Part 2 (part 5 of 5)

Part 2 (part 5 of 5)

“The products resulting from the disintegration of this formed matter may be taken up by the germinal matter of the tissues, and at length become tissue, or by that of secreting cells, in which case it is removed in the form of the constituents of various excretions from the body altogether.” About an ounce and a quarter of urea is daily excreted by a healthy man, although of course there will be a variation in this amount principally depending upon the quantity of animal food and active exercise taken during the twenty-four hours. As might be anticipated a smaller quantity of urea is excreted by women than by men, since they are unable to indulge to the same extent in muscular exercise. A diminished quantity also results from breathing impure air, and from a diseased and unhealthy condition of the lungs or of the circulation, and also, as might be expected, from an insufficiency of food.

Prep. (Thénard.) Fresh urine, gently evaporated to the consistence of a syrup, is treated with its own volume of nitric acid of sp. gr. 1·19; the mixture is shaken and immersed in an ice bath, to solidify the crystals of nitrate of urea (p. 1689); these are washed with ice-cold water, drained, and pressed between sheets of blotting paper; they are next dissolved in water, and the solution is decomposed and precipitated with carbonate of potassium (or carbonate of barium); the whole is then gently evaporated nearly to dryness, and the residuum is exhausted with pure alcohol, which dissolves the urea, which crystallises out as the solution cools.

=Urea, Factitious.= Mix 28 parts of well-dried ferrocyanide of potassium with 14 of black oxide of manganese (both in fine powder), and heat them to dull redness on an iron plate. Lixiviate with cold water, add 22-1/2 parts of dry sulphate of ammonia, concentrate by evaporation with a heat not exceeding 212° F., decant the concentrated liquid, treat it with rectified spirit, and crystallise. This is intended as a cleanly substitute for the preceding.

=Urea, Ni′trate of.= Syn. UREÆ NITRAS, L. Prep. From urine, as described above; or it may be prepared by saturating artificial urea with nitric acid. Diuretic.——Dose, 2 to 5 gr. twice or thrice daily; in dropsy.

=U′RIC ACID.= C_{5}H_{4}N_{4}O_{3}. Syn. LITHIC ACID; ACIDUM LITHICUM, A. URICUM, L. A substance discovered by Scheele, and peculiar to the urine of certain animals, and the excrement of serpents and several birds. The fæces of the boa constrictor consist of little else than urate of ammonium. It constitutes one of the commonest varieties of urinary calculi, and of the red gravel or sand which is voided in certain morbid states of the urine. Guano derives its principal value as a manure from the presence of urate of ammonium. The gouty concretions of the joints, popularly known as chalk-stones, consist chiefly of urate of sodium.

Prep. Dissolve the chalk-like excrement of serpents, reduced to fine powder, in a solution of caustic potassa, by boiling; then add hydrochloric acid in excess, again boil for 15 minutes, and well wash the precipitate with water.

Prop., &c. Brilliant, very minute, white and silky scales, which are tasteless, inodorous, slightly soluble in boiling water, and dissolve in strong sulphuric acid, but are again precipitated by water. It forms salts with the bases called urates, all of which are very sparingly soluble. The characteristic reaction of uric acid is, that when moistened with nitric acid and heated, it dissolves, and by evaporation yields a red compound, which, upon the addition of a drop or two of solution of ammonia, assumes a magnificent crimson colour, being converted into murexide.

Uric acid is a constituent of healthy human urine, in which it exists combined with bases in the form of urates, which, being in small quantity, are soluble in the urine. 1000 grains of the urine contain from 1/2 grain to 1 grain of the acid. Drs Beale and Thudichum respectively estimate the amount of uric acid excreted in twenty-four hours by a healthy adult man at from 5 to 8 grains. To determine the amount of uric acid in urine proceed as follows:——To a certain weight of the urine, hydrochloric or nitric acid is added, and the urine set aside for some hours, at the end of which time, the insoluble crystals of uric acid which are formed, are washed, dried, and weighed.

With the exception of the urates, uric acid is one of the deposits most frequently met with in abnormal urine, wherein it occurs as a small reddish powder adhering to the bottom or sides of the containing vessel. As a urinary deposit, uric acid assumes a great variety of forms, that of most frequent occurrence being the rhombic, modified in many of the crystals by the rounding of two of the angles, as shown in the engraving on next page.

=URINARY DISEASES.= This class of disorders, which in general terms may be said to embrace affections of the kidneys, bladder, ureters, &c., comprises diseases of these parts varying greatly in character and pathological importance.

The most serious forms of kidney disease are CONGESTION of the kidney, a very frequent accompaniment of heart or lung disease; PYELITIS, or inflammation of the pelvis of the kidney; SUPPURATIVE NEPHRITIS, or inflammation of the substance of the kidney, which ends in suppuration; ACUTE NEPHRITIS, or ACUTE BRIGHT’S DISEASE, acute inflammation of the kidney, frequently arising from scarlatina or cold; CHRONIC NEPHRITIS, or CHRONIC BRIGHT’S DISEASE, a formidable and incurable variety of kidney affection, giving rise to dropsy, and, owing to the disintegration of the organ, to poisoning of the blood by urea. In advanced cases of this disease the urine contains a large quantity of albumen and casts of the urinary tubes.

CALCULUS OF THE KIDNEY. The most dangerous diseases of the bladder are those caused by the deposition in it of earthy and other concretions, known as URINARY CALCULI, which are described in the present work under CALCULUS. The presence of these calculi is indicated by acute pain in the bladder and urinary passages, extending to the adjacent parts, the pain being excruciating immediately after passing the urine. Sometimes during the act of excretion the stream of water is suddenly stopped.

Inflammation is another dangerous disease of the bladder, calling for the prompt summoning of the medical practitioner wherever possible.

The following particulars as to its symptoms and treatment are offered for adoption to emigrants and others so placed as to be beyond the means of medical succour.

Inflammation of the bladder commences with pain in the region of that organ, the pain becoming continuous and increasing in violence, and being accompanied with a sense of burning heat and of tenderness on pressure. The urine is frequently voided. The inflammation is sometimes so acute as to give rise to suppuration and the consequent discharge of pus with the urine. Sometimes the disease assumes a chronic character.

In the acute form of the disease recourse should be had to leeches, hot fomentations, and warm baths; a dose of calomel, to be followed by a brisk dose of castor oil, should likewise be administered. Alcoholic drinks of any kind must be carefully avoided, the patient being allowed to drink only cool demulcent beverages. With these should be combined effervescing draughts, frequently repeated, and small doses of Dover’s powder. Great relief will also be derived from the use of enemas of gruel containing laudanum. Where inflammation of the bladder arises from gout or rheumatism, it must be treated as for these diseases. A suppository, consisting of two grains of opium, combined with twenty grains of soap, is frequently of great benefit.

Should the disease become chronic, the best method of treatment will be the repeated use of mild aperients, the combined employment of uva ursi in infusion or powder, with either tincture of perchloride of iron, or the mineral acids. Spirituous liquors of any kind must be avoided. Demulcent drinks form the best beverage, and a farinaceous or milk diet the most desirable food.

NEURALGIA OF THE BLADDER. The pain which attends this disease is unaccompanied either by inflammation or irritation, and is recurrent in character. It may generally be arrested by tincture of perchloride of iron, or of iron and quinine, administered three times a day.

IRRITATION OF THE BLADDER. The patient affected with this disorder gratifies the frequent desire he has to pass his urine, the operation being accompanied with pain and forcing, the most severe pain being experienced after the excretion has taken place. The tincture of perchloride of iron will also be found the best remedy for this disorder. It should be given in conjunction with the infusions of uva ursi, Pareira brava, or buchu.

Mucilaginous drinks should also be had recourse to.

CATARRH OF THE BLADDER. The symptoms of this disease are irritation, and the presence of much mucus in the urine. The same treatment may be adopted as recommended for irritation of the bladder. If there be an absence of pain, spirits of nitre and copaiba balsam in moderate doses frequently afford relief.

STRANGURY. Constant micturition, only a few drops of urine passing at the time, occasioning burning and cutting pains around the parts. Strangury is generally due to some irritating cause, which should, if possible, be discovered and removed. Cantharides taken either internally, or applied externally, as in the form of a blister, will sometimes give rise to it. The patient should drink copiously of mucilaginous beverages, such as linseed tea, slippery elm bark, barley water, with gum Arabic dissolved in it. An injection consisting of thirty or forty drops of laudanum in a spoonful of gruel will be found to afford immediate relief. If the above means fail, a pill containing a grain of camphor in five grains of extract of henbane should be given, and a warm bath taken. See GRAVEL.

=U′RINE.= The density of the urine varies from 1·005 to 1·030;[247] the average, in health, being 1·020, when it contains about 380 gr. of solid matter in the pint. According to Berzelius, the proportion is about 6-3/4%, the rest being pure water. It exhibits a decidedly acid reaction, and is never alkaline, except during disease, or the use of large quantities of alkaline salts of the vegetable acids. The average quantity secreted during 24 hours may be taken at 2 pints to 3 pints; as might be supposed, a larger quantity is passed during the summer than in the winter months.

[Footnote 247: From 1·015 to 1·025, Beale.]

Miller gives the following as the composition of healthy urine:——

In 100 Specific gravity 1·020 parts of solid Water 956·80 matter.

{ { Urea 14·23 33·00 { { Uric acid 0·37 0·86 { Organic matters, 29·79 { Alcoholic extract 12·53 29·03 { { Watery extract 2·50 5·80 { { Vesical mucus 0·16 0·37 { { { Sodic chloride 7·22 16·73 A { { Phosphoric anhydride 2·12 4·91 { { Sulphuric anhydride 1·70 3·94 { Fixed salts, 13·35 { Lime 0·21 0·49 { { Magnesia 0·21 0·28 { { Potash 1·93 4·47 { { Soda 0·09 0·12 { Loss 0·03 —————— —————— 1000·00 100·00 A = Solid matters, 43·2.

The presence of bile in urine, or other like fluids, may be detected as follows:——Put a small quantity of the suspected liquid into a test-tube, and add to it, drop by drop, strong sulphuric acid, until it becomes warm, taking care not to raise the temperature above 122° Fahr.; then add from 2 to 5 drops of syrup (made with 5 parts of sugar to 4 of water), and shake the mixture. If the liquid contain bile, a violet coloration is observed. Acetic acid may be substituted for sugar.

Another test for bile consists in pouring a little of the suspected urine into a test tube, and adding to it a few drops of tincture of iodine, when if bile be present the fluid becomes distinctly green. Rosenbach says that urine containing bile, when passed through white filtering paper, imparts a yellow or brown colour to the paper. On allowing one drop of strong nitric acid to run down the side of the moist filter it leaves a yellow streak, soon changing to orange, with a violet border, on the outside of which blue and emerald-green zones may be observed. These colours remain visible for some time.

Dark-coloured urine, owing to substances other than bile, does not produce this play of colours.

The reagents most generally employed for detecting the presence of sugar in urine are Trommer’s (see SUGAR) and Fehling’s solutions. For the effective application of Fehling’s test, Dr Roberts[248] advises the following method of procedure:——Pour some of the Fehling’s solution into a narrow test tube to the depth of 3/4 of an inch; heat until it begins to boil; then add 2 or 3 drops of the suspected urine. If the sugar be abundant, a thick yellow opacity or deposit of yellow suboxide are produced (and this changes to a brick-red at once if the blue colour of the test remains dominant). If no such reaction ensue, go on adding the urine until a bulk nearly equal to the test employed has been poured in; heat again to ebullition, and no change occurring, set aside without further boiling. If no milkiness is produced as the mixture cools, the urine may confidently be pronounced free from sugar, or, at any rate, it contains less than 1/40th percent.

[Footnote 248: ‘Urinary and Renal Diseases,’ by Dr W. Roberts.]

If the quantity of sugar is very small, viz. from a 1/2 to 1/40th per cent., the precipitation of the yellow or cuprous oxide does not take place immediately, but occurs after some time as the liquid cools, and the manner of the change is peculiar. First, the mixture loses its transparency, and passes from a clear bluish green to a light greenish opacity, just as if some drops of milk had fallen into the tube. This green milky appearance is quite characteristic of sugar.

Before using the Fehling’s solution it should be always examined previously to the addition of the urine, by being first boiled alone, when if it remains clear it may be pronounced in fit condition. On the contrary, should the preliminary boiling give a deposit, the solution must be discarded, and some freshly made employed instead.

Böttger has proposed the following quantitative test for the presence of sugar in urine:

He first adds some potash to the sample of urine, and then a small quantity of subnitrate of bismuth, and boils the mixture. If sugar is present, the suboxide is reduced, and metallic bismuth being liberated is precipitated as a black powder.

Another method of applying the bismuth test is as follows:——One part of crystallised carbonate of soda is dissolved in three parts of water, and added to an equal quantity of the urine. A small quantity of basic nitrate of bismuth is then added to the mixture, which is then heated to the boiling point. A black precipitate is formed if the urine contains sugar.

Horsley’s test consists in boiling with the suspected urine a mixture of equal parts of neutral chromate of potash and solution of potash, when, if sugar be present, a green colour will be produced, owing to the formation of the sesquioxide of chromium.

M. Luton’s, which is a modification of Horsley’s test, a solution of bichromate of potash is decomposed by excess of sulphuric acid, and upon the urine being boiled with the mixture, a splendid green colour is imparted to it. Urea, albumin, and the urates do not interfere with this reaction.

Vidau has observed that a mixture of equal parts of hydrochloric acid and oil of brune (oil of sesame), either in the cold, or when slightly heated, assumes a distinct rose colour in the presence of cane or grape sugar, provided 0·001 gramme of sugar is present for every c.c. of mixture.

One of the best methods for the accurate and quick estimation of the amount of sugar in urine is, perhaps, the volumetric, devised by Fehling, who employed a standard copper solution, known as ‘Fehling’s solution,’ of the following composition:

Sulphate of copper 90-1/2 grains. Neutral tartrate of potash 364 ” Solution of caustic soda, sp. gr. 1·12 4 fl. oz. Add water to make up exactly 6 ”

Of this solution 200 grains are exactly decomposed by one grain of sugar.

The following is the mode of performing the analysis given by Dr Roberts[249]:——Measure off 200 grains of the above standard solution in a 200-grain tube, pour this into a flask, and add about twice its volume of water; then place over a spirit lamp to boil. While the copper solution is being heated the urine to be analysed should be diluted with water to a known degree. In the case of ordinary diabetic urines the best dilution is one in ten. This is obtained by carefully filling a 6-ounce measure with water to the depth of 4-1/2 ounces, and then adding urine so as to make up exactly 5 ounces. The mixture will then contain exactly one tenth of urine (when the quantity of sugar in the urine is very small, a dilution of one in five, or even the undiluted urine may be employed). The next step is to fill a burette (which must be graduated to grains) with the diluted urine to 0. Then proceed to add it in successive small portions to the boiling copper solution until the blue colour has entirely disappeared. After each fresh addition from the burette, the mixture should be raised to the boiling point, and then allowed to stand a few seconds, so that the precipitated copper may subside, and the observer may see, by holding the flask between the eye and the light, whether the mixture still retains any blue colour.

[Footnote 249: ‘Urinary and Renal Diseases,’ by Dr W. Roberts.]

As soon as the blue colour has disappeared the analysis is complete, and the quantity of diluted urine may be read off. The percentage of sugar in the urine can now be readily calculated. Suppose 125 grains had been added from the burette, this represents one tenth, or 12·5 grains of undiluted urine, and contains exactly one grain of sugar; by dividing 12·5 into 100 the per-centage of sugar is obtained, or 100/12·5 = 8; the urine contains 8 per cent. of sugar.

Another process for the quantitative determination of sugar in urine, called by its author, Dr Roberts, “the differential density method,” is based upon the loss of density, experienced by diabetic urine, after all the sugar has been removed by fermentation. Dr Roberts says repeated examples derived from diabetic urine so treated, together with corresponding experiments made with solutions of sugar of known strength in normal urine, and in pure water, as well as theoretical calculation have warranted the conclusion, that the number of degrees of density so lost indicates as many grains of sugar per fluid ounce.

The method, which is extremely simple, is thus performed:——Into a 12-ounce bottle measure 4 fluid ounces of the diabetic urine, and drop into it a piece of fresh German yeast, about as large as a cobnut or walnut; insert a cork in the bottle, and let the cork have a nick cut in the side, to allow of the escape of the carbonic acid. Then fill an ordinary 4-ounce bottle with the same sample of urine, omitting to add any yeast, and cork it in the ordinary manner. Place both bottles in a warm situation, where the temperature is about 80° or 90° Fahr., for twenty or twenty-four hours; at the end of which time, the fermentation being over, the scum will either have cleared off or subsided. The fermented urine is then poured into a proper urine-glass, and its specific gravity ascertained.

The specific gravity of the unfermented companion portion is also taken, and by comparing the two results the loss of density is thus arrived at. Before the respective densities are taken it is best to remove the two samples to a cool place, where they should remain for two or three hours, in order that they may acquire the temperature of the surrounding air.

The two following examples may serve as illustrations of the method.

I. II. Density before fermentation 1053 1038 Density after fermentation 1004 1013 Degrees of density lost 49 25 ———— ———— Grains of sugar per fluid ounce 49 25

If it be desired to bring out the result as so much per cent., this is accomplished by multiplying the number indicating the “density lost” by the coefficient 0·23. Thus, in the first of the above examples, 49 × 0·23 = 11·27; and in the second 25 × 0·23 = 5·69, which are amounts of sugar respectively per 100 parts.[250]

[Footnote 250: Roberts.]

In taking the densities Dr Roberts advises the operator to employ a urinometer having a long scale, since the degrees are much further apart than in the scales of the short-stemmed instruments, and are therefore more distinct and can be more easily read off.

The following are examples of diabetic urine:

No. 1 (Simon).

Specific gravity 1018· Water 957·00 Solid constituents 43·00 Urea Traces. Uric acid Traces. Sugar 39·80 Extractive matter and } soluble salts } 2·10 Earthy phosphates 0·52 Albumen Traces.

No. 2 (Dr Percy).

Specific gravity 1042· Water 894·50 Solid constituents 105·50 Urea 12·16 Uric acid 0·16 Sugar 40·12 Extractive matter, and} soluble salts } 53·06

No. 3 (Bouchardat).

Water 837·58 Solid constituents 162·42 Urea 8·27 Uric acid Not isolated. Sugar 134·32 Extractive matters, and } soluble salts } 20·34 Earthy phosphates 0·38

“Diabetic urine usually possesses a peculiar smell, which has been compared with that of violets, apples, new hay, whey, horses’ urine, musk, and sour milk. Such comparisons serve only to show how difficult it is to give by description a correct idea of a particular odour. The colour of diabetic urine is generally pale. Sometimes, but not usually until after two or three days, the surface becomes coloured with a whitish film, owing to the development of the sugar fungus, and the penicillium glaucum, and gradually the urine becomes opalescent in consequence of these fungi multiplying in great numbers in every part of the fluid. See URINARY DEPOSITS (FUNGI).

“Diabetic urine has a sweet taste, and often numbers of flies are attracted to it, which fact sometimes leads the patient to suspect that the urine is not healthy.”[251]

[Footnote 251: ‘Kidney Diseases, Urinary Deposits,’ &c., Dr Lionel Beale.]

White merino, that has been wet with a solution of bichloride of tin, is also said to form a ready test for sugar in urine.

Albumen in urine may be detected by the nitric acid, or by the heat test. The nitric acid test is performed as follows.——Fill a test tube to about an inch with the urine, then incline the tube and pour in strong nitric acid down the side of the tube, so that the acid sinks to the bottom and displaces the urine, which by reason of its smaller specific gravity rests above it. Let the acid be added till it forms a stratum about a quarter of an inch thick at the bottom.

If the urine contain albumen three layers will be perceptible——one, perfectly colourless, of nitric acid at the bottom; immediately above this an opalescent zone of the coagulated albumen; and, on the top, the unaltered urine.

In his work, ‘Kidney Diseases and Urinary Deposits,’ Dr Lionel Beale directs attention to the very important fact that “two or three drops of nitric acid to about a drachm of albuminous urine in a test tube will produce a precipitate of albumen which will be dissolved on agitation, while, on the other hand, about half as much strong nitric acid as there is of urine will redissolve the precipitate of albumen, unless the quantity present be excessive. Albumen precipitated by nitric acid is soluble in weak nitric acid, and in a considerable excess of urine, and it is also soluble in strong nitric acid. It is therefore necessary in employing the nitric acid test to add from ten to fifteen drops of the strong acid to about a drachm of the urine suspected to contain albumen.”

Dr Roberts gives the following directions for applying the heat test:——If the urine have its usual acid reaction it becomes turbid on boiling when it contains albumen, and this turbidity persists after the addition of an acid. There are two points to be remembered on using heat alone as a test for albumen. First, that albumen is not coagulated by heat when the urine is alkaline; in such cases, therefore, it is necessary before boiling to restore the acidity by a few drops of acetic acid (carefully avoiding excess). Secondly, when the urine is neutral or very feebly acid, it may become turbid on heating, from precipitation of the earthy phosphates, but turbidity from this cause is easily distinguished from albumen by a drop of nitric or acetic acid, which instantly causes the phosphates to disappear. It may sometimes happen that the patient whose urine is to be submitted to examination for albumen may be taking large doses of nitric or hydrochloric acid. Under these circumstances Dr Bence Jones recommends the addition of ammonia to the urine, nearly to the point of neutralisation.

Mr Louis Siebold proposes a modification of Dr Roberts’s method of applying the heat test in acid states of the urine, which is as follows:——Add solution of ammonia to the urine until just perceptibly alkaline, filter, and add diluted acetic acid very cautiously until the urine acquires a faint acid reaction, avoiding the use of a single drop more than is necessary. Now place equal quantities of this mixture into two test tubes of equal size, heat one of them to ebullition, and compare it with the cold sample contained in the other test tube. The least turbidity is thus distinctly observed, and gives absolute proof of the presence of albumen, the error of confounding phosphates with albumen being out of the question, as they are precipitated by the ammonia and removed by filtration.

M. Galipe[252] says the following is a delicate as well as trustworthy test for albuminous urine. A few drops of the urine are carefully added to a solution of picric acid contained in a small conical test glass. If albumen be present a well-marked turbidity will be produced at the point of contact between the two liquids. On applying heat the albumen agglutinates, and rises to the surface. Phosphates and urates are said not to interfere with this test.

[Footnote 252: ‘Pharm. Zeitung for Russland,’ xiv, 48 (‘Pharm. Journ.’).]

In order to determine the quantity of albumen in urine proceed as follows:——Add a little acetic acid to the urine, and then heat it in a water bath until it boils. Or the albuminous urine may be dropped into boiling water acidulated with acetic acid. In either case collect the precipitate on a weighed filter, wash it well, dry it, and weigh it. The albumen must afterwards be incinerated, and the resulting residue, which consists of earthy salts, must be deducted from the dried precipitate.

Stolnikow[253] adopts the following method for the quantitative estimation of albumen in urine:——The urine is diluted with water until a sample poured upon some nitric acid contained in a test tube produces still a faint white ring at the point of contact after the lapse of forty seconds. The number of volumes of water added to the volume of urine (which may be taken as one) is divided by 250, and the quotient will be the percentage of albumen in the urine. This relation has been established and confirmed by gravimetric determinations.

[Footnote 253: ‘Chem. Central.’ (‘Pharm. Journ.’).]

It is sometimes desirable to remove the albumen from the urine before proceeding to search for other substances. There are several methods of accomplishing this. If the urine be boiled the albumen will become coagulated, but in many cases it may happen, owing to the urine being slightly alkaline or neutral, that a small quantity may remain in solution. Hence it will be advisable to add a little acetic acid to the urine before applying heat to it, to remove the precipitated matters by filtration, and to exactly neutralise the acid in the filtrate. If a few crystals of sulphate of soda be heated with albuminous urine, the albumen and allied matters may be entirely removed without injury to other organic matters dissolved, and without interfering with the employment of other reagents. When it is desirable to free the urine from albumen previous to testing for sugar, this latter method will be found the best and most convenient.

The following analyses represent the amount of albumen present in the urine of two patients suffering from Bright’s disease:

No. 1 (Simon).

Specific gravity 1014· Water 966·10 Solid constituents 33·90 Urea 4·77 Uric acid 0·40 Fixed salts 8·04 Extractive matters 2·40 Albumen 18·00

No. 2 (Dr Percy).

Specific gravity 1020· Water 946·82 Solid constituents 53·18 Urea 7·68 Uric acid, and indeterminate } animal matter } 17·52 Fixed soluble salts 5·20 Earthy phosphates 0·14 Albumen 22·64

Dr Parkes records the case of a patient suffering from albuminuria, who excreted 545 grains of albumen in twenty-four hours. See URATES.

Urine frequently contains an abnormally large quantity of urea. Such urine is of high specific gravity——1·030 or more. When present in large excess the urea becomes deposited in ‘sparkling crystalline lamellæ’ of the nitrate, if it be mixed with an equal quantity of strong nitric acid in the cold.

The crystals vary slightly in character, according to the amount of nitric acid employed and the degree of concentration of the urine. Urine which thus yields, without previous concentration, the nitrate, is said to contain an excess of urea. See page 1689.

The quantity of urea present in urine is best determined by a process invented by Liebig. When a solution of pernitrate of mercury is added to one of pure urea the urea and mercuric salt unite and form an insoluble compound, of undetermined constitution. If, however, the chlorides of the alkalies and alkaline earths are present, this combination does not take place, owing to the decomposition of the mercuric nitrate, and the formation of bichloride of mercury, and a nitrate of the alkali or alkaline earth, both of which are soluble. When, however, the decomposition of the chloride has been completed, the urea may be entirely precipitated, provided a sufficient quantity of mercuric nitrate be added to the solution. In estimating the amount of urea in urine, therefore, it is only necessary to add to the urine a solution of the mercuric salt of known strength, since from the quantity of this latter which has been employed in throwing down the urea, this can easily be calculated.

In performing this analysis, three special solutions are requisite:

1. A solution consisting of one part by measure of a cold saturated solution of barium nitrate with two parts (also by measure) of saturated baryta water. This serves for the removal of the phosphates and sulphates, the presence of which in the urine would interfere with the analysis.

2. The standard solution of mercuric nitrate, which is made as follows:——772 grains of red oxide of mercury placed in a beaker are dissolved in a sufficient quantity of nitric acid (sp. gr. 1·20) by a gentle heat, and evaporated over a water bath until all excess of free acid is driven off. This may be known by the liquid becoming dense and syrupy in appearance. It is then poured into a properly graduated vessel and diluted to 10,000 grain-measures. Of this solution, 10 grain-measures = 0·1 grain of urea.

3. A solution of carbonate of soda in distilled water, 20 grains to the ounce. This solution is employed to indicate when the titration is complete, and to show the operator that all the urea has been precipitated by the mercuric salt.

The operation is thus performed:

(a.) 400 grain-measures of the clear urine are mixed with 200 grain-measures of the baryta solution, No. 1. The mixture is poured into a filter, and of the clear filtrate which passes through 150 grain-measures are carefully measured off, and poured into a small beaker. This quantity of course contains two thirds, or 100 grain-measures of wine.

(b.) A graduated burette (each division of which equals a grain-measure of water) is next filled with the solution (No. 2) of mercuric nitrate, which is then dropped into the beaker containing the filtered urine, until the mixture becomes turbid. The quantity of solution that has been required to just reach the point of turbidity is then noted down; it shows that all the chloride of sodium has been decomposed, and that the urea is now beginning to precipitate.

(c.) The solution (No. 2) is now added more liberally, and thoroughly mixed with the contents of the beaker by means of a glass rod; a copious white precipitate is being formed. The operation is completed, when, of course, no more precipitate is thrown down.

(d.) This point is ascertained by means of the solution of carbonate of soda (No. 3), to a few isolated drops of which dotted about a white plate, or slab, or placed on a watch glass, give, when mixed by means of the stirring rod with a drop of the turbid mixture from the beaker, a yellow tinge, owing to the formation of hydrated oxide of mercury.

(e.) The quantity of solution of mercuric nitrate that it has taken to produce the above reaction is then noted down, and from this the portion used before the occurrence of the turbidity is deducted, the remainder, of course, being the amount required to precipitate the urea. By bearing in mind the statement already made that 10 grain-measures of the mercurial solution indicate 0·1 grain of urea, the quantity excreted in 24 hours may be arrived at by a very easy and obvious calculation.

Dr Davy’s method of estimating Urea. This consists in the decomposition of a known quantity of urine by sodium hypochlorite, the amount of urea being calculated from the resulting nitrogen. A glass tube, 12 or 14 inches in height, and graduated to tenths and hundredths of a cubic inch, is filled to more than a third of its length with mercury; a measured quantity of urine, varying from a quarter of a drachm to a drachm, is next poured into the tube, which is then filled up with a solution of sodium hypochlorite (the liquor sodæ chlorinatæ of the Dublin Pharmacopœia). This latter must be poured in quickly, and the open end of the tube immediately closed with the thumb. The tube is then shaken to ensure admixture between the urine and hypochlorite, and stood with the open end downwards in a cup filled with a saturated solution of common salt; the mercury escapes into the tube, its place being filled by the solution of salt, which being heavier than the mixture of urine and hypochlorite, retains them in the upper part of the tube. The urine becomes soon decomposed, the carbonic acid, which is one of the products of its decomposition, being absorbed by the excess of chloride of sodium present, whilst the liberated nitrogen bubbles up to the top of the tube. When no more evolution of gas takes place, the volume of nitrogen is read off, and from its amount the quantity of urea present in the amount of urine experimented upon is calculated: one-fifth of a grain of urine = 0·3098 parts of a cubic inch of nitrogen at 60° Fahr. and 30” barometric pressure.

Haughton’s method of estimating Urea from the specific gravity of the Urine. After having measured the urine voided during 24 hours, and determined the specific gravity of the whole collected amount, and then consulting the accompanying table, compiled by Professor Haughton, the number of grains of urea excreted per diem is immediately ascertained. This quantity will be shown by the figures which stand at the points where the lines running respectively from the number of fluid ounces and the ‘specific gravity’ intersect each other. Thus, suppose the daily amount of urine to have been 30 ounces, and the specific gravity 1006, the number of grains of urea contained in it will be 85. This method is inserted for urines containing sugar and albumen.

Determination of the Water. The amount of water in any sample of urine may be determined by weighing 1000 grains of the recently excreted urine into a counterpoised platinum or porcelain dish, and ascertaining the loss it has undergone after evaporation to dryness. The operation should be performed as speedily as possible. The best plan is to concentrate the urine in a water bath, the evaporation should be continued in vacuo over strong sulphuric acid, until the weight of the residue remains constant. By way of control, another sample of the same urine, consisting of 500 grains, may be operated upon at the same time, and under the same conditions.

URINARY DEPOSITS, &c. These differ from the albumen, sugar, bile, &c., previously described, in being insoluble in abnormal urine. Sometimes they are diffused throughout the whole body of the urine, when they give it an opaque appearance. Sometimes they may be met with floating on its surface; at others they are only partially diffused through the fluid, frequently in the form of a transparent or opaque cloud, when they occupy a considerable space; whilst very often they occur in a crystalline or granular form, deposited sometimes at the bottom and sometimes at the sides of the vessel holding the urine.

Of the numberless insoluble substances met with in urine, both in health and disease, our limits will only permit us to notice those which are most important, and of frequent occurrence.

For the detection of the generality of these the microscope is indispensable. An instrument magnifying 200 to 220 diameters (1/4 of inch objective) will generally be found sufficiently powerful, and in some instances an inch objective, magnifying 40 diameters (as in the larger forms of crystalline deposit) will answer all the purposes.

Some of the varieties of these deposits admit of a double examination, viz. a microscopical and chemical one. When this is the case, the particulars applying to each kind of investigation will be given.

Mucus. Mucus is always present in small quantity in healthy urine, in which it shows itself within a few hours after the urine has been excreted in the shape of a transparent cloud towards the bottom of the vessel containing the urine.

Pus. The presence of pus in urine is indicated by an opaque, more or less bulky, cream-like deposit at the bottom of the vessel holding the urine, to which some separated pus globules, finding their way to the supernatant liquid, give an appearance of slight turbidity. By shaking the vessel the whole of the liquid becomes turbid, owing to the equal dissemination through it of the pus globules. The pus again deposits on standing. A small quantity of albumen is always met with in the clear part of urine which contains pus; the albumen being derived from the liquor puris, the liquid by which the pus-corpuscles are surrounded.

Whenever it can be obtained in sufficient quantity, pus should always be examined chemically, as follows:——The supernatant urine being decanted, the suspected sediment is shaken up with liquor potassæ, when if it become converted into a gelatinous, viscid substance, incapable of being dropped from the tube, and when poured from it running as a slimy and almost continuous mass, it may be pronounced pus. This same gelatinous viscid mass is met with in alkaline urines containing pus, adhering to the sides of the vessel in which the urine is placed, where it has been formed by the action of the carbonate of ammonia (caused by the decomposition of the urea) upon the pus. The reaction upon the pus is the same as that which takes place when liquor potassæ is employed. The stringy viscid substance due to the last cause is frequently, but erroneously, termed mucus.

Professor HAUGHTON’S _Table for the Estimation of the Daily Excretion of Urea from the Specific Gravity_.

-------+----------------------------------------------------------- Fluid | Specific Ounces.| Gravity. +----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---- |1003|1004|1005|1006|1007|1008|1009|1010|1011|1012|1013|1014|1015 -------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---- 20| 35| 36| 43 | 57 | 71 | 85 | 100| 103|106 | 119| 130| 136| 142 22| 38| 40| 47 | 62 | 78 | 95 | 110| 113|116 | 130| 149| 142| 156 24| 42| 43| 51 | 68 | 85 |101 | 120| 123|127 | 142| 156| 163| 170 26| 45| 47| 55 | 73 | 92 |110 | 130| 131|137 | 153| 169| 176| 184 28| 48| 50| 59 | 79 | 99 |118 | 140| 144|148 | 165| 182| 190| 198 30| 52| 54| 64 | 85 |106 |127 | 150| 155|159 | 177| 195| 204| 213 32| 55| 57| 68 | 90 |113 |135 | 160| 165|169 | 188| 208| 217| 227 34| 58| 61| 72 | 96 |120 |144 | 170| 175|180 | 200| 221| 231| 241 36| 61| 64| 76 |102 |127 |153 | 180| 185|191 | 212| 234| 244| 255 38| 65| 68| 80 |108 |134 |161 | 190| 195|201 | 224| 247| 258| 269 40| 69| 72| 85 |114 |142 |170 | 200| 206|212 | 236| 260| 272| 284 42| 74| 75| 89 |119 |148 |178 | 210| 216|222 | 247| 273| 285| 298 44| 76| 79| 93 |125 |156 |186 | 220| 226|233 | 259| 286| 299| 312 46| 80| 82| 96 |130 |163 |195 | 230| 236|243 | 271| 299| 312| 326 48| 84| 86|101 |136 |170 |203 | 240| 246|254 | 283| 312| 326| 340 50| 87| 90|106 |142 |178 |212 | 250| 257|265 | 295| 325| 340| 355 52| 90| 94|110 |147 |185 |220 | 260| 267|276 | 307| 338| 353| 369 54| 94| 98|114 |153 |192 |229 | 270| 277|286 | 319| 351| 367| 383 56| 96| 100|119 |159 |199 |238 | 280| 288|297 | 331| 364| 380| 397 58| 100| 104|123 |165 |206 |246 | 290| 298|308 | 343| 377| 394| 411 60| 104| 108|128 |171 |213 |255 | 300| 309|310 | 355| 391| 408| 426 62| 108| 110|132 |176 |220 |263 | 310| 319|329 | 404| 421| 440| 468 64| 110| 114|136 |182 |227 |271 | 320| 329|340 | 378| 417| 435| 454 66| 114| 118|140 |187 |234 |280 | 330| 340|351 | 390| 431| 448| 468 68| 116| 122|144 |193 |240 |288 | 340| 350|361 | 402| 443| 462| 482 70| 120| 126|149 |199 |248 |297 | 350| 361|372 | 414| 456| 476| 497 72| 122| 128|153 |204 |255 |305 | 360| 371|382 | 425| 469| 489| 511 74| 126| 132|157 |210 |262 |314 | 370| 381|393 | 437| 482| 503| 525 76| 130| 136|161 |216 |269 |323 | 380| 391|404 | 449| 595| 516| 539 78| 134| 140|165 |222 |276 |331 | 390| 401|414 | 461| 508| 530| 553 80| 139| 144|170 |228 |284 |340 | 400| 412|445 | 473| 521| 544| 568 ——+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----

-------+----------------------------------------------------------- Fluid | Specific Ounces.| Gravity. +----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---- |1016|1017|1018|1019|1020|1021|1022|1023|1024|1025|1026|1027|1028 -------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---- 20| 151| 160| 196| 233| 241| 249| 257| 265| 274| 276| 278| 279| 280 22| 166| 176| 215| 257| 265| 274| 282| 292| 301| 303| 305| 306| 308 24| 181| 192| 235| 280| 289| 299| 308| 319| 329| 331| 333| 334| 336 26| 196| 208| 254| 303| 313| 324| 334| 346| 356| 359| 360| 362| 364 28| 221| 224| 274| 326| 337| 349| 360| 372| 383| 386| 388| 390| 392 30| 226| 240| 294| 349| 361| 374| 386| 399| 411| 414| 416| 418| 420 32| 241| 256| 313| 373| 385| 398| 411| 425| 438| 442| 443| 446| 448 34| 256| 272| 333| 396| 409| 423| 437| 451| 466| 469| 471| 474| 476 36| 271| 288| 352| 419| 433| 448| 462| 477| 493| 497| 499| 502| 504 38| 286| 304| 372| 442| 457| 473| 488| 503| 520| 524| 527| 530| 532 40| 302| 320| 392| 465| 484| 498| 514| 530| 548| 552| 555| 558| 560 42| 317| 336| 411| 489| 506| 523| 540| 557| 575| 580| 582| 585| 588 44| 332| 352| 431| 512| 530| 548| 556| 584| 603| 607| 610| 613| 616 46| 347| 368| 450| 535| 554| 573| 592| 611| 630| 635| 638| 641| 644 48| 362| 384| 470| 558| 578| 598| 618| 637| 657| 662| 666| 669| 672 50| 377| 400| 490| 581| 602| 623| 644| 665| 685| 690| 694| 697| 700 52| 393| 416| 509| 605| 626| 648| 669| 692| 711| 718| 721| 724| 728 54| 408| 432| 529| 628| 650| 673| 695| 718| 740| 745| 749| 752| 756 56| 423| 448| 548| 651| 674| 698| 720| 745| 767| 772| 776| 780| 784 58| 438| 464| 568| 674| 698| 723| 746| 772| 794| 800| 804| 808| 812 60| 453| 480| 588| 697| 722| 748| 772| 798| 822| 828| 832| 836| 840 62| 496| 607| 719| 746| 772| 797| 824| 849| 856| 859| 864| 864| 868 64| 483| 512| 627| 742| 770| 797| 823| 851| 877| 883| 887| 862| 896 66| 498| 528| 646| 766| 794| 822| 849| 877| 904| 911| 915| 920| 924 68| 513| 544| 666| 790| 818| 847| 875| 904| 931| 939| 943| 948| 954 70| 528| 560| 686| 814| 843| 872| 901| 930| 959| 966| 971| 976| 980 72| 544| 576| 705| 838| 867| 896| 926| 956| 986| 994| 998|1004|1008 74| 558| 592| 725| 861| 891| 921| 951| 982|1014|1021|1026|1032|1036 76| 573| 608| 745| 884| 915| 946| 977|1008|1041|1049|1054|1060|1064 78| 588| 624| 765| 907| 939| 971|1002|1034|1068|1076|1082|1088|1092 80| 604| 640| 785| 930| 964| 996|1028|1060|1096|1104|1110|1116|1120 ——+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----

In urines containing pus, the clear portion should always be examined for albumen, since where this is found, except in small amount, some form of kidney disease may be suspected.

But it sometimes happens that the pus is present in such small quantity in the urine as to preclude its chemical examination. Under these circumstances, recourse must be had to the microscope. Dr Lionel Beale says, “Pus-globules, which have been long removed from the body, always have a granulated appearance in the microscope, and, when fresh, do not always exhibit a well-defined nucleus; the outline is usually distinct and circular, but it is finely crenated. Upon the addition of acetic acid the globule increases somewhat in size, becomes spherical, with a smooth, faint outline, and from one to four nearly circular bodies are developed in the centre of each. If the pus-corpuscles have lain some days in the urine they will have undergone complete disintegration.”

Epithelium. A great many varieties of epithelium, derived from different parts of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra, vagina, &c., are more or less present in urine. A few of these are given in the accompanying engraving. In the various diseases peculiar to the urinary and genito-urinary organs the quantity of epithelium present in the urine is frequently considerable, and as in some cases it presents itself in an imperfect or disintegrated form, its identification, except to the experienced microscopist and physiologist, becomes a matter of great difficulty.

Casts. Casts or moulds which have been formed in the tubes of the kidneys, or in the uterus and vagina, are constantly finding their way into the urine of persons affected with acute or chronic renal diseases and uterine affections. They are very varied both in character and appearance, and difficult of recognition, except by the skilled microscopist and pathologist.

Blood-corpuscles. These, when present in quiescent urine, occur as a sediment at the bottom of the vessel. Some few globules, however, are diffused throughout the supernatant urine, and impart to it a smoky appearance, if the fluid have a marked acid reaction; whereas if the reaction be alkaline the corpuscles assume a bright red colour.

In the accompanying plate the three upper groups represent blood-corpuscles taken from the human body; the three lower those found in urine. Of these latter some will be seen to have lost their circular outline, and to have become jagged or crenated. In some cases, on the contrary, they swell and become much enlarged. These changes in appearance take place when the blood has remained for some time in the urine, and appear to be due to the forces of endosmose and exosmose.

Fungi. The chief vegetable organisms found in urine are the sugar fungus and the Penicillium glaucum. The sugar fungus is precisely the same as the yeast plant (the Torula cerevisiæ). The Penicillium is very frequently present in albuminous urine, with an acid reaction, as well as in diabetic.

