus obtained pour in 100 oz. (by weight) of rectified spirit, wash the precipitate with more spirit, press it between blotting paper, and dry by a gentle heat.

=Sodium Lactate.= Syn. SODII LACTAS. Prep. Let lactate acid be diluted with three parts of water; saturate whilst boiling with sodium bicarbonate; then evaporate, and run into flakes.

Sodium lactate is a very deliquescent salt. The solution evaporated to the consistence of a syrup deposits flattened prismatic crystals, and stellar groups of needles.

=Sodium, Ni′trate of.= NaNO_{3}. Syn. CHILI SALTPETRE, CUBIC NITRE; SODÆ NITRAS, L. This salt occurs native like ordinary nitre, and is chiefly imported into England from South America. It is largely employed as a manure, in the preparation of nitric acid, and, recently, in the manufacture of fireworks, on account of the comparative slowness with which it burns. It is deliquescent and very soluble in water.

=Sodium, Nitrite of.= Syn. SODÆ NITRIS. (B. P., 1864.) Mix nitrate of soda, 1 lb., and charcoal, recently burned, and in fine powder, 1-1/4 oz., thoroughly in a mortar, and drop the mixture in successive portions into a clay crucible, heated to a dull redness. When the salt has become quite white, raise the heat so as to liquefy it, pour on to a clean flagstone, and when it has solidified break into fragments, and keep in a stoppered bottle.

=Sodium, Oxide of.= Na_{2}O. Syn. ANHYDROUS SODA. Prep. By burning dry metallic sodium in air. White powder, very deliquescent, and soluble in water, forming pure sodium hydrate.

=Sodium, Phos′phate of.= Na_{2}PO_{4}.12Aq. Syn. COMMON TRIBASIC PHOSPHATE OF SODA, RHOMBIC P. OF S.; SODÆ PHOSPHAS (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.). Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Take of powdered bone ashes, 10 lbs.; sulphuric acid, 44 fl. oz.; mix, add gradually of water 6 pints, and digest for 3 days, replacing the water which evaporates; then add 6 pints of boiling water, strain through linen, and wash the residue on the filter with boiling water; mix the liquors, and, after defecation, decant and evaporate to 6 pints; let the impurities again settle, and neutralise the clear fluid, heated to boiling, with a solution of carbonate of sodium in slight excess; crystals will be deposited as the solution cools, and by successively evaporating, adding a little more carbonate of sodium to the mother liquor till it is feebly alkaline, and cooling, more crystals may be obtained; these must be kept in close vessels. The formula of the Ph. D. is nearly similar. It is placed in the Materia Medica of the B. P. and Ph. L.

2. (Funcke.) To ground calcined bones, diffused through water, add a little dilute sulphuric acid to saturate any carbonate of calcium present; when effervescence ceases, dissolve the whole in nitric acid, q. s.; to this solution add as much sulphate of sodium as the bone ash used, and distil the whole to recover the nitric acid; the residuum is treated with water, and the resulting solution filtered, evaporated, and crystallised.

Prop., &c. It forms very beautiful oblique rhombic prisms, of the formula Na_{2}H,PO_{4},12H_{2}O, which effloresce in the air, dissolve in about 4 parts of cold water and in 2 parts at 212° Fahr., and fuse when heated. As a medicine it is mildly aperient, in doses of 1/2 to 1 oz., or even more; and antacid in doses of 20 to 30 gr., frequently repeated. It has a purely saline taste, resembling that of culinary salt, and is commonly taken in broth or soup.

=Sodium Pyrophosphate (Crystallised).= Syn. SODÆ PYROPHOSPHAS CRYSTALLISATA. (P. Cod.) Prep. This salt may be obtained by heating, gently at first, and afterwards to a red heat, crystallised phosphate of sodium in a platinum crucible until all the water is driven off, and the salt has become fused. Dissolve the fused mass in water, filter, and concentrate until it has a density of 1·20, and crystallise in the cold.

=Sodium, Salicylate of.= Syn. SODÆ SALICYLUS. Prep. Made by neutralising a solution of pure salicylic acid with caustic soda, and evaporating to dryness. It must be purified by crystallisation from alcohol. Antipyretic; given in acute rheumatism.——Dose, 10 to 20 grams.

=Sodium Santonate.= Syn. SODÆ SANTONAS. This salt is made by digesting an alcoholic solution of santonic acid with carbonate of soda, evaporating, redissolving in strong alcohol, and crystallising.

=Sodium, Sesquicarbonate of.= Na_{4}H_{2}(CO_{3})_{3}. A salt found native on the banks of the soda lakes of Sotrena, in Africa, whence it is exported as ‘Trona.’

=Sodium Silicate.= See GLASS, SOLUBLE.

=Sodium, Stan′nate of.= Na_{2}SnO_{3}. Prep. (Greenwood & Co.) Caustic soda, 22 lbs., is heated to low redness in an iron crucible, when nitrate of sodium, 8 lbs., and common salt, 4 lbs., are added; when the mixture is at a ‘fluxing heat,’ 10 lbs. of feathered block tin is stirred in with an iron rod, both the stirring and heat being continued until the mass becomes red hot and ‘pasty,’ and ammoniacal fumes are given off. The product may be purified by solution and crystallisation. Patented. (See below.)

=Sodium, Stan′nite of.= Prep. (Greenwood & Co.) From caustic soda, 13-1/2 lbs.; feathered block tin and common salt, of each 4 lbs.; as the last. Patented. Both the above are used to prepare tin mordants (about 12 oz. to water, 1 gall.). The stannate and stannite of potassium are prepared in a similar manner.

=Sodium Sulphate.= Syn. SODÆ SULPHIS. Prep. Pass sulphurous acid to saturation through a solution of carbonate of soda. Used internally for sarcina ventriculi, and externally as an application in skin diseases of fungous origin. Hyposulphate of soda is employed in the same cases.

=Sodium, Sul′phate of.= Na_{2}SO_{4}.10Aq. Syn. GLAUBER’S SALT; SODÆ SULPHAS (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), SAL CATHARTICUS GLAUBERI†, L. This is obtained as a secondary product in various chemical processes; but it may be easily formed directly from its constituents.

Prop., &c. It forms transparent, six-sided, irregular, channelled prisms, with dihedral summits, of the formulae Na_{2}SO_{4}10H_{2}O, which effloresce in the air, and fall to an opaque white powder; soluble in about 3 parts of water at 60°, and in considerably less at 100° Fahr., but at a higher temperature its solubility rapidly lessens; insoluble in alcohol; fuses when heated. It is seldom wilfully adulterated. When pure the solution is neutral to test paper; nitrate of silver throws down scarcely anything from a dilute solution; nitrate of baryta more, which is not dissolved by nitric acid. It loses 55·5% of its weight by a strong heat.

Uses. It is purgative, but being extremely bitter-tasted, is now less frequently used than formerly. Its nauseous flavour is said to be covered by lemon juice.——Dose, 1/2 to 1 oz. The dried salts (SODÆ SULPHAS EXSICCATA) is twice as strong. LYMINGTON GLAUBER’S SALT is a mixture of the sulphates of soda and potassa obtained from the mother liquor of sea salt.

=Sodium, Sul′phide of.= Prep. (P. Cod.) Saturate a solution of caustic soda (sp. gr. 1·200) with sulphuretted hydrogen, closely cover up the vessel, and set it aside that crystals may form; drain, press them in bibulous paper, and at once preserve them in a well-closed bottle. Used to make mineral waters, and in certain skin diseases.

Of this salt Dr Ringer says——“it possesses the property of preventing and arresting suppuration, and stopping the formation of pus. Given for boils and carbuncles; it also produces excellent results.——Dose. For adults, 1/10th of a grain, mixed with sugar of milk every hour or two on the tongue.

The anhydrous sulphides resemble closely and are prepared in the same manner as the potassium sulphides.

=Sodium, Sulpho-Carbolate.= Syn. SODÆ SULPHO-CARBOLAS. (Pareira.) Prep. Mix two volumes of pure carbolic acid with one volume of sulphuric acid in a flask, and heat the mixture to 280° or 290° F. for five minutes. Let cool, dilute, and saturate with carbonate of soda, evaporate, and crystallise. The other sulpho-carbolates may be prepared in the same manner.——Dose, 10 to 30 gr., in phthisis and zymotic diseases; externally, as a lotion in ozæna and fetid ulcers.

=Sodium, Sulpho-Salicylate of.= Syn. SODÆ SULPHO-SALICYLAS. Mr J. Williams obtains this salt by treating very pure salicylic acid with about twice its weight of sulphuric acid, then adding carbonate of barium, and decomposing the sulpho-salicylate of barium by sulphate of soda (see ‘Pharm. Journ.,’ Sept. 30th, 1876).

=Sodium Sulphovinate.= Syn. SODII SULPHOVINAS. Prep. Sulphovinic acid is first prepared by pouring gradually, with great care, and increasingly stirring with a glass rod, 1000 grams of 60° sulphuric acid into 1000 grams of rectified 96° alcohol. The mixture is left for some hours in contact, then diluted with 4 litres of distilled water, and afterwards saturated with pure barium carbonate.

When the saturation is complete the barium sulphate is allowed to deposit on a filter. The solution of barium sulphovinate is then decomposed with pure carbonate of soda until it ceases to give a precipitate.

The liquid, evaporated in a water bath, is left to crystallise. If necessary the crystals are purified by recrystallisation. They should be kept in well-closed flasks.

Sodium sulphovinate crystallises in hexagonal tables, which are slightly unctuous to the touch, and very soluble in water and in alcohol. If heated in a capsule they give off, at 120°, the alcohol which they contain in combination. They become gradually deprived of bitterness. Sodium sulphovinate ought not to contain sulphuric acid, nor have an acid taste. It should not be precipitated by barium chloride, and especially by soluble sulphates. The possession of either of these properties is a proof of faulty preparation, and that a portion of the sulphovinic acid has been decomposed. In such a case it should be rejected.

Sulphovinate of soda is said to be a very effective, and by no means unpleasant, saline aperient, and to be unattended with subsequent constipation. The dose is from 5 to 6 dr.

=Sodium, Tartrate of, and Potassium.= KNaC_{4}H_{4}O_{6}.4Aq. Syn. TARTRATE OF POTASSA AND SODA, ROCHELLE SALT, SEIGNETTE’S S., TARTARISED SODA†; SODÆ TARTARATA (B. P.), SODÆ, POTASSIO-TARTRAS (Ph. L.), SODÆ ET POTASSÆ TARTRAS (Ph. E. & D.), SODA TARTARIZATA,†, L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1836.) Take of carbonate of sodium, 12 oz.; boiling water, 2 quarts; dissolve, and add, gradually, of powdered bitartrate of potassium, 16 oz. (or q. s.); strain, evaporate to a pellicle, and set it aside to crystallise; dry the resulting crystals, and evaporate the mother liquor that it may yield more of them. The formulæ of the other colleges are nearly similar.

Prop., &c. Large, transparent, hard, right rhombic prisms, often occurring in halves; slightly efflorescent; soluble in 5 parts of water at 60° Fahr. Its “solution neither changes the colour of litmus nor of turmeric. On the addition of sulphuric acid, bitartrate of potassium is thrown down; on adding either nitrate of silver or chloride of barium nothing is thrown down, or only what is redissolved by the addition of water.” (Ph. L.) By heat it yields a mixture of the pure carbonates of potassium and sodium.

Potassio-tartrate of sodium is a mild and cooling laxative.——Dose, 1/4 to 1 oz., largely diluted with water. It forms the basis of the popular aperient called SEIDLITZ POWDERS.

=Sodium, Vale′′rianate of.= NaC_{5}H_{6}O_{2}. Syn. SODÆ VALERIANAS (Ph. D.), L. Prep.(Ph. D.) Dilute oil of vitriol, 6-1/2 fl. oz., with water, 1/2 pint; then dissolve of powdered bichromate of potassium, 9 oz., with the aid of heat, in water, 3-1/3 pints; when both solutions have cooled, put them into a matrass, and having added of fusel oil (alcohol amylicum——Ph. D.) 4 fl. oz., shake them together repeatedly until the temperature, which first rises to 150°, has fallen to 80° or 90° Fahr.; a condenser being connected, next apply heat so as to distil over about 4 pints of liquid; saturate this exactly with a pint, or q. s., of solution of caustic soda, separate the liquid from the oil which floats upon the surface, and evaporate it until the residual salt is partially liquefied; the heat being now withdrawn, and the salt concreted, this last, whilst still warm, is to be divided into fragments, and preserved in well-stopped bottles.

Obs. This salt is intended to be used in the preparation of the VALERIANATES OF IRON, QUININE, and ZINC.

=SOILS.= These are classified by agriculturists according to their chief ingredients, as loamy, clayey, sandy, chalky, and peaty soils. Of these the first is the best for most purposes, but the others may be improved by the addition of the mineral constituents of which they are deficient. Sand and lime or chalk are the proper additions to clayey soils, and clay gypsum, or loam, to sandy and gravelly ones. Clayey soils are expensive to bring into a fertile state; but when this is once effected, and they are well manured, they yield immense crops of wheat, oats, beans, clover, and most fruits and flowers of the rosaceous kinds.

The fertilisation of soils is suggested partly by chemical analysis, practical experience, and geological observations. In cases where a barren soil is examined with a view to its improvement it is, when possible, compared with an extremely fertile soil in the same neighbourhood, and in a similar situation; the difference given by their analyses indicates the nature of the manure required, and the most judicious methods of cultivation; and thus a plan of improvement is suggested, founded upon scientific principles.

The analysis of soils may be briefly and generally described as follows:——

1. The general character of the soil, as loamy, sandy, stony, rather stony, &c., being noted, 3 or 4 lbs. of it, fairly selected as an average specimen, may be taken during a period of ordinary dry weather. From this, after crushing or bruising the lumps with a piece of wood, all stones of a larger size than that of a filbert may be picked out, and their proportion to the whole quantity duly registered.

2. 1000 grains of the remainder may be next dried by the heat of boiling water, until the mass ceases to lose weight; and, afterwards, exposed to a moist atmosphere for some time. The loss of weight in the first case, and the increase of weight in the second, indicate the absorbent powers of the soil.

3. The matter from No. 2, freed from siliceous stones by garbling, may be gradually heated to dull redness in a shallow open vessel, avoiding waste from decrepitation, &c. The loss of weight, divided by 10, gives the percentage quantity of vegetable or organic matter present (nearly).

4. Another 1000 grains (see No. 1) may be next washed with successive portions of cold water as long as anything is removed. The residuum, after being dried, indicates the proportion of sand and gravel (nearly).

5. Another portion of the soil (100, 200, or more gr., according to its character) is tested in the manner described under CARBONATE and ALKALIMETRY. The loss of weight in carbonic acid indicates the quantity of CARBONATE of lime present in the sample examined; 22 gr. of the former being equal to 50 gr. of the latter.

6. Another like portion of the soil may be gently boiled for 4 or 5 hours, along with dilute hydrochloric acid, in a flask furnished with a long glass tube passing through the cork, to prevent loss (see ETHER); after that time the whole must be thrown upon a filter, and what refuses to pass through (silica) washed with distilled water, dried, ignited, and weighed.

7. The filtrate and washings from No. 6 are next successively treated for alumina (pure clay), lime, phosphate of lime, phosphoric acid, oxide of iron, alkalies (potassa or soda), ammonia (both ready formed and latent), &c. &c., in the manner noticed under GLASS, GUANO, and the names of the respective substances referred to. See AGRICULTURE, MANURES, &c.

=SOL′ANINE.= Syn. SOLANI, SOLANINA, L. A peculiar basic substance, obtained from the leaves and stem of Solanum Dulcamara or bitter-sweet, and other species of the Solanaceæ.

=SOL′DERING.= The union of metallic surfaces by means of a more fusible metal fluxed between them. The method of autogenous soldering, invented by M. De. Richmont, is an exception to this definition. In all the cases surfaces must be perfectly clean, and in absolute contact, and the air must be excluded, to prevent oxidation. For this last purpose the brazier and silversmith use powdered borax made into a paste with water; the coppersmith, powdered sal ammoniac; and the tinman, powdered resin. Tin-foil applied between the joints of fine brass work, first wetted with a strong solution of sal ammoniac, makes an excellent juncture, care being taken to avoid too much heat. See SOLUTION (Soldering), and below.

=SOL′DERS.= Prep. 1. (For copper, iron, and dark brass.) From copper and zinc, equal parts; melted together. For pale brass more zinc must be used.

2. (Fine solder.) From tin, 2 parts; lead, 1 part. Melts at 350° Fahr. Used to tin and solder copper, tin plates, &c.

3. (For German silver.) From German silver, 5 parts; zinc, 4 parts; melted together, run into thin flakes, and then powdered. Also as No. 7.

4. (Glazier’s.) From lead, 3 parts; tin, 1 part. Melts at 500° Fahr.

5. (For gold.) Gold, 12 pennyweights; copper, 4 do.; silver, 2 do.

6. (For lead and zinc.) From lead, 2 parts; tin, 1 part.

7. (For pewter, Britannia metal, &c.) From tin, 10 parts; lead, 5 parts; bismuth, 1 to 3 parts.

8. (For silver.) From fine brass, 6 parts; silver, 5 parts; zinc, 2 parts.

9. (For tin plate.) From tin, 2 parts; lead, 1 part. The addition of bismuth, 1 part, renders it fit for pewter.

=SOLE.= The Solea vulgaris, a well-known fish. It is perhaps more frequently eaten than any other flat fish, and, when skilfully cooked, exceeds them all in delicacy, nutritiousness, and flavour.

=SOLU′TION.= Syn. SOLUTIO, L. Under the head of solutions (SOLUTIONES), in pharmacy, are properly included only those liquids which consist of water, or an aqueous menstruum, in which has been dissolved an appropriate quantity of any soluble substance to impart to the liquor its peculiar properties. When spirit is the menstruum, the liquid receives the name of alcoholic solution, spirit, or tincture. In the B. P. and the Ph. L. & D. aqueous solutions are named LIQUORS (LIQUORES), whilst in the Ph. E., and in the old pharmacopœias generally, they are termed WATERS (AQUÆ).

The following list embraces all the solutions of the British pharmacopœias, with a few others likely to be useful to the reader. Some other preparations to which the name has been given will be found under LIQUORS, TINCTURES, &c.

=Solution of Ac′etate of Ammo′′nia.= Syn. LIQUOR OF ACETATE OF AMMONIA, WATER OF A. OF A., MINDERERUS’ SPIRIT; AMMONIÆ ACETATIS LIQUOR (B. P.), LIQUOR AMMONIÆ ACETATIS (Ph. L. & D.), AMMONIÆ ACETATIS AQUA (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) From dilute acetic acid, 1 pint; exactly neutralised by sesquicarbonate of ammonia (in coarse powder), 9 dr., or q. s. Sp. gr. 1·022.

2. (Ph. E.) Distilled vinegar (preferably from French vinegar), sp. gr, 1·005, 24 fl. oz.; carbonate (sesquicarbonate) of ammonia, 1 oz., or q. s. Sp. gr. 1·011.

3. (Ph. D.) Sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 2-1/2 oz.; dilute acetic acid, 3 pints. Sp. gr. 1·012.

4. (B. P.) Carbonate of ammonia, 3-1/4, or sufficient; acetic acid (28 per cent.), 10; distilled water, 50. Dissolve the carbonate in the acid, and add the water.

Prop., &c. Free from colour and odour. It changes the colour neither of litmus nor turmeric. Sulphuretted hydrogen being dropped in, it is not discoloured, neither is anything thrown down on the addition of chloride of barium. What is precipitated by nitrate of silver is soluble in water, but especially so in nitric acid. Potassa being added, it emits ammonia; and sulphuric acid being added, it gives off acetic vapours. The fluid being evaporated, what remains is completely destroyed by heat.

Uses, &c. Solution of acetate of ammonia is a very common and excellent febrifuge and diaphoretic, and, in large doses, aperient saline liquor. Taken warm, in bed, it generally proves a powerful sudorific; and as it operates without heat, it is much used in febrile and inflammatory disorders. Its action may likewise be determined to the kidneys, by walking about in the cold air.——Dose, 2 to 6 dr., twice or thrice daily, either by itself or along with other medicines. Externally, as a discutient and refrigerant lotion; and diluted (1 oz. to 9 oz. of water), as a collyrium in chronic ophthalmia. For this last purpose it must be free from excess of ammonia.

5. (Concentrated.) Saturate acetic acid, sp. gr. 1·038, 1/2 gall., with carbonate of ammonia (in powder), 2-1/2 lbs., or q. s.; carefully avoiding excess.

Obs. This article is in great demand in the wholesale drug trade, under the name of ‘concentrated liquor of acetate of ammonia’ (LIQ. AMMON. ACET. CONC.). It is very convenient for dispensing. One fl. dr. added to 7 fl. dr. of water forms the LIQUOR AMMONIÆ ACETATIS of the Ph. L.

=Solution of Acetate of Lead.= See SOLUTION OF DIACETATE OF LEAD.

=Solution of Acetate of Morphia.= Syn. LIQUOR MORPHIÆ ACETATIS (B. P., Ph. L., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Acetate of morphia, 4 dr.; acetic acid, 15 drops; distilled water, 1 pint; proof spirit, 1/2 pint; mix, and dissolve. Sixty drops (minims) contain 1 gr. of acetate of morphia.——Dose, 5 to 15 or 20 drops.

2. (B. P.) Acetate of morphia, 4 gr.; diluted acetic acid, 8 minims; rectified spirit, 2 dr.; distilled water, 6 dr.; dissolve in the mixed liquids.——Dose, 10 to 60 minims.

3. (Ph. D.) Acetate of morphia, 82 gr.; rectified spirit, 5 fl. oz.; distilled water, 15 fl. oz. 120 drops (minims) contain 1 gr. of the acetate.——Dose, 10 to 45 or 50 drops, or similar to that of tincture of opium.

4. (Magendie.) Each fl. dr. contains 1-1/2 gr. of acetate (nearly).——Dose, 5 to 15 drops. Anodyne, hypnotic, and narcotic; in those cases in which opium is inadmissible. See MORPHIA.

=Solution of Aconitia.= Syn. SOLUTIO ACONITIÆ (Dr Turnbull). Prep. Aconitia, 1 gr.; rectified spirit, 1 dr. To be applied externally by means of a sponge in neuralgic and rheumatic affections.

=Solution of Al′um (Compound).= Syn. BATE’S ALUM WATER; LIQUOR ALUMINIS COMPOSITUS (Ph. L.), AQUA ALUMINOSA COMPOSITA †, L. Prep. (Ph. L.) Alum and sulphate of zinc, of each 1 oz.; boiling water, 3 pints; dissolve, and filter (if necessary). Detergent and astringent. Used as a lotion for old ulcers, chilblains, excoriations, &c.; and, largely diluted with water, as an eye-wash and injection.

=Solution of Ammo′′nia.= See LIQUOR OF AMMONIA.

=Solution of Ammo′′nio-ni′trate of Sil′ver.= Syn. HUME’S TEST; SOLUTIO ARGENTI AMMONIATI (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Nitrate of silver (pure crystallised), 44 gr.; distilled water, 1 fl. oz.; dissolve and add ammonia water, gradually, until the precipitate, at first thrown down, is very nearly, but not entirely, redissolved. Used as a test for arsenic.

=Solution of Ammo′′nio-sul′phate of Cop′per.= Syn. LIQUOR CUPRI AMMONIO-SULPHATIS (Ph. L.), CUPRI AMMONIATI SOLUTIO (Ph. E.), C. A. AQUA, L. Prep. (Ph. L.) Ammonio-sulphate of copper, 1 dr.; water, 1 pint; dissolve, and filter. Stimulant and detergent. Applied to indolent ulcers, and, when largely diluted, to remove specks on the cornea; also used as a test for arsenic.

=Solution for Anatom′ical Preparations, &c.= Syn. ANTISEPTIC SOLUTION. Prep. 1. Nearly saturate water with sulphurous acid, and add a little creasote.

2. Dissolve chloride of tin, 4 parts, in water, 100 parts, to which 3% of hydrochloric acid has been added.

3. Dissolve corrosive sublimate, 1 part, and chloride of sodium, 3 parts, in water, 100 parts, to which 2% of hydrochloric acid has been added.

4. Mix liquor of ammonia (strong) with 3 times its weight (each) of water and rectified spirit.

5. Sal ammoniac, 1 part; water, 10 or 11 parts. For muscular parts of animals.

6. Sulphate of zinc, 1 part; water, 15 to 25 parts. For muscles, integuments, and cerebral masses.

7. (Dr Babington.) Wood naphtha, 1 part; water, 7 parts; or wood naphtha undiluted, as an injection.

8. (Sir W. Burnett.) Concentrated solution of chloride of zinc, 1 lb.; water, 1 gall. The substances are immersed in the solution for 2 to 4 days, and then dried in the air.

9. (Gannal.) Alum and culinary salt, of each 1/2 lb.; nitre, 1/4 lb.; water, 1 gall.

10. (Goadsby.)——a. From bay salt, 2 oz.; alum, 1 oz.; bichloride of mercury, 1 gr.; water, 1 pint. For ordinary purposes.

b. To the last add of bichloride of mercury, 1 gr.; water, 1 pint. For very tender tissues, and where there is a tendency to mouldiness.

c. From bay salt, 1/4 lb.; bichloride of mercury, 1 gr.; water, 1 pint. For subjects containing carbonate of lime.

d. From bay salt, 1/4 lb.; arsenious acid, 10 gr.; water, 1 pint; dissolve by heat. For old preparations.

e. To the last add of bichloride of mercury, 1 gr. As the last, when there is a tendency to the softening of parts; and, diluted, for mollusca. These solutions are approved of by Prof. Owen.

11. (M. Réboulet.) Nitre, 1 part; alum, 2 parts; chloride of lime, 4 parts; water, 16 or 20 parts; to be afterwards diluted according to circumstances. For pathological specimens. 12. (Dr Stapleton.) Alum, 2-1/4 oz.; nitre, 1 dr.; water, 1 quart. For pathological specimens.

13. (For FEATHERS——Beasley.) Strychnia, 16 gr.; rectified spirit, 1 pint.

Obs. These fluids are used for preserving ANATOMICAL PREPARATIONS, OBJECTS OF NATURAL HISTORY, &c., by immersing them therein, in close vessels; or, for temporary purposes, applying them by means of a brush or piece of rag. The presence of corrosive sublimate is apt to render animal substances very hard. See PUTREFACTION.

=Solution, Antiseptic.= (See above.)

=Solution of Arseniate of Ammonia.= Syn. LIQUOR ARSENIATIS AMMONIÆ. (Hosp. Of St Louis.) Prep. Arseniate of ammonia, 4 gr.; distilled water, 4 oz.; spirit of angelica, 2 dr.——Dose, 12 to 30 minims. There are other formulæ for the solution, differing in strength from the above.

Dr Neligan gives us Biett’s:——Arseniate of ammonia, 1-1/2 gr.; distilled water, 3 oz.; spirit of angelica, 6 dr.——Dose, 1 to 3 dr.

Bouchardat says 6 gr. to 8 oz. of distilled water.——Dose. From 12 drops to 1 dr.

=Solution of Arseniate of Soda.= Syn. LIQUOR ARSENIATIS SODÆ. PEARSON’S ARSENICAL SOLUTION. Prep. Arseniate of soda, 4 gr.; distilled water, 4 oz.——Dose, 12 minims to 30.

=Solution of Arseniate of Soda.= (B. P.) Syn. LIQUOR SODÆ ARSENIATIS. Prep. Dissolve arseniate of soda (rendered anhydrous by a heat not exceeding 300° Fahr.) 4 gr. in distilled water, 1 oz.——Dose, 5 to 10 minims.

=Solution, Arsenical.= Syn. MINERAL SOLUTION; SOLUTIO ARSENICALIS, SOLUTIO MINERALIS, L. Prep. 1. (Devergie.) As SOLUTION OF ARSENITE OF POTASSA, Ph. L., but of only 1-50th the strength, and flavoured with compound spirit of balm, and coloured to a deep rose with cochineal.

2. (Pearson.) Arseniate of soda, 4 gr.; water, 4 fl. oz.; dissolve.——Dose, 10 to 30 drops during the day. (See below.)

=Solution of Arse′′nious Acid.= See DROPS, AGUE, and ARSENIOUS ACID.

=Solution of Ar′senite of Potas′sa.= Syn. FOWLER’S MINERAL SOLUTION; LIQUOR POTASSÆ ARSENITIS. (Ph. L.), LIQUOR ARSENICALIS (B. P., Ph. E., D., & U. S.), L. Prep. (B. P., Ph. L., & E.) Arsenious acid, coarsely powdered, and carbonate of potassa, of each 80 gr.; distilled water, 1 pint; boil until dissolved, and add, to the cold solution, compound tincture of lavender, 5 fl. dr.; water, q. s. to make the whole exactly measure a pint. Tonic, antiperiodic, and alterative.——Dose, 4 or 5 drops, gradually and cautiously increased; in agues and various scaly skin diseases. It is preferably taken soon after a meal. See ARSENIOUS ACID, &c.

=Solution of Atropia.= Syn. LIQUOR ATROPIÆ (B. P.). Prep. Atropia, 4 gr.: rectified spirit, 1 dr.; dissolve, and add water, 7 dr.; mix.——Dose, 1 minim.

=Solution of Auro-Chloride of Gold.= Syn. SOLUTIO AURI AMMONIO-CHLORIDI. (Furnari.) Prep. Ammonio-chloride of gold, 8 gr.; distilled water and rectified spirit, of each 10 oz.——Dose. A teaspoonful morning and evening in sugared water for dysmenorrhœa and amenorrhœa.

=Solution of Bimeconate of Morphiæ.= SOLUTIO MORPHIÆ BIMECONATIS. There is no standard formula for this preparation. It is made about the same strength as tincture of opium. The following contains 1 gr. in 84 minims:——Bimeconate of morphia, 10 gr.; rectified spirit, 1 dr.; distilled water, 13 dr.

=Solution of Bismuth and Citrate of Ammonia.= Syn. LIQUOR BISMUTHI ET AMMONIÆ CITRATIS (B. P.). Purified bismuth, 1; nitric acid, 2; citric acid, 2; solution of ammonia, a sufficiency; mix the nitric acid with an ounce of distilled water, and add the bismuth in successive portions. When effervescence has ceased, apply for ten minutes a heat approaching that of ebullition, and decant the solution from any insoluble matter. Evaporate the solution until it is reduced to 2, then add the citric acid previously dissolved in 4 of distilled water, and afterwards the solution of ammonia in small quantities at a time, until the precipitate formed is redissolved, and the solution is neutral or slightly alkaline to test paper; dilute with distilled water to the volume of 20.——Dose, 1/2 to 1 dr.

=Solution of Bromine.= Syn. LIQUOR BROMINII. (Pourche.) Prep. Bromine, 1 part; distilled water, 40 parts.——Dose, 5 or 6 drops, 3 times a day. A stronger solution (1 part to 10) is sometimes used externally.

=Solution of Carbon (Detergent).= Syn. LIQUOR CARBONIS DETERGENS. This name is applied to an alcoholic solution of coal tar. Properly diluted it is used externally in skin diseases.

=Solution, Brandish’s.= See SOLUTION OF POTASSA.

=Solution, Burnett’s.= A solution of chloride of zinc. See SOLUTION FOR ANATOMICAL PREPARATIONS (above), also DISINFECTING COMPOUNDS.

=Solution of Camphor, Carbonated.= Syn. SOLUTIO CAMPHORÆ CARBONICA. (Swediaur.) Prep. Water saturated with carbonic acid gas, 2 lbs.; powdered camphor, 3 dr.

=Solution of Camphor and Chloroform.= Syn. SOLUTIO CAMPHORÆ ET CHLOROFORMI. (Messrs Smith.) Prep. Camphor, 3 dr.; chloroform, 1 fl. dr. Dissolve. For exhibiting camphor with yolk of egg in emulsions.

=Solution of Carbolic Acid.= FOR THE TOILETTE. Prep. Crystallised carbolic acid, 10 parts; essence of millefleur, 1 part; tincture of Quillai Saponaria, 50; water, 1000 parts. Mix. The saponine replaces soap with advantage. The above should be employed diluted with 10 times its bulk of water, for disinfecting the skin, for washing the hands, after any risk of contagion, inoculation, &c.

=Solution of Car′bonate of Ammo′′nia.= Syn. SOLUTION OF SESQUICARBONATE OF AMMONIA, CARBONATE OF AMMONIA WATER; LIQUOR AMMONIÆ SESQUICARBONATIS (Ph. L.), AQUA AMMONIÆ CARBONATIS (Ph. E.). Prep. (Ph. L. & E.) Sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 4 oz.; distilled water, 1 pint; dissolve. Stimulant and antacid.——Dose, 1/2 to 1 fl. dr., in water.

=Solution of Carbonate of Magnesia.= Syn. LIQUOR MAGNESIÆ CARBONATIS (B. P.) Prep. Dissolve separately, each in 1/2 a pint of distilled water, sulphate of magnesia, 2 oz.; and carbonate of soda, 2-1/2 oz. Heat the solution of sulphate of magnesia to the boiling point, add the solution of carbonate of soda, and boil together until carbonic acid ceases to be evolved. Collect the precipitated carbonate of magnesia, and wash until what passes ceases to give a precipitate with chloride of barium. Mix the precipitate with a pint of distilled water, and in a suitable apparatus, charge with pure washed carbonic acid gas. Retain excess of carbonic acid under pressure for 24 hours. Filter to remove undissolved carbonate, and again pass carbonic acid into the solution. Keep in a bottle securely closed. (This contains about 13 gr. of carbonate of magnesia in each fluid ounce.)

=Solution of Carbonate of Potas′sa.= Syn. OIL OF TARTAR†, WATER OF SUBCARBONATE OF POTASH†; LIQUOR POTASSÆ CARBONATIS (Ph. L. & D.), L. P. SUBCARBONATIS†, L. Prep. (Ph. L.) Carbonate of potassa, 20 oz. (10 oz.——Ph. D.); water, 1 pint; dissolve and filter (or decant). Sp. gr.——Ph. L., 1·473; Ph. D., 1·310.——Dose, 10 drops to 1 dr., as an antacid, &c.

=Solution of Carbonate of So′da.= Syn. SUBCARBONATE OF SODA WATER†; SODÆ CARBONATIS LIQUOR (Ph. D.), L. Prep. (Ph. D.) Carbonate of soda (in crystals), 1-1/2 oz.; distilled water, 1 pint. Sp. gr. 1·026.——Dose, 1/4 to 1-1/2 fl. oz., as an antacid; in heartburn, dyspepsia, &c.

=Solution of Chloride of Antimony.= Syn. ANTIMONII CHLORIDI LIQUOR (B. P.). Prep. Dissolve black sulphide of antimony in boiling hydrochloric acid. Used as an escharotic, and in the preparation of oxide of antimony.

=Solution of Chlo′′ride of Ar′senic.= Syn. LIQUOR ARSENICI HYDROCHLORICUS (B. P.), LIQUOR ARSENICI CHLORIDI (Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Arsenious acid (in coarse powder), 1/2 dr.; hydrochloric acid, 1-1/2 fl. dr.; distilled water, 1 fl. oz.; boil until the solution of the arsenious acid is complete, and, when cold, add enough distilled water to make the whole exactly measure a pint.——Dose, 4 to 5 drops.

2. (B. P.) Arsenious acid, 80 gr.; hydrochloric acid, 2 dr.; distilled water, 20 oz.; boil the two acids with 4 oz. of the water until a solution is effected, then add sufficient distilled water to make up 20 oz.——Dose, 2 to 8 minims.

=Solution of Chloride of Ba′′rium.= Syn. SOLUTION OF MURIATE OF BARYTA†; LIQUOR BARII CHLORIDI (Ph. L. & D.), SOLUTIO BARYTÆ MURIATIS (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph. L. & E.) Dissolve chloride of barium, 1 dr. (1 oz.——Ph. D.), in water, 1 fl. oz. (8 oz. Ph. D.), and filter the solution. Sp. gr. (Ph. D.) 1·088.——Dose, 5 drops, gradually increased to 10 or 12, twice or thrice daily; in scrofula, scirrhous affections, and worms; externally, largely diluted, as a lotion in scrofulous ophthalmia.

=Solution of Chloride of Cal′cium.= Syn. SOLUTION OF MURIATE OF LIME†; CALCII CHLORIDI LIQUOR (Ph. D.), CALCIS MURIATIS SOLUTIO (Ph. E.). Prep. 1. (Ph. L. 1836.) Fused chloride of calcium, 4 oz. (crystals, 8 oz.——Ph. E.); water, 12 fl. oz.; dissolve, and filter.

2. (Ph. D.) Fused chloride of calcium, 3 oz.; water, 12 oz. Sp. gr. 1·225.——Dose, 10 drops to 1 dr., or more; in scrofulous and glandular diseases, &c.

=Solution of Chloride of Zinc.= Syn. LIQUOR ZINCI CHLORIDI (B. P.). Prep. Granulated zinc, 8; hydrochloric acid, 22; solution of chlorine, q. s.; carbonate of zinc, 1/4; distilled water, 10. Mix the acid and water in a porcelain dish, add the zinc, and apply a gentle heat to promote the action until gas is no longer evolved; boil for half an hour, supplying the water lost by evaporation, and allow the product to cool. Filter it into a bottle, and add solution of chlorine by degrees, with frequent agitation until a brown sediment appears. Filter the liquid into a porcelain basin, and evaporate until it is reduced to the bulk of 20.

=Solution of Chlo′′rinated Lime.= Syn. BLEACHING LIQUID, SOLUTION OF CHLORIDE OF LIME‡, S. OF HYPOCHLORITE OF LIME; SOLUTIO CALCIS HYPOCHLORIS, S. CALCIS CHLORIDI, CALCIS CHLORINATÆ LIQUOR (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. D.) Chlorinated lime (‘chloride of lime’), 1/2 lb.; water, 1/2 gall.; triturate them together, then transfer the mixture to a stoppered bottle, and shake it repeatedly for the space of 3 hours; lastly, filter through calico, and preserve it in a well-stopped bottle.

2. Chloride of lime (dry and good, and rubbed to fine powder), 9 lbs.; tepid water, 6 galls.; mix in a stoneware bottle capable of holding 8 galls., agitate frequently for a day or two, and, after 2 or 3 days’ repose, decant the clear portion, and keep it in well-corked bottles, in a cool situation. If filtered, it should be done as rapidly as possible, and only through coarsely powdered glass in a covered vessel.

3. LIQUOR CALCIS CHLORATÆ (B. P.). Prep. Blend well together, by trituration in a large mortar, 1 lb. of chlorinated lime with 1 gall. of water, transfer the mixture to a stoppered bottle, and shake it frequently for the space of 3 hours; pour it on a calico filter, and let the solution which passes through be kept in a well-stoppered bottle. Sp. gr. 1·035.

Obs. The last is the usual strength sold in trade, under various attractive names, to give it importance. It is used as a disinfectant, bleacher, and fumigation; and, diluted with water, as a lotion, injection, or collyrium, in several diseases. See HYPOCHLORITE OF CALCIUM.

=Solution of Chlorinated lime, Spirituous.= Syn. SOLUTIO CALCIS CHLORIDI, SPIRITUOSA. (Chevallier). Prep. Chloride of lime, 3 dr.; distilled water, 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 2 oz. Mix and filter.

