Part 2 (part 2 of 5)

Part 2 (part 2 of 5)

=Poultice, Cummin.= (L. Ph. 1788.) Syn. CATAPLASMA CUMINI. Prep. Cummin seeds, 1 lb.; bay berries, scordium leaves, serpentaria root, of each 3 oz.; cloves, 1 oz.; to be powdered together and mixed with thrice their weight of honey.

=Poultice, Discutient.= Syn. CATAPLASMA DISCUTIENS. Prep. Barley meal, 6 oz.; fresh hemlock, 2 oz.; vinegar, q. s. Boil and add sal ammoniac, 1/2 oz. (Fr. Hosp.) The same, with 2 dr. of acetate of lead added.

=Poultice, Effervescing.= Syn. CATAPLASMA EFFERVESCENS. Prep. Fresh wort thickened with oatmeal, and a spoonful of yeast added.

=Poultice, Emetic.= Syn. CATAPLASMA EMETICUM. Prep. Bruised groundsel (Senecio vulgaris) applied over the stomach produces vomiting.

=Cataplasma of Fig.= Syn. CATAPLASMA FICI. Prep. A dried fig, roasted or boiled (sometimes in milk), is frequently applied to gum-boils, &c.

=Poultice, Foxglove.= (Mr Alland.) Syn. CATAPLASMA DIGITALIS. Prep. A strong decoction of foxglove, with bread-crum, or linseed meal, q. s.

=Poultice, Galbanum.= Syn. CATAPLASMA GALBANI. Prep. Lily roots, 4 oz.; figs, 1 oz.; boil till soft, and bruise them with 1-1/2 oz. of onions and 1/2 oz. of galbanum, triturated with yolk of egg and a sufficient quantity of linseed meal.

=Poultice, Galvanic.= (Recamier.) Syn. CATAPLASMA GALVANICUM. It consists of cotton wadding containing a layer of very thin zinc plates, and another layer of copper ones. This pad, conveniently quilted, is enclosed in a bag, one face of which is of quilted calico, the other of impermeable tissue. The natural perspiration, confined by the impermeable tissue, excites galvanic action between the metals.

=Poultice of Hem′lock.= Syn. CATAPLASMA CONII (B. P., Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Boiling water, 1/2 pint; linseed meal, 4-1/2 oz., or q. s.; make a poultice, and on this spread of extract of hemlock (Ph. L.), 1 oz., first softened with a little hot water. Anodyne. In irritable and painful cancerous, scrofulous, and syphilitic sores, tumours, &c.

2. (B. P.) Hemlock leaf, in powder, 1 oz.; linseed meal, 3 oz.; boiling water, 10 oz.; mix the ingredients, then add them to the water gradually, constantly stirring.

=Poultice, Henbane.= Syn. CATAPLASMA HYOSCYAMI. The same as POULTICE OF POPPY.

=Poultice, Hop.= (Dr Trotter.) Syn. CATAPLASMA HUMULI. Hops softened with hot water. To foul ulcers.

=Poultice, Iodine.= Syn. CATAPLASMA IODURETUM. To a common poultice add solution or tincture of iodine.

=Poultice, Lead.= Syn. CATAPLASMA PLUMBI. Prep. Goulard water, 1 lb.; bread crum, q. s.

=Poultice, Lily.= Syn. CATAPLASMA LILII. The pulp of the white lily boiled and bruised.

=Poultice, Lime.= Syn. CATAPLASMA CALCIS. Prep. Slaked lime, 2 oz.; oatmeal, 2 oz.; lard, 4 oz. Formerly used at Bath Hospital.

=Poultice of linseed Meal.= Syn. CATAPLASMA LINI (B. P., Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) To boiling water, 1/2 pint, add, gradually, constantly stirring, of linseed meal, 4-1/2 oz., or q. s. Emollient. Used to promote the suppuration or ‘ripening’ of tumours. A little oil or lard should be added, and some smeared over the surface as well, to prevent its getting hard. For small ‘gatherings,’ as of the fingers, a little chewed bread and butter is an efficient and convenient substitute.

2. (B. P.) Linseed meal, 4; olive oil, 1/2; boiling water, 10; mix the linseed meal with the oil, add the water gradually, constantly stirring.

Obs. Linseed meal prepared from the cake, from which the oil has been expressed, is less adapted for poultices than that prepared from the unpressed, whole seed. The latter is ordered in the Ph. L.

=Poultice, Malt.= (Guy’s Hosp.) Syn. CATAPLASMA BYNES. Prep. Ground malt, with yeast, q. s., to form a poultice; to be applied warm.

=Poultice, Maturative.= (L. 1745.) Syn. CATAPLASMA MATURANS. Prep. Pulp of figs, 4 oz.; resin ointment, 1 oz.; strained galbanum, 1/2 oz.

=Poultice of Mus′tard.= Syn. CATAPLASMA SINAPIS (Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P., Ph. L.) Linseed meal and powdered mustard, of each 2-1/2 oz., or q. s.; boiling water, 1/2 pint; mix as before.

2. (Ph. L. 1836.) As the last, but substituting boiling vinegar for water. Used as a powerful counter-irritant, stimulant, and rubefacient; in low fevers, apoplexy, coma, &c., where there is a determination of blood to the head; in deep-seated inflammatory pains, neuralgic pains, &c. It should not be left on long enough to raise a blister. See PLASTERS.

=Poultice, Onion.= Syn. CATAPLASMA CEPÆ. Prep. Onions roasted and mashed.

=Poultice of Pop′py.= Syn. CATAPLASMA PAPAVERIS, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod. 1839.) A strong decoction of poppies, thickened with crum of bread. Anodyne.

=Poultice, Potash, Acetate of.= Syn. CATAPLASMA POTASSÆ ACETATIS; CATAPLASMA NEUTRALE. Prep. Acetate of potash, 1 oz.; water, 1 pint; crum of bread, q. s. To ill-conditioned sores.

=Poultice of Po′tato.= Syn. CATAPLASMA SOLANI TUBEROSI, L. Prep. From the raw potato, scraped or grated fine. A popular application to fresh bruises, extravasations, burns, scalds, &c.

=Poultice of Potato Starch.= (P. Cod.) Syn. CATAPLASMA FECULÆ. Prep. Potato starch, 2 oz.; mix with a little cold water, add to it 20 oz. of boiling water, and boil for an instant. Cataplasms of rice and wheat starch are made in the same manner.

=Poultice, Pradier’s.= Syn. PRADIER’S CATAPLASMA; CATAPLASME DE PRADIER, Fr. Prep. Take of balsam of Mecca, 6 dr.; rectified spirit, 16 oz.; dissolve; next, separately, take red cinchona bark, sarsaparilla, and sage, of each 1 oz.; saffron, 1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 32 oz.; digest for 48 hours, and filter; mix the two liquors; add to them twice their weight of lime water. In gout; 2 fl. oz. are sprinkled on the surface of a hot linseed-meal poultice sufficiently large to surround the affected part. It is said that the Emperor Napoleon gave £2500 for this receipt.

=Poultice of Pyroligneous Acid.= (Dr Reece.) Syn. CATAPLASMA ACIDI PYROLIGNOSI. Prep. Bran, 1 lb.; linseed meal, 1 oz.; impure pyroligneous acid, q. s. For scrofulous ulcers; occasionally 30 minims of tincture of perchloride of iron, and 3 dr. of extract or powder of hemlock, are added.

=Poultice of Red Wine.= (Gl. Hosp.) Syn. CATAPLASMA VINI RUBRI. Prep. Linseed meal, 1-1/2 oz.; boiling water, 5 oz.; stir it over a slow fire for a minute, remove, and add 2 oz. of red wine.

=Poultice, Roasted Apple.= Syn. CATAPLASMA MALI. The soft pulp of roasted apple, applied to inflamed eyes. Other ingredients are sometimes added.

=Poultice, Rose.= Syn. CATAPLASMA ROSÆ. Prep. Powdered alum, 30 gr.; confection of roses, 4 oz.; mix.

=Poultice of Sea-wrack.= (Dr Russell.) Syn. CATAPLASMA FUCI. Prep. Fresh bladder fucus (sea-wrack) bruised. Applied to glandular tumours, &c.

=Poultice, Sim′ple.= Syn. CATAPLASMA SIMPLEX, L. Prep. (Ph. D. 1826.) Powder for a cataplasma and boiling water, of each q. s. to form a poultice, the surface of which is to be smeared over with olive oil. Emollient. Bread poultice and linseed-meal poultice are now generally called by this name. See POWDER (Poultice).

=Poultice of Slippery Elm.= CATAPLASMA ULMI. The powdered bark of the slippery elm (Ulmus fulva) mixed with a sufficient quantity of hot water.

=Poultice of Soap.= Syn. CATAPLASMA SAPONIS, L. Prep. From white soap (scraped or sliced), 1 oz.; boiling water, 1/4 pint; dissolve, and add crum of bread, q. s. As an application to scalds and burns.

=Poultice, Sorrel.= Syn. CATAPLASMA OXALIS. Prep. Bruised sorrel leaves, mixed with oatmeal and beer.

=Poultice, Stimulating.= (Dr Hugh Smith.) Syn. CATAPLASMA STIMULANS. Prep. Rye flour, 1 lb.; old yeast, 4 oz.; common salt, 2 oz.

=Poultice, Sulphate of Lime.= (Blizard.) Syn. CATAPLASMA CALCIS SULPHATIS. Prep. Paris plaster mixed with water to a soft paste, and applied before it hardens. Formerly applied to ulcers to form an artificial scab; now occasionally used to afford mechanical support in some surgical cases.

=Poultice of Sulphate of Soda.= (Kirkland.) Syn. CATAPLASMA SODÆ SULPHATIS. Prep. Sulphate of soda, 1 oz.; boiling water, 1/2 lb.; crum of bread, a sufficient quantity.

=Poultice to cause Suppuration.= (E. Ph. 1774.) Syn. CATAPLASMA SUPPURANS. To an emollient cataplasm add bruised onions, 1-1/2 oz.; basilicon ointment, 1 oz.

=Poultice of Tannate of Lead.= (G. Ph.) Syn. CATAPLASMA AD DECUMBITUM; PLUMBUM TANNICUM PULTIFORME. Prep. Boil 2 oz. Of oak bark in sufficient water to yield 10 oz. of strained decoction; add to this 1 oz. (by weight) of liquid subacetate of lead, collect the precipitate on a filter, and put it into a bottle with 2 dr. of rectified spirit.

=Poultice, Tonic.= (G. Hosp.) Syn. CATAPLASMA TONICUM. Prep. Powdered bark, 1 oz.; charcoal, 1 oz.; camphor, 1-1/2 dr.; oil of turpentine, q. s.

=Poultice, Turnip.= Syn. CATAPLASMA RAPI. Prep. Peel turnips, boil them till soft, beat them to a pulp, and apply warm.

=Poultice, Turpentine.= (Dr Reece.) Syn. CATAPLASMA TEREBINTHINÆ. Prep. Oil of turpentine, 2 dr.; olive oil, 1 oz.; linseed meal, 1 oz.; oatmeal, 4 oz.; boiling water, q. s. To indolent ulcers, and, with more turpentine, to deep burns, scalds, and chilblains.

=Poultice of Vin′egar.= Syn. CATAPLASMA ACETI, L. Prep. From crum of bread soaked in vinegar. Applied cold in bruises, extravasations, &c., especially black eyes. Verjuice is often employed in the same way.

=Poultice of Walnut Leaves.= (Perfect.) Syn. CATAPLASMA JUGLANDIS. Prep. The fresh leaves of walnut bruised and mixed with honey. Applied over the abdomen as a vermifuge.

=Poultice of Yeast.= Syn. CATAPLASMA FERMENTI (B. P., Ph. L.), C. F. CEREVISIÆ, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Beer yeast and water at 100° Fahr., of each 5 fl. oz.; mix, stir in flour, 1 lb., and place it near the fire until it rises. In gangrenous or foul ulcers; to correct the fetor of the discharge, and to hasten the sloughing.

2. (B. P.) Beer yeast, 6; flour, 14; water (at 100° Fahr.), 6; mix. Place the mass near the fire till it rises.

=POUL′TRY.= Domestic birds, which are propagated and fed for the table, and for their eggs, feathers, &c.

The poultry of this country are the common domestic fowl, the turkey, the duck, and the goose; to which some writers add the guinea-fowl and the peacock. Of these, the first is the most generally useful. Though a native of India, it accompanies man through almost every gradation of civilisation and climate, and flourishes almost everywhere, when properly secured from the inclemency of the weather, and allowed an ample supply of fresh air, with proper food. For the production of abundance of eggs it must, however, be well fed and warmly lodged. The hen-roosts and poultry-houses should be well protected from the weather, and their temperature should be duly maintained by proximity to the stables, cow-houses, or dwelling-house, and, in cold weather, by the employment, when necessary, of artificial heat. The food should also contain an ample supply of nitrogenous matter, for without this how can it be expected that hens can produce abundance of eggs, which are peculiarly rich in nitrogen? The ‘greaves’ of the tallow-chandlers, and such-like substances, are hence excellent additions to the ordinary food of poultry. But it is not sufficient merely to supply poultry with abundance of food and warmth; it is equally necessary that they should have ample space for exercise and recreation. This space “should always contain living plants of various kinds, and some gravelly or sandy soil; because worms, snails, as well as, occasionally, grass and herbage, form a part of the food of poultry; and sand or gravel is swallowed by them for the purpose of promoting digestion. Hence, no healthy poultry can ever be reared in towns, however much the natural food may be imitated by the supply of animal matters, herbage, and sand.” (Loudon.)

=POUNCE.= Powdered gum sandarac generally passes under this name. It is used to prepare parchment for writing on, and to prevent ink from spreading upon paper after erasures. Powdered cuttle-fish bone is occasionally employed in the same way. Both are applied to the surface by means of a cylindrical roll of list called a ‘rubber.’ Packers rub the surface of porous and greasy woods, as the heads of boxes, cases, casks, &c., with whiting or powdered resin, to make them bear the ink. The coloured powders used by pattern drawers, for sprinkling over pricked papers, are also called ‘pounce.’ For liquid pounce, see MARKING INK.

=POWDER.= Syn. PULVIS, L. Powders are divided by pharmaceutical writers into two classes——simple and compound. The first are prepared by simple pulverisation; the second by the admixture of two or more simple powders. For use the appropriate doses are separately weighed, and placed in separate papers. They are usually exhibited in a little honey, sugar, or milk, either taken from a spoon or made into an electuary or bolus, and swallowed in the semi-solid form. Metallic and other heavy powders are best taken in the latter state. Very active substances should be, in all cases, mixed with some inert powder, as that of starch, gum, liquorice, or marshmallow, at the time of ‘dispensing’ them.

“This form of preparing medicines is the simplest, and perhaps the least objectionable; but it is not applicable to all the articles of the Materia Medica. Those remedies which are very unpleasant to the taste; those which deliquesce rapidly when exposed to the air, or are very volatile; and those which require to be given in very large doses, or which are not diffused readily in water, cannot, with propriety, be administered in the form of powder. Some substances cannot be reduced to powder unless they be very much dried, and the heat necessary for that purpose alters their properties.” Nor can we “be surprised that a great alteration should be effected in a short time by the action of the air on so great an extension of surface as takes place in the operation usually adopted for reducing drugs to a fine powder.” (A. T. Thomson.)

In this country compound powders appear to be a favourite form of medicine in the diseases of infancy and childhood.

“It is necessary that whatever we order to be reduced to powder should be rubbed through a fine sieve, so that the impurities and coarser parts may be separated; and it is needful that most powders should be recently prepared, and not too long kept.” (Ph. L.)

As nearly all powders suffer by exposure to the air and light, they should be preserved in closely-corked opaque or green-glass bottles, or in tin canisters from which the external air is carefully excluded. See PULVERISATION, &c.

=Powder, Algaroth’s.= See ANTIMONY, OXYCHLORIDE.

=Powder of Al′oes (Compound).= Syn. PULVIS ALOËS COMPOSITUS (Ph. L.), P. ALOËS CUM GUAIACO, L. Prep. (Ph. L.) Socotrine or hepatic aloes (in powder), 1-1/2 oz.; guaiacum (in powder), 1 oz.; compound cinnamon powder, 1/2 oz.; rub them together. A warm, sudorific purgative.——Dose, 10 to 20 gr.

=Powder of Aloes with Canel′la.= Syn. ALOETIC POWDER, HOLY BITTER†; HIERA PICRA†, PULVIS ALOES CUM CANELLÂ, L. Prep. From powdered Socotrine or hepatic aloes, 4 parts; powdered white canella, 1 part. Uses and dose, as the last.

Obs. Once a highly popular remedy. It was originally made into an electuary with honey, and in this form was frequently called ‘HIERA LOGADII,’ It is still a favourite in domestic medicine and veterinary practice. The principal objection to both this and the preceding preparation is the nauseous flavour of the aloes, which is ill concealed by the aromatics. The ‘HIERA PICRA’ for farriers is usually made with the cheapest Cape aloes.

=Powder of Aloes with Iron.= (L. Ph. 1788.) Syn. PULVIS ALOETICUS CUM FERRO. Prep. Aloes, 1-1/2 oz.; myrrh, 2 oz.; sulphate of iron, 1 oz.; dried extract of gentian, 1 oz.

=Powder of Al′um (Compound).= Syn. STYPTIC POWDER; PULVIS STYPTICUS, P. ALUMINIS COMPOSITUS (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Alum, 4 oz.; kino, 1 oz.; mix them, and reduce them to fine powder. Astringent and styptic.——Dose, 5 to 15 gr.; in diarrhœa, profuse menstruation, &c. Externally, in hæmorrhages, &c.

=Powder, Alum, Opiated.= (Bouchardat.) Syn. PULVIS ALUMINIS OPIATUS. Prep. Alum, 1 dr.; sugar, 1 dr.; opium, 4 gr.; mix for 12 powders. 2 or 3 daily in obstinate diarrhœas and passive hæmorrhages.

=Powder of Alum with Capsicum.= (Dr Turnbull.) Syn. PULVIS ALUMINIS CUM CAPSICO. Prep. Alum, 3 parts; concentrated tincture of capsicum, 1 part; mix, dry, and triturate again. Applied to the tonsils.

=Powder of Alum with Gum.= (Frankel.) Prep. Alum, gum tragacanth, of each equal parts. Applied to sore breasts.

=Powder of Alum with Starch.= (St. Th. Hosp.) Syn. PULVIS ALUMINIS CUM AMYLO. Prep. Alum and starch, equal parts. In insufflation of rhinorrhœa.

=Powder of Ambergris with Musk.= (Bat. Ph.) Syn. PULVIS AMBERGRISEÆ MOSCHATUS. Prep. Ambergris, 6 dr.; musk, 1 dr.; oil of cinnamon, 2 scruples; refined sugar, 11-1/2 oz.; mix.

=Powder, Ammoniated Aromatic.= Syn. PULVIS AMMONIATUS AROMATICUS; LEAYSON’S AMMONIACAL COLLYRIUM. Prep. Muriate of ammonia, 1 dr.; slaked lime, 1 oz.; charcoal, 15 gr.; cinnamon, 15 gr.; cloves, 15 gr., bole, 1/2 dr. Put them into a bottle and moisten with a little water.

=Powder of Ancho′vy.= Syn. PULVIS CLUPEÆ ENCRASICOLI, L. Prep. Pound anchovies to a paste, then rub them through a sieve, and add enough flour to make a dough, which must be rolled out into thin slices and dried by a gentle heat in a stove; it is, lastly, powdered and bottled. Colouring is frequently added. Chiefly used to make sauces. British anchovies are frequently substituted for the genuine fish.

=Powder, Anthrakokali, Compound.= Syn. PULVIS ANTHRAKOKALI, COMPOUND. Prep. Anthrakokali, 2 gr.; washed sulphur, 6 gr.; mix. For 1 dose.

=Powder, Anthrakokali, Simple.= (Poyla.) Syn. PULVIS ANTHRAKOKALI SIMPLEX. Prep. Anthrakokali, 2 gr.; liquorice powder, 6 gr.; mix. For 1 dose.

=Powder, Antiepileptic.= Syn. PULVIS ANTIEPILEPTICUS (E. Ph., 1744.) Prep. White dittany, pæony, valerian, mistletoe of the oak, equal parts.——Dose, 10 to 6 gr. (Behrends.) Prep. Valerian, 4 dr.; magnesia, muriate of ammonia, oil of cajeput, of each 1 scruple.——Dose. A teaspoonful three times a day. Dr Paris says the following was used successfully by a Dutch empiric:——Sulphur, 1 scruple; sulphate of potash, 10 gr.; rhubarb, 5 gr.; nutmeg, 2 gr.; mix. (Germ. Hosp.) Prep. Oxide of zinc, 16 gr.; carbonate of magnesia, 48 gr.; oleo-saccharum of cajeput, 3 dr. Mix for 8 doses. Poudre de Ragolo. Oxide of zinc, 10 gr.; valerian, mistletoe, sugar, orange leaves, of each 4 dr.; magnesia, 2 scruples; oil of cajeput, 2 scruples; a teaspoonful three times a day. Pasquier prescribes——Wall crop, 10 gr.; gum Arabic, 10 gr.; 1 to 4 powders daily for eight times. SOMMER’S SPECIFIC consists of——Wall crop, 6 to 10 gr.; oleo-saccharum of mint, 8 gr.; one morning and evening for six times. See PULVIS ARTEMISIÆ SACCHARATUS. The Poudre de Guttète consists of mistletoe, 2 parts; white dittany, 2; pæony root and seeds, 2; prepared coral, 1; elk’s hoof, 2; seeds of orache, 2. Given in doses of a few grains in convulsions of infants, or in larger doses for epilepsy.

=Powder, Antihydrophobic.= (Dr Mead.) Syn. PULVIS ANTILYSSUS. Prep. Ash-coloured ground liver-wort (Pettidea canina), 1/2 oz.; black pepper, 2 dr.; mix, and give a fourth part every morning for 4 times.

=Powder, Antimo′′nial.= Syn. FEVER POWDER, LISLE’S P., JAMES’S P.; PULVIS JACOBI, PULVIS ANTIMONIALIS (B. P., Ph. E., & D.), PULVIS ANTIMONII COMPOSITUS (Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) A mixture of tersulphide of antimony, 1 lb., and hartshorn shavings, 2 lbs., is reduced to powder, thrown into a crucible heated to whiteness, and stirred constantly until vapour no longer rises; the calcined mixture is then rubbed to powder, again put into the crucible, and the heat gradually increased to whiteness, and maintained so for 2 hours; the residuum is, lastly, reduced to a very fine powder.

2. (Ph. E.) From sulphide of antimony and hartshorn shavings, equal weights; as the last.

3. (Ph. D.) Tartarised antimony, 4 oz., is dissolved in water, 1/2 gall., and added to solution of phosphate of soda, 4 oz., in water, 1 quart; a solution of chloride of calcium, 2 oz., in water, 1 quart, and to which solution of ammonia (Ph. D.), 4 fl. oz., has been added, is next poured in, and the whole boiled for 20 minutes; the precipitate is then collected on a calico filter, and washed with hot distilled water, until the liquid which passes ceases to give a precipitate with a weak solution of nitrate of silver; it is, lastly, dried by a steam or water heat, and reduced to a fine powder.

4. (B. P.) Oxide of antimony, 1; precipitated phosphate of lime, 2; mix.——Dose, 2 to 6 gr.

Uses, &c. Febrifuge and diaphoretic. Intended as a substitute for the proprietary and more expensive JAMES’S POWDER.——Dose, 3 to 10 or 12 gr., or more, repeated every fourth or fifth hour until diaphoresis is set up; in fevers, rheumatic affections, chronic skin diseases, &c. It is a very uncertain and variable compound, unless it has been carefully prepared. Dr Elliotson exhibited it in doses of 100 gr. without producing any sensible effect. A spurious article, made by triturating 1 oz. of tartar emetic with 18 or 19 oz. of burnt hartshorn, is frequently sold for it in the shops. See ANTIMONIOUS ACID and JAMES’S POWDER.

=Powder, Antispasmodic.= (P. Cod.) Syn. PULVIS ANTISPASMODICUS. Prep. Cyanide of zinc, 3 gr.; calcined magnesia, 24 gr.; cinnamon, 12 gr.; mix. For 6 doses.

=Powder, Antispasmodic.= (Jourdan.) Syn. PULVIS ANTISPASMODICUS. Prep. Valerian, 1 oz.; oxide of zinc, 1 scruple; musk, 8 gr.; mix.

=Powder, Aromat′ic.= See POWDER, COMPOUND CINNAMON.

=Powder, Arsen′ical.= See POWDER, ESCHAROTIC.

=Powder of Asarabac′ca (Compound).= See SNUFF (Cephalic).

=Powder, Astrin′gent.= Syn. PULVIS ASTRINGENS, P. STYPTICUS, L. Prep. 1. From Aleppo galls and burnt alum, in fine powder, equal parts. Used in piles, soft polypi of the nose, chilblains, &c.

=Powder, Ba′′king.= Prep. 1. Tartaric acid, 1/2 lb.; bicarbonate of soda and potato farina or British arrow-root, of each 3/4 lb. (each in powder); separately dry them perfectly by a very gentle heat, then mix them in a dry room, pass the mixture through a sieve, and at once put it into packets, observing to press it hard, and to cover it with tinfoil or close-made paper, to preserve it as much as possible from the air and moisture.

2. (Delforte’s.) Powdered tartaric acid, 1/4 lb.; powdered alum, 1/2 lb.; bicarbonate of soda, 3/4 lb.; farina, 1 lb.; dry separately, as before, mix, and further add of sesquicarbonate of ammonia (in powder), 3 oz.; lastly, closely pack it in tinfoil.

3. (Green’s.) Tartaric acid, 35 lbs.; sesquicarbonate of soda, 56 lbs.; potato flour, 1 cwt.; mix as before.

Uses, &c. Baking powder is chiefly employed as a substitute for yeast. 1 or 2 teaspoonfuls are mixed with the dry flour and other ingredients, which are then made into a dough, as quickly as possible, with cold water, and at once baked or boiled as the case may be. By the addition of about 1/2 dr. of turmeric powder to each pound of the mixture it is converted into egg powder. When intended to be kept for any length of time it should be preserved in bottles or tins, so as to prevent the absorption of moisture. We have discovered traces of arsenic in some of the baking powders of the shops, which we refer to common washerwoman’s soda being used in their composition, instead of the pure carbonate or sesquicarbonate.

=Powder, Basil′ic.= Syn. ROYAL POWDER, CORNACHINI’S P.; PULVIS BASILICUS, P. CORNACHINI, L. Prep. From scammony, calomel, cream of tartar, and diaphoretic antimony, equal parts. This is the formula generally adopted for this compound, which has now long been omitted from the Pharmacopœias. It is still a favourite with many practitioners, as an alterative purgative, and vermifuge for children.——Dose. For a child, 2 to 8 gr.; for an adult, 5 to 20 gr. Compound powder of scammony is now generally sold for it.

=Powder, Belladonna, Saccharated.= (Wertzler.) Syn. PULVIS BELLADONNÆ SACCHARATUS. Prep. Belladonna root, 15 gr.; pure sugar, 1 dr.; mix. For 72 powders. One twice a day, or oftener, according to the age. In hooping-cough.

=Powder, Blaine’s Distem′per.= The basis of this preparation is the ‘aurum musivum,’ or bisulphuret of tin. (Dr Paris.)

=Powder, Blancmange′.= Prep. From sago meal, 1 lb.; essence of lemon, 15 drops; mace, 12 gr.; mix.

=Powder, Bleaching.= Chloride or hypochlorite of lime.

=Powder, Blue.= See SMALTS.

=Powder, Bronze.= See STANNIC SULPHIDE, BRONZING, &c.

=Powder of Burnt Hartshorn.= Syn. PULVIS CORNU CERVINI USTI, L. Prep. From pieces of hartshorn calcined to whiteness, and powdered. It consists principally of phosphate of lime.——Dose, 10 to 30 gr.; in rickets, &c.

=Powder of Burnt Hartshorn with O′pium.= Syn. PULVIS OPIATUS, PULVIS CORNU USTI CUM OPIO, L. Prep. From powdered calcined hartshorn, 1 oz.; powdered opium and cochineal, of each 1 dr.——Dose, 5 to 20 gr.

=Powder of Camphor.= Camphor may be readily pulverised by triturating it with the addition of a few drops of rectified spirit or ether.

=Powder, Camphorated Nitre.= (Swediaur.) Syn. PULVIS NITRO CAMPHORATUS. Prep. Nitre, 10 gr.; camphor, 4 gr.; gum Arabic, 24 gr.; mix. For two or three doses.

=Powder, Capuchin′.= Prep. From powdered cevadilla, parsley seed, stavesacre, and tobacco, equal parts. Used to destroy pediculi.

=Powder, Castillon’s.= Prep. From sago meal, salep, and gum tragacanth, of each 3 dr.; prepared oyster shells, 1 dr.; cochineal, q. s. to colour. Absorbent.——Dose, 1/2 to 1 dr., boiled in milk; in diarrhœa, &c.

=Powder of Cat′echu (Compound).= Syn. PULVIS CATECHU COMPOSITUS (B. P., Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. D.) Take catechu and kino, of each 2 oz.; cinnamon and nutmeg, of each 1/2 oz.; reduce each to a fine powder, mix, and keep the prepared powder in a well-stopped bottle. Aromatic and astringent.——Dose, 1/4 dr. to 2 dr.; in various affections.

2. (B. P.) Pale catechu; kino, 2; rhatany, 2; cinnamon, 1; nutmeg, 1; mix.——Dose, 15 to 30 gr.

=Powder of Chalk (Compound).= Syn. PULVIS CRETÆ AROMATICUS (B. P.), PULVIS CRETÆ COMPOSITUS (Ph. L., E., & D.), P. CARBONATIS CALCIS COMP., L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Prepared chalk, 1/2 lb.; cinnamon, 4 oz.; tormentil and gum acacia, of each 3 oz.; long pepper, 1/2 oz.; rub them, separately, to a very fine powder, and mix them.

2. (Ph. E.) Prepared chalk, 4 oz.; cinnamon, in fine powder, 1-1/2 dr.; nutmeg, in fine powder, 1 dr.

3. (Ph. D.) Prepared chalk, 5 oz.; cinnamon, 2-1/2 oz.; gum, 2 oz.; nutmeg, 1/2 oz.

4. (AROMATIC POWDER OF CHALK——B. P.) Chalk, 11; cinnamon, 4; nutmeg, 3; saffron, 3; cloves, 1-1/2; cardamom seed, 1; refined sugar, 25; all in powder; mix.——Dose, 30 to 60 gr.

Uses, &c. Aromatic, astringent, and antacid.——Dose, 10 to 30 gr.; in acidity, flatulence, heartburn, diarrhœa, &c. The following form is used by many wholesale houses:——Prepared chalk, 4 lbs.; powdered cassia, 2 lbs.; powdered calamus aromaticus, 3/4 lb.; powdered gum, 1-1/2 lb.; long pepper, 1/4 lb.

=Powder of Chalk with Opium (Compound).= Syn. PULVIS CRETÆ AROMATICUS CUM OPIO (B. P.); OPIATED CHALK POWDER; PULVIS CRETÆ COMPOSITUS CUM OPIO (Ph. L.), PULVIS CRETÆ OPIATIS (Ph. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Compound chalk powder, 6-1/2 oz.; powdered opium, 80 gr.

2. (Ph. E.) Compound chalk powder, 6 oz.; powdered opium, 80 gr.

3. (Ph. D.) Compound chalk powder, 4 oz. 7 dr.; opium, in fine powder, 1 dr.

4. (Wholesale.) Compound chalk powder, 21 oz.; powdered opium, 1/2 oz. Anodyne, antacid, and carminative.——Dose, 10 to 30 gr.; in the same cases as the preceding, than which it is more active. It has long been a favourite remedy in all cases of simple and even choleraic diarrhœa.

5. Aromatic powder of chalk (see POWDER OF CHALK (Compound), 4), 39; opium, in powder, 1; mix thoroughly, and pass through a sieve.——Dose, 10 to 40 gr.

=Powder, Chalk Mixture.= Syn. PULVIS PRO MISTURA CRETÆ, L. Prep. (Beasley.) Powdered gum acacia, 5 oz.; prepared chalk, 4 oz.; white sugar, 3 oz.; oil of cinnamon, 1-1/2 fl. dr.; mix. 40 gr. of this powder, triturated with 1 fl. oz. of water.

=Powder, Chol′era (Saline).= Syn. PULVIS SALINUS ANTICHOLERICUS, L. Prep. 1. (Dr O’Shaughnessy.) Carbonate of soda, 5 gr.; chloride of sodium, phosphate of soda, and sulphate of soda, of each 10 gr. For a dose.

=Powder of Cin′namon (Compound).= Syn. AROMATIC POWDER; PULVIS CINNAMOMI COMPOSITUS (B. P., Ph. L.), PULVIS AROMATICUS (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Cinnamon, 2 oz.; cardamoms, 1-1/2 oz.; ginger, 1 oz.; long pepper, 1/2 oz.; rub them together so that a fine powder may be made.

2. (B. P., Ph. E.) Cinnamon, cardamom seeds, and ginger, equal parts; to be kept in a well-closed glass vessel.

3. (Ph. D.) Cinnamon and ginger, of each 2 oz.; cardamom seeds (husked), and nutmegs, of each 1 oz. Aromatic and carminative.——Dose, 10 to 30 gr. In the powder of the shops cassia is generally substituted for cinnamon.

=Powder, Cla′rifying.= Flake albumen. See ALBUMEN.

=Powder, Cock′le.= From the well-known shell-fish Cardium edule (Linn.), as oyster powder.

=Powder, Colbatche’s Specific.= Prep. From solution of sesquichloride of iron and acetate of lead, of each 4 oz.; mix, evaporate to dryness, powder the residuum, and preserve it from the air. Astringent and hæmostatic.——Dose, 3 to 8 grs.

=Powder of Col′ocynth.= Syn. PULVIS COLOCYNTHIDIS, L. That of the shops is generally prepared from the whole of the peeled fruit, with the seeds, instead of merely from the pulp, by which its activity is greatly lessened. A factitious article is also met with in trade, made by grinding bryony root with about twice its weight of colocynth seeds and a very small quantity of gamboge.

=Powder, Compound Almond.= (B. Ph.) Syn. PULVIS AMYGDALÆ COMPOSITUS. Prep. Steep 8 oz. of Jordan almonds in warm water till their skins can be easily removed; and, when blanched, dry them thoroughly with a soft cloth, and rub them lightly in a mortar to a smooth consistence; mix gum Arabic in powder, 1 oz.; and refined sugar, in powder, 4 oz.; and adding them to the pulp gradually, rub the whole to a coarse powder. Keep it in a lightly covered jar.

=Powder, Compound Bark.= (Geneva Ph.) Syn. PULVIS CINCHONÆ COMPOSITUS. Prep. Peruvian bark, 1 oz.; rhubarb, 1-1/2 dr.; muriate of ammonia, 1-1/2 dr.; mix.

=Powder, Compound Belladonna.= 1. (Hecker.) Prep. Belladonna, 1 to 3 gr.; musk, 5 gr.; camphor, 5 gr.; white sugar, 30 gr.; mix. For 8 powders.

2. (Kopp.) Belladonna root, 2 gr.; ipecacuanha, 2 gr.; sulphur, 32 gr.; sugar of milk, 32 gr. Mix, and divide into 3 powders, three daily. In hooping-cough.

=Powder, Compound Ceruse.= (Ph. L. 1788.) Syn. PULVIS CERUSÆ COMPOSITUS. Prep. Carbonate of lead, 5 oz.; sarcocol, 1-1/2 oz.; tragacanth, 1/2 oz.; mix. For outward use.

=Powder, Compound, of Cyanide of Zinc.= (Guibourt.) Syn. PULVIS ZINCI CYANIDI COMPOSITUS. Prep. Cyanide of zinc, 2 gr.; calcined magnesia, 27 gr.; cinnamon, 10 gr.; mix. For 6 doses, in cramp of the stomach.

=Powder, Compound Fennel.= (Brunsw. Ph.) Syn. PULVIS FŒNICULI COMPOSITUS. Prep. Carbonate of magnesia, 1 oz.; fennel seeds, 1-2 oz.; orange peel, 2 dr.; white sugar, 2 dr. Reduce each to a fine powder and mix.

=Powder, Compound Musk.= (Russ. Ph.) Syn. PULVIS MOSCHI COMPOSITUS. Prep. Musk, 8 parts; valerian, 10 parts; camphor, 3 parts.

=Powder, Compound Opium.= (B. P.) Syn. PULVIS OPII COMPOSITUS. Prep. Mix thoroughly 1-1/2 oz. of opium, in powder, with 2 oz. of powdered black pepper, 5 oz. of ginger, 6 oz. of caraways, and 1/2 oz. of tragacanth. Pass the powders through a fine sieve, rub them lightly in a mortar, and keep the powder in a stoppered bottle. This powder nearly represents the dry ingredients of confection of opium, L.——Dose, 2 to 5 gr.

=Powder, Compound Silver.= (Serre.) Syn. PULVIS ARGENTI COMPOSITUS. Prep. Chloride of silver, 1 gr.; washed orris powder, 2 gr. Used in frictions, the same as COMPOUND GOLD POWDER.

=Powder, Compound of Sulphate of Soda.= Syn. PULVIS SODÆ SULPHATIS COMPOSITUS. SEL DE GUINDRE. Prep. Dried sulphate of soda, 18 dr.; nitrate of potash, 1/2 dr.; potassio-tartrate of antimony, 1 gr. A third part to be taken in water or herb broth.

=Powder, Compound Sulphur.= Syn. PULVIS SULPHURIS COMPOSITUS. RATIER:——Sulphur, 1 oz.; cream of tartar, 1 oz.; white sugar, q. s. VAN MONS (antidysenteric powder):——Sulphur, 1 oz.; fennel seed, 1 dr.; white sugar, 2 oz.; gum Arabic, 2 oz.; mix. SWEDIAUR (pectoral powder):——Sulphur, 1/2 oz.; liquorice, 1 oz.; orris, 2 dr.; benzoic acid, 1 scruple; white sugar, 2 oz.; oil of anise and fennel, of each 10 drops.

=Powder of Contrayer′va (Compound).= Syn. PULVIS CONTRAYERVÆ COMPOSITUS, L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1824.) Powdered contrayerva root, 5 oz.; prepared oyster shells, 1-1/2 lb.; mix. A tonic absorbent or antacid.——Dose, 10 gr. to 1/2 dr., as required.

=Powder, Cooling.= (G. Ph.) Syn. PULVIS TEMPERANE. Prep. Nitrate of potash, 1 oz.; cream of tartar, 3 oz.; sugar, 6 oz.

=Powder, Corn.= See CORN SOLVENT and POWDER, WART (below).

=Powder, Cosmet′ic.= Syn. PULVIS COSMETICUS, L. Prep. (Ph. Hann. 1831.) Blanched sweet almonds and beans, of each 18 oz.; orris root, 8 oz.; white Spanish soap, 6 oz.; spermaceti, 1-1/2 oz.; dried carbonate of soda, 1 oz.; oils of lavender, bergamot, and lemon, of each 6 dr.; mix, and beat them to a powder. See POWDER, HAIR, and HAND (below), PASTE (Almond), POWDERS (Scented), &c.

=Powder of Cryst′al.= From quartz, like POWDERED GLASS (page 805). Used to make fine glass; also for a dryer for paints, and sold under the name of ‘diamond dust’ for razor strops.

=Powder of Cubebs with Alum.= (Matthieu.) Syn. PULVIS CUBEBÆ CUM ALUMINE. Prep. Cubebs, 2 oz.; alum, 4 dr.; mix. For 9 doses. Three daily, in gonorrhœa.

=Powder, Cur′ry.= Syn. INDIAN CURRY POWDER. The samples of this compound prepared by different houses vary so greatly from each other in the proportions of the ingredients, that it is difficult to regard any one as a standard. The following are therefore merely given as examples:——

Prep. 1. Corianders, 1 lb.; turmeric, 3/4 lb.; black pepper, 1/2 lb.; scorched mustard, 1/4 lb.; ginger, 2 oz.; cumin seed, 1 oz.; capsicums, 3/4 oz.; mace, 1/4 oz. (all in powder); mix well.

2. Coriander seeds and black pepper, of each 8 lbs.; turmeric and cumin seeds, of each 4 lbs., allspice, 3/4 lb.; mace, 1 oz. (all in powder); mix. This receipt is employed by an eminent wholesale house that does very largely in curry powder.

3. (See page 524.)

Used as a condiment and flavouring ingredient. The addition of a few heads of garlic gives it an increased zest for Indian veterans.

=Powder, Cust′ard.= Prep. From sago meal, 2 lbs.; powdered turmeric, 1/2 oz.; bitter-almond powder, cassia, and mace, of each 1/2 dr.

=Powder, Cyprus.= From Cladonia rangiferina, or reindeer moss. It has a very agreeable smell, and, being extremely retentive of odours, is much used as a basis for scent-powders, sachets, &c. The lichen known as the ragged hoary evernia also possesses nearly similar properties, and is often substituted for it. See POWDERS (Scented).

=Powder, Diapente.= (Ed. Ph. 1744.) Syn. PULVIS DIAPENTE. Prep. Aristolochia root, gentian, bay berries, myrrh, ivory dust, of each 2 oz.; mix.

=Powder, Disinfect′ing.= Syn. PULVIS DISINFECTANS, L. Prep. (Keist.) Bisulphate of potassa, 41 parts; sugar of lead, 7 parts; binoxide of manganese, 3 parts, reduce them separately to a fine powder, and, when wanted for use, mix a proper quantity in any suitable vessel. For other formulæ, see DISINFECTING COMPOUNDS. The name is generally applied to hypochlorite of lime.

=Powder, Diuretic.= (P. Cod.) Syn. PULVIS DIURETICUS. Prep. Gum Arabic, 6 oz.; sugar of milk, 6 oz.; nitrate of potash, 1 oz.; marshmallow root, 1 oz.; liquorice root, 2 oz.; mix.

=Powder, Dover’s.= Syn. PULVIS DOVERI, L. Prep. (Original formula.) Nitre and sulphate of potassa, of each 4 oz.; melt them together in a red-hot crucible, reduce the cold fused matter to powder, and add powdered ipecacuanha, liquorice, and opium, of each 1 oz. This is the formula adopted in the Paris Codex. COMPOUND IPECACUANHA POWDER is now sold under this name. (See below.)

=Powder, Duke of Portland’s.= Syn. PULVIS ANTIARTHRITICUS. Prep. Round birthwort, gentian, tops of lesser centaury, tops of ground pine, and germander, of each equal parts.——Dose, 1 dr.

=Powder, Egg.= See POWDER, BAKING.

=Powder of Elaterium, Compound.= (B. Ph.) PULVIS ELATERII COMPOSITUS. Prep. Elaterium, 10 gr.; sugar of milk, 90 gr. Rub them together to fine powder.——Dose, 1/2 gr. to 5 gr.

=Powder, Emmen′agogue.= Syn. PULVIS EMMENAGOGUS, P. HÆMATINUS, P. CONTRA AMENORRHŒAM, L. Prep. 1. Saccharine carbonate of iron, 3 parts; powdered myrrh, ginger, and nutmeg, of each 1 part; divide into 1/2-dr. papers. One for a dose, twice or thrice daily.

2. (Augustin.) Myrrh, 12 gr.; saffron, 3 gr.; oil of cloves, 1 drop. For a dose, as the last.

3. (Klein.) Calomel, 4 gr.; extract of yew, 10 gr.; powdered savine, 1 dr.; Quevenne’s iron, 1/2 dr.; loaf sugar, 2 dr. For 6 powders; as before.

=Powder, Emulsive, of Gluten.= (Taddei.) Syn. PULVIS GLUTENIS EMULSIVUS. Prep. Fresh vegetable gluten, 10 oz.; soap, 2 oz.; water, 1 pint. Dissolve, evaporate the solution, dry it on plates, and reduce to powder. As an antidote to corrosive sublimate.

=Powder, Escharot′ic (Arsenical).= Syn. PULVIS ESCHAROTICUS ARSENICALIS, L.; POUDRE DU FRÈRES COSME, Fr. Prep. 1. (Original formula.) From white arsenic, 12 gr.; burnt hartshorn, 1/2 dr.; cinnabar, 1 dr.

2. (P. Cod.) Red sulphuret of mercury and powdered dragon’s blood, of each 2 parts; levigated arsenious acid, 1 part; carefully mixed together. See CAUSTIC, ARSENICAL.

=Powder of Extract of Col′ocynth (Compound).= Syn. PULVIS EXTRACTI COLOCYNTHIDIS COMPOSITI, L. Prep. From compound extract of colocynth (Ph. L. 1836), dried by a gentle heat, and powdered.

Obs. This, like many other articles employed by lazy dispensers, does not represent the preparation for which it is used as a substitute; whilst, from its peculiar character, it is very open to sophistication——a practice, we regret to say, very general with certain druggists. Indeed, some of these parties make this article by simply throwing the ingredients of the extract into a pan along with a little water, and, when they have become soft, stirring them together with a spatula, after which they are desiccated and powdered. This is then labelled by certain houses, “Pulv. Ext. Coloc. co.——P. L.,” and sold to their unfortunate customers as such, although no such an extract has been in the Ph. L. since that of 1836.

=Powder, Faynard’s.= The charcoal of beechwood, finely powdered. (Paris.) Used in piles, and as a styptic.

=Powder, Fe′ver.= See POWDER, ANTIMONIAL (above).

=Powder of Flint.= Syn. SILEX CONTRITUS (Ph. L.), L. Prep. As powdered glass. (See page 805.) It is ordered in the Ph. L. to be employed, instead of magnesia, for the purpose of mechanically dividing the essential oils used in the preparation of distilled water. It is also used as an escharotic.

=Powder, Fly.= Prep. From white arsenic, 5 oz.; white sugar, 6 lbs.; rose pink, 2 oz.; mix, and put 6 dr. in each paper. Used to kill flies. It is poisonous, and should be employed with great caution, particularly where there are children.

=Powder, Fu′′migating.= Syn. PULVIS FUMALIS, L. Prep. (Ph. Russ.) Amber, mastic, and olibanum, of each 3 parts; storax, 2 parts; benzoin and labdanum, of each 1 part; reduce them to coarse powder, and mix them well. See FUMIGATION.

=Powder, Galls of (Compound).= Syn. PULVIS GALLÆ COMPOSITUS, L. See POWDER, ASTRINGENT.

=Powder, Gascoign’s.= Syn. PULVIS ECHELIS COMPOSITUS. Prep. Prepared crab shells, 1 lb.; prepared chalk, 3 oz.; prepared coral, 3 oz.; mix.

=Powder, Goelis’s Antihec′tic.= Prep. From burnt hartshorn, powdered nutmeg, black pepper, and roasted laurel berries, of each 1 part; liquorice powder, 3 parts.——Dose, 1/2 to 1 dr; in the hectic fever of scrofulous subjects.

=Powder, Gold.= Syn. PULVIS AURI. Triturate gold leaf with 10 or 12 times its weight of sulphate of potash till bright particles are no longer visible; pass it through a sieve, mix with boiling water, wash what remains on the filter, and dry in a stove.

=Powder, Gold Compound.= Syn. PULVIS AURI COMPOSITUS. Prep. Auro-chloride of sodium, 1 gr.; lycopodium, starch, or washed orris powder, 1 scruple; mix. A 1/15th part, gradually increased to 1/8th part, of this powder to be rubbed on the gums.

=Powder of Gold and Iron.= (Buckler.) Syn. PULVIS AURI ET FERRI. Prep. Pulverised gold, 2 scruples; clean levigated iron filings, 2 scruples; gum Arabic in powder, 30 gr.; mix. For one dose, to be given in water acidulated with a few drops of sulphuric acid, as an antidote for corrosive sublimate.

=Powder, Goulard.= Effloresced sugar of lead. Poisonous.

=Powder, Grey.= Mercurial powder.

=Powder, Gregory’s.= See POWDER OF RHUBARB (Compound).

=Powder of Guarana, Compound.= (Dr Gavrelle). Syn. PULVIS PAULLINIÆ COMPOSITUS. Prep. Guarana, 1 dr.; compound cinnamon powder, 4 dr. Mix.

=Powder, Gum.= (G. Ph.) Syn. PULVIS GUMMOSUS. Prep. Gum Arabic, 3 oz.; liquorice, 2 oz.; refined sugar, 1 oz. Mix.

=Powder, Hæmostat′ic.= Syn. PULVIS HÆMOSTATICUS, L. Prep. 1. (Guibourt.) Charcoal and gum Arabic, of each, in powder, 1 part; powdered resin, 4 parts.

2. (Mialhe.) From powdered alum, gum tragacanth, and tannin, equal parts. Used to check local bleeding.

3. (P. Cod.) Prep. Resin, 4 dr.; gum Arabic, 1 dr.; powdered catechu, 1 dr. Mix.

=Powder, Hair.= Syn. PULVIS PRO CRINE, L. Starch reduced to a very fine powder, and then scented according to the fancy of the artist; it is, lastly, passed through a gauze sieve. In its simple form, without any addition, it constitutes ‘plain hair powder.’ In other cases it is distinguished by the name of the substance added to perfume it. Thus, we have ‘rose hair powder,’ ‘violet h. p.,’ &c. Potato farina, well triturated, is now commonly used for hair powder. Amongst the lower classes, the contents of the ‘flour dredger’ of the kitchen are frequently misappropriated to this purpose. See POWDERS, SCENTED (below).

=Powder, Hand.= Prep. From almond powder, 1 lb.; powdered cuttle-fish bone and white soap, of each 4 oz.; orris powder, 1 oz.; mix. Used to clean the hands, and to render them soft and white. See POWDER, COSMETIC.

=Powder, Helvetius’s.= Syn. PULVIS HELVETII, L. A mixture of powdered alum and dragon’s blood. (Dr Paris.)

=Powder, Herrenschwand’s Specific.= See PATENT MEDICINES.

=Powder, Hiera Picra.= Powder of aloes with canella (see above).

=Powder, Hufeland’s.= Syn. HUFELAND’S QUINQUINA FACTICE, PULVIS CINCHONÆ FACTITIUS, P. SALICIS COMPOSITUS, L. Prep. From bennet (the herb), calamus aromaticus, chestnut bark, gentian root, and willow bark, equal parts; reduced to powder.

=Powder, Hunter’s.= See POWDER, WART (below).

=Powder, Hunt’s.= See POWDER, BREAKFAST.

=Powder of Ipecacuan′ha (Compound).= Syn. DOVER’S POWDER, COMPOUND POWDER OF IPECACUANHA WITH OPIUM; PULVIS DOVERI, PULVIS IPECACUANHÆ COMPOSITUS (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L.; POUDRE D’IPECACUANHA ET D’OPIUM, Fr. Prep. 1. (B. P., Ph. L.) Ipecacuanha and opium, of each, in fine powder, 1 dr.; sulphate of potassa, in fine powder, 1 oz.; mix them (thoroughly). The Edin. and Dublin Formulæ are similar.

2. (P. Cod.) Nitre and sulphate of potassa, of each 4 oz.; ipecacuanha, liquorice root, and hard extract of opium, of each 1 oz. This closely resembles the original formula.

3. (Wholesale.) From powdered ipecacuanha and opium, of each 1 lb.; powdered sulphate of potassa, 8 lbs. Uses, &c. ‘Dover’s powder’ is a powerful and valuable sudorific.——Dose, 5 to 15 or 20 gr., followed by warm diluents; in inflammatory affections, rheumatisms, colds, &c.

=Powder, Itch.= Syn. PULVIS ANTIPSORICUS, L. Prep. 1. Sulphur and potato farina, of each 1/2 lb.; essence of bergamot, 1/4 oz.; mix.

2. (Poudre de Pihorel.) A mixture of finely pulverised sulphuret of calcium and farina, in nearly equal quantities. Used either as a dusting powder or mixed with a little oil or fat, and rubbed into the affected part.

3. (Fr. Hosp.) Flowers of sulphur, 1 oz.; acetate of lead, 1 oz. Mix.

4. Equal parts of sulphur and charcoal.

=Powder of Jal′ap (Compound).= Syn. PULVIS JÂLAPÆ COMPOSITUS (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Jalap, 3 oz.; bitartrate of potassa, 6 oz.; ginger, 2 dr.; rub them separately into fine powder, then mix them.

2. (Ph. E.) As the last, omitting the ginger.

3. (Ph. D.) Jalap, 2 oz.; bitartrate of potassa, 3-1/2 oz.; ginger, 1/2 oz. (all in fine powder); mix by careful trituration.——Dose, 20 to 60 gr.; as a purgative in habitual costiveness, dropsies, &c.; also in worms, the tumid bellies of children, &c.

4. (B. P.) Jalap, in powder, 5; acid tartrate of potash, 9; ginger, in powder, 1; mix.——Dose, 20 to 60 gr.

5. (PULVIS LENITIVUS; SUCRE ORANGE PURGATIV.) From refined sugar, 3/4 lb.; jalap and cream of tartar, of each 2 oz.; oil of orange peel, 1/4 oz. A popular purgative on the Continent.——Dose, 1 to 3 dr.

=Powder, James’s.= Syn. PULVIS JACOBI, P. FEBRIFUGUS JACOBI, L. The antimonial powder, or compound powder of antimony, of the Pharmacopœias (see above) is the preparation which usually passes under this name; but the true James’s powder is a nostrum the pretended secret of the preparation of which is claimed to be possessed by only two parties in the kingdom. The patent specification of the once celebrated Dr James runs as follows:——

“Take of antimony, calcine it with a continued protracted heat, in a flat, unglazed earthen vessel, adding to it, from time to time, a sufficient quantity of any animal oil and salt, well dephlegmated; then boil it in melted nitre for a considerable time, and separate the powder from the nitre by dissolving it in water.” On this it has been remarked that it yields a product totally different from that which Dr James and his successors have sold under the name, and he has hence been charged with concealing the real formula for his powder, and publishing a false one in its stead.

According to Dr Robinson, the original formula for this nostrum, and that still adopted by the vendors of the proprietary article at the present day, is——Tartarised antimony, 1 part; prepared burnt hartshorn and calx of antimony, of each 5 parts; carefully mixed together, and divided into 21-gr. powders. (‘Phil. Journ. Pharm.,’ vi, 282.)

From analyses recently made of three specimens of James’s powder (‘Newberry’s,’ ‘Butler’s,’ and a sample of 60 years old obtained by Mr Squire), it appears that antimonious acid was present in different proportions, from about 45% to 33%, the amount being greatest in the old specimen; teroxide of antimony was also present to the extent of from 9% to less than 1%, the greatest quantity being again in the old preparation; the remainder in each specimen consisted chiefly of phosphate of lime; no trace of tartaric acid was discoverable in any of the samples.

Perhaps no nostrum ever received such extensive patronage from the faculty as James’s powder. Dr James himself was remarkably successful in its use; but whether his success depended upon his powder or the mercurials and bark which he commonly employed at the same time is still undetermined.

=Powder of Kermes with Camphor.= (Germ. Hosp.) Syn. PULVIS KERMETIS CUM CAMPHORA. Prep. Kermes mineral, 3 gr.; camphor, 6 gr.; white sugar, 2 dr.; mix. For 12 doses.

=Powder of Kermes with Ipecacuanha.= (Fr. Hosp.) Syn. PULVIS KERMETIS CUM IPECACUANHA. Prep. Kermes, 2 gr.; ipecacuanha, 2 gr.; crabs’ eyes, 2 scruples; gum Arabic, 2 scruples; mix. For 12 doses. In hooping-cough.

=Powder of Ki′no (Compound).= Syn. PULVIS KINO COMPOSITUS (Ph. L.), L. Prep. (Ph. L.) Kino, 15 dr.; cinnamon, 4 dr.; dried opium, 1 dr.; reduce them separately to fine powder, and then mix them.——Dose, 5 to 20 gr.; in diarrhœa, pyrosis, &c.

(B. P.) Prep. Kino, 3-3/4 oz.; cinnamon, 1 oz.; opium, 1/4 oz.; mix.——Dose, 5 to 20 gr.

=Powder, Lausanne.= Prep. From nitre, 1-1/2 dr.; carbonate of magnesia, bitartrate of potassa, precipitated sulphur, and oleo-saccharum of peppermint, of each 4 dr.; sugar of milk, 1 oz. Lenitive and antidysenteric.

=Powder, Lax′ative.= See SPECIES, LAXATIVE.

=Powder of Liquorice (Compound).= Syn. PULVIS GLYCYRRHIZÆ COMPOSITUS, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. Bor.) Liquorice root and senna leaves, of each 6 oz.; fennel seed and milk of sulphur (pure), of each 3 oz.; white sugar, 18 oz. (all in fine powder); mix. Pectoral and laxative.

2. (B. Ph.) Prep. Senna and liquorice root, both in fine powder, of each 2 oz.; sugar, in fine powder, 6 oz. Mix thoroughly and pass through a fine sieve.——Dose, 1/2 dr. to 1 dr.

=Powder of Magne′sia and Rhu′barb.= See POWDER OF COMPOUND RHUBARB (below).

=Powder, Martin’s Cancer.= An American nostrum, composed of the powdered stems of the Orobanche Virginiana (Linn.), combined with a very small quantity of arsenious acid. It is used as a sprinkle for open cancers and cancerous sores.

=Powder, Mercu′′rial.= Syn. GREY POWDER (HYDRARGYRUM CUM CRETÂ, B. P.), MERCURY WITH CHALK. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Mercury, 1; prepared chalk, 2; triturate till the globules disappear.——Dose, 3 to 8 gr.

2. Mercury, 3 oz.; powdered resin, 3/4 oz.; prepared chalk, 5 oz.; rectified spirit, q. s.; make a paste with the resin and a small quantity of the spirit; add the mercury, which may be extinguished in a short time; then the chalk and alcohol, gradually, so as to keep up the pasty consistence; lastly, add sufficient spirit to dissolve out the resin, wash the powder on a filter, and dry it. Rectified oil of turpentine may be substituted for the spirit.

=Powder, Morison’s Ape′′rient.= See PATENT MEDICINES.

=Powder of Mugwort, Saccharated.= (Bresler.) Powdered mugwort root, 3 oz.; sugar, 6 oz.; a teaspoonful four times a day in chorea and epilepsy.

=Powder of Mush′room.= Syn. PULVIS AGARICI, P. A. ESCULENTI, L. From edible mushrooms, dried by a gentle heat, and then powdered along with a little white pepper, cloves, and mace. Some cayenne is frequently added.

=Powder of Mus′sel.= From the Mytilus edulis (Linn.), or common mussel, in the same way as POWDER OF OYSTER.

=Powder of Myrrh (Compound).= Syn. PULVIS È MYRRHÂ COMPOSITUS, L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1788.) Myrrh, dried savine, dried rue, and Russian castor, equal parts, rubbed to powder, and then well mixed. Emmenagogue and antispasmodic.——Dose, 12 to 30 gr.

=Powder, Nephritic.= (Fuller.) Syn. PULVIS NEPHRITICUS. Prep. Powdered roots of smallage and saxifrage, of each 2 dr.; crabs’ eyes, 1 dr.; sulphate of potash, 1 dr.; sal prunella, 2 scruples; oil of juniper, 4 drops. Mix.——Dose, 20 to 60 gr.

=Powder, Nur′sery.= See POWDER, VIOLET (below).

=Powder of Nux Vomica, Compound.= Syn. PULVIS NUCIS VOMICÆ COMPOSITUS; VOGT’S STOMACHIC POWDER. Prep. Nux vomica, 18 gr.; ipecacuanha, 24 gr.; rhubarb, 1 dr.; prepared oyster shell, 48 gr.; oleo-saccharum of mint, 1 dr. Mix, and divide into 12 powders.

=Powder, O′′piated.= Powder of chalk with opium.

=Powder, Opiated Guaiacum.= (Pareira.) Syn. PULVIS GUAIACI OPIATUS. Prep. Guaiacum, 1 dr.; orange leaves, 1/2 dr.; acetate of morphia, 3/4 gr. Mix, and divide into 6 powders. One every two hours in articular rheumatism.

=Powder of Oys′ter.= Syn. PULVIS OSTRÆ, L. Prep. From the common oyster (Ostrea edulis——Linn.), pulped through a sieve, made into a paste with wheaten flour and a little salt, and then rolled out into thin pieces, and dried; these are reduced to powder, sifted, and packed in well-corked bottles. Used to make sauce; about 1 oz., to water, 1 pint. Other shell-fish are treated in the same way.

=Powder of Oxide of Zinc with Starch.= (Cazenave.) Syn. PULVIS ZINCI OXYDI CUM AMYLO. Prep. Starch, 1 oz.; oxide of zinc, 1 dr.; camphor, in powder, 1 dr. For excoriations and bed-sores.

=Powder, Parturifacient.= (E. Ph. 1744). Syn. PULVIS AD PARTUM. Prep. Borax, 4 dr.; castor, 1-1/2 dr.; saffron, 1-1/2 dr.; oil of cinnamon, 8 drops; oil of amber, 6 drops. Mix.——Dose, 20 to 30 gr. (This name, and also that of PULVIS PARTURIFACIENS, has been given to powdered ergot.)

=Powder, Pea.= Syn. PEA FLOUR; FARINA PISORUM, L. Prep. From peas, in the usual manner. Used to make extemporaneous pea-soup.

=Powder, Pearl.= Prep. From pure pearl white and French chalk (scraped fine by Dutch rushes), equal parts; triturated together, Some makers add more French chalk. Used as a skin cosmetic. This mixture is preferable to pearl white alone, from being more adhesive.

=Powder, Pease.= Prep. From dried mint and sage, of each 4 oz,; celery seed and white pepper, of each 1/2 oz.; turmeric powder, 1/4 oz.; reduced to fine powder. Used as a condiment and kitchen-spice.

=Powder, Pec′toral.= See POWDER OF LIQUORICE, &c.

=Powder of Phosphate of Lime, Saccharated.= Syn. PULVIS CALCIS PHOSPHATIS, SACCHARATUS. Prep. Precipitated phosphate of lime, 15 gr., white sugar, 85 gr.; triturate and divide into 20 packets. Two or more powders daily, according to age of child. In rickets.

=Powder, Piles.= Syn. PULVIS ANTIHÆMORRHOIDALIS, P. HÆMORRHOIDALIS, L. Prep. 1. (Fr. Hosp.) Precipitated sulphur, 3 oz.; cream of tartar and black pepper, of each 1 oz.; oil of cubebs, 1/2 dr.——Dose. A teaspoonful, in milk or honey, thrice a day.

2. (External.)——a. From Aleppo galls, in very fine powder, 2 oz.; opium, in fine powder, 1 dr. A pinch to be applied occasionally.

b. From sesquioxide of iron, 1 oz.; powdered acetate of lead, 1/2 dr. As the last.

=Powder of Pitch, Compound.= Syn. PULVIS PICIS COMPOSITUS; DISINFECTING POWDER OF CORNE AND DEMAUX. 100 parts of plaster of Paris are triturated thoroughly with 1 to 5 parts of coal tar. Used as an absorbent and disinfectant to fetid ulcers and wounds.

=Powder, Plate.= Syn. PULVIS PRO ARGENTO, L. Prep. 1. Jeweller’s rouge, 1/4 lb.; prepared chalk or levigated burnt hartshorn, 3/4 lb.; mix.

2. Levigated putty powder, 1/4 lb.; burnt hartshorn, 1/2 lb.; prepared chalk, 1 lb.; rose pink, 1 oz.

3. (MERCURIAL.) From quicksilver with chalk, 1 oz.; prepared chalk, 11 oz.; mix. Used to clean and polish plate. See PLATE.

=Powder, Plate Boiling.= Prep. From cream of tartar, common salt, and alum, equal parts. A little of this powder, added to the water in which plate is boiled, gives to it a silvery whiteness.

=Powder, Plummer’s Al′terative.= See ANTIMONY, ETHIOPS OF.

=Powder, Poul′tice.= Syn. PULVIS PRO CATAPLASMATE (Ph. D. 1826), L. Prep. From linseed meal, 1 part; oatmeal, 2 parts; mixed together.