Uric acid. See back.

Urates.——According to Bence Jones the soluble urates met with in healthy urine consist of uric acid, potassium, ammonium, and sodium.

In abnormal urine the urates of ammonium and sodium sometimes occur, the latter, which are the more general, presenting under the microscope the appearance shown below.

Urate of sodium is, however, much more common in the urine of children than of adults, when it presents itself in the form of spherical crystals.

In both cases the urates are associated with uric acid (resulting from their partial decomposition), represented by the small spiked crystals protruding from the spheres in the form of needle-shaped crystals. Urate of sodium occurs as the concretions known as ‘chalk stones’ in gout. But by far the most abundant kind of urates met with in abnormal urine is that known as amorphous urates, which constitute the most common variety of urinary deposits.

Heintz states that they are a mixture of urate of sodium with small quantities of the urates of ammonium, lime, and magnesium. They are very frequently seen in the urine of persons in excellent health, in which, owing perhaps to too abundant or nitrogenous diet and an insufficiency of muscular exercise, being in excess, they are thrown down when the urine cools.

An excess of the amorphous urates in urine, like the presence of pus and phosphates, is indicated by the bulky precipitate more or less diffused throughout the vessel containing the urine. A very easy test will decide as to which of the three classes of substances (if only one of them be present) the precipitate belongs. The supernatant fluid being decanted from the deposit, about an equal bulk of liquor potassæ is added to the latter, when one of three results will ensue:

1. If it be pus, and become viscid, it will exhibit the qualities already mentioned under the description of that substance.

2. If phosphates, no alteration will ensue.

3. If amorphous urate, it will at once dissolve.

When amorphous urates are uniformly distributed throughout the urine they give it a milky appearance, which may sometimes lead to its being mistaken for chylous urine, or urine throughout which fatty particles of chyle are diffused. This latter doubt, however, may be easily set at rest by gently heating it. If the turbidity is owing to the urate it will disappear; if to chyle it will remain.

If the amorphous urate be decomposed by a little hydrochloric acid, it will yield uric acid, easily recognised by its characteristic form under the microscope, or when treated with nitric acid and ammonia, will answer to the murexed test.

It sometimes happens that in testing an acid urine suspected to contain albumen, the urine may contain so large an amount of uric acid in solution that, upon adding a drop of nitric acid to it, a bulky precipitate of uric acid, exactly resembling albumen, is thrown down, and it may be erroneously regarded as this substance if examined under the microscope immediately upon its formation. Upon being allowed, however, to stand some time, and then placed under the microscope, the well-known crystals of the acid will reveal themselves.

In such urine no precipitate takes place when the liquid is heated, another essential feature in which it diverges from albumen.

Phosphates.——The urinary earthy phosphates occur under two varieties, viz. the phosphate of ammonia and magnesia, known as the triple phosphate, and the phosphate of lime.

In the engravings below, the principal crystalline forms of the triple phosphate are shown.

Of these the triangular prismatic, with the truncated extremities, is the most common. In some cases the prisms are so much reduced in length as to resemble the octahedral crystals of oxalate of lime, for which they are sometimes mistaken by the inexperienced. When any doubt exists on this point it must be set at rest by having recourse to the chemical tests given further on. The triple phosphate is rarely met with alone, urate of ammonia, and sometimes uric acid and oxalate of lime, being present, although generally occurring in neutral or alkaline urine. The triple acid is sometimes found in that which is acid.

When ammonia is added to fresh urine the triple phosphate is precipitated, and if it be then examined by the microscope it will be found to consist of beautiful stellate crystals, and to form a most attractive object. The presence of phosphoric acid can be demonstrated by the ordinary reagents.

Phosphate of lime dissolves in strong acids without effervescence. The presence of lime, as well as of phosphoric acid, can easily be verified by the usual tests.

Oxalate of lime. The principal crystalline forms of oxalate of lime, when it occurs as a urinary deposit, are the octahedral and the dumb-bell. Of these the most common is the octahedral. These octahedra (which have one axis much shorter than the other two) vary considerably in size, but there is reason to believe that the diversity in appearance which they exhibit is due to crystals of precisely the same shape occupying different positions as to the direction of their axes, when examined by the microscope. There are a great many diversities of the dumb-bell form of oxalate of lime, which seem to be derived from circular and oval crystals. The subjoined cuts illustrate the varieties of crystalline oxalates the most generally met with. When the crystals of oxalate are extremely minute, they are very liable to be overlooked, since they then appear as almost opaque cubes, and may not unnaturally be taken for urate of soda, to which they bear no slight resemblance; but from which they differ by being insoluble in potash or acetic acid, and not dissolving on the application of heat. We have already alluded to their resemblance to the dumb-bells of the earthy phosphates. Another distinctive feature is that the oxalates rarely sink to the bottom of the vessel, but are diffused through the mucous cloud, which forms in urine after a short time.

Cystine. Cystine is an occasional ingredient in urine, when it occurs as a whitish precipitate crystallised in hexagonal plates. At other times, but not so frequently, it is met with dissolved in the urine. It may be separated from the urine holding it in solution by the addition of an excess of acetic acid. Under the microscope cystine bears somewhat of a resemblance to uric acid, from which, however, it differs when under treatment with ammonia. When ammonia is added to cystine the cystine dissolves, but by the spontaneous evaporation of the ammonia remains behind in its original form; whilst, if the ammonia be allowed to escape under the same circumstance from the urate of ammonia which has been formed, this remains behind as an amorphous mass. Ammonia, therefore, dissolves the cystine without entering into chemical union with it. Potash also readily dissolves cystine, as do also oxalic acid and the strong mineral acids. It is, however, insoluble in boiling water, in weak hydrochloric acid, and, as we have seen, in acetic acid.

Obs. In the examination of urine it is important that the investigation should be conducted upon a portion taken from the whole of the urine excreted during twenty-four hours, and not on an isolated quantity voided at any particular time.

The compiler of the present article has to acknowledge his indebtedness to Dr Lionel Beale’s very valuable and exhaustive work, ‘Kidney Diseases, Urinary Deposits, &c.,’ as well as to Dr W. Roberts’s excellent book, ‘Urinary and Renal Diseases,’ to both of which volumes the reader, desirous of further and more explicit information on the subject, is referred.

=URINOM′ETER.= An hydrometer adapted to determining the density of urine. That of Dr Prout is the simplest and best. Urinometers should always be tested by placing them in distilled water at 60° Fahr. from 1·015 to 1·025 Beale.

=URN POWDER.= Crocus martis, or jeweller’s rouge.

=URTICAR′IA.= See RASH.

=US′QUEBAUGH.= Syn. ESCUBAC. Literally, mad water, the Irish name of which, ‘whisky,’ is a corruption. At the present time it is applied to a strong cordial spirit, much drunk in Ireland, and made in the greatest perfection at Drogheda.

Prep. 1. Brandy or proof spirit, 3 galls.; dates (without their kernels) and raisins, of each, bruised, 1/4 lb.; juniper berries, bruised, 1 oz.; mace and cloves, of each 3/4 oz.; coriander and aniseed, of each 1/2 oz.; cinnamon, 1/4 oz.; macerate, with frequent agitation, for 14 days, then filter, and add of capillaire or simple syrup, 1 gall.

2. Pimento and caraways, of each 3 oz.; mace, cloves, and nutmegs, of each 2 oz; aniseed, corianders, and angelica root, of each 8 oz.; raisins, stoned and bruised, 14 lbs.; proof spirit, 9 galls.; digest as before, then press, filter, or clarify, and add of simple syrup, q. s. Should it turn milky, add a little strong spirit, or clarify it with alum, or filter through magnesia.

Obs. Usquebaugh is either coloured yellow with saffron (about 1/4 oz. per gall.), or green with sap-green (about 1/2 oz. per gall.); either being added to the other ingredients before maceration in the spirit.

=UVA URSI.= The Arctostaphylus Uva Ursi (the Bearberry) is an indigenous plant, the leaves of which are employed in medicine. Bearberry leaves contain a large percentage of tannic acid, with a small quantity of gallic acid, some resin, and a little volatile oil and extractive, together with a crystallisable principle named arbutin, which is said to be a very powerful diuretic. Another crystallisable resinous body named arbutin has also been discovered in them. Bearberry leaves either in the form of powder, infusion, or extract, are chiefly used in chronic diseases of the bladder, in which there is an abnormal secretion of mucus, such as catarrhus vesicæ, but neither acute nor active inflammation.

=VACCINA′TION.= See COW-POX. (POX.)

=VAC′CINE MATTER.= Syn. LYMPHA VACCINIÆ, L. This is collected either upon the points of lancet-like pieces of ivory, or by opening the pustule, and applying a small glass ball and tube (like those called by the boys in London candle-pops, or fire-pops) to the orifice, expelling part of the air in the ball by bringing a lighted taper near it; then, withdrawing the taper, the matter is sucked into the ball, in which it may be sealed up hermetically or cemented, and thus kept for a length of time. It is, however, now generally preserved between two small pieces of glass, or in straight capillary glass tubes. It is said that cotton thread is a convenient and efficient vehicle. The matter may be liquefied with a little clean water before application. A degree of heat scarcely higher than that of the blood lessens its efficacy.

=VAC′UUM.= Empty space; a portion of space void of matter. For experimental and manufacturing purposes, a sufficient vacuum is produced either by means of the air-pump, or by filling an inclosed space by steam, which is then condensed by the application of cold. Evaporation proceeds much more rapidly, and liquids boil at much lower temperatures in an exhausted receiver than when exposed to the air. Thus, under ordinary circumstances, in the air, ether boils at 96°, alcohol at 177°, and Water at 212° Fahr.; but in vacuo water boils at about 88°, alcohol at 56°, and ether at -20° Fahr. In the best vacuum obtainable by a powerful air-pump, water placed over oil of vitriol, to absorb the aqueous vapour as it forms, will often enter into violent ebullition whilst ice is in the act of formation on its surface. The reduction of the boiling-point with reduced pressure is practically taken advantage of by the pharmaceutist in the preparation of extracts, by the sugar refiner in the evaporation of his syrups, by the distiller in the production of certain liqueurs, and by the chemist in a variety of processes of interest or utility. See EXTRACTS, EVAPORATION, REFRIGERATION, &c.

=VALE′′RIAN.= Syn. VALERIANÆ RADIX (B. P.), VALERIANÆ RADIX, VALERIANA (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. “The root of the wild plant Valeriana officinalis (Linn.), or wild valerian.” (Ph. L.) An excitant, antispasmodic, tonic, and emmenagogue, not only acting on the secretions, but exercising a specific influence over the cerebro-spinal system, and in large quantities producing agitation, mental exaltation, and even intoxication.——Dose, 10 to 30 or 40 gr., thrice daily; in hysteria, epilepsy, headache (affecting only one side), morbid nervous sensibility, &c. Even the odour of it exerts a species of fascination over cats.

=VALERIAN′IC ACID.= HC_{5}H_{9}O_{2}. Syn. VALERIC ACID; ACIDUM VALERIANICUM, A. VALERICUM, L. Prep. 1. A mixture of potato oil or corn-spirit oil (hydrated oxide of amyl) with about 10 times its weight of quicklime and hydrate of potassa in equal proportions, placed in a glass flask, is kept heated to about 400° Fahr., for 10 or 12 hours, by means of a bath of oil or fusible metal; the nearly white solid residuum is mixed with water, an excess of sulphuric acid added to the mixture, and the whole subjected to distillation; the distillate is supersaturated with potassa, evaporated nearly to dryness, to dissipate any undecomposed potato oil, and then mixed with weak sulphuric acid in excess; a light oily liquid (terhydrated valerianic acid) separates, which by cautious rectification, yields at first water containing a little acid, and afterwards pure monohydrated valerianic acid, which is perfectly identical with that prepared from valerian root.

2. (Ph. D.) See VALERIANATE OF SODIUM. This is a most economical process.

Prop., &c. A limpid oily liquid, smelling strongly of valerian root; it has an acid taste and reaction, and leaves a sensation of sweetness and a white spot on the tongue; is inflammable; boils at 347°; is freely soluble in alcohol and ether; dissolves in 30 parts of water, and forms salts called valerianates, most of which have a sweetish taste, are soluble, and uncrystallisable; sp. gr. ·937; placed in contact with water, it absorbs a portion of it, and is converted into the terhydrated acid, with increase of sp. gr., and reduction of the boiling-point.

=VALE′′RIC ACID.= See VALERIANIC ACID.

=VALO′NIA.= The cup of a large species of acorn, imported from the Levant. Used in tanning leather.

=VANAD′IC ACID.= V_{2}O_{2}. Syn. VANADIC ANHYDRIDE, TEROXIDE OF V.; ACIDUM VANADICUM, L. Prep. (Johnston.) From the native vanadate of lead, by dissolving it in nitric acid, passing sulphuretted hydrogen through the solution, to throw down lead and arsenic, filtering, and evaporating the resulting blue liquid to dryness; the residuum is then dissolved in a solution of ammonia, and a piece of sal ammoniac, considerably larger than can be dissolved, introduced; as the latter dissolves, a pulverulent precipitate of vanadate of ammonium is formed, which must be washed, first in a solution of sal ammoniac, and then in alcohol of ·860; by exposing this salt, in an open platinum crucible, to a heat a little below redness, and keeping it constantly stirred, until it acquires a dark red colour, pure vanadic acid is obtained.

Prep., &c. Vanadic acid is orange coloured, scarcely soluble in water, and forms, with the alkaline bases, soluble salts called vanadates; and with the other bases sparingly soluble salts. All of these have an orange or yellow colour. “Vanadate of ammonia mixed with solution of galls forms a black fluid, which is the best writing ink hitherto known. The quantity of salt required for this purpose is very small; the writing is perfectly black, and not obliterated by alkalies, acids, chlorine, or other reagents,” (Ure.)

=VANA′DIUM.= V. A rare metal discovered by Sefstom, in 1830. in some Swedish iron extracted from an iron mine near Jönköping. It has since been found in a Vanadinite lead ore met with in Scotland, Zimpanan in Mexico, and Chili, and in the iron slag of Staffordshire. Of late years a more abundant source of Vanadium has been discovered by Professor Roscoe in the cupriferous stratum of the New Red Sandstone at Alderley Edge in Cheshire. There are four, and possibly five oxides of this element.

=Vanadic oxychloride.= Syn. VANADIC OXYTRICHLORIDE. (VOCl_{3}.) Roscoe states there are several oxychlorides of vanadium, which, however, have not been studied. The most interesting of them is the oxytrichloride, which corresponds to the phosphorous oxychloride. This oxytrichloride is a yellow fuming liquid, which is instantly decomposed by water into vanadic and hydrochloric acids. The oxytrichloride may be obtained by heating vanadic anhydride and charcoal (mixed together) in a current of hydrogen, after which it is heated in a current of dry chlorine. An easier method is by passing dry chlorine over the sesquioxide of vanadium.

=Vanadic pentoxide.= Syn. VANADIC ANHYDRIDE (V_{2}O_{5}.). At a red hot heat this oxide fuses, and on cooling, crystallises in rhombic prisms. It is but little soluble in water; the aqueous solution, which is of a yellow tint, is strongly acid, and produces a marked reddening effect on litmus. Vanadic anhydride forms both normal and acid salts. The ammonic vanadiate (Roscoe’s meta vanadiate) is the chief source of the acid. This salt may be obtained by adding pieces of sal ammoniac to a crude solution of potassic vanadiate, the resulting ammonic vanadiate being insoluble in a saturated solution of sal ammoniac, is deposited in small crystalline grains. The vanadic anhydride may be obtained from the ammonic vanadiate by heating an aqueous solution of the salt in the open air, when the ammonia is driven off, and the vanadic anhydride is left behind. The acid ammonic vanadiate, mixed with tincture of galls, makes a very durable writing ink, unacted upon either by alkalies or chlorine. Acids turn such blue without, however, destroying it.

=Vanadic triox′ide.= (V_{2}O_{2}.), is the Vanadyl of Roscoe, who obtained it in the form of a grey metallic-looking powder, by the transmission of a current of dry hydrogen charged with the vapours of oxychloride of Vanadium, through a tube containing ignited charcoal. It dissolves in dilute acids, with evolution of hydrogen. Solutions of its salts are lavender coloured. Berzelius regarded this oxide as a metal.

Tests. The vanadiates mostly occur of a red or yellow colour. When treated with sulphuretted hydrogen, they yield a solution of a fine blue colour, a reaction that distinguishes them from the chromates, which, under similar treatment, would give a green liquid. When mixed with borax and exposed to the reducing flame of the blowpipe, compounds containing vanadium give a green glass, which turns to yellow in the oxidizing flame. Professor Roscoe, to whose researches we are indebted for all the chemical knowledge we possess respecting vanadium, says:——“All the main facts now established in connection with the chemical department of this element proved it to bear a strong analogy to the elements phosphorus and arsenic; in fact, it occupied a previously vacant place in a well-defined group of triad, or, as some chemists prefer to consider them, pentad elements. There was a property of vanadium in virtue of which it might ultimately obtain considerable importance in the arts, though in the present infancy of the history of the metal it was difficult to foretell this with any certainty. This property was the power of forming a permanent black for dyeing purposes. The black produced by the action of vanadium had the advantage over copper and aniline blacks, viz. that it was permanent, whereas the latter were liable to turn green. This application of an element that was first introduced into notice as a chemical curiosity furnished one more example of the importance of original scientific investigation. However far a newly discovered substance might seem to be removed from purposes of practical utility, we never know at what moment it might be turned to account for the benefit of the human race.”

=VANIL′LA.= Syn. VANILLE, Fr. The dried pods of various species of Vanilla, a genus of the natural order Orchidaceæ. It is chiefly used in the manufacture of chocolate and perfumery. As a medicine it is much employed on the Continent as an aromatic stimulant and neurotic.——Dose, 6 to 12 gr.; in asthenic fevers, hysteria, hypochondriasis, impotency, &c.

Vanilla is reduced to powder (PULVIS VANILLÆ; POUDRE DE VANILLE) by slicing it, and triturating the fragments with twice or thrice their weight of well-dried lump sugar. For SUCRE DE VANILLE, 11 parts of sugar are employed.

The following table given by Messrs Tieman and Harmann, in the Journal of the Berlin Chemical Society, represents the quantities of Vanillin (the aromatic principle of Vanilla) contained in that substance, as obtained from different sources:——

Vanillin per Cent.

Mexican Vanilla (1873, harvest) 1·69 Mexican Vanilla (1874, harvest) 1·86 Mexican Vanilla Medium quality 1·32 Bourbon, best quality (1874-75) 1·91 Bourbon, (1874-75) 1·97 Bourbon, (1874-75) 2·90 Bourbon, Small medium (1874-75) 1·55 Java, best quality (1873) 2·75 Java, best quality (1874) 1·56

=VANILLIN.= A crystallised substance obtained from pine juice by Messrs Tiemann and Harmann. It has been shown to be identical with the aromatic principle of Vanilla.

In a paper read before the Royal Society the authors have described the process by which vanillin was artificially prepared by them. They state that the sap of the cambium of coniferous trees contains a beautiful crystalline glucoside coniferine, which was discovered by Kartig, and examined some years ago by Rubel, who arrived at the formula C_{24}H_{32}O_{12} + 3 Aq. A minute study of this compound leads us to represent the molecule of coniferine by the expression, C_{16}H_{22}O_{3} × 2 Aq., the per centages of which nearly coincide with the theoretical values of Kubel’s formula.

Submitted to fermentation with emulsine, coniferine splits into sugar, and a splendid compound, crystallising in prisms, which fuse at 73°. This body is easily soluble in ether, less so in alcohol, almost insoluble in water; its composition is represented by the formula C_{10}H_{12}O_{3}. The change is represented by the equation——

C_{16}H_{22}O_{8} + H_{2}O = C_{6}H_{12}O_{6} + C_{10}H_{12}O_{3}.

Under the influence of oxidising agents, the product of fermentation undergoes a remarkable metamorphosis. On boiling it with a mixture of potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid, there passes with the vapour of water in the first place ethylic aldehyd, and subsequently an acid compound soluble in water, from which it may be removed by ether. On evaporating the ethereal solution, crystals in stellar groups are left behind, which fuse at 81°. These crystals have the taste and odour of vanilla.

An accurate comparative examination has proved them to be identical with the crystalline substance which constitutes the aroma of vanilla, and which is often seen covering the surface of vanilla pods.

On analysis, the crystals we obtained were found to contain C_{8}H_{8}O_{3}. This is exactly the composition which recent researches of Carles have established for the aromatic principle of vanilla. The transformation of the crystalline product of fermentation into vanillin is represented by the following equation:

C_{10}H_{12}O_{3} + O = C_{2}H_{4}O + C_{8}H_{8}O_{3}.

To remove all doubt regarding the identity of artificial vanillin with the natural compound, we have transformed the former into a series of salts, which have the general formula, C_{8}H_{7}MO_{3}, and into two substitution products, C_{8}H_{7}BrO_{31}, and C_{8}H_{7}TO_{3}, both of which had previously been prepared by Carles from the natural compound.

=VAN SWIETEN’S SOLUTION.= Contains 1/1000th part of its weight of corrosive sublimate; or 1/2 gr. per fl. oz.

=VAPOUR.= Vapours are really gases, and amenable to substantially the same physical laws; as ordinarily understood, however, the difference between a gas and a vapour is the following:——A gas is a form of matter which exists, at ordinary temperatures and pressures, in a state of vapour; whilst a vapour has been formed by the application of heat to a body usually existing in the solid or liquid form; gases, therefore, differ from vapours only in being derived from bodies which, in the solid or liquid form, boil at very much lower temperatures.

=Vapour of Ammonia.= Syn. VAPOR AMMONIÆ. (St Th. Hosp.) Solution of ammonia (·959), water, equal parts. A teaspoonful in a pint of water at 80° F. for each inhalation. In chronic laryngitis and functional aphonia.

=Vapour of Benzoin.= Syn. VAPOR BENZOINI. (St Th. Hosp.) Compound tincture of benzoin, 1 oz. A teaspoonful to 1 pint of water at 140° F. In acute inflammation of the pharynx and larynx.

=Vapour of Carbolic Acid.= Syn. VAPOR ACIDI CARBOLICI. (St Th. Hosp.) Carbolic acid, 420 gr.; water, 1 dr.; 20 drops of this in 1 pint of water, at 140° F., for each inhalation. For syphilitic and carcinomatous ulcerations.

=Vapour of Chlorine.= Syn. VAPOR CHLORI. (B. P.) Put chlorinated lime, 2 oz., into a suitable apparatus, moisten it with cold water, and let the vapour that arises be inhaled.

=Vapour of Conia.= Syn. VAPOR CONIÆ. (B. P.) Mix extract of hemlock, 60 gr.; solution of potash, 1 dr.; and distilled water, 9 dr. Put 20 minims of the mixture on a sponge, in a suitable apparatus, that the vapour of hot water passed over it may be inhaled.

=Vapour of Creosote.= Syn. VAPOR CREOSOTI. (B. P.) Mix creosote, 12 minims, and boiling water, 8 oz., in an apparatus so arranged that air may be inhaled through the solution.

=Vapour of Hop.= Syn. VAPOR LUPULI. (St Th. Hosp.) Oil of hops, 6 minims; light carbonate of magnesia, 10 gr.; water, 1 oz. A teaspoonful in 1 pint of water, at 140° F., for each inhalation. Sedative.

=Vapour of Hydrocyanic Acid.= Syn. VAPOR ACIDI HYDROCYANICI. (B. P.) Mix from 10 to 15 minims of diluted hydrocyanic acid with 1 dr. of cold water in a suitable apparatus, and let the vapour that arises be inhaled.

=Vapour of Iodine.= Syn. VAPOR IODI. Mix tincture of iodine, 1 fl. dr., and water, 1 oz., and, having applied a gentle heat, let the vapour that arises be inhaled.

=Vapour of Lactic Acid.= Syn. VAPOR ACIDI LACTICI. (St Th. Hosp.) Lactic acid, 20 minims; distilled water, 1 oz.; mix. For spray inhalation. Dissolves the membranous exudation in diphtheria,

=Vapour of Oil of Juniper.= Syn. VAPOR OLEI JUNIPERI. (St Th. Hosp.) English oil of juniper, 20 minims; light carbonate of magnesia, 10 gr.; water, 1 oz. A teaspoonful to 1 pint of water at 140° F. for each inhalation. For vocal weakness.

=Vapour of Oil of Mountain Pine.= Syn. VAPOR PINI PLUMILIONIS. (St Th. Hosp.) Oil of mountain pine, 1/2 dr.; light carbonate of magnesia, 15 gr.; water, 1 oz.; 1 dr. to 1 pint of water at 140° F. for each inhalation. In chronic laryngitis.

=Vapour of Oil of Myrtle.= Syn. VAPOR OLEI MYRTI. (St Th. Hosp.) Oil of myrtle, 6 minims; light carbonate of magnesia, 6 gr.; water, 1 oz. A teaspoonful in a pint of water at 140° F. for each inhalation. In acute tonsillitis.

=Vapour of Nitrite of Amyl.= Syn. VAPOR AMYL NITRITIS. (St Th. Hosp.) Nitrite of amyl, 8 minims; rectified spirit, 1 oz. A teaspoonful in a pint of water at 100° F. for each inhalation. In asthma and spasm of the glottis.

=Vapour of Scotch Pine.= Syn. VAPOR PINI SYLVESTRIS. Oil of Scotch pine (fir-wood oil), 40 minims; light carbonate of magnesia, 20 gr.; water, 1 oz.; 1 dr. to 1 pint of water at 140° F. for each inhalation. In chronic laryngitis.

=Vapour of Sulphurous Acid.= Syn. VAPOR ACIDI SULPHUROSI. (St Th. Hosp.) Sulphurous acid, 15 minims; water, 1 oz. For spray inhalation. Stimulant and antiseptic.

=Vapour of Thymol.= Syn. VAPOR THYMOLIS. Thymol, 6 gr.; rectified spirit, 1 dr.; light carbonate of magnesia, 3 gr.; water, 1 oz. 1 dr. to 1 pint of water at 140° F. for each inhalation. In pharyngitis and laryngitis when associated with exanthemata.

=VARICOSE VEINS.= See VARIX.

=VARIX.= The permanent unequal dilation of a vein or veins, which are then said to be ‘varicose.’ It is known by the presence of a soft tumour, which does not pulsate, and often assumes a serpentine figure. Varicose veins of the groin and scrotum generally form a collection of knots. The treatment consists of cold applications, and pressure from bandages. Some cases are relieved by ligature. When occurring in the legs, much standing or walking should be avoided, and the use of the elastic stockings made for the purpose will be proper.

=VAR′NISH.= Syn. VERNIS, Fr. Any liquid matter, which, when applied to the surface of a solid body, becomes dry, and forms a hard glossy coating, impervious to air and moisture.

Varnishes are commonly divided into two classes——FAT or OIL VARNISHES and SPIRIT VARNISHES. The fixed or volatile oils, or mixtures of them, are used as vehicles or solvents in the former, and concentrated alcohol in the latter.[254] The sp. gr. of alcohol for the purpose of making varnishes should not be more than ·8156 (= 67 o. p.), and it should be preferably chosen of even greater strength. A little camphor is often dissolved in it, to increase its solvent power. The oil of turpentine, which is the essential oil chiefly employed for varnishes, should be pure and colourless. Pale drying linseed oil is the fixed oil generally used; but poppy oil and nut oil are also occasionally employed. Among the substances which are dissolved in the above menstrua are——amber, animé, copal, elemi, lac, mastic, and sandarach, to impart body and lustre; benzoin, on account of its agreeable odour; annotta, gamboge, saffron, socotrine aloes, and turmeric, to give a yellow colour; dragon’s blood and red sandal wood, to give a red tinge; asphaltum, to give a black colour and body; and caoutchouc to impart toughness and elasticity.

[Footnote 254: Methylated spirit is now generally used for making spirit varnishes, in place of duty-paid alcohol.]

In the preparation of spirit varnishes care should be taken to prevent the evaporation of the alcohol as much as possible, and also to preserve the portion that evaporates. On the large scale, a common still may be advantageously employed; the head being furnished with a stuffing-box, to permit of the passage of a vertical rod, connected with a stirrer at one end and a working handle at the other. The gum and spirit being introduced, the head of the still closely fitted on and luted, and the connection made with a proper refrigerator, heat (preferably that of steam or a water bath) should be applied, and the spirit brought to a gentle boil, after which it should be partially withdrawn, and agitation continued until the gum is dissolved. The spirit which has distilled over should be then added to the varnish, and after thorough admixture the whole should be run off, as rapidly as possible, through a silk-gauze sieve, into stone jars, which should be immediately corked down, and set aside to clarify. On the small scale, spirit varnishes are best made by maceration in closed bottles or tin cans, either in the cold or by the heat of a water bath. In order to prevent the agglutination of the resin, it is often advantageously mixed with clean siliceous sand or pounded glass, by which the surface is much increased, and the solvent power of the menstruum greatly promoted.

To ensure the excellence of oil varnishes, one of the most important points is the use of good drying oil. Linseed oil for this purpose should be very pale, perfectly limpid or transparent, scarcely odorous, and mellow and sweet to the taste.——100 galls. of such an oil is put into an iron or copper boiler, capable of holding fully 150 galls., gradually heated to a gentle simmer, and kept near that point for about 2 hours, to expel moisture; the scum is then carefully removed, and 14 lbs. of finely pulverised scale litharge, 12 lbs. of red lead, and 8 lbs. of powdered umber (all carefully dried and free from moisture), are gradually sprinkled in; the whole is then kept well stirred, to prevent the driers sinking to the bottom, and the boiling is continued at a gentle heat for about 3 hours longer; the fire is next withdrawn, and, after 30 to 40 hours’ repose, the scum is carefully removed, and the clear supernatant oil decanted from the ‘bottoms,’——The product forms the best boiled or drying oil of the varnish maker.——Another method is to heat a hogshead of the oil gradually for 2 hours, then to gently simmer it for about 3 hours longer, and, after removing the scum, to add, gradually, 1 lb. of the best calcined magnesia, observing to mix it up well with the oil, and, afterwards to continue the boiling pretty briskly for at least an hour, with constant agitation. The fire is then allowed to die away, and, after 24 hours, the oil is decanted as before. The product is called ‘clarified oil,’ and requires to be used with driers. It should be allowed to lay in the cistern for 2 or 3 months to clarify.

In the preparation of oil varnishes, the gum is melted as rapidly as possible, without discolouring or burning it; and when completely fused, the oil, also heated to nearly the boiling point, is poured in, after which the mixture is boiled until it appears perfectly homogeneous and clear, like oil, when the heat is raised, the driers (if any are to be used) gradually and cautiously sprinkled in, and the boiling continued, with constant stirring, for 3 or 4 hours, or until a little, when cooled on a palette knife, feels strong and stringy between the fingers. The mixture is next allowed to cool considerably, but while still quite fluid, the turpentine, previously made moderately hot, is cautiously added, and the whole thoroughly incorporated. The varnish is then run through a filter or sieve into stone jars, cans, or other vessels, and set aside to clarify itself by subsidence. When no driers are used, the mixture of oil and gum is boiled until it runs perfectly clear, when it is removed from the fire, and, after it has cooled a little, the turpentine is added as before.

It is generally conceived that the more perfectly the gum is fused, or run, as it is called, the larger and stronger will be the product; and the longer the boiling of the ‘gum’ and oil is continued, within moderation, the freer the resulting varnish will work and cover. An excess of heat renders the varnish stringy, and injures its flowing qualities. For pale varnishes as little heat as possible should be employed throughout the whole process. Good body varnishes should contain 1-1/2 lb.; carriage, wainscot, and mahogany varnish, fully 1 lb.; and gold size and black japan, fully 1/2 lb. of gum per gall., besides the asphaltum in the latter. Spirit varnishes should contain about 2-1/2 lbs. of gum per gall. The use of too much driers is found to injure the brilliancy and transparency of the varnish. Copperas does not combine with varnish, but only hardens it; sugar of lead, however, dissolves in it to a greater or less extent. Boiling oil of turpentine combines very readily with melted copal, and it is an improvement on the common process, to use it either before or in conjunction with the oil, in the preparation of copal varnish that it is desired should be very white. Gums of difficult solubility are rendered more soluble by being exposed, in the state of powder, for some time to the air.

Varnishes, like wines, improve by age; and should always be kept as long as possible before use.

From the inflammable nature of the materials of which varnishes are composed, their manufacture should be only carried on in some detached building of little value, and built of uninflammable materials. When a pot of varnish, gum, or turpentine catches fire, it is most readily extinguished by closely covering it with a piece of stout woollen carpeting, which should be always kept at hand, ready for the purpose.

An excellent paper, by Mr J. W. Niel, on the manufacture of varnishes, will be found in the ‘Trans. of the Soc. of Arts,’ vol. xlix. See also the articles ALCOHOL, AMBER, COPAL, OILS, &c., in this work.

=Varnish, Am′ber.= Prep. 1. Take of amber (clear and pale), 6 lbs.; fuse it, add of hot clarified linseed oil, 2 galls.; boil until it ‘strings well,’ then let it cool a little, and add of oil of turpentine 4 galls, or q. s. Nearly as pale as copal varnish; it soon becomes very hard, and is the most durable of the oil varnishes; but it requires some time before it is fit for polishing, unless the articles are ‘stoved.’ When required to dry and harden quicker, drying oil may be substituted for the linseed oil, or ‘driers’ may be added during the boiling.

2. Amber, 4 oz.; pale boiled oil, 1 quart; proceed as last. Very hard.

3. Pale transparent amber, 5 oz.; clarified linseed oil or pale boiled oil, and oil of turpentine, of each 1 pint; as before.

Obs. Amber varnish is suited for all purposes where a very hard and durable oil varnish is required. The paler kind is superior to copal varnish, and is often mixed with the latter to increase its hardness and durability. The only objection to it is the difficulty of preparing it of a very pale colour. It may, however, be easily bleached with some fresh-slaked lime.

=Varnish, Balloon.= See VARNISH, FLEXIBLE (below).

=Varnish, Bessemer’s.= This consists of a pale oil copal varnish, diluted with about 6 times its volume of oil of turpentine, the mixture being subsequently agitated with about 1-30th part of dry slaked lime, and decanted after a few days’ repose. Five parts of the product mixed with 4 parts of bronze powder forms ‘Bessemer’s gold paint.’

=Varnish, Black.= Prep. 1. (BLACK AMBER VARNISH.) From amber, 1 lb.; fuse, add, of hot drying oil, 1/2 pint; powdered black resin, 3 oz.; asphaltum (Naples), 4 oz.; when properly incorporated and considerably cooled, add of oil of turpentine, 1 pint. This is the beautiful black varnish of the coachmakers.

2. (IRONWORK BLACK.) From asphaltum, 48 lbs.; fuse, add of boiled oil, 10 galls.; red lead and litharge, of each 7 lbs.; dried and powdered white copperas, 3 lbs.; boil for 2 hours, then add of dark gum amber (fused), 8 lbs.; hot linseed oil, 2 galls.; boil for 2 hours longer, or until a little of the mass, when cooled, may be rolled into pills, then withdraw the heat, and afterwards thin it down with oil of turpentine, 30 galls. Used for the ironwork of carriages, and other nice purposes.

(3. BLACK JAPAN, BITUMINOUS VARNISH.)——a. From Naples asphaltum, 50 lbs.; dark gum animé, 8 lbs.; fuse, add of linseed oil, 12 galls.; boil as before, then add of dark gum amber, 10 lb., previously fused and boiled with linseed oil, 2 galls.; next add of driers q. s., and further proceed as ordered in No. 2. Excellent for either wood or metals.

b. From burnt umber, 8 oz.; true asphaltum, 4 oz.; boiled linseed oil, 1 gall.; grind the umber with a little of the oil; add it to the asphaltum, previously dissolved in a small quantity of the oil by heat; mix, add the remainder of the oil, boil, cool, and thin with a sufficient quantity of oil of turpentine. Flexible.

4. (BRUNSWICK BLACK.)——a. To asphalt, 2 lbs., fused in an iron pot, add of hot boiled oil, 1 pint; mix well, remove the pot from the fire, and, when cooled a little, add of oil of turpentine, 2 quarts. Used to blacken and polish grates and ironwork. Some makers add driers.

b. From black pitch and gas-tar asphaltum, of each 25 lbs.; boil gently for 5 hours, then add, of linseed oil, 8 galls.; litharge and red lead, of each 10 lbs.; boil as before, and thin with oil of turpentine, 20 galls. Inferior to the last, but cheaper.

=Varnish, Body.= Prep. 1. From the finest African copal, 8 lbs.; drying oil, 2 galls.; oil of turpentine, 3-1/2 galls.; proceed as for AMBER VARNISH. Very hard and durable.

2. Pale gum copal, 8 lbs.; clarified oil, 2 galls.; dried sugar of lead, 1/2 lb.; oil of turpentine, 3-1/2 galls.; proceed as before, and mix the product, whilst still hot, with the following varnish:——Pale gum animé, 8 lbs.; linseed oil, 2 galls.; dried white copperas, 1/4 lb.; oil of turpentine, 3-1/2 galls.; the mixed varnishes are to be immediately strained into the cans or cistern. Dries in about 6 hours in winter, and in about 4 hours in summer. Used for the bodies of coaches and other vehicles.

=Varnish, Bookbinder’s.= Prep. Take of pale gum sandarach, 3 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; dissolve by cold digestion and frequent agitation. Used by binders to varnish morocco leather book-covers. A similar varnish is also prepared from very pale shell-lac and wood naphtha.

=Varnish for Boots and Shoes.= See BOOTS and SHOES.

=Varnish, Cabinet-maker’s.= French polish is occasionally so called.

=Varnish, Carriage.= Prep. 1. (SPIRIT.) Take of gum sandarach, 1-1/4 lb.; very pale shell-lac, 3/4 lb.; very pale transparent resin, 1/2 lb.; rectified spirit of ·8221 (64 o. p.), 3 quarts; dissolve, and add of pure Canadian balsam, 1-1/2 lb. Used for the internal parts of carriages, &c. Dries in 10 minutes or less.

2. (OIL.)——a. (Best pale.) Take of pale African copal, 8 lbs.; fuse, add of clarified linseed oil, 2-1/2 galls.; boil until very stringy, then add of dried copperas and litharge, of each 1/4 lb.; again boil, thin with oil of turpentine, 5-1/2 galls.; mix, whilst both are hot with the following varnish, and immediately strain the mixture into a covered vessel:——Gum animé, 8 lbs.; clarified linseed oil, 2-1/2 galls.; dried sugar of lead and litharge, of each 1/4 lb.; boil as before, thin with oil of turpentine, 5-1/2 galls. Dries in 4 hours in summer, and 6 in winter. Used for the wheels, springs, and carriage parts of coaches, and other vehicles, and by house painters, decorators, &c., who want a strong, quick-drying, and durable varnish.

b. (Second quality.) From gum animé (‘sorts’), 8 lbs.; clarified oil, 3 galls.; litharge, 5 oz.; dried and powdered sugar of lead and white copperas, of each 4 oz.; boil as last, and thin with oil of turpentine, 5-1/2 galls. Used as the last.

=Varnish, Chinese.= Prep. From mastic and sandarach, of each 2 oz.; rectified spirit (64 o. p.), 1 pint; dissolve. Dries in 6 minutes. Very tough and brilliant.

=Varnish, Copal.= Prep. 1. (OIL.)——a. From pale hard copal, 2 lbs.; fuse, add of hot drying oil, 1 pint; boil as before directed, and thin with oil of turpentine, 3 pints, or q. s. Dries hard in 12 to 24 hours.

b. From clear and pale African copal, 8 lbs.; pale drying oil, 2 galls.; rectified oil of turpentine, 3 galls.; proceed as before and immediately strain it into the store can or cistern. Very fine, hard, and durable.

2. (SPIRIT.)——a. From coarsely powdered copal and glass, of each 4 oz.; alcohol of 90% (64 o. p.), 1 pint; camphor, 1/2 oz.; heat the mixture, with frequent stirring, in a water bath, so that the bubbles may be counted as they rise until solution is complete, and, when cold, decant the clear portion.

b. From copal (which has been melted, dropped into water, and then dried and powdered), 4 oz.; gum sandarach, 6 oz.; mastic, 2 oz.; pure Chio turpentine, 3 oz.; powdered glass, 5 oz.; spirit of 90%, 1 quart; dissolve by a gentle heat. Dries rapidly.

3. (TURPENTINE.) To oil of turpentine, 1 pint, heated in a water bath, add in small portions at a time, of powdered copal (prepared as above), 3 to 4 oz.; dissolve, &c., as before. Dries slowly, but is very pale and durable.

4. (JAPANNER’S COPAL VARNISH.) From pale African copal, 7 lbs.; pale drying oil, 1/2 gall.; oil of turpentine, 3 galls.; proceed as in No. 1. Dries in 20 to 60 minutes, and may be polished as soon as hard, particularly if stoved. See JAPANNING.

Obs. All copal varnishes, when properly made, are very hard and durable, though less so than those of amber; but they have the advantage over the latter of being paler. They are applied on coaches, pictures, polished metal, wood, and other objects requiring a good durable varnish. Animé is frequently substituted for copal in the copal varnishes of the shops. See VARNISHES, BODY, CARRIAGE, and COPAL, &c.

=Varnish, Crystal.= Prep. 1. From genuine pale Canada balsam and rectified oil of turpentine, equal parts. Used for maps, prints, drawings, and other articles of paper, and also to prepare tracing paper, and to transfer engravings.

2. Mastic, 3 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; dissolve. Used to fix pencil drawings.

=Varnish, Drying.= Spirit copal varnish.

=Varnish, Dutch.= Lac and toy varnishes are often so called.

=Varnish, Etch′ing.= See ETCHING.

=Varnish, Fat.= See OIL VARNISH.

=Varnish, Flexible.= Syn. BALLOON VARNISH, CAOUTCHOUC V., INDIA-RUBBER V. Prep. 1. From india rubber (cut small), 1-1/2 oz.; chloroform, ether (washed), or bisulphuret of carbon, 1 pint; digest in the cold until solution is complete. Dries as soon as it is laid on. Pure gutta percha may be substituted for india rubber.