=Solution of Chlorinated Potas′sa.= Syn. SOLUTION OF CHLORIDE OF POTASH‡, S. OF HYPOCHLORITE OF POTASSA, JAVELLE’S BLEACHING LIQUID; SOLUTIO POTASSÆ HYPOCHLORIS, LIQUOR POTASSÆ CHLORIDI, L. POTASSÆ CHLORINATÆ, L.; EAU DE JAVELLE, Fr. Prep. 1. Dissolve carbonate of potassa, 1 part, in water, 10 parts, and pass chlorine gas through the solution to saturation.

2. Chloride of lime (dry and good), 1 part; water, 15 parts: agitate them together for an hour; next dissolve of carbonate of potassa, 2 oz., in water, 1/4 pint; mix the two solutions, and after a time either decant or filter.——Uses, &c. As the last.

=Solution of Chlorinated Soda.= Syn. SOLUTION OF CHLORIDE OF SODA‡, S. OF HYPOCHLORITE OF SODA, LABARRAQUE’S DISINFECTING LIQUID; SOLUTIO SODÆ HYPOCHLORIS, HYPOCHLORIS SODICUS AQUA SOLUTUS (P. Cod.), LIQUOR SODÆ CHLORINATÆ (Ph. L. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.), Carbonate of soda (in crystals), 1 lb.; water, 1 quart; dissolve, and pass through the solution the chlorine evolved from a mixture of common salt, 4 oz.; binoxide of manganese, 3 oz.; sulphuric acid, 2-1/2 fl. oz. (4 oz.——Ph. L. 1836); diluted with water, 3 fl. oz.; placed in a retort, heat being applied to promote the action, and the gas being purified by passing through 5 fl. oz. of water before it enters the alkaline solution.

2. (Ph. D.) Chlorinated lime, 1/2 lb., and water, 3 pints, are triturated together in a marble mortar, after which the mixture is transferred to a stoppered bottle, agitated frequently during three hours, and then filtered through calico; in the mean time carbonate of soda (cryst.), 7 oz., is dissolved in water, 1 pint; the two solutions are next mixed, and, after agitation for about 10 minutes, the whole is filtered as before. The filtrate is to be preserved in a well-stopped bottle.

3. (B. P.) Dissolve 12 oz. of carbonate of soda in 36 oz. of distilled water, and put the solution into a glass vessel. Mix black oxide of manganese, 4 oz., and hydrochloric acid, 15 fl. oz., in a glass flask, with a bent tube attached by means of a cork to its mouth, apply a gentle heat, and with a suitable arrangement cause the gas evolved to pass first through a wash-bottle containing 4 oz. of water, and then into the solution of carbonate of soda, regulating heat so that the gas shall be slowly but constantly introduced. When the disengagement of chlorine has ceased, transfer the solution which has absorbed it to a stoppered bottle, and keep in a cool and dark place. Sp. gr. 1·103.

Obs. This solution is used as an antiseptic, disinfectant, and bleaching liquid.——Dose, 20 to 30 drops, in any bland fluid, in scarlet fever, sore throat, &c.; it is also made into a lotion, gargle, injection, and eye-water. Meat in a nearly putrid state, unfit for food, is immediately restored by washing or immersion in this liquid.

=Solution of Chlo′′rine.= Syn. CHLORINE WATER; SOLUTIO CHLORINII, LIQUOR CHLORINI (Ph. L. & D.), CHLORINEI AQUA (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) On binoxide of manganese (in powder), 2 dr., placed in a retort, pour hydrochloric acid, 1 fl. oz., and pass the chlorine in distilled water, 1/2 pint, until it ceases to be evolved.

2. (Ph. E.) Muriate of soda (common salt), 60 gr.; red oxide of lead, 350 gr.; triturate them together, and put them into 8 fl. oz. of distilled water, contained in a stoppered bottle; then add of sulphuric acid, 2 fl. dr.; and having replaced the stopper, agitate the whole, occasionally, until the oxide of lead turns white; lastly, after subsidence, pour off the clear liquid into another stoppered bottle.

3. (Ph. D.) Introduce into a gas bottle peroxide of manganese (in fine powder), 1/2 oz.; add of hydrochloric acid, 3 fl. oz., (diluted with) water, 2 fl. oz.; apply a gentle heat, and cause the evolved gas to pass through water, 2 fl. oz., and then into a 3-pint bottle containing distilled water, 20 fl. oz., and whose mouth is loosely plugged with tow; when the air has been entirely displaced by the chlorine, cork the bottle loosely, and shake it until the chlorine is absorbed; it should now be transferred to a pint stoppered bottle, and preserved in a dark and cool place.

(B. P.) LIQUOR CHLORI. Prep. Put 1 oz. of black oxide of manganese, in fine powder, into a gas bottle, and having poured upon it 6 fl. oz. of hydrochloric acid, diluted with 2 oz. of distilled water, apply a gentle heat, and by suitable tubes cause the gas, as it is developed, to pass through 2 oz. of distilled water placed in an intermediate small phial, and thence to the bottom of a 3-pint bottle containing 30 oz. of distilled water, the mouth of which is loosely plugged with tow. As soon as the chlorine ceases to be developed, let the bottle be disconnected from the apparatus in which the gas has been generated, corked loosely, and shaken until the chlorine is absorbed. Lastly, introduce the solution into a green bottle furnished with a well-fitting stopper, and keep it in a cool and dark place. Sp. gr. 1·003. One fluid ounce contains 2·66 grains of chlorine.

Prop., &c. Irritant and acrid, but, when largely diluted, stimulant and antiseptic.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 fl. dr., in 1/2 pint of water, sweetened with a little sugar, in divided doses, during the day; in scarlatina, malignant sore throat, &c. On the large scale, liquid chlorine may be procured by passing the gas obtained by any of the methods named under CHLORINE into water, until it will absorb no more.

=Solution of Cit′rate of Ammo′′nia.= Syn. LIQUOR AMMONIÆ CITRATIS (B. P., Ph. L.), L. Prep. (Ph. L.) Dissolve citric acid, 3 oz., in distilled water, 1 pint; and to the solution add of sesquicarbonate of ammonia (in powder), 2-1/2 oz., or q. s. to exactly neutralise the liquor.——Dose, 2 to 6 fl. dr.

=Solution of Citrate of Magne′sia.= Syn. SOLUTION MAGNESIÆ CITRATIS. See MAGNESIUM, CITRATE OF.

(B. P.) Carbonate of magnesia, 100 gr.; citric acid, 200 gr.; syrup of lemons, 1/2 fl. oz.; bicarbonate of potash in crystals, 40 gr.; water, q. s. Dissolve the citric acid in 2 oz. of the water, and having added the carbonate of magnesia, stir until it is dissolved. Filter the solution into a strong half-pint bottle, add the syrup and water sufficient to nearly fill the bottle, then introduce the bicarbonate of potash, and immediately close the bottle with a cork, which should be secured with string or wire, afterwards shake till the bicarbonate has dissolved.——Dose, 5 to 10 fl. oz.

=Solution of Citrate of Morphia.= Syn. LIQUOR MORPHIÆ CITRATIS, SOLUTIO M. C., L. Prep. (Magendie.) Pure morphia, 13 gr.; citric acid, 8 or 10 gr.; water, 1 fl. oz.; tincture of cochineal, 2 fl. dr.——Dose, 3 to 12 drops.

=Solution of Citrate of Potash.= Syn. LIQUOR POTASSÆ CITRATIS. NEUTRAL MIXTURE. (Ph. U. S.) Prep. Citric acid, 1/2 troy oz.; bicarbonate of potash, 330 gr.; water, 8 oz.

=Solution of Copai′ba.= See SOLUTION, SPECIFIC.

=Solution of Cor′rosive Sub′limate.= Syn. SOLUTION OF CHLORIDE OF MERCURY; LIQUOR HYDRARGYRI BICHLORIDI† (Ph. L.). Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Corrosive sublimate and sal ammoniac, of each 10 gr.; water, 1 pint, dissolve.——Dose. As an alterative, 10 to 30 drops; as an antisyphilitic, 1/2 to 2 fl. dr., in simple or sweetened water. It must not be allowed to touch anything metallic. It also forms a most useful lotion in various skin diseases.

2. See LOTION, MERCURIAL.

=Solution of Cyanide of Potassium.= Syn. LIQUOR POTASSII CYANIDI. (Laming.) Prep. Cyanide of potassium, 22 gr.; proof spirit, 9 fl. dr. This is the strength of his hydrocyanic acid, which contains 1 gr. of real acid in 1 fl. dr. Magendie’s medicinal hydrocyanate of potash consists of cyanide of potassium dissolved in 8 times its weight of distilled water.

=Solution of Delphinia.= Syn. SOLUTIO DELPHINIÆ. (Dr Turnbull.) Delphinia, 1 scruple; rectified spirit, 2 oz. For outward use.

=Solution of Diac′etate of Lead.= See SOLUTION OF SUBACETATE OF LEAD.

=Solution, Donovan’s.= See SOLUTION OF HYDRIODATE OF ARSENIC AND MERCURY (below).

=Solution, Escharotic (Freyburg’s).= Syn. SOLUTIO ESCHAROTICA, L. Prep. From camphor, 30 gr.; corrosive sublimate, 60 to 100 gr.; rectified spirit, 1 fl. oz.; dissolve. In syphilitic vegetations, and specially condylomes. It is spread over the diseased surface, either at once or after the application of a ligature.

=Solution of Flints.= Syn. LIQUOR OF FLINTS; LIQUAMEN SILICUM, LIQUOR POTASSÆ SILICATIS, L. Prep. 1. Soluble glass dissolved in water.

2. (Bate.) Powdered quartz, 1 part; dry carbonate of potash, 2 parts (3 parts——Turner); triturate them together, fuse the mixture in a Hessian crucible, and allow the resulting glass to deliquesce by exposure in a damp situation.——Dose, 5 or 6 to 30 drops; in gouty concretions, stone, &c. “It resolves the stone, and opens obstructions.” See SOLUBLE GLASS.

=Solution, Gannal’s.= { See SOLUTION FOR =Solution, Goadsby’s.= { ANATOMICAL PREPARATIONS.

=Solution, Goulard’s.= See SOLUTION OF SUBACETATE OF LEAD.

=Solution, Hahnemann’s Prophylac′tic.= Syn. LIQUOR BELLADONNÆ, SOLUTIO PROPHYLACTICA, L. Prep. From extract of belladonna (alcoholic), 3 gr.; distilled water, 6 fl. dr.; rectified spirit, 2 fl. dr.; dissolve. Used against scarlet fever.——Dose, 2 or 3 drops for a child under 12 months; and an additional drop for every year above that age to maturity.

=Solution of Hartshorn, Succinated.= Syn. LIQUOR CORNU CERVI SUCCINATUS. (P. Cod.) Neutralise true spirits of hartshorn (or a solution of 1 oz. of salt of hartshorn in 1 oz. of water) with acid of amber.

=Solution of Hydri′odate of Ar′senic and Mer′cury.= Syn. DONOVAN’S SOLUTION; SOLUTIO ARSENICI ET HYDRARGYRI IODIDI, ARSENICI ET HYDRARGYRI HYDRIODATIS LIQUOR. (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (Donovan.) Triturate metallic arsenic, 6·08 gr., mercury, 15·38 gr., and iodine, 50 gr., with alcohol, 1 fl. dr., until dry; to this add, gradually, of distilled water, 8 fl. oz., and again well triturate; next put the whole into a flask, add of hydriodic acid, 1/2 fl. dr., and boil for a few minutes; lastly, when cold, add distilled water, q. s. to make the whole measure exactly 8 fl. oz.

2. (Ph. D.) Pure arsenic (in fine powder), 6 gr.; pure mercury, 16 gr.; pure incline, 50-1/2 gr.; alcohol, 1/2 fl. dr.; triturate as before, add, gradually, of water, 8 fl. oz., heat the mixture until it begins to boil, and, afterwards, make up the cold and filtered solution to exactly 8 fl. oz. 6 fl. dr.

3. (Wholesale.) From metallic arsenic, 61 gr.; iodine, 500 gr.; mercury, 154 gr.; rectified spirit, 1-1/2 fl. oz.; distilled water, 2 quarts; hydriodic acid, 5 fl. dr.; as No. 1; the product being made up with distilled water so as to measure exactly 4 pints, or 80 fl. oz., or to weigh 5 lbs. 1-1/4 oz. (av.), when cold.

Obs. Great care must be taken that the whole of the arsenic be dissolved, which can only be effected by the most careful trituration. Soubeiran recommends the employment of 1 part, each, of the respective iodides, with 98 parts of water, as furnishing a simpler and equally effective product, proportions which are almost exactly those employed by Mr Donovan.——Dose, 10 to 30 drops, twice or thrice a day, preferable soon after a meal; in lepra, psoriasis, lupus, and several other scaly skin diseases. It is a most valuable medicine in these affections.

=Solution of Hydrochlo′′rate of Mor′phia.= Syn. SOLUTION OF MURIATE OF MORPHIA; LIQUOR MORPHIÆ HYDROCHLORATIS (Ph. L.), SOLUTIO MORPHIÆ MURIATIS (Ph. E.), MORPHIÆ MURIATIS LIQUOR (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Hydrochlorate of morphia, 4 dr.; proof spirit, 1/2 pint; distilled water, 1 pint; dissolve by the aid of a gentle heat. 60 drops (minims) of this solution contain 1 gr. of hydrochlorate of morphia.——Dose, 5 to 15 or 20 drops.

2. (Ph. E. & D.) Muriate of morphia, 90 gr.; rectified spirit, 5 fl. oz.; distilled water, 15 fl. oz. 107 drops (minims) contain 1 gr. of the hydrochlorate.——Dose, 10 to 30 or 40 drops, or nearly as laudanum.

3. (Apothecaries’ Hall.) Muriate of morphia, 16 gr.; rectified spirit, 1 fl. dr.; water, 1 fl. oz.; 30 drops (minims) contain 1 gr.——Dose, 3 to 10 drops. See SOLUTION OF ACETATE OF MORPHIA, &c.

=Solution of Hypochlo′′rite of Lime.= Solution of chlorinated lime.

=Solution of I′odide of Ar′senic.= Syn. LIQUOR ARSENICI PERIODIDI, L. Prep. (Wackenroder.) Each drachm contains 1/8 gr. of teriodide of arsenic; equivalent to 1/48 gr. of metallic arsenic, and 1/10 gr. (nearly) of iodine.

=Solution of Iodide of Mer′cury and Potas′sium.= Syn. LIQUOR IODOHYDRARGYRATIS POTASSII IODIDI, L. Prep. (Dr Channing.) Iodide of potassium, 3-1/2 gr.; binoxide of mercury, 41/2 gr.; distilled water, 1 fl. oz.; dissolve.——Dose, 2 to 5 or 6 drops, three times a day, much diluted; in dyspepsia, indurations, enlargement of the spleen, dropsy, &c.

=Solution of Iodide of Potas′sium (Compound).= Syn. IODURETTED WATER, COMPOUND SOLUTION OF IODINE; LIQUOR POTASSII IODIDI COMPOSITUS (Ph. L. & D.), LIQUOR IODINEI COMPOSITUS (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. & D.) Iodide of potassium, 10 gr.; iodine, 5 gr.; water, 1 pint; dissolve.——Dose, 1 to 6 dr.; in the usual cases where iodine is employed.

2. (Ph. E.) Iodide of potassium, 1 oz.; iodine, 2 dr.; water, 16 fl. oz. This is 30 times as strong as the preceding.——Dose, 5 to 20 drops.

=Solutions of Iodine.= Syn. LIQUOR IODI (B. P.). Prep. Dissolve 20 gr. of iodine and 30 gr. of iodide of potassium in 1 oz. of distilled water. (Lugol’s.) Syn. SOLUTIONES IODINII VEL IODURETÆ. Prep. Ioduretted waters, Nos. 1, 2, and 3; iodine, 1-1/2 gr., 2 gr., and 2-1/2 gr.; water, 1 pint. Drops.——Iodine, 1 scruple; iodide of potassium, 2 scruples; water, 9 dr. Lotions, &c.——Iodine, 1-1/2 gr. to 3 gr.; iodide of potassium, 3 gr. to 6 gr.; water, 1 pint. Rubefacient.——Iodine, 1 pint; iodide of potassium, 2 parts; water, 12 parts. Caustic.——Iodine, 1 part; iodide of potassium, 1 part; water, 2 parts.

=Solution of Iodide of Iron.= Syn. LIQUOR FERRI IODIDI. (Ph. U. S.). Prep. Mix 2 oz. (troy) of iodine with 5 oz. of water, and add 1 oz. (troy) of iron filings, stir frequently, and heat the mixture gently till it assumes a greenish colour; then filter into a glass bottle containing 12 oz. of powdered sugar, and after it has passed, pour distilled water on the filter, until the filtered liquor, including the sugar, measures 20 oz., last shake the bottle till the sugar is dissolved.——Dose, 15 minims to 1 dr.

=Solution of Iodine with Hemlock.= Syn. SOLUTIO IODINII CUM CONIO. Dr SCUDAMORE’S SOLUTION. For inhaling. Iodine, 6 gr.; iodide of potassium, 6 gr.; rectified spirit, 2 dr.; water, 5 oz. 6 dr. From 1/2 dr. to 5 dr. of this solution, with 1/2 dr. of tincture of hemlock to be added to warm water at 120° F. in a glass inhaler, and used twice a day. Two thirds of the ingredients are first put into the inhaler, and the rest added when half the time for inhaling has elapsed.

=Solution of I′ron (Alkaline).= Syn. LIQUOR FERRI ALKALINI, L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1824.) Iron filings, 2-1/2 dr.; nitric acid, 2 fl. oz.; water, 6 fl. oz.; dissolve, decant, gradually add of solution of carbonate of potash 6 fl. oz., and in 6 hours decant the clear portion. This was intended as an imitation of Stahl’s Tinctura Martis Alkalina. It is tonic, emmenagogue, &c.——Dose, 20 to 60 drops.

=Solution of Iron and Alum.= Syn. SOLUTIO FERRI ALUMINOSA. (Swediaur.) Calcined sulphate of iron, 10 scruples; alum, 5 scruples; water sufficient to dissolve them; sulphuric acid, 15 drops.——Dose, 10 to 15 drops. Once a celebrated nostrum in Germany, under the name of Tinctura nervosa.

=Solution, Javelle’s.= See SOLUTION OF CHLORINATED POTASH.

=Solution, Labarraque’s.= See SOLUTION OF CHLORINATED SODA.

=Solution of Lime.= Syn. LIME WATER; SOLUTIO CALCIS HYDRATIS, LIQUOR CALCIS (Ph. L. & D.), AQUA CALCIS (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph. L.) Upon the lime, 1/2 lb., first slaked (by sprinkling it) with a little of the water, pour the remainder of water, 12 pints, and shake them well together (for 5 minutes——Ph. D.); immediately cover the vessel, and set it aside for three hours; then keep the solution with the remaining lime (equally divided) in stoppered glass vessels, and, when it is to be used, decant the required portion from the clear solution (replacing it with more water, and agitating briskly, as before——Ph. E.).

LIQUOR CALCIS (B. P.). Syn. Lime water. Put 2 oz. of slaked lime into a stoppered bottle containing 1 gall. of distilled water, and shake well for two or three minutes. After 12 hours the excess of lime will have subsided, and the clear solution may be drawn off with a siphon as it is required for use, or transferred to a green glass bottle furnished with a well-ground stopper.

Obs. Cold water dissolves more lime than hot water. 1 pint of water at 32° Fahr. dissolves 13-1/4 gr., at 60° it dissolves 11-1/2 gr., but at 212° only 6-1/2 gr. (Phillips.)

Uses, &c. Lime water is antacid, astringent, antilithic, tonic and vermifuge.——Dose. A wine-glassful, or more, 2 or 3 times a day, in milk or broth; in dyspepsia, diarrhœa, calculous affections, &c.; and, externally, as a detersive and discutient lotion.

=Solution of Lime (Saccharated).= (B. P.) Syn. LIQUOR CALCIS SACCHARATUS. Prep. Slaked lime, 1; refined sugar (in powder), 2; distilled water, 20; digest for some hours and strain.——Dose, 15 to 60 minims in milk.

=Solution of Lithia, Effervescing.= Syn. LIQUOR LITHIÆ EFFERVESCENS. (B. P.) Prep. Mix 10 gr. of carbonate of lithia and 1 pint of water in a suitable apparatus, and charge with carbonic acid gas under a pressure of 7 atmospheres. Keep in bottles securely corked.

=Solution, Mackenzie’s.= Prep. From nitrate of silver, 20 gr., dissolved in distilled water, 1 fl. oz. Used to wash the throat and fauces, and to sponge the trachea, in affections of those parts.

=Solution of Magne′sia.= Syn. AERATED MAGNESIA WATER, CARBONATED M. W., FLUID MAGNESIA, CONDENSED SOLUTION OF M., CONCENTRATED S. OF M.; LIQUOR MAGNESIÆ CARBONATIS, AQUA M. C., L.; EAU MAGNESIENNE, Fr. Prep. (Dinneford’s.) Water and Howard’s heavy carbonate of magnesia, in the proportion of 17-1/2 gr. of the latter to every fl. oz. of the former, are introduced into a cylindrical tinned copper vessel, and carbonic acid, generated by the action of sulphuric acid on whiting, is forced into it by steam power for 5-1/2 hours, during the whole of which time the cylinder is kept in motion. Sir J. Murray’s is similar. The Paris Codex orders recently precipitated carbonate of magnesia to be used while still moist. Antacid and laxative. See FLUID MAGNESIA.

=Solution, Min′eral.= See SOLUTION OF ARSENITE OF POTASSA.

=Solution of Mor′phia.= See SOLUTIONS OF ACETATE, HYDROCHLORATE, and SULPHATE.

=Solution of Myrrh, Alkaline.= Syn. SOLUTIO MYRRHÆ ALKALINA. (Swediaur.) Prep. Carbonate of soda, 1 dr.; myrrh, 2 oz.; boiling water, 8 oz. Digest in a water bath for 2 days, frequently stirring, and strain.

=Solution of Nitrate of Mercury (Acid).= Syn. LIQUOR HYDRARGYRI NITRATIS ACIDUS (B. P.). Prep. Mercury, 4; nitric acid, 5; distilled water, 1-1/2; mix the nitric acid with the water in a flask, and dissolve the mercury in the mixture without the application of heat. Boil gently for 15 minutes, cool, and preserve the solution in a stoppered bottle. Used alone, as a caustic; 1 to 2 minims to 1 oz. of water, as a gargle; and 1 minim to 2 oz. of water, as an injection in gonorrhœa.

=Solution of Nitrate of Mercury and Ammonia.= Syn. SOLUTIO HYDRARGYRI ET AMMONIÆ NITRATIS. WARD’S WHITE DROP. Prep. Nitrate of ammonia and mercury in crystals, 1 part; rose water, 3 parts; digest till dissolved.

=Solution of Nitrate of Sil′ver.= Syn. LIQUOR ARGENTI NITRATIS (Ph. L.), SOLUTIO A. N. (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph. L.) Nitrate of silver (cryst.), 1 dr. (40 gr.——Ph. E.); distilled water, 1 fl. oz. (1600 gr.——Ph. E.); dissolve. Used as an escharotic, &c. It should be kept from the light. See LOTION, NITRATE OF SILVER, &c.

=Solution of O′pium (Sed′ative).= See LIQUOR.

=Solution of Oxysulphate of Iron‡.= Syn. LIQUOR FERRI OXYSULPHATIS, L. Prep. From sulphate of iron (in powder) and nitric acid, of each 3 dr.; triturated together for 15 minutes, and then dissolved in distilled water, 1-1/2 fl. oz.——Dose, 5 or 6 to 12 drops.

=Solution of Perchloride of Iron.= Syn. LIQUOR FERRI PERCHLORIDI (B. P.). Prep. Stronger solution of perchloride of iron (see below), 1; distilled water, 3.——Dose, 10 to 30 minims.

=Solution of Perchloride of Iron (Stronger).= Syn. LIQUOR FERRI PERCHLORIDI FORTIOR (B. P.). Prep. Iron wire, 2 oz.; hydrochloric acid, 12 oz.; nitric acid, 9 dr.; distilled water, 8 gr. Mix 8 of the hydrochloric acid with the water, and pour the mixture on the iron wire, applying a gentle heat, so that the whole of the metal may be dissolved; filter the solution, and add to it the remainder of the hydrochloric and nitric acids; heat the mixture briskly, until, on the sudden evolution of red fumes, the liquid becomes of an orange-brown colour, then evaporate by the heat of a water bath until it is reduced to 10 fl. oz. Used as an application to diphtheritic patches, for injecting nævi, as a powerful styptic, and in the preparation of SOLUTION OF PERCHLORIDE OF IRON. (See above.)

=Solution of Perchloride of Mercury.= Syn. LIQUOR HYDRARGYRI PERCHLORIDI (B. P.). Prep. Corrosive sublimate, 10 gr.; chloride of ammonium, 10 gr.; distilled water, 20 oz.; dissolve.——Dose, 30 to 120 minims.

=Solution of Perchloride of Mercury (Compound).= Syn. LIQUOR HYDRARGYRI, PERCHLORIDI COMPOSITUS, LIQUOR MERCURIELLE NORMALE (Mialhe). Prep. Distilled water, 16 oz,; chloride of sodium, 16 gr.; chloride of ammonium, 16 gr.; white of 1 egg, perchloride of mercury, 4 gr. Beat the white of egg with the water, filter, dissolve the salts in the liquid and filter again.

=Solution of Permanganate of Potassa.= Syn. LIQUOR POTASSÆ PERMANGANATIS (B. P.). Prep. Permanganate of potassa, 4 gr.; distilled water, 1 oz.; dissolve. Diluted with 40 parts of water, it is used as a gargle or as a cleansing wash for diseased surface.——Dose, 2 to 4 dr.

=Solution of Perni′trate of Iron.= Syn. SOLUTION OF PERSESQUINITRATE OF IRON; FERRI PERNITRAS LIQUOR (Ph. D.), SOLUTIO PERSESQUINITRAS FERRI (Kerr), L. Prep. (Ph. D.). Take of pure nitric acid, 3 fl. oz.; water, 16 fl. oz.; mix, add fine iron wire, 1 oz.; dissolve, and to the clear solution add as much water as will make the whole measure 1-1/2 pint. Sp. gr. 1·107.——Dose, 5 or 6 to 30 drops, or more; in passive hæmorrhages, mucous discharges, chronic diarrhœa with prostration, &c.

=Solution of Persulphate of Iron.= Syn. LIQUOR FERRI PERSULPHATIS. Prep. Sulphate of iron, 8; sulphuric acid, 3/4; nitric acid, 3/4; distilled water, 12. Add the sulphuric acid to 10 of the water, and dissolve the sulphate of iron in the mixture with the aid of heat. Mix the nitric acid with the remaining 2 of the water, and add the dilute acid to the solution of sulphate of iron. Concentrate the whole by boiling until, by the sudden evolution of ruddy vapours, the liquid ceases to be black, and acquires a red colour. A drop of the solution is now to be tested with ferricyanide of potassium, and if a blue precipitate be formed, a few additional drops of nitric acid should be added, and the boiling renewed, in order that the whole may be converted into persulphate of iron. When the solution is cold, make up the quantity to 11 by the addition, if necessary, of distilled water. Used in making several preparations of iron; it is also a good styptic.

=Solution of Phosphoric Ether.= Syn. SOLUTIO PHOSPHORI ÆTHEREA. Prep. Sliced phosphorus, 5 gr.; rectified ether, 1 oz.; mix, set the bottle in a dark place for 3 or 4 days, shaking occasionally, and decant.

=Solution for Plate.= Syn. PLATE LIQUOR; SOLUTIO PRO ARGENTO, L. Prep. From alum, cream of tartar, and common salt, of each 1 oz.; water, 1/2 gall.; dissolve. Used to increase the lustre and whiteness of silver plate, the articles being boiled in it.

=Solution of Potas′sa.= Syn. SOLUTION OF HYDRATE OF POTASSA, LIQUOR OF POTASSA, POTASH WATER, CAUSTIC P. W.; LIQUOR POTASSÆ (B. P., Ph. L.), AQUA POTASSÆ (Ph. E.), POTASSÆ CAUSTICÆ LIQUOR (Ph. D.), AQUA KALI PURI†, LIXIVIUM SAPONARUM†, AQUA KALI CAUSTICUM†, LIXIVIUM CAUSTICUM†, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Lime (recently burnt), 8 oz.; boiling distilled water, 1 gall.; sprinkle a little of the water on the lime in an earthen vessel, and, when it is slaked and fallen to powder, add of carbonate of potassa 15 oz., dissolved in the remainder of the water; bung down, and shake frequently, until the mixture is cold, then allow the whole to settle, and decant the clear supernatant portion into perfectly clean and well-stoppered green-glass bottles. Sp. gr. 1·063. It contains 6·7% of pure potassa.

2. (Ph. E.) Carbonate of potassa (dry), 4 oz.; quicklime, 2 oz.; water, 45 fl. oz.; boiling briskly for a few minutes after each addition of the milk of lime; to yield at least 35 fl. oz., by decantation, after 24 hours’ repose in a deep, narrow, glass vessel. Sp. gr. 1·072.

3. (Ph. D.) Pure carbonate of potassa, 1 lb.; distilled water, 1 gall.; dissolve, heat the solution to the boiling point in a clean iron vessel, gradually add to it of fresh quicklime, 10 oz., previously slaked with water, 7 fl. oz., and continue the ebullition for 10 minutes, with constant stirring; next allow it to cool out of contact with the air, and, when perfectly clear, decant it by means of a syphon, and bottle it as before. Sp. gr. 1·068.

4. (B. P.) Carbonate of potash, 2; slaked lime, 1-1/2; distilled water, 20; dissolve the carbonate of potash in the water, and having heated the solution to the boiling point in a clean iron vessel, gradually mix the slaked lime, and continue the ebullition for 10 minutes with constant stirring; decant the clear liquid.——Dose, 15 to 60 minims 3 times a day in beer, milk, or Mistura Amygdalæ.

5. (Wöhler.) Nitrate of potassa, 1 part, is mixed, in alternate layers, with clippings of sheet copper, 2 or 3 parts, and then heated to moderate redness for about 1/2 an hour in a copper or iron crucible; when cold, the potassa is washed out with distilled water, and the solution, after repose in a closed vessel, decanted as before. Not a trace of copper can be detected in the liquid. The clippings may be again used if mixed with a little fresh metallic copper.

6. (Wholesale.) From carbonate of potash (kali), 1 lb., and quicklime, 1/2 lb., to each gall. of water.

7. (BRANDISH’S ALKALINE SOLUTION; LIQUOR POTASSÆ BRANDISHII.) From American pearlashes, 6 lbs.; quicklime and wood ashes (from the ash), of each 2 lbs.; boiling water, 6 galls. (old meas.); to each gall. of the clear product is added 12 or 15 drops of oil of juniper. This ‘solution’ is much asked for in trade. Ordinary liquor of potassa is generally sold for it.

Pur. “Nothing, or scarcely anything, is thrown down from this solution on the addition of lime water; and when it has been first saturated by nitric acid, no precipitate falls on the addition of carbonate of soda, chloride of barium, or nitrate of silver. What is thrown down by bichloride of platinum is yellowish.” (Ph. L.)

Uses, &c. Liquor of potassa is antacid, diuretic, resolvent, and lithontriptic.——Dose, 10 to 30 or 40 drops, in any bland diluent (not acidulous); in heartburn, gout, calculi, indurations, scrofula, lepra, psoriasis, &c.

Obs. Quicklime fails to abstract the carbonic acid from the alkaline carbonates in solutions much stronger than those above referred to. Weaker solutions may, however, be easily concentrated by evaporation in iron vessels. See POTASSIUM, HYDRATE OF, and below.

=Solution of Potas′sa (Effervescing).= Syn. LIQUOR POTASSÆ EFFERVESCENS (B. P.); EFFERVESCING POTASH WATER, SUPERCARBONATE OF POTASSA W.; AQUA POTASSÆ EFFERVESCENS (Ph. E.), A. P. SUPERCARBONATIS, L. Prep. (Ph. L. & E.) Bicarbonate of potash, 1 dr.; distilled water, 1 pint; dissolve, force in carbonic acid gas in excess, and keep it in a well-stoppered bottle. Resembles soda water, but sits better on the stomach. It is almost specific in the early stages of scurvy.

(B. P.) Dissolve 30 gr. of bicarbonate of potash in one pint of distilled water, filter, pass in washed carbonic acid (obtained by the action of sulphuric acid on chalk) up to a pressure of 7 atmospheres. Keep in bottles closely secured.

Obs. An excellent substitute for this preparation is to pour a bottle of soda water into a tumbler containing 20 gr. of powdered bicarbonate of potash, and to drink it immediately.

=Solution of Potas′sio-tar′trate of An′timony.= Syn. SOLUTIO ANTIMONII POTASSIO-TARTRATIS, ANTIMONII TARTARIZATI LIQUOR (Ph. D.), L. Prep. (Ph. D.) Tartarised antimony, 1 dr.; rectified spirit, 7 fl. oz.; distilled water, 1 pint; dissolve. Strength, doses, and uses, similar to those of antimonial wine (which see), than which it keeps better.

=Solution, Prophylac′tic.= See HAHNEMANN’S SOLUTION.

=Solution of Protonitrate of Mercury.= Syn. LIQUOR HYDRARGYRI NITRICI (PROTO-NITRATIS) (G. Ph.). Prep. Protonitrate of mercury, 1 oz.; distilled water, 9 oz.; nitric acid (1·185), 46 gr. Filter.——Dose, 1 to 5 drops.

=Solution of Sesquicar′bonate of Ammonia.= See SOLUTION OF CARBONATE OF AMMONIA.

=Solution of Sil′icate of Potas′sa.= See SOLUTION OF FLINTS.

=Solution of So′da.= Syn. SOLUTION OF HYDRATE OF SODA, LIQUOR OF SODA, CAUSTIC SODA WATER; LIQUOR SODÆ (B. P., Ph. L.), SODÆ CAUSTICÆ LIQUOR (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Carbonate of soda, (cryst.), 32 oz.; lime, 9 oz.; boiling distilled water, 1 gall.; proceed as for solution of potassa. “In 100 gr. are contained 1 gr. of (pure) soda.” (Ph. L.) Sp. gr. 1·061.

2. (Ph. D.) Carbonate of soda (cryst.), 2 lbs.; fresh-burned lime, 10 oz.; water, 1 gall. 7 fl. oz.; as liquor of potassa. Sp. gr. 1·056.

3. (B. P.) Carbonate of soda, 7; slaked lime, 3; distilled water, 40; dissolve the carbonate in the water, boil in a clean iron vessel, gradually mixing the lime, and stirring constantly for ten minutes; decant into a green-glass bottle, with air-tight stopper. Sp. gr. 1·047.——Dose, 1/2 to 1 dr.

=Solution of Soda (Effervescing).= Syn. SODA WATER; LIQUOR SODÆ EFFERVESCENS, AQUA S. E. (Ph. E.), A. S. SUPERCARBONATIS, SODÆ CARBONATIS AQUA ACIDULA, L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Bicarbonate of soda, 1 dr.; distilled water, 1 pint; dissolve, and force carbonic acid gas into the solution under pressure. Used as an antacid and grateful stimulant, often proving gently laxative. The soda water of the shops cannot be substituted for this preparation, as, in opposition to its name, it is usually made without soda. (B. P.) Half the strength.

=Solution, Sol′dering.= Prep. Dissolve zinc in hydrochloric acid nearly to saturation, add 1-5th part of powdered sal ammoniac, and simmer for 5 minutes. Used to make solder flow easily and take well; applied with a feather. See SOLDERING.

=Solution, Speci′fic (Frank’s).= Syn. SPECIFIC SOLUTION OF COPAIBA; LIQUOR COPAIBÆ ALKALINA, L. Prep. Take of balsam of copaiba, 2 parts; liquor of potassa (Ph. L.), 3 parts; water, 7 parts; boil the mixture for 2 or 3 minutes, put it into a separator, and allow it to stand for 5 or 6 days; then draw it off from the bottom, avoiding the upper stratum of oil, and to the clear liquid add of sweet spirit of nitre (perfectly free from acid), 1 part; should it turn foul or milky, a very little liquor of potassa will usually brighten it; if not, place it in a clean separator, and let it stand, closely covered, for a few days, and then draw it off from the bottom as before, when it will be perfectly transparent, without filtering. Some persons add the sweet spirit of nitre whilst the solution is still warm, mix it in as rapidly as possible, and immediately cork or fasten up the vessel. This is a good way when the article is wanted in a hurry, but is objectionable from the loss of spirit thereby occasioned, and the danger, without care, of bursting the separator.

Obs. A receipt for this article, upon the authority of Battley, has been going the round of the pharmaceutical works for many years. It is as follows:——Take 12 oz. of balsam of copaiba, and 6 oz, of calcined magnesia; rub together, add a pint of proof spirit, filter, and then add 1/2 oz. of sweet spirits of nitre. (‘Gray’s Supplement.’) The product of this formula, utterly unlike ‘Frank’s Specific Solution,’ is a colourless tincture, scarcely flavoured with copaiba, and holding very little of the active matter of the balsam in solution, owing to the compound formed with the magnesia being insoluble in spirit. Such is the affinity of this earth for copaiba (copaibic acid), that it will even take it from caustic potassa. See COPAIBA, and its preparations.

=Solution of Strychnia.= Syn. LIQUOR STRYCHNIÆ (B. P.). Prep. Strychnia, in crystals, 4 gr.; dilute hydrochloric acid 6 minims; rectified spirit, 2 dr.; distilled water, 6 dr.; mix the hydrochloric acid with 4 dr. of the water, and dissolve the strychnia in it by means of heat; then add the spirit and the remainder of the water.——Dose, 4 to 10 minims.

=Solution of Subac′etate of Lead.= Syn. LIQUOR OF SUBACETATE OF LEAD, L. OF DIACETATE OF L.†, GOULARD’S EXTRACT; LIQUOR PLUMBI, L. PLUMBI DIACETATIS (Ph. L.), PLUMBI DIACETATIS SOLUTIO (Ph. E.), PLUMBI SUBACETATIS LIQUOR (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Acetate of lead, 27 oz.; litharge, in fine powder, 16 oz.; water, 3 quarts; boil for 1/2 an hour, constantly stirring, and then add enough distilled water to make the whole measure 3 quarts; lastly, filter, if required, and keep it in a closed vessel. The proportions, ordered in the Ph. E. are similar. Sp. gr. 1·260.

2. (Ph. D.) Acetate of lead, 6 oz.; litharge, 4 oz.; distilled water, 1 quart; boil, &c., as before; to produce 1 quart. Sp. gr. 1·066. (B. P.) the same.

3. (Wholesale.) From finely powdered litharge, 32 lbs.; distilled vinegar, 32 galls.; boil in a perfectly bright copper pan for 2 hours, cool, add water to make up 32 galls., again simmer for 1 minute, cover up the vessel, and in an hour decant the clear portion. Common trade strength. (See below.)