=Powder, Purgative and Anthelmintic.= (Boerhaave). Syn. PULVIS PURGANS ANTHELMINTICUS. Prep. Jalap, 12 gr. (or agaric, 8 gr.), Ethiops mineral, 12 gr.; for one dose.

=Powder of Quinine, Aerated.= (Dr Meireu). Syn. PULVIS QUINIÆ AERATUS. Prep. Tartaric acid, 15 gr.; disulphate of quinia, 1-1/2 gr. Mix, and add bicarbonate of soda, 18 gr.; refined sugar, 30 gr. Mix for one dose, between the fits of intermittent fever.

=Powder of Quinine and Tobacco.= (Hug.) Syn. PULVIS QUINIÆ SULPHATIS ET TABACI. Prep. Disulphate of quinine, 12 gr.; snuff, 1 oz. To be used as a snuff for nervous headaches.

=Powder, Rat.= See RATS.

=Powder of Rhu′barb (Compound).= Syn. GREGORY’S MIXTURE, GREGORY’S POWDER; PULVIS RHEI COMPOSITUS (B. P., Ph. E. and D.) L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Calcined magnesia, 1 lb.; rhubarb, 4 oz.; ginger, 2 oz. (all in fine powder); mix, and preserve it from the air.

2. (B. P., Ph. D.) Calcined magnesia, 6 oz.; rhubarb, 2 oz.; ginger, 1 oz.

3. Calcined magnesia, 8 oz.; rhubarb, 3 oz.; chamomile, 2 oz.; ginger, 1 oz.

Obs. An excellent stomachic, antacid, and laxative.——Dose, 20 gr. to 1/2 dr. Some druggists substitute the heavy carbonate for the calcined magnesia ordered above, but this alters the nature of the preparation, and requires the dose to be increased. Heavy calcined magnesia may, however, be employed with advantage.

=Powder, Sach′et.= See SCENTED POWDERS.

=Powder, Saline′ (Compound).= Syn. PULVIS SALINUS COMPOSITUS (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Pure chloride of sodium and sulphate of magnesia, of each 4 oz.; sulphate of potash, 3 oz.; each separately dried by a gentle heat, and pulverised, then triturated together, and preserved in well-closed vessels. An excellent saline purgative.——Dose, 2 to 6 dr., in 1/2 pint of water or table-beer, in the morning, fasting.

=Powder of Scammony (Compound).= Syn. PULVIS SCAMMONII COMPOSITUS (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Scammony and hard extract of jalap, of each 2 oz.; ginger, 1/2 oz.; rub them separately to a very fine powder, and then mix them.——Dose, 5 to 15 gr.

2. (Ph. E.) Scammony and bitartrate of potassa, of each, in very fine powder, equal parts.——Dose, 7 to 20 gr.

3. (Ph. D.) Scammony, in fine powder, 1 oz.; compound powder of jalap, 3 oz.; mix,——Dose, 10 to 30 gr.

4. (B. P.) Scammony, 4; jalap, 3; ginger, 1; mix, and reduce to fine powder.——Dose, 10 to 20 gr.

Obs. The above are favourite cathartics in worms, especially for children. They are commonly sold for basilic powder. (See above.)

=Powder of Scammony with Cal′omel.= Syn. PULVIS SCAMMONII CUM CALOMELANE, L. Prep. From scammony, 1/2 oz.; calomel and white sugar, of each 2 dr. An excellent vermifuge for children.——Dose. For an adult, 5 to 20 gr.; for a child, 2 to 8 gr. Sold for basilic powder, to which it approaches nearer in composition than the preceding.

=Powder of Scammony with Soot.= Syn. PULVIS SCAMMONII CUM FULIGINE; POUDRE D’AILHAUT. Prep. Scammony, 1 dr.; wood soot, 1-1/2 dr.; resin, 2 dr.; mix. Dose, 1/2 dr. A once fashionable purgative.

=Powder, Schmidt’s Parturifa′′cient.= Syn. SCHMIDT’S POUDRE OCYTIQUE, Fr. Prep. From powdered ergot of rye, borax, and oleo-saccharum of camomile, of each 8 gr.; powdered sugar, q. s. For a dose; to be repeated every quarter of an hour until some effect is produced.

=Powder of Scordium (Compound).= Syn. PULVIS E SCORDIO COMPOSITUS. (L. Ph. 1746.) Prep. Bole, 4 oz.; scordium, 2 oz.; cinnamon, 1-1/2 oz.; styrax tormentil, bistort, gentian, dittany, galbanum, gum acacia, red rose petals, of each 1 oz.; long pepper, 1/2 oz.; ginger, 1/2 oz. Make a powder.

=Powder of Scordium with Opium.= Syn. PULVIS E SCORDIO CUM OPIO. Prep. Add to the preceding, 3 dr. of dry strained opium, and powder it with the other ingredients.

=Powder of Senna (Battley’s Green).= Syn. PULVIS SENNÆ VIRIDIS, L. Prep. From senna leaves, dried and heated until they turn yellow, then powdered along with a little (blue) charcoal, to give a green colour.

=Powder of Sen′na (Compound).= Syn. PULVIS SENNÆ COMPOSITUS, L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1824.) Senna and bitartrate of potassa, of each 2 oz.; scammony, 1/2 oz.; ginger, 2 dr.; all in fine powder; mix.——Dose, 20 to 30 gr., or more; as a purgative or anthelmintic.

=Powder, Sil′vering.= Prep. 1. Silver dust (fine), 20 gr.; alum, 30 gr.; common salt, 1 dr.; cream of tartar, 3 dr.; rub them together to a fine powder.

2. As the last, but substituting 35 gr. of nitrate of silver for the silver dust.

3. Chloride of silver is dissolved in a solution of hyposulphite of soda, and the solution made into a paste with levigated burnt hartshorn or bone dust; this is next dried, and powdered.

4. Silver dust, 1 oz.; common salt and sal ammoniac, of each 4 oz.; corrosive sublimate, 1/4 oz.

Obs. The above powders, made into a paste with a little water, are used to silver dial-plates, statuettes, and other articles in copper, previously well cleaned, by friction. The best silver powder for the purpose is that precipitated from its nitric solution by means of a copper plate. When the product of the last formula is used, the articles should be afterwards made red hot, and polished.

=Powder of Soap.= Syn. SAPO CONTRITUS, PULVIS SAPONIS, L. Castile soap, sliced or cut small, dried by exposure to a warm atmosphere, or by a very gentle heat, and then powdered. Used in dispensing; also as a hand, shaving, and tooth powder. As a cosmetic it may be scented at will.

=Powder, Spermaceti.= Syn. PULVIS CETACEI. Spermaceti is pulverised as camphor, by the aid of a few drops of spirit.

=Powder of Spermaceti, with Sugar.= Syn. PULVIS CETACEI CUM SACCHARO. One part of powdered spermaceti with two of sugar. Pectoral.

=Powder of Sponge.= Syn. PULVIS SPONGIÆ, P. SPONGIÆ USTÆ, L. Prep. Let sponge, cut into small pieces, be beaten so as to free it from sand or stones; then burn it in a covered iron vessel, until it becomes black and friable; finally, reduce it to powder. Deobstruent.——Dose, 1/2 to 3 dr.; in glandular indurations and enlargements, &c. It should be of a brownish-black colour; if over burnt its efficacy is destroyed.

=Powder of Squills.= Syn. PULVIS SCILLÆ, L. Prep. Remove the membranous integuments from the bulb of the squill, cut it into thin slices, and dry it at a heat between 90° and 100° Fahr.; next reduce it to powder, and keep it in well-stoppered bottles.

=Powder, Sternuta′tory.= See SNUFFS (Medicated).

=Powder, Stahl’s Resolvent.= Syn. PULVIS RESOLVENS STAHLII. Prep. Antimonial powder, nitre, prepared crabs’ eyes, in equal parts.

=Powder of Starch with Soda.= Syn. PULVIS AMYLI ET SODÆ; DEVERGIE’S ALKALINE POWDER. Prep. Mix 1 part of carbonate of soda in fine powder with 10 of white starch. For external use in some skin diseases.

=Powder, Styp′tic.= See POWDER, ASTRINGENT, FAYNARD’S P., &c.

=Powder, Tonquin.= Syn. PULVIS ANTITYSSUS TUNQUINENSIS; Sir G. COBB’S TONQUIN POWDER. Prep. Musk, 16 gr.; cinnabar, 48 gr.; to be mixed or washed down with arrack or other spirit. Three doses to be given on three alternate days, and three more on the three next changes of the moon.

=Powder of Trag′acanth (Compound).= Syn. PULVIS TRAGACANTHÆ COMPOSITUS (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Gum tragacanth, gum acacia, and starch, of each, in fine powder, 1-1/2 oz.; powdered white sugar, 3 oz. The Edinburgh formula is similar. Demulcent.——Dose, 1/2 dr. to 2 dr., in water or any simple liquid; in hoarseness and catarrhs, combined with squills and henbane, to allay irritation; in dysentery, combined with ipecacuahna; in gonorrhœa, strangury, &c., combined with acetate of potassa or nitre.

2. (B. P.) Tragacanth, in powder, 1; gum Arabic, in powder, 1; starch, in powder, 1; refined sugar, in powder, 3; rub well together.——Dose, 10 to 60 gr.

=Powder of Vanilla, with Sugar.= (P. Cod.) Syn. PULVIS VANILLÆ CUM SACCHARO; POUDRE DE VANILLE SUCRÉE. Vanilla is reduced to powder by cutting it in pieces, and triturating it with 9 times its weight of refined sugar.

=Powder of Verdigris with Calomel.= Syn. PULVIS ÆRUGINIS CUM CALOMELANE. Prep. Prepared verdigris, 1 dr.; calomel, 1 dr.; mix. For external use.

=Powder, Violet.= Syn. NURSERY POWDER, SKIN P. This is simply starch, reduced to a very fine powder, and scented with orris powder or essence of violets. The best kinds are also perfumed with a little musk or ambergris, and are now generally made with potato farina. The commoner sort is only scented with a little essence of bergamot or essence of lemon. ‘Plain violet powder’ is, of course, unscented.

Prep. 1. Powdered starch, 28 lbs.; powdered orris root, 1 lb.; essence of ambergris and essence of bergamot, of each 1/2 oz.; oil of rhodium, 1/2 dr.; mix, and pass the powder through a sieve.

2. Powdered starch, 14 lbs.; essence of bergamot, 1/2 oz.; oil of cloves, 1/2 oz.; as last. Used as a dusting powder in excoriations, &c. See POWDERS, COSMETIC (below).

=Powder, Ward’s Sweating.= Resembles DOVER’S POWDER.

=Powder, Wart.= Syn. CORN POWDER, COSMETIC CAUSTIC, &c. Prep. 1. Ivy leaves ground to powder. A pinch is applied with a rag, the part being first moistened with strong vinegar. Useful for soft corns and warts.

2. (Hunter’s.) From savine and verdigris, equal parts. See CORN SOLVENT.

=Powder, Warwick’s (Earl of).= Syn. PULVIS COMITIS WARWICENCIS, L. Prep. From scammony, prepared with the fumes of sulphur, 2 oz.; diaphoretic antimony, 1 oz.; cream of tartar, 1/2 oz.——Dose, 15 to 30 gr.

Obs. This is a modification of CORNACHINI’S POWDER. It is represented in the present Pharmacopœias by COMPOUND SCAMMONY POWDER. “Cornachini wrote a whole book about his powder, the proportions of the ingredients of which he varied according to circumstances.” (‘Med. Lex.’)

=Powder, Wash′ing.= The numerous compounds vended under this name have for their basis the soda-ash of commerce, blended with common Scotch soda in variable proportions. The best of them consist either wholly or chiefly of the first of these substances. The alkaline matter is reduced to coarse powder, and stirred up with liquid size, or with a decoction of linseed, Irish moss, or British gum, and is then dried, and again crushed or powdered, and at once put into the packages, in which it is rammed tight, and covered up immediately. The object aimed at by the manufacturer is to keep his commodity from the air as much as possible, because exposure renders it less caustic, and consequently less detergent.

=Powder of Yellow Bladder-wrack.= (Ph. D.) Syn. PULVIS QUERCUS MARINÆ. Prep. Yellow bladder-wrack, in flower, is dried, cleansed, and heated in a crucible with a perforated lid till vapours cease to be given off, and the carbonaceous residue reduced to powder.——Dose, 10 gr. to 2 dr.

=POWDERS.= The following preparations have been placed under this head instead of under ‘POWDER,’ because some are invariably spoken of in the plural number, and the others may be conveniently noticed in classes or groups.

=Powders, Aerated Sherbet (IN ONE BOTTLE).= Double refined sugar, 14-1/2 oz.; powdered orange peel, 12 gr.; bicarbonate of soda, 3-1/2 oz.; essence of cedrat, 12 drops; oil of orange peel, 60 drops; tartaric acid, 4 oz. The powders must be carefully dried, mixed quickly, and afterwards kept dry, in a bottle securely corked. A measure holding nearly 3 dr. of the powder should accompany each bottle.

=Powders, Efferves′cing.= Prep. 1. (PULVERES EFFERVESCENTES——Ph. E.) Take of tartaric acid, 1 oz.; bicarbonate of soda, 1 oz. 54 gr. (534 gr.), or bicarbonate of potassa, 1 oz. 2 dr. 40 gr. (640 gr.); reduce the acid and either bicarbonate separately to fine powder, divide each of these into 16 powders, and preserve the acid and alkaline powders in separate papers of different colours.

2. (PULVERES EFFERVESCENTES CITRATI——Ph. D.) Take of citric acid (crystallised), 9 dr.; bicarbonate of soda, 11 dr., or bicarbonate of potassa, 13 dr., proceed as last, dividing each into 18 parts.

3. (PULVERES EFFERVESCENTES TARTARIZATI——Ph. D.) Take of tartaric acid (in crystals), 10 dr.; bicarbonate of soda, 11 dr., or bicarbonate of potassa, 13 dr.; reduce them to powder, and divide them into 18 parts, as before. (See below.)

=Powders, Effervescing, with Iron.= (P. Cod.) Syn. PULVERES EFFERVESCENTES CUM FERRO. Prep. Tartaric acid, 2-3/4 oz.; bicarbonate of soda, 2 oz.; powdered sugar, 9 oz.; dried sulphate of iron, 46 gr. Mix the acid and the sulphate of iron (previously reduced to coarse powder), add the sugar, and lastly the soda, not in very fine powder. All the ingredients must be very dry. Half an ounce of this powder is to be quickly added to 2 pints of pure water (without air) contained in a bottle, which is to be immediately corked.

=Powders for Gazogene.= For 2 pints:——Powdered tartaric acid, 14 scruples; bicarbonate of soda, 17 scruples.

For 3 pints:——Powdered tartaric acid, 17 scruples; bicarbonate of soda, 21 scruples.

For 5 pints:——One each charge of 2 and 3 pints.

=Powders, Gin′ger Beer.= Syn. PULVERES EFFERVESCENTES CUM ZINGIBERE, L. Prep. 1. Powdered white sugar, 1 to 2 dr.; bicarbonate of soda, 26 gr.; finest powdered Jamaica ginger, 6 gr.; essence of lemon, 1 drop; mix, and wrap it in blue paper. In the white paper put of powdered tartaric acid, 35 gr., or of powdered citric acid, 30 gr.

2. Finest Jamaica ginger, 1 dr.; bicarbonate of soda, 5 dr.; white sugar, 16 dr.; essence of lemon, 6 or 8 drops; mix, and divide it between 12 papers (blue). For the white papers, divide tartaric acid, 6 dr., in the same way. By taking the drachms as ounces, the quantity will be sufficient for 8 dozen. For use dissolve one of each colour separately in somewhat less than half a glass of water, mix the two, and drink the mixture whilst effervescing.

3. (In one bottle.)——a. The sugar and the saline ingredients are separately dried by a very gentle heat, then mixed in a dry room with the ginger and essence of lemon, and at once put into bottles.

b. By adding to the ‘acidulated kali,’ noticed at page 929, about 1-16th of its weight of the finest powdered Jamaica ginger (i. e. 1/2 dr. to each oz.; 1 oz. to each lb.) at the time of mixing the ingredients together. A dessert-spoonful, thrown into a tumbler two thirds filled with cold water, produces an excellent glass of ginger beer.

=Powders, Ink.= The article usually sold under this name is noticed under INK. Another formula, which we have adopted with considerable success, is as follows:——Good black ink, 3 pints, lump sugar, 1-1/2 oz., and gum Arabic, 1/2 oz., are put into a clean iron pan, and evaporated by the heat of boiling water, with occasional stirring, to dryness; the dried mass is reduced to powder, and divided into 12 parts, which are enveloped in either tin-foil or glazed paper, and kept dry. One of these papers dissolved in 1/4 pint of hot water forms that quantity of excellent black ink, without sediment, and which answers well with the copying press.

=Powders, Lem′onade.= Syn. LEMON SHERBET; LIMONADUM SICCUM, PULVIS PRO LIMINADO, L. Prep. 1. Powdered citric or tartaric acid, 12 gr.; powdered white sugar, 1/2 oz.; essence of lemon, 1 drop (or a little of the yellow peel of a lemon rubbed off on a piece of sugar); mix. For one glass.

2. White sugar, 4 lbs.; citric or tartaric acid, 1-1/2 oz.; essence of lemon, 1/4 oz.; mix well, and preserve it in a bottle for use. 1 to 2 dessert-spoonfuls make a glass of lemonade. It is also put up in papers containing about 2-1/2 dr. each.

3. (EFFERVESCING.)——a. For the blue papers, take of powdered white sugar, 1 lb.; bicarbonate of soda, 1/4 lb.; essence of lemon, 1-1/2 dr.; mix, and divide it between 6 dozen papers. Next divide tartaric or citric acid, 5 oz., between 6 dozen white papers. Or the two may be kept in bulk, in separate bottles.

b. (In one bottle.) As ‘ACIDULATED KALI,’ Some makers slightly increase the quantities of acid and essence of lemon there ordered.

=Powders, Orangeade.= Syn. AERATED SHERBET. Prep. Powdered sugar, 14-1/2 oz.; powdered orange peel, 12 gr.; oil of orange peel, 60 drops; essence of cedrat, 12 drops; bicarbonate of soda, 3-1/2 oz.; mix, and put 145 gr. in each blue paper. In the white paper put 32 gr. of tartaric acid (or 30 gr. of citric acid). Or the alkaline and acid powders may be put into separate bottles, with a measure holding the proper proportions of each. The orange peel may be omitted, if necessary.

=Powders, Pol′ishing.= Prep. 1. (For brass and copper.)——a. From rotten stone, 3 oz.; powdered soap, 1 oz.

b. From rotten stone, 7 oz.; powdered oxalic acid, 1 oz. Both are used with a little water. See BRASS PASTE.

2. (For gold.) Jeweller’s rouge. See SESQUIOXIDE OF IRON.

3. (For ivory.) Pumice stone and putty powder.

4. (For plate.) See PLATE and POWDER, PLATE.

5. (For silver.) As the last.

=Powders, Scented.= Prep. 1. COSMETIC POWDERS.——a. (POUDRE DE CHIPRE.) Macerate oak moss in running water for 2 or 3 days, then dry and powder it. Used as a basis for other powders, on account of its being highly retentive of odours. Reindeer moss and ragged hoary evernia are also used for the same purpose. See CYPRUS POWDER (above).

b. (POUDRE DE CHIPRE DE MONTPELIER.) From poudre de chipre, 2 lbs.; musk, 30 gr.; civet, 20 gr. (the last two powdered by means of a little sugar); cloves, 1/4 oz.

c. (POUDRE DE FLEURS D’ORANGES.) From starch or cyprus powder, 25 lbs.; orange flowers, 1 lb.; mixed in a covered chest, and stirred twice or thrice daily; the process being repeated, with fresh flowers, a second and a third time. Or, the plain powder is scented by the addition of a little neroli or essence of petit grain.

d. (POUDRE DE FRANGIPANNI.) From poudre de fleurs d’oranges and poudre de chipre, of each 6 lbs.; essence of ambergris, 1 oz.; civet (powdered with sugar), 1/2 dr. Ash-grey colour.

e. (POUDRE DE JASMINE.) As POUDRE DE FLEURS D’ORANGES, but using jasmin flowers.

f. (POUDRE À LA MARÉCHALE.) From poudre de chipre, 2 lbs.; starch powder, 1 lb.; calamus aromaticus, cloves, and cyperus perennis or rotundis, of each 2 oz. Or, starch powder, 28 lbs.; powdered cloves, 3/4 lb.; powdered orris root, 1/2 lb.; essence of ambergris, 2 dr.

g. (POUDRE À LA MOUSSELINE.) From orris root, 1 lb.; coriander seed, 6 oz.; mace and violet ebony, of each 2 oz.; musk seed, cassia, cloves, and sandal wood, of each 1 oz.

h. (POUDRE DE JONQUILLE.) From jonquils, as POUDRE DE JASMINE.

i. (POUDRE À L’ŒILLET.) From plain powder, 2 lbs.; orris root and dried red rose leaves, of each 1 lb.; cloves and musk seed, of each 4 oz.; essence of bergamot and essence de petit grain, of each 1/2 dr.

k. (POUDRE DE ROSES COMMUNES.) From pale roses, as POUDRE DE FLEURS D’ORANGES.

l. (POUDRE DE ROSES MUSQUÉES.) From musk roses, as the last.

m. (POUDRE À LA VANILLA.) From poudre de chipre or cyprus, 3 lbs.; vanilla, powdered by means of sugar, 2 dr.; oil of cloves and essence of ambergris, of each 20 drops.

n. (POUDRE À LA VIOLETTE.) See POWDER, VIOLET (as above).

The above are used as cosmetic powders for the skin and hair; also, but less frequently, for sachets, drawers, &c.

2. SACHET POWDER.——a. From orris root, 2 oz.; cassia, 1-1/2 oz.; cloves, 1 oz.; yellow sandal wood, 1/4 oz.; oils of lavender and bergamot, of each 1 dr.; otto of roses, 20 drops; musk and ambergris, of each, rubbed with a little sugar, 6 gr.; reduce the dry ingredients to coarse powder, mix them, and add the oils.

b. From corianders, orris root, rose leaves, and calamus aromaticus, of each 4 oz.; lavender flowers, 8 oz.; rhodium wood, 1 dr.; musk, 20 gr.

c. From corianders, orris, calamus aromaticus, and red roses (dried), of each 1 oz.; lavender flowers, 2 oz.; mace and cloves, of each 1 dr.; essential oil of almonds, 10 drops.

d. As last, but substituting musk, 5 gr., for the oil of almonds.

e. From patchouli, 8 oz.; lavender flowers, (lightly dried), 3 oz.; orris root, 2 oz.; cloves, 1 oz.; essence of bergamot, 1 dr.; essences of ambergris and musk, of each 1/2 dr.

These are used, along with cotton wool, to fill scent bags, cassolettes, &c.; and as scent powder for boxes, drawers, and the like. The scent is added to the dry ingredients, separately reduced to powder, and the whole is then passed through a fine sieve, to ensure perfect admixture.

3. PARFUM POUR LES AUTRES POUDRES. From poudre d’ambrette, 12 lbs.; civette, 1-1/2 oz.; musk, 1 dr.; reduce the last two to powder by grinding them with some dry lump sugar, then mix the whole together, and pass it through a sieve. Used to perfume hair powder, sachets, &c.

=Powders, Seidlitz.= Syn. PULVERES EFFERVESCENTES APERIENTES, L. Prep. 1. Potassio-tartrate of soda (Rochelle salt), 2 dr.; bicarbonate of soda, 40 gr.; mix, and put it in a blue paper; tartaric acid, 35 gr.; to be put in a white paper. For about 1/2 pint of water. Laxative.

2. (In one bottle.) From potassio-tartrate of soda, 12 oz.; bicarbonate of do., 4 oz.; tartaric acid, 3-1/2 oz.; white sugar, 1 lb. (all in fine powder); dry each separately by a gentle heat, add of essence of lemon, 1/2 dr.; mix well, pass the mixture through a sieve, and put it at once into clean dry bottles.——Dose. A dessert-spoonful, or more, to a tumblerful of water.

Obs. The above mixtures, though now universally sold as Seidlitz powder, do not, when dissolved, exactly resemble the natural water, which contains carbonates, sulphates, and chlorides of calcium and magnesium. However, the factitious article is equally effective, and much more agreeable.

=Powders, Sher′bet.= These are made of the same materials as lemonade powders, the flavouring ingredient being varied to suit the particular case.

=Powders, So′da-water.= Syn. EFFERVESCING POWDERS, E. SALINE P., SODAIC P., AERATED SODA P.; PULVERES EFFERVESCENTES, L. Prep. 1. From bicarbonate of soda, 30 gr. in each blue paper; tartaric acid, 25 gr. (or citric acid, 24 gr.), in each white paper. One of each is dissolved separately in about half a glassful of water, and the two solutions mixed, and drank immediately. A cooling, wholesome summer beverage, but it should not be indulged in to excess.

2. (Chalybeated.) By adding 1 gr. of dried protosulphate of iron to each paper of acid. Tonic.

3. (Midgeley’s.) Made by adding 1/8 gr. of tartarised antimony to each paper of acid. Refrigerant and diaphoretic. For the Ph. formulæ see POWDERS, EFFERVESCING (above).

=Powders, Soup.= See POWDER, CURRY, POWDER, PEA, SPICE, &c.

=Powders, Spruce Beer.= Syn. PULVERES EFFERVESCENTES CUM ABIETE, L. Prep. As ginger-beer powders, but substituting essence of spruce, 3 to 6 drops, for the powdered ginger.

=Powders, Tooth.= Syn. PULVIS DENTIFRICII, L. The general principles which should be kept in view in the selection of the materials, and in the preparation of dentifrices, have been already fully noticed under DENTIFRICES, and need not, therefore, be repeated here. Care must be taken that all the dry ingredients be finely pulverised, and that the harder and gritty ones be reduced to the state of an impalpable powder, either by levigation or elutriation. The mixture of the ingredients must also be complete. This is the most readily effected by stirring them well together until they form an apparently homogeneous powder, and then passing this powder through a very fine sieve. Those which contain volatile substances should be preserved in closely corked wide-mouth bottles, and those which contain acidulous or gritty matter should not be frequently employed. The selection of the tooth brush likewise deserves attention. It should be sufficiently stiff to effect its purpose completely; but, at the same time, it should be so formed as not to cause irritation or injury to the gums during its use.

Prep. 1. Cuttle-fish bone and prepared chalk, of each 2 oz.; oil of cloves, 20 drops. This may be perfumed at will, and medicated by any of the substances referred to under DENTIFRICES.

2. To the last add of powdered Castile soap, 2 oz.

3. Prepared chalk, 12 oz.; cuttle-fish bone, 8 oz.; orris root, 4 oz.; dragon’s blood, 1-1/2 oz.; oils of cloves and cassia, of each 1/2 dr.

4. Prepared chalk, 1 lb.; pumice-stone, in impalpable powder, 1/4 lb.; orris root, 2 oz.; pure rouge, 1/4 oz.; neroli, 1/2 dr.

5. Yellow cinchona bark and myrrh, of each 1/2 oz.; recently burnt charcoal, 3 oz.; cloves, 1 dr.

6. Pumice-stone, red coral, and powdered rhatany root, of each, 2 oz.; orris root, 1/2 oz.; essence of vanilla, 1/2 dr.

7. (AROMATIC TOOTH POWDER.) From cuttle-fish bone, 4 oz.; calamus aromaticus, 2 oz.; powdered Castile soap, 1 oz.; oil of cloves, 1/2 dr.

8. (ASIATIC DENTIFRICE.) From prepared red coral, 8-1/4 lbs.; Venetian red, 3/4 lb.; prepared chalk and pumice-stone, of each 1-1/4 lb.; China musk, 30 gr.

9. (Cadet’s.) From lump sugar and charcoal, of each 1 oz.; Peruvian bark, 1/2 oz.; cream of tartar, 1/4 oz.; cinnamon, 1/2 dr.

10. (Camphorated.) See CAMPHORATED CHALK.

11. (CHARCOAL DENTIFRICE.) From charcoal, preferably that from the willow or the areka nut, either alone or combined with twice its weight of prepared chalk. Scent or medicinals injure it. (See 9, 19, and 26.)

12. (CORAL DENTIFRICE.) See 16, 23, and 25 (below).

13. (Deschamp’s ALKALINE DENTIFRICE.) From powdered talc, 4 oz.; bicarbonate of soda, 1 oz.; carmine, 6 gr.; oil of mint, 12 or 15 drops.

14. (FLORENTINE DENTIFRICE.) From prepared shells, 4 oz.; orris root, 1-1/2 oz.; bitartrate of potassa, 3/4 oz.; Florentine lake, q. s. to colour.

15. (GALVANIC DENTIFRICE.) From gold, 3 leaves; silver, 4 leaves; triturate them with alum and sulphate of potassa, of each 1-1/2 dr.; then add, of dry common salt, pellitory of Spain, and Peruvian bark, of each 1 dr.; prepared hartshorn, 1 oz.; mix, and either colour it blue with smalts or red with lake. A useless compound.

16. (Grosvenor’s.) From red coral, 3 lbs.; prepared oyster-shells, 2-1/2 lbs.; orris powder, 1/2 lb.; oil of rhodium, 25 drops. Rose-pink is now commonly substituted for the coral.

17. (Hemet’s.) From cuttle-fish bone, 6 oz.; cream of tartar, 1 oz.; orris root, 1/2 oz.

18. (‘Lancet.’) Red bark and Armenian hole, of each 1 oz.; powdered cinnamon and bicarbonate of soda, of each 1/2 oz.; oil of cinnamon, 2 or 3 drops.

19. (Lardner’s.) From charcoal, in very fine powder, 1 oz.; prepared chalk, 3 oz.; mix.

20. (Mialhe’s RATIONAL DENTIFRICE.) From sugar of milk, 3 oz.; pure tannin, 3 dr.; red lake, 1 dr.; oils of mint and aniseed, of each 7 or 8 drops; neroli, 4 or 5 drops.

21. (MYRRH DENTIFRICE.) From cuttle-fish bone, 6 oz.; myrrh and orris root, of each 2 oz.

22. (PEARL DENTIFRICE.) From heavy carbonate of magnesia or precipitated chalk, 1 lb.; finest smalts, 3 dr.; essence de petit grain, 1/2 dr.

23. (Pelletier’s QUININE DENTIFRICE.) From prepared red coral, 3 oz.; myrrh, 1 dr.; disulphate of quinine, 12 to 15 gr.

24. (Ph. Russ.) Cinchona bark, 4 oz.; orris root, 2 oz.; catechu and myrrh, of each 1-1/2 oz.; sal ammoniac, 1 oz.; oil of cloves, 20 drops.

25. (POUDRE DENTIFRICE——P. Cod.) Red coral, red bole, and cuttle-fish bone, of each 3 oz.; dragon’s blood, 1-1/2 oz.; cinnamon, 3/4 oz.; cochineal, 3 dr.; cloves, 1 dr.; bitartrate of potassa, 4-1/2 oz.; reduce them separately to very fine powder before mixing them. This is the ‘coral dentifrice’ of the French.

26. (Rignini’s.) From charcoal, 1 oz.; yellow bark, 1/4 oz.

27. (ROSE DENTIFRICE.) From precipitated chalk, 6 oz.; cuttle-fish bone, 3 oz.; bicarbonate of soda, 2 oz.; red lake, 1/4 oz.; otto of roses, 20 drops.

28. (Ruspini’s.) From cuttle-fish bone, 8 oz.; Roman alum and orris root, of each 1 oz.; cream of tartar, 2 oz.; oil of rhodium, 6 or 8 drops.

29. (VIOLET TOOTH POWDER.) From orris root, 3 oz.; cuttle-fish bone and rose pink, of each 5 oz.; precipitated chalk, 12 oz.; pure indigo, q. s. to give it a pale violet tinge.

30. (Zieter’s.) From finely powdered calcined hartshorn and cuttle-fish bone, of each 6 oz.; calamus aromaticus, cassia, and pellitory of Spain, of each 1 oz.; essence of vanilla, 1 dr.; essence of ambergris, 10 or 12 drops.

31. Chalk, carbonate of magnesia, and pale bark, of each 1 oz.; oil of peppermint, 5 drops.

32. Cream of tartar, sugar of milk, of each 2 oz.; carmine, 88 gr. (all in very subtle powder); oil of peppermint, 4 drops.

=Powders, Worm.= Syn. PULVERES ANTHELMINTICI, P. VERMIFUGI, L. Prep. 1. (Bouchardat.) Powdered Corsican moss and worm-seed, of each 5 dr.; calomel, 40 gr.; rub them together.

2. (Collier.) From powdered jalap and scammony, of each 1 dr.; cream of tartar, 2 dr.; Ethiops mineral, 3 dr.

3. (Guibourt.) Sulphate of iron, 1 dr.; tansy, 2 dr.; worm-seed, 3 dr.

4. (P. Cod.) Corsican moss and worm-seed, of each 2 oz.; rhubarb, 1 oz.; rubbed to a fine powder, and carefully mixed.

=POX.= A corruption of a Saxon word, originally applied to pustules or eruptions of any kind, but now restricted to varicella, variola, vaccinia, and, in its unqualified form, to syphilis. (See below.)

=Pox, Chick′en.= Syn. WATER-POX; VARICELLA, L. An eruptive disease, consisting of smooth, semi-transparent vesicles, of various sizes, which afterwards become white and straw-coloured, and about the fourth day break and scale off, without leaving any permanent mark behind them. In hot weather the discharge sometimes becomes purulent, and at others the eruption is attended with considerable fever. Sometimes the vesicles assume a pointed form, and the fluid remains clear throughout the disease; it is then frequently called the “swine-pox.” When the vesicles are large and globular, and their contents, at first whey-coloured, afterwards turn yellow, it is popularly known as ‘hives.’

The treatment of chicken-pox consists in the adoption of a light, vegetable diet, and in the administration of mild saline aperients and cooling drinks.

The chicken-pox, except in children of a very bad habit of body, is an extremely mild disease. Like the smallpox, it rarely attacks the same person more than once during life.

=Pox, Cow.= Syn. VACCINIA, VARIOLA VACCINA, L. This disease was proposed as a substitute and a preventive of smallpox by Dr Jenner in 1798, and its artificial production (vaccination) has rendered smallpox a comparatively rare disease in Britain. There appears no reason to doubt that the pretensions of the advocates of vaccination have been fully justified by the experience of more than half a century; or that this disease, when actively developed, evinced by the completeness and maturation of the pustules, acts as a prophylactic of smallpox.

The process of vaccination is similar to that of inoculation for smallpox. The point of a lance is wetted with the matter taken from one of the pustules, and is then gently inserted under the cuticle, and the scratch afterwards rubbed over with the same. Hæmorrhage should be avoided, as the blood is apt to wash away the virus, or to form a cake which shields the living tissue from its action.

=Pox, Small.= Syn. VARIOLA, L. This disease comes on with the usual symptoms of inflammatory fever. About the third day red spots, resembling flea-bites, make their appearance on the face and head, and gradually extend over the whole body. About the fifth day small circular vesicles, depressed in the centre, surrounded by an areola, and containing a colourless fluid, begin to form, when the feverish symptoms abate; about the sixth day the throat becomes sore; about the eighth day the face is swollen; and about the eleventh day the pustules acquire the size of a pea, and cease to enlarge, the matter which they contain becomes opaque and yellow, a dark central spot forms on each, the swelling of the face subsides, and secondary symptoms of fever come on; the pustules become rough, break, and scab over, and a dark spot remains for some days, often followed by permanent indentations, popularly known as ‘pock-marks.’ At the end of the sixteenth or eighteenth day the symptoms usually disappear. In the confluent smallpox, a severer form of the disease, the pustules coalesce, the eruption is irregular in its progress, and the inflammatory symptoms are more severe.

The treatment of ordinary cases of smallpox resembles, for the most part, that mentioned above for chicken-pox. As soon as the febrile symptoms become marked the patient should not be suffered to lie in a hot bed, but on a mattress, in a cool and well-ventilated apartment, and antiseptic cooling drinks should be freely administered. When convulsions occur, or great irritability exists, small doses of morphine, opium, or camphor may be administered, and obstinate vomiting arrested by effervescing saline draughts. When the skin is pale and cold, the pulse weak, and the eruption languidly developed, the warm or tepid bath is often serviceable. An infusion of the root of Sarracenia pupurea, an American plant, has been strongly recommended as a preventive and cure of smallpox, but many of our most eminent physicians regard it as valueless. The application on the third day of a mask formed of thin muslin, covered with mercurial ointment, and having holes cut in it for the nostrils, eyes, and mouth, will effectually prevent ‘pitting.’ (Dr. Stewardson.) With the same intention some persons recommend the puncture of the pustules as soon as they are mature. A solution of india rubber in chloroform is now often painted over the face when the eruption has become fully developed. The chloroform quickly evaporates, leaving an elastic film of india rubber, which almost entirely removes the itchiness of the pustules and prevents ‘pitting.’ To remove the pock-marks, whether recent or old, nothing appears to be better than warm sea-bathing, or the use of tepid ioduretted lotions.

The smallpox is eminently contagious, but only attacks the same person once during life. Formerly, a milder form of the disease was propagated by inoculation, a practice introduced into England from Turkey by Lady Mary Wortley Montague, about the year 1721. At the present day, in England, inoculation, as well as the exposure of a patient labouring under smallpox, is penal, the punishment being either by fine or imprisonment. See POX, COW (above).

“The absolute necessity for enforcing this measure after smallpox is conclusively shown by the following cases which occurred during the late severe outbreak of the disease at Ipswich. In the first instance a young man brought a bundle of infected linen with him from London and had it washed at Ipswich. Twelve days after, the servant who washed it showed symptoms of smallpox. In another case, a woman who had been at Highgate Hospital brought with her a shawl which she had worn during convalescence, but had not been disinfected; and in fourteen days her sister, who washed the shawl, was attacked with smallpox.”——Sanitary Record.

=PRECIP′ITATE.= Any substance which has separated from its solution in a solid and, usually, a pulverulent or flocculent form. The substance by which such a change is produced is called the ‘precipitant,’ and the act or operation by which it is effected is called ‘precipitation.’ The old chemists gave this name to several compounds. Red precipitate, or precipitate per se, is the red oxide of mercury prepared by heat. White precipitate is the AMMONIATED MERCURY of the B. P.

=PRECIPITA′TION.= The formation or subsidence of a precipitate. (See above.) When the precipitate is the chief object of the process, it is necessary to wash it, after it is separated, by filtration. This operation requires little attention when the substance thrown down is insoluble in water; but when it is in some degree soluble in that liquid, great attention is required to prevent the loss which might result from the use of too much water. Precipitates soluble in water, but insoluble in alcohol, are frequently, on the small scale, washed with spirit more or less concentrated.

The best precipitating vessel is a very tall glass jar, furnished with a lip and spout, and narrower at the bottom than at the mouth, so that the precipitate may readily collect by subsidence, and the supernatant liquor be decanted off with more ease.

=PREG′NANCY.= For the preservation of the health, and the prevention of the numerous discomforts and dangers which so frequently attend this condition, nothing is so effective as exercise. It is this that is so favorable to the humble peasant, and it is its absence that inflicts such calamities on the wealthier classes. Exercise, moderate and unfatiguing, when assisted by regular habits, and a diet nutritious, but not too liberal, is, indeed, capable of not only affording pleasure and increasing the comforts of existence, but is also generally sufficient to greatly lessen the severity of the sufferings, and to ward off the not unfrequently fatal results which terminate this interesting condition.

The sickness of pregnancy may be greatly ameliorated, if not removed, by the occasional use of a saline aperient, and by effervescing draughts formed with the bicarbonate of potassa and citric acid. The oxalate of cerium is strongly recommended by Professor Simpson, of Edinburgh, as a remedy for obstinate vomiting in pregnancy.——Dose, 1 gr. to 2 gr. three times a day in pills.

=PRESCRI′′BING (Art of).= Besides a knowledge of diseases and their treatment, much of the success of the physician depends on circumstances connected with the form in which the remedies are exhibited. In writing a prescription it is necessary to consider the age, sex, temperament, habits and idiosyncracy of the patient, as well as the conditions of climate and season, before the selection of the leading medicament and the apportioning of the dose. The most convenient form of exhibiting it, whether it should be given alone or in some simple form, or combined with other ingredients, the compatibility of the latter, and how far these are likely to assist, impede, or modify its operation, must also receive the consideration of the practitioner. Without a careful attention to all these circumstances the most valuable remedies may be rendered worthless, and the highest medical skill and the best intentions frustrated.

A prescription generally contains several medicinal substances, which are distinguished by medical writers by names indicative of the office which each of them performs. These are——1. The BASIS, which is the principal or most active ingredient;——2. The ADJUVANT, or that which is intended to promote the action of the base;——3. The CORRECTIVE, intended to correct, modify, or control its action, or to cover its odour or taste, as when we add carminatives or diaphoretics to cathartics, or aromatics or liquorice to nauseous substances;——4. The EXCIPIENT, or that which gives the whole a commodious or agreeable form, and which, consequently, gives the prescription its peculiar character, as that of draught, mixture, pills, &c. To these, certain Continental writers add a 5th, the INTERMEDIUM, which is the substance employed to unite remedies which are not, by themselves, miscible with each other, or with the excipient. Of this character are the yolk of egg and mucilage, employed in the preparation of emulsions.

The medicinal substances, with the quantities to be taken, generally arranged as above, are said to form the ‘inscription,’——the directions as to their combination or dispensing, which usually comes next, the ‘subscription,’ and——the orders for the exhibition of the compound medicine, which follow these, the ‘instructions.’ These distinctions are, however, in many cases more technical than useful.

In choosing the form of a prescription it should be recollected that solutions and emulsions generally act with more certainty and rapidity than powders diffused through water; and these, again, than the semi-solid and solid forms of medicine, represented by electuaries, boluses, and pills. On these matters, however, the taste and wishes of the patient should not be disregarded. For this purpose the taste of nauseous medicines should be disguised as much as possible by the judicious selection of an appropriate corrective or excipient. Thus, the disagreeable flavour of Epsom salt may be in a great measure covered by dissolving it in peppermint water; that of aloes by liquorice; that of castor oil and copaiba by orange peel; and that of powdered bark by mixing it with milk immediately before taking it; whilst the bitterness of all bitter substances is concealed by strong coffee.

In order that a prescription may be well made it is not necessary to unite all the elements above referred to. The basis and the excipient are the only two which are absolutely necessary, since there are many medicines which have no need of an adjuvant. The agreeable flavour and odour of some, and the mild and harmless nature of others, often render the intervention of a corrigent unnecessary when they are employed. A single substance may also “be capable of answering two or more purposes. Thus, the adjuvant may also act as a corrigent, as when the addition of soap to aloes, or to extract of jalap, lessens their griping properties, and at the same time promotes their action. In the same way neutral salts correct the colic which follows the use of resinous purgatives, and accelerate their action.” According to Gaubius, the number of ingredients in a prescription should scarcely ever exceed three or four. See DOSE, MEDICINES, INCOMPATIBLES, PILLS, &c.

=PRESCRIP′TIONS.= Recipes or formulæ for the preparation and exhibition of medicines intended, generally, for immediate use. See PRESCRIBING (above).

=PRESERVES′.= A general term, under which are included the various fruits and vegetables which are seasoned and kept in sugar or syrup, more especially those which are so preserved whole or in slices. See CANDYING, JAM, MARMALADE, &c.

=PRESS (Correcting for the).= See PROOFS.

=PRESSURE, BAROMETRIC, on the Phenomena of Life.= M. Bert has contributed to the ‘Comptes Rendus’[122] (lxxiii, 213, 503; lxxiv, 617; lxxv, 29, 88) an account of the following experimental researches on the influence of changes in the Barometric Pressure on the Phenomena of Life:——

[Footnote 122: ‘Journal Chemical Society,’ vol. xxv.]

He finds that at pressures under 18 centimètres of mercury animals die from want of oxygen; at a pressure of one to two atmospheres, from want of oxygen and presence of carbonic acid; at 2-6 atmospheres, from the presence of carbonic acid alone; at 6-15 atmospheres, from the presence of carbonic acid and of excess of oxygen; and at 15-25 atmospheres, from the poisonous action of oxygen alone.

Animals die from want of oxygen when the amount contained in their arterial blood is not sufficient to balance a pressure of 3·5 per cent. of oxygen in the atmosphere. They die from poisoning by carbonic anhydride when the amount contained in their venous blood is sufficient to balance a pressure of 26 to 28 per cent. of carbonic anhydride in the atmosphere in the case of sparrows, of 28 to 30 for mammals, and of 15 or 16 for reptiles.

As the pressure of oxygen in the surrounding air depends on two factors, the percentage proportion and the barometric pressure, the barometric pressure may be reduced to 6 centimètres for sparrows, if the proportion of oxygen in the air is increased; and it may be raised to 23 atmospheres without causing death, if the proportion of oxygen is reduced by mixing the air with nitrogen. Aeronauts might, therefore, ascend higher than it has hitherto been possible to do by taking with them a bag of oxygen to inhale; and the danger that threatens divers of being poisoned by the oxygen in the compressed air might be averted by using a mixture of air and nitrogen.

From an examination of the gases in the blood of animals confined in rarefied air the author finds that both the oxygen and the carbonic anhydride in the blood diminish. The dyspnœa which is felt in ascending mountains is therefore due to want of oxygen in the blood. The diminution in oxygen becomes diminished at 20 centimètres pressure, yet this is the pressure under which the inhabitants of the elevated Mexican plateau of Anahuac live. The oxygen diminishes more quickly and more regularly than the carbonic anhydride. Although there are but very small quantities of gases simply dissolved in the blood, the chemical combinations in which they take part are dissociated very easily and in a progressive manner under the influence of diminished pressure, and this dissociation takes place more easily in the organisms than in experiments in vacuo.

=PRINCE’S METAL.= One of the names for Dutch gold. (See GOLD, DUTCH.)

=PRINT′ING (Anastatic).= A method of zincography, patented in 1845, having for its object the reproduction of drawings, engravings, and letter-press, from copies however old. To describe briefly the preparation of a plate or cylinder, let us suppose a newspaper about to be reprinted by this means. The sheet is first moistened with dilute acid and placed between sheets of blotting paper, in order that the superfluous moisture may be absorbed. The ink resists the acid, which attacks the blanks only. In all cases where the letter-press is of recent date, or not perhaps older than half a year, a few minutes suffice for this purpose. The paper is then carefully placed upon the plate with which the letter-press to be transferred is in immediate contact, and the whole passed under a press, on removal from which, and on carefully disengaging the paper, the letters are found in reverse on the plate. A preparation of gum is then applied to the plate by means of a roller, after which the letters receive an addition of ink, which is immediately incorporated with that by which they are already formed. These operations are effected in a few minutes. The surface of the plate round the letters is next bitten in a very slight degree by dilute acid, and on the fresh application of the ink it is rejected by the zinc, and received only by the letters, which are charged with the ink by the common roller used in hand-printing. Each letter comes from the press as clear as if it had been imprinted by type metal; and the copies are fac-similes, which cannot easily be distinguished from the original sheet.

When pen-and-ink drawings are to be reproduced, they are made on any paper free from hairs or filaments, and well-sized. The ink used is a preparation made for the purpose, closely resembling lithographic ink, and may be mixed to any degree of thickness in pure distilled water. It should be used fresh, and slightly warm when a fine effect is to be given. In making or copying a design a pencil may be used; but the marks must be left on the paper, and by no means rubbed with india rubber or bread. It is necessary to add that the paper should be kept quite clean and free from friction, and should not be touched by the fingers, inasmuch as it will retain marks of very slight touches.

Before closing this notice of anastatic printing it may be proper to remark, that the great pretensions originally set up by the patentees have not been fulfilled by its extensive adoption in trade.

=PRINTING (Letterpress).=[123] Syn. TYPOGRAPHY. The art of collecting together and arranging movable types for the purpose of printing, in one or more colours, by pressure applied from a flat surface or by means of a cylinder biting the paper to be printed, and which is inserted between itself and the type.

[Footnote 123: The Editor is much indebted to Mr J. E. Adlard for this interesting article.]

In illustration of this section, some specimen types are appended, the greater portion being from the well-known foundry of Messrs V. & J. Figgins, and should now be carefully read down to render the further remarks intelligible. The key is contained in itself by reading the column as one continuous paragraph with the help of the foot-notes. Some idea may thus be formed of the vast number of distinct kinds of type necessary to carry out the requirements of the present system of printing.

Mention there has been made that the name of the body is determined by its number of lines to a foot; but this must be qualified. The Imperial foot, or inch, or yard, is an arbitrary measure of length in reality as well as in name. When one foundry was sufficient to supply all the types that were required for use in the early ages of printing, then a name and its dimensions could be taken as absolute. But with the increase of printing, type-founders also increased; and this has produced the variations of bodies which are so annoying to the typographer, for one single letter or space taken from a body larger than its own, yet of the same name, will be enough to throw the column of type out of a straight line all the way through. Still, when we look to the fact that, according to the ancient masters, the large-sized type called Pica (No. 3 and Nos. 18, 19,20 & 21) requires 72-1/2 lines to the foot, and that Nonpareil, half its size (No. 9, and Nos. 26, 27, 28 & 29), requires 145 lines to the foot, and recollecting that the slightest variation multiplied 145 times must produce a very sensible deviation, the wonder is that each of the founders should approach each other so closely as they do. An attempt was made some years ago to introduce a certain fixity of standard for each body throughout the trade, based on the French system; the difficulties of altering the standards and matrices of each foundry were seen to be so great that the effort was unavailing.

[Illustration: References to the above types——by reading across.

BODY. BOOKWORK FACE. DISPLAY FACE. 1 Great Primer—— Roman 14 Gt Primer Manuscript 15 Gt Primer Ext. Ornamented 16 Gt Primer Black 2 English—— Roman 17 Gt Primer Condensed Black 3 Pica—— Roman 18 Pica Antique 19 Pica Clarendon 20 Pica Rustic 4 Small Pica—— Roman 21 Pica Narrow Gauge 5 Long Primer—— Roman 22 Long Primer [Condensed 6 Bourgeois—— Roman [Sansserif 7 Brevier—— Roman 23 Brevier Grotesque 24 Brevier Extended 8 Minion——Rom. & Italic 25 Brevier Open Sansserif 9 Nonpareil—— Roman 26 Nonpareil Egyptian 27 Nonpareil Hair line 28 Nonpareil Ornamented 29 Nonpareil Condensed Grotesque 10 Ruby—— Roman 11 Pearl—— Roman 30 Pearl Clarendon 12 Diamond—— Roman 31 Diamond Grotesque 13 Small Pica 2-line (No. 4 doubled) German Text

During the latter half of the present century there has been a growing disposition to return to the cut of the letters as used by the early printers. To meet this desire, nearly all the type-founders have introduced Old-style faces, but yet modernised as to their peculiarities. Considering that this article would not be complete without some such notice thereof, as well as to show the contrast, the following is here introduced to the reader.

These old-faced types cut by the celebrated William Caslon, in or about the years 1716-30, are even now viewed with great satisfaction, and held in high esteem, by judges of the typographic art as master-pieces of shape and finish.

To the list of types presented, and which give a sufficient general view, may be added Emerald——between Minion and Nonpareil——for book-work, and also for borders and flowers to be used in neat and artistic work; Gem and Semi-Nonpareil for music; and Minikin, for music and Oriental work.

The larger sizes of type are, with very few exceptions, simple multiples of the Pica; for instance, 6-line Roman means a roman letter of the depth of six lines of Pica; 20-line Antique, an antique of the depth of twenty lines; and so on.

Very little more need be said on the names applied to the different faces. Letters used in Title-pages are especially cut for and styled Titling——Square, Condensed, and if very much condensed in width, Compressed or Narrow-Gauge. On the other hand, when the letters seem pulled out right and left, they are styled Extended.

If the reader will notice the type in which this volume is composed, he will observe that the bottoms of the tail letters are very close down upon the tops of the tall letters, and all but touch: this is termed solid. When a page or book is required to look light and less wearisome to the vision, the lines of type are removed from each other, and a space-line inserted between them——the page is now termed leaded. These space-lines used to be cut, by the compositor, from milled lead, first in strips of the necessary width, then of the required length; hence the term leads, by which name they are commonly known. However, they were but poor appliances at the best. Moulds are now used for casting the metal to the specified thickness in strips of about 9 inches long, then cut by a machine to a set gauge; by these means the thickness of the space-lines, or leads is not only more uniformly secured, but far greater regularity obtained in the lengths cut. Here, as in the large type, as above mentioned, Pica is the standard which regulates the lead; in other words, leads are cast as 3 to a pica, that is, 3 leads form the solid measurement of the Pica body; 4-to-pica requires 4 leads, and the body of the lead continues to decrease according to the prefixed figure, which simply denotes into how many parts the pica is to be divided. Leads are cast so delicately fine that 16 form the pica, but they are seldom used. In many of the News offices brass space-lines have superseded those cast from type-metal.

The method of manufacturing type is——

The face having been determined upon——light or heavy, round or narrow, as well as the thickness of the downstroke——a piece of prepared soft iron is taken, and upon the tip-end thereof the proposed letter is cut in relief; when this cutting is finished it is case-hardened, and afterwards styled the punch. The strike is the next operation. The punch (the letter cut upon which, by-the-bye, is backward) is now punched, or struck, into an oblong piece of copper, about 3 inches long and 1/3rd of an inch thick, the breadth such as the size of the letter may require: this is the matrix. A most particular part has now to be performed, called justifying; which means that the matrices shall, when placed in the mould, deliver the letters perfectly upright, and all to be true on a line as fine as a razor’s edge. When the process of justifying is accomplished, the matrix is fixed at the bottom of a mould, of the shape of a parallelogram, of the size of the body one way, of the width of the letter the other, and the depth the standard height of the type; the molten metal is forced down this tube, either by hand or by a pump worked by hand or steam, the metal filling the matrix (the sunk letter upon which is now forward) receives the shape of the letter, which is once more reversed, or in a backward position, like as the original punch was cut. The castings are released from the mould by a very ingenious method of opening from the two diagonal corners. The types as cast are forwarded on to the dressers to remove burrs and other superfluities; then are placed in long lines in a frame for finishing; next turned face downwards, and a grooving plane driven across the feet to insure correctness in height; finally looked over for blemishes, when all faulty letters are thrown out; the process is completed by ranging into lines of handy length, and tied up——ready for delivery to the typographer.

=PRINT′ING INK.= Prep.——a. The VARNISH. Linseed or nut oil, 10 or 20 galls., is set over the fire in an iron pot capable of containing fully as much more; when it boils, it is kept stirred with an iron ladle, and, if it does not take fire of itself soon after the smoke begins to rise, it is kindled by means of a piece of burning paper, stuck in the cleft end of a long stick; the pot is shortly afterwards removed from the fire, and the oil is suffered to burn for about half an hour, or until a sample of the varnish cooled upon a palette knife may be drawn into strings of about 1/2 inch long, between the fingers; the flame is now extinguished by the application of a closely fitting tin cover, and, as soon as the froth of the ebullition has subsided, black resin is added, in the proportion of 3/4 lb. to 1 lb. for every quart of oil thus treated; the mixture is next stirred until the resin is dissolved, when dry brown soap, cut into slices, 1-3/4 lbs., is further added (cautiously), and the ingredients are again stirred with the spatula until the whole is united, the pot being once more placed over the fire to promote the combination; when this is effected, the varnish is removed from the heat, and, after a good stirring, is covered over and set aside.

b. The INK. Indigo and Prussian blue, of each, in fine powder, 2-1/2 oz.; mineral lampblack (finest), 4 lbs.; vegetable lampblack, 3-1/2 lbs.; stir them gradually into the warm varnish (a), and submit the mixture to careful grinding, either in a mill or by means of a slab and muller. On the large scale, steam power is now generally employed for this purpose.

An extemporaneous superfine black ink may be made by the following formula:——Take of balsam of copaiba (pure), 9 oz.; lampblack, 3 oz.; indigo and Prussian blue, of each 1/2 oz.; Indian red, 3/4 oz.; yellow soap (dry), 3 oz.; grind the mixture to an impalpable smoothness by means of a stone and muller. Canada balsam may be substituted for balsam of copaiba where the smell of the latter is objectionable, but the ink then dries very quickly.

COLOURED PRINTING INKS are made in a similar way from the following pigments:——Carmine, lakes, vermilion, chrome yellow, red lead, orange red, Indian red, Venetian red, for red; orange chrome, chrome yellow, burnt terra di sienna, gall-stone, Roman ochre, yellow ochre, for orange and yellow; verdigris, Scheele’s green, Schweinfurt green, blues, and yellows mixed, for greens; indigo, Prussian blue, Antwerp b., cobalt b., charcoal b., for blue; lustre, bronze powders, &c., for metallic colours; and umbia, sepia, &c., for brown.

Obs. It is necessary to prepare two kinds of varnish, varying in consistence, from more or less boiling, to be occasionally mixed together as circumstances may require; that which answers well in hot weather being too thick in cold, and vice versâ. Large characters also require a thinner ink than small ones. Old linseed oil is preferable to new. Yellow resin soap is preferred for black and dark-coloured inks, and white curd soap for light ones.

A good varnish may be drawn into threads like glue, and is very thick and tenacious. The oil loses from 10% to 14% by the boiling. Mr Savage obtained the large medal of the Society of Arts for his black ink made as above.

A PRINTER’S INK EASILY REMOVED FROM WASTE PAPER. The following process for the preparation of a printer’s ink that can be far more readily removed from waste paper than ordinary printer’s ink has been patented by Kirscher and Ebner. Iron is dissolved in some acid——sulphuric, hydrochloric, acetic, &c., will answer, and half of the solution is oxidised with nitric acid and added to the other half and the oxide precipitated from the mixture by means of soda or potash. The precipitate is thoroughly washed, and treated with equal parts of solutions of tannic and gallic acids, and the bluish black, or pure black pigment formed, is thoroughly washed and dried, and mixed with linseed-oil varnish, and can then be immediately used for printing from type, copper, wood, steel, or stone. Waste paper printed with it can be bleached by digesting it for 24 hours in a lukewarm bath of pure water, and 10 per cent. of caustic potash or soda, and then grinding it well in the rag engine, and throwing the pulp upon cloth and allowing it to drain. It is then to be washed with pure water, containing 10 per cent. of hydrochloric, acetic, or oxalic acids, or of binoxalate of potassa, and allowed to digest for 24 hours, and may then be worked up into paper, or it can be dried and used as a substitute in the manufacture of finer paper.

=PRINTS (Ackerman’s Liquor for).= Prep. Take of the finest pale glue and white curd soap, of each 4 oz.; boiling water, 3 pints; dissolve, then add of powdered alum, 2 oz. Used to size prints and pictures before colouring them.

=PRINTS, To Bleach.= Simple immersion of the prints in a solution of hypochlorous acid (the article remaining in the solution for a longer or shorter space, according to the strength of the solution) is generally all that is required to whiten it.

=PRIVIES.= See WATER-CLOSETS.

=PROOF.= See ACETIMETRY, ALCOHOLOMETRY, &c.

=PROOFS (Correcting).= The specimen below, with the notes, will, if carefully perused, put the reader into possession of all the secrets of this useful art.

[The same corrected.]

As the vine, which has long twined its graceful foliage about the oak, and been lifted by it into sunshine, will, when the hardy plant is rifted by the thunderbolt, cling round it with its caressing tendrils, and bind up its shattered boughs so is it beautifully ordered by Providence, that WOMAN, who is the mere dependant and ornament of man in his happier hours, should be his stay and solace when smitten by sudden calamity; winding herself into the rugged recesses of his nature, tenderly supporting the drooping head, and binding up the broken heart.

It also is interesting to notice how some minds seem almost to create THEMSELVES, springing up under every disadvantage, and working their “solitary, but irresistible way,” through a thousand obstacles. Nature seems, &c.

IRVING.

Explanation of the marks:

1. When a letter or word is to be in italics.

2. When a letter is turned upside down.

3. The substitution of a comma for another point or letter.

4. The insertion of a hyphen; also marked (-).

5. When letters should be close together.

6. When a letter or word is to be omitted.

7. When a word is to be changed to roman.

8, 9. Two methods of marking a transposition: when there are several words to be transposed, and they are much intermixed, it is a common plan to number them, and to put the usual mark in the margin.

10. Substitution of a capital for a small letter.

11. When a word is to be changed from small letters to capitals.

12. The transposition of letters in a word.

13. The substitution of one word for another.

14. When a word or letter is to be inserted.

15. When a paragraph occurs improperly.

16. The insertion of a semicolon.

17. When a space or quadrat stands up, and is seen along with the type.

18. When letters of a wrong fount are used.

19. When words crossed off are to remain.

20. The mark for a paragraph, when its commencement has been neglected. Sometimes the sign [, or ¶, or the word ‘break,’ is used instead of the syllables ‘New Par,’

21. For the insertion of a space when omitted or insufficient.

22. To change capitals to small letters.

23. To change small letters to small capitals.

24. When lines or words are not straight.

25, 26. The insertion of inverted commas. The apostrophe is similarly marked.

27. The insertion of a period when omitted, or in place of another point or letter.

28. Substitution of one letter for another.

29. The method of marking an omission or insertion when too long for the side margin.

=PROPYLA′MINE.= Syn. TRITYLAMINE.

C_{3}H_{9}N, or C_{3}H_{7} } H } N. H }

This compound or substituted ammonia, in which one of the three atoms of hydrogen is displaced by the radicle propyl or trityl (C_{3}H_{7}), is isomorphous with trimethylamine, which has been often mistaken for it.

Proposed as a remedy for acute and chronic rheumatism.

Hence it is that the commercial substance known under the name of ‘propylamine,’ which has been proposed and employed as a remedy for rheumatism, has been shown to be not propylamine, but its isomer, trimethylamine, or a mixture of this latter, in varying proportions, with ammonia.

Mendius gives the following process for the preparation of propylamine:——36 grams of cyanide of ethyl, 500 grams of common alcohol, 200 grams of water, and 50 grams of 20 per cent. hydrochloric acid, are allowed to act on excess of granulated zinc, and then distilled.

The distillate is put back once, and 400 grams of hydrochloric acid are added.

The product is distilled to get rid of the alcohol, then excess of alkali added to the residue, and the distillation continued, whereupon propylamine and water come over. Mendius says 36 grams of the cyanide of ethyl yield 9 grams of pure propylamine. The propylamine is dried by distillation from solid potash.

Propylamine is a bright, colourless, highly refracting, very mobile liquid, possessing a peculiar, strongly ammoniacal odour. It mixes with water, heat being generated by the mixture. It boils at 50° C., and has a sp. gr. of ·7134 at 21° C.

Propylamine combines with acids, and forms crystallised salts. The chloride is a very deliquescent salt. The sulphate occurs in crystals, and is also deliquescent. See TRIMETHYLAMINE.

=PROPYL′IC ALCOHOL.= C_{3}H_{7}O. Syn. HYDRATED OXIDE OF PROPYL, TRITYL ALCOHOL. A liquid boiling at 204·8° Fahr., obtained by repeatedly rectifying the first products of the distillation of the fusel oil of marc brandy. It stands to ethylic alcohol (ordinary alcohol) in the same relation in which the latter stands to methylic alcohol (pyroxylic spirit).

=PRO′TEIN.= The name given by Mülder to a substance which he regarded as the original matter from which animal albumen, casein, and fibrin, were derived; but which is now considered as a product of the decomposition of those important principles by moderately strong caustic alkali.

Prep. (Liebig.) Albumen, casein, or fibrin is dissolved in moderately strong potassa, the solution heated for some time to 120° Fahr., and acetic acid added; a gelatinous precipitate subsides, which, after being washed and dried, is protein.

Obs. The names binoxide and teroxide of protein have been given by Mülder to products of the long-continued action of boiling water upon fibrin in contact with the air.

=PRO′TIDE.= A soluble, straw-yellow substance, formed, along with other products, by the action of strong solution of potassa on albumen, fibrin, or casein. See ERYTHROPROTIDE.

=PROTO-.= See NOMENCLATURE.

=PROVI′′SIONS (Preservation of).= See PUTREFACTION.