2. India rubber, in shavings, 1 oz.; rectified mineral naphtha or benzol. 1 pint; digest at a gentle heat in a closed vessel, and strain. Dries very badly, and never gets perfectly hard.

3. India rubber, 1 oz.; drying oil, 1 quart; dissolve by heat. Very tough; dries in about 48 hours.

4. Linseed oil, 1 gall.; dried white copperas and sugar of lead, of each 3 oz.; litharge, 8 oz.; boil, with constant agitation, until it strings well, then cool slowly, and decant the clear portion. If too thick, thin it down with quick-drying linseed oil. The above are used for balloons, gas bags, &c. See BALLOON, CAOUTCHOUC, &c.

=Varnish, Furniture.= A solution of pure white wax, 1 part, in rectified oil of turpentine, 4 parts, frequently passes under this name. See VARNISHES, BODY, CARRIAGE, and COPAL, &c.

=Varnish, Gilder’s.= Prep. (Watin.) Pale gum-lac in grains, gamboge, dragon’s blood, and annotta, of each 12-1/2 oz.; saffron, 3-1/4 oz.; dissolve each resin separately in 5 pints of alcohol of 90%, and make two separate tinctures of the dragon’s blood and annotta, with a like quantity of spirit; then mix the solutions in the proper proportions to produce the required shade. Used for gilded articles, &c.

=Varnish, Glass.= A solution of soluble glass. Used to render wood, &c., fire-proof.

=Varnish, Gun-barrel.= Prep. From shell-lac, 1-1/2 oz.; dragon’s blood, 3 dr.; rectified spirit, 1 quart. Applied after the barrels are ‘browned.’

=Varnish, Hair.= Prep. From hog’s bristles (chopped small), 1 part; drying oil, 10 parts; dissolve by heat. Said to be used to give cotton or linen cloth the appearance of horse-hair.

=Varnish, India-rubber.= VARNISH. See FLEXIBLE (above).

=Varnish, Italian.= Prep. Boil Scio turpentine until brittle, powder it, and dissolve this in oil of turpentine. Used for prints, &c.

=Varnish, Japan.= Pale amber or copal varnish. Used for japanning tin, papier mâché, &c.

=Varnish, Lac.= Prep. 1. Pale seed-lac (or shell-lac), 8 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; dissolve.

2. Substitute lac bleached with chlorine for seed-lac. Both are very tough, hard, and durable, but quite inflexible. Wood naphtha may be substituted for spirit. Used for pictures, metal, wood, or leather, and particularly for toys.

=Varnish, Lac (Aqueous).= Prep. From pale shell-lac, 5 oz.; borax, 1 oz.; water, 1 pint; digest at nearly the boiling point until dissolved; then strain. Equal to the more costly spirit varnish for many purposes; it is an excellent vehicle for water colours, inks, &c.; when dry, it is waterproof.

=Varnish, Lac (Coloured).= Syn. LACQUER, BRASSWORK VARNISH. Prep. 1. Take of turmeric (ground), 1 lb.; rectified spirit, 2 galls.; macerate for a week, strain, with expression, and add to the tincture, gamboge, 1-1/2 oz.; pale shell-lac, 3/4 lb.; gum sandarach, 3-1/2 lbs.; when dissolved, strain, and further add of good turpentine varnish, 1 quart. Gold coloured.

2. Seed-lac, 3 oz.; turmeric, 1 oz.; dragon’s blood, 1/4 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; digest for a week, frequently shaking, then decant the clear portion. Deep gold coloured.

3. Spanish annotta, 3 lbs.; dragon’s blood, 1 lb.; gum sandarach, 3-1/4 lbs.; rectified spirit, 2 galls.; turpentine varnish, 1 quart; as before. Red coloured.

4. Gamboge, 1 oz.; Cape aloes, 3 oz.; pale shell-lac, 1 lb.; rectified spirit, 2 galls.; as before. Pale brass coloured.

5. Seed-lac, dragon’s blood, annotta, and gamboge, of each 1/4 lb.; gum sandarach, 2 oz.; saffron, 1 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 gall. Resembles the last.

Obs. Lacquers are used upon polished metals and wood, to impart to them the appearance of gold. Articles in brass, tin plate, and pewter, or which are covered with tinfoil, are more especially so treated. As lacquers are required of different depths and shades of colour, it is best to keep a concentrated solution of each of the colouring ingredients ready, so that it may be added, at any time, to produce any desired tint.

=Varnish, Mahogany.= Prep. From gum animé (‘sorts’), 8 lbs.; clarified oil, 3 galls.; litharge and powdered dried sugar of lead, of each 1/4 lb.; proceed as for body varnish, and thin with oil of turpentine, 5 galls., or q. s.

=Varnish, Mastic.= Syn. PICTURE VARNISH, TURPENTINE V., TINGRY’S ESSENCE V. Prep. 1. Take of pale and picked gum mastic, 5 lbs.; glass (pounded as small as barley, and well Washed and dried), 3 lbs.; finest newly rectified oil of turpentine (lukewarm), 2 galls.; put them into a clean 4-gall. tin bottle or can, bung down securely, and keep rolling it backwards and forwards pretty smartly on a counter, or any other solid place, for at least 4 hours, when, if the gum is all dissolved, the varnish may be decanted, strained through muslin into another bottle, and allowed to settle; if the solution is still incomplete, the agitation must be continued for some time longer, or the gentle warmth applied as well. Very fine.

2. (Second quality.) From mastic, 4 lbs.; oil of turpentine, 2 galls.; dissolve with heat.

Obs. Mastic varnish is much used for pictures, &c.; when good, it is tough, hard, brilliant, and colourless. It greatly improves by age, and, when possible, should never be used before it has been made at least a twelve-month. Should it get ‘chilled,’ 1 lb. of well-washed siliceous sand should be made moderately hot and added to each gallon, which must then be well agitated for 5 minutes, and afterwards allowed to settle.

=Varnish, Oak.= Syn. WAINSCOT VARNISH, COMMON TURPENTINE V. Prep. 1. Clear pale resin, 3-1/2 lbs.; oil of turpentine, 1 gall.; dissolve.

2. To the last add of Canada balsam, 1 pint, Both are cheap and excellent common varnishes for wood or metal.

=Varnish, Oil.= The finer qualities are noticed under AMBER, BODY, CARRIAGE, and COPAL VARNISH; the following produces the ordinary oil varnish of the shops:——Take of good clear resin, 3 lbs.; drying oil, 1/2 gall.; melt, and thin with oil of turpentine, 2 quarts. A good and durable varnish for common work.

=Varnish, Painter’s.= See CARRIAGE, COPAL, MAHOGANY, OAK, OIL, and other varnishes; the selection depending greatly on the colour and quality of the work.

=Varnish, Patent Leather.= This is carefully prepared drying oil. The skins being stretched on a board, and every trace of grease being removed from them by means of a mixture of fullers earth and water, they are ready to receive the varnish, which is then spread upon them, very thinly, by means of a species of scraper. The first coat varnish consists of pale Prussian blue (that containing some alumina), 5 oz.; drying oil, 1 gall.; boiled to the consistence of single size, and, when cold, ground with a little vegetable black; it is stoved and afterwards polished with fine-grained pumice——the second coating resembles the first, excepting in having a little pure Prussian blue mixed with it;——the third coat varnish consists of a similar mixture, but the oil is boiled until it strings well, and a little more pure Prussian blue and vegetable black are added;——the last coat varnish, or finish, is the same as the third, but must contain 1/2 lb. of pure dark-coloured Prussian blue, and 1/4 lb. of pure vegetable black per gall., to which a little oil copal or amber varnish is often added; each coat being duly stoved and pumiced before the next is applied. The heat of the stove or oven is commonly 120° Fahr. for ‘enamelled skins,’ as those of the calf and seal, intended for ‘uppers,’ and 175° to 180° for stout ‘japan leather,’ the exposure in the stove is commonly for 6 to 10 hours. The skins are next oiled and grained. The ‘graining’ of the ‘enamelled skins’ is done by holding the skin in one hand, and with a curved board lined with cork (graining stick), lightly pressed upon the fleshy side, working it up and down until the proper effect is produced.

=Varnish, Picture.= Several varnishes, especially mastic varnish, are called by this name. Pale copal or mastic varnish is generally used for oil paintings, and crystal, white hard spirit, or mastic varnish, for water-coloured drawings on paper.

=Varnish, Printer’s.= Diluted with twice its volume of oil of turpentine, it forms a good common varnish.

=Varnish, Sealing-wax.= Black, red, or any coloured sealing-wax, broken small, with enough rectified spirit (or methylated spirit) to cover it, digested till dissolved. A most useful varnish for wood-work of electrical or chemical apparatus, for tops of corks, &c.

=Varnish, Spirit.= Prep. 1. (BROWN HARD.)——a. From gum sandarach, 3 lbs.; pale seed-lac or shell-lac, 2 lbs.; rectified spirit (65 o. p.), 2 galls.; dissolve, and add of turpentine varnish, 1 quart; agitate well, strain (quickly) through gauze, and in a month decant the clear portion from the sediment. Very fine.

b. From seed-lac and yellow resin, of each 1-1/2 lb.; rectified spirit, 5 quarts; oil of turpentine, 1-1/4 pint; dissolve. Inferior to the last.

2. (WHITE HARD.)——a. From gum sandarach (picked), 5 lbs.; camphor, 2 oz.; washed and dried coarsely pounded glass, 3 lbs.; rectified spirit (65 o. p.), 7 quarts; proceed as in making mastic varnish; when strained, add of pure Canada balsam, 1 quart. Very pale, durable, and brilliant.

b. From gum sandarach and gum mastic, of each, picked, 4 oz.; coarsely powdered glass, 8 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; dissolve, and add of pure Strasburg turpentine, 3 oz. Very fine.

3. (SOFT BRILLIANT.) From sandarach, 6 oz.; elemi (genuine), 4 oz.; animé, 1 oz.; camphor, 1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; as before.

4. (SCENTED.) To the preceding add some gum benzoin, balsam of Peru, balsam of Tola, oil of lavender, or the essence of musk or ambergris. The first two can only be employed for dark varnishes.

Obs. The above varnishes are chiefly applied to articles of the toilette, as work-boxes, card-cases, &c.; but are also suitable to other articles, whether of paper, wood, linen, or metal, that require a brilliant and quick-drying varnish. They dry almost as soon as applied, and are usually hard enough to polish in 24 hours. They are, however, much less durable, and more liable to crack, than oil varnishes.

=Varnish, Stopping-out.= Syn. PETIT VERNIS, Fr. From lampblack, made into a paste with turpentine. Used by engravers. See ETCHING.

=Varnish, Tingry’s.= MASTIC VARNISH.

=Varnish, Toy.= Similar to common spirit varnish, but using carefully rectified wood naphtha as the solvent. See VARNISHES, LAC and SPIRIT.

=Varnish, Transfer.= Syn. MORDANT VARNISH. Prep. From mastic (in tears) and sandarach, of each 4 oz.; rectified spirit, 1-1/2 pint; dissolve, and add of pure Canada balsam, 1/2 pint. Used for transferring and fixing engravings or lithographs on wood, and for gilding, silvering, &c. See VARNISH, CRYSTAL.

=Varnish, Turpentine.= See VARNISHES, MASTIC, and OAK.

=Varnish, Wainscot.= See VARNISH, OAK.

=Varnish, Wax.= Syn. MILK OF WAX; EMULSIO CERÆ SPIRITUOSA, L. Prep. 1. Take of white wax (pure), 1 lb.; melt it with as gentle a heat as possible, add of warm rectified spirit, sp. gr. ·830 (60 o. p.), 1 pint; mix perfectly, and pour the liquid out upon a cold porphyry slab; next grind it with a muller to a perfectly smooth paste, adding more spirit as required; put the paste into a marble mortar, make an emulsion with water, 3-1/2 pints, gradually added, and strain it through muslin. Used as a varnish for paintings; when dry, a hot iron is passed over it, or heat is otherwise evenly applied, so as to fuse it, and render it transparent, after which, when quite cold, it is polished with a clean linen cloth. The most protective of all varnishes.

2. Wax (pure), 5 oz.; oil of turpentine, 1 quart; dissolve. Used for furniture. See VARNISH, SEALING-WAX.

=Varnish, White.= See VARNISH, SPIRIT, 2, a and b.

=VAR′NISHING.= To give the highest degree of lustre to varnish after it is laid on, as well as to remove the marks of the brush, it undergoes the operation of polishing. This is performed by first rubbing it with very finely powdered pumice stone and water, and afterwards with an oiled rag and tripoli, until the required polish is produced. The surface is, last of all, cleaned with soft linen cloths, cleared of all greasiness with powdered starch, and then rubbed bright with the palm of the hand.

In varnishing great care must be taken that the surface is free from grease or smoke; as, unless this be the case, the best oil or turpentine varnish in the world will not dry and harden. Old articles are usually washed with soap and water, by the painters, before being varnished, to prevent any misadventure of the kind alluded to.

=VASELINE.= See COSMOLINE.

=VEAL.= “The grain should be close, firm, and white, and the fat of a pinkish white, not a dead white, and the kidneys well covered with a thick white fat.” (Soyer.)

Veal, like pork, requires to be well dressed, to develop its nutritive qualities. It should also be eaten fresh, as a peculiar principle is generated in it when improperly kept, which acts as a malignant poison. See ROASTING, &c.

=VEG′ETABLE AL′KALI†.= Potassa.

=VEGETABLE JUICES.= See below.

=VEGETABLES.= Vegetables are organic beings, which are distinguished from animals by a number of characteristics, but, like them, are composed of certain proximate principles, or compounds, which possess a high degree of scientific interest, and in many cases are invaluable to man. Among the most important of these are——albumen, gluten, gum, lignin, starch, sugar, tannin, wax, the fixed and volatile oils, the resins, and gum-resins, the alkaloids, and innumerable forms of extractive matter. Several of these substances are noticed under their respective names.

The method of propagating plants from their seeds, depending on their simple exposure, at the proper season, to warmth and moisture, under the protection of the soil, is well known; that by propagation from ‘slips’ and ‘cuttings,’ which will doubtless prove interesting to the amateur gardener, are noticed below.

The choice of slips and cuttings should be made from the side shoots of trees and plants, and, when possible, from such as recline towards the grounds, observing, when they are removed by the knife, to leave a little wood of a former year or season’s growth attached to them, as such are found to take root more readily than when they are wholly composed of new wood. The time to take slips or cuttings is as soon as the sap gets into full motion. Before setting them the latter should be cut across, just below an eye or joint, with as smooth a section as possible, observing not to injure the bud. The superfluous leaves may be removed, but a sufficient number should be left on for the purposes of vegetation. The common practice of removing all or nearly all the leaves of cuttings is injudicious. In some cases leaves alone will strike root. When cuttings are set in pots, they should be so placed as to reach to the bottom and touch the sides throughout their whole length, when they will seldom fail to become rooted plants. In the case of tubular-stalked plants it is said to be advantageous to insert both ends into the soil, each of which will take root, and may then be divided, when two plants will be produced instead of one. An equable temperature, a moist atmosphere, a shady situation, and a moderate supply of water, are the principal requisites to induce speedy rooting. Excess of any of these is prejudicial. When the size of the cuttings admit, it is better to place them under a hand- or bell-glass, which will preserve a constant degree of heat, and prevent evaporation from the surface of the leaves, which is the most common cause of their dying, especially in hot, dry weather.

Qual. The vegetable kingdom furnishes by far the larger portion of the food of man, and indirectly, perhaps, the whole of it. The great value of culinary vegetables and fruit in a mixed diet need not be insisted on, since it is a fact which is almost universally known and appreciated.

In the choice of culinary vegetables observe, that if they are stiff and break freely and crisply, they are fresh, and fit for food; if, on the contrary, they have a flabby appearance, or are soft or discoloured, they are stale, and should be rejected.

The dose of the generality of vegetable substances that exercise no very marked action on the human frame is about 1/2 to 1 dr. of the powder, night and morning; or 1 oz., or q. s. to impart a moderately strong colour or taste, may be infused or boiled in 1 pint of water, and a wine-glassful or thereabouts taken 2 or 3 times a day.

Collection and Pres. The following general directions are given in the London Pharmacopœia for the collection and preservation of vegetable substances——(vegetabilia, Ph. L.):——

“Vegetables are to be collected in dry weather, and when neither wet with rain nor dew; they are to be collected annually, and are not to be kept beyond a year.

“Barks are to be collected at that season in which they can be most easily separated from the wood.” Spring is the season here alluded to; as at this time, after the sap begins to ascend, the bark is, in general, very easily separated.

“Flowers are to be collected recently blown.” The red rose, however, must be gathered before the buds are expanded.

“Fruits and seeds are to be collected when ripe.

“Herbs and leaves are to be gathered after the flowers have expanded, and before the seeds are mature.

“Roots and rhizomes (underground stems), for the most part, are to be dug up after the old leaves and stalks have fallen, and before the new ones appear.” (“Roots, which are required to be preserved fresh, should be buried in dry sand.”——Ph. L. 1836.)

“Seeds are to be collected when they are ripe, and before they drop from the plant.” (“They ought to be preserved in their seed vessels.”——Ph. L. 1836.)

“The different parts of vegetables are to be kept dried for use, except where we shall otherwise direct. Expose those you wish to dry, within a short time after they have been gathered, in shallow wicker baskets, to a gentle heat, in a dark place, and where there is a current of air. Then, the moisture being driven off, gradually increase the heat to 150° Fahr., in order that they may be dried. Finally, preserve the more delicate parts, viz. flowers and leaves, in black glass vessels, well closed, and keep the rest in proper vessels, preventing the access of light and moisture.”

Fruits, culinary vegetables, and vegetable juice, of every class, may be preserved for any length of time by several of the methods described under PUTREFACTION. On the small scale the following method is often adopted:——The substances to be preserved are put into strong glass or stoneware bottles, with necks of a proper size, which are then corked with the greatest care, tied or wired, and lined with a mixture of lime and soft cheese, or with a paste formed of linseed meal and water, spread on rags; or tin cases are employed, and are soldered up instead of being corked. The bottles are then placed in an oven, the temperature of which is cautiously raised to fully 212° Fahr.; or they are enclosed, separately, in canvas bags, and put into a copper of water to which some salt has been added, which is then gradually heated until it boils, and thus kept for 15 or 20 minutes; the whole is next left to cool, when the bottles are taken out and carefully examined before being laid by, lest they should have cracked or the lute have given way.

Herbs and flowers are now generally preserved for distillation by means of common salt. The objection which is raised against the use of fresh aromatic plants is thus obviated, whilst the odours of the distilled products are rendered superior to those obtained from either the recent or dried plant, fruit, or flower, without the great loss, inconvenience, or trouble attending the common methods. Besides, many aromatic and odorous substances almost entirely lose their properties by drying; while most of them yield more oil, and that of a finer quality, in the fresh than in the dried state. The odours of roses, elder flowers, and a variety of others are vastly improved by this treatment, and these flowers may thus be preserved with ease and safety from season to season, or even longer, if required. The process simply consists in intimately mixing the flowers or other vegetables, soon after being gathered, with about 1/4 their weight, or less, of good dry salt, and ramming down the mixture as tightly as possible in strong casks. The casks are then placed in a cold cellar, and covered with boards, on which heavy weights are put, to keep the mass tight and close. See FRUITS, PUTREFACTION, &c.

=Vegetables, Juices of.= 1. (EXPRESSED VEGETABLE JUICE, SIMPLE V. J.; SUCCI EXPRESSI, L.) These are obtained by bruising the fresh leaves, or other vegetable matter, in a marble mortar, or in a mill, and expressing the liquid portion by means of a powerful screw press. After defecation for 12 or 14 hours in a cold situation, the juice is either decanted or filtered from the feculous sediment, and is next heated for some minutes to about 185° Fahr., to coagulate albuminous matter. The clear portion is subsequently separated as before, and the product preserved for use in well-closed and well-filled bottles, in a cool situation. Some plants, as borage, cabbage, &c., require the addition of 1/8 of water before being pressed. The expression of the juice of lemons, oranges, quinces, &c., is facilitated by previously mixing the pulp with clean chopped straw. Buckthorn berries, mulberries, &c., after being crushed between the hands, are commonly left for 3 or 4 days to undergo a slight fermentation before pressing them.

The expression of the juices of the narcotic plants, and of some other vegetables, has lately assumed considerable interest, from these juices being now extensively used in pharmacy for the preparation of extracts and the preserved juices, noticed below. It appears that the juice of young plants just coming into flower yield only 2/3 the amount of extract which may be obtained from the same quantity of juice expressed from the matured plant, or when the flowers are fully blown, and the strength of the product is also inferior; the case appears to be best met by selecting the plants when more than half the flowers are fully blown. The leaves alone should be preferably employed, and should be exclusively of the second year’s growth, when the plants are biennials. (Squire.) The homœopathists commonly employ the whole flowering herb.

The INSPISSATED VEGETABLE JUICES (SUCCUS SPISSATIS) are now included among the extracts.

The principal simple vegetable juices of commerce are——

BUCKTHORN JUICE (SUCCUS RHAMNI——Ph. L.), from the fruit of Rhamnus catharticus, or buckthorn berries.

CITRON JUICE (SUCCUS CITRI), chiefly imported from Italy in large casks.

LEMON JUICE (SUCCUS LIMONUM), Ph. L. from lemons that spoil before they can be sold; also imported.

MULBERRY JUICE (SUCCUS MORI——Ph. L.), from the fruit of the mulberry.

ORANGE JUICE (SUCCUS AURANTII), obtained from the same source as that of lemons.

CONCENTRATED ORANGE JUICE (SUCCUS SPISSATIS AURANTII vel AURANTIORUM) and CONCENTRATED LEMON JUICE (SUCCUS SPISSATUS LIMONUM) are prepared by evaporating the fresh juices of oranges and lemons, either alone or mixed with sugar, and are employed as substitutes for the fruit, where the latter cannot be obtained.

2. (ALCOHOLISED VEGETABLE JUICES, PRESERVED V. J.; TINCTURES OF RECENT PLANTS; SUCCI ALCOHOLATI, L.; ALCOOLATURES, Fr.) Prep. a. The juice, obtained by powerful pressure, in the manner noticed above, is allowed to remain for 24 hours in a cold place, when the clear portion is decanted from the feculous matter which has subsided, and is then agitated with one half its volume of rectified spirit (56 o. p.); after another 24 hours the clear portion is again decanted and, if necessary, filtered through bibulous paper or linen. In this way are now generally prepared the preserved juices of aconite, belladonna, colchicum (corms), hemlock, henbane, foxglove, elaterium, lactuca virosa, taraxacum, &c., sold in this country.

b. (P. Cod.) To the fresh leaves, bruised in a marble mortar, is added an equal weight of rectified spirit, and after maceration for 15 days the whole is pressed, and the resulting tincture filtered. In this manner are prepared tinctures of the fresh leaves of aconite (tinctura aconiti cum foliis recentibus), belladonna, foxglove, hemlock, henbane, strong-scented lettuce (Lactuca virosa), stramonium, trailing poison oak (Rhus toxicodendron), mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris), colchicum (corms), squirting cucumber, white poppy, taraxacum, &c., of the Paris Codex.

Obs. These tinctures are much more powerful, and more certain in their operation, than those prepared from the dried plants. The commencing dose is from 2 to 5 drops, the effects of which should be carefully watched. The products of the first of the above formulæ keep as well as the ordinary tinctures, and there is less waste of spirit than with the second. That of the P. Cod. is, however, preferred by M. Soubeiran, as affording more uniform products; an opinion which is questionable. Béral orders equal weights of juice and spirit; Mr Squire recommends 1/2 part; Messrs Bentley & Davenport 1/4 part (both by volume), and Mr Gieseke only 1/5 part (by weight), of spirit to 1 part of the expressed juice. The homœopathists generally go with M. Béral. “Our own experience, which has been very considerable, and extends over upwards of 16 years, leads us to prefer the proportions given in formula a, which are similar to those of Mr Squire. If less spirit be employed, the product is apt to suffer rapid deterioration when kept in a warm shop or surgery.” (Cooley.)

3. (ETHERIZED VEGETABLE JUICES; SUCCI ÆTHERIZATI,——L.; ETHÉROLATURES, SUCS ÉTHÉRES, Fr.) For these we are indebted to M. Bouchardat. They are prepared as follows: Ether is gradually added to the depurated freshly expressed juice, until, after active agitation, a thin layer of it rises to the surface on the mixture being allowed to repose for a minute or two; the whole is then set aside for 24 hours, when the supernatant ether is expertly removed by means of a pipette or syringe, and the juice is filtered; lastly, the decanted ether is returned to the filtrate, and the etherised juice is at once put into well-stoppered bottles. For use, one of the bottles is reversed, and the dose taken from the lower part, so that the ether remains behind. We find, in practice, that decantation, carefully conducted, may be substituted for filtration; thus not only rendering the process less costly, but ensuring a more uniform product.

The etherised juices are said to retain their active properties for an indefinite period. The method has been successfully applied to the juices of aconite, anemone, black hellebore, and hemlock, and is probably applicable to many others; but, we think, not to the juices of all the narcotic plants, as has been asserted.

=Vegetable Fibres.= The following method for the identification of vegetable fibres is intended to supplement the information previously given on this subject. Its originator, M. Vetillard, applies it for distinguishing the fibres of linen, hemp, cotton, jute, China grass, and New Zealand flax. The following extract descriptive of the process is from the ‘Journal of Applied Chemistry’:——

“If a woven or spun fibre is to be examined it must first be disintegrated into the single fibres, and any colour or finish must be removed as completely as possible. Vertical and longitudinal microscopic sections are next made. These are rendered transparent by glycerin or chloride of calcium, and treated with tincture of iodine, made by simply dissolving iodine in a solution of iodide of potassium. The excess of this tincture is removed, a drop of dilute sulphuric acid added, and the sections examined by the aid of the microscope.

Linen Fibre.——Bundles of similar fibres, with a fine canal in the centre, long, uniformly thick, and pointed at the ends. Longitudinal section; the fibres are coloured blue, the canal yellow. Cross section: regular polygons, loosely connected, coloured blue; centres yellow.

Hemp.——Fibres aggravated; each fibre covered with a thin skin; coloured yellow. They are thick and less uniform than the linen fibres. The ends are thick and of the shape of spatulas, and become blue or greenish blue with iodine. Cross section: irregular polygons, firmly connected; rim yellow, the mass blue, the centre colourless.

Cotton.——Longitudinal section: single fibres, spirally wound on their own axis, with a central canal and broad ends; coloured blue by iodine. The cross sections are rounded in the shape of kidneys, and coloured blue, with yellow spots interspersed.

China Grass.——Longitudinal section: fibres separated lengthwise, of varying thickness. The interior canal is often filled with a yellow granular substance, which is coloured brown by iodine. The fibre is turned blue by iodine. Cross section: irregular, with re-entrant angles, and little cohesion. The fibres are stouter than all other fibres, and are turned blue by iodine.

Jute.——Fibres strongly coherent, the ends undulating and difficult to separate. Central canal wide, empty, and gently rounded at the ends; coloured yellow. Cross section: polygons strongly coherent and regular, much like those of hemp, but the central opening is larger; coloured yellow, darker at the rim.

New Zealand Flax.——Bundles of cells of the leaves, easily separated with a needle into stiff little fibres, provided with a canal of uniform width. The sides are rolled inwards, coloured yellow. The cross section resembles that of jute, but the corners of the polygons are rounded off. They are coloured yellow by iodine tincture.

=VEGETA′TION.= Vegetation (which is here employed in the sense of plants in general) is very unequally distributed over the earth’s surface. Thus, towards the poles plants are found, not only in diminished numbers compared to their occurrence in warmer and more temperate regions, but also of much smaller size or stunted growth. No plants at all are met in the regions of eternal frost and snow, whilst in equatorial climes they attain to the most gigantic proportions, and are possessed of the most exquisite colours and perfumes, and yield the finest fruits. The habitat of a plant will, of course, be that on which it finds the conditions favorable to its existence and growth, in the shape of soil, climate, moisture, geographical position, &c.

=VEGETATION (Metallic).= This name has been fancifully applied to the following:——

LEAD TREE; ARBOR SATURNI. Take of sugar of lead, 1 oz.; distilled water, 1-1/2 pint; acetic acid, a few drops; dissolve, place the liquid in a clear white glass bottle, and suspend a piece of zinc in it, by means of a fine thread.

SILVER TREE; ARBOR DIANÆ. From nitrate of silver, 20 gr.; water, 1 fl. oz.; dissolve in a phial, and add about 1/2 dr. of pure mercury.

TIN TREE; ARBOR JOVIS. From chloride of tin, 3 dr.; nitric acid, 10 to 15 drops; distilled or rain water, 1 pint; dissolve in a white glass bottle, and hang in it, by a thread, a small rod of zinc.

Obs. In the above experiments the metals are precipitated in a very beautiful arborescent form. It is curious to observe the laminæ shoot out, as it were, from nothing, assuming forms resembling real vegetation. This phenomenon results from voltaic action being set up between the liquid and the metal.

=VEGETO-AL′KALI.= See ALKALOID.

=VEL′LUM.= A fine kind of parchment prepared from the skins of calves, kids, and lambs. The skins are limed, shaved, washed, and stretched in hoops or other frames, where they are scraped and trimmed with the currier’s fleshing-knife, and next carefully rubbed down with pumice stone; they are, lastly, polished with finely powdered chalk or fresh-slaked lime, and then dried. A green colour is given with a solution of crystallised verdigris, to which a little cream of tartar and nitric acid has been added; and a blue colour, with a solution of indigo. The surface is often finished off with white of egg, and subsequent friction.

The skins of sheep are commonly used for parchment; those of he-goats and wolves for drum-heads; and those of the ass for battledores. The species of vellum used for church services by binders is said to be prepared from pig-skins. See POUNCE.

=VEL′VET COLOURS.= Syn. MAP STAINS, PAPER S.; LACCA FLUIDA, L. Prep. 1. (BLUE.)——a. Dissolve litmus in water, and add 1/3 of spirit of wine.——b. Dilute Saxon blue or sulphate of indigo with water. If required for delicate work, neutralise the acid with chalk.——c. To an aqueous infusion of litmus add a few drops of vinegar, until it turns of a full blue.

2. (GREEN.)——a. Dissolve crystallised verdigris in water.——b. Dissolve sap green in water, and add a little alum.——c. Add a little salt of tartar to a blue or purple solution of litmus, until it turns green.——d. Dissolve equal parts of crystallised verdigris and cream of tartar in water.

3. (PURPLE.)——a. Steep litmus in water, and strain the solution.——b. Add a little alum to a strained decoction of logwood.——c. Add a solution of carmine (red) to a little blue solution of litmus or Saxon blue.

4. (RED.)——a. Macerate ground Brazil wood in vinegar, boil a few minutes, strain, and add a little alum and gum.——b. Add vinegar to an infusion of litmus until it turns red.——c. Boil or infuse powdered cochineal in water containing a little ammonia or sal volatile.——d. Dissolve carmine in liquor of ammonia, or in weak carbonate of potash water; the former is superb.

5. (YELLOW.)——a. Dissolve gamboge in water, and add a little alum.——b. Dissolve gamboge in equal parts of proof spirit and water. Golden coloured.——c. Steep French berries in boiling water, strain, and add a little alum.——d. Steep turmeric, round zedoary, gamboge, or annotta, in a weak ley of subcarbonate of soda or potash.

Obs. The preceding, thickened with a little gum, are used as inks for writing, as colours to tint maps, foils, paper, artificial flowers, &c., and to paint on velvet. Some of them are very beautiful. Those containing litmus are, however, fugitive. It must be observed that those made with strong spirit do not mix well with gum water, unless somewhat diluted with water. Any other transparent colours or stains may be employed for painting on velvet, as well as the above.

=VELVET LEAF.= Syn. PAREIRA BRAVA, PAREIRA (Ph. L., E., & D.) L. “The root of Cissampelos pareira” (Ph. L.), white pareira or velvet leaf. It is tonic, aperient, and diuretic.——Dose, 20 to 60 grains; in chronic and purulent inflammation and extreme irritability of the bladder; in leucorrhœa, dropsy, ulceration of the kidney, &c.

=VENESECTION.= The practice of venesection, bloodletting, or phlebotomy, as it is variously denominated, has within the last thirty or forty years been nearly banished from medical practice. It seems very evident that prior to the above period medical practitioners were in the habit of resorting to venesection to an unwise extent, and in cases which the progress of modern pathology has shown it to be wholly inapplicable.

There are, we believe, some practitioners who, whilst admitting the evils arising from its misapplication and abuse, still advocate its occasional and judicious employment.

Because of the dangers that beset the operation when performed by a tyro, we forbear to give any particulars as to the method of carrying it out. The veins of the arm are those always invariably opened in venesection, although the operation may be performed on many other superficial veins.

=VEN′ISON.= The flesh of several species of deer. That from good land, killed at the proper season, and eaten in a moderately fresh state, is most easily digestible, and, perhaps, the most wholesome, of all the red meats; but when it is ‘high,’ or in a state of incipient putrefaction, it is far from wholesome, and often poisonous.

=VENO BENO (La).= See TEA.

=VENOM.= Drs Brunton and Fayrer, who have devoted many years to the study of the nature and physiological action of snake poisons, state that there appears to be some resemblance in the action of the venom or virus of the cobra, Naja tripudians, and of curara, the arrow-poison of the Indians; both poisons causing death by paralysing the respiratory organs.

Dr Armstrong, who has analysed the cobra poison, has not been enabled to isolate from it any crystalline principle. From its reactions he concludes that its chief ingredient is an albuminoid substance.

Dr Armstrong obtained a white precipitate from the poison by treating it with absolute alcohol, and also prepared an alcoholic extract from it.

He gives the following as the composition of the three substances. The albumen is appended for comparison:——

Crude Alcoholic Alcoholic Albumen. Poison. Precipitate. extract. Carbon 43·55 45·76 43·04 53·5 Nitrogen 43·30 14·30 12·45 15·7 Hydrogen ... 6·60 7·00 7·1 Sulphur ... 2·50 ... ... Ash ... Traces.

“But although there is little difference between the composition of the alcoholic precipitate and extract, there is an immense difference between their physiological action, the extract being a virulent poison, the precipitate almost inert. This is notably different from what has been stated by Dr Weir Mitchell respecting the poison of the rattlesnake, viz., that the alcoholic precipitate is active, whilst the extract is inert.”[255]

[Footnote 255: “Royal Society’s Proceedings,” ‘Pharm. Journ.’]

=VENTILA′TION.= The proper ventilation of our habitations, as well as of other buildings in which we pass any considerable portion of our time, is quite as necessary to health as food and clothing. Lavoisier, writing in the middle of the last century, remarks——“It is certain that mankind degenerate when employed in sedentary manufactures, or living in crowded houses, or in the narrow lanes of large cities; whereas they improve in their nature and constitution in most of the country labours which are carried on in the open air.” Yet many persons, by the care which they take to shut out fresh air, and to prevent the escape of that which their own bodies, by pulmonary and surfacial respiration, have contaminated, would seem to hug to themselves the discomfort of breathing over and over again an impure and unrefreshing atmosphere, and to be anxious to finish their career by lingering suicide. The almost universal indifference to the subject, considering its importance, is unaccountable.

The first step towards effecting and maintaining a liberal supply of fresh air is either by means of ventilators or by regularly opening the windows for stated periods daily. During the colder portions of the year, when fires are kept burning, and there is an up-current in the chimney, nothing is so simple and effective as the well-known chimney-valve of Dr Arnott; and, indeed, without this, open fires are powerful instruments of ventilation. In cold weather, where expense is not an object, the apartments may be supplied with air that has been previously warmed by passing through a heated chamber, on the principle recommended by Dr Reid; but care must be taken that, in warming the air, we do not overheat it, nor contaminate it.

A sufficient supply of light, another powerful sanitary agent, is now regarded as nearly as essential as thorough ventilation, and the two are commonly treated of together. According to Palladio, the opening of windows should not exceed a fourth, nor be less than a fifth, of the length of the side of a room, and should be in height two and one sixth times the width. Mr Gwilt, another high authority on this subject, has given as a definite rule, that we should allow 1 square foot of glass to every 100 cubic feet of space in any apartment or inclosure. A great deal must, however, depend on the shape of the apartment; but, in all cases, care should be taken that the windows are placed at the longest side of the room, and not at the narrowest, or the end of it. A southern aspect affords the most light and heat; a northern one the most diffused and least variable light, and is hence usually chosen by artists for their studios.

=VERA′TRINE.= C_{32}H_{52}N_{2}O_{8} Syn. VERATRIA, VERATRINA, SABADILLINE; VERATRIA (B. P., Ph. L., & E.), L. An alkaloid discovered by Pelletier and Caventou, in the seeds of Asagreæ officinalis (sabadilla), and in the rhizomes of Veratrum album (white hellebore).

Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Digest sabadilla seeds in boiling water for 24 hours, then squeeze them, dry them thoroughly by a gentle heat, beat them in a mortar, and separate the seeds from the capsules by agitation in a deep and narrow vessel; next grind the seeds in a coffee-mill, and exhaust them by percolation with rectified spirit; concentrate the resulting tincture by distillation, so long as no deposit forms, and pour the residuum, whilst still hot, into 12 times its volume of cold water; then filter through calico, and wash the residuum on the filter as long as the washings yield a precipitate with ammonia; unite the filtered liquid with the washings, add ammonia in excess, collect the precipitate on a filter, wash it slightly with cold water, and dry it first by imbibition with filtering paper, and then in the vapour bath. “The product is not pure, but sufficiently so for medical use. From this coloured substance it may be obtained white, but at considerable loss, by solution in very weak hydrochloric acid, decolorisation with animal charcoal, and reprecipitation with ammonia.”

2. (Ph. L. 1836.) This is the same in principle as the last; a tincture is formed by boiling the seeds in rectified spirit, which is then evaporated to a syrup, dissolved in very dilute sulphuric acid, the veratrine precipitated with, magnesia, redissolved in very dilute acid, treated with animal charcoal, the filtrate again evaporated to a syrup, and precipitated with ammonia; it is, lastly, washed and dried.

3. By means of ether, as noticed under ALKALOID and ACONITINE. This is by far the best method.

4. (B. P.) Cevadilla, 2 lbs.; distilled water, q. s.; rectified spirit, q. s.; solution of ammonia, q. s.; hydrochloric acid, q. s.; purified animal charcoal, 60 gr. Macerate the cevadilla with half its weight of boiling distilled water in a covered vessel for 24 hours. Remove the cevadilla, squeeze it, and dry it thoroughly with a gentle heat. Beat it now in a mortar and separate the seeds from the capsules by brisk agitation in a deep narrow vessel, or by winnowing it gently on a table with a sheet of paper.

Grind the seeds in a coffee mill, and form them into a thick paste with rectified spirit.

Pack this firmly in a percolator, and pass rectified spirit through it till the spirit ceases to be coloured. Concentrate the spirituous solution by distillation, so long as no deposit forms, and pour the residue, while hot, into 12 times its volume of cold distilled water. Filter through calico, and wash the residue on the filter with distilled water, till the fluid ceases to precipitate with ammonia. To the united filtered liquid add the ammonia in slight excess, let the precipitate completely subside, pour off the supernatant fluid, collect the precipitate on a filter, and wash it with distilled water till the fluid passes colourless. Diffuse the moist precipitate through 12 oz. of distilled water, and add gradually, with diligent stirring, sufficient hydrochloric acid to make the fluid feebly but persistently acid.

Then add the animal charcoal, digest at a gentle heat for 20 minutes, filter, and allow the liquid to cool. Add ammonia in slight, excess, and when the precipitate has completely subsided, pour off the supernatant liquid, collect the precipitate on a filter, and wash it with cold distilled water till the washings cease to be affected by nitrate of silver accidental with nitric acid. Lastly, dry the precipitate, first by imbibition, with filtering paper, and then by the application of a gentle heat.

Prop. Pure veratrine is perfectly white; but as usually met with, it is a yellowish or greenish-white powder; it is highly acrid; uncrystallisable; scarcely soluble in water, soluble in ether, and freely soluble in hot alcohol; heated to about 125° Fahr., it fuses like wax, and solidifies, upon cooling, to a transparent yellow mass. With the dilute acid it forms salts, which are either amorphous or difficulty crystallisable. The smallest possible portion of its powder causes violent sneezing.

Tests. 1. Potassa, ammonia, and their carbonates, give flocculent white precipitates which at first are not crystalline under the microscope, but which, after some minutes, assume the appearance of small scattered clusters of short prismatic crystals; they are insoluble in excess of potassa and its carbonate, and only very slightly so in excess of ammonia.——2. With sulphuric acid it strikes an intense red colour, changing afterwards to crimson, and finally to violet.——3. A dilute acetic solution of veratrine is turned to a superb red by strong sulphuric acid.

Veratrine is distinguished from brucine and the other alkaloids by its fusibility——by the crystalline form of its precipitate with potassa, and——by its reaction with oil of vitriol.

Uses, &c. “As an external application, it has been efficaciously employed by Magendie in France, and by Dr Turnbull in this country; but the extravagant eulogies of the latter have not tended to confirm the reputation of this remedy.” (Dr A. T. Thomson.) From 6 to 12 gr., dissolved in 1 fl. oz. of rectified spirit, as a liniment; or 30 gr., mixed with 1 dr. of olive oil, and 1 oz. of lard, as an ointment, have been occasionally found very serviceable in neuralgia, and other like painful affections, and in gouty and rheumatic paralysis. As an internal remedy it possesses no advantage, as it merely acts as a violent and depressing cathartic.——Dose, 1/24 to 1/16 gr. In larger doses it acts as a powerful irritant poison. For antidotes, &c., see ALKALOID.

=VERA′TRUM.= See WHITE HELLEBORE.