=Solution of Subacetate of Lead (Dilute).= Syn. GOULARD, GOULARD’S LOTION, GOULARD’S WATER; LIQUOR PLUMBI DIACETATIS DILUTUS (Ph. L.), PLUMBI SUBACETATIS LIQUOR COMPOSITUS (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Liquor of diacetate of lead, 1-1/2 fl. dr.; proof-spirit, 2 fl. dr.; distilled water, 1 pint; mix.

2. (Ph. D.) Solution of subacetate of lead and proof spirit, of each 2 fl. oz.; distilled water, 1/2 gall.; mix, filter, and preserve it in a well-stoppered bottle.

3. (B. P.) Solution of subacetate of lead, 2 fl. dr.; rectified spirit, 2 fl. dr.; distilled water, 19-1/2 oz. Filter through paper.

Obs. Both the above preparations were formerly made with common vinegar, and hence were coloured, but those of the Pharm. are white. If wanted coloured, a little spirit colouring may be added. The stronger liquor is only used diluted; and the dilute solution is now seldom prepared by the wholesale druggist. The last (diluted solution) is employed as a sedative, refrigerant, and astringent wash, in various affections. Both are poisonous. For the antidotes, see LEAD.

=Solution of Sulphate of Atropia.= Syn. LIQUOR ATROPIÆ SULPHATIS (B. P.). Prep. Sulphate of atropia, 4 gr.; distilled water, 1 oz.; dissolve.——Dose, 1 to 2 minims.

=Solution of Sulphate of Copper.= Syn. LIQUOR CUPRI SULPHATIS COMPOSITUS, AQUA STYPTICA. (Ph. L. 1746). Sulphate of copper, 3 oz.; alum, 3 oz.; sulphuric acid, 2 oz.; (by wt.), water, 24 oz. For external use.

=Solution of Sulphate of Indigo.= Syn. LIQUOR INDIGO SULPHATIS. Prep. Digest 1 part of powdered indigo in 10 of sulphuric acid; when dissolved dilute it with water. Used as a test.

=Solution of Sulphate of Mor′phia.= Syn. LIQUOR MORPHIÆ SULPHATIS, L. Prep. From sulphate of morphia, as the solution of the acetate or hydrochlorate. The uses, doses, &c., are the same.

=Solution of Sulphate of Zinc (Compound).= See SOLUTION OF ALUM, COMPOUND.

=Solution of Sul′phuret of Potassium.= Syn. SOLUTION OF HYDROSULPHATE OF POTASSA; SOLUTIO POTASSII SULPHURETI, LIQUOR POTASSÆ HYDROSULPHATIS, AQUA POTASSÆ SULPHURETI (Ph. D.), L. Prep. Take of washed sublimed sulphur, 1 part; water of caustic potassa, 11 parts: mix, boil for 10 minutes, filter, and keep the solution in well-closed bottles. Sp. gr. 1·117. The product is a mixed solution of hydrosulphate and hyposulphate of potassa.——Dose, 10 to 60 drops, diluted in water; and, externally, made into a lotion; in itch, and several other eruptive diseases.

=Solution of Tartrate of Magnesia.= Syn. LIQUOR MAGNESIÆ TARTRATIS. (Airat.) Prep. Tartaric acid, 15-1/4 oz. troy; distilled water, 20 pints; fresh calcined magnesia, diffused in 16 oz. of distilled water, 3 oz. troy and 1 dr.——Dose. As a purgative, 15 oz.

=Solution of Veratria.= Syn. SOLUTIO VERATRIÆ. Prep. Veratrine, 1 gr.; distilled water, 2-1/2 oz. Dr Turnbull’s solution, for external use, is——veratria, 1 scruple; rectified spirit, 2 oz.

=Solution, Swan’s.= Syn. SOLUTIO SODÆ HYPOPHOSPHITIS. Prep. Mr. Squire says this contains 3 gr. of the salt in a drachm.

=SOL′VENT.= Syn. MENSTRUUM, L. The liquid in which any substance is dissolved. The substance dissolved is, occasionally, called the ‘solvend.’ (Kirwan.)

=Solvent, Glazier’s.= Syn. GLAZIER’S PICKLE. From soft soap dissolved in thrice its weight of strong soapers’ lye; or, from freshly slaked lime made into a thin paste or cream with twice its weight of pearlash dissolved in a little water. Very caustic. Used to soften old putty, and to remove old paint.

=SOMNAMBULISM.= Children are most subjected to sleep-walking. When adults are affected with it the cause may generally be traced to mental exhaustion, over-excitement, or emotional feeling. The most preferable method of awakening a somnambulist, if this be desirable, is by dashing cold water on the face. It is well to occasionally administer an aperient, and also to rectify any errors of diet, if necessary, and to remove by the exercise of judicious and kindly advice, and change of scene undue excitement or morbid feeling.

The other precautions, such as securing the feet, &c., during sleep, guarding the exits of the bed-chamber, are so obvious as to need no further allusion to.

=SOOT.= Syn. FULIGO. Wood soot was formerly officinal, and reputed vermifuge and antiseptic. The soot from pit-coal contains, besides empyreumatic matter, sulphate of ammonia; hence it is valuable as a manure, when not too freely applied. It is also employed by gardeners to kill insects.

=SOPORIF′ICS.= Hypnotics (which see).

=SORBITE.= A crystalline saccharine substance resembling mannite, obtained by Boussingault from the berries of the mountain ash. It was obtained from the liquid containing the undecomposed saccharine matter remaining after the juice of the berries had been subjected to fermentation.

=SOU′JEE.= Syn. SOOJEE. A species of semolina. Semoletta (semola rarita) is a still smaller variety of pearled wheat, separated from the others by means of a sieve. ‘Baster’s soojee’ is said to be a mixture of ordinary wheat flour and sugar.

=SOUR KROUT.= See SAUER-KROUT.

=SOUP.= A strong decoction of flesh, properly seasoned with salts, spices, &c., for the table. The different tastes of people require more or less of the flavour of spices, salt, garlic, butter, &c., which can, therefore, never be ordered by general rules. If the cook has not a good taste, and attention to that of his or her employers, not all the ingredients which nature and art can furnish will give an exquisite flavour to the dishes. The proper articles should be always at hand, and must be proportioned until the true zest be obtained. A variety of flavours may be given to different dishes served at the same time, or even to the same soup, by varying the condiments and spices. At a Parisian restaurant one cauldron is made to produce almost every imaginable variety of soup.

=Soup, Cabbage, Cheap.= Wash a large cabbage and cut it into narrow strips, throwing them into 1/2 a gallon of boiling water, containing 2 oz. of butter. Let it boil for an hour and a half; then add half a pint of milk and flavour with pepper and salt. Serve when hot.

=Soup, Carrot.= INGREDIENTS REQUIRED.——4 quarts of liquor in which a leg of mutton or beef has been boiled, a few beef bones, 6 large carrots, 2 large onions, 1 turnip, seasoning of salt and pepper to taste, 3 lumps of sugar, and cayenne.

Mode. Put the liquor, bones, onions, turnips, pepper and salt into a stewpan, and simmer for 3 hours. Scrape and cut the carrots thin, strain the soup on them, and stew them till soft enough to pulp through a hair sieve or coarse cloth; then boil the pulp with the soup, which should be of the consistency of pea soup. Add cayenne. Pulp only the red part of the carrot, and make this soup the day before it is wanted.

Time.——4-1/2 hours. Seasonable from October to March. Sufficient for 8 persons.

=Soup, Celery.= INGREDIENTS.——9 heads of celery, 1 teaspoonful of salt, nutmeg to taste, 1 lump of sugar, 1/2 pint of strong stock, a pint of cream, and 2 quarts of boiling water.

Mode.——Cut the celery into small pieces; throw it into the water, seasoned with the nutmeg, salt and sugar. Boil it till sufficiently tender; pass it through a sieve, add the stock and simmer it for half an hour. Now put in the cream, bring it to the boiling point, and serve immediately.

Time.——1 hour.

=Soup, Giblet.= Scald and carefully clean 3 or 4 sets of goose or duck giblets; let them stew well, a pound or two of gravy beef, scrag of mutton, or the bone of a knuckle of veal, an ox-tail, or some shanks of mutton, with 3 onions, a large bunch of sweet herbs, a teaspoonful of white pepper, and a large spoonful of salt. Add 5 pints of water and simmer till the gizzards (which must be each in four pieces) are quite tender; skim nicely, and add a 1/4 pint of cream, 2 teaspoonfuls of mushroom powder, and 1 oz. of butter mixed with a dessert-spoonful of flour. Let it boil a few minutes, and serve with the giblets. Instead of cream, two glasses of sherry or Madeira, a large spoonful of ketchup, and some cayenne may be used for the seasoning. Add salt when the soup is in the tureen.

For the larger part of the above culinary preparations we are indebted to the excellent cooking manuals of Miss Acton and Mrs Beeton.

=Soup, a Good Family.= INGREDIENTS.——Remains of a cold tongue, 2 lbs. of shin of beef, any cold pieces of meat or beef bones, 2 turnips, 2 carrots, 2 onions, 1 parsnip, 1 head of celery, 4 quarts of water, 1/2 teacupful of rice, salt and pepper to taste.

Mode.——Put all the ingredients in a stewpan, and simmer gently for 4 hours, or until all the goodness is drawn from the meat. Strain off the soup and let it stand till cold. The kernels and soft part of the tongue must be saved. When the soup is wanted for use, skim off all the fat, put in the kernels and soft parts of the tongue, slice in a small quantity of fresh carrot, turnip, and onion; stew till the vegetables are tender, and serve with toasted bread.

Time.——5 hours. Seasonable at any time. Sufficient for 8 persons.

=Soup, Gravy.= INGREDIENTS.——4 lbs. of shin of beef, a piece of the knuckle of veal weighing 4 lbs., a few pieces of trimmings of meat or poultry, 3 slices of nicely flavoured lean ham, 1/4 lb. of butter, 2 onions, 4 carrots, 1 turnip, nearly a head of celery, 1 blade of mace, 6 cloves, a bunch of savoury herbs, seasoning of salt and pepper to taste, 3 lumps of sugar, 5 quarts of boiling soft water. It can be flavoured with ketchup, Leamington sauce, or Harvey’s sauce and a little soy.

Mode.——Slightly brown the meat and ham in the butter, but do not let them burn. When this done, pour to it the water, put in the salt, and as the scum rises take it off; when no more appears, add all the other ingredients, and let the soup simmer slowly by the fire for 6 hours without stirring it any more from the bottom; take it off, and pass it through a sieve. When perfectly cold and settled all the fat should be removed, leaving the sediment untouched, which serves nicely for thick gravies, hashes, &c. The flavourings should be added when the soup is heated for table.

Time.——7 hours. Seasonable all the year. Sufficient for 12 persons.

=Soup, Green Pea.= INGREDIENTS.——3 pints of green peas, 1/4 lb. of butter, 2 or 3 thin slices of ham, 4 onions sliced, 4 shredded lettuces, the crumb of 2 French rolls, 2 handfuls of spinach, 1 lump of sugar, 2 quarts of medium stock.

Mode.——Put the butter, ham, 1 quart of the peas, onions and lettuces, to a pint of stock and simmer for an hour; then add the remainder of the stock, with the crumb of the French rolls, and boil for another hour. Now boil the spinach, squeeze it very dry, and rub it, with the soup, through a sieve, to give the preparation a good colour. Have ready a pint of young peas boiled; add them to the soup, put in the sugar, give one boil, and serve.

Time.——2-1/2 hours. Seasonable from June to the end of August. Sufficient for six persons.

⁂ It will be well to add, if the peas are not quite young, a little more sugar; where economy is essential, water may be used instead of stock for this soup, boiling in it likewise the peashells, and using rather a larger quantity of vegetables.

=Soup, Hare.= Cut down a hare into joints, and put it into a soup-pot or large stewpan, with about a pound of lean ham, in thick slices, 3 moderately sized mild onions, 3 blades of mace, a faggot of thyme, sweet marjoram and parsley, with about 3 quarts of good beef stock. Let it stew very gently for full three hours from the time of its first beginning to boil, and more if the hare be old. Strain the soup, and pound together very fine, the slices of ham and all the flesh of the back, legs, and shoulders of the hare, and put this meat into a stewpan with the liquor, in which it was boiled, the crumb of two French rolls, and half a pint of port wine. Set it on the stove to simmer twenty minutes; then rub it through a sieve, place it again on the stove till very hot, but do not let it boil; season it with salt and cayenne, and send it to table directly.

INGREDIENTS.——Hare, 1; ham, 12 to 16 oz.; onions, 3 to 6; mace, 3 blades; faggot of savoury herbs; beef stock, 3 quarts; 2 hours. Crumb of 2 rolls; port wine, 1/2 pint; little salt and cayenne; 20 minutes.

=Soup, Hare, a less Expensive.= Pour on two pounds of neck or shin of beef, and a hare well washed and carved into joints, one gallon of cold water, and when it boils and has been thoroughly skimmed, add 1-1/2 oz. of salt, 2 onions, 1 large head of celery, 3 moderate-sized carrots, a tablespoonful black peppercorns, and 6 cloves.

Let these stew gently for 3 hours, or longer, should the hare not be perfectly tender. Then take up the principal joints, cut the meat from them, mince, and pound it to fine paste, with the crumb of 2 penny rolls (or 2 oz. of crumb of household bread), which has been soaked in a little of the boiling soup, and then pressed very dry in a cloth; strain, and mix smoothly with it the stock from the remainder of the hare; pass the soup through a strainer, season it with cayenne, and serve it when at the point of boiling; if not sufficiently thick, add to it a tablespoonful of arrow-root, moistened with a little broth, and let the soup simmer for an instant afterwards. Two or 3 glasses of port wine, and 2 dozen of small forcemeat balls may be added to this soup with good effect.

INGREDIENTS.——Beef, 2 lbs.; hare, 1; water, 1 gall.; salt, 1-1/2 oz.; onions, 2; celery, 1 head; carrots, 3; bunch of savoury herbs; peppercorns, 1 teaspoonful; cloves, 6; 3 hours or more. Bread, 2 oz.; cayenne, arrow-root (if needed) 1 tablespoonful.

=Soup, Haricot Bean.= Take a quart of haricot beans and let them soak all night in cold water. Then pour on them 2-1/2 pints of cold water, add 1 onion, and put on the fire, and when the liquid begins to boil, let them continue to boil for 3 hours. Then remove from the fire and strain through a wire sieve, after which return to the saucepan, and season with pepper and salt; next add 2 oz. of butter and a little milk. Then just boil up, and serve. An economical and nutritious soup for the poor.

=Soup, Julienne.= INGREDIENTS.——1/2 pint carrots, 1/2 pint of turnips, 1/2 pint of onions, 2 or 3 leeks, 1/2 head of celery, 1 lettuce, a little sorrel and chervil, if liked, 2 oz. butter, 2 quarts of medium stock.

Mode.——Cut the vegetables into strips about 1-1/4 in. long, and be particular they are all the same size, or some will be hard, whilst the others will be done to a pulp. Cut the lettuce, sorrel, and chervil into larger pieces; fry the carrots in the butter, and pour the stock boiling to them. When this is done, add all the other vegetables thereto, and stew gently for nearly an hour. Skim off all the fat, pour the soup over thin slices of bread cut round, about the size of a shilling, and serve.

Time.——1-1/2 hour. Seasonable all the year. Sufficient for 7 or 8 persons.

⁂ In summer, green peas, as asparagus tops, French beans, &c., can be added. When the vegetables are very strong, instead of frying them in butter at first, they should be blanched, and afterwards simmered in the stock.

=Soup, Macaroni.= Throw 4 oz. of fine, fresh, mellow Naples macaroni into a pan of fast-boiling water, with about 1 oz. of fresh butter, and a small onion stuck with 3 or 4 cloves (the onion must be omitted for white soups). When it has swelled to its full size, and become tender, drain it well, cut it into half-inch lengths, and slip it into a couple of quarts of clear gravy soup; let it simmer for a few minutes, when it will be ready for table. Observe that the macaroni should be boiled quite tender; but it should by no means be allowed to burst, nor to become pulpy. Serve grated Parmesan cheese with it.

INGREDIENTS.——Macaroni, 4 oz.; butter, 1 oz.; 1 small onion; 5 cloves; 3/4 hour, or more. In soup 5 to 10 minutes.

=Soup, Mock Turtle.= INGREDIENTS.——Half a calf’s head, 1/4 lb. butter, 1/4 lb. lean ham, 2 tablespoonfuls of minced parsley, a little minced lemon thyme, sweet marjoram, basil, 2 onions, a few chopped mushrooms (when obtainable), 2 shalots, 2 tablespoonfuls of flour, 2 glasses of madeira or sherry, forcemeat balls, cayenne, salt and mace to taste, the juice of one lemon and 1 Seville orange, 1 dessert-spoonful of pounded sugar, 3 quarts of best strong stock.

Mode.——Scald the head with the skin on, remove the brain, tie the head up in a cloth, and let it boil for an hour. Then take the meat from the bones, cut it into small square pieces, and throw them into cold water. Now take the meat, put it into a stewpan, and cover it with stock; let it boil gently for an hour, or rather more, if not quite tender, and set it on one side. Melt the butter in another stewpan, and add the ham, cut small, with the herbs, parsley, onions, shalots, mushrooms, and nearly a pint of stock; let these simmer slowly, for 2 hours, and then dredge in as much flour as will dry up the butter. Fill up with the remainder of the stock, add the wine, let it stew gently for 10 minutes, rub it through a sieve, and put it to the calf’s head; season with cayenne, and, if required, a little salt; add the juice of the orange and lemon; and when liked, 1/4 teaspoonful of pounded mace, and the sugar. Put in the forcemeat balls, simmer 5 minutes, and serve very hot.

Time.——4-1/2 hours. Seasonable in winter. Sufficient for 10 persons.

⁂ The bones of the head should be well stewed in the liquor it was first boiled in, and will make good white stock, flavoured with vegetables.

=Soup, Ox-tail.= A very inexpensive and nutritious soup may be made of ox-tails, but it will be insipid without the addition of a little ham, knuckle of bacon, or a pound or two of other meat.

Wash and soak 3 tails, pour on them a gallon of cold water, let them be brought gradually to boil, throw in 1-1/2 oz. of salt, and clear off the scum carefully as soon as it forms upon the surface; when it ceases to rise, add four moderate-sized carrots, from 2 to 4 onions, according to the taste, a large faggot of savoury herbs, a head of celery, a couple of turnips, 6 or 8 cloves, and 1/2 a teaspoonful of peppercorns. Stew these gently from 3 to 3-1/2 hours, if the tails be very large; lift them out, strain the liquor, and skim off all the fat; divide the tails into joints, and put them into a couple of quarts or rather more of the stock; stir in when these begin to boil, a thickening of arrow-root or rice flour, mixed with as much cayenne and salt as may be required to flavour the soup well, and serve it very hot.

INGREDIENTS.——Ox tails, 3; water, 1 gall.; salt 1-1/2 oz.; carrots, 4; onions, 2 to 4; turnips, 2; celery, 1 head; cloves, 8; peppercorns, 1/2 teaspoonful; faggot of savoury herbs; 3 to 3-1/2 hours. For a richer soup, 5 to 6 hours.

=Soup, Ordinary Pea.= Wash well a quart of good split peas, and float off such as remain on the surface of the water; soak them for one night, and boil them with a bit of soda the size of a filbert, in just sufficient water to allow them to break to a mash. Put them into from 3 to 4 quarts of good beef broth, and stew them in it gently for an hour; then work the whole through a sieve, heat afresh as much as may be required for table, season it with salt, or cayenne, or common pepper, clear it perfectly from scum, and send it to table with fried or toasted bread. Celery sliced and stewed in it will be found a great improvement.

INGREDIENTS.——Peas, 1 quart; soaked one night, boiled in 2 quarts or rather more of water, 2 to 2-1/2 hours. Beef broth, 3 to 4 quarts; 1 hour. Salt and cayenne or pepper, as needed; 3 minutes.

=Soup, Portable.= Syn. GLAZE. From skin of beef, or other like part; the soup being gently simmered until reduced to the consistence of a thin syrup, and then poured into small upright jelly-pots, with covers, or, upon flat dishes, to lie about 1/4 inch deep. The latter, when set, is divided into pieces, which are dried. Used to make extemporaneous soup and glazes. A similar article, prepared on the large scale, now generally forms part of every ship’s stores.

=Soup, Potato.= Mash to a smooth paste, 3 lbs. of good mealy potatoes, which have been steamed, or boiled very dry; mix with them, by degrees, 2 quarts of boiling broth, pass the soup through a strainer, set it again on the fire, add pepper and salt, and let it boil for five minutes. Take off entirely the black scum that will rise upon it, and serve it very hot, with fried or toasted bread. Where the flavour is approved, 2 oz. of onions minced and fried a light brown, may be added to the soup, and stewed in it for 10 minutes before it is sent to the table.

INGREDIENTS.——Potatoes, 3 lbs.; broth, 2 quarts; 5 minutes. (With onions, 2 oz.) 10 minutes.

=Soup, Spanish Onion.= Peel two large Spanish onions and cut them into rings; fry them with a little dripping in a stewpan. When the onions have browned, add 2-1/2 pints of boiling water, and let them boil for two hours and a half; add pepper and salt to flavour, and a little vinegar. Thicken with oatmeal or bread crumbs (oatmeal is the more nourishing); let the mixture boil for another half hour, and serve. A good cheap wholesome soup.

=Soup, Turnip, Cheap.= Wash and wipe the turnips, pare and weigh them; allow 1-1/2 lb. for every quart of soup, cut them in slices about 1/4 inch thick. Melt 4 oz. of butter in a clean stewpan, and put in the turnips before it begins to boil; stew them gently 3/4 hour, taking care that they shall not brown, then have the proper quantity of soup ready boiling, pour it on them and let them simmer in it for 3/4 hour. Pulp the whole through a coarse sieve or soup strainer, put it again on the fire, keep it stirred until it has boiled three or four minutes, take off the scum, add salt or pepper if required, and serve it very hot.

INGREDIENTS.——Turnips, 3 lbs.; butter, 4 oz.; 3/4 hour. Soup, 2 quarts; 3/4 hour. Last time, 3 minutes.

=Soup, Vermicelli.= Drop very lightly and by degrees 6 oz. of vermicelli, broken rather small, into 3 quarts of boiling bouillon, or clear gravy soup; let it simmer for half an hour over a gentle fire, and stir it often.

INGREDIENTS.——Bouillon or gravy soup, 3 quarts, vermicelli, 6 oz.; 30 minutes. Or soup, 3 quarts; vermicelli, 4 oz.; blanched in boiling water, 5 minutes; stewed in soup 10 to 15 minutes.

=SOUR′ING.= See MALT LIQUORS and WINES.

=SOY.= Genuine soy is a species of thick black sauce, imported from China. Prep. Take of the seeds of Soja hispida (white haricots or kidney beans may be used for them), 1 gall.; boil them in water, q. s., until soft, add of bruised wheat, 1 gall., and keep the mixture in a warm place for 24 hours; then add of common salt, 1 gall.; water, 2 gall.; put the whole into a stone jar, and bung it up loosely for two or three months, shaking it very frequently during the whole time; lastly press out the liquor and bottle it; the residuum may be treated afresh with water and salt, for soy of an inferior quality.

Obs. The soy of the shops is, in nine cases out of ten, a spurious article made in this country, by simply saturating molasses or treacle with common salt. A better and a really wholesome imitation is made as follows:——Malt syrup, 1 gall. (or, 13-1/2 lbs.); treacle, 5 lbs.; salt, 4-1/4 lbs.; mushroom juice, 1 quart; mix, with a gentle heat, and stir until the union is complete; in a fortnight decant the clear portion.

=SPAN′ISH FLIES.= See CANTHARIDES.

=SPAR′ADRAP.= Syn. SPARADRAPUM, L. Originally a cerecloth; now applied to spread plasters; as SPARADRAPUM COMMUNE, common strapping or adhesive plaster; S. VESICATORIUM, blistering plaster or tissue, &c.

The following are in occasional demand by the pharmacist:——

=Sparadrap, Opium.= Syn. SPARADRAPUM OPII (M. Schœufelle.) Prep. On a piece of black sarcenet of a close and strong texture, properly stretched; spread with a brush, 3 layers of extract of opium, softened with water, to the consistence of treacle, and mixed with a sixth part of powdered gum. Keep the plaster dry.

=Sparadrap, Thapsian.= Syn. SPARADRAPUM THAPSIÆ. (P. Cod.) Prep. Yellow wax, 4-1/4 oz.; resin, 1-1/2 oz.; Burgundy pitch, 1-1/2 oz.; boiled turpentine, 1-1/2 oz.; Swiss turpentine, 1/2 oz.; glycerin, 1/2 oz.; honey, 1/2 oz.; resin of thapsia, 3/4 oz. Melt the first five substances together and strain through linen. Keep them liquefied and add the glycerin, the honey, and the resin. When well mixed, and of a proper consistence, spread on strips of linen cloth.

=Sparadrap, Wax.= SPARADRAPUM CUM CERA, TOILE DE MAI. (P. Cod.) Prep. White wax, 8 oz.; (by wt.), oil of almonds, 4 oz.; (by wt.), Swiss turpentine, 1 oz. Melt together and dip into it strips of linen cloth, which are to be passed between wooden rollers, to remove the superfluous plaster. Spread on paper it forms waxed paper.

=SPARTE′INE.= Syn. SPARTEINA, L. A volatile oily liquid, possessing basic properties, obtained from Spartium scoparium, or broom. It is highly poisonous, and resembles conine and nicotine in its general properties.

=SPASMS.= Syn. CRAMP; SPASMUS, L. An involuntary contraction of the muscles, generally of the extremities, accompanied with pain more or less severe. Spasms are distinguished into clonic spasms or convulsions, in which the contractions and relaxations are alternate, as in epilepsy; and into tonic spasms, in which there is continued rigidity, as in locked-jaw. That form which commonly attacks the muscles of the legs and feet, especially after great exertion or exposure to cold, is commonly called cramp. The best treatment for this is immediately to stand upright, and to well rub the part with the hand. The application of strong stimulants, as spirits of ammonia, or of anodynes, as opiate liniments, has been recommended. When spasm or cramp occurs in the stomach, a teaspoonful of sal volatile in water, or a teaspoonful of good brandy, may be swallowed immediately. When cramp comes or during cold bathing, the limb should be thrown out as suddenly and violently as possible, which will generally remove it, care being also taken not to become flurried or frightened, as presence of mind is very essential to personal safety on such an occasion. A common cause of spasm is indigestion, and the use of acescent liquors; these should, therefore, be avoided, and bitters and absorbents had recourse to. See ANTISPASMODICS, and the names of the principal spasmodic diseases.

=SPEAR′MINT.= See MINT.

=SPE′CIES.= (In pharmacy.) Mixtures of dried plants, or parts of plants, in a divided state, which, for convenience, are kept mixed for use. The dry ingredients of pills, conserves, electuaries, mixtures, &c., that do not keep well when made up, or which are in little demand, may be economically and conveniently preserved in this state. The word, thus applied, is obsolete out of the pharmaceutical laboratory.

=Species, Anthelmin′tic.= Syn. SPECIES ANTHELMINTICÆ, L. The dried flowering tops of tansy and wormwood, and the flowers of chamomile, equal parts; mix, and keep them in a close vessel. (P. Cod.)

=Species, Aperitive.= See SPECIES, DIURETIC (below).

=Species, Aromat′ic.= Syn. AROMATIC POWDER; SPECIES AROMATICÆ, L. Prep. (Ph. Bor.) Leaves of balm and curled-leaf mint (Mentha crispa), of each 4 oz.; lavender flowers, 2 oz.; cloves, 1 oz.; dry them by a gentle heat, and then powder them.

=Species, Astrin′gent.= Syn. SPECIES ASTRINGENTES, L. The roots of bistort and tormentil, and bark of pomegranate, equal parts. (P. Cod.)

=Species, Bechicæ.= (P. Cod.) 1. Leaves of Canadian maidenhair, ground ivy, hartstongue, speedwell, hyssop tops and poppy capsules, (freed from seed), of each equal parts. Cut and mix. 2. Dried flowers of mallow, catsfoot, coltsfoot and petals of red poppy, of each 1 oz. Mix. The Fructûs Bechici are:——Dates (stored) 1 oz.; jujubes, 1 oz.; figs, 1 oz.; raisins, 1 oz.

=Species, Bitter.= Syn. THREE BITTER HERBS; SPECIES AMARÆ, HERBÆ AMARÆ, L. The leaves of germander, and dried tops of lesser centaury and wormwood, equal parts. (P. Cod.)

=Species, Carminative.= Syn. SPECIES CARMINATIVE. (P. Cod.) Prep. Equal parts of aniseeds, caraway seeds, coriander seeds, and fennel seeds.

=Species, Capil′lary.= Syn. FIVE CAPILLARY HERBS; HERBÆ QUINQUE CAPILLARES, L. Hartstongue, black maiden hair, white do., golden do., and spleenwort, equal parts. (Ph. L. 1720.)

=Species, Cor′dial.= Syn. FOUR CORDIAL FLOWERS; SPECIES CORDIALES, L. The flowers of borage, bugloss, roses, and violets, equal parts. (Ph. L. 1720.)

=Species for Decoction Woods.= Syn. SPECIES AD DECOCTUM LIQUORUM. (G. Ph.) Prep. Rasped guaiacum wood, 4 oz.; cut burdock root, 2 oz.; ononis root, 2 oz.; cut liquorice, 1 oz; cut sassafras, 1 oz. Mix,

=Species, Diuret′ic.= Syn. APERIENT ROOTS, APERITIVE SPECIES; SPECIES DIURETICÆ, L. 1. (FIVE GREATER APERITIVE ROOTS——P. Cod., & Ph. E. 1744.) The dried roots of asparagus, butcher’s broom, parsley, smallage, and sweet fennel, equal parts.

2. (FIVE LESSER APERITIVE ROOTS.) Those of caper, dog-grass, eryngo, madder, and restharrow.

=Species, Emol′lient.= Syn. SPECIES EMOLLIENTES, L. 1. (THREE EMOLLIENT MEALS; FARINÆ EMOLLIENTES.) The meal of barley, linseed, and rye, equal parts. (P. Cod.)

2. (FIVE EMOLLIENT HERBS; HERBÆ QUINQUE EMOLLIENTES.)——a. The dried leaves of groundsel, common mallow, marshmallow, great mullein, and wall pellitory, equal parts. (P. Cod.)

b. The leaves of mallow, marshmallow, French mercury, pellitory of the wall, and violet. (Ph. E. 1744.)

=Species for Ene′mas.= Syn. HERBS FOR CLYSTERS; HERBÆ PRO ENEMATE, L. Mallow leaves, 2 parts; chamomile flowers, 1 part.

=Species of the five Herbs.= Syn. SPECIES DIETÆ; QUINQUE HERBÆ. FIVE CAPILLARY HERBS. (Ph. L. 1720.) Prep. Black and white maidenhair, spleenwort, hartstongue, and golden maidenhair.

=Species for Fomenta′tions.= Syn. SPECIES PRO FOTU, HERBÆ PRO FOTU, L. Leaves of southernwood, tops of sea-wormwood, and flowers of chamomile, of each 2 parts; bay leaves, 1 part.

=Species, Hot.= 1. (FOUR GREATER HOT SEEDS.) The seeds of anise, caraway, cumin, and fennel.

2. (FOUR LESSER HOT SEEDS.) The seeds of bishop’s weed, smallage, stone parsley, and wild carrot.

=Species, Lax′ative.= Syn. ST GERMAIN LAXATIVE POWDER; SPECIES LAXANTES ST GERMAIN, L. Prep. (Ph. Bor.) Senna leaves (exhausted with spirit), 4 oz.; elder flowers, 2-1/2 oz.; aniseed and fennel seed, of each 1-1/4 oz.; reduce them to coarse powder, and, when dispensing, add of powdered cream of tartar, 1 dr., to each 1-1/2 oz. of the mixture.

=Species, Narcotic.= Syn. FOUR NARCOTIC HERBS; SPECIES NARCOTICÆ, L. Dried leaves of belladonna, black nightshade, henbane, and thorn-apple, equal parts.

=Species, Purging.= Syn. SPECIES PURGANTES. THÉ DE SANTÉ. THÉ DE ST GERMAIN. (P. Cod.) Senna, 12 dr.; elder flowers, 5 dr.; fennel seeds, 3 dr.; aniseed, 5 dr.; cream of tartar, 3 dr. Eighty grains in a cup of boiling water for a dose, said to be very serviceable and largely used in France for habitual constipation.

=Species, Pec′toral.= Syn. SPECIES BECHICÆ, SPECIES AD INFUSUM PECTORALES, L, 1. Mallow root, 4 oz.; coltsfoot leaves, 2 oz.; liquorice root, 1-1/2 oz.; aniseed, great mullein flowers and red-poppy flowers, of each 1 oz.; orris root, 1/2 oz. (Ph. Bor.)

=Species, Refri′′gerant.=——1. (FOUR COLD SEEDS.) The seeds of cucumber, gourd, melon, and water-melon.

2. (FOUR LESSER COLD SEEDS.) The seeds of endive, lettuce, purslane, and succory.

=Species, Resol′vent.= Syn. FARINÆ RESOLVENTES, L. The meal of the seeds of barley, bean, tare, and white lupin.

=Species, Vulnerary.= Syn. SPECIES VULNERARIÆ. THÉ SIUSSE. Prep. Leaves and tops of wormwood, betony, bugle, calamint, germander, hyssop, ground ivy, millefoil, origanum, periwinkle, rosemary, self-heat, sage, hartstongue, water-germander, thyme, speedwell, flower of Armea, flower of catsfoot, flower of coltsfoot, of each equal parts. Cut and mixed.

=SPECIF′IC GRAVITY= is the comparative weights of equal bulks of different substances, the assumed standard being 1 and sometimes 1000. This standard is pure distilled water for liquids and solids, and atmospheric air for gaseous bodies and vapours.[178] In England the sp. gr., unless when otherwise expressed, is always taken at 60° Fahr.; but in France it is taken at 32° Fahr. (0° C), or the temperature of melting ice. In the ‘British Pharmacopœia,’ whenever specific gravity is mentioned, the substance spoken of is supposed to be of the temperature of 60° Fahr. In most cases, however, it is sufficient merely to note the temperature, and to apply a correction, depending on the known density of water, or air, at the different degrees of the thermometric scale.

[Footnote 178: By many modern chemists hydrogen, the lightest substance in nature, is taken as the standard for the specific gravity of gases and vapours.]

To determine the specific gravity as a solid, we weigh it, first in the air, and then in water. In the latter case it loses, of its weight, a quantity precisely equal to the weight of its own bulk of water; and hence, by comparing this weight with its total weight, we find its specific gravity. The rule is——Divide the total weight by the loss of weight in water; the quotient is the specific gravity.

The specific gravity of a substance lighter than water may be determined by attaching it to some substance, as a piece of lead, the sp. gr., &c., of which is known. In this way, by deducting the loss in weight of the two substances, when weighed in water, from the loss sustained by the lead alone, when so weighed, we obtain a difference (a) which, added to the weight of the substance taken in air (b), gives the respective densities. From these the sp. gr. is found by the rule of three:——

(a + b) : 1 :: b : sp. gr.

The specific gravities of substances soluble in water are taken in pure oil of turpentine, rectified spirit, olive oil, or some other liquid, the density of which is exactly known. Sometimes, for rough purposes, the article is covered with a coating of mastic varnish. This last method answers for mercurial pill.

The specific gravity of a substance in fragments, or in powder, may be found by putting a portion (say 100 gr.) into a sp. gr. bottle, filling the latter with distilled water, and then weighing it. The weight of water which it is found to contain, deducted from 1000 (the weight of the bottle when filled with distilled water), gives a difference (a) which bears the same relation to the sp. gr. of water (1·000) as the weight of the powder (b) put into the bottle does to the required sp. gr. Or——

a : 1·000 :: b : sp. gr.

The specific gravity of alloys and mixtures, when no condensation has occurred, is equal to the sum of the weights divided by the sum of the volumes, compared to water reckoned as unity; and is not merely the arithmetical mean between the two numbers denoting the two sp. gr., as is frequently taught. See BEADS (Lovi’s), HYDROMETER, MIXTURES (Arithmetic of), &c. For the mode of determining the specific gravity of gases, the reader is referred to the works on chemistry of Miller and Fownes.

The specific gravity of a liquid is found by weighing it in a sp. gr. bottle, glass flask, or other vessel of known capacity, and dividing that weight by the weight of the same bulk of water; the quotient is, as before, the specific gravity. A bottle of the capacity of 1000 water-grains (specific gravity bottle) gives the density of a liquid at once, by simply filling it to the given mark, and then accurately weighing it.

We reprint from the ‘Journal of the Chemical Society’[179] a new method of determining the specific gravity of liquids, which is said by Dr H. Sprengel, the chemist who devised it, to be both expeditious and accurate. Dr Sprengel says:

[Footnote 179: (2) xi, 577.]

“The form of my instrument, as shown in the accompanying fig. 1, is that of an elongated U-tube, the open ends of which terminate in two capillary tubes, which are bent at right angles in opposite directions. The size and weight of this instrument should be adapted to the size and capability of the balance in which it is to be weighed. As our usual balances indicate 1/10 milligram when loaded with 50 grams, the U-tube, when charged with the liquid, should not be heavier than 1000 gr.=(64·799 grams).

The instrument which served for my determinations, mentioned below, had a length of 17·7 cm. (7 inches), and was made of a glass tube, the outer diameter of which was 11 mm. (7/16 of an inch). It need hardly be mentioned that the U-shape is adopted for the sake of presenting a large surface, and so rendering the instrument sensitive to changes of temperature. The point, however, I wish to notice more particularly (for reasons explained below) is the different calibre of the two capillary tubes. The shorter one is a good deal narrower (at least towards the end) than the longer one, the inner diameter of which is about 1/2 mm. The horizontal part of this wider tube is marked near the bend with a delicate line (b). This line, and the extremity of the opposite capillary tube (a), are the marks which limit the volume of the liquid to be laid.

The filling of the instrument is easily effected by suction, provided that the little bulb apparatus (as represented in fig. 2) has previously been attached to the narrow capillary tube by means of a perforated stopper, i. e. a bit of an india-rubber tube tightly fitting the conical tubules of the bulb. On dipping the wider and longer capillary tube into a liquid, suction applied to the open end of the india-rubber tube will produce a partial vacuum in the apparatus, causing the liquid to enter the U-tube. As the partial vacuum maintains itself for some time (on account of the bulb, which acts as an air-chamber), it is not necessary to continue the suction if the end of the india-rubber tube be timely closed by compression between the fingers. When bulb and U-tube have about equal capacity, it is hardly necessary during the filling to repeat the exhaustion more than once.

Without such a bulb the filling of the U-tube through these fine capillary tubes is found somewhat tiresome; the emptying the U-tube is effected by reversing the action, and so compressing the air. After the U-tube has been filled, it is detached from the bulb, placed in water of the standard temperature almost up to the bends of the capillary tubes, left there until it has assumed this temperature, and after a careful adjustment of the volume, is taken out, dried, and weighed.