=PRUNES.= [Fr.] The fruit of cultivated varieties of Prunus domestica (Linn.). The dried fruit (FRENCH PRUNES or PLUMS; PRUNUM——B. P., Ph. L., PRUNA——Ph. E. & D.) is cooling and gently laxative, and, as such, is useful in habitual costiveness and fevers.

=Prunes, Pulp of.= Syn. PREPARED PRUNES; PULPA PRUNORUM, PRUNUM PRÆPARATUM (Ph. L.), L. Prep. The imported dried fruit is boiled gently for four hours with water, q. s. to cover them, and then pressed, first through a fine cane sieve, and afterwards through a fine hair sieve; the pulp is, lastly, evaporated by the heat of a water bath to the consistence of a confection. A better plan is to use as little water as possible, by which the necessity of subsequent evaporation is avoided. Used in the preparation of confection of senna.

=PRU′NING= varies according to the kind of plant or tree operated on and the particular object in view, and its skilful performance must, therefore, greatly depend on the experience and knowledge of the gardener. “In the operation of pruning, the shoots are cut off close to the buds, or at a distance not greater than the diameter of the branch to be cut off; because without the near proximity of a bud the wounds will not heal over. In shoots which produce their buds alternately the cut is made at the back of the bud sloping from it, so that it may be readily covered by the bark in the same or in the following year; but in the case of branches where the buds are produced opposite each other, either one bud must be sacrificed or the branch must be cut off at right angles to its line of direction, which is most conveniently done with the pruning shears.” (Loudon.)

=PRUS′SIAN AL′KALI.= Ferrocyanide of potassium.

=PRUS′SIAN BLUE.= Syn. BERLIN BLUE, PARIS B., FERROCYANIDE OF IRON, PRUSSIATE OF I., CYANURET OF I. This is the well-known blue pigment of the shops.

Prep. 1. The crude but clear solution of ferrocyanide of potassium (blood lye) is precipitated by a mixed solution of alum, 2 parts, and green sulphate of iron, 1 part; the dingy greenish precipitate that falls gradually becomes blue by absorption of atmospheric oxygen, which is promoted by exposure and agitation of the liquor; as soon as it has acquired its full colour, the sediment is repeatedly washed with water, and is then drained, and dried, at first in a stove, but afterwards on chalk stones. Product large, but inferior in quality.

2. Repeatedly digest and wash the precipitate obtained by the above process in very dilute hydrochloric acid, and then in pure water; drain and dry it, as before. Superior.

3. (Paris blue.)——a. Neutralise the solution of ferrocyanide of potassium (blood lye) with dilute sulphuric acid, precipitate the liquid with a solution of any persalt or sesquisalt of iron (as the persulphate, nitrate, sesquichloride, or peracetate); well wash the precipitate with water, and dry it, as before. A very rich and intense colour.

b. (Hochstätter.) Crystallised ferrocyanide of potassium and green sulphate of iron, of each 6 parts, are each separately dissolved in water, 15 parts; after the admixture of the solutions, and frequent agitation, oil of vitriol, 1 part, and fuming hydrochloric acid, 24 parts, are stirred in; after some hours have elapsed a strained solution of chloride of lime, 1 part, dissolved in water, 80 parts, is gradually added, the addition being stopped as soon as an effervescence from the escape of chlorine is perceived; the whole is now left for 5 or 6 hours, when the precipitate is thoroughly washed in pure soft water, drained, and dried. Or, instead of the above, the precipitate is at once washed in dilute nitric acid until its colour ceases to be improved by the process. The product is of the finest quality.

Prop. Insoluble in water and in dilute acids, except the oxalic, in solutions of which it dissolves freely when pure; oil of vitriol dissolves it to a white pasty mass, which is again precipitated of the usual blue colour by water; alkalies instantly decompose it, and so do red oxide of mercury and some other oxides when boiled with it; it burns in the air like tinder, leaving an ash of oxide of iron. It is not poisonous.

Pur., &c. The quality of Prussian blue may be estimated by the richness of its colour, and by the quantity of potassa or soda required to destroy this. If it effervesces with acids, it contains chalk; and if it forms a paste with boiling water, it is adulterated with starch. It is pure if, “after being boiled with dilute hydrochloric acid, ammonia throws down nothing from the filtered liquid.” (Ph. L. 1836.) It is distinguished from indigo by exhibiting a coppery tint when broken, but which is removed by rubbing with the nail.

Concluding Remarks. The commercial Prussian blue is not pure ferrocyanide of iron, but a mixture of this salt with varying proportions of the ferricyanide of iron and potassium, which also has a fine deep blue colour. The object in employing alum is to prevent or lessen the precipitation of oxide of iron by the free alkali in the blood lye, but a portion of alumina is in consequence thrown down with the blue, and tends to render it paler and increase the product. The quantity of alum employed may be varied according to the shades of the intended blue. Samples containing this contamination must not be employed medicinally. (See page 324.)

=Prussian Blue, Sol′uble.= Prep. 1. (BASIC PRUSSIAN BLUE.) By adding a solution of protosulphate of iron to a solution of ferrocyanide of potassium; a bluish-white precipitate, turning dark blue by free exposure, is formed, which, after it has acquired this colour, is washed until it begins to dissolve in the water, and colour it blue; it is then either collected and dried, or is at once dissolved in pure water. This variety is not precipitated from its solution by alcohol.

2. (FERROCYANIDE OF POTASSIUM AND IRON.) By precipitating a solution of a sesquisalt or persalt of iron (as the persulphate, pernitrate, peracetate, or sesquichloride) with a stronger solution of ferrocyanide of potassium, so that the latter may be in considerable excess. A blue precipitate is formed, which is treated as before. This variety is precipitated by alcohol. Both are freely soluble in pure water, but not in water which has the slightest saline contamination. Hence it is that lengthened exposure to the atmosphere and the use of the common steel pen causes the gradual precipitation of this substance from its solution when used as ink. See WRITING FLUIDS.

=PRU′′SSIC ACID.= See HYDROCYANIC ACID.

=PSEU′DO-MOR′PHIA.= A substance of little importance, occasionally found in opium. It differs from morphine chiefly in not decomposing iodic acid. It is said to contain nitrogen.

=PTIS′AN.= Syn. PTISANA, L. A decoction made of pearl barley, liquorice, raisins, and other like vegetable matters, either alone or so slightly medicated as to be taken as a common drink in fevers, catarrhs, &c. Those retained in English pharmacy have been already noticed. The French physicians often employ this form of medicine. The ’tisanes’ of the P. Cod. are numerous. See DECOCTION, INFUSION, JULEP, TISANE, &c.

=PTY′ALIN.= A peculiar animal matter, analogous to diastase, obtained from the saliva. It is soluble in water, but insoluble in alcohol.

Mialhe named ptyalin “animal diastase,” and regarded it as the principal agent in effecting the digestion of starchy foods, by converting them into soluble glucose. One part of ptyalin, according to Mialhe, was capable of transforming 800 parts of insoluble starch into sugar. It has been computed that the average daily secretion of ptyalin by an adult amounts to 116 grains. It very quickly decomposes, and in properties somewhat resembles sodic albuminate.

=PUCHA PAT.= Syn. PATCHOULI. Puchá pât is the dried foliaceous tops of Pogostemon Patchouli, an Indian species of Labiatæ. It is much used in perfumery, particularly for making sachets; but its odour, although very durable, is not so agreeable as that of many other substances, unless it is combined with lavender, bergamot, ambergris, musk, or some other like perfume.

=PUD′DINGS.= The instructions given under CAKES, PIES, &c., will be found, with some slight modifications, also to apply to puddings, and, therefore, need not be repeated here. Soyer tells us that every sort of pudding, if sweet or savory, is preferably dressed in a basin instead of in a cloth. If boiled in a basin the paste receives all the nutriment of the materials, which, if boiled in a cloth, are dissolved out by the water, when by neglect it ceases boiling. To cause them to turn well out, the inside of the basin should be thoroughly ‘larded’ or rubbed with butter.

In the preparation of meat puddings the first and most important point is never to use any meat that is tainted; for in pudding, above all other dishes, it is least possible to disguise it by the confined progress which the ingredients undergo. The gradual heating of the meat, which alone would accelerate decomposition, will cause the smallest piece of tainted meat to contaminate all the rest. Be particular, also, that the suet and fat are not rancid, ever remembering the grand principle that everything which gratifies the palate nourishes.”

“A pudding cloth, however coarse, ought never to be washed with soap; it should be simply dried as quickly as possible, and kept dry and free from dust, and in a drawer or cupboard free from smell.” (Soyer.)

=PUD′DLING.= See IRON.

=PULMONI′TIS.= Inflammation of the lungs.

=PULP.= Syn. PULPA, L. The softer parts of plants, more particularly of fruits, separated from the fibrous and harder portions.

“Pulpy fruits, if they be unripe, or ripe and dried, are to be placed in a damp situation until they become soft; then the pulp is to be pressed out through a hair sieve; afterwards it is to be boiled with a gentle heat, frequently stirring; and finally, the (excess of) water is to be evaporated in a water bath, until the pulp acquire proper consistence.

“Press the pulpy fruits which are ripe and fresh through a hair sieve, without boiling them.” (Ph. L. 1836.)

=PULVERISA′TION.= The reduction of any substance to dust or powder.

On the small scale, pulverisation is usually performed by means of a pestle and mortar; on the large scale, by stamping, grinding or cutting the substance in a mill. A few soft substances, as carbonate of magnesia, carbonate of lead, &c., may be pulverised by simply rubbing them through a fine sieve, placed over a sheet of paper; whilst many hard, gritty substances can only be reduced to fine powder by porphyrisation or levigation. Elutriation, or ‘washing over,’ is adopted for several substances, as chalk, antimony, &c., which are required to be reduced to fine powder on the large scale. For some articles which are very tough, fibrous, or resisting, a rasp or file is employed. Whichever of these methods is adopted, the body to be powdered must be very dry, and where spontaneous drying is insufficient, artificial desiccation in a stove or oven, gently heated, is employed. To facilitate this, the substance should be first cut into pieces or crushed small. On the other hand, a few substances, as rice, sago, nux vomica, and St Ignatius’s bean, are often soaked in water, or steamed, before being further operated on. Whenever a substance cannot be dried completely, without an alteration of its properties, an intermedium is had recourse to, by which the moisture may be absorbed, or its state of aggregation modified. Thus, sugar is employed in pulverising civet, musk, nutmeg, and vanilla. When camphor is to be pulverised, the addition of a very small quantity of alcohol renders the operation easy. In other cases the intermedium is of so hard a nature as to assist in breaking down the substance to be powdered; thus, gold leaf is reduced to powder by rubbing it with sulphate of potassa, and afterwards removing this last by means of water. Fusible metals, as zinc and tin, are powdered by pouring them into a mortar, and stirring them rapidly whilst cooling; or, by briskly agitating them, in the melted state, in a wooden box covered with chalk or whiting. Phosphorus is powdered by melting it in urine or lime water, and then shaking the bottle until its contents have become quite cold. Glass, quartz, and silicated stones, require to be heated red hot, and in this state to be thrown into cold water, by which they become sufficiently friable to admit of pulverisation. Many salts which are reduced to fine powder with very great difficulty, and do not dissolve in spirit of wine, are easily obtained in a pulverulent form, by agitating their concentrated aqueous solution with a considerable quantity of rectified spirit; the disengaged fine crystallised powder may then be dried, and further divided by trituration. Potassio tartrate of antimony may be advantageously thus treated. A large number of salts, including nitre, sal ammoniac, and carbonate of potash, may also be reduced to powder by keeping their solutions in a state of constant and violent agitation during their rapid evaporation.

The following rules should be observed in the preparation of powders:——

1. If possible, perfectly dry articles should alone be operated on, and only in dry weather.

2. The nature of the mortar, and the mode of operating, should be adapted to the nature of the substance. Thus, woods and barks should be pulverised in an iron mortar; sugar, alum, and nitre, in one of marble or wedgwood-ware; and corrosive sublimate, only in one of glass.

3. The mortar should be provided with a cover, to prevent loss and annoyance to the operator. If much powder escapes, or if it is dangerous or disagreeable when breathed, or if the substance is rare or costly, the mortar should be covered with a skin of leather, to which the pestle is attached, so that the latter may be freely moved without causing the slightest opening for the escape of the dust occasioned by the process. When aloes or gamboge is powdered, a few drops of olive oil are commonly added with the same intention.

4. The pulverised portions should be separated from time to time by aid of a sieve, the coarser particles being returned to the mortar to be again beaten and triturated; and this alternate pulverisation and sifting is to be repeated until the process is complete.

=PUM′ICE STONE.= Syn. PUMEX, LAPIS PUMICEUS, L. PUMICIS, L. Found in the neighbourhood of volcanoes. Used, in the solid form, to polish wood, paint, &c.; also, when pulverised, as a polishing powder for glass, bone, ivory, marble, metals, &c.

=PUMP FOR USE IN CHEMICAL, PAPER, and other Works.= The Perreaux Pump Valve is made of vulcanised india rubber, and is of the form of the valves in the human body. It is of the greatest, and perhaps the really only valuable improvement in valves applicable, equally, to the common hand or jack pump, and the most elaborate mechanical combinations for raising water.

The valve may be taken as the key of the pump; a perfect valve renders an indifferent pump a valuable and effective machine, whereas an imperfect valve, in an otherwise excellently constructed pump, renders it practically useless.

The pump which Simon the tanner, of Joppa, used for pumping his pits, nearly two thousand years ago, may be taken as the type of the common hand pump in use to this day. Various mechanical improvements have been made in its form and construction, but, practically, and effectively, the only real and valuable improvement is the Perreaux valve, now under consideration.

Constructed of a flexible material, and made in form, as nearly as may be, to the valves of the human body, they may be said to be automatic in their action, or self acting; upon the pump being actuated, the least motion of the pump ensuring a corresponding action of the valve, and the most rapid action of the pump, being equally responded to by the pulsation of the valves.

Although the most perfect valves for pumping clear water, because, what is mechanically termed the duty of the pump is complete, in other words, the quantity displaced is discharged, absolutely without loss, yet their most valuable feature is that they pump semi-fluids equally well as clear water.

For the pulps and stuffs in paper mills, for bleaches, dyes, and corrosive liquors, for liquid manures and other such semi-fluids, they stand alone, they are absolutely unchokable.

Used in conjunction with cylinders or barrels made of toughened glass, they form the most perfect pump where the fluid to be raised is of a caustic or corrosive nature, and where the fluid would be destructive to or destroyed by its action upon metals, such for example as the caustic bleach used in the manufacture of paper, &c. See VALVES.

=PUNCH.= An acidulous, intoxicating beverage, composed of water sweetened with sugar, with a mixture of lemon juice and spirit, to which some aromatic, as nutmeg, mace, or cinnamon, is occasionally added. Wine is sometimes substituted for spirit. It is much less drunk than formerly. Rum punch is the most popular amongst sailors, who are now the principal consumers of this beverage.

Prep. 1. Juice of 3 or 4 lemons; yellow peel of 1 lemon; lump sugar, 3/4 lb.; boiling water, 3-1/2 pints; infuse 1/2 an hour, strain, and add, of bitter ale, 1/2 pint; rum and brandy, of each 3/4 to 1 pint (or rum alone, 1-1/2 to 2 pints). More hot water and sugar may be added if the punch is desired either weaker or sweeter.

2. (COLD PUNCH.) From arrack, port wine, and water, of each 1 pint; juice of 4 lemons; white sugar, 1 lb.

3. (GIN PUNCH.) From the yellow peel of 1/2 a lemon; juice of 1 lemon; strongest gin, 3/4 pint; water, 1-3/4 pint; sherry, 1 glassful.

4. (ICED PUNCH.) From champagne or Rhenish wine, 1 quart; arrack, 1 pint; juice of 6 lemons; yellow peel of 3 lemons; white sugar, 1 lb.; soda water, 1 or 2 bottles; to be iced as cream.

5. (MILK PUNCH; VERDER.) Steep the yellow rinds of 18 lemons and 6 oranges, for 2 days, in rum or brandy, 2 quarts; then add 3 quarts more of either spirit; hot water, 3 quarts; lemon juice, 1 quart; loaf sugar, 4 lbs.; 2 nutmegs, grated; and boiling milk, 2 quarts; mix well, and in 2 hours strain the liquor through a jelly-bag.

6. (NORFOLK PUNCH.) Take of French brandy, 20 quarts; yellow peels of 18 oranges and 30 lemons; infuse for 12 hours; add, of cold water, 30 quarts; lump sugar, 20 lbs.; and the juice of the oranges and lemons; mix well, strain through a hair sieve, add of new milk 2 quarts, and in 6 weeks bottle in. Keeps well.

7. (ORANGE PUNCH.) As No. 1, using oranges, and adding some orange wine, if at hand. A little curacoa, noyau, or mareschino improves it.

8. (RASPBERRY PUNCH.) As the last, but using raspberry juice, or raspberry vinegar, for the oranges or lemons.

9. (REGENT’S PUNCH.) From strong hot green tea, lemon juice, and capillaire, of each 1-1/2 pint; rum, brandy, arrack, and curacoa, of each 1 pint; champagne, 1 bottle; mix and slice a pineapple into it.

10. (TEA PUNCH.) From strong hot tea, 1 quart; arrack, 1/2 bottle; white sugar, 6 oz.; juice of 8 lemons; and the yellow rinds of 4 lemons; mixed together.

11. (WINE PUNCH.) From white sugar, 1 lb.; yellow peel of 3 lemons; juice of 9 lemons; arrack, 1 pint; port or sherry (hot), 1 gall.; cinnamon, 1/4 oz.; nutmeg, 1 dr.; mix.

12. (YANKEE PUNCH.) Macerate sliced pineapple, 3 oz.; vanilla, 6 gr.; and ambergris (rubbed with a little sugar), 1 gr., in the strongest pale brandy, 1 pint, for a few hours, with frequent agitation; then strain with expression; add, of lemon juice, 1 pint; lemon syrup, and either claret or port wine, of each 1 bottle; with sugar, 1/2 lb., dissolved in boiling water, 1-1/2 pint. See SHRUB.

=PURG′ATIVES.= Syn. DEJECTORIA, PURGANTIA, PURGATIVA, L. These have been divided into five orders or classes, according to their particular actions. The following are the principal of each class:——

1. (LAXATIVES, LENITIVES, or MILD CATHARTICS.) Manna, cassia pulp, tamarinds, prunes, honey, phosphate of soda; castor, almond, and olive oils; ripe fruit.

2. (SALINE or COOLING LAXATIVES.) Epsom salt, Glauber’s salt, phosphate of soda (tasteless salt), seidlitz powders, &c.

3. (ACTIVE CATHARTICS, occasionally acrid, frequently tonic and stomachic.) Rhubarb, senna, aloes, &c.

4. (DRASTIC or VIOLENT CATHARTICS.) Jalap, scammony, gamboge, croton oil, colocynth, elaterium, &c.

5. (MERCURIAL PURGATIVES.) Calomel, blue-pill, quicksilver with chalk, &c.

In prescribing purgatives regard should be had to the particular portion of the alimentary canal on which we desire more immediately to act, as well as to the manner in which the medicine effects its purpose. Thus, Epsom salt, sulphate of potassa, and rhubarb, act chiefly on the duodenum; aloes on the rectum; blue-pill, calomel, and jalap on the larger intestines generally; and tartrate and bitartrate of potassa, and sulphur on the whole length of the intestinal canal. Again, others are stimulant, as aloes, croton oil, jalap, scammony, &c.; others are refrigerant, as most of the saline aperients; magnesia and its carbonate are both aperient and antacid; whilst another class, including rhubarb, damask roses, &c., are astringent. Further, some produce only serous or watery dejections, without greatly increasing the peristaltic action of the bowels; whilst a few occasion a copious discharge of the fæces in an apparently natural form. See DRAUGHT, MIXTURE, PILLS, PRESCRIBING, &c.

=PURL.= Prep. To ale or beer, 1/2 pint, gently warmed, add of bitters, 1 wine-glassful, or q. s. Some add a little spirit. A favourite beverage with hard drinkers early in the morning.

=PUR′PLE.= A rich compound colour, produced by the admixture of pure blue and pure red. This colour has always been the distinguishing badge of royalty and distinction. The celebrated Tyrian purple was produced from a shell-fish called murex.

=Purple An′iline.= Syn. PERKIN’S PURPLE, MAUVE. This valuable dye-stuff is prepared under W. H. Perkin’s patent, by mixing solutions of sulphate of aniline and bichromate of potassa in equivalent proportions, and, after some hours, washing the black precipitate with water, drying it, digesting it repeatedly in coal-tar naphtha, and, finally, dissolving it in boiling alcohol. It may be further purified by evaporating the alcoholic solution to dryness, dissolving the residue in a large quantity of boiling water, reprecipitating by caustic soda, washing with water, dissolving in alcohol, filtering, and evaporating to dryness. Thus purified, mauve forms a brittle substance, having a bronze-coloured surface. It imparts a deep purple colour to cold water, though dissolving sparingly in that liquid; it is more soluble in hot water, and very soluble in alcohol. See PURPLE DYE (below), and TAR COLOURS.

=Purple of Cassius.= Syn. PURPLE PRECIPITATE OF CASSIUS, GOLD PURPLE, GOLD PREPARED WITH TIN; AURUM STANNO PARATUM, PURPURA MINERALIS CASII, L. Prep. 1. Crystallised protochloride of tin, 1 part; crystallised perchloride of tin, 2 parts; dissolve each separately, mix the solutions, and add of crystallised terchloride of gold (in solution), 1 part; carefully wash, and dry the precipitate. Very fine.

2. (Frick.) Dissolve pure grain tin in cold dilute aqua regia until the fluid becomes faintly opalescent, then take the metal out and weigh it; next, dilute the solution largely with water, and add, simultaneously, a dilute solution of gold and dilute sulphuric acid in such proportion that the tin in the one shall be to the gold in the other in the ratio of 10 to 36.

3. (P. Cod.) Terchloride of gold, 1 part, is dissolved in distilled water, 200 parts; another solution is made by dissolving in the cold, pure tin, 1 part, in a mixture of nitric acid, 1 part, and hydrochloric acid, 2 parts; this last solution is diluted with distilled water, 100 parts, and is then added to the solution of terchloride of gold until precipitation ceases to take place; the powder is, lastly, washed by decantation, and dried by a very gentle heat.

4. Silver, 150 parts; gold, 20 parts; pure grain tin, 35 parts; fuse them together under charcoal and borax, cool, laminate, and dissolve out the silver with nitric acid.

Obs. Purple of Cassius is generally supposed to be a combination of oxide of gold and sesquioxide of tin, in which the latter acts as an acid. Heat resolves it into a mixture of metallic gold and binoxide of tin. It is used as a purple in porcelain painting, and to communicate a ruby-red colour to glass, when melted in open vessels.

=PURPLE DYE.= The purples now in vogue are the numerous shades of ‘mauve’ and ‘magenta’ obtained by the ‘aniline colours.’ (See above, also RED.) For silk and woollen goods no mordant is required. The proper proportion of the clear alcoholic solution is mixed with water slightly warm, any scum that may form is cleared off, and the goods are entered and worked until the required shade is obtained; a small quantity of acetic or tartaric acid is recommended to be added in some cases. For dyeing on cotton with the aniline colours, the cloth or yarn is steeped in sumac or tannic acid, dyed in the colour, and then fixed by tin; or it may be steeped in sumac and mordanted with tin, and then dyed. Purples were formerly, and are still occasionally, produced by first dyeing a blue in the ‘indigo vat,’ and then dyeing a cochineal or lac scarlet upon the top. See VIOLET DYE.

=PUR′PURATE OF AMMO′′NIA.= See MUREXIDE.

=PURPU′RIC ACID.= See MUREXAN.

=PURPURIN.= C_{9}H_{6}O_{3}. Syn. MADDER PURPLE. The name given by Robiquet and Colin to a beautiful colouring principle obtained from madder.

Prep. Coarsely powdered madder is allowed to ferment with water, after which it is boiled in a strong solution of alum; the decoction is next mixed with sulphuric acid, and the resulting red precipitate is purified by one or more crystallisations from alcohol.

Prop., &c. Crystalline red needles, insoluble in cold water, but soluble in hot water, and in alcohol, ether, and solutions of alum and the alkalies. It differs from alizarin or madder red in containing 2 atoms less of carbon.

=PUR′REE.= Syn. INDIAN YELLOW. A yellow substance, of doubtful origin, imported from China and India, and now extensively used in both oil and water-colour painting. According to the researches of Stenhouse and Erdmann it consists of purreic acid, a strongly tinctorial vegetable substance, united to magnesia.

=PURRE′IC ACID.= Syn. EUXANTHIC ACID. This substance is obtained from purree. It crystallises in nearly colourless needles, which are only sparingly soluble in cold water, and forms rich yellow-coloured compounds with the alkalies and earths. Heat converts it into a neutral, crystallisable substance, called purrenone.

=PUS.= The cream-like, white or yellowish liquid secreted by wounded surfaces, abscesses, sores, &c.

=PUTREFAC′TION.= Syn. PUTREFACTIO, L. The spontaneous decomposition of animal and nitrogenised vegetable substances, under the joint influence of warmth, air, and moisture. The solid and fluid matters are resolved into gaseous compounds and vapours, which escape, and into earthy matters, which remain. The most striking characteristic of this species of decomposition is the ammoniacal or fetid exhalations that constantly accompany it.

The nature of putrefaction, and the conditions essential to its occurrence, have been briefly alluded to under fermentation, to which we must refer the reader. It may here, however, be useful to reiterate that this change can only be prevented by the abstraction or exclusion of the conditions essential to its occurrence. This may be affected by——reduction of temperature,——exclusion of atmospheric air, or——the abstraction of moisture. The antiseptic processes in common use are effective in precisely the same degree as these preventive means are carried out. Frozen meat may be preserved for an unlimited period, while the same substance will scarcely keep for more than a few days at the ordinary heat of summer. Animal substances will also remain uninjured for a long period if kept in vessels from which the air is entirely excluded, as in the process now so extensively adopted for the preservation of fresh meat for the use of our army and marine. The third condition is fulfilled when nitrogenised matter is preserved in alcohol, brine, or any similar fluid, and when it is dried. In either case water is abstracted from the surface, which then loses its propensity to putrefy, and forms an impervious layer, which excludes atmospheric oxygen from the interior and softer portion of the substance. Creasote, and most of the antiseptic salts, also act in this way.

Among special antiseptic processes are the following:

APPLICATION OF COLD. The accession of putrefaction is prevented, and its progress arrested, by a temperature below that at which water freezes. In the colder climates of the world, butchers’ meat, poultry, and even vegetables, are preserved from one season to the other in the frozen state. In North America millions are thus supplied with animal food, which, we can state, from personal experience, is often superior in flavour, tenderness, and apparent freshness, to that from the recently killed animal. In temperate climates, and in cold ones during their short summer, ice-houses and ice-safes afford a temperature sufficiently low for keeping meat fresh and sweet for an indefinite period. Substances preserved in this manner should be allowed to gradually assume their natural condition before cooking them; and on no account should they be plunged into hot water, or put before the fire, whilst in the frozen state.

BUCANING. A rude kind of drying and smoking meat, cut into thin slices, practised by hunters in the prairies and forests.

DESICCATION or DRYING. In this way every article of food, both animal and vegetable, may be preserved without the application of salt or other foreign matter. The proper method is to expose the substances, cut into slices or small fragments, in the sun, or in a current of warm dry air, the temperature of which should be under 140° Fahr. Articles so treated, when immersed for a short time in cold water, to allow the albumen and organic fibres to swell, and then boiled in the same water, are nearly as nutritious as fresh meat cooked in the same manner. If a higher degree of heat than 140° be employed for animal substances, they become hard and insipid. Owing to the practical difficulties in the way of applying the above process to fresh meats, it is usually employed in conjunction with either salting or smoking, and, frequently, with both of them.

EXCLUSION OF ATMOSPHERIC AIR. This is effected by the method of preserving in sugar, potting in oil, and, more particularly, by some of the patented methods noticed below. Fresh meat may be preserved for some months in that state, by keeping it in water perfectly deprived of air. In practice some iron filings and sulphur may be placed at the bottom of the vessel, over which must be set the meat; over the whole is gently poured recently boiled water, and the vessel is at once closed, so as to exclude the external air.

IMMERSION IN ANTISEPTIC LIQUIDS. One of the commonest and most effective liquids employed for this purpose is alcohol of 60 to 70%, to which a little camphor, ammonia, sal ammoniac, or common salt, is occasionally added. A cheaper and equally efficient plan is to employ a weak spirit holding a little creasote in solution. A weak solution of sulphurous acid may be substituted for alcohol. Weak solutions of alum, or carbolic acid, with or without the addition of a few grains of corrosive sublimate, or of arsenious acid, are also highly antiseptic. These are chiefly employed for anatomical specimens, &c. A solution containing only 1/600th part of nitrate of silver is likewise very effective; but, from this salt being poisonous, it cannot be employed for preserving articles of food. Butchers’ meat is occasionally pickled in vinegar. By immersing it for 1 hour in water holding 1/400th part of creasote in solution, it may be preserved unchanged for some time even during summer.

INJECTION OF ANTISEPTIC LIQUIDS into the veins or arteries of the recently killed animal. It is found that the sooner this is done after the slaughter of the animal the more effective it becomes, as the absorbent power of the vessels rapidly decrease by age. See GANNAL’S PROCESS (below).

JERKING is a method of preserving flesh sometimes adopted in hot climates. It consists in cutting the lean parts of the meat into thin slices, and exposing these to the sunshine until quite dry and brittle, when they are bruised in a mortar, and pressed into pots.

PICKLING IN VINEGAR. In this method the substances, rendered as dry as possible by exposure to the air, are placed in glass or stoneware jars (not salt-glazed), or wooden vessels, when strong vinegar, either cold or boiling hot, is poured over them, and the vessel at once closely corked or otherwise covered up, and preserved in a cool situation. Meat is occasionally thus treated; vegetables frequently so. See PICKLE.

POTTING IN OIL. In this case salad or olive oil is substituted for vinegar (see above), and is always used cold.

SALTING acts chiefly by abstracting water from the albuminous portions of the meat, by which its disposition to change is lessened.

SMOKING. This process, which, as well as the last, is referred to further on, acts both by the abstraction of moisture and the antiseptic properties of certain substances (creasote, &c.) contained in wood smoke. Fresh meat and fish are occasionally smoked; but, in general, substances intended to be thus treated are first salted.

In Donkin and Gamble’s patent process the substances, previously parboiled, are placed in small tin cylinders, which are then filled up with rich soup; the lids are next soldered on quite air-tight, and a small hole is afterwards made in the centre; the cylinders are then placed in a bath of strong brine, or a strong solution of chloride of calcium, which is at once heated to the boiling point, to nearly complete the cooking process; after which the small hole in the lid is hermetically sealed by covering it with solder while the vessel still remains boiling hot; the tins are, lastly, again submitted to heat in the heated bath, the duration of which is proportioned to the quantity and character of their contents, the ‘dressing’ of which is to be perfected by this operation. The ends of the tins, on cooling, assume a concave form, from the pressure of the atmosphere, without which they cannot be air-tight, and the process has been unsuccessful. To determine this, the patentees expose the canisters, prepared as before, for at least a month in an apartment heated to about 100° Fahr.; when, if the process has failed, putrefaction commences, and the ends of the cases, instead of remaining concave, bulge or become convex. This is called the ‘test.’ By this process, which was invented by M. Appert in France about the year 1808, fish, flesh, poultry, and vegetables may be preserved for years in any climate.

Goldner’s process differs somewhat from the preceding, in the employment of a higher degree of heat, more hastily applied, and not prolonged or repeated after the tins are soldered up.

Gannal’s process, having for its object the preservation of butchers’ meat in the fresh state, depends on the peculiarly absorbent property of the flesh of recently killed animals, above referred to. This process consists in injecting a solution of sulphate of alumina, or, better, of chloride of aluminium, of the sp. gr. 1·070 to 1·085 (10° to 12° Baumé), into the carotid artery, by means of a syphon, as soon as the blood ceases to flow from the slaughtered animal; both extremities of the jugular vein being previously tied. 9 to 12 quarts of the solution are sufficient for an ox, and a proportionate quantity for smaller animals. A less quantity is also required in winter than summer. When the animal has been well bled, and the injection skilfully performed, it is scarcely perceptible that the animal has undergone any preparation. The injected animal is cut up in the usual way; and when intended to be eaten within 2 or 3 weeks merely requires to be hung up in a dry, airy situation free from flies; but if it is to be kept for a longer period, it is directed to be washed with a mixed solution of common salt and chloride of aluminium at 10° Baumé, and then simply dried and packed in clean air-tight barrels, and kept in a cool, dry place. If the air cannot be perfectly excluded, it should be packed in dry salt, not for the purpose of preserving it, but to prevent the vegetation of bissus, as, without this precaution, the meat becomes musty from exposure and the action of moisture. Meat preserved by this process may be kept for several years, and merely requires soaking for 24 hours in water, for the purpose of swelling its pores, to give it the appearance and taste of fresh meat, fit for either roasting or boiling. For hot climates a somewhat stronger solution, or a larger quantity of the usual one, may be injected. The use of the strong solutions ordered in some recent works, however, deprives the flesh of a portion of its apparent freshness, and makes it more nearly approach in flavour to that which has been slightly salted in the ordinary manner.

In addition to the above it may be added that both flesh and fish may be preserved by dipping them into, or brushing them over with, pyroligneous acid, and then drying them. This gives them a smoky flavour; but if pure acetic acid (Ph. L.) be used, no taste will be imparted. These fluids may be applied by means of a clean painter’s brush, or even a stiff feather. A table-spoonful is sufficient to brush over a large surface. Fish and flesh so prepared will bear a voyage to the East Indies and back, uninjured.

Fish may also be preserved in a dry state, and perfectly fresh, by means of sugar alone. Fresh fish may be thus kept for some days, so as to be as good when boiled as if just caught. If dried and kept free from mouldiness, there seems no limit to their preservation; and they are much more nutritious in this way than when salted. This process is particularly valuable in making what is called ‘kippered salmon,’ and the fish preserved in this manner are far superior in quality and flavour to those which are salted or smoked. A few tablespoonfuls of brown sugar are sufficient for a salmon of five or six pounds’ weight; and if salt be desired, a teaspoonful or two may be added. Saltpetre may be used instead of salt, if it be wished to make the kipper hard.

The well-known property possessed by ether, alcohol, pyroxylic spirit, chloroform, and certain other hydrocarbons, of averting putrefaction, has been thus applied by M. Robin:——He encloses the meat or other substances to be preserved in a glass case, along with a sponge or a capsule containing the preservative liquid, which latter is continually evolved in a vaporous condition, and exercises the preservative agency. In this way the vapours of hydrocyanic acid are found to be very efficacious. Camphor is thus employed in the MUMMY CASES in the British Museum.

It has been asserted by Mr George Hamilton that in an atmosphere of binoxide of nitrogen, in the dark, flesh preserves its natural colour and freshness for about five months; and eats well provided it be boiled in open vessels, to expel nitrous fumes. See CANDYING, EGG, FISH, FRUIT, MILK, PICKLES, POTTING, PRESERVES, SALTING, SMOKING, STUFFING, VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES, &c.

=PUT′TY.= This name is given to the following preparations (when used alone. ‘Glazier’s putty’ is generally indicated):——

=Putty, Glazier’s.= From whiting made into a stiff paste with drying oil. It is used to fix panes of glass in sashes, to fill holes and cracks in wood before painting it, &c.

=Putty, Plasterer’s.= A fine cement used by plasterers, made of lime only. It differs from ‘FINE STUFF’ in the absence of hair.

=Putty, Polisher’s.= Syn. PUTTY POWDER, CALCINE; CINERES STANNI, STANNI OXYDUM CRUDUM, L. A crude peroxide of tin, obtained by exposing metallic tin in a reverberatory furnace, and raking off the dross as it forms; this is afterwards calcined until it becomes whitish, and is then reduced to powder. Another method is to melt tin with rather more than an equal weight of lead, and then to rapidly raise the heat so as to render the mixed metal red hot, when the tin will be immediately flung out in the state of ‘putty’ or ‘peroxide.’ The products of both these processes are very hard, and are used for polishing glass and japan work, and to colour opaque white enamel. See TIN.

=Putty, To Soften.= Take 1 lb. of American pearlash and 3 lbs. of quick-lime. After slaking the lime in water add the pearlash, and let the mixture be made of a consistence about the same as that of paint. When required for use apply it to both sides of the glass, and let it remain in contact with the putty for twelve hours; after which the putty will have become so softened that the glass may be removed from the frame without any difficulty.

=PUZZOLA′NA.= PUOZZOLANA, or, more correctly, PUZZUOLANA, is a volcanic ash found at Puzzuoli, near Naples. When mixed with lime it forms an excellent hydraulic cement. A good FACTITIOUS PUZZOLANA may be made by heating a mixture of 3 bushels of clay and 1 bushel of fresh-slaked lime for some hours to redness. (M. Bruyere.) See CEMENT and MORTAR.

=PYRI′TES.= A term applied to several native metallic sulphides. IRON PYRITES is the best known of these.

=PY′RO-.= The term is applied to several acids that are obtained by the action of heat on other substances; as, PYROGALLIC ACID, PYROLIGNEOUS A., &c.

=PYROACE′TIC SPIRIT.= See SPIRIT (Pyroacetic).

=PYROGAL′LIC ACID.= HC_{6}H_{5}O_{3}. Syn. ACIDUM PYROGALLICUM, L. Prep. 1. From either gallic or tannic acid, heated in a retort by means of an oil bath, and steadily maintained at a temperature of about 420° Fahr. as long as crystals are formed in the neck of the retort, or in the receiver, both of which should be kept well cooled. Pure. If a much higher heat is employed, the product consists chiefly of metagallic acid.

2. From Aleppo galls, in very coarse powder, heated in a dish covered with thin filtering paper pasted to its edge, and connected with a well-cooled receiver. Dr Ure says that the so-called Chinese galls furnish, by dry distillation, a “very concentrated solution of pyrogallic acid, which, evaporated on the water bath, yields of brown crystalline pyrogallic acid nearly 15% of the weight of the galls.”

3. (Dr Stenhouse.) By sublimation from the dry aqueous extract of nut-galls, in a Mohr’s apparatus, in the same way that benzoic acid is obtained from benzoin resin, observing the precautions referred to in No. 1 (above). Nearly pure. The product is fully 10% of the weight of extract operated on.

Prop. Light crystals, which, when perfectly pure, are quite white; freely soluble in water, but the solution cannot be evaporated without turning black and suffering decomposition; it strikes a rich blackish-blue colour with the protosalts of iron, and reduces those of the sesquioxide to the state of protoxide; when heated to 480° Fahr., it is converted into METAGALLIC ACID and water.

Uses, &c. Pure pyrogallic acid is now very extensively employed in photography. A solution of the crude acid mixed with a little spirit is used to dye the hair, to which it imparts a fine brown colour, but has the disadvantage of also staining the skin when applied to it.

=PY′ROGEN ACIDS.= Those generated by heat.

=PYRO′LA.= See WINTER GREEN.

=PYROLIG′NEOUS ACID.= Syn. VINEGAR OF WOOD†, SPIRIT OF W.†, SMOKING LIQUOR†, ESSENCE OF SMOKE†; ACIDUM PYROLIGNOSUM, L. Impure acetic acid, obtained by the destructive distillation of wood in close vessels. It comes over along with tar creasote, and other liquid and gaseous matters. In this state it contains much empyreumatic matter in solution; but by separation from the tar, saturation with slaked lime or chalk, defecation, and evaporation, an impure acetate of pyrolignate of lime is obtained, which, after being gently heated, to destroy part of its empyreumatic matter, without injuring its acetic acid, is again dissolved and defecated, and then precipitated by a solution of sulphate of soda, when a solution of acetate of soda and a precipitate of sulphate of lime are formed by double decomposition. The solution is next evaporated to dryness, the dry mass (pyrolignite of soda) dissolved in water, and the new solution filtered and recrystallised. The crystals of acetate of soda, obtained by the last process, yield nearly pure acetic acid by distillation along with sulphuric acid. See ACETIC ACID and VINEGAR.

=PYROLIG′NEOUS SPIRIT.= See SPIRIT (Pyroxilic).

=PYROM′ETER.= An instrument to measure high degrees of heat. WEDGWOOD’S PYROMETER, the one best known, depends on the property which clay possesses of contracting when strongly heated. PROF DANIEL’S PYROMETER consists, essentially, of a small rod or bar of platinum, which acts in a precisely opposite manner to the preceding, viz., by its expansion.

=PYROPH′ORUS.= Syn. LUFT-ZUNDER, Ger. Any substance that inflames spontaneously when exposed to the air.

Prep. 1. Neutral chromate of lead, 6 parts; sulphur, 1 part; triturate them with water, q. s. to form a paste, and make this into pellets; dry these perfectly by a gentle heat, then heat them in a closed tube until the sulphur is all driven off; lastly, transfer them to a stoppered phial.

2. (HOMBERG’S PYROPHORUS.) From alum and brown sugar, equal parts; stir the mixture in an iron ladle over the fire until dry, then put it into an earthen or coated glass phial, and keep it at a red heat so long as the flame is emitted; it must then be carefully stopped up and cooled.

3. (Dr Hare.) Lampblack, 3 parts; burnt alum, 4 parts; carbonate of potassa, 8 parts; as the last.

4. (Gay Lussac.) From sulphate of potassa, 9 parts; calcined lampblack, 5 parts; as No. 2.

5. Alum, 3 parts; wheat flour, 1 part; as No. 2.

6. (LEAD PYROPHORUS——Göbel.) Heat tartrate of lead to redness in a glass tube, and then hermetically seal it. See TARTRATE OF LEAD.

Obs. When the above are properly prepared, a little of the powder rapidly becomes very hot, and inflames on exposure to the air. The accession of the combustion is promoted by moisture, as a damp atmosphere or the breath. With the exception of the first and sixth, “they owe their combustibility to the presence of sulphide of potassium.” (Gay Lussac.)

=PYROPHOSPHOR′IC ACID.= See DIBASIC PHOSPHORIC ACID (Phosphorus).

=PYRO′SIS.= Syn. BLACK WATER, WATER BRASH, WATER QUALM. An affection of the stomach, attended by a sensation of heat and the eructation of a thin, sour liquid, often in considerable quantity, especially in the morning.

The following pill will be found of service in this affection:——Powdered opium, 1/8th gr.; subnitrate of bismuth, 5 gr.; extract of gentian, sufficient to make into 2 pills. To be taken two or three times a day, before meals.

The solution of bismuth and citrate of ammonia (Liquor Bismuthi et Ammoniæ Citratis, B. P.), in doses of 1/2 dr. to 1 dr., taken as above, is another medicine which may be had recourse to, should the above fail to give relief.

=PYBOTARTAR′IC ACID.= H_{2}C_{5}H_{6}O_{4}. Obtained by the destructive distillation of tartaric acid. See TARTARIC ACID.

=PYROTECH′NY.= The art of making fireworks. The three principal materials employed in this art are charcoal, nitre, and sulphur, along with filings of iron, steel, copper, or zinc, or with resin, camphor, lycopodium, or other substances, to impart colour, or to modify the effect or the duration of the combustion. Gunpowder is used “either in grain, half crushed, or finely ground, for different purposes. The longer the iron filings are, the brighter red and white spots they give; those being preferred which are made with a coarse file, and quite free from rust. Steel filings and cast-iron borings contain carbon, and afford a more brilliant fire, with wavy radiations. Copper filings give a greenish tint to flame; those of zinc, a fine blue colour; the sulphide of antimony gives a less greenish blue than zinc, but with much smoke; amber affords a yellow fire, as well as colophony (resin) and common salt; but the last must be very dry. Lampblack produces a very red colour with gunpowder, and a pink one with nitre in excess; it serves for making golden showers.” When this substance is lightly mixed with gunpowder and put into cases, it throws out small stars resembling the rowel of a spur; this composition has hence been called ‘spur fire.’ “The yellow sand, or glistening mica, communicates to fire-works golden radiations. Verdigris imparts a pale green; sulphate of copper and sal ammoniac gives a palm-tree green. Camphor yields a very white flame and aromatic fumes, which masks the bad smell of other substances. Benzoin and storax are also used, on account of their agreeable odour. Lycopodium burns with a rose colour and a magnificent flame; but it is principally employed in theatres to represent lightning, or to charge the torch of a Fury.” (Ure.) See FIRES (Coloured), FLAME COLOURS, GUNPOWDER, STARS, ROCKETS, &c.

The following substances are in requisition by the Pyrotechnist:——

ZINC. This metal is employed in the form of fine powder, which is obtained as follows:——The metal, scarcely melted, is poured into a hot mortar, where it is reduced to powder, being kept during the operation at a temperature of 401° F. It is then sifted to remove any particles which may have escaped contact with the pestle.

COPPER. This metal may be obtained in a state of minute division by precipitating it from a solution of sulphate of copper by means of iron, the precaution being taken of using a large quantity of iron. The precipitate, after being well washed, is dried between folds of blotting paper, and kept in well stoppered bottles.

IRON-SAND. A quantity of sulphur is melted in a crucible over a slow fire, and when it is quite fluid, iron filings are thrown in while the whole is being stirred. The crucible is removed from the fire, and the contents are rapidly stirred until cold. The material is then rolled on a board till it is broken up as fine as corned powder, after which the sulphur is sifted out.

SODA POWDER. This powder is prepared with the same precaution as ordinary gunpowder, the proportions which answer best being:

Nitrate of soda 630 parts. Sulphur 125 ” Charcoal 125 ” ———— 880 parts.

As the nitrate of soda is hygrometric, this powder must be preserved in closed vessels from the moisture of the air.

LEAD POWDER. This mixture is also prepared like gunpowder, and the constituents are used in the following proportions:

Nitrate of lead 12 parts. Nitrate of potash 2 ” Charcoal 3 ” —— 17 parts.

In the manufacture of this mixture on a large scale considerable care is necessary, since the mixture of nitrate of lead and charcoal is very liable to ignite by friction.

PREPARED BLOOD. 450 to 500 grammes of zinc is dissolved in 1340 grammes of hydrochloric acid 22° B., largely diluted with water, and filtered. This solution is again diluted with its own volume of water, and mixed with fresh blood. The whole is well stirred from time to time for 48 hours, and the clear liquor is siphoned off from the precipitate. The precipitate is well washed with water, dried, and reduced to powder, in which state it may be kept for any length of time.

TOUCH PAPER. This paper is prepared by immersing purple or blue paper in a solution of nitrate of potash in spirits of wine or vinegar, and carefully drying it.

When the touch paper is used with small articles, a piece is tied round the orifice with thread, leaving sufficient paper to form a small tube at the end. This tube is filled with gunpowder, and the paper twisted over it, when all is ready for firing.

Touch paper for capping every description of fireworks, such as squibs, crackers, Roman candles, &c., is prepared in the following manner:——Dissolve 2 oz. of the best saltpetre in 1 quart of warm water, and take care that the water is very clean.

After the mixture has stood for half an hour, pour off 1-1/2 pint into a white basin, then cut your sheets of dark blue double-crown paper in half. The weight of the paper should be 12 or 14 lbs. per ream.

Place the paper on a slab sufficiently large to give you room to use a small piece of sponge, with which you use the liquor to wet your paper. Cover each half sheet with the liquor as quickly as possible, on one side only, and immediately this is done place it on a line, the wet side on outwards, and when nearly dry, if you have a great number of sheets, place them together as evenly as possible under a press for one hour, then lay them out to dry, after which they will be quite smooth and ready for use.

In pasting this paper on the work, take care that the paste does not touch that part which is to burn. To use this paper correctly, cut it in strips sufficiently long to go twice round the mouth of the case, or even more if requisite. When you paste on the strips, leave a little above the mouth of the case not pasted; in small cases a little meal powder is put into the mouth, and then the paper is twisted to a point. In larger cases damp priming is used, and when dry, the capping process is proceeded with.

CRACKERS. The following mixtures are used for ordinary crackers:——

Meal powder parts 5 15 6 8 16 Fine charcoal ” 1 4 —— 2 17 Coarse charcoal ” —— —— 6 —— —— Sulphur ” —— —— 2 —— 1 Saltpetre ” —— —— 16 1 7

Composition for crackers with Chinese fire——

Meal powder parts 9 6 16 Saltpetre ” 6 8 —— Sulphur ” 1 2 3 Charcoal ” 1-1/2 1-1/2 2 Fine iron ” 5 —— 7 Sand ” —— 5 ——

Composition for crackers with brilliant fire——

Meal powder parts 8 8 36 18 32 Sulphur ” 1 1-1/2 1 1 3 Iron filings ” 2 2-1/2 —— —— —— Litharge ” —— —— —— 2 —— Steel filings ” —— —— 8 3 12

The paper generally used for cartridge is that known as ‘elephant’ or cartridge, the latter being the more frequently employed.

Cartridge paper is employed in the preparation of crackers, which vary from 12 to 15 inches, and 3-1/2 inches diameter. One edge of the paper is folded down about 3/4-inch in breadth, then the double edge is turned down about 1/4-inch, and the single edge is bent back over the double fold so as to form a channel 1/4-inch wide. This is filled with meal powder, which is then to be covered by the folds on each side, when the whole is to be pressed very smooth and close, by passing it over the edge of a flat ruler. The part containing the powder is to be gradually folded into the remainder of the paper, each fold being carefully pressed down. The cracker is then doubled backwards and forwards into as many folds of about 2-1/4 inches as the paper will allow.

The whole is pressed together by means of a wooden vice, a piece of twine is passed twice round the middle across the folds, and the joinings are secured by causing the twine to take a turn round the middle at every turn. One of the ends of the folds may be doubled short under, which will produce an extra report, but the other must project a little beyond the rest, for the priming and capping with the touch paper. When these crackers are fired they give a report at every turn of the paper.

The crackers may also be made of two single cards, rolled over each other and covered with paper coated with paste. The crackers are partially filled with the composition by means of a tin funnel. Ordinary powder is then introduced, and the remaining space is filled with a little sawdust.

REVOLVING CRACKERS. These crackers are charged at each end with clay to a depth of two lines, and filled with a composition without gunpowder. The clay prevents the fire streaming out at the ends, and it escapes through two holes placed opposite each other. The two holes are united at the same time by connecting them by means of a quick-match, and a rotatory motion is thus communicated to the cylinder.

ENGLISH PIN WHEELS. Pin, or Catherine wheels are of very simple construction. A long wire about 3/16th of an inch in diameter is the former; on this wire are formed the pipes, which being filled with composition, are afterwards wound round a small circle of wood so as to form a helix or spiral line. The cases are generally made of double-crown paper (yellow wove), and cut into strips to give the greatest length, and of width sufficient to roll about four times round the wire, and pasted at the edge so as to bite firmly at the end of the last turn. When a number of pipes are made and perfectly dry, they are filled with composition. These cases are not driven for filling, but are filled by means of a tin funnel with a tube 3/4 of an inch long, made to pass easily into the mouth of the case, which is gradually filled by lifting a wire up and down in this tube, the diameter of the charging wire being half that of the tube. The dry composition being placed in the funnel, the moment an action of the wire takes place the composition begins to fall into the case, which the charging wire compresses by continuous motion until you have filled the pipe to within 3/4 of an inch of the top. The pipe is then removed, and the mouth neatly twisted, which will be the point for lighting.

When a number of pipes are ready, place them on a damp floor, or in any damp situation, until they become very pliant, but by no means wet; then commence winding them round a circle of wood whose substance must be equal to the thickness of the diameter of the pipe; and when wound, secure the end with sealing-wax, to prevent its springing open; after winding the required quantity let them dry. Now cut some strips of crimson or purple paper 3/16th of an inch wide, and in length twice the diameter of the wheel; then paste all over thoroughly. Take a strip and paste it across the wheel diametrically, rub it down, then turn the wheel over, and place the ends down to correspond with the opposite side; when dry, the wheel will be ready for firing.

They may be fired on a large pin or held in the hand, but it is preferable to drive the pin into the end of a stick, which will prevent any accident, should a section of the wheel burst.

SQUIBS. These are either filled with grained powder, or with a mixture consisting of:——Gunpowder, 8 parts; charcoal, 1 part; sulphur, 1 part. The cases, which are about 6 inches long, are made by rolling strips of stout cartridge paper three times round a roller, and pasting the last fold. They are then firmly tied down near the bottom, and the end is either dipped into hot pitch or covered with sealing-wax. The cases are filled by putting a thimble full of the powder in, and ramming it tightly down with a roller, this operation being continued until the case is filled. It is then capped with touch paper.

SERPENTS (MARROON SQUIBS). A suitable case being ready, it is filled two thirds up with a powder consisting of:——Saltpetre, 16 parts; sulphur, 8 parts; fine gunpowder, 4 parts; antimony, 1 part. This, after being rammed down into the case tolerably tightly, the remainder of the space is filled with grained or corned powder.

SPARKS. These fireworks differs from stars in size, being very small and made without cases. The English method of preparing them is as follows:——A mixture of

Fine gunpowder 1 part Powdered saltpetre 3 parts Powdered camphor 4 ”

is placed in a mortar, and some weak gum-water in which a little gum tragacanth has been dissolved, is poured over it, and the whole worked up into a thin paste. Some lint, prepared by boiling it in vinegar or saltpetre, and afterwards dried and unravelled, is placed in the composition so as to absorb the whole. This is then poured into balls about the size of a pea, dried and sprinkled with fine gunpowder.

In Germany the following compositions are used:

---------------+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+ | 1| 2| 3| 4| 5| 6| 7| 8| 9|10|11|12|13|14| +——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+ Chlorate of | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | potash parts |24|40|12|20|——|——|——|40|21|21|14|20|96|40| Chlorate of | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | potash and | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | copper ” |——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|23|23|——|——|——|——| Chlorate of | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | baryta ” |——|——|——|——|18|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——| Nitrate of | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | potash ” |——|——|——|——|——|12|26|——|——|——|——|——|——|——| Nitrate of | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | lead ” |24|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——| Nitrate of | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | baryta ” |——|——|——|40|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——| Calomel ” |——|——|——|13| 7|——|——|28|12|12| 4| 8|18|——| Sulphide of | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | copper ” |——|——|——|——|——|——|——|28|——|12|6 | 4|——|——| Sulphate of | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | strontia ” |——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|20|72|37| Oxalate of | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | soda ” |——|16|10|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——| Chalk ” |——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——| 5|——|——|——| Powdered | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | zinc ” |——|——|——|——|——|14|28|——|——|——|——|——|——|——| Powdered | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | charcoal ” |——|——|——|——|——| 5|11|——|——|——|——|——|——|——| Sulphur ” |12|——| 1|13|——|——|——|——|——|——| 6| 3|——|——| Gum lac ” |1 | 8|——| 1| 3|——|——|——|——|——|——| 2|18| 8| Soap ” |——| 3| 1|——|——|——|——| 3| 3| 3|——|——|——|——| Starch ” |——|——|——|——|——|——|——|10|——|——|——|——|——|——| Sugar ” |——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——| 4| 4|——|——|——|——| Pine soot ” |——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——|——| 1|——| ---------------+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+——+

The above mixtures are intended to give coloured sparks, according to the numbers.

No. 1 gives a bluish-white colour. ” 2 and 3 give yellow. ” 4 gives green. ” 5 gives green. ” 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 give blue. ” 11 and 12 give violet. ” 13 gives red. ” 14 gives purple.

The materials are mixed with a small quantity of a solution of starch, so as to form a thick paste, which is forced through a perforated plate, the holes in which are twice as large as it is intended the sparks should be on drying. The small pieces fall on a pasteboard, to which the workman gives a rapid horizontal motion to round the grains. They are then dried, and those which are perfectly round are selected and separated by sieves of different meshes to collect those of the same size together.

CHINESE FIRE.

Red Chinese or Gerbe Fire.

Calibre of the case. Saltpetre. Sulphur. Charcoal. Iron Sand. 1st order.

12 to 16 lbs. 1 lb. 3 oz. 4 oz. 7 oz. 16 to 22 ” 1 ” 3 ” 5 ” 7 ” 8 drms. 22 to 36 ” 1 ” 4 ” 6 ” 8 ”

White Chinese Fire.

Calibre. Saltpetre. Bruised Powder. Charcoal. Iron Sand. 3rd order.

12 to 16 lbs. 1 lb. 12 oz. 7 oz. 8 drms. 11 oz. 16 to 22 ” 1 ” 11 ” 8 ” 11 ” 8 drms. 22 to 36 ” 1 ” 11 ” 8 ” 8 ” 12 ”

The iron sand is moistened with a little spirits of wine, and then mixed with the charcoal and saltpetre, which have been previously incorporated in another mortar.

SIMPLE STARS OR FIREBALLS. These are generally used in combination with other arrangements, &c., and the composition of which they are made, consists of——saltpetre, 16 parts; sulphur, 8 parts; fine gunpowder, 3 parts.

These materials are mixed with gum and as little spirits of wine as will suffice to make a very stiff paste. This paste is cut up into small squares, which are rolled up into balls on a board covered with gunpowder.

The gunpowder, which adheres, serves for the purpose of firing them. When perfectly dry, they are ready for use.

GERBES. These fireworks display themselves as luminous jets of fire somewhat resembling a water spout. Previously to putting in the brilliant composition, put two scoops of first firing or preparatory fire, for which the following will suit, in cases not larger than 1/4 lb. size:——16 oz. meal powder, 6 oz. saltpetre, 3 oz. sulphur, 3 oz. fine coal. It is important to see that the interior of the cases are quite smooth and free from wrinkles.

GOLD RAIN. The larger rockets are filled with this material, which consists of small squares made in the same way as the simple stars. It is composed as follows:——

Ordinary. Chinese. Composition for immediate use.

Saltpetre parts 16 4 Saltpetre parts 4 Sulphur ” 8 2 Sulphur ” 2 Fine charcoal ” 2 4 Fine small coals ” 1 Pine soot ” 2 —— Fine gunpowder ” 8 Meal powder ” 4 16 Coarse cast iron ” 4

A portion of the cotton is softened in linseed oil and the materials prepared in a mortar with water.

ROMAN CANDLES. These are made somewhat like gerbes and filled with the same materials, the only difference being that stars are placed between the different layers of substances. The materials must not be too tightly rammed down or the stars will be destroyed.

SIMPLE STARS OR FIREBALLS. Take of saltpetre 16 parts, sulphur 8 parts, fine gunpowder 3 parts; mix them with gum and only just enough spirits of wine to make a very stiff paste. Cut this up into small squares, and roll into balls covered with gunpowder. When properly dry they are ready for use.

MARROONS. These are small cubical boxes filled with an explosive composition which explodes suddenly, making a loud report. They are generally used in combination with other fireworks. The boxes are made of pasteboard, the corners being made tight by pasting paper over them, but leaving the top open until they are filled. They are filled with coarse gunpowder, when the top is closed with strong paper well cemented, and the whole box is wrapped round two or three times with lind cord dipped in strong glue. A hole is made in one of the corners, into which a quick-match is introduced, and the marroon is ready for action.

The reader who may be desirous of further information on the subject of Pyrotechny, cannot do better than consult the article on the subject in ‘Knapp’s Chemical Technology,’ edited by Messrs. Richardson and Watts.[124]

[Footnote 124: Vol. 1, part 4, No. 1. Ballière & Co.]

To this work we are indebted for much of the material contained in the present papers. See COLOURED FIRES.

=PYROXYL′IC SPIRIT.= See SPIRIT (Pyroxylic).

=PYROX′YLIN.= Syn. FULMINATING COTTON, GUN-COTTON. A highly inflammable and explosive compound, discovered by Schönbein. It is obtained by the action of nitric acid on cotton (cellulin, C_{6}H_{10}O_{5}), in the presence of sulphuric acid.

By varying the strength of the nitric acid three kinds of gun-cotton may be obtained, called respectively mononitro-cellulin [C_{6}H_{9}(NO_{2})O_{5}], dinitro-cellulin [C_{6}H_{8}(NO_{2}){2}O{5}], and trinitro-cellulin [C_{6}H_{7}(NO_{2}){3}O{5}]. The first is but slightly explosive; the second is not sufficiently explosive to be used as a substitute for gunpowder, but is best adapted for the preparation of collodion; the third is highly explosive, and is the variety employed in mining and military operations, &c.

Prep. 1. (B. P., DINITRO-CELLULIN.) Cotton-wool, 1; sulphuric acid, 5; nitric acid, 5; mix the acids, immerse the cotton, and stir with a glass rod for three minutes, or until it is thoroughly wetted, then remove it, and thoroughly wash out the acid, so that the washings cease to produce a precipitate with chloride of barium. Drain on filtering paper, and dry in a water bath. Used in the preparation of COLLODION.

2. Concentrated nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·500) and concentrated sulphuric acid (sp. gr. 1·845) are mixed together in about equal measures; when the mixture has become cold it is poured into a glass or wedgwood-ware mortar or basin, and clean, dry carded cotton, in as loose a state as practicable, is immersed in it for 4 or 5 minutes, the action of the liquid being promoted by incessant stirring with a glass rod; the acid is next poured off, and the cotton, after being squeezed as dry as possible, by means of the glass stirrer, or between two plates of glass, is thrown into a large quantity of clean soft water, and again squeezed to free it from superfluous moisture; it is then washed in a stream of pure water until it becomes perfectly free from acid, and is, lastly, carefully dried by the heat of hot water or steam, at a temperature not higher than about 180° Fahr. 3. (Schönbein.) Nitric acid (1·45 to 1·50), 1 part; sulphuric acid (1·85), 3 parts (both by volume); proceed as above, but, after the cotton has been squeezed from the acid, allow it to remain in a covered vessel for an hour before washing it, and after washing it, dip it into a solution of carbonate of potassa, 1 oz., in pure water, 1 gall., then squeeze, and partially dry it; next dip it into a weak solution of nitre, and dry it in a room heated by hot air or steam to about 150° Fahr. (See Patent Specif.)

4. (Von Lenk.) The cotton, having been thoroughly cleansed and dried, is steeped, as above, in a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids (the strongest obtainable in commerce), squeezed as dry as possible, and immersed in a fresh mixture of strong acids, being allowed to remain in this second mixture 48 hours. It is then washed in a stream of water for several weeks, and finally treated with a solution of silicate of potassa (soluble glass). This is the celebrated Austrian gun-cotton which was reported on so favorably by a committee of the British Association in 1863. The treatment with silicate of potassa is adopted merely for the purpose of retarding the combustion.

5. (‘Bulletin de St Pétersbourg,’)——a. Take of powdered nitre, 20 parts; sulphuric acid (1·830 to 1·835), 31 parts; dissolve in a glass vessel, and, whilst the solution is still warm (122° Fahr.), add of dry carded cotton 1 part, and employ agitation until this last is well saturated; then cover over the vessel with a plate of glass, and let it stand, for 24 hours, at a temperature of about 86° Fahr.; next well wash the cotton, as above, first with cold and afterwards with boiling water, and dry it carefully at a very low temperature.

b. From sulphuric acid (containing 3 equiv. of water), 13 parts; nitric acid (monohydrated), 12 parts; carded cotton, 1 part; the immersion being limited to one hour at a temperature of from 104° to 122° Fahr. (See ‘Pharm. Journ.,’ vol. xiii, No. 2.)

Prop., &c. Pyroxylin explodes, with a very sudden flash, and the development of very little heat, without either smoke or residue, at a temperature of about 300° Fahr. (No. 3 at 277° Fahr.). Several modifications of pyroxylin are known, varying considerably in composition, though they all contain the elements of hyponitric acid, and are all explosive. Some are insoluble in a mixture of ether and alcohol, whilst others are readily dissolved, forming the glutinous solution which is used in surgery under the name of ‘collodion,’ and which is also extensively used in photography. The best gun-cotton (Von Lenk’s) is of no use whatever for making collodion. The pyroxylin prepared by the formula 5, a (above), is soluble in a mixture of 7 parts of ether and 1 part of alcohol; whilst the product of 5, b, if prepared by 2 hours’ digestion instead of 1, is said to be even soluble in absolute alcohol.