=VER′DIGRIS.= Syn. ÆRUGO, L.; VERT-DE-GRIS, Fr. This is a mixture of several basic acetates of copper which have a green or blue colour. It is obtained in the wine districts of the south of Europe, by the action of refuse grapes, from which the juice has been expressed, on thin sheets of copper. When pure it should dissolve, almost entirely, and without effervescence, in dilute sulphuric acid. It is very poisonous; for antidotes, see COPPER.

An inferior quality of verdigris is now prepared from pommage, or apple marc, in the cider districts of England.

=Verdigris, Distilled.= Syn. CRYSTALLISED VERDIGRIS. This name is applied to the normal acetate of copper, which is prepared in the wine districts by dissolving ordinary verdigris, 1 part, in good distilled vinegar, 2 parts; the operation being performed in a copper vessel by the aid of a gentle heat and agitation; the solution is afterwards slowly evaporated until a pedicle begins to form on the surface, when it is transferred into glazed earthen pans (‘oulas’), in each of which are placed 2 or 3 cleft sticks, and it is then left in a warm apartment for 14 or 15 days to crystallise.

A spurious article is often prepared by adding a solution of sulphate of copper, 12-1/2 lbs. to a solution of sugar of lead, 19 lbs., or q. s., and filtering, evaporating, and crystallising the mixture.

There is an acetate of copper and lime which resembles distilled verdigris in colour. It was manufactured pretty extensively in Scotland some years ago, and fetched a high price, till Dr Ure published an analysis of it in the ‘Edin. Phil. Trans.’ It is much inferior for all uses in the arts.

Pure distilled verdigris is entirely soluble in water, and is not precipitated on the addition of sulphuric acid or of ammonia in excess.

=Verdigris, English.= Prep. Blue vitriol, 24 lbs.; white vitriol, 16 lbs.; sugar of lead, 12 lbs.; alum, 2 lbs. (all coarsely powdered); mix, and heat them in a pot over the fire until they unite into a mass. Sold by fraudulent dealers for foreign verdigris.

=VER′DITER.= Syn. BLUE VERDITER, REFINER’S VERDITER; CENDRES BLEUES, Fr. A blue pigment, obtained by adding chalk, whiting, or milk of lime, to a solution of copper in nitric acid; or, by triturating recently precipitated and still moist carbonate of oxide of copper with hydrate of lime.

Prep. A quantity of whiting or milk of lime is put into a tub, and upon this the solution of copper is poured; the mixture is stirred every day for some hours together, until the liquor loses its colour; it is then poured off, and more solution of copper added; this is repeated until the whiting or lime has acquired the proper colour; the whole is then washed with water, drained, spread on chalk stones, and dried in the sun.

Obs. The cupreous solution employed in the above process is made by neutralising the nitric solution obtained from the refiners of gold and silver, by heating it along with metallic copper. For the finer qualities of verditer the lime should be of the purest kind, and the cupreous precipitate should be carefully triturated with it, after it is nearly dry, by which a fine velvety appearance is produced. The ‘cendres bleues en pâtes’ of the French differ from the above mainly in a solution of chloride of copper being employed, and in the resulting green precipitate being turned blue by the action of carbonate of potassa. Verditer is made into crayons whilst moist, or dried into a powder, or it is used as a water colour in the moist state.

=Verditer, Green.= Syn. BREMEN GREEN. The process for refiner’s verditer frequently miscarries, and a green colour is produced instead of a blue one. It may also be obtained directly by omitting the ‘blueing up’ with carbonate of potassa, mentioned above.

=VER′JUICE.= Syn. AGRESTA, OMPHACIUM, L. The expressed juice of unripe grapes. The term is also often extended to the expressed juice of the wild or crab apple. It was formerly used as an astringent and refrigerant in medicine; but it is now principally employed as an ingredient in sauces, ragoûts, &c.

=VERMICEL′LI.= This, like macaroni, is prepared from a stiff paste made of a peculiar fine kind of granular wheat flour, called semoule, which is mixed up with hot water, and, after being well kneaded, is formed into small ribands, cylinders, or tubes, by being placed in a vertical cylinder press, the bottom of which is filled with proper-shaped holes, through which it is driven by an iron plate or ‘follower’ being forced down by a powerful screw. The pieces that protrude are broken off, twisted into any desired shape upon paper, and dried. Those in the form of fillets or ribands are called ‘lazagnes.’ Vermicelli contains a large amount of gluten, and is extremely nutritious, although slightly less digestible than the ordinary wheaten foods. See MACARONI.

=VER′MIFUGES.= Syn. ANTHELMINTICS; ANTHELMINTICA, HELMINTHAGOGA, VERMIFUGA, L. Medicines employed to destroy or expel intestinal worms. Some of these, as coarsely powdered tin and iron filings and cowhage, act as mechanical agents, by irritating the worms; others have a specific action upon worms, as male fern, kousso, santonin, &c.; others, again, owe their power to their action as purgatives, as calomel, gamboge, jalap, &c. See WORMS.

=VERMIL′ION.= Syn. FACTITIOUS CINNABAR, RED SULPHIDE OF MERCURY, RED SULPHURET OF MERCURY. This article may be prepared both in the moist and dry way; that of commerce is almost entirely obtained by the latter.

Prep. 1. By sublimation. Take of pure mercury, 202 parts; pure sulphur, 33 parts; fuse them together by a gentle heat, observing not to allow the mass to take fire; when fused, cover over the vessel, and, when the whole has become cold, powder the mass, and sublime it in a closed vessel, so placed in a furnace that the flame may freely circulate and play upon it to about half its height, the heat being at first gradually applied, and afterwards augmented until the lower part of the subliming vessel becomes red hot; the cold sublimate is broken into pieces, ground along with water to a fine powder, elutriated, passed through a sieve, and dried. Prod. Fully 112% of the weight of the mercury employed.

2. In the humid way. (Brunner.) Take of pure quicksilver, 300 parts; pure sublimed sulphur, 114 parts; triturate them together for several hours, until a perfect ‘ethiops’ is formed, add gradually of caustic potassa, 75 parts, (dissolved in) water, 450 parts; continue the trituration for some time longer, then gently heat the mixture in an iron vessel, at first constantly stirring, but afterwards only from time to time, observing to keep the beat at about 113°, or, at all events, under 122° Fahr., and to add fresh water, to compensate for the portion evaporated. When the colour begins to redden, great caution is requisite to preserve the mixture at the lower temperature, and to keep the sulphuret of mercury perfectly pulverulent; as soon as the colour becomes nearly ‘fine,’ the process must be conducted with increased caution, and at a lower heat for some hours, or until a rich colour is produced, when the newly-formed vermilion must be elutriated with water, to separate any particles of metallic mercury, and carefully dried. Prod. 332 parts of vermilion, equal in brilliancy to the finest Chinese.

Obs. It has been said that the rich tone of Chinese vermilion may be imitated by adding to the materials 1% of sulphuret of antimony, and by digesting the ground sublimate, first in a solution or sulphuret of potassium, and next in diluted hydrochloric acid, after which it must be well edulcorated with water, and dried. Our own belief is, that the finer qualities of vermilion owe their superiority of shade more to the care bestowed on their sublimation, and the extent to which their division is carried, than to anything else.

Vermilion is a beautiful and permanent red pigment, and works and covers well both in oil and water.

=VERMIN.= This term has rather a large application, since, although it is generally understood to be applied to rats, mice, and certain parasitic insects infesting the dwellings and sometimes the bodies of men, it is extended by the farmer, the gardener, and the breeder of game, to those creatures from the depredations of which these three classes suffer pecuniary loss. Hence it embraces not only foxes and polecats, but weasels, stoats, hedgehogs, owls, hawks, kites, carrion crows, magpies, wood-pigeons, hares, rabbits, rooks, moles, and small birds.

Whilst the attempted partial destruction of any of the classes of animals or birds above specified may be regarded as of doubtful value, there can be no question about the practice when it is carried to the verge of extermination.

In this latter case the balance of nature is interfered with, and the system of checks which she has established for the prevention of the undue preponderance of one tribe of the animal kingdom over the other being interfered with, the result will be the undue propagation of particular species inimical to the operations of the husbandman, &c.

As illustrating this, we may mention the destruction to various crops in France caused some years ago by the ravages of certain grubs and insects, the unusual increase in the numbers of which was clearly traced to the foolish practice, amongst French farmers, of shooting all the small birds. See BUG, LOUSE, RATS.

=VERT′IGO.= Dizziness and swimming of the head. In its more serious forms there is more or less mental confusion, the objects around the patient appear in motion, the ears are oppressed with strange sounds, and visible illusions are experienced, whether the eyes be closed or open, and in darkness as well as in the light. The causes are fulness of the vessels of the head, nervous derangement, general debility, hæmorrhage, the use of narcotics, an overloaded stomach, and, in some cases, an empty one. It is also frequently symptomatic of fevers and inflammations, and of a condition threatening apoplexy. The treatment must be varied, according to the cause and the peculiar habit or condition of the patient.

=VES′ICANTS.= Syn. EPISPASTICS; EPISPASTICA, VESICANTIA, L. Substances which vesicate or raise blisters. Among these are the cantharis or blistering fly, mezereon, croton oil, boiling water, &c.; the first only of which is now in common use in England.

“It is a principle sufficiently established with regard to the living system, that, where a morbid action exists, it may often be removed by inducing an action of a different kind, in the same or a neighbouring part. On this principle is explained the utility of blisters in local inflammation and spasmodic action, and it regulates their application in pneumonia, gastritis, hepatitis, phrenitis, angina, rheumatism, colic, and spasmodic affections of the stomach——diseases in which they are employed with the most marked advantage. A similar principle exists with respect to pain; exciting one pain often relieves another. Hence blisters often give relief in toothache, and some other painful affections. Lastly, blisters, by their operation, communicate a stimulus to the whole system, and raise the vigour of the circulation. Hence, in part, their utility in fevers of the typhoid kind, though in such cases they are used with still more advantage to obviate or remove local inflammation.” (‘Med. Lex.’)

Blisters are commonly prepared with cantharides plaster, or with some other preparation of cantharides; and, in the former case, are usually lightly covered with the powdered fly. In order to prevent the action of the cantharides upon the mucous membrane of the bladder, blistering plasters are often sprinkled with a little powdered camphor, or, better still, are moistened with camphorated ether, which leaves a thin layer of camphor. In all these cases the layer should not be too thick, for in that case the plaster would not take effect.

When it is not wished to maintain a discharge from the blistered part, it is sufficient to make a puncture in the vesicle, to let out the fluid; but when the case requires the blister to be ‘kept open,’ as it is called, the whole of the detached cuticle is carefully removed with a pair of scissors, and the part is dressed with either the ointment of cantharides or of savine, at first more or less diluted with lard, or simple ointment, with an occasional dressing of resin cerate. According to Mr Crowther, the blistered surface is best kept clean by daily fomentation with warm water.

Of late years, to obviate the unpleasant effects occasionally arising from the common blister, various compounds having cantharides for their base have been brought before the public. Of these, the vesicating collodion noticed under COLLODION is the most convenient and effective. The following also deserve notice:——

1. Take of cantharides, in fine powder, 2 parts; spermaceti, 2 parts; olive oil, 4 parts; white wax, 8 parts; water, 10 parts; simmer, with constant agitation, for 2 hours, strain through flannel, separate the plaster from the water, gently remelt it with common turpentine, 1 part, and spread the mass whilst still fluid. This nearly resembles the form recommended by MM. Henry and Guibourt.

2. (P. Cod.) Distil off the ether from a concentrated ethereal tincture of cantharides, melt the oily residue with twice its weight of white wax, and spread the mixture on thin oiled silk, or on cloth, prepared with wax plaster.

3. (Oettinger.) Cantharidal ether (prepared from cantharides, l part; ether 2 parts), and sulphuric ether, of each 10 dr.; turpentine and black resin, of each 2-1/2 dr.; mix, dissolve, and apply it to the surface of stretched silk or taffeta which has been previously prepared with two coatings of a solution of isinglass.

4. (CHARTA EPISPASTICA, B. P.). Digest 4 oz. of white wax, 1-1/2 oz. spermaceti, 2 oz. fluid of olive oil, 3 oz. of resin, 1 oz. of cantharides in powder, and distilled water 6 oz., in a water bath for two hours, stirring constantly, strain, and separate the plaster from the watery liquid. Mix 1/4 oz. fl. of Canada balsam with the plaster, melted in a shallow vessel, and pass strips of paper over the hot liquid, so that one surface of the paper shall receive a thin coating of plaster. It may be convenient to employ paper, ruled in square inches.

5. (CHARTA SINAPIS, B. P.) Black mustard seeds, in powder, 1 oz.; solution of gutta percha, 2 oz., or q. s. Mix so as to make a semi-fluid, and having poured this into a shallow flat-bottom vessel, such as a dinner plate, pass strips of cartridge paper ever its surface, so that one side of the paper shall receive a thin coating of the mixture. Then lay the paper on a table, with the coated side upwards, and let it remain exposed to the air until the coating has hardened. Before being applied let the mustard paper be immersed for a few seconds in tepid water.

6. (VESICATING SPARADRAP, P. Cod.) Gum elini, 1 oz.; olive oil, 1/2 oz.; basilicon ointment, 2-1/4 oz.; resin, 1 oz.; yellow wax, 3-3/4 oz.; cantharides, in fine powder, 4-1/4 oz. Melt the first five substances together, and stir in the cantharides; when sufficiently cold, and well mixed, spread on waxed strips of linen.

Obs. The above compounds are spread on leather, linen, paper, silk, oiled silk, taffeta, &c., and then form the numerous compounds vended under the names of——blistering tissue, rannus vesicatorius, papier epispastique, sparadrapum vesicatorium, taffetas vesicans, tela vesicatoria, &c.

Acetic extract of cantharides, croton oil, or extract of mezereon, is sometimes substituted for the ethereal extract ordered in the above formulæ.

The ‘papier epispastique’ of Vée is prepared of three strengths, which are respectively distinguished by the colours white, green, and red. The composition is made by boiling powdered cantharides for an hour with water, lard, and green ointment, or with lard coloured with alkanet root, adding white wax to the strained fats, and spreading the mixture whilst fluid:——No. 1 is made with 10 oz. of cantharides to 4 lbs. of lard; No. 2 of 1 lb. of cantharides to 8 lbs. of green ointment; and No. 3, of 1-1/2 lb. of flies to 8 lbs. of reddened lard. To each are added 2 lbs. of white wax. (Dorvault.)

The magistral blister of Valleix is a revival of the vesicating epithem. See BLISTER, CANTHARIDES, COLLODION, &c., and below.

=VESICA′TION.= The formation of a blister is a vital process, and its success may be taken as a proof of the presence of life. Hence a French physician, Dr Mandl, has suggested such a stimulation of the skin as would ordinarily cause a blister as a test of life, in those cases of long-continued trance which we occasionally hear of, where all the functions of life seem to be extinct. Dr Mandl’s plan is to apply a stick of lunar caustic. The application of a little strong vinegar of cantharides, or other cantharidal blister, of the size of a sixpenny piece, or of two or three spoonfuls of boiling water by means of a bent tube of like diameter, is however, more certain and satisfactory.

=VESICA′TORIN.= Syn. CANTHARIDIN, CANTHARIDINA, CANTHARIDES CAMPHOR. The blistering principle of Spanish flies, discovered by M. Robiquet.

Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) Exhaust powdered cantharides with concentrated alcohol by percolation; distil off the spirit from the filtered tincture, and leave the residuum to deposit crystals; these may be purified by dissolving them in boiling alcohol, digestion with animal charcoal, filtration whilst hot, and crystallising by refrigeration.

2. (Thierry.) Macerate cantharides (in coarse powder) for several days in ether, in a closed displacement apparatus; then, after the whole of the soluble matter has been extracted by the addition of fresh portions of ether, pour on sufficient water to displace the retained ether; next distil off the ether, dissolve the remaining extract in boiling alcohol, filter while hot, and abandon the filtrate to spontaneous evaporation. Prod. ·5%.

3. Digest the aqueous extract of cantharides in hot alcohol, filter, evaporate to dryness, digest the residuum in sulphuric ether, evaporate, and slightly wash the resulting crystals with cold alcohol.

Prop., &c. Micaceous plates resembling spermaceti; fusible; vaporisable; insoluble in water; soluble in ether, oils, acetic acid, and hot alcohol; powerfully vesicant and poisonous. Its vapour, even at ordinary temperatures, frequently produces temporary blindness. The 1-100th part of a grain, placed on a piece of paper, and applied to the edge of the lower lip, caused small blisters in 15 minutes, which, when rubbed with a little simple cerate, extended over a large surface, and covered both lips with blisters. (Robiquet.)

=VETCH.= The common name of various leguminous plants of the genera Vicia and Ervum, now much cultivated as green fodder for milch cows and working stock. The seeds (tares) were formerly reputed detersive and astringent. Those of “the Canadian variety make good bread.” (Lindley.)

=VET′ERINARY MEDICINES.= The common form of medicine for horses is that popularly known as horse balls. They are usually prepared by mixing the dry ingredients, in the state of powder, with a sufficient quantity of treacle, or syrup bottoms, to give the mass a proper consistence for rolling into balls; adding, when necessary, linseed meal, or any other simple powder, to increase the bulk. The usual practice among the veterinary druggists is to keep a compound known in the trade as ‘ball-mass,’ or ‘common mass,’ ready prepared to give form and bulk to more active ingredients. This is usually made of about equal parts of linseed meal and treacle, together with a little palm or lard, thoroughly incorporated by kneading with the hands; and it is kept in a cool situation, tied over to prevent it drying and hardening. For use, the ball-masses are either rolled or moulded into small cylinders of about 1-1/2 to 1-3/4 oz. in weight; and in size, from 2 to 2-3/4 inches long, and from about 1/2 to 7/8 of an inch in diameter; and they are wrapped in soft paper, which is administered with them. Those for dogs are commonly formed into large boluses or nut-like pieces. The common practice in some houses of adding a little salt of tartar or acetate of potassa to ball-masses kept in stock, for the purpose of preserving them in a soft state, is not to be commended, since these articles decompose many of the saline and mineral compounds which are subsequently added to them.

Medicines for neat cattle are always administered in a liquid form, popularly called drenches. A similar plan is adopted with small cattle, as sheep and goats. For these, however, the quantity should seldom exceed 1/4 pint. In all cases, drenches should be very slowly administered.

The following are a few useful horse-balls:

=Alterative Balls.=——1. Levigated sulphide of antimony, sulphur, and linseed meal, of each 3 oz.; nitre, 4 oz.; palm oil, q. s. to form a mass; for 12 balls. One to be taken every day, or every other day.

2. (Bell.) Sulphide of antimony, nitre, sulphur, and Æthiops mineral, of each 3 oz.; soft soap, 10 oz.; oil of juniper, 1/2 oz.; for 12 balls. As the last.

3. (White.) Sulphide of antimony, caraways, and treacle, of each 1/4 oz.; for one ball. As the last.

CORDIAL BALLS.——1. (Blaine). Coriander seed, caraway, and gentian, of each 8 oz.; ginger, 4 oz.; oil of aniseed, 1/2 oz.; honey or palm oil, q. s. to form a mass. Cordial, warming, and stomachic.——Dose, 1-1/2 oz.

2. (Hill.) Anise, caraway, and cumin seed, of each 4 lbs.; ginger, 2 lbs.; treacle, q. s.; divide into 1-3/4 oz. balls. Prod. 21 lbs.

COUGH BALLS.——1. (Blaine.) Ipecacuanha, 1 dr.; camphor 2 dr.; honey, q. s. to form a ball. One night and morning.

2. (B. Clark.) Emetic tartar and benzoin, of each 2 dr.; squills, 4 dr.; spermaceti and balsam of copaiba, of each 1 oz.; elecampane and sulphur, of each 2 oz.; syrup of poppies, q. s. to mix; for 8 balls. As the last.

DIURETIC BALLS.——1. (Bracy Clark.) Nitre and common turpentine, of each 1 lb.; Castile soap, 1/2 lb.; barley meal, 2-1/2 lbs., or q. s. For common-sized balls.

2. (Morton.) Digitalis 1 oz.; aloes, 2 oz.; liquorice, 13 oz.; honey or Barbadoes tar, q. s. to mix; for 1-oz. balls. One, twice a day with care.

PHYSIC BALLS, PURGING B., CATHARTIC B.——1. Aloes and hard soap, of each 5 oz.; salt of tartar and cayenne pepper, of each 1 oz.; melt together. For 8 balls.

2. (Vet. Coll.)——a. (Common physic ball.) Aloes, 8 oz.; treacle, 3 oz.; olive oil, 1 oz.; melted together.——Dose, 1 to 1-1/2 oz.

b. (Stronger ball.) To each dose of the last, add of croton oil, 4 to 8 drops.

=Obs.= The dose of the above is 1 ball, fasting in the morning, preceded by a bran mash, on one or two successive nights, and followed by gentle exercise until the ball begins to operate.

WORM BALLS.——1. Barbadoes aloes, 5 dr.; calomel and ginger, of each 2 dr.; oil of cloves, 12 drops; treacle, q. s. for a ball.

2. (J. Bell & Co.) Barbadoes aloes, 5 to 8 dr.; powdered tin,Æthiops mineral, and ginger, of each 2 dr.; oils of aniseed and savine, of each 20 drops; treacle, q. s. for a ball.

3. (Clater.) Sulphur and emetic tartar, of each 1 dr.; linseed meal, 4 dr.; palm oil, q. s. to form a ball. One every morning, having prepared the animal with a physic ball containing 1 dr. of calomel. See BALLS; also Tuson’s ‘Veterinary Pharmacopœia.’

=VIN′EGAR.= Syn. ACETUM, L.; VINAIGRE, Fr. Dilute acetic acid, more or less contaminated with gum, sugar and vegetable matter.

1. MALT VINEGAR; ACETUM, BRITISH VINEGAr (B. P.); ACETUM BRITTANNICUM (Ph. L. & E.), L. This is the ordinary coloured vinegar consumed in this country, and is correctly described in the Ph. L. as “impure (dilute) acetic acid, prepared by fermentation from an infusion of malt (malt-wort).”

In the manufacture of MALT VINEGAR a mixture of malt and barley is mashed with hot water, and the resulting wort fermented, as in the common process of brewing. The liquor is then run into barrels, placed endways, tied over with coarse canvas, and arranged side by side in darkened chambers, moderately heated by a stove, and freely supplied with air. Here it remains till the acetous fermentation is nearly complete, which usually occupies several weeks, or even months. The newly formed vinegar is next run off into two large tuns, furnished with false bottoms, on which some ‘rape’ (the pressed cake from making domestic wines, or the green twigs or cuttings of vines) is placed. One of these vessels is wholly, and the other only about 3-4ths, filled. The fermentation recommences, and the acetification proceeds more rapidly in the latter than in the former tun, and the liquor it contains consequently matures the sooner. When fit for sale, a portion of the vinegar is withdrawn from the smaller quantity, and its place supplied with a like quantity from the full tun, and this in its turn is refilled from the barrels before noticed. This process is carried on with a number of tuns at once, which are all worked in pairs.

Prop., &c., The general properties of malt vinegar are well known. Its pleasant and refreshing odour is chiefly derived from acetic acid and acetic ether. Its strength is distinguished by the makers as Nos. 18, 20, 22, and 24; the last of which, also called ‘proof vinegar,’ is the strongest, and usually contains about 4·6% of real or about 5% of glacial acetic acid. Its density varies according to the quantity of foreign matter which it contains. Sp. gr. 1·017 to 1·019——B. P. This vinegar usually contains a small quantity of sulphuric acid. The presence of 1-1000th part of this acid is allowed by law.

Pur. “Brownish; of a peculiar odour. Its sp. gr. is 1·019. 1 fl. oz. of the acid is saturated by 1 dr. of the crystals of carbonate of soda. If, after 10 minims of solution of chloride of barium have been added to the same quantity, more of the chloride be poured into the filtered acid, nothing further is thrown down. The colour is not changed by the addition of hydrosulphuric acid.” (Ph. L.)

2. WINE VINEGAR, FRENCH V.; ACETUM GALLICUM (Ph. E. & D.), A. VINI, L.; VINAIGRE D’ORLEANS, Fr. This is prepared, in wine countries, from grape juice and inferior new wines, worked up with wine-lees, by a nearly similar process to that adopted for malt vinegar. That prepared from white wine (WHITE-WINE VINEGAR) is the most esteemed. It is purer and pleasanter than malt vinegar. Sp. gr. 1·014 to 1·022——Ph. E.; 1·016——Phillips. It usually contains from 5 to 6% of acetic acid. “100 parts of good Orleans vinegar should require 10 parts of dry carbonate of potassa for saturation.” (Soubeiran.)

3. GERMAN, OR QUICK-METHOD OF MAKING VINEGAR; PROCESS OF HAM. This method is based upon the fact, that acetification is the mere oxidation of alcohol in contact with organic matter. Hence, by employing dilute alcohol, or liquors containing it, and by vastly enlarging the surface of the liquid exposed to the air at a proper temperature, we may reduce the period occupied in acetification from weeks to as many hours. In practice this is effected by causing the dilute spirit, previously mixed with 1-1000th part of sugar or malt extract, or the fermented and clarified malt-wort, to slowly trickle down through a mass of beech shavings steeped in vinegar, and contained in a vessel called a vinegar generator (essigbilder), or graduation vessel. This is an oaken tub, narrower at the bottom than at the top, furnished with a loose lid or cover, below which is a perforated shelf (colander or false bottom), having a number of small holes, which are loosely filled with packthread about 6 inches long, and prevented from falling through by a knot at the upper end. The shelf is also perforated with four open glass tubes, as air-vents, each having its ends projecting above and below the shelf. This arrangement is repeated a second and a third time, or even oftener, according to the size of the vessel. The tube or graduator at its lower part is pierced with a horizontal row of eight equidistant round holes, to admit atmospheric air. One inch above the bottom is a syphon-formed discharge pipe, whose upper curvature stands one inch below the level of the air-holes in the side of the tub. The floors or partitions of the tub or generator being covered with birch twigs or beech chips to the depth of a few inches, the alcoholic liquor (first heated to between 75° and 83° Fahr.,) is introduced at the upper part of the apparatus. This immediately commences trickling slowly down through the holes by means of the packthreads, diffuses itself over the chips or twigs forming the respective strata, slowly collects at the bottom of the tub, and then runs off by the syphon-pipe. The air enters by the circumferential holes, circulates freely through the tub, and escapes by the glass tubes. As the acetification proceeds, the temperature of the liquid rises to 100° or 105° Fahr., and remains stationary at that point while the action goes on favorably. The alcoholic solution or wort requires to be passed three or four times through the cask before acetification is complete, which is, in general, effected in from 24 to 36 hours.

Obs. For the production of a superior vinegar by this process, it is necessary that the spirit employed be sufficiently pure not to contaminate the product with its flavour or odour, and that the malt-wort should be fermented and treated with all the care usually employed in the production of beer. The best English manufacturers who have adopted this process are in the habit of filtering or clarifying their fermented wash, and also of storing it away for several months before they subject it to acetification in the graduator. The most favorable temperature for the process is about 90° Fahr., and this should be preserved, as much as possible, by artificial means. Prod. A malt-wort of the sp. gr. 1·072, or, in “technical language, weighing about 26 lbs. per barrel, afforded a vinegar containing 5·4% of pure acetic acid, and a residuary extract of 10 lbs., for 36 galls. The former of these would indicate 35 lbs. of sugar, or 13·7 lbs. per barrel of gravity; whilst the latter shows 3·8 lbs. per barrel; the two united being only 17·5 lbs., instead of 26, the original weight. The loss, therefore, has been 8·5 lbs., or from a sp. gr. of 1·072 to less than 1·050.” (Ure.) Thus, about one third of all the extractive matter of the malt is lost or dissipated during the processes of fermentation and acetification. According to Knapp, a mixture of about 80 galls, of water, 9 galls. of spirit of from 44 to 45% Tralles (18 or 20 u. p.), and 3 galls. of vinegar containing 3·5% of real acid, forming together 92 galls., yield, on an average, an almost equal quantity of vinegar, or about from 90 to 91 galls. of the above stated strength.

4. WOOD VINEGAR. See PYROLIGNEOUS ACID.

5. OTHER VARIETIES OF VINEGAR, of minor importance; chiefly domestic, and commonly ‘worked’ as malt vinegar,——ALE VINEGAR, ALEGAR; ACETUM CEREVISIÆ. From strong pale ale which has soured.——ARGOL VINEGAR; ACETUM EX TARTARO. From white argol or cream of tartar, 1 lb.; dissolved in boiling water, 2 galls.; with the addition, when cold, of proof spirit of whiskey, 3 pints.——CRYSTAL VINEGAR. Pickling vinegar, discoloured with fresh burnt animal charcoal.——CIDER VINEGAR. From cider, worked as malt vinegar.——GERMAN HOUSEHOLD VINEGAR. From soft water, 7-1/2 galls.; honey or brown sugar, 2 lbs.; cream of tartar, 2 oz.; corn spirit or whiskey, 1 gall.——GOOSEBERRY VINEGAR. From bruised gooseberries and brown sugar, of each 1-1/4 lb.; water, 1 gall. Other fruits may be substituted for gooseberries.——PICKLING VINEGAR. The strongest pale malt vinegar——RAISIN VINEGAR. From the marc left from making raisin wine, 1 cwt. to every 12 or 15 galls. of water, along with a little yeast.——SUGAR VINEGAR. From brown sugar, 4 lbs. to each gallon of water.——WHISKEY VINEGAR. From whiskey, 1 pint; sugar, 2 oz.; yeast, a dessert-spoonful.

Pur., Tests, and Assay. These are, for the most part, rather fully noticed under ACETIC ACID, ACETIMETRY, and above. The following additional tests, &c., may, however, be useful:——1. Paper written on or smeared with pure vinegar is not charred when strongly warmed before the fire; if it is, the sample examined contained fully 2% of oil of vitriol.——2. A small porcelain capsule, or china cup, dipped into a solution of sugar in 30 times its weight of water, and then heated to a temperature equal to that of boiling water, is not materially discoloured when a drop of pure vinegar is poured on it; but a spot of an intensely brown or black colour is formed if the sample contains only 1-300th part of sulphuric acid; if it contains only 1-1000th part, the spot is olive green; and if a less quantity, then only of a pale green colour.——3. The heavy white precipitate given with chloride of barium (see above) shows the presence of sulphuric acid; each grain, after being dried, and gently ignited, represents ·344 gr. of dry sulphuric acid. If the precipitate from 1000 gr. of the vinegar exceeds 2-1/2 gr., it contains an illegal quantity of this acid.——4. If a solution of nitrate of silver gives a cloudy white precipitate, hydrochloric acid is present.——5. If, after the addition of 2 or 3 gr. of carbonate of potash, and evaporation of the sample to dryness, the residuum deflagrates when ignited, the sample under examination contains nitric acid.——6. If the vinegar be blackened by sulphuretted hydrogen or hydrosulphuret of ammonia, it contains either lead or copper. If it gives a yellow precipitate with iodide of potassium or chromate of potash, the metal is lead. If ferrocyanide of potassium gives a bronze-brown coloured precipitate, or a little olive oil, when agitated with some of the vinegar, be turned green, the metal is copper.——7. If a small sample, gently evaporated to dryness, leaves more than 1% of residuum, and this has a sweet taste, it is undecomposed sugar. The presence of acrid substances, as capsicum, chillies, grains of paradise, mustard seed, pellitory of Spain, pepper, &c., may be detected by neutralising the acidity of the vinegar with carbonate of soda, when the acrid taste of the adulterant will be readily perceived.

=Vinegar, Anti′hysteric.= Syn. ACETUM ANTI′HYSTERICUM. Prep. Castor, 2 dr.; galbarium, 4 dr.; rue, 1 oz.; vinegar, 3 lbs.; macerate and strain.

=Vinegar, Aromat′ic.= Syn. ACETUM AROMATICUM, L. Prep. 1. Glacial acetic acid, 1 lb.; oil of cloves, 1-1/2 dr.; oil of rosemary, 1 dr.; oils of bergamot, cinnamon, pimento, and lavender, of each 1/2 dr.; neroli, 20 drops; camphor, 2-1/2 oz.; rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz.; mix. Very fine.

2. (Henry’s.) From glacial acetic acid, strongly scented with the oils of cloves, lavender, rosemary, and Calamus aromaticus to which the usual quantity of camphor is added. This is the formula adopted at Apothecaries’ Hall.

3. (Extemporaneous.) From acetate of potash (dry), 1 dr.; oil of vitriol, 20 drops; oils of lemon and cloves, of each 3 drops.

Obs. Aromatic vinegar is used as a pungent and refreshing perfume, in faintness, &c. For this purpose it is generally dropped on a small piece of sponge placed in a stoppered bottle or a vinaigrette. It is highly corrosive, and should therefore be kept from contact with the skin and clothes.

=Vinegar, Camp.= Prep. Take of sliced garlic, 8 oz.; Cayenne pepper, soy, and walnut ketchup, of each 4 oz.; 36 chopped anchovies; vinegar, 1 gall.; powdered cochineal, 1/2 oz.; macerate for a month, strain, and bottle.

=Vinegar, Cam′phorated.=

=Vinegar of Canthar′ides.= Syn. BLISTERING VINEGAR; ACETUM CANTHARIDIS (B. P., Ph., L. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Cantharides, in powder, 2 oz.; acetic acid, 1 pint; macerate, with agitation, for 8 days, then press, and strain.

2. (Ph. E.) Cantharides, 3 oz.; euphorbium, 1/2 oz.; acetic acid, 5 fl. oz.; pyroligneous acid, 15 fl. oz.; macerate a week.

3. (Ph. D.) Spanish flies, 4 oz.; strong acetic acid, 4 fl. oz.; commercial acetic acid (sp. gr. 1·044), 16 fl. oz.; macerate, as before, for 14 days.

4. (B. P.) Cantharides, in powder, 2; glacial acetic acid, 2; acetic acid (28 per cent.), 18, or a sufficiency: add the glacial acetic acid to 13 of acetic acid, and in this mixture digest the cantharides for two hours at a temperature of 200° F.; when cold, place them in a percolator, and when the liquid ceases to drop, pour over the residuum the remaining 5 of acetic acid, and when the percolation is finished, press and make the whole liquid up to 20.

Uses, &c. As a counter-irritant, and to raise blisters. For the last purpose it is applied on a piece of lint, evaporation being prevented with a piece of oiled skin or thin sheet gutta percha. The last is the best, and, indeed, the only effective form; the others being too weak. “If the acetic acid be strong, a blister will be as rapidly raised without the cantharides as with them.” (Dr A. T. Thomson.)

=Vinegar of Capsi′cum.= Syn. ACETUM CAPSICE. Prep. Capsicum, 1 oz.; vinegar, 24 oz. Used as gargle.

=Vinegar of Col′chicum.= Syn. ACETUM COLCHICI (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Dried corms of colchicum or meadow saffron, 3-1/2 dr.; dilute acetic acid, 1 pint; macerate for 3 days, then press out the liquor, and, after defecation, add to the strained liquid proof spirit, 1-1/2 fl. oz.

=Vinegar, Cur′rie.= Prep. From currie powder, 1/2 lb.; vinegar, 1 gall.; infuse for a week. Used as a flavouring. Other like vinegars may be made in the same way.

=Vinegar of Gar′lic.= Syn. ACETUM ALLII. Prep. Fresh garlic, 1 oz.; distilled vinegar, 12 oz.

2. (Ph. E.) Fresh colchicum bulbs (dried), 1 oz.; distilled vinegar, 16 fl. oz.; proof spirit, 1 fl. oz.

3. (Ph. D.) Dried colchicum bulbs, 1 oz.; acetic acid (1·044), 4 fl. oz.; distilled water, 12 fl. oz.; as before, but prolonging the maceration for 7 days.

Obs. Vinegar of colchicum is chiefly used in gout. Dose, 20 drops to 1 fl. dr. The Dublin preparation is about three times as strong as the others, and the dose must therefore be proportionately less.

=Vinegar, Distil′led.= Syn. ACETUM DESTILLATUM (Ph. L. & E., and Ph. D. 1826), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Vinegar, 1 gall.; distil in a sand bath, 7 pints. Sp. gr. 1·0065.

2. (Ph. E.) Vinegar (preferably French), 8 parts; distil over with a gentle heat, 7 parts; and dilute the product, if necessary, with distilled water, until the sp. gr. is 1·005.

Pur., &c. “1 fluid oz. is saturated by 57 gr. of crystallised carbonate of soda.” (Ph. L.) 100 gr. are saturated by 13 gr. of crystallised carbonate of soda. It contains about 4·6% of real acetic acid. If a pewter worm is used, a portion of lead is dissolved, and the product becomes cloudy and poisonous. Distilled vinegar is more agreeable than pure dilute acetic acid of the same strength.

=Vinegar of Fox′glove.= Syn. ACETUM DIGITALIS. (Ph. G.) Prep. Dried foxglove, 1 oz.; vinegar, 9 oz. (by weight); rectified spirit, 1 oz. (by weight). Macerate for 8 days, press and filter.——Dose, 30 minims.

=Vinegar of Lav′ender.= Syn. ACETUM LAVANDULÆ. (P. Cod.) Prep. Digest 1 troy oz. of dried lavender flowers with 12 oz. of vinegar for 10 days. The vinegars of other flowers are made in the same manner.

=Vinegar of Lobelia.= Syn. ACETUM LOBELIÆ. Prep. Lobelia in moderately coarse powder, 4 troy oz. Diluted acetic acid, 2 pints (o. m.). Macerate for 7 days.

=Vinegar, Marseilles.= Syn. VINEGAR OF THE FOUR THIEVES, PROPHYLACTIC VINEGAR; ACETUM PROPHYLACTICUM, A. ANTISEPTICUM, A. THERIACALE, A. QUATUOR FURUM, L.; VINAIGRE DES QUATRE VOLEURS, Fr. Prep. Take of the summits of rosemary and flowers of sage (dried), of each 4 oz.; dried lavender flowers, 2 oz.; cloves, 1 dr.; distilled vinegar, 1 gall.; digest for 7 days, press, and filter. Used as a corrector of bad smells, and formerly as a prophylactic against the plague, and other contagious diseases. It is said to have been a favourite preventive with Cardinal Wolsey, who always carried some with him. The original formula also contained, of garlic, 1/4 oz.; fresh rue, 1-1/2 oz.; and camphor, dissolved in spirit, 1 oz.

=Vinegar of Mus′tard.= Syn. ACETUM SINAPIS (Beral). Prep. Mustard, 1 oz.; vinegar, 12 oz.; distil 8 oz. For outward use, as a counter-irritant.

=Vinegar of O′′pium.= Syn. ACETUM OPII (Ph. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Opium, sliced, 4 oz.; distilled vinegar, 16 fl. oz.; macerate for 7 days, press, and filter.——Dose, 5 to 20 drops.

2. (Ph. D.) Opium, in coarse powder, 1-1/2 oz.; dilute acetic acid, 1 pint; macerate for 7 days.——Dose, 10 or 12 to 60 drops.

Obs. These were intended to supersede the old ‘black drop,’ which they closely resemble in their action.

=Vinegar, Rasp′berry.= Syn. ACETUM RUBI IDÆI, L.; VINAIGRE FRAMBOISE, Fr. Prep. 1. Bruised ripe raspberries and white wine vinegar, of each 3 pints; macerate for 3 days, press, strain, and to each pint add of white sugar, 1 lb.; boil, skim, cool, and at once bottle. Some persons add 2 fl. oz. of brandy to each pint.

2. (P. Cod.) Fresh raspberries, picked from their calices, 3 lbs.; (1 lb.——Ph. Bor.); good vinegar, 2 lbs.; macerate, in glass, for a fortnight, then strain, without pressure.

Obs. In a similar manner may be made cherry vinegar, strawberry vinegar, and the vinegars of all other like fruits.

=Vinegar of Rue.= Syn. ACETUM RUTÆ. (Ed. Ph. 1744). Prep. Rue, 1 lb. troy; vinegar, 1 gall.

=Vinegar of Squills.= Syn. ACETUM SCILLÆ (Ph. L. E. & D.), ACEUM SCILLITICUM, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Take of squills, recently dried and bruised, 2-1/2 oz.; dilute acetic acid, 1 pint; macerate with a gentle heat in a covered vessel for 3 days, then press out the liquor, and, after defecation, add to the strained liquid, proof spirit, 1-1/2 fl. oz. The Edinburgh and Dublin Colleges direct cold maceration for 7 days in a glass vessel, and the Dublin omits the spirit.

2. (Wholesale.) From squills, 7 lbs.; distilled vinegar, 6 galls.; macerate in the cold for 10 days, press, and filter. Expectorant and diuretic.——Dose, 1/2 to 1-1/2 fl. dr.; in chronic pulmonary affections, dropsies, &c.

=Vinegars (Cul′inary).= Prep. 1. BLACK PEPPER VINEGAR, CAPER V., CAPSICUM V., CELERY-SEED V., CHILLIE V., CRESS-SEED V., GARLIC V., GINGER V., HORSERADISH V., ONION V., RED-ROSE V., SEVILLE-ORANGE-PEEL V., SHALLOT V., TRUFFLE V., WHITE PEPPER V., with several others of a like kind, are made by steeping about an oz. of the respective articles in a pint of good vinegar for 14 days, and straining.

2. BASIL V., BURNET V., CELERY V., CHERVILLE V., ELDER-FLOWER V., GREEN-MINT V., TARRAGON V., with several others from like substances, are prepared from 2 to 3 oz. of the leaves to each pint of vinegar; the whole being frequently shaken for 14 days, then strained and bottled. They are used in cookery. The culinary vinegars may also be prepared in the same manner as the ‘culinary spirits’ and ‘tinctures,’ by simply substituting strong pickling vinegar for the spirit.

=Vinegars (Perfumed).= Syn. ACETA ODORIFERA, L. Prep. From the dried flowers, 1 to 2 oz., or the fresh flowers, 2 to 4 oz.; strongest distilled vinegar, 1 pint; digest for a week, strain with pressure, and repeat the process with fresh flowers if necessary. They may also be made by adding 15 to 20 drops, or q. s., of the respective essential oils to the vinegar. In a similar way are prepared the vinegars of clove-gilly flowers, elder flowers, lavender f. (vinaigre distillé de lavande), musk roses, orange flowers (fresh), Provins roses, red roses (vinaigre de rose; acetum rosatum), rosemary flowers (vinaigre de rosmarin; acetum anthosatum), tarragon flowers, &c. &c. Another excellent plan is to add 1 fl. oz. of glacial acetic acid to each pint of the respective perfumed spirits. This answers admirably for acetic eau de Cologne and like perfumes.

