A classical dictionary containing a copious account of all the proper names mentioned in ancient authors with tables of coins, weights, and measures used among the Greeks and Romans and a chronological table (part 10 of 10)

A classical dictionary containing a copious account of all the proper names mentioned in ancient authors with tables of coins, weights, and measures used among the Greeks and Romans and a chronological table (part 10 of 10)

=Tīrĕsias=, a celebrated prophet of Thebes, son of Everus and Chariclo. He lived to a great age, which some authors have called as long as seven generations of men, others six, and others nine, during the time that Polydorus, Labdacus, Laius, Œdipus, and his sons sat on the throne of Thebes. It is said that in his youth he found two serpents in the act of copulation on mount Cyllene, and that when he had struck them with a stick to separate them, he found himself suddenly changed into a girl. Seven years after he found again some serpents together in the same manner, and he recovered his original sex, by striking them a second time with his wand. When he was a woman, Tiresias had married, and it was from those reasons, according to some of the ancients, that Jupiter and Juno referred to his decision, a dispute in which the deities wished to know which of the sexes received greater pleasure from the connubial state. Tiresias, who could speak from actual experience, decided in favour of Jupiter, and declared, that the pleasure which the female received was 10 times greater than that of the male. Juno, who supported a different opinion, and gave the superiority to the male sex, punished Tiresias by depriving him of his eyesight. But this dreadful loss was in some measure repaired by the humanity of Jupiter, who bestowed upon him the gift of prophecy, and permitted him to live seven times more than the rest of men. These causes of the blindness of Tiresias, which are supported by the authority of Ovid, Hyginus, and others, are contradicted by Apollodorus, Callimachus, Propertius, &c., who declare that this was inflicted upon him as a punishment, because he had seen Minerva bathing in the fountain Hippocrene, on mount Helicon. Chariclo, who accompanied Minerva, complained of the severity with which her son was treated; but the goddess, who well knew that this was the irrevocable punishment inflicted by Saturn on such mortals as fix their eyes upon a goddess without her consent, alleviated the misfortunes of Tiresias, by making him acquainted with futurity, and giving him a staff which could conduct his steps with as much safety as if he had the use of his eye-sight. During his lifetime, Tiresias was an infallible oracle to all Greece. The generals, during the Theban war, consulted him, and found his predictions verified. He drew his prophecies sometimes from the flight or the language of birds, in which he was assisted by his daughter Manto, and sometimes he drew the manes from the infernal regions to know futurity, with mystical ceremonies. He at last died, after drinking the waters of a cold fountain, which froze his blood. He was buried with great pomp by the Thebans on mount Tilphusses, and honoured as a god. His oracle at Orchomenos was in universal esteem. Homer represents Ulysses as going to the infernal regions to consult Tiresias concerning his return to Ithaca. Apollodorus, bk. 3, ch. 6.――Theocritus, Idylls, poem 24, li. 70.――Statius, Thebaid, bk. 2, li. 96. ――Hyginus, fable 75.――Aeschylus, Seven Against Thebes. ――Sophocles, Œdipus Tyrannus.――Pindar, Nemean, poem 1. ――Diodorus, bk. 4.――Homer, Odyssey, bk. 11.――Plutarch, Convivium Septem Sapientium, &c.――Pausanias, bk. 9, ch. 33.

=Tiribāses=, an officer of Artaxerxes killed by the guards for conspiring against the king’s life, B.C. 394. Plutarch, Artaxerxes.

=Tirida=, a town of Thrace where Diomedes lived. Pliny, bk. 4, ch. 11.

=Tiridātes=, a king of Parthia, after the expulsion of Phraates by his subjects. He was soon after deposed, and fled to Augustus in Spain. Horace, bk. 1, ode 26.――――A man made king of Parthia by Tiberius, after the death of Phraates, in opposition to Artabanus. Tacitus, Annals, bk. 6, &c.――――A keeper of the royal treasures at Persepolis, who offered to surrender to Alexander the Great. Curtius, bk. 5, ch. 5, &c.――――A king of Armenia, in the reign of Nero.――――A son of Phraates, &c.

=Tiris=, a general of the Thracians, who opposed Antiochus. Polyænus, bk. 4.

=Tiro Tullius=, a freedman of Cicero, greatly esteemed by his master for his learning and good qualities. It is said that he invented shorthand writing among the Romans. He wrote the life of Cicero and other treatises now lost. Cicero, Letters to Atticus, &c.

=Tirynthia=, a name given to Alcmena, because she lived at Tirynthus. Ovid, Metamorphoses, bk. 6.

=Tirynthus=, a town of Argolis in the Peloponnesus, founded by Tyrinx son of Argus. Hercules generally resided there, whence he is called Tirynthius heros. Pausanias, bk. 2, chs. 16 & 25.――Pliny, bk. 4, ch. 5.――Ælian, Varia Historia, bk. 3, chs. 15 & 49.――Virgil, Æneid, bk. 7, li. 662.――Silius Italicus, bk. 8, li. 217.

=Tisæum=, a mountain of Thessaly. Polybius.

=Tisagŏras=, a brother of Miltiades, called also Stesagoras. Cornelius Nepos, Miltiades.

=Tisamĕnes=, or =Tisamĕnus=, a son of Orestes and Hermione the daughter of Menelaus, who succeeded on the throne of Argos and Lacedæmon. The Heraclidæ entered his kingdom in the third year of his reign, and he was obliged to retire with his family into Achaia. He was some time after killed in a battle against the Ionians, near Helice. Apollodorus, bk. 2, ch. 7.――Pausanias, bk. 3, ch. 1; bk. 7, ch. 1. ――――A king of Thebes, son of Thersander and grandson of Polynices. The Furies, who continually persecuted the house of Œdipus, permitted him to live in tranquillity, but they tormented his son and successor Autesion, and obliged him to retire to Doris. Pausanias, bk. 3, ch. 5; bk. 9, ch. 6.――――A native of Elis, crowned twice at the Olympic games. Pausanias, bk. 3, ch. 11.

=Tisandrus=, one of the Greeks concealed with Ulysses in the wooden horse. Some suppose him to be the same as Thersander the son of Polynices. Virgil, Æneid, bk. 2, li. 261.

=Tisarchus=, a friend of Agathocles, by whom he was murdered, &c. Polyænus, bk. 5.

=Tisdra=, a town of Africa. Cæsar, African War, ch. 76.

=Tisiarus=, a town of Africa.

=Tisias=, an ancient philosopher of Sicily, considered by some as the inventor of rhetoric, &c. Cicero, de Inventione, bk. 2, ch. 2; Orations, bk. 1, ch. 18.

=Tīsĭphŏne=, one of the Furies, daughter of Nox and Acheron, who was the minister of divine vengeance upon mankind, and visited them with plagues and diseases, and punished the wicked in Tartarus. She was represented with a whip in her hand, serpents hung from her head, and were wreathed round her arms instead of bracelets. By Juno’s direction she attempted to prevent the landing of Io in Egypt, but the god of the Nile repelled her, and obliged her to retire to hell. Statius, Thebaid, bk. 1, li. 59.――Virgil, Georgics, bk. 3, li. 552; Æneid, bk. 6, li. 555.――Horace, bk. 1, satire 8, li. 34. ――――A daughter of Alcmæon and Manto.

=Tisiphŏnus=, a man who conspired against Alexander tyrant of Pheræ, and seized the sovereign power, &c. Diodorus, bk. 16.

=Tissa=, now Randazzo, a town of Sicily. Silius Italicus, bk. 14, li. 268.――Cicero, Against Verres, bk. 3, ch. 38.

=Tissamĕnus.= See: Tisamenus.

=Tissaphernes=, an officer of Darius.――――A satrap of Persia, commander of the forces of Artaxerxes, at the battle of Cunaxa, against Cyrus. It was by his valour and intrepidity that the king’s forces gained the victory, and for this he obtained the daughter of Artaxerxes in marriage, and all the provinces of which Cyrus was governor. His popularity did not long continue, and the king ordered him to be put to death when he had been conquered by Agesilaus, 395 B.C. Cornelius Nepos.――――An officer in the army of Cyrus, killed by Artaxerxes at the battle of Cunaxa. Plutarch.

=Titæa=, the mother of the Titans. She is supposed to be the same as Thea, Rhea, Terra, &c.

=Titan=, or =Titānus=, a son of Cœlus and Terra, brother to Saturn and Hyperion. He was the eldest of the children of Cœlus; but he gave his brother Saturn the kingdom of the world, provided he raised no male children. When the birth of Jupiter was concealed, Titan made war against Saturn, and with the assistance of his brothers the Titans, he imprisoned him till he was replaced on the throne by his son Jupiter. This tradition is recorded by Lactantius, a christian writer, who took it from the dramatic compositions of Ennius, now lost. None of the ancient mythologists, such as Apollodorus, Hesiod, Hyginus, &c., have made mention of Titan. Titan is a name applied to Saturn by Orpheus and Lucian, to the sun by Virgil and Ovid, and to Prometheus by Juvenal. Ovid, Metamorphoses, bk. 1, li. 10.――Juvenal, satire 14, li. 35.――Diodorus, bk. 5.――Pausanias, bk. 2, ch. 11. ――Orpheus, hymn 13.――Virgil, Æneid, bk. 4, li. 119.

=Titāna=, a town of Sicyonia in Peloponnesus. Titanus reigned there. ――――A man skilled in astronomy. Pausanias, bk. 2, ch. 11.

=Titānes=, a name given to the sons of Cœlus and Terra. They were 45 in number, according to the Egyptians. Apollodorus mentions 13, Hyginus six, and Hesiod 20, among whom are the Titanides. The most known of the Titans are Saturn, Hyperion, Oceanus, Japetus, Cottus, and Briareus, to whom Horace adds Typhœus, Mimas, Porphyrion, Rhœtus, and Enceladus, who are by other mythologists reckoned among the giants. They were all of a gigantic stature, and with proportionable strength. They were treated with great cruelty by Cœlus, and confined in the bowels of the earth, till their mother pitied their misfortunes, and armed them against their father. Saturn, with a scythe, cut off the genitals of his father, as he was going to unite himself to Terra, and threw them into the sea, and from the froth sprang a new deity, called Venus; as also Alecto, Tisiphone, and Megæra, according to Apollodorus. When Saturn succeeded his father, he married Rhea; but he devoured all his male children, as he had been informed by an oracle that he should be dethroned by them as a punishment for his cruelty to his father. The wars of the Titans against the gods are very celebrated in mythology. They are often confounded with that of the giants; but it is to be observed, that the war of the Titans was against Saturn, and that of the giants against Jupiter. Hesiod, Theogony, li. 135, &c.――Apollodorus, bk. 1, ch. 1.――Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound.――Callimachus, Hymn to Delos, li. 17.――Diodorus, bk. 1.――Hyginus, preface to fables.

=Titānia=, a patronymic applied to Pyrrha, as granddaughter of Titan, and likewise to Diana. Ovid, Metamorphoses, bk. 1, li. 395; bk. 2, &c.

=Titanīdes=, the daughters of Cœlus and Terra; reduced in number to six, according to Orpheus. The most celebrated were Tethys, Themis, Dione, Thea, Mnemosyne, Ops, Cybele, Vesta, Phœbe, and Rhea. Hesiod, Theogony, li. 145, &c.――Apollodorus, bk. 1, ch. 1.

=Titānus=, a river in Peloponnesus, with a town and mountain of the same name.

=Titaresus=, a river of Thessaly, called also Eurotas, flowing into the Teneus, but without mingling its thick and turbid waters with the transparent stream. From the unwholesomeness of its water, it was considered as deriving its source from the Styx. Lucan, bk. 6, li. 376.――Homer, Iliad, bk. 2, li. 751.――Strabo, bk. 8. ――Pausanias, bk. 8, ch. 18.

=Titēnus=, a river of Colchis, falling into the Euxine sea. Apollonius, bk. 4.

=Tithenidia=, a festival of Sparta, in which nurses, τθηναι, conveyed male infants entrusted to their charge to the temple of Diana, where they sacrificed young pigs. During the time of the solemnity, they generally danced and exposed themselves in ridiculous postures; there were also some entertainments given near the temple, where tents were erected. Each had a separate portion allotted him, together with a small loaf, a piece of new cheese, part of the entrails of the victims, and figs, beans, and green vetches, instead of sweetmeats.

=Tithōnus=, a son of Laomedon king of Troy, by Strymo the daughter of the Scamander. He was so beautiful that Aurora became enamoured of him, and carried him away. He had by her Memnon and Æmathion. He begged of Aurora to be immortal, and the goddess granted it; but as he had forgotten to ask the vigour, youth, and beauty which he then enjoyed, he soon grew old, infirm, and ♦decrepit; and as life became insupportable to him, he prayed Aurora to remove him from the world. As he could not die, the goddess changed him into a cicada, or grasshopper. Apollodorus, bk. 3, ch. 5.――Virgil, Georgics, bk. 1, li. 447; Æneid, bk. 4, li. 585; bk. 8, li. 384.――Hesiod, Theogony, li. 984.――Diodorus, bk. 1.――Ovid, Fasti, bk. 1, li. 461; ♠bk. 3, li. 403.――Horace, bk. 1, ode 28; bk. 2, ode 16.