Obs. General von Lenk has overcome all the difficulties which have hitherto prevented gun-cotton being used in place of gunpowder. By spinning the gun-cotton into thread or yarn, and weaving this into webs, he has succeeded in making cartridges which will produce the exact amount of force required. The time needed for the complete ignition of the cartridge can be diminished or increased at pleasure by varying the mechanical arrangement of the spun threads. Each gun and each kind of projectile requires a certain density of cartridge. In general, it is found that the proportion of 11 lbs. of gun-cotton occupying 1 cubic foot of space produces a greater force than gunpowder of which from 50 to 60 lbs. occupies the same space, and a force of the nature required for ordinary artillery. See COLLODION and XYLOIDIN; consult also Abel’s researches in the ‘Transactions of the Royal Society.’

=QUACK MED′ICINES.= See PATENT MEDICINES, OINTMENT, PILLS, &c.

=QUAIL.= The Coturnix vulgaris, a gallinaceous bird, allied to the partridge, but of smaller size. Its flesh is highly esteemed by epicures. It is imported from Turkey, preserved in oil; and from Italy, potted with clarified butter.

=QUARANTINE.= The old laws of Quarantine, as the French derivation of the word indicates, compelled a vessel coming from the shores of a country liable to, or ravaged by, an infectious disease, such as plague, to those of a region free from contagion, to undergo forty days’ isolation before it was unladen, or its passengers were allowed to land at the healthy port.

In Europe these ancient enactments against the importation of infection are still more or less vexatiously enforced in Spain, Portugal, Greece and Turkey; and in a modified form at Malta and some of the French and Italian ports. In the Mediterranean ports, ships coming from countries which lie in the southern or eastern shores of that sea are usually subjected to a quarantine of from six to fifteen days, during which period the passengers are confined in a sort of barrack called a ‘lazaretto,’ the merchandise, letters, &c., of the vessel being in the meantime frequently fumigated, or otherwise disinfected.

The inconveniences to commerce and the necessary intercourse between nations attending the too rigorous carrying out of quarantine have, within the last twelve years, led to a series of sanitary international conferences between the European Governments, with the object of divising some methods which, without weakening the safeguards to the public health, should as much as possible reduce the inconveniences attending the enforcement of quarantine to a minimum. At the last of these conferences, which was held at Vienna in 1873, the members were almost unanimous in advising the abolition of quarantine on European rivers.

Until within the last twenty years the old quarantine laws were pretty strictly enforced in this country. Since this time, however, they have been considerably relaxed, or, we should rather say, superseded by the following ordinances, which, upon the authority of an order in council of July 31st, 1871, can be enforced in the case of suspected vessels.

This ordinance declares that it is lawful for a sanitary authority, having reason to believe that any ship arriving in its district comes from a place infected with cholera, to visit and examine the ship before it enters the port.

Art. 3 provides that the master of a cholera-infected ship, or one that has even been exposed to the infection of cholera, is to moor, anchor, or place her in such a position as from time to time the sanitary authority shall direct.

Art. 4 provides that no person shall land from any such ship until after the examination.

Art. 5 provides for the proper examination of all persons on board by a legally-qualified practitioner, and permits those not suffering from cholera to land immediately.

Another order in council, dated August 3rd, 1874, empowers any custom-house officer, or other person having authority from the Commissioners or Board of Customs, at any time before the Nuisance Authority shall visit and examine the ship, to detain the ship.

“No person shall, after such detention, land from the ship, and the officer shall forthwith give notice of the detention, and of the cause thereof, to the proper nuisance (local) authority; and the detention shall cease as soon as the nuisance authority shall visit and examine the ship, or at the expiration of twelve hours after notice shall have been given to such nuisance authority.”

Another order in council, dated August 5th, 1871, directs that the master of a vessel, in which cholera has existed, shall not be allowed to bring his vessel into port until he has destroyed the infected clothes and bedding.

Local Government Boards are also invested with considerable executive powers, by which they are enabled to enforce quarantine during the prevalence of any contagious disease in other countries. The main Act, however, relating to quarantine, is the 6th of Geo. IV., c. 78; and all vessels having on board any person or persons affected with a dangerous or infections disorder, are to be deemed as coming within its provisions (see ‘Public Health Act,’ Schedule v., part 3). There is a land, as well as a sea quarantine. Thus, for instance, in some countries, more particularly those of Eastern Europe, the former is still in force on the frontiers of contiguous States, to the great impediment of commerce and inconvenience of travellers.

The late outbreak of plague in Astrakan has led to its being established and very strictly carried out on the borders of Russia, Austria, Hungary, and Germany.

Hecker, writing on the probable origin of quarantine, remarks:——“The fortieth day, according to the most ancient notions, has always been regarded as the last of ardent diseases, and the limit of separation between these and those which are chronic. It was the custom to subject lying-in women for forty days to a more exact superintendence.

There was a good deal also said in medical works of forty days’ epochs in the formation of the fœtus, not to mention that the alchemists always expected more durable revolutions in forty days, which period they called the philosophical month. This period being generally held to prevail in natural processes, it appeared reasonable to assume and reasonably to establish it; as that required for the development of latent principles of contagion, since public regulations cannot dispense with decisions of this kind, even though they should not be wholly justified by the nature of the case. Great stress has also been laid on theological and legal grounds, which were certainly of greater weight in the fifteenth century than in modern times; such as the forty days’ duration of the flood; the forty days’ sojourn of Moses on Mount Sinai; our Saviour’s fast for the same length of time in the wilderness; lastly, what is called the Saxon term, which lasts for forty days.

=QUAR′TAN.= Occurring every fourth day.

=QUARTA′TION.= The practice, among assayers, of alloying 1 part of gold with 3 parts of silver, before submitting it to the operation of ‘parting,’ in order that its particles may be too far separated to protect the copper, lead, palladium, silver, or other metals, with which it is contaminated, from the solvent action of the nitric or sulphuric acid, as the case may be. See ASSAYING.

=QUARTZ.= Pure native silica. It is an essential constituent of granite and many other rocks. Its crystalline, transparent varieties, are known as rock crystal. See GLASS, POWDER, &c.

=QUASS.= Syn. POSCA VENALIS, L. Prep. Mix rye-flour and warm water together, and keep the mixture by the fireside until it has turned sour. Used as vinegar in Russia.

=QUAS′SIA.= Syn. QUASSIA (Ph. L., E., & D.; QUASSIA LIGNUM, QUASSIA WOOD, B. P.). The “wood of Picræna (Picrasma) excelsa, Lindl.” (B. P., Ph. L.), or Jamaica quassia; and also of the “Quassia amara, Linn.” (Ph. E.), or Surinam quassia. The latter is the original quassia, but it is no longer imported. Quassia is characterised by its intense bitterness. It is reputed tonic and stomachic, assisting digestion, and giving tone and vigour to the system. Its name was given to it by Linnæus, in honour of a negro slave who had long employed it as a remedy for the malignant endemic fevers of Surinam. When sliced, it forms the ‘quassia chips’ of the shops. It is generally taken in the form of infusion. This last, sweetened with sugar, forms a safe and effective poison for flies.——Dose (in powder), 10 to 20 gr.

ROASTED QUASSIA, reduced to powder, is largely employed, instead of hops, to embitter porter; and the unroasted powder is used for the same purpose in the adulteration of the bitter varieties of ale.

=QUAS′SIN.= Syn. QUASSITE, QUASSINA. A peculiar bitter principle, obtained by precipitating decoction of quassia with milk of lime, evaporating the filtrate, dissolving the residue in alcohol, treating with animal charcoal, again evaporating, dissolving in water, and crystallising. 8 lbs. of quassia chips yield 1 drachm.

=QUEEN’S BLUE.= Thumb blue. See BLUE.

=QUEEN’S MET′AL.= A species of pewter used for teapots, &c., made by fusing under charcoal a mixture of tin, 9 parts, and antimony, bismuth, and lead, of each 1 part; or, tin, 100 parts; antimony, 8 parts; copper, 4 parts; bismuth, 1 part. See BRITANNIA METAL and PEWTER.

=QUEEN’S YEL′LOW.= Subsulphate of mercury.

=QUERCITRIN.= The bark of the Quercus tinctoria yields a neutral substance, to which the above name has been given. Quercitrin may be prepared as follows by the process of Rochleder:——The bark is boiled with water, the decoction is left to cool, and the impure quercitrin which separates is collected, then rubbed to a pulp with alcohol of 35° B., heated over the water bath, collected on linen, and pressed, whereby the principal impurities are removed. The residue is dissolved in a larger quantity of boiling alcohol, the solution is filtered hot, and water is added to it until it becomes turbid, so that the greater part of the quercitrin separates before the liquid is cold. It is then collected, pressed, and purified by a repetition of the same treatment.

Another process, by Zwenger and Dronke, is this:——The bark, in small pieces, is exhausted with boiling alcohol, the alcohol is distilled off, and the residue, while still warm, is mixed with a little acetic acid, and then with neutral acetate of lead; the filtrate, freed from lead by sulphuric acid, is evaporated, and the quercitrin which crystallises is purified by repeated crystallisation from alcohol.

“Hydrated quercitrin forms microscopic, rectangular, partly rhombic tablets, having their obtuse lateral edges truncated; pale yellow when pulverised. It is neutral, inodorous, tasteless in the solid state, bitter in solution, permanent in the air.”[125]

[Footnote 125: Watts.]

=QUER′CITRON.= The bark of Quercus nigra or tinctoria, a species of oak indigenous in North America. With alum mordants it yields a very permanent yellow dye.

=QUER′CITRON.= A yellow dye stuff, composed of the shavings and powder of the bark of Quercus tinctoria, or Q. nigra, or Q. citrina, a kind of oak, a native of North America. It abounds more particularly in Pennsylvania, Carolina, and Georgia.

In America quercitron is used for tanning, and in Europe for dyeing only. When employed for the latter purpose it is used in the form of an aqueous decoction, mordanted with alum or chloride of tin. Leesching states that a dye possessing greater colorific powder may be procured by boiling the bark with dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid.

=QUICK′SILVER.= See MERCURY.

=QUILLAI BARK.= Syn. QUILLAY BARK, SOAP BARK. The Quillaya saponaria, from which yields this bark, is an evergreen tree, growing in the mountainous parts of Chili, in South America.

It is believed to take its name from the native word quillay, which signifies to wash. The inner bark only is employed. When bruised and agitated in water it imparts a lather to the water, in the same way that soap does. This quality has been found to be due to the existence in the bark of saponin——the same principle which confers a similar property on Saponaria officinalis. The bark is free from any bitter principle, as well as from tannic acid. It is very generally used amongst the inhabitants residing on the western side of South America, where it is employed for removing grease from silk, and also in the form of a wash for cleansing and preserving the hair.

When had recourse to for cleansing silks, quillai bark is said not to change the colour of the fabric. It is sometimes given as a febrifuge, and as a remedy for cold in the head. For this latter purpose the powder is snuffed up the nostrils, when it occasions sneezing and profuse discharge from the nose.

=QUILLS.= Prep. 1. The quills or wing-feathers of the goose (goose quills) are separately plunged, for a few seconds, into hot ashes, cinders, or sand, of a temperature about equal to that of boiling water, after which they are scraped with a blunt knife, strongly rubbed with a piece of flannel or woollen cloth, and gently ‘stoved,’ they are, lastly, tied up in bundles by women or children. A yellow tinge is often given to them by dipping them for a short time into dilute hydrochloric or nitric acid, or into an infusion of turmeric.

2. Suspend the quills in a copper over water sufficiently high to nearly touch the nibs; then close it steam tight, and apply three or four hours’ hard boiling; next, withdraw the quills, and dry them, and in 24 hours cut the nibs and draw out the pith; lastly, rub them with a piece of cloth, and expose them to a moderate heat in an oven or stove. Quills prepared in this way are as hard as bone, without being brittle, and nearly as transparent as glass. Crow quills and swan quills may be cured in the same manner.

=QUI′NA.= See QUININE.

=QUINAMINE.= Syn. QUINAMINA. C_{20}H_{26}N_{2}O_{2}. This alkaloid was discovered by Hesse, in 1872, in the bark of Cinchona succirubra, cultivated at Darjeeling, in British Sikhim.

Dr de Vrij gives the following process for the preparation of quinamine:——The mixed alkaloids obtained from the red bark are converted into neutral sulphates, and the solution treated with Rochelle salt, whereby the tartrates of quinine and of cinchonidine are separated. After collecting these upon a filter the filtered liquid is shaken with caustic soda and ether. By this process the amorphous alkaloid and the quinamine are dissolved by the ether, with slight traces of cinchonine, whilst the bulk of this last alkaloid remains undissolved. After distilling the ethereal solution the residue is transformed into neutral acetate, and the solution of this mixed with a solution of sulphocyanate of potassium.

By this reaction the sulphocyanate of the amorphous alkaloid is precipitated in the shape of a yellow, soft, resinous substance, whilst the sulphocyanate of quinamine remains dissolved. After subsiding and filtering, the solution is clear and quite colourless, and by addition of caustic soda the quinamine is precipitated. It is then collected upon a filter, washed, and dried. It can now easily be obtained crystallised by dissolving it in boiling spirit, from which it crystallises in cooling. By this process the author obtained 0·38 per cent. of pure quinamine from samples of red cinchona quill bark, which he had received, through the Secretary of State for India, from the plantations in British Sikhim.

=QUINCE.= Syn. CYDONIA, L. The fruit of Cydonia vulgaris, or common quince tree. Its flavour in the raw state is austere, but it forms an excellent marmalade (quince marmalade), and its juice yields an agreeable and wholesome wine. The seed or pips (cydoniæ seminæ; cydonium——Ph. L.) abound in gummy matter, which forms a mucilage with water, and possesses the advantage of not being affected by the salts of iron or alcohol. See DECOCTION, FIXATURE, and JELLY.

=QUINETUM.= The alkaloids contained in the East Indian red bark (Cinchona succirubra) consist of a large percentage of cinchonidine, cinchonine, quinine, and amorphous alkaloid, besides a trace of quinidine, the preponderating alkaloid being cinchonidine.

Dr de Vrij, of the Hague, has devised a process by which these can be extracted in their entirety, and to the mixed alkaloids so obtained the name ‘quinetum’ has been given.

It is affirmed of quinetum that it possesses a remedial value as a tonic and antiperiodic that renders it, in many cases, superior to quinine, ague being one of these; also that it may be advantageously employed in affections in which quinine would be inadmissible. A medical correspondent informs us that he has used it with signal success in hay asthma. Another advantage it has over quinine is, it is much lower in price. Quinetum, according to Dr de Vrij’s process, as well as a sulphate and hydrochlorate, are prepared by Mr Whiffen, of Battersea.

=QUINICINE.= An alkaloid obtained in 1853 by Pasteur, by exposing quinine or quinidine, under favorable circumstances, to a temperature varying from 248° to 266° Fahr., for several hours. It is very probable that this alkaloid is either identical, or in very close connection, with the amorphous alkaloid soluble in ether which occurs in all barks, and particularly in the young barks of the plantations in India.

=QUINIDINE.= C_{20}H_{24}O_{2}N_{2}.2Aq. Syn. QUINIDIA, CONCHININE, &c. An alkaloid contained in many species of cinchona, together with quinine and cinchonine, and therefore often found in the mother liquors of quinine manufactures. It is identical with the β quinine of Van Heyningen, and was discovered, in 1833, by Henry and Delondre. As the cinchonidine discovered by Winckler, in 1848, has been unhappily denominated quinidine by this chemist, there is still a confusion about these alkaloids, and, therefore, the quinidine of commerce was very often a mixture of both, till Pasteur made, in 1853, a classical investigation of this matter. He maintained the name of quinidine for the alkaloid discovered by Henry and Delondre, because it is isomeric with quinine, and gives the same green colour when treated with chlorine followed by ammonia, and gave the name of cinchonidine to the alkaloid discovered by Winckler, because it is isomeric with cinchonine. He determined also the action of the solutions of these alkaloids on the plane of polarisation, and found that the quinidine turned this plane to the right, its molecular rotation in alcoholic solution being [a] = 250·75° →, whilst he found that the cinchonidine turned this plane to the left, its molecular rotation in alcoholic solution being [a] = 144·61° ←.

Prop. &c. Many of the salts of quinidine are very similar to those of quinine, but the normal salt with hydriodic acid is not only very different from that of quinine, but also from those of all the other cinchona-alkaloids. The normal hydriodate of quinidine is so very sparingly soluble in water that 1 part requires, at 60° Fahr., not less than 1200 parts of water to be dissolved. Therefore the presence of sulphate of quinidine in the sulphate of quinine, which often occurs, either from that article being carelessly made or from wilful adulteration, can be easily detected by adding a few minims of solution of iodide of potassium to the saturated solution of sulphate of quinine in water of 60° Fahr., whereby, if quinidine is present, its hydriodate will be separated either in the shape of a sandy precipitate or, if only traces are present, in the shape of striæ on the sides of the glass where this has been rubbed by a glass rod.

For an account of its medicinal properties, the reader should consult the recent report from India upon the experiments made there by order of Government with all the four cinchona-alkaloids, which experiments are very favorable to the therapeutical action of quinidine compared with that of quinine.

=QUININE.= C_{10}H_{12}ON. Syn. QUINA, QUINIA. Till recently it was found in the greatest quantity in good Calisaya bark, particularly in that from Bolivia, but since it has been found in great quantity in some other barks, especially in the bark of Cinchona officinalis, for instance, in the bark of that species grown in Ceylon. Red bark contains not only quinine and cinchonine, but also cinchonidine.

Prep. 1. By precipitating a solution of sulphate of quinine with a slight excess of ammonia, potassa, or soda, and washing and drying the precipitate. By solution in alcohol, sp. gr. ·815, and spontaneous evaporation, it may be procured in crystals. Crystals may also be obtained from “its solution in hot water with a little ammonia.” (Liebig.)

2. (Direct.) By adding hydrate of lime, in slight excess, to a strong decoction of the ground bark made with water acidulated with sulphuric acid, washing the precipitate which ensues, and boiling it in alcohol; the solution, filtered while hot, deposits the alkaloid on cooling.

Prop., &c. Quinine, when prepared by precipitation, is an amorphous white powder, but when this precipitate is left in the liquor it assumes, after some time, the appearance of aggregated crystalline needles; when slowly crystallised from its solution, these needles are remarkably fine, and of a pearly or silky lustre. It is freely soluble in rectified spirit and in ether, and of all the cinchona-alkaloids it is the most soluble in ammonia. It is upon this fact that Kerner’s method for testing the purity of sulphate of quinine is founded. Its normal salts, if dissolved in water, have a slightly alkaline reaction upon red litmus paper. It is only sparingly soluble in water, even when boiling; both the fixed and volatile oils dissolve it with the aid of heat, more especially when it has been rendered anhydrous, or is presented to them under the form of an ethereal solution. It fuses by a gentle heat, without decomposition; forms crystallisable salts, which are only slightly soluble in water, unless it be acidulated, and, like the pure alkaloid, are extremely bitter, and possess much of the characteristic flavour of cinchona bark. It is precipitated by the alkalies and their carbonates, by tannic acid, and by most astringent substances.

Pur. See QUININE, SULPHATES OF, and QUINOMETRY (below).

Tests. Quinine is recognised by——1. Its appearance under the microscope.——2. Its solubility in ether, and in pure ammonia water.——3. Its solubility in concentrated nitric acid, forming a colourless liquid, which does not become yellowish until it is heated.——4. The solubility of itself and salts, when pure, in concentrated sulphuric acid, forming colourless fluids, “which do not acquire any coloration upon being heated to the point of incipient evaporation of the sulphuric acid, but which afterwards become yellow, and finally brown.” (Fresenius.)——5. Its solubility in concentrated sulphuric acid to which some nitric acid has been added, forming a colourless, or, at the most, only a faintly yellowish liquid.——6. It is wholly destroyed by heat.

A solution of quinine in acidulated water, and solutions of its salts, exhibit the following reactions:——1. Ammonia, potassa, and the alkaline carbonates, give white, pulverulent precipitates, becoming crystalline after some time (see above), and which are soluble in ammonia in excess, and which, when ether is added after the ammonia, and the whole is agitated, redissolve in the ether, whilst the clear liquid, on repose, presents two distinct layers.——2. Bicarbonate of soda (avoiding excess) gives a similar precipitate, both in acid and neutral solutions of quinine, either at once or after a short time. The precipitate is soluble in excess of the precipitant, and is again precipitated from the new solution upon protracted ebullition. “Vigorous stirring of the liquid promotes the separation of this precipitate.” (Fresenius.)——3. If recently prepared chlorine be added to it, and then ammonia, a beautiful emerald-green colour is developed. (Ph. L.)——4. A concentrated solution of ferrocyanide of potassium being added, in excess, after the chlorine, instead of the ammonia, a dark red colour is instantly produced, which after some time passes into green, especially when freely exposed to the light. This reaction is not characteristic of quinine, for with quinidine one gets the same reaction.——5. If caustic potassa be used instead of ammonia (see above), the solution acquires a sulphur-yellow colour. “These reactions are restricted to this alkaloid.” (Dr Garrod.)

Flückiger[126] says;——“The most characteristic test for ascertaining the presence of quinine is the formation of the splendid green compound called thalleiochine, which is produced if solutions of the alkaloid or its salts are mixed with chlorine water, and then a drop of ammonia added.”

[Footnote 126: In ‘Jahrb. f. Pharm.,’ April, 1872, 136 (‘Ph. Journ,’, 3rd series, ii, 901).]

If one part of quinine is dissolved in 4000 parts of acidulated water, and then about 1/10 of the volume of the liquid, of chlorine water, and a drop of ammonia added, a green zone will be readily formed if the liquids are cautiously placed in a flask without shaking.

If the solution of quinine contain no more than 1/5000, the green of one may still be obtained, but in more diluted solutions the success becomes more and more uncertain.

From a practical point of view we may state that 1/5000 of the alkaloid is the smallest quantity whose presence can thus be discovered with certainty; Kerner (1870) has succeeded with 1/20000 but I was not able to corroborate this statement.

The author was also induced to try the action of bromine in place of chlorine. The thalleiochine is then, indeed, produced in solution which contain only 1/20000 of quinine.

Yet the behaviour of bromine displays some striking differences. Chlorine alone, as already stated, causes no immediate alteration of somewhat diluted solutions of quinine, whereas they became turbid on addition of bromine as long as there is about 1/2500 or more of quinine present. Now, the precipitate which is produced by bromine in solution of quinine does not turn green if a little ammonia is subsequently added, or, at least, the thalleiochine thus obtained is rather greyish. But in more dilute solutions of quinine bromine acts more readily than chlorine. An excess of bromine is to be carefully avoided.

This is easily performed if the vapour of bromine, not the liquid bromine itself, is allowed to fall down on the surface of the solutions of quinine; their superficial layer only must be saturated with bromine by gently moving the liquid. Then a drop of ammonia will produce the green or somewhat bluish zone, which is much more persistent than that due to chlorine.

Consequently, for demonstration of the test under notice, chlorine is to be used in comparatively concentrated solutions. In solutions containing so little quinine (less than 1/2500) that it is no longer precipitated by the vapour of bromine, the thalleiochine test succeeds much better with bromine, and goes much further, as shown above.

The author also shows that morphine gives a dark, dingy brown colour with chlorine and ammonia, which is capable of more or less masking the reaction of quinine.

Another test for quinine is the formation of its iodosulphate, the so-called herapathite. For this purpose the quinine is dissolved in 10 parts of proof spirit, acidulated with 1/20th part of sulphuric acid, and to this solution an alcoholic solution of iodine is carefully added, and the liquid in the meanwhile stirred with a glass rod. There appears either immediately or after some minutes a black precipitate of iodosulphate of quinine, which if redissolved in boiling proof spirit, forms in cooling the beautiful crystals of herapathite. 100 parts of this herapathite, if dried on a water bath, represent 56·5 parts of pure quinine.

Dr de Vrij prefers the employment of the iodosulphate of chiniodine as a reagent for the detection and estimation of quinine. In a communication to the ‘Pharmaceutical Journal’ he writes:——“In estimating quinine in a mixture of cinchona-alkaloids by means of an alcoholic solution of iodine the reagent requires to be added in slight excess, in order to ensure complete precipitation. An undue excess of the reagent, however, causes the formation of a compound richer in iodine and much more soluble in alcohol than herapathite, and thus renders the determination inaccurate.”[127] For this reason the author suggests the application of an alcoholic solution of iodosulphate of chiniodine (so-called sulphate of amorphous quinine) in place of free iodine. The reagent is made as following:——

[Footnote 127: 3rd series, vi, 461.]

Two parts of sulphate of chiniodine are dissolved in eight parts of water containing 5 per cent. of sulphuric acid. To this clear solution, contained in a large capsule, a solution of one part of iodine and two parts of iodide of potassium, in 100 parts of water, is slowly added with continuous stirring, so that no part of the solution of chiniodine comes into contact with excess of iodine. By this addition an orange-coloured flocculent precipitate is formed of iodosulphate of chiniodine, which either spontaneously, or by a slight elevation of temperature, collapses into a dark brown, red-coloured, resinous substance, whilst the supernatant liquor becomes clear and slightly yellow coloured. This liquor is poured off, and the resinous substance is washed by heating it on a water bath with distilled water. After washing, the resinous substance is heated on the water bath till all the water has been evaporated. It is then soft and tenacious at the temperature of boiling water, but becomes hard and brittle after cooling. One part of this substance is now treated with 6 parts of alcohol of 92 or 94 per cent. until it is completely dissolved, and the solution allowed to cool. In cooling a part of the dissolved substance is separated. The clear dark-coloured solution is evaporated on a water bath, and the residue dissolved in 5 parts of cold alcohol. This second solution leaves a small part of insoluble substance. The clear dark-coloured solution obtained by the separation of this insoluble matter, either by decantation or filtration, constitutes the reagent which the author has used for some time under the name of iodosulphate of chiniodine, both for the qualitative and quantitative determination of crystallisable quinine.

To determine a quantity of quinine contained in the mixed alkaloids obtained from a sample of cinchona bark, 1 part of the alkaloid is dissolved in 20 parts of alcohol, of 90 or 92 per cent., containing 1·6 per cent. of sulphuric acid, to obtain an alcoholic solution of the acid sulphates of the alkaloids.

From this solution the quinine is separated by adding carefully, by means of a pipette, the above-mentioned solution of the iodosulphate of chiniodine, as long as a dark brown-red precipitate of iodosulphate of quinine-herapathite is formed. As soon as all the quinine has been precipitated, and a slight excess of the reagent has been added, the liquor acquires an intense yellow colour. The beaker containing the liquor with the precipitate is now covered by a watch-glass, and heated on a water bath till the liquid begins to boil.

After cooling, the beaker is weighed, to ascertain the amount of liquid which is necessary in order to be able to apply later the above-mentioned correction. For although quinine-herapathite is very little soluble in alcohol, it is not insoluble, and therefore a correction must be applied for the quantity which has been dissolved both by the alcohol used for the solution of the alkaloids and the alcohol contained in the reagents.

The liquor is now filtered to collect the iodosulphate of quinine on a small filter, where it is washed with a saturated solution of herapathite in alcohol. After the washing has been completed, the weight of the funnel with the moist filter is taken, and the filter allowed to dry in the funnel. As soon as it is dry the weight is taken again, to ascertain the amount of solution of herapathite which remained in the filter, and which left the dissolved herapathite on the filter after the evaporation of the alcohol.

This amount is subtracted from the total amount of liquid, and for the remaining the correction is calculated with reference to the temperature of the laboratory during the time of the analysis. The dry iodosulphate of quinine is taken from the filter and dried on a water bath, in one of a couple of large watch-glasses closing tightly upon each other, so that the weight of the substance contained in the glass may be taken without the access of air.

When, after repeatedly ascertaining the weight, it remains constant, this weight is noted down, and to it is added the product of the calculated correction. The sum of this addition is the total amount of iodosulphate of quinine obtained from the mixed alkaloids subjected to the operation, and from this weight the amount of crystallisable quinine can be calculated by the use of Hauer’s formula, 2C_{40}H_{24}N_{2}O_{4}3(HO_{1}SO_{3}), 31 (old notation), which the author has found to be correct. According to this formula, 1 part of iodosulphate of quinine, dried at 100° C., represents 0·5509 per cent. of anhydrous quinine, or 0·7345 per cent. of disulphate of quinine.

The accuracy of this determination may be seen from the following examples:

0·24 gram of anhydrous crystallised quinine gave 0·541 gram of herapathite dried at 100° C. = 0·298 gram of quinine.

According to Hauer’s formula, 0·5336 gram of herapathite = 0·294 gram of quinine, which ought to have been obtained.

1·048 gram of bitartrate of quinine gave 1·224 gram of herapathite = 0·674 gram of quinine.

According to the formula of the bitartrate, C_{20}H_{24}N_{2}O_{21}C_{4}H_{6}O_{6} + Aq. = 442; 1·048 of bitartrate represents 0·69 of quinine, so that 1·255 gram of herapathite should have been obtained.

Notwithstanding the different circumstances in which the reagent was applied, the results are satisfactory.

The two following experiments were made with pure quinine, dried at 100° C., at which temperature it still retains water, under identical circumstances:——

1·0664 gram of hydrated quinine gave 1·7266 gram of herapathite = 164·5 per cent.

1·055 grams of the same hydrated quinine gave 1·7343 gram of herapathite = 164·3 per cent.

The author further states that the iodosulphate of quinine and of quinidine prepared by means of his new reagent have an analogous composition, and are identical with the compound described by Herapath, whilst the iodosulphates of cinchonine and cinchonidine have a different composition from the former, and both require more iodine to be converted into the optical iodosulphates described by Herapath. Of all these iodosulphates that of quinine is by far the most insoluble in alcohol, and is precipitated first and free from the others by a judicious application of the iodosulphate of chinioidine.

Quinine is distinguished from both cinchonine and quinidine by its comparatively free solubility in ether; the last of these being very sparingly soluble, and the other wholly insoluble, in that menstruum. The presence of cinchonine may also be positively determined by reference to the behaviour of that alkaloid. Quinidine is also distinguished from quinine by the different crystallisation, greater specific gravity, and freer solubility of its salts in cold water.[128]

[Footnote 128: An extremely elegant and highly sensitive method of testing for quinine and quinidine by means of the microscope, &c., is described at considerable length, by Dr Herapath, in the ‘Pharm. Journ.’ for November, 1853.]

Estim. See QUINOMETRY.

Uses, &c. Pure quinine is but rarely used in medicine, but several of its salts are employed as remedies, on account of their great stimulant, tonic, and febrifuge powers. As a tonic in dyspeptic affections, and for restoring strength and vigour to morbidly weakened habits, and as an antiperiodic or agent to counteract febrile action, it appears to be superior to all other remedies, provided no abnormal irritability of the mucous membranes, or of the circulatory organs, exists. The dose of the salts of quinine, as a tonic, is 1/2 to 1 gr., twice or thrice daily; as an antiperiodic, 2 to 5 gr., or even more, every second or third hour, during the intervals of the paroxysms of ague, and of other intermittent or periodic affections; also in acute rheumatism. The sulphate (disulphate) is the salt generally used; this and other salts are most effective when taken in solution.

The nature of the influence exerted upon blood by quinine was, in 1872, made the subject of a fresh investigation by Schulte.[129] Its extraordinary power of stopping fermentation and putrefaction, by destroying low organisms, such as bacteria and fungi, has been before pointed out. It is supposed to diminish the formation of pus in inflammation by arresting the motions and preventing the exit from the blood-vessels of the white blood-corpuscles, the accumulation of which, according to Cohnheim, constitutes pus.

[Footnote 129: ‘N. Rep. Pharm.,’ xx, 539 (‘Pharm. Journ.,’ 3rd series, ii, 629).]

By depriving the red blood-corpuscles of the power to produce ozone, it diminishes the change of tissue in the body, and thereby lessens the production of heat. Ranke and Kerner have shown the waste of tissue is reduced when large doses of quinine are administered, as indicated in the small proportion of uric acid and urea excreted.

With the object of ascertaining whether this effect is referable to the direct influence of quinine on oxidation in the blood, or to its indirect influence through the nervous system, Schulte employed a method, based upon the changes occurring in the alkalinity of the blood, observed by Zuntz, who had noticed that a considerable formation of acid takes place in freshly-drawn blood, and continues in a less degree till putrefaction commences.

The amount of acid formed was estimated from the diminished alkalinity of the blood, as comparatively shown by the quantity of dilute phosphoric acid required for exact saturation.

A sufficient quantity of chloride of sodium was added to the phosphoric acid to prevent the blood-corpuscles from being dissolved, and interfering with the reaction by their colouring matter. The point of saturation was fixed at the point of transient reddening of carefully prepared test paper by the carbonic acid. Schulte has thus been enabled to confirm the experiments of Zuntz and Scharrenbroich, showing that quinine and berberine lessen the production of acid, and that quinine can stop it both before and after coagulation; that sodium nitropicrate has an action similar to, and nearly as powerful as, quinine; while the action of cinchonine is much less energetic. Harley has shown that whilst quinine lessens oxidation in blood, some substances, such as snake poisons, increase it. Binz found that when putrid fluids were injected into the circulation of an animal, the temperature rose; but that this increase of temperature could be more or less prevented by the addition of quinine to the putrid liquid, or the simultaneous injection of the quinine.

With respect to the influences of quinine on the change of tissue, Schulte gives the result of some careful experiments made by Zuntz, who found that after taking three 0·6 gram doses of hydrochlorate of quinine for two days, the amount of urine he excreted was increased by one third, and then decreased as much, the specific gravity falling from 1018 to 1012; the urea also showed a marked decrease.

The salts of quinine may be made by simply saturating the dilute acids with the base, so that part of the latter remains undissolved, and gently evaporating the solutions for crystals, or to dryness. Prince Lucien Bonaparte recommends all these salts to be prepared by the addition of a strong alcoholic solution of quinine to a cold solution of the acid. We have tried this method with success.

=Quinine, Ac′etate of.= Syn. QUINÆ ACETAS, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) Mix quinine, 2 parts, with water, 3 parts; heat the mixture, and add of acetic acid, q. s. to dissolve the alkaloid, and to render the solution slightly acid; lastly, decant or filter the solution whilst boiling hot, and set it aside to crystallise. The mother water, on evaporation, will yield a second crop of the acetate.

2. Effloresced sulphate of quinine, 17 parts, is dissolved in boiling water, and mixed with crystallised acetate of soda, 6 parts. The acetate of quinine crystallises.

Prop., &c. Satiny, acicular crystals, which are rather more soluble in water than those of the sulphate.——Dose, 1/2 to 5 grains.

=Quinine, Arse′′niate of.= Syn. QUINÆ ARSENIAS, L. Prep. (Bourières.) Arsenic acid, 1-1/2 dr.; quinine, 5 dr.; distilled water, 6 fl. oz.; boil them together in a covered glass vessel until the alkaloid is dissolved, then set the solution aside to crystallise.

Uses, &c. Recommended by Dr Neligan, and others, as being more powerfully antiperiodic than the other preparations of quinine.——Dose, 1/12 to 1/4 gr., made into pills; in agues, neuralgia, &c.; also in cancer.

=Quinine, Ar′senite of.= Syn. QUINÆ ARSENIS, L. Prep. Sulphate of quinine, 100 parts, is dissolved in alcohol, 600 parts, and boiled with arsenious acid, 14 parts. The liquid is then filtered. The poisonous salt is deposited in the crystalline form as the liquid cools.

Uses, &c. As the last.

=Quinine, Chlo′′ride of.= Hydrochlorate of quinine (see below).

=Quinine, Ci′trate of.= Syn. QUINÆ CITRAS, L. Prep. 1. By mixing a hot solution of sulphate of quinine with a like solution of citrate of soda.

2. From quinine and citric acid, as the acetate. Needle-shaped prisms.——Dose, &c. As the sulphate or disulphate.

=Quinine, Disulphate of.= Sulphate of quinine (see below).

=Quinine, Ferrocy′anide of.= Syn. CYANIDE OF IRON AND QUININE; QUINÆ HYDROFERROCYANAS, QUINÆ FERRO-PRUSSIAS, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Sulphate of quinine, 100 parts; ferrocyanide of potassium, 31 parts; distilled water, 2500 parts; boil for a few minutes, and, when cold, separate the impure salt which floats as an oily mass on the surface, wash it with a little cold water, and dissolve it in boiling alcohol; the solution will deposit crystals as it cools.

Obs. This compound is by some said to be the most efficacious of all the salts of quinia. Pelouze asserts that it is simply quinine mixed with some Prussian blue.——Dose, 1 to 6 gr.

=Quinine, Ferrosul′phate of.= See QUININE AND IRON, SULPHATE OF (below).

=Quinine, Hydri′odate of.= Syn. IODIDE OF QUININE; QUINÆ HYDRIODAS, Q. IODIDUM, L. Prep. 1. By adding, drop by drop, a concentrated solution of iodide of potassium to a like solution of acid sulphate of quinine, and drying the precipitate in the shade; or heat the liquid nearly to the boiling point, and allow it to crystallise.

2. (Parrish.) Effloresced sulphate of quinine, 5 parts, dissolved in alcohol, and decomposed by an alcoholic solution of 3 parts of iodide of potassium, precipitates sulphate of potassa, and yields, on cooling and evaporating, hydriodate of quinine in fine crystalline needles.[130]

[Footnote 130: “1 and 2 are not identical; 1 is an acid salt which readily crystallises, but 2 is a normal salt which I never saw crystallise, but always like a fluid resin, quite amorphous.”——De Vrij.]

3. (IODURETTED——Bouchardat.) From an acid solution of quinia and a solution of iodide of iron containing a slight excess of iron, as No. 1.

Obs. The above are reputed alterative, tonic, and antiperiodic.——Dose, 1 to 4 gr.; in obstinate intermittents, and in the scrofulous affections of debilitated subjects.

=Quinine, Hydrochlo′′rate of.= Syn. CHLORIDE OF QUININE, MURIATE OF QUININE†; QUINÆ HYDROCHLORAS, QUINÆ MURIAS, L. Prep. 1. By neutralising dilute hydrochloric acid with the base, as above.

2. (Ph. Bor.) Chloride of barium, 5 dr.; boiling water, 1 lb.; dissolve, add, gradually, of sulphate of quinine, 2 oz.; boil gently for a few minutes, filter the solution whilst hot, and set it aside that crystals may form.

3. (QUINÆ MURIAS——Ph. D.) Dissolve chloride of barium, 123 gr., in distilled water, 2 fl. oz.; add of sulphate of quinine, 1 oz., dissolved in boiling water, 1-1/2 pint; mix, evaporate the solution to one half, filter, and again evaporate until spiculæ begin to appear; next allow the liquid to cool, collect the crystals, and dry them on bibulous paper. The mother liquor, by further concentration and cooling, will yield an additional product.

Obs. Hydrochlorate of quinine occurs in snow-white groups of feathery crystals, of a mother-of-pearl lustre, which are more freely soluble than those of the disulphate.

=Quinine and Iodide of Iron.= Syn. QUINÆ ET FERRI IODIDUM. (Bouchardat.) Prep. Pour a strong solution of acid sulphate of quinine into a fresh solution of iodide of iron; collect the precipitate, dry it quickly by pressing it between blotting paper, and keep it from the air.

=Quinine, Ki′nate of.= Syn. QUINÆ KINAS, L. Prep. By saturating a solution of kinic acid with quinine, and purifying by crystallisation out of alcohol. The kinate of quinine is obtained in crystalline warts, soluble in 4 parts of water and 8 parts of alcohol.

=Quinine, Lac′tate of.= Syn. QUINÆ LACTAS, L. Prep. As the ACETATE or CITRATE. By spontaneous evaporation fine crystals may be obtained. Said to agree better with dyspeptic patients than the other salts of quinine.

=Quinine, Mu′′riate of.= Hydrochlorate of quinine (see above).

=Quinine, Neutral Hydrobromate of.= Syn. QUINÆ HYDROBROMAS. (M. Boille.) This salt is prepared by double decomposition of bromide of barium and neutral sulphate of quinia, and is thus easily obtained pure and free from chloride, the great solubility of bromide of barium in alcohol facilitating the removal of any chloride which is insoluble.

The two salts are dissolved separately in alcohol and the solutions filtered. The neutral sulphate of quinia solution is gradually added, in slight excess, to the bromide of barium solution until a precipitate ceases to form.

The solutions, diluted with water, are distilled to recover the alcohol, afterwards filtered to separate the sulphate of quinia which has been precipitated by the water, and then concentrated sufficiently to induce rapid crystallisation. The addition of water is indispensable for the concentration and crystallisation; the hydrobromate, being soluble in alcohol of all proportions, redissolves as the alcoholic liquor is concentrated. M. Boille claims for his neutral hydrobromate of quinine its much readier solubility over the officinal sulphate, as well as its superior richness in quinine.

=Quinine, Ni′trate of.= Syn. QUINÆ NITRAS, L. Prep. As the HYDROCHLORATE, substituting dilute nitric acid, or nitrate of baryta (P. Cod.), for hydrochloric acid or chloride of barium.

=Quinine, Phos′phate of.= Syn. QUINÆ PHOSPHAS, L. As the ACETATE. Silky, needle-shaped crystals, with a pearly lustre. It has been highly recommended in intermittents, &c., associated with rickets and stomach affections.

=Quinine, Salicylate of.= Syn. QUINÆ SALICYLAS. This may be made by mixing an alcoholic solution of quinine with an alcoholic solution of salicylic acid to complete saturation, and afterwards allowing the alcohol slowly to evaporate.

=Quinine, Sul′phates of.= The salt often called ‘disulphate of quinine’ is now generally regarded as the normal sulphate, while the soluble salt, often called the ‘neutral sulphate’ is considered to be an acid salt. This change in nomenclature results from doubling the atomic weight of the alkaloid quinine:——

1. =Quinine Acid, Sulphate of.= (C_{20}P_{24}N_{3}O_{2}.H_{2}SO_{4}.7Aq.) Syn. SULPHATE OF QUININE†, NEUTRAL SULPHATE OF QUININE†, SOLUBLE S. OF Q.; QUINÆ SULPHAS SOLUBILIS, L. Prep. From sulphate of quinine, 1 oz., dissolved, by the aid of heat, in water, 1/2 pint, previously acidulated with dilute sulphuric acid, 5 fl. dr.; the solution affords crystals on cooling, and more on evaporation.

Obs. This salt possesses the advantage of being soluble in about 10 parts of water at 60° Fahr.; but it is seldom used in the crystalline form; still, as the officinal sulphate (‘disulphate’) is generally prescribed along with a small quantity of dilute sulphuric acid to render it soluble, this acid sulphate is, in fact, the compound which is commonly given. It is the ‘bisulphate,’ ‘supersulphate,’ or ‘acid sulphate of quina’ of Soubeiran and other Continental chemists.

2. =Quinine, Sulphate of.= (C_{20}H_{24}N_{2}O_{2}){2}.2H{2}SO_{4}.7Aq. Syn. NORMAL SULPHATE OF QUININE, DISULPHATE OF Q., QUININE; QUINÆ DISULPHAS (Ph. L.), QUINÆ SULPHAS (Ph. E., D., & U. S., & P. Cod.), QUINÆ SULPHAS (B. P.), L.; SULPHATE DE QUININE, Fr. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. 1836.) Take of yellow cinchona bark, bruised, 7 lbs.; sulphuric acid, 4-1/4 oz.; (diluted with) water, 6 galls.; boil them for 1 hour, and strain; repeat this a second time for 1 hour, with a like quantity of acid and water, and again strain; next boil the bark for 3 hours, in water, 8 galls., and strain; wash the residue with fresh quantities of boiling distilled water; to the mixed decoctions and washings, add moist hydrated oxide of lead to saturation, decant the supernatant fluid, and wash the sediment with distilled water; boil down the liquor for 15 minutes, and strain, then precipitate the quina with liquor of ammonia and wash the precipitate (with very cold water) until nothing alkaline is perceptible; saturate what remains with sulphuric acid, 1/2 oz., diluted with water, q. s., digest with animal charcoal, 2 oz., and strain; lastly, the charcoal being well washed, evaporate the mixed liquors, that crystals may form.

2. (Ph. E.) This process varies from the last one, in the bark (1 lb.) being first boiled in water (4 pints) along with carbonate of soda (4 oz.); the residuum, being pressed, is moistened with water, and again pressed, and this operation is repeated a second and a third time, the object being to remove, as much as possible, the acids, colouring matter, gum, and extractive, before proceeding to extract the alkaloid. Carbonate of soda is also used as the precipitant, instead of ammonia, and the precipitate is formed into a sulphate (disulphate) by being stirred with boiling water, 1 pint, to which sulphuric acid, 1 fl. scruple, or q. s., is subsequently added. The crystals, after digestion with prepared animal charcoal, 2 dr., are ordered to be dried at a heat not higher than 140° Fahr.

3. (Ph. D.) Yellow bark, 1 lb., is macerated for 24 hours in water, 2 quarts, acidulated with oil of vitriol, 2 fl. dr., and then boiled for half an hour, after which the fluid is decanted; this is repeated a second and a third time with water, 2 quarts, and oil of vitriol, 1 fl. dr.; the decanted (or strained) liquors are evaporated to a quart, and filtered, and slaked lime, 1 oz., or q. s., added to the solution until it exhibits a decidedly alkaline reaction; the precipitate is next collected on a calico filter, and, after having been washed with cold water, partially dried on porous bricks, and subjected to powerful pressure enveloped in blotting paper, is boiled for 20 minutes in rectified spirit, 1 pint, and the liquid, after subsidence, decanted; this is repeated a second and a third time with a fresh pint of spirit, and the residuum being well pressed, the mixed liquors are filtered, and the spirit removed by distillation; the brown viscid residuum is dissolved in boiling water, 16 fl. oz., boiled, and dilute sulphuric acid, 1/2 fl. oz, or q. s., added to render the solution neutral or only slightly acid; animal charcoal, 1/2 oz., is next stirred in, the mixture boiled for about 5 minutes, filtered, and set aside to crystallise; the crystals are dried on blotting paper by mere exposure to a dry atmosphere.

4. (B. P.) Yellow cinchona bark, in coarse powder, 16; hydrochloric acid, 3; distilled water, a sufficiency; solution of soda, 80; dilute sulphuric acid, a sufficiency. Dilute the hydrochloric acid with 10 pints of the water. Place the bark in a porcelain basin, and add to it as much of the diluted hydrochloric acid as will render it thoroughly moist. After maceration, with occasional stirring, for twenty-four hours, place the bark in a displacement apparatus, and percolate with the diluted hydrochloric acid until the solution which drops through is nearly destitute of bitter taste. Into this liquid (hydrochlorate of quinine) pour the solution of soda, agitate well, let the precipitate (quinine) completely subside, decant the supernatant fluid, collect the precipitate on a filter, and wash it with cold distilled water until the washings cease to have colour. Transfer the precipitate to a porcelain dish containing a pint of distilled water, and, applying to this the heat of a water bath, gradually add diluted sulphuric acid until very nearly the whole of the precipitate has been dissolved, and a neutral liquid has been obtained. (Or add about half the precipitated quinine to some water in an evaporating basin, warm the mixture and pour in diluted sulphuric acid until the precipitate has dissolved and the liquid is neutral or only faintly acid, then add the other half, stir well, and again heat liquid.) Filter the solution (sulphate of quinine), while hot, through paper, wash the filter with boiling distilled water, concentrate till a film forms on the surface of the solution, and set it aside to crystallise. The crystals should be dried on filtering paper without the application of heat.

5. “Those who are well acquainted with the chemistry of the cinchona-alkaloids all agree with me in condemning the boiling of bark with dilute acids. I prefer the following method, which can also be used on a small scale for quinometry:——

“Yellow bark, or any other bark in which quinine prevails, like, for instance, that of Cinchona officinalis, 1 lb., is mixed with milk of lime, made from 4 oz. of lime and 40 oz. of water. After drying this mixture it is exhausted with strong methylated spirit (the strongest possible) and the slightly coloured solution neutralised with sulphuric acid, so that the liquor has a slight acid reaction upon blue litmus paper. After filtering or subsiding, the clear liquid is distilled and the residue in the still dissolved in water, carefully neutralised, so that the solution has a slight alkaline reaction upon red litmus paper, treated with charcoal and crystallised, &c.”——De Vrij.

6. (‘HOSPITAL SULPHATE’——Mr E. Herring.) The crushed bark is boiled in a solution of caustic soda or potassa, to extract colouring matter and gum; it is then pressed, washed with cold water, a second time boiled with a solution of caustic alkali, and again pressed, washed, and pressed; the decoloured and purified bark is next exhausted by coction with acidulated water, in the usual way, and the filtered mixed decoctions are precipitated with carbonate of soda; the precipitated quina is then dissolved in hot dilute sulphuric acid, to saturation, when the ‘HOSPITAL SULPHATE’ crystallises out as the solution cools; this is, lastly, washed with a little cold water, drained, and dried.——The advantage of this process is the non-use of animal charcoal as a bleacher, and the consequent less cost of the product. In the preparation of his ‘WHITE SULPHATE,’ Mr Herring uses benzol as a solvent, instead of alcohol. Patent dated July 28th, 1853.

Prop. When pure, sulphate of quinine forms very light, delicate, flexible, white needles, which are efflorescent, inodorous, and intensely bitter; it is soluble in 740 parts of water at 60°, and in 30 parts at 212° Fahr.; it takes about 80 parts of cold rectified spirit for its solution, but is freely soluble in boiling alcohol and in acidulated water; it melts at 240° Fahr., and is charred and destroyed at a heat below that of redness. The crystals contain 76·1% of quinine, 8·7% of sulphuric acid, and 15·2% of water; of the last, they lose about 3-4ths by exposure to dry air, and nearly the whole when kept in a state of fusion for some time.

Pur. This may not be inferred from the form of its crystallisation, for the sulphates of quinidine and of cinchonidine may be obtained in the same form of crystallisation. As mentioned already, the reaction with chlorine and ammonia does not distinguish quinine from quinidine, as both give the same green colour. “It is entirely soluble in water (hot), and more readily so when an acid is present. Precipitated by ammonia, the residuary liquid, after evaporation, should not taste of sugar. By a gentle heat it loses 8% or 10% of water. It is wholly consumed by heat. If chlorine be first added, and then ammonia, it becomes green.” (Ph. L. 1836.) “On adding chloride of barium to 100 gr. of this salt, dissolved in water mixed with hydrochloric acid, 26·6 gr. of sulphate of baryta, dried at a red heat, are prepared.” (Ph. L. 1851.) “A solution of 10 gr., in 1 fl. oz. of distilled water, and 2 or 3 drops of sulphuric acid, if decomposed by a solution of 1/2 oz. of carbonate of soda, in two waters, and heated until the precipitate shrinks and fuses, yields, on cooling, a solid mass, which, when dry, weighs 7·4 gr. and when reduced to powder, dissolves entirely in a solution of oxalic acid.” (Ph. E.)

Adult. Sulphate of quinine is said to be often adulterated with starch, magnesia, gum, sugar, cinchonine, quinidine, &c.; but, according to De Vrij, those with starch, magnesia, gum, and sugar, are very rare if ever they were really observed. Very frequent are those with the sulphates of the other cinchona-alkaloids, and these become even still more frequent, as very different kinds of bark are used for the manufacture of quinine. Salicin is, if ever, but very seldom used for adulteration of quinine. The best practical test for the purity of sulphate of quinine is the following:——A saturated solution of the salt is made at 60° Fahr., and one part of this solution is mixed with 2 or 3 minims of a concentrated solution of iodide of potassium, whilst another part is mixed with 2 or 3 minims of a concentrated solution of tartrate of potash and soda. If the sulphate of quinine is pure its solution will remain unaltered by both reagents, even after rubbing the sides of the test tube with a glass rod and standing many hours. But if it contains one or more of the other cinchona-alkaloids there will appear either precipitates or striæ on the glass where it has been rubbed by the glass rod. Iodide of potassium indicates particularly the presence of even traces of quinidine, but also of cinchonidine and cinchonine, provided their quantity be not too small. Tartrate of potash and soda indicate, under these circumstances, only the presence of cinchonidine. The first three remain undissolved when the salt is digested in spirit; the fourth is dissolved out by cold water; the fifth may be detected by its total insolubility in ether; or, by precipitating the quinine by solution of potassa, and dissolving the precipitate in boiling alcohol; cinchonine crystallises out as the solution cools, but the quinine remains in the mother liquor; and the last, by the greater solubility and sp. gr. of the salt, &c. If the sample disengages ammoniacal fumes when treated with liquor of potassa, it contains sal ammoniac. The presence of most foreign organic substances is also shown by the sample being turned brown, and being soon charred when treated with a drop of concentrated sulphuric acid. If it turn red it contains salicin, a substance which is now frequently used to adulterate sulphate of quinine. The pure sulphate is not discoloured by this reagent.

Uses, &c. The sulphate is more extensively employed than any of the other salts of quinine, and, indeed, to almost the exclusion of them. It is the article intended to be used whenever ‘sulphate’ or ‘disulphate’ of quinine, or even ‘quinine,’ is ordered for medicinal purposes, unless the name is qualified by some other term. It is a most valuable stomachic, in doses of 1/4 to 1 gr.; as a tonic, 1 to 3 gr.; and as a febrifuge, 2 to 20 gr.

=Quinine, Sulpho-tar′trate of.= Syn. QUINÆ SULPHO-TARTRAS, L. Prep. From sulphate of quinine, 4 parts; tartaric acid, 5 parts; distilled water, 20 parts; mix, gently evaporate to dryness, and powder the residuum.

=Quinine, Tan′nate of.= Syn. QUINÆ TANNAS, L. Prep. Dissolve sulphate of quinine in slightly acidulated water, and add a solution of tannic acid as long as a precipitate forms; wash this with a little cold water, and dry it. The Ph. Græca orders infusion of galls to be used as the precipitant. In intermittent neuralgia.

=Quinine, Tar′trate of.= Syn. QUINÆ TARTRAS, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From tartaric acid and quinine, as the acetate.

=Quinine, Vale′′rianate of.= Syn. QUINÆ VALERIANAS (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. As the acetate or citrate.

2. (Ph. D.) Valerianate of soda, 124 gr., distilled water, 2 fl. oz.; dissolve; also dissolve hydrochlorate of quinine, 7 dr., in distilled water, 14 fl. oz.; next heat each solution to 120° (not higher), mix them, and set the vessel aside for 24 hours; lastly, press the mass of crystals thus obtained, and dry them, without the application of artificial heat.

Prop., &c. Silky needles and prisms; its solution suffers decomposition when heated much above 120° Fahr. It is powerfully antispasmodic, antiperiodic, and nervine.——Dose, 1/2 gr., every two hours, or 1 to 3 gr. twice or thrice daily; in epilepsy, hemicrania, hysteria, neuralgia, and other nervous affections.

=QUININE AND COD-LIVER OIL.= Syn. COD-LIVER OIL WITH QUININE, QUINIARETTED COD-LIVER OIL; OLEUM MORRHUÆ CUM QUINÂ, OLEUM JECORIS ASELLI CUM QUINÂ, L. This medicine is a solution of pure anhydrous quinine in pure cod-liver oil.

Prep. 1. Pure quinine (preferably recently precipitated) is fused in a glass or porcelain capsule by the heat of an oil or sand bath, carefully applied, by which it assumes a brown colour and the appearance of a resin; it is then allowed to cool out of contact with the air, after which it is reduced to powder in a dry mortar, and added to pure pale Newfoundland cod-liver oil, gently heated in a closed glass vessel over a water bath; the solution of the alkaloid is promoted by constant agitation, and, when complete, the vessel, still corked, is set aside in a dark situation to cool; when the ‘quiniaretted oil’ is quite cold it is put into bottles, in the usual manner, and preserved as much as possible from the light and air.

2. The anhydrous quinine is dissolved in a little anhydrous ether before adding it to the oil, which in this case need not be heated, as the union is effected by simple agitation; should this not take place, it may be gently warmed for a few minutes.

3. The anhydrous quinine is dissolved in anhydrous alcohol, and after being added to the oil, the whole is gently heated, in an open vessel, by the heat of a water bath, until the alcohol is expelled; agitation, &c., being had recourse to as in No. 1.

Prop., &c. The above preparation resembles ordinary cod-liver oil, except in having a pale yellowish colour and a slightly bitter taste, similar to that of cinchona bark. It is said to possess all the properties of cod-liver oil combined with those peculiar to quinine, by which the tonic, stomachic, and antiperiodic qualities of the latter are associated, in one remedy, with the genial supporting, and alterative action of the other. The common strength is 2 gr. of quinine per oz.

=QUININE AND I′RON.= These two important medicinal agents are combined together in various ways. The following compound salts are often prescribed.

=Quinine and Iron, Cit′rate of.= Syn. CITRATE OF IRON AND QUININE; FERRI ET QUINÆ CITRAS, B. P. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Solution of persulphate of iron, 4-1/2; sulphate of quinia, 1; dilute sulphuric acid, 1-1/2; citric acid, 3; solution of ammonia and distilled water, of each a sufficiency; mix 8 of the solution of ammonia with 40 of the water, and to this add the solution of persulphate of iron, previously diluted with 40 of the water, stirring them constantly and briskly. Let the mixture stand for 2 hours, stirring it occasionally, then put it on a calico filter, and when the liquid has drained away, wash the precipitate with distilled water until that which passes through the filter ceases to give a precipitate with chloride of barium. Mix the sulphate of quinia with 8 of the water, add the sulphuric acid, and when the salt is dissolved, precipitate the quinia with a slight excess of solution of ammonia. Collect the precipitate on a filter, and wash it with 30 of the water. Dissolve the citric acid in 5 of the water, and having applied the heat of a water bath, add the oxide of iron, previously well drained; stir them together, and when the oxalic acid has dissolved, add the precipitated quinia, continuing the agitation until this also has dissolved. Let the solution cool, then add, in small quantities at a time, 1-1/2 solution of ammonia, dilute with 2 of the water, stirring the solution briskly, and allowing the quinia which separates with each addition of ammonia to dissolve before the next addition is made. Filter the solution, evaporate it to the consistence of a thin syrup, then dry it in layers on flat porcelain or glass plates, at the temperature of 100° Fahr., remove the dry salt in flakes, and keep it in a stoppered bottle. Solubility, 2 in 1.——Test. Taste bitter as well as chalybeate. When burned with exposure to air, it leaves a residue (oxide of iron) which yields nothing to water. 50 gr., dissolved in an ounce of water, and treated with a slight excess of ammonia, gives a white precipitate (quinia) which, when collected on a filter and dried, weighs 8 gr. The precipitate is entirely soluble in pure ether, indicating absence of quinidia and cinchonia. When burned it leaves no residue. When dissolved by the aid of an acid it forms a solution which, after decolorisation by a little purified animal charcoal, turns the plane of polarisation strongly to the left (cinchona turns it to the right).——Dose, 5 to 10 gr. as a tonic, three times a day, in solution or in pill.

2. (Ph. U. S.) Triturate sulphate of quinine, 1 oz., with distilled water, 6 fl. oz., and having added sufficient diluted sulphuric acid to dissolve it, cautiously pour into the solution water of ammonia with constant stirring, until in slight excess. Wash the precipitated quinine on a filter, and having added solution of citrate of iron, 10 fl. oz., keep the whole at a temperature of 120° by means of a water bath, and stir constantly until the alkaloid is dissolved. Lastly, evaporate the solution to the consistence of a syrup, and spread it on plates of glass, so that, on drying, the salt may be obtained in scales.——Dose, 2 gr. to 5 gr.

=Quinine and Iron, I′odide of.= Syn. QUINÆ ET FERRI IODIDUM, L. Prep. From protiodide of iron, 2 parts; hydriodate of quinine, 1 part; rectified spirit, 12 parts; heat them together, and either evaporate to dryness or crystallise by refrigeration. A powder, or crystalline scales.

=Quinine and Iron, Sul′phate of.= Syn. FERROSULPHATE OF QUININE; QUINÆ FERRO-SULPHAS, QUINÆ ET FERRI SULPHAS, L. Prep. From solutions of the sulphates of iron and quinine, in atomic proportions, mixed whilst hot, and the crystals which form as the liquid cools carefully dried and preserved from the air.

QUININE AND MERCURY. See MERCURIC AND QUININE CHLORIDE.

=QUINOA.= The seed of this plant (a species of Chenopodium) is largely consumed by the people who dwell in the elevated regions of Chili and Peru, in which countries it is found growing at a height of some 13,000 feet above the sea-level. Mr Johnston says there are two varieties of it, a sweet and a bitter one. It is a highly nutritious cereal, resembling ointment in properties.

According to Voelker, quinoa has the following composition:

Quinoa seeds dried Quinoa at 212° F. flour.

Nitrogenous matter 22·86 19 Starch 56·80 60 Fatty matter 5·74 5 Vegetable fibre 9·53 —— Ash 5·05 —— Water —— 16

=QUINOID′INE.= Syn. AMORPHOUS QUININE, CHINOIDINE; QUINA AMORPHA, QUINA INFORMIS, QUINOIDIA, QUINOIDINA, QUINOIDINUM, CHINOIDEUM, L. A few years after the discovery of the quinine by Pelletier and Caventou, Sertuerner, a German physician, and known as the discoverer of morphia, obtained, by a peculiar method, from yellow bark, an amorphous alkaloid which was called by him Chinoidin[131] (to which the name amorphous quinine is improperly given), and also fever-killer (Fiebertödter). He found that not only this alkaloid itself, but also all its compounds with acids, were equally amorphous. As recent investigations have proved that this amorphous alkaloid occurs in all cinchona barks, and is found particularly in many young Indian barks in great quantity, it is quite natural that in the manufacture of quinine the uncrystallisable sulphate of this alkaloid should accumulate in the mother liquors of the sulphate of quinine. From such liquors it is precipitated in an impure state by an alkali, and brought into commerce under the name of quinoidine. As this amorphous alkaloid has the property of preventing the crystallisation of the salts of the other alkaloids, particularly those of quinidine, it is clear that the quinoidine of commerce very often contains quinidine and also cinchonidine. Dr de Vrij, for instance, found sometimes more than 20% of quinidine in some samples of quinoidine of commerce. Although commercial quinoidine contains many impurities which may have their origin partly in the adulteration of the cinchona-alkaloids, unadulterated quinoidine, no doubt, chiefly consists of the amorphous alkaloid discovered by Sertuerner.

[Footnote 131: Sertuerner, ‘Die neuesten Entdeckungen in der Physik, Heilkunde, und Chemie,’ 3ter Band, 2tes Heft, Suite 269 (1830).]

The quinoidine of commerce ought never to be used in medicine unless purified. For this purification there are two methods: 1. That of Mr Bullock, which gives the purer but the more expensive product. Crude quinoidine is exhausted with ether, which, after defecation, is distilled off, leaving the purified quinoidine behind. This process has been patented in England by Mr Bullock. 2. That of Dr de Vrij, which consists in boiling 9 parts of crude quinoidine with a solution of 2 parts of oxalate of ammonium in water. By this process the alkaloids contained in the quinoidine are dissolved whilst the impurities, and amongst them the lime which is often contained in the crude quinoidine, remain undissolved. The solution is mixed with a large bulk of water, then filtered and the purified quinoidine precipitated by a slight excess of liquor of soda.

Prop., &c. In its crude form quinoidine somewhat resembles aloes; in its purest state it is a yellowish-brown, resin-like mass, freely soluble in alcohol and ether, but nearly insoluble in water; with the acids it forms dark-coloured, uncrystallisable salts. It is powerfully febrifuge, but less so than either quinidine or quinine, although it is identical in chemical composition with both of them.——Dose, 2 to 4 gr. for adults, 1/4 to 1 gr. for children, given in wine, lemonade, or acidulated honey.

=QUINOM′ETRY.= Syn. CINCHONOMETRY. The art of estimating the quantity of quinine in cinchona bark, and in the commercial salts of this alkaloid.