=VI′NOUS FERMENTATION.= Syn. ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION. The peculiar change by which sugar, in solution, is converted into carbonic acid, which is eliminated, and into alcohol, which remains in solution in the fermented liquor.

The presence of a ‘ferment’ is essential to excite the vinous fermentation, as a solution of absolutely pure sugar remains unaltered, even though exposed to the conditions most favourable to its accession. In the juices of the sweet fruits, and in those vegetable solutions that spontaneously run into a state of fermentation, the ferment is supplied by nature, and is intimately associated with the saccharine matter. In the juice of those grapes which produce the more perfect wines, the relative proportions of the exciters of fermentation and the sugar are so accurately apportioned, that the whole of the former are decomposed, and nearly the whole of the latter is converted into alcohol; so that the liquid (wine) is left in a state but little liable to future change. An infusion of malt, however, in which the nitrogenised matters (gluten, vegetable albumen, &c.) are absent, or at least present in too small quantities to vigorously excite the vinous fermentation, undergoes a mixed species of decomposition, with the formation of products widely different from those that result from the true vinous fermentation; or, in other words, the liquid becomes spoiled. But if a ferment (yeast) be added to this infusion of malt under the above circumstances, and in the proper proportion to the sugar present, the true vinous fermentation speedily commences, and the liquid becomes converted into beer. This is what actually takes place in the process of brewing, and the scientific brewer endeavours to employ a proper quantity of ferment to decompose the whole of the saccharine matter of his wort; but, at the same time, as equally endeavours to avoid the use of an excess.

The chief product of the vinous fermentation is alcohol, but there are other substances simultaneously produced, and which remain associated with the fermented liquor. Among the principal of these are œnanthic acid, œnanthic ether, fusel oil (oil of potato spirit, oil of grain), &c.; none of which exist previously to fermentation, and are generally supposed to result from the action of the nitrogenised matters of the solution on the sugar. Under certain circumstances these extraneous products are formed in much larger quantities than under others; and as these substances injure the value of the alcohol with which they are associated, a knowledge of the peculiar circumstances favourable and unfavourable to their production is a desideratum to the brewer and distiller.

According to MM. Colin and Thénard, Frémy, Rousseau, and others, the essential condition of a ferment, to be able to excite the pure vinous fermentation, is to be sufficiently acidulous to act on coloured test-paper; and this acidity should arise from the presence of certain vegetable acids and salts, capable of conversion into carbonic acid and carbonates by their spontaneous decomposition. Those acids and salts which are found to pre-exist in fermentable fruits and liquors, as the tartaric, citric, malic, and lactic acids, and their salts should be chosen for this purpose; preference being given to the bitartrate of potassa, on account of its presence in the grape. The addition of any of these substances to a saccharine solution renders its fermentation both more active and complete. The favorable influence of cream of tartar on fermentation was first pointed out by Thénard and Colin, and the addition of a little of this article has been adopted in practice, with manifest advantage, by the manufacturers of British wine.

There is good reason for supposing that each variety of sugar which is susceptible of the alcoholic fermentation is first converted into grape sugar by contact with the ferment, and that this variety of sugar is alone capable of yielding carbonic acid and alcohol.

The circumstances most favorable to this fermentation are, a certain degree of warmth, a sufficient quantity of active ferment, and its due distribution through the liquor. The temperature of from 68° to 77° Fahr. is usually regarded as the most propitious for the commencement and progress of fermentation; but it has been ably shown by Liebig that, at this temperature, the newly formed alcohol slowly undergoes the ‘acetous fermentation,’ forming vinegar, by which the vinous character of the liquor is lessened. This conversion of alcohol into vinegar proceeds most rapidly at a temperature of 95° Fahr., and gradually becomes more languid, until, at about 46° to 50° Fahr. (8 to 10 Cent.), it ceases altogether, while the tendency of the nitrogenous substances to absorb oxygen at this low temperature is scarcely diminished in a perceptible degree. “It is therefore evident that if wort (or any other saccharine solution) is fermented in wide, open, shallow vessels, as is done in Bavaria, which afford free and unlimited access to the atmospheric oxygen, and this in a situation where the temperature does no exceed 46° to 50° Fahr., a separation of the nitrogenous constituents, i. e. the exciters of acidification, takes place simultaneously on the surface, and within the whole body of the liquid.” (Liebig.) By this method wine or beer is obtained, which is invariably far superior in quality to that fermented in the usual manner. See FERMENTATION.

The symptoms of a perfect fermentation of malt wort, according to the usual English system with top yeast (oberhefe), have been thus described by a well-known practical writer on brewing: 1. A cream-like substance forms round the edges of the gyle tun, which gradually extends itself, and ultimately covers the whole surface of the liquor. 2. A fine curly or cauliflower head in a similar way extends itself over the surface, and indicates to the experienced brewer the probable quality of the fermentation. 3. The ‘stomach,’ or ‘vinous odour,’ is next evolved, and continues to increase with the attenuation of the wort. The peculiar nature of this odour is also an indication of the state of the fermentation.——4. The cauliflower head changes, or rises to a fine ‘rocky’ or ‘yeasty’ head, and ultimately falls down.——5. In this stage the head assumes a peculiar ‘yeasty’ appearance, called by brewers ‘close-yeasty,’ and the gas is evolved in sufficient quantity to blow up little bells or bubbles, which immediately burst, and are followed by others, at intervals depending on the activity and forwardness of the fermentation. These bells should be bright and clear; as, if they appear opaque or dirty, there is something the matter with the wort. (Black.)

It is often of the utmost importance to brewers, wine merchants, sugar refiners, druggists, &c., to be able to lessen the activity of the vinous fermentation, or to stop it altogether, or to prevent its accession to syrups and other saccharine and vegetable solutions. Whatever will still the motion of the molecules of the nitrogenous matter forming the ferment will render them inoperative as exciters of fermentation. Among the simplest means of effecting this object, and such as admit of easy practical application, may be mentioned exposure to either cold or heat. At a temperature below about 50° Fahr., the acetous fermentation is suspended, and the alcoholic fermentation proceeds with diminished activity as the temperature falls, until at about 38° Fahr. it ceases altogether. In like manner, the rapid increase of the temperature of a fermenting liquid arrests its fermentation, and is preferable to the action of cold, as it is of easier application, and perfectly precipitates the ferment in an inert state. For this purpose a heat of about 180° Fahr. is sufficient: but even that of boiling water may be employed with advantage. In practice fluids are commonly raised to their boiling point for this purpose, or they are submitted to the heat of a water bath (207-1/2° Fahr.). In this way the fermentation of syrups and vegetable solutions and juices is commonly arrested in the pharmaceutical laboratory.

Among substances that may be added to liquids to arrest fermentation the most active are——the volatile oil of mustard, coarsely powdered mustard seed, or pure flour of mustard, sulphurous acid or the fumes of burning sulphur, sulphuric acid, sulphite of lime, tincture of catechu, strong spirit, strong acetic acid, chlorate of potassa, sugar of milk, bruised horseradish, garlic, and cloves, and their essential oils, and all the other volatile oils that contain sulphur, and most of the salts that readily part with their oxygen. These substances arrest fermentation by rendering the yeast inoperative, and they possess this power nearly in the order in which they stand above. In practice, mustard, the fumes of burning sulphur, sulphite of lime, and chlorate of potassa, are those most adapted for beer, cider, wines, syrups, &c.; but some of the others are occasionally used, though less active. For arresting or preventing the fermentation of the vegetable juices and solutions, and the medicated syrups employed in pharmacy, mustard seed, either alone or combined with a little bruised cloves, may be safely used, as the addition of acids or salts would lead to the decomposition of their active principles. For this reason such liquids should be kept in a sufficiently low temperature to prevent fermentation; and should they pass into that state it should be preferably arrested by the application of heat or cold, as above explained. Sugar of milk is also very effective for certain syrups, if not all of them.

To prevent, or rather to lessen, the production of fusel oil, it has been proposed to add a certain quantity of tartaric acid or bitartrate of potassa to the wort, or to arrest the fermentative process somewhat before the liquid has reached its utmost degree of attenuation. The best means of depriving the spirit of this and other substances of a similar nature is to largely dilute it with water, and to redistil it at a gentle heat. Agitation with olive oil, decantation, dilution with a large quantity of water, and redistillation, have also been recommended. An excellent method is filtration through newly burnt and coarsely powdered charcoal. This plan succeeds perfectly with moderately diluted spirit. On the Continent, the addition of about 10% of common vinegar, and a very little sulphuric acid, followed by agitation, repose for a few days, and redistillation is a favourite method. A solution of chloride of lime is also employed for the same purpose, and in the same way. In both these cases a species of ether is formed, which possesses a very agreeable odour. In the first, acetate of oxide of amyl (essence of jargonelle) is produced; and in the other, chloride of amyl, which also possesses a pleasant ethereal smell and taste. The affinity of the hydrated oxide of amyl (fusel oil) for acetic acid is so great, that they readily unite without the intervention of a mineral acid. (Doebereiner). Thus, the oil of vitriol mentioned above, though always used in practice, might be omitted without any disadvantage.

According to Messrs Bowerbank, the distillers quoted by Dr Pereira, 500 galls. of corn-spirit yield about one gall. of corn-spirit oil. See ACETIFICATION, ALCOHOL, BREWING, DISTILLATION, FERMENTATION, FUSEL OIL, SPIRIT, VINEGAR, VISCOUS FERMENTATION, YEAST, &c.

=VI′OLET.= Syn. PURPLE VIOLET, SWEET V.; VIOLA (Ph. L. & E.), L. “The recent petals of Viola odorata, Linn.” (Ph. L.) It is chiefly used on account of its colour. See SYRUP.

=VIOLET DYE.= Violet, like purple, is produced by a mixture of red and blue colouring matter, applied either together or in succession. The ‘aniline colours’ are now almost exclusively used for obtaining violet on silk and wool (see ANILINE, PURPLE, and TAR COLOURS). With the old dye stuffs, violet may thus be obtained:——A good violet may be given to silk or wool by passing it first through a solution of verdigris, then through a decoction of logwood, and, lastly, through alum water. A fast violet may be given by first dyeing the goods a crimson with cochineal, without alum or tartar, and, after rinsing, passing them through the indigo vat.——Linens and cottons are first galled with about 18% of gall-nuts, next passed through a mixed mordant of alum, iron liquor, and sulphate of copper, working them well, then through a madder bath made with an equal weight of root, and, lastly, brightened with soap or soda. Another good method is to pass cloth, previously dyed Turkey red, through the blue vat. Wool, silk, cotton, or linen, mordanted with alum and dyed in a logwood bath, or a mixed bath of archil and Brazil, takes a pretty, but false, violet.

=VIS′COUS FERMENTATION.= Syn. MUCILAGINOUS FERMENTATION, MUCOUS F. The peculiar change by which sugar, in solution, is converted into gummy matters, and other products, instead of into alcohol.

When the expressed juice of the beet is exposed to a temperature of 90° to 100° Fahr., for a considerable time, the sugar it contains suffers this peculiar kind of fermentation. Gases are evolved which are rich in hydrogen, instead of being exclusively carbonic acid, and when the sugar has, for the most part, disappeared, mere traces of alcohol are found in the liquid, but, in place of that substance, a quantity of lactic acid, mannite, and a mucilaginous substance, resembling gum Arabic, and said to be identical with gum in composition. By boiling yeast or the gluten of wheat in water, dissolving sugar in the filtered solution, and exposing it to a tolerably high temperature, the viscous fermentation is set up, and a large quantity of the gummy principle generated, along with a ferment of a globular texture, like that of yeast, but which is capable of producing only the viscous fermentation, in saccharine solutions.

The peculiar cloudy, stringy, oily appearance of wine and beer, called by the French ‘graisse,’ and the English ‘ropiness,’ depends on the accession of the viscous fermentation. The mineral acids and astringent substances, especially the sulphuric and sulphurous acids, and tannin, precipitate the viscous ferment, and are, hence, the best cures for this malady of fermented liquors. It is the large amount of tannic acid in the red wines and well-hopped beer which is the cause of their never being attacked with ‘graisse,’ or ‘ropiness.’ See VINOUS FERMENTATION, WINES, &c.

=VI′′SION.= The following means of preserving and restoring the sight may be appropriately inserted here:——

For NEAR-SIGHTEDNESS.——Close the eyes and press the fingers very gently, from the nose outward, across the eyes. This flattens the pupil, and thus lengthens or extends the angle of vision. This should be done several times a day, or at least always after washing the face, until shortsightedness is overcome.

For LOSS OF SIGHT BY AGE, such as require magnifying glasses, pass the fingers or towel from the outer corners of the eyes inwardly, above and below the eyeballs, pressing very gently against them. This rounds them up, and preserves or restores the sight.

It is said that many persons, by this last means, have preserved their sight so as to read fine print at 80 years of age; others, whose sight has been impaired by age, by carefully manipulating the eyes with their fingers, from their external angles inwardly, have restored their sight, and been able to dispense with glasses, and have since preserved it by a continuance of the practice. To be successful, or safe, these practices must be applied with great gentleness and caution. Many persons seriously damage their eyes by forcibly rubbing them when drowsy, especially on awaking in the morning.

The ‘Lancet’ remarks, that “there is good reason to believe that chicory (the coffee of the Londoners), from its narcotic character, exerts an injurious effect on the nervous system. So convinced of this is Professor Beer, of Vienna, a most celebrated German oculist, that he has enumerated chicoried coffee among the causes of amaurotic blindness.”

To strengthen the eyes, to relieve them when swollen or congested, and to remove chronic ophthalmia, purulent discharges, &c., nothing is equal to frequently bathing them with water, at first tepid, but afterwards lowered in temperature to absolute coldness.

=VIT′RIOL.= A common name for sulphuric acid and for several of its salts. (See below.)

=Vitriol, Blue.= Syn. ROMAN VITRIOL. Commercial sulphate of copper.

=Vitriol, Green.= Commercial sulphate of iron.

=Vitriol, White.= Commercial sulphate of zinc.

=VITTIE VAYR.= Syn. VETIVER. The Tamool name of the odorous and fibrous roots of the Andropogon muricatus sold by the perfumers.

=VOLTA′IC ELECTRICITY.= Syn. GALVANIC E., GALVANISM, VOLTAISM. That branch of electrical science which has reference to the phenomena attendant on the development of electricity by chemical action. Electricity thus developed may be made to show itself in the ‘static’ condition, so as to produce the effects of frictional electricity, but it is much more easily obtained in the ‘dynamic’ condition——in other words, as a ‘voltaic current’——when it is especially remarkable for its chemical and magnetic effects. If a plate of zinc and a plate of platinum be immersed in dilute sulphuric acid, and connected outside the liquid by a wire, a current of electricity will immediately be set up, and will continue as long as the conducting circuit is complete and the action of the acid on the zinc goes on. The current of ‘positive’ electricity passes from the zinc, through the liquid, to the platinum, and thence through the wire to the zinc. The arrangement of two dissimilar metals immersed in a liquid which acts upon one of them is called a voltaic couple. By uniting a number of couples together in regular order, a voltaic pile or battery is formed.

The older forms of the voltaic battery, viz., VOLTA’S PILE, CRUIKSHANK’S TROUGH, and WOLLASTON’S BATTERY, are now but little used. They all consist of a series of couples of zinc and copper, excited by an acid liquid, generally a mixture of water with 1/40th of its bulk of sulphuric acid, and 1/60th of nitric acid.

One of the most useful forms of the voltaic battery is that proposed by the late Prof. Daniell, and commonly known by his name. Its peculiar advantages arise from its action continuing without interruption for a long time; hence the name of ‘constant battery’ that has been applied to it. The foregoing figure will explain the construction of each couple.

One of these couples is sufficient for electro-typing; six of them form a circle of considerable power, and about 20 produce one sufficiently strong for most experiments of demonstration and research.

In arranging these, as well as other batteries, when intensity, or travelling power, is desired, the metallic communication is made between the opposite metals (the zinc of one couple being united with the copper of another); but when simple quantity without intensity is required, the zinc of one battery is united with the zinc of the other, and the copper of the one with the copper of the other——an effect which is equally attainable with a single battery of enlarged dimensions.

Another useful apparatus is GROVE’S BATTERY, in which the positive metal consists of amalgamated zinc immersed in sulphuric acid, diluted with 10 times its bulk of water; and the negative metal of platinum immersed in strong nitric acid. The two liquids are kept separate by the use of porous vessels, as in ‘Daniell’s battery.’ This is an extremely powerful arrangement, but not so constant as Daniell’s, owing to the reduction of the nitric acid to lower oxides of nitrogen. After this battery has been in action for about an hour, copious red nitrous fumes are given off, which cause great annoyance.

In place of platinum, compact charcoal or coke, prepared by a rather troublesome process, may be used, and the arrangement then constitutes a BUNSEN’S BATTERY. Other substitutes for the costly platinum have been proposed, as lead coated with gold or platinum, and iron rendered ‘passive’ by immersion in strong nitric acid. Callan has obtained very good results with amalgamated zinc and cast iron immersed in diluted sulphuric acid, without the use of nitric acid (MAYNOOTH BATTERY).

In SMEE’S BATTERY, which is much used in the arts, pairs of amalgamated zinc and platinised silver (or platinised platinum) are immersed in dilute sulphuric acid (1 part acid to 7 parts water). The plates of zinc are usually bent double, and the platinised plates interposed between the two surfaces formed by the bend. See PLATINISING (p. 1337).

In every voltaic combination the passage of the electricity (i. e. the positive modification of the force) in the liquid is from the active element to the inactive element; in the case of a simple zinc-and-copper couple, for instance, it is from the zinc to the copper. If this simple fact be borne in mind, it will decide in every case the question which confuses so many, namely, which is the positive, and which the negative end of a battery? The positive is the end where the electricity leaves the battery; the negative where it re-enters it. For further information connected with the subject of voltaic electricity, see articles on ELECTRICITY, ELECTROLYSIS, ELECTROTYPE, ETCHING, &c.

=VOLUME′TRIC ANALYSIS.= Quantitative chemical analysis by measure. This method of analysis “consists in submitting the substance to be estimated to certain characteristic reactions, employing for such reactions liquids of known strength, and from the quantity of the liquid employed determining the weight of the substance to be estimated by means of the known laws of equivalence.” As an example of this method we give the following from the Introduction in Mr Sutton’s excellent ‘Handbook of Volumetric Analysis,’——“Suppose that it is desirable to know the quantity of pure silver contained in a shilling. The coin is first dissolved in nitric acid, by which means a bluish solution, containing silver, copper, and probably other metals, is obtained. It is a known fact that chlorine combines with silver in the presence of other metals to form chloride of silver, which is insoluble in nitric acid. The proportions in which the combination takes place are 35·46, of chlorine to every 108 of silver; consequently, if a standard solution of pure chloride of sodium is prepared by dissolving 58·46 grains of the salt (i. e. 1 equiv. sodium = 23, 1 eq. chlorine = 35·46 = 1 eq. chloride of sodium 58·46) in so much distilled water as will make up exactly 1000 grains by measure; every single grain of this solution will combine with ·108 grain of pure silver to form chloride of silver, which precipitates to the bottom of the vessel in which the mixture is made. In the process of adding the salt solution to the silver, drop by drop, a point is at last reached when the precipitate ceases to form. Here the process must stop. On looking carefully at the graduated vessel from which the standard solution has been used, the operator sees at once the number of grains which have been necessary to produce the complete decomposition. For example, suppose the quantity used was 520 grains; all that is necessary to be done is to multiply ·108 grain by 520, which shows the amount of pure silver present to be 56·16 grains.” The volumetric method is much less troublesome than the ordinary method of analysis (by separating the constituents of a mixture and weighing them), and is admirably adapted for the examination of substances used in arts and manufactures. Most of the processes described under ACIDIMETRY and ALKALIMETRY are examples of this method. See those articles, also EQUIVALENTS, TEST SOLUTIONS, &c.

=WADE’S DROPS.= Compound tincture of benzoin.

=WA′FER PAPER.= See WAFERS, in Cookery (below).

=WA′FERS.= Thin adhesive discs, used for securing letters or sticking papers together.

Prep. 1. (WAFERS, FLOUR W.) The finest; wheaten flour is mixed with water, either pure or coloured, to a smooth pap or batter, which, after being passed through a sieve, to remove clots or lumps, is poured into the ‘wafer-irons’ (previously warmed and greased with butter or olive oil), and in this state exposed to the heat of a clear charcoal fire; the whole is then allowed to cool, when the irons are opened, and the thin cake, which has become hard and brittle, is cut into wafers by mean of sharp annular steel punches made exclusively for the purpose.

2. (GELATINE WAFERS, TRANSPARENT W.) Good gelatine or glue is dissolved, by the heat of a water bath, in just sufficient water to form a consistent mass on cooling; it is then poured, whilst hot, upon the surface of a warm plate or mirror glass, slightly oiled, and surrounded with a border of card paper (laid flat); a similar plate, also warmed and oiled, is next laid upon the gelatine, and the two plates pressed into as close contact as is permitted by the card paper; when quite cold the thin sheet of gelatine is removed, and cut into wafers with punches, as before. 1 to 2 oz. of sugar is commonly added to each lb. of gelatine.

3. (MEDALLION WAFERS.) A sheet of metal or glass, having designs sunk in it corresponding to the raised part of seals, being provided, the hollows are filled up with a mixture formed of any appropriate coloured powder, made into a paste with gum water or size, leaving the flat part clear; melted coloured glue is then poured on the plate, and the process is otherwise conducted as before. For use, the paper is wetted where the wafer is to be applied.

Obs. Care must be taken that no poisonous colours be employed. For gelatine wafers, transparent colours only can be used. Those noticed under LIQUEURS and STAINS (Confectioner’s) are appropriate. To these may be added plumbago, sesquioxide of iron (crocus martis), smalts, levigated vegetable charcoal, and vermilion.

=Wafers.= (In Cookery.) Prep. Make fine flour, dried and sifted, into a smooth thin batter with good milk, or a little cream-and-water; add about as much white wine as will make it thick enough for pancakes, sweeten it with a little loaf sugar, and flavour it with powdered cinnamon. When thus prepared have the wafer-irons made ready, by being heated over a charcoal fire; rub them with a piece of linen cloth dipped in butter; then pour a spoonful of the batter upon them, and close them almost immediately; turn them upon the fire, and pare the edges with a knife, if any of the batter oozes out. A short time will bake them, when the irons are perfectly heated. The wafers must be curled round whilst warm when they are for ornaments. ‘Wafer paper’ is prepared in a similar way to the above; but when intended to be kept for some time, the milk must be omitted. Used by cooks, &c.; and, recently, as an envelope for nauseous medicines.

=Wafers, Da Silva’s.= These nostrums were introduced to the public some time ago, as though they were prepared from the formulæ of a celebrated physician whose name was affixed to them.[256] There are three varieties, which are said to be prepared as follows:

[Footnote 256: For an exposition of the Da Silva quackery, with Or Locock’s letter on the subject, see the ‘Anat. of Quackery,’ or the ‘Med. Cir.,’ ii, 106-126.]

1. APERIENT OR ANTIBILIOUS WAFERS. From sugar and extract of liquorice (Spanish juice), equal parts; senna and jalap, of each in fine powder, about 1/2 dr. to every oz. of sugar employed; made into a mass with a concentrated infusion of senna, and divided into 12-gr. lozenges or squares with the corners rounded off.

2. FEMALE WAFERS. From sugar, horehound candy (or honey), and aperient wafer mass, equal parts; beaten to a proper consistence with weak gum water, to which a little orange-flower water has been added, and divided into 8 gr. tabellæ, as before.

3. PULMONIC WAFERS. From lump sugar and starch, of each in powder, 2 parts; powdered gum, 1 part; made into a lozenge-mass with vinegar of squills, oxymel of squills, and ipecacuanha wine, equal parts, gently evaporated to 1-6th their weight, with the addition of lactucarium in the proportion of 20 to 30 gr. to every oz. of the dry powders, the mass being divided into half-inch squares, weighing about 7-1/2 gr. each (when dry), as before.

=WAL′NUT.= The Juglans regia, a tree of the natural order Juglandaceæ. The sap yields sugar; the fruit is the walnut; the kernels of the latter are eaten and pressed for their oil; the peel or husks are used for ‘rooting’ or dyeing brown; the unripe fruit is pickled, and its juice is used as a hair dye; the leaves are reputed diaphoretic and antisyphilitic; and the wood is esteemed for cabinet work.

=WARBURG’S FEVER DROPS.= See TINCTURE, WARBURG’S FEVER.

=WARD’S RED DROP.= A strong solution of emetic tartar in wine.

=WARTS.= Syn. VERRUCÆ, L. These chiefly attack the hands, and may be removed by the daily use of a little nitrate of silver, nitric acid, or aromatic vinegar, as directed under CORNS. The first of the above applications produces a black stain, and the second a yellow one; both of which, however, wear off after the lapse of some days. Acetic acid scarcely discolours the skin. Erasmus Wilson, the eminent surgeon and talented author of several works on the skin, mentions the case of a gentleman who removed an entire crop of warts from his knuckles and fingers by subjecting them to a succession of sparks from one of the poles of an electrical machine. “He was in the habit, as is usual, of trying the amount of electric fluid collected in his machine by placing his knuckle near the brass knob, and receiving a spark. Observing that an odd sensation was produced whenever the spark struck a wart, he was tempted for amusement to give them a round of discharges. When his attention was next directed to his hands he found, to his surprise and satisfaction, that all the warts had disappeared.” Dr Peez, of Wiesbaden, recommends the internal use of carbonate of magnesia in cases of warts.

The papular eruption which covers the hands of some persons, and which is occasionally called ‘soft warts,’ is best removed by the daily use of Gowlard’s lotion.

=WASH.= The fermented wort of the distiller.

=WASH-BALLS.= See SAVONETTES.

=WASH-BOTTLE.= The principle of this very common and indispensable laboratory utensil, by which precipitates are washed, will be readily understood by reference to No. 1 of the engravings below.

The bottle being two thirds filled with distilled waters by blowing into the shorter tube, b, a small jet of water is forced through the nozzle of the longer tube, c. We give the following directions for the construction of a WASH-BOTTLE, from Mr Clowes’ excellent little manual, entitled ‘An Elementary Treatise on Practical Chemistry,’[257]——“A thin, flat-bottomed flask is chosen, of 16 or 18 ounces capacity; the neck must not be less than an inch in diameter. Procure a sound cork, which is slightly too large to enter the neck, soften the cork by placing it upon the floor and rolling it backwards and forwards under the foot with gentle pressure; when thus softened the cork must fit tightly into the flask.[258] Two pieces of glass tubing rather longer than would be required for the tubes a and b are then bent into the form shown in Fig. 1. The ends of the tubes are, if necessary, cut off to the right length, and their sharp edges rounded by holding them in the Bunsen flame, or the tip of the blowpipe flame.

[Footnote 257: J. and A. Churchill, New Burlington Street.]

[Footnote 258: “A vulcanized india-rubber stopper is much more durable for this and most other chemical processes. It is perforated by a sharp, well-wetted cork bore, or by a wetted round file.”]

“Two parallel holes are then bored in the cork by means of a round file, or by a proper size cork-borer: the holes must be rather smaller than the glass tubes, and must not run into one another, or to the outside of the cork. They are slightly enlarged, if necessary, by the round file. Into these holes the tubes a and b are then pushed with a twisting motion; if the holes have been made of the proper size the tubes must enter somewhat stiffly, but without requiring much pressure. Upon the upper end of a is fitted a small piece of india-rubber tubing, about an inch and a half in length, and into the other end of this is a finished short jet (c) made by drawing out a piece of glass tubing in the flame; its nozzle may be constructed, if necessary, by holding it perfectly dry in the flame for some time. The neck of the bottle should then be bound round with twine, like the handle of a cricket-bat, or tightly covered with a piece of flannel. This prevents the fingers from being burnt when the bottle contains boiling water.”

We append below some varieties of washing bottles. The round-bottomed are in more general requisition than the flat-bottomed description; although this latter presents the advantage of standing more firmly, and, if boiling water be required, of furnishing it more quickly than the bottle with the round base.

In some laboratories earthenware bottles are in use. These are not so easily broken as those made of glass, but, unlike these latter, water cannot be boiled in them, neither can we see whether they be full or empty.

=WASHERWOMAN’S SCALL.= See PSORIASIS.

=WASHES.= The familiar name of lotions, more especially of those employed as cosmetics. See FRECKLES, LOTION, MILK OF ROSES, SKIN COSMETICS, &c., and the following page.

=Washes, Hair.= Prep. 1. From rosemary tops, 2 oz.; boiling water, 1 pint; infused together in a teapot or jug, either with or without the addition of rectified spirit, 1 fl. oz. (or rum, 2 fl. oz.) to the cold strained liquor.

2. Box leaves, a small handful; boiling water, 1 pint; digest for an hour, simmer 10 minutes, and strain. Both are used to improve the growth of and to strengthen the hair.

3. To clean the ‘partings,’ remove scurf, &c.——a. (ANTIPITYRIENNE.) From sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 1 oz.; spirit of rosemary, 1/2 pint; rose of elder-flower water, 1-1/2 pint.

b. (DETERGENT ESSENCE.) From honey, 2 oz.; borax, 1 oz.; cochineal (bruised), 1/4 oz.; camphor, 1 dr.; (dissolved in) rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz.; soft water, 3/4 pint; oil of rosemary, 20 drops.

c. (VEGETABLE EXTRACT.) Take of salt of tartar, 1 oz.; rosemary water, 1 pint; burnt sugar, q. s. to tinge it brown; dissolve, filter, and add of essence of musk, 10 drops.

4. To darken the hair.——a. From pyrogallic acid, 1/4 oz.; distilled water, orange-flower water, and rectified spirit, of each 1-1/4 fl. oz.

b. (LA FOREST’S COSMETIC LOTION or LIQUID HAIR DYE.) Boil, for a few minutes, chloride of sodium, 1 dr., and sulphate of iron, 2 dr., in red wine, 1 lb.; then add of verdigris, 1 dr.; in 2 or 3 minutes remove it from the fire, and further add of powdered galls, 2 dr.; the next day filter. For use, moisten the hair with the liquid; in a few minutes dry it with a cloth, and afterwards wash the skin with water.

5. To prevent the hair falling off.——a. (AMERICAN SHAMPOO LIQUID.) Take of carbonate of ammonia, 1/2 oz.; carbonate of potash, 1 oz.; water, 1 pint; dissolve, and add the solution to a mixture of tincture of cantharides, 5 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; good rum, 3 quarts. Used to strengthen the hair and to remove dandruff, by moistening it with the mixture, rubbing so as to form a lather, and then washing with cold water.

b. (BALM OF COLUMBIA.) As the last, omitting the potash, quadrupling the carbonate of ammonia, and adding some perfume.

c. (Eras. Wilson.) Eau de Cologne (strongest), 8 fl. oz.; tincture of cantharides, 1 fl. oz.; oils of rosemary and lavender, of each 1/2 fl. dr.

d. (Dr LOCOCK’S LOTION.) From expressed oil of mace (nutmeg), 1 oz., liquefied, at a gentle heat, with olive oil, 1/2 oz.; and, when cold, formed into an emulsion by agitation, with rose water, 1/4 pint; spirit of rosemary, 2-1/2 fl. oz.; stronger liquor of ammonia, 1-1/2 fl. dr. For other formulæ, see BALDNESS, HAIR DYES, LOTION, &c.

=Washes, Medicinal.= See LOTION, &c.

=Washes, Mouth.= Syn. TOOTH WASHES; COLLUTORIA, L. Prep. 1. Take of camphor (cut small), 1/4 oz.; rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz; dissolve. A few drops to be added to a wine-glassful of water, to sweeten the breath and preserve the teeth.

2. Chloride of lime, 1/2 oz.; water, 2 fl. oz.; agitate well together in a phial for 1/2 an hour, filter, and add, of rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz.; rose or orange-flower water, 1 fl. oz. Used, highly diluted with water, as the last, by smokers and persons having a foul breath.

3. Mastic (in powder), 2 dr.; balsam of Peru, 1/2 dr.; gum, 2 dr., or q. s.; orange-flower water, 6 fl. oz.; tincture of myrrh, 2 fl. dr.; for an emulsion. In loose teeth, &c.

4. Tannin, 1/2 dr.; tincture of tolu, 2 fl. dr.; tincture of myrrh, 6 fl. dr.; spirit of horseradish, 2 fl. oz.; mix. In spongy gums, scurvy, &c.; diluted with tepid water.

5. (Swediaur.) Borax, 1/4 oz.; water and tincture of myrrh, of each 1 fl. oz.; honey of roses, 2 oz. In tender or ulcerated gums.

6. Balsam of Peru, 2 dr.; camphor, 1/2 dr.; essence of musk and liquor of ammonia, of each 1/2 fl. dr.; tincture of myrrh, 3 fl. dr.; spirit of horseradish, 1-1/2 fl. oz. To sweeten and perfume the breath; a teaspoonful in 1/2 wineglassful of tepid water to rinse the mouth with.

=Washes for the Nose.= Syn. NASAL DOUCHES, COLLUNARIA. The following formulæ medicinally employed for the purpose of washing or rinsing out the nostrils are from the ‘Pharmacopœia of the Throat Hospital.’

In applying them it is directed that “not more than twenty ounces of fluid should ever be used for a nasal douche, and ten ounces are generally sufficient. If an apparatus on the syphon principle be applied, it should be placed only just above the level of the patient’s head, in order to avoid too great force of current. The temperature of the fluid should be about 90° F.”

NASAL DOUCHE OF TANNIC ACID. Syn. COLLUNARIUM ACIDI TANNICI. Prep. Tannic acid, 3 grams; water, 1 oz.; dissolve.——Use. Astringent

NASAL DOUCHE OF ALUM. Syn. COLLUNARIUM ALUMINIS. Prep. Alum, 4 grams; water, 1 oz.; dissolve.——Use. As a mild astringent.

NASAL DOUCHE OF PERMANGANATE OF POTASH. Syn. COLLUNARIUM POTASSÆ PERMANGANATIS. Prep. Solution of permanganate of potash (B. P.), 6 minims. Water to 1 oz.; mix.——Use. Detergent.

NASAL DOUCHE OF QUININE. Syn. COLLUNARIUM QUINIÆ. Prep. Sulphate of quinine, 1/2 grain; water, 1 oz. Dissolve by the aid of a gentle heat.

This solution is occasionally useful in hay-fever. It is generally sufficient to place a little in the palm of the hand and draw it up through the nose.

NASAL DOUCHE OF SULPHO-CARBOLATE OF ZINC. Syn. COLLUNARIUM ZINCI SULPHO-CARBOLATIS. Prep. Sulpho-carbolate of zinc, 2 grams; water, 1 oz.; dissolve.——Use. Antiseptic.

=Washes, Tooth.= See above.

=WASHING (as applied in Chemistry).= In the chemical laboratory the washing of precipitates is an operation of constant occurrence, and as the accurate result of the quantitative analysis in which the process of precipitation is had recourse to, essentially depends upon the manner in which the washing has been carried out, we have thought it desirable in the interest of the worker commencing practical chemistry to amplify under the present section the remarks which occur under the article ‘Precipitation.’ In washing a precipitate the object is, of course, to entirely free it from all extraneous matter, so as to ensure, after proper drifting, its being weighed in an absolutely pure and uncontaminated state. To arrive at a correct knowledge as to when a precipitate has been properly washed, the operator must never trust to guesswork, but to ocular demonstration, by testing a minute portion, such as a drop or so of the washings, from time to time.

This may be done, either by adding——1. A very minute quantity of the proper precipitant[259] to the washings; or——2. By evaporating a drop of the latter on a platinum knife, or a piece of platinum foil; when, if in the former case no turbidity is caused and in the latter no fixed residue remain, the precipitate may be pronounced perfectly washed. The operator, however, instead of not sufficiently washing his precipitate, is frequently liable to fall into another dilemma, which consists not so much in overwashing it as in washing it with an unsuitable liquid, or one in which the precipitate is, to a greater or lesser extent, soluble.

[Footnote 259: See PRECIPITATE]

It may not unfrequently happen that the best available precipitant may be one in which the precipitate is soluble to some small extent. Under these circumstances, before throwing down the precipitate, the liquid should, as far as practicable, be removed by evaporation.

Many precipitates which are not altogether insoluble in water may, by the addition of some other liquid to the water, be rendered much less so. Thus, the double chloride of platinum and ammonium which is incompletely thrown down in water is perfectly precipitated if alcohol be added to the water, as are also chloride of lead and sulphate of lime, whilst the basic phosphate of magnesium and ammonium may be rendered insoluble in water by the addition of ammonia to the water. The precipitate having subsided to the bottom of the fluid in which it was suspended, the supernatant liquid may be removed from it either by filtration or decantation. In some cases both processes are had recourse to. To wash a precipitate which has been separated by filtration, and which in a moist condition more or less fills the paper-filter inserted in a proper funnel, the wash-bottle described below is employed. In using this apparatus the jet of water that is made to issue from the bottle should be denoted upon the sides of the filter, and never in the centre, since this would cause a splashing and a consequent loss of the precipitate. The same contingency would be liable to follow it the waters were propelled too violently from the bottle. On no account must the wash-water be allowed to reach to the top of the filter. Another precaution to be guarded against is the formation in the precipitate of fissures or channels; if these are not prevented, the water will not permeate all the parts of the precipitate, and it will be only very insufficiently washed. When such channels form, it will be best to stir up the precipitates with a glass rod or a platinum spatula, taking care, however, to avoid tearing or making a hole in the filter.

Precipitates that are washed by decantation ought to consist of such substances as readily subside from the liquid in which they are suspended and are practically insoluble in water, since a very much larger quantity of this menstruum has to be employed than when filtration is had recourse to. The process is generally carried out in deep vessels. The supernatant liquid being removed, the vessel is filled up with water, and the precipitate well stirred up with a glass rod; after it has again fallen down fresh water is added, and the process is continued until the washings cease to show the presence of any soluble matter. The several washings being collected, are let stand some 12 or 24 hours; after which time, should no precipitate show itself, they are thrown away. Should any deposits form in the washing, it is carefully removed either by filtration or decantation, and its amount being determined, the result is added to that obtained from the bulk of the precipitate. Where the nature of the precipitate is in no way influenced by hot water, this latter should always be used in washing precipitates, as it greatly facilitates and expedites the operation. Many precipitates require to stand a long time before they entirely subside from the fluid in which they are suspended. Most gelatinous, pulverulent, and crystalline precipitates are of this nature. The separation of the precipitate should not be attempted until after the liquid containing the precipitate has stood several hours.

=WASHING FLU′IDS.= Solutions of carbonate of soda, rendered caustic with quicklime.

=WASHING POW′DERS.= See POWDERS.

=WATCH′FULNESS.= Syn. SLEEPLESSNESS. AGRYPNIA, L. The common causes of watchfulness are thoughtfulness or grief, disordered stomach or bowels, heavy and late suppers, and a deficiency of outdoor exercise. The best treatment, in ordinary cases, simply consists in an attention to these points. The method of producing sleep recommended by a late celebrated hypnotist consists in merely adopting an easy recumbent position, inclining the head toward the chest, shutting the eyes, and taking several deep inspirations with the mouth closed. Another method, recommended by an eminent surgeon, and which appears infallible if persevered in with proper confidence, and which is suitable either to the sitting or recumbent posture, consists in tying a decanter cork with a bright metallic top, a pencil-case, or any other bright object on the forehead, in such a position that the eyes must be distorted or strained to be capable of seeing it. By resolutely gazing in this way for a short time, without winking, with the mind fully absorbed in the effort, the muscles of the eyes gradually relax, and the experimenter falls asleep. Gazing in a similar manner on any imaginary bright spot in the dark, as at night, exerts a like effect. A tumblerful of cold spring water, either with or without a few grains of bicarbonate of potash in it, taken just before lying down, will frequently succeed with the dyspeptic and nervous, when all other means fail.

The following valuable advice to those who suffer from unnatural wakefulness is abridged from the late Dr Tanner’s valuable work on the ‘Practice of Medicine.’[260]

[Footnote 260: ‘The Practice of Medicine,’ by Thos. Hawkes Tanner, M.D., Renshaw, London.]

As his starting point Dr Tanner enjoins the practice of taking a proper amount of exercise daily. A digestible diet, such as is not liable to cause acidity or flatulence, must also be adopted, and tea and coffee must be abstained from in the after part of the day. Early dinners and light suppers are also recommended. The reading of any thrilling work of fiction previous to retiring to rest is also prohibited. The patient is advised to seek his bed at an early and regular hour, and it is desirable to have his sleeping chamber well ventilated, and if the weather be chilly the bedroom fire should be lighted. Feather beds should be abandoned for mattresses; there should not be too many blankets on the bed, the pillows should be firm and high, and no curtains or hangings should be allowed. Should the above means fail to produce the required sleep, before going to bed the patient is advised to try a tumbler of port-wine negus, or of mulled claret, or of white-wine whey, the last thing. The aged are recommended (should the above methods be unsuccessful) to imbibe a glass of spirit and water, which is said to be all the more effective if drunk when in bed. In some cases, attended by a hot or dry skin, a glass of cold water has been found useful. Another remedy is the use of a bath, for about three or five minutes, just before getting into bed, at a temperature varying from 90° to 96° F.

Rapid sponging of the body with tepid water is also recommended, as also the use of a warm foot bath, at a temperature of 100° F., or of a hot-water bottle in the bed, or putting the feet in cold water for a minute, and then vigorously rubbing them.

For those whose sleeplessness is caused by their prosecuting literary work till a late hour a short brisk walk, just before retiring to bed, is recommended.