Particular care must be taken to ensure the correctness of the standard temperature, for a mistake of 0·1° causes the weight of 10 c.c. of water to be estimated either too high or too low by 0·14 milligram, giving rise to an error in the fifth decimal, or making 100,000 parts 100001·4 parts. These determinations have been made in Dupré’s apparatus, which, when furnished with a sensitive thermometer, allows the fluctuations of temperature to be fixed within the limits of 0·01°. If many determinations had to be made, I should avail myself of Scheibler’s (‘Zeitschrift für Analytische Chemie,’ vol. vii, p. 88, 1868) electro-magnetic regulator for maintaining a constant temperature.

A peculiar feature of my instrument is the ease and precision with which the measurement of the liquid can be adjusted at the moment it has taken the standard temperature; for it will be found that the liquid expands and contracts only in the wider capillary tube, viz. in the direction of the least resistance. The narrow capillary tube remains always completely filled. Supposing the liquid reaches beyond the mark b, it may be reduced through capillary force by touching the point a with a little roll of filtering paper. Supposing, however, that in so doing too much liquid is abstracted, capillary force will redress the fault if point a be touched with a drop of the liquid under examination; for this gentle force acts instantly through the whole mass of the liquid, causing it to move forward again to or beyond the mark.

As the instrument itself possesses the properties of a delicate thermometer, the time when it has reached the standard temperature of the bath may be learned from the stability of the thread of liquid inside the wider tube. The length of this thread remains constant after the lapse of about five minutes.

In wiping the instrument (after its removal from the bath) care should be taken not to touch point a, as capillarity might extract some of the liquid; otherwise the handling of the liquid requires no especial precaution.

The capillary tubes need not be closed for the purpose of arresting evaporation, at least that of water. I have learned from the mean of several determinations that the error arising from this source amounts in one hour to 1/20 of a milligram.

In cases where the temperature of the balance-room is high, and the expansion coefficient of the liquid to be examined is considerable, it may be found necessary to put a small cap (bead-shaped and open at both ends) over the extremity of the wider capillary tube, for the purpose of retaining the liquid, which during the time of weighing might otherwise be lost, owing to its expansion. When a cap is used the wider capillary tube need not be longer than the narrow one.[180]

[Footnote 180: This instrument is manufactured by E. Cetti & Co., 11, Brooke Street, Holborn, London.]

The ‘Compte Rendus’[181] describes a new specific gravity apparatus, the invention of M. Pisani. The apparatus in question consists of a glass vessel about 5 c.c. capacity, closed with a perforated stopper like an ordinary specific gravity bottle. To the side of the vessel is joined a tube, coming off at an angle of about 45°, about 25 cm. long, and 4 mm. internal diameter, and graduated at 50ths of a c.c. The vessel is filled with water, the level of which is read off in the tube held vertically, the finger being held over the hole in the stopper; 2 or 3 grams of a mineral are then placed in the flask, the stopper is replaced, care being taken to lose no water, and the level is again read off in the graduated tube, held vertically as before. The difference in the two readings gives the volume of the mineral taken.

[Footnote 181: lxxxvi, 350-352 (‘Journ. Chem. Soc.’)]

=SPEC′TACLES.= See EYE, VISION, &c.

=SPEC′TROSCOPE.= An instrument devised for examining the spectra of flames. (See below.)

=SPEC′TRUM ANAL′YSIS.= See ANALYSIS, SPECTRUM.

=SPEC′ULUM MET′AL.= Prep. 1. Take of copper, 64 parts; pure tin, 69 parts; melt them separately under a little black flux; next incorporate them thoroughly by stirring with a wooden spatula, and run the metal into the moulds, so that the face of the intended mirror may be downwards; lastly, allow the whole to cool very slowly.

2. Pure copper, 2 parts; pure tin, 1 part. Used to make the mirrors of reflecting telescopes. The addition of a little metallic arsenic renders it whiter.

=SPEL′TER.= See ZINC.

=SPERMACE′TI.= Syn. CETACEUM (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. A concretion prepared from the oily matter of the head of the Physeter macrocephalus, or spermaceti whale. It is demulcent and emollient; chiefly used in ointments and cerates.

=SPHEROID′AL STATE.= It is found that water, or any other volatile liquid, thrown on a metallic plate heated to dull redness, is not resolved into vapour, but, assuming a somewhat globular form, remains intact, until the temperature becomes sufficiently lowered to allow of contact between the liquid and the heated surface. It is then immediately volatilised. M. Boutigny, who fully investigated this subject, has also shown that the same thing happens when a solid body containing water is substituted for the liquid in the above and similar experiments. Thus, the finger or hand, under certain restrictions, may be thrust, with perfect impunity, into a stream of molten metal, and ice may be produced by throwing water into a red-hot crucible. This last experiment, as performed by MM. Boutigny and Prevostaye, is essentially as follows:——A thick platinum crucible, of the capacity of 1 fl. oz., is heated to redness over a powerful spirit lamp, and some liquid anhydrous sulphurous acid (a very volatile substance) poured into it by means of a pipette; the acid assumes a spheroidal form, and does not evaporate; a few drops of water are now introduced into the sulphurous acid in the same way; the diluted and slightly cooled acid instantly flashes off in vapour, and, robbing the water of its caloric, leaves the latter in a frozen state; and, if the operator seizes the right moment, a solid lump of ice may be thrown out of the red-hot crucible.

By substituting for anhydrous sulphurous acid a mixture of solid carbonic anhydride and ether, and for water a few grains of quicksilver, this latter may be reduced to the solid condition, and may be turned out of the red-hot crucible in the form of a small frozen mass.

The spheroidal condition of “liquids is a complicated result of at least four distinct causes. Of these the most influential is the repulsive force which heat exerts between objects which are closely approximated towards each other. When the temperature reaches a certain point actual repulsion between the particles ensues.

“Besides this repulsive action occasioned by heat, the other causes which may be mentioned as tending to produce the assumption of the spheroidal condition by the liquid are these:——

“1. The temperature of the plate is so high that it immediately converts any liquid that touches it into vapour, upon which the spheroid rests as on a cushion.

“2. This vapour is a bad conductor of heat, and prevents the rapid conduction of heat from the metal to the globule.

“3. The evaporation from the entire surface of the liquid carries off the heat as it arrives, and assists in keeping the temperature below the points of ebullition. The drop assumes the spheroidal form as a necessary consequence of the action of cohesion among the particles of the liquid, and the simultaneous action of gravity on the mass.”[182]

Boutigny found that, when a liquid in a state of ebullition was brought into contact with a surface heated to such a degree as to cause the liquid to assume the spheroidal state, its temperature immediately fell 3° or 4° C. below the boiling point.

All liquids are capable of assuming the spheroidal condition; but, as the temperature necessary for this purpose, varies with the boiling point of each liquid (the lower the boiling point the lower the temperature necessary, and vice versâ), it follows that the conducting surface requires to be differently heated for each liquid. The exact temperature to which the plate should be heated to produce the spheroidal condition in any liquid, depends partly upon the conducting power of the plate, and partly upon the latent heat of the vapour; the less this is, the more nearly the temperature of the plate approximates to the boiling point of the liquid.

Boutigny believed that the temperature of each liquid, when in the spheroid condition, was as invariable as that of its boiling point; but Boutan has demonstrated that this is a not quite accurate statement, since the temperature of the same liquids, when assuming the spheroidal form, is liable to slight divergence.

The following table, showing the lowest temperature of the plate and the temperature of the spheroid for certain liquids, is given by Boutigny:——

+-----------------------+-----------------------+--------------------------+ | | Temperature of Plate. | Temperature of Spheroid. | | +-----------+-----------+-------------+------------+ | Liquid employed. | °F. | °C. | °F. | °C. | +-----------------------+-----------+-----------+-------------+------------+ | Water | 340 | 171 | 205·7 | 96·4 | | Alcohol | 273 | 134 | 167·9 | 75·5 | | Ether | 142 | 61 | 93·6 | 34·2 | | Sulphurous anhydride | ... | ... | 13·1 | 10·5 | +-----------------------+-----------+-----------+-------------+------------+

Solids may also be made to assume the spheroidal condition, as when, for instance, some crystals of iodine are thrown upon a red-hot platinum disc, or into a platinum crucible similarly heated.

[Footnote 182: Miller.]

The nature of the plate or crucible employed appears to be immaterial, provided it is a good conductor. Platinum, silver, copper, and iron answer equally well; indeed, Tomlinson has shown that one liquid may even be made to assume the spheroidal state, on the surface of another, as when water, alcohol, and ether are placed upon hot oil. If the experiment be conducted with water it must be carefully managed, since, if the water be allowed to sink in the oil, it soon becomes converted into steam, with the result of scattering about the hot oil to the danger of the operator.

Boutigny has advanced the opinion that the property of water to assume the spheroidal state under the conditions we have specified will account for certain cases of explosion in steam-boilers. Thus we can imagine a boiler, which has run dry of water, to have become intensely overheated. Under these circumstances, when fresh water was admitted it would at first assume the spheroidal state; and as more cold water flowed into it, the boiler would become thereby reduced in temperature until it reached the point at which its conversion into steam would take place; the sudden generation, large volume, and elastic force of which would lead to the rupture of the boiler, accompanied with explosive violence.

=SPICE.= A general name for vegetable substances possessing aromatic and pungent properties, and employed for seasoning or flavouring food.

=Spice, Horse.= Syn. COW SPICE; SPECIES EQUINUS, L. Prep. 1. Aniseed, allspice, cumin seed, ginger, liquorice, and turmeric, equal parts.

2. Turmeric and cumin seed, of each 5 lbs.; ginger, 2-1/2 lbs. Used by farriers.

=Spice, Kit′chen.= Syn. MIXED SPICE, KITCHEN PEPPER, &c. Prep. From black pepper, 2 lbs.; ginger, 1 lb.; cinnamon, allspice, and nutmegs, of each 8 oz.; cloves, 1 oz.; dry salt, 6 lbs.; well ground together. Useful to flavour gravies, soup, &c.

=Spice, Mixed.= As the last, omitting half the salt.

=Spice, Pease.= See POWDER.

=Spice, Ragout.= Prep. From dry salt, 1 lb.; flour of mustard, black pepper, and grated lemon peel, of each 1/2 lb.; cayenne pepper, 2 oz.; allspice, and ginger, of each 1 oz.; nutmeg, 1/2 oz.; all separately powdered.

=Spice, Sausage (French).= Syn. EPICE FINES, Fr. Prep. From black pepper, 5 lbs.; ginger, 2-1/2 lbs.; cloves and nutmegs, of each 1 lb.; aniseed and coriander seeds, of each 1/2 lb.; powder and mix them.

=Spice, Sa′′voury.= Prep. 1. (Kidder’s.) From cloves, mace, nutmegs, pepper, and salt, equal parts. Used by cooks.

2. (Dr Kitchener’s.) See SPICE, RAGOUT (above).

=Spice, Soup.= Syn. KITCHENER’S SOUP-HERB POWDER, KITCHENER’S VEGETABLE RELISH, &c. Prep. From parsley, lemon thyme, sweet marjoram, and winter savoury, of each, dried, 2 oz.; sweet bazil and yellow peel of lemon, of each, dried, 1 oz.; mix, and powder.

=Spice, Sweet (Kidder’s).= Prep. From cinnamon, cloves, mace, nutmegs, and sugar, equal parts. Used in pastry.

=SPIGE′LIA.= Syn. CAROLINA PINK ROOT; SPIGELIA (Ph. E.), L. The root of Spigelia Marilandica, or worm grass. It is purgative, narcotic, and vermifuge.——Dose, 10 to 40 gr., in powder or infusion, night and morning, until the worms are expelled. Rhubarb or calomel is commonly added to it.

=SPIRIT.= Syn. SPIRITUS, L. Under this term are included all the inflammable and intoxicating liquors obtained by distillation, and used as beverages, as BRANDY, GIN, RUM, &c., each of which is noticed in its alphabetical order. Spirit may also be obtained by fermentation and distillation from all vegetable juices or solutions that contain sugar.

The spirit used in pharmacy and chemistry is distinguished by names which have reference to its richness in alcohol. (See TABLES.)

Spirituous liquors, like all other fluids at common temperatures, expand when they are heated, and diminish in volume when they are cooled. It is found that 1000 galls. of proof spirit, measured at the temperature of 50° Fahr., will, if re-measured at 59°, be found to have increased in bulk to full 1004-1/4 galls.; whilst 1000 galls. of the same spirit, measured at 77° Fahr., will be only equal to 991-1/4 galls. at 59°. These changes are still more marked at higher strengths, and at extreme temperatures, and, from not being recognisable by the hydrometer, often lead to serious losses in trade, and to serious fluctuations in ‘stock,’ which, to those unaware of the action of temperature, are perfectly unaccountable. A gallon of proof spirit only weighs 9-1/5 lbs. at 60° Fahr. At a higher temperature it will weigh less——at a lower one more; but as this weight constitutes the standard gallon at the temperature the proof is calculated for, it is manifest that any variations from it must result in loss either to the buyer or seller. Hence the equity of buying and selling liquors by weight instead of by measure. The stock-keeper in every wholesale house should be aware of this fact, and on ‘taking stock’ should as regularly enter the temperature of his liquors in his stock-book as he does the ‘dip’ or ‘wet inches.’ See ALCOHOL, ALCOHOLOMETRY, SPECIFIC GRAVITY, SPIRITS (Medicinal), SPIRITS (Perfumed), &c.

=Spirit of Acetic Ether.= Syn. SPIRITUS ÆTHERIS ACETICI. (Prus. Ph.) Prep. Acetic ether, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 3 oz.

=Spirit, Alexiterius.= Syn. SPIRITUS ALEXITERIUS, AQUA ALEXITERIA SPIRITUOSA. (Ph. L. 1746). Prep. Mint, 1/2 lb.; Angelica root, 4 oz.; tops of sea wormwood, 4 oz.; proof spirit, 1 gall. (old wine measure); water, a sufficient quantity. Distil 1 gall.

=Spirit, Amy′lic.= See FUSEL OIL.

=Spirit of Angelica.= Syn. SPIRITUS ANGELICÆ. Prep. Sliced angelica root, 2 oz.; sliced valerian, 1/2 oz.; bruised juniper berries, 1/2 oz. Put into a retort, and pour on 9 oz. of rectified spirit by weight, and 15-1/2 oz. of water, and macerate for 24 hours; then draw out 12-1/2 oz. (by weight), in which dissolve 1/4 oz. of camphor.

=Spirit of Ants.= SPIRITUS FORMICARUM. (Ph. G.) Prep. Ants freshly collected, and bruised, 2 lbs.; spirit of wine (at ·830), 3 lbs.; water, 3 lbs. Macerate for 2 days. Distil 4 lbs.——Dose, 20 to 60 drops, also used outwardly.

I. TABLE of the Pharmacopœial Spirits.

Sp. gr. Alcohol, Ph. B. (absolute) 0·795 { nearly ” Ph. E. 0·796 { pure { Alcohol. ” Ph. D. 1826 0·810 or 70% o. p. ” Ph. L. 1836 0·815 ” 68% ” Stronger Spirit (Spiritus Fortior), } 0·818 ” 66% ” Ph. D. } [183]Rectified Spirit (Spirit of Wine);} 0·838 ” 56% ” (Spiritus Rectificatus), B. P. } Rectified Spirit Ph. D. 0·840 or 54-3/4% o. p. Proof Spirit (Spiritus Tenuior), } 0·920 ” —— Ph. B. } Alcohol (absolu), P. Cod. 0·797 ” —— ” (at 40°) ” 0·810 ” 70% ” ” (du commerce), P. Cod. 0·863 ” 41% ” ” (faible) ” 0·923 ” 2-1/2% u. p.

[Footnote 183: “This spirit can be reduced to the standard of the weaker (or proof) spirit, by adding, to every 5 pints of it, 3 pints of distilled water, at 62° Fahr.” (Ph. L.)]

II. TABLE of the Principal Spirituous Liquors sold in England, with their usual Strengths, &c.

KEY:

Headings:

A. Denomination. B. Revenue Mark. C. Import Strength. D. Legal Limits of Strength. E. Usual Selling Strength. F. By Permit. G. Contains Alcohol of 0·825. H. Contains absolute Alcohol. I. Specific gravity at 60% Fahr.

A. Denominations:

1. Gin (strongest)[184] 2. Do. (best ordinary)[184] 3. Do. (cordial)[185] 4. Do.[185] 5. Peppermint[186] 6. Do.[186] 7. Cloves[186] 8. Bitters[186] 9. Raspberry[186] 10. Noyau[186] 11. Cinnamon[186] 12. Tent[186] 13. Aniseed[186] 14. Caraway[186] 15. Loveage[186] 16. Usquebaugh[186] 17. Orange Cordial[186] 18. Citron[186] 19. Rum 20. Rum Shrub[186] 21. Do.[186] 22. French Brandy 23. Spirit of Wine[187] 24. Malt, grain, or molasses spirit (sent out by British distillers) 25. Hollands 26. Whiskey (Irish) 27. Do. (Scotch)

[Footnote 184: Frequently retailed at 25 to 35 u. p.]

[Footnote 185: Though ‘permitted’ at 22 to 24, are generally from 25 to 35 u. p., or even weaker.]

[Footnote 186: These, though ‘permitted’ at 60 or 64 u. p., are generally 75 or 80 u. p.]

[Footnote 187: Usual strength 54 to 60 o. p.]

+------+----------+-----------+-------------+----------------------------------+ | | | | | E. | | | | | +--------+------+-----+------------+ | A. | B. | C. | D. | F. | G. | H. | I. | +------+----------+-----------+-------------+--------+------+-----+------------+ | | | | | | | | | | 1. |X(17 u.p.)| ..... |Not stronger |17 u.p. |..... | 40% | 0·9395 | | | | |than 25 o.p. | | | | | | 2. |X(22 u.p.)| ..... | do. |22 u. p.|..... |37·4%| 0·9445 | | 3. |X(22 u.p.)| ..... | do. |22 u. p.|..... | do. |[188]0· | | 4. |X(24 u.p.)| ..... | do. |24 u. p.|..... |36·5%|[188]0· | | 5. |X mint. | ..... | do. |60 u. p.|..... | 21% |[188]0· | | 6. | do. | ..... | do. |64 u. p.|..... | 18% |[188]0· | | 7. }| | | | | | | | | 8. }| | | | | | | | | 9. }| | | | | | | | | 10. }| | | | | | | | | 11. }| | | | | | | | | 12. }|X(64 u.p.)| ..... | do. |64 u. p.|..... | do. |[188]1·065 | | 13. }| | | | | | | to | | 14. }| | | | | | | 1·080 | | 15. }| | | | | | | | | 16. }| | | | | | | | | 17. }| | | | | | | | | 18. }| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 19. | R. | About | No limit. |11 u. p.|..... | 43% | 0·9329 | | | |10 o.p. to | | | | | to | | | | 43 o.p. | | | | | 0·8597 | | 20. | R. Sh. | ..... | do. |64 u. p.|..... | 18% |[188]0· | | 21. | do. | ..... | do. |60 u. p.|..... | 21% |[188]0· | | | | | | | | | | | 22. | F. | About | do. |10 u. p.|..... | 44% | 0·9318 | | | |5 o.p. to 8| | | | | | | | |or 10 u.p. | | | | | | | 23. | S. W. | ...... |Not less than|54 to 64|..... |.....| 0·8415 | | | | | 43 o.p. | o.p. | | | to | | | | | | | | | 0·8221 | | 24. | P. S. | ...... |Not stronger | ..... |..... |.....| 0·8669 to| | | | |than 25 o.p. | | | | 0·9318 | | | | | | | | | | | 25. | Geneva. | ...... | No limit. | ..... |51·60%|40·5%| 0·9358 | | | | | | | | | | | 26. | P. S. | ...... } |Not stronger |{..... | 54% | 50% | | | 27. | P. S. | ...... } |than 25 o.p. |{..... |54·3% |50·2%| | +------+----------+-----------+-------------+--------+------+-----+------------+

[Footnote 188: The specific gravity is no guide when sugar is present, as in compounds.]

=Spirit, Blue.= Syn. SPIRITUS CŒRULEUS. (Ham. Ph.) Prep. Wormwood, scordium, savin, lavender flowers, of each 2-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 5 pints; distil 2-1/2 pints, and add 6 dr. of verdigris and water of ammonia, 9 oz. For outward use.

=Spirit of Bryony (Compound).= Syn. SPIRITUS BRYONÆ COMPOSITUS. (Ph. E. 1744.) Prep. Bryony, 1/2 lb.; valerian, 2 oz.; pennyroyal, 3 oz.; rue, 3 oz.; mugwort feverfew flowers, savin tops, of each 4 dr.; orange peel, 1 oz.; loveage seeds, 1 oz.; brandy, 1 gall. Distil. Without the bryony this preparation is known as Aqua hysterica.——Dose, 1 oz.

=Spirit of Cajeput.= Syn. SPIRITUS CAJEPUTI. (B. P.) Prep. Dissolve 1 fl. oz. of oil of cajeput in 39 fl. oz. of rectified spirit.

=Spirit of Cardamom.= Syn. SPIRITUS CARDAMOMI. (Ph. L. 1746.) Prep. Cardamom seed, 5 troy oz.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; water a sufficient quantity. Distil 1 gall.

=Spirit of Chloroform.= Syn. SPIRITUS CHLOROFORMI. (B. P.) Prep. Dissolve 1 fl. oz. of chloroform in 19 fl. oz. of rectified spirit. Sp. gr. ·871.

=Spirit of Cloves.= Syn. SPIRITUS CARYOPHYLLI. (P. Cod.) Prep. Cloves, 10 oz.; spirit (·864), 80 oz., by weight; draw over all the spirituous part.

=Spirit of Coriander.= Syn. SPIRITUS CORIANDRI. (P. Cod.) Prep. Coriander seed, 1 oz.; spirit (·0864), by weight, 8 oz. Distil to dryness.

=Spirit, Dyer’s.= See TIN MORDANTS.

=Spirit, Febrifuge, of Clutton.= Syn. SPIRITUS FEBRIFUGUS CLUTTONI. See SPIRIT OF HYDROCHLORIC ETHER. Prep. The original form is——oil of sulphur by the bell, oil of vitriol and sea salt, of each 1 oz.; spirit of wine, 6 oz. Let them digest for a month, then distil to dryness.

=Spirit, Fioravanti.= Syn. SPIRITUS FIORAVANTI. (P. Cod.) Prep. Swiss turpentine, 5 oz.; eleme, 1 oz.; resin of tacamahaca, 1 oz.; amber, 1 oz.; liquid styrax, 1 oz.; galbanum, 1 oz.; myrrh, 1 oz.; aloes, 1/2 oz.; bay berries, 1 oz.; galanga root, 1/2 oz.; ginger, 1/2 oz.; zedoary root, 1/2 oz.; cinnamon, 1/2 oz.; cloves, 1/2 oz.; nutmeg, 1/2 oz.; leaves of cretum marum, 1/2 oz. Macerate 6 days and distil over a water bath till 35 oz. come over.

=Spirit of Flower Sage.= Syn. SPIRITUS SALVIÆ. Prep. Flower sage, 1 lb.; rectified spirit, 3 lbs.; water, 1 lb. Distil 3 lbs.

=Spirit of French Wine.= Syn. SPIRITUS VINI GALLICI, BRANDY.

=Spirit of Lemon Peel.= Syn. SPIRITUS CITRI CORTICIS. With lemon peel as spirit of orange peel.

=Spirit of Marjoram.= Syn. SPIRITUS MARJORAMÆ. Prep. Sweet marjoram, 1 lb.; rectified spirit, 3 lb.; water, 1 lb.; distil 3 lbs.

=Spirit of Mastic (Compound).= Syn. SPIRITUS MASTICHES COMPOSITUS. Prep. Mastic, 1 oz.; myrrh, 1 oz.; olibanum, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint. Distil.

=Spirit, Meth′ylated.= Spirit of wine to which one tenth of its volume of wood naphtha (strength not less than 60° o. p.) has been added, the object of such addition being that of rendering the mixture unpotable through its offensive odour and taste. The purification of this mixed spirit, or the separation of the two alcohols, though often attempted, has always proved a failure. It might be supposed that, owing to the low boiling-point of methylic alcohol, simple distillation would effect this; but experience has shown that both spirits distil over simultaneously. This is, no doubt, due to the difference of their vapour densities. Methylated spirit, being sold duty free, can be employed by the chemical manufacturer as a solvent in many processes for which, from its greater cost, duty-paid spirit would be commercially inapplicable. But in the preparation of medicines, containing spirit, as the vehicle or menstruum by which more active substances are administered, the employment of methylated spirit is highly improper. The Council of the Pharmaceutical Society obtained from the Pharmacopœia Committee of the Medical Council, the decided opinion that “the substitution of ‘methylated’ for ‘rectified’ spirit in any of the processes of the Pharmacopœia should be strictly prohibited.”

The use of methylated spirit in the preparation of tinctures, sweet spirit of nitre, common ether, or any medicine to be used internally, is now prohibited by law.

=Spirit of Orange Peel.= Syn. SPIRITUS AURANTII. (P. Cod.) Prep. The yellow part of fresh orange peel, 1 lb.; spirit of wine (·864), 6 lbs.; macerate for 2 days, and distil by water bath to dryness.

=Spirit of Origanum.= Syn. SPIRITUS ORIGANI. Prep. Wild marjoram, 1 lb.; rectified spirit, 3 lbs.; water, 1 lb. Distil 3 lbs.

=Spirit of Para Cress.= Syn. SPIRITUS SPILANTHI. (Beral.) Prep. Bruised Para cress (Spilanthes oleracea), in flower, 1 part; spirit (·863), 2 parts. Macerate 2 or 3 days, and distil 2 parts.

=Spirit, Proof.= See ALCOHOL.

=Spirit, Pyroace′tic.= Syn. ACETONE; SPIRITUS PYROACETICUS, L.; ACÉTONE, ESPRIT PYROACETIQUE, Fr. An inflammable volatile liquid obtained with carbonic acid and other products when the metallic acetates in an anhydrous state are subjected to destructive distillation. The acetate of lead is the most eligible salt for this purpose.

Prep. 1. Dried acetate of lead is carefully distilled in a large earthen or coated-glass retort, by a heat gradually raised to redness, the volatile products being passed through a condenser well supplied with cold water. The distillation is continued until nothing but finely divided lead (lead pyrophorus) remains in the retort. The receiver contains crude acetone, which is to be saturated with carbonate of potassa, and afterwards rectified in a water bath from chloride of calcium.

2. By passing the vapour of strong acetic acid through an iron tube heated to dull redness, and condensing the acetone thus formed.

Obs. In both of the above processes carbonic acid and other permanent gases are produced, consequently the receiver must not fit too closely to the tube of the condenser.

Prop. Colourless, limpid, of peculiar odour, and very inflammable, giving a brilliant flame, without smoke; boiling point 132° Fahr.; sp. gr. ·792. It dissolves resins and essential oils. See MESITILOL, MESITYL, METACETONE, &c.

=Spirit, Pyroxyl′ic.= Syn. PYROLIGNEOUS SPIRIT, WOOD S., MEDICINAL NAPHTHA, WOOD N., HYDRATED OXIDE OF METHYL; SPIRITUS PYROXYLICUS (Ph. D.), L. A light volatile liquid, discovered by P. Taylor, in 1812, among the limpid products of the distillation of dry wood. It has been shown by Dumas and Peligot to be “really a second alcohol, forming an ether, and a series of compounds (MYTAYL-SERIES) exactly corresponding with those of vinous spirit, and, in some points, even more complete than the latter.”

Prep. Crude pyroligneous acid (which contains about 1% of the spirit) is subjected to distillation, and the first or more volatile portion which passes over is neutralised with hydrate of lime. After repose the clear liquid is separated from the oil which floats on the surface, and from the sediment at the bottom of the vessel; this, when redistilled, forms the wood spirit of commerce. It may be strengthened in the same manner as ordinary alcohol, by rectification, and ultimately rendered pure by careful distillation from quicklime by the heat of a water bath. Berzelius recommends the crude spirit to be agitated with a fatty oil, to remove empyreumatic matter, and then to rectify it, first, from recently burnt charcoal, and next with chloride of calcium.

Prop., &c. Pure pyroxylic spirit is a transparent colourless liquid, having a penetrating ethereal smell, and a hot disagreeable taste; it is very inflammable, burning with a pale blue flame. It is neutral to test paper; mixes with water, alcohol, and ether, in all proportion; and boils at 152° Fahr.; sp. gr. ·798 at 68° Fahr. (Regnault and Liebig.) Dr Ure states the sp. gr. to be ·824 at 60°; the Dublin College makes it ·846. That of the latter must therefore have contained a little water. It does not dissolve india rubber and gutta percha, like mineral or true naphtha.

Pyroxylic spirit is distinguished from acetone or pyroacetic spirit by the character of its flame, and by freely dissolving chloride of calcium, which is quite insoluble in the latter. In a mixture of these two liquids two distinct strata are formed when this substance, either in powder or concentrated solution, is added.

Pyroxylic spirit is distinguished from vinous spirit by Nessler’s test (which see), by its forming a solid crystalline salt (methylic oxalate) when distilled with an oxalate and sulphuric acid, and by its lower boiling point. The presence of alcohol, in a mixture of the two, is readily detected by distilling the suspected sample with sulphuric acid. The formation of common ether indicates ethylic alcohol, and from the amount formed the proportion of alcohol may be determined.

Uses, &c. Chiefly to dissolve resins and volatile oils, especially shell-lac, and as a substitute for alcohol in spirit lamps. As a medicine it is anodyne and sedative; and has been beneficially employed by Drs Christison, Hastings, and Neligan, to allay the harassing cough, troublesome vomiting, and excessive expectoration, in phthisis and some other affections.——Dose, 5 to 30 drops, thrice a day, in water.

=Spirit, Rai′sin.= Prep. From raisins fermented along with water, and the wash distilled by a quick fire. Used to give a brandy flavour to malt spirit. 1 gall. added to 150 gall. of plain spirit, along with some colouring, and a little catechu, either with or without a little acetic ether, makes a very decent “British brandy.”

=Spirit of Raspberries.= Syn. SPIRITUS RUBRI IDÆI. Prep. Raspberries, 3 lbs.; rectified spirit, 2 lbs.; distil 2 lbs.

=Spirit, Rec′tified.= See ALCOHOL, and Table I, under SPIRIT.

=Spirit of Salt†.= Hydrochloric acid.

=Spirit of Sassafras.= Syn. SPIRITUS SASSAFRAS. Prep. Sassafras, troy, 1 lb.; rectified spirit (·863), 8 lbs. Macerate 4 days, and distil nearly to dryness.

=Spirit of Scurvy Grass.= Syn. SPIRITUS COCHLEARIA. (Ph. G.) Prep. Fresh leaves of flowering scurvy grass, 8 lbs.; rectified spirit, 3 lbs.; water, 3 lbs. Distil 4 lbs.

=Spirit of Scurvy Grass (Compound).= Syn. SPIRITUS COCHLEARIÆ COMPOSITUS. (P. Cod.) Prep. Fresh scurvy grass, 5 lbs.; spirit (·0864), 6 lbs.; horseradish, 10-1/2 oz. Distil 5 lbs.

=Spirit of Soot.= Syn. SPIRITUS FULIGINIS. An empyreumatic spirit was formerly distilled from wood soot, in the same manner as hartshorn. An alcoholic spirit is also made from 1 part of wood-soot, 5 of proof spirit, 15 of water. Distil 4 parts.

=Spirit of Soup-herbs.= As essence of soup-herbs, but substituting 1 quart of brandy or proof spirit for the rectified spirit.

=Spirit of Sweet Flag Root.= Syn. SPIRITUS CALAMUS. (P. Cod.) Prep. Calamus, 1 lb., troy, spirit of wine (·863), 8 lbs.; macerate 4 days, and distil nearly to dryness.

=Spirit of Thyme.= Syn. SPIRITUS THYME. From lime, as spirit of sage.

=Spirit of Turpentine, Ethereal.= Syn. SPIRITUS TEREBINTHINÆ ÆTHEREUS. (Van Mons.) Prep. Spirit of nitric ether, with as much rectified oil of turpentine as it will dissolve. Rectified oil of turpentine is also termed “Ethereal Spirit of Turpentine.”

=Spirit of Wine.= See ALCOHOL, and Table I, under SPIRIT.

=Spirit of Wormwood (Compound).= Syn. SPIRITUS ABSINTHII COMPOSITUS VEL AQUA. (Ph. L. 1720.) Prep. Dried wormwood, 1/2 lb.; cardamom seed, 1/2 oz.; coriander seed, 1-1/2 oz.; brandy, 1 gall. Distil.

=Spirit of Vanilla.= See ESSENCE OF VANILLA.

=SPIRITS (Medic′inal).= Syn. SPIRITUS MEDICINALES, L. The spirits of pharmacy are either prepared by macerating the bruised seeds, flowers, herbs, &c., in the spirit, for 2 or 3 days before distillation, and then drawing it off by a gentle heat; or extemporaneously, by adding a proper proportion of essential oil to pure spirit of the prescribed strength.[189] This latter plan is very generally adopted in the Ph. D. In the first method, when a naked fire is employed, a little water is put into the still along with the spirit, to prevent empyreuma. These spirits are principally employed as aromatics and stimulants, or as adjuvants in draughts and mixtures.

[Footnote 189: In the British Pharmacopœia, for most distilled spirits is substituted a solution of 1 part of volatile oil in 49 of rectified spirit.——ED.]

The following are the principal medicinal spirits:——

=Spirit of Ammo′′nia.= Syn. SPIRITUS AMMONIÆ (Ph. E.). Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Take of quicklime, 12 oz.; shake it with water, 6-1/2 fl. oz.; add of finely powdered chloride of ammonium, 3 oz.; and distil in a glass retort furnished with a tube reaching nearly to the bottom of a bottle containing rectified spirit, 2 pints, and kept well cooled. A sand heat is to be employed, and the distillation continued as long as anything passes over. The product has a sp. gr. about ·845, and should not effervesce with acids. The alkali is here in the caustic state, and in this respect it resembles the spirit of ammonia, Ph. U. S., and Dzond’s caustic spirit of ammonia, Ph. Bor.

2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Chloride of ammonium, 10 oz.; carbonate of potassa, 16 oz.; rectified spirit and water, of each 3 pints; mix, and let 3 pints distil.

3. (Ph. D. 1826.) Dissolve 3-1/2 oz. of carbonate of ammonia, in rectified spirit, 3 wine pints.

Obs. The ammonia in the last two preparations exist in the carbonated state. They are chiefly employed to make other preparations.

4. (ANISATED SPIRIT OF AMMONIA; LIQUOR AMMONIÆ ANISANUS, SPIRITUS A. A.——Ph. Bor.) Rectified spirit, 12 oz.; oil of aniseed, 3 dr.; dissolve, and add of caustic solution of ammonia (·960), 3 oz.

5. (AROMATIC SPIRIT OF AMMONIA, SPIRIT OF SAL VOLATILE; SPIRITUS AMMONIÆ AROMATICUS——B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.)——a. (Ph. L.). Take of hydrochlorate of ammonia, 6 oz.; carbonate of potassa, 10 oz.; cinnamon and cloves, of each, bruised, 2-1/2 dr.; fresh lemon peel, 5 oz.; rectified spirit and water, of each 2 quarts; mix, and distil 3 quarts. Sp. gr. ·918.

b. (Ph. E.) Spirit of ammonia, 8 fl. oz.; oil of rosemary, 1-1/2 fl. dr.; oil of lemon peel, 1 fl. dr.; mix.

c. (Ph. D.) Rectified spirit, 3 pints; oil of lemon, 1/2 fl. oz.; oil of nutmeg, 2 fl. dr.; oil of cinnamon, 1/2 fl. dr.; dissolve and add of stronger solution of ammonia, 6 fl. oz. Sp. gr, ·852.

d. (B. P.). Carbonate of ammonia, 8 oz.; strong solution of ammonia, 4 oz.; volatile oil of nutmeg, 4 dr.; oil of lemon, 6 dr.; rectified spirit, 6 pints; water, 3 pints; distil 7 pints.——Dose, 20 to 60 minims in camphor water.

Obs. The ammonia exists in the state of neutral carbonate in the product of the a formula, but in the caustic state in those of the others.——Dose, 1/2 to 1 fl. dr., in water or, any bland liquid; as a diffusible stimulant and antacid, in debility, low spirits, dyspepsia, heartburn, flatulent colic, hysteria, &c. The spirit of sal volatile of the shops is generally a spurious compound of little more than half the above strength.

6. (FETID SPIRIT OF AMMONIA; SPIRITUS AMMONIÆ FŒTIDUS——B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L.——a. (Ph. E.) Hydrochlorate of ammonia, 10 oz.; carbonate of potassa, 16 oz.; assafœtida, 5 oz.; rectified spirit and water, of each 3 pints; mix well, then slowly distil 3 pints. Sp. gr. ·861.

b. (Ph. E.) Spirit of ammonia, 10-1/2 fl. oz.; assafœtida (broken small), 1/2 oz.; digest for 12 hours, then distil 10-1/2 fl. oz., by the heat of a vapour (water) bath.

c. (Ph. D.) Assafœtida, 1-1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1-1/2 pint; digest for 24 hours, then distil off the whole of the spirit, and mix the product with stronger solution of ammonia, 3 fl. oz. Sp. gr. ·849.

d. (B. P.) Strong solution of ammonia, 2; assafœtida, in small pieces, 1-1/2; rectified spirit, sufficient; macerate the assafœtida in 15 of the spirit for 24 hours, distil, add the distillate to the ammonia, and make up with spirit to 20.——Dose, 1/2 to 1 dr.

Obs. The dose, &c., are the same as those of the last, but it is preferred for hysterical and spasmodic affections.

=Spirit, Amyl′ic.= Syn. Alcohol amylicum (Ph. D.), L. See FUSEL OIL.

=Spirit of An′iseed.= Syn. SPIRITUS ANISI (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Oil of aniseed, 3 fl. dr.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; dissolve. Carminative.——Dose, 1/2 fl. dr. to 4 fl. dr.

2. (ESSENTIA ANISI——Ph. D.) Oil of aniseed, 1 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 9 fl. oz.; mix with agitation. Chiefly used to make aniseed water.

3. (COMPOUND SPIRIT OF ANISEED; SPIRITUS ANISI COMPOSITUS——Ph. D. 1826.) Aniseed and angelica seed, of each 1/2 lb.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; water, q. s.; distil 1 gallon. When coloured with saffron, or sap green, it closely resembles the Irish usquebaugh. (Montgomery.)——Dose, 1 to 4 fl. dr.

=Spirit, Arquebusade′.= See VULNERARY SPIRIT (below).

=Spirit of Balm (Compound).= Syn. BALM WATER, CARMELITE W.; AQUA MELISSÆ COMPOSITA, SPIRITUS M. COMPOSITUS, L.; EAU DES CARMES, EAU DE MELISSE DES CARMES, Fr. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) Fresh flowering tops of balm, 24 oz.; fresh lemon peel, 4 oz.; cinnamon, cloves, and nutmegs, of each 2 oz.; coriander seed and dried angelica root, of each 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 8 lbs.; macerate for 8 days and distil in a water bath to dryness. The spirit is much esteemed in France as a stomachic, a cosmetic, and a stimulant.

=Spirit, Bath′ing.= Soap liniment.