Proc. 1. FOR BARK.——a. (Ph. E.) A filtered decoction of 100 gr. of bark, in distilled water, 2 fl. oz., is precipitated with 1 fl. dr., or q. s. of a concentrated solution of carbonate of soda; the precipitate, after being heated in the fluid so as to become a fused mass, and having again become cold, is dried and weighed. “It should be 2 gr., or more, and entirely dissolve in a solution of oxalic acid.” To render the result strictly accurate, the product should be dissolved in 10 parts of proof spirit, containing 1/20th of sulphuric acid, and to this solution carefully added an alcoholic solution of iodine as long as there appears a brown precipitate, which immediately turns black by stirring with a glass rod. This precipitate, collected upon a filter, washed with strong alcohol and dried on a water bath, is Herapath’s iodosulphate of quinine, of which 100 parts represent 56·5 parts of pure quinine.

b. (Rebourdain.) 100 gr. of the bark (coarsely powdered) are exhausted with acidulated water, and the filtered solution rendered alkaline with solution of potassa; it is next shaken with about 1-3rd of its volume of chloroform, and then allowed to repose for a short time; the chloroform holding the alkaloid in solution sinks to the bottom of the vessel in a distinct stratum, from which the supernatant liquid is separated by decantation; the chloroformic solution, either at once or after being washed with a little cold water, is allowed to evaporate; the residuum, when weighed, gives the per-centage richness of the sample.

Obs. A like result may be obtained with ether instead of chloroform; in which case the solution of quinine will form the upper stratum.

c. Instead of Rebourdain’s process, Dr de Vrij prefers that of Charles,[132] so far as regards the separation of the total mixed alkaloids from the bark. To this mixture is applied the process mentioned above (a), viz. solution in acidulated proof spirit, &c.

[Footnote 132: ‘Journal de Pharmacie et de Chimie,’ 4e série, t. 12, p. 81 (Août, 1870).]

2. For the SALTS. The above methods, as well as several others which have been devised for the purpose, may also be applied to the salts of quinine; but, unfortunately, they are inapplicable when great accuracy is required, owing to the non-recognition of the presence of quinidine, as such, and which, consequently, goes to swell the apparent richness of the sample in quinine. The following ingenious method, invented by Dr Ure, not merely enables us to detect the presence of cinchonine and quinidine in commercial samples of the salts of quinine, but, with some trifling modifications, it also enables us to determine the quantity of each of these alkaloids present in any sample:——“10 gr. of the salts to be examined” (the sulphate is here more especially referred to) “is put into a strong test-tube, furnished with a tight-fitting cork; to this are to be added 10 drops of dilute sulphuric acid (1 acid and 5 water), with 15 drops of water, and a gentle heat applied to accelerate solution. This having been effected, and the solution entirely cooled, 60 drops of officinal sulphuric ether, with 20 drops of liquor of ammonia, must be added, and the whole well shaken while the top is closed by the thumb. The tube is then to be closely stopped, and shaken gently from time to time, so that the bubbles of air may readily enter the layer of ether. If the salt be free from cinchonine and quinidine, or contain the latter in no greater proportion than 10%, it will be completely dissolved; while on the surface, where contact of the two layers of clear fluid takes place, the mechanical impurities only will be separated. After some time the layer of ether becomes hard and gelatinous, and no further observation is possible.”

“From the above statement respecting the solubility of quinidine in ether, it appears that the 10 gr. of the salt examined may contain 1 gr. of quinidine, and still a complete solution with ether and ammonia may follow; but in this case the quinidine will shortly begin to crystallise in a layer of ether. The least trace of quinidine may be yet more definitely detected by employing, instead of the ordinary ether, some ether previously saturated with quinidine, by which means all of the quinidine contained in the quinine examined must remain undissolved. It is particularly requisite, in performing this last experiment, to observe, (immediately) after the shaking, whether all has dissolved; for, owing to the great tendency of quinidine to crystallisation, it may become again separated in a crystalline form, and be a source of error.”

“If more than 1-10th of quinidine or (any) cinchonine be present, there will be found an insoluble precipitate at the limits of the two layers of fluid. If this be quinidine, it will be dissolved on the addition of proportionately more ether, while cinchonine will remain unaffected.”

Note. To Dr Ure’s test Dr de Vrij prefers, for several reasons, Dr Kerner’s test, ‘Zeitschrift für Analytische Chemie,’ von Fresenius, 1st Jahrg, 1862; ‘Ueber Die Prufung des Käuflichen Schwefelsauren Chinins auf fremde Alkaloides,’ von Dr G. Keraer.

=QUINOVIC ACID.= C_{28}H_{33}O_{4}. This is insoluble in water, also in chloroform, and difficultly soluble in alcohol. It can be obtained from the boiling alcoholic solution, by cooling, in small crystals. In the leaves, bark, and wood of the cinchona tree this acid is contained, together with quinovin, and it is this mixture which has been recently applied in therapeutics, as a powerful tonic in cases of dysentery, &c. The mixture can easily be obtained from the leaves, bark, or wood of cinchona, and even from bark which has been exhausted by ebullition with water or diluted acids, by cold maceration with weak milk of lime, by which it is dissolved, as it combines easily with bases. It is only the quinovate of lime which has till now been used in medicine.——Dose, 2 to 8 gr. every two hours.

=QUINOVIN.= C_{30}H_{48}O_{8}. Syn. CINCHOVIN, QUINOVIA.

=QUINOVIN.= A very bitter amorphous glucoside contained in the genus Cinchona, Nauslea, and probably in many other allied genera. It is insoluble in water, very soluble in rectified spirit and in chloroform, with which last liquid it forms, in concentrated solutions, a jelly. If a current of hydrochloric gas is passed into its alcoholic solution the liquid becomes hot and the quinovin is split up into a peculiar kind of sugar.

=QUIN′QUINA.= Dr de Vrij states that the substance known under this name is a mixture of hydrochlorate of cinchonidine and of cinchonine. See CINCHONA.

=QUIN′SY.= See THROAT AFFECTIONS.

=QUINTES′SENCE.= Syn. QUINTA ESSENTIA, L. A term invented by the alchemists to represent a concentrated alcoholic solution of the active principles of organic bodies. It is still occasionally employed in perfumery and the culinary art. See ESSENCE, TINCTURE, &c.

=QUITTOR.= It generally shows itself at the top or coronet of the hoof of the horse, in the form of a fistulous opening (whence quittor is also called ‘the pipes’), filled with a purulent discharge.

Quittor invariably points to the presence of an internal ulcer, abscess, or some other irritating cause, the discharge from which, accumulating under the hard hoof, slowly works its way to the surface. The origin of quittor is generally some injury to the hoof, such as a corn, a prick, or an inequality of tread.

The first thing to be done is to remove the animal’s shoe, to cut away any dead or discoloured horn, so as to reach the seat of the suppuration, and to allow it to escape by a more direct outlet. Hot-water fomentations and poultices should afterwards be applied for a few days. Should the sores show an indisposition to heal, the parts should be washed with a tolerably strong solution of sulphate of zinc, or of bichloride of mercury——25 grams of the latter to an ounce of water. The application of strong caustics is to be particularly deprecated.

=QUOTID′IAN.= Occurring or returning daily. See AGUE.

=RAB′BIT.= The Lepus cuniculus (Linn.) of the Cuvian order Rodentia. The domestic rabbit, when young, is a light and wholesome article of food, approaching in delicacy to the common barn-door fowl; but has less flavour than the wild animal. The fat is among the ‘simples’ of the Ph. L. 1618. Its hair and skin are made into cheap furs, gloves, hats, &c.

Composition of Rabbit’s Flesh (BARTLETT).[133]

[Footnote 133: ‘Lancet,’ March 29th, 1873.]

+---------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+ | | Rabbit | Rabbit | Rabbit | | | | | No. 1. | No. 2. | No. 3. | Average |Percentage.| | | Grains. | Grains. | Grains. | Grains. | Grains. | +---------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+ |Water | 5,982 | 6,623 | 7,315 | 6,640 | 73·17 | |Fibrin and Syntonin | 1,143 | 1,247 | 1,393 | 1,261 | 13·90 | |Gelatin | 302 | 335 | 350 | 329 | 3·63 | |Fat | 240 | 272 | 345 | 286 | 3·15 | |Albumen | 276 | 305 | 340 | 307 | 3·38 | |Alcoholic extract, | 106 | 119 | 135 | 120 | 1·32 | | including salts | | | | | | |Watery extract | 102 | 108 | 125 | 112 | 1·23 | |Calcium phosphates | 16 | 19 | 25 | 20 | 0·22 | | +---------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+ | Edible portion | 8,167 | 9,028 | 10,029 | 9,075 | 100·00 | | | | | | | | |Additional gelatin | | | | | | | from stewing bones | 215 | 232 | 251 | 233 | 2·06 | |Bones, &c., dissected| | | | | | | out and stewed | 1,501 | 1,674 | 1,854 |} |{ 17·88 | |Shank bones, fur and | | | |} |{ | | eyes, thrown away | 313 | 352 | 382 |} 2,027 |{ waste. | | +---------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+ | | 10,201 | 11,286 | 12,516 | 11,335 | ... | +---------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+

=Rabbit Pie.= Cut up two young rabbits, season with white pepper, salt, a little mace, and nutmeg, all in fine powder; add also a little cayenne. Pack the rabbit with slices of ham, forcemeat balls, and hard eggs, by turns in layers. If it is to be baked in a dish add a little water, but omit the water if it is to be raised in a crust. By the time it is taken out of the oven have ready a gravy of knuckle of veal, or a bit of the scrag, with some shank bones of mutton, seasoned with herbs, onions, mace, and white pepper. If the pie is to be eaten hot, truffles, morels or mushrooms may be added, but not if intended to be eaten cold. If it be made in a dish put as much gravy as will fill the dish, but in raised crusts the gravy must be carefully strained, and then put in cold as jelly.

=Rabbit Pudding.= Cut a rabbit into sixteen pieces, and slice a quarter of a pound of bacon; season with chopped sage, pepper, and salt; then add potatoes and onions according to the size of the family, and half a pint of water. Boil for two hours. The meat and vegetables must be well mixed. Rice may be substituted for potatoes if preferred.

=Rabbit, Ragout of.= “Wash and clean a good-sized Ostend rabbit; boil the liver and heart, chop them, and mix with veal stuffing; fill the rabbit, sew it up, and tie it into shape. Put a piece of fat beef and 1 lb. of bacon, cut in slices, into a saucepan, with 1 oz. of dripping; put in the rabbit to brown, turning it over to brown both sides; pour off the dripping, and put in 1 quart of water; let it simmer gently an hour and a half. A quarter of an hour before serving skim off all the fat, and thicken the gravy with a little corn flour; season with pepper and salt, and, if liked, stew a bunch of herbs and half an onion with it. Lay the rabbit on a dish with the bacon round it, and pour the gravy over.” (Tegetmeier.)

=RAC′AHOUT.= Syn. RACAHOUT DES ARABES. This is said to be farina prepared from the acorns of Quercus Ballota, or Barbary oak, disguised with a little flavouring. The following is recommended as an imitation:——Roasted cacao or chocolate nuts, 4 oz.; tapioca, and potato farina, of each 6 oz.; white sugar, slightly flavoured with vanilla, 1/2 lb. Very nutritious. Used as arrow-root.

=RACE′MIC ACID.= Syn. PARATARTARIC ACID. This compound was discovered by Kestner in 1820, replacing tartaric acid in grape juice of the Department of the Vosges. Racemic acid and tartaric acid have exactly the same composition, and yield, when exposed to heat, the same products; the racemates also correspond in the closest manner with the tartrates. Racemic acid is rather less soluble than tartaric, and separates first from a solution containing the two acids. A solution of racemic acid precipitates a neutral salt of calcium, which is not the case with tartaric acid. A solution of racemic acid does not affect a ray of polarised light, while a solution of tartaric acid rotates the ray to the right.

“Dessargnes and Jungfleisch found by experiment that under the influence of heat ordinary tartaric acid is readily transformed into inactive tartaric acid and racemic acid, and the latter chemist thought to find in this fact an explanation of the production of racemic acid.

“But observations continued through many years upon mother liquors from various tartaric acid factories showed that although more or less inactive tartaric acid was present in all of them, racemic acid was not, even when they had been subjected to prolonged treatment, and its occurrence in appreciable quantity was confined to a small number of specimens. In fact, some samples of mother liquor from factories where evaporation was carried on in a partial vacuum contained more racemic acid than others from factories where evaporation was carried on over a pure fire. Recently Jungfleisch noticed that the liquors richest in inactive tartaric acid were also rich in alumina, and the suspicion that alumina favoured the conversion was confirmed by direct experiment; also that the neutral aluminum sulphate has but little action. Jungfleisch has come to the conclusion that when there is an accumulation of alumina on the mother liquor, the conditions are favorable for the production of a large proportion of inactive tartaric acid, and a small proportion of racemic acid, although when the latter is present in considerable quantity, it becomes the most manifest through its comparative insolubility. Examination of liquors from which racemic acid has been deposited has always shown them to contain much inactive tartaric acid. This theory does not exclude the probability that certain vines under particular conditions produce racemic acid.”[134]

[Footnote 134: ‘Pharmaceutical Journal.’]

=RACK′ING.= See CIDER and WINES.

=RAD′ICLE.= Syn. RADICAL. According to the binary theory of the constitution of saline compounds, every salt is composed, like chloride of sodium (NaCl), of two sides or parts, which are termed its radicals. That part of a salt which consists of a metal, or of a body exercising the chemical functions of one, is called the metallic, basic, or basylous radical; while the other part, which, like chlorine, by combining with hydrogen would produce an acid, is designated the chlorous or acidulous radical. Every salt, therefore, consists of a basic and of an acid radical. Sometimes radicals are elementary in their nature, when they are called simple; and sometimes they are made up of a group of elements, when they are termed compound. Some radicals, both simple and compound, have been isolated, while many have but a hypothetical existence. In the following formulæ the vertical line separates the basic from the acid radicals, the former being on the left, the latter on the right:——

H | F Hydrofluoric acid (Fluoride of hydrogen). Na | Cl Chloride of sodium. K | CN Cyanide of potassium. Ca | CO_{3} Carbonate of calcium. NH_{4} | Cl Chloride of ammonium. C_{2}H_{5} | NO_{2} Nitrite of ethyl.

=RAD′ISH.= The common garden radish (RAPHANUS, L.) is the root of Raphanus sativus (Linn.), one of the Cruciferæ. There are several varieties. They are all slightly diuretic and laxative, and possess considerable power in exciting the appetite. The seed is pressed for oil. The horseradish (ARMORACIA, L.) belongs to a distinct genus.

=RAIN-GAUGE.= Syn. OMBOMETER, PLUVIAMETER, UDOMETER. An instrument for determining the quantity of water, which falls as rain, at any given place. A simple and convenient rain-gauge for agricultural purposes is formed of a wide mouthed funnel, or open receiver, connected with a glass tube furnished with a stop-cock. The diameter of the tube may be exactly 1-100th that of the receiver, and if the tube be graduated into inches and tenths, the quantity of rain that falls may be easily read off to the 1-1000th of an inch. The instrument should be set in some perfectly open situation; and, for agricultural purposes, with its edge as nearly level with the ground as possible. Another form of gauge is furnished with a float, the height of which marks the amount of liquid. The diameter of the gauge should range between 4 and 8 inches. The quantity of water should be duly measured and registered at 9 a.m. daily.

Mr Symonds, F.R.B.S., has drawn the following code of instructions for the guidance of those registering the amount of rainfall at any locality:——

1. Site. A rain-gauge should not be set on a slope or terrace, but on a level piece of ground, at a distance from shrubs, trees, walls, and buildings——at the very least as many feet from their base as they are in height.

Tall growing flowers, vegetables, and bushes must be kept away from the gauges. If a thoroughly clear site cannot be obtained, shelter is most endurable from north-west, north, and east; less so from south, south-east, and west; and not at all from south-west or north-east.

2. Old Gauges. Old-established gauges should not be moved, nor their registration discontinued, until at least two years after a new one has been in operation, otherwise the continuity of the register will be irreparably destroyed. Both the old and the new ones must be registered at the same time, and the results recorded for comparison.

3. Level. The funnel of a rain-gauge must be set quite level, and so firmly fixed that it will remain so, in spite of any gale of wind or ordinary circumstances. Its correctness in this respect should be tested from time to time.

4. Height. The funnel of gauges newly placed should be one foot above grass. Information respecting height above sea level may be obtained from G. J. Symons, Esq., 64, Camden Square, N.W., London.

5. Rust. If the funnel of a japanned gauge become so oxidised as to retain the rain in its pores, or threatens to become rusty, it should have a coat of gas tar or japan black, or a fresh funnel of zinc or copper should be provided.

6. Float Gauges. If the measuring rod is detached from the float it should never be left in the gauge; if it is attached to the float it should be pegged or tied down, and only allowed to rise to its proper position at the time of reading. To allow for the weight of the float and rod these gauges are generally so constructed as to show 0 only when a small amount of water is left in them. Care must always be taken to set the rod to the zero or 0.

7. Can and Bottle Gauges. The measuring glass should always be held upright. The reading is to be taken midway between the two apparent surfaces of the water.

8. Date of Entry. The amount measured at 9 a.m. on any day is to be set against the previous one, because the amount measured at 9 a.m. of, say, the 17th, contains the fall during fifteen hours of the 16th, and only nine hours of the 17th. (The rule has been approved by the meteorological societies of England and Scotland, cannot be altered, and is particularly commended to the notice of observers.)

9. Mode of Entry. If less than one tenth (·10) has fallen, the cipher must always be prefixed; thus, if the measure is full up to the seventh line, it must be entered as ·07——that is, no inches, no tenths, and seven hundredths. For the sake of clearness it has been found necessary to lay down an invariable rule that there shall always be two figures to the right of the decimal point. If there be only one figure, as in the case of one tenth of an inch (usually written ·1), a cipher must be added, making it ·10. Neglect of this rule causes much inconvenience. All columns should be cast twice——once up and once down——so as to avoid the same error being made twice. When there is no rain a line should be drawn rather than a cipher inserted.

10. Caution. The amount should always be written down before the water is thrown away.

11. Small Quantities. The unit of measurement being ·01, observers whose gauges are sufficiently delicate to show less than that are, if the amount is under ·005, to throw it away; if it is ·005 to ·010 inclusive, they are not to enter it as ·01.

12. Absence. Every observer should train some one as an assistant; but where this is not possible, instructions should be given that the gauge should be emptied at 9 a.m. on the 1st of the month, and the water bottled, labelled, and tightly corked, to await the observer’s return.

13. Heavy Rains. When very heavy rains occur it is desirable to measure immediately on their termination; and it will be found a safe plan, after measuring, to return the water to the gauge, so that the morning registration will not be interfered with. Of course, if there is the slightest doubt as to the gauge holding all the falls it must be emptied, the amount being previously written down.

14. Snow. In snow three methods may be adopted; it is well to try them all:——(1) Melt what is caught in the funnel by adding to the snow a previously ascertained quantity of warm water, and then deducting this quantity from the total measurement, enter the residue as rain. (2) Select a place where the snow has not drifted, invert the funnel, and, turning it round, lift and melt what is enclosed. (3) Measure with a rule the average depth of snow, and take one twelfth as the equivalent of water. Some observers use in snowy weather a cylinder of the same diameter as the rain-gauge, and of considerable depth. If the wind is at all rough all the snow is blown out of a flat-funnelled rain-gauge.

15. Overflow. It would seem needless to caution observers on this head, but as a recent foreign table contains six instances in one day, in which gauges were allowed to run over, it is evidently necessary that British observers should be on the alert. It is not desirable to purchase any new gauge of which the capacity is less than four inches.

16. Second Gauges. It is often desirable that observers should have two gauges, and that one of them should be capable of holding eight inches of rain. One of the gauges should be registered daily, the other weekly or monthly, as preferred, but always on the 1st of each month. By this means a thorough check is kept on accidental errors in the entries, which is not the case if both are read daily.

17. Dew and Fog. Small amounts of water are at times deposited in rain-gauges by fog and dew. They should be added to the amount of rainfall, because (1) “they tend to water the earth and nourish the streams,” and not for that reason only, but (2) because in many cases the rain-gauges can only be visited monthly, and it would then obviously be impossible to separate the yield of snow, rain, &c.; therefore, for the sake of uniformity, all must be taken together.

18. Doubtful Entries. Whenever there is the least doubt respecting the accuracy of any observation, the entry should be marked with a ?, and the reason stated for its being placed there.

Obs. The height at which the rain-gauge is elevated from the ground is a matter of considerable moment. Thus, one observer found the fall of rain at York for twelve months (1833-1834) to be——at a height of 213 feet from the ground, 14·96 inches; at 44 feet, 19·85 inches; and on the ground, 25·71 inches.

Later experimentalists have confirmed this curious fact. Thus, Colonel Warde found the following to be the relative rainfall at different periods for the four years extending from 1864 to 1867:

Inches. On a level with the ground 1·07 At a height of 2 inches 1·05 ” 6 ” 1·01 ” 1 foot 1·00 ” 2 feet 0·99 ” 3 ” 0·98 ” 5 ” 0·96 ” 10 ” 0·95 ” 20 ” 0·94

One of the causes that have been assigned for this singular phenomenon has been——the greater exposure in elevated situations of the rain to dispersive action of the wind, a surmise which derives some support from the circumstance, that when a rain-gauge is placed on a building, the roof of which is flat, of large area, and with few, if any, chimneys to disturb the air currents, an amount of rain is collected equalling that obtained on the surface of the ground.

=RAI′SINS.= Syn. DRIED GRAPES; UVÆ (B. P.). UVÆ SICCATÆ, UVA (Ph. L.), UVÆ PASSÆ (Ph. E. & D.), L. “The prepared fruit of Vitis vinifera” (Linn.)——Ph. L. The grapes are allowed to ripen and dry on the vine. After being plucked and cleaned, they are dipped, for a few seconds, into a boiling lye of wood ashes and quicklime at 12° or 15° Baumé, to every 4 galls. of which a handful of culinary salt and a pint of salad oil has been added; they are then exposed for 12 or 14 days in the sun to dry; they are, lastly, carefully garbled, and packed for exportation. The sweet, fleshy kinds of grapes are those selected for the above treatment; and, in general, their stalks are cut about one half through, or a ring of bark is removed, to hasten their maturation.

Raisins are nutritious, cooling, antiseptic, and, in general, laxative; the latter to a greater extent than the fresh fruit. There are many varieties found in commerce. Their uses as a dessert and culinary fruit, and in the manufacture of wine, &c., are well known, and are referred to elsewhere. See GRAPES, WINES, &c.

=RANCID′ITY.= The strong, sour flavour and odour which oleaginous bodies acquire by age and exposure to the air. For its prevention, see FATS, OILS (Fixed), &c.

=RAPE OIL.= See OILS (Fixed).

=RASH.= Erasmus Wilson notices four different affections, as included under this head:——

1. ST ANTHONY’S FIRE, or ERYSIPELAS, the severest of them all, already referred to.

2. NETTLE-RASH, or URTICARIA, characterised by its tingling and pricking pain, and its little white elevations on a reddish ground, like the wheals caused by the sting of a nettle. This efflorescence seldom stays many hours, and, sometimes, not even many minutes, in the same place, and is multiplied or reproduced whenever any part of the skin is scratched or even touched. No part of the body is exempt from it, and when many of them occur together, and continue for an hour or two, the parts are often considerably swelled, and the features temporarily disfigured. In many cases these eruptions continue to infest the skin, sometimes in one place, and sometimes in another, for one or two hours together, two or three times a day, or perhaps, for the greatest part of the twenty-four hours. In some constitutions this lasts only a few days; in others several months.

There are several varieties of nettle-rash or urticaria noticed by medical writers, among which URTICARIA FEBRILIS, PERSISTANS, and EVANIDA, are the principal.

The common cause of nettle-rash is some derangement of the digestive functions, arising either from the use of improper food or a disordered state of the nervous or other systems of the body. Lobsters, crabs, mussels, shrimps, dried fish, pork, cucumbers, mushrooms, and adulterated beer or porter, bear the character of frequently causing this affection. In childhood it commonly arises from teething. Occasionally, in persons of peculiar idiosyncrasy, the most simple article of food, as almonds, nuts, and even milk, rice, and eggs, will produce this affection.

The treatment may consist of the administration of gentle saline aperients, and in severer cases a gentle emetic, followed by the copious use of acidulated diluent drinks, as weak lemon-juice-and-water, effervescing potassa-draughts, &c., and, when required, diaphoretics. The clothing should be light, but warm, and the itching, when severe, may be allayed by the application of a lotion of water to which a little vinegar or camphorated spirit has been added; the latter must, however, be employed with caution. A hot knee-bath is useful in drawing the affection from the face and upper part of the body. A ‘compress,’ wrung out of cold water until it ceases to drip, and kept in contact with the stomach by means of a dry bandage, has been recommended to relieve excessive irritation of the stomach and bowels. It has been stated that decoction of Virginian snake-root is particularly useful in relieving chronic urticaria.

3. RED-RASH, RED-BLOTCH, or FIERY SPOT, is commonly the consequence of disordered general health, of dyspepsia, and particularly, of females, of tight lacing. Sometimes it is slight and evanescent; at others it approaches in severity to the milder forms of erysipelas, there being much swelling and inflammation. Chaps, galls, excoriations, and chilblains are varieties of this disease produced by cold, excessive moisture, or friction. The treatment is similar to that of nettle-rash.

4. ROSE-RASH, FALSE MEASLES, or ROSEOLA, is an efflorescence, or rather a discoloration of a rose-red tint, in small irregular patches, without wheals or papulæ, which spread over the surface of the body, and are ushered in by slight febrile symptoms. There are several varieties. The causes are the same as those which produce the preceding affections, and the treatment may be similar. In all of them strict attention to the diet, and a careful avoidance of cold applications, or exposure to cold, so as to cause a retrocession, are matters of the first moment.

=RASP′BERRY.= Syn. HINDBERRY. The fruit of Rubus Idæus (Linn.), a small shrub of the natural order Rosaceæ. It is cooling, antiscorbutic, and mildly aperitive. It is frequently used to communicate a fine flavour to liqueurs, confectionery, wine, &c. See FRUITS and VEGETABLES.

Fresenius gives the following as the composition of raspberries:

CULTIVATED. Wild Red. Red. White. Soluble Matter—— Sugar 3·597 4·708 3·703 Free acid (reduced to equivalent in malic acid) 1·980 1·356 1·115 Albuminous substances 0·546 0·544 0·665 Pectous substances, &c. 1·107 1·746 1·397 Ash 0·270 0·481 0·318

Insoluble Matter—— Seeds } Skins, &c. } 8·460 4·106 4·520 Pectose 0·180 0·502 0·040

[_Ash from insoluble matter included in weights given_] [0·134] [0·296] [0·081] Water 86·860 86·557 88·180 ———————— ———————— ———————— 100·000 100·000 100·000

=RATAFI′A.= Originally a liquor drank at the ratification of an agreement or treaty. It is now the common generic name in France of liqueurs compounded of spirit, sugar, and the odoriferous and flavouring principles of vegetables, more particularly of those containing the juices of recent fruits, or the kernels of apricots, cherries, or peaches. In its unqualified sense this name is commonly understood as referring to cherry-brandy or peach-brandy.

Ratafias are prepared by distillation, maceration, or extemporaneous admixture, in the manner explained under the head LIQUEUR. The following list includes those which are commonly prepared by the French liquoristes:——

=Ratafia d’Angelique.= From angelica seeds, 1 dr.; angelica stalks, 4 oz.; blanched bitter almonds, bruised, 1 oz.; proof spirit or brandy, 6 quarts; digest for 10 days, filter; add, of water, 1 quart; white sugar, 3-1/2 lbs.; mix well, and in a fortnight decant the clear portion through a piece of clean flannel.

=Ratafia d’Anis.= See (Liqueur) CORDIAL, ANISEED.

=Ratafia de Baume de Tolu.= From balsam of Tolu, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; dissolve, add water, 3 pints; filter, and further add of white sugar, 1-1/2 lb. Pectoral and traumatic.

=Ratafia de Brou de Noix.= From young walnuts with soft shells (pricked or pierced), 60 in no.; brandy, 2 quarts; mace, cinnamon, and cloves, of each 15 gr.; digest for 8 weeks; press, filter, add of white sugar, 1 lb.; and keeping it for some months before decanting it for use. Stomachic.

=Ratafia de Cacao.= Syn. R. DE CHOCOLAT. From Caracca cacao-nuts, 1 lb.; West Indian do., 1/2 lb.; (both roasted and bruised;) proof spirit, 1 gall.; digest for 14 days, filter, and add, of white sugar, 2-1/2 lbs.; tincture of vanilla, 1/2 dr. (or shred of vanilla may be infused with the nuts in the spirit instead); lastly, decant in a month, and bottle it.

=Ratafia de Café.= From coffee, ground and roasted, 1 lb.; brandy or proof spirit, 1 gall.; sugar, 2 lbs. (dissolved in); water, 1 quart; as last.

=Ratafia de Cassis.= From black currant juice, 1 quart; cinnamon, 1 dr.; cloves and peach kernels, of each 1/2 dr.; brandy, 1 gall.; white sugar, 3 lbs.; digest for a fortnight, and strain through flannel.

=Ratafia de Cerise.= From Morello cherries, with their kernels bruised, 8 lbs.; brandy or proof spirit, 1 gall.; white sugar, 2 lbs.; as last.

=Ratafia de Chocolat.= Ratafia de cacao (see above).

=Ratafia de Coings.= From quince juice, 3 quarts; bitter almonds, 3 dr.; cinnamon and coriander seeds, of each 2 dr.; mace, 1/2 dr.; cloves, 15 gr. (all bruised); rectified spirit, (quite flavourless), 1/2 gall.; digest for a week, filter, and add of white sugar, 3-1/2 lbs.

=Ratafia de Crème.= From crème de noyeau and sherry, of each 1/4 pint; capillaire, 1/2 pint; fresh cream, 1 pint; beaten together.

=Ratafia de Curaçoa.= Curaçoa.

=Ratafia de Framboises.= Raspberry cordial.

=Ratafia de Genièvre.= From juniper berries (each pricked with a fork), 1/4 lb.; caraway and coriander seed, of each 40 gr.; finest malt spirit (22 u. p.), 1 gall.; white sugar 2 lbs.; digest a week, and strain with expression.

=Ratafia de Grenoble.= From the small wild black cherry (with the kernels bruised), 2 lbs.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; white sugar, 3 lbs.; citron peels, a few grains; as before.

=Ratafia de Grenoble, de Teyssère.= From cherries (bruised with the stones), 1 quart; rectified spirit, 2 quarts; mix, digest for 48 hours, then express the liquor, and heat it to boiling in a close vessel; when cold, add of sugar or capillaire, q. s., together with some noyeau, to flavour, and a little syrup of the bay laurel, and of galangal; in 3 months decant, and bottle it.

=Ratafia de Noyeau.= From peach or apricot kernels (bruised), 120 in no.; proof spirit or brandy, 2 quarts; white sugar, 1 lb.; digest for a week, press, and filter.

=Ratafia de Œillets.= From clove-pinks (without the white buds), 4 lbs.; cinnamon and cloves, of each 15 gr.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; macerate for 10 days, express the tincture, filter, and add of white sugar, 2-1/2 lbs.

=Ratafia d’Ecorce d’Orange.= Crème d’Orange.

=Ratafia de Fleurs d’Oranger.= From fresh orange petals, 2 lbs.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; white sugar, 2-1/2 lbs.; as last. Instead of orange flowers, neroli, 1 dr., may be used.

=Ratafia à la Provençale.= From striped pinks, 1 lb.; brandy or proof spirit, 1 quart; white sugar, 3/4 lb.; juice of strawberries, 3/4 pint; saffron, 20 gr.; as before.

=Ratafia des Quatre Fruits.= From cherries, 30 lbs.; gooseberries, 15 lbs.; raspberries, 8 lbs.; black currants, 7 lbs.; express the juice, and to each pint add, of white sugar, 6 oz.; cinnamon, 6 gr.; cloves and mace, of each 3 gr.

=Ratafia Rouge.= From the juice of black cherries, 3 quarts; juices of strawberries and raspberries, of each 1 quart; cinnamon, 1 dr.; mace and cloves, of each 15 gr.; proof spirit or brandy, 2 galls.; white sugar, 7 lbs.; macerate, &c., as before.

=Ratafia Sec.= Take of the juice of gooseberries, 5 pints; juices of cherries, strawberries, and raspberries, of each 1 pint; proof spirit, 6 quarts; sugar, 7 lbs.; as before.

=Ratafia à la Violette.= From orris powder, 3 oz.; litmus, 4 oz.; rectified spirit, 2 galls.; digest for 10 days, strain, and add of white sugar, 12 lbs.; dissolved in soft water, 1 gall.

=RATS.= The common or brown rat is the Mus Decumanus (Linn.), one of the most prolific and destructive species of the Rodentia. It was introduced to these Islands from Asia; and has since spread over the whole country, and multiplied at the expense of the black rat (Mus Rattus——Linn.), which is the old British species of this animal, until its inroads on our granaries, our stores, and dwelling-houses have increased to such an extent, that its extirpation has become a matter of serious, if not of national, importance.

For the destruction of these noxious animals two methods are adopted:——

1. Trapping. To render the bait more attractive, it is commonly sprinkled with a little of one of the rat scents noticed below. The trap is also occasionally so treated.

2. Poisoning. The following are reputed the most effective mixtures for this purpose:——

ARSENICAL PASTE. From oatmeal or wheaten flour, 3 lbs.; powdered indigo, 1/2 oz.; finely powdered white arsenic, 1/4 lb.; oil of aniseed, 1/2 dr.; mix, add of melted suet, 2-1/2 lbs.; and beat the whole into a paste. A similar compound has the sanction of the French Government.

ARSENICAL POWDER. From oatmeal, 1 lb.; moist sugar, 1/4 lb.; white arsenic and rotten cheese, of each 1 oz.; rat-scent, a few drops.

MILLERS’ RAT POWDER. From fresh oatmeal, 1 lb.; nux vomica (in very fine powder), 1 oz.; rat-scent, 5 or 6 drops. This is highly spoken of by those who have used it.

MINERAL RAT-POISON. From carbonate of baryta, 1/4 lb.; sugar and oatmeal, of each 6 oz.; oils of aniseed and caraway, of each a few drops.

PHILANTROPE MUOPHOBON. A French preparation, which, according to Mr Beasley, consists of tartar emetic, 1 part, with farinaceous matter, 4 parts, and some other (unimportant) ingredients.

PHOSPHOR PASTE.

RAT-SCENTS. The following are said to be the most attractive:

a. Powdered cantharides steeped in French brandy. For traps. It is said that rats are so fond of this, that if a little be rubbed about the hands they may be handled with impunity.

b. From powdered assafœtida, 8 gr.; oil of rhodium, 2 dr.; oil of aniseed, 1 dr.; oil of lavender, 1/2 dr.; mix by agitation.

c. From oil of aniseed, 1/2 oz.; tincture of assafœtida, 1/4 oz.

d. From oil of aniseed, 1/4 oz.; nitrous acid, 2 to 3 drops; musk, triturated with a little powdered sugar, 1 gr.

=RA′ZORS.= See PAPERS, PASTE, and SHAVING.

=REA′GENTS.= See TESTS.

=REAL′GAR.= This valuable red pigment is the bisulphide of arsenic. It is found native in some volcanic districts; but that of commerce is prepared by distilling, in an earthen retort, arsenical pyrites, or a mixture of sulphur and arsenic, of orpiment and sulphur, or of arsenious acid, sulphur, and charcoal, in the proper proportions. See DISULPHIDE OF ARSENIC.

=RECOMMENDATIONS TO FARMERS.= A series of valuable suggestions, intended for the guidance of farmers in the purchase of manures and cattle-feeding materials have lately been issued by the Royal Agricultural Society of England. In substance they are as follows:——In the purchase of feeding-cakes, the guarantee of ‘pure’ should be insisted upon, since this means a legal warranty that the article is produced from good clean seed. The terms ‘best’ and ‘genuine’ are of no value, and should be objected to. Furthermore, the sample should be subjected to analysis. For this purpose a sample should be taken out of the middle of the cake, whilst the remainder of the cake from which the sample has been selected, should be sealed up and placed aside for reference in case of dispute.

The following advice is given to farmers about to purchase manures:——Raw bones or bone dust should be purchased ‘as pure,’ whilst they should be guaranteed to contain not less than 45 per cent. of tribasic phosphate of lime, and 4 per cent. of ammonia. ‘Boiled bones’ should be purchased as ‘pure’ boiled bones, guaranteed to contain not less than 48 per cent. of tribasic phosphate of lime, and 1-3/4 per cent. of ammonia. Dissolved bones vary so greatly that the buyer should insist on a guarantee of quality under the heads of ‘soluble phosphate of lime,’ ‘insoluble phosphate of lime,’ and ‘nitrogen’ or ‘ammonia,’ also for an allowance at current rates for each unit per cent. if the bones should prove on analysis to contain less than the guaranteed per-centages, &c. It should be insisted that mineral superphosphates are delivered dry and in good condition, and be guaranteed to contain a certain per-centage of soluble phosphates at a certain price per unit per cent. No value is to be attached to ‘insoluble phosphates.’ Compound artificial manures, which are rarely used, should be purchased on exactly the same terms. Nitrate of soda should be purchased on exactly the same terms. Nitrate of soda should be guaranteed to contain 94 to 95 per cent. of pure nitrate. Sulphate of ammonia should yield 35 per cent. of ammonia. Peruvian guano should be sold under that name, and guaranteed to be in a dry, friable condition, and to contain a certain per-centage of ammonia.

In buying artificial manures the purchaser is recommended to obtain a guarantee that they shall be delivered in a sufficiently dry and powdery condition to allow of sowing by the drill.

Samples, taken out of three or four bags, should be well mixed together, and they should be analysed not later than three days after delivery. Two tins, holding about half a pound each, should be filled in the presence of a witness, sealed up, one sent to the analyst, and the other retained for future reference.

=RECTIFCA′TION.= The redistillation, &c., of a fluid, for the purpose of rendering it purer.

=RED.= A term denoting a bright colour, resembling blood. Red is a simple or primary colour, but of several different shades or hues, as scarlet, crimson, vermilion, orange-red, &c.

=RED, AN′ILINE.= Syn. ROSANILINE. This artificial base is prepared by the action of bichloride of tin, mercurial salts, arsenic acid, and many other oxidising agents, upon aniline. The aniline reps of commerce, now so largely used for dyeing, are saline compounds, more or less pure, of rosaline, with 1 equiv. of acid. These compounds are known under the names of ‘magenta,’ ‘fuchsine,’ ‘roseine,’ ‘azaleine,’ &c. In England the aniline red commonly employed is the acetate of rosaniline, which has been prepared by Mr Nicholson in splendid crystals of very considerable dimensions. In France the hydrochlorate of rosaniline is chiefly employed. The free base presents itself in colourless crystalline plates, but its compounds with 1 equiv. of acid have, when dry, a beautiful green colour, with golden lustre, and furnish with water an intensely coloured red solution. See PURPLE (Aniline) and RED DYE, also TAR COLOURS.

=RED DYE.= The substances principally employed for dyeing reds are cochineal, lac-dye, and madder, which, under proper treatment, yield permanent colours of considerable brilliancy, the first and third more particularly so. Extremely beautiful but fugitive colours are also obtained from Brazil wood, safflower, archil, and some other substances. For purple-red or crimsons (magenta, fuchsine, &c.), on silk or wool, the aniline reds (salts of rosaniline) are now extensively used. (See TAR-COLOURS.) The mode of applying them is noticed under PURPLE DYE. SILK is usually dyed of a permanent red or scarlet with cochineal, safflower, or lac dye; wool, with cochineal and, still more frequently, with madder; and cotton, with madder (chiefly), Brazil wood, &c. The leading properties of these substances are given under their respective names, and the methods of employing them are generally referred to in the articles DYEING, MORDANTS, &c., and, therefore, need not be repeated here. The following may, however, be useful to the reader:——

1. First, give the ‘goods’ a mordant of alum, or of alum-and-tartar, rinse, dry, and boil them in a bath of madder. If acetate of iron be used instead of alum, the colour will be purple, and by combining the two, as mordants, any intermediate shade may be produced.

2. The yarn or cloth is put into a very weak alkaline bath at the boiling temperature, then washed, dried, and ‘galled’ (or, when the calico is to be printed, for this bath may be substituted one of cow-dung, subsequent exposure to the air for a day or two, and immersion in very dilute sulphuric acid. In this way the stuff gets opened, and takes and retains the colour better). After the ‘galling’ the goods are dried, and alumed twice; then dried, rinsed, and passed through a madder bath, composed of 3/4 lb. of good madder for every lb. weight of the goods; this bath is slowly raised to the boiling point in the course of 50 or 60 minutes, more or less, according to the shade of colour required; after a few minutes the stuff is taken out, and slightly washed; the operation is then repeated, in the same manner, with fresh madder; it is, lastly, washed and dried, or passed through a hot soap bath, which carries off the fawn-coloured particles.

3. (ADRIANOPLE RED, TURKEY R.) This commences with cleansing or scouring the goods by alkaline baths, after which they are steeped in oily liquors brought to a creamy state by a little carbonate of soda; a bath of sheep’s dung is next often used as an intermediate or secondary steep; the oleaginous bath, and the operation of removing the superfluous or loosely adhering oil with an alkaline bath, is repeated two or three times, due care being taken to dry the goods thoroughly after each distinct process; then follow the distinct operations of galling, aluming, maddering, and brightening, the last for removing the dun-coloured principle, by boiling at an elevated temperature with alkaline liquids and soap; the whole is generally concluded with treatment by spirit of tin. In this way are given the most brilliant reds on cotton.

Obs. Wool takes from half its weight of madder to an equal weight to dye it red; cotton and linen take rather less. On account of the comparative insolubility of the colouring matter of madder, this dye-stuff must be boiled along with the goods to be dyed, and not removed from the decoction, as is the practice in using many other articles. Other dye-stuffs are frequently added to the madder bath, to vary the shades of colour. Decoction of fustic, weld, logwood, quercitron, &c., are often thus employed, the mordants being modified accordingly. By adding bran to the madder bath the colour is said to be rendered much lighter, and of a more agreeable tint.

=RED GUM.= A slight eruptive disease of infancy, occasioned by teething, and, less frequently, by irritation from rough flannel worn next to the skin. See STROPHULUS.

=RED LAV′ENDER.= See TINCTURE OF LAVENDER (Compound).

=RED LIQ′UOR.= The crude solution of acetate or sulpho-acetate of alumina employed in calico printing. It is generally prepared by mixing crude sulphate of alumina with about an equal weight of crude pyrolignite of lime, both being in the state of solution.

=RED PIG′MENTS.= The preparation of the principal red pigments are described under their respective names. The following list includes most of the reds in use:——

=Arme′nian Bole.= Syn. BOLE ARMENIAN; BOLUS ARMENIÆ, L. Formerly imported from Armenia, Portugal, Tuscany, &c.; now generally made by grinding together a mixture of whiting, red oxide of iron, and red ochre, in nearly equal proportions.

=Red, Brown.= A factitious mixture of red oxide of iron and red ochre, in variable proportions.

=Car′mine.=

=Carmina′ted Lake.=

=Red Chrome.= Syn. DICHROMATE OF LEAD, RED CHROMATE OF L.; PLUMBI DICHROMAS, P. CHROMUS RUBRUM, L. Prep. 1. Boil pure carbonate of lead with chromate of potassa, in excess, until it assumes a proper colour; then wash it well with pure water, and dry it in the shade.

2. Boil neutral chromate of lead with a little water of ammonia or lime water.

3. (Liebig and Wöhler.) Fuse saltpetre at a low red heat in a Hessian crucible, and throw in chromate of lead (pure chrome yellow), by small portions at a time, as long as a strong ebullition follows upon each addition of the pigment, observing to stir the mixture frequently with a glass rod; after repose for a minute or two, pour off the fluid part, and, as soon as the solid residuum is cold, wash it with water, and dry it by a gentle heat.

Obs. Great care must be taken, in conducting the last process, not to employ too much heat, nor to allow the saline matter to stand long over the newly formed chrome-red, as the colour is thus apt to change to a brown or orange. When well managed the product has a crystalline texture, and so beautiful a red colour that it vies with native cinnabar. The liquid poured from the crucible is reserved for manufacturing chrome yellow.

=Red, In′dian.= Syn. PURPLE OCHRE; OCHRA PURPUREA PERSICA, TERRA PERSICA, L. This is a native production, brought from Ormus. A factitious article is prepared by calcining a mixture of colcothar and red ochre.

=Lakes= (Various).

=Red, Light.= From yellow ochre, by careful calcination. It works well with both oil and water, and produces an admirable flesh-colour by admixture with pure white. All the ochres, both red and yellow, are darkened by heat.

=Red Or′ange.= Syn. SANDIX. Obtained from white lead by calcination. Very bright.

=Real′gar.= Bisulphide of arsenic.

=Red Bole.= See ARMENIAN and VENETIAN BOLE. (Ochres.)

=Red Chalk.= A clay iron ore, much used for pencils and crayons, and, when ground, also for paints.

=Red Lead.= Syn. MINIUM. The finest red lead is prepared by exposing ground and elutriated massicott, or dross of lend, in shallow iron trays (about 12 inches square, and about 4 or 5 inches deep), piled up on the hearth of a reverberatory furnace, to a heat of about 600 to 650° Fahr., with occasional stirring, until it acquires the proper colour. The furnace employed for the preparation of massicot during the day usually possesses sufficient residuary heat during the night for this process, by which fuel is saved. Lead for the above purpose should be quite free from copper and iron.

=Red O′chre.= A natural product abounding on the Mendip hills.

=Red Or′piment.= Syn. RED ARSENIC. Tersulphide of arsenic.

=Red Vene′tian.= Syn. BOLUS VENETA, L. A species of ochre, brought from Italy.

=Rose Pink.= This is whiting coloured with a decoction of Brazil wood to which a little pearlash has been added. A very pretty colour, but it does not stand. It is always kept in a damp state. The colour may be varied by substituting alum for pearlash, or by the addition of a little spirits of tin.

=Vermil′ion.= (See under that word.)

=REDUC′TION.= Syn. REVIVIFICATION. A term in its fullest sense applied to any operation by which a substance is restored to its neutral state; but now generally restricted, in chemistry, to the abstraction of oxygen, and hence frequently termed deoxidation or deoxidisement. This change is operated by either heating the substance in contact with carbon or hydrogen, or in exposing it to the action of some other body having a powerful affinity for oxygen. See POTASSIUM, &c.

=REFI′′NING.= A term employed in commercial chemistry and metallurgy synonymously with purification. The separation of the precious metals from those of less value, as in the operation of parting, constitutes the business of the ‘refiner.’ See GOLD, SILVER, &c.

=REFRAC′TION (of Light).= The deviation of a ray of light from its original path on entering a medium of a different density or power. For the practical application of this property, see GEMS.

=REFRI′′GERANTS.= Medicines or agents which tend to lessen the animal temperature without causing any marked diminution of sensibility or nervous energy. Among internal refrigerants cold water, weak acidulous drinks, and saline aperients, are those which are probably the best known and the most useful. Among external refrigerants are cold water, evaporating lotions, weak solutions of subacetate of lead, &c.

=REFRIGERA′TION.= The abatement of heat; the act or operation of cooling.

Among the purposes to which refrigeratory processes are applied in the arts, the principal are——the condensation of vapours——the cooling of liquids——the congelation of water, and——the production of extreme degrees of cold in chemical operations. The first of these is referred to under the heads DISTILLATION, STILL, &c., and the second under WORT. It is, therefore, only necessary to notice here the third and fourth applications of cold, artificially produced, above referred to.

The refrigeratory processes at present employed depend upon the greater capacity for heat which the same body possesses as its density lessens, or its attenuation increases; as exhibited in the sudden liquefaction of solids, the rapid evaporation of liquids, and the almost instantaneous return of atmospheric air, or other gaseous body, from a highly condensed state to its normal condition. The loss of sensible heat in the first example is the basis of the various processes of producing cold by what are commonly called ‘FREEZING-’ or ‘FRIGORIFIC-MIXTURES,’ all of which act upon the principle of liquefying solid substances without supplying heat. The caloric of liquidity being in these cases derived from that previously existing in the solid itself in a sensible state, the temperature must necessarily fall. The degree of cold produced depends upon the quantity of heat which is thus diffused through a larger mass, or which, as it were, disappears; and this is dependent on the quantity of solid matter liquefied, and the rapidity of the liquefaction. Saline compounds are the substances most frequently employed for this purpose, and those which have the greatest affinity for water, and thus liquefy the most rapidly, produce the greatest degree of cold. Similar changes occur during the evaporation of liquids. When heat passes from the sensible to the insensible state, as in the formation of vapour, cold is generated. This may be shown by pouring a few drops of ether or rectified spirit on the palm of the hand, when a strong sensation of cold is experienced. A still more familiar illustration of this fact is exhibited in the rapidity with which the animal body loses heat when enveloped in damp or wet clothing. The evaporation of water produces a degree of cold which is greater than that of other liquids, in exact proportion as the insensible or latent heat of its vapour exceeds theirs. In the attenuation or rarefaction of gases similar phenomena occur.

It has been found that evaporation proceeds much more rapidly from the surface of fluids in a vacuum than in the atmosphere. Water may be easily frozen by introducing a surface of sulphuric acid under the receiver of an air-pump, over which is placed a capsule filled with water, so that the vapour arising from the latter may be immediately absorbed by the former. After a few strokes of the piston the water is converted into a solid cake of ice. The acid operates by absorbing the aqueous vapours as soon as generated, and thus maintaining the integrity of the vacuum. Professor Leslie found that, when air is thus rarified 250 times, the surface of evaporation was cooled down 120° in winter; and when only 50 times, a depression of 80° or even 100° took place. “Sulphuric acid is capable of congealing more than 20 times its weight of water before it has imbibed nearly its own bulk of that liquid, or has lost about 1/8th of its refrigerating power.” (Ure.) Sulphuric acid, which has become diluted in this way, may be reconcentrated by heat. Any substance having a great tendency to absorb moisture may be substituted for the sulphuric acid. Fused chloride of calcium, quicklime, nitrate of magnesium, chloride of zinc, and oatmeal (dried nearly to brownness before a common fire), have been used for this purpose. Again, instead of employing an air-pump, a vacuum may be produced by the agency of steam, afterwards condensed by the affusion of cold water.

A pleasing philosophical toy, illustrative of the evaporative power of a vacuum, is the ‘CRYOPHORUS,’ or ‘FROST-BEARER,’ of Dr Wollaston. This instrument consists of two small glass globes, united by a tube, one of which is partly filled with water. The whole apparatus is perfectly free from air, and is, consequently, filled with attenuated aqueous vapours. No sooner is the pressure removed as by plunging the empty ball into a freezing mixture (which condenses the vapour), than rapid evaporation commences, and the water in the other ball is frozen in two or three minutes.

Even in hot climates ice may be produced under favorable circumstances by evaporation. On the open plains, near Calcutta, this is effected by exposing a thin stratum of water to the atmosphere, during the fine clear nights of December, January, and February. The pans are made of porous earthenware, and water is poured in to the depth of about 1-1/2 inch. A large number of these vessels are arranged in an excavation in the ground, 30 or 40 feet square and 2 feet deep, the bottom of which is covered, to the depth of 10 or 12 inches, with sugar canes or the stalks of Indian corn. At sunrise the pans are visited, the ice separated from the water, and packed as tight as possible in a deep cavity or pit, well screened from the heat.

Several machines have recently been invented by which water is frozen in large quantities by exposure to condensed air in the act of its subsequent expansion. They are worked by either hand or steam power. The refrigerating apparatus invented by Mr Kirk, of the Bathgate Paraffin Works, acts on this principle; and it does its work so efficiently that it produces a cooling effect equivalent to two tons of ice every twenty-four hours, at a very small expenditure of fuel. A small model worked by hand will readily freeze mercury. Kirk’s apparatus is used at Bathgate to cause the crystallisation of solid paraffin from the heavy paraffin oils. Formerly, a machine, acting by the evaporation of ether, was employed for the same purpose.

For the production of an extremely low temperature, such as is required for the liquefaction of some gases, Faraday employed solid carbonic acid mixed with a little ether.

In the production of ice or an extreme degree of cold, by saline mixtures, the salts should be in the crystallised state, and as rich as possible in water, but without being in the least damp. They should also be coarsely pulverised at the time of using them, and should not be mixed until immediately before throwing them into the liquid ingredients. The mixture should be made in a thick vessel, well clothed, to prevent the accession of external heat; and the substance to be acted on should be contained in a very thin vessel, so as to expose it more fully to the action of the mixture. On the large scale, a vessel called a ‘FREEZING POT’ or ‘SABOTIÈRE’ is commonly employed. The following table, though founded on experiments made more than 50 years ago by Mr Walker, gives full and accurate information on the subject of freezing mixtures:——

Table exhibiting a few of the most useful FRIGORIFIC MIXTURES. Drawn up from actual experiments performed by MR WALKER.

+----------------------------------------+------------------------+---------------+ | | | Deg. of cold | | Ingredients. | Thermometer sinks. | produced. | +----------------------------------------+------------------------+---------------+ | Snow or pounded ice 2 parts { From any | | | Chloride of sodium 1 ” { temperature. to -5° | —— | +----------------------------------------{------------------------+---------------+ | Snow or pounded ice 5 ” { From any | | | Chloride of sodium 2 ” { temperature. to -12° | —— | | Sal ammoniac 1 ” { | | +----------------------------------------{------------------------+---------------+ | Snow or pounded ice 12 ” { From any | | | Chloride of sodium 5 ” { temperature to -25° | —— | | Nitrate of ammonia 5 ” { | | +-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+ | Snow 8 ” | | | Hydrochloric From +32° to -27° | 59° | | acid (concentrated) 5 ” | | +-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+ | Snow 2 ” | | | Crystallised chloride From +32° to -50° | 82° | | of calcium 3 ” | | +-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+ | Sal ammoniac 5 ” | | | Nitrate of potassa 5 ” From +50° to +10° | 40° | | Water 16 ” | | +-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+ | Nitrate of ammonia 1 ” From +50° to +4° | 46° | | Water 1 ” | | +-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+ | Nitrate of ammonia 1 ” | | | Carbonate of soda 1 ” From +50° to +7° | 57° | | Water 1 ” | | +-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+ | Phosphate of soda 9 ” | | | Nitrate of ammonia 6 ” From +50° to -21° | 71° | | Diluted nitrous acid[135]4 ” | | +-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+ | Sulphate of soda 8 ” From +50° to 0° | 50° | | Hydrochloric acid 5 ” | | +-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+ | Snow 3 ” From 0° to -46° | 46° | | Diluted nitrous acid[135]2 ” | | +-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+ | Snow 2 ” | | | Sulphuric acid[136] 1 ” From -20° to -60° | 40° | | Water 1 ” | | +-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+ | Snow 1 ” | | | Crystallised chloride From 0° to -66° | 66° | | of calcium 2 ” | | +-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+ | Snow 1 ” | | | Crystallised chloride From -40° to -73° | 33° | | of calcium 3 ” | | +-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+ | Snow 8 ” | | | Sulphuric acid 5 ” From -68° to -91° | 23° | | Water 5 ” | | +-----------------------------------------------------------------+---------------+

[Footnote 135: Fuming “nitrous acid,” 2 parts; water, 1 part; by weight.]

[Footnote 136: Prof. Pfaundler has shown that an acid containing 66·19 per cent. of H_{2}SO_{4}, is the most advantageous to employ for this purpose; one part of an acid of this strength with 1·097 parts of snow forming a refrigerating mixture which will reduce the temperature to -37° C. (-36° F.). For practical purposes it is suggested an excess of snow would be better, since the refrigerating value of the mixture is thereby largely increased, though the lowest temperature is not obtained. See ICE.]

Obs. The materials in the first column are to be cooled, previously to mixing, to the temperature required in the second, by the use of other mixtures.

=REG′ULUS.= A term applied by the alchemists to various metallic matters obtained by fusion; as REGULUS OF ANTIMONY, ARSENIC, &c. It is now obsolete.

=REL′ISHES.= See SAUCES.

=REMEDIES, FERRUGINOUS.= Rob. Freygang:——

STEEL BRANDY is an ordinary clear brownish brandy, containing a very little bitter matter, like the stomachic bitters of the apothecaries, and mixed with about 1 per cent. of sugar. 10,000 parts contain about 1-1/2 part oxide of iron.

STEEL STOMACHIC BITTERS. This is more aromatic, but otherwise similar to the steel brandy; 10,000 parts contain 2/3 part iron oxide.

STEEL LIQUEUR is a clear, agreeably-tasting liqueur, of the colour and containing much of the juice of raspberries. 10,000 parts contain nearly 1,200 of sugar and only 1 of iron oxide.

STEEL SYRUP——Syrop ferrugineux de Quinquina. A clear slightly violet-coloured, thin, sweet fluid, containing spirit and sugar, of which cinchona bark may be an ingredient, though it is appreciable by neither taste nor tests. It contains 1-1/4 part iron in 10,000 parts.

STEEL BONBONS contain a trace of iron oxide.

The iron present in the above preparations is in the form of citrate. (Hager.)

=REMIT′TENT.= A term applied to fevers, and other diseases, which exhibit a decided remission in violence during the twenty-four hours, but without entirely leaving the patient, in which they differ from intermittents or agues.

=REN′NET.= Syn. RUNNET, PREPARED CALF’S MAW. The fourth or true digesting stomach of the calf, freed from the outer skin, fat, and useless membrane, washed, treated with either brine or dry salt for a few hours, and then hung up to dry. When well prepared, the dried ‘vells’ somewhat resemble parchment in appearance.

Uses, &c. Rennet is employed to curdle milk. A piece of the requisite size is cut off, and soaked for some hours in whey or water, after which the whole is added to the milk for curdling, slightly warmed, and the mixture is slowly heated, if necessary, to about 122° Fahr. In a short time after this temperature has been attained the milk separates into a solid white coagulum (curd), and into a yellowish, translucent liquid (whey). Two square inches from the bottom of a good ‘vell’ are sufficient for a cheese of 60 lbs. It is the gastric juice of the stomach that operates these changes. The stomachs of all sucking quadrupeds possess the same properties. See CHEESE.

=Rennet, Liquid.= Syn. ESSENCE OF RENNET. Prep. From fresh rennet (cut small), 12 oz.; common salt, 3 oz.; knead them together, and leave the mixture at rest, in a cool place, for 5 or 6 weeks; then add of water 18 oz.; good rum or proof spirit, 2 oz.; lastly, digest for 24 hours, filter, and colour the liquid with a little burnt sugar.

=Rennet, Liquid.= Syn. ESSENCE OF RENNET. Fresh rennet, 12 oz.; salt, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 2 oz.; white wine, a quart; digest for 24 hours and strain. A quart of milk requires 2 or 3 teaspoonfuls. WISLIN directs 10 parts of a calf’s stomach; salt, 3 parts. The membrane of the stomach is to be cut with scissors and kneaded with the salt, and with the rennet found in the interior of that organ; the whole left in a cool place in an earthen pot till the cheesy odour is replaced by the proper odour of rennet, which will be in one or two months. Then add 16 parts of water and 1 of spirit. Filter and colour with burnt sugar.

The German Pharmacopœia gives the following formula for liquid rennet:——3 parts of the mucous membrane of fresh calf’s rennet, macerated for three days in 26 parts of white wine, 1 part of table salt being added.

Obs. 2 or 3 teaspoonfuls will curdle a quart of milk. Some persons use white wine instead of water, with simple digestion for a day or two.

=RES′IN.= Syn. RESINA, L. This name is applied to many vegetable principles composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The resins (RESINÆ) cannot be very accurately defined, but we may in a general way describe them as substances which are solid at ordinary temperatures, more or less transparent, inflammable, readily fusible, do not volatilise unchanged, become negatively electrified by rubbing; are insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol; mostly inodorous, and readily incorporated with fatty bodies by fusion. Their sp. gr. varies from ·9 to 1·2. According to Liebig, they are oxidised essential oils. Common resin, rosin, or colophony, and the shellac of which sealing-wax is made, are familiar examples of these substances. (See below.)

=Resin, Black.= Syn. ROSIN‡, BLACK R.‡, COLOPHONY; RESINA NIGRA, COLOPHONIA, L. What remains of turpentine after the oil has been distilled. When this substance, whilst still fluid, is agitated with about 1-8th part of water, it forms the yellow resin of pharmacy. Used for violin bows, dark-coloured ointments, varnishes, &c.

=Resin, Yel′low.= Syn. YELLOW ROSIN‡, WHITE R.‡; RESINA FLAVA, RESINA (Ph. L.), La. Detergent. Used in ointments, plasters, &c. (See above.)

=RES′INOIDS.= Syn. RESINOUS EXTRACTS, CONCENTRATED E.; EXTRACTA RESINA, L. Under this head, the so-called ‘Eclectics,’ who form a numerous class among American physicians, place their most important ‘concentrated remedies.’ “Viewed as pharmaceutical preparations eligible for use in medicine, though not purified so as to rank as distinctive proximate principles, these are very appropriately named ‘resinous extracts,’ or ‘resins.’ The term ‘resinoid,’ so commonly used, is less appropriate to the class, implying, as it does, a resemblance to resins, while all of these are either resins, oleo-resins, or more or less mixed proximate principles possessing no real resemblance to the class of resins.” (Parrish.) Most of them are prepared from plants indigenous to North America, by precipitating a strong alcoholic tincture with water. They are all brought to the condition of powder, those which are naturally soft and oily being mixed with a sufficient quantity of sugar of milk, or other dry material. One of these eclectic remedies has been introduced into regular practice. See PODOPHYLLIN.

=RESIN, or ROSIN OIL.= This is a product of the dry distillation of resin. The apparatus used consists of an iron pot, a head piece, a condensing arrangement, and a receiver.

In distilling the resin, a bright oil first comes over with water. As soon as a cessation in the flow of the distillate occurs the receiver is changed, and the heat is further raised, when a red-coloured and heavy rosin oil comes over. The black residue remaining in the pot is used as pitch. The light oil, called ‘pinoline,’ is rectified, and the acetic acid water passing over with it is saturated with calcium hydrate, filtered and evaporated to dryness; and the calcium acetate obtained is employed in the manufacture of acetic acid. The rosin oil, obtained after the light oil has passed over, has a dark violet-blue colour, and is called ‘blue rosin oil.’ The red oil is boiled for a day with water, the evaporated water being returned to the vessel; next day the water is drawn off, and the remaining rosin oil is saponified with caustic soda lye of 36° Baumé, and the resulting solid mass is distilled so long as oil passes over.

The product obtained is ‘rectified rosin oil,’ which is allowed to stand in iron vessels, protected by a thin layer of gypsum, whereby after a few weeks a perfectly clear oil is obtained free from water. The oil of first quality is obtained by a repetition of the foregoing operation upon the once rectified oil. The residues of both operations are melted up with the pitch.[137]

[Footnote 137: Dingler’s ‘Polytech. Journ.,’ ccvi, 246 (‘Journ. Chem. Soc.,’ new series, vol. xi, 304).]

Rosin oil is employed in the manufacture of axle grease, the oil being previously converted into a soap by heating with slaked lime.

=RESOLV′ENTS.= Syn. DISCUTIENTS; RESOLVENTIA, L. Substances or agents which discuss or resolve inflammatory and other tumours. See DIGESTIVES.

=RESPIRA′TION.= The peculiar function by which the blood is submitted to the action of the air, for the purpose of removing carbonic acid, and restoring its vitality by the absorption of atmospheric oxygen.

The air expired from the lungs is found to have undergone a most remarkable change. It is now loaded with aqueous vapour, whilst a considerable portion of its oxygen has disappeared, and its place is supplied by about a like volume of carbonic acid. It is no longer capable of supporting animal life, and even a lighted taper plunged into it is immediately extinguished. In the mean time the ‘venous blood’ which entered the lungs from the right chambers of the heart has lost its dingy hue, and has acquired the rich florid colour which is characteristic of ‘arterial blood.’ In this state it is returned to the left chambers of the heart, and is propelled by that organ to every part of the body, from which it passes by the capillaries to the veins, and by these again to the heart and lungs, to undergo the same changes and circulation as before. The carbon and hydrogen of the blood, ultimately derived from the food, are, in this course, gradually converted into carbonic acid and water by a species of slow combustion; but how these changes are effected is not definitely ascertained.