♦ ‘discrepit’ replaced with ‘decrepit’

♠ ‘Book 9’ replaced with ‘Book 3’

=Tithorea=, one of the tops of Parnassus. Herodotus, bk. 8, ch. 32.

=Tithraustes=, a Persian satrap, B.C. 395, ordered to murder Tissaphernes by Artaxerxes. He succeeded to the offices which the slaughtered favourite enjoyed. He was defeated by the Athenians under Cimon.――――An officer in the Persian court, &c.――――The name was common to some of the superior officers of state in the court of Artaxerxes. Plutarch.――Cornelius Nepos, Datames & Conon.

=Titia=, a deity among the Milesians.

=Titia lex=, de magistratibus, by Publius Titius the tribune, A.U.C. 710. It ordained that a triumvirate of magistrates should be invested with consular power to preside over the republic for five years. The persons chosen were Octavius, Antony, and Lepidus.――――Another, de provinciis, which required that the provincial questors, like the consuls and pretors, should receive their provinces by lot.

=Titiāna Flavia=, the wife of the emperor Pertinax, disgraced herself by her debaucheries and incontinence. After the murder of her husband she was reduced to poverty, and spent the rest of her life in an obscure retreat.

=Titiānus Atilius=, a noble Roman put to death, A.D. 156, by the senate for aspiring to the purple. He was the only one proscribed during the reign of Antoninus Pius.――――A brother of Otho.

=Titii=, priests of Apollo at Rome, who observed the flight of doves, and drew omens from it. Varro, de Lingua Latina, bk. 4, ch. 45. ――Lucan, bk. 1, li. 602.

=Titinius=, a tribune of the people in the first ages of the republic. ――――A friend of Cassius, who killed himself.――――One of the slaves who revolted at Capua. He betrayed his trust to the Roman generals.

=Titius Proculus=, a Roman knight, appointed to watch Messalina. Tacitus, Annals, bk. 11, ch. 35.――――A tribune of the people who enacted the Titian law.――――An orator of a very dissolute character. ――――One of Pompey’s murderers.――――One of Antony’s officers.――――A man who foretold a victory to Sylla.――――Septimus, a poet in the Augustan age, who distinguished himself by his lyric and tragic compositions, now lost. Horace, bk. 1, ltr. 3, li. 9.

=Titormus=, a shepherd of Ætolia, called another Hercules, on account of his prodigious strength. He was stronger than his contemporary, Milo of Crotona, as he could lift on his shoulders a stone which the Crotonian moved with difficulty. Ælian, Varia Historia, bk. 12, ch. 22.――Herodotus, bk. 6, ch. 127.

=Titurius=, a friend of Julia Silana, who informed against Agrippina, &c. Tacitus, Annals, bk. 13.――――A lieutenant of Cæsar in Gaul, killed by Ambiorix.――Cæsar, Gallic War, bk. 5, ch. 29, &c.

=Titus Vespasianus=, son of Vespasian and Flavia Domitilla, became known by his valour in the Roman armies, particularly at the siege of Jerusalem. In the 79th year of the christian era, he was invested with the imperial purple, and the Roman people had every reason to expect in him the barbarities of a Tiberius and the debaucheries of a Nero. While in the house of Vespasian, Titus had been distinguished for his extravagance and incontinence; his attendants were the most abandoned and dissolute; and it seemed that he wished to be superior to the rest of the world in the gratification of every impure desire, and in every unnatural vice. From such a private character, which still might be curbed by the authority and example of a father, what could be expected but tyranny and ♦oppression? Yet Titus became a model of virtue, and in an age and office in which others wish to gratify all their appetites, the emperor abandoned his usual profligacy, he forgot his debaucheries, and Berenice, whom he had loved with uncommon ardour, even to render himself despised by the Roman people, was dismissed from his presence. When raised to the throne, he thought himself bound to be the father of his people, the guardian of virtue, and the patron of liberty; and Titus is, perhaps, the only monarch who, when invested with uncontrollable power, bade adieu to those vices, those luxuries and indulgencies, which as a private man he never ceased to gratify. He was moderate in his entertainments, and though he often refused the donations which were due to sovereignty, no emperor was ever more generous and magnificent than Titus. All informers were banished from his presence, and even severely punished. A reform was made in the judicial proceedings, and trials were no longer permitted to be postponed for years. The public edifices were repaired, and baths were erected for the convenience of the people. Spectacles were exhibited, and the Roman populace were gratified with the sight of a naval combat in the ancient naumachia, and the sudden appearance of 5000 wild beasts brought into the circus for their amusement. To do good to his subjects was the ambition of Titus, and it was at the recollection that he had done no service, or granted no favour, one day, that he exclaimed in the memorable words of “My friends, I have lost a day!” A continual wish to be benevolent and kind, made him popular; and it will not be wondered, that he who could say that he had rather die himself, than be the cause of the destruction of one of his subjects, was called the love and delight of mankind. Two of the senators conspired against his life, but the emperor disregarded their attempts; he made them his friends by kindness, and, like another Nerva, presented them with a sword to destroy him. During his reign, Rome was three days on fire, the towns of Campania were destroyed by an eruption of Vesuvius, and the empire was visited by a pestilence which carried away an infinite number of inhabitants. In this time of public calamity, the emperor’s benevolence and philanthropy were conspicuous. Titus comforted the afflicted as a father, he alleviated their distresses by his liberal bounties, and as if they were but one family, he exerted himself for the good and preservation of the whole. The Romans, however, had not long to enjoy the favours of this magnificent prince. Titus was taken ill, and as he retired into the country of the Sabines to his father’s house, his indisposition was increased by a burning fever. He lifted his eyes to heaven, and with modest submission complained of the severity of fate which removed him from the world when young, where he had been employed in making a grateful people happy. He died the 13th of September, A.D. 81, in the 41st year of his age, after a reign of two years, two months, and 20 days. The news of his death was received with lamentations; Rome was filled with tears, and all looked upon themselves as deprived of the most benevolent of fathers. After him Domitian ascended the throne, not without incurring the suspicion of having hastened his brother’s end, by ordering him to be placed, during his agony, in a tub full of snow, where he expired. Domitian has also been accused of raising commotions, and of making attempts to dethrone his brother; but Titus disregarded them, and forgave the offender. Some authors have reflected with severity upon the cruelties which Titus exercised against the Jews; but though certainly a disgrace to the benevolent features of his character, we must consider him as an instrument in the hands of Providence, exerted for the punishment of a wicked and infatuated people. Josephus, Jewish War, bk. 7, ch. 16, &c.――Suetonius.――Dio Cassius, &c.

♦ ‘oppresssion’ replaced with ‘oppression’

=Titus Tatius=, a king of the Sabines. See: Tatius.――――Livius, a celebrated historian. See: Livius.――――A son of Junius Brutus, put to death by order of his father, for conspiring to restore the Tarquins.――――A friend of Coriolanus.――――A native of Crotona, engaged in Catiline’s conspiracy.

=Tīty̆rus=, a shepherd introduced in Virgil’s eclogues, &c.――――A large mountain of Crete.

=Tityus=, a celebrated giant, son of Terra; or, according to others, of Jupiter, by Elara the daughter of Orchomenos. He was of such a prodigious size, that his mother died in travail after Jupiter had drawn her from the bowels of the earth, where she had been concealed during her pregnancy to avoid the anger of Juno. Tityus attempted to offer violence to Latona, but the goddess delivered herself from his importunities, by calling to her assistance her children, who killed the giant with their arrows. He was placed in hell, where a serpent continually devoured his liver; or, according to others, where vultures perpetually fed upon his entrails, which grew again as soon as devoured. It is said that Tityus covered nine acres when stretched on the ground. He had a small chapel with an altar in the island of Eubœa. Apollodorus, bk. 1, ch. 4.――Pindar, Pythian, ch. 4. ――Homer, Odyssey, bk. 7, li. 325; bk. 11, li. 575.――Apollonius of Rhodes, bk. 1, li. 182, &c.――Virgil, Æneid, bk. 6, li. 525. ――Horace, bk. 3, ode 4, li. 77.――Hyginus, fable 55.――Ovid, Metamorphoses, bk. 4, li. 457.――Tibullus, bk. 1, poem 3, li. 75.

=Tium=, or =Tion=, a maritime town of Paphlagonia, built by the Milesians. Mela, bk. 1, ch. 9.

=Tlēpŏlemus=, a son of Hercules and Astyochia, born at Argos. He left his native country after the accidental murder of Licymnius, and retired to Rhodes, by order of the oracle, where he was chosen king, as being one of the sons of Hercules. He went to the Trojan war with nine ships, and was killed by Sarpedon. There were some festivals established at Rhodes in his honour, called Tlepolemia, in which men and boys contended. The victors were rewarded with poplar crowns. Homer, Iliad.――Apollodorus, bk. 2, ch. 7.――Diodorus, bk. 5. ――Hyginus, fable 97.――――One of Alexander’s generals, who obtained Carmania at the general division of the Macedonian empire. Diodorus, bk. 18.――――An Egyptian general, who flourished B.C. 207.

=Tmarus=, a Rutulian in the wars of Æneas. Virgil, Æneid, bk. 9, li. 685.――――A mountain of Thesprotia, called Tomarus by Pliny.

=Tmolus=, a king of Lydia, who married Omphale, and was son of Sipylus and Chthonia. He offered violence to a young nymph called Arriphe, at the foot of Diana’s altar, for which impiety he was afterwards killed by a bull. The mountain on which he was buried bore his name. Apollodorus, bk. 2, ch. 6.――Ovid, Metamorphoses, bk. 11, fable 4.――Hyginus, fable 191.――――A town of Asia Minor, destroyed by an earthquake.――――A mountain of Lydia, now Bouzdag, on which the river Pactolus rises. The air was so wholesome near Tmolus, that the inhabitants generally lived to their 150th year. The neighbouring country was very fertile, and produced many vines, saffron, and odoriferous flowers. Strabo, bk. 13, &c.――Herodotus, bk. 1, ch. 84, &c.――Ovid, Metamorphoses, bk. 2, &c.――Silius Italicus, bk. 7, li. 210.――Virgil, Georgics, bk. 1, li. 56; bk. 2, li. 98.

=Togāta=, an epithet applied to a certain part of Gaul where the inhabitants were distinguished by the peculiarity of their dress. See: Gallia.

=Togonius Gallus=, a senator of ignoble birth, devoted to the interest of Tiberius, whom he flattered, &c. Tacitus, Annals, bk. 6, ch. 2.

=Tolbiacum=, a town of Gallia Belgica, south of Juliers.

=Tolenus=, a river of Latium, now Salto, falling into the Velinus. Ovid, Fasti, bk. 9, li. 561.

=Toletum=, now Toledo, a town of Spain on the Tagus.

=Tolistoboii=, a people of Galatia in Asia, descended from the Boii of Gaul. Pliny, bk. 5, ch. 32.――Livy, bk. 58, chs. 15 & 16.

=Tollentīnum=, a town of Picenum. Pliny, bk. 3, ch. 13.

=Tolmĭdes=, an Athenian officer, defeated and killed in a battle in Bœotia, 477 B.C. Polyænus, bk. 7.

=Tolōsa=, now Toulouse, the capital of Languedoc, a town of Gallia Narbonensis, which became a Roman colony under Augustus, and was afterwards celebrated for the cultivation of the sciences. Minerva had there a rich temple, which Cæpio the consul plundered, and as he was never after fortunate, the words aurum Tolosanum became proverbial. Cæsar, Gallic War.――Mela, bk. 2, ch. 5.――Cicero, de Natura Deorum, bk. 3, ch. 20.

=Tolumnus=, an augur in the army of Turnus against Æneas. Virgil, Æneid, bk. 11, li. 429.――――A king of Veii, killed by Cornelius Cossus after he had ordered the ambassadors of Rome to be assassinated. Livy, bk. 4, ch. 19.

=Tolus=, a man whose head was found in digging for the foundation of the capitol, in the reign of Tarquin, whence the Romans concluded that their city should become the head or mistress of the world.

=Tomæum=, a mountain of Peloponnesus. Thucydides.

=Tomărus=, or =Tmarus=. See: Tmarus.

=Tomisa=, a country between Cappadocia and Taurus. Strabo.

=Tomos=, or =Tomi=, a town situate on the western shore of the Euxine sea, about 36 miles from the mouth of the Danube. The word is derived from τεμνω, seco, because Medea, as it is said, cut to pieces the body of her brother Absyrtus there. It is celebrated as being the place where Ovid was banished by Augustus. Tomos was the capital of Lower Mœsia, founded by a Milesian colony, B.C. 633.――Strabo, bk. 7. ――Apollodorus, bk. 1, ch. 9.――Mela, bk. 2, ch. 2.――Ovid, ex Ponto, bk. 4, poem 14, li. 59; Tristia, bk. 3, poem 9, li. 33, &c.

=Tomyris.= See: Thomyris.

=Tonea=, a solemnity observed at Samos. It was usual to carry Juno’s statue to the sea-shore, and to offer cakes before it, and afterwards to replace it again in the temple. This was in commemoration of the theft of the Tyrrhenians, who attempted to carry away the statue of the goddess, but were detained in the harbour by an invisible force.

=Tongillius=, an avaricious lawyer, &c. Juvenal, satire 7, li. 130.