If the wakefulness can be traced to any bodily ailment, this, of course, must be removed by the proper means. Constipation, which is not at all an unfrequent cause of insomnia, must be combated by the methods described under that article. If there be headache it will be best removed by applying a rag dipped in cold water to the scalp, or a bladder containing ice.

Should the adoption of any of the above suggestions fail all kinds of mental labour and excitement during the day must be greatly diminished, and physical exercise must replace them. Sedatives should be had recourse to with great caution, and under medical supervision only. Because of the hazard attending their use, and of the ready tendency their adoption has to degenerate into a pernicious ineradicable habit, we have forebore to specify the medicinal agents Dr Tanner prescribes for sleeplessness, strongly recommending the patient, before he has recourse to them, to exhaust the category of suggestions given by Dr Tanner, and, should these unhappily be found to fail, and he is drawn to soporifics, we again reiterate, let him take them only under medical supervision.

Another method, adopted by professional hypnotists, consists in gently moving, in opposite directions, a finger of each hand over the forehead, just above the eyebrows. A soothing and drowsy effect is said to be thereby produced, which ends in tranquil slumber.

Dr Ainslie Hollis contributes some excellent hints on the treatment of wakefulness to the practitioner. He classifies the treatment under two heads——first, the induction of natural sleep, and, secondly, the production of narcosis or artificial rest. The application of mustard plasters to the abdomen generally brings about the first result, producing, according to Schuler, first dilatation, and subsequently contraction of the vessels of the pia mater. Dr Pleyer, of Jena, on the supposition that sleep may be induced by the introduction of the fatigue products of the body, advocates the administration of a solution of lactate of soda. When sleeplessness is the result of brain exhaustion Dr Hollis advocates a tumbler of hot claret negus. The alkalies and alkaline earths, says the ‘Boston Journal of Chemistry,’ are useful when acid dyspepsia is associated with the insomnia. In hot weather, sprinkling the floor of the sleeping apartment with water lessens the irritant properties of the air, adding much to the comfort of the sleepers; possibly the quantity of ozone is at the same time increased. When sleep is broken by severe pain, opium or morphia is of value, bringing not only relief, but producing anæmia of the cerebral vessels; when neuralgia is the cause an injection of morphia under the skin, near the branch of the affected nerve, will have more effect than by administering it by the mouth. Again, when wakefulness is due to defective cardiac power, digitalis may be useful. Chloral hydrate is supposed to owe its hypnotic effect to its power of diminishing the amount of blood in the brain, and therefore it may be used when sleeplessness arises from the pains of muscular spasm. The bromides, although undoubtedly sedatives, possess very doubtful hypnotic properties. See SUPPER, &c.

=WA′TER.= H_{2}O. Syn. OXIDE OF HYDROGEN, PROTOXIDE OF H.; AQUA, L.; EAU, Fr.; WASSER, Ger.; ὑδωρ, Gr. The ancients regarded water as a simple substance, and as convertible into various mineral and organic products. Earth, air, fire, and water were at one time conceived to be the elementary principles or essences of matter from which all form and substance derived their existence. The true constitution of water was not discovered until about the year 1781, when Cavendish and James Watt, independently and nearly simultaneously, showed it to be a compound of hydrogen and oxygen. Five years, however, before this time (1776), the celebrated Macquer, assisted by Sigaud de la Fond, obtained pure water by the combustion of hydrogen in the air. It has since been satisfactorily demonstrated that hydrogen and oxygen exist in water in the proportion of 1 to 8 by weight, or 2 to 1 by volume; the sp. gr. of hydrogen being to that of oxygen as 1 to 16. One cubic inch of perfectly pure water at 62° Fahr., and 30 inches of the barometer, weighs 252·458 gr.; by which it will be seen that it is 770 times heavier than atmospheric air. Its sp. gr. is 1·0, it being made the standard by which the densities of all solid and liquid bodies are estimated. The sp. gr. of frozen water (ice) is ·9175, water being 1·0 (Dufour); that of aqueous vapour (steam), ·6252, air being 1·0. Water changes its volume with the temperature; its greatest density is about 39-1/2° Fahr., and its sp. gr. decreases from that point, either way. Water is nearly incompressible. By subjecting water to a pressure of 705 atmospheres, Cailletet found the compressibility to be at the rate of ·0004451 for each atmosphere. Water evaporates at all temperatures; but at 212° under ordinary circumstances, this takes place so rapidly that it boils, and is converted into vapour (steam), whose bulk is nearly 1700 times greater than that of water.

Var. Of these the following are the principal:

DISTILLED WATER; AQUA DESTILLATA (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Obtained by the distillation of common water through a block-tin worm, rejecting the first and last portions that come over. The still employed for this operation should be used for no other purpose; and when great nicety is required, the distillation should be performed in glass or earthenware. It remains limpid on the addition of lime water, chloride of barium, nitrate of silver, oxalate of ammonium, or hydrosulphuric acid. It is the only kind of water that should be employed in chemical and pharmaceutical operations. When distilled water is not at hand, clean filtered or clarified rain water is the only kind that can be successfully substituted.

NATURAL WATERS. In respect of wholesomeness, palatability, and general fitness for drinking and cooking, natural waters may be classified in orders of excellence as follows (‘Rivers Pollution Commissioners’ Sixth Report’):——

{1. Spring water } Very palatable. Wholesome {2. Deep-well water } {3. Upland surface water } Moderately palatable. {4. Stored rain water } Suspicious {5. Surface water from cultivated lands } {6. River water to which sewage gains } Palatable. Dangerous { access } {7. Shallow well water }

The average composition of the four classes of unpolluted waters is given by the same authorities as follows. Their estimations are in parts per 100,000, but may be converted in grains per gallon by multiplying by 7 and dividing by 10:

--------------+------+-------+--------+-----+--------+-------- | | | | |Nitrogen|Total |Total |Organic|Organic |Ammo-| as |combined |solid |Carbon |Nitrogen| nia |nitrates|nitrogen |im- | | | | and | |purity| | | |nitrites| --------------+------+-------+--------+-----+--------+-------- Rain water | 2·95| ·070 | ·015 | ·029| ·003 | ·042 Upland surface| | | | | | water | 9·67| ·322 | ·032 | ·002| ·009 | ·042 Deep-well | | | | | | water | 43·78| ·061 | ·018 | ·012| ·495 | ·522 Spring water | 28·20| ·056 | ·013 | ·001| ·383 | ·396 --------------+------+-------+--------+-----+--------+--------

--------------+---------+--------+----------------- |Previous | | Hardness |sewage | +-----+-----+----- |or animal|Chlorine|Temp-|Perm-|Total |contamin-| |orary|anent| | ation | | | | --------------+---------+--------+-----+-----+----- Rain water | 42 | ·22 | ·4| ·5 | ·3 Upland surface| | | | | water | 10 | 1·13 | 1·5| 4·3 | 5·4 Deep-well | | | | | water | 474 | 5·11 | 15·8| 9·2 |25· Spring water | 3559 | 2·49 | 11·0| 7·5 |18·5 --------------+---------+--------+-----+-----+-----

RAIN WATER contains, among natural waters, the smallest amount of solid matter in solution. From the columns headed “Organic Carbon” and “Organic Nitrogen” it will be seen that even rain collected with special precautions, away from any large town, is by no means free from organic matter. Rain water collected from roofs and stored in underground tanks is often very impure.

SURFACE WATERS form the main supply of rivers. If collected from high uncultivated districts they are usually unpolluted with animal matter. The organic matter is usually peaty, is sometimes very small, but is liable to considerable variations with the season, and is occasionally present in excessive quantities, discolouring the water and rendering it unpalatable. From their softness these waters are admirably adapted for manufacturing purposes. The amount of solid matter in solution ranges from 2 to 7 grains per gallon.

SURFACE WATER from cultivated land, contains on an average less organic matter than upland surface water, but the pollution, being derived from manure and other objectionable matter, is more harmful.

RIVER WATER consists of the above, aided by springs, and most frequently the drainage of towns on its banks. The amount of solid matter varies from 10 to 30 grains per gallon. In Thames water there are on the average about 20 grains.

WELLS, if shallow, are usually a most undesirable supply. Unless far from any house they are contaminated by drainage, and sometimes, from proximity to cesspools, contain more animal matter than ordinary town sewage. They are, as a class, hard waters, the polluted ones excessively so.

Wells of 100 feet deep and upwards are, as a class, very superior waters, the filtration and oxidation of so great a depth of soil having removed the greater part of the organic matter. The hardness varies with the strata, but, as a class, the deep wells are softer than the shallow.

SPRING WATER greatly resembles deep well water, possessing all its good qualities in a higher degree. Spring and deep well water are very uniform in quality, and little affected by climatic changes.

SEA WATER. The characteristic of this variety is its saltness. Its density is about 1·0274, and the average quantity of saline matter which it contains is about 3-1/2 per cent., of which about 27/35 are chloride of sodium, and the remainder chiefly chloride of magnesium and sulphate of magnesium.

The average proportion of organic carbon and nitrogen in 23 samples of sea water was ·278 carbon, ·165 nitrogen, as compared with Thames water averages of ·203 parts carbon, ·033 nitrogen, in 100,000 parts of water.

Analysis of sea water (British Channel), by Dr Schweitzer, of Brighton:——

1000 gr. contained—— Grains Water 963·745 Chloride of sodium 28·059 Chloride of potassium 0·766 Chloride of magnesium 3·666 Bromide of magnesium 0·029 Sulphate of magnesium 2·296 Sulphate of calcium 1·406 Carbonate of calcium 0·033 ———————— 1000·

Pur. Pure water is perfectly transparent, odourless, and colourless, and evaporates without residue, or even leaving a stain behind. The purest natural water is that obtained by melting snow or frozen rain, that has fallen at some distance from any town. Absolutely pure water can only be obtained by the union of its gaseous constituents; but water sufficiently pure for all purposes may be procured by the careful distillation of common water.

Among the methods adopted for improving the quality of water are:

(a) For reducing the amount of organic and suspended matter.——1. Filtration through or agitation with coarsely powdered, freshly burnt charcoal, either animal or vegetable, but preferably the former. When in good condition a filter of animal charcoal will not only remove suspended matter in water, but will considerably reduce the amount of organic matter, and also the calcareous and gaseous impurities held in solution; but it, however, loses its power of removing lime in a week or two, and of abstracting the organic matter in about three to four months, and then becomes foul, and requires to be recharged. Spongy metallic iron is more energetic in its action than charcoal, and remains serviceable for a twelvemonth. 2. Free exposure to the action of the air, by which the organic matters become oxidised and insoluble, and speedily subside. This may be easily effected by agitating the water in contact with fresh air, or by forcing air through it by means of bellows. 3. The addition of a little sulphuric acid has a like effect; 15 or 20 drops are usually sufficient for a gallon. This addition may be advantageously made to water intended for filtration through charcoal, by which plan at least 2/3 of the latter may be saved. (Lowitz.) 4. An ounce of powdered alum (dissolved), well agitated with a hogshead or more of foul water, will purify it in the course of a few hours, when the clear portion may be decanted. When the water is very putrid about 1/2 dr. (or even 1 dr. per gall.) may be employed; any alum that may be left in solution may be precipitated by the cautious addition of an equivalent proportion of carbonate of sodium. 5. A solution of ferric sulphate acts in the same way as alum; a few drops are sufficient for a gallon. 6. Agitation with about 1/2 to 1 per cent. of finely powdered black oxide of manganese has similar effect to the last. 7. The addition of a little aqueous chlorine, or chlorine gas, to foul water, cleanses it immediately. This method has the advantage of the water being perfectly freed from any excess of the precipitant by heat.

(b) For reducing amount of inorganic matter.——1. Distillation separates all non-volatile matter, including organised bodies. It is used to obtain a potable water from sea water. The waste heat of the cook’s galley is amply sufficient for this purpose. There are several patent contrivances for the distillation of water on ship board. 2. Hard water may be softened by adding carbonate of soda to the water so long as it turns milky. The precipitation of the hardening ingredients, lime and magnesia, is most rapid when the water is heated. The water cannot be used for drinking purposes, from the unpleasant flavour of the carbonate of soda. When used on a hard water intended for washing, it effects a saving of soap equal to about fifteen times its own cost. Sea water can be made fit for washing by this means. It removes both the “temporary” hardness, due to carbonates of calcium and magnesium, and the “permanent,” due to the sulphates, chlorides, and nitrates of these metals. 3. Hard water may be both aerated and softened by the addition of a few grains of bicarbonate of potassium per gallon, followed by half as much lime juice or tartaric acid as is sufficient to saturate the alkali in the carbonate thus added. 4. The “temporary” hardness may be nearly removed by ebullition, or, as recommended by Professor Clarke, by mixing the hard water with lime water, when the calcium combines with the excess of carbonic acid, which previously rendered the carbonate of calcium soluble, and is precipitated as carbonate (chalk), together with the carbonate originally present. This method removes, at the same time, much of the organic matter, and carries down suspended matter. The water is often made more palatable than before. The directions are:——For every degree of hardness on Clarke’s scale each 1000 gallons of water to be softened requires one ounce of quicklime. Slake the lime and work up to a thin cream with water and pour into the cistern, which already contains at least 50 gallons of water to be softened. Then add the remainder of the 1000 gallons in such a way as to stir up and mix uniformly with the contents of the cistern. In about three hours the milky water is clear enough for washing. After twelve hours’ rest the water is fit to drink. If the exact hardness of the water is not known, water may be added to the milk of lime till, on adding a drop of nitrate of silver to a cupful of the cistern water, the brown tint indicative of an excess of lime is replaced by a very faint yellow. 5. To save boilers from scaling, water intended for steam purposes is sometimes treated with lime to remove carbonates, and then the sulphate of calcium (which forms a very tenacious scale) is decomposed with baric chloride (Haen’s process). The precipitated mineral matter may also be prevented from forming a scale or fur by adding organic substances, such as potatoes, sound or otherwise, swedes, mangolds, or other vegetable. Oak bark, spent tan, sawdust; and their decoctions are efficacious on account of the tannic acid they contain, but they attack the boiler plates at the same time. Zinc suspended in the water is said to answer well. It has been recommended to polish the inside of the boiler plates with black lead or coat it with linseed oil and dissolved india rubber. Numerous chemical preparations, most of which do more harm than good, are also sold.

Tests (Physical).——1. To observe colour, stand in tall colourless glass cylinder on white ground. If very turbid allow to settle, and examine sediment by microscope for evidence of sewage contamination (linen fibres, hairs, epithelium) and for moving organisms. Slight turbidity is best noted by filling a clean quart flask and holding it towards the light with some dark object as a window pane between. Taste and odour most marked when the water is made lukewarm. 2. For poisonous metals add one drop of strong colourless ammonium sulphide to about 1000 grains of water in glass cylinder, and observe if liquid darkens. If the coloration or precipitate disappears on adding acid, it is iron; if it remains, lead or copper is present, either of which condemns the water. 3. For chlorine add couple of drops of nitric acid to a little of the water and a crystal or drop of solution of nitrate of silver. If the water turns very milky it is a bad sign; make, if possible, a comparative experiment with water of known composition. 4. The residuum, if any, of evaporation is impurity; if it be organic matter, smoke and a peculiar odour will be evolved, as the residue becomes dry and charred. 5. Neither litmus, syrup of violets, nor turmeric are discoloured or affected when moistened with pure water; if the first two are reddened it indicates an acid; if the litmus is turned blue or the turmeric is turned brown, an alkali is present. 6. If a precipitate is formed or a fur or crust deposited on the vessel during ebullition it indicates the presence of carbonates of calcium, magnesium, or iron. 7. Calcium salts produce a white precipitate with oxalate of ammonium. 8. The liquid filtered off from 7, on standing with phosphate of sodium and ammonium (microcosmic salt), gives a white precipitate if magnesium be present. 10. Tincture or infusion of galls turns water containing iron black. When this takes place both before and after the water has been boiled, the metal is present under the form of sulphate; but if it only occurs before boiling, then ferrous carbonate may be suspected, and it will be precipitated as a reddish powder by exposure to air and heat. 11. Ferrocyanide of potassium gives a dark blue precipitate in water containing a ferric salt; and a white one, turning blue by exposure to the air, in water containing a ferrous salt. 12. If sulphuric acid be run into water and allowed to cool, and a crystal of sulphate of iron dropped into the water, a dark brown cloud round the crystal indicates nitrates; the bleaching of indigo added to the hot mixture of equal parts water and pure oil of vitriol also indicates the presence of these salts. 13. Sulphuric acid or sulphates is indicated by a soluble salt of barium throwing down a white precipitate insoluble in nitric acid.

Water, Quantitative Analysis of.——The quantitative analysis of potable water is confined to the following: total residue, hardness temporary and permanent, chlorine, ammonia, nitrates and nitrites, and organic matter.

Of these, all but the first two are intended to throw light on the organic contamination of the water. Chlorine, ammonia, and nitrates and nitrites are in themselves innocuous substances, but are estimated because they supplement the somewhat imperfect information obtained from the organic matter itself. A sewage-polluted supply being an agent in propagating zymotic diseases, a knowledge of the source of the organic matter in a water is of the highest importance.

Before passing to the mode of estimating the above items it may be desirable to explain the object of each analysis and the interpretation which may be placed on the results.

Total solid residue includes all the substance, organic or mineral, dissolved in the water. Everything beyond the two gases which enter into the combination of the water being useless, the ‘residue’ of a water is sometimes called the ‘total solid impurity.’ The less residue left by a water on evaporation the better, but a water need not be objected to for drinking purposes till the residue reaches 40 grains per gallon. For raising steam a water should not contain more than 20 grains, and should be, if possible, much less.

The hardness, or soap-wasting power of a water, is chiefly determined on economic grounds. Unless the hardness is very excessive, the hardness or softness of the water does not appear to materially affect the health of the consumer. Hardness is caused by salts of lime and magnesia. If the property of hardness be caused by the presence of bicarbonates of the above substances, the water is said to be ‘temporarily’ hard, for by boiling or adding lime as above described, the hardness may be reduced without affecting the potability of the supply; but when the hardness is due to calcium or magnesium sulphates it is called ‘permanent’ hardness, for it is not then practicable to remove the hardening ingredients without adding some more objectionable substance. The average hardness of the four classes of pure water is shown in the analyses given above. Thames water has a total hardness of 15°, Loch Katrine water, as supplied to Glasgow, 0·70, on Clarke’s scale.

Chlorine.——Except in places near the sea, or in salt-bearing strata, an unpolluted water does not contain more than the merest trace of chlorine. Sewage, however, contains a large quantity of chlorine as sodic chloride (common salt) derived from the salt used in cooking, &c. Hence a mixture of sewage with water becomes known by the quantity of chlorine present. It is not safe to drink a water containing such an excessive quantity of chlorine as 4 grains per gallon. The chlorine in Ullswater and Thames water is ·7 and 1·1 grains per gallon respectively. Sewage has about 8 grains on the average.

Ammonia.——This determination acquires significance because it is one of the early substances produced by the decomposition of animal matter. It therefore indicates, when present in large quantities, recent contamination by sewage. Rain always contains a small amount of ammonia, and deep wells occasionally show ammonia derived from the reduction of nitrates by the oxygen-seeking organic matter. The above inferences must, therefore, be applied with caution.

Nitrates and Nitrites result from the oxidation of animal matter. Vegetable substances, under like conditions, yield none or but mere traces of these compounds. The presence of nitrates is a most unfavorable sign in a shallow well or river water, because the conditions to which these waters are subjected are so variable that there is a constant liability of the purifying processes diminishing, and allowing the sewage, now only represented by innoxious nitrates, to appear in its dangerous, unoxidised condition.

Dr Frankland takes the sum of the nitrogen existing in the water as ammonia and as nitrites and nitrates, as a sort of measure of the minimum amount of animal or sewage matter destroyed. The amount due to sewage or animal matter is considered to be all over ·032 part per 100,000 (or ·022 gr. per gallon), which is the average of ‘inorganic nitrogen’ natural to unpolluted rain water. Dr Frankland also expresses this ‘previous sewage or animal contamination,’ in terms of London sewage containing 10 parts of nitrogen in 100,000 parts of liquid, by multiplying the above-named corrected sum by 10,000. Thus, a water containing 1 part per 100,000 (·7 gr. per gall.) of ‘inorganic nitrogen’ would have a ‘previous sewage or animal contamination’ of 9680 parts per 100,000, for it would have required 100,000 {(1 - ·032)/10} = 9680 parts of London sewage to produce an amount of nitrogen equal to that found by analysis. A water which contains over 20,000 parts of previous sewage contamination (1·5 grains of inorganic nitrogen) is said to be dangerous. All other waters containing more inorganic nitrogen than in rain are said to be ‘doubtful’ except springs and deep well waters containing less than 10,000 parts of previous sewage contamination per 100,000, and such shallow wells and running water which from their source may be taken to be free from sewage.

Organic matter.——There is no method by which the actual weight of organic matter can be determined, still less is it possible to say how much is likely to be actually injurious organic matter, but there are several means of measuring the proportionate amount of organic contamination.

Dr Frankland determines the amount of carbon and nitrogen in the organic matter. The smaller the amount of these elements the better the water, and the less the amount of nitrogen, especially in proportion to organic carbon, the less chance of animal matter. A good drinking water will not have more than ·2 parts in 100,000 (·14 gr. per gall.) of carbon, or ·03 part of organic nitrogen in 100,000 parts (·02 gr. per gall.) of the water. The amount of putrescent matter may be estimated by the amount of oxygen consumed in destroying it. Dr Tidy (‘Chem. Soc. Jour.,’ January, 1879) considers that, speaking generally, waters requiring ·05 part per 100,000 (·035 gr. per gall.) to be of great organic purity; ·15 part (·1 gr. per gall.) waters of medium purity; waters of doubtful purity, from ·15 to ·21 part per 100,000 (·15 gr. per gallon). Impure waters, all above ·15 gr. per gall.

The proportion of albuminous substances present is measured by Mr Wanklyn by the amount of ammonia set free by alkaline permanganate. A water containing over ·15 part per million albuminoid ammonia condemns a water absolutely (‘Wanklyn’s Water Analysis,’ 4th edit., p. 54); ·10 part per million with little free ammonia, or ·05 part albuminoid ammonia with much free ammonia, is ‘suspicious.’ A water with less than ·05 part albuminoid ammonia belongs to the class of very pure waters.

Of course the above data are not hard and fast lines, but serve as aid to a judgment which may be modified by other circumstances connected with the analysis, and the source of the water.

Methods of Analysis. Total solid residue.——1000 grains are evaporated to dryness in a platinum dish over a water bath and residue dried in an oven at 212° F. for an hour, or until the weight is constant. The increase in weight of the platinum vessel multiplied by 70 gives the number of grains of total solid residue per gallon.

Hardness is determined by a solution of soap of which 320 grain-measure will soften a water of 16° of hardness. Each degree of hardness represents an amount of soap-destroying matter equivalent to 1 grain of chalk per gallon. 1000 measured grains of the water are measured into a narrow-mouthed six or eight ounce stoppered bottle, then well shaken, and the air sucked out by means of a piece of glass tube. The standard soap solution is now run in 10 grains at a time, shaking well between each addition until there is formed over the whole surface a lather which, when the bottle is placed upon its side, shall last just five minutes. The number of grain-measures used will indicate the hardness of the water by reference to Table A. Should, however, the permanent lather not be formed before 320 measures of soap solution have been added, a second trial must be made, in which only 500 grain-measures of the water are taken, to which a like amount of recently-boiled distilled water is added. The degree of hardness now obtained must be multiplied by 2. With very hard waters it is necessary to dilute still further, say 250 grains to 750 of distilled, and multiplying the result by 4. If the number of soap-measures does not correspond with any degree on the table, observe which numbers it falls between. The degree corresponding to the lower of these soap volumes will be the whole number in the answer; the fraction will be the difference between the observed number of measures and the next lower on the table, divided by the difference (given in column 3) between the figure above and below it. Thus, if 14 measures were used the hardness would be 6·2°, 13·6 measures being equivalent to 6 degrees, and the fraction being {14 - 13·6}/{13·6 - 11·6} = 4/20 = ·2.

The hardness of the water in the natural state is the ‘total hardness.’ By boiling for an hour and making up loss by evaporation with boiled distilled water and again determining the hardness, the ‘permanent hardness’ is found. That which has been removed by the boiling is the temporary hardness.

TABLE A.

Soap test measures corresponding to one thousand measures of water of each degree of hardness.

Degree of Soap test Difference. hardness. measures.

0 14 18 1 32 22 2 54 22 3 76 20 4 96 20 5 116 20 6 136 20 7 156 19 8 175 19 9 194 19 10 213 18 11 231 18 12 249 18 13 267 18 14 285 18 15 303 17 16 320 ——

The standard water of 16° of hardness is thus made:——Pure carbonate of calcium (Iceland spar) is weighed out into a porcelain or platinum dish in the proportion of 16 grains for a gallon of solution. It is dissolved in weak hydrochloric acid, and the whole cautiously evaporated to dryness over a water bath, then re-dissolved in water and again evaporated to drive off any excess of acid. The dish is covered with a glass during the operation to prevent loss by spirting. The resulting neutral chloride of calcium is dissolved in a gallon of pure distilled water if 16 grains were weighed out, or a proportionate quantity in other cases. The soap solution can be made by dissolving good curd soap in weak methylated spirit in the proportion of one ounce of soap to the gallon. A potash soap made as follows is, however, less liable to change: 150 grains of lead plaster (Emplastrum plumbi, B. P.) and 40 grains of dry potassic carbonate are rubbed together in a mortar and repeatedly extracted with small portions of methylated spirit, triturating the mass meanwhile, till about a pint of spirit has been used; filter and add an equal bulk of recently boiled distilled water. Whichever method is followed the clear solution has now to be standardised by the ‘water of 16° of hardness.’ 1000 grains of the water of 16° of hardness are placed into a bottle, and this soap solution is run in from a burette until a permanent lather is formed. The soap solution must be fortified by strong soap solution or diluted with alcohol till 320 measures produce a lather permanent for five minutes in 1000 grain-measures of water of 16° of hardness.

Chlorine. To 1000 grains of the water add a drop or two of neutral chromate of sodium, so as to tinge the water yellow; run in standard nitrate of silver till the liquid acquires a very faint red tinge, showing that all the chlorine has been precipitated and that red silver chromate is beginning to be formed. The number of grains of standard solution divided by 100 will give the grains of chlorine in one gallon of the water.

The standard solution is prepared by dissolving pure nitrate of silver in the proportion of 47·90 grains to one gallon of distilled water.

Ammonia is always carried out as described in the account of Messrs Wanklyn and Chapman’s process.

Nitrate and Nitrites.——These substances can be most expeditiously estimated by the indigo process as follows: 200 grain-measures of the water are placed in a flask and a little of a standard solution of indigo added thereto; twice the volume of pure sulphuric acid is then suddenly poured in from a measuring cylinder, and the whole shaken. The temperature rises immediately to about 270° Fahr., and the blue colour will probably be immediately discharged; more indigo, therefore, must be rapidly run in till a brown-green tint shows itself. This gives the trial estimation, but the maximum amount of indigo is only used up when all the indigo is added previous to the addition of acid; hence a second experiment is now started, and an amount equal to that previously used run in at once, and on it is poured exactly twice as much sulphuric acid as there is water and indigo in solution. The second result will be somewhat higher than the first. If the solutions below mentioned be used, the amount of indigo required by the 200 grains of water divided by the number of grains of indigo required to bleach 200 c.c. of standard nitre represents the grains per gallon of nitrogen as nitrates and nitrites. The standardising of the indigo with the nitrate solution is performed exactly as for an actual water. The requisites are a solution of pure potassium nitrate of known strength, say 14·442 gr. of nitre (equivalent to 2 gr. of nitrogen or 9 gr. of nitric acid) in a gallon of distilled water. 2. A solution of indigo made by dissolving soluble indigo carmine in distilled water in such a proportion that 200 gr. is about equal to 200 gr. of nitre solution. 3. Strong pure oil of vitriol; it must be free from nitrous compounds, not become turbid when diluted, and its specific gravity not be less than 1·84. It is important to maintain the same proportion of acid, and not to allow the temperature to fall below 250° F. throughout the experiment.

Messrs Wanklyn and Chapman’s aluminium method is also a very convenient process. 2000 grains of the water are placed in a retort and half as much of a solution of 10 per cent. soda added. The soda solution is made from sodium soda and the absence of nitrates is secured by boiling the liquid with a piece of aluminium. Half the contents of the retort are distilled over and the residue cooled. A piece of aluminium foil of about six square inches area is tied to a piece of clean glass rod and sunk in the liquid. The neck of the retort is guarded by a tube containing fragments of glass moistened with hydrochloric acid; it is sloped, so that any liquid spurted into the neck will flow back into the retort. After resting several hours the neck of the retort is washed down with pure water, the contents of the tube are transferred to the retort, and the contents distilled over, down to about an ounce in two or three ounces water placed as a receiver. The contents of the receiver are made up to 200 grains and the ammonia is estimated in one half by Nessler’s test as below described.

An exceedingly accurate eudiometric method has also been devised by Dr Frankland, based on Crum’s observations, that a highly concentrated solution of nitrates, when vigorously agitated with mercury and an excess of concentrated pure sulphuric acid, yields all its nitrogen from the nitrates and nitrites, as nitric oxide, a compound occupying twice the volume of the nitrogen as nitrates. The weight of gas is easily calculated from the volume measured (‘Journal Chem. Soc.,’ March, 1868).

Organic Contamination; means of estimating.——Messrs Wanklyn and Chapman’s method is most generally employed. It depends on the conversion of the nitrogen of the organic matter into ammonia and the employment of Nessler’s test to estimate this ammonia.

Nessler’s Test. 500 gr. of iodide of potassium are dissolved in a small quantity of hot distilled water, and to this is gradually added a cold saturated solution of mercuric chloride till the precipitate produced ceases to be dissolved upon stirring. To render this alkaline, add 2000 gr. of potassic hydrate and dilute the volume to 10,000 grain measures. A little more saturated mercuric chloride is added, and the whole allowed to settle, and the clear liquid decanted off. The test should have a slightly yellowish tint. If colourless, it is not sensitive, and more mercuric chloride must be added.

Standard Ammonia Solution.——Dissolve 27·164 gr. of pure sulphate of ammonium in 1 gall. of distilled water. For use dilute 100 gr. to 1000 gr. It will then contain 1 gr. of ammonia in 100,000 of water.

In order to estimate ammonia several six-ounce tall glass cylinders, free from colour, are graduated at 1000 grains. One of these is filled up to the graduation mark with the ammonia to be estimated, and about 30 gr. of Nessler’s reagent added from a pipette. The coloration produced is noted, a second cylinder is filled nearly to the mark with distilled water, and what is thought sufficient ammonia to produce a similar colour to the first run in, and the whole made up to 1000 gr., and 30 gr. of Nessler added; if after standing five minutes the colour in the second is the same as in the water examined, the quantity of ammonia they contain will be equal; but if this is not the case a second trial must be made, using more or less standard ammonia as the intensity of colour is greater or less than the first. After a little experience, more than two trials are rarely necessary.

Examination. (a) Free Ammonia. 7000 grains (a deci-gallon) of the water to be analysed is placed in a tabulated retort, and to it is added half an ounce of a supersaturated solution of carbonate of soda, made by dissolving ignited carbonate of soda in water free from ammonia. The contents are distilled over in two portions of 1000 grains each, and the second Nesslerised; if it contains no ammonia, the distillation may be stopped; if it does, the distillation must be continued and tested in portions of 500 grains till the ammonia no longer can be detected. If there is much ammonia in the cylinder of the second 1000 grains the first will probably contain too much to be conveniently estimated, and therefore an aliquot part diluted to 1000 grains with distilled water free from ammonia should be used. The sum of the ammonia in these different portions multiplied by 10 gives grains per gallon.

(b) Albuminoid Ammonia. To the retort, after all the free ammonia has been driven off, one ounce of a solution of hydrate and permanganate of potassium of a strength of 2000 gr. of hydrate of potassium and 80 gr. of permanganate to 10,000 gr. of water is added, and the distillation continued until no more ammonia comes over, collecting the distillate in portions of 1000 c.c. as before. The sum is the albuminoid ammonia derived from the nitrogenous organic matter.

It is of course essential that the utmost care be taken to remove by rinsing or distillation all traces of ammonia from apparatus employed. Water which has been distilled till free from ammonia should alone be used in estimations and preparations of solutions, and the alkaline permanganate should lie boiled for a short time when made to expel ammonia.

“Oxygen” Process. This is a useful process when comparing waters of similar origin. It is probably a more reliable measure of the putrescent matter present than the total organic contamination. It is essential that the oxidizing agent potassium permanganate be added in excess and allowed to stand three hours. The following method is very delicate (vide Dr Tidy on Potable Waters, ‘Chem. Soc. Journ.,’ January, 1879.)

Cleanse with sulphuric acid and with tap water two flasks and place in one 500 septems (1/20 gall.) of the water, in the other an equal quantity of distilled water. Add to each 20 septems (140 gr.) of sulphuric acid (1 part pure acid to 3 of distilled water) and 20 septems of potassium permanganate and allow to rest for 3 hours. Then add to each flask a couple of drops of an aqueous solution of potassic iodide (1 in 10) when iodine is liberated equivalent to the amount of permanganate unacted on by the waters. Observe the amount of a sodic hyposulphite solution (5·4 gr. in 7000 gr.) which must be added to each to remove this free iodine (judging of the exact spot by adding towards the end of the experiment a few drops of starch).

The strength of the potassic permanganate solution is 2 gr. of the salt in 7000 gr. to 1/10 gall.; therefore the 20 septems will contain ·04 gr. permanganate, equivalent to ·01 of available oxygen. The experiment (A) with the amount of hyposulphite used up for the blank distilled water shows the amount of hyposulphite equivalent to 20 septems or ·01 gr. of oxygen. Therefore the amount of oxygen unconsumed in the water (B) to be examined was (B/A) × ·01 and the amount (C) actually used up was (A - B)/A × ·01 for 500 septems (1/20th gall). Then the oxygen consumed per gallon would be A-B x ·2 / A. It is necessary to perform this standardising of hyposulphite with every series of experiment on account of its tendency to change. Dr Tidy recommends that in addition to the three hours’ experiment one of a single hour duration be executed. The higher the proportion of oxygen consumed in one hour to the oxygen consumed in three hours the worse the water.

Nitrites, sulphuretted hydrogen, and ferrous salts interfere with this test, and there appears to be a different ratio between the oxygen consumed and the amount of organic matter according to the amount of oxidation that has already taken place. The organic matter of deep wells is proportionately least acted upon.

Combustion methods.——The “Frankland and Armstrong process” consists in burning with oxide of copper in vacuo the residue left on evaporating the water, and collecting and measuring in a suitable gas apparatus the carbonic acid, and nitrogen, and nitric oxide proceeding from the organic matter. From these estimations are calculated the organic carbon and nitrogen.

This method, though forming the most accurate means of measuring organic contamination, is not in general use in consequence of the difficulties attending Dr Frankland’s method of analysis. Professor Dittmar and Drs Dupré and Hake have lately introduced processes by which the same results may be obtained without necessitating the use of expensive gas apparatus.

Dittmar’s Carbon.——Concentrate a suitable quantity (say 10,000 gr.) in a pear-shaped flask, and, after adding some saturated solution of sulphurous acid to expel carbonates and nitrates, evaporate to dryness in a glass dish on a water bath. Transfer the residue from the dish to a porcelain or platinum boat, and introduce it into the tail end of a combustion tube, filled three fourths of its length with oxide of copper, and having a roll of silver gauze in the front part of the tube. Previous to the boat being put in, this tube is heated to redness, and a stream of air, freed from carbonic acid, passed through it till the gas which comes out no longer renders clear baryta water turbid. The combustion tube has attached in front a small V-Shaped tube charged with chromic acid, dissolved in 60 per cent. sulphuric acid. To it is permanently fixed a small tube filled with calcic chloride, and in front of all is a small-weighed U-tube the first three fourths of which is filled with soda lime, and the other fourth with calcic chloride. On turning the gas on gradually from the front to the tail the residue is at last reached, and burnt in the stream of pure air. The carbonic acid given off, after being freed from sulphurous anhydride by passing through the chromic acid solution and of moisture by the calcic chloride, passes into the soda lime tube and is absorbed. The increase in weight multiplied by 3/11 gives the amount of carbon in the amount of water taken.

Dittmar’s Nitrogen. An amount of water, about half that taken for the carbon, is evaporated in a similar way. The residue is transferred to a large copper or silver boat, and mixed with about 50 grains of soda made from pure sodium, or with a mixture of soda and baryta, and burnt in a stream of hydrogen in a short combustion tube, which is closed in front by a nitrogen absorption bulb charged with exceedingly weak acidulated water. The amount of ammonia given off is estimated by the Nessler test as described under “Ammonia.” Subtracting the amount of inorganic ammonia the residue multiplied by 14/17 yields the quantity of organic nitrogen in that volume of water.

A few blank experiments must be made to observe and allow correction for the amount of experimental error.

Carbon method of Drs Dupré and Hake.[261]——This method appears to be very accurate, but it necessitates a number of minute precautions, which cannot here be particularised. A residue is obtained by evaporating the water either in the ordinary hemispherical glass dish, or in an exceedingly thin silver one, which after being ignited is supported in a platinum hemisphere of convenient size. At the close of the evaporation this dish is crumpled up without being handled and introduced into a combustion tube, similar to that described under Dittmar’s process. The carbonic acid is absorbed in bright baric hydrate solution, and the precipitated baric carbonate is, with suitable precautions to prevent access of impure air, collected on a filter and washed. It is dried and weighed. The result divided by 19·4 gives the weight of organic carbon. As another method of estimating the carbon the authors propose to compare the turbidity produced by the carbonic acid evolved from the combustion of the residue in solutions of basic acetate of lead with that produced by known quantity of carbonic acid.

[Footnote 261: ‘Chem. Soc. Journ.,’ March, 1879.]

Pres. The preservation of rain water in a state of purity necessitates the greatest care in constructing the tanks, especially if the latter are underground. Of eight samples of stored rain water examined by the River Commissioners only one was fit for domestic use, the others were all polluted by animal matter. Storage room sufficient to hold 120 days’ supply will be found sufficient for the driest district. The small cisterns for service water should not be placed in positions where it can receive the emanation of water closets or sleeping apartments. They should be frequently cleaned out. The best are made of enamelled slate or properly painted iron. Wherever possible a water service should be on the constant supply system.

For wells the chief precaution necessary is to keep out surface and drainage water by maintaining the walls water-proof for a considerable depth. On shipboard water is preserved in iron tanks or in casks well charred on the inside. Water cannot be safely kept in copper or leaden vessels, and it receives a calcareous impregnation by contact with lime, mortar, slate, or stone containing lime. The addition of 1/2 to 1 per cent. of finely powdered binoxide of manganese materially promotes preservation, especially at sea, where the motion of the vessel and the subsequent agitation of the water increases the points of contact. Water never putrefies in iron vessels or when some fragments of metallic iron are immersed in it. Distilled water should be preserved in glass bottles or carboys. See LOTION, SPIRITS, WATER, DISTILLED EYE WATER, PERFUMED WATER, and the articles below.

=Water, Soda.= Each bottle of this liquid should contain at least 15 grains of carbonate of sodium, but that of the shops is usually nothing else but water highly charged with carbonic anhydride. Not a particle of soda enters into its composition, on which account it cannot be substituted for the preparation of the Pharmacopœias.

To produce a superior article of soda water, the possession of a powerful aërating and bottling machine is absolutely necessary. The water employed must also be of the purest quality, the carbonic anhydride well washed with water, and the corks so prepared that they will not impart their peculiar flavour to the beverage. See POWDERS, SOLUTION, WINES, and LEAD IN AERATED WATER.

=Water, Tar.= See INFUSION OF TAR.

=WATERS (Distilled).= Syn. AROMATIC WATERS, ODORIFEROUS W., PERFUMED W.; AQUÆ (Ph. L.), AQUÆ DESTILLATÆ (Ph. E. & D.), L. Pure water, charged, by distillation, with the volatile, odorous, and aromatic principles of plants.

Prep. 1. (Ph. L.)——a. 2 galls, of water are put into the still along with the vegetable matter (bruised, if necessary), but only 1 gall. is drawn over. In the Ph. L. 1836, 7 fl. oz. of proof spirit were added before distillation.

b. Take of the essential oil of the plant, 2 fl. dr.; powdered silex, 2 dr.; triturate them diligently together, and then with distilled water, 1 gall., gradually added; lastly (after briskly agitating the whole for some time), strain the solution.

2. (Ph. E.) As 1, a, but adding of rectified spirit, 3 fl. oz., before distillation.

3. (Ph. D.). From the respective essences (Ph. D), 1 fl. oz.; distilled water, 2 quarts; agitated well together, and then filtered through paper.

The following are the AQUÆ DESTILLATÆ of the British Colleges, with some others, the quantities referring to a product of 1 gall., to be prepared as above when not otherwise directed.

ANGELICA WATER; AQUA ANGELICÆ (P. Cod.). Bruised seed, 1 lb.; water, q. s., distil 4 lbs.

ANISEED WATER; AQUA ANISI (P. Cod.). From seeds, as AQUA ANGELICÆ.

BALM WATER; AQUA MELISSÆ (P. Cod.), L. Fresh tops, 12 lbs.

BERGAMOT WATER; AQUA BERGAMII (L. 1746). Bergamot peel, 5 oz.

BITTER-ALMOND WATER; AQUÆ AMYGDALÆ AMARÆ, AQUA AMYGDALARUM AMABARUM (P. Cod.), L. Bitter-almond cake (from which the oil has been expressed), 5 lbs.; macerate for 24 hours, and filter the distilled product through paper previously wetted with pure distilled water. Poisonous.——Dose, 10 to 60 drops, as a substitute for hydrocyanic acid.

BLACK MUSTARD-SEED WATER; AQUA SINAPIS NIGRÆ (Guibourt). Mix 1 part of ground black mustard seed with 8 of water; macerate for 12 hours, and distil 4 parts, by means of steam conducted by a tube from a boiler to the bottom of the still. Filter through moistened paper to separate the oil. Used externally as a rubefacient.