The lungs, as is well known, receive the atmospheric air through the trachea or windpipe. At the root of the neck this divides into two branches, called bronchi, and each bronchus, upon entering its respective lung, divides into an infinity of small tubes. The latter terminate in small pouches, called the air-cells, and a number of these little air-cells communicate together at the extremity of each small tube. The number of air-cells in the two lungs has been estimated at 1,744,000,000, and the extent of the membrane which lines the cells and tubes together at 1500 square feet. (Dr Addison.) Under ordinary circumstances, from 22 to 43 cubic inches of air are thrown out at each expiration; but, by a forced effort, 50 or 60 inches are ordinarily expelled. The number of respirations per minute in health, when the individual is tranquil and undisturbed, is about 15. Exercise increases this number. See FOOD, NUTRITION, &c.

=Respiration, Artificial.= Various means have been adopted for this purpose, among which blowing air into the lungs is, perhaps, that generally adopted. A better, and, in general, a much more efficient method, is as follows:——Powerful but not violent pressure is made upon the sides of the chest and upon the abdomen at the same time, by which the cavity of the thorax is diminished, and the air contained in the lungs is expelled; the compression is then suddenly withdrawn, when the elasticity of the ribs causes them to resume their old expanded positions; the chest is again enlarged, a partial vacuum is formed, and air rushes into the lungs, to be again expelled by pressure upon the ribs and abdomen as before. By this means artificial respiration may be kept up for a great length of time, without the use of bellows, or any other apparatus. The chief principle of Dr Marshall Hall’s so-called ‘ready method’ is the postural performance of artificial respiration. The patient is first placed gently on the face, and then turned on the side; then on the face again, alternately; these measures being repeated deliberately, efficiently, and perseveringly, fifteen times in the minute. When the prone position is resumed, equable, but efficient, pressure is applied along the spine; this pressure is removed immediately before rotation on the side.

The ‘Silvester method,’ invented by Dr Henry Silvester, is now acknowledged to be far more effective than Dr Hall’s method, and is adopted by the Royal Humane Society for the restoration of the apparently drowned. It consists in laying the patient on the back, slightly raising the head and shoulders, drawing the tongue forwards, and keeping it so by passing an elastic band over it and under the chin. The arms are then grasped just above the elbows, and drawn gently upwards until they meet above the head (this is for the purpose of drawing air into the lungs), keeping the arms in that position for two seconds. The patient’s arms are then turned down, and pressed gently and firmly for two seconds against the sides of the chest (this is for the purpose of pressing the air out of the lungs). Artificial breathing is thus carried on. These efforts are repeated fifteen times in a minute, until a spontaneous effort to respire is perceived. During the employment of these means the nostrils are excited with snuff or smelling salts, or the throat is tickled with a feather. After natural breathing has been restored, warmth and circulation are induced by wrapping the body in hot blankets, applying bottles or bladders of hot water, heated bricks, &c., to the pit of the stomach, the armpits, between the thighs, and to the soles of the feet, and by rubbing the limbs upwards firmly and energetically.

In the ‘Landw. Versuchs Stat.’ (xviii, 81-169)[138] Rudolph Pott has recorded a series of interesting experiments instituted with the object of determining the comparative quantities of carbonic acid excreted by respiration and perspiration in different species of animals in equal intervals of time; together with some experiments on the excretion of carbonic acid by the same animals under different physiological conditions.

[Footnote 138: ‘Journ. Chem. Soc.,’ 1876, vol. i, p. 721.]

The author states that in his researches he used an air tight box, with glass sides, in which the animal is placed, and through which the air can be drawn at any rate required by means of an aspirator.

The air before entering the glass chamber passes over caustic potash and through baryta water; after leaving the chamber it passes through three flasks containing known quantities of baryta water.

In the first part of this paper the author estimates the amount of carbonic acid excreted by different animals during the space of six hours, and under otherwise similar circumstances. The following are the most important conclusions he arrives at:——

1. The greatest quantity of carbonic acid in proportion to their weight is given off by birds. Mammals are the next in order. Insects exhale less than either of these.

2. Worms, amphibia, fishes, and snails form another group which excrete much less carbonic acid. Of these worms exhale the most and snails the least.

3. Those animals of the second group, which live in water, give off the greatest part of their carbonic acid to the air, and only a much smaller portion to the surrounding water.

4. Young animals excrete more carbonic acid than old ones; this is most marked in amphibia. For example 100 grams of an old frog (Rana temporaria) exhaled in six hours ·213 grm., whereas 100 grams of a young frog gave off in the same time ·765 grm.

5. The larvæ of insects exhale less carbonic acid than the insects themselves.

6. Different individuals of the same species exhale in the same time nearly the same quantity of carbonic acid in proportion to their body-weight.

In the second part of this paper the author describes experiments in the influence of coloured light on the excretion of carbonic acid; in the same animal (mouse) and for the same time.

He concludes that——

1. The excretion of carbonic acid is less in ordinary daylight than in coloured light.

2. The violet and red rays exercise the least influence on the excretion of carbonic acid, the green and yellow are the most active; and the milk-white and blue rays occupy an intermediate position. The relation of these different actions may be expressed by the following figures:——

Violet. Red. Milk-white. 86·89 93·38 100

Blue. Green. Yellow. 122·63 128·52 174·79

Finally, the author experimented with a mouse during the night, and found then the excretion of carbonic acid at that time is considerably less than during the day.

=REVALEN′TA ARABICA.= A mixture of the red Arabian or Egyptian lentil with barley flour, and a little sugar or salt. (‘Lancet.’) See LENTIL and REVALENTA.

=REVERB′ERATORY FURNACE.= See FURNACE.

=REVI′′VER.= Prep. 1. (BLACK REVIVER, PARIS’S ANTICARDIUM.)——a. Blue galls (bruised), 4 oz.; logwood and sumach, of each 1 oz.; vinegar, 1 quart; macerate in a closed vessel, at a gentle heat, for 24 hours, then strain off the clear, add iron filings and green copperas, of each 1 oz., shake it occasionally for a week, and preserve it in a corked bottle.

b. Galls, 1 lb.; logwood, 2 lb.; boil for 2 hours in water, 5 quarts, until reduced to a gallon, then strain, and add of green copperas 1/2 lb. Used to restore the colour of faded black cloth.

2. (BLUE REVIVER.) From soluble Prussian blue, 1 oz.; dissolved in distilled water, 1 quart. Used for either black or blue cloth.

=RHAM′NIN.= Prep. Express the juice from buckthorn berries scarcely ripe, which is to be rejected; boil the cake or residue with water, strain with pressure, and filter the liquid whilst hot; crude rhamnin will be deposited as the liquid cools, which, by solution in boiling alcohol and filtration, may be procured in crystals.

Obs. Buckthorn juice (succus rhamni), “the juice of the fruit of Rhamnus catharticus (Linn.),” is officinal in the Ph. L.

=RHAT′ANY.= Syn. RHATANY ROOT; KRAMERIÆ RADIX (B. P.); KRAMERIA (Ph. L. E. & D.), RHATANIÆ RADIX, L. “The root of Krameria triandria.” (Ph. L.) It is stomachic, and powerfully astringent and styptic.——Dose, 20 to 60 gr., either in powder or made into a decoction or infusion. It is much employed in tooth powders, to fix the teeth when they become loosened by the recession of the gums, and also for improving the natural red colour of the lips and gums. A saturated tincture or fluid extract, made with brandy, forms the ‘wine-colouring’ used by the Portuguese to give roughness, colour, and tone to their port wine. Hard extract of rhatany is also much employed for the same purpose.

=RHE′IN.= Syn. CHRYSOPHANIC ACID. The yellow colouring principle of rhubarb.

=RHEUMATIC and GOUT PILLS.= (W. Gross Cardiff). Pills weighing 2 grammes rolled in lycopodium, the essential ingredients of which are quinine sulphate, gamboge, jalap, resin, and a little rhubarb. (Hager.)

=RHEU′MATISM.= Syn. RHEUMATISMUS, L. An affection of the joints, and of the external muscular, tendinous, and fibrous textures of the body, attended with swelling, stiffness, and great pain. Acute rheumatism or rheumatic fever,——arthritis, inflammation of the synovial membrane, or rheumatic gout,——sciatica, or rheumatism of the cellular envelope of the great sciatic nerve, affecting the hip,——and lumbago, or rheumatism of the loins, are varieties of this disease.

The treatment of rheumatism consists in the administration of purgatives and diaphoretics or sudorifics, accompanied by tonics, as bark, quinine, &c. Calomel with opium, and iodide of potassium, have also been frequently and successfully employed in this complaint. Of late years the administration of the bicarbonate, citrate, or nitrate of potassa, in rather large doses, has been strongly recommended, and in numerous cases adopted with success. Lemon juice, liberally taken, has also proved useful in suddenly cutting short severe attacks of certain forms of rheumatism. The compound powder of ipecacuanha, taken at night, will generally promote the ease and sleep of the patient, and, by its sudorific action, tend considerably to hasten a cure. Where possible, a dry atmosphere and a regular temperature should be sought, since a damp atmosphere, and, indeed, exposure to damp under any form, are the principal causes of rheumatism. Stimulating embrocations, blisters, frictions, and, above all, the hot or vapour bath, are also frequently serviceable in rheumatism, especially in lumbago and casual attacks arising from cold. The daily use of oranges, or of lemon juice diluted with water, has been found, in the majority of cases, to lessen the susceptibility of those who employ them to attacks of rheumatism and rheumatic gout arising from a damp situation or exposure to the weather. See LEMON JUICE.

=RHO′DIUM.= A whitish metal discovered by Wollaston, in 1803, associated with palladium in the ore of platinum.

It is chiefly employed for tipping the nibs of metallic pens (‘rhodium’ or ‘everlasting pens’). A very small quantity added to steel is said to improve its closeness, hardness, and toughness, and to render it less easily corrodible by damp.

=RHU′BARB.= Syn. RHEI RADIX (B. P.); RHEUM (Ph. E. & D.), RHEUM——Sinense (Ph. L.), RHABARBARUM†, RHŒM†, L. “The root of uncertain species of Rheum.” (Ph. L.) According to Dr F. Farre, the term ‘sinense’ (Chinese), employed by the London College, “was placed after ‘rheum,’ to include the so-called Russian and East Indian rhubarbs, which are considered to be the produce of China and Chinese Tartary, and to exclude European, Himalayan, &c.”

Three principal varieties of rhubarb are known in this country:——

Russian or Turkey rhubarb is the produce of six-year-old plants of the mountain declivities of Chinese Tartary; and its principal excellence depends on its more careful preparation, and subsequent garbling, both before its selection for the Russian market, and after its arrival at Kiachta, and again at St Petersburg. At Kiachta all pieces of a porous, grey, or pale colour are rejected, the whole being pared and perforated, the better to determine the quality of the interior portion. At St Petersburg the pieces are again carefully examined and garbled, and are, finally, packed in close cases or chests, which are rendered air-tight by the application of pitch on the outside.

East India or Chinese rhubarb is the produce of the locality just referred to, as well as of other parts of China. It is obtained from younger plants, and its preparation and subsequent selection or garbling is conducted with less care.

English rhubarb is principally produced at Banbury, Oxfordshire, from the Rheum rhaponticum. It is cut and dressed up after the manner of Turkey rhubarb, for which it is sold by itinerant vendors, habited as Turks.

Adult. Dr Maisch[139] says the presence of turmeric may be detected in powdered rhubarb by the following method:——A small quantity of the suspected rhubarb is agitated for a minute or two with strong alcohol, and then filtered, chrysophanic acid being sparingly soluble in this menstruum. The brown yellow colour of the filtrate is due to the resinous principles of rhubarb mainly; if adulterated with turmeric, the tincture will be of a brighter yellow shade; a strong solution of borax produces in both tinctures a deep red-brown colour.

[Footnote 139: ‘American Journal of Pharmacy,’ xliii, 259.]

If now pure hydrochloric acid be added in large excess, the tincture of pure rhubarb will instantly assume a light yellow colour, while the tincture of the adulterated powder will change merely to a lighter shade of brown-red.

The test is a very delicate one, and is based on the liberation of boracic acid, which imparts to curcumine a colour similar to that produced by alkalies, while all the principles of rhubarb soluble in strong alcohol yield pale yellow solutions in acid liquids.

Qual. Russian or Turkey rhubarb occurs in irregular plano-convex or roundish lumps, perforated with a circular hole; it possesses a yellow colour outside; when recently broken, the inside presents a rich mottled appearance, and evolves a peculiar and somewhat aromatic odour. It is firm, compact, heavy, perfectly free from moisture, and easily grated. Its taste is bitter, slightly astringent, and sub-acid; and when chewed it feels gritty, and tinges the saliva of a beautiful yellow colour. It breaks with a rough, hackly fracture, is easily pulverised, and its powder is of a bright buff-yellow colour.

East India, Canton, or Chinese rhubarb is in flat pieces, seldom perforated, and its taste and odour are stronger than the other. It is also heavier, tinges the saliva of an orange-red hue, and when pulverised the powder is redder than that of Russian rhubarb.

English rhubarb possesses all the preceding qualities in a greatly less degree. It is light and spongy, does not feel gritty between the teeth, its taste is mucilaginous, and its powder has a peculiar pinkish hue not present in either of the other varieties of rhubarb. As a medicine it possesses little value, and is chiefly employed to adulterate East India and Turkey rhubarb.

Prop., &c. Rhubarb is astringent, stomachic, and purgative. In small doses its operation is principally or wholly confined to the digestive organs; in larger ones, it first acts as a mild aperient, and, afterwards, as an astringent; hence its value in diarrhœa. It has also been used externally to promote the healing of indolent sores.——Dose. As a stomachic, 1 to 5 gr.; as a purgative, 10 to 20 gr. It is most effective when chewed, or in the form of powder produced by grating it.

=Rhubarb, Roast′ed.= Syn. BURNT RHUBARB; RHEUM USTUM, L. Prep. 1. Rhubarb, in coarse powder, is carefully and regularly heated in a smooth shallow iron disc, with constant stirring, until its colour has changed to a moderately dark brown, when it is allowed to cool out of contact with the air; when cold, it is reduced to powder, and at once put into a well-closed bottle.

2. (Hoblyn.) Roast powdered rhubarb, in an iron vessel, constantly stirring, until it becomes almost black; then smother it in a covered jar.——Dose, 5 to 10 gr.; as an astringent in diarrhœa, and a tonic in dyspepsia, &c. Prof. Procter, the well-known American Pharmaceutist, recommends the rhubarb to be only roasted to a ‘light brown.’

=RICE.= Syn. ORYZA, L. The seed of Oryza sativa, a plant of the natural order Graminaceæ. Several varieties are known in commerce, distinguished by the name of the country or district which produces them. The finest is that imported from Carolina. It reaches this country in a decorticated condition. ‘Paddy’ is rice with the husk upon it. Dr Letheby estimates that it affords nourishment to not less than a hundred millions of people.

As an article of diet, rice is highly nutritious and wholesome when combined with fresh animal or other nitrogenised food; but, owing to the very small quantity of ‘flesh-formers’ which it contains, and its comparative destitution in saline matter, it is totally unfit to form the principal portion of the diet of the working classes, or the poorly fed, at least in this climate. “It does not appear so well calculated for European constitutions as the potato, for we find the poor constantly reject it when potatoes can be had.” This preference evidently depends on something more than mere whim or taste, for some years ago, when rice was substituted for potatoes in some of our union workhouses, the most serious consequences followed. In one of these, nine or ten deaths from scurvy and allied diseases occurred in a single fortnight. Large quantities of rice are annually imported into Britain, and used by distillers in the manufacture of spirits.

Letheby gives the following as the composition of rice:——

Nitrogenous matter 6·3 Carbo-hydrates 79·5 Fatty matter 0·7 Saline matter 0·5 Water 13·0 —————— 100·0

Payen gives the following as the composition of dried rice:——

Nitrogenous matter 7·55 Starch 88·65 Dextrin, &c. 1·00 Fatty matter 0·80 Cellulose 1·10 Mineral water 0·90 —————— 100·00

Ash of rice:——

Potash 18·48 Soda 10·67 Lime 1·27 Magnesia 11·69 Oxide of iron 0·45 Phosphoric acid 53·36 Chlorine 0·27 Silica 3·35 —————— 99·54

=Rice, To Cook.= If rice is boiled it should be subjected to a low temperature. The best way of cooking rice, however, is by thoroughly steaming it. By this method, it is said, the loss of nitrogenous matter is prevented, and the grain consequently suffers no diminution of nutritive power, as in the case of boiling.

Microscopic appearance of Rice.

Fig. 1——Transverse section of the husk of rice.

Fig. 2.——Appearance of husk as seen in a transparent medium of glycerin and gum: a, Siliceous granules arranged in longitudinal and transverse ridges, perforated by openings——stomata, some having hairs over them. b c, Transverse and longitudinal, brittle, rough-edged fibres, d, A fine membrane of transverse angular cells; these overlie a very delicate membrane of large cells, e.

=RICINO′LEIC ACID.= A variety of oleic acid discovered in saponified castor oil.

=RICK′ETS.= Syn. RACHITIS, L. A disease, generally confined to childhood, characterised by a large head, prominent forehead, protruded breast bone, flattened ribs, tumid belly, emaciated limbs, and great general debility. The bones, more particularly those of the spine and legs, become distorted, and exhibit a deficiency of earthy matter; the stools are frequent and loose, a slow fever succeeds, with cough, painful and difficult respiration, and, unless the child rallies, atrophy is confirmed, and death ensues. When recovery takes place there is always more or less deformity left.

The common causes of rickets are bad nursing, exposure to damp and cold, and insufficient nutrition, arising from the use of white bread containing alum, or any of the pernicious compounds vended under the names of ‘FARINACEOUS FOOD,’ ‘INFANTS’ F.,’ ‘PATENT F.,’ &c. Rickets, like caries of the bones, is a disease which is scarcely known amongst infants whose pap is made of pure wheaten bread, and whose mothers or nurses consume the same themselves.

The treatment of rickets depends more on proper domestic management than on direct medication. Careful nursing, warm dry clothing, thorough ventilation, moderate exercise, and, above all, a light nutritious mixed diet abounding in nitrogenous matter and the phosphates, will do much to effect a cure. To these may be added the administration of the milder chalybeate tonics, bark, or quinine, with occasional doses of some mild aperient, as phosphate of soda, or, when there is diarrhœa, of rhubarb or some other tonic purge. The administration of small doses of phosphate of lime or of dilute phosphoric acid, frequently repeated, or, still better, the daily use of jelly made of pure ivory or bone shavings, will often effect wonders in those cases in which the bones are implicated from an apparent deficiency of earthy matter. See BREAD, FARINA, NURSING, &c.

=RING′WORM.= Syn. SCALD-HEAD; PORRIGO, L. The common ringworm, the PORRIGO SCUTULATA of medical writers, is a disease that appears in circular patches of little pustules, which afterwards form scabs, leaving a red pimply surface, and destroying the bulbs of the hair in its progress. It spreads rapidly, and is very infectious, often running through a whole school. It chiefly affects the neck, forehead, and scalp of weakly children, and frequently arises without any apparent cause, but, in general, may be traced to uncleanness, or contact with parties suffering from the disease.

The treatment of ringworm consists in shaving the part, and keeping it clean with soap and water, at the same time that an occasional mild saline aperient is administered, and a light, nutritious diet, of which the red meat and ripe fruits should form a portion, be rigorously adhered to. When the scabbing commences, dressings of tar ointment, or of the ointment of nitrate or red oxide of mercury, or a mixture of equal parts of the first and either the second or third, should be applied, in each case diluting the mixture with sufficient lard to adapt it to the state of irritability of the part. During this treatment the head should be covered with an ordinary nightcap, or some simple bandage, and not enveloped in a bladder or oil-skin case, as is commonly the practice, since the complete exclusion of atmospheric air tends to aggravate the disease.

=RI′′PENING.= See BREWING, MALT LIQUORS, WINE, &c.

=ROAST′ING.= Alexis Soyer recommends, “as an invariable rule,” that “all dark meats, such as beef and mutton, should be put down to a sharp fire for at least fifteen minutes, until the outside has acquired a coating of osmazome, or condensed gravy, and then removed back, and allowed to cook gently. Lamb, veal, and pork, if young and tender, should be done at a moderate fire. Veal should even be covered with paper.

“Very rich meat, if covered with paper, does not require basting. Fowls, &c., should be placed close to the fire, to set the skin, and in about ten minutes rubbed over with a small piece of butter, pressed in a spoon. Meats, whilst roasting, should be dredged with flour, just at the time when the gravy begins to appear; the flour absorbs it, and forms a coating which prevents any more coming out. Hares and small game should be treated in the same manner.”

Under ordinary circumstances as to the fire, and the distance between it and the joint, beef, mutton, and veal, take about 1/4 hour per lb. in roasting. Lamb, poultry, and small game, require only 12 to 14 minutes per lb.; whilst veal takes fully 15 minutes, and pork takes from 1/4 hour to 20 minutes, as they must always be well done. The flesh of old animals requires more cooking than the flesh of young ones; and inferior, tough, and bony parts than the prime joints and pieces.

Roasting is not an economical method of cooking pieces of meat abounding in bone or tendinous matter, since the nutritious portion of these is either destroyed or rendered insoluble by the heat employed. Thus, the raw bones from a joint are capable of affording a rich and excellent basin of soup, highly nutritious; whilst the bones from a corresponding joint which has been roasted are nearly worthless when so treated. The same applies with even greater force to the gristly and tendinous portions. A dry heat either destroys them or converts them into a horny substance, unfit for food; whilst by boiling they are transformed into a highly succulent and nutritious article of food, besides affording excellent soup or jelly. Hence the policy of ‘boning’ meat before roasting or baking it; or, at all events, of removing the bony portion which would be most exposed to the action of the fire. See BONE and JELLY.

=ROB.= Syn. ROOB. A term, derived from the Arabic, formerly applied to the inspissated juice of ripe fruit, mixed with honey or sugar to the consistence of a conserve of thin extract. Rob of elder-berries (ELDER ROB; ROOB SAMBUCI), juniper berries (JUNIPER ROB; ROOB JUNIPERI), mulberries (MULBERRY ROB; ROOB DIAMORUM), and walnuts (WALNUT ROB; ROOB DYACARYON), with a few others, are still found in some of the foreign Pharmacopœias.

=ROCK.= The popular name of a sweetmeat formed of sugar boiled to a candy, and then poured upon an oiled slab, and allowed to cool in the lump. It is variously flavoured.

=ROCK CRYS′TAL.= Native crystallised silica. See QUARTZ.

=ROCK OIL.= See PETROLEUM.

=ROCK SOAP.= A native silicate of alumina; used for crayons, and for washing cloth.

=ROC′KETS.= (In pyrotechny.) Prep. The CASES.——These are made of stout cartridge paper, rolled on a mould and pasted, and then throttled a little below the mouth, like the neck of a phial. The diameter should be exactly equal to that of a leaden ball of the same weight, and the length should be equal to 3-1/2 times the external diameter. Above the spindle there must be one interior diameter of composition driven solid. They are filled with the following mixtures, tightly driven in, and when intended for flight (SKY-ROCKETS), they are ‘garnished,’ and affixed to willow rods to direct their course.

The COMPOSITION.——1. (Marsh.)——a. For 2-oz. rockets. From nitre, 54-1/2 parts; sulphur, 18 parts; charcoal, 27-1/4 parts; all in fine powder, and passed through lawn.

b. For 4-oz. do. From nitre, 64 parts; sulphur, 16 parts; charcoal, 20 parts; as the last.

c. For 1/2-lb. to 1-lb. do. From nitre, 62-3/4 parts; sulphur, 15-3/4 parts; charcoal, 21-1/2 parts.

2. (Ruggieri.)——a. For rockets of 3/4-inch diameter. From nitre, 16 parts; charcoal, 7 parts; sulphur, 4 parts.

b. For 3/4- to 1-1/2-inch rockets, use 1 part more of nitre.

c. For 1-3/4-inch rockets, use 2 parts more of nitre.

d. By using 1 part less of charcoal and adding respectively 3, 4, and 5 parts of fine steel filings, the above are converted into ‘BRILLIANT FIRES,’

e. By the substitution of coarse cast-iron borings for filings, and a further omission of 2 parts of charcoal from each, the latter are converted into ‘CHINESE FIRE,’

HAND-ROCKETS and GROUND-ROCKETS are usually loaded with nothing but very fine meal gunpowder and iron or zinc filings or borings.

After SKY-ROCKETS and WATER-ROCKETS are charged, a piece of clay is driven in, through which a hole is pierced, and the ‘head’ or ‘garniture’ filled with stars, and a little corn-powder is then applied. See FIRES, STARS, and PYROTECHNY.

=ROLLS.= A variety of fancy bread, generally in the form of small semi-cylindrical cakes, prepared by the bakers, and intended to be eaten hot for breakfast. They differ from ordinary fine or French bread, as it is called, chiefly in containing more water. Some are wetted up with milk and water, and are hence called ‘milk rolls.’

=ROLL (Wine).= Prep. Soak a French roll or sponge-biscuit in raisin, marsala, or sherry wine, surround it by a custard or cream thickened with eggs, and add some spice and ornaments.

=ROOT.= Syn. RADIX, L. That part of a plant which imbibes its nourishment from the soil or medium in which it grows. In popular language, bulbs, corms, tubers, &c., are improperly included under this term.

=RO′′PINESS.= See MALT LIQUORS and WINES.

=RHYPOPH′AGON.= Prep. From yellow soap, sliced, 1 oz.; soft soap (finest), 3 oz.; melt them by the heat of hot water, then allow them to cool a little, and stir in of oil of cloves, 1/2 dr.; essence of ambergris, 10 drops. It is kept a month before sale. Used for shaving.

=ROSE.= Syn. ROSA, L. The typical genus of the natural order Rosaceæ. It includes numerous species greatly prized as garden plants.

=Rose, Cabbage.= Syn. HUNDRED-LEAVED ROSE; ROSÆ CENTILFOLIÆ PETALA (B. P.), ROSA CENTIFOLIA (Ph. L. & E.), L. “The fresh petals” (Ph. L.) of this species are used in medicine. Odorous and slightly astringent and laxative. See WATERS and SYRUP.

=Rose, Dog.= The Rosa canina, or wild briar. See HIPS.

=Rose, French.= Syn. RED ROSE; ROSÆ GALLICÆ PETALA (B. P.), ROSA GALLICA (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. “The fresh and dried unexpanded petals” (Ph. L.) of this species are officinal. The white claws of the petals are removed before drying them.

Uses, &c. The red rose is an elegant astringent and tonic, and, as such, is used as the basis of several pharmaceutical preparations. See CONFECTION, HONEYS, INFUSION, and SYRUP.

=ROSE′MARY.= Syn. ROSMARINUS (Ph. L. E. & D.) The flowering tops of Rosmarinus officinalis (Linn.), or the common rosemary of our gardens, are officinal in the Ph. E. & D.; as is also the oil (oleum rosmarini) in the B. P. and Ph. L. The odour of both is refreshing, and they are reputed carminative, emmenagogue, and neurotic. The dried leaves are occasionally used by the hysterical and hypochondriacal as a substitute for China tea. The oil is an ingredient in Hungary water, and is much used in various cosmetic compounds, under the presumption of its encouraging the growth of hair and improving its quality.

=ROSE PINK.= See RED PIGMENTS.

=RO′SIN.= See RESIN.

=ROSY-DROP.= See ACNE.

=ROT.= Syn. GREATROT, HYDROPHIC R.,

SHEEP R., WET R. A disease peculiar to sheep, produced by the presence in the liver of the Distoma hepatica, a parasite commonly known under the name of “a fluke.” Rot prevails during very wet or rainy seasons. The leading symptoms are loss of flesh and vivacity; the lips and tongue look vivid, and the eyes sad and glassy; the pelt comes off on the slightest pull; the breath is fetid, and the urine highly coloured and scanty; and there is either black purging or obstinate costiveness. The treatment consists in a change to a dry warm elevated situation, and a dry diet, consisting of oats, barley meal, tail-wheat, &c., to which some turnips, carrots, or mangel wurzel may be added, with a liberal supply of common salt, and a few grains of sulphur, daily. These last two substances form the active ingredients in Flesh’s ‘Patent Restorative.’ See MEAT, DISEASE OF.

=ROT (in Timber).= See DRY ROT.

=ROTA′TION (of Crops).= The rotation or succession of crops is absolutely necessary for the successful and economical cultivation of the soils. Crops have been divided by agriculturists into exhausting crops, restoring crops, and cleaning crops. The most exhausting crops are usually considered to be those of corn, but all those that are allowed to ripen their seed and which are carried off the ground are also exhausting, but in different degrees. Even clover, tares, and grass cut green are considered as exhausting, but in a less degree than those that are allowed to ripen. Restoring crops are such as are allowed to decay upon the ground, or are consumed upon it by domestic animals. Cleaning crops are such as are grown in drills, and undergo the usual operations of weeding, hoeing, &c.; the majority of these may also be regarded as exhausting crops. An exhausting crop should always be followed by a restoring or a cleaning crop; or, where possible, by both combined. Crops should also succeed each other in such a way that the soil may not be exhausted of any one particular kind of nutriment. This is best effected by so rotating the crops that plants which are nearly allied should not succeed each other on the same soil, or, at all events, not more than once. See AGRICULTURE, SOILS, &c.

=ROT′TEN STONE.= See TRIPOLI.

=ROUGE.= Syn. TOILET ROUGE; ROUGE VEGETAL, ROUGE D’ESPAGNE, Fr. Prep. Wash safflower (any quantity) until the water comes off colourless; dry and pulverise it, and digest the powder in a weak solution of crystallised carbonate of soda; then place some fine cotton-wool at the bottom of a porcelain or glass vessel, pour the filtered tinctorial solution on this, and throw down the colouring matter, by gradually adding lemon juice or white-wine vinegar, until it ceases to produce a precipitate; next wash the prepared cotton in pure cold water, and dissolve out the colour with a fresh solution of soda; to the new solution add a quantity of finely powdered talc or French chalk, proportionate to the intended quality of rouge; mix well, and precipitate with lemon juice, as before; lastly, collect the powder, dry it with great care, with as little heat as possible, and triturate it with a very small quantity of oil of olives, to render it smooth and adhesive.

Obs. According to the best authorities, this is the only article which will brighten a lady’s complexion without injuring the skin. The relative fineness and proportion of talc employed determines the quality of the rouge. It is applied by means of a camel-hair pencil, a small ‘powder puff,’ or a hare’s foot. It is also employed under the form of ‘pommade’ and ‘crepons.’ The last of these consist of pieces of white woollen crape, upon which the colouring matter of the carthamus has been precipitated, instead of upon the talc, noticed above.

The following articles also pass under the name of rouge, and are used for the purposes named after each:——

=Rouge, Brown-red.= Jeweller’s rouge.

=Rouge, Chinese Card.= This is said to be a ‘carthamate of soda,’ it is colourless when applied, but, being decomposed by the acid secretions of the skin, acquires a most beautiful rose-like tint. (O’Shaughnessy.)

=Rouge, Jeweller’s.= Sesquioxide of iron prepared by calcination. Used to polish gold, &c.

=Rouge, Liquid.= The red liquid left from the preparation of carmine; or a solution of carmine in weak carbonate of potash water, or of pure rouge in alcohol acidulated with acetic acid.

=Rouge, Indienne.= The terra persica, or Indian red; imported from Ormuz.

=Rouge de Prusse.= Light red or burnt yellow ochre. See RED PIGMENTS.

=Rouge, Spanish Lady’s.= This is cotton wool which has been repeatedly wetted with an ammoniacal solution of carmine, and dried. It is applied like ‘rouge crepons.’

=Rouge d’Athenes, Vert.= Syn. PURE ROUGE. See CARTHAMINE.

=ROUGH′ENING.= See WINES.

=RUBEFA′′CIENTS.= Syn. RUBEFACIENTIA, L. Substances or agents which, when applied for a certain time to the skin, occasion a redness and increase of heat, without blistering. They act as counter-irritants. Mustard, powdered ginger (both made into a paste with water), hartshorn and oil, and ether and spirit of wine (when their evaporation is prevented), are familiar examples of this class of remedies.

=RUBE′OLA.= See MEASLES.

=RUBIA′CIN.= An orange-coloured substance, obtained from madder.

=RUBID′IUM.= [Eng., L.] A metal belonging to the alkaline group discovered by Bunsen and Kirchhoff by means of spectrum analysis. It is found in many mineral waters associated with cæsium.

=RU′BY.= See GEMS and PASTES.

=RUE.= Syn. RUTÆ FOLIA, RUTA (Ph. L. & E.), L. “The leaf Ruta graveolens.” (Ph. L.) A powerful antispasmodic, diuretic, and stimulant. It is also reputed nervine and emmenagogue. The fresh leaves are powerfully acrid, and even vesicant; but they become milder in drying.——Dose. Of the powder, 15 to 30 gr., twice or thrice daily; in hysteria, flatulent colic, &c. See INFUSION and OILS (Volatile).

=RUM.= Syn. SPIRITUS JAMACIENSIS, SPIRITUS SACCHARI, L. An ardent spirit obtained by distillation from the fermented skimmings of the sugar-boilers (syrup scum), the drainings of the sugar-pots and hogsheads (molasses), the washings of the boilers and other vessels, together with sufficient recent cane juice or wort, prepared by mashing the crushed cane, to impart the necessary flavour. The sweet liquor before fermentation commonly contains from 12 to 16% of saccharine, and every ten gallons yield from one to two gallons of rum.

The average strength of rum, as imported into this country, is about 20 O.P. Like all other spirits, it is colourless when it issues from the still, but owing to the taste of the consumer the distiller is compelled to colour it before it leaves his premises.

Obs. Rum is imported from the West Indies. The best comes from Jamaica, and is hence distinguished by that name. Leeward Island rum is less esteemed. The duty on rum is 10_s._ 2_d._ per proof-gallon if imported direct from any of the British Colonies (Colonial rum), but 10_s._ 5_d._ if from any other part of the world (foreign rum). The consumption of rum has long been declining in England; its place being chiefly supplied by gin. Rum owes its flavour to a volatile oil and butyric acid, a fact which the wary chemist has availed himself of in the manufacture of a butyric compound (essence of rum) for the especial purpose of enabling the spirit dealer to manufacture a factitious rum from malt or molasses spirit. In Jamaica it is usual to put sliced pine apples into the puncheons containing the finer qualities of rum, which is then termed pine-apple rum. See ALCOHOL, SPIRIT, &c.

=RUM, BAY, R. Rother’s Formula for.= According to an American authority, true bay rum is made from Pimenta acris (Myrica acris, Schwartz; Myrtus acris, Willd.), and not from Laurus nobilis, as commonly supposed; the method of its distillation not being known outside the West Indies, it has been customary to make it extemporaneously with the oil of bay distilled from the leaves of the former plant. This preparation is inferior in fragrance, however, to the genuine article. The following formula of R. Rother is said to give very good results. Take of oil of bayberry, 1 fl. oz.; Jamaica rum, 1 pint; strong alcohol, 4 pints; water, 3 pints. Mix the rum, alcohol, and water, then add the oil; mix and filter.

=RUPERT’S DROPS.= These are made by letting drops of melted glass fall into cold water. By this means they assume an oval form, with a tail or neck resembling a retort. They possess this singular property that, if a small portion of the tail is broken off, the whole bursts into powder with an explosion, and a considerable shock is communicated to the hand.

=RUPIA.= This is an affection of the skin attended by the formation on it of vesicles, that develop into ulcers which copiously discharge a foul, unhealthy, and reddish matter. After a time this matter hardens and forms a thick incrustation over the sores.

The best treatment is to put the patient upon a generous diet, including wine, and to administer iodide of potassium with sarsaparilla or quinine. The scabs should be poulticed.

=RUP′TURE.= See SURGERY.

=RUSKS.= Prep. From 4 eggs; new milk and warm water, of each 1/2 pint; melted butter and sugar, of each 1/4 lb.; yeast, 3 table-spoonfuls; beat well together with as much flour, added gradually, as will make a very light paste; let it rise before the fire for half an hour, then add a little more flour, form into small loaves or cakes 5 or 6 inches wide, and flatten them; bake these moderately, and, when cold, cut them into slices of the size of rusks, and put them into the oven to brown a little. A nice tea-cake when hot, or with caraways, to eat cold. PLAIN RUSKS are made by simply cutting loaves of bread into slices, and baking them in a slow oven to the proper colour.

=RUS′MA.= An arsenical iron pyrites, found in Galatia, which, when reduced to powder, and mixed with half its weight of quicklime, is used by the Turkish ladies to make their ‘PSILOTHRONS,’ or compounds to remove superfluous hair. See DEPILATORY.

=RUST.= Syn. RUBIGO, L. The coating or film of oxide or carbonate which forms on the surface of several of the metals when exposed to a moist atmosphere; more particularly, that which forms on iron or steel (FERRI HYDRATE; HYDRATED SESQUIOXIDE OF IRON; FERRUGO, FERRI RUBIGO).

To prevent iron or steel goods rusting, it is merely necessary to preserve them from damp or moisture. In the shops, small articles in steel are, commonly, either varnished or enclosed in quick-lime finely pulverised; large articles are generally protected with a coating of plumbago, or of boiled oil, or some cheap varnish, applied to them, previously gently heated. Surgical instruments are frequently slightly smeared with a little strong mercurial ointment, with the same intention.

Spots of rust may be removed from the surface of polished iron or steel by rubbing them with a little tripoli or very fine emery made into a paste with sweet oil; or, chemically, by a mixture of polisher’s putty-powder with a little oxalic acid, applied with water. When the last is employed, the articles should be afterwards well rinsed in pure water, then wiped dry, and finished off with a warm and dry rubber, in order to remove every trace of acid.

=RUTHENIC ACID.= Syn. RUTHENIC ANHYDRIDE (RuO_{3}). This may be procured by heating any of the preceding oxides with potassic nitrate. Ruthenic acid is insoluble in water.

=Ruthenic Sesquioxide= (Ru_{2}O_{3}); occurs in the anhydrous form when the metal is ignited in a current of air. It is the most stable of the basic oxides of the metal. Alkalies fail to dissolve it. With acids it forms soluble salts of a yellow colour; when, to a solution of these, an alkali is added, a bulky blackish-brown precipitate of the hydrated oxide, having the composition Ru_{2}O_{3},8H_{2}O, is thrown down.

There are three chlorides of ruthenium:——RuCl_{2}; RuCl_{3}; and RuCl_{4}.

=RUTHEN′IUM.= (Ru. = 104·2.) A metal discovered by Claus, associated with iridium, in the residue from crude platinum, which is insoluble in aqua regia. It forms small angular masses, with a metallic lustre; is very brittle and infusible; resists the action of acids, but readily oxidises when heated in the air. Sp. gr. 11 to 11·4.

In Fremy’s process for separating osmium from the residues of platinum ore, ruthenium occurs in a dioxide. By heating this dioxide in a current of oxygen, the metal may be obtained in the form of a powder of dark grey colour.

With oxygen, ruthenium forms four compounds:——RuO; Ru_{2}O_{3}; RuO_{2}; and RuO_{3}.

=Ruthenium Trichloride= (RuCl_{3}), which is the most important of the chlorides, may be procured by dissolving the sesquioxide in hydrochloric acid. The solution being evaporated, the trichloride occurs as a greenish-blue deliquescent mass, which is soluble in alcohol.

Tests. In solutions of the trichloride, hydrogen sulphide gives a brown precipitate of ruthenic sesquisulphide, the supernatant liquid being of a bright blue colour. This reaction is a very delicate as well as a very characteristic one.

Metallic zinc reduces the yellow trichloride to the blue dichloride, the metal being afterwards precipitated as a black powder. Plumbic acetate gives a purplish-red precipitate, mercuric cyanide a blue one, the supernatant liquid being also blue. The caustic and carbonated alkalies throw down a black precipitate of sesquioxide of ruthenium, which is insoluble in excess of the precipitant. If the salts of ruthenium are boiled with sodic formiate or oxalate the solution becomes colourless, but no precipitate of reduced metal takes place.

=RYE.= Syn. SECALE, L. The seed of Secale cereale, a gramineous plant, the native country of which is undetermined. It is a more certain crop and requires less culture and manure than wheat, and is hence largely cultivated in Germany, Russia, and in the northern parts of Europe, where it is extensively employed for bread. When roasted it is occasionally used as a substitute for coffee. It furnishes an excellent malt for the distillation of spirit, and is much used in the making of Hollands.

Rye bread is very likely to cause diarrhœa in those unaccustomed to partake of it. By continued use, however, this inconvenience disappears. Rye bread is acid and dark in colour. It is about equal in nutritive power to wheat. It is less abundant than wheat in fibrin, but richer in casein and albumen.

The foregoing plate represents the microscopic appearance of rye.

Sommer recommends the microscopic examination of rye flour to be conducted as follows:——The flour is placed on a glass slide, and moistened with water; a single drop of oil of vitriol is added, and a small disc is laid upon it. If, now, it be viewed with a magnifying power of 200, the starch grains of wheat and rye are seen to dissolve in a uniform manner, but the grains of barley starch, after losing their external coat, break up into a number of polyhedrons before their solution is completed.

=Rye, Spurred.= See ERGOT.

=SABADIL′LA.= Syn. CEBADILLA, CEVADILLA, SABADILLA (B. P., Ph. E.), L. The dried fruit (Asagræa officinalis). A drastic and dangerous cathartic, occasionally used in tapeworm; and, externally, to destroy pediculi, but, even for this purpose, when the scalp has been denuded or ulcerated, it has sometimes caused death. It is now used chiefly as a source of VERATRINE.

=SA′BLE.= The Mustella Zibellina (Linn.), a small quadruped of the martin-cat family, found in Northern Asia. Its fur is remarkable for its fine quality and rich colour, and for the hairs turning with equal ease in every direction. The skins of the rabbit, cat, &c., dressed, painted, and lustred, are sold under the name of COMMON or MOCK SABLE.

=SABOTIÈRE.= [Fr.] An apparatus of peculiar construction, employed by the French confectioners for making ices. It consists of a pail to contain a freezing mixture, and an inner vessel for the creams to be iced. It may be used with a mixture of pounded ice and salt, or any other freezing mixture. The pail and cream vessels being loaded, and closely covered, an alternate rotatory motion is given to the apparatus by means of the handle, for 10 or 15 minutes, care being taken to occasionally scrape down the frozen portion of the cream from the sides, by means of a wooden spoon. See ICES and REFRIGERATION.

=SACCHAR′IC ACID.= Syn. OXALHYDRIC ACID†. A compound, resulting from the action of dilate nitric acid on sugar.

=SAC′CHARINE.= The technical name of the uncrystallisable sugar found in malt-wort.

=SACCHARINE FERMENTATION.= This occurs during the germination and kiln-drying of grain in the operation of malting, and in the mashing of malt in brewing. The sweetening of bread during its exposure to heat in the oven is also included under this head by many writers.

The substance which most powerfully excites the sugar fermentation was first shown by Payen and Persoz to be a peculiar principle to which they have given the name of ‘DIASTASE,’ This is always present in good malt, and possesses the singular property of converting STARCH successively into gum (dextrin) and sugar, at a temperature ranging between 149° and 168° Fahr. During the action of this substance on starch it is itself decomposed; and when the sugar fermentation ceases it is found to have entirely disappeared. It is the presence of diastase in malt which alone converts the starch of the grain into sugar during the operation of mashing with hot water; and hence the absolute necessity of employing water at the proper temperature, as on this depends the strength and sweetness of the wort, and consequently its fitness for undergoing the vinous fermentation, and for making beer. Vegetable albumen and gluten also possess the property of exciting the saccharine fermentation, but in a considerably inferior degree to diastase.

The sugar formed during the germination of seeds containing starch results from the action of diastase, and disappears as soon as the woody fibre (lignin), which has a similar constitution, is developed, forming the skeleton of the young plant. (Liebig.) See BREWING, DIASTASE, DEXTRIN, &c.

=SACCHAROM′ETER.= An instrument similar in principle to the common spirit hydrometer, but so weighted and graduated as to adapt it for the indication of the richness of malt-worts in sugar, or saccharine, expressed in pounds per barrel, or the excess of gravity over that of water, the last being taken at 1000. See BREWING, SYRUP, WORT, &c.

=SACH′ET.= Syn. SACCULUS, L. Sachets (SACCULI) are little bags containing dry substances, used for the external medication of parts, or for communicating agreeable perfumes to wearing apparel, drawers, furniture, &c. Those belonging to perfumery are commonly filled with mixtures of fragrant vegetable substances, reduced to coarse powder, and differ from those employed for pot pourri chiefly in being used in the dry state. Sacculi are now seldom employed in this country in legitimate medicine. See POWDERS (Scented), &c.

=Sachet, Ammoniacal.= Syn. SACCULUS AMMONIACALIS. Prep. Equal parts of sal ammoniac and quicklime are mixed, and sprinkled between cotton wadding, which is to be quilted in muslin.

=Sachet, Anodyne.= (Quincy.) Syn. SACCULUS ANODYNUS. Prep. Chamomiles, 1 oz.; bay berries, 1 oz.; lavender flower, 1/2 oz.; henbane seed, 1 dr.; opium, 1 dr. To be dipped in hot spirits.

=Sachet, Anti-phthisic.= Syn. SACCULUS ANTI-PHTHISICUS, L. Prep. Dissolve of aloes, 1 oz., in strong decoction of fresh rue, 1/2 pint; next fold a piece of soft muslin in eight folds large enough to cover the chest and part of the stomach; steep this in the decoction, and dry it in the shade; lastly, place in a small bag, one side of which is formed of scarlet silk or wool, and the other, intended to be worn next the skin, of the finest net or gauze. A celebrated domestic remedy for consumption and asthma. It is intended to be constantly worn on the chest.

=Sachet, Resolv′ent.= Syn. MELTING BAG; SACCULUS RESOLVENS, L. Prep. 1. (Dr Breslau.) Iodide of potassium, 1 part; sal ammoniac, 8 parts; dry, and reduce each separately to fine powder; mix them, and enclose 1/2 oz. to 1 oz. of the mixed powder in a small bag of linen or silk. Used as a resolvent to indolent tumours, especially goitres and scrofulous indurations. It should be worn on the part night and day for some time. The part next the skin should be well pricked with a needle, and the powder shaken up and readjusted every 2 or 3 days; and it should be renewed about once a fortnight.

2. (Trousseau & Reveil.) Iodide of potassium, 1 part; burnt sponge, 4 parts; fine sawdust, 5 parts; as before.

=Sachet, Sponge.= Syn. SACCULUS SPONGII, COLLIER DE MORAND. Prep. Muriate of ammonia, chloride of sodium, burnt sponge, of each 1 oz.; mix, sprinkle the powder on a piece of cotton wool, and quilt between muslin, in the form of a cravat. To be worn constantly in goitre or bronchocele, renewing it every month.

=Sachet, Stomachic.= (Fuller.) Syn. SACCULUS. Prep. Mint, 4 drm.; wormwood, thyme, red roses, each 2 drm.; balastines, angelica root, caraway seed, nutmeg, mace, cloves, of each 1 drm. Coarsely powder the ingredients, and put them into a bag, to be moistened with hot red wine when applied for flatulence.

=SACK.= (From SEC, Fr., dry.) A wine used by our ancestors, supposed by some to have been Rhenish or Canary; but, with more probability, by others, to have been dry mountain——vin d’Espagne; vin sec——(Howell, ‘Fr. and Eng. Dict.,’ 1650). Falstaff[140] calls it ‘sherris sack’ (sherry sack), from Xeres, a sea town of Corduba, where that kind of sack (wine) is made. (Blount.) At a later period the term came to be used as a general name for all sweet wines.

[Footnote 140: In Shakespeare’s day sack was occasionally adulterated with lime, as we learn from Falstaff’s speech to the Drawer: “You rogue, there’s lime in this sack.”]

=SAF′FLOWER.= Syn. BASTARD SAFFRON, DYER’S S.; CARTHAMUS, L. The florets of Carthamus tinctorius, a plant cultivated in Spain, Egypt, and the Levant. It contains two colouring principles——the one yellow, and the other red. The first is removed by water, and is rejected. The second is easily dissolved out by weak solutions of the carbonated alkalies, and is again precipitated on the addition of an acid. This property is taken advantage of in the manufacture of rouge, and in dyeing silk and cotton.

The most lively tints of cherry, flame, flesh, orange-red, poppy, and rose colour, are imparted to silk by the following process, modified to suit the particular shade required:——The safflower (previously deprived of its yellow colouring matter by water) is exhausted with water containing either carbonate of soda or of potassa, in the proportion of about 5% of the weight of the prepared dye-stuff acted on; the resulting liquid is next treated with pure lemon juice until it acquires a distinct and rich red colour; the silk is then introduced and turned about as long as it is perceived to take up colour, a little more lemon juice being added as may appear necessary; for deep shades this is repeated with one or more fresh baths, the silk being dried and rinsed between each immersion; it is, lastly, brightened by turning it for a few minutes through a bath of warm water, to which a little lemon juice has been previously added. For flame colour the silk should receive a slight shade with annotta before putting it into the safflower bath. For the deeper shades, when expense is an object, a little archil is commonly added to the first and second bath. See CATHARMIN.

=SAF′FRON.= The prepared stigmata or stigmas of the Crocus sativus, or saffron crocus. There are two principal varieties known in commerce:——

1. (SAFFRON, HAY’S.; CROCUS IN FŒNO, C. HISPANIOLUS, CROCISTIGMATA; CROCUS——B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.) This consisted of the stigmas, with part of the styles, carefully picked from the other parts of the flowers, and then dried on paper by a very gentle heat, generally in a portable oven constructed for the purpose.

2. (CAKE SAFFRON; CROCUS IN PLACENTÂ.) This, professedly, merely varies from the last, it being compressed into a cake after it has become softened by the fire, and being then dried in that condition. The ‘cake saffron’ of commerce is now, however, mostly, if not entirely, composed of safflower made into a paste with some sugar and gum water, rolled out on paper into oval cakes 10 to 12 inches long, 9 or 10 broad, and about 1/8th of an inch thick, and then dried. “I can detect neither saffron nor marigold in them.” (Dr Pereira.)

Pur. Saffron, of all the articles of commerce, except French brandy, is, perhaps, the one most largely and constantly adulterated. Abroad it is frequently mixed with safflower, and in England with ‘prepared marigolds,’ or ‘French (mock) saffron.’ These frauds may be detected by the inferiority of the colour, and by soaking the leaves in water, when the stigmas of the Crocus sativus may be readily distinguished from the florets of safflower and the petals of marigolds. Winckler and Grüner proposed to detect these substances by means of a solution of nitrate of silver or of sesquichloride of iron. The infusion of true saffron is not altered by those reagents, but that of either of the above-mentioned adulterants is rendered opaque, and is at length precipitated. “It consists of tripartite filaments, of an orange-red colour, with the small filaments towards the apex dilated.” (Ph. E.) In the wholesale drug trade prepared marigolds are not only employed to mix with genuine saffron, but are extensively sold to the country dealers for that purpose. Old and dry saffron is ‘freshened up’ by rubbing it between the hands slightly oiled, and then repicking it.

The late Mr D. Hanbury, F.R.S., found that the article known in commerce as alicante saffron was largely sophisticated with carbonate of lime, which he says had been made to adhere to the thread-like saffron without in the least altering its general appearance. To ascertain the amount of earthy matter thus fraudulently added, he subjected several specimens of saffron to incineration, each having in the first instance been dried in warm air until it caused it to lose its weight. The result indicated that while good Valentia saffron yields from 4 to 6 per cent. of ash, the alicante furnishes from 12 to 28 per cent. The method of taking a sample of saffron for earthy adulteration which Mr Hanbury recommends is this:——Place in a watch glass a small quantity (say 1 grain) of the saffron, and drop upon it 8 or 10 drops of water; lightly touch the saffron with the tip of the finger, so as to cause the water to wet it. If the drug is free from earthy matter, a clear bright-yellow solution will be immediately obtained; if adulterated, a white powder will instantly separate, causing the water to appear turbid; and if a drop of hydrochloric acid be now added, a brisk effervescence will take place.

Mr Hanbury says that saffron almost always contains a few of the pale yellow stamens, accidentally gathered; but the pollen from them which is detached when the drug is wetted, but which is minute in quantity, is easily distinguished from carbonate of lime, by not dissolving when hydrochloric acid is added. Moreover, the form of pollen grains may be easily recognised under the microscope.

Mr Hanbury furthermore states that an effectual method of examination is to scatter a very small pinch of saffron on the surface of a glass of warm water. The stigma of the saffron-crocus immediately expands, and exhibits a form so characteristic that it cannot be confounded with the flowerets of safflower, marigold, or arnica, or with the stamens of crocus itself.[141]

[Footnote 141: ‘Pharm. Journ.’]

Prop., &c. Saffron is anodyne, cordial, emmenagogue, and exhilarant; but is now seldom employed, except as an adjuvant, in medicine. Amongst cooks, confectioners, and liquoristes, it is largely used on account of its fine colour.

=Saffron, Mead′ow.= See COLCHICUM.

=SAGAPE′NUM.= This substance is described in the London Pharmacopœia as a gum resin, the production of an uncertain species of Ferula. The mass of the sagapenum sold to the retail trader is, however, a factitious article, formed by softening a mixture of assafœtida, 3 parts, and galbanum, 15 parts, over a water or steam bath, and then stirring in about 1/17th of their weight of oil of turpentine, with a little oil of juniper. This mixture is labelled ‘Gum Sagapeni Opt.’ an inferior sort being made by adding sundry portions of yellow resin and paste of gum tragacanth to the above.

PREPARED SAGAPENUM (SAGAPENUM PRÆPARATUM——Ph. L.) is ordered to be prepared in the same manner as ‘prepared ammoniacum.’

Obs. Sagapenum is the feeblest of all the fetid gum resins.——Dose, 5 to 15 gr., made into pills; as an antispasmodic and emmenagogue.

=SA′GO.= Syn. SAGO (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. “The fæcula (starch) from the stem of Sagus lœvis, S. Rumphii, and, perhaps, of other species of palms.” (Ph. L.) It forms the principal portion of the pith of the Sago palms, the Gommuti palm, the Talipot palm, and other allied trees. Its properties and uses, for the most part, resemble those of arrow-root. It is used for making puddings, jellies, &c.

Under the microscope the starch-grains of sago present an elongated form, rounded at the larger ends, and compressed at the smaller. They differ altogether in appearance from potato starch.

The pilum of the sago starch-grains is a point, or, more frequently, a crop, slit, or star, and is seated at the smaller end, whilst in the marsanta arrow-root the pilum is situated at the larger end. Rings are more or less clearly seen.

=Sa′go, To Prepare.= Wash an ounce of pearl sago in cold water; then boil it very gently in a pint of fresh water, stirring it frequently till dissolved. It may be flavoured with wine, spices, and sugar. For children, and for consumptive and debilitated persons, it will be found advantageous to substitute milk for water. The common sago being in larger grains, more time is required to dissolve it, and it is usually steeped for some hours before boiling it.

=Sa′go Milk.= (See above.)

=Sa′go Posset.= (For invalids.) Macerate a table-spoonful of sago in a pint of water for two hours on the hob of a stove, then boil for 15 minutes, assiduously stirring. Add sugar, with an aromatic, such as ginger or nutmeg, and a table-spoonful or more of white wine. If white wine be not permitted flavour with lemon juice.

=ST VITUS’ DANCE.= See CHOREA.

=SAL.= [L.] Salt. A word much used in compound names, handed down to us from the old chemists.

=Sal Absin′thii.= Carbonate of potassium.

=Sal Acetosel′læ.= Binoxalate and quadroxalate of potassium.

=Sal Alem′broth.= Ammoniated mercury (white precipitate).

=Sal Ammo′′niac.= Chloride of ammonium.

=Sal de Duobus.= Sulphate of potassium.

=Sal Diure′ticus.= Acetate of potassium.

=Sal Enix′um.= Crude bisulphate of potassium.

=Sal Gem′mæ.= Rock or fossil salt (chloride of sodium).

=Sal Mar′tis.= Sulphate of iron.

=Sal Mirab′ile.= Sulphate of sodium.

=Sal Perla′tum.= Phosphate of sodium.

=Sal Polycrest′us.= Sulphate of potassium.

=Sal Prunel′la.= Syn. SORE-THROAT SALT, CRYSTAL MINERAL; POTASSÆ NITRAS FUSA, NITRUM TABULATUM, SAL PRUNELLÆ, L. From nitre fused in a Hessian crucible, and poured out on a smooth surface, or into moulds, to cool. Its usual form and size is that of an ordinary musket bullet, with the tail, in which state it is known in the drug trade as ‘sal prunellæ globosum.’ When in cakes it is often called ‘sal p. in placentis,’ or ‘s. p. tabulatum.’ A small portion allowed to dissolve slowly in the mouth, the saliva being slowly swallowed, often removes incipient inflammatory sore throat.

=Sal Saturn′i.= Sugar of lead (neutral acetate of lead).

=Sal Seignette′.= Rochelle salt (tartrate of potassium and sodium).

=Sal Volat′ile.= Sesquicarbonate of ammonia. The name is commonly used as an abbreviation of aromatic spirit of ammonia. See SPIRITS (Medicinal).

=SAL′ADS= are generally made of esculent vegetables, either singly or mixed, chosen according to taste or time of year, and ‘dressed’ with oil, vinegar, and salt, and sometimes also with mustard and other condiments. Sliced boiled egg is a common addition.

Sydney Smith’s recipe for salad dressing:——

To make this condiment your poet begs The powdered yellow of two hard-boiled eggs; Two boiled potatoes passed through kitchen-sieve Smoothness and softness to the salad give; Let onion atoms lurk within the bowl, And, half suspected, animate the whole; Of mordant mustard add a single spoon (Distrust the condiment that bites too soon); But deem it not, thou man of taste, a fault To add a double quantity of salt; And, lastly, o’er the flavoured compound toss A magic soupçon of anchovy sauce. Oh! green and glorious! Oh! herbaceous treat! ’Twould tempt the dying anchorite to eat; Back to the world he’d turn his fleeting soul, And plunge his finger in the salad bowl; Serenely full the epicure would say, “Fate cannot harm me, I have dined today.”[142]

[Footnote 142: The poet has inadvertently ignored the oil and vinegar.]

Another recipe for salad dressing:——Yolk of two eggs; table salt, 1/4 oz.; salad oil, 4 oz.; mustard, 1/2 oz.; best vinegar, 6 oz.; isinglass, 1 dr.; soluble cayenne, 10 grams. (‘Phar. Jour.’)

Cold meat, poultry, and game, sliced small, with some cucumber or celery, and a little onion or chopped parsley, or, instead of them, some pickles, make a very relishing salad. Fish are also employed in the same manner.

Mr C. J. Robinson, writing to ‘Nature’[143] on our salad herbs, says:——“There is, perhaps, no country in the world so rich as England in native materials for salad making, and none in which ignorance and prejudice have more restricted their employment. At every season of the year the peasant may cull from the field and hedgerow wholesome herbs which would impart a pleasant variety to his monotonous meal, and save his store of potatoes from premature exhaustion. Besides there can be no question that in hot seasons a judicious admixture of fresh green food is as salutary as it is agreeable. Much has been said lately about the advantage which the labouring man would derive from an accurate acquaintance with the various forms of fungus; he has been gravely told that the Fistulina hepatica is an admirable substitute for beef-steak, the Agaricus gambosus for the equally unknown veal cutlet.

[Footnote 143: August 18th, 1870.]

“But deep-seated suspicion is not easily eradicated, and there will always be a certain amount of hazard in dealing with a class of products in which the distinctions between noxious and innocuous are not very clearly marked.

“There is not this difficulty with regard to salad herbs, and we conceive that the diffusion of a little knowledge as to their properties and value would be an unmixed benefit to our rural population.

“The first place must be assigned on the score of antiquity to the sorrel plant (Rumex acetosa), which in some districts still preserves the name of ‘green sauce,’ assigned to it in early times, when it formed almost the only dinner vegetable.

“Its acid is pleasant and wholesome, more delicate in flavour than that of the wood-sorrel (Oxalis acetosella), which, however, is used for table purposes in France and Germany. Chervil (Anthriscus cerefolium) is often found in a wild state, and is an admirable addition to the salad bowl; and it is unnecessary to enlarge upon the virtues of celery (Apium graveolens) when improved by cultivation.”

John Ray, writing in 1663, says that “the Italians use several herbs for sallets, which are not yet, or have not been used lately, but in England, viz. Selleri, which is nothing else but the sweet smallage; the young shoots whereof, with a little of the head of the root, cut off, they eat raw with oil and pepper,” and to this we may add that the alisander (Smyrnium olusattrum) is no bad substitute for its better-known congener. The dandelion, which in France is blanched for the purpose, affords that amarie aliquid which the professed salad maker finds in the leaves of the endive, and the same essential ingredient may be supplied by the avens (Geum urbanum), the bladder campion (Silene inflata), and the tender shoots of the wild hop. Most people are familiar with the properties of the watercress (Nasturtium officinale), garlic hedge mustard (Erysimum aliaria), but it may not be generally known that the common shepherd’s purse (Eupsulla Bursa-pastoris) and the lady’s-smock (Cardamine pratensis) are pleasant additions, whose merits have long been recognised by our foreign neighbours. In fact, there is scarcely a herb that grows which has not some culinary virtue in a French peasant’s eyes. Out of the blanched shoots of the wild chicory (Cichorium Intybus) he forms the well-known barbe de capucius, and dignifies with the title of Salade de chamoine our own neglected corn-salad (Fedia olitaria). It would be very easy to extend the dimensions of our list of native salad herbs, for there are, perhaps, some palates to which the strong flavours of the chives (Allium schœnoprasum) and stonecrop (Sedum reflexum) may commend themselves; but enough has been said to show that nature has not dealt niggardly with us, and that only knowledge is needful to make the riches she offers available.

If the British peasant can be taught to discover hidden virtues in these plants, with whose outward forms he has had life-long familiarity, we do not despair of his acquiring the one secret of salad-making, viz. the judicious employment of oil, so as to correct the acrid juices of the plants, and yet preserve their several flavours unimpaired.

=Salad, Let′tuce.= Prep. Take two large lettuces, remove the faded leaves and the coarser green ones; next cut the green tops off, pull each leaf off separately, rinse it in cold water, cut it lengthways, and then into four or ten pieces; put these into a bowl, and sprinkle over them, with your fingers, 1 small teaspoonful of salt, 1/2 do. of pepper, 3 do. of salad oil, and 2 do. of English or 1 of French vinegar; then with the spoon and fork turn the salad lightly in the bowl until thoroughly mixed; the less it is handled the better. A teaspoonful each of chopped chervil and tarragon is an immense improvement.

Obs. The above seasoning is said to be enough for 1/4 lb. of lettuce. According to Soyer, it is “such as the Italian count used to make some years since, by which he made a fortune in dressing salads for the tables of the aristocracy.” The above may be varied by the addition of 2 eggs, boiled hard, and sliced, a little eschalot, or a few chives or young onions. Several other salad herbs, especially endive, water-cresses, and mustard-and-cress, may be ‘dressed’ in the same manner; always remembering that the excellence of a salad depends chiefly on the vegetables which compose them being recently gathered and carefully cleansed.

To improve the appearance of the above and other salads, when on the table or sideboard, before being used, the gay flower of the nasturtium or marigold, with a little sliced beet-root or radish, and sliced cucumber, may be tastefully intermixed with them.

=Salad, Lobs′ter.= Prep. (Soyer.) “Have the bowl half filled with any kind of salad herb you like, as endive, lettuce, &c.; then break a lobster in two, open the tail, extract the meat in one piece, break the claws, cut the meat of both in small slices, about a quarter of an inch thick, and arrange these tastefully on the salad; next take out all the soft part from the belly, mix it in a basin with 1 teaspoonful of salt, half do. of pepper, 4 do. of vinegar, and 4 do. of oil; stir these well together, and pour the mixture on the salad; lastly, cover it with 2 hard eggs, cut into slices, and a few slices of cucumber.” “To vary this, a few capers and some fillets of anchovy may be added, stirred lightly, and then served either with or without some salad sauce. If for a dinner ornament it with some flowers of the nasturtium and marigold.”