=Spirit of Cam′phor.= Syn. CAMPHORATED SPIRIT; SPIRITUS CAMPHORÆ; (B. P., Ph. L.), TINCTURA CAMPHORÆ, SPIRITUS CAMPHORATUS, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Camphor, 5 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; dissolve.

2. (B. P.) Camphor, 1; rectified spirit, 9; dissolve.——Dose, 10 to 30 minims, in milk or on sugar. Used as an application to chilblains, and in chronic rheumatism, cholera, &c. See ESSENCE and TINCTURE.

=Spirit of Car′away.= Syn. SPIRITUS CARUI (Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Oil of caraway, 2 fl. dr.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; dissolve.

2. (Ph. E.) Caraway seeds (bruised), 1/2 lb.; proof spirit, 7 pints; macerate for 2 days in a covered vessel, then add of water, 1-1/2 pint, and distil 7 pints. Aromatic and carminative.——Dose, 1 to 4 fl. dr. A similar spirit, “sweetened with sugar,” is drunk in Germany as a dram (KÜMELLIQUEUR; KÜMELBRANDTWEIN).

3. (ESSENTIA CARUI——Ph. D.) Oil of caraway, 1 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 9 fl. oz. Used to make caraway water.

=Spirit of Cas′sia.= Syn. SPIRITUS CASSIÆ (Ph. E.), L. Prep. From coarsely powdered cassia, 1 lb.; proof spirit, 7 pints; water, 1-1/2 pint, or q. s.; draw off 7 pints.——Dose, &c., as the last. It is almost universally substituted for spirit of cinnamon.

=Spirit of Cin′namon.= Syn. SPIRITUS CINNAMOMI (Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Oil of cinnamon, 2 fl. dr.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; dissolve.

2. (Ph. E.) From cinnamon, as spirit of cassia.——Dose, 1 to 4 fl. dr.

3. (ESSENTIA CINNAMOMI——Ph. D.) Oil of cinnamon, 1 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 9 fl. oz. Used to make cinnamon water, &c.

=Spirit of E′ther.= Syn. SPIRIT OF SULPHURIC ETHER, SWEET SPIRIT OF VITRIOL†; SPIRITUS ÆTHERIS (B. P.), SPIRITUS ÆTHERIS SULPHURICI (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1.——a. (Ph. E.) Sulphuric ether, 1 part; rectified spirit, 2 parts. Sp. gr. ·809. Obs. This preparation should be neutral to test paper, mix (clear) with water, and, when shaken with twice its volume of concentrated solution of chloride of calcium, 28% of ether should separate.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 or 3 fl. dr.; as a stimulant and anodyne.

b. (B. P.) Ether, 1; rectified spirit, 2; mix.——Dose, 30 to 60 minims.

2. COMPOUND SPIRIT OF ETHER, HOFFMANN’S ANODYNE LIQUOR; SPIRITUS ÆTHERIS COMPOSITUS (Ph. L.), S. ÆTHERIS OLEOSUS (Ph. D.), L.——a. (Ph. L.) Ether, 8 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 16 fl. oz.; ethereal oil, 3 fl. dr.; mix.

b. (Ph. D.) Mix in a glass matrass, oil of vitriol, 1-1/2 pint, with rectified spirit, 1 pint; connect this with a Liebig’s condenser, apply heat, and distil until a black froth begins to rise; then separate the upper stratum of the distilled liquid, and, having exposed it to the air for 24 hours, let the oil be transferred to a moist paper filter, and washed with a little cold water; lastly, dissolve it in a mixture of rectified spirit, 1/2 pint; sulphuric ether, 5 fl. oz.

Obs. This compound is anodyne and antispasmodic, and was once held in very great repute.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 fl. dr.

3. AROMATIC SPIRIT OF ETHER, A. S. OF SULPHURIC E., SWEET ELIXIR OF VITRIOL†; SPIRITUS ÆTHERIS AROMATICUS, L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1824.) Bruised cinnamon, 3 dr.; cardamoms, 1-1/2 dr.; long pepper and ginger, of each 1 dr.; rectified spirit, 10 fl. oz.; sulphuric ether, 5 fl. oz.; mix, and digest 14 days. The last two preparations are also frequently called ‘sweet elixir of vitriol.’

=Spirit of Harts′horn.= Syn. LIQUOR OF SPIRITUS VOLATILIS CORNU CERVI, L. Originally distilled from hartshorn. Dilute liquor ammonia is now generally sold for spirit of hartshorn.

=Spirit of Horserad′ish (Compound).= Syn. SPIRITUS ARMORACIÆ COMPOSITUS (B. P., Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Sliced horseradish and dried orange peel, of each 20 oz.; bruised nutmegs, 5 dr.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; water, 1 quart, or q. s.; distil 1 gall. Stimulant and diuretic.——Dose, 1 to 4 fl. dr.; in dropsies, when there is much debility. It is usually combined with infusion of juniper berries or foxglove.

2. (B. P.) Fresh root, sliced, 20; dried orange peel, 20; nutmeg, bruised, 1/2; proof spirit, 160; water, 40; mix, and distil over 160.——Dose, 1 to 3 dr.

=Spirit of Hydrochlo′′ric Ether.= Syn. SPIRIT OF MURIATIC ETHER, CLUTTON’S FEBRIFUGE SPIRIT; ÆTHER HYDROCHLORICUS ALCOHOLICUS, SPIRITUS ÆTHERIS MURIATICI, L. Prep. 1. From hydrochloric ether and rectified spirit, equal parts, mixed together.

2. (Ph. E. 1744.) Hydrochloric acid, 1 part; rectified spirit, 3 parts; digest some days, and distil in a sand bath.——Dose, 1/2 to 3 fl. dr.; in dyspepsia, liver complaints, hectic fever, &c.

=Spirit of Juni′′per.= Syn. SPIRITUS JUNIPERI (B. P.). Prep. English oil of juniper, 1; rectified spirit, 49; dissolve.——Dose, 30 to 60 minims.

=Spirit of Juniper (Compound).= Syn. SPIRITUS JUNIPERI COMPOSITUS (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Oil of juniper, 1-1/2 fl. dr.; oils of caraway and fennel, of each 12 drops; proof spirit, 1 gall.; dissolve.

2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Juniper berries, bruised, 15 oz.; caraway and fennel seed, of each, bruised, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; water, 1 quart, or q. s.; distil 1 gallon.

Obs. This spirit is stimulant and diuretic.——Dose, 2 to 4 fl. dr. Mixed with twice or thrice its w eight of proof spirit, and sweetened with a little sugar, it makes no bad substitute for Hollands gin.

=Spirit of Lav′ender.= Syn. SPIRITUS LAVANDULÆ (B. P., Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. From fresh lavender, 2-1/2 lbs.; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; water, 1 quart, or q. s.; distil 1 gallon (7 pints——Ph. E.).

2. (Wholesale.) From Mitcham oil of lavender, 3 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; dissolve. Cordial and fragrant.

3. (B. P.) English oil of lavender, 1; rectified spirit, 49; dissolve.——Dose, 30 to 60 minims. See SPIRITS (Perfumed), TINCTURE, &c.

=Spirit of Ni′tric Ether.= Syn. SPIRIT OF NITROUS ETHER, SWEET SPIRIT OF NITRE, NITROUS ETHEREAL SPIRIT, NITRE DROPS; SPIRITUS ÆTHERIS NITRICI (B. P., Ph. L., & E.), SPIRITUS ÆTHERIS NITROSUS (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Take of rectified spirit, 1 quart; nitric acid, 3-1/2 fl. oz.; add the acid, by degrees, to the spirit; then mix them, and let 28 fl. oz. distil over. An earthenware still and condensing worm should be employed. Sp. gr. ·834.

2. (Ph. E.) Pure hyponitrous ether (Ph. E.), 1 part; rectified spirit, 4 parts (both by volume); mix. Sp. gr. ·847.

3. (Ph. D.) Nitrous or hyponitrous ether (which has been washed with half of its volume of liquor of ammonia), 4 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, “in 42 fl. oz.; mix, and preserve the compound in small, strong, and accurately-stopped bottles.”

4. (B. P.) Nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·42), 3; sulphuric acid, 2; copper, in fine powder (No. 25), 2; rectified spirit, a sufficiency; to 20 of the spirit add gradually the sulphuric acid, stirring them together; then add to this, also gradually, 2-1/2 of the nitric acid. Put the mixture into a retort or other suitable apparatus, into which the copper has been introduced, and to which a thermometer is fitted. Attach now an efficient condenser, and, applying a gentle heat, let the spirit distil at a temperature commencing at 170° and rising to 175°, but not exceeding 180°, until 12 have passed over and been collected in a bottle kept cool, if necessary, with ice-cold water; then withdraw the heat, and, having allowed the contents of the retort to cool, introduce the remaining 1/2 of nitric acid, and resume the distillation as before, until the increased product has been increased to 15. Mix this with 40 of the rectified spirit, or as much as will make the product correspond to the tests of specific gravity and per-centage of ether separated by chloride of calcium. Preserve it in well-closed vessels.

Char. and Tests. Transparent, and nearly colourless, with a very light tinge of yellow, mobile, inflammable, of a peculiar penetrating apple-like odour, and sweetish, cooling, sharp taste. It effervesces feebly, or not at all, when shaken with a little bicarbonate of soda. When agitated with solution of sulphate of iron and a few drops of sulphuric acid, it becomes deep olive-brown or black. If it be agitated with twice its volume of a saturated solution of chloride of calcium in a closed tube, 2% of its original volume will separate in the form of nitrous ether, and rise to the surface of the mixture. Sp. gr. ·845.——Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr.

Pur., &c. Pure spirit of nitric ether boils at about 160° Fahr., scarcely reddens litmus paper, and “gives off no bubbles of carbonic acid gas on the addition of carbonate of soda.” (Ph. L.) “When agitated with twice its volume of concentrated solution of chloride of calcium, 12% of ether slowly separates.” (Ph. E.)——Dose, 1/2 to 3 fl. dr., as a febrifuge, a diaphoretic, diuretic, antispasmodic, &c.; in various affections.

Obs. The mass of the sweet spirits of nitre of the shops is of very inferior quality, and is scarcely, if ever, made directly from spirit that has paid the duty. One, and a very large portion, is obtained from Scotland; another, from the manufacturers of fulminating mercury; and a third, and, in fact, the principal part, from certain persons in the neighbourhood of the metropolis who employ contraband spirit for its preparation, as this article is not under the excise. Recently methylated spirit has been employed for the purpose.

Sweet spirits of nitre, sp. gr. ·850, is now commonly and publicly sold, in quantity, at a price which is only about 2-3rds that of the spirit in it, if the latter had paid duty. The spirit obtained from the manufacturers of fulminating mercury frequently contains no inconsiderable quantity of hydrocyanic acid.

The mere admixture of nitric or hyponitrous ether with alcohol does not afford an officinal SPIR. ÆTHER. NITR., as this always contains aldehyde, which, according to Prof. Liebig, is an essential constituent of the officinal compound.

=Spirit of Nitrous Ether.= Syn. SPIRITUS ÆTHERIS NITROSI (B. P.). See SPIRIT OF NITRIC ETHER.

=Spirit of Nut′meg.= Syn. SPIRITUS MYRISTICÆ (B. P., Ph. L., & E.), S. NUCIS MOSCHATÆ, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. & E.) Bruised nutmegs, 2-1/2 oz.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; water, 1 pint, or q. s.; distil a gallon. Cordial and carminative.——Dose, 1 to 4 fl. dr.; chiefly used to flavour mixtures and draughts.

2. (ESSENTIA MYRISTICÆ MOSCHATE——Ph. D.) Oil of nutmegs, 1 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 9 fl. oz. Used in dispensing.

3. (B. P.) Volatile oil of nutmeg, 1; rectified spirit, 49; dissolve.——Dose, 30 to 60 minims.

=Spirit of Pennyroy′al.= Syn. SPIRITUS PULEGII (Ph. L.), S. MENTHÆ PULEGII, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Oil of pennyroyal, 3 fl. dr.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; dissolve. Stimulant, antispasmodic, and carminative.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 fl. dr.

2. (ESSENTIA MENTHÆ PULEGII——Ph. D.) Oil of pennyroyal, 1 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 9 fl. oz. Used chiefly in dispensing.

=Spirit of Pep′permint.= Syn. SPIRITUS MENTHÆ PIPERITÆ (B. P., Ph. L.), S. MENTHÆ (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Oil of peppermint, 3 fl. dr.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; dissolve.

2. (Ph. E.) Green peppermint, 1-1/2 lb.; proof spirit, 7 pints; macerate 2 days; add of water, q. s., and distil 7 pints.——Dose, 1/2 to 2 dr.

3. (ESSENTIA MENTHÆ PIPERITÆ——Ph. D.) Oil of peppermint, 1 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 9 fl. oz. See ESSENCE OF PEPPERMINT.

4. (B. P.) English oil of peppermint, 1; rectified spirit, 49; dissolve.——Dose, 30 to 60 minims, or, for children under five years, 1 to 3 minims.

=Spirit of Pimen′to.= Syn. (SPIRIT OF ALLSPICE; SPIRITUS PIMENTÆ——Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1 (Ph. L.) Oil of pimento, 2 fl. dr.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; dissolve.

2. (Ph. E.) From pimento, bruised, 1/2 lb.; and proof spirit, 7 pints; as spirit of caraway. Carminative and stomachic.——Dose, 1 to 4 fl. dr.; in flatulent colic, dyspepsia, &c.

3. (ESSENTIÆ PIMENTÆ——Ph. D.) Oil of pimento, 1 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 9 fl. oz. Used to make pimento water, and in dispensing.

=Spirit of Pine-tops.= Syn. SPIRITUS TURIONUM PINI, L. See BALSAM, RIGA.

=Spirit of Rose′mary.= Syn. SPIRITUS ROSMARINI (B. P., Ph. L., & E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) As SPIRIT OF PIMENTO.

2. (Ph. E.) Rosemary tops, 2-1/2 lbs.; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; as SPIRIT OF LAVENDER. Fragrant and stimulant.

3. (ESSENTIA ROSMARINI——Ph. D.) As ESSENCE OF PIMENTO.

4. (B. P.) Oil of rosemary, 1; rectified spirit, 49; dissolve.——Dose, 10 to 30 minims.

=Spirit of Spear′mint.= Syn. SPIRITUS MENTHÆ VIRIDIS (Ph. L.), S. MENTHÆ SATIVÆ, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) As SPIRIT OF PEPPERMINT——Ph. L.

2. (ESSENTIA MENTHÆ VIRIDIS——Ph. D.) As ESSENCE OF PEPPERMINT——Ph. D. The uses and doses are also the same.

=Spirit of Sulphu′ric E′ther.= See SPIRIT OF ETHER (above).

=Spirit of Vitriol (Sweet).= See AROMATIC SPIRIT OF ETHER (above).

=Spirit, Vul′nerary.= Syn. VULNERARY WATER, ARQUEBUSADE; SPIRITUS VULNERARIUS, L.; EAU D’ARQUEBUSADE, Fr. Prep. 1. Dried tops of sage, wormwood, fennel, hyssop, marjoram, savory, thyme, rosemary, calamint, balm, peppermint, and scordium, fresh leaves of angelica and basil, and lavender flowers, of each 4 oz.; proof spirit, 2 galls.; digest for 14 days, and distil over 1-1/2 gall.

2. Rosemary leaves, 1-1/2 lb.; leaves of thyme and summits of millefoil, of each 1/2 lb.; juniper berries, 3 oz.; proof spirit, 2 galls,; distil over 5 quarts.

Obs. This preparation is stimulant and vulnerary, and is in great repute on the Continent as a cosmetic and cordial.

=SPIRITS (Perfumed).= Syn. SPIRITUS ODORIFERI, ODORES SPIRITUOSI, L. The odoriferous spirits of the perfumer are, for the most part, prepared from various aromatic and odorous substances, by a similar process to that described under ESSENCES and SPIRITS (Medicinal); but in this case a perfectly pure, flavourless, and scentless spirit must be employed. The distillation should also be preferably conducted by steam, or the heat of a water bath, and the distilled spirit should be kept for some time in a cellar, or other cold situation, previously to being used. When simple solution of an essential oil in the spirit is adopted, cart should be taken that the oil is pale and new; or, at least, has not been much exposed to the air; as in that case it would contain resin, which would make the perfumed spirit, or essence, liable to stain delicate articles of clothing to which it may be applied. Most of the ‘eaux’ and ‘esprits’ of the perfumers are prepared by one or other of the above methods. It is found, however, that the perfumed spirits of some of the more delicate flowers cannot be well obtained by either infusion or distillation, or by the simple solution of their essential oils in spirit; or, at least, they are not usually so prepared by the foreign perfumers. The spirits of orange flowers, jasmin, tuberose, jonquille, roses, and of some other flowers, and of cassia, vanilla, &c., are commonly prepared by digesting pure rectified spirit for 3 or 4 days on half its weight of the respective pommades or oils, obtained by infusion or contact. The operation is performed in a closed vessel placed in a water bath, and frequent agitation is employed for 3 or 4 days, when the perfumed spirit is decanted into a second digester, containing a like quantity of oil to the first. The whole process is repeated a second and a third time, after which the spirit is allowed to settle and is then decanted. It now forms the most fragrant and perfect odoriferous spirit (extrait) of the Continental perfumer. The product is called ‘esprit’ or ‘extrait of the first infusion.’ The three portions of oil are then treated again with fresh spirit in the same manner, and thus spirits or essences of inferior quality are obtained, which are distinguished by the perfumers as No. 2, 3, 4, &c., or ‘esprits’ or ‘extraits of the first, second, third,’ &c., operation or infusion. In some, though only a very few cases, the spirits are afterwards distilled.

The strength of the spirit for the concentrated essences should not be less than 56 o. p. (sp. gr. ·8376); that for eaux, esprits, and extraits, not less than 35 o. p. (sp. gr. ·8723). The strength of the second quality of the last three must be fully proof (sp. g. ·920). See ALCOHOL, DISTILLATION, ESSENCE, OILS, POMMADE, &c., and below.

=Eau d’Ambre Royale.= [Fr.] From essences of ambergris and musk, of each 1 fl. oz.; spirit of ambrette and orange-flower water, of each 1 pint; rectified spirit, 1 quart; mix.

=Eau d’Ange.= [Fr.] From flowering tops of myrtle (bruised), 1-1/2 lb.; rectified spirit, 7 pints; water, 3 pints; digest a week, add of common salt, 2 lbs., and distil 1 gall.

=Eau d’Arquebusade.= [Fr.] See VULNERARY SPIRIT (back).

=Eau de Bouquet.= [Fr.] From spirits of rosemary and essence of violets, of each 1 fl. oz.; essences of bergamot and jasmin, of each 1 fl. dr.; oils of verbena and lavender, of each 1/2 fl. dr.; orange-flower water, 1 fl. oz.; eau de rose, 1/2 pint; rectified spirit, 1 quart; mix.

=Eau de Bouquet de Flore.= [Fr.] From spirits of rosemary and roses and essence of violets, of each 1/2 fl. oz.; oil of cedra and essence of ambergris, of each 1 fl. dr.; orange-flower water, 5 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint.

=Eau des Carmes.= [Fr.] See SPIRIT OF BALM (COMPOUND).

=Eau de Cologne.= [Fr.] Syn. COLOGNE WATER; AQUA COLONIENSIS, A. C. SPIRITUOSA, SPIRITUS COLONIENSIS, L. For the production of good eau de Cologne it is absolutely essential that the spirit be of the purest description, both tasteless and scentless, and that the oils be not only genuine, but recently distilled, as old oils are less odorous, and contain a considerable quantity of resin and camphor, which prove injurious. When flowers and the flowering tops of plants are ordered, it is also necessary that they be either fresh gathered or well preserved, without drying them. To produce an article of the finest quality, distillation should be had recourse to. A very excellent eau de Cologne may, however, be produced by simple solution of the oils or essences in the spirit, provided they be new, pale coloured, and pure. The mass of the eau de Cologne prepared in England, some of which possess the most delicate fragrance, and is nearly equal to the best imported, is made without distillation. In the shops two kinds of this article are generally kept——French and German. That prepared by Farina of Cologne is esteemed the best, and is preferred in the fashionable world.

Prep. 1. From essences of bergamot and lemon, of each 1 fl. dr.; oil of orange, 1/2 dr. oil of neroli, 20 drops; oil of rosemary, 10 drops; essence of ambergris and musk, of each 1 drop; rectified spirit, 1/2 pint; mix.

2. Essence of bergamot, 3 fl. oz.; essence of lemon, 3 fl. dr.; essence of cedrat, 2 fl. dr.; oils of neroli and rosemary, of each 1-1/2 fl. dr.; oil of balm, 1/2 fl. dr.; rectified spirit, 1-1/2 gall.; mix.

3. (Cadet Gassincourt.) Take of pure neroli, essences (oils) of cedrat, orange, lemon, bergamot, and rosemary, of each 24 drops; lesser cardamom seeds, 1/4 oz.; spirit at 32° Baumé (sp. gr. ·869), 1 quart; digest a few days and then distil 1-1/2 pint.

4. (Farina.) Take of rectified spirit, 5 galls.; calamus aromaticus, sage, and thyme, of each 1/2 dr.; balm-mint and spearmint, of each 1 oz.; angelica root, 10 gr.; camphor, 15 gr.; petals of roses and violets, of each 3 dr.; lavender flowers, 1-1/2 dr.; orange flowers, 1 dr.; wormwood, nutmeg, cloves, cassia lignea, and mace, of each 20 gr.; oranges and lemons, sliced, of each 2 in no.; bruise or slice the solids, macerate, with agitation, for 48 hours, then distil off 2/3rds, and add to the product——essences of lemon, cedrat, balm-mint, and lavender, of each 1 fl. dr.; pure neroli and essence of the seeds of anthos, of each 20 drops; essences of jasmin and bergamot, of each 1 fl. oz.; mix well and filter, if necessary.

5. (P. Cod.) Oils of bergamot, lemon, and cedrat, of each 3 oz.; oils of rosemary, lavender, and neroli, of each 1-1/2 oz.; oil of cinnamon, 3/4 oz.; spirit of rosemary, 1 quart; compound spirit of balm (eau de melisse des Carmes), 3 pints; rectified spirit, 3 galls.; digest for 8 days, then distil 3 galls.

6. (Dr A. T. Thomson.) Oils of bergamot, orange, and rosemary, of each 1 fl. dr.; cardamom seeds, 1 dr.; rectified spirit and orange-flower water, of each 1 pint; mix, digest for a day, and then distil a pint.

7. (Trommsdorff.) Oils of neroli, citron, bergamot, orange, and rosemary, of each 12 drops; Malabar cardamoms, bruised, 1 dr.; rectified spirit of wine, 1 quart; mix, and, after standing 2 or 3 days, distil a quart.

Obs. Eau de Cologne is principally used as a perfume, but a very large quantity is consumed by fashionable ladies as a cordial and stimulant. For this purpose it is dulcified with sugar. A piece of linen dipped in Cologne water, and laid across the forehead, is a fashionable remedy for headache.

=Eau d’Elegance.= [Fr.] From spirit of jessamine, 1 pint; rectified spirit and spirits of hyacinth and storax, of each 1/2 pint; tinctures of star-anise and tolu, of each 2 fl. oz.; tincture of vanilla, 1 fl. oz.; essence of ambergris, 1/2 dr.; mix, and in a week decant the clear portion.

=Eau de Framboises.= [Fr.] From strawberries, bruised, 16 lbs.; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; digest, and distil to dryness in a salt-water or steam bath.

=Eau d’Heliotrope.= [Fr.] From essence of ambergris, 1/2 fl. dr.; vanilla, 1/2 oz.; orange-flower water, 1/2 pint; rectified spirit, 1 quart; digest a week, and filter.

=Eau d’Hongrie.= [Fr.] Syn. HUNGARY WATER; AQUA HUNGARICA, SPIRITUS ROSMARINI COMPOSITUS, L.; EAU DE LA REINE D’HONGRIE, Fr. A fragrant stimulant and cosmetic. Sweetened with sugar it is also used as a liqueur.

Prep. 1. Rosemary tops, in blossom, 4 lbs.; fresh sage, 1/2 lb.; bruised ginger, 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1-1/2 gall.; water, 1/2 gall.; macerate for 10 days, add of common salt, 3 lbs., and then distil 11 pints.

2. From oil of rosemary (genuine), 1-1/2 fl. dr.; oil of lavender, 1/2 dr.; orange flower water, 1/2 pint; rectified spirit, 1-1/2 pint; mix. SPIRIT OF ROSEMARY (see above) is now commonly sold for it.

=Eau d’Ispahan.= [Fr.] From oil of the bitter orange, 2 fl. oz.; oil of rosemary, 2 dr.; oils of cloves and neroli, of each 1 fl. dr.; oil of spearmint, 1/2 fl. dr.; eau de rose, 1 pint; rectified spirit, 7 pints; mix. It is better for distillation. Used as Eau de Cologne.

=Eau de Jasmin.= [Fr.] See ESPRIT DE JASMIN ODORANTE (below).

=Eau de Lavande.= [Fr.] Syn. LAVENDER WATER, DOUBLE DISTILLED L. W.; AQUA LAVANDULÆ, A. L. ODORIFERA, SPIRITUS L., L. Prep. 1. From the flowering tops of lavender (freshly and carefully picked), 7 lbs.; rectified spirit, 2 gall.; macerate for a week, add of water, 1/2 gall.; (holding in solution) common salt, 3 lbs.; and distil 2 gallons.

2. From Mitcham oil of lavender, 8 oz.; essence of musk, 4 oz.; essence of ambergris and oil of bergamot, of each 1-1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 2 gall.; mix well. Very fine.

3. (Brande.) Oil of lavender, 20 oz.; oil of bergamot, 5 oz.; essence of ambergris (finest), 1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 5 gall.; mix.

Obs. The products of the last two formulæ are better for distillation; but in that case the essences of ambergris and musk should be added to the distilled spirit. The oils should be of the best quality, and newly distilled, and the spirit should be perfectly scentless.

It may be useful to observe here, that the common lavender water, double distilled lavender water, or spirit of lavender of the shops, is made with spirit at proof, or even weaker; hence its inferior quality to that of the more celebrated perfumers. One ounce of true English oil of lavender is all that will properly combine with 1 gall. of proof spirit, without rendering it muddy or cloudy.

Eau de lavande is a most agreeable and fashionable perfume. The article produced by the second formula has received the commendation of Her Majesty and many of the nobility.

=Eau de Lavande de Millefleurs.= To each quart of the ordinary eau de lavande (No. 2 or 3), add of oil of cloves, 1-1/2 fl. dr.; essence of ambergris, 1/2 fl. dr.

=Eau de Lavange (Ammoniacal).= 1. To lavender water, 1 pint; add of liquor of ammonia, 1/2 fl. oz.

2. (P. Cod.) English oil of lavender, 1 oz.; spirit of ammonia, 2 lbs.; dissolve. Used as a stimulating scent in fainting. See PERFUMES (Ammoniated).

=Eau de Luce.= [Fr.] See TINCTURE OF AMMONIA, COMPOUND.

=Eau de Maréchale.= [Fr.] Syn. EXTRAIT DE MARÉCHALE, Fr. 1. From ambergris and grain musk, of each 20 gr.; oils of bergamot, lavender, and cloves, of each 1 oz.; oils of sassafras and origanum, of each 1/2 fl. dr.; rectified spirit, 2 quarts; macerate with agitation for a week.

2. Rectified spirit, 1 pint; essence of violets, 1 oz.; essences of bergamot and œillets, of each 1/4 oz.; orange-flower water, 1/2 pint; mix.

=Eau de Melisse.= [Fr.] See SPIRIT OF BALM, COMPOUND.

=Eau de Miel.= [Fr.] Syn. HONEY WATER, SWEET-SCENTED H. W.; AQUA MELLIS, A. M. ODORIFERA, L. Prep. 1. Take of spirit of roses (No. 3——see above), 2 quarts; spirit of jasmin and rectified spirit, of each 1 quart; essence of Portugal, 1 fl. oz.; essences of vanilla and musk, of each (No. 3) 4 fl. oz.; flowers of benzoin, 1-1/2 dr.; mix, agitate, and add of eau de fleurs d’oranges, 1 quart. Delightfully fragrant.

2. Honey (finest), 1/4 lb.; essence of bergamot, 1/2 oz.; essence of lemon, 1/4 oz.; oil of cloves, 12 drops; musk, 12 gr.; ambergris, 6 gr.; orange-flower and rose water, of each 1 quart; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; macerate for 14 days, with frequent agitation, and filter.

Obs. The last is often coloured with 20 or 30 gr. of saffron, and made into a ratafia with sugar. HONEY WATER FOR THE HAIR is a different article to the above. It is obtained by the dry distillation of honey, mixed with an equal weight of clean sand, a gentle heat only being employed. The product is yellowish and acidulous, from the presence of acetic acid. This last is used to promote the growth of the hair.

=Eau de Millefleurs.= [Fr.] Syn. EXTRAIT DE MILLEFLEURS, Fr. Prep. 1. From grain musk, 12 gr.; ambergris, 20 gr.; essence of lemon, 1-1/2 oz.; oils of cloves and lavender (English), of each 1 oz.; neroli and oil of verbena, of each 1/2 dr.; rectified spirits, 2 quarts; macerate in a closed vessel, and a warm situation for a fortnight.

2. Balsam of Peru (genuine) and essence of cloves, of each 1 oz.; essences of bergamot and musk, of each 2 oz.; essences of neroli and thyme, of each 1/4 oz.; eau de fleurs d’oranges, 1 quart; rectified spirit, 9 pints; mix well. Very fine.

3. Essence of bergamot, 1/4 oz.; eau de lavande and essence of jasmin, of each 1 oz.; orange-flower water, 8 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; mix.

=Eau de Mousselline.= [Fr.] From eau de fleurs d’oranges and spirit of clove-gillyflower, of each 1 quart; spirit of roses (No. 3——see above), spirit of jasmin (No. 4), and spirit of orange flowers (No. 4), of each 2 quarts; essences of vanilla and musk, of each (No. 3), 2 fl. oz.; sanders wood, 1/2 oz. Very fine.

=Eau de Naphe.= [Fr.] See WATERS (Perfumed).

=Eau sans Pareille.= [Fr.] 1. From essence of bergamot, 5 dr.; essence of lemon, 8 dr.; essence of citron, 4 dr.; Hungary water, 1 pint; rectified spirit, 6 quarts; mix, and distil.

2. Grain musk, 20 gr.; ambergris, 25 gr.; oils of lavender and cloves, of each 1 oz.; essence of bergamot, 1/2 oz.; oils of sassafras and origanum, of each 20 drops; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; macerate for 14 days.

=Eau, Romain.= [Fr.] From essence of ambergris, 1 fl. oz.; tincture of benzoin, 4 fl. oz.; spirit of tuberose, 1/2 pint; spirit of acacia flowers and tincture of vanilla, of each 1 pint; spirit of jasmin, 3 pints; mix.

=Eau de Rosières.= [Fr.] From spirit of roses, 1 pint; spirits of cucumber, angelica root, and celery seeds, of each 1/2 pint; spirits of jasmin and orange flowers, of each 1/4 pint; tincture of benzoin, 2 fl. oz.; mix.

=Eau de Violette.= [Fr.] See ESPRIT DE VIOLETTES (below).

=Esprit d’Ambrette.= [Fr.] See ESSENCE.

=Esprit de Bergamotte.= [Fr.] From essence (oil) of bergamot (best), 5 oz.; essence of ambergris (pale), 2 fl. oz.; essence of musk, 1/2 fl. oz.; oil of verbena, 2 fl. dr.; rectified spirit, 1 gall,; mix.

=Esprit de Bouquet.= [Fr.] From Mitcham oil of lavender, 1 oz.; oils of cloves and bergamot, of each 3 fl. dr.; essence of musk, 1 fl. dr.; otto of roses, 10 drops; rectified spirit, 1 quart.

=Esprit de Fleurs.= [Fr.] See SPIRIT OF THE FLOWERS OF ITALY (below).

=Esprit de Jasmin.= [Fr.] Syn. EAU DE JASMIN, Fr.

=Esprit de Jasmin Odorante.= [Fr.] From spirit of jasmin and rectified spirit, of each 1 pint; essence of ambergris, 1 fl. dr.

=Esprit de Jonquille.= [Fr.]

=Esprit de la Reine.= [Fr.] From oil of bergamot, 1 fl. oz.; essence of ambergris, 2 fl. dr.; otto of roses, 1 fl. dr.; rectified spirit, 1 quart.

=Esprit de Rondeletia.= [Fr.] Syn. EXTRAIT DE RONDELETIA, Fr. From Mitcham oil of lavender, 3 oz.; oil of cloves, 1-1/4 oz.; oil of bergamot, 1 oz.; essences of musk and ambergris, of each 2 fl. dr.; rectified spirit, 3 pints.

=Esprit de Rose.= [Fr.] 1. From spirit of roses (see general directions, page 1547), 1 pint; essence of ambergris and oil of rose-geranium, of each 1/2 fl. dr.

2. From otto of roses, 2 dr.; neroli, 1/2 dr.; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; dissolve, add of chloride of calcium (well dried and in powder), 1-1/2 lb.; agitate well, and distil 7 pints. Very fine.

=Esprit de Suave.= [Fr.] From the essences of cloves and bergamot, of each 1-1/2 fl. dr.; neroli, 1 fl. dr.; essence of musk, 1 fl. oz.; spirit of tuberose and rectified spirit, of each 1 pint; spirits of jasmin and cassia, of each 1 quart; dissolve, then add of eau de rose, 1 pint, and mix well.

=Esprit de Tain.= [Fr.] Syn. SPIRIT OF LEMON THYME; SPIRITUS THYMI, L. From tops of lemon thyme, 2 lbs.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; distil 7 pints.

=Esprit de Violettes.= [Fr.] Syn. SPIRIT OF VIOLETS, ESSENCE OF V., E. OF ORRIS. From Florentine orris root, reduced to coarse powder, 1/4 lb.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; by simple maceration for a fortnight. A stronger and finer article (ESSENCE OF VIOLETS) is prepared from orris root, 5 lbs., to rectified spirit, 1 gall.; by percolation.

=Extrait de Bouquet.= [Fr.] Extract of nosegay.

=Extrait de Maréchale.= [Fr.] See EAU DE MARÉCHALE (above).

=Extrait de Millefleurs.= [Fr.] See EAU DE MILLEFLEURS (above).

=Extrait de Rondeletia.= [Fr.] See ESPRIT (above).

=Odeur, Délectable.= [Fr.] From oils of lavender, bergamot, rose-geranium, and cloves, of each 1 fl. dr.; eaux de rose and fleurs d’orange, of each 1/4 pint; rectified spirit, 1-1/2 pint.

=Odeur Suave.= [Fr.] See ESPRIT (above).

=Spirit of Cytherea.= From the spirits of violets, tuberose, clove-gillyflower, jasmin (No. 2——see above), roses (No. 2), and Portugal, of each 1 pint; orange-flower water, 1 quart; mix.

=Spirit of the Flowers of Italy.= Syn. ESPRIT DE FLEURS, Fr. From the spirits of roses (No. 1——see above), jasmin (No. 2), oranges (No. 3), and cassia (No. 2), of each 4 pints; orange-flower water, 3 pints; mix.

=Victoria Perfume.= See ESPRIT DE LA REINE (above).

=SPIT′TING OF BLOOD.= See HÆMOPTYSIS.

=SPLINT.= This is the common name given to an enlargement of the bone in horses; which generally occurs below the knee, between the large and small splint bones, usually on the inside of the limb. It mostly results from fast driving or riding, or from the animal having been much worked while young, or made to unduly traverse hard or paved roads. The splint is a frequent cause of lameness if it develops just under the knee, since it interferes with and circumscribes the free movement of the joint. It is very essential to have recourse to prompt measures directly this affection shows itself.

The treatment usually prescribed is the constant application to the part of cold water, if the splint he accompanied by much tenderness or inflammation. This may be accomplished by bandages soaked in cold water, taking care to renew the cold water as soon as it becomes warm. Mr Finlay Dun advises the horse, where practicable, to stand for an hour several times a day up to the knees in a stream or pool of water. In addition he prescribes rest for ten days or a fortnight, and when the heat and tenderness have been subdued the application of a blister, or of biniodide of mercury ointment, or the hot iron.

=SPONGE.= Syn. SPONGIA, S. OFFICINALIS, L. Sponge is a cellular fibrous structure, produced by marine animals of the humblest type, belonging to the subkingdom Protozoa. The finest quality is imported from Smyrna, and is known as TURKEY SPONGE; another, called WEST INDIAN or BAHAMA SPONGE, is much less esteemed, being coarse, dark coloured, and very rotten.

Sponge, as collected, and also as generally imported, contains many impurities, more especially sand, most of which may be removed by beating it, and by washing it in water. Amusing disputes often arise between the smaller importers and the wholesale purchasers on this subject——the privilege of beating it before weighing it, the number of minutes so employed, and even the size of the stick, being often made important matters in the ‘haggling.’

1. BLEACHED SPONGE (WHITE SPONGE; SPONGIA DEALBATA) is prepared by soaking ordinary sponge in very dilute hydrochloric acid, to remove calcareous matter, then in cold water, changing it frequently, and squeezing the sponge out each time, and next, in water holding a little sulphuric or sulphurous acid, or, still better, a very little chlorine, in solution; the sponge is, lastly, repeatedly washed and soaked in clean water scented with rose or orange-flower water, and dried.

2. The sponges are first soaked in hydrochloric acid to remove the lime, they are then washed in water, and afterwards placed for ten minutes in a 2 per cent. solution of permanganate of potassium. When taken out they have a brown appearance; this is owing to the deposition of manganous oxide, and may be removed by steeping the sponge for about two minutes in a 2 per cent. solution of oxalic acid, to which a little sulphuric acid has been added. As soon as the sponges appear white they are well washed out in water to remove the acid. Strongly diluted sulphuric acid may be used instead of oxalic acid.

3. Sponges can be bleached by first soaking them in hydrochloric acid, diluted with 1-1/2 parts of water, until no more carbonic acid is given off; then wash in pure water, and afterwards leave in a bath composed of 2 lbs. of hyposulphite of soda, 12 lbs. of water, and 2 lbs. of hydrochloric acid. If the sponge be afterwards dipped in glycerin and well pressed, to remove excess of liquid, it remains elastic, and can be used for mattresses, cushions, and general upholstery. Sponge mattresses prepared in this way are now finding great favour. It is, of course, not necessary to bleach the sponge where it is intended to be used for such purposes.[190]

[Footnote 190: ‘Pharmacist.’]

BURNT SPONGE (SPONGIA USTA——Ph. D.) is prepared by heating the cuttings and unsaleable pieces in a closed iron crucible until they become black and friable, avoiding too much heat, and allowing the whole to cool before exposing it to the air. It was formerly in great repute in bronchocele and scrofulous complaints.——Dose, 1 to 3 dr., in water, or made into an electuary or lozenges. When good burnt sponge evolves violet fumes of iodine on being heated in a flask along with sulphuric acid.

COMPRESSED or WAXED SPONGE (SPONGIA CERATA, S. COMPRESSA) is sponge which has been dipped into melted wax and then compressed between two iron plates until cold. When cut into pieces it forms ‘SPONGE TENTS,’ which are used by surgeons to dilate wounds.