=Topāzos=, an island in the Arabian gulf, anciently called Ophiodes from the quantity of serpents that were there. The valuable stone called topaz is found there. Pliny, bk. 6, ch. 20.

=Topiris=, or =Torpus=, a town of Thrace.

=Torĭni=, a people of Scythia. Valerius Flaccus, bk. 6.

=Torōne=, a town of Macedonia. Livy, bk. 31, ch. 45.――――Of Epirus.

=Torquāta=, one of the vestal virgins, daughter of Caius Silanus. She was a vestal for 64 years. Tacitus, Annals, bk. 3, ch. 69.

=Torquātus=, a surname of Titus Manlius. See: Manlius.――――Silanus, an officer put to death by Nero.――――A governor of Oricum, in the interest of Pompey. He surrendered to Julius Cæsar, and was killed in Africa. Hirtius, Africican War, ch. 96.――――An officer in Sylla’s army.――――A Roman sent ambassador to the court of Ptolemy Philometor of Egypt.

=Tortor=, a surname of Apollo. He had a statue at Rome under that name.

=Torus=, a mountain of Sicily, near Agrigentum.

=Toryne=, a small town near Actium. The word in the language of the country signifies a ladle, which gave Cleopatra occasion to make a pun when it fell into the hands of Augustus. Plutarch, Antonius.

=Toxandri=, a people of Gallia Belgica. Pliny, bk. 4, ch. 7.

=Toxaridia=, a festival at Athens, in honour of Toxaris, a Scythian hero who died there.

=Toxeus=, a son of Œneus, killed by his father. Apollodorus, bk. 1, ch. 8.

=Toxicrăte=, a daughter of Thespius.

=Quintus Trabea=, a comic poet at Rome, in the age of Regulus. Some fragments of his poetry remain. Cicero, Tusculanæ Disputationes, bk. 4, ch. 31; de Finibus Bonorum et Malorum, bk. 2, ch. 4.

=Trachălus Marcus Galerius=, a consul in the reign of Nero, celebrated for his eloquence as an orator, and for a majestic and commanding aspect. Quintilian.――Tacitus.――――One of the friends and ministers of Otho.

=Trachas=, a town of Latium. Ovid, Metamorphoses, bk. 15, li. 717.

=Trāchīnia=, a small country of Phthiotis, on the bay of Malea, near mount Œta. The capital was called Trachis, or Trachina, where Hercules went after he had killed Eunomus. Strabo, bk. 9. ――Apollodorus, bk. 2, ch. 7.――Ovid, Metamorphoses, bk. 11, li. 269.

=Trachonītis=, a part of Judæa, on the other side of the Jordan. Pliny, bk. 5, ch. 14.

=Tragurium=, a town of Dalmatia on the sea.

=Tragus=, a river of Arcadia, falling into the Alpheus. Pausanias, bk. 8, ch. 33.

=Trajanopŏlis=, a town of Thrace.――――A name given to Selinus of Cilicia, where Trajan died.

=Trajānus Marcus Ulpius Crinītus=, a Roman emperor, born at Italica in Spain. His great virtues, and his private as well as public character, and his services to the empire, both as an officer, a governor, and a consul, recommended him to the notice of Nerva, who solemnly adopted him as his son; invested him during his lifetime with the imperial purple, and gave him the name of Cæsar and of Germanicus. A little time after Nerva died, and the election of Trajan to the vacant throne was confirmed by the unanimous rejoicings of the people, and the free concurrence of the armies on the confines of Germany and the banks of the Danube. The noble and independent behaviour of Trajan evinced the propriety and goodness of Nerva’s choice, and the attachment of the legions; and the new emperor seemed calculated to ensure peace and domestic tranquillity to the extensive empire of Rome. All the actions of Trajan showed a good and benevolent prince, whose virtues truly merited the encomiums which the pen of an elegant and courteous panegyrist has paid. The barbarians continued quiet, and the hostilities which they generally displayed at the election of a new emperor whose military abilities they distrusted, were now few. Trajan, however, could not behold with satisfaction and unconcern the insolence of the Dacians, who claimed from the Roman people a tribute which the cowardice of Domitian had offered. The sudden appearance of the emperor on the frontiers awed the barbarians to peace; but Decebalus, their warlike monarch, soon began hostilities by violating the treaty. The emperor entered the enemy’s country, by throwing a bridge across the rapid stream of the Danube, and a battle was fought in which the slaughter was so great, that in the Roman camp linen was wanted to dress the wounds of the soldiers. Trajan obtained the victory, and Decebalus, despairing of success, destroyed himself, and Dacia became a province of Rome. That the ardour of the Roman soldiers in defeating their enemies might not cool, an expedition was undertaken into the east, and Parthia threatened with immediate war. Trajan passed through the submissive kingdom of Armenia, and, by his well-directed operations, made himself master of the provinces of Assyria and Mesopotamia. He extended his conquests in the east, he obtained victories over unknown nations; and when on the extremities of India, he lamented that he possessed not the vigour and youth of an Alexander, that he might add unexplored provinces and kingdoms to the Roman empire. These successes in different parts of the world gained applause, and the senators were profuse in the honours they decreed to the conqueror. This, however, was but the blaze of transient glory. Trajan had no sooner signified his intentions of returning to Italy, than the conquered barbarians appeared again in arms, and the Roman empire did not acquire one single acre of territory from the conquests of her sovereign in the east. The return of the emperor towards Rome was hastened by indisposition; he stopped in Cilicia, and in the town of Selinus, which afterwards was called Trajanopolis, he was seized with a flux, and a few days after expired, in the beginning of August, A.D. 117, after a reign of 19 years, six months, and 15 days, in the 64th year of his age. He was succeeded on the throne by Adrian, whom the empress Plotina introduced to the Roman armies, as the adopted son of her husband. The ashes of Trajan were carried to Rome, and deposited under the stately column which he had erected a few years before. Under this emperor the Romans enjoyed tranquillity, and for a moment supposed that their prosperity was complete under a good and virtuous sovereign. Trajan was fond of popularity, and he merited it. The sounding titles of Optimus, and the father of his country, were not unworthily bestowed upon a prince who was equal to the greatest generals of antiquity, and who, to indicate his affability, and his wish to listen to the just complaints of his subjects, distinguished his palace by the inscription of the public palace. Like other emperors, he did not receive with an air of unconcern the homage of his friends, but rose from his seat and went cordially to salute them. He refused the statues which the flattery of favourites wished to erect to him, and he ridiculed the follies of an enlightened nation, that could pay adoration to cold, inanimate pieces of marble. His public entry into Rome gained him the hearts of the people; he appeared on foot, and showed himself an enemy to parade and an ostentatious equipage. When in his camp, he exposed himself to the fatigues of war, like the meanest soldier, and crossed the most barren deserts and extensive plains on foot, and in his dress and food displayed all the simplicity which once gained the approbation of the Romans in their countryman Fabricius. All the oldest soldiers he knew by their own name; he conversed with them with great familiarity, and never retired to his tent before he had visited the camp, and by a personal attendance convinced himself of the vigilance and the security of his army. As a friend he was not less distinguished than as a general. He had a select number of intimates, whom he visited with freedom and openness, and at whose tables he partook many a moderate repast without form or ceremony. His confidence, however, in the good intentions of others, was, perhaps, carried to excess. His favourite Sura had once been accused of attempts upon his life, but Trajan disregarded the informer, and as he was that same day invited to the house of the supposed conspirator, he went thither early. To try further the sincerity of Sura, he ordered himself to be shaved by his barber, to have a medicinal application made to his eyes by the hand of his surgeon, and to bathe together with him. The public works of Trajan are also celebrated; he opened free and easy communications between the cities of his provinces, he planted many colonies, and furnished Rome with all the corn and provisions which could prevent a famine in the time of calamity. It was by his directions that the architect Apollodorus built that celebrated column which is still to be seen at Rome, under the name of Trajan’s column. The area on which it stands was made by the labours of men, and the height of the pillar proves that a large hill, 144 feet high, was removed at a great expense, A.D. 114, to commemorate the victories of the reigning prince. His persecutions of the christians were stopped by the interference of the humane Pliny, but he was unusually severe upon the Jews, who had barbarously murdered 200,000 of his subjects, and even fed upon the flesh of the dead. His vices have been obscurely seen through a reign of continued splendour and popularity, yet he is accused of incontinence and many unnatural indulgencies. He was too much addicted to drinking, and his wish to be styled lord has been censured by those who admired the dissimulated moderation and the modest claims of an Augustus. Pliny, Panegyrics, &c.――Dio Cassius.――Eutropius.――Ammianus.――Spartian.――Josephus, Jewish Wars.――Aurelius Victor.――――The father of the emperor, who likewise bore the name of Trajan, was honoured with the consulship and a triumph, and the rank of a patrician by the emperor Vespasian. ――――A general of the emperor Valens.――――A son of the emperor Decius.

=Trajectus Rheni=, now Utrecht, the capital of one of the provinces of Holland.

=Tralles=, a town of Lydia, now Sultanhisar. Juvenal, satire 3, li. 70.――Livy, bk. 37, ch. 45.――――A people of Illyricum.

=Transtiberīna=, a part of the city of Rome, on one side of the Tiber. Mount Vatican was in that part of the city. Martial, bk. 1, ltr. 109.

=Trapēzus=, a city of Pontus, built by the people of Sinope, now called Trebizond. It had a celebrated harbour on the Euxine sea, and became famous under the emperors of the eastern empire, of which it was for some time the magnificent capital. Tacitus, Histories, bk. 3, ch. 47.――Pliny, bk. 6, ch. 4.――――A town of Arcadia near the Alpheus. It received its name from a son of Lycaon. Apollodorus, bk. 3, ch. 8.

=Trasimenus.= See: Thrasymenus.

=Trasullus=, a man who taught Tiberius astrology at Rhodes, &c.

=Traulus Montānus=, a Roman knight, one of Messalina’s favourites, put to death by Claudius. Tacitus, Annals, bk. 11, ch. 36.

=Treba=, a town of the Æqui. Pliny, bk. 3, ch. 12.

=Caius Trebātius Testas=, a man banished by Julius Cæsar for following the interest of Pompey, and recalled by the eloquence of Cicero. He was afterwards reconciled to Cæsar. Trebatius was not less distinguished for his learning than for his integrity, his military experience, and knowledge of law. He wrote nine books on religious ceremonies, and treatises on civil law; and the verses that he composed proved him a poet of no inferior consequence. Horace, bk. 2, satire 1, li. 4.

=Trebelliānus Caius Annius=, a pirate who proclaimed himself emperor of Rome, A.D. 264. He was defeated and slain in Isauria, by the lieutenants of Gallienus.

=Trebelliēnus Rufus=, a pretor appointed governor of the children of king Cotys, by Tiberius.――――A tribune who opposed the Gabinian law.――――A Roman who numbered the inhabitants of Gaul. He was made governor of Britain. Tacitus, Annals, bk. 6, ch. 39.

=Trebellius Pollio=, a Latin historian, who wrote an account of the lives of the emperors. The beginning of this history is lost; part of the reign of Valerian, and the life of the two Gallieni, with the 30 tyrants, are the only fragments remaining. He flourished A.D. 305.

=Trĕbia=, a river of Cisalpine Gaul, rising in the Apennines, and falling into the Po, at the west of Placentia. It is celebrated for the victory which Annibal obtained there over the forces of Lucius Sempronius the Roman consul. Silius Italicus, bk. 4, li. 486. ――Lucan, bk. 2, li. 46.――Livy, bk. 21, chs. 54 & 56.――――A town of Latium. Livy, bk. 2, ch. 39.――――Of Campania. Livy, bk. 23, ch. 14. ――――Of Umbria. Pliny, bk. 3, ch. 14.

=Trebius=, an officer in Cæsar’s army in Gaul.――――A parasite in Domitian’s reign. Juvenal, satire 4.

=Trĕbōnia lex=, de provinciis, by Lucius Trebonius the tribune, A.U.C. 698. It gave Cæsar the chief command in Gaul for five years longer than was enacted by the Vatinian law, and in this manner prevented the senators from recalling or superseding him.――――Another, by the same, on the same year, conferred the command of the provinces of Syria and Spain on Cassius and Pompey for five years. Dio Cassius, bk. 39.――――Another, by Lucius Trebonius the tribune, A.U.C. 305, which confirmed the election of the tribunes in the hands of the Roman people. Livy, bks. 3 & 5.

=Trĕbōnius=, a soldier remarkable for his continence, &c.――――Caius, one of Cæsar’s friends, made through his interest pretor and consul. He was afterwards one of his benefactor’s murderers. He was killed by Dolabella at Smyrna. Cæsar, Gallic War, bk. 5, ch. 17.――Cicero, Philippics, bk. 11, ch. 2.――Paterculus, bks. 56 & 69.――Livy, bk. 119.――Dio Cassius, bk. 47.――Horace, bk. 1, satire 4, li. 14. ――――Garucianus, a governor of Africa, who put to death the proconsul Clodius Macer, by Galba’s orders. Tacitus, Histories, bk. 1, ch. 7.――――A tribune who proposed a law at Rome, and imprisoned Cato, because he opposed it.――――One of the adherents of Marius.――――A man caught in adultery, and severely punished in the age of Horace.