BORAGE WATER; AQUA BORAGINIS (P. Cod.), L. Fresh leaves, 12 lbs.

CAMPHOR WATER; AQUA CAMPHORÆ (B. P.) MISTURA CAMPHORÆ. Enclose 1/2 oz. of camphor, broken into pieces, in a muslin bag, and attach this to one end of a glass rod, to keep it at the bottom of a bottle containing 1 gall, of distilled water. Macerate for 2 days, then pour off the solution as required.

CARAWAY WATER; AQUA CARUI (B. P., Ph. L. & D.). Caraway, bruised, 1; water, 20; distil 10.

CASCARILLA WATER; AQUA CORTICIS CASCARILLÆ (P. Cod.), L. Cascarilla, bruised, 3 lbs.

CASSIA WATER; AQUA CASSIÆ (Ph. E.), L. Cassia, bruised, 1-1/2 lb.

CASTOR WATER; AQUA CASTOREI. Castor, 4 oz.

CHAMOMILE WATER; AQUA ANTHEMIDIS (Ph. G.). Dried chamomile flower, 2 lbs.; water, q. s.; distil 20 lbs.

CHERRY-LAUREL WATER; AQUA LAURO-CERASI (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Fresh leaves of common laurel, 16, water, 50; chop the leaves, crush them in a mortar, and macerate them in the water for twenty-four hours; distil 20 of the liquid, shake the product, filter through paper, and preserve in a stoppered bottle——2. (Ph. E.) Fresh leaves, chopped, 10 lbs. (10 lbs.——Ph. D.). To the product add of compound spirit of lavender, 8 fl. oz,; agitate well, and, if milky, filter it (through wet paper——Ph. D.& P. Cod.).——Dose, 10 to 60 drops, as a substitute for hydrocyanic acid. It is commonly imitated in trade by dissolving 75 drops (minims) of the oil of bitter almonds in 2-1/2 fl. oz. of rectified spirit, agitating the mixture with warm distilled water, 1 gall., and filtering.

CINNAMON WATER; AQUA CINNAMOMI (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. 1. Cinnamon, bruised, 18 oz.; or oil, 2 fl. dr.——2. (B. P.) Cinnamon, bruised, 1; water, 16; distil 8.

CLOVE WATER; AQUA CARYOPHYLLI (P. Cod.), L. Cloves, bruised, 3 lbs.

CORIANDER WATER; AQUA CORIANDRI. As Angelica water.

DILL WATER; AQUA ANETHI (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. 1. Bruised seed, 1-1/2 lb.; or essential oil, 2 fl. dr.——2. (B. P.) Bruised fruit, 1; water, 20; distil 10.

DISTILLED WATER; AQUA DESTILLATA (B. P.). Take of water, 10 galls, distil from a copper state, connected with a block-tin worm; reject the first 1/2 gall., and preserve the next 8 galls. It should remain clear on the addition of either lime water, chloride of barium, nitrate of silver, oxalate of ammonia, or hydrosulphuric acid (sulphuretted hydrogen).

ELDER-FLOWER WATER; AQUA SAMBUCI (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. 1. Fresh elder flowers, 10 lbs.——2. (B. P.) Fresh elder flowers, separated from the stalks, 1; water 2; distil 1.

FENNEL WATER; AQUA FŒNICULI (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.) L. As DILL WATER.

HYSSOP WATER; AQUA HYSSOPI (P. Cod.), L. Fresh tops, 12 lbs.

EUCALYPTUS WATER. Syn. AQUA EUCALYPTI. Prep. Dry leaves, 1 part; add sufficient water to yield 4 parts of product.

HYSTERIC WATER; AQUA HYSTERICA. Compound of spirit of bryony, omitting the bryony.

JUNIPER WATER; AQUA BACCÆ JUNIPERI (P. Cod.), L. Berries, bruised, 3 lbs.

LAVENDER WATER; AQUA LAVENDULÆ (P. Cod.), L. Flowering tops, 3 lbs.

LEMON-PEEL WATER; Aqua limonis (E., 1817). Fresh lemon peel, 2 lbs.; water, q. s.; distil 10 lbs.

LETTUCE WATER; AQUA LACTUCÆ (P. Cod.), L. Fresh lettuces, bruised, 12 lbs.

LIME-TREE-FLOWER WATER; AQUA TILLIÆ. From lime flowers, as melilot water.

LILY WATER; AQUA LILIORUM CONVALLIUM (Ph. Bruns.). Flowers of lily of the valley, 1 lb.; water, 4 lbs.; distil 2 lbs.

MELILOT WATER; AQUA MELLIOTI (P. Cod.), L. Dried flower, 3 lbs.

MINT WATER, SPEARMINT W.; AQUA MENTHÆ VIRIDIS (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.). L. 1. Dried herb, 2 lbs.; or fresh herb, 4 lbs.; or essential oil, 2 fl. dr.——2. (B. P.) English oil of spearmint, 1-1/2 dr.; water, 1-1/2 gall.; distil 1 gall.

MYRTLE-FLOWER WATER; AQUA MYRTI. Myrtle flowers, 3 lbs.; water, q. s.; distil 1 gall.

OPIUM WATER; AQUA OPII (Ph. G). Opium, sliced and dried, 1 oz. Put into a glass retort with 10 oz. of. water, and distil 5 oz.

ORANGE-FLOWER WATER; AQUA AURANTII FLORIS (B. P., Ph. L.), A. FLORUM AURANTII, L. “Water distilled from the flowers of Citrus Bigaradia, Risso, and Citrus Aurantium, D. C.” (Ph. L.) Orange flowers, 10 lbs.; proof spirit, 7 fl. oz. (Ph. L. 1836.)

ORANGE-PEEL WATER; AQUA CORTICIS AURANTII (L. 1746). Rind of oranges, 5 oz.

ORIGANUM WATER; AQUA ORIGANI (P. Cod.), L. Dried flowers, 3 lbs.

PEACH WATER; AQUA PERSICÆ (P. Cod.), L. Fresh leaves, chopped small, 12 lbs.; as CHERRY-LAUREL WATER.

PEACH-LEAF WATER; AQUA PERSICÆ (P. Cod.). Fresh peach leaves, cut small, 2 lbs.; water, 4 lbs. Distil gently 3 lbs.

PARSLEY-SEED WATER; AQUA PETROSELINI (P. Cod.). From parsley seed, as angelica water.

PENNYROYAL WATER; AQUA PULEGII (Ph. L. & E.), AQUA MENTHÆ PULEGII (Ph. D.), L. As MINT WATER (above).

PEPPERMINT WATER; AQUA MENTHÆ PIPERITÆ (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. As MINT WATER (above).

PIMENTO WATER; AQUA PIMENTÆ: (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.). L. 1. Pimento, bruised, 1 lb.; or oil, 2 fl. dr.——2. (B. P.) Pimento, bruised, 1; water, 23, nearly; distil one half.

PLANTAIN-LEAF WATER; AQUA PLANTAGINIS (P. Cod.). From fresh plantain leaves, as lettuce water.

RASPBERRY WATER. Fresh raspberries, 6 lbs.

RED-ANT WATER; AQUA FORMICARUM. Distilled from red ants with water, q. s.

RHODIUM WATER; AQUA RHODII. Rhodium wood, 1 part; water, 8; macerate, and distil 4 parts.

ROSEMARY WATER; AQUA ROSMARINI, AQUA ANTHOS. Rosemary, in flower, 1 lb.; infuse 24 hours; distil 1 gall.

ROSE WATER; AQUA ROSÆ (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Damask or hundred-leaved rose, 10 lbs. (Ph. L. & E.).——Otto 40 drops. (Ph. D.)——Fresh cabbage-rose petals, 1; water, 2; distil 1 (B. P.).

RUE WATER; AQUA RUTÆ. Fresh rue, 1 lb.; macerate 24 hours; distil 1 gall.

SAGE WATER; AQUA SALVIÆ (P. Cod.), L. As LAVENDER WATER (above).

SASSAFRAS WATER; AQUA LIGNI SASSAFRAS (P. Cod.), L. Sassafras chips, 3 lbs.

SASSAFRAS WATER; AQUA SASSAFRAS (P. Cod.). From sassafras, as melilot water.

SCURVY-GRASS WATER; AQUA COCHLEARIÆ (P. Cod.). Fresh scurvy grass, 8 lbs.

SPEARMINT WATER. See MINT WATER.

SPIRITUOUS WATERS. Many of the distilled spirits were formerly termed waters.

SPRUCE FIR WATER; AQUA ABIRTIS (P. Cod.). Bruised buds of spruce fir, 2 lbs.

STINKING GOOSE-FOOT WATER; AQUA CHENOPODII VALVARIÆ. Stinking goose-foot, 1 lb.; water, 6 lbs.; distil 3 lbs.; 1 to 2 oz. in hysteria.

STRAWBERRY WATER; AQUA FRAGARIÆ. Strawberries, 3 lbs.; water, q. s.; distil 3 lbs.

TANSY WATER; AQUA TANACETI (P. Cod.), L. Flowering tops, 6 lbs.

THYME WATER; AQUA THYMI (P. Cod.), L. As the last.

VALERIAN WATER; AQUA VALERIANÆ, A. RADICIS V. (P. Cod.), L. Root bruised, 3 lbs.

VANILLA WATER; AQUA VANILLÆ, L. Vanilla, coarsely powdered, 1 lb.; salt, 5 lbs.; water 2-1/2 galls.; macerate for 24 hours in a covered vessel, then distil 1 gall.

VIOLET WATER; AQUA VIOLÆ. Violets, 1 part; water, 4; after 6 hours distil 2 parts.

WORMWOOD WATER; AQUA ABSINTHII (P. Cod.). Wormwood tops, 4 lbs.

Uses, &c. Distilled waters are mostly employed as vehicles or perfumes. A few, as bitter-almond, cherry-laurel, and peach water, are poisonous in doses larger than a few drops. The dose of the aromatic or carminative waters, as those of dill, caraway, peppermint, pennyroyal, &c., is a wine-glassful, ad libitum.

Concluding Remarks. In the preparation of distilled waters for medical purposes the utmost care should be taken to prevent contamination from contact with either copper, lead, or zinc, since these metals are gradually oxidised and dissolved by them. In preparing them from the essential oils, silica, in impalpable powder, is the best substance that can be employed to promote the division and diffusion of the oil, as directed in the Ph. L. Magnesia and sugar, formerly used for the purpose, are objectionable; as the first not; only decomposes a portion of the oil, but the water is apt to dissolve a little of it, and is hence rendered unfit to be used as a solvent for metallic salts, more especially for corrosive sublimate and nitrate of silver; whilst the other causes the water to ferment and acetify.

In the distillation of waters intended for perfumery the utmost care is requisite to produce a highly fragrant article. The still should be furnished with a high and narrow neck, and the heat of steam, or a salt-water bath, should alone be employed. The first 2 or 3 fl. oz. of the runnings should be rejected, except when spirit is used, and the remainder collected until the proper quantity be obtained, when the whole product should be mixed together, as distilled waters progressively decrease in strength the longer the process is continued. When a very superior article is desired, the waters may be redistilled by a gentle heat, the first two thirds only being preserved. The herbaceous odour of recently distilled waters is removed by keeping them for some months, loosely covered in a cold cellar.

When distilled waters have been carefully prepared, so that none of the liquor in the still has ‘spirted’ over into the condensing worm, they keep well, and are not liable to change; but when the reverse is the case, they frequently become ropy and viscid. The best remedy for this is to redistil them. Waters which have acquired a burnt smell in the ‘stilling’ lose it by freezing. Distilled waters may be prevented from turning sour by adding a little calcined magnesia to them, and those which have begun to spoil may be recovered by adding 1 gr. each of borax and alum to the pint. The doctoring is not, however, to be recommended, and should never be adopted for those used in medicine. A drop of solution of terchloride of gold added to these waters shows whether they contain any uncombined essential oil, by forming, in that case, a fine metallic film on the surface. After distilled waters have acquired their full odour, they should be carefully preserved in well-stopped bottles. Such houses keep a separate still for each of the more delicate perfumed waters, as it is extremely difficult to remove any odour that adheres to the body of the still and worm. The addition of the small quantity of spirit ordered in the Ph. E. and Ph. L. 1836, in the preparation of their waters, in no way tends to promote their preservation.

In general, the druggist draws off 2 galls., or more, of water from the quantities of the herbs, barks, seeds, or flowers, ordered in the Pharmacopœias; hence the inferior quality of the waters of the shops. They do, however, very well for vehicles. The perfumers, on the contrary, use an excess of flowers, or at least reserve only the first and stronger portion of the water that distils over, the remainder being collected and used for a second distillation of fresh flowers.

The most beautiful distilled waters are those prepared in the south of France, and which are imported into England under the French names. Thus eau de rose, eau de fleurs d’oranges, &c., are immensely superior to the best English rose or orange-flower water, &c. The water that distils over in the preparation of the essential oils is usually of the strongest and finest class. See ESSENCE, OILS (Volatile), SPIRITS (Perfumed), VEGETABLES, &c.

=WATERS (Eye).= Syn. COLLYRIA, L. Prep. 1. From distilled vinegar, 1 fl. oz.; distilled water 1/2 pint. Half a fl. oz. of rectified spirit, or 1 fl. oz. of brandy, is often added. In simple chronic ophthalmia, blear eyes, &c., also to remove particles of lime from the eyes.

2. Sugar of lead, 10 gr.; pure vinegar, 1/2 teaspoonful; distilled water, 1/2 pint. In ophthalmia, as soon as active inflammation ceases; also as the last.

3. Wine of opium, 2 fl. dr.; sulphate of zinc, 20 gr.; distilled water, 1/2 pint. Astringent and anodyne; in painful ophthalmia and extreme irritability.

4. Opium, 15 gr.; boiling water, 8 fl. oz.; when cold, add of solution of acetate of ammonia, 2-1/2 fl. oz., and filter. As the last.

5. Sulphate of zinc, 20 gr.; distilled water, 1/2 pint; dissolve. Au excellent astringent water in chronic ophthalmia, weak and irritable, eyes, &c.

6. Sulphate of copper, 10 gr.; camphor mixture (julep), 1/2 pint; dissolve. In the purulent ophthalmia of infants.

I. TABLE _exhibiting the Composition of several of the more celebrated_ MINERAL WATERS.

16 fl. oz. in the following Ingredients:——

+---------------+--------+---------+-------------+---------+---------+---------+--------+--------» | |Nitrogen|Carbonic |Sulphuretted |Carbonate|Carbonate|Carbonate|Sulphate|Sulphate | |in cubic|anhydride|hydrogen in |of |of |of |of |of mag- | WATERS. |inches. |in |cubic inches.|sodium |magnesium|calcium |sodium |nesium in | | |cubic | |in |in |in |in |grains. | | |inches. | |grains. |grains. |grains. |grains. | +---------------+--------+---------+-------------+---------+---------+---------+--------+--------» |CARBONATED. | | | | | | | | |Seltzer | | 17· | | 4· | 5· | 3· | | |Pyrmont | | 26· | | | 10· | 4·5 | | 5·5 |Spa | | 13· | | 1·5 | 4·5 | 1·5 | | |Carlsbad | | 5· | | 5· | | 1·5 | 8·5 | |Pouges | | 30· | | 10· | 1·2 | 12· | | |Saint Parize | | 22· | | | 0·5 | 11·5 | | +---------------+--------+---------+-------------+---------+---------+---------+--------+--------» |CHALYBEATE. | | | | | | | | |Tunbridge | 0·59 | 1· | {trace } | | | 0·03 | | |Cheltenham | | | { of } | | | | | | Chalybeate | | 2·5 | {oxygen} | 0·5 | | | 22·7 | 6· |Brighton | | 2·2 | | | | | | +---------------+--------+---------+-------------+---------+---------+---------+--------+--------» |SALINE. | | | | | | | | |Seidlitz | | | | | 2·5 | 0·8 | | 180· |Cheltenham | | | | | | | 15· | 11· | Pure Saline | | | | | | | | |Bristol | | 3·5 | | | | 1·5 | 1·5 | |Buxton | 0·2 | | | | | 1·3 | | |Bath | | 1·2 | | | | 0·8 | 1·5 | |Scarborough | | | | | |a trace | 20· | |Barèges | | | uncertain | 2·5 | | ditto | | |Plombières | | | | 2·2 | | 0·3 | 2·3 | |Kilburn | | 3·5 | 8·54? | | 0·5 | 1· | 12· | 37· |Leamington | | | | | | | | | New Bath | 0·4 | a trace | a trace | | | | 19· | |Leamington | | | | | | | | | Old Bath | 0·3 | ditto | | | | | 7·5 | 7· +---------------+--------+---------+-------------+---------+---------+---------+--------+--------» |SULPHUROUS. | | | | | | | | |Harrogate | 0·8 | 1· | 2·3 | | 0·7 | 2·5 | | 1·3 |Moffat | 0·5 | 0·6 | 1·2 | | | | | |Aix-la-Chapelle| | | 5·5 | 12· | | 4·2 | | |Cheltenham | | | | | | | | | Sulph. Spring| | | 1·5 | | | | 23·5 | 5· +---------------+--------+---------+-------------+---------+---------+---------+--------+--------»

»---------------+--------+--------+---------+----------+-------+-------+-------+---------+------------+ | |Sulphate|Chloride|Chloride |Chloride |Ferric |Silica.|Temper-|Total of |AUTHORITY. | | |of |of |of magne-|of calcium|Oxide. | |ature. |saline | | | WATERS. |calcium |sodium |sium in |in | | | |contents.| | | (Repeated.) |in |in |grains. |grains. | | | | | | | |grains. |grains. | | | | | | | | »---------------+--------+--------+---------+----------+-------+-------+-------+---------+------------+ |CARBONATED. | | | | | | | | | | |Seltzer | | 17· | | | | | Cold | 29· |Bergman. | |Pyrmont | 8·5 | 1·5 | | | 0·6 | | ditto | 30·6 | Ditto. | |Spa | | 0·2 | | | 0·6 | | ditto | 8·3 | Ditto. | |Carlsbad | | 4·5 | | |a trace| 0·3 | 165° | 19·8 |Klaproth. | |Pouges | | 2·2 | | | 2·5 | 0·5 | Cold | 28·4 |Hassentratz.| |Saint Parize | 13·5 | | | | | | ditto | 25· | Ditto. | »---------------+--------+--------+---------+----------+-------+-------+-------+---------+------------+ |CHALYBEATE. | | | | | | | | | | |Tunbridge | 0·17 | 0·30 | 0·03 | 0·05 |0·28 | | ditto | 0·86 | Scudamore. | |Cheltenham | | | | | | | | | Parkes | | Chalybeate | 2·5 | 41·3 | | |0·8 | | ditto | 73·8 | & Brande.| |Brighton | 4· | 3· | 0·75 | |1·4 | 0·14 | ditto | 9·29 | Marcet. | »---------------+--------+--------+---------+----------+-------+-------+-------+---------+------------+ |SALINE. | | | | | | | | | | |Seidlitz | 5· | | 4·5 | | | | ditto |192·8 | Bergman. | |Cheltenham | 4·5 | 50· | | | | | | | Parkes | | Pure Saline | | | | | | | ditto | 80·5 | & Brande.| |Bristol | 1·5 | 0·5 | 1· | | | | 74° | 6· | Carrick. | |Buxton | 0·3 | 0·2 | | | 0·03 | | 82° | 1·83 | Pearson. | |Bath | 9· | 3·3 | | |a trace| 0·2 | 116° | 14·8 | Phillips. | |Scarborough | 9· | | | | ditto | | Cold | 29· | Saunders. | |Barèges |a trace | 0·5 | | | | | 120° | 3· | Ditto. | |Plombières | | 1·5 | | | | 0·3 | ? | 6·6 | Vanquelin. | |Kilburn | 5·5 | 2·5 | 5·5 | 0·2 |a trace| | Cold | 64·2 | Schmeisser.| |Leamington | | | | | | | | | | | New Bath |14· | 53· | 1·5 | | 0·8 | | ditto | 88·3 | Lambe. | |Leamington | | | | | | | | | | | Old Bath |18· | 41· | | | | | ditto | 73·5 | Ditto. | »---------------+--------+--------+---------+----------+-------+-------+-------+---------+------------+ |SULPHUROUS. | | | | | | | | | | |Harrogate | | 77· | 11· | 1·5 | | | ditto | 94· | Garnet. | |Moffat | | 4·5 | | | | | ditto | 4·5 | Ditto. | |Aix-la-Chapelle| | 5· | | | | | 143° | 21·2 | Bergman. | |Cheltenham | | | | | | | | | Parkes | | Sulph. Spring| 1·2 | 35· | | | 0·3 | | Cold | 65· | & Brande.| »---------------+--------+--------+---------+----------+-------+-------+-------+---------+------------+

II. TABLE exhibiting the Composition of the principal MINERAL WATERS of GERMANY, and of the SARATOGA CONGRESS SPRING of AMERICA, re-arranged expressly for this work.

+--------------------------+---------------------------------------------------------------» | Grains of anhydrous |Adelheids-Quelle. | | |Fachingen. | | ingredients in | |Auschowitz. Ferdinands-Brunnen.| |Kissengen. Ragozi. | one pound troy. | | |Carlsbad. | | | |Krenznach. | | | | |Eger. Franzens-Brunnen.| |Elizen- | | | | | |Ems. | | |Brunnen. +--------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------» | | | | | | | | | |Carbonate of Soda | 5·2443| 4·5976| 7·2712| 3·8914| 8·0625|12·3328| ... | ... |Carbonate of Lithia | 0·0902| 0·0507| 0·0150| 0·0282| 0·0405| ... | ... | ... |Carbonate of Baryta | 0·0024| ... | ... | ... | 0·0022| ... | ... | ... |Carbonate of Strontia | 0·0387| 0·0040| 0·0055| 0·0023| 0·0080| ... | 0·0592| ... |Carbonate of Lime | 0·4703| 3·0085| 1·7775| 1·3501| 0·8555| 1·8667| 4·8180| 0·2058 |Carbonate of Magnesia | 0·2980| 2·2867| 1·0275| 0·5040| 0·5915| 1·2983| 1·3185| 1·1812 |Carbonate (Proto) Manganese 0·0012| 0·0692| 0·0048| 0·0322| 0·0028| ... | 0·0121| 0·0072 |Carbonate of (Proto) Iron | 0·0121| 0·2995| 0·0208| 0·1762| 0·0120| ... | 0·1397| 0·1495 |Sub-Phos. of Lime | ... | ... | 0·0012| 0·0172| ... | 0·0061| ... | ... |Sub-Phos. of Alumina | ... | 0·0040| 0·0019| 0·0092| 0·0014| ... | ... | ... |Sulphate of Potassa | 0·0066| ... | ... | ... | 0·4050| ... | 1·2540| ... |Sulphate of Soda | ... |16·9022|14·9019|18·3785| ... | 0·1267| ... | ... |Sulphate of Lithia | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... |Sulphate of Lime | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 5·5485| ... |Sulphate of Strontia | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... |Sulphate of Magnesia | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... |Nitr. of Magnesia | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... |Chlor. of Ammonium | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0·0364| ... |Chlor. of Potassium | 0·1845| ... | ... | ... | 0·0338| ... | ... | 0·7287 |Chlor. of Sodium |28·4608| 6·7472| 5·9820| 6·9229| 5·7255| 3·2337|39·3733|54·6917 |Chlor. of Lithium | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0·0562 |Chlor. of Calcium | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 9·7358 |Chlor. of Magnesium | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 3·6599| ... |Chlor. of Barium | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0·2366 |Chlor. of Strontium | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0·5494 |Bromide of Sodium | 0·3060| ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0·3331| 0·2304 |Iodide of Sodium | 0·1500| ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0·0024 |Fluoride of Calcium | ... | ... | 0·0184| ... | 0·0014| ... | ... | ... |Alumina | 0·0166| ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0·0086 |Silica | 0·1922| 0·5023| 0·4329| 0·3548| 0·3104| 0·0657| 0·1609| 0·2355 +----------------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------» |Total Saline contents |35·4739|34·4719|31·4606|31·6670|16·0525|18·9300|56·7136|68·0190 |Carbonic Acid Gas in 100} | 10 | 154 | 58 | 154 | 51 | 135 | 96 | 12 | cubic inches } | | | | | | | | | { | | Spru. 165° | | | | | { | | Neub. 138° Kess. 117° | | |Temperature, Fahr. { | 58 | 49° Mühl. 128° 54° Krán. 84° 50° | 53°| 47° | { | | Ther. 122° | | | | |Authorities | A | B | C | C | A | D | A | A +----------------------------------+---------------------------------------+-------+-------»

»--------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ | Grains of anhydrous | | | Pyrmont. | | | |Spa Pouhon. | ingredients in | | | |Saratoga Congress Spring. | | | one pound troy. | | | | |Schlesischer. Obersalz-Brunnen.| | |Marienbad. Kreuzbr. | | |Seidschutz. | | | | |Püllna.| | | | |Selters. | »--------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ | | | | | | | | | | |Carbonate of Soda | 5·3499| ... | ... | 0·8261| 7·6211| ... | 4·6162| 0·5531| |Carbonate of Lithia | 0·0858| ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | |Carbonate of Baryta | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0·0014| ... | |Carbonate of Strontia | 0·0028| ... | ... | 0·0672| 0·0170| ... | 0·0144| ... | |Carbonate of Lime | 2·9509| 0·5775| 4·7781| 5·8531| 1·5464| 5·1045| 1·4004| 0·7387| |Carbonate of Magnesia | 2·0390| 4·8045| ... | 4·1155| 1·5496| 0·8235| 1·5000| 0·8421| |Carbonate (Proto) Manganese 2·0288| ... | 0·0364| 0·0202| 0·0026| 0·0032| ... | 0·0389| |Carbonate of (Proto) Iron | 0·1319| ... | 0·3213| 0·0173| 0·0356| 0·0095| ... | 0·2813| |Sub-Phos. of Lime | ... | 0·0026| ... | ... | ... | 0·0117| 0·0007| 0·0102| |Sub-Phos. of Alumina | ... | ... | 0·0110| ... | ... | 0·0088| 0·0020| 0·0064| |Sulphate of Potassa | ... | 3·6000| 0·0314| 0·1379| 0·3160| 3·6705| 0·2978| 0·0593| |Sulphate of Soda |28·5868|92·8500| 1·6092| ... | 2·5106|17·6220| ... | 0·0281| |Sulphate of Lithia | ... | ... | 0·0067| ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | |Sulphate of Lime | ... | 1·9500| 5·0265| ... | ... | 1·1287| ... | ... | |Sulphate of Strontia | ... | ... | 0·0154| ... | ... | 0·0347| ... | ... | |Sulphate of Magnesia | ... |69·8145| 2·3684| ... | ... |62·3535| ... | ... | |Nitr. of Magnesia | ... | ... | ... | 0·1004| ... | 5·9302| ... | ... | |Chlor. of Ammonium | ... | ... | ... | 0·0326| 0·0164| ... | ... | ... | |Chlor. of Potassium | ... | ... | ... | 1·6256| ... | ... | 0·2685| ... | |Chlor. of Sodium |10·1727| ... | ... |19·6653| 0·8682| ... |12·9690| 0·3371| |Chlor. of Lithium | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | |Chlor. of Calcium | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | |Chlor. of Magnesium | ... |14·7495| 0·8450| ... | ... | 1·2223| ... | ... | |Chlor. of Barium | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | |Chlor. of Strontium | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | |Bromide of Sodium | ... | ... | ... | 0·1613| 0·0051| ... | ... | ... | |Iodide of Sodium | ... | ... | ... | 0·0046| ... | ... | ... | ... | |Fluoride of Calcium | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 0·0013| ... | |Alumina | 0·0023| ... | ... | 0·0069| ... | ... | ... | ... | |Silica | 0·2908| 0·1320| 0·3727| 0·1112| 0·2423| 0·0900| 0·2265| 0·3739| »--------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ |Total Saline contents |51·6417|88·4806|15·4221|32·7452|14·7309|98·0133|21·2982| 3·2691| |Carbonic Acid Gas in 100} | 105 | 7 | 160 | 114 | 98 | 20 | 126 | 136 | | cubic inches } | | | | | | | | | | { | | | | | | | | | | { | | | | | | | | | |Temperature, Fahr. { | 53°| 58°| 56°| 50°| 58° | 58°| 58°| 58°| | { | | | | | | | | | |Authorities | C | A | A | E | A | A | A | A | »--------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+ Authorities: A Struve. B Steinm. C Berzelius. D Bischoff. E Schweitz.

7. Camphor julep, 5 fl. oz.; solution of acetate of ammonia and rose water, of each 2-1/2 fl. oz.; mix. For weak or swollen eyes, particularly after ophthalmia.

8. Chloride of barium, 30 gr.; distilled water, 1/2 pint. In the ophthalmia of scrofulous and syphylitic habits.

9. (Bate’s.) From blue vitriol, 15 gr.; camphor, 4 gr.; hot water, 1/4 pint; agitate in a corked bottle, and, when cold, make it up to 4 pints, and filter. In purulent ophthalmia and blear eyes.

10. (Goulard’s.) From solution of diacetate of lead, 16 drops; distilled water, 1/2 pint; mix. As No. 2.

11. (Krimer.) Hydrochloric acid, 20 drops; mucilage, 1 dr.; water, 2 fl. oz. To remove particles of iron or lime from the eye.

12. (Marshall’s ‘EYE-DROPS,’) Nitrate of silver, 2 gr.; dilute nitric acid, 2 drops; pure soft or distilled water, 1 fl. oz.; dissolve; add powdered gum, 15 gr.; agitate until dissolved, and the next day decant the clear portion.

13. (P. Cod.) Extract of opium, 4 gr.; rose water, 1 fl. oz.; dissolved. In painful ophthalmia.

=WATERS (Mine′ral).= Syn. SALINE WATERS; AQUÆ MINERALES, L. Our space will not permit a description of these individually. The tables given on pages 1746-7, exhibiting their composition, will, however, enable the reader, with a little attention, to produce artificial waters more closely resembling the natural ones than can be done by adopting any of the numerous formulæ published for the purpose. The ‘aerated waters’ are charged with 5 or 6 times their volume of carbonic acid gas, by means of the apparatus employed by the soda-water manufacturers. On the small scale the gas is often produced by the reaction of the ingredients on each other, in which case, on the introduction of the latter, the bottle must be instantly closed and inverted. Distilled water, or filtered rain water, should alone be employed in their composition; and for the chalybeated and sulphuretted waters it should be first boiled, and allowed to cool out of contact with the air.

In addition to the tables it may be remarked that traces of iodine have been found in the water of Cheltenham (old well), traces of bromine in the water of Epsom, and traces of both bromine and iodine in that of Leamington (royal pump). Manganese has been found in the waters of Tunbridge, Carlsbad, Spa, Pyrmont, Marienbad, Saidschüts, &c. Traces of phosphoric and fluoric acid have also been found in some mineral waters. It is the opinion of many high authorities that the medicinal virtues of these waters depend more on the minute quantities of the above substances, and the high state of dilution in which they are held, than on their more abundant saline ingredients.

=WATER (Perfumed′).= Syn. AQUÆ ODORIFERÆ, L. The simple distilled waters of the perfumer have been already noticed (see page 1745). They may be prepared from any substances which imparts its fragrance to water by distillation. The compound waters (eaux) employed as perfumes consist of very pure rectified spirit, holding in solution essential oils, or other odorous matter, and resemble the esprits, essences, and spirits, before noticed. They differ from extraits in being mostly colourless, or nearly so, and in being generally prepared by distillation, or by the addition of the pure essential oils or essences to carefully rectified and perfectly scentless spirit; whereas the extraits are mostly and preferably prepared by macerating the flowers, &c., in the spirit, or by digesting the spirit with the oils, in the manner noticed under SPIRITS (Perfumed). Extraits are preferred to eaux and esprits as the basis of good perfumery, where the colour is not objectionable.

The following are a few additional formulæ and remarks:——

ANGEL WATER, PORTUGAL W. From orange-flower and rose water, of each 1 pint; myrtle water, 1/2 pint; essence of ambergris, 1/2 fl. oz.; essence of musk, 1/4 fl. oz.; shake them well together for some hours, then filter the mixture through paper.

EAU D’ANGE, Fr.; AQUA MYRTI, L. From myrtle flowers, 3-1/2 lbs.; water, 2 galls.; distil a gallon. A pleasant perfume.

EAU D’ANGE BOUILLÉE, Fr. From rose water and orange-flower water, of each 3 pints; benzoin, 1/2 lb.; storax, 1/4 lb.; cinnamon, 1 oz.; cloves, 1/2 oz.; 3 fresh-emptied musk bags; digest in a securely covered vessel, at nearly the boiling heat, for 2 hours, then allow it to cool; strain off the clear, press the remainder, and filter for use. Very fragrant.

EAU D’ANGE DISTILLÉE, Fr. From benzoin, 4 oz.; storax, 2 oz.; cloves, 1/2 oz.; calamus and cinnamon, of each 1/4 oz.; coriander seeds, 1 dr. (all bruised); water, 3 quarts; distil 2 quarts. Eau d’Ange distillée et musquée is made by adding a little essence of musk to the distilled product. Both are highly fragrant.

EAU DE LAVANDE, LAVANDER WATER. See SPIRITS (Perfumed).

EAU DE NAPHRE, EAU LE NAPHE, Fr.; AQUA NAPHÆ, L. This article is distilled in Languedoc from the leaves of the bigarade, or bitter-orange tree, but the preparation sold in England under this name is often prepared as follows:——Orange flowers, 7 lbs.; fresh yellow peel of the bigarade or Seville orange, 1/2 lb.; water, 2 galls.; macerate 24 hours, and distil 1 gall. In many cases ordinary orange-flower water is sold for eau de naphe.

ROSE WATER. From otto of roses, 3 dr.; rectified spirit (warm), 1 pint; dissolve, add of hot water, 10 galls.; mix in a 12-gallon carboy, cork, and well agitate the whole until quite cold. This makes the ordinary rose water of the shops, and is really excellent, but it is better for distillation. See WATERS (Distilled).

UNPARALLELED WATER; EAU INCOMPARABLE, Fr. From oil of lemon, 4 dr.; oil of bergamot, 2-1/2 dr.; oil of cedrat, 2 dr.; rectified spirit, 3-1/2 pints; Hungary water, 1/2 pint; mix, and distil all but 9 oz. (Guibourt.)

SUPPLEMENTARY TABLE OF MINERAL WATERS.

APOLLINARIS BRUNEN.

Carbonate of soda 9·65 grains. Carbonate of magnesia 3·39 ” Carbonate of lime 0·45 ” Chloride of sodium 3·57 ” Sulphate of soda 2·30 ” Oxide of iron }0·15 ” Alumina } Silica 0·06 ” —————— 19·59 Carbonic acid 47·04 (BISH.)

The above are the contents of 16 oz. Temp. Fahr. 70°.

BADEN-BADEN. In 16 oz.

Chloride of sodium 16·520 gr. Bicarbonate of lime 1·273 ” Bicarbonate of magnesia 0·042 ” Bicarbonate of protoxide of iron 0·037 ” Bicarbonate of protoxide of manganese traces Bicarbonate of ammonia 0·050 ” Sulphate of lime 1·556 ” Sulphate of potash 0·017 ” Phosphate of lime 0·021 ” Arseniate of iron traces Chloride of magnesium 0·097 ” Chloride of potassium 1·258 ” Bromide of sodium traces Silica 0·914 ” Alumina 0·008 ” Nitrates traces ———————— 22·093 gr. Free carbonic acid 0·299 ” (Bunsen.)

FRIEDRICHSHALL. In 16 oz.

Sulphate of soda 46·51 gr. Sulphate of magnesia 39·55 ” Chloride of sodium 61·10 ” Chloride of magnesium 30·25 ” Bromide of magnesium 0·37 ” Sulphate of potash 1·52 ” Sulphate of lime 10·34 ” Carbonate of lime 0·11 ” Carbonate of magnesia 1·16 ” Silica 0·33 ” —————— 190·25 gr. Carbonic acid 5·32 c. i. (LIEBIG.)

TOEPLITZ. 16 oz. Temp., 14° Fahr.

Sulphate of potash 0·098 gr. Sulphate of soda 0·290 ” Carbonate of soda 2·635 ” Phosphate of soda 0·014 ” Floride of silicium 0·351 ” Chloride of sodium 0·433 ” Carbonate of lime 0·330 ” Carbonate of strontia 0·027 ” Carbonate of magnesia 0·088 ” Carbonate of protoxide of iron 0·019 ” Carbonate of protoxide of manganese 0·021 ” Sulphate of alumina 0·020 ” Silica 0·443 ” Crenic acid 0·034 ” —————— 4·804 (WOLF.)

VICHY (Grand Grille). Temp. 106° Fahr. In a litre.

Carbonic acid 0·908 Bicarbonate of soda 4·883 Bicarbonate of potash 0·352 Bicarbonate of magnesia 0·303 Bicarbonate of strontia 0·003 Bicarbonate of lime 0·434 Bicarbonate of protoxide of iron 0·004 Bicarbonate of protoxide of manganese a trace Sulphate of soda 0·291 Phosphate of soda 0·130 Arseniate of soda 0·002 Borate of soda a trace Chloride of sodium 0·534 Silica 0·070 Organic matter, bituminous a trace ———————— grammes 7·914

WOODHALL (Lancashire).

Iodine and bromine, with chlorides of calcium, magnesium, potassium; more than 1/2 grain of bromide of sodium and 1/4 grain of iodine of sodium.

190 grains in 20 oz. Strongly impregnated with carbonic acid.

=WATERBRASH.= See PYROSIS.

=WATER-CLOSET.= There are a number of conditions necessary to be observed in the construction and arrangement of the water-closet if we wish to prevent its becoming a nuisance and a source of danger to the health of the inmates of a dwelling-house. 1. As regards situation there can be no doubt that, upon strict sanitary principles, the closet, instead of forming part of the house, should, whilst within easy access to it, be entirely detached. Owing to various causes, however, this isolation is frequently impossible.

Under such circumstances the closet, whilst forming part of the dwelling, should be built out from it, so as to have as little connection as possible with the rooms, corridors, &c. To still further accomplish this end the approach to the closet should be through a small vestibule or passage connecting the closet with the corridor, and opening into the latter by means of a door. Where there are more than one closet, they should be built upon the plan just proposed, and one over the other. The basement of a house is a particularly objectionable locality for a water-closet, since the warm house acts as an aspirator, and thus draws any fetid and poisonous gases there may be in the closet into the house, and causes them to be diffused throughout it. The water-closet should, therefore, always be placed in the higher parts of a building. 2. As regards construction, &c., it would be impossible for us to attempt to canvass the merits or the reverse of the numerous designs, patents, &c., that relate to this part of our subject. We shall indicate, therefore, only the more important desiderata, which are——That the pan should be nearly cone-shaped, and not round, like a half-circle. It is mostly made of earthenware, sometimes of metal and occasionally of enamelled iron. The preferable substance is earthenware: the pan should always be ventilated, and there should likewise be a sufficient flow and force of water to sweep everything out of it, and thoroughly cleanse it.

The cistern supplying the closet should be kept solely for this purpose, and not, as is sometimes the case, be taken from the house cistern, as this latter practice may lead to the contamination of the drinking water, owing to the gases rising from the closet.

The bottom of the pan is attached to the soil-pipe which discharges into the drain. The soil-pipe is mostly trapped by means of a syphon valve; and it is important that the points of junction between the pipe and the syphon valve and the pipe and the main drain should be thoroughly secure and air-tight. Furthermore it is imperative, if we wish to prevent an influx into the pan of the gases and foul air which rise through the syphon as the water runs off, that the soil-pipe should be ventilated. This may be effected by attaching a small pipe having connection with the outer air to the discharge-pipe just below the syphon, and carrying it up to the top of the house. Another advantage arising from ventilating the soil-pipe, besides the prevention of the escape of sewer-gas into the house, is that there is no danger of its corrosion (if it be of lead) by the action of the pent-up sulphuretted vapours. The seat, which is mostly of wood, should be so arranged as to be easily movable, and thus allow of easy inspection of the different parts should they get out of order.

The seat as well as the closet should always be ventilated. A good and simple method for the ventilation of the latter is to carry a tube from the top of the closet into the outer air. “If the closet is in a bad situation it should be heated by a gas jet.”[262]

[Footnote 262: Parkes.]

The lid attached to the seat should have a hole cut in it, so as to allow of the handle being pulled up when the pan is covered, which, strange to say, in perhaps ninety-nine cases out of every hundred it never is, after being used. Of course, in the absence of the ventilation of the pan and soil-pipe, the result of keeping the seat covered over would only be to fill the pan with malodorous and more or less dangerous gases, which would escape into the closet when the lid was again raised.

3. Precautions.——The use of unduly large pieces of paper, such as cause stoppage and obstruction in the discharge-pipe, should be particularly avoided. Any defect or impediment in the working of the closet should be remedied at once. As a general rule, servants are very careless in all matters connected with the water-closet; so much so that the masters of many houses are themselves compelled to exercise supervision over it.

During very hot weather, or the prevalence of an infectious disease in a dwelling-house or in the neighbourhood of the house, some disinfectant should be added to the water that supplies the closet. A substance that will very satisfactorily answer this purpose is the commercial sulphate of iron known as green vitriol. A pound of it should be put into the tank when filled with water.

The same disregard of sanitary obligations so frequently shown in the construction, site, &c., of water-closets is more obvious in the case of privies. The Public Health Act not only renders unlawful the erection or rebuilding of any dwelling-house without “a sufficient water-closet, earth-closet, or privy and an ash-pit, furnished with proper doors and coverings;” but also requires that, “If a house within the district of a local authority appears to such authority by the report of their surveyor or inspector of nuisances to be without a sufficient water-closet, earth-closet, or privy and ashpit, furnished with proper doors and coverings, the local authority shall, by written notice, require the owner or occupier of the house within a reasonable time therein specified, to provide a sufficient water-closet, earth-closet, or privy and an ashpit furnished as aforesaid, or either of them, as the case may require.”