=Sponge, To Clean a.= There is nothing more pleasant for washing the skin than a fresh good sponge, or the reverse when not kept thoroughly clean. Without the greatest care, a sponge is apt to get slimy long before it is worn out. It may be made almost as good as, in fact often better than, new, by the following process:——Take about 2 or 3 oz. of carbonate of soda, or of potash; dissolve in 2-1/2 pints of water; soak the sponge in it for 24 hours, then wash and rinse it in pure water. Then put it for some hours in a mixture, 1 glassful of muriatic acid to 3 pints of water; finally, rinse in cold water, and dry thoroughly. A sponge should always be dried, if possible, in the sun every time it has been used.

=SPONGES Employed in Washing Wounds, Purification of.= M. Leriche advises the sponge to be first saturated with a solution of 4 parts of permanganate of potassium in 100 parts of water; then passed through a solution of sulphurous acid, and finally washed thoroughly with water. The sponges are said to become perfectly disinfected and deodorised, whilst the tissue is not affected by the treatment.

=SPOROKTON.= See SULPHUROUS ANHYDRIDE.

=SPOTS and STAINS.= 1. OIL and GREASE SPOTS on boards, marble, &c., when recent, may be removed by covering them with a paste made of fullers earth and hot water, and the next day, when the mixture has become perfectly dry, scouring it off with hot soap-and-water. For old spots, a mixture of fullers earth and soft soap, or a paste made of fresh-slaked lime and pearlash, will be better; observing not to touch the last with the fingers.

2. RECENT SPOTS of OIL, GREASE, or WAX, on woollen cloth or silk, may be removed with a little clean oil of turpentine or benzol; or with a little fullers earth or scraped French chalk, made into a paste with water, and allowed to dry on them. They may also be generally removed by means of a rather hot flat-iron and blotting-paper or spongy brown paper, more especially if the cloth, or one of the pieces of paper, be first slightly damped. OLD OIL and GREASE SPOTS require to be treated with ox-gall or yolk of egg, made into a paste with fullers earth or soap. PAINT SPOTS, when recent, generally yield to the last treatment. Old ones, however, are more obstinate, and require some fullers earth and soft soap made into a paste with either ox-gall or spirit of turpentine.

The ‘American Chemist’ gives the following method for extracting grease-spots from books or paper:——Gently warm the greased or spotted part of the book or paper, and then press upon it pieces of blotting paper one after another, so as to absorb as much of the grease as possible. Have ready some fine, clear, essential oil of turpentine heated almost to a boiling state;[191] warm the greased leaf a little, and then with a soft, clean brush, wet with the heated turpentine both sides of the spotted part. By repeating this application the grease will be extracted. Lastly, with another brush dipped in rectified spirits of wine go over the place, and the grease will no longer appear, neither will the paper be discoloured.

[Footnote 191: This operation ought to be very carefully accomplished, as the turpentine is a highly inflammable body.]

FRUIT and WINE STAINS, on linen, commonly yield easily to hot soap-and-water. If not, they must be treated as those below.

INK SPOTS and RECENT IRON MOULDS on washable fabrics may be removed by dropping on the part a little melted tallow from a common candle, before washing the articles; or, by the application of a little lemon juice, or of a little powdered cream of tartar made into a paste with hot water. Old ink spots and iron moulds will be found to yield almost immediately to a very little powdered oxalic acid, which must be well rubbed upon the spot previously moistened with boiling water, and kept hot over a basin filled with the same.

Boettger recommends the use of pyrophosphate of soda for the removal of ink stains from coloured woven tissues, to be applied in the form of a concentrated solution. The recent ink stains are readily removed, but older stains require washing and rubbing with the solution for a long time.

STAINS arising from ALKALIES and ALKALINE LIQUORS, when the colours are not destroyed, give way before the application of a little lemon juice; whilst those arising from the weaker acids and acidulous liquids yield to the fumes of ammonia, or the application of a little spirit of hartshorn or sal volatile.

STAINS OF MARKING INK may be removed by soaking the part in a solution of chloride of lime, and afterwards rinsing it in a little solution of ammonia or of hyposulphate of soda; or they may be rubbed with the tincture of iodine, and then rinsed as before.

NITRIC ACID STAINS, TO REMOVE. The yellow stain left by nitric acid can be removed either from the skin or from brown or black woollen garments by moistening the spots for awhile with permanganate of potash, and rinsing with water. A brownish stain of manganese remains, which may be removed from the skin by washing with aqueous solution of sulphurous acid. If the spots are old they cannot be entirely removed. See BALLS, CLOTHES, HANDS, SCOURING, STAINS, &c.

=SPRAIN.= Syn. SUBLUXATIO, L. An injury of a joint, in which it has been strained or twisted in an unnatural manner, without actual dislocation. Pain, swelling, and inflammation, are the common consequences, which must be combated by purgatives, repose, and a low diet, with refrigerant lotions, or warm fomentations, according to circumstances. In extreme cases, blood should be taken. Where there is simple stiffness and weakness, exercise is often serviceable.

Treatment for the Horse and other Animals. Foment. Apply lead lotion and refrigerants.

IF FOR CURB use counter-irritants, or red iodide of mercury ointment, or the firing iron; and if for a horse a high-heeled shoe.

=SPRAT.= The Clupea Sprattus (Linn.), a small fish of the herring family, abounding on our coasts. Gutted, coloured, and pickled, it is sold for anchovies, or as British anchovies, and much used to make the sauce of that name. Sprats contain about 6 per cent. of fat.

=SPRENGEL’S PUMP.= See AIR PUMP.

=SPRINKLES.= See BOOKBINDING.

=SPRUCE.= See BEER, ESSENCE, and POWDERS.

=SPUNK.= See AMADOU.

=SQUILL.= Syn. SCILLA (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. The bulb of “Urginea Scilla,” sliced and dried. In small doses, squill acts as a stimulating expectorant and diuretic; in larger ones, as an emetic and purgative. With the first intention it is generally given in substance (powder), in doses of 1 to 3 or 4 gr.; with the latter, either made into vinegar or oxymel (which see). It is an excellent remedy in coughs, &c., after the inflammatory symptoms have subsided.

=STAGGERS.= There are two varieties of the disease known under this name by which horses are affected, viz. stomach staggers, and grass or sleepy staggers. The first, which occasionally kills the horse in twelve or fifteen hours after the attack, is generally induced by an overladen stomach and improper food. The animal has perhaps partaken largely and rapidly, and after too long a fast, of some diet to which it is unaccustomed, such as vetches, clover, or grass. These undergo decomposition within the stomach and intestines, and give rise to such an evolution of gas, as either to set up inflammation of the stomach and intestines, or to lead to their rupture, in which latter case the result is, of course, fatal. The symptoms are a quick and feeble pulse, attempts at vomiting, a staggering gait, whilst very frequently the animal sits on its haunches like a dog. Sleepy staggers, which is a more chronic manifestation of the disease, is most common during the summer and autumn months, and generally occurs amongst horses fed on tough and indigestible food, such as vetches or rye grass, from which circumstances the complaint has been called ‘grass staggers.’ Both kinds of the disease require the same treatment.

Mr Finlay Dun prescribes a brisk purge, consisting of 6 dr. of aloes in solution, with a dr. of calomel and 2 oz. of oil of turpentine; also the injection every hour of clysters, consisting of salt, soap, or tobacco smoke, the abdomen being at the same time diligently rubbed and fomented with water nearly boiling. To ward off stupor he recommends the frequent administration of 2 or 3 dr. of carbonate of ammonia, with an ounce or two of spirit of nitrous ether, or of strong whiskey toddy, combined with plenty of ginger. To guard against a return of the attack light and easily digestible food should be administered every four or five hours, and occasional mild purgatives should be given.

Horses are also subject to another form of staggers called ‘mad staggers.’ This disease originates, however, in causes wholly dissimilar from those just stated, being the result of phrenitis or inflammation of the brain. The animal is frequently very furious and excited, and seems wholly unable to control itself, throwing itself madly about, and attempting to run down anybody that comes in its way; it is also frequently unable to keep on its legs, and when it falls, plunges, and struggles violently.

The treatment recommended is prompt and copious bloodletting, combined with active purges and enemas, with refrigerant lotions to the head.

=STAINED GLASS.= The art of painting or staining glass resembles enamel painting, in the effect being produced by fluxing certain metallic substances, as oxides or chlorides, on its surface, by means of heat applied in a suitable furnace. The operations it embraces are difficult, and require great promptitude and experience to prove successful. The colours or compounds employed are, for the most part, similar to those noticed under ENAMEL and PASTE.

=STAINS.= Discolorations from foreign matters. Liquid dyes are also frequently termed ‘stains.’ See SPOTS, &c., and below.

=Stains, Blood.= Spots of dried blood on wood, linen, &c., however old, are easily recognised by the microscope; but simple stains or marks of blood of a slight character, especially those occurring on iron or steel, are recognised with greater difficulty. To obviate this, H. Zollikofer adopts the following plan:——The spot is removed, by scraping, from the surface of the metal, and the resulting powder is digested in tepid water, when a liquid is obtained which exhibits the following reactions:

1. The liquid is neutralised with acid, and heated to ebullition, when opalisation occurs, or a dirty red coagulum forms.

2. The coagulum is dissolved in hot liquor of potassa; the solution, if blood (hæmatin) be present, is diachromatic, or appears green by transmitted light and red by reflected light.

3. By the addition of concentrated chlorine water, in excess, to either solution, white flocks of albumen and chlorhæmatin separate, which are free from iron, as tested by sulphocyanide of potassium.

Obs. The last two reactions are said to be characteristic. Very old spots must be boiled in water containing a little liquor of potassa. See Dr Taylor’s ‘Medical Jurisprudence,’ and BLOOD.

=Stains, Bookbinder’s.= See LEATHER, MARBLING, &c.

=Stains, Confectioner’s.= These are similar to those noticed under LIQUEUR. Mineral colours, especially mineral blues, greens, and yellows, must on no account be used, as they are nearly all dangerous poisons; nor is there any inducement to use them, since the vegetable substances referred to afford, by proper management, every shade that can be possibly required. These stains are also used for cakes and pastry.

=Stains, Liqueur.= See LIQUEUR.

=Stains, Map.= See MAPS, VELVET COLOURS, &c.

=STAM′MERING.= Syn. BLÆSITAS, L. Occasionally this depends on some organic affection, or slight malformation of the parts of the mouth or throat immediately connected with the utterance of vocal sounds; but, much more frequently, it is a habit resulting from carelessness, or acquired from example or imitation. When the latter is the case, it may be generally removed by perseveringly adopting the plan of never speaking without having the chest moderately filled with air, and then only slowly and deliberately. Hasty and rapid speaking must not be attempted until the habit of stammering is completely subdued. Nervous excitement and confusion must be avoided as much as possible, and the general health attended to, as circumstances may direct. This variety of stammering is commonly distinguished by the person being able to sing without hesitation. Stammering depending on elongation of the uvula, and other like causes, may be generally removed by a simple surgical operation.

=STAN′NIC ACID.= Peroxide of tin.

=STARCH.= C_{6}H_{10}O_{5}. Syn. AMYLACEOUS FECULA; AMYLUM, L. One of the most important and widely diffused of the proximate principles of vegetables being found, in greater or less quantity, in every plant. The mealy and farinaceous seeds, fruits, roots, and the stem-pith of certain trees, consist chiefly of starch in a nearly pure state. Wheat contains about 75% and potatoes about 15% of this substance. From these sources the fecula is obtained by rasping or grinding to pulp the vegetable structure, and washing the mass upon a sieve, by which the torn cellular tissue is retained, whilst the starch passes through with the liquid, and eventually settles down from the latter as a soft, white, insoluble powder, which, after being thoroughly washed with cold water, is dried in the air, or with a very gentle heat.

WHEAT STARCH (AMYLUM, B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.) is commonly prepared by steeping the flour in water for a week, or a fortnight, during which time the saccharine portion ferments and the starch granules become freed, for the most part, from the glutinous matter which envelops them, by the disintegrating and solvent action of the lactic acid generated by the fermentation. The sour liquor is then drawn off, and the feculous residue washed on a sieve; what passes through is allowed to settle, when the liquid is again drawn off, and the starch thoroughly washed from the slimy matter; it is then drained in perforated boxes, cut up into square lumps, placed on porous bricks to absorb the moisture, and, lastly, air- or stove-dried.

In the preparation of starch from potatoes (potato starch) and other like vegetable substances, the roots or tubers, after being washed and peeled, either by hand-labour or by machinery, are rasped by a revolving grater, and the pulp washed on hair sieves until freed from feculous matter. Successive portions of the pulp are thus treated until the vessel over which the sieves are placed, or into which the washings run, is sufficiently full. The starch held in suspension in the water having subsided to the bottom, the water is drawn off, and the starch stirred up with fresh water, and again allowed to subside. This operation is repeated several times, with fresh water, until the starch is rendered sufficiently pure for commercial purposes, when it is washed and dried as before. The waste fibres and the washing waters are used as manure.

The starch manufactory at Hohenziatz treated 1216 tons of potatoes for starch between the 4th October, 1874, and the 6th February, 1875. The waste water after passing through precipitating vats, &c., for the purpose of collecting all the particles of starch, was conducted into a reservoir and mixed with spring water. This water was conducted over a meadow of 18·5 acres, and then passed to a meadow of 4·95 acres, and from this to the third and last, which contained 6·19 acres. The 29·64 acres received the water from 1064 tons of potatoes, or for each acre 4·38 cwt. of potash, 1·26 cwt. of phosphoric acid and 1·27 of nitrogen.

The following table shows analysis (1) of potato water; (2) of the same diluted; (3) of water from the first meadow; (4) water from the second meadow; 1 litre contained——

1. 2. 3. 4.

mg. mg. mg. mg.

Whole solid matter 1857·8 323·8 322·8 262·0 Organic matter 1134·2 101·8 38·0 78·8 Inorganic matter 723·8 222·0 348·8 183·2 Potash 212·5 55·0 41·2 8·2 Phosphoric acid 56·6 5·5 trace trace Nitrogen 140·7 12·0 4·0 9·1 Ammonia 37·4 0 0 0 Nitric acid 3·8 trace trace trace

The disappearance of ammonia and phosphoric acid in 2 is accounted for by the precipitation of phosphate of magnesium and ammonium on the addition of the spring water.

The harvest in hay before the use of potato water was 19·13 cwt. per acre, and afterwards 31·88 cwt. The composition of the hay is better than before, as will be seen by the following comparative table:——

1 2

Moisture 15·00 15·00 Woody matter 22·66 22·88 Mineral matter 7·64 8·69 Sol. in ether 2·00 2·30 Albumen 10·89 15·85 Extractable matter } not containing } 41·81 35·34 nitrogen } —————— —————— 100·00 100·00[192]

[Footnote 192: ‘Dingl. Polyt. Jour.,’ ccxxv, 394-396 (‘Journ. Chem. Soc,’).]

In the manufacture of starch from rice and Indian corn (rice starch, maize starch), a very dilute solution of caustic soda, containing about 200 gr. of alkali to each gallon of liquid, is employed to facilitate the disintegration and separation of the gluten and other nitrogenised matters. A weak solution of ammonia, or sesquicarbonate of ammonia, is also similarly employed with advantage. The gluten may be recovered by saturating the alkali with dilute sulphuric acid. Such starch does not require boiling, and is less apt than wheat starch to attract moisture from the atmosphere. Most of the so-called ‘wheaten starch’ of commerce used by laundresses is now prepared from rice.

To whiten the starches made from damaged roots and grains, and the coarser portions of those from sound ones, a little solution of chloride of lime is occasionally added to the water, followed by another water containing a very little dilute sulphuric acid; every trace of the last being afterwards removed by the copious use of pure soft or spring water.

The bluish-white starch used by laundresses is coloured with a mixture of smalts and alum in water, and is regarded as unfit for medicinal purposes.

Prop., &c. Starch is insoluble in cold water, and in alcohol and most other liquids, but it readily forms a gelatinous compound (amidin) with water at about 175° Fahr.; alcohol and most of the astringent salts precipitate it from its solutions; infusion of galls throws down a copious yellowish precipitate, containing tannic acid, which is redissolved by heating the liquid; heat and dilute acids convert it into dextrin and grape sugar; strong alkaline lyes dissolve it, and ultimately decompose it. Sp. gr. 1·53.

To the naked eye it presents the appearance of a soft, white, and often glistening powder; under the microscope it is seen to be altogether destitute of crystalline structure, but to possess, on the contrary, a kind of organisation, being made of multitudes of little rounded transparent bodies, upon each of which a series of depressed parallel rings, surrounding a central spot or hilum, may be traced. The starch granules from different plants vary both in magnitude and form. Those of potato starch and canna starch (tous les mois) are the largest, and those of rice and millet starch the smallest, the dimensions ranging from 1/200 to the 1/10000 of an inch. The granules of arrow-root and tous les mois are ovoid, those of potato starch both oblong and circular those of tapioca muller-shaped, and those of wheat starch circular.

Identif. One of the commonest frauds practised upon the profession and the public is the admixture of the cheaper kinds of starch, chiefly potato farina, with arrow-root, and vending manufactured for genuine tapioca, sago, and other articles of diet, used for invalids and children. These sophistications are most easily detected with a good microscope.[193]

[Footnote 193: Drawings of the principal starches will be found under the substances from which they are obtained, as “arrow-root,” &c.]

=Starch, I′odide of.= Syn. AMYLI IODIDUM, AMYLI IODATUM, L. Prep. (Ph. Castr. Ruthena.) Iodine, 24 gr.; rectified spirit, a few drops; rub them to a powder; then add of starch, 1 oz., and again triturate, until the mass assumes a uniform colour. Recommended by Dr A. Buchanan, of Glasgow, as producing the alterative effects of iodine, without the usual irritant action of that medicine.——Dose. A teaspoonful, or more, in water-gruel, or any bland liquid, twice or thrice a day.

=Starch, Soluble Iodide of.= (Petit.) Prep. Iodine, 12 grammes; starch, 100 grammes; ether, q. s. Dissolve the iodine in the ether, pour the resulting solution over the starch, and triturate until the ether has sufficiently evaporated. Put the product in a porcelain capsule and expose it to the heat of a boiling water bath for half an hour, with occasional stirring. This treatment is sufficient to render it entirely soluble in hot water.

Dr Bellini strongly recommends iodide of starch as a valuable antidote in cases of poisoning by caustic alkalies, alkaline, or earthy sulphides, and vegetable alkaloids. The advantages attending its employment, he says, are: that it may be administered in large doses; that it does not possess the irritating properties of free iodine; and that it readily forms harmless compounds with the substances named. To avoid the subsequent decomposition of the latter, he advises its administration to be followed by an emetic. As an antidote to alkaline and earthy sulphides, the author thinks it preferable to all others. In cases of poisoning by ammonia, caustic potash, or soda, it is applicable when acid drinks are not on hand.

=STARCHING (Clear).= Muslins, &c., are ‘clear-starched’ or ‘got-up’ by laundresses in the following manner:——Rinse the articles in three waters, dry them, and dip them into thick-made starch, which has been previously strained through a piece of muslin; squeeze them, shake them gently, and again hang them up to dry; when they are dry, dip them twice or thrice into clear water, squeeze them, spread them on a linen cloth, roll them up in it, and let them lie an hour before ironing them. Some persons put a morsel of sugar into the starch, to prevent its sticking whilst ironing, and others stir the starch with a candle to effect the same end; both these practices are as injurious as unnecessary. The best plan to prevent sticking is simply to use the best starch, and to make it well, and to have the irons quite clean and highly polished. Mr W. B. Tegetmeier recommends the addition of a small piece of paraffin (a piece of paraffin candle-end) to the starch, to increase the glossiness of the ironed fabric.

=STARS.= (In pyrotechny.) Prop. 1. (Brilliant——Marsh.) Nitrate, 52-1/2 parts; sulphur and black antimony, of each 13 parts; reduce them to powder, make them into a stiff paste with isinglass, 1-1/2 parts, dissolved in a mixture of vinegar, 6-1/2 parts; and spirits of wine, 13 parts; lastly, form this into small pieces, and whilst moist, roll them in meal gunpowder.

2. (WHITE——Ruggieri.) Nitre, 16 parts; sulphur, 7 parts; gunpowder, 4 parts; as the last.

3. (GOLDEN RAIN.)——a. (Ruggieri.) Nitre and gunpowder, of each 16 parts; sulphur, 10 parts; charcoal, 4 parts; lampblack, 2 parts; mix, and pack it into small paper tubes.

b. (Ruggieri.) Nitre, 16 parts; sulphur and gunpowder, of each 8 parts; charcoal and lampblack, of each 2 parts; as the last.

c. (Marsh.) Mealed gunpowder, 66-3/4 parts; sulphur, 11 parts; charcoal, 22-1/4 parts; as before. Used for the ‘garniture’ of rockets, &c. See PYROTECHNY.

=STAVES′ACRE.= Syn. STAVESACRE SEEDS; STAPHISAGRIÆ SEMINA, STAPHISAGRIA (Ph. L. & D.), L. “The seed of Delphinium Staphisagria, Linn.” (Ph. L.) This article is powerfully emetic and cathartic, but is now scarcely ever used internally. Mixed with hair powder, it is used to kill lice. An infusion or ointment made with it is said to be infallible in itch, but its use requires some caution.

=STAYS.= Syn. CORSET. Stays, “before womanhood, are instruments of barbarity and torture, and then they are needed only to give beauty to the chest. It is the duty of every mother, and every guardian of children, to inquire the purpose for which stays were introduced into female attire. Was it for warmth? If so, they certainly fulfil the intention very badly, and are much inferior to an elastic woollen habit, or one of silk quilted with wool. Was it to force the ribs, while yet soft and pliable, into the place of the liver and stomach, and the two latter into the space allotted for other parts, to engender disease and deformity to the sufferer and her children for generations? Truly, if this were the object, the device is most successful, and the intention most ingeniously fulfilled.” (Eras. Wilson.)

“Only observe,” exclaimed Dr John Hunter——“only observe, if the statue of the Medicean Venus were to be dressed in stays, and her beautiful feet compressed into a pair of execrably tight shoes, it would extort a smile from an Heraclitus, and a horse-laugh from a Cynic.”

“The Turkish ladies express horror at seeing Englishwomen so tightly laced.” (Lady M. W. Montague.) See DISTORTIONS.

=STEAM.= The application of steam of the laboratory, as a source of heat, is commonly effected by means of double pans, to the space between which steam, at a moderate pressure, is introduced, the arrangements being such as to permit of the condensed steam, or distilled water, being removed, by means of a cock, nearly as soon as formed, or as may be desirable. Another plan is to place coils of metal pipe along the bottom of cisterns, vats, &c., formed either of wood or metal, and to keep them supplied with high-pressure steam.

“It is quite susceptible of positive proof that by no arrangement yet discovered, can more than two thirds of the heat generated by a given quantity of coal, during combustion, be fairly absorbed and utilised in any of our manufactories; and, moreover, there are undeniable facts, which demonstrate that seldom, in the burning of coal, are more than three fourths of the total heat, which might be eliminated, actually obtained; thus justifying the supposition that one half of all the coal now consumed is virtually wasted and lost to society.” To lessen, as much as possible, this loss various improvements have been made, “which, for the most part, have consisted in lengthening the flues, and exposing a larger surface of the boiler to the action of the heated air passing from the furnace to the chimney.” “Remembering that air is an extremely bad conductor of heat, and that water about to be converted into steam is also a bad conductor, it is evident that time must form an important element in the perfect transmission of heat from one of these to the other; and hence, with a great velocity of current existing in the flues, very little heat would pass from air, however high its temperature, to water contained in a boiler, and so circumstanced with respect to its all but gaseous condition.” The results of the experiments on fuel made at the Museum of Practical Geology by Sir H. de la Beche and Dr Lyon Playfair go clearly to show that “to open the damper of a steam-boiler furnace is pretty generally to diminish the effective power of the fuel.” “Great waste of coal now arises from this simple circumstance; and much of the heat of the fire, which ought to go to the boiler, is lost by its (too) hasty transmission up the chimney. If, however, there be thus far room for improvement in the direction just indicated, still wider is the vacant space, caused by imperfect combustion, or, in technical phrase, ‘bad stoking,’ merely because the stoker, to economise his labour, and to avoid trouble, throws on to the bars of his furnace a thick layer of fuel, by which loss is caused in two or three directions.” These are, principally, imperfect combustion, and the volatilisation of fuel, as smoke, &c., from an insufficient supply of air, and from a mass of mere red-hot coke or cinder, two or three inches thick, lying between the boiler and the hottest part of the furnace; which last, according to Dr Kennedy, is about one inch above the fire-bars. Besides which, “in passing over this red-hot coke, the carbonic acid would be converted into carbonic oxide, and thus not only remove a quantity of carbon equal to its own, without yielding any additional heat, but actually with the production of cold, or, in other words, the absorption of heat.” (‘Dict. Arts, Manuf., and Mines.’) This points to the evident policy of using a smoke-consuming furnace, as noticed elsewhere.

Another matter worthy of remark is the constant waste of heat, and, consequently, of fuel, in laboratories and manufactories in which steam is employed, owing to the exposed condition of the pipes, boilers, and pans. All of these should be well ‘clothed’ or covered by some non-conducting medium, to prevent loss of heat by radiation, and by contact with the atmosphere. Not only does economy dictate such a course, but the health and comfort of the workpeople demand that the atmosphere in which they labour should be as little heated and poisoned as possible.

TABLE _of corresponding Pressure and Temperatures of Steam_. By ARAGO and DULONG.

+------------------+------------++------------------+------------+ |Pressure |Temperature,||Pressure |Temperature,| |in | ||in | | |Atmospheres.[194] | Fahr. ||Atmospheres.[194] | Fahr. | |------------------+------------++------------------+------------+ | | Degrees. || | Degrees. | | 1 | 212· || 13 | 380·66 | | 1-1/2 | 234· || 14 | 386·94 | | 2 | 250·5 || 15 | 392·86 | | 2-1/2 | 263·8 || 16 | 398·48 | | 3 | 275·2 || 17 | 403·83 | | 3-1/2 | 285· || 18 | 408·92 | | 4 | 293·7 || 19 | 413·78 | | 4-1/2 | 300·3 || 20 | 418·46 | | 5 | 307·5 || 21 | 422·96 | | 5-1/2 | 314·24 || 22 | 427·28 | | 6 | 320·36 || 23 | 431·42 | | 6-1/2 | 326·26 || 24 | 435·56 | | 7 | 331·7 || 25 | 439·34 | | 7-1/2 | 336·86 || 30 | 457·16 | | 8 | 341·78 || 35 | 472·73 | | 9 | 350·78 || 40 | 486·59 | | 10 | 358·88 || 45 | 499·14 | | 11 | 366·85 || 50 | 510·6 | | 12 | 374· || | | +------------------+------------++------------------+------------+

[Footnote 194: Estimating 14·6 lbs. = 1 atmosphere.]

A cubic inch of water, during its conversion into steam, under the ordinary pressure of the atmosphere, expands into 1696 cubic inches, or nearly a cubic foot.

One part, by weight, of steam, at 212° Fahr., when condensed into cold water, is found to be capable of raising 5·6 parts of the latter from the freezing to the boiling point. See FUEL, PIT-COAL, SMOKE, &c.

=STEAR′IC ACID.= HC_{18}H_{35}O_{2}. Syn. STEARIN (Commercial). This is obtained from stearin (see below), by saponification.

Prep. 1. Repeatedly dissolve and crystallise commercial stearic acid in hot alcohol, until its melting point becomes constant at not less than 158° Fahr. Pure.

2. (Chevreul.) Saponify mutton suet with caustic potassa, and dissolve the newly formed soap in 6 times its weight of hot water; to the solution add 40 or 50 parts of cold water, and set the mixture aside in a temperature of about 52° Fahr.; after a time separate the pearly matter (stearate and margarate of potassa) which falls, drain and wash it on a filter, and dissolve it in 24 parts of hot alcohol of sp. gr. ·820; collect the stearate of potassa which falls as the liquid cools, recrystallise it in alcohol, and decompose it, in boiling water, with hydrochloric acid; lastly, wash the disengaged stearic acid in hot water, and dry it.

3. (Commercial.) Ordinary tallow is boiled in large wooden vessels, by means of high pressure steam, with about 16% of hydrate of lime (equiv. to 11% of pure lime), for 3 or 4 hours, or until the combination is complete, and an earthy soap is formed, when the whole is allowed to cool; the product (stearate of lime) is then transferred to another wooden vessel, and decomposed by adding to it 4 parts of oil of vitriol (diluted with water) for every 3 parts of slaked lime previously employed, the action being promoted by steam heat and brisk agitation; after repose, the liberated fat is decanted from the sediment (sulphate of lime) and water, and is then well washed with water, and by blowing steam into it; it is next allowed to cool, when it is reduced to shavings by means of a number of knives worked by machinery, and in this divided state is placed in canvas bags and submitted to the action of a powerful hydraulic press, by which a large portion of the oleic acid which it contains is expelled; the pressed cakes are then a second time exposed to the action of steam and water, again cooled, and coarsely powdered, and again submitted to the joint action of steam and pressure; they are, lastly, melted, and cast into blocks for sale.

Obs. This product is a more or less impure mixture of stearic acid and other fatty bodies, particularly the so-called margaric acid, now generally regarded as a mixture of palmitic and stearic acids. The hard, fatty acids of vegetable origin (palmitic, cocinic, myristic, &c.), now so extensively used as candle materials, are obtained from the natural oils and butters by the process known as ‘sulphuric acid saponification,’ which consists in treating the fatty bodies with 5 or 6% of concentrated sulphuric acid at a high temperature (about 350° Fahr., produced by superheated steam), and distilling the resulting mass by the aid of steam heated to about 560° Fahr. Frequently the operations of hot and cold pressing are resorted to in order to free the product from the softer fats.

By a patent process employed at Price’s candle works the natural vegetable fats are decomposed into their constituents (fatty acids and glycerin) by the action of superheated steam alone, without previous ‘saponification’ with lime or sulphuric acid.

Another method for the preparation of commercial stearic acid is that of Messrs Moinier and Bontigny. This process is thus described in the ‘Chemical Technology’ of Messrs Ronalds and Richardson:——Two tons of tallow and 900 gall. of water are introduced into a large rectangular vat of about 270 feet capacity.

The tallow is melted by means of steam admitted through a pipe coiled round the bottom, and the whole kept at the boiling heat for an hour, during which a current of sulphurous acid is forced in. At the end of this period 6 cwt. of lime, made into milk with 350 gall. of water, are added. The mixture soon acquires consistence, and becomes frothy and viscid. The whole is now agitated in order to regulate the ebullitions, and prevent the sudden swelling up of the soapy materials. The pasty appearance of the lime soap succeeds, and it then agglomerates into small nodular masses.

The admission of sulphurous acid is now stopped; but the injection of the steam is continued until the small masses become hard and homogeneous. The whole period occupies eight hours, but the admission of the sulphurous acid is discontinued at the end of about three hours. The water containing the glycerin is run off through a tube into cisterns prepared to receive it.

The arrangements for preparing sulphurous acids are retorts, into which are put sulphuric acid and pieces of wood; upon the application of heat the sulphurous acid passes off, and is conveyed by leaden pipes into the vessels containing the tallow. The lime soap formed is then moistened with 12 cwt. of sulphuric acid, at 150° Fahr., diluted with 50 gall. of water. The whole is thoroughly agitated and the steam cautiously admitted, so as not to dilute the acid too much until the decomposition is general at all points. This occupies about 3 hours, and in 2 or 3 hours more the sulphate of lime has collected at the bottom, while the fatty acids are floating on the surface of the solution of the bisulphate of lime. Several processes of washing with steam and water are necessary to ensure the removal of the sulphate of lime, &c., and after settling for 4 hours the fatty acids are forced through a fixed siphon, into a vat, where they are again washed with water; they are then siphoned at last into a trough lined with lead, on the bottom of which are placed leaden gutters, pierced below by long pegs of wood. The fatty acids are then placed in clothes and subjected to pressure in the stearin cold press.

In 1871 Professor Boek of Copenhagen, after a careful microscopic and chemical investigation, discovered that the neutral fats were composed of a congeries of little globules enclosed in albuminous envelopes. To the presence of these latter substances in the fat he attributed the difficulty of eliminating the fatty acids from it by means either of sulphuric acid, except in excess, or of alkali, except under great pressure; conceiving that both these agents as employed under the usual methods were expended in rupturing and destroying the albuminous coverings.

The inconveniences arising from the above processes are, in the case of the excess of the sulphuric acid, a considerable destruction of the fatty acid, as well as the necessity of its distillation, and the consequent danger of conflagration; whilst in the case of the alkali, this must either be used in quantities much greater than theory requires, or else be heated under great pressure, at the risk of giving rise to an explosion.

In Professor Boek’s process these dangers, together with the waste of material, are avoided. By submitting the fat for a limited time and at a given temperature to the action of a small quantity of sulphuric acid, the albuminous envelopes are broken and partly destroyed. The neutral fat thus liberated is then placed in open tanks in water, by which, after the expiration of several hours, it becomes decomposed. When this is completely effected the glycerin, dissolved in the water used for the decomposition, is removed; the fatty acids which remain behind, and which amount to 94 per cent. of the original fat, being at this stage of the operation dark brown or blackish in colour.

In this condition they are placed in open tanks, and dilute solutions of certain agents are poured upon them, whereby the albuminous débris as well as the colouring matters with which they are associated become oxidised, whilst the specific gravity of these latter is in consequence so increased as to cause them to subside to the bottom of the tank, leaving the fatty acids, now greatly whitened, on the upper part of the liquid.

The acids after being washed 2 or 3 times with dilute acid and water are then cooled, and hot-pressed in the usual manner, and the stearic acid thus obtained is said to have a higher melting point, and to be larger in yield than that obtained by any other method, an oleic acid of excellent quality being at the same time produced.

In 1874 a French patent was taken out for an improvement in the manufacture of stearic acid. The patentee employs carbon disulphide to increase the fluidity of the oleic acid, so that the warm pressure of the crude stearic acid is avoided. The addition of the carbon disulphide may be made either before or after the cold pressing of the stearic acid. The crude fat acid is melted in a special apparatus, and 20 per cent. of the disulphide is mixed with it whilst in the fluid state. It is then left to cool and subjected to cold pressure. The stearic acid thus obtained should be free from oleic acid.

Prop., &c. Pure stearic acid crystallises in milk-white needles, which are soluble in ether and in cold alcohol, and forms salts with the bases, called stearates. The commercial acid is made into candles. See CANDLES, FAT, OILS (Fixed), and TALLOW.

=STE′ARIN.= C_{57}H_{110}O_{6}. The solid portion of fats which is insoluble in cold alcohol.

Prep. Pure strained mutton suet is melted in a glass flask along with 7 or 8 times its weight of ether, and the solution allowed to cool; the soft, pasty, semi-crystalline mass is then transferred to a cloth and is strongly pressed as rapidly as possible, in order to avoid unnecessary evaporation; the solid portion is then redissolved in ether, and the solution allowed to crystallise, as before. The product is nearly pure.

Prop., &c. White; semi-crystalline; insoluble in water and cold alcohol; soluble in 225 parts of cold ether, and freely so in boiling ether. It melts at 130° Fahr. The stearin of commerce is stearic acid.

=STEAROP′TEN.= The name given by Herberger to the concrete portion or camphor of volatile oils. Bizio calls it stereusin.

=STEEL.= This important material may be defined as iron chemically combined with sufficient carbon to give it extreme toughness and hardness without brittleness. According to one of our greatest authorities on metallurgy, steel should contain from ·833% to 1·67% of carbon, these numbers referring respectively to the softest and the hardest varieties.

By some authorities silicon in small quantities is supposed to be a useful ingredient in steel, and to increase its capacity for being hardened; an opinion dissented from by others, who hold that its presence has a tendency to interfere with the welding of the metal. Faraday and Stodart believed that the addition of small quantities of chromium and iridium to steel served to improve its quality, and the same has been asserted of tungsten and titanium; but on these points there is still a divergence of opinion, and no satisfactory decision has yet been arrived at concerning them.

Manganese has also been credited with the property of improving steel, but as it has been found that only a very minute quantity of the manganese is taken up by the steel, an indirect influence may possibly be exercised by it, viz. its power of uniting with the stage, and of carrying away any prejudicial excess of sulphur and phosphorus with it; and in this manner it may contribute to the increased purity of the metal. The addition of manganese to cast steel constitutes Mr Heath’s patent, the chief advantage of which is that blistered steel made from British bar iron can be substituted for the much more expensive Swedish and Russian iron, in certain branches of iron manufacture.

“Among the various substances which are frequently present in malleable iron and in cast iron, those which are more prejudicial to the quality of steel are sulphur, phosphorus, and copper. The amount of sulphur in steel of the best quality rarely exceeds ·012; within the limit of ·1 per cent. it is considered to render the metal more capable of being welded at a moderate heat, but to make it red short. Phosphorus also renders steel more capable of being welded, and at the same time makes its cold short when it amounts to ·1 per cent. The best steel rarely contains so much. Copper renders steel decidedly red short when present in very small amount, and for this reason iron smelted from ores containing copper pyrites is not suitable for making steel.”[195]

[Footnote 195: Payen.]

Within the last few years great attention has been paid to the investigation of the chemistry of steel. The researches of Despretz and Fremy tend to the conclusion that nitrogen exercises a very important influence over the phenomena of ‘steeling,’ and that carbon plays a less necessary part; while those of Caron and Deville still refer the formation of steel to the chemical combination of iron with carbon. There is no test of the value of steel beyond its elasticity and temper, and the fineness, equality, and smoothness of its grain.

Cast iron, wrought iron, and steel are all combinations of iron and carbon, differing in the amount they contain of the latter element. As cast iron contains a larger and wrought iron a smaller proportion of carbon than steel, it follows that to convert the cast iron into steel, its excess of carbon must be removed; whilst conversely, to make the wrought iron into steel, the requisite amount of carbon must be added to it.

Thus it is that the various processes for the manufacture of steel (with the exception of those which propose to obtain it direct from the ores) are directed to one or other of these ends, viz. the decarburation of cast or pig iron, and the carburation of wrought or malleable iron.

1. In the first, or decarburation method, the oxygen of the air plays an important part. Best carbon is heated with coal or charcoal, in some works on the refining hearth, in others upon the bed of the puddling furnace. The oxygen burnt off the excess of carbon from the iron and steel is left. Payen says that when the iron contains slag, the ferrous silicate present in this takes part in the reaction.

The steel obtained by this method is called natural steel. It is afterwards subjected to forging, and being of inferior quality is employed in the manufacture of springs for machinery, railway carriages, wheel tyres, ploughs, and other farming implements.