=Trebŭla=, a town of the Sabines, celebrated for cheese. The inhabitants were called Trebulani. Cicero, _On the Agrarian Law_, bk. 2, ch. 25.――Livy, bk. 23.――Pliny, bk. 3, chs. 5 & 12. ――Martial, bk. 5, ltr. 72.――――Another, in Campania. Livy, bk. 23, ch. 39.

=Trerus=, a river of Latium, falling into the Liris.

=Tres Tabernæ=, a place on the Appian road, where travellers took refreshment. Cicero, Letters to Atticus, bk. 1, ltr. 13; bk. 2, ltrs. 10 & 11.

=Trevĕri=, a town and people of Belgium, now called Triers. Mela, bk. 3, ch. 2.

=Triaria=, a woman well known for her cruelty. She was the wife of Lucius Vitellius. Tacitus, Histories, bks. 1 & 3.

=Caius Triarius=, an orator commended by Cicero.――――A friend of Pompey. He had for some time the care of the war in Asia against Mithridates, whom he defeated, and by whom he was afterwards beaten. He was killed in the civil wars of Pompey and Cæsar. Cæsar, Civil War, bk. 3, ch. 5.

=Triballi=, a people of Thrace, or, according to some, of Lower Mœsia. They were conquered by Philip the father of Alexander; and some ages after, they maintained a long war against the Roman emperors. Pliny.

=Triboci=, a people of Alsace in Gaul. Tacitus, Germania, ch. 28.

=Tribulium=, a town of Dalmatia.

=Tribūni Plebis=, magistrates at Rome, created in the year ♦A.U.C. 261, when the people after a quarrel with the senators had retired to Mons Sacer. The two first were Caius Licinius and Lucius Albinius, but their number was soon after raised to five, and 37 years after to 10, which remained fixed. Their office was annual, and as the first had been created on the 4th of the ides of December, that day was ever after chosen for the election. Their power, though at first small, and granted by the patricians to appease the momentary seditions of the populace, soon became formidable, and the senators repented too late of having consented to elect magistrates, who not only preserved the rights of the people, but could summon assemblies, propose laws, stop the consultations of the senate, and even abolish their decrees by the word Veto. Their approbation was also necessary to confirm the senatus consulta, and this was done by affixing the letter T under it. If any irregularity happened in the state, their power was almost absolute; they criticized the conduct of all the public magistrates, and even dragged a consul to prison, if the measures he pursued were hostile to the peace of Rome. The dictator alone was their superior, but when that magistrate was elected, the office of tribune was not, like that of all other inferior magistrates, abolished while he continued at the head of the state. The people paid them so much deference, that their person was held sacred, and thence they were always called Sacrosancti. To strike them was a capital crime, and to interrupt them while they spoke in the assemblies, called for the immediate interference of power. The marks by which they were distinguished from other magistrates were not very conspicuous. They wore no particular dress, only a beadle called viator marched before them. They never sat in the senate, though, some time after, their office entitled them to the rank of senators. Yet, great as their power might appear, they received a heavy wound from their number, and as their consultations and resolutions were of no effect if they were not all unanimous, the senate often took advantage of their avarice, and by gaining one of them by bribes, they, as it were, suspended the authority of the rest. The office of tribune of the people, though at first deemed mean and servile, was afterwards one of the first steps that led to more honourable employments, and as no patrician was permitted to canvass for the tribuneship, we find many that descended among the plebeians to exercise that important office. From the power with which they were at last invested by the activity, the intrigues, and continual applications of those who were in office, they became almost absolute in the state, and it has been properly observed, that they caused far greater troubles than those which they were at first created to silence. Sylla, when raised to the dictatorship, gave a fatal blow to the authority of the tribunes, and by one of his decrees, they were no longer permitted to harangue and inflame the people; they could make no laws; no appeal lay to their tribunal; and such as had been tribunes were not permitted to solicit for the other offices of the state. This disgrace, however, was but momentary; at the death of the tyrant the tribunes recovered their privileges by means of Cotta and Pompey the Great. The office of tribune remained in full force till the age of Augustus, who, to make himself more absolute, and his person sacred, conferred the power and office upon himself, whence he was called tribunitiâ potestate donatus. His successors on the throne imitated his example, and as the emperor was the real and official tribune, such as were appointed to the office were merely nominal without power or privilege. Under Constantine the tribuneship was totally abolished. The tribunes were never permitted to sleep out of the city, except at the Feriæ Latinæ, when they went with other magistrates to offer sacrifices upon a mountain near Alba. Their houses were always open, and they received every complaint, and were ever ready to redress the wrongs of their constituents. Their authority was not extended beyond the walls of the city.――――There were also other officers who bore the name of tribunes, such as the tribuni militum or militares, who commanded a division of the legions. They were empowered to decide all quarrels that might arise in the army; they took care of the camp, and gave the watchword. There were only three at first, chosen by Romulus, but the number was at last increased to six in every legion. After the expulsion of the Tarquins, they were chosen by the consuls; but afterwards the right of electing them was divided between the people and the consuls. They were generally of senatorian and equestrian families, and the former were called laticlavii, and the latter angusticlavii, from their peculiar dress. Those that were chosen by the consuls were called Rutuli, because the right of the consuls to elect them was confirmed by Rutulus, and those elected by the people were called Comitiati, because chosen in the Comitia. They wore a golden ring, and were in office no longer than six months. When the consuls were elected, it was usual to choose 14 tribunes from the knights, who had served five years in the army, and who were called juniores, and 10 from the people who had been in 10 campaigns, who were called seniores. ――――There were also some officers called _tribuni militum consulari potestate_, elected instead of consuls, A.U.C. 310. They were only three originally, but the number was afterwards increased to six or more, according to the will and pleasure of the people and the emergencies of the state. Part of them were plebeians, and the rest of patrician families. When they had subsisted for about 70 years, not without some interruption, the office was totally abolished, as the plebeians were admitted to share the consulship, and the consuls continued at the head of the state till the end of the commonwealth.――――The tribuni cohortium prætorianarum were entrusted with the person of the emperor, which they guarded and protected.――――The tribuni ærarii were officers chosen from among the people, who kept the money which was to be applied to defray the expenses of the army. The richest persons were always chosen, as much money was requisite for the pay of the soldiers. They were greatly distinguished in the state, and they shared with the senators and Roman knights the privileges of judging. They were abolished by Julius Cæsar, but Augustus re-established them, and created 200 more, to decide causes of smaller importance.――――The tribuni celerum had the command of the guard which Romulus chose for the safety of his person. They were 100 in number, distinguished for their probity, their opulence, and their nobility. ――――The tribuni voluptatum were commissioned to take care of the amusements which were prepared for the people, and that nothing might be wanting in the exhibitions. This office was also honourable.

♦ ‘U.C.’ replaced with ‘A.U.C.’

=Tricala=, a fortified place at the south of Sicily, between Selinus and Agrigentum. Silius Italicus, bk. 14, li. 271.

=Tricasses=, a people of Champagne in Gaul.

=Tricastīni=, a people of Gallia Narbonensis. Silius Italicus, bk. 3, li. 466.――Livy, bk. 21, ch. 31.

=Triccæ=, a town of Thessaly, where Æsculapius had a temple. The inhabitants went to the Trojan war. Livy, bk. 32, ch. 13.――Homer, Iliad.――Pliny, bk. 4, ch. 8.

=Trichonium=, a town of Ætolia.

=Tricipitinus.= See: Lucretius.

=Triclaria=, a yearly festival celebrated by the inhabitants of three cities in Ionia, to appease the anger of Diana Triclaria, whose temple had been defiled by the adulterous commerce of Menalippus and Cometho. It was usual to sacrifice a boy and a girl, but this barbarous custom was abolished by Eurypilus. The three cities were Aroe, Messatis, and Anthea, whose united labours had erected the temple of the goddess. Pausanias, bk. 7, ch. 19.

=Tricorii=, a people of Gaul, now Dauphiné. Livy, bk. 21, ch. 31.

=Tricorythus=, a town of Attica.

=Tricrēna=, a place of Arcadia, where, according to some, Mercury was born. Pausanias, bk. 8, ch. 16.

=Tridentum=, a town of Cisalpine Gaul, now called Trent, and famous in history for the ecclesiastical council which sat there 18 years to regulate the affairs of the church, A.D. 1545.

=Trieterīca=, festivals in honour of Bacchus celebrated every three years. Virgil, Æneid, bk. 4, li. 302.

=Tripānum=, a place of Latium near Sinuessa. Livy, bk. 8, ch. 11.

=Tripolīnus=, a mountain of Campania famous for wine. Martial, bk. 13, ltr. 104.――Pliny, bk. 14, ch. 7.

=Trigemĭna=, one of the Roman gates, so called because the three Horatii went through it against the Curiatii. Livy, bk. 4, ch. 16; bk. 35, ch. 41; bk. 40, ch. 51.

=Trinăcria=, or =Trinăcris=, one of the ancient names of Sicily from its triangular form. Virgil, Æneid, bk. 3, li. 384, &c.

=Trinium=, a river of Italy falling into the Adriatic.

=Trinobantes=, a people of Britain in modern Essex and Middlesex. Tacitus, Annals, bk. 14, ch. 31.――Cæsar, Gallic War, bk. 5, ch. 20.

=Triocăla=, or =Triocla=, a town in the southern parts of Sicily. Silius Italicus, bk. 14, li. 271.

=Triŏpas=, or =Triops=, a son of Neptune by Canace the daughter of Æolus. He was father of Iphimedia and of Erisichthon, who is called on that account Triopeius, and his daughter Triopeia. Ovid, Metamorphoses, bk. 8, li. 754.――Apollodorus, bk. 1, ch. 7.――――A son of Phorbas, father to Agenor, Jasus, and Messene. Homer, Hymn 3 to Apollo, li. 211.――――A son of Piranthus.

=Triphȳlia=, one of the ancient names of Elis. Livy, bk. 28, ch. 8. ――――A mountain where Jupiter had a temple in the island Panchaia, whence he is called Triphylius.

=Triopium=, a town of Caria.

=Tripŏlis=, an ancient town of Phœnicia, built by the liberal contribution of Tyre, Sidon, and Aradus, whence the name.――――A town of Pontus.――――A district of Arcadia,――――of Laconia. Livy, bk. 35, ch. 27.――――Of Thessaly, Livy, bk. 42, ch. 53.――――A town of Lydia or Caria.――――A district of Africa between the Syrtes.

♦=Trīptŏlĕmus=, a son of Oceanus and Terra, or, according to some, of Trochilus, a priest of Argos. According to the more received opinion he was son of Celeus king of Attica by Neræa, whom some have called Metanira, Cothonea, Hyona, Melani, or Polymnia. He was born at Eleusis in Attica, and was cured in his youth of a severe illness by the care of Ceres, who had been invited into the house of Celeus, by the monarch’s children, as she travelled over the country in quest of her daughter. To repay the kindness of Celeus, the goddess took particular notice of his son. She fed him with her own milk, and placed him on burning coals during the night, to destroy whatever particles of mortality he had received from his parents. The mother was astonished at the uncommon growth of her son, and she had the curiosity to watch Ceres. She disturbed the goddess by a sudden cry, when Triptolemus was laid on the burning ashes, and as Ceres was therefore unable to make him immortal, she taught him agriculture, and rendered him serviceable to mankind, by instructing him how to sow corn, and make bread. She also gave him her chariot, which was drawn by two dragons, and in this celestial vehicle he travelled all over the earth, and distributed corn to all the inhabitants of the world. In Scythia the favourite of Ceres nearly lost his life; but Lyncus the king of the country, who had conspired to murder him, was changed into a lynx. At his return to Eleusis, Triptolemus restored Ceres her chariot, and established the Eleusinian festivals and mysteries in honour of the deity. He reigned for some time, and after death received divine honours. Some suppose that he accompanied Bacchus in his Indian expedition. Diodorus.――Hyginus, fable 147. ――Pausanias, bk. 2, ch. 14; bk. 8, ch. 4.――Justin, bk. 2, ch. 6. ――Apollodorus, bk. 1, ch. 5.――Callimachus, Hymn to Demeter, li. 22.――Ovid, Metamorphoses, bk. 5, li. 646; Fasti, bk. 4, li. 501; Tristia, bk. 3, poem 8, li. 1.

♦ ‘Trīppŏlĕmus’ replaced with ‘Trīptŏlĕmus’

=Triquĕtra=, a name given to Sicily by the Latins, for its triangular form. Lucretius, bk. 1, li. 78.

=Trismegistus=, a famous Egyptian. See: Mercurius.

=Tritia=, a daughter of the river Triton, mother of Menalippus by Mars. ――――A town in Achaia, built by her son, bore her name. Pausanias, bk. 7, ch. 22.

=Tritogenia=, a surname of Pallas. Hesiod.――Festus, Lexicon of Festus.