=SAL′EP.= Syn. SALOP, SALOOP. The tuberous roots of Orchis mascula, and other allied species, washed, dried, and afterwards reduced to coarse powder. That imported from Persia and Asia Minor occurs in small oval grains, of a whitish-yellow colour, often semitranslucent, with a faint, peculiar smell, and a taste somewhat resembling gum tragacanth. It consists, chiefly, of bassorin and starch, is very nutritious, and is reputed aphrodisiac. It is employed in the same way as sago. A decoction of about 1 oz. of this substance in a pint of water was formerly sold at street-stalls. A tea made of sassafras chips, flavoured with milk and coarse brown sugar or treacle, was also sold in the same way, and under the same name.

FRENCH SALEP is prepared from the potato. Dr Ure says that the Orchis mascula of our own country, properly treated, would afford an article of salep equal to the Turkey, and at a vastly lower price.

=SAL′ICIN.= C_{13}H_{18}O_{7}. A white, crystalline substance discovered by Le Roux and Buchner in the bark and leaves of several species of Salix and Populus. It occurs most abundantly in the white willow (Salix alba) and the aspen (Salix helix), but is also found in all the bitter poplars and willows. From willow bark which is fresh, and rich in salicin, it may be obtained by the cautious evaporation of the cold aqueous infusion.

Prep. 1. (Merck.) Exhaust willow bark by repeated coction with water, concentrate the mixed liquors, and, while boiling, add litharge until the liquid is nearly decoloured; filter, remove the dissolved oxide of lead, first by sulphuric acid, and afterwards by sulphuret of barium; filter, and evaporate, that crystals may form; the crystals must be purified by re-solution and recrystallisation.

2. As No 1, but using a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen, to free the solution from lead.

3. (P. Codex.) To a strong filtered decoction of willow bark add milk of lime, to throw down the colour; filter, evaporate the liquor to a syrupy consistence, add alcohol (sp. gr. ·847), to separate the gummy matter, filter, distil off the spirit, evaporate the residuum, and set it aside in a cool place to crystallise; the crystals are purified by solution in boiling water, agitation with a little animal charcoal, and recrystallisation.

Prop., &c. Salicin forms white, silky needles and plates; it is intensely bitter; inodorous; neutral; non-basic; fuses at 230° Fahr., with decomposition; burns with a bright flame; is soluble in 5-1/2 parts of water at 60°, and in much less at 212°; dissolves readily in alcohol, but is insoluble in ether. It is tonic, like sulphate of quinine, but less liable to irritate the stomach. It is given in indigestion and intermittent diseases, in from 5- to 10-gr. doses.

Salicin has lately been used with considerable advantage in acute rheumatism.

Dr Maclagan[144] states that he found when administered in doses of 10 gr. to 1/2 dr., every 2 to 4 hours, the pain and fever ceased in the course of 48 hours. The results are stated to have been quite as favorable as those following the employment of salicylic acid. It was found to effect with certainty a great reduction in the bodily temperature.

[Footnote 144: ‘Lancet,’ March 4th and 11th, 1876.]

Pur. & Tests.——1. It is entirely soluble in water and rectified spirit.——2. When strongly heated it is wholly dissipated, and, if kindled, burns with a bright flame, leaving a bulky charcoal.——3. Its solution is absolutely neutral to test-paper.——4. Concentrated sulphuric acid causes it to agglutinate into resin-like lumps, with the accession of an intense blood-red colour.——5. When its aqueous solution is mixed with some hydrochloric acid, or dilute sulphuric acid, and the mixture is boiled for a short time, the liquid suddenly becomes turbid, and deposits SALIRETIN, under the form of a granular crystalline precipitate. This is characteristic.——6. No reagent deposits salicin without decomposition. See SALICYLIC and SALICYLOUS ACIDS.

=SAL′ICYL.= C_{7}H_{4}O. A compound radical, forming the basis of the so-called SALICYL-COMPOUNDS, or SALICYL-SERIES. It is known only in combination. The volatile oil of meadow-sweet is a natural hydride of salicyl, a substance which, when artificially prepared, is better known under the name of SALICYLOUS ACID. (See below.)

=SALICYL′IC ACID.= H_{2}C_{7}H_{4}O_{3}. A peculiar volatile, crystallisable acid, discovered by Piria. It is obtained by fusing salicylous acid with solid hydrate of potassa in slight excess, until the mixture turns white and gas is disengaged, and treating a solution of the residuum with hydrochloric acid, in slight excess to separate the potassa; the salicylic acid separates in crystals, which are purified by solution in hot water. It may also be obtained from the oil of partridge-berry (Gaultheria procumbens), by acting on it with a strong and hot solution of potassa, and afterwards separating the acid as before. This oil is methylo-salicylic ether, or salicylate of methyl. In its general properties, salicylic acid closely resembles benzoic acid.

The greater part, if not the whole, of the salicylic acid of commerce is now obtained by a method invented by Professor Kolbe. This process, which consists in acting on sodium carbolate with carbonic acid, is thus described in the ‘Archiv der Pharm.,’ 3rd series, v, 445.[145] In a strong crude soda liquor of known strength is dissolved a sufficiency of previously melted crystals of carbolic acid to saturate the soda.

[Footnote 145: ‘Pharm. Journal,’ 3rd series, v, 421.]

The solution is then evaporated in an iron capsule, and by means of stirring brought to a dry powder. The sodium carbolate so obtained is gradually heated in a retort to a temperature of from 220° to 250° C., in a continuous current of dry carbonic anhydride.

The reaction is ended when at the above-mentioned temperature no more carbolic acid passes over. It might have been expected that, the reaction going forward in this manner, a molecule of carbonic anhydride would have been introduced into the molecule of sodium carbonate, and thus a molecule of sodium salicylate be formed.

This, however, is not the case, only half the sodium carbolate being converted into salicylate. The reaction proceeds according to the following equation:——

2NaC_{6}H_{5}O + CO_{2} = Na_{2}C_{7}H_{4}O_{3} + HC_{6}H_{5}O.

The disodic salicylate is dissolved in water and decomposed by hydrochloric acid. Salicylic acid then separates in crystalline films and may be purified by recrystallisation out of its solution in hot water.

Props.——Salicylic acid is a white solid which forms acicular crystals; it melts at from 155°-156° C.; it dissolves in about 1800 parts of cold water, but is more soluble in boiling water as well as in alcohol and in ether. An aqueous solution of salicylic acid mixed with one of a ferric salt produces a deep violet colour.

Professor Kolbe surmised that from the constitution of salicylic acid, as revealed by his synthetical process, that it would split up with heat into carbonic anhydrate and carbolic acid, and hence that it might be employed as an antiseptic and antiputrefactive agent. He quotes the following experiments as confirmatory of his views on this point:——Mustard meal, which, in a few minutes after being mixed with warm water, gave off a strong smell of mustard oil, formed with water a scentless mixture, when a little salicylic acid had been previously added. No fermentation was set up by yeast in a fermentation of grape sugar, to which salicylic acid had been added; whilst in a sugar solution already in fermentation the action stopped after the addition of some salicylic acid. The preservation influence of this acid upon fresh meat is also recorded.

The following, among other experiments, in their results, illustrate the physiological action of salicylic acid:——

Solution of amygdalin mixed with emulsion of sweet almonds developed no smell of bitter almonds if some salicylic acid were added. Beer, to which salicylic acid, in the proportion of 1 to 1000, was added, was thereby prevented from being spoiled by fungoid growth.

Fresh pure cow’s milk, mixed with 0·04 per cent. of salicylic acid, and allowed to stand in an open vessel at a temperature of 18° C., curdled thirty-six hours later than a similar quantity of milk standing by the side of it, but containing no salicylic acid. The milk remained of a good flavour, the small quantity of salicylic acid present not being perceptible to the palate.

Some fresh urine was divided into two portions, and placed in separate vessels, after some salicylic acid had been added to one portion.

The urine containing the acid was on the third day still clear and free from ammoniacal odour, whilst the other portion was far advanced in putrefaction.

Professor Thiersch has investigated the antiseptic action of this acid, specially in relation to surgery. He has found that as a powder, either alone or mixed with starch, it destroys for a long time the fetid odour of cancerous surfaces or uncleansed wounds, without setting up any inflammatory symptoms. A solution of one part of salicylic acid, and three parts of sodium phosphate in fifty parts of water, promotes the healing of granulated surfaces.

According to Dr Rudolph Wagner, salicylic acid may be applied to the following industrial purposes:——

If a concentrated aqueous solution of salicylic acid be applied to fresh meat, and the meat be then placed in well-closed vessels, it will remain perfectly fresh for a long period. This solution is also very useful in the manufacture of sausages and such food. Butter containing a bitter salicylic acid will remain fresh for months, even in the hottest weather. The same acid prevents the moulding of preserved fruits. In the manufacture of vinegar this acid is of great utility.

The addition of a little salicylic acid renders glue more tenacious. The acid also prevents decomposition in gut and parchment during their manufacture.

Skins to be used for making leather do not undergo decomposition if steeped in a dilute solution of salicylic acid.

Weaver’s or bookbinder’s glue and other allied substances may be preserved for a long period by treating them with a solution of this acid.

Albumen may be preserved by the same means.

This acid is a very delicate test reagent for iron.

The methyl ether and amyl ether of salicylic acid are used as perfumes. The calcium salt on keeping and distilling with water yields a liquid which has a strong odour of roses.

Mr Rother, an American chemist, contends that the antiseptic powers of salicylic acid have been much overrated. He states that he had tried it for the preservation of the syrups of marshmallow, raspberry juice, and milk, and that it was a failure. Professor Salkowsky regards it as of less value as an antiseptic than benzoic acid.

Dr Muter gives the following method for estimating the value of commercial samples of salicylic acid, and of detecting it in milk and similar organic solutions:——A standard solution of pure salicylic acid (1 grain of acid dissolved in 1 litre of water, so that 1 c.c. represents 1 mgm. of acid) is prepared; the indicator solution consists of a solution of pure neutral ferric chloride, of such a strength that 1 c.c. added, drop by drop, to 50 c.c. of standard acid, just ceases to give any increase in intensity of colour; 1 gram of the commercial sample is then dissolved in 1 litre of water, and 50 c.c. is put into a Nessler tube; to this 1 c.c. of ferric solution is added, and the colour observed after standing for five minutes, some of the standard acid is also poured into another tube, and made up to 50 c.c. with water, and the 1 c.c. of ferric chloride added. When the colours are alike the amount of pure acid present in the sample is equal to the amount of pure acid added. All mineral acids should be absent, even acetic acid affects the reaction. To detect the presence of salicylic acid added to beer or milk, four ounces of these liquids are dialysed for twelve hours in a pint of distilled water; if after that time salicylic acid is still found to be present, the dialysis must be continued for forty-eight hours. The amount present is determined in the manner above stated.

=SALICYL′OUS ACID.= C_{7}H_{6}O_{2}. Syn. SALICYLOL, HYDROSALICYLIC ACID†, HYDRIDE OF SALICYL, ARTIFICIAL OIL OF MEADOW-SWEET. A nearly colourless, oily, inflammable liquid, discovered by Pagenstecher in the volatile oil of Spiræa ulmaria (meadow-sweet), which, when pure, entirely consists of it; and by Piria, as a product of the decomposition of salicin.

Prep. The oil of meadow-sweet is mixed with a strong solution of caustic potassa, and the yellow crystalline mass which separates on agitation is purified by pressure between folds of bibulous paper and recrystallisation from alcohol; the resulting crystals (salicylite of potassium) are then decomposed by the addition of dilute sulphuric acid, the floating oil separated from the water, and freed from moisture by careful distillation from chloride of calcium.

Prop., &c. Salicylous acid is soluble in ether and alcohol, and slightly so in water, to which it imparts its peculiar fragrance and the characteristic property of striking a deep violet colour with the sesquisalts of iron. It is distinguished from salicylic acid, which also exhibits this reaction, by its liquid form and odour.

=SALI′VA.= See MASTICATION.

=SALM′ON.= Syn. SALMO, L. The Salmo Salar (Linn.), a well-known, soft-finned abdominal fish. Its normal locality is at the mouth or estuary of the larger rivers of the northern seas, which, during the breeding season, it ascends, sooner or later, in the summer months, against all obstacles, for the purpose of depositing its spawn.

The salmon is an excellent and highly esteemed fish; but it is rich, oily, and difficult of digestion, and, therefore, ill adapted to the delicate or dyspeptic. When pickled, salted, or smoked it is only fitted for persons of very strong stomachs, although in this state it is regarded as a great delicacy by epicures.

Salmon has the following composition:——

Nitrogenous matter 16·1 Fat 5·5 Saline matter 1·4 Water 77· ——————— 100·0

Salmon is preferably cooked by boiling. One weighing 10 lbs. will require to be gently simmered for about an hour, reckoning from the time the water commences boiling. For fish of other weights, from 6 to 7 minutes per lb. may be allowed. See FISH, &c.

=SALOOP′.= Sassafras (chips) tea, flavoured with milk and sugar. A wholesome and useful drink in cutaneous and rheumatic affections. See SALEP.

=SALT.= Syn. SAL, L.; SEL, Fr. Salts may be regarded as acids in which one or more atoms of hydrogen, a constant constituent of all true acids, are replaced by a metal or other basic radical. This relationship between acids and salts will be better understood by reference to the subjoined list of acids and their corresponding potassium and ammonium salts:——

Acids. Salts.

HCl (Hydrochloric acid) —— KCl (Chloride of potassium). ” ” ” —— NH_{4}Cl (Chloride of ammonium). HNO_{3} (Nitric acid) —— KNO_{3} (Nitrate of potassium). ” ” ” —— NH_{4}NO_{3} (Nitrate of ammonium). H_{2}SO_{4} (Sulphuric acid) —— K{2}SO_{4} (Sulphate of potassium). ” ” ” —— (NH_{4}){2}SO{4} (Sulphate of ammonium).

Acids are, in fact, hydrogen salts. The so-called DOUBLE SALTS are, according to one view, combinations of two salts of the same acid, but of different basic radicles; thus, common alum is a compound of sulphate of aluminum and sulphate of potassium.

The salts are a most important class of bodies, and their applications and uses in the arts of life and civilisation are almost infinite. See NOMENCLATURE, &c.

=Salt of Bark.= See EXTRACT OF BARK, DRIED.

=Salt, Bitter Pur′ging.= Epsom salt.

=Salt, Cathar′tic.= Of GLAUBER, sulphate of sodium; ENGLISH or BITTER S., sulphate of magnesium (Epsom salt).

=Salt, Common.= Syn. CULINARY SALT. Chloride of sodium.

=Salt, Diuret′ic.= Acetate of potassium.

=Salt, Ep′som.= Sulphate of magnesium.

=Salt, Feb′rifuge.= Chloride of potassium.

=Salt, Fu′′sible.= Phosphate of ammonium.

=Salt, Glauber’s.= Sulphate of sodium.

=Salt, Macqueer’s.= Binarseniate of potassium.

=Salt, Microcos′mic.= Phosphate of sodium and ammonium.

=Salt, Red.= Common salt wetted with an infusion of beet-root, or cochineal, or tincture of red sanders wood, then dried, and rubbed through a sieve. Used to impart a colour to gravies, &c. Infusion of saffron also gives a beautiful colour for this purpose. It has been proposed to colour Epsom salt in this way, to distinguish it from oxalic acid.

=Salt, Rochelle.= Tartrate of potassium and sodium.

=Salt, Sea.= Chloride of sodium.

=Salt, Sed′ative.= Boracic acid.

=Salt, Smelling.= See SALTS (below).

=Salt, Sore-throat.= Sal prunella.

=Salt, Taste′less.= Phosphate of sodium.

=Salt, Veg′etable.= Tartrate of potassium.

=Salt, Vol′atile.= Common carbonate of ammonium.

=Salt of Lem′ons.= Syn. SAL LIMONUM, L. Citric acid. That sold in the shops for the removal of ink spots from linen is binoxalate or quadroxalate of potassium, either alone or mixed with one half its weight of cream of tartar.

=Salt of Sor′rel.= Binoxalate or quadroxalate of potassium.

=Salt of Steel.= Sulphate of iron.

=Salt of Tar′tar.= Carbonate of potassium.

=Salt of Vit′riol.= Sulphate of zinc.

=Salt of Wormwood.= Carbonate of potassium.

=SALT′ING.= PICKLING. Syn. This is an easy method of preserving butcher’s meat, fish, and, indeed, most animal substances. It is performed in two ways:——

1. (DRY SALTING.) This, as practised in Hampshire, Yorkshire, and in various large establishments elsewhere, consists in merely well rubbing ordinary culinary salt, mixed with a little saltpetre, into the meat, until every crevice is thoroughly penetrated, and, afterwards, sprinkling some over it, and placing it on a board or in a trough, in such a manner that the brine may drain off. On the small scale, in private families, a mixture of salt, 2 lbs., with saltpetre, 1-1/2 or 2 oz., either with or without about an oz. of good moist sugar, is commonly used for the purpose, and imparts a fine flavour to the meat. In both cases the pieces are turned every day, or every other day, until sufficiently cured, a little fresh salt being added as required. Sometimes the fresh meat is packed at once in casks, with the best coarse-grained or bay salt. This method is that commonly adopted for sea stores.

2. (WET SALTING, or PICKLING IN BRINE.) When the meat is allowed to lie in the liquor that runs from it (see above), or is at once plunged into strong brine, it is said to be ‘pickled,’ or ‘wet salted.’ On the small scale, this is most conveniently performed by rubbing the fresh meat with salt, &c., as above, and, after it has lain a few hours, putting it into a pickle formed by dissolving about 4 lbs. of good salt and 2 oz. of saltpetre in 1 gall. of water, either with or without the addition of 1/2 to 1 lb. of moist sugar. This pickling liquor gets weaker by use, and should, therefore, be occasionally boiled down a little, and skimmed, at the same time adding some more of the dry ingredients. Three to ten days, depending on the size, is sufficiently long to keep meat in the brine. When it is taken out it should be hung up to dry, after which it may be packed in barrels with coarse-grained salt, or smoked, whichever may be desired. Saltpetre added to brine gives the meat a red colour, and brown sugar improves the flavour.

The sooner animal substances, more especially flesh, are salted after being killed, the better, as they then possess considerable absorbent power, which they gradually lose by age. See PUTREFACTION, SCURVY, SMOKING, &c.

=SALTPE′TRE.= Nitrate of potassium.

=SALTS for producing Factitious Mineral Waters.= AERATED, OR CARBONATE WATERS. These require the aid of the powerful machine employed by soda-water manufacturers, to charge the waters strongly with carbonic-acid gas. The gas is made from whiting and diluted sulphuric acid, and is forced by a pump into the watery solution. Sometimes the gas is produced by the mutual action of the ingredients introduced into the bottle of water, which must be instantly closed; but this method is found practically inconvenient, and is only adopted in the absence of proper apparatus. The quantity of gas introduced is directed, in the French and American pharmacopœias, in most cases, to be 5 times the volume of liquid. For chalybeate and sulphuretted waters the water should be previously deprived of the air it naturally contains, by boiling, and allowing it to cool in a closed vessel.

There are various manufacturers of aerated-water machines, and of syphon bottles for holding these waters when made. The names and addresses of these makers may be found in any trade directory.

SIMPLE AERATED WATER. Carbonic-acid gas water. Water charged with five or more volumes of carbonic-acid gas, as above.

ALKALINE AERATED WATERS. Aerated soda and potash waters should be made by dissolving a drachm of the carbonated alkali in each pint of water, and charging it strongly with carbonic-acid gas. The soda water of the shops generally contains but little (or no) soda.

AERATED MAGNESIA WATER. This is made of various strengths.

MURRAY’S and DINNEFORD’S FLUID MAGNESIA may be thus made:——To a boiling solution of 16 oz. of sulphate of magnesia in 6 pints of water add a solution of 19 oz. of crystallised carbonate of soda in the same quantity of water; boil the mixture till gas ceases to escape, stirring constantly; then set it aside to settle; pour off the liquid, and wash the precipitate on a cotton or linen cloth, with warm water, till the latter passes tasteless. Mix the precipitate, without drying it, with a gallon of water, and force carbonic-acid gas into it under strong pressure, till a complete solution is effected. The Eau Magnésienne of the French codex is about a third of this strength; and we have met with some prepared in this country not much stronger.

CARBONATED LIME WATER. Carrara water. Lime water (prepared from lime made by calcining Carrara marble) is supersaturated by strong pressure with carbonic acid, so that the carbonate of lime at first thrown down is redissolved. It contains 8 gr. of carbonate of lime in 10 fl. oz. of water.

AERATED LITHIA WATER. This may be conveniently made from the fresh precipitated carbonate, dissolved in carbonated water, as directed for fluid magnesia. Its antacid and antilithic properties promise to be useful.

SALINE CARBONATED WATERS.

The following afford approximate imitations of these waters. The earthy salts, with the salts of iron, should be dissolved together in the smallest quantity of water. The other ingredients to be dissolved in the larger portion of the water, and the solution impregnated with the gas. The first solution may be then added or be previously introduced into the bottles. The salts, unless otherwise stated, are to be crystallised.

BADEN WATER. Chloride of magnesium, 2 gr.; chloride of calcium, 40 gr.; perchloride of iron, 1/4 gr. (or 3 minims of the tincture); chloride of sodium, 30 gr.; sulphate of soda, 10 gr.; carbonate of soda, 1 gr.; water, 1 pint; carbonic-acid gas, 5 volumes.

CARLSBAD WATER. Chloride of calcium, 8 gr.; tincture of chloride of iron, 1 drop; sulphate of soda, 50 gr.; carbonate of soda, 60 gr.; chloride of sodium, 8 gr.; carbonated water, 1 pint.

EGER. Carbonate of soda, 5 gr.; sulphate of soda, 4 scruples; chloride of sodium, 10 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 3 gr.; chloride of calcium, 5 gr.; carbonated water, 1 pint. (Or it may be made without apparatus, thus:——Bicarbonate of soda, 30 gr.; chloride of sodium, 8 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 3 gr.; water, a pint; dissolve, and add a scruple of dry bisulphate of soda, and close the bottle immediately.)

EMS. Carbonate of soda, 2 scruples; sulphate of potash, 1 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 5 gr.; chloride of sodium, 10 gr.; chloride of calcium, 3 gr.; carbonated water, a pint.

MARIENBAD. Carbonate of soda, 2 scruples; sulphate of soda, 96 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 8 gr.; chloride of sodium, 15 gr.; chloride of calcium, 10 gr.; carbonated water, a pint. (Or, bicarbonate of soda, 50 gr.; sulphate of soda, 1 dr.; chloride of sodium, 15 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 10 gr.; dissolve in a pint of water, add 25 gr. of dry bisulphate of soda, and cork immediately.)

MARIENBAD PURGING SALTS. Bicarbonate of soda, 5 oz.; dried sulphate of soda, 12 oz.; dry chloride of sodium, 1-1/2 oz.; sulphate of magnesia, dried, 2 oz.; dried bisulphate of soda, 2-1/2 oz. Mix the salts, previously dried, separately, and keep them carefully from the air.

PULLNA WATER. Sulphate of soda, 4 dr.; sulphate of magnesia, 4 dr.; chloride of calcium, 15 gr.; chloride of magnesium (dry), a scruple; chloride of sodium, a scruple; bicarbonate of soda, 10 gr.; water, slightly carbonated, 1 pint. One of the most active of the purgative saline waters.

PULLNA WATER WITHOUT THE MACHINE. Bicarbonate of soda, 50 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 4 dr.; sulphate of soda, 3 dr.; chloride of sodium, a scruple; dissolve in a pint of water; add, lastly, 2 scruples of bisulphate of soda, and close the bottle immediately.

SALTS FOR MAKING PULLNA WATER. Dry bicarbonate of soda, 1 oz.; exsiccated sulphate of soda, 2 oz.; exsiccated sulphate of magnesia, 1-1/2 oz.; dry chloride of sodium, 2 dr.; dry tartaric acid, 3/4 oz. (or rather dry bisulphate of soda, 1 oz.).

SEIDLITZ WATER. This is usually imitated by strongly aerating a solution of 2 dr. of sulphate of magnesia in a pint of water. It is also made with 4, 6, and 8 dr. of the salts to a pint of water.

SEIDLITZ POWDER. The common seidlitz powders do not resemble the water. A closer imitation would be made by using effloresced sulphate of magnesia instead of the potassio-tartrate of soda. A still more exact compound will be the following:——Effloresced sulphate of magnesia, 2 oz.; bicarbonate of soda, 1/2 oz.; dry bisulphate of soda, 1/2 oz.; mix, and keep in a close bottle.

SEIDSCHUTZ WATER. Sulphate of magnesia, 3 dr.; chloride of calcium, nitrate of lime, bicarbonate of soda, of each 8 gr.; sulphate of potash, 5 gr.; aerated water, 1 pint.

SELTZER WATER. Chloride of calcium and chloride of magnesium, of each 4 gr.; dissolve these in a small quantity of water, and add it to a similar solution of 8 gr. of bicarbonate of soda, 20 gr. of chloride sodium, and 2 gr. of phosphate of soda; mix, and add a solution of 1/4 gr. of sulphate of iron; put the mixed solution into a 20-oz. bottle, and fill up with aerated water. Much of the Seltzer water sold is said to be nothing more than simple carbonated water, containing a little chloride of sodium. An imitation of Seltzer water is also made by putting into a stone Seltzer bottle, filled with water, 2 dr. bicarbonate of soda, and 2 dr. of citric acid in crystals, corking the bottle immediately. Sodaic powders are sometimes sold as Seltzer powders.

VICHY WATER. Bicarbonate of soda, 1 dr.; chloride of sodium, 2 gr.; sulphate of soda, 8 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 3 gr.; tincture of chloride of iron, 2 drops; aerated water, a pint. Dorvault directs 75 gr. of bicarbonate of soda, 4 gr. of chloride of sodium, 1/5 gr. sulphate of iron, 10 gr. sulphate of soda, 3 gr. sulphate of magnesia, to a pint of water. By adding 45 gr. (or less) of citric acid, an effervescing water is obtained.

M. Soubeiran, relying on the analysis of Longchamps, imitates Vichy water by the following combination:——Bicarbonate of soda, 135 gr.; chloride of sodium, 2-1/2 gr.; cryst. chloride of calcium, 12 gr.; sulphate of soda, 11-1/2 gr.; sulphate of magnesia, 3-3/4 gr.; tartrate of iron and potash, 1/8 gr.; water, 2-1/10 pints (1 litre); carbonic acid, 305 cub. inches (5 litres). Dissolve the salts of soda and iron in part of the water, and add the sulph. magnes. and then the chlor. calc. in the remaining water. Charge now with the carbonic-acid gas under pressure.

VICHY SALTS. Bicarbonate of soda, 1-1/2 oz.; chloride of sodium, 15 gr.; effloresced sulphate of soda, 1 dr.; effloresced sulphate of magnesia, 1 scruple; dry tartarised potash and iron, 1 gr.; dry tartaric acid, 1 oz. (or dry bisulphate of soda); mix the powders, previously dried, and keep them in a close bottle.

SALINE WATERS, &C., NOT CARBONATED.

SEA WATER. Chloride of sodium, 4 oz.; sulphate of soda, 2 oz.; chloride of calcium, 1/4 oz.; chloride of magnesium, 1 oz.; iodide of potassium, 4 gr.; bromide of potassium, 2 gr.; water, a gallon. A common substitute for sea water as a bath is made by dissolving 4 or 5 oz. of common salt in a gallon of water.

The following mixture of dry salts may be kept for the immediate production of a good imitation of sea water:——Chloride of sodium (that obtained from evaporating sea water, and not recrystallised, in preference), 85 oz.; effloresced sulphate of soda, 15 oz.; dry chloride of calcium, 4 oz.; dry chloride of magnesium, 16 oz.; iodide of potassium, 2 dr.; bromide of potassium, 1 gr. Mix, and keep dry. Put 4 or 5 oz. to a gallon of water.

BALARUC WATER. Chloride of sodium, 1 oz.; chloride of calcium, 1 oz.; chloride of magnesium, 1/2 oz.; sulphate of soda, 3 dr.; bicarbonate of soda, 2 dr.; bromide of potassium, 1 gr.; water, a gallon. Chiefly used for baths.

SULPHURETTED WATERS.

SIMPLE SULPHURETTED WATERS. Pass sulphuretted hydrogen into cold water (previously deprived of air by boiling, and cooled in a closed vessel) till it ceases to be absorbed.

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE WATER. Bicarbonate of soda, 12 gr.; chloride of sodium, 25 gr.; chloride of calcium, 3 gr.; sulphate of soda, 8 gr.; simple sulphuretted water, 2-1/2 oz.; water, slightly carbonated, 17-1/2 oz.

BARÈGES WATER. (Cauterets, Bagnères de Luchon, Eaux Bonnes, St Sauveur, may be made the same.) Crystallised hydrosulphate of soda, crystallised carbonate of soda, and chloride of sodium, of each 1-1/2 gr.; water (freed from air), a pint. A stronger solution for adding to baths is thus made:——Crystallised hydrosulphate of soda, crystallised carbonate of soda, and chloride of sodium, of each 2 oz.; water, 10 oz.; dissolve. To be added to a common bath at the time of using.

NAPLES WATER. Crystallised carbonate of soda, 15 gr.; fluid magnesia, 1 oz.; simple sulphuretted water, 2 oz.; aerated water, 16 oz. Introduce the sulphuretted water into the bottle last.

HARROGATE WATER. Chloride of sodium, 100 gr.; chloride of calcium, 10 gr.; chloride of magnesium, 6 gr.; bicarbonate of soda, 2 gr.; water, 18-1/2 oz. Dissolve, and add simple sulphuretted water, 1-1/2 oz.

CHALYBEATE WATERS.

SIMPLE CHALYBEATE WATER. Water freed from air by boiling, 1 pint; sulphate of iron, 1/2 gr.

AERATED CHALYBEATE WATER. Sulphate of iron, 1 gr.; carbonate of soda, 4 gr.; water (deprived of air and charged with carbonic-acid gas), a pint. Dr Pereira recommends 10 gr. each of sulphate of iron and bicarbonate of soda to be taken in a bottle of ordinary soda water. This is equivalent to 4 gr. of carbonate of iron.

BRIGHTON CHALYBEATE. Sulphate of iron, chloride of sodium, chloride of calcium, of each 2 gr.; carbonate of soda, 3 gr.; carbonated water, 1 pint.

BUSSANG, FORGES, PROVINS, and other similar waters, may be imitated by dissolving from 1/2 to 2/3rds of a grain of sulphate of iron, 2 or 3 gr. of carbonate of soda, 1 gr. of sulphate of magnesia, and 1 of chloride of sodium, in a pint of aerated water.

MONT D’OR WATER. Bicarbonate of soda, 70 gr.; sulphate of iron, 2/3 gr.; chloride of sodium, 12 gr.; sulphate of soda, 1/2 gr.; chloride of calcium, 4 gr.; chloride of magnesium, 2 gr.; aerated water, a pint.

PASSY WATER. Sulphate of iron, 2 gr.; chloride of sodium, 3 gr.; carbonate of soda, 4 gr.; chloride of magnesium, 2 gr.; aerated water, a pint.

PYRMONT WATER. Sulphate of magnesia, 20 gr.; chloride of magnesium, 4 gr.; chloride of sodium, 2 gr.; bicarbonate of soda, 16 gr.; sulphate of iron, 2 gr.; Carrara water, a pint.

VARIOUS AERATED MEDICINAL WATERS NOT RESEMBLING ANY NATURAL SPRING.

MIALHE’S AERATED CHALYBEATE WATER. Water, a pint; citric acid, 1 dr.; citrate of iron, 15 gr.; dissolve, and add 75 gr. of bicarbonate of soda.

TROSSEAU’S MARTIAL AERATED WATER. Potassio-tartrate of iron, 10 gr.; artificial Seltzer water, a pint.

BOUCHARDAT’S GASEOUS PURGATIVE. Phosphate of soda, 1-1/2 oz.; carbonated water, a pint.

MIALHE’S IODURETTED GASEOUS WATER. Iodide of potassium, 15 gr.; bicarbonate of soda, 75 gr.; water, a pint; dissolve and add sulphuric acid, diluted with its weight of water, 75 gr. Cork immediately.

DUPASQUIER’S GASEOUS WATER OF IODIDE OF IRON. Solution of iodide of iron (containing 1/10th of dry iodide), 30 gr.; syrup of gum, 2-1/2 oz.; aerated water, 17-1/2 oz.

=SALTS (Smelling).= Syn. SAL VOLATILIS OLEOSUS, L. Sesquicarbonate of ammonia commonly passes under the name of ‘SMELLING SALTS,’ and, with the addition of a few drops of essential oil, is frequently employed to fill ‘SMELLING BOTTLES,’ but when a strong and durable pungency is desired, the carbonate should alone be used, as in one or other of the following formulæ:——

1. Carbonate (not sesquicarbonate) of ammonia, 1 lb.; oil of lavender (Mitcham), 2 oz.; essence of bergamot, 1 oz.; oil of cloves, 1/4 oz.; rub them together, and sublime; keep the product in well-stopped bottles.

2. Carbonate of ammonia, 1 lb.; oil of lavender, 2 oz.; oils of bergamot and lemon, of each 1 oz.; as the last.

3. Carbonate of ammonia, 1/2 lb.; essence of bergamot, 1 oz.; oil of verbena, 1/4 oz.; otto of roses, 1 dr.; as before.

4. Carbonate of ammonia, 3/4 lb.; essences of bergamot and lemon, of each 1/2 oz.; essence de petit grain, 1/4 oz.; oil of cloves, 1 dr.; as before.

5. (Extemporaneous.)——a. From sal ammoniac, 1 dr.; pure potassa, 3 dr.; grind them together, and add, of essence of lemons, 15 drops; oil of cloves, 3 or 4 drops.——b. From carbonate or sesquicarbonate of ammonia (bruised), q. s.; volatile ammoniacal essence, a few drops.

According to Dr Paris, GODFREY’S SMELLING SALTS are made by resubliming volatile salt with subcarbonate of potassa and a little spirits of wine (and essential oil).

=SALVE.= A name indiscriminately applied by the vulgar to any consistent, greasy preparation used in medicine.

=Salve, Lip-.= Syn. CERATUM LABIALE, L.

Prep. 1. (RED or PERUVIAN.) From spermaceti ointment, 1/2 lb.; alkanet root, 1/2 oz.; melt them together until sufficiently coloured, strain, and, when the strained fat has cooled a little, add of balsam of Peru, 3 dr.; stir well, and in a few minutes pour off the clear portion from the dregs; lastly, stir in of oil of cloves, 20 or 30 drops. This never gets rancid.

2. (ROSE.) See CERATE.

3. (WHITE.) From the finest spermaceti ointment or cerate, 3 oz.; finely powdered white sugar, 1 oz.; neroli or essence de petit grain, 10 or 12 drops, or q. s.

Obs. Numerous formulæ are extant for lip-salves, as for other like articles, but the preceding are those generally employed in trade. The perfumes may be varied at will and the salve named after them. A very small quantity of finely powdered borax is occasionally added. FRENCH LIP-SALVE is said to contain alum, in fine powder; and GERMAN LIP-SALVE is said to be made of cacao butter. See CERATE, POMMADE, and OINTMENT.

=SAND.= Syn. ARENA, L. River and sea sand consist chiefly of finely divided siliceous matter, mixed, occasionally, with carbonate of lime. That of Lynn and Alum Bay is nearly purely silica, and is, therefore, selected for the manufacture of glass. Sand is used by moulders in metal, and as a manure for heavy land. It is a large and necessary portion of every fertile soil.

=SAND PAPER.= The ‘American Builder’ gives the following process for making sand-paper of superior quality, at almost nominal cost:

“The device for making sand-paper is simple and at hand to any one who has occasion to use the paper. A quantity of ordinary window glass is taken (that having a green colour is said to be the best) and pounded fine, after which it is passed through one or more sieves of different degrees of fineness, to secure the glass for coarse or fine paper. Then any tough paper is covered evenly with glue, having about one third more water than is generally employed for wood work. The glass is sifted upon the paper, allowed a day or two in which to become fixed in the glue, when the refuse glue is shaken off, and the paper is fit for use.”

=SAN′DAL WOOD.= 1. (RED SANDERS WOOD, R. SAUNDERS W.; LIGNUM SANTALI RUBRI, LIGNUM SANTALINUM RUBRUM, PTEROCARPUS——Ph. L. & E.) The wood of Pterocarpus santilinus. It is used in medicine as a colouring matter. It is also employed in dyeing, and to stain varnishes. WOOL may be dyed a carmine red by dipping it alternately into an infusion of this wood and an acidulous bath, (Trommsdorff.) Prepared with a mordant of alum and tartar, and then dyed in a bath of sandal wood and sumach, it takes a reddish-yellow. (Bancroft.) See SANTALIN.

2. (WHITE SANDAL WOOD, WHITE SANDERS; SANTALUM ALBUM.) The young timber, or, according to others, the outside wood of Santalum album. (Linn.)

3. (YELLOW SANDAL WOOD; SANTALUM CITRINUM, S. FLAVUM.) The old timber, or, according to others, the heart of the same tree. Both the latter are much esteemed on account of their fragrance, and yield a valuable essential oil.

=SAN′DARACH.= Syn. SANDRAC, GUMS. A resin obtained from Thuja articulata, and Juniperus communis (in warm climates). It is slightly fragrant, is freely soluble in rectified spirit, and has a sp. gr. of 1·05 to 1·09. It is used as incense, pounce, in varnishes, &c.

=SAN′DERS WOOD.= See SANDAL WOOD.

=SAN′DIVER.= Syn. GLASS GALL; FELL VITRI, SAL VITRI, L. The saline scum that swims on glass when first made. It is occasionally used in tooth powders.

=SANGUINA′RINE.= Syn. SANGUINARINA, L. Obtained from the root of Sanguinaria Canadensis (Linn.), or blood-root, by digesting it in anhydrous alcohol; exhausting it with weak sulphuric acid; precipitating by liquor of ammonia; dissolving out by ether, and precipitating sulphate of sanguinarine by the addition of sulphuric acid. The sulphate may be decomposed by ammonia, which precipitates the alkaloid as a white pearly substance, of an acrid taste, very soluble in alcohol, also soluble in ether and volatile oils. With acids it forms soluble salts, remarkable for their beautiful red, crimson, and scarlet colours. These salts are used in medicine as expectorants, in doses of fractions of a grain.

The ‘sanguinarin’ of the American ‘Eclectics’ is prepared by precipitating a saturated tincture of blood-root by water. It contains an uncertain proportion of the alkaloid, and is of a deep reddish-brown colour. See RESINOIDS.

=SANITARY AUTHORITIES AND SANITARY DISTRICTS.= With the exception of the metropolis, the whole of England and Ireland is divided into urban and rural sanitary districts, which are respectively governed by urban and rural authorities.

The Public Health Act (sec. 6) thus defines an urban district, and an urban authority in England:——

----------------------------------------+--------------------- Urban Districts. | Urban Authority. ----------------------------------------+--------------------- Borough, constituted such either before | The mayor, aldermen, or after the passing of this Act. | and burgesses, | acting by the | council. | Improvement act district, constituted | The improvement such before the passing of the Public | commissioners. Health Act, 1872, and having no | part of its area situated within a | borough or local government district. | | Local government district constituted | The local board. such either before or after the passing | of this Act, having no part of | its area situated within a borough, | and not coincident in area with a | borough or improvement act district. | ----------------------------------------+---------------------

Provided that——

1. Any borough the whole of which is included in and forms part of a local government district or improvement act district, and any improvement act district which is included in and forms part of a local government district, and any local government district which is included in and forms part of an improvement act district, shall, for the purposes of this Act, be deemed to be absorbed in the larger district in which it is included, or of which it forms part; and the Improvement commissioners, or local board, as the case may be, of such larger district, shall be the urban authority therein; and

2. Where an improvement act district is coincident in area with a local government district, the improvement commissioners, and not a local board, shall be the urban authority there; and

3. Where any part of an improvement act district is situated within a borough or local act district, or where any part of a local government district is situated within a borough, the remaining part of such improvement act district or of such local government district so partly situated within a borough, shall for the purposes of this Act continue subject to the like jurisdiction as it would have been subject to if this Act had not been passed, unless and until the Local Government Board by provisional order otherwise directs.

For the purposes of the Public Health Act, the boroughs of Oxford, Cambridge, Blandford, Calne, Wenlock, Folkestone, and Newport, Isle of Wight, are not to be deemed boroughs.

The borough of Cambridge is to be deemed an improvement act district, the borough of Oxford is to be included in the local government district of Oxford, and there is a special provision in the case of the borough of Folkestone.

An English rural sanitary district and authority are thus defined by the Public Health Act (sec. 9):——

“The area of any union which is not coincident in area with an urban district, nor wholly included in an urban district (in this section called a rural union), with the exception of those portions (if any) of the area which are included in any urban district, shall be a rural district, and the guardians of the union shall form the rural authority of such district, provided that——

“1. An ex officio guardian resident in any parish or part of a parish belonging to such union, which parish or part of a parish forms or is situated in an urban district, shall not act or vote in any case in which guardians of such union act or vote as members of the rural authority, unless he is the owner or occupier of property situated in the rural district of a value sufficient to qualify him as an elective guardian for the union.

“2. An elective guardian of any parish belonging to such union, and forming or being included within an urban district, shall not act or vote in any case in which guardians of such union act or vote as members of the rural authority.

“3. Where part of a parish belonging to a rural union forms or is situated in an urban district, the Local Government Board may by order divide such parish into separate wards, and determine the number of guardians to be elected by such wards respectively, in such manner as to provide for the due representation of the part of the parish situated within the rural district; but until such order has been made, the guardian or guardians of such parish may act and vote as members of the rural authority in the same manner as if no part of such parish formed part of, or was situated in, the urban district.”

Where the number of elective guardians, who are not by this section disqualified from acting and voting as members of the rural authority, is less than five, the Local Government Board may from time to time by order nominate such number of persons as may be necessary to make up that number, from owners or occupiers of property situated in the rural district of a value sufficient to qualify them as elective guardians for the union; and the persons so nominated shall be entitled to act and vote as members of the rural authority, but not further or otherwise.

Subject to the provisions of this Act, all statutes, orders, and legal provisions applicable to any board of guardians shall apply to them in their capacity of rural authority under this Act for the purposes of this Act; and it is hereby declared that the rural authority are the same body as the guardians of the union or parish for or within which such authority act.

Sanitary districts in Ireland are:——The City of Dublin, other corporate towns above 6000, and towns or townships having commissioners under local Acts.

And urban authorities are:——

In the City of Dublin, the Right Hon. the Lord Mayor, Aldermen, and Burgesses acting by the town council.

In towns corporate, the town council.

In towns exceeding 6000, having commissioners under the Lighting, Cleaning, and Watching Act of George IV; or having municipal commissioners under 3 and 4 Vict., c. 108; or town commissioners under the Towns Improvement (Ireland) Act (17 and 18 Vict., c. 103), the said commissioners, municipal, or town councillors respectively.

In towns or townships having commissioners under local Acts, the town or township commissioners (37 and 38 Vict. c. 98, s. 3).

The Irish rural sanitary districts and authorities are exactly analogous to the English.

In Scotland, sanitary powers are exercised by town councils, police commissioners, and parochial boards, controlled and supervised by a board of supervision; but the names of urban and rural sanitary authorities have not yet been applied to them.

Under the English Public Health Act, there may also be formed united districts; for example:

Where, on the application of any local authority of any district, it appears to the Local Government Board that it would be for the advantage of the districts, or any of them, or any parts thereof, or of any contributory places, in any rural district or districts, to be formed into a united district for all or any of the purposes following:——

1. The procuring a common supply of water; or

2. The making a main sewer, or carrying into effect a system of sewerage for the use of all such districts, or contributory places; or

3. For any other purposes of this Act, the Local Government Board may, by provisional order, form such districts or contributory places into a united district.

All costs, charges, and expenses of and incidental to the formation of a united district are, in the event of the united district being formed, to be a first charge on the rates leviable in the united district in pursuance section 279 of the Public Health Act.

Notice of the provisional order must be made public in the locality; and should the union be carried out, the incidental expenses thereto are a first charge on the sanitary rates of the united district. A united district is governed by a joint board consisting of such ex officio, and of such number of elective members as the provisional order determines.

The business arrangements of the joint board differ little from those of a sanitary authority.

The joint board is a body corporate having a name——determined by the provisional order——a perpetual succession, and a common seal, and having power to acquire and hold lands without any licence in mortmain. The joint board has only business and power in matters for which it has been formed. With the exception of these special objects, the component districts continue as before to exercise independent powers.

Nevertheless, the joint board may delegate to the sanitary authority of any component district the exercise of any of its powers, or the performance of any of its duties (Public Health Act, sec. 281).

Sanitary authorities and districts may be also combined for the execution and maintenance of works, for the prevention of epidemic diseases, as well as for the purpose of appointing a medical officer of health. Districts when once formed are not fixed and unvariable, the Local Government Board having the most extensive powers over the alterations of areas.

1. The Local Government Board, by provisional order, may dissolve any local government district, and may merge any such district in some other district, or may declare the whole or any portion of a local government or a rural district immediately adjoining a local government district to be included in such last mentioned district, or may declare any portion of a local government district immediately adjoining a rural district to be included in such last-mentioned district; and thereupon the included area shall, for the purposes of the Public Health Act, be deemed to form part of the district in which it is included in such order; and the remaining part (if any) of such local government district or rural district affected by such order, shall continue subject to the like jurisdiction as it would have been subject to if such order had not been made, unless and until the Local Government Board by provisional order otherwise directs.

2. In the case of a borough comprising within its area the whole of an improvement act district, or having an area coextensive with such district, the Local Government Board, by provisional order, may dissolve such district, and transfer to the council of the borough, all or any of the jurisdiction and powers of the improvement commissioners of such district, remaining vested in them at the time of the passing of the Public Health Act.

3. The Local Government Board may, by order, dissolve any special drainage district constituted either before or after the passing of the Public Health Act in which a loan for the execution of works has not been raised, and merge it into the parish or parishes in which it is situated; but in the cases where a loan has been raised the Local Government Board can only do this by provisional order (Public Health Act, sec. 271).

Disputes with regard to the boundaries of districts are to be settled by the Local Government Board after local inquiry (Public Health Act, sec. 278).

Where districts also are constituted for the purposes of main sewerage only, in pursuance of the Public Health Act of 1848, or where a district has been formed subject to the jurisdiction of a joint sewerage board, in pursuance of the Sewage Utilisation Act of 1867, such districts or district may be dissolved by provisional order, and the Local Government Board may constitute it a united district, subject to the jurisdiction of a joint board (Public Health Act, sec. 323).

The Local Government Board may also declare by provisional order any rural district to be a local government district.

The Local Government Board has also the important power of investing a rural authority with urban powers as follows:

“The Local Government Board may, on the application of the authority of any rural district, or of persons rated to the relief of the poor, the assessment of whose hereditaments amounts at the least to one tenth of the net rateable value of such district, or of any contributory place therein, by order to be published in the ‘London Gazette,’ or in such other manner as the Local Government Board may direct, declare any provisions of this Act in force in urban districts to be in force in such rural district or contributory place, and may invest such authority with all or any of the powers, rights, duties, capacities, liabilities, and obligations of an urban authority under this Act, and such investment may be made either unconditionally or subject to any conditions to be specified by the board as to the time, portion of its district, or manner during, at, and in which such powers, rights, duties, liabilities, capacities, and obligations are to be exercised and attach, provided that an order of the Local Government Board made on the application of one tenth of the persons rated to the relief of the poor in any contributory place shall not invest the rural authority with any new powers beyond the limits of such contributory places” (Public Health Act, sec. 276).

Powers and Duties of Sanitary Authorities. In England urban sanitary authorities have very extensive powers and duties under the Public Health Act of 1875, and in addition they have to carry out the Bakehouse Regulation Act, and the Artisans’ and Labourers’ Dwellings Act. They also have power to adopt the Baths and Wash-houses Acts, and the Labouring Classes’ Lodging Houses Acts; but where adopted or in force, the powers, rights, duties, &c., of these Acts belong to the urban authority. The powers of any local act for sanitary purposes (except a River Conservancy Act) are transferred to the urban authority.

The powers of an English rural authority are exercised principally under the Public Health Act, but they have also to carry out the Bakehouse Regulation Act.

The powers given by the Irish Public Health Act to Irish Sanitary Authorities are similar.

The Local Government Act is not in force there, and equal powers are given without distinction to urban and rural sanitary authorities.

The duties of sanitary authorities are to carry out the Acts which apply to them, and appoint certain officers, such as medical officers of health, inspectors of nuisances, clerk, treasurer, &c.

Speaking generally, it may be affirmed that all sanitary authorities are invested with ample powers for enforcing sanitary measures. Their duty consists in perfecting drainage, sewerage, and water supply. In towns they have the control of streets and houses, both private and public, and in all localities they possess ample powers to cause every species of nuisance to be abated, which is in the least inimical to health.

The Public Health Act contains a proviso for dealing with an authority which fails in its duty. Under these circumstances, the Local Government Board is invested with compulsory powers, and may compel the due performance of whatever it may deem necessary.

=SANITARY HERBAL BITTERS——Gesundheitskräuter-Bitter.= An indispensable household remedy for every family, for colic, stomach-ache, cramp in the bladder, flatulence, loss of appetite, nausea, chronic liver diseases, constipation, and diarrhœa; also as a soothing agent for infants (Gottschlich). The fluid contains in 100 grammes the soluble portion of about ·8 gramme opium. (Hager.)

=SANITARY LIQUEUR——Gesundheits Liqueur.= Swedish elixir of life, with rhubarb in place of the aloes, made into a liqueur with sugar and spirit. (Hager.)

=SANITARY, POPULAR, ERRORS.= It is a popular sanitary error to think that the more a man eats the fatter and stronger he will become. To believe that the more hours children study the faster they learn. To conclude that, if exercise is good, the more violent the more good is done. To imagine that every hour taken from sleep is an hour gained. To act on the presumption that the smallest room in the house is large enough to sleep in. To imagine that whatever remedy causes one to feel immediately better is good for the system, without regard to the ulterior effects. To eat without an appetite; or to continue after it has been satisfied, merely to gratify the taste. To eat a hearty supper at the expense of a whole night of disturbed sleep and weary waking in the morning (‘Sanitary Record’).

=SANITARY RATAFIA——Gesundheits Ratafia.= For removing all stomach, chest, and bowel complaints, indigestion, colic, diarrhœa, vomiting, flatulence, dysuria, and affections caused by chills. A clear brown schnapps containing, in 250 grammes by weight, 75 grammes sugar, 105 grammes water, 100 grammes strong spirit, 40 grammes each of tincture of orange peel and tincture of orange berries, 2·5 grammes each tincture of cloves and tincture of wormwood, 1 drop oil of peppermint, 5 drops acetic ether, and some drops of caramel. (Dr Horn.)

=SANITARY SOUL, Flowers of.——Gesundheitsblumengeist.= A mixture of spirit, 500 parts; tinct. aromatica, 5 parts; oils of bergamot, lavender, and rosemary, of each 2 parts; oil of thyme, 3 parts; oil of spearmint, 1 part. (Hager.)

=SANITATION, DOMESTIC.= Not one of the least creditable or important benefits conferred of late years, by the efforts of philanthropic and enlightened enterprise upon the poorer classes of this country, has been the erection——in cities and large towns more particularly——of healthy houses for them to dwell in. In the construction of these habitations the architects and designers have for the most part been guided by sound sanitary principles, the carrying out of which has been effected by means of legislative supervision, and if needful, of legislative action.

The result of these measures has, in most cases, been to provide residences for our poorer brethren, wherein, amongst other advantages, they enjoy the two primary ones of pure air and water. That the richer, upper, and middle classes, whilst devising and achieving so much in the way of comfort and health for those beneath them, should themselves in so many cases live in houses notoriously unhealthy, and should fail to recognise the advantages of the compulsory enforcement of necessary hygienic arrangements, are anomalies so amazing as to be, at first sight, scarcely credible. Yet a little piece of statistics may serve to discomfit those who are incredulous on this point. The average mortality in London is 24 persons in a 1000. In the improved dwellings of the poor it is only 14 in the 1000.

This subject was ventilated in a very earnest and valuable paper read before the Social Science Congress at Brighton in 1875 by Mr H. H. Collins. In this paper Mr Collins refers only to the houses of the metropolis and its suburbs, and maintains that, as far as regards the enforcement of sanitary precautions in house building, London and its suburbs are infinitely worse provided for than many second-rate provincial towns, most of which, he says, have the construction of their buildings and streets regulated by bye-laws issued under the powers of the Public Health Act, and sanctioned by the Home Secretary, whereas in London the various Acts of Parliament for this purpose have been inoperative. Mr Collins describes the insanitary condition of some of the high-rented houses he examined and says the descriptions which follow equally apply to many others situated in the most aristocratic quarters of London.

Imagine one of our legislators who, perhaps, had been voting for the passing of the “Nuisance Removals Act,” returning from his parliamentary duties to such a mansion as is portrayed by Mr Collins in the following extract:——“I have recently purchased on behalf of a client the lease of a mansion in Portland Place from a well-known nobleman, who had spent, as I was informed, a fortune in providing new drainage; indeed, I found the principal water-closet built out of the house altogether; the soil-pipe of it, however, was carried through the basement, where it was supposed to be connected with the drain. Upon removing the floor-boards to examine it, I found the ground surrounding the connection literally one mass of black sewage, the soil oozing through the point even at the time of the examination, and the connection with the main-drain laid in it at right angles. The 9-inch drain-pipes ran through the centre of the house, having a very slight gradient, and had evidently not been laid in many years, yet they were nearly full of consolidated sewage, and but little space was left for the passage of the fluid. With but a slightly increased pressure the joints would have given way, and the sewage would have flowed under the boards instead of into the sewer. The sinks, water-closets, and cisterns were all badly situated, and all more or less defective in sanitary arrangement. In the butler’s pantry the sink was placed next to the turn-up bedstead of the butler, who must have inhaled draughts of impure atmosphere at every inspiration. The soil-pipes of the closets had indeed been ventilated with a zinc rectangular tube, but, as this had been so placed as to let the sewer-gas through an adjacent skylight into the house, and the odour being extremely disagreeable, it had been by his lordship’s directions (as I am told) closed. Here was evidence that it had at all events been doing some service, and probably had only poisoned a few of the domestics. I found the bends of soil-pipes likewise riddled with holes, as described by Dr Leargus. There happened to be a housemaids’ sink situated close to a bedroom, the waste from which had been carefully connected with the soil-pipe, so that probably had the closets been satisfactorily ventilated, this arrangement would have defeated the object in view. I should also mention that the best water-closet was situated on the bedroom floor under the stairs, and was lighted and ventilated through a small shaft formed of wood boarding and carried to the roof; it also opened by a window to the main or principal staircase. The gutter of the roof ran through the bedrooms and under the floors; at the time of examination it was full of black slimy filth. This is a fair specimen of the sanitary arrangements of a nobleman’s town house, situated in one of the best streets of this great metropolis in the year of grace 1875.”

Let us take another example:——“A few years ago a client of mine, who resided in a large house in a wealthy suburb, informed me that his wife and two daughters had suffered in health ever since they had occupied their house, that he had consulted several medical men without beneficial result, and that he wished me to make a survey of the premises. He paid a rental of about £200 per annum. I found that the drainage was in every way defective, although he told me that he had spent a large sum of money in making it ‘perfect,’ the gradients were bad, the pipes choked, and the joints unsound. The servants’ water-closet was adjacent to the scullery, which was in communication with the kitchen, the sink being directly opposite the kitchen range. The water-closet was supplied direct from the cistern, the waste from which entered the drain, although it was said to be trapped. The waste of the sink was simply connected with the drains and trapped with an ordinary bell-trap, the cover or trap of which I found broken. Under the kitchen range hot-water tap I found a trapped opening, also leading into the drain. The domestics complained of frequent headaches and general depression, and I need not add that it excited no surprise, seeing that the kitchen fire was continuously drawing in from the sewers and house drains a steady supply of sewer-gas to the house and drinking-water cistern. In addition I found the basement walls damp, owing to the absence of a damp-proof course and the want of dry areas. The upper water-closets, house-closets, and cisterns were situated over each other, off the first-floor landing, and directly opposite the bedroom doors. The bath and lavatory were fixed in the dressing-room, communicating with the best bedroom, the wastes from which were carried into the soil-pipe of closets. This latter was unventilated, but was trapped with an S pipe at bottom. The water-closets were pan closets, and were trapped by D traps. The upper closet periodically untrapped the lower closet, and both traps leaving the impure air free access to the house and cistern, which latter was also in communication by means of its waste-pipe with the house-drains. The overflows from safes of the water-closets were practically untrapped. The peculiar nauseating odour of sewer-gas was distinctly perceptible, and I had but little doubt but that atonic disease was rapidly making its inroads on the occupants. The landlord refused to recognise the truth of my report. My client, acting on my advice, relinquished his lease, took another house, the sanitation of which was carefully attended to, and his wife and children have had no recurrence of illness.”

Mr Collins mentions a very alarming and unsuspected source of aerial poisoning in many town-houses to be the existence of old disused cesspools in the centre of the buildings. These receptacles, which are frequently nearly filled with decaying fæcal substances, are very often found to be insecurely covered over with tiles, stones, or boarding. To ensure the construction of a healthy dwelling-house, Mr Collins regards attention to the following conditions as essential:——“All subsoil should be properly drained, proper thickness of the concrete should be applied to the foundations, damp-proof courses should be inserted over footings, earth should be kept back from walls by dry areas properly drained and ventilated, external walls should be built of good hard well-burnt stock brickwork, of graduated thicknesses, and never less than 14 inches thick; internal divisions should be of brick in cement. The mortar and cement should be of good quality. All basement floors should have a concrete or cement bottom, with air flowing under the same, and the boarding thereof should be tongued so as to prevent draught and exhalation penetrating through the joints of the same. Ample areas back and front should be insisted on, the divisional or party fence walls of which should never be allowed to exceed 7 feet in height, to allow free circulation and to prevent the areas becoming wells or shafts for stagnant air. The main drains should be carried through the back yards, and, to prevent inconvenience to adjoining owners from any obstruction, they should be laid in subways, so that the sewer inspector could gain ready access thereto without entering any of the premises or causing any annoyance to the tenants. No basement should on any account be allowed to be constructed at such a level as will not permit of the pipes having good steep gradients to the sewer.

All sinks should be placed next external walls, having windows over the same, and removed from the influence of the fire-grates. All wastes should discharge exteriorly over and not into trapped cess-pits, all of which should be provided with splashing stones fixed round the same. The basement cisternage should be placed in convenient and accessible positions, protected from dirt and guarded from the effects of alternations of temperature. They should be of slate and galvanised iron, and never of lead or zinc. They should be fitted with overflows discharging over the sink, or over trapped cesses as just mentioned. They should be supplied with stout lead encased, block-tin pipe, the services therefrom for all drinking purposes should be of the same description, and should be attached to an ascending filter, so that water may be delivered free from lead or organic impurities. Lead poisoning is more frequent than is generally believed. Cupboards under stairs, under sinks, under dressers, or out-of-the-way places should be avoided, and when fitted up should always be well ventilated. All passages should be well lighted and ventilated. Borrowed lights are better than none at all. Every room should be furnished with a fireplace, and Comyn and Chingo ventilators over doors and windows should be freely disposed. It would conduce to the health of the house, without adding one shilling to its cost, to build next the kitchen flue a separate ventilating flue, and to conduct the products of combustion from gas and other impure or soiled air, &c., into the same, from ventilators placed in the centre of or close to the ceilings, as may be found most convenient. By carefully proportioning the inlet and outlet ventilation, the air will be kept moving without draught, and preserved in a pure and sweet condition for respiration. The windows and doors will then serve only their legitimate objects of admitting light, and of affording ingress and egress to the various apartments. The staircase should be made the main ventilator of the house, and it is essentially necessary to preserve the air surrounding the same, uncontaminated, pure, and undefiled. It will be better to light and ventilate it from the top; and to prevent the Ethiopians or blacks of London finding their way into the house, an invisible gauze net may be placed under it, which can periodically be easily removed and cleansed, or it may be furnished with a movable inner, ornamental flat light.

Under no circumstances must lavatories or sinks be brought in connection with the drains. Most people desire the bath-room to be in proximity to the bedrooms; whether so placed or not, all connection with main drainage must be studiously avoided. The hot and cold pipes, known as the flow and return pipes, should be of galvanised iron, with junctions carefully made with running joints in red lead; on no account should these be in contact with any other pipes. The wastes from the bath safe (and lavatories if any) should be carried through the front wall of the house, and should turn over and into rain-water head, covered with domical wire grating to prevent birds building their nests therein, and carried down to the basement area, where they must discharge over a trapped cess-pit, as before described, surrounded with a splash-stone or curve to obviate the nuisance of the soap-suds flowing over the pavement. A brush passed up and down these waters now and then will effectually remove any soapy sediment which may cling to their surfaces. The waste from bath, &c., into heads should be furnished with a ground valve flap and collar to prevent draught, and the bath should be fitted with india-rubber seatings between the metal and wood framing. Mansarde or sloping roofs should be avoided; they are injurious to the health of the domestics, whose sleeping chambers they are generally appropriated to; they are unhealthy, hot in summer, and prejudicially cold in winter, laying the basis for future disease for those least able to bear it. Gutters taken through roofs, known as ‘trough,’ should never be permitted; they congregate putrescent filth, which remains in them for years to taint and poison the atmosphere.” Consult also, as supplementing this subject, the articles DRAINS, DUSTBINS, CESSPOOLS, TANKS, TRAPS, WATER-CLOSETS.

=SAN′TALIN.= The colouring principle of red sanders wood.

=SAN′TONIN.= C_{15}H_{18}O_{3}. Syn. SANTONIC ACID; SANTONINUM, L. The crystalline and characteristic principle of the seed of several varieties of Artemisia.

Prep. (Ph. Baden, 1841.) Take of worm-seed, 4 parts; hydrate of lime, 1-1/2 part; mix, and exhaust them with alcohol of 90%; distil, off 3-4ths of the spirit, and evaporate the remainder to one half, which, at the boiling temperature, is to be mixed with acetic acid in excess, and afterwards with water; on repose, impure santonin subsides; wash this with a little weak spirit, then dissolve it in rectified spirit, 10 parts, decolour by ebullition for a few minutes with animal charcoal, and filter; the filtrate deposits colourless crystals of santonin as it cools; these are to be dried, and kept in opaque bottles.

Mr W. G. Smith, M.B., states that two singular effects are known to result from the administration of santonin in moderate doses, viz. visual derangements and a peculiar alteration in the colour of the urine. He adds that three hours after taking 5 gr. of pure white santonin, he became conscious, while reading, of a yellowish tint on the paper, and a yellow haze in the air. His own hands, and the complexions of others, appeared of a sallow unhealthy colour; and the evening sky, which was really of a pale lavender colour, seemed to be light green. Vision was not perfectly distinct for some hours, and was accompanied by a certain vagueness of definition. Mr Smith endorses the observations of previous observers who had noticed that the urine of persons under the influence of santonin is tinged of a saffron yellow or greenish colour. The coloured urine resembles that of a person slightly jaundiced, and like this permanently stains linen of a light yellow colour.

The best test for santonin in the urine is an alkali, upon the addition of which the urine immediately assumes a fine cherry-red colour, varying in depth according to the amount of santonin present. Potash was found to be the preferable alkali.

Prop., &c. Prismatic or tubular crystals; inodorous; tasteless, or only slightly bitter; fusible; volatilisable; soluble in 4500 parts of cold and about 250 parts of boiling water; soluble in cold alcohol and ether; freely soluble in hot alcohol. It is much esteemed as a tasteless worm medicine, and is especially adapted to remove lumbricales (large round worms).——Dose, 6 to 18 or 20 gr., repeated night and morning, followed by a brisk purge.