_The following Table, from ‘Payen’s Industrial Chemistry’ gives the Composition of several kinds of Steel._

+--------------+---------+------+------+------+---------------+ | | | | | | Carbon. | | | | | | +------+--------+ |Kind of Steel.|Locality.| Fe. | Mn. | Cu. |Comb- |Graphi- | | | | | | |ined. | tic. | +--------------+---------+------+------+------+------+--------+ |Natural Steel |Siegen | ... | ... |·379 |1·698 | ... | |Ditto |Solingen | ... | ... | ... |1·570 | ... | |Puddled Steel |Hartz | ... |0·12 | ... |1·380 | ... | |Cement Steel |English | ... | ... | ... |1·807 | ... | |Ditto |German | ... | ... | ... | ·416 | ·080 | |Cast Steel |Sheffield| ... | ... | ... | ·950 | ·220 | |Ditto |Ditto | ... | ... | ... | 1·758 | |Ditto |French | ... | ... | ... | ·65 | |Sword Steel |Damascus | ... | ·070 | ... | 1·089 | |Ditto |Ditto | ... |trace | ... | ·775 | |Wootz |Indian | ... | ... | ... | 1·500 | |Ditto |Ditto |98·092| ... | ... |1·333 ·312 | |Cast Steel |German | ... |trace |·300 | 1·180 | |Ditto |English | ... |·024 |·066 | 1·275 | |Bessemer Steel|Dowlais | ... |·576 |·025 | ·490 | |Ditto |Sweden | ... |trace | ... | ·085 | |Ditto | ... | ... |·179 | ... | ·300 | |Ditto | ... | ... |·256 | ... | ·700 | |Ditto | ... | ... |·468 | ... | ·950 | |Ditto | ... | ... |·355 | ... | 1·050 | |Wired |Barrow- | ... |·214 | ... | ·200 | | |in-Furness | | | | |Rail Heads |German | ... |·386 | ... | ·138 | |Rails | ... | ... |·264 | ... | ·150 | |Ditto | ... | ... |·638 | ... | ·046 | |Boiler Plates | ... | ... |·136 | ... | ·250 | |Ditto | ... | ... |·273 | ... | ·300 | +--------------+---------+------+------+------+---------------+

+--------------+-----+-------+-----+----------+ |Kind of Steel.| Si. | S. | P. |Authority.| +--------------+-----+-------+-----+----------+ |Natural Steel |·038 | ... | ... |Karsten. | |Ditto |·020 | ... | ... |Lampadius.| |Puddled Steel |·006 |(at·12)|trace|Brauns. | |Cement Steel |·100 | ... | ... |Berthier. | |Ditto | ... | ... | ... |Bromeis. | |Cast Steel | ... | ... | ... |Ditto. | |Ditto | ... | ... | ... |Karsten. | |Ditto |·040 | ... | ... | ... | |Sword Steel | ... |(Ni·07 Wo·01)| ... | |Ditto | ... |(Ni·21 | ... | | | |Co trace | | | | |Wo trace) | | |Wootz |·600 | ... | ... | ... | |Ditto |·045 |(as 037) ... |Henry. | |Cast Steel |·330 |(Ni ·12) ·020| ... | |Ditto |·213 |(as·007) ...| ... | |Bessemer Steel|·009 |·003 | ·036| ... | |Ditto |·008 |trace | ·025|Brusewitz.| |Ditto |·044 | do. | ·033| Ditto. | |Ditto |·032 | do. | ...| Ditto. | |Ditto |·047 | do. | ·032| Ditto. | |Ditto |·067 | do. | ...| Ditto. | |Wired |·179 |·030 | ·026| Ditto. | |Rail Heads |·306 |·040 | ·034| Ditto. | |Rails |·091 |·025 | ·032| Ditto. | |Ditto |·634 |·045 | ·093| Ditto. | |Boiler Plates |·016 |·010 | ... | Ditto. | |Ditto |·056 |·040 | ·041| Ditto. | +--------------+-----+-------+-----+----------+

Krupp’s cast steel, manufactured at Essen, near Cologne, is a natural steel, being made on the bed of a puddling furnace. It is obtained from hæmatite and spathic ore, coke being used for the smelting. The proportion of carbon in Krupp’s steel is about 1·2 per cent. When required for ordnance it is fused with a little bar iron in pots, each of which holds 30 lbs. It sometimes happens that in the manufacture of a huge gun or cannon the contents of as many as 1200 of these pots are required. When this is the case the pots are emptied of their molten contents simultaneously into a channel leading to the cast, 400 well-drilled men being required to carry out the operation.

It is very essential that castings of such magnitude should be allowed to cool very gradually. They are therefore enveloped in hot cinders for two or three months, after which they are ready for the forging.

2. The carburation method. This is generally effected by the process known as ‘cementation,’ which is carried out as follows:——Two chests, made of fire-brick or stone, one narrow end of each of which is shown in the accompanying plate, are so fixed in a dome-shaped furnace, so that the flames from the hearth beneath can effectually play around them.

The process renders it necessary that the temperature of the furnace should be steadily maintained for some days; and this is achieved by surrounding the furnace with a conical wall of brick-work, as shown in the cut. The chests are usually about 10 or 12 feet in length, 3 feet in height, and 3 feet in depth. A layer of charcoal of a fineness to pass through a sieve of a 1/4 inch mesh, or of soot, is placed on the bottom of each chest, and upon this the bars of wrought iron which are intended for conversion into steel. The bars inside must be of iron of the best quality, and generally about 3 inches broad and 3/4 of an inch thick. When arranged regularly a little distance apart, the interstices between them are filled up with charcoal, with which they are then covered to a depth of about an inch. Similar layers of bars, similarly arranged, succeed to this first one, until the chests are filled.

They are then covered in to a depth of 6 inches with a luting of damp clay or sand. Each chest when thus filled contains from 5 to 6 tons of iron. One of the bars projects through an opening at the end of the chest, to facilitate an inspection of it from time to time by a workman, so that he may be enabled to judge of the progress of the operation. The materials of which the chests are composed render it important that the temperature of the furnace should be carefully and gradually increased, as a too sudden accession of heat would lead to the splitting of the chests. The temperature necessary to effect the carburation of the iron has been found to be that required for the melting of copper, viz. 1996° Fahr. When this temperature is reached it is maintained for eight or ten days, or even longer, the period depending upon the thickness of the iron, and the degree of hardness it is desired it shall possess. Six or eight days are sufficient to yield steel of a moderate degree of hardness. At the end of the requisite time the fire is gradually put out, and the chests as gradually cooled, a process which occupies about another ten days.

The effect of the treatment to which the iron bars have been subjected has been, in the first place, to entirely alter their interior structure; for if they are broken asunder at any part, instead of showing the fibrous arrangement observable in bar iron, they present a closely granular one. In the second place, chemical analyses demonstrate that the iron has combined with about 1 per cent. of carbon, and that this combination has not only taken place on the surface of the bar, but has extended throughout its whole substance. It is because of this perfect impregnation of the iron by the solid carbon that the process by which it has thus been converted into steel is called ‘cementation.’

Two suggestions have been offered in explanation of the blistered surface presented by the steel. One of these, the theory of Mr T. H. Henry, is that part of the carbon in penetrating into the body of the bar iron had combined with the small quantity of sulphur present in the iron, and that the bisulphide of carbon thus formed becoming vaporised by the elevated temperature, in escaping through the soft surface of the metal, has caused its blistered condition. The second conjecture is that the blebs have arisen from the extrication of carbonic oxide, which had been formed in the bar by the union of the carbon with the small quantity of oxide of iron or slag accidentally remaining in it.

Graham has shown that soft iron has the power of absorbing or occluding at a low red heat 4·15 times its volume of carbolic oxide, which the metal, when it becomes cold, retains, but which it parts with when subjected to a temperature such as that which prevailed in the cementation box. This fact seems to offer a reasonable confirmation of the reaction it has been surmised takes place during the cementation process, and which is supposed to be as follows:

The small quantity of atmospheric oxygen remaining in the chest unites with the carbon to form carbonic oxide. This carbonic oxide gives up half its carbon to the iron (which thereby becomes converted into steel), and in doing so changes to carbonic acid, which becomes reduced to carbonic oxide by the absorption of more carbon from the charcoal, which carbon the carbonic oxide again transfers to the iron.

The above reaction may not improbably occur throughout the substance of the bar. By some chemists, cyanogen compounds are supposed to be present in the cementation powder, and the cyanogen contained in these is supposed to be the carrier of the carbon to the iron.

“The blistered steel obtained by this process is, as would be expected, far from uniform, either in composition or texture; some portions of the bar contain more carbon than others, and the interior contains numerous cavities. In order to improve its quality it is subjected to a process of fagotting similar to that employed in the case of bar iron; the bars of blistered steel, being cut into short lengths are made up into bundles, which are raised to a welding heat, and placed under a tilt hammer weighing about 2 cwt., which strikes 200 or 300 blows in a minute; in this way, the several bars are consolidated into one compound bar, which is then extended under the hammer till of the required dimensions.

“The bars, before being hammered, are sprinkled with sand, which combines with the oxide of iron upon the surface, and forms a vitreous layer which protects the bar from oxidation. The steel which has been thus hammered is much denser and more uniform in composition; its tenacity, malleability, and ductibility are greatly increased, and it is fitted for the manufacture of shears, files, and other tools. It is commonly known as shear steel. Double shear steel is obtained by breaking the tilted bars in two, and welding these into a compound bar. The best variety of steel, however, which is perfectly homogeneous in composition, is that known as cast steel, to obtain which about 30 lbs. of blistered steel are broken into fragments, and fused in a fire-clay or plumbago crucible, heated in a wind furnace, the surface of the metal being protected from oxidation by a little glass melted upon it. The fused steel is cast into ingots, several crucibles being emptied simultaneously into the same mould. Cast steel is far superior in density and hardness to shear steel, but, since it is exceedingly brittle at a red heat, great care is necessary in forging it. It has been found that, in addition to 100 parts of the cast steel, of one part of a mixture of charcoal and oxide of manganese, produces a very fine grained steel, which admits of being cast on to a bar of wrought iron in the ingot mould, so that the tenacity of the latter may compensate for the brittleness of the steel; when the compound bar is forged, the wrought iron forming the back of the implement, and the steel its cutting edge.”[196]

[Footnote 196: Bloxam’s ‘Chemistry Inorganic and Organic.’]

Another distinct method from the cementation one, by which the carburation of iron is affected, is that in which scrap or malleable iron is mixed with pig or cast iron, this latter being fused with the scrap iron in quantity sufficient to afford such an amount of carbon as is necessary to convert the mixture into steel. Steel made by this operation is entirely homogeneous, the tilting process which precedes the casting of the steel obtained by cementation is therefore unnecessary. The pig iron is placed on the bed (made of refractory sand) of one of Siemens’ regenerative furnaces, heated by gaseous fuel. The temperature in this furnace is so intense that the pig iron becomes perfectly liquid, and, when in this condition, the scrap iron, which has been previously heated to redness in an adjoining refractory furnace, is added, it becomes dissolved by it. Iron may also be carburetted by heating wrought iron bars in carburetted hydrogen. This process, however, is seldom had recourse to.

In the manufacture of Bessemer steel both the carburation and decarburation processes are practised. From 1 to 5 tons of pig or cast iron in a molten state are run from a contiguous blast, cupola, or reverberatory furnace, with an apparatus known as a converter, which is previously heated up to redness by means of coke. The converter is figured under two aspects in the annexed engraving.

This vessel, which is generally made of boiler plates of sheet iron, has an inside lining, consisting of a siliceous fireproof material, and is perforated at the bottom with a number of concentric little openings, which are the orifices of as many little tubes or tuyeres, that lead into an outside main tube, as shown in the plate. By means of these tubes condensed air is forced into the mass of melted metal, which is soon thrown into violent commotion, and sends out a shower of ignited sparks. The oxide of iron formed at the same time being set into active movement by the incoming blast of air, is brought into intimate contact with every particle of the carbon and silicon contained in the cast iron, and converts the former into carbonic oxide, which burns with its characteristic flame at the mouth of the converter, and the silica into silicic acid, which enters into the slag, and floats, in the form of foam, on the top of the heavier molten iron.

The removal of the carbon (which is known by the discontinuance of the carbonic oxide flame) being thus accomplished, the iron has next to be submitted to the carburetting operation. This is performed by running into the liquid iron in the converter such a quantity of molten pig or cast iron as contains the required proportion of carbon.

The pig iron used for this purpose generally contains, in addition to a large amount of carbon, a very perceptible quantity of manganese. The converter (as shown in the plate) is then by means of the trunnion tilted, so that its contents can be run into a ladle and transferred to the necessary moulds. The time of conversion occupies from ten to twenty minutes.

By Bessemer’s process the sulphur present in the pig iron is almost entirely eliminated; the greater part of the silicon is also separated, together with the carbon, and almost in the same proportion; but the phosphorus is not removed, and, owing to the oxidation of some iron, the amount is actually greater in the finished steel than in the pig iron.[197]

[Footnote 197: Payen’s ‘Industrial Chemistry,’ edited by B. H. Paul, Ph.D.]

Bessemer’s steel is in large demand, and is excellently suited for rails for railroads, cannon, boiler plates, armour plates, and similar heavy material, for the manufacture of which it has largely supplanted wrought iron, but not at all adapted for the manufacture of knives, razors, lancets, or similar instruments, in which a sharp or keen edge is desirable.

The Bessemer process, which is largely adopted by the manufacturers of steel throughout Europe and America, has proved a source of princely income to its inventor, who obtains a bounty of a shilling on every ton of steel made by it. In Europe alone in 1859 5-1/2 million cwts. Seventy per cent. of this quantity was the produce of British industry.

Latterly, attempts have been made to obtain steel direct from the ores. The efforts made in this direction have been greatly stimulated by the invention of the regenerating furnace of Siemens. In these furnaces, in which an intense temperature is obtained by means of the combustion of inflammable gases (chiefly consisting of carbonic oxide, hydrogen, and carburetted hydrogen), the ore after (in one process) being melted in hoppers by means of the burning gases, runs down, and is gradually dissolved in some melted pig iron placed on the hearth of the furnace. When this latter has been sufficiently diluted with the decarbonised iron the operation is complete.

Properties of Steel. The effects of temperature upon steel are remarkable, and a knowledge of them has proved of great practical utility in the manufacture of the various steel-ware articles that are so indispensable to our every-day wants and needs. If forged and soft steel is heated, and then suddenly cooled, it becomes hard, the hardness varying with the temperature and the rapidity with which this has been reduced. The higher the temperature and the more rapidly it is cooled, the greater will be its hardness. Steel, which has been heated until white-hot, and then suddenly plunged into a bath of cold mercury, acquires a hardness nearly equalling that of the diamond. That, however, which the steel gains in hardness, it loses in pliancy and elasticity, besides becoming so brittle as to be of no possible use.

Soft steel, which has been made hard by heating it to redness, and by subsequent sudden immersion in cold water, may be reconverted into soft steel by again heating it to redness and allowing it to cool suddenly. By stopping short, however, of heating it to redness, its hardness may be proportionally modified.

Hence steel articles, varying as much in the qualities of hardness and elasticity as a lancet and watch-spring, are made either by ‘heating down’ hard steel to requisite temperature and allowing it to cool, or by ‘heating up’ soft steel to the necessary point and also letting it gradually cool. When steel is so treated it is said to be tempered or annealed. If polished steel be heated over a flame to a temperature of 430° F. its surface becomes of a very pale yellow colour; the colour passes through different shades of yellow and blue with each successive increase of temperature, until when raised to 600° F. it becomes blackish blue.

These effects are due to the formation on the surface of the steel of films of oxide of different degrees of thickness, and to the action of the light on these. They are precisely analogous to those which are caused when a ray of reflected light falls upon any other body, the surface of which is composed of thin layers, which are continually changing in thickness, such as a soap-bubble, or a thin coating of tar or oil swimming on water, and which are exemplified in Newton’s rings.

As each shade of colour is an index of the temperature of the steel, and as this determines its adaptability for various purposes, all that the workman has to do, when he requires it for any special object, is to heat it by the proper methods (such as a bath of oil, or tallow, or melted metal) until it acquires the desired colour, and then to allow it to gradually cool.

The following table, exhibiting the different melting points of steel when employed in the manufacture of different kinds of works, together with the corresponding colours, the composition of the metallic baths, &c., is from Dr Wagner’s ‘Handbook of Chemical Technology,’ edited by W. Crookes, Esq., F.R.S.

Composition of Metallic Mixture. _____¦_____ Melting Lead. Tin. Point. Temperature.

Lancets 7 4 220° C Hardly pale yellow. Razors 8 4 228° ” Pale yellow to straw yellow. Penknives 8-1/2 4 232° ” Straw yellow. Pairs of scissors 14 4 254° ” Brown. Clasp-knives, joiners’ and } 19 4 265° ” Purplish colour. carpenters’ tools } Swords, cutlasses, watch- } 48 4 288° ” Bright blue. springs } Stilettos, boring tools, and} 50 2 292° ” Deep blue. fine saws } Ordinary saws {in boiling linseed} {oil } 316° ” Blackish blue.

Steel is of a greyish-white colour, and has a sp. gr. varying from 7·66 to 7·93. During hardening the sp. gr. becomes reduced from 7·93 to 7·66, whilst it experiences a slight increase of volume. The property (already pointed out) that steel possesses of becoming hard after being heated to redness, and suddenly chilled, does not belong to pure iron, such as may be obtained by electrolysis. Unlike pure iron, too, steel presents a granular instead of a fibrous structure when broken; the best samples closely resembling silver in this respect. The chemical difference between hard and soft steel appears to consist in the much more intimate combination of the carbon with the iron in the hard variety than in the soft. In this latter kind the carbon seems to be only mechanically mixed, for if it be immersed in hydrochloric acid the iron is dissolved, and leaves the carbon behind. Steel is the most tenacious of all the metals, being greater than that of either cast or malleable iron.

What is termed case-hardening (which see) is a process by which small articles of iron, such as keys, gun-locks, &c., are superficially converted into steel. It is performed by heating the articles in contact with iron filings or powdered charcoal. Another method is to make the iron substance red hot, and then to sprinkle powdered potassic ferrocyanide all over it.

=STEREOCHROMY.= This is a branch of the pictorial art confined to the embellishment of walls and monuments. In the operations by which it is accomplished it will be seen that the soluble silicates (water glass) play an important part.

The foundation for the future picture or coloured design must be of some durable stone or imperishable cement. Over this is first placed a layer of lime mortar, to which is applied when it is dry and has become sufficiently hard, a solution of water glass, by which all the interstices of the mortar are filled up. Another coating of mortar made of sharp sand and a lye of chalk is next laid on, and this, after it has been carefully smoothed, properly levelled on the surface, and become quite dry, is washed over and thoroughly impregnated with water-glass solution. When this last layer has become dry it is ready to receive the painting, which must be executed in water colours. After laying on these colours may be permanently fixed by covering them with water glass. The following are the colours used:——Zinc white, chrome green, chrome oxide, cobalt green, chrome red, zinc yellow, oxide of iron, sulphide of cadmium, ultramarine, ochre, &c. Vermillion is inadmissible, since, in fixing, it turns from red to brown. Cobalt ultramarine, on the contrary, increases greatly in brilliancy upon the application of the fixing solution. Stereochromatic paintings are found to be very durable, and impervious to damp, smoke, or variations of temperature.

=STE′REOTYPE METAL.= See TYPE METAL.

=STER′LING.= The truth of the old proverb, that “all is not gold which glitters,” is often painfully experienced by the purchaser of modern jewelry. The following table will, therefore, prove highly useful to the reader in determining the value of articles in gold, provided he ascertain the ‘fineness’ of the metal, either by examination or written warranty:——

_Sterling value of Gold of different degrees of ‘Fineness,’_

Carats. Value per Fine. oz. Troy. £ s. d. 24 carats 4 4 11-1/2 23 ” 4 1 5 22 ” (British standard) 3 17 10-1/2 21 ” 3 14 4 20 ” 3 10 9-1/2 19 ” 3 7 3 18 ” (lowest Hall-mark) 3 3 8-1/2 17 ” 3 0 2 16 ” 2 16 7-1/2 15 ” 2 13 1 14 ” 2 9 6-1/2 13 ” 2 6 0 12 ” 2 2 5-1/2 11 ” 1 18 11 10 ” 1 15 4-1/2 9 ” 1 11 10 8 ” 1 8 3-1/2 7 ” 1 4 9 6 ” 1 1 2-1/2 5 ” 0 17 8 4 ” 0 14 2 3 ” 0 10 7-1/2 2 ” 0 7 1 1 ” 0 3 6

=STEREO-METAL.= A remarkable alloy recently invented by Baron de Rosthorn, of Vienna, and used in place of ordinary gun-metal. It consists of copper and spelter, with small proportions of iron and tin, and to these latter its peculiar hardness, tensile strength, and elasticity, are attributed.

=STETH′OSCOPE.= An instrument employed in auscultation. It consists of a tube (usually made of wood, sometimes of gutta percha) widening considerably at one end, and but slightly at the other. The wide end is applied to the chest or other part of the patient, the physician putting his ear at the other end; and from the sounds emitted by the heart, lungs, &c., the state of these parts is ascertained.

=STEW′ING.= A method of cooking food intermediate to frying and boiling, performed by simmering it in a saucepan or stewpan, with merely sufficient water to prevent burning, and to effect the object in view; the whole being served up to form the ‘dish.’ It is undoubtedly the most simple and economical, and, when skilfully conducted, one of those best calculated to develop the flavour and nutritious qualities of animal food. The following is one of the most popular stews:——

=Stew, Irish.= Prep. (Soyer.) Take about 2 lbs. of scrag or neck of mutton; divide it into ten or twelve pieces, and lay them in the pan; add 8 large potatoes and 4 onions cut into slices, season with 1-1/2 teaspoonful of pepper, and 3 do. of salt; cover all with water, put it into a slow oven, or on a stove, for two hours, then stir it all up well, and serve it up in deep dishes. If a little more water is added at the commencement, you can take out, when half done, a nice cup of broth.

=STILL.= A vessel or apparatus employed for the distillation of liquids on the large scale. The forms of stills, and the materials of which they are made, vary according to the purposes for which they are intended, some being exceedingly simple, whilst others are equally elaborate and complicated. The engr. represents the most common and useful apparatus of this kind, and the one almost exclusively employed in the laboratory. It is used as follows:——After the fluid and other matters (if any) are put into the still, the head is placed on and connected with the worm-tub or refrigerator, and the joints are all securely luted. For ordinary liquids, a stiff paste made with linseed meal and water, to which a little chalk may be added, answers well for this purpose. For corrosive liquids, nothing is better than elastic bands or rings interposed between the joints, which are then ‘brought home,’ as it is called, with screws or clamps. Heat is next applied, and the worm-tub is supplied with cold water in sufficient quantity to preserve its contents at a proper temperature; the application of the heat being so regulated that the liquid may drop from the end of the refrigerator quite cold and unaccompanied with vapour. For highly volatile liquids a closed receiver should be provided.

Of the various forms of distillatory apparatus that patented by Coffey in 1832 is the one almost universally employed in this country. It yields the strongest spirits obtainable on a large scale. Coffey’s still (of which a drawing is given on the next page) effects a great economy in the expenditure of heat, by causing the liquid to be exposed to a very extended heated service; whilst it effects the evaporation of the alcohol from the wash by passing a current of steam through it.

The wash is pumped from the ‘wash charger’ into the worm-tub, which passes from top to bottom of the rectifier. In circulating through this tube it experiences a slight elevation of temperature. Arrived at the last convolution of the tube in the rectifier, the wash passes by the tube M in at the top of the ‘analyser.’ It falls, and collects on the top shelf till this overflows, whence it falls on the second shelf, and so on to the bottom. All the time this operation is going on steam is passed up from the steam boiler through fine holes in the shelves, and through valves opening upwards. As the wash gradually descends in the analyser it becomes rapidly weaker in alcohol, partly from condensation of steam which is passed into it, and partly from loss of alcohol, either evaporated or expelled by the steam, till when it arrives at the bottom it has parted with the last traces of spirits.

At the same time the vapour, as it rises through each shelf of the analyser, becomes constantly richer in alcohol, and contains less and less water because of its condensation; it then passes from the top of the analyser in at the bottom of the lower compartment of the rectifier. Here it ascends in a similar way, bubbling through the descending wash, until it arrives at F, above which it merely circulates round the earlier windings of the wash pipe; the low temperature of which condenses the spirits; which, collecting on the shelf at F, flows off by the tube into the finished spirit condenser.

To still further effect a saving of heat, the water for supplying the boiler is made to pass through a long coil of pipe, immersed in boiling spent wash, by which means its temperature is raised before it enters the boiler.

Another variety of distillatory apparatus is that of Siemens’ (see page 1566), much employed in the distillation of brandy.

It consists of two mash stills set in a boiler, and capable of being alternately used by means of the three cocks (a, b, and c). L is the boiler; P one of the mash retorts; K is the low wine receiver; R the fore warmer, a reservoir in which the condensed water intended as feed water of the boiler is collected; C is the dephlegmator; B a reservoir for the vapours condensed in C.

From the dephlegmator the vapour passes to a condenser, not shown in the engraving.

The mash warmer consists of a cylindrical portion (i i), the lower part of which has an indentation (c). In the cylinder is placed a narrower portion (o o) of the real mash, containing a vessel, fitted with the heading tube (f n). The upper part of the fore warmer is fitted to the lower part by means of the flange (h h); r is a stirring apparatus, which is frequently set in operation during the process of distillation. The vapours from the second still are carried into the depression (c) under the fore warmer, which, in order that the vapours may come into contact with the phlegma, is covered with a sieve.

The vapours surround the under part of the mash reservoir, and enter into the tube (f), through which they pass to the lower cylinder of the dephlegmator. The condensed water of the dephlegmator is conducted into the reservoir (A). The upper and under part of the fore warmer are made of cast iron, but the interior bottom and heating surfaces are made of copper. This kind of fore warmer has the advantage of uniformly distributing the heat, while it can be easily cleansed.

The dephlegmator (C) is so contrived that the rectified vapour can be conveyed to the condenser by two separate pipes placed in an opposite direction to each other, which are joined again in close proximity to the condenser.

The remainder of the details will be seen by studying the engraving.

Another distilling apparatus is that known as Derosne’s, which is an improvement upon one invented by Cellier-Blumenthal. This apparatus is only designed for the distillation of wine, and not, like the previous ones, of mash.

The engraving on page 1568 gives a representation of it.

It consists of two stills (A and A′); the first rectifier (B); the second rectificator (C); the wine warmer and dephlegmator (D); the condenser (F); the regulator (E); a contrivance for regulating the flow of the fluid wine from the cistern (G).

The still A′, which, as well as the still A, is filled with wine, acts as a steam boiler. The low wine vapours evolved come, when they have arrived in the rectifiers, in contact with an uninterrupted stream of wine, whereby dephlegmation is effected; the vapour, thus enriched in alcohol, becomes stronger in the vessel (D), and thus arrives at the cooling apparatus (F). In order that a real rectification should take place in the rectificators the stream of wine should be heated to a certain temperature, which is imparted to it by the heating of the condensed water. The steam from the still A′ is carried by means of the pipe (Z) to the bottom of the still A.

Both stills are heated by the fire of the same furnace. By means of the tube B′ the liquid contained in the still A can be run into the still A′. The first rectificator (B) containing a number of semicircular discs of unequal size, placed one above the other, and which are so fastened to a vertical centre rod that they can be easily removed and cleansed. The larger discs, perforated in the manner of sieves, are placed with their concave surfaces upwards.

In consequence of this arrangement the vapours ascending from the stills meet with large surfaces moistened with wine, which, moreover, trickles downward in the manner of a cascade from the discs, and comes, therefore, into very intimate contact with the vapours. The second rectificator (C) is fitted with six compartments; in the centre of each of the partition walls (iron or copper plates) a hole is cut, and over this hole, by means of a vertical bar, is fastened an inverted cup, which nearly reaches to the bottom of the compartment wherein it is placed. As a portion of the vapours are condensed in these compartments, the vapours are necessarily forced through a layer of low wine, and have to overcome a pressure of a column of liquid two centimètres high. The fore warmer and dephlegmator (D) is a horizontal cylinder made of copper fitted with a worm, the convolutions of which are placed vertically. The tube (M) communicates with this worm, the other end of which passes to O. A phlegma collects in the convolutions of this tube, which is richer in alcohol in the formost windings, and weaker in those more remote; this fluid, collecting in the lower part of the spirals, may be drawn off by means of small tubes, thence to be transferred, at the operator’s pleasure, either all or in part, by the aid of another tube and stopcocks, to the tube (O), or into the rectificator.

By means of the tube (L) the previously warmed wine of the dephlegmator can be run into the rectificator. The condensor (F) is a cylindrical vessel closed on all sides, and containing a worm communicating with the tube (O).

The other end of the condensing tube carries the distillate away. On the top of this portion of the apparatus the tube (K) is placed, by means of which wine is run into the dephlegmator. The cold wine flows into the cooling vessel by the tube (I).

Another variety of distillatory apparatus, invented by Langier, is that represented in the accompanying cut.

The fluid intended for distillation flows from the tube (s) into the funnel (p), thence into the vessel (A), entering its lower part, and serving to condense the alcoholic vapour. From this vessel the warmed fluid passes by means of the tube (r) into the lower part of the second vessel (B), where dephlegmation takes place by means of a condensing tube. From B the fluid flows through the tube (c) into the second still (C), which is heated by the hot gases evolved from the fire, kept burning under the first still (D); in the still (C) the fluid undergoes a rectification, and the vinasse flows by the tube (e) into the still (D); m is the pipe for conveying the hot vapour from D into C; the tube (b) carries the alcoholic vapours into the dephlegmator. The tube (d) conveys the phlegma into the still (C); g and h are glass gauging-tubes for indicating the height of the fluid in the interior of the stills; the tube (l) conveys the uncondensed vapours from the dephlegmator into the condensing apparatus, while i carries the vapours formed in the vessel (B) into the condensing apparatus.

The alcohol condensed in the cooling apparatus flows, as shown in the cut, into the vessel (o), provided with a hydrometer, which shows the strength of the liquid. The cooling apparatus of the vessel (B) consists of seven compartments or sections formed by wide spirals, to each of which, at its lower level, is attached a narrow tube, all of which tubes are connected to the tube (d), which latter conveys the condensed fluids back into the still.

A very simple form of apparatus in use is that figured below.

A is a cylinder made of cast iron or copper, in which the fluid to be distilled is heated by a spiral tube made of copper. The inlet of this tube is shown at b and the outlet at a.; c serves to carry off the vinasse; B is the dephlegmator, through which the fluid to be distilled continually flows in a downward direction, while the vapour of the low wine evolved in A ascends uninterruptedly.

The dephlegmator is so constructed as to have as large a surface and as many points of contact as possible. The vapour ascends to the reservoir (E), and passes into the rectifier (C) by the tube (F). The condensed portion returns through the tube (H) to the dephlegmator, whilst the uncondensed vapour passes on to the condenser of the vessel (D), where it becomes condensed, and is carried off through M. The liquid intended for distillation is kept in a tank (not shown in the engraving), placed above the apparatus, and is conveyed to the latter by the tube (L I), fitted with the stop-cock (K), so that the liquid arrives first in D, is next conveyed to C, thence through G into the dephlegmator, and finally into the cylinder.

Divers adaptations for heating by steam have been arranged, in a very convenient form, by Mr Coffey. His so-called ESCULAPIAN STILL affords the pharmaceutical chemist the means of conducting the processes of ebullition, distillation, evaporation, desiccation, &c., on the small scale. The following cut represents his apparatus.

For further information on the subject of stills consult ‘Ure’s Dictionary,’ ‘Illustrated Chemistry,’ and Wagner’s ‘Chemical Technology.’

=STIM′ULANTS.= Syn. STIMULANTIA, L. Medicines or agents which possess the power of exciting vital action. They are divided in general stimulants, or those which affect the whole system, as mercury or bark; and local or topical stimulants, or those which affect a particular organ or part only, as mustard applied as a poultice. Diffusible stimulants are general stimulants the effects of which are rapid but fugacious, as ether or alcohol. “Much discrimination and caution are required in the administration of articles of this class, because, if given when inflammation is present, they are liable to create more mischief than benefit; but they are called for when, on the decline of that condition of an organ or organs, a state of relaxation or torpidity exists. In this state of things a gentle stimulation materially assists the functions, and is productive of much benefit.”

=STINGS.= See BITES.

=STIR-ABOUT.= Thick gruel formed of oatmeal and water boiled together. When eaten with cold milk, it forms the porridge of the Scotch; and when mixed with the liquor in which meat or vegetables have been boiled, it is called beef brose, kale brose, &c.

=STOCK.= Among cooks, is condensed soup or jelly, used to make extemporaneous soup, broth, &c.

=STOM′ACH AFFEC′TIONS.= Those of a character to admit of being usefully noticed in a popular work are referred to under the heads APPETITE, DYSPEPSIA, SICKNESS, &c.

Dr Budd recommends small doses of ipecacuanha as a remedy for those cases of indigestion in which digestion is slow, and the food lies heavily on the stomach, and there is an inability for mental or bodily exertion for some time after meals. He says it should be given in the morning, fasting, and in quantity barely sufficient to occasion a slight feeling of vermiculating motion in the stomach, but without causing any sensation of pain or nausea. The dose to produce this effect varies from 1/4 to 2 gr. He thinks there is no other medicine which appears so effectual in removing the affections in question. Small doses of rhubarb, ginger, and cayenne pepper, have a similar kind of action, and may be given singly or together for the same purpose. “I generally prescribe from 1/2 to 1 gr. of ipecacuanha, in a pill, with 3 or 4 gr. of rhubarb. With many, a favourite remedy for the discomfort resulting from slow digestion is a grain of cayenne pepper, with 3 or 4 gr. of rhubarb. The best time for giving these medicines is shortly” (say 1/2 an hour) “before any meal after which a sense of oppression is usually felt.”

=STOPP′ERS=, when obstinately immoveable in bottles, are the most safely treated by patiently hitting them upwards alternately on opposite sides with a piece of wood. When this fails the part may be dipped into hot water.

“Another method of removing a bottle-stopper is to insert its head into a chink, and then endeavouring to turn the bottle with both hands. If the neck of the stopper break, the hand is out of the way of danger. An upright board, such an one as supports the ends of a set of shelves, should be selected in a convenient situation in the laboratory, and a vertical slit cut through it about a foot in length, an inch in width above, but gradually decreasing in size, so as to be about one third of an inch at the bottom. The top of the hole may be about the height of the breast. This aperture will in one part or another receive and retain the head of almost any stopper, and prevent its turning with the bottle. Then by wrapping a cloth about the bottle and grasping it with both hands, the attempt to turn it round so as to move the stopper may be made with any degree of force which it may be thought safe to exert. The force employed should never be carried so far as to cause fracture anywhere, but the attempts, if unavailing with the application of a moderate degree, should be desisted. Another and very successful method of removing a stopper is to turn the bottle round when held horizontally over the small flame of a spirit lamp or candle applied to the neck. The heat should be applied only to the part round the plug of the stopper, and in a few moments, when that has become warm, the stopper should be tapped with the piece of wood as before stated. As soon as the stopper moves by tapping it is to be taken out, and must not be replaced till the glass is cold.

“The application of heat in this manner must be short and the operation altogether, to be successful, must be a quick one. If the contents of the bottle are fluid, it should be so inclined that they must not become heated; if they are volatile this method should be tried very carefully, lest the vapour formed within should burst the bottle.

“It is often advantageous to put a little olive oil round the edge of the stopper at its insertion, allowing it to soak in for a day or two. If this be done before the heat be applied, it frequently penetrates by increased facility; by oil, heat, and tapping very obstinate stoppers may be removed.

“When a stopper has been fixed by crystallisation from solution, water will sometimes set it free, and it is more efficacious in such cases than oil, because it dissolves the cement. When the cementing matter is a metallic oxide or sub-salt, a little muriatic acid may be useful if there be no objection to its application arising from the nature of the substance within.”[198]

[Footnote 198: Faraday.]

A writes in ‘New Remedies’ suggests that, in attempting to extricate the fixed stopper by means of knocking with a piece of wood, the motion given to it when putting it in should be reversed, that is, the stopper should be knocked from right to left.

=STORM-GLASS.= A philosophical toy, consisting of a thin glass tube about 12 inches long and 3/4 inch in diameter, about three fourths filled with the following liquid, and covered with a brass car having an almost capillary hole through it, or else tied over with bladder.

The solution. Take of camphor, 2 dr.; nitre 1-1/2 dr.; sal ammoniac, 1 dr.; proof spirit 2-1/4 fl. oz.; dissolve, and place it in the tube above referred to. Used to foretell changes of the weather.

=STOVES.= In England the open grate or fireplace, because of its cheerful appearance and the sense of comfort it suggests when filled with glowing coal, is the favorite and general receptacle for the fuel with which we warm our apartments. The cozy appearance, however, of our old-fashioned English grate, constitutes its chief, if not its only merit; for it not only fails in uniformly warming and effectively ventilating our apartments, but it more or less sets into circulation a number of draughts of cold air, and besides occasionally filling our rooms with smoke and spoiling our furniture by the deposition of soot and dust, wastes our fuel, by allowing it to escape unconsumed in the shape of smoke, and thus pollutes the atmosphere of our cities and towns.

In France, Germany, Belgium, Russia, and other European countries, as well as in America and Canada, the stove or closed fireplace is used. The domestic stove of these countries is made either of sheet or cast-iron, or fire-clay. The iron stoves, being mostly composed of thin plates, soon absorb and radiate the heat; and although this property enables them to rapidly warm an apartment, it has the disadvantage, if the stove becomes red-hot, of allowing the escape through the heated metal into the surrounding air of the carbonic acid generated in the stove; and furthermore, in its immediate vicinity converts a portion of it into carbonic oxide. Such stoves must necessarily be unsafe unless used in well-ventilated apartments.[199] Another effect of the over heating of the stove is to desiccate or parch the air, and to render it irritating when breathed. The fire-clay stoves are free from these drawbacks, and continue to radiate from their surfaces a large amount of heat, even when the fuel with which they have been supplied is consumed. But although we exclude the close stove from our sitting rooms and dormitories, it is in frequent requisition in halls, picture-galleries, churches, theatres, lecture-rooms, and the like.

[Footnote 199: Dr Bond has suggested coating them with soluble glass, as a remedy for this.]

“Stove literature,” if such a term may be applied to the various treatises descriptive of the multitude of patterns in use, which have emanated alike from inventors and their critics, is so voluminous that it is impossible for us to attempt to give even a list of the numberless stoves in use, to say nothing of a commentary on their relative value. Of close stoves suitable for heating spaces other than dwelling or sleeping-rooms, mention may be made of Arnott’s stove, and one known as “The Belfast.” These stoves are serviceable when it is desirable to keep up a fire for some time, as in heating a lobby. They have the advantage of requiring little, if any, attention after the fuel has been placed in them and ignited.

Of late years, gas-stoves, both for heating and cooking purposes, have come largely into use. One of those for the former purpose is called the “Pyropneumatic.” The inner part of this apparatus is formed of lumps of fire-clay traversed by vertical air-passages which communicate with the external air by a special channel. The air becomes heated as it passes through the lumps of fire-clay, and rising to the top of the stove, escapes therefrom by an outlet into the room. Another so-called “ventilating” warming gas-stove is Mr George’s “Culirogen.” It consists of a stove made of thin-rolled iron, inside of which is a coil of wrought-iron tubing open at the top of the stove. The lower end of this tubing is in connection with an iron pipe which is carried through the wall of the apartment, and fed with air from without. Gas is the fuel generally used to heat the inside of the stove. The continuous current of air as it rushes into the iron pipe from without, thus becomes warmed as it ascends into the coil, which it leaves to become diffused into the surrounding apartment, whilst the products of combustion of the gas used as fuel are, by means of a pipe attached to the stove, carried into the chimney, as with coal fire.