=Triton=, a sea deity, son of Neptune by Amphitrite, or, according to some, by Celeno, or Salacia. He was very powerful among the sea deities, and could calm the ocean and abate storms at pleasure. He is generally represented as blowing a shell. His body above the waist is like that of a man, and below a dolphin. Some represent him with the fore feet of a horse. Many of the sea deities are called Tritons, but the name is generally applied to those only who are half men and half fishes. Apollodorus, bk. 1, ch. 4.――Hesiod, Theogony, li. 930.――Ovid, Metamorphoses, bk. 1, li. 333.――Cicero, de Natura Deorum, bk. 1, ch. 28.――Virgil, Æneid, bk. 1, li. 148; bk. 6, li. 173.――Pausanias, bk. 9, ch. 20.――――A river of Africa falling into the lake Tritonis.――――One of the names of the Nile.――――A small river of Bœotia, or Thessaly.

=Tritōnis=, a lake and river of Africa, near which Minerva had a temple, whence she is surnamed Tritonis, or Tritonia. Herodotus, bk. 4, ch. 178.――Pausanias, bk. 9, ch. 33.――Virgil, Æneid, bk. 2, li. 171.――Mela, bk. 1, ch. 7.――――Athens is also called Tritonis, because dedicated to Minerva.――Ovid, Metamorphoses, bk. 5.

=Tritonon=, a town of Doris. Livy, bk. 28, ch. 7.

=Triventum=, a town of the Samnites.

=Trivia=, a surname given to Diana, because she presided over all places where three roads met. At the new moon the Athenians offered her sacrifices, and a sumptuous entertainment, which was generally distributed among the poor. Virgil, Æneid, bk. 6, li. 13; bk. 7, li. 774.――Ovid, Metamorphoses, bk. 2, li. 416; Fasti, bk. 1, li. 389.

=Triviæ antrum=, a place in the valley of Aricia, where the nymph Egeria resided. Martial, bk. 6, ltr. 47.

=Triviæ lucus=, a place of Campania, in the bay of Cumæ. Virgil, Æneid, bk. 6, li. 13.

=Trivīcum=, a town in the country of the Hirpini in Italy. Horace, bk. 1, satire 5, li. 79.

=Triumvĭri=, reipublicæ constituendæ, were three magistrates appointed equally to govern the Roman state with absolute power. These officers gave a fatal blow to the expiring independence of the Roman people, and became celebrated for their different pursuits, their ambition, and their various fortunes. The first triumvirate, B.C. 60, was in the hands of Julius Cæsar, Pompey, and Crassus, who at the expiration of their office kindled a civil war. The second and last triumvirate, B.C. 43, was under Augustus, Marcus Antony, and Lepidus, and through them the Romans totally lost their liberty. Augustus disagreed with his colleagues, and after he had defeated them, he made himself absolute in Rome. The triumvirate was in full force at Rome for the space of about 12 years.――――There were also officers who were called triumviri capitales, created A.U.C. 464. They took cognizance of murders and robberies, and everything in which slaves were concerned. Criminals under sentence of death were entrusted to their care, and they had them executed according to the commands of the pretors.――――The triumviri nocturni watched over the safety of Rome in the night-time, and in case of fire were ever ready to give orders, and to take the most effectual measures to extinguish it.――――The triumviri agrarii had the care of colonies that were sent to settle in different parts of the empire. They made a fair division of the lands among the citizens, and exercised over the new colony all the power which was placed in the hands of the consuls at Rome.――――The triumviri monetales were masters of the mint, and had the care of the coin, hence their office was generally intimated by the following letters often seen on ancient coins and medals: ♦IIIVIR. A. A. A. F. F. i.e., Triumviri auro, argento, ære flando, feriendo. Some suppose that they were created only in the age of Cicero, as those who were employed before them were called Denariorum flandorum curatores.――――The triumviri valetudinis were chosen when Rome was visited by a plague or some pestiferous distemper, and they took particular care of the temples of health and virtue.――――The triumviri senatus legendi were appointed to name those that were most worthy to be made senators from among the plebeians. They were first chosen in the age of Augustus, as before this privilege belonged to the kings, and afterwards devolved upon the consuls and the censors, A.U.C. 310.――――The triumviri mensarii were chosen in the second Punic war, to take care of the coin and prices of exchange.

♦ ‘HIVIR’ replaced with ‘IIIVIR’

=Triumvirorum insula=, a place on the Rhine which falls into the Po, where the triumvirs Antony, Lepidus, and Augustus met to divide the Roman empire after the battle of Mutina. Dio Cassius, bk. 46, ch. 55.――Appian, Civil Wars, ch. 4.

=Troădes=, the inhabitants of Troas.

=Troas=, a country of Phrygia, in Asia Minor, of which Troy was the capital. When Troas is taken for the whole kingdom of Priam, it may be said to contain Mysia and Phrygia Minor; but if only applied to that part of the country where Troy was situate, its extent is confined within very narrow limits. Troas was anciently called Dardania. See: Troja.

=Trochois=, a lake in the island of Delos, near which Apollo and Diana were born.

=Trocmi=, a people of Galatia. Livy, bk. 38, ch. 16.

=Trœzēne= a town of Argolis, in Peloponnesus, near the Saronicus Sinus, which received its name from Trœzen the son of Pelops, who reigned there for some time. It is often called Theseis, because Theseus was born there; and Posidonia, because Neptune was worshipped there. Statius, Thebaid, bk. 4, li. 81.――Pausanias, bk. 2, ch. 50.――Plutarch, Theseus.――Ovid, Metamorphoses, bk. 8, li. 556; bk. 15, li. 296.――――Another town at the south of the Peloponnesus.

=Trogiliæ=, three small islands near Samos.

=Trogilium=, a part of mount Mycale, projecting into the sea. Strabo, bk. 14.

=Trogilus=, a harbour of Sicily. Silius Italicus, bk. 14, lis. 2, 59.

=Troglody̆tæ=, a people of Æthiopia, who dwelt in caves (τρωγλη specus, δυμι subeo). They were all shepherds, and had their wives in common. Strabo, bk. 1.――Mela, bk. 1, chs. 4 & 8.――Pliny, bk. 1, ch. 8; bk. 37, ch. 10.

=Trogus Pompeius=, a Latin historian, B.C. 41, born in Gaul. His father was one of the friends and adherents of Julius Cæsar, and his ancestors had obtained privileges and honours from the most illustrious of the Romans. Trogus wrote a universal history of all the most important events that had happened from the beginning of the world to the age of Augustus, divided into 44 books. This history, which was greatly admired for its purity and elegance, was epitomized by Justin, and is still extant. Some suppose that the epitome is the cause that the original of Trogus is lost. Justin, bk. 47, ch. 5. ――Augustine, City of God, bk. 4, ch. 6.

=Troja=, a city, the capital of Troas, or, according to others, a country of which Ilium was the capital. It was built on a small eminence near mount Ida, and the promontory of Sigæum, at the distance of about four miles from the sea-shore. Dardanus the first king of the country built it, and called it Dardania, and from Troas, one of his successors, it was called Troja, and from Ilus, Ilion. Neptune is also said to have built, or more properly repaired, its walls, in the age of king Laomedon. This city has been celebrated by the poems of Homer and Virgil, and of all the wars which have been carried on among the ancients, that of Troy is the most famous. The Trojan war was undertaken by the Greeks, to recover Helen, whom Paris the son of Priam king of Troy had carried away from the house of Menelaus. All Greece united to avenge the cause of Menelaus, and every prince furnished a certain number of ships and soldiers. According to Euripides, Virgil, and Lycophron, the armament of the Greeks amounted to 1000 ships. Homer mentions them as being 1186, and Thucydides supposes that they were 1200 in number. The number of men which these ships carried is unknown; yet, as the largest contained about 120 men each, and the smallest 50, it may be supposed that no less than 100,000 men were engaged in this celebrated expedition. Agamemnon was chosen general of all these forces; but the princes and kings of Greece were admitted among his counsellors, and by them all the operations of the war were directed. The most celebrated of the Grecian princes that distinguished themselves in this war, were Achilles, Ajax, Menelaus, Ulysses, Diomedes, Protesilaus, Patroclus, Agamemnon, Nestor, Neoptolemus, &c. The Grecian army was opposed by a more numerous force. The king of Troy received assistance from the neighbouring princes in Asia Minor, and reckoned among his most active generals, Rhesus king of Thrace, and Memnon, who entered the field with 20,000 Assyrians and Æthiopians. Many of the adjacent cities were reduced and plundered before the Greeks approached their walls; but when the siege was begun, the enemies on both sides gave proofs of valour and intrepidity. The army of the Greeks, however, was visited by a plague, and the operations were not less retarded by the quarrel of Agamemnon and Achilles. The loss was great on both sides; the most valiant of the Trojans, and particularly of the sons of Priam, were slain in the field; and, indeed, so great was the slaughter, that the rivers of the country are represented as filled with dead bodies and suits of armour. After the siege had been carried on for 10 years, some of the Trojans, among whom were Æneas and Antenor, betrayed the city into the hands of the enemy, and Troy was reduced to ashes. The poets, however, support that the Greeks made themselves masters of the place by artifice. They secretly filled a large wooden horse with armed men, and led away their army from the plains, as if to return home. The Trojans brought the wooden horse into their city, and in the night, the Greeks that were confined within the sides of the animal rushed out and opened the gates to their companions, who had returned from the place of their concealment. The greatest part of the inhabitants were put to the sword, and the others carried away by the conquerors. This happened, according to the Arundelian marbles, about 1184 years before the christian era, in the 3530th year of the Julian period, on the night between the 11th and 12th of June, 408 years before the first olympiad. Some time after, a new city was raised, about 30 stadia from the ruins of the old Troy; but though it bore the ancient name, and received ample donations from Alexander the Great, when he visited it in his Asiatic expedition, yet it continued to be small, and in the age of Strabo it was nearly in ruins. It is said that Julius Cæsar, who wished to pass for one of the descendants of Æneas, and consequently to be related to the Trojans, intended to make it the capital of the Roman empire, and to transport there the senate and the Roman people. The same apprehensions were entertained in the reign of Augustus, and according to some, an ode of Horace, Justum et tenacem propositi virum, was written purposely to dissuade the emperor from putting into execution so wild a project. See: Paris, Æneas, Antenor, Agamemnon, Ilium, Laomedon, Menelaus, &c. Virgil, Æneid.――Homer.――Ovid.――Diodorus, &c.

=Trojāni= and =Trojugĕnæ=, the inhabitants of Troy.

=Trojāni ludi=, games instituted by Æneas, or his son Ascanius, to commemorate the death of Anchises, and celebrated in the circus at Rome. Boys of the best families, dressed in a neat manner, and accoutred with suitable arms and weapons, were permitted to enter the list. Sylla exhibited them in his dictatorship, and under Augustus they were observed with unusual pomp and solemnity. A mock fight on horseback, or sometimes on foot, was exhibited. The leader of the party was called princeps juventutis, and was generally the son of a senator, or the heir apparent to the empire. Virgil, Æneid, bk. 5, li. 602.――Suetonius, Cæsar & Augustus.――Plutarch, Sulla.

=Troĭlus=, a son of Priam and Hecuba, killed by Achilles during the Trojan war. Apollodorus, bk. 3, ch. 12.――Horace, bk. 2, ode 9, li. 16.――Virgil, Æneid, bk. 1, li. 474.

=Tromentīna=, one of the Roman tribes. Livy, bk. 6, ch. 5.

=Tropæa=, a town of the Brutii.――――A stone monument on the Pyrenees, erected by Pompey.――――Drusi, a town of Germany where Drusus died, and Tiberius was saluted emperor by the army.

=Trophonius=, a celebrated architect, son of Erginus king of Orchomenos in Bœotia. He built Apollo’s temple at Delphi, with the assistance of his brother Agamedes, and when he demanded of the god a reward for his trouble, he was told by the priestess to wait eight days, and to live during that time with all cheerfulness and pleasure. When the days were passed, Trophonius and his brother were found dead in their bed. According to Pausanias, however, he was swallowed up alive in the earth; and when afterwards the country was visited by a great drought, the Bœotians were directed to apply to Trophonius for relief, and to seek him at Lebadea, where he gave oracles in a cave. They discovered this cave by means of a swarm of bees, and Trophonius told them how to ease their misfortunes. From that time Trophonius was honoured as a god; he passed for the son of Apollo, a chapel and a statue were erected to him, and sacrifices were offered to his divinity when consulted to give oracles. The cave of Trophonius became one of the most celebrated oracles of Greece. Many ceremonies were required, and the suppliant was obliged to make particular sacrifices, to anoint his body with oil, and to bathe in the waters of certain rivers. He was to be clothed in a linen robe, and, with a cake of honey in his hand, he was directed to descend into the cave by a narrow entrance, from whence he returned backwards after he had received an answer. He was always pale and dejected at his return, and thence it became proverbial to say of a melancholy man, that he had consulted the oracle of Trophonius. There were annually exhibited games in honour of Trophonius at Lebadea. Pausanias, bk. 9, ch. 37, &c.――Cicero, Tusculanæ Disputationes, bk. 1, ch. 47.――Plutarch. ――Pliny, bk. 34, ch. 7.――Ælian, Varia Historia, bk. 3, ch. 45.

=Tros=, a son of Ericthonius king of Troy, who married Callirhoe the daughter of the Scamander, by whom he had Ilus, Assaracus, and Ganymedes. He made war against Tantalus king of Phrygia, whom he accused of having stolen away the youngest of his sons. The capital of Phrygia was called Troja from him, and the country itself Troas. Virgil, bk. 3, Georgics, li. 36.――Homer, Iliad, bk. 20, li. 219.――Apollodorus, bk. 3, ch. 12.