(Ph. B.) Boil 1 lb. of santonico, bruised, with 1 gall. of distilled water, and 5 oz. of slaked lime, in a copper or tinned iron vessel for an hour, strain through a stout cloth and express strongly. Mix the residue with 1/2 gall. of distilled water and 2 oz. of lime, boil for half an hour, strain and express as before. Mix the strained liquors, let them settle, decant the fluid from the deposit, evaporate to the bulk of 2-1/2 pints. To the liquor while hot add, with diligent stirring, hydrochloric acid, until the fluid has become slightly and permanently acid, and set it aside for five days that the precipitate may subside. Remove, by skimming, any oily matter which floats on the surface, and carefully decant the greater part of the fluid from the precipitate. Collect this on a paper filter, wash it first with cold distilled water, till the washings pass colourless and nearly free from acid reaction, then with 1/2 fl. oz. of solution of ammonia, previously diluted with 5 oz. of distilled water, and, lastly, with cold distilled water, till the washings pass colourless. Press the filter containing the precipitate between folds of filtering paper, and dry it with a gentle heat. Scrape the dry precipitate from the filter, and mix it with 60 gr. of purified animal charcoal. Pour on them 9 fl. oz. of rectified spirit, digest for half an hour, and boil for ten minutes. Filter while hot, wash the charcoal with 1 fl. oz. of boiling spirit, and set the filtrate aside for two days in a cool dark place to crystallise. Separate the mother liquor from the crystals, and concentrate to obtain a further product. Collect the crystals, let them drain, redissolve them in 4 fl. oz. of boiling spirit, and let the solution crystallise as before. Lastly, dry the crystals on filtering paper in the dark and preserve them in a bottle protected from the light.

=SAP GREEN.= See GREEN PIGMENTS.

=SAPONIFICA′TION.= See SOAP.

=SAP′ONIN.= Syn. SAPONINUM, L. A white, non-crystallisable substance, obtained by the action of hot diluted alcohol on the root of Saponaria officinalis (Linn.), or soapwort.

Prop., &c. Saponin is soluble in hot water, and the solution froths strongly on agitation. The smallest quantity of the powder causes violent sneezing.

=SARCOCOL′LA.= A gum-resin supposed to be derived from one or more plants of the natural order Renæaceæ, growing in Arabia and Persia. It somewhat resembles gum Arabic, except in being soluble in both water and alcohol, and in having a bitter-sweet taste. It was formerly used in surgery.

=SAR′COSINE.= C_{3}H_{7}O_{2}N. A feebly basic substance, obtained by boiling kreatine for some time with a solution of pure baryta. It forms colourless, transparent plates, freely soluble in water, sparingly so in alcohol, and insoluble in ether; it may be fused and volatilised.

=SARSAPARIL′LA.= Syn. SARSÆ RADIX (B. P.), RADIX SARZÆ, RADIX SARSAPARILLÆ, SARZA (Ph. L. & E.), SARSAPARILLA (Ph. D. & U. S.), L. “Jamaica sarza. The root of Smilax officinalis, Kunth” (Ph. L.); “and probably of other species.” (Ph. E.)

The sarsaparillas of commerce are divided by Dr Pereira into two classes:——‘Mealy sarsaparilla’ and ‘non-mealy sarsaparillas.’ In the first are placed Brazilian or Lisbon, Caraccas or gouty Vera Cruz, and Honduras; the second includes Jamaica, Lima, and true Vera Cruz.

The mealy sarsaparillas are distinguished by “the mealy character of the inner cortical layers, which are white or pale-coloured. The meal or starch is sometimes so abundant, that a shower of it, in the form of white dust, falls when we fracture the roots.” The medulla or pith is also frequently very amylaceous.

The non-mealy sarsaparillas “are characterised by a deeply coloured (red or brown), usually non-mealy, cortex. The cortex is red, and much thinner than in the mealy sorts.” “If a drop of oil of vitriol be applied to a transverse section of the root of the non-mealy sarsaparillas, both cortex and wood acquire a dark-red or purplish tint;” whilst in the preceding varieties, the mealy coat, and, sometimes, the pith, is but little altered in colour. “The decoction of non-mealy sarsaparilla, when cold, is somewhat darkened, but does not yield a blue colour when a solution of iodine is added to it.” The aqueous extract, when rubbed down with a little cold distilled water in a mortar, does not yield a turbid liquid, nor become blue on the addition of iodine. The reverse is the case with the decoction and extract of the mealy varieties.

The JAMAICA, RED JAMAICA, or RED-BEARDED SARSAPARILLA (SARZA JAMAICENSIS——Ph. D.), is the variety which should alone be used in medicine. This kind yields from 33 to 44% of its weight of extract (Battley, Hennell, Pope), and contains less starchy matter than the other varieties. It is distinguished by exhibiting the above peculiarities in a marked degree, by the dirty reddish colour of its bark, which “is not mealy,” and by being “beset very plentifully with rootlets” (fibres).——Ph. L. Its powder has also a pale reddish-brown colour. The other varieties of sarsaparilla, viz. the Lisbon, Lima, Vera Cruz, and Honduras, are frequently substituted for the Jamaica by the druggists in the preparations of the decoctions and extracts of this drug; but the products are vastly inferior in quantity, colour, taste, and medicinal virtue, to those prepared from the officinal sarsaparilla. Decoction of sarsaparilla, when made with the Honduras root, is very liable to ferment, even by a few hours’ exposure, in hot weather. We have seen hogsheads of the strong decoction, after exposure for a single night, in as active a state of fermentation as a gyle of beer, with a frothy head, and evolving a most disagreeable odour, that was not wholly removed by several hours’ boiling. When this occurs the decoction suffers in density, and the product in extract is, consequently, considerably lessened. Yet this is frequently allowed to occur in the wholesale laboratory, where the rule should be——always begin a ‘bath of sarza’ (as it is called), and, indeed, of other perishable articles, early in the morning, and finish it, completely and entirely, the same day.

Sarsaparilla has been recommended as a mild but efficacious alterative, diaphoretic and tonic. It has long been a popular remedy in chronic rheumatism, rheumatic and gouty pains, scurvy, scrofula, syphilis, secondary syphilis, lepra, psoriasis, and several other skin diseases; and, especially, in cachexia, or a general bad habit of body, and to remove the symptoms arising from the injudicious use of mercurials, often falsely called ‘secondary syphilis.’ During its use the skin should be kept warm, and diluents should be freely taken. Its efficacy has been greatly exaggerated. It is, however, much more effective in warm than in northern climates.——Dose. In substance, 1/2 to 1 dr., three or four times daily; but, preferably, made into a decoction or infusion.

The articles so much puffed under the names of American or United States sarsaparilla and extract of sarsaparilla are “nothing more than the decoction of a common herb, a sort of ‘aralia,’ inhabiting the swamps and marshes of the United States. When cut up it has the appearance of chaff, but not the slightest resemblance in character, colour, or taste, to even the most inferior species of smilax (or sarza). The decoction is sweetened with a little sugar, flavoured with benzoin and sassafras, and, finally, preserved from decomposition by means of the bichloride of mercury.” “I have heard of several cases of deadly sickness, and other dangerous symptoms, following its use.” “We do not believe that a particle of real sarsaparilla ever entered into the composition of either of the articles referred to.” (‘Med. Circ.,’ ii, 227.) See DECOCTION and EXTRACT.

=SARSAPARIL′LIN.= Syn. PARIGLIN, PARILLIC ACID, SALSAPARIN, SMILACIN. A white, crystallisable, odourless, and nearly tasteless substance, discovered by Pallotta and Folchi, in sarsaparilla.

Prep. The bark of Jamaica sarsaparilla is treated with hot rectified spirit, and the resulting tincture reduced to about one third by distilling off the spirit; the residual liquid is then filtered, whilst boiling, slightly concentrated by evaporation, and set aside to crystallise; the crystalline deposit is redissolved in either hot rectified spirit or boiling water, and decoloured by agitation with a little animal charcoal; the filtrate deposits crystals of nearly pure smilacin as it cools. It may also be extracted by boiling water.

Prop., &c. A non-nitrogenised neutral body. Water holding a very small quantity of it in solution froths considerably on agitation. This is especially the case with infusion of Jamaica sarsaparilla, and this property has consequently been proposed as a test of the quality of sarsaparilla root. Its medicinal properties are similar to those of sarsaparilla. According to Pallotta, it is a powerful sedative, and diminishes the vital energies in proportion to the quantity taken.——Dose, 2 to 10 gr.; in the usual cases in which the root is given.

=SAS′SAFRAS.= Syn. SASSAFRAS RADIX (B. P.), SASSAFRAS RADIX, SASSAFRAS (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. “The root of Sassafras officinale, Nees. Laurus sassafras, Linn.”——Ph. L. It has a fragrant odour, and a sweetish aromatic taste. It has long been reputed a stimulating, alterative, diaphoretic, diuretic, and tonic; and an infusion of the chips (sassafras chips), under the name of sassafras tea, has been a popular ‘diet drink’ in various cutaneous affections, gout, chronic rheumatism, &c.

=SATURA′TION.= The state in which a body has taken its full dose, or chemical proportion, of any other substance with which it can combine, or which it can dissolve; as water with sugar or a salt, or an alkali with an acid, when the properties of both are neutralised.

=SAUCERS (for Dyeing).= Prep. 1. (BLUE.) From blue carmine, made into a paste with gum water, which is then spread over the inside of the saucers, and dried.

2. (PINK.)——a. From pure rouge mixed with a little carbonate of soda, then made into a paste with thin gum water, and applied as the last.

b. Well-washed safflower, 8 oz.; carbonate of soda, 2 oz.; water, 2 gall.; infuse, strain, add of French chalk (scraped fine with Dutch rushes), 2 lbs.; mix well, and precipitate the colour by adding a solution of tartaric acid; collect the red powder, drain it, add a very small quantity of gum, and apply the paste to the saucers. Inferior. Both the above are used to tinge silk stockings, gloves, &c.

=SAUCE.= A liquid or semi-liquid condiment or seasoning for food. The following receipts for sauces may be useful to the reader:

=Sauce, Ancho′vy.= 1. (Extemporaneous.) From 3 or 4 anchovies, chopped small; butter, 3 oz.; water, a wine-glassful; vinegar, 2 tablespoonfuls; flour, 1 do.; stir the mixture over the fire till it thickens, then rub it through a coarse hair sleeve.

2. (Wholesale.) As essence of anchovies. Other fish sauces may be made in the same manner.

=Sauce, Apple.= From sharp apples, cored, sliced, stewed with a spoonful or two of water, and then beaten, to a perfectly smooth pulp with a little good moist sugar. Tomato, and many other like sauces, may be made in the same manner.

=Sauce, Aristocratique.= From green-walnut juice and anchovies, equal parts; cloves, mace, and pimento, of each, bruised, 1 dr. to every lb. of juice; boil and strain, and then add to every pint, 1 pint of vinegar, 1/2 pint of port wine, 1/4 pint of soy, and a few shallots; let the whole stand for a few days, and decant the clear liquor.

=Bech′amel.= A species of fine white broth or consommée, thickened with cream, and used as ‘white sauce.’

=Sauce, Caper.= Put twelve table-spoonfuls of melted butter into a stewpan, place it on the fire, and, when on the point of boiling, add 1 oz. of fresh butter and 1 table-spoonful of capers; shake the stewpan round over the fire until the butter is melted, add a little pepper and salt, and serve where directed. Also as mint sauce.

=Sauce, Chut′ney.= 1. From sour apples (pared and cored), tomatoes, brown sugar, and sultana raisins, of each 3 oz.; common salt, 4 oz.; red chillies and powdered ginger, of each 29 oz.; garlic and shallots, of each 1 oz.; pound the whole well, add, of strong vinegar, 3 quarts; lemon juice, 1 do.; and digest, with frequent agitation, for a month; then pour off nearly all the liquor, and bottle it. Used for fish or meat, either hot or cold, or to flavour stews, &c. The residue is the ‘Chutney,’ ‘Chetney,’ or ‘Chitni,’ which must be ground to a smooth paste with a stone and muller, and then put into pots or jars. It is used like mustard.

2. (BENGAL CHITNI.) As the last, but using tamarinds instead of apples, and only sufficient vinegar and lemon juice to form a paste.

=Cor′atch.= From good mushroom ketchup, 1/2 gal.; walnut ketchup, 3/4 pint; India soy and chillie vinegar, of each 1/2 pint; essence of anchovies, 5 or 6 oz.; macerate for a fortnight.

=Sauce, Epicurienne.= To the last add of walnut ketchup and port wine, of each 1 quart; garlic and white pepper, of each (bruised) 4 oz.; chillies (bruised), 1 oz.; mace and cloves, of each 1/2 oz.

=Sauce, Fish.= From port wine 1 gall.; mountain do., 1 quart; walnut ketchup, 2 quarts; anchovies (with the liquor), 2 lbs.; 8 lemons, 48 shallots, scraped horseradish, 1-1/2 lb.; flour of mustard, 8 oz.; mace, 1 oz.; cayenne, q. s.; boil the whole up gently, strain, and bottle.

=Ketchup.= See under that name.

=Sauce, Kitchener’s.= Syn. KITCHENER’S RELISH. From salt, 3 oz.; black pepper, 2 oz.; allspice, horseradish, and shallots, of each 1 oz.; burnt-sugar colouring, a wine-glassful; mushroom ketchup, 1 quart (all bruised or scraped); macerate for 3 weeks, strain, and bottle.

=Lem′on Pickle.= From lemon juice and vinegar, of each 3 gall.; bruised ginger, 1 lb.; allspice, pepper, and grated lemon peel, of each 8 oz.; salt, 3-1/2 lbs.; cayenne, 2 oz.; mace and nutmegs, of each 1 oz.; digest for 14 days.

=Sauce, Lobs′ter.= From lobsters, as ANCHOVY SAUCE.

=Sauce, Mint.= From garden mint, chopped small, and then beaten up with vinegar, some moist sugar, and a little salt and pepper.

=Sauce, On′ion.= From onions boiled to a pulp and then beaten up with melted butter and a little warm milk.

=Sauce, Oys′ter.= From about 12 oysters, and 6 or 7 oz. of melted butter, with a little cayenne pepper, and 2 or 3 spoonfuls of cream, stirred together over a slow fire, then brought to a boil, and served.

=Sauce, Piquante.= From soy and cayenne pepper, of each 4 oz.; port wine, 1/2 pint; brown pickling vinegar, 1-1/2 pint; mix, and let them stand for 7 or 8 days before bottling.

=Sauce, Quin’s.= From walnut pickle and port wine, of each 1 pint; mushroom ketchup, 1 quart; anchovies and shallots (chopped fine), of each 2 dozen; soy, 1/2 pint; cayenne, 1/4 oz.; simmer gently for 10 minutes, and in a fortnight strain, and bottle.

=Sauce au Roi.= From brown vinegar (good), 3 quarts; soy and walnut ketchup, of each 1/2 pint; cloves and shallots, of each 1 doz.; cayenne pepper, 1-1/2 oz.; mix, and digest for 14 days.

=Sauce, Shrimp.= From shrimps or prawns, as ANCHOVY SAUCE.

=Soy.= See that article.

=Sauce, Superlative.= From port wine, and mushroom ketchup, of each 1 quart; walnut pickle, 1 pint; soy, 1/2 pint; powdered anchovies, 1/2 lb.; fresh lemon peel, minced shallots, and scraped horseradish, of each 2 oz.; allspice and black pepper (bruised), of each 1 oz.; cayenne pepper and bruised celery seed, of each 1/4 oz. (or currie powder, 3/4 oz.); digest for 14 days, strain, and bottle. Very relishing.

=Sauce, Toma′to.= From bruised tomatoes, 1 gall.; good salt, 1/2 lb.; mix, in 3 days press out the juice, to each quart of which add of shallots, 2 oz.; black pepper, 1 dr.; simmer very gently for 20 to 30 minutes, strain, and add to the strained liquor, mace, allspice, ginger, nutmegs, and cochineal, of each 1/4 oz.; coriander seed, 1 dr.; simmer gently for 10 minutes, strain, cool, and in a week put it into bottles.

=Sauce, Waterloo.= From strong vinegar (nearly boiling), 1 quart, port wine, 3/4 pint; mushroom ketchup, 1/2 pint; walnut ketchup, 1/4 pint; essence of anchovies, 4 oz.; 8 cloves of garlic; cochineal (powdered), 1/2 oz. (or red beet, sliced, 3 oz.); let them stand together for a fortnight or longer, occasionally shaking the bottle.

=Sauce, White.= Syn. BUTTER SAUCE, MELTED BUTTER. From good butter, 4 oz.; cream, 2-1/2 oz.; salt (in very fine powder), 1/2 teaspoonful; put them into a pot or basin, set this in hot water, and beat the whole with a bone, wooden, or silver spoon, until it forms a perfectly smooth, cream-like mixture, avoiding too much heat, which would make it run oily. A table-spoonful of sherry, marsala, lemon juice, or vinegar, is sometimes added; but the selection must depend on the dishes the sauce is intended for. Used either by itself, or as a basis for other sauces. Beaten up with any of the ‘bottled sauces,’ an excellent compound sauce of the added ingredient is immediately obtained.

=Sauces, American.= White vinegar, 15 gall.; walnut ketchup, 10 gall.; Madeira wine, 5 gall.; mushroom ketchup, 10 gall,; table salt, 25 lbs. (troy); Canton soy, 4 gall.; powdered capsicum 2 lbs. (troy); allspice, powdered, coriander powder, of each 1 lb. (troy); cloves, mace, cinnamon, of each 1/2 lb. (troy); assafœtida, 1/4 lb. (troy); dissolved in brandy, 1 gall.; 20 lbs. of hog’s liver is boiled for 12 hours with 10 gall. of water, renewing the water from time to time. Take out the liver, chop it, mix it with water, and work it through a sieve; mix with the sauce.

2. White vinegar, 240 gall.; Canton soy, 36 gall.; sugar-house syrup, 30 gall.; walnut ketchup, 50 gall.; mushroom ketchup, 50 gall.; table salt, 120 lbs. (troy); powdered capsicum, 15 lbs. (troy); allspice, coriander, of each 7 lbs. (troy); cloves, mace, cinnamon, of each 4 lbs. (troy); assafœtida, 2-1/2 lbs. (troy), dissolved in St Croix rum, 1 gall.

3. White vinegar, 1 gall. Canton soy, molasses, of each 1 pint; walnut ketchup, 1-1/2 pint; table salt, 4 oz.; powdered capsicum, allspice, of each 1 oz.; coriander, 1/2 oz.; cloves, mace, of each 1/2 oz.; cinnamon, 6 dr., assafœtida 1/4 oz. in 4 oz. of rum.

=SAUERKRAUT.= [Ger.] Prep. Clean white cabbages, cut them into small pieces, and stratify them in a cask along with culinary salt and a few juniper berries and caraway seeds, observing to pack them down as hard as possible, without crushing them, and to cover them with a lid pressed down with a heavy weight. The cask should be placed in a cold situation as soon as a sour smell is perceived. Used by the Germans and other northern nations of Europe, like our ‘pickled cabbage,’ but more extensively.

=SAU′SAGES.= From the fat and lean of pork (PORK SAUSAGES), or of beef (BEEF SAUSAGES), chopped small, flavoured with spice, and put into gut skins, or pressed into pots or balls (SAUSAGE MEAT). Crum of bread is also added. Their quality is proportionate to that of the ingredients, and to the care and cleanliness employed in preparing them.

A pea sausage, composed of pea flour, fat pork, and a little salt, was largely consumed by the German soldiers during the Franco-German campaign. Dr Parkes found 100 parts of this sausage to consist of——16·2 parts of water, 7·19 of salts, 12·297 of albuminates, 33·65 of fat, and 30·663 of carbohydrates. It is ready cooked, but can be made into soup, although much relished for a few days. The soldiers soon became tired of it. In some cases it gave rise to flatulence and diarrhœa. See MEAT.

=SAV′ELOYS.= Pork sausages made in such a way that they keep good for a considerable time. Prep. (Mrs Rundell.) Take of young pork, free from bone and skin, 3 lbs.; salt it with 1 oz. of saltpetre, and 1/2 lb. of common salt, for 2 days; then chop it fine, add, 3 teaspoonfuls of pepper, 1 doz. sage leaves, chopped fine, and 1 lb. of grated bread; mix well, fill the skins, and steam them or bake them half an hour in a slack oven. They are said to be good either hot or cold.

=SAV′INE.= Syn. SAVIN; FOLIA SABINÆ, SABINA (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. “The recent and dried tops of Juniperis sabina, Linn.,” or common savine. (Ph. L.) It is a powerful stimulant, diaphoretic, emmenagogue, and anthelmintic; and, externally, rubefacient, escharotic and vesicant. In large doses it is apt to occasion abortion, and acts as a poison. SAVINE POWDER mixed with verdigris is often applied to corns and warts. It is now chiefly used in the form of ointment.——Dose, 5 to 15 gr., twice or thrice daily (with care), in amenorrhœa and worms. See CERATE.

=SAVONETTES.= [Fr.] Syn. WASH BALLS. These are made of any of the mild toilet soaps, scented at will, generally with the addition of some powdered starch or farina, and sometimes sand. The spherical or spheroidal form is given to them by pressure in moulds, or by first roughly forming them with the hands, and, when quite hard, turning them in a lathe. According to Mr Beasley, “they are formed into spherical balls by taking a mass of the prepared soap in the left hand, and a conical drinking-glass with rather thin edges in the right. By turning the glass and ball of soap in every direction, the rounded form is soon given; when dry, the surface is scraped, to render it more smooth and even.”

Prep. 1. Take of curd soap, 3 lbs.; finest yellow soap, 2 lbs. (both in shavings); soft water, 3/4 pint; melt by a gentle heat, stir in of powdered starch (farina), 1-1/2 lb.; when the mass has considerably cooled, further add of essence of lemon or bergamot, 1 oz., and make it into balls.

2. (CAMPHOR.) Melt spermaceti, 2 oz.; add camphor (cut small), 1 oz.; dissolve, and add the liquid mass to white curd soap, 1-1/2 lb., previously melted by the aid of a little water and a gentle heat, and allowed to cool considerably as above. These should be covered with tin-foil.

3. (HONEY.) From the finest bright-coloured yellow soap, 7 lbs.; palm oil, 1/4 lb.; melt, and add of oil of verbena, rose-geranium, or ginger-grass, 1 oz.; as No. 1. Sometimes 1/2 oz. of oil of rosemary is also added.

4. (MOTTLED.)——a. RED. Cut white curd or Windsor soap (not too dry) into small square pieces, and roll these in a mixture of powder bole or rouge, either with or without the addition of some starch; then squeeze them strongly into balls, observing to mix the colour as little as possible.——b. BLUE. Roll the pieces in powdered blue, and proceed as before.——c. GREEN. Roll the pieces in a mixture of powder blue and bright yellow ochre. By varying the colour of the powder, mottled savonettes of any colour may be produced.

5. (SAND.) From soap (at will), 2 lbs.; fine siliceous sand, 1 lb.; scent, q. s.; as No. 1. For the finer qualities, finely powdered pumice-stone is substituted for sand.

6. (VIOLET.) From palm-oil soap, 4 lbs.; farina, 2 lbs.; finely powdered orris root, 1 lb. Sometimes a little smalts, or indigo, is added.

=SAWDUST, Preparation of Alcohol from.= M. Zetterland[146] states that he has obtained alcohol from sawdust by the following process:——Into an ordinary steam-boiler, heated by means of steam, were introduced 9 cwt. of very wet sawdust, 10·7 cwt. of hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1·18), and 30 cwt. of water; after eleven hours boiling there was formed 19·67 per cent. of grape sugar.

[Footnote 146: ‘Chemical News,’ xxvi——181.]

The acid was next saturated with chalk, so as to leave in the liquid only a small quantity (1/2 degree by Ludersdorf’s acid areometer); when the saccharine liquid was cooled down to 30° yeast was added, and the fermentation finished in twenty-four hours. By distillation there were obtained 26·5 litres of alcohol of 50 per cent. at 15°, quite free from any smell of turpentine, and of excellent taste. It appears that the preparation of alcohol from sawdust may be successfully carried on industrially when it is precisely ascertained what degree of dilution of acid is required, and how long the liquid has to be boiled.

If all the cellulose present in sawdust could be converted into sugar, 50 kilos of the former substance would yield, after fermentation, 12 litres of alcohol at 50 per cent.

=SCAB′IES.= See ITCH.

=SCAB IN SHEEP.= This disease, corresponding to mange in the dog, the horse, or in cattle, is caused by a species of acaris, a minute insect which burrows under the skin of the sheep, and sets up therein a considerable amount of irritation, which is followed by an irruption of pimples, accompanied with scurf, but frequently the wool comes off from the affected part.

The following are some of the numerous remedies employed for this disease:——

1. Quicksilver, 1 lb.; Venice turpentine, 1/2 lb.; rub them together until the globules are no longer visible; then add 1/2 pint of oil of turpentine, and 4 lbs. of lard. The mode of applying this ointment is as follows:——Begin at the head of the sheep, and proceeding from between the ears along the back to the end of the tail, divide the wool in a furrow till the skin can be touched; and let a finger, slightly dipped in the ointment, be drawn along the bottom of the furrow. From this furrow similar ones must be drawn along the shoulders and thighs to the legs, as far as the wool extends. And if much infected, 2 or more should also be drawn along each side, parallel with that on the back, and one down each side before the hind and fore legs. It kills the sheep-fag, and probably the tick and other vermin. It should not be used in very cold or wet weather. (Sir Joseph Banks.)

2. Tar oils. Tobacco juice. Stavesacre. (Finlay Dun.)

3. Strong mercurial ointment, 1 part; lard, 5 parts; mix. (Youatt.)

4. Quicksilver, 1 lb.; Venice turpentine, 1/2 lb.; spirit of turpentine, 2 oz., lard, 4-1/2 lb.; to be made and used as No. 1. In summer 1 lb. of resin may be substituted for alike quantity of lard. (Clater.)

5. Strong mercurial ointment, 1 lb.; lard, 4 lbs.; oil of turpentine, 8 oz.; sulphur, 12 oz.——WHITE.

6. Mild. Flowers of sulphur, 1 lb.; Venice turpentine, 4 oz.; rancid lard, 2 lbs.; strong mercurial ointment, 4 oz.; mix well.——CLATER.

7. Lard or other fat, with an equal quantity of oil of turpentine.——DAUBENTON.

8. Without mercury. Lard, 1 lb.; oil of turpentine, 4 oz.; flowers of sulphur, 6 oz.——WHITE.

9. Strong mercurial ointment, 1 lb.; lard, 4 lbs.; Venice turpentine, 8 oz.; oil of turpentine, 2 oz. If mixed by heat, care must be taken not to use more heat than is necessary, and to add the oil of turpentine when the other ingredients begin to cool and to stir till cold.——M’EWEN.

10. Corrosive sublimate, 2 oz.; white hellebore, 3 oz.; fish oil, 6 quarts; resin, 1/2 lb.; tallow, 1/2 lb. The sublimate and then the hellebore to be rubbed with a portion of the oil till perfectly smooth, and then mixed with the other ingredients melted together.——STEVENSON.

11. The following once had considerable local celebrity, but it obviously requires to be used with caution. Dissolve 2-1/4 oz. of corrosive sublimate in the same quantity of muriatic acid, and beat up the solution with 6 lbs. of strong mercurial ointment; put in a large pan, and pour on it 19-1/2 lbs. of lard, and 1-1/2 lb. of common turpentine, melted together and still hot, and stir the whole continually until it becomes solid.

12. Castor-oil seeds well bruised and steeped for 12 hours in sour milk, after straining rub the liquid briskly into the skin. (An Indian remedy.)

=SCAGLIO′LA.= A species of plaster or stucco, made of pure gypsum, with variegated colours, in imitation of marble. In general, the liquid employed is a weak solution of Flanders glue; and the colours, any which are not decomposed or destroyed by admixture with sulphate of lime and exposure to the light. The composition is often applied upon hollow columns formed of wood, or even of laths nailed together, and the surface, when hard, is turned smooth in a lathe, and polished.

=SCALES.= A special article under the head of “BALANCE” has been devoted to the scales employed by the chemist and analyst.

But although these claimed from their greater complexity of structure and the extreme delicacy of movement required of them a separate notice, every pharmacist and apothecary will recognise the importance of bestowing an equal amount of attention upon his dispensing scales; and, to ensure accurate weighing by them, will take care to keep them scrupulously clean, and properly poised.

For dispensing purposes, scales fitted with glass pans (or at least with one glass pan, in which medicinal substances can be weighed) should always be employed. The beams should be of steel, and the attachments of one piece of brass only, in preference to chains, or supports of silken thread. The beams are best cleaned with sand paper, or rotten stone, and may be protected from rust by being rubbed over with a little almond oil.

=SCALD-HEAD.= See RINGWORM.

=SCALDS.= See BURNS AND SCALDS.

=SCALL.= Syn. SCALD. The popular name of several skin diseases distinguished by scabs or scurfiness, whether dry or humid. See ERUPTIONS, RINGWORM, &c.

=SCAM′MONY.= Syn. SCAMMONIUM (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. The “gum resin emitted from the cut root of Convolvulus Scammonia, Linn.” (Ph. L.), or Aleppo scammony plant.

There are three principal varieties or qualities of scammony known in the market; viz. VIRGIN (sp. gr. 1·21); SECONDS (sp. gr. 1·460 to 1·463); and THIRDS (sp. gr. 1·465 to 1·500). The best, and that only intended to be used in medicine, is imported from Aleppo.

Pur. Scammony is not only largely adulterated in the country of its production, but again after its arrival in England. SMYRNA SCAMMONY, a very inferior variety, is also commonly dressed up, and sold as Aleppo scammony. In many cases substances are sold at the public sales in London, and elsewhere, as scammony, which contain only a mere trace of that article. This is all ground up to form the scammony powder of the shops. (Vide ‘Evid. Com. Ho. Com.,’ 1155.) PURE SCAMMONY has a peculiar cheesy smell, and a greenish-grey colour. It is “porous and brittle, and the freshly broken surface shines; hydrochloric acid being dropped on it, it emits no bubbles; nor does the powder digested in water, at heat of 170° Fahr., become blue by the simultaneous addition of iodide of potassium and dilute nitric acid. Out of 100 gr., 78 (80——Ph. E.) should be soluble in ether.” (Ph. L.) The tincture of pure scammony is not turned green by nitric acid. If the powder effervesce with dilute acids, it contains chalk.

Uses, &c. Pure scammony is a powerful drastic purgative and anthelmintic, inadmissible in inflammatory conditions of the alimentary canal, but well adapted for torpid and inactive conditions of the abdominal organs. Associated with calomel, rhubarb, or sulphate of potassa, it is useful in all cases in which an active cathartic or vermifuge may be required, especially for children.——Dose. (For an adult) 5 to 15 gr., in powder, or made into a bolus or emulsion.

=SCARLATI′NA.= See SCARLET FEVER.

=SCAR′LET DYE.= Proc. (Poërner.)——a. The ‘Bouillon.’ Take of cream of tartar, 1-3/4 oz.; water, q. s.; boil in a block-tin vessel, and when dissolved, add of solution of tin (made by dissolving 2 oz. of grain tin in a mixture of 1 lb. each of nitric acid and water, and 1-1/2 oz. of sal ammoniac), 1-3/4 oz.; boil for 3 minutes, then introduce the cloth, boil for 2 hours, drain it, and let it cool.——b. The ‘Rougie.’ Next take of cream of tartar, 1/4 oz.; water, q. s.; boil, and add powdered cochineal, 1 oz.; again boil for 5 minutes, then gradually add of solution of tin, 1 oz., stirring well all the time; lastly, put in the goods and dye as quickly as possible. The quantities given are those for 1 to 1-1/4 lb. of woollen cloth. The result is a full scarlet. To make the colour turn on the ‘ponceau’ or poppy, a little turmeric is added to the bath.

Obs. Scarlet is red with a tinge of yellow; it is nearly always produced by cochineal. See RED DYE.

=SCARLET FE′VER.= Syn. SCARLATINA, FEBRIS SCARLATINA, L. A highly contagious disease, so named after the peculiar eruption or efflorescence of the skin which accompanies it. The milder form of this disease (SCARLATINA SIMPLEX, S. MITIS) comes on with languor, chilliness alternated by fits of heat, nausea, vomiting (frequently), and other common symptoms of fever; followed, on the third or fourth day, by a scarlet efflorescence upon the skin, which after three or four days ends in the cuticle or scarf-skin peeling off in branny scales. Dropsical swelling of the whole body sometimes follows the disappearance of the eruption; but this, with the febrile symptoms, and the soreness of the throat (if any), then give way, and the patient gradually regains his former health and strength. In the malignant form of scarlet fever (SCARLATINA CYNANCHICA, S. ANGINOSA, S. MALIGNA) the febrile symptoms, from the first, are more alarming; there is bilious vomiting, great soreness and ulceration of the throat, the pulse is small and quick, and the breathing laborious. These symptoms rapidly increase on the appearance of the eruption; the body then becomes swollen, the nose and eyes inflamed, the breath fetid, the throat suppurates, putrid symptoms ensue, and the patient is either suddenly cut off or recovers very slowly.

The early symptoms of scarlet fever are distinguished from those of the MEASLES and SMALLPOX by the greater extent and want of elevation of the eruption, and by its not congregating into patches. Nor are there the cough or running from the eyes and nose which usher in the measles.

The treatment of the milder form of scarlet fever, especially that of childhood, may consist of the administration of an emetic, followed by a saline aperient, to clear the bowels; the latter being repeated as occasion may require. The patient should be kept in a cool and well-ventilated room, the diet should be light and farinaceous, and the use of diluent drinks copiously indulged in. If the febrile symptoms are severe, or the throat much affected, small doses of some mild mercurial, as calomel, mercurial pill, or quicksilver with chalk, may be administered, either separately or combined with antimonial diaphoretics or Dover’s powder. In malignant scarlet fever a smart emetic should be given early, and mercurials and diaphoretics at once freely exhibited. Acidulated gargles may be used for the throat, and, when the heat of the body is much above the natural standard, sponging the whole body with cold water, or with vinegar and water, may be had recourse to. If the malignant symptoms run high, and assume a typhoid or putrid character, the system must be supported with stimulant tonics as wine, bark, capsicum, &c.

According to Hahnemann, Koreff, and Randhahn, belladonna is a prophylactic against scarlet fever. The homœopathists also hold it to be almost a specific in the disease.

Dr Renfrew’s medicinal treatment consists in the administration of a mixture consisting of tincture of perchloride of iron and chlorate of potash. He contends that the chlorine which the mixture contains destroys the blood poison, that the hydrochloric acid supplies a desirable ingredient for the blood, that the iron improves the impaired red blood disks and assists in forming new ones, whilst the chlorate of potash is a source of oxygen whereby the disintegrated matters floating in the blood are burnt up and destroyed.

Scarlet fever is common to all ages of life, but children and young persons are the most subject to it. Unlike the smallpox, it occasionally attacks the same person more than once. It is most common in dirty, close, damp situations.

In horses, the commencing symptoms are very similar to those in man——indisposition to movement, febrile symptoms as indicated by a hot and dry skin, and sore throat, the glands about the head and neck being frequently tender and swollen. The respiration becomes quickened and the pulse thready. In about 48 hours scarlet spots about the size of a pea show themselves on the mucous membrane about the lips and nostrils, the spots after a time becoming confluent. Except the attack be a very mild one, similar spots spread all over the body, but are most plentiful about the animal’s head and neck. After about a fortnight or three weeks, the hair leaves the parts on which the spots are, and then desquamation sets in, and bare bald patches are left. The after results bear a great resemblance to those which frequently follow an attack of the same disease in the human being. The best treatment consists in placing the animal in a cool, well-ventilated loose box, applying bandages to the legs, and a linen cover to the body, with a warm rug over that.

A dose of nitre and Mindererus spirit should be given in water three times a day, combined with mild tonics, stimulants, and diuretics. See DISINFECTANTS.

=SCENE′-PAINTING.= A variety of distemper painting employed in theatres, &c., governed by perspective, and having for its object the production of striking effects when viewed at a distance. Water, size, turpentine, and the ordinary pigments, are the materials used for the purpose.

=SCENT BAGS.= See SACHETS.

=SCENT BALLS.= Syn. PASTILLES DE TOILETTE ODORANTES, Fr. These are prepared from any of the materials noticed under POT POURRI, SCENTED POWDERS, and SACHETS, made into a paste with mucilage of gum tragacanth, and moulded into any desired forms, as that of balls, beads, medallions, &c. The larger ones are frequently polished.

=SCENTED CAS′SOLETTES.= See POT POURRI, and above.

=SCENTS (Pommade).= Prep. 1. (COWSLIP.) From essence of bergamot, 8 oz.; essence of lemon, 4 oz.; oil of cloves, 2 oz,; essence de petit grain, 1 oz.

2. (JONQUILLE.) From essence of bergamot and lemon, of each 8 oz.; oils of orange peel and cloves, of each 2 oz.; oil of sassafras, 1 oz.; liquid storax, 1/2 oz,; digest, with warmth and agitation, for a few hours, and decant the clear portion in a week.

3. (MILLEFLEUR.) From essence of ambergris (finest), 4 oz.; essence of lemon, 3 oz.; oil of cloves and English oil of lavender, of each 2 oz.; essence de petit grain, essence of bergamot, and balsam of Peru (genuine), of each 1 oz.; as the last.

Obs. The above are employed to scent pomatums, hair oils, &c. 1 oz. of any one of them, dissolved in one pint of the strongest rectified spirit, produces a delicious perfume for the handkerchief.

=SCENTS (Snuff).= Prep. 1. Essence of bergamot, 2 oz.; otto of roses and neroli, of each 1 dr.

2. Oil of lavender, 1 oz.; essence of lemon, 2 oz.; essence of bergamot, 4 oz.

3. To the last, add of oil of cloves, 2 oz.

4. Essence of musk and ambergris, of each 1 oz.; liquor of ammonia, 1/2 dr. See SNUFF, &c.

=SCHEELE’S GREEN.= See GREEN PIGMENTS.

=SCHLIPPE’S SALT.= Sulphantimoniate of sodium. See ANTIMONY, SULPHANTIMONIATE.

=SCHWARTZ’S DROPS.= See DROPS, WORM.

=SCIAT′ICA.= See RHEUMATISM.

=SCIENCE.= “Man,” says Whewell, “is the interpreter of nature. Science the right interpretation. The senses place before us the characters of the ‘Book of Nature,’ but these convey no knowledge to us till we have discovered the alphabet by which they are to be read.”

Various classifications of the sciences have been proposed by different authors. Dr Neil Arnott conceived that the object of all the sciences, viz. a knowledge of nature, might be best attained by the study of physics, chemistry, life and mind, including under this latter the laws of society, or the modern science of sociology.

As to mathematics he regarded it as a system of “technical mensuration,” invaded by the mind in order to enable it to study the other sciences. In his ‘Cours de Philosophie Positive,’ Comte traverses the entire circle of the theoretical, abstract, or fundamental sciences, and divides them into mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, and sociology. He admits no distinct science on psychology or the science of mind.

Mr Herbert Spencer proposes to classify the sciences into three groups; viz.:——1. Abstract science, which treats of the forms of phenomena detached from their embodiments. 2. Abstract concrete science, or the phenomena of nature analysed into their separate elements. 3. Concrete science or natural phenomena in their totalities.

“For the classification of the sciences it is convenient to prepare the way by distinguishing between theoretical sciences which are the sciences properly so called, and practical science. A theoretical science embraces a distinct department of nature, and is so arranged as to give in the most compact form the entire body of ascertained (scientific) knowledge in that department, such as mathematics, chemistry, physiology, and zoology. A practical science is the application of scientifically obtained facts and laws in one or more departments to some practical end, which end rules the selection and arrangement of the whole; as for example, navigation, engineering, mining, and medicine. Another distinction must be made before laying down the systematic order of the theoretical sciences.

“A certain number of these sciences have for their subject-matter each a separate department of natural forces or powers; thus, biology deals with the department of organised beings, psychology with mind. Others deal with the application of powers elsewhere recognised to some region of concrete facts or phenomena. Thus, geology does not discuss any natural powers not found in other sciences, but seeks to apply the laws of physics, chemistry, and biology to account for the appearance of the earth’s crust.

“The sciences that embrace peculiar natural powers are called abstract, general, or fundamental sciences; those that apply to the powers treated of under these, to regions of concrete phenomena, are called concrete, derived, or applied sciences.”[147]

[Footnote 147: ‘Chambers’s Encyclopædia.’]

The separation of the sciences into these two sections is that now generally accepted.

The first section, that of the abstract or theoretical sciences, is subdivided by almost common consent into mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology (vegetable and animal physiology), psychology (mind), and sociology (the laws of society).

The second section, that of the concrete sciences, includes meteorology, mineralogy, botany, zoology, geology, and geography.

The order in which the abstract sciences are arranged above has also been found to best illustrate the sequence in which they may be most advantageously studied.

=SCIL′LITIN.= Syn. SCILLITINA, SCILLITITE. A whitish, resinous, translucent, bitter, deliquescent substance, obtained by Vögel from squills. It is soluble in water, alcohol, and acetic acid, and is purgative, acrid, and poisonous.

=SCORBU′TUS.= See SCURVY.

=SCO′′RIA.= Dross; the refuse or useless part of any substance, more especially that left from bodies which have been subjected to the action of fire. It is frequently used in the plural (SCORIÆ).

=SCOTT’S DROPS.= See PATENT MEDICINES.

=SCOUR′ING.= The common method of cleaning cloth is by heating and brushing it, unless it be very dirty, when it undergoes the operation of scouring. This is best done on the small scale, as with ARTICLES OF WEARING APPAREL, as follows:——A little curd soap is dissolved in water, and, after mixing it with a little clarified ox-gall, is applied to all the spots of grease, dirt, &c., and well rubbed into them with a stiff brush, until they appear to be removed; after which the article is well cleaned all over with a brush or sponge dipped into some warm water, to which the previous mixture and a little more ox-gall has been added. The cloth is next thoroughly rinsed in clean water, and hung up to dry. For dark-coloured cloths, some fullers earth is often added to the mixture of soap and gall. When the article is nearly dry, the nap is laid smooth, and it is carefully pressed (if with a hot iron, on the wrong side), after which a soft brush, moistened with a drop or two of olive oil, is frequently passed over it, to give it a finish and gloss.

Cloth is also cleaned in the dry way:——The spots being removed, as above, and the wetted parts having become dry, clean damp sand is strewed over it, and beaten into it with a brush, after which the article is well gone over with a hard brush, when the sand comes out, and brings the dirt with it.

BUFF and DRAB CLOTH is generally cleaned by covering it with a paste made with pipe-clay and water, either with or without a little umber to temper the colour, which, when dry, is rubbed and brushed off.

When the article requires renovation as well as scouring, it is placed, whilst still damp, on a board, and the threadbare parts are rubbed with a half-worn hatter’s card filled with flocks, or with a teasel, or a prickly thistle, until a nap is raised; it is next hung up to dry, after which it is ‘finished off’ as before. When the cloth is much faded, it is usual to give it a ‘dip,’ as it is called, or to pass it through a dye bath to freshen up the colour. BLACK and DARK BLUE CLOTH, if rusty or faded, is commonly treated to a coat of ‘reviver,’ instead of being ‘re-dipped,’ and is then hung up until next day, before being pressed and finished off. See SPOTS and STAINS.

=SCOURING IN ANIMALS.= See DIARRHŒA.

=SCOURING DROPS.= See DROPS.

=SCROFULA.= Syn. KING’S EVIL, STRUMA, STRUMOUS DISEASE. By modern pathologists scrofula is regarded as a constitutional tendency to form and deposit in various tissues and organs of the body a substance called tubercle.[148] The tendency may, however, in some cases only exist without any actual tuberculous deposit taking place. Sir James Paget thus describes scrofula as generally understood to be a “state of constitution distinguished in some measure by peculiarities of appearance even during health, but much more by peculiar liability to certain diseases, including pulmonary phthisis. The chief of these ‘scrofulous’ diseases are various swellings of the lymphatic glands, arising from causes which would be inadequate to produce them in healthy persons.

[Footnote 148: See Phthisis.]

“The swellings are due sometimes to mere enlargement, as from an increase of natural structure, sometimes to chronic inflammation, sometimes to an acute inflammation or abscess, sometimes to tuberculous disease of the glands.

“But besides these it is usual to reckon as ‘scrofulous’ affections certain chronic inflammations of the joints; slowly progressive carious inflammations of bones; chronic and frequent ulcers of the cornea; ophthalmia attended with extreme intolerance of light, but with little, if any, of the ordinary consequences of inflammation; frequent chronic abscesses; pustules or other cutaneous eruptions frequently appearing upon slight affection of the health or local irritation; habitual swelling and catarrh of the mucous membrane of the nose; habitual swelling of the upper lip.”

Scrofula is a disease which almost always shows itself during childhood, and rarely after maturity has been attained.

Scrofulous children, or those of scrofulous diathesis, are frequently narrow-chested, or their chests present that projecting appearance known as ‘pigeon-breasted,’ their abdomens are also unnaturally large, and their limbs emaciated. Their circulation is languid, and they are very generally attacked with chilblains during inclement weather. They also suffer from obstinate indigestion. Bearing in mind the fact that scrofula is frequently induced, irrespective of hereditary taint, in the children of the poor by bad and damp air, insufficient food and clothing, exclusion from sunshine, and such like insanitary surroundings, the chief treatment that will suggest itself will consist in remedying these adverse conditions. Hence the patient should live on generous but digestible food, partaking of meat twice a day. Milk and eggs also form an excellent diet for the scrofulous. A scrofulous mother should refrain from suckling her offspring, and procure a wet-nurse for that purpose. Flannel should be worn both summer and winter. Various medicines have been employed in this disease, including cod-liver oil, sarsaparilla, bark, syrup of iodide of iron, the alkalies, and mineral acids. Of these cod-liver oil and syrup of iodide of iron deservedly enjoy the highest reputation.

=SCUDAMORE’S LOTION.= See LOTION, GOUT.

=SCURF.= Syn. FURFURA. Scurf “is a natural and healthy formation, and though it may be kept from accumulating, it cannot be prevented. It is produced on every part of the body where hair is found, although, from the more active growth of hair on the scalp, the facilities for collecting, and the contrast of colour, it strikes the eye most disagreeably in that situation. This will show how futile any attempt must be which shall have for its object to prevent the formation of the scurf. It may be removed, and should be removed, every day, with the hair-brush; but prevention is impossible, inasmuch as it is opposed to a law of nature. Occasionally, as a morbid action, an unusual quantity of scurf is produced, in which case medical means may be adopted to bring the scalp into a more healthful state.” (Eras. Wilson.) In such cases the daily use of some mild stimulating or detergent wash, with due attention to the stomach and bowels, will generally abate this annoyance.

=SCURF POWDER——Grindpulver= (Mahon, Paris). Three powders which, according to Chevalier and Figuier, are nothing but wood ashes. Buchner found no alkalies, but announced the following composition:——Organic calcium carbonate (oyster shells, egg shells, crab shells), with a little gypsum, charcoal powder, and more or less brick-dust, powdered, mixed, and exposed to a moderate red heat in a covered crucible, till part of the chalk is converted into quicklime, and the gypsum reduced by the charcoal powder to calcium sulphide, which in its turn is gradually converted by the air into calcium sulphite. All three powders are made of the same ingredients, but in different proportions. No. 1 has more gypsum and charcoal powder; No. 2 less charcoal and more chalk; and No. 3 more brickdust. (Wittstein.)

=SCURF SALVE——Grinsalbe.= In France it is generally a mixture of 2 parts slaked lime, 5 parts soda crystals, and 25 parts fat. (Hager.)

=SCUR′VY.= Syn. SCORBUTUS, L. This disease commences with indolence, sallow looks, debility, and loss of spirits; the gums become sore and spongy, the teeth loose, and the breath fetid; the legs swell, eruptions appear on different parts of the body, and, at length, the patient sinks under general emaciation, diarrhœa, and hæmorrhages.

The treatment of ordinary cases of this disease mainly consists in employing a diet of fresh animal and green vegetable food, with mild ale, beer, or lemonade, as beverages; scrupulously avoiding salted and dried meat. The fresh-squeezed juice of lemons is, perhaps, of all other substances, the most powerful remedy in this disease in its early stages, and is useful in all of them. Effervescing draughts formed with the bicarbonate of potassa (not soda) are also excellent.

In former years, before the nature of this malady had been intelligently investigated, and the proper preventive methods and remedial measures for combating it were unknown, scurvy was not only a very common but a very fatal disease in our own navy, as well as in the navies of other powers. Of 961 men who constituted Anson’s fleet sent out during our war with Spain in 1742, 626 died of scurvy in nine months; whilst Sir Gilbert Blane records that in the year 1780, out of a fleet composed of between 7000 and 8000 men, more than 1000, or one in seven, perished from the same cause. Sir Richard Hawkins, one of the naval celebrities of Elizabeth and James’ reign, affirmed that daring twenty years he had known 20,000 sailors fall victims to scurvy alone; and a Portuguese writer, quoted by Sir Charles Blane, speaking of the number of victims from scurvy, during a naval exploring expedition of his own country men, says “that if the dead who from this cause had been thrown overboard between the coast of Guinea and the Cape of Good Hope, and between that Cape and Mozambique, could have had tombstones placed for them, each on the spot where he sank, the whole way would have appeared one continued cemetery.”[149]

[Footnote 149: Dr Guy.]

The statistical report of the navy for 1871 offers a gratifying contrast to the above figures. From this document it appears that out of a total force of 4720 sailors, only four were affected with scurvy during that year. The much greater number of men attacked by the disease on board merchant ships appears to be due to the inferior or worthless character of the lime or lemon juice purchased by them.

Writing on the hygienic condition of the merchant marine in 1867, Mr Harry Leach says:——

“We are prepared to maintain, from the following table (and other statistics from which these have been taken), that the want of good lime or lemon juice was distinctly the cause of scurvy in the vessels below mentioned.

No. of Hands Cases of Result of examination Name of Ship. (all told). Scurvy. of Lime juice.

Hermione 17 5 Sulphuric acid. Merrie England 29 10 Stinking. Stirling Castle 32 6 Very weak. Hoang-Ho 21 5 Acetic acid. Blanche Moore 35 8 Musty and nauseous. St Andrew’s Castle 19 7 Citric acid. Tamerlane 21 4 Nauseous. Marlborough 23 8 Very weak. Galloway 29 6 Short allowance. Tamar 17 2 Very weak. French Empire 27 7 or 8 Citric acid. Eaglet 14 3 Thick and nasty. Geelong 14 9 Taken irregularly. Thorndean 35 2 Spoiled (short supply of provisions).

Taken with ships that, with others, have arrived in the port of London during the past two years with cases of scurvy.

“Of direct causes this is undoubtedly first and foremost; but of indirect causes we have a few words to say. Dirt, bad provisions, and any form of disease to which sailors, in common with other men, are subject, will predispose to scurvy. This cannot and should not be denied, but it affords to parsimonious captains a very large peg whereon to hang sundry invectives as to the cry lately made about the continued prevalence of this disease in the mercantile marine. Such captains, with pardonable ignorance, consider scurvy a form of venereal disease, give the wretched subject thereof mercury, and bring him into port salivated as well as scorbutic.”

Mr Leach further adds:——

“In summing up statistics of scurvy for the past year (1867), we find that a total of 235 accredited cases were admitted into British hospitals, giving no account of those who convalesced in sailors’ homes or elsewhere.

“To this we may add, that seven sailors were left at St Helena, from a ship recently arrived in the Thames; that a vessel put into Falmouth on the 29th ult., with no less than sixteen severe cases of scurvy on board, and that between twenty and thirty cases have arrived in this port during the present month. It would be well (as a supplementary aid to the prevention of scurvy by inspection of lime juice) that the dues levied for the St Helena Hospital should be abolished. It was stated to us some weeks ago by a very old inhabitant of that Island, that this fact alone caused many ships to pass without calling for needful supplies of antiscorbutic material.

“I would however remark, that if the system proposed by the Seamen’s Hospital Society were put in force, no such aid to the prevention of this disease would be required, inasmuch as every ship would then be supplied with good lime juice.”

The following figures, giving the number of patients suffering from scurvy admitted into the Seamen’s Hospital, shows a decrease in the disease, since the publication of the above:——

In 1865, from British vessels, 101; foreign do. 1 ” 1866 ” ” 96 ” 5 ” 1867 ” ” 90 ” 4 ” 1868 ” ” 64 ” 10 ” 1869 ” ” 31 ” 9 ” 1870 ” ” 30 ” 21 ” 1871 ” ” 24 ” 16

=SEAL′ING WAX.= See WAX.

=SEA SICKNESS.= The most effectual preventive of sea sickness appears to be the horizontal position. When there is much pain, after the stomach has been well cleared, a few drops of laudanum may be taken, or an opium plaster may be applied over the region of the stomach. Persons about to proceed to sea should put their stomach and bowels in proper order, by the use of mild aperients, and even an emetic, if required, when it will generally be found that a glass of warm and weak brandy-and-water, to which 15 or 20 drops of laudanum, or, still better, 1 or 2 drops of creasote, have been added, will effectually prevent any disposition to sea sickness, provided the bowels be attended to, and excess in eating and drinking be at the same time avoided. A spoonful of crushed ice, in a wine-glassful of cold water, or weak brandy-and-water, will often afford relief when all other means fail. Smoking at sea is very apt to induce sickness. M. F. Curie, in the ‘Comptes Rendus,’ asserts that drawing in the breath as the vessel descends, and exhaling it as it ascends, on the billows, by preventing the movements of the diaphragm acting abnormally on the phrenetic nerves, prevents sea sickness. On this Mr Atkinson, at one of the meetings of the British Association, observed that——if a person, seated on board ship, holding a tumbler filled with water in his hand, makes an effort to prevent the water running over, at the same time allowing not merely his arm, but also his whole body, to participate in the movements, he will find that this has the effect of preventing the giddiness and nausea that the rolling and tossing of the vessel have a tendency to produce in inexperienced voyagers. If the person is suffering from sickness at the commencement of his experiment, as soon as he grasps the glass of liquid in his hand, and suffers his arm to take its course and go through the movements alluded to, he feels as if he were performing them of his own free will, and the nausea abates immediately, and very soon ceases entirely, and does not return so long as he suffers his arm and body to assume the postures into which they seem to be drawn. Should he, however, resist the free course of his hand, he instantly feels a thrill of pain, of a peculiarly stunning kind, shoot through his head, and experiences a sense of dizziness and returning nausea.

Dr Doring, a Viennese physician, states that an ordinary dose of chloral hydrate is an unfailing remedy for sea sickness. In various cases recorded by him it seems to have been of the greatest service, even during long sea voyages, ensuring a good night’s rest, arresting violent sickness when it has set in, and preventing its return.

=SEDATIVE PILLS, Gunther’s.= These are composed of the following ingredients:——Assafœtida powder, 50 parts; extract of valerian, 50; extract of belladonna, 3; oxide of zinc, 1 part; castor, 2 parts. Make into a pill-mass, to be administered in doses of 3 to 10 grains, twice daily, in chorea, &c.

=SED′ATIVES.= Syn. SEDATIVA, L. Medicines and agents which diminish the force of the circulation or the animal energy, and allay pain. Foxglove, henbane, tobacco, potassio-tartrate of antimony, and several of the neutral salts and acids, act as sedatives. Cold is, perhaps, the most powerful agent of this class.

=SEED.= Syn. SEMEN, L. The seeds of plants are conspicuous for their vast number and variety, and their extreme usefulness to man. The seeds of certain of the Graminaceæ furnish him with his daily bread; some of those of the Leguminosæ in either the immature or ripe state, supply his table with wholesome esculents, or provide a nourishing diet for his domestic animals; whilst those of numerous other plants, dispersed through every class, orders, and family, yield their treasures of oil, medicinals, or perfumes for his use.

=SELEN′IC ACID.= H_{2}SeO_{4}. Syn. ACIDUM SELENICUM, L. Prep. By fusing selenium with nitrate of potassium or of sodium, acting on the fused mass with water, precipitating the resulting solution with acetate or nitrate of lead, and decomposing the precipitate (selenate of lead), diffused in water, with sulphuretted hydrogen. The selenic acid, thus obtained, may be cautiously concentrated in a glass vessel, if necessary; but if this be pushed too far, it is resolved into selenious acid (H_{2}SeO_{3}) and oxygen.

Prop., &c. Hydrated selenic acid is a colourless liquid, closely resembling sulphuric acid; its salts (selenates) bear the closest analogy to the sulphates.

SELENIC ACID (H_{2}SeO_{4}). No selenic anhydride is known. Selenic acid may be obtained in solution by deflagrating selenium or a selenite with potassic nitrate. The residue dissolved in water is mixed with a solution of plumbic nitrate, an insoluble plumbic seleniate being precipitated. The plumbic seleniate is suspended in water and decomposed by means of a current of sulphuretted hydrogen. Plumbic sulphide is precipitated, and the liberated selenic acid separated by filtration is concentrated until it acquires a sp. gr. of 2·6; if heated above 554° F. it decomposes into selenious anhydride, water, and oxygen. Selenic acid has a great resemblance to sulphuric acid. It acts upon the metals in the same manner, and even dissolves gold. The seleniates are also very similar in properties to the sulphates, and both classes of salts are isomorphous. The seleniates give the same characteristic odour before the blowpipe as the selenites. Their solutions give white precipitates with the salts of barium, strontian and lead, insoluble in nitric acid. If a soluble seleniate is boiled with hydrochloric acid, selenic acid is set free, and is reduced to selenious acid, sulphurous acid will then precipitate reduced selenium from the solution. Baric seleniate may be also decomposed in a similar manner, and this reaction distinguishes it from baric sulphate.

=SELE′NIUM.= Se. A rare chemical element, discovered by Berzelius in 1817 in the refuse of a sulphuric acid manufactory near Fahlun, in Sweden, it having been derived from the pyrites employed in the manufacture of the acid. Hence the pyrites of Fahlun forms the chief source of this rare body, although it exists, but less abundantly, in combination with a few other metals, termed selenides. Selenium is chiefly interesting to the chemist from its remarkable analogy in chemical properties to sulphur. Like this latter element, it is capable of assuming three allotropic forms——the amorphous, the vitreous, and the crystalline.

The latter variety of selenium, like the crystalline form of sulphur, dissolves in bisulphide of carbon, but much less readily. Selenium boils below a red heat and becomes converted into a deep yellow vapour, which, when heated, is subject to the same anomalous expansion as sulphur vapour. It is not so combustible as sulphur, which it still further resembles by burning with a blue flame when ignited in the air. During combustion it gives off a peculiar and characteristic smell, resembling that of putrid horse-radish. Heated with strong sulphuric acid, selenium forms a green solution. If this solution is poured into water, the selenium separates and is thrown down. Selenium is without taste or smell, is insoluble in water, and in its normal state is a non-conductor of heat and electricity. Selenium may be extracted from the Fahlun residue by the following process:——It should be first boiled with sulphuric acid, diluted with an equal volume of water, and nitric acid should then be added in small quantities until the oxidation of the selenium is accomplished, which may be known when red fumes cease to be cooled. The solution which contains selenious (SeO_{2}) and selenic (SeO_{3}) acid is then to be largely diluted with water, filtered, the filtrate mixed with about one fourth of its bulk of hydrochloric acid, and then concentrated a little by evaporation, the result of which is that the hydrochloric acid reduces the selenic to selenious acid. A current of sulphurous acid being then passed through the solution, the selenium is precipitated in red flakes, which form into a dense black mass when the liquid is gently heated. The following equation illustrates the reaction:——

H_{2}O,SeO_{2} + H_{2}O + 2SO_{2} = 2(H_{2}SO_{3}) + Se.

Like sulphur, selenium combines with oxygen and forms an anhydride corresponding to sulphurous anhydride. SELENIOUS ANHYDRIDE (SeO_{2}) may be obtained by burning selenium in a current of oxygen; it is, however, more easily prepared by boiling selenium with nitric acid or with aqua regia, the excess of acid being expelled by heat, the selenious anhydride is left as a white mass. When this is dissolved in water it yields a crystalline hydrate of selenious acid (H_{2}SeO_{3}). The salts formed by selenious acid (selenites), with the exception of those of the alkali metals, are mostly insoluble in water. They are easily known by the peculiar odour of selenium which they give off when heated on charcoal in the reducing flame of the blowpipe; solutions of the selenites give a reddish-brown precipitate when treated with sulphurous acid.

=Seleniuretted Hydrogen= (H_{2}Se). This may be obtained in a precisely similar manner, namely, by acting on selenide of iron or potassium with diluted sulphuric or hydrochloric acid. Seleniuretted hydrogen is soluble in water, and precipitates many metals from their salts as selenides. The solution is feebly acid, and, like its analogue solution of sulphuretted hydrogen, if exposed to the air, absorbs oxygen and deposits selenium. The selenides of the alkali metals are soluble in water. The selenides of cerium, zinc, and manganese are flesh-coloured; most of the others are black. This gas is inflammable like sulphuretted hydrogen; it has, however, a still more offensive smell than this latter gas, Berzelius lost his sense of smell for several hours by the application to his nose of a bubble of seleniuretted hydrogen not larger than a pea. There are two chlorides of selenium——a dichloride (Se_{2}Cl_{2}), a volatile liquid of a brown colour, and a tetra-chloride (SeCl_{4}), which occurs as a white crystalline solid. Selenium unites with sulphur, forming a bisulphide (SeS_{2}) and a tersulphide (SeS_{3}). A very curious physical property of selenium when exposed to the action of light was first noticed in 1873 by Mr May, assistant chemist at the Telegraph Station at Valentia, in Ireland, who observed that a stick of crystallised selenium which had been used for some time in telegraphy, where high electrical resistance was required, offered a considerably diminished resistance to the current when exposed to the light than when kept in the dark. Mr May’s discovery, which was at first received with some amount of incredulity, has since been amply corroborated by the observations and researches of many physicists, amongst them by Professor Werner Siemens, the result of whose experiments on this interesting subject we quote from a lecture delivered at the Royal Institution by his brother, Dr William Siemens, in February, 1876. After describing the method by which his brother arranged the selenium, so that, when inserted in the galvanic current of a single Daniell’s cell, the surface action produced by the light upon it attained a maximum effect, and thereby did away with the necessity of employing a large galvanic battery, and at the same time allowed an ordinary galvanometer to be used instead of a delicate one, as hitherto employed, Dr Siemens proceeded to illustrate the action of light upon the element by experiment. “I here hold,” he said, “an element so prepared of amorphous selenium, which I place in a dark box, and insert in a galvanic circuit comprising a Daniell’s cell and a delicate galvanometer, the face of which will be thrown upon the screen through a mirror by means of the electric light.

“In closing the circuit it will be seen that no deflection of the needle ensues. We will now admit light upon the selenium disc and close the circuit, when again no deflection will be observed, showing that the selenium in its present condition is a non-conductor both in the dark and under the influence of light. I will now submit a similar disc of selenium which has been kept in boiling water for an hour and gradually cooled to the same tests as before. In closing the circuit while the plate is in the dark a certain deflection of the galvanometer will be discernible, but I will now open the lid of the box so as to admit light upon the disc, when on again closing the circuit a slight deflection of the galvanometer needle will be observed. In closing the box against the light this deflection will subside, but will again be visible the moment the light is readmitted to the box. Here we have, then, the extraordinary effect of light upon selenium clearly illustrated.

“I will now insert into the same circuit another selenium plate which has been heated up to 210° C, and, after having been kept at that temperature for several hours, has been gradually cooled; it will be observed that this plate is affected to a greater extent than the former by the action of light, and other conditions, to which I shall presently allude, prove the selenium heated to a higher temperature to be in other respects dissimilar to the other two modifications of the same. These differences will be best revealed in describing my brother’s experiment. He placed one of his amorphous preparations of selenium in an air-bath heated above the melting point of selenium (to 260° C.), while the connecting wires were inserted in a galvanic circuit consisting of only one Daniell’s element and a delicate reflecting galvanometer, and every five minutes the temperature and conductivity of the selenium were noted. Up to the temperature of 80° C. no current passed; from this point onward the conductivity of the material rapidly increased until it obtained its maximum at the temperature of 210° C., being nearly its melting point, after which an equally rapid diminution of conductivity commenced, reaching a minimum at a temperature of about 240° C., when the conductivity was only such as could be detected by a most delicate galvanometer. In continuing to increase the temperature of the fluid selenium very gradually but steadily, its conductivity increased again.

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