A gas-cooking apparatus possesses many advantages over an ordinary coal fire. In the first place, it is more cleanly; in the second, it affords a much more uniform and equable temperature; in the third, it forms no smoke, and in the fourth it is more economical as well as expeditious.

Mr Eassie gives the following practical suggestions to intending purchasers of gas-stoves:——

“It is not necessary here to enter into a description of any of the numberless common patterns extant, but it might be well to record the opinion of the best engineers, that the simplest gas-stove is the best. They should not be surrounded by a non-conducting material, as that affords no advantage, but the contrary. An Argand or fish-tail burner should also be used instead of rings pierced for so many separate jets, and where practicable, the Bunsen-burner should be employed, as the mixture of common air with the gas not only prevents the formation of soot, but also intensifies the heat.”

=STRABIS′MUS.= Syn. SQUINTING. This need not be described. When one eye only is affected, an excellent plan is to blindfold the sound eye during several hours each day, until the affection be removed. When both eyes are affected, a projecting piece of pasteboard, in the line of the nose, may be worn as much as possible with the same object. In bad cases of squinting inwards, as it is called, the division of the internal rectus muscle of the eyeball by a skilful surgeon, is said to often relieve the deformity.

=STRANGULATION.= See HANGING.

=STRAP′PING.= Spread adhesive plaster. Used to dress wounds, &c.

=STRASS.= See ENAMEL.

=STRAW′BERRY.= Syn. FRAGARIA, L. The fruit of Fragaria vesca (Linn.), or strawberry plant. Strawberries are, perhaps, the mildest of all the cultivated fruits; they are cooling, and slightly laxative and diuretic; rubbed on the teeth, they dissolve the tartar, and whiten them. They were formerly in repute in gout, stone, and consumption. The root of the plant is aperient.

=Strawberry essence, factitious.= Nitric ether, 1 part; acetate of ethyl, 5 parts; forminate of ethyl, 5 parts; butyrate of ethyl, 5 parts; salicylate of methyl, 1 part; acetate of amyl, 3 parts; butyrate of amyl, 2 parts; glycerin, 2 parts; alcohol, 100 parts.[200]

[Footnote 200: ‘Pharm. Journ.’]

=STRAW PLAIT=, and the articles made of it, are bleached by exposing them to the fumes of burning sulphur in a close chest or box; or, by immersing them in a weak solution of chloride of lime, and afterwards well washing them in water. Water acidulated with oil of vitriol or oxalic acid is also used for the same purpose. Straw plait may be dyed with any of the simple liquid dyes.

=STRINGHALT.= The same as CHOREA, which see.

=STRON′TIUM.= Sr. The metallic base of the earth strontia. It was discovered by Sir H. Davy, in 1808. It closely resembles barium, but is less lustrous. With chlorine it combines to form a chloride of strontium, a somewhat deliquescent salt, soluble in 2 parts of cold and in less of boiling water, and freely soluble in alcohol. With oxygen it forms an oxide.

Test. Strontium salts are precipitated by sulphuric acid and alkaline carbonates and sulphate. They are distinguished from barium by not giving such a decided precipitate with sulphates, and by not being precipitated by bichromate of potassium. From calcium, by sulphates of calcium solution giving a precipitate, and by concentrated solutions giving a precipitate with chromate of potassium. It is distinguished from magnesium by the insolubility of its sulphate.

=Strontium, Oxide of.= SrO. Syn. PROTOXIDE OF STRONTIUM, STRONTIA. Prep. Quite pure crystalline nitrate of strontium. Prop. Greyish-white powder, uniting with water to form a white, somewhat soluble substance, the hydrate of strontium, Sr(HO)_{2}.

With acids it forms various salts, of which the carbonate is a white insoluble powder, and the nitrate a white crystalline salt, soluble in 5 parts of cold water, and in alcohol; communicating a brilliant red colour to flame.

=STROPH′ULUS.= A papular eruption peculiar to infants. There are several varieties:——In strophulus intertinctus, red gum, or red gown, the pimples rise sensibly above the level of the cuticle, possess a vivid red colour, and are usually distinct from each other; they commonly attack the cheeks, forearm, and back of the hand, and, occasionally, other parts of the body.——In strophulus albidus, or white gum, there are a number of minute whitish specks, which are, sometimes, surrounded by a slight redness. The two preceding varieties commonly occur during the first two or three months of lactation.——In strophulus confertus, rank red gum, or tooth rash, which usually appears about the fourth or fifth month, the pimples usually occur on the cheeks and sides of the nose, sometimes on the forehead and arms, and still less frequently on the loins. They are smaller, set closer together, and less vivid, but more permanent than in the common red gum.——In strophulus volaticus small circular patches or clusters of pimples, each containing from 6 to 12, appear successively on different parts of the body, accompanied with redness; and as one patch declines another springs up near it, by which the efflorescence often spreads gradually over the whole face and body.——In strophulus candidus the pimples are larger than in the preceding, and are pale, smooth and shining; it principally attacks the upper parts of the arms, the shoulders, and the loins. The last two varieties commonly appear between the third and ninth month.

The treatment of the above affections consists chiefly in removing acidity and indigestion and duly regulating the bowels by an occasional dose of magnesia or rhubarb, or both combined. Diarrhœa may be met by the warm bath and the daily use of arrowroot (genuine), to which a teaspoonful or two of pure port wine has been added; and itching and irritation may be alleviated by the use of a lotion consisting of water, to which a little milk, lemon juice, borax, or glycerin, has been added.

=STRYCH′NINE.= C_{21}H_{22}N_{2}O_{2}. Syn. STRYCHNINA, STRYCHNIA (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. Dissolve hydrochlorate or sulphate of strychnine in distilled water, and throw down the alkaloid with ammonia, carefully avoiding excess; redissolve the precipitate in hot rectified spirit, and collect the crystals which form as the liquid cools.

2. (Ph. D.) Nux vomica (in powder), 1 lb., is digested for 24 hours in 1/2 gall. of water acidulated with 2 fl. dr. of sulphuric acid, after which it is boiled for half an hour, and the decoction decanted; the residuum is boiled a second and a third time with a fresh 1/2 gall. of water acidulated with 1 fl. dr. of the acid, and the undissolved matter is finally submitted to strong expression; the decoctions are next filtered and concentrated to the consistence of a syrup, which is boiled with rectified spirit, 3 pints, for about 20 minutes, hydrate of calcium, 1 oz., or q. s., being added in successive portions during the ebullition, until the solution becomes distinctly alkaline; the liquid is then filtered, the spirit distilled off, and the residuum dissolved in diluted sulphuric acid, q. s.; ammonia, in slight excess, is added to the filtered solution, and the precipitate which falls is collected upon a paper filter, and dried; it is next redissolved in a minimum of boiling rectified spirit, and digested with 1/2 oz. of animal charcoal for 20 minutes; the filtered liquid, as it cools, deposits strychnine, in crystals.

3. (Ph. B.) Nux vomica 1 lb., acetate of lead 180 gr., solution of ammonia q. s., rectified spirit q. s., distilled water q. s. Subject the nux vomica for two hours to steam in any convenient vessel; chop or slice it; dry it in a water bath or hot-air chamber, and immediately grind it in a coffee mill. Digest the powder at a gentle heat for 12 hours with two pints of the spirit and 1 pint of the water, strain through linen, express strongly, and repeat the process twice. Distil off the spirit from the mixed fluid, evaporate the watery residue to about 16 oz., and filter when cold. Add now the acetate of lead, previously dissolved in distilled water, so long as it occasions any precipitate; filter; wash the precipitate with 10 oz. of cold water, adding the washings to the filtrate; evaporate the clear fluid to 8 oz., and when it has cooled add the ammonia in slight excess, stirring thoroughly. Let the mixture stand at the ordinary temperature for 12 hours; collect the precipitate on a filter, wash it once with a few ounces of cold distilled water, dry it in a water-bath or hot-air chamber, and boil it with successive portions of rectified spirit, till the fluid scarcely tastes bitter. Distil off most of the spirit, evaporate the residue to the bulk of about 1/2 oz., and set it aside to cool. Cautiously pour off the yellowish mother-liquor (which contains the brucia of the seeds) from the white crust of strychnia which adheres to the vessel. Throw the crust on a paper filter, wash it with a mixture of two parts of rectified spirit and one of water, till the washings cease to become red on the addition of nitric acid; finally, dissolve it, by boiling it with 1 oz. of rectified spirit, and set it aside to crystallise. More crystals may be obtained by evaporating the mother-liquor. [Strychnine is more readily obtained, and in greater purity, from St Ignatius’s Bean.] The usual dose of strychnia and its salts to commence with is from 1/30th to 1/12th of a grain, to be very slowly increased, carefully watching its effects. Magendie says the salts are more active than their base.

Prop. A white, inodorous, infusible powder; or small, but exceedingly brilliant, transparent, colourless, octahedral crystals; soluble in about 7000 parts of water at 60°, and in 2500 parts at 212° Fahr.; freebly soluble in hot rectified spirit; insoluble in absolute alcohol, ether, and solutions of the caustic alkalies; imparts a distinctly bitter taste to 600,000 times its weight of water (1 part in 1,000,000 parts of water is still perceptible——Fownes); exhibits an alkaline reaction; and forms salts with the acids, which are easily prepared, are crystallisable, and well defined.

Tests.——1. Potassium hydrate and the carbonate produce, in solutions of the salts of strychnia, white precipitates, which are insoluble in excess of the precipitant, and which, when viewed through a lens magnifying 100 times, appear as aggregates of small crystalline needles. In weak solutions the precipitate only separates after some time, in the form of crystalline needles, which are, however, in this case, perfectly visible to the naked eye.——2. Ammonia gives a similar precipitate, which is soluble in excess of the precipitant.——3. Bicarbonate of sodium produces, in neutral solutions, a like white precipitate, which is insoluble in excess, but which redissolves on the addition of a single drop of acid; in acid solutions no precipitate occurs for some time in the cold, but immediately on boiling the liquid.——4. Nitric acid dissolves pure strychnia and its salts to colourless fluids, which become yellow when heated. Commercial strychnine, from containing a little brucine, is reddened by this test.——5. A minute quantity of strychnine being mixed with a small drop of concentrated sulphuric acid, placed on a white capsule or slip of glass, forms a colourless solution, but yields, on the addition of a very small crystal of bichromate of potassium, or a very minute portion of chromic acid, a rich violet colour, which gradually changes to red and yellow, and disappears after some time. The 1/1000th of a grain yields very distinct indications.——6. Pure oxide or peroxide of lead produces a similar reaction to the last, provided the sulphuric acid contain about 1% of nitric acid.

Pois. The characteristic symptom is the special influence exerted upon the nervous system, which is manifested by a general contraction of all the muscles of the body, with rigidity of the spinal column. A profound calm soon succeeds, which is followed by a new tetanic seizure, longer than the first, during which the respiration is suspended. These symptoms then cease, the breathing becomes easy, and there is stupor, followed by another general contraction. In fatal cases these attacks are renewed, at intervals, with increasing violence, until death ensues. One phenomenon which is only found in poisonings by substances containing strychnine is, that touching any part of the body, or even threatening to do so, instantly produces the tetanic spasm.

Treat. The stomach should be immediately cleared by means of an emetic, tickling the fauces, &c. To counteract the asphyxia from tetanus, &c., artificial respiration should be practised with diligence and care. “If the poison has been applied externally, we ought immediately to cauterise the part, and apply a ligature tightly above the wound. If the poison has been swallowed for some time, we should give a purgative clyster, and administer draughts containing sulphuric ether or oil of turpentine, which in most cases produce a salutary effect. Lastly, injections of chlorine and decoction of tannin are of value.”

According to Ch. Gunther, the greatest reliance may be placed on full doses of opium, assisted by venesection, in cases of poisoning by strychnia or nux vomica. His plan is to administer this drug in the form of solution or mixture, in combination with a saline aperient.

Uses, &c. It is a most frightful poison, producing tetanus and death in very small doses. Even 1/24 gr. will sometimes occasion tetanic twitchings in persons of delicate temperament. 1/4 gr. blown into the throat of a small dog produced death in 6 minutes. In very minute doses it acts as a useful tonic in various nervous diseases, chronic diarrhœa, leucorrhœa, &c.; in slightly larger ones, it has been advantageously employed in certain forms of paralysis, in tic douloureux, impotence, &c.——Dose, 1/24 to 1/16 gr. (dissolved in water by means of a drop of acetic or hydrochloric acid), gradually and cautiously increased until it slightly affects the muscular system. Externally, 1/8 to 1/4 gr. at a time.

The Edinburgh College ordered the nux vomica to be exposed for two hours to steam, to soften it, then to chop or slice it, next to dry it by the heat of a vapour bath or hot air, and, lastly, to grind it in a coffee-mill. In the process of the Ph. L. 1836 magnesia was employed to effect the precipitation. In the last Ph. L. strychnine appears in the Materia Medica. Most of that of commerce is now obtained from St Ignatius’s bean, which, according to Geiseler, yields 1-1/4% of it; whereas 3 lbs. of nux vomica produce little more than 1 dr. Commercial strychnine may be freed from brucine by digesting the powder in dilute alcohol.

The salts of strychnine, which are occasionally asked for in trade, are the acetate (strychniæ acetas), hydrochlorate or muriate (s. murias——Ph. D.), hydriodate (s. hydriodas), nitrate (s. nitras), phosphate (s. phosphas), and sulphate (s. sulphas). All of these may be easily formed by simply neutralising the acid previously diluted with 2 or 3 parts of water, with the alkaloid, assisting the solution with heat; crystals are deposited as the liquid cools, and more may be obtained by evaporating the mother-liquor.

=STRYCHNOS.= See NUX VOMICA and BEAN, ST IGNATIUS’S.

=STUC′CO.= The name of several calcareous cements or mortars. Fine stucco is the third or last coat of three-coat plaster, and consists of a mixture of fine lime and quartzose sand, which, in application, is “twice hand floated and well trowelled.” See CEMENTS.

=STUFFING.= Seasoning, placed in meat, poultry, game, &c., before dressing them, to give them an increased relish. The same materials formed into balls, are added to soups, gravies, &c., under the name of FORCEMEAT.

Prep. 1. (For fowls, &c.) Shred a little ham or gammon, some cold veal or fowl, some beef suet, a small quantity of onion, some parsley, a very little lemon peel, salt, nutmeg, or pounded mace, and either white pepper or cayenne, and bread crumbs, pound them in a mortar, and bind it with 1 or 2 eggs.

2. (For hare, or anything in imitation of it.——Mrs Rundell.) The scalded liver, an anchovy, some fat bacon, a little suet, some parsley, thyme, knotted marjoram, a little shalot, and either onion or chives, all chopped fine, with some crumbs of bread, pepper, and nutmeg, beaten in a mortar with an egg.

3. (For goose.) From sage, onion, suet, and crumb of bread. Geese are now, however, more commonly stuffed with veal stuffing.

4. (For veal——Soyer.) Chop 1/2 lb. of suet, put it into a basin with 3/4 lb. of bread crumbs, a teaspoonful of salt, a 1/4 do. of pepper, a little thyme or lemon peel chopped, and 3 whole eggs; mix well.

Obs. 1 lb. of bread crumbs and one more egg may be used; they will make it cut firmer. This, as well as No. 1, is now commonly employed for poultry and meat. Ude, a great authority in these matters, observes that “it would not be amiss to add a piece of butter, and to pound the whole in a mortar.” “Grated ham or tongue may be added to this stuffing.” (Rundell.) This is also used for turkeys, and for ‘forcemeat patties.’

=STUFFING (Birds, &c.).= The skins are commonly dusted over with a mixture of camphor, alum, and sulphur, in about equal quantities; or, they are smeared with Bécœur’s arsenical soap, noticed under SOAP. According to Crace Calvert, carbolic acid, which is worth only about 2s. per gall., is superior to all other substances for preserving the skins of birds and animals, as well as corpses. See TAXIDERMY, PRACTICAL.

=STURDY.= This disease, known also by the name of GAD, which attacks cattle and sheep, but more particularly the latter, is caused by the presence in the brain of the animal, of a hydatid——a creature enclosed in a sac of serous fluid. This hydatid develops from the ova of the tape worm, in the animal’s body, whence it has gained an entrance, with the grass which constitutes the cattle or sheep’s food upon which it has been voided by dogs and other animals.

It is most common in sheep of from 6 to 8 months old, and, as might be expected, with those which feed in damp meadows. The animals attacked by it turn round and round in one position, lose their gregarious habits, seem dazed, and refuse their food; which latter circumstance frequently causes death by inducing starvation.

As regards the treatment of this disease Mr Finlay Dun writes: “A stout stocking wire thrust up the nostrils has long been used with occasional success, to get rid of the hydatid; but the use of the trocar and canula now sold by most surgical instrument makers is much safer and better. The sheep is placed with its feet tied upon a table or bench, and the head carefully examined, when a soft place may often be detected, indicating that the hydatid lies underneath. A portion of the skin is dissected back and the trocar and canula introduced, when the hydatid will often come away as the trocar is withdrawn.” Mr Dun says “that, should the trocar fail to extract it, it must be drawn to the surface by a small syringe made for the purpose. Furthermore, the wound, after the removal of the hydatid, must be treated with a cold water dressing.”

All cattle similarly affected should be treated as above.

=STUR′GEON.= Several species of Acipenser pass under this name. The common sturgeon is the Acipenser sturio (Linn.). The roe is made into ‘caviare,’ the swimming-bladder into ‘isinglass.’

=STY.= Syn. STYE, STIAN; HORDEOLUM, L. A small inflamed tumour, or boil, at the edge of the eyelid, somewhat resembling a barleycorn. It is usually recommended to promote its maturation by warm applications, since “the stye, like other furunculous inflammations, forms an exception to the general rule, that the best mode in which inflammatory swellings can end is resolution.”

=STYP′TICS.= Syn. STYPTICA, L. Substances which arrest local bleeding. Creasote, tannic acid, alcohol, alum, and most of the astringent salts, belong to this class.

=Styptic, Brocchieri’s.= A nostrum consisting of the water distilled from pine tops.

=Styptic, Eaton’s.= A solution of sulphate disguised by the addition of some unimportant substances. “Helvetius’s styptic was for a long time employed under this title.” (Paris.)

=Styptic Helvetius’s.= Syn. STYPTICUM HELVETII, L. Iron filings (fine), and cream of tartar, mixed to a proper consistence with French brandy. See POWDER, HELVETIUS’S.

=STY′RAX.= Syn. STORAX, STORAX BALSAM; STYRAX (Ph. L., & E.), L. “The liquid balsam of an uncertain plant.” (Ph. L.) The “balsamic exudation of Styrax officinale, Linn.” (Ph. E.), or cane storax tree. Two or three varieties are known in commerce:——Liquid storax (styrax liquida), lump of red storax (s. in massis), which is generally very impure; storax in tears (s. in lachrymis), and storax in reeds (s. calamita). The last are now seldom met with in trade.

PREPARED STORAX (styrax colata; s. præparata, B. P., Ph. L.) is obtained by dissolving storax, 1 lb., in rectified spirit, 4 pints, by a gentle heat, straining the solution through linen, distilling off greater part of the spirit, and evaporating what is left to a proper consistence by the heat of a water bath. It is less fragrant than the raw drug.

Storax is stimulant, expectorant, and nervine. It was formerly much used in menstrual obstructions, phthisis, coughs, asthmas, and other breath diseases. It is now chiefly used as a perfume.——Dose, 6 to 20 or 30 gr. (10 to 20 gr. twice a day, B. P.).

=A factitious strained Storax= is made as follows:——1. Balsam of Peru, 1 lb.; balsam of tolu, 4 lbs.; mix.

2. Gum benzoin, 8 lbs.; liquid storax, 6 lbs.; balsam of tolu and Socotrine aloes, of each 3 lbs.; balsam of Peru, 2 lbs.; N.S.W. yellow gum, 7 lbs.; rectified spirit, 7 gall.; digest, with frequent agitation, for a fortnight, strain and distil off the spirit (about 5-1/2 galls.) until the residuum has a proper consistence. Prod. 28 lbs.

3. Liquid storax, 1 oz.; Socotrine aloes, 1/4 lb.; balsam of tolu, 2 lbs.; rectified spirit, q. s.

=SUB-.= See NOMENCLATURE and SALTS.

=SU′BERIC ACID.= Obtained by boiling rasped cork for some time in nitric acid.

=SUBLIMA′TION.= The process by which volatile substances are reduced to the state of vapour by heat, and again condensed in the solid form. It differs from ordinary distillation in being confined to dry solid substances, and in the heat employed being, in general, much greater.

=SUB′STANTIVE COLOURS=, in the art of dyeing, are such as impart their tints to cloth and yarns without the intervention of a mordant; in contradistinction to adjective colours, which require to be fixed by certain ‘intermedes,’ or substances which have a joint affinity for the colouring matter and the material to be dyed.

=SUCCIN′IC ACID.= C_{4}H_{4}O_{4}H_{2}. Syn. ACIDUM SUCCINICUM. Prep. From amber, in coarse powder, mixed with an equal weight of sand, and distilled by a gradually increased heat; or from the impure acid obtained during the distillation of oil of amber; the product in both cases being purified by wrapping it in bibulous paper, and submitting it to strong pressure, to remove the oil, and then resubliming it.

From malic acid, by fermentation, or by digestion with hydriodic acid in sealed tubes.

Prop., &c. Colourless; inodorous (when pure); crystallises in oblique rhombic prisms; soluble in 5 parts of cold and in 2-1/2 parts of boiling water; fusible and volatile, without decomposition. Its salts are called ‘succinates,’ most of which are soluble. Succinate of ammonium is used as a test for iron. Succinic acid is distinguished from benzoic acid by its greater solubility, and by giving a brownish or pale red bulky precipitate with ferric chloride in neutral solutions; whereas that with benzoic acid is paler and yellower.

Uses, &c. Succinic acid is antispasmodic, stimulant, and diuretic, but is now seldom used.——Dose, 5 to 15 gr.

=SUC′CORY.= Chicory, or wild endive. (See CHICORY.)

=SUDORIF′ICS.= See DIAPHORETICS.

=SU′ET.= Syn. SEVUM, SEBUM, L. This is prepared from the fat of the loins of the sheep or bullock by melting it by a gentle heat, and straining the liquid fat. In this state it forms the ADEPS OVILLUS (Ph. D.), SEVUM (Ph. L. & E.), SEVUM OVILLUM, or SEVUM PRÆPARATUM, employed in medicine and perfumery, as the basis of ointments, cerates, plasters, pommades, &c.

=Suet, Mel′ilot.= Syn. SEVUM MELILOTI, L. Prep. From suet, 8 lb.; melilot leaves, 2 lb.; boil until the leaves are crisp, strain, and allow it to cool very slowly, so that it may ‘grain well.’ Used by farriers, and to make melilot plaster.

=SUFFOCA′TION.= The treatment varies with the cause. See ASPHYXIA, CHARCOAL, DROWNING, HANGING, SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN, &c.

=SUG′AR.= C_{12}H_{22}O_{11}. Syn. CANE SUGAR; SACCHARUM, L.; SUCRE, Fr. This well-known and most useful substance is found in the juice of many of the canes or grasses, in the sap of several forest trees, and in the roots of various plants. In tropical climates it is extracted from the sugar-cane (Saccharum officinarum), in China from the sweet sorgho (Sorghum saccharatum), in North America from the sugar-maple (Acer saccharinum), and in France, Germany, Russia, and Belgium, from white beet-root (Beta vulgaris, var. alba).

Until of late years the ordinary sugar consumed in this country was that chiefly sent from the West Indian Islands, South America, the Mauritius, &c., and was the produce of the sugar cane; recently, however, large and increasing quantities of beet-root sugar have found their way into the English markets from the Continental factories.

The Saccharum officinarum, of which there are several varieties, the sugar-cane ranges in height from 6 to 15 feet, and in diameter from 1 to 2 inches. In order to obtain the saccharine juice contained in it, the cane, stripped of its leaves, is cut just before the commencement of inflorescence, the period in which it is richest in juice. As this sap or juice is found to abound most in sugar, when taken from the lower part of the stem, the cane is cut off nearly close to the ground.

The stump which remains develops into a fresh plant, and one plant thus treated will last several years, not, however, without a gradual diminution in the size of the successive crops.

In South America and the West Indies a variety known as the Otaheita cane is extensively cultivated, since it is very productive and yields a large amount of juice.

The annual average produce in raw sugar for a hectare (about 2-1/4 English statute acres) of land is in

Martinique 2000 kilos.[201] Guadaloupe 3400 ” Mauritius 4000 ” Brazil 6000 ”

[Footnote 201: A kilo = 2·2046 lbs.]

Sugar-cane growing in the below-mentioned places has, according to the analysis of the three chemists whose names are appended, the following composition:——

(a.) (b.) (c.) Péligot. Dupuy. Icery.

Sugar 18·0 17·8 20·0 Water 72·1 72·0 69·0 Cellulose 9·9 9·8 10·0 Salts —— 0·4 0·7-1·2

The cane, therefore, may be said to yield 90 per cent. of juice, which latter contains from 18 to 20 parts of pure sugar. However, the actual quantity obtained is rarely if ever more than 1 lb. of sugar to a gallon of juice, or 10 per cent.; and much more frequently only 8 per cent.

A large part of this loss is due to the prolonged exposure of the cane juice during its repeated boilings to heat, whereby a large proportion of its crystallisable sugar is converted into the uncrystallisable variety which passes away in the form of molasses and treacle. Another important cause of loss is the retention of a large amount of juice by the cane.

The following figures will convey an idea of the enormous quantities of cane sugar produced and consumed yearly throughout the globe. It is taken from ‘British Manufacturing Industries,’ one of a series of excellent industrial manuals published by Mr Sandford, of Charing Cross:——

Cuba 600,000 tons. The other West Indian colonies 250,000 ” Java and Sumatra 170,000 ” China 140,000 ” French colonies in America and Africa 120,000 ” Brazil 100,000 ” Mauritius 80,000 ” British Guiana 80,000 ” Porto Rico 90,000 ” Manilla 60,000 ” Mexico 35,000 ” Egypt Large and growing.

The late Dr Edward Smith found that 98 per cent. of indoor operatives partook of 7-1/2 oz. of sugar per adult weekly; that 96 per cent. of Scotch labourers use it; and 80 per cent. of Irish. He further states that in Wales sugar is commonly used to an average extent of 6 oz. per adult weekly; but that there is a marked difference in the rate of consumption in the northern and southern portions of the principality. In North Wales, for example, the average amount per head is 11-1/4 oz.; whereas in South Wales it is only 3 oz.

The manufacture of sugar is exclusively conducted on the large scale. The recent canes are crushed between rollers, and the expressed juice is suffered to flow into a suitable vessel, where it is slowly heated to nearly the boiling-point, to coagulate albuminous matter. The crushed canes generally supply the fuel needed for this purpose. The ashes left after the combustion of the canes are carefully collected and used as a manure for future crops of sugar cane.

The cut below represents a press for the extraction of the juice from the canes. By means of the screws (i i), the rollers are adjusted to the proper distance apart; the upper roller is half the size of the two lower ones, and all are moved by cogged wheels fitting on to the axes of the rollers. The sugar-canes are transferred from the slate gutter (d d) to the rollers (a c), which press them a little; and from thence they are carried over the arched plate (n) to the rollers (c b). The pressed sugar-canes fall over the gutter (f), the expressed juice collecting in g g, and running off through h. A small quantity of milk of lime is then added to the juice to remove mechanical impurities, and the skimmed and clarified juice, after being sufficiently concentrated by rapid evaporation in open pans, is transferred to coolers, and thence into upright casks perforated at the bottom, and so placed that the syrup, or uncrystallisable portion, may drain off into a tank or cistern from the newly formed sugar. During the period of crystallisation it is frequently agitated, in order to hasten the change, and to prevent the formation of large crystals. The solid portion of the product forms moist, raw, or muscovado sugar; the uncrystallisable syrup, molasses or treacle.[202]

[Footnote 202: The term ‘molasses’ is usually restricted to the drainings from raw sugar, and ‘treacle’ to the thicker syrup which has drained from refined sugar in the moulds.]

Raw sugar is refined by redissolving it in water, adding to the solution albumen, under the form of serum of blood or white of egg, and, sometimes, a little lime-water, and heating the whole to the boiling-point; the impurities are then removed by careful skimming, and the syrup is decoloured by filtration through recently burnt animal charcoal; the clear decolorised syrup is next evaporated to the crystallising-point in vacuo, and at once transferred into conical earthern moulds, where it solidifies, after some time, to a confusedly crystallised mass; this, when drained, washed with a little clean syrup, and dried in a stove, constitutes ordinary loaf, lump, or refined sugar. Sometimes in washing the crystallised mass for the purpose of removing the coloured syrup which is mingled with it, the process known as ‘claying’ is followed.

In this case, instead of white syrup being used, a layer of thin mud or a paste of thin pipe-clay is poured into the mould on to the base of the inverted sugar cone, through which the water escaping from the mud or pipe-clay permeates, and carries with it the coloured syrup. Neither the mud nor the pipe-clay mix with the sugar, but remaining on the top soon become hard, when they are removed. As the syrup running from the moulds still contains a large quantity of crystalline cane sugar, this is recovered as follows:

The syrup, after being sufficiently concentrated by boiling in the vacuum pan, is removed and allowed to cool, when it assumes the appearance of a crystalline magma known as ‘crushed sugar.’

Crushed sugar is a mixture of a large quantity of sugar crystals with uncrystallisable syrup. To get rid of this latter from the crystals, the mass is placed in quantities of 3 or 4 cwts. at a time in a ‘centrifugal machine.’ This, of which an engraving is given below, consists, as will be seen, of a drum fixed on a vertical axis. The walls of the drum are made of perforated metal, or are formed of meshed wire work, and the drum itself enclosed in an outer metal cylinder, which is fixed, and, of course, unperforated. When the drum is made to revolve on its axis at the rate of 1000 or 1200 revolutions in a minute, the syrup flying off by centrifugal action, and escaping through the perforation at the sides of the drum, is received into the outer cylinder, whence it escapes by a trough into a proper receptacle, leaving behind the crystals in the interior of the drum.

a is an open drum of fine meshed wirework, caused to revolve in the cast-iron vessel (b b), by means of the bevel wheels (c d), gearing with a motive power. The motion of the drum can be stopped by means of the brake (e), and regulated by the weights placed at o.

When the crystallisation of sugar is allowed to take place quietly and slowly, the product is sugar candy. The evaporation at a low temperature in vacuum pans has the effect of diminishing the yield of treacle.

Prop. Sugar requires for its solution only 1/3rd of its weight of cold and still less of boiling water; it is slowly dissolved by cold rectified spirit; it dissolves in 4 parts of boiling rectified spirit and in 80 parts of boiling absolute alcohol; it melts by heat, and cools to a glassy amorphous mass (barley sugar); at about 400° Fahr. it suffers rapid decomposition, and fuses to a brown, uncrystallisable mass (caramel); long boiling with water increases its colour, and lessens its tendency to crystallise; its aqueous solution dissolves alkalies, earths, and many metallic oxides, with facility. The presence of cane sugar in solutions containing certain metallic salts prevents the precipitation of their oxides by alkalies. The oxides of copper and iron are amongst those thus kept in solution. Sugar also possesses the power of effecting the partial or complete reduction of many metallic oxides, if boiled with their salts; the first results is exemplified in the case of the chromates; for if a chromate be added to a solution of sugar, and to the mixture a few drops of free acid, the chromic acid suffers reduction to chromic oxide, which, dissolving in the excess of acid, imparts a green colour to the liquid. Mercuric salts become reduced to mercurous, whilst the salts of gold throw down a precipitate of the metal in fine powder. The action of strong oil of vitriol on cane sugar is very energetic. The sugar is instantly reduced to a black charred mass, whilst carbonic and formic acids are given off. The same effects are produced by exposing it to dry chlorine at a temperature of 212° F. By nitric acid of sp. gr. 1·25, cane sugar is converted into saccharic acid; if a stronger acid be employed, oxalic acid is produced. When a mixture of concentrated nitric and sulphuric acids is poured on to cane sugar, an explosive compound, resembling gun cotton, is produced. This body is known as ‘nitro-sugar.’ Weak syrups take up about half as much hydrate of calcium as they contain sugar; when slowly crystallised, it assumes the form of oblique 4-sided prisms, terminated by 2-sided summits. Sp. gr. 1·60 (1·577——Ure).

Pur. Moist or muscovado sugar and crushed lump sugar are occasionally adulterated with chalk, plaster, sand, potato-flour, and other fecula; but frequently, and in certain neighbourhoods constantly, with starch sugar or potato-sugar.[203] These frauds may be detected as follows:

[Footnote 203: See further on.]

Tests.——1. Pure cane sugar dissolves freely and entirely in both water and proof spirit, forming transparent colourless solutions, which are unaffected by either sulphuretted hydrogen or dilute sulphuric acid.——2. Its solution bends the luminous rays in circumpolarisation to the right, whereas grape and fecula sugars bend it to the left.[204]——3. (Chevallier.) Boiled for a short time in water containing 2 or 3% of caustic potassa, the liquid remains colourless; but it turns brown, which is more or less intense, according to the quantity, if starch sugar is present. Even 2 or 3% of starch sugar may be thus detected.——4. (E. Krantz.) A filtered solution of 33 gr. of cane or beet sugar in 1 fl. oz. of water, mixed with 3 gr. of pure hydrate of potassium, and then agitated with 1-1/2 gr. of sulphate of copper in an air-tight bottle, remains clear, even after the lapse of several days; but if starch sugar be present, a red precipitate is formed after some time; and if it is present in considerable quantity, the copper will be wholly converted into oxide within 24 hours, the solution turning first blue or green, and then entirely losing its colour.——5. (Trommer’s test.) A solution of cane sugar is mixed with a solution of sulphate of copper, and hydrate of potassium added in excess; a blue liquid is obtained, which, on being heated, is at first but little altered; a small quantity of red powder falls after a time, but the liquid long retains its blue tint. When grape sugar or fecula sugar is thus treated, the first application of heat throws down a copious greenish precipitate, which rapidly changes to scarlet, and eventually to dark red, leaving a nearly colourless solution. This is an excellent test for distinguishing the two varieties of sugar, or discovering an admixture of grape sugar with cane sugar. The 1/1000th part of grape sugar may be thus detected. The proportion of oxide of copper produced affords a good criterion, not only of the purity of the sugar, but also of the extent of the adulteration.——6. (Ure.) Dissolve a little sulphate of copper (say 20 gr.) in a measured quantity of water, and add to it, in the cold, a solution of hydrate of potassium, until, by testing with turmeric paper, the liquid appears faintly alkaline, shown by the paper becoming slightly brown. If a small quantity of this test-liquor (previously well shaken) be added to an aqueous solution of the sugar, and the whole boiled, the solution becomes at first green, and then olive-green, if dextrin is present; but if it contain grape sugar, the salt of copper is immediately reduced into the state of orange and oxide; whilst a solution of pure sugar undergoes no change, or is scarcely altered.——7. M. Riffard,[205] taking advantage of the fact that sugar, like tartaric, malic, citric acid, and albumen, prevents the precipitation of iron by ammonia, employs iron as a means for estimating sugar. A solution containing sugar and iron in a certain proportion, when saturated with ammonia, will form a compound of a fine red colour, which remains clear if no alkaline earthy metals are present. M. Riffard has applied to sugar the method proposed by M. Juette for the estimation of tartaric acid. He observed that a neutral or acid solution of crystallised perchloride of iron, when heated for a considerable time to 100° C, requires 2·710 grams of sugar, if 100 milligrams of iron are to remain in solution in the presence of ammonia. If, on the other hand, the solution is prepared simply by dissolving crystallised perchloride of iron in pure water, without the addition of an acid, 100 milligrams of iron only require 2·587 grammes of sugar to remain dissolved. In this case the liquid is perfectly clear, and remains so; but if a smaller quantity of sugar be added, it is turbid, and deposits peroxide of iron. To estimate the sugar by this process, 25·870 grammes of the substance to be tested are dissolved, the solution mixed with a few drops of oxalate of ammonia to precipitate the lime, filtered and made up with water to 250 c.c., 25 c.c. of this mixture require the addition of as many milligrams of iron as there are per cents. of pure sugar in the sample under examination, and by two tests the following results will be arrived at:——With n milligrams of iron the solution is clear. With n + 1 milligrams of iron the solution is precipitated. n representing the number of per cents. of sugar contained in the sample.——8. M. Perrot’s method for the determination of sugars by means of normal solutions is as follows:——He prepares a standard solution of copper by dissolving 39·275 grams of sulphate of copper, very pure, and dried between several folds of filtering paper, and makes it up with distilled water to 1000 c.c. Each c.c. of this solution contains 0·01 grams of copper. On the other hand, he dissolves about 25· grams of pure cyanide of potassium in 1 litre of distilled water. Of this solution 10 c.c. are taken and put in a flask, to which about 20 c.c. of ammonia are added, and the liquid is kept at a temperature of 60° or 70°. He pours in the copper solution drop by drop by means of a burette graduated into tenths of a c.c., until there appears the blue tint characteristic of salts of copper in an ammoniacal solution. The number of degrees of the burette are then read off, and indicate the quantity of copper which has been required to produce the reaction. The solution of the sugar in question (previously inverted if it is required to determine crystalline sugar) is then placed in contact with an excess of Fehling’s liquor, and reduced in the water-bath. The whole is filtered in order to collect the precipitate of suboxide, which is first well washed with hot water, and dissolved in nitric acid, diluted with an equal volume of water, and a few fragments of chlorate of potassa are added. This solution is effected on the filter, which is then carefully washed in acidulated water. The filtrate to which the washings are added is then mixed with water enough to make up 100 or 150 c.c., and is then poured by means of the burette into 10 c.c. of cyanide, mixed with 20 c.c. of ammonia as above, stopping when the blue colour appears, and reading off the quantity of copper employed. From the former experiment it is known how much copper 10 c.c. of the cyanide solution require. Hence it is easy to calculate the total amount of copper which has been present as suboxide. The amount of sugar is then found from the data that 9298 parts of copper equal 5000 of crystalline sugar, or 5263 of glucose.[206]——9. The specific gravities and crystalline forms offer other means of distinguishing the varieties of sugar.

[Footnote 204: Of late years, owing to the little difference in price between the two, this form of adulteration has been abandoned.——ED.]

[Footnote 205: ‘Journ. de Pharm. et de Chimie,’ 1874, 49 (‘Pharm. Year Book,’ 1874).]

[Footnote 206: ‘Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaire des Sciences’ (‘Chem. News’), January 5th, 1877.]

Concluding Remarks. Refined sugar (SACCHARUM——Ph. L., S. PURUM——Ph. E., S. PURIFICATUM——Ph. D.), raw sugar (S. COMMUNE——Ph. E.), and molasses or treacle (SACCHARI FÆX——Ph. L. & E.), were officinal.

The relative sweetening power of cane sugar is estimated at 100; that of pure grape sugar, at 60; that of fecula or starch sugar, at 30 to 40.

Spotted a typo or a problem in this chapter? Tell us