=Trossŭlum=, a town of Etruria, which gave the name of Trossuli to the Roman knights who had taken it without the assistance of foot soldiers. Pliny, bk. 32, ch. 2.――Seneca, ltrs. 86 & 87. ――Persius, bk. 1, li. 82.

=Trotilum=, a town of Sicily. Thucydides, bk. 6.

=Truentum=, or =Truentinum=, a river of Picenum, falling into the Adriatic. There is also a town of the same name in the neighbourhood. Silius Italicus, bk. 8, li. 434.――Mela, bk. 2.――Pliny, bk. 3, ch. 13.

=Trypherus=, a celebrated cook, &c. Juvenal, bk. 11.

=Tryphiodorus=, a Greek poet and grammarian of Egypt in the sixth century, who wrote a poem in 24 books on the destruction of Troy, from which he excluded the α in the first book, the β in the second, and the γ in the third, &c.

=Tryphon=, a tyrant of Apamea in Syria, put to death by Antiochus. Justin, bk. 36, ch. 1.――――A surname of one of the Ptolemies. Ælian, Varia Historia, bk. 14, li. 31.――――A grammarian of Alexander in the age of Augustus.

=Tubantes=, a people of Germany. Tacitus, bk. 1, ch. 51.

=Tubĕro Quintus Ælius=, a Roman consul, son-in-law of Paulus the conqueror of Perseus. He is celebrated for his poverty, in which he seemed to glory as well as the rest of his family. Sixteen of the Tuberos, with their wives and children, lived in a small house, and maintained themselves with the produce of a little field, which they cultivated with their own hand. The first piece of silver plate that entered the house of Tubero was a small cup which his father-in-law presented to him after he had conquered the king of Macedonia.――――A learned man.――――A governor of Africa.――――A Roman general who marched against the Germans under the emperors. He was accused of treason, and acquitted.

=Tuburbo=, two towns of Africa, called Major and Minor.

=Tucca Plautius=, a friend of Horace and Virgil. He was, with Varus and Plotius, ordered by Augustus, as some report, to revise the Æneid of Virgil, which remained uncorrected on account of the premature death of the poet. Horace, bk. 1, satire 5, li. 40; satire 10, li. 84. ――――A town of Mauritania.

=Tuccia=, an immodest woman in Juvenal’s age. Juvenal, satire 6, li. 64.

=Tucia=, a river near Rome. Silius Italicus, bk. 13, li. 5.

=Tuder=, or =Tudertia=, an ancient town of Umbria. The inhabitants were called Tudertes. Silius Italicus, bk. 4, li. 222.

=Tudri=, a people of Germany. Tacitus, Germania, ch. 42.

=Tugia=, now Toia, a town of Spain. Pliny, bk. 3, ch. 1.

=Tugīni=, or =Tugēni=, a people of Germany.

=Tuisto=, a deity of the Germans, son of Terra, and the founder of the nation. Tacitus, Germania, bk. 2.

=Tulcis=, a river of Spain, falling into the Mediterranean, now Francoli.

=Tulingi=, a people of Germany between the Rhine and the Danube. Cæsar, bk. 1, ch. 5, Gallic War.

=Tulla=, one of Camilla’s attendants in the Rutulian war. Virgil, Æneid, bk. 11, li. 656.

=Tullia=, a daughter of Servius Tullius king of Rome. She married Tarquin the Proud, after she had murdered her first husband Arunx, and consented to see Tullius assassinated, that Tarquin might be raised to the throne. It is said that she ordered her chariot to be driven over the body of her aged father, which had been thrown all mangled and bloody into one of the streets of Rome. She was afterwards banished from Rome with her husband. Ovid, Ibis, li. 363.――――Another daughter of Servius Tullius, who married Tarquin the Proud. She was murdered by her own husband, that ♦he might marry her ambitious sister of the same name.――――A daughter of Cicero. See: Tulliola.――――A debauched woman. Juvenal, satire 6, li. 306.

♦ ‘she’ replaced with ‘he’

=Tullia lex=, de senatu, by Marcus Tullius Cicero, A.U.C. 689, enacted that those who had a libera legatio granted them by the senate, should hold it no more than one year. Such senators as had a libera legatio travelled through the provinces of the empire without any expense, as if they were employed in the affairs of the state.――――Another, de ambitu, by the same, the same year. It forbade any person, two years before he canvassed for an office, to exhibit a show of gladiators, unless that case had devolved upon him by will. Senators guilty of the crime of ambitu were punished with the aquæ et ignis interdictio for 10 years, and the penalty inflicted on the commons was more severe than that of the Calpurnian law.

=Tulliānum=, a subterraneous prison in Rome, built by Servius Tullius, and added to the other called Robur, where criminals were confined. Sallust, Conspiracy of Catiline.

=Tulliŏla=, or =Tullia=, a daughter of Cicero by Terentia. She married Caius Piso, and afterwards Furius Crassipes, and lastly Publius Cornelius Dolabella. With this last husband she had every reason to be dissatisfied. Dolabella was turbulent, and consequently the cause of much grief to Tullia and her father. Tullia died in child-bed, about 44 years before Christ. Cicero was so inconsolable on this occasion, that some have accused him of an unnatural partiality for his daughter. According to a ridiculous story which some of the moderns report, in the age of Pope Paul III., a monument was discovered on the Appian road with the superscription of Tulliolæ filiæ meæ. The body of a woman was found in it, which was reduced to ashes as soon as touched; there was also a lamp burning, which was extinguished as soon as the air gained admission there, and which was supposed to have been lighted above 1500 years. Cicero.――Plutarch, Cicero.

=Tullius Cimber=, the son of a freedman, rose to great honours, and followed the interest of Pompey. He was reconciled to Julius Cæsar, whom he murdered with Brutus. Plutarch.――――Cicero, a celebrated orator. See: Cicero.――――The son of the orator Cicero. See: Cicero.――――Servius, a king of Rome. See: Servius.――――Senecio, a man accused of conspiracy against Nero with Piso.――――A friend of Otho. ――――One of the kings of Rome. See: Servius.

=Tullus Hostilius=, the third king of Rome after the death of Numa. He was of a warlike and active disposition, and signalized himself by his expedition against the people of Alba, whom he conquered, and whose city he destroyed after the famous battle of the Horatii and Curiatii. He afterwards carried his arms against the Latins and the neighbouring states with success, and enforced reverence for majesty among his subjects. He died with all his family, about 640 years before the christian era, after a reign of 32 years. The manner of his death is not precisely known. Some suppose that he was killed by lightning, while he was performing some magical ceremonies in his own house; or, according to the more probable accounts of others, he was murdered by Ancus Martius, who set fire to the palace, to make it be believed that the impiety of Tullus had been punished by heaven. Florus, bk. 1, ch. 3.――Dionysius of Halicarnassus, bk. 3, ch. 1.――Virgil, Æneid, bk. 6, li. 814.――Livy, bk. 1, ch. 22. ――Pausanias.――――A consul, A.U.C. 686. Horace, bk. 3, ode 8, li. 12.

=Tunēta=, or =Tunis=, a town of Africa, near which Regulus was defeated and taken by Xanthippus. Livy, bk. 30, ch. 9.

=Tungri=, a name given to some of the Germans, supposed to live on the banks of the Maese, whose chief city, called Atuatuca, is now Tongeren. The river of the country is now the Spaw. Tacitus, Germania, bk. 2.

=Caius Turanius=, a Latin tragic poet in the age of Augustus. Ovid, ex Ponto, bk. 4, poem 16, li. 29.

=Turba=, a town of Gaul.

=Turbo=, a gladiator, mentioned Horace, bk. 2, satire 3, li. 310. He was of small stature, but uncommonly courageous.――――A governor of Pannonia, under the emperors.

=Turdetăni=, or =Turduti=, a people of Spain, inhabiting both sides of the Bætis. Livy, bk. 21, ch. 6; bk. 28, ch. 39; bk. 34, ch. 17.

=Turesis=, a Thracian who revolted from Tiberius.

=Turias=, a river of Spain falling into the Mediterranean near Valentia, now the ♦Guadalquiver.

♦ ‘Guadalavier’ replaced with ‘Guadalquiver’

=Turicum=, a town of Gaul, now Zurich, in Switzerland.

=Turiosa=, a town of Spain.

=Turius=, a corrupt judge in the Augustan age. Horace, bk. 2, satire 1, li. 49.

=Turnus=, a king of the Rutuli, son of Daunus and Venilia. He made war against Æneas, and attempted to drive him away from Italy, that he might not marry the daughter of Latinus, who had been previously engaged to him. His efforts were attended with no success, though supported with great courage and a numerous army. He was conquered, and at last killed in a single combat by Æneas. He is represented as a man of uncommon strength. Virgil, Æneid, bk. 7, li. 56, &c. ――Tibullus, bk. 2, poem 5, li. 49.――Ovid, Fasti, bk. 4, li. 879; Metamorphoses, bk. 14, li. 451.

=Turŏnes=, a people of Gaul, whose capital, Cæsarodunum, is the modern Tours.

=Turpio.= See: Ambivius.

=Turrus=, a river of Italy falling into the Adriatic.

=Turullius=, one of Cæsar’s murderers.

=Turuntus=, a river of Sarmatia, supposed to be the Dwina, or Duna.

=Tuscania= and =Tuscia=, a large country at the west of Rome, the same as Etruria. See: Etruria.

=Tusci=, the inhabitants of Etruria.――――The villa of Pliny the younger near the sources of the Tiber. Pliny, ltrs. 5 & 6.

=Tusculānum=, a country house of Cicero, near Tusculum, where, among other books, the orator composed his Quæstiones, concerning the contempt of death, &c., in five books. Cicero, _Tusculanæ Disputationes_, bk. 1, ch. 4; Letters to Atticus, bk. 15, ltr. 2; Letters to his Friends, bk. 2, ch. 1.

=Tuscŭlum=, a town of Latium on the declivity of a hill, about 12 miles from Rome, founded by Telegonus the son of Ulysses and Circe. It is now called Frescati, and is famous for the magnificent villas in its neighbourhood. Cicero, Letters to Atticus.――Strabo, bk. 5. ――Horace, bk. 3, ode 23, li. 8, &c.

=Tuscus=, belonging to Etruria. The Tiber is called Tuscus Amnis, from its situation. Virgil, Æneid, bk. 10, li. 199.

=Tuscus vicus=, a small village near Rome. It received this name from the Etrurians of Porsenna’s army that settled there. Livy, bk. 2, ch. 14.

=Tuscum mare=, a part of the Mediterranean on the coast of Etruria. See: Tyrrhenum.

=Tuta=, a queen of Illyricum, &c. See: Teuta.

=Tutia=, a vestal virgin accused of incontinence. She proved herself to be innocent by carrying water from the Tiber to the temple of Vesta in a sieve, after a solemn invocation to the goddess. Livy, bk. 20. ――――A small river six miles from Rome, where Annibal pitched his camp, when he retreated from the city. Livy, bk. 26, ch. 11.

=Tuticum=, a town of the Hirpini.

=Tyăna=, a town at the foot of mount Taurus in Cappadocia, where Apollonius was born, whence he is called Tyaneus. Ovid, Metamorphoses, bk. 8, li. 719.――Strabo, bk. 12.

=Tyanītis=, a province of Asia Minor, near Cappadocia.

=Tybris.= See: Tiberis.――――A Trojan who fought in Italy with Æneas against Turnus. Virgil, Æneid, bk. 10, li. 124.

=Tybur=, a town of Latium on the Anio. See: Tibur.

=Tyche=, one of the Oceanides. Hesiod, Theogony, li. 360.――――A part of the town of Syracuse. Cicero, Against Verres, bk. 4, ch. 53.

=Tychius=, a celebrated artist of Hyle in Bœotia, who made Hector’s shield, which was covered with the hides of seven oxen. Ovid, Fasti, bk. 3, li. 823.――Strabo, bk. 9.――Homer, Iliad, bk. 7, li. 220.

=Tyde=, a town of Hispania Tarraconensis. Silius Italicus, bk. 3, li. 367.

=Tydeus=, a son of Œneus king of Calydon and Peribœa. He fled from his country after the accidental murder of one of his friends, and found a safe asylum in the court of Adrastus king of Argos, whose daughter Deiphyle he married. When Adrastus wished to replace his son-in-law Polynices on the throne of Thebes, Tydeus undertook to go and declare war against Eteocles, who usurped the crown. The reception he met provoked his resentment; he challenged Eteocles and his officers to single combat, and defeated them. On his return to Argos he slew 50 of the Thebans who had conspired against his life, and lay in an ambush to surprise him; and only one of the number was permitted to return to Thebes, to bear the tidings of the fate of his companions. He was one of the seven chiefs of the army of Adrastus, and during the Theban war he behaved with great courage. Many of the enemies expired under his blows, till he was at last wounded by Menalippus. Though the blow was fatal, Tydeus had the strength to dart at his enemy, and to bring him to the ground, before he was carried away from the fight by his companions. At his own request, the dead body of Menalippus was brought to him, and after he had ordered the head to be cut off, he began to tear out the brains with his teeth. The savage barbarity of Tydeus displeased Minerva, who was coming to bring him relief and to make him immortal, and the goddess left him to his fate, and suffered him to die. He was buried at Argos, where his monument was still to be seen in the age of Pausanias. He was father to Diomedes. Some suppose that the cause of his flight to Argos was the murder of the son of Melus, or, according to others, of Alcathous his father’s brother, or perhaps his own brother Olenius. Homer, Iliad, bk. 4, lis. 365, 387.――Apollodorus, bk. 1, ch. 8; bk. 3, ch. 6.――Aeschylus, Seven Against Thebes.――Pausanias, bk. 9, ch. 18.――Diodorus, bk. 2.――Euripides, Suppliants.――Virgil, Æneid, bk. 6, li. 479.――Ovid, Ibis, li. 350, &c.