Although in many large towns and cities a more or less effectual supervision may be exercised by the sanitary inspector in the above direction, as every one’s experience of the usual outdoor privy of a small English country town or village, will suggest to them the extreme toleration prevailing amongst the sanitary authorities in many provincial and rural districts in this particular. Ventilation is as essential for the privy as the water-closet, so also is the thorough trapping of the exit-pipe from the pan, as well as the cleansing and flushing of this latter by water directly after it has been used. Yet how rarely do we find not only all, but not even one of these conditions fulfilled in the arrangement of the ordinary privy; but instead an untrapped, immovable pan (and in some cases even this is wanting) covered with filth, and no contrivance of any kind for a constant water supply.

No wonder, therefore, that the atmosphere of an ordinary privy should be so foul and noisome as it invariably is.

The following specification for a useful description of privy is published by Messrs Knight & Co., 90, Fleet Street, London:——

Specification.——The privy and dust-bin to be built of 4-1/2-inch brickwork, in well-ground mortar of approved quality. Two rows of 4-1/2 and 3-inch bond timber to be built in at back of privy for securing ventilating-shafts. The ventilating-shafts to be 7 by 4-1/2 inches, inside measurement, of best red deal boards 1 inch thick, closely put together with strong white lead paint, and well nailed and carefully seamed to the 4-1/2 inch and 3 inch bond timber. These shafts to have coats of boiled tar both inside and out.

The lid of refuse-bin to be of best 1-inch red deal boards, with two strong ledges or battens across them; to be hung with three strong band-hinges to the sides of the ventilating-shafts, and the making-up piece between the same. A circular orifice to be made in centre of lid, between the battens 10 inches wide. The lid to have two coats of boiled tar both inside and out. A 4-1/2-inch and 3-inch frame of red deal to be securely fixed on top of the dust-bin, as a seat for the lid. A lid over the privy seat to be hinged on at the back, with a child’s seat over centre of large one. The larger seat to be provided with an earthenware circular rim beneath. The earth-compartment to be without lid, and provided with a pint scoop for each occupant to throw in a pint of the stored dry earth or dry ashes through the seat into the galvanised iron pail, the contents of which must be scattered over the garden or put in the dust-bin before the pail becomes full. A loose foot-block may be furnished where there are young children.[263]

[Footnote 263: The Earth-closet is described under “Sewage Removal of.”]

The dust-bin may be placed at side of the privy if required. The floor of dust-bin to be at the ground level, slightly inclined outwards, and paved with brick. See SEWAGE, REMOVAL AND DISPOSAL OF, DRAINS, TANKS, CESSPOOLS.

=WATER-COLOUR CAKES.= These are prepared from any of the ordinary pigments that work well in water, made into a stiff and perfectly smooth paste with gum water, or isinglass size, or a mixture of the two, and then compressed in polished steel moulds, and dried. See PAINTING, and the respective pigments.

=WATERCRESS.= The Nasturtium officinale, a well-known plant of the natural order Cruciferæ. It is alterative and antiscorbutic, and was formerly used in medicine, but now chiefly as a salad, or a refreshing relish at breakfast.

=WATER-GAS.= By forcing steam through fireclay, or iron retorts filled with red-hot charcoal or coke, the steam is decomposed into a mixture of hydrogen, carbonic oxide, and carbonic anhydride.[264]

[Footnote 264: Possibly a small quantity of marsh gas is also present.——ED.]

To this mixture, after it has been purified, the name of “water-gas,” owing to the source from whence it has been derived, has been given.

According to some chemists the purified gas (obtained by passing the crude gaseous product sometimes over lime, sometimes over crystallised carbonate of soda) consists solely of hydrogen gas. Langlois’ analysis, however, has led to the conclusion that it is a compound of hydrogen and carbonic oxide gases. Water gas, obtained as above, possesses no illuminating power. This is imparted to it, by impregnating the gas with the vapour of certain hydrocarbons, a plan suggested by Jobbard, of Brussels, in 1832. Another, but less usual method, originating with Gengembre and Gillard, is to place on the burners which consume the gas small platinum cylinders. When these become white hot a strong and brilliant light is produced. See PLATINUM GAS.

=WATER-POX.= See (POX). CHICKEN-POX.

=WATERPROOF′ING.= Cloth is ‘waterproofed’ as follows:——

1. Moisten the cloth, on the wrong side, first with a weak solution of isinglass, and, when dry, with an infusion of nut-galls.

2. As the last, but substitute a solution of soap for isinglass, and another of alum for galls.

3. (Hancock’s Patent.) By spreading the liquid juice of the caoutchouc tree upon the inner surface of the goods, and allowing them to dry in the air. Absolutely chimerical.

4. (Potter’s Patent.) The cloth is first imbued on the wrong side with a solution of isinglass, alum, and soap, by means of a brush; when dry, it is brushed on the same side against the grain, and then gone over with a brush dipped in water. Impervious to water, but not to air.

5. (Sievier’s Patent.) By applying first a solution of India rubber in oil of turpentine, and afterwards another india rubber varnish, rendered very dry by the use of driers. On this, wool or other material of which the fabric is made, cut into proper lengths, is spread, and the whole passed through a press, whereby the surface acquires a nap or pile.

6. A simple method of rendering cloth waterproof, without being airproof, is to spread it on any smooth surface, and to rub the wrong side with a lump of bees wax (perfectly pure and free from grease), until it presents a light, but even, white or greyish appearance; a hot iron is then to be passed over it, and the cloth being brushed whilst warm, the process is complete. When the operation has been skilfully performed, a candle may be blown out through the cloth, if coarse, and yet a piece of the same, placed across an inverted hat, may have several glassfuls of water poured into the hollow formed by it, without any of the liquid passing through. Pressure or friction will alone make it do so. “We have shown this to numerous cloth-manufacturers, waterproofers, tailors, and others, several of whom have adopted the method very extensively, and with perfect success.” (Cooley.)

7. About the year 1862 a patent was taken out by Dr Stenhouse for employing paraffin as a means of rendering leather waterproof, as well as the various textile and felted fabrics; and in August, 1864, an additional patent was granted to him for an extension of and improvement on the previous one, which consisted chiefly in combining the paraffin with various proportions of drying oils, it having been found that paraffin alone, especially when applied to fabrics, became to a considerable extent detached from the fibre of the cloth after a short time, owing to its great tendency to crystallise. The presence, however, of even a small quantity of drying oil causes the paraffin to adhere much more firmly to the texture of the cloth, from the oil gradually becoming converted into a tenacious resin by absorption of oxygen.

In the application of paraffin for waterproofing purposes it is first melted along with the requisite quantity of drying oil and cast into blocks. This composition can then be applied to fabrics by rubbing them over with a block of it, either cold or gently warmed, or the mixture may be melted and laid on with a brush, the complete impregnation being effected by subsequently passing it between hot rollers. When this paraffin mixture has been applied to cloth such as that employed for blinds or tents, it renders it very repellant to water, although still pervious to air.

Cloth paraffined in this manner forms an excellent basis for such articles as capes, tarpaulins, &c., which require to be rendered quite impervious by subsequently coating them with drying oil, the paraffin in a great measure preventing the well-known injurious effect of drying oil on the fibre of the cloth. The paraffin mixture can also be advantageously applied to the various kinds of leather. One of the most convenient ways of effecting this is to coat the skins or manufactured articles, such as boots, shoes, harness, pump-buckets, &c., with the melted composition, and then to gently heat the articles until it is entirely absorbed. When leather is impregnated with the mixture, it is not only rendered perfectly waterproof, but also stronger and more durable. The beneficial effects of this process are peculiarly observable in the case of boots and shoes, which it renders very firm without destroying their elasticity. It therefore not only makes them exceedingly durable, but possesses an advantage over ordinary dabbing in not interfering with the polish of these articles, which, on the whole, it rather improves.

The superiority of paraffin over most other materials for some kinds of waterproofing consists in its comparative cheapness, in being easily applied, and in not materially altering the colour of fabrics, which in the case of light shades and white cloth is of very considerable importance.

8. A waterproof packing cloth which does not break may be made by covering the fabric with the following varnish:——2 lbs. of soft (potash) soap is dissolved in water and mixed with an aqueous solution of sulphate of iron. The washed and dried soap is dissolved in 3 lbs. of linseed oil, in which 1/5 lb. of caoutchouc has been previously dissolved.

=WATERPROOF LIQUID.= Prep. 1. India rubber, in fragments, 1 oz.; boiled oil, 1 pint; dissolve by heat, carefully applied, then stir in of hot boiled oil, 1 pint, and remove the vessel from the fire.

2. Boiled oil, 1 pint; beeswax and yellow resin, of each 2 oz.; melt them together.

3. Salad oil, 1 pint; mutton suet, 1/4 lb.; white wax and spermaceti, of each 1 oz.; as the last. For ‘ladies’ work.’

4. Bisulphide of carbon, 2 oz.; gutta percha, 1/2 oz.; asphaltum, 2 oz.; brown amber, 1/2 oz.; linseed oil, 1 oz. Mix. Dissolve the gutta percha in the bisulphide of carbon, the asphalte and amber in the oil, and mix well.

Obs. The above are used for boots, shoes, harness, leather straps, leather trunks, &c., applied warm before the fire.

=WAX.= Syn. BEESWAX, YELLOW W.; CERA (Ph. L.), CERA FLAVA (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L. The substance which forms the cells of bees; obtained by melting the comb in water, after the honey has been removed, straining the liquid mass, remelting the defecated portion, and casting it into cakes.

Pure beeswax has a pleasant ceraceous odour, a pale yellowish-brown colour, and the sp. gr. ·960 to ·965. It is brittle at 32°, softens and becomes plastic at 88 or 90°, and melts at 154 to 155° Fahr. “It becomes kneadable at about 85°, and its behaviour while worked between finger and thumb is characteristic. A piece the size of a pea being worked in the hand till tough with the warmth, then placed upon the thumb, and forcibly stroked down with the forefinger, curls up, following the finger, and is marked by it with longitudinal streaks.” (B. S. Proctor.) It is very frequently adulterated with farina, resin, and mutton suet or stearin. Dr Normandy met with a sample containing 23% of effloresced sulphate of soda. The first may be detected by oil of turpentine, which dissolves only the wax,——the second, by its solubility in cold alcohol, and by its terebinthinate taste,——the third and fourth, even when forming less than 2% of the wax, may be detected by it affording sebacic acid on distillation. When greasy matter is present in any considerable quantity, it may also be detected by the suspected sample having an unctuous feel and a disagreeable taste. A spurious beeswax met with in the American markets, is described in ‘New Remedies’ for 1877, and is said to have been a very clever imitation externally of the genuine substance, which it closely resembled in appearance, colour, fracture, bitterness, pliability, and odour. Upon analysis it was found to be composed of 60 parts of paraffin and 40 parts of yellow resin covered with a thin coating of true beeswax. The specific quantity of the counterfeit article was identical with that of many samples of genuine beeswax. Saline matter may be detected by the loss of weight, when a weighed quantity of the wax is boiled in water. Heavy substances, as chalk, plaster of Paris, white lead, oxide of zinc, &c., may also be thus separated, since they subside, owing to their superior gravity, to the bottom of the vessel. The rough mealy fracture of pure wax is rendered finer grained, smoother, and duller, by the addition of lard or spermaceti, and becomes sparkling and more granular by the addition of resin. (Proctor.)

[Note: ‘Chem. Central,’, 1872, No. 29.]

[Transcriber’s Note: The publisher omitted the corresponding tag in the text.]

=Wax, Bleached.= See WAX, WHITE (below).

=Wax, Carnauba.=[265] The leaves of the Carnauba tree (Copernicia cerifera), a South American palm, have lately become a very important source for the supply of large quantities of vegetable wax. Carnauba wax is extensively used in the manufacture of candles. Mr Consul Morgan, in a paper laid before Parliament in 1876, on the trade and commerce of Brazil, states “that the exportation of this wax is calculated at 871,400 kilos; exceeding in value reis 1,500,000, or £162,500.”

[Footnote 265: ‘Ph. Journal,’ vol. vi, 3rd series, p. 745.]

=Wax, Etching.= See ETCHING GROUND and VARNISH.

=Wax, Facti′′tious.= Syn. CERA FLAVA FACTITIA, L. A spurious compound, sold by the farriers’ druggists for veterinary purposes.

Prep. 1. From yellow resin, 16 lbs.; hard mutton suet or stearin, 8 lbs.; palm oil, 2-1/2 lbs.; melted together.

2. As last, but substituting turmeric, 1 lb., for the palm oil.

3. Best annotta, 6 oz., or q. s.; water, 1 gal.; boil; add, of hard mutton suet or stearin, 35 lbs.; yellow resin, 70 lbs.; again boil, with constant agitation, until perfectly mixed and of a proper colour, and, as soon as it begins to thicken, pour it out into basins to cool. When cold, rub each cake over with a little potato starch.

=Wax, Gilder’s.= See GILDING.

=Wax, Mod′eling.= Prep. Take of beeswax, lead plaster, olive oil, and yellow resin, equal parts; whiting, q. s. to form a paste; mix well, and roll it into sticks. Colours may be added at will.

=Wax, Refined.= Crude wax, especially that imported, is generally loaded with dirt, bees, and other foreign matter. To free it from these substances, it undergoes the operation of ‘refining.’ This is done by melting the wax along with about 4 or 5% of water in a bright copper or stone-ware boiler, preferably heated by steam, and, after the whole is perfectly liquid, and has boiled for some minutes, withdrawing the heat, and sprinkling over its surface a little oil of vitriol, in the proportion of about 5 or 6 fl. oz. to every cwt. of wax. This operation should be conducted with great care and circumspection; as, when done carelessly, the melted wax froths up, and boils over the sides of the pan. The acid should also be well scattered over the whole surface. The melted wax is next covered over, and left for some hours to settle, or until it becomes sufficiently cool to be drawn off for ‘moulding.’ It is then very gently skimmed with a hot ladle, baled or decanted into hot tin ‘jacks,’ and by means of these poured into basins, where it is left to cool. Great care must be taken not to disturb the sediment. When no more clear wax can be drawn off, the remainder in the melting-pan is allowed to cool, and the cake, or ‘foot,’ as it called, is taken out, and the impurities (mostly bees) scraped from its under surface. The scraped cake is usually reserved for a second operation; but if required, it may be at once remelted, and strained through canvas into a mould.

Much of the foreign wax has a pale, dirty colour, which renders it, no matter however pure, objectionable to the retail purchaser. Such wax undergoes the operation of ‘colouring’ as well as ‘refining.’ A small quantity of the best roll annotta, cut into slices (1/4 lb., more or less, to wax, 1 cwt., depending on the paleness of the latter), is put into a clean boiler with about a gallon of water, and boiled for some time, or until it is perfectly dissolved, when a few ladlefuls of the melted wax are added, and the boiling continued until the wax has taken up all the colour, or until the water is mostly evaporated. The portion of wax thus treated has now a deep orange colour, and is added, in quantity as required, to the remainder of the melted wax in the larger boiler until the proper shade of colour is produced when cold; the whole being well mixed, and a sample of it cooled now and then, to ascertain when enough has been added. The copper is next brought to a boil, and treated with oil of vitriol, &c., as before. Some persons add palm oil (bright) to the wax, until it gets sufficient colour, but this plan is objectionable from the quantity required for the purpose being often so large as to injure the quality of the product; besides which the colour produced is inferior, and less transparent and permanent than that given by annotta.

Another method of refining crude wax, and which produces a very bright article, is to melt it in a large earthen or stoneware vessel, heated by steam or a salt-water bath, then to cautiously add to it about 1% of concentrated nitric acid, and to continue the boiling until nitrous fumes cease to be evolved, after which the whole is allowed to settle, and is treated as before.

Obs. The great art in the above process is to produce a wax which shall at once be ‘bright,’ or semi-translucent in thin places, and good coloured. The former is best ensured by allowing the melted mass to settle well, and by carefully skimming and decanting the clear portion without disturbing the sediment. It should not be poured into the moulds too warm, as, in that case, it is apt to ‘separate,’ and the resulting cakes to be ‘streaky,’ or of different shades of colour. Again, it should be allowed to cool very slowly. When cooled rapidly, especially if a current of air fall upon its surface, it is apt to crack, and to form cakes full of fissures. Some persons, who are very nice about their wax, have the cakes polished with a stiff brush when quite cold and hard. It is absolutely necessary that the ‘jacks’ or cans, ladles, and skimmers, used in the above process, be kept pretty hot, as without this precaution the wax cools, and accumulates upon them in such quantity as to render them inconvenient, and often quite useless, without being constantly scraped out.

=Wax, Seal′ing.= Prep. 1. (RED.)——a. Take of shell-lac (very pale), 4 oz.; cautiously melt it in a bright copper pan over a clear charcoal fire, and when fused, add of Venice turpentine, 1-1/4 oz.; mix, and further add of vermilion, 3 oz.; remove the pan from the fire, cool a little, weigh it into pieces, and roll them into circular sticks on a warm marble slab by means of a polished wooden block; or it may be poured into moulds whilst in a state of fusion. Some persons polish the sticks with a rag until quite cold.——b. From shell-lac, 3 lbs.; Venice turpentine, 1-1/4 lb.; finest cinnabar, 2 lbs.; mix as before Both the above are ‘fine,’——c. As the last, but using 1/2 less of vermillion. Inferior.——d. Resin, 4 lbs.; shell-lac, 2 lbs.; Venice turpentine and red lead, of each 1-1/2 lb.; as before. Common.

2. (BLACK.)——a. From shell-lac, 60 parts; finest ivory black, reduced to an impalpable powder, 30 parts; Venice turpentine, 20 parts. Fine.——b. Resin, 6 lbs.; shell-lac and Venice turpentine, of each 2 lbs.; lampblack, q. s. Inferior.

3. (GOLD-COLOURED.) By stirring gold-coloured mica spangles or talc, or aurum musivum, into the melted resins just before they begin to cool. Fine.

4. (MARBLED.) By mixing 2 or 3 different coloured kinds just as they begin to grow solid.

5. (SOFT.)——a. (Red.) Take of beeswax, 8 parts; olive oil, 5 parts; melt, and add, of Venice turpentine, 15 parts; red lead, to colour.——b. (Green.) As the last, but substituting powdered verdigris for red lead. Both are used for sealing official documents kept in tin boxes; also as a cement.

6. (BOTTLE WAX.)——a. (Black.) From black resin, 6-1/2 lbs.; beeswax, 1/2 lb.; finely powdered ivory black, 1-1/2 lb.; melted together.——b. (Red.) As the last, but substitute Venetian red or red lead for ivory black.

Obs. All the above forms for ‘fine’ wax produce ‘superfine’ by employing the best qualities of the ingredients; and ‘extra superfine,’ or ‘scented,’ by adding 1% of balsam of Peru or liquid storax to the ingredients when considerably cooled. The ‘variegated’ and ‘fancy coloured kinds,’ are commonly scented with a little essence of musk or ambergris, or any of the more fragrant essential oils. The addition of a little camphor, or spirit of wine, makes sealing-wax burn easier. Sealing-wax containing resin, or too much turpentine, runs into thin drops at the flame of a candle.

=Wax, White.= Syn. BLEACHED WAX; CERA ALBA (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. From pure beeswax, by exposing it in thin flakes to the action of the sun, wind, and rain, frequently changing the surface thus exposed, by remelting it, and reducing it again to thin flakes. Used in making candles, and in white ointments, pommades, &c., for the sake of its colour. Block white wax (CERA ALBA IN MASSIS) is the above when cast into blocks; the best foreign is always in this form. Virgin wax (CAKE WHITE WAX; CERA ALBA IN OFFIS) should be the last made into round flat cakes; but this is seldom the case, the mixture sold under the name generally containing from 1-3rd to 1-2nd its weight of spermaceti. The ‘white wax’ supplied by certain wholesale druggists to their customers is often totally unfit for the purposes to which it is applied. Spermaceti is constantly added to the white wax of commerce, to improve its colour. Mr B. S. Proctor states that wholesale houses of the highest reputation supply an article, as white cake wax, which is in many cases half spermaceti, and in some as much as two thirds spermaceti to one of wax.[266]

[Footnote 266: See articles on “Adulteration of Wax,” and “Substitutes for Wax,” in ‘Chemist and Druggist,’ vol. iv, 1863.]

=WEATHER, Effects of, on Health.= The ‘Medical Press and Circular’ says:——“We are in the midst of a severe winter (1878), and as hygiene is the order of the day, we cannot be too particular in impressing upon the public certain facts which are too often disregarded. Few are aware of the killing powers of intense cold and great heat, even in this comparatively temperate climate. Those who have been in the habit, as we have, of watching the returns of the Registrar-General, well know how quickly the death-rate rises during even a short continuance of cold weather. Now that the increase in the mortality affects chiefly the young and the old, as well as those who are either suffering from, or are predisposed to, affections of the chest and throat, indicates the class of people who should be especially careful to protect themselves against the inclemency of the weather. With regard to children, the system of ‘hardening’ them, by allowing them to go thinly clad, and exposing them to all sorts of weather, is a delusion from which the minds of some parents are even now not altogether free. It is thought that if their chest is kept warm, there is no need of caring about their arms and legs. But that is a great mistake. In proportion as the upper and lower extremities are well clothed will the circulation be kept up and determined to the surface of those parts, and in proportion to the quickness and equable distribution of the circulation will be the protection against those internal congestions which are but the first stage of the most fatal diseases of infancy and childhood. The same observation holds good with respect to grown-up people who are predisposed to pulmonary complaints. There is no exaggeration in saying that the mortality from these and other affections would be considerably diminished were people to avoid that ‘catching cold,’ of which they so often and so lightly speak; and it is a matter of surprise to us that this fact, of which most of us are aware, does not lead to more precautions being taken by those who are anxious about either their own health or that of others. To take care that the body is thoroughly warm and well-clothed just before going out in very wet or very cold weather——to keep up the circulation and warmth of the body rather by exercise of some kind than by sitting over great fires or in overheated rooms——to be sure that the temperature of the sleeping apartments is not ever so many degrees below that of the sitting-room——these are three golden maxims, attention to which would prevent thousands from catching that ‘chill’ or ‘cold’ to the results of which so many valuable lives have been prematurely sacrificed.”

=WEIGHT.= The quantity of a body determined by means of a balance, and expressed in terms having reference to some known standard; the measure of the force of gravity, from which the relative quantity of a body is inferred. The relation between the weight and volume of a body, compared to a given standard taken as unity, constitutes its specific gravity.

For the purpose of weighing, a balance or lever is required, which, when accurately suspended in a state of equilibrium, will be affected, in precisely an equal manner, by like weights applied to its extremities. Hence, the construction of such an instrument is not more difficult than its application is important in chemical and philosophical research. Oertling, the most celebrated maker of the chemical balance, constructs this important instrument in seven different varieties, more or less elaborate. The largest of these, with a 16-inch beam, will carry 2 lbs. in each pan, and yet turn with 1/100th of a grain. A balance with arms of unequal length or weight will weigh as accurately as another of the same workmanship with equal arms, provided the substance weighed be removed and standard weights placed in the same scale until the equilibrium be again restored, when the weights so employed, being exactly in the same condition as the substance previously occupying the scale, will, of course, indicate its proper weight. A knowledge of this fact is useful, as it enables any one to weigh correctly with unequal scales, or with any suspended lever.

Small weights may be made of thin leaf brass, or, preferably, of platinum foil. Quantities below the 100th of a grain may be either estimated by the position of the index, or shown by actually counting rings of wire, the value of which has been previously determined. The readiest way to subdivide small weights consists in weighing a certain quantity of very fine wire, and afterwards cutting it into such parts, by measure, as are desired; or the wire may be wrapped close round two pins, and then cut asunder with a knife. By this means it will be divided into a great number of equal lengths, or small rings.[267]

[Footnote 267: An elaborate essay on the BALANCE, in Watt’s ‘Dict. of Chemistry,’ gives minute directions for weighing, with rules for the elimination of errors. See BALANCE.]

The following tables represent the values of the weights legally employed in this country for the sale of gold, silver, and articles made thereof, as well as platinum, diamonds, and other precious metals and stones; also for drugs when sold by retail (See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES ACT, 1879; and MEASURES).

1. Troy Weight.

+---------+---------------+----------+----------+ | Grains. | Pennyweights. | Ounces. | Pound. | | gr. | dwt. | oz. |lb. or ℔ | +---------+---------------+----------+----------+ | 24 | 1 | | | | 480 | 20 | 1 | | | 5760 | 240 | 12 | 1 | +---------+---------------+----------+----------+

⁂ The standard of the above measure is 1 cubic inch of distilled water, which, at 62° Fahr. and 30 inches of the barometer, weighs 252·458 troy grains.

The carat used in weighing diamonds is 3-1/6 grains (nearly). Troy weight is employed in weighing gold, jewelry, &c., and, under a somewhat modified form, in prescribing and dispensing medicines. (See below.)

2. Apothecaries’ Weight.

(Modified Troy Weight.)

+---------+---------+--------+---------+---------+ | | | | | | | Grains |Scruples.|Drachms.| Ounces. | Pounds. | |(Troy).| ℈ | ʒ | ℥ | ℔ | | gr. | | | | | +---------+---------+--------+---------+---------+ | | | | | | | 1· | ·05 | ·01666| ·002083| ·0001736| | 20· | 1· | ·3333 | ·0416 | ·003472 | | 60· | 3· | 1· | ·1250 | ·0104166| | 480· | 24· | 8· | 1· | ·0833333| | 5760· | 288· |96· |12· |1· | +---------+---------+--------+---------+---------+

+---------+---------+---------+------------+------------+ | | |Equiv. in| | | | Grains | Eqiv. in|Minims or| Equiv. in | Equiv. in | |(Troy).| French |measured | cubic |Avoirdupois.| | gr. | grammes.| drops. | inches. | weight. | +---------+---------+---------+------------+------------+ | | | | | | | 1· | ·06475| 1·09 | ·003961055| 1· gr.| | 20· | 1·295 | 21·94 | ·07922109 | 20· gr.| | 60· | 3·885 | 65·82 | ·23766329 | 60· gr.| | 480· | 31·08 | 526·62 | 1·90130635 |1 oz 42·5 gr.| | 5760· |372·96 | 6319·54 |22·81567609 |13 oz 72·5 gr.| +---------+---------+---------+------------+------------+

⁂ Apothecaries’ weight is employed in prescribing and dispensing medicines according to the Ph. L., E., and U. S. But in the last Ph. D. and the new Brit. Ph. it has been superseded by avoirdupois weight.

Troy Avoirdupois.

1 ℔ is equivalent to 0·822857 lb. 1 oz. ” 1·097143 oz.

=WEIGHTS, FOREIGN.=

Binary Weights. (Système usuel.) French.

+-------+--------+-----+-----+------+-------+ | | | | | | | |French | | | | | Kilo- | |Grain. |Scruple.|Gros.|Once.|Livre.|gramme.| +-------+--------+-----+-----+------+-------+ | | | | | | | | 1·| ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | | 24·| 1· | ... | ... | ... | ... | | 72·| 3· | 1·| ... | ... | ... | | 576·| 24· | 8·| 1· | ... | ... | | 9216·| 384· | 128·| 16· | 1· | ... | | 18432·| 768· | 256·| 32· | 2· | 1· | +-------+--------+-----+-----+------+-------+

+-------+---------+------------+-------------------+ | |Equiv. in|Round number| Equiv. in | |French | grammes |of the Codex| Avoirdupois | |Grain. |metrique.| in grammes.| weight. | +-------+---------+------------+-------------------+ | | | |lb. oz. gr. | | 1·| ·0542| ·05 | ... ... 0·837| | 24·| 1·30 | 1·30 | ... ... 20·1 | | 72·| 3·906 | 4· | ... ... 60·284| | 576·| 81·25 | 32· | ... 1 45· | | 9216·| 500· | 500· | 1 1-1/2 61· | | 18432·|1000· | 1000· | 2 3-1/4 13· | +-------+---------+------------+-------------------+

⁂ The old French grain is equal to ·820 of an imperial troy grain; hence 1 troy grain is equal to 1·21 old French grains. The gros, once, and other multiples of the grain, are, of course, proportionate. The new French grain (of 1812) is equal to ·0542 gramme, or ·8365228 gr. troy. It is said, in some works, to be equal to ·878 gr. troy, or, in round numbers, ·9, but this is much too high.

CONTINENTAL MEDICINAL WEIGHTS, in Troy Grains. (From Dr Christison’s ‘Dispensatory.’)

+-----------+------+------+-------+---------------------+-------+ | | | | |Scruple consisting of| | | Country. |Pound.|Ounce.|Drachm.+----------+----------+ Grain.| | | | | | 24 med. | 20 med. | | | | | | | grs. | grs. | | +-----------+------+------+-------+----------+----------+-------+ |French |5670·5|470·50| 59·10 | 19·7 | ... | 0·820 | |Spanish |5326·3|443·49| 55·14 | 18·47 | ... | 0·769 | |Tuscan |5240·3|436·67| 54·58 | 18·19 | ... | 0·758 | |Roman |5235·0|436·25| 54·58 | 18·17 | ... | 0·757 | |Austrian |6495·1|541·25| 67·65 | ... | 22·5 | 1·127 | |German |5524·8|460·40| 57·55 | ... | 19·18 | 0·960 | |Russian |5524·8|460·40| 57·55 | ... | 19·18 | 0·960 | |Prussian |5415·1|451·26| 56·40 | ... | 18·80 | 0·940 | |Dutch |5695·8|474·64| 59·33 | ... | 19·78 | 0·988 | |Belgian |5695·8|474·64| 59·33 | ... | 19·78 | 0·988 | |Swedish |5500·2|458·34| 57·29 | ... | 19·09 | 0·954 | |Piedmontese|4744·7|395·39| 49·45 | ... | 16·48 | 0·824 | |Venetian |4661·4|388·45| 48·55 | ... | 16·18 | 0·809 | +-----------+------+------+-------+----------+----------+-------+

=WEIGHTS AND MEASURES ACT, 1878.= On the 1st of January, 1879, there came into force an act to consolidate throughout the United Kingdom the law relating to weights and measures. Legislation on this subject had been long rendered necessary from the extreme inconvenience and friction to commerce of all kinds arising from the adherence to local standards of weight or measurements; and from the divergent values in different parts of the kingdom, and in places more or less contiguous to each other, of weights and measures often bearing the same name. Thus, previous to the passing of the above Act, there were twelve different markets in this country in which when corn was sold by the bushel, the weight of the bushel varied in each; and six different localities in which the same thing occurred when vended by the quarter and the load. In some places a score of grain would imply 20 lbs. but often less, whilst in others it was not an infrequent transaction for wheat to be sold by one measure, delivered by another, and eventually paid for by weight. And the same perplexing and arbitrary conditions attached to the sale of numberless other commodities.

We give below the most important sections of the Weights and Measures Act of 1878:

LAW OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

Uniformity of Weights and Measures.

The same weights and measures shall be used throughout the United Kingdom.

Standards of Measure and Weight.

The bronze bar and the platinum weight, more particularly described in the first part of the First Schedule of this Act, and at the passing of this Act, deposited in the Standards Departments of the Board of Trade, in the custody of the Warden of the Standards, shall continue to be the imperial standard of measure and weight, and the said bronze bar shall continue to be the imperial standard for determining the imperial standard yard for the United Kingdom, and the said platinum weight shall continue to be the imperial standard for determining the imperial standard pound for the United Kingdom.

Imperial Measures of Length.

The straight line or distance between the centres of the two gold plugs or pins (as mentioned in the First Schedule to this Act),[268] in the bronze bar by this Act declared to be the imperial standard for determining the imperial standard yard, measured when the bar is at the temperature of sixty-two degrees of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, and when it is supported on bronze rollers placed under it in such a manner as best to avoid flexure of the bar, and to facilitate its free expansion and contraction from variations of temperature, shall be the legal standard measure of length, and shall be called the imperial standard yard, and shall be the only unit or standard measure of extension from which all measures of extension, whether linear, superficial, or solid shall be ascertained.

[Footnote 268: See further on.]

One third part of the imperial standard yard shall be a foot, and the twelfth part of such foot shall be an inch, and the rod, pole, or perch in length shall contain five such yards and a half, and the chain shall contain twenty-two such yards, and the furlong two hundred and twenty such yards, and the mile one thousand seven hundred and sixty such yards.

The rood of land shall contain one thousand two hundred and ten square yards according to the imperial standard yard, and the acre of land shall contain four thousand eight hundred and forty such square yards, being one hundred and sixty square rods, poles or perches.

Imperial Measures of Weight and Capacity.

The weight in vacuo of the platinum weight (mentioned in the First Schedule to this Act), and by this Act declared to be the imperial standard for determining the imperial standard pound, shall be the legal standard measure of weight, and of measure having reference to weight, and shall be called the imperial standard pound, and shall be the only unit or standard measure of weight from which all other weights and all measures having reference to weight shall be ascertained.

One sixteenth part of the imperial standard pound shall be an ounce, and one-sixteenth part of such ounce shall be a dram, and one seven thousandth part of the imperial standard pound shall be a grain.

A stone shall consist of fourteen imperial standard pounds, and a hundred weight shall consist of eight such stones, and a ton shall consist of twenty such hundredweights.

Four hundred and eighty grains shall be an ounce troy.

All the foregoing weights except the ounce troy shall be deemed to be avoirdupois weights.

The unit or standard measure of capacity from which all other measures of capacity, as well as for liquids as for dry goods, shall be derived, shall be the gallon containing ten imperial standard pounds weight of distilled water weighed in air against brass weights, with the water and air at the temperature of sixty-two degrees of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, and with the barometer at thirty inches.

The quart shall be one fourth part of the gallon, and the pint shall be one-eighth part of the gallon.

Two gallons shall be a peck, and eight gallons shall be a bushel, and eight such bushels shall be a quarter, and thirty-six such bushels shall be a chaldron.

A bushel for the sale of any of the following articles, namely, lime, fish, potatoes, fruit, or any other goods and things which before (the passing of the Weights and Measures Act, 1835, that is to say) the ninth day of September, one thousand eight hundred and thirty five, were commonly sold by heaped measure, shall be a hollow cylinder having a plane base, the internal diameter of which shall be double the internal depth, and every measure used for the sale of any of the above-mentioned articles which is a multiple of a bushel, or is a half bushel or a peck, shall be made of the same shape and proportion as the above-mentioned bushel.

In using an imperial measure of capacity, the same shall not be heaped, but either shall be stricken with a round stick or roller, straight, and of the same diameter from end to end, or if the article sold cannot from its size or shape be conveniently stricken, shall be filled in all parts as nearly to the level of the brim as the size and shape of the article will admit.

Metric Equivalents of Imperial Weights and Measures.

The table in the Third Schedule to this Act shall be deemed to set forth the equivalents of imperial weights and measures and of the weights and measures therein expressed in terms of the metric system, and such table may be lawfully used for computing and expressing, in weights and measures, weights and measures of the metric system.

Use of Imperial Weights and Measures.

Every contract, bargain, sale, or dealing, made or had in the United Kingdom for any work, goods, wares, or merchandise, or other thing which has been or is to be done, sold, delivered, carried, or agreed for by weight or measure, shall be deemed to be made and had according to one of the imperial weights or measures ascertained by this Act, or to some multiple or part thereof, and if not so made or had shall be void; and all tolls and duties charged or collected according to weight or measure shall be charged and collected according to one of the imperial weights or measures ascertained by this Act, or to some multiple or part thereof.

Such contract, bargain, sale, dealing, and collection of tolls and duties as is in this section mentioned is in this Act referred to under the term ‘trade.’

No local or customary measures, nor the use of the heaped measure, shall be lawful.

Any person who sells by any denomination of weight or measure other than one of the imperial weights or measures, or some multiple or part thereof, shall be liable to a fine not exceeding forty shillings for every such sale.

All articles sold by weight shall be sold by avoirdupois weight; except that——

(1) Gold and silver, and articles made thereof, including gold and silver thread, lace, or fringe, also platinum, diamonds, and other precious metals or stones, may be sold by the ounce troy or by any decimal parts of such ounce; and all contracts, bargains, sales, and dealings in relation thereto shall be deemed to be made and had by such weight, and when so made or had shall be valid; and

(2) Drugs, when sold by retail, may be sold by apothecaries’ weight.

Every person who acts in contravention of this section shall be liable to a fine not exceeding five pounds.

A contract or dealing shall not be invalid or open to objection on the ground that the weights or measures expressed or referred to therein are weights or measures of the metric system, or on the ground that decimal sub-divisions of imperial weights and measures, whether metric or otherwise, are used in such contract or dealing.

Nothing in this act shall prevent the sale, or subject a person to a fine under this Act for the sale, of an article in any vessel, where such vessel is not represented as containing any amount of imperial measure, nor subject a person to a fine under this Act for the possession of a vessel where it is shown that such vessel is not used nor intended for use as a measure.

Any person who prints, and any clerk of a market or other person who makes, any return, price list, price current, or any journal or other paper containing price list or price current, in which the denomination of weights and measures quoted or referred to denotes or implies a greater or less weight or measure than is denoted or implied by the same denomination of the imperial weights and measures under this Act, shall be liable to a fine not exceeding ten shillings for every copy of every such return, price list, price current, journal, or other paper which he publishes.

Every person who uses or has in his possession for use for trade a weight or measure which is not of the denomination of some Board of Trade standard, shall be liable to a fine not exceeding five pounds, or in the case of a second offence ten pounds, and the weight or measure shall be liable to be forfeited.

Unjust Weights and Measures.

Every person who uses or has in his possession for use for trade any weight, measure, scale, balance, steelyard, or weighing machine which is false or unjust, shall be liable to a fine not exceeding five pounds, or in the case of a second offence ten pounds, and any contract, bargain, sale, or dealing made by the same shall be void, and the weight, measure, scale, balance, or steelyard shall be liable to be forfeited.

Where any fraud is wilfully committed in the using of any weight, measure, scale, balance, steelyard, or weighing machine, the person committing such fraud, and every person party to the fraud, shall be liable to a fine not exceeding five pounds, or in the case of a second offence ten pounds, and the weight, measure, scale, balance, or steelyard shall be liable to be forfeited.

A person shall not wilfully or knowingly make or sell, or cause to be made or sold, any false or unjust weight, measure, scale, balance, or weighing machine.

Every person who acts in contravention of this section shall be liable to a fine not exceeding ten pounds, or in the case of a second offence fifty pounds.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Every inquisition which, in pursuance of any Act hereby repealed, has been taken for ascertaining the amount of contracts to be performed or rents to be paid in grain or malt, or in any other commodity or thing, or with reference to the measure or weight of any grain, malt, or other commodity or thing, and the amount of any toll rate or duty payable according to any weight or measure in use before the passing of the said Act, and has been enrolled of record in Her Majesty’s Court of Exchequer, shall continue in force, and may be given in evidence in any legal proceeding, and the amount ascertained by such inquisition shall, when converted into imperial weights and measures, continue to be the rule of payment in regard to all such contracts, rents, tolls, rates, or duties.

Standards and Definitions.

Nothing in this Act shall affect the validity of the models of gas holders verified and deposited in the Standards Department of the Board of Trade, in pursuance of the Act of the session of the twenty-second and twenty-third years of the reign of Her present Majesty, chapter sixty-six, entituled “An Act for regulating measures used in sales of gas,” and of the Acts amending the same, and the provisions of this Act with respect to Board of Trade standards shall apply to such models; and the provisions of this Act with respect to defining the amount of error to be tolerated in local standards when verified or reverified, shall apply to defining the amount of error to be tolerated in such copies of the said models of gas holders as are provided by any justices, council commissioners, or other local authority in pursuance of the said Acts.

Nothing in this Act shall extend to prohibit, defeat, injure, or lessen the rights granted by charter to the master, wardens, and commonalty of the mystery of the Founders of the City of London.

Nothing in this Act shall prohibit, defeat, injure, or lessen the rights of the mayor and commonalty and citizens of the City of London, or of the Lord Mayor of the City of London for the time being, with respect to the stamping or sealing of weights and measures, or with respect to the gauging of wine or oil, or other gaugeable liquors.

APPLICATION OF ACT TO SCOTLAND.

This Act shall apply to Scotland with the following modifications:

In the application of this Act to Scotland the expression ‘rents and tolls’ includes all stipends, feu duties, customs, casualties, and other demands whatsoever, payable in grain, malt, or meal, or any other commodity or thing.

The fair’s prices of all grain in every county shall be struck by the imperial quarter, and all other returns of the prices of grain shall be set forth by the same, without reference to any other measure whatsoever.

APPLICATION OF ACT TO IRELAND.

This Act shall apply to Ireland with the following modifications:

In Ireland every contract, bargain, sale, or dealing——

For any quantity of corn, grain, pulses, potatoes, hay, straw, flax, roots, carcasses of beef or mutton, butter, wool, or dead pigs, sold, delivered, or agreed for:

Or for any quantity of any other commodity sold, delivered, or agreed for by weight (not being a commodity which may by law be sold by the troy ounce or by apothecaries’ weight), shall be made or had by one of the following denominations of imperial weight; namely, the ounce avoirdupois; the imperial pound of sixteen ounces; the stone of fourteen pounds; the quarter hundred of twenty-eight pounds; the half hundred of fifty-six pounds; the hundredweight of one hundred and twelve pounds; or the ton of twenty hundredweight; and not by any local or customary denomination of weight whatsoever, otherwise such contract, bargain, sale, or dealing shall be void:

Provided always, that nothing in the present section shall be deemed to prevent the use in any contract, bargain, sale, or dealing of the denomination of the quarter, half, or other aliquot part of the ounce, pound, or other denomination aforesaid, or shall be deemed to extend to any contract, bargain, sale, or dealing relating to standing or growing crops.

In Ireland every article sold by weight shall, if weighed, be weighed in full net standing beam; and for the purposes of every contract, bargain, sale, or dealing the weight be ascertained shall be deemed the true weight of the article, and no deduction or allowance for tret or beamage, or on any other account, or under any other name whatsoever, the weight of any sack, vessel, or other covering in which such article may be contained alone excepted, shall be claimed or made by any purchaser on any pretext whatever under a penalty not exceeding five pounds.

SCHEDULES.

FIRST SCHEDULE.

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