=Tydīdes=, a patronymic of Diomedes, as son of Tydeus. Virgil, Æneid, bk. 1, li. 101.――Horace, bk. 1, ode 15, li. 28.

=Tylos=, a town of Peloponnesus near Tænarus, now Bahrain.

=Tymber=, a son of Daunus, who assisted Turnus. His head was cut off in an engagement by Pallas. Virgil, Æneid, bk. 10, li. 391, &c.

=Tymōlus=, a mountain. Ovid, Metamorphoses, bk. 6, li. 15. See: Tmolus.

=Tympania=, an inland town of Elis.

=Tynphæi=, a people between Epirus and Thessaly.

=Tyndărĭdæ=, a patronymic of the children of Tyndarus, as Castor, Pollux, and Helen, &c. Ovid, Metamorphoses, bk. 8.――――A people of Colchis.

=Tyndăris=, a patronymic of Helen daughter of Tyndarus. Virgil, Æneid, bk. 2, li. 569.――――A town of Sicily near Pelorus, founded by a Messenian colony. Strabo, bk. 6.――Pliny, bk. 2, ch. 91. ――Silius Italicus, bk. 14, li. 209.――――Horace gave this name to one of his mistresses, as best expressive of all female accomplishments, bk. 1, ode 17, li. 10.――――A name given to Cassandra. Ovid, Ars Amatoria, bk. 2, li. 408.――――A town of Colchis on the Phasis. Pliny.

=Tyndărus=, son of Œbalus and Gorgophone, or, according to some, of Perieres. He was king of Lacedæmon, and married the celebrated Leda, who bore him Timandra, Philonoe, &c., and also became mother of Pollux and Helen by Jupiter. See: Leda, Castor, Pollux, Clytemnestra, &c.

=Tynnĭchus=, a general of Heraclea. Polyænus.

=Typhœus=, or =Typhon=, a famous giant, son of Tartarus and Terra, who had 100 heads like those of a serpent or a dragon. Flames of devouring fire were darted from his mouth and from his eyes, and he uttered horrid yells, like the dissonant shrieks of different animals. He was no sooner born, than, to avenge the death of his brothers the giants, he made war against heaven, and so frightened the gods that they fled away and assumed different shapes. Jupiter became a ram, Mercury an ibis, ♦Apollo a crow, Juno a cow, Bacchus a goat, Diana a cat, Venus a fish, &c. The father of the gods at last resumed courage, and put Typhœus to flight with his thunderbolts, and crushed him under mount Ætna, in the island of Sicily, or, according to some, under the island Inarime. Typhœus became father of Geryon, Cerberus, and Orthos by his union with Echidna. Hyginus, fables 152 & 196. ――Ovid, Metamorphoses, bk. 5, li. 325.――Aeschylus, Seven Against Thebes.――Hesiod, Theogony, li. 820.――Homer, Hymns. ――Herodotus, bk. 2, ch. 156.――Virgil, Æneid, bk. 9, li. 716.

♦ ‘Appollo’ replaced with ‘Apollo’

=Typhon=, a giant whom Juno produced by striking the earth. Some of the poets make him the same as the famous Typhœus. See: Typhœus.――――A brother of Osiris, who married Nepthys. He laid snares for his brother during his expedition, and murdered him at his return. The death of Osiris was avenged by his son Orus, and Typhon was put to death. See: Osiris. He was reckoned among the Egyptians to be the cause of every evil, and on that account generally represented as a wolf and a crocodile. Plutarch, de Iside et Osiride.――Diodorus, bk. 1.

=Tyrannion=, a grammarian of Pontus, intimate with Cicero. His original name was Theophrastus, and he received that of Tyrannion, from his austerity to his pupils. He was taken by Lucullus, and restored to his liberty by Muræna. He opened a school in the house of his friend Cicero, and enjoyed his friendship. He was extremely fond of books, and collected a library of about 30,000 volumes. To his care and industry the world is indebted for the preservation of Aristotle’s works.――――There was also one of his disciples called Diocles, who bore his name. He was a native of Phœnicia, and was made prisoner in the war of Augustus and Antony. He was bought by Dymes, one of the emperors favourites, and afterwards by Terentia, who gave him his liberty. He wrote 68 different volumes, in one of which he proved that the Latin tongue was derived from the Greek; and another in which Homer’s poems were corrected, &c.

=Tyrannus=, a son of Pterelaus.

=Tyras=, or =Tyra=, a river of European Sarmatia, falling into the Euxine sea, between the Danube and the Borysthenes, and now called the Niester. Ovid, ex Ponto, bk. 4, poem 10, li. 50.

=Tyres=, one of the companions of Æneas in his wars against Turnus. He was brother to Teuthras. Virgil, Æneid, bk. 10, li. 403.

=Tyridates=, a rich man in the age of Alexander, &c. Curtius.

=Tyrii=, or =Tyrus=, a town of Magna Græcia.

=Tyriotes=, a eunuch of Darius, who fled from Alexander’s camp, to inform his master of the queen’s death. Curtius, bk. 4, ch. 10.

=Tyro=, a beautiful nymph, daughter of Salmoneus king of Elis and Alcidice. She was treated with great severity by her mother-in-law Sidero, and at last removed from her father’s house by her uncle Cretheus. She became enamoured of the Enipeus; and as she often walked on the banks of the river, Neptune assumed the shape of her favourite lover, and gained her affections. She had two sons, Pelias and Neleus, by Neptune, whom she exposed, to conceal her incontinence from the world. The children were preserved by shepherds, and when they had arrived at years of maturity, they avenged their mother’s injuries by assassinating the cruel Sidero. Some time after her amour with Neptune, Tyro married her uncle Cretheus, by whom she had Amythaon, Pheres, and Æson. Tyro is often called Salmonis from her father. Homer, Odyssey, bk. 11, li. 234.――Pindar, Pythian, ch. 4.――Apollodorus, bk. 1, ch. 9.――Diodorus, bk. 4.――Propertius, bk. 1, poem 13, li. 20; bk. 2, poem 30, li. 51; bk. 3, poem 19, li. 13.――Ovid, Amores, bk. 3, poem 6, li. 43.――Ælian, Varia Historia, bk. 12, ch. 42.

=Tyros=, an island of Arabia.――――A city of Phœnicia. See: Tyrus.

=Tyrrheidæ=, a patronymic given to the sons of Tyrrheus, who kept the flocks of Latinus. Virgil, Æneid, bk. 7, li. 484.

=Tyrrhēni=, the inhabitants of Etruria. See: Etruria.

=Tyrrhēnum mare=, that part of the Mediterranean which lies on the coast of Etruria. It is also called Inferum, as being at the bottom or south of Italy.

=Tyrrhēnus=, a son of Atys king of Lydia, who came to Italy, where part of the country was called after him. Strabo, bk. 5.――Tacitus, Annals, bk. 4, ch. 55.――Paterculus, bk. 1, ch. 1.――――A friend of Æneas. Virgil, Æneid, bk. 11, li. 612.

=Tyrrheus=, a shepherd of king Latinus, whose stag being killed by the companions of Ascanius, was the first cause of war between Æneas and the inhabitants of Latium. Hence the word Tyrrheides. Virgil, Æneid, bk. 7, li. 485.――――An Egyptian general, B.C. 91.

=Tyrsis=, a place in the Balearides, supposed to be the palace of Saturn.

=Tyrtæus=, a Greek elegiac poet, born in Attica, son of Archimbrotus. In the second Messenian war, the Lacedæmonians were directed by the oracle to apply to the Athenians for a general, if they wished to finish their expedition with success, and they were contemptuously presented with Tyrtæus. The poet, though ridiculed for his many deformities, and his ignorance of military affairs, animated the Lacedæmonians with martial songs, just as they wished to raise the siege of Ithome, and inspired them with so much courage, that they defeated the Messenians. For his services, he was made a citizen of Lacedæmon, and treated with great attention. Of the compositions of Tyrtæus nothing is extant but the fragments of four or five elegies. He flourished about 684 B.C. Justin, bk. 2, ch. 5.――Strabo, bk. 8. ――Aristotle, Politics, bk. 5, ch. 7.――Horace, Art of Poetry, li. 402.――Ælian, Varia Historia, bk. 12, ch. 50.――Pausanias, bk. 4, ch. 6, &c.

=Tyrus=, or =Tyros=, a very ancient city of Phœnicia, built by the Sidonians, on a small island at the south of Sidon, about 200 stadia from the shore, and now called Sur. There were, properly speaking, two places of that name, the old Tyros, called Palætyros, on the sea-shore, and the other in the island. It was about 19 miles in circumference, including Palætyros, but, without it, about four miles. Tyre was destroyed by the princes of Assyria, and afterwards rebuilt. It maintained its independence till the age of Alexander, who took it with much difficulty, and only after he had joined the island to the continent by a mole, after a siege of seven months, on the 20th of August, B.C. 332. The Tyrians were naturally industrious; their city was the emporium of commerce, and they were deemed the inventors of scarlet and purple colours. They founded many cities in different parts of the world, such as Carthage, Gades, Leptis, Utica, &c., which on that account are often distinguished by the epithet Tyria. The buildings of Tyre were very splendid and magnificent; the walls were 150 feet high, with a proportionate breadth. Hercules was the chief deity of the place. It had two large and capacious harbours, and a powerful fleet, and was built, according to some writers, about 2760 years before the christian era. Strabo, bk. 16.――Herodotus, bk. 2, ch. 44.――Mela, bk. 1, ch. 12.――Curtius, bk. 4, ch. 4. ――Virgil, Æneid, bk. 1, lis. 6, 339, &c.――Ovid, Fasti, bk. 1, &c. Metamorphoses, bks. 5 & 10.――Lucan, bk. 3, &c.――――A nymph, mother of Venus, according to some.

=Tysias=, a man celebrated by Cicero. See: Tisias.

U & V

=Vacatione= (lex de), was enacted concerning the exemption from military service, and contained this very remarkable clause, nisi bellum Gallicum exoriatur, in which case the priests themselves were not exempted from service. This can intimate how apprehensive the Romans were of the Gauls, by whom their city had once been taken.

=Vacca=, a town of Numidia. Sallust, Jugurthine War.――――A river of Spain.

=Vaccæi=, a people at the north of Spain. Livy, bk. 21, ch. 5; bk. 35, ch. 7; bk. 46, ch. 47.

=Vaccus=, a general, &c. Livy, bk. 8, ch. 19.

=Vacūna=, a goddess at Rome, who presided over repose and leisure, as the word indicates (vacare). Her festivals were observed in the month of December. Ovid, Fasti, bk. 6, li. 307.――Horace, bk. 1, ltr. 10, li. 49.

=Vadimōnis lacus=, now Bassano, a lake of Etruria, whose waters were sulphureous. The Etrurians were defeated there by the Romans, and the Gauls by Dolabella. Livy, bk. 9, ch. 39.――Florus, bk. 1, ch. 13. ――Pliny, bk. 8, ltr. 20.

=Vaga=, a town of Africa. Silius Italicus, bk. 3, li. 259.

=Vagedrūsa=, a river of Sicily between the towns of Camarina and Gela. Silius Italicus, bk. 14, li. 229.

=Vagellius=, an obscene lawyer of Mutina. Juvenal, satire 16, li. 23.

=Vagēni=, or =Vagienni=, a people of Liguria, at the sources of the Po, whose capital was called Augusta Vagiennorum. Silius Italicus, bk. 8, li. 606.

=Vahālis=, a river of modern Holland, now called the Waal. Tacitus, Annals, bk. 2, ch. 6.

=Vala Caius Numonius=, a friend of Horace, to whom the poet addressed bk. 1, ltr. 15.

=Valens Flavius=, a son of Gratian, born in Pannonia. His brother Valentinian took him as his colleague on the throne, and appointed him over the eastern parts of the Roman empire. The bold measures and the threats of the rebel Procopius frightened the new emperor; and if his friends had not interfered, he would have willingly resigned all his pretensions to the empire which his brother had entrusted to his care. By perseverance, however, Valens was enabled to destroy his rival, and to distinguish himself in his wars against the northern barbarians. But his lenity to these savage intruders proved fatal to the Roman power; and by permitting some of the Goths to settle in the provinces of Thrace, and to have free access to every part of the country, Valens encouraged them to make depredations on his subjects, and to disturb their tranquillity. His eyes were opened too late; he attempted to repel them, but he failed in the attempt. A bloody battle was fought, in which the barbarians obtained some advantage, and Valens was hurried away by the obscurity of the night, and the affection of the soldiers for his person, into a lonely house, which the Goths set on fire. Valens, unable to make his escape, was burnt alive in the 50th year of his age, after a reign of 13 years, A.D. 378. He has been blamed for his superstition and cruelty, in putting to death all such of his subjects whose name began by Theod, because he had been informed by his favourite astrologers that his crown would devolve upon the head of an officer whose name began with these letters. Valens did not possess any of the great qualities which distinguish a good and powerful monarch. He was illiterate, and of a disposition naturally indolent and inactive. Yet though timorous in the highest degree, he was warlike; and though fond of ease, he was acquainted with the character of his officers, and preferred none but such as possessed merit. He was a great friend to discipline, a pattern of chastity and temperance, and he showed himself always ready to listen to the just complaints of his subjects, though he gave an attentive ear to flattery and malevolent informations. Ammianus, &c.――――Valerius, a proconsul of Achaia, who proclaimed himself emperor of Rome, when Marcian, who had been invested with the purple in the east, attempted to assassinate him. He reigned only six months, and was murdered by his soldiers, A.D. 261.――――Fabius, a friend of Vitellius, whom he saluted emperor, in opposition to Otho. He was greatly honoured by Vitellius, &c.――――A general of the emperor Honorius.――――The name of the second Mercury mentioned by Cicero, de Natura Deorum, bk. 3, ch. 22, but considered as more properly belonging to Jupiter.

=Valentia=, one of the ancient names of Rome.――――A town of Spain, a little below Saguntum, founded by Julius Brutus, and for some time known by the name of Julia Collonia.――――A town of Italy.――――Another, in Sardinia.

=Valentiniānus I.=, a son of Gratian, raised to the imperial throne by his merit and valour. He kept the western part of the empire for himself, and appointed over the east his brother Valens. He gave the most convincing proof of his military valour in the victories which he obtained over the barbarians in the provinces of Gaul, the deserts of Africa, and on the banks of the Rhine and the Danube. The insolence of the Quadi he punished with great severity; and when these desperate and indigent barbarians had deprecated the conqueror’s mercy, Valentinian treated them with contempt, and upbraided them with every mark of resentment. While he spoke with such warmth, he broke a blood-vessel, and fell lifeless on the ground. He was conveyed into his palace by his attendants, and soon after died, after suffering the greatest agonies, from violent fits and contortions of his limbs, on the 17th of November, A.D. 375. He was then in the 55th year of his age, and had reigned 12 years. He has been represented by some as cruel and covetous in the highest degree. He was naturally of an irascible disposition, and he gratified his pride in expressing a contempt for those who were his equals in military abilities, or who shone for gracefulness or elegance of address. Ammianus.

=Valentinianus II.=, second son of Valentinian I., was proclaimed emperor about six days after his father’s death, though only five years old. He succeeded his brother, Gratian, A.D. 383, but his youth seemed to favour dissension, and the attempts and the usurpations of rebels. He was robbed of his throne by Maximus, four years after the death of Gratian; and in this helpless situation he had recourse to Theodosius, who was then emperor of the east. He was successful in his applications; Maximus was conquered by Theodosius, and Valentinian entered Rome in triumph, accompanied by his benefactor. He was some time after strangled by one of his officers, a native of Gaul, called Arbogastes, in whom he had placed too much confidence, and from whom he expected more deference than the ambition of a barbarian could pay. Valentinian reigned nine years. This happened the 15th of May, A.D. 392, at Vienne, one of the modern towns of France. He has been commended for his many virtues, and the applause which the populace bestowed upon him was bestowed upon real merit. He abolished the greatest part of the taxes; and because his subjects complained that he was too fond of the amusements of the circus, he ordered all such festivals to be abolished, and all the wild beasts that were kept for the entertainment of the people to be slain. He was remarkable for his benevolence and clemency, not only to his friends, but even to such as had conspired against his life; and he used to say that tyrants alone are suspicious. He was fond of imitating the virtues and exemplary life of his friend and patron Theodosius, and if he had lived longer, the Romans might have enjoyed peace and security.

=Valentinianus III.=, was son of Constantius and Placidia the daughter of Theodosius the Great, and therefore, as related to the imperial family, he was saluted emperor in his youth, and publicly acknowledged as such at Rome, the 3rd of October, A.D. 423, about the sixth year of his age. He was at first governed by his mother, and the intrigues of his generals and courtiers; and when he came to years of discretion, he disgraced himself by violence, oppression, and incontinence. He was murdered in the midst of Rome, A.D. 454, in the 36th year of his age, and 31st of his reign, by Petronius Maximus, to whose wife he had offered violence. The vices of Valentinian III. were conspicuous; every passion he wished to gratify at the expense of his honour, his health, and character; and as he lived without one single act of benevolence or kindness, he died lamented by none, though pitied for his imprudence and vicious propensities. He was the last of the family of Theodosius.

=Valentinianus=, a son of the emperor Gratian, who died when very young.

=Valeria=, a sister of Publicola, who advised the Roman matrons to go and deprecate the resentment of Coriolanus. Plutarch, Coriolanus. ――――A daughter of Publicola, given as a hostage to Porsenna by the Romans. She fled from the enemy’s country with Clœlia, and swam across the Tiber. Plutarch, de Mulierum Virtutibus.――――A daughter of Messala, sister to Hortensius, who married Sylla.――――The wife of the emperor Valentinian.――――The wife of the emperor Galerius, &c. ――――A road in Sicily, which led from Messana to Lilybæum.――――A town of Spain. Pliny, bk. 3, ch. 3.

=Valeria lex=, de provocatione, by Publius Valerius Poplicola the sole consul, A.U.C. 245. It permitted the appeal from a magistrate to the people, and forbade the magistrate to punish a citizen for making the appeal. It further made it a capital crime for a citizen to aspire to the sovereignty of Rome, or to exercise any office without the choice and approbation of the people. Valerius Maximus, bk. 4, ch. 1.――Livy, bk. 2, ch. 8.――Dionysius of Halicarnassus, bk. 4. ――――Another, de debitoribus, by Valerius Flaccus. It required that all creditors should discharge their debtors, on receiving a fourth part of the whole sum.――――Another, by Marcus Valerius Corvinus, A.U.C. 453, which confirmed the first Valerian law, enacted by Poplicola. ――――Another, called also Horatia, by Lucius Valerius and Marcus Horatius the consuls, A.U.C. 305. It revived the first Valerian law, which, under the triumvirate, had lost its force.――――Another, de magistratibus, by Publius Valerius Poplicola sole consul, A.U.C. 245. It created two questors to take care of the public treasure, which was for the future to be kept in the temple of Saturn. Plutarch, Publicola.――Livy, bk. 2.

=Valeriānus Publius Licinius=, a Roman, proclaimed emperor by the armies in Rhætia, A.D. 254. The virtues which shone in him when a private man, were lost when he ascended the throne. Formerly distinguished for his temperance, moderation, and many virtues, which fixed the uninfluenced choice of all Rome upon him, Valerian, invested with the purple, displayed inability and meanness. He was cowardly in his operations, and though acquainted with war, and the patron of science, he seldom acted with prudence, or favoured men of true genius and merit. He took his son Gallienus as his colleague in the empire, and showed the malevolence of his heart by persecuting the christians whom he had for a while tolerated. He also made war against the Goths and Scythians; but in an expedition which he undertook against Sapor king of Persia, his arms were attended with ill success. He was conquered in Mesopotamia, and when he wished to have a private conference with Sapor, the conqueror seized his person, and carried him in triumph to his capital, where he exposed him, and in all the cities of his empire, to the ridicule and insolence of his subjects. When the Persian monarch mounted on horseback, Valerian served as a footstool, and the many other insults which he suffered excited indignation even among the courtiers of Sapor. The monarch at last ordered him to be flayed alive, and salt to be thrown over his mangled body, so that he died in the greatest torments. His skin was tanned, and painted in red; and that the ignominy of the Roman empire might be lasting, it was nailed in one of the temples of Persia. Valerian died in the 71st year of his age, A.D. 260, after a reign of seven years.――――A grandson of Valerian the emperor. He was put to death when his father, the emperor Gallienus, was killed.――――One of the generals of the usurper Niger.――――A worthy senator, put to death by Heliogabalus.

=Valerius Publius=, a celebrated Roman surnamed Poplicola, from his popularity. He was very active in assisting Brutus to expel the Tarquins, and he was the first that took an oath to support the liberty and independence of his country. Though he had been refused the consulship, and had retired with great dissatisfaction from the direction of affairs, yet he regarded the public opinion; and when the jealousy of the Romans inveighed against the towering appearance of his house, he acknowledged the reproof, and in making it lower, he showed his wish to be on a level with his fellow-citizens, and not to erect what might be considered as a citadel for the oppression of his country. He was afterwards honoured with the consulship, on the expulsion of Collatinus, and he triumphed over the Etrurians, after he had gained the victory in the battle in which Brutus and the sons of Tarquin had fallen. Valerius died after he had been four times consul, and enjoyed the popularity, and received the thanks and the gratitude, which people redeemed from slavery and oppression usually pay to their patrons and deliverers. He was so poor, that his body was buried at the public expense. The Roman matrons mourned his death a whole year. Plutarch, Lives.――Florus, bk. 1, ch. 9.――Livy, bk. 3, ch. 8, &c.――――Corvinus, a tribune of the soldiers under Camillus. When the Roman army were challenged by one of the Senones, remarkable for his strength and stature, Valerius undertook to engage him, and obtained an easy victory, by means of a crow that assisted him, and attacked the face of the Gaul, whence his surname of Corvinus. Valerius triumphed over the Etrurians, and the neighbouring states that made war against Rome, and was six times honoured with the consulship. He died in the 100th year of his age, admired and regretted for many public and private virtues. Valerius Maximus, bk. 8, ch. 13.――Livy, bk. 7, ch. 27, &c.――Plutarch, Caius Marius.――Cicero, Against Catiline.――――Antias, an excellent Roman historian often quoted, and particularly by Livy. ――――Marcus Corvinus Messala, a Roman, made consul with Augustus. He distinguished himself by his learning as well as military virtues. He lost his memory about two years before his death, and according to some, he was even ignorant of his own name. Suetonius, Augustus. ――Cicero, Brutus.――――Soranus, a Latin poet in the age of Julius Cæsar, put to death for betraying a secret. He acknowledged no god, but the soul of the universe.――――Maximus, a brother of Poplicola. ――――A Latin historian who carried arms under the sons of Pompey. He dedicated his time to study, and wrote an account of all the most celebrated sayings and actions of the Romans, and other illustrious persons, which is still extant, and divided into nine books. It is dedicated to Tiberius. Some have supposed that he lived after the age of Tiberius, from the want of purity and elegance which so conspicuously appear in his writings, unworthy of the correctness of the golden age of the Roman literature. The best editions of Valerius are those of Torrenius, 4to, Leiden, 1726, and of Vorstius, 8vo, Berlin, 1672.――――Marcus, a brother of Poplicola, who defeated the army of the Sabines in two battles. He was honoured with a triumph, and the Romans, to show the sense of his great merit, built him a house on mount Palatine, at the public expense.――――Potitus, a general who stirred up the people and army against the decemvirs, and Appius Claudius in particular. He was chosen consul, and conquered the Volsci and Æqui.――――Flaccus, a Roman, intimate with Cato the censor, whose friendship he honourably shared. He was consul with him, and cut off an army of 10,000 of the Insubres and Boii in Gaul, in one battle. He was also chosen censor, and prince of the senate, &c.――――A Latin poet who flourished under Vespasian. He wrote a poem in eight books on the Argonautic expedition, but it remained unfinished on account of his premature death. The Argonauts were there left on the sea in their return home. Some critics have been lavish in their praises upon Flaccus, and have called him the second poet of Rome, after Virgil. His poetry, however, is deemed by some frigid and languishing, and his style uncouth and inelegant. The best editions of Flaccus are those of Burman, Leiden, 1724, and 12mo, Utrecht, 1702. ――――Asiaticus, a celebrated Roman, accused of having murdered one of the relations of the emperor Claudius. He was condemned by the intrigues of Messalina, though innocent, and he opened his veins, and bled to death. Tacitus, Annals.――――A friend of Vitellius. ――――Fabianus, a youth condemned under Nero, for counterfeiting the will of one of his friends, &c. Tacitus, Annals, bk. 14, ch. 42. ――――Lævinus, a consul who fought against Pyrrhus during the Tarentine war. See: Lævinus.――――Præconius, a lieutenant of Cæsar’s army in Gaul, slain in a skirmish.――――Paulinus, a friend of Vespasian, &c.

=Valerus=, a friend of Turnus against Æneas. Virgil, Æneid, bk. 10, li. 752.

=Valgius Rufus=, a Roman poet in the Augustan age, celebrated for his writings. He was very intimate with Horace. Tibullus, ♦bk. 1, li. 180.――Horace, bk. 1, satire 10, li. 82.

♦ removed extraneous ‘3’

=Vandalii=, a people of Germany. Tacitus, Germania, ch. 3.

=Vangiŏnes=, a people of Germany. Their capital, Borbetomagus, is now called Worms. Lucan, bk. 1, li. 431.――Cæsar, Gallic War, bk. 1, ch. 51.

=Vannia=, a town of Italy, north of the Po, now called Civita.

=Vannius=, a king of the Suevi, banished under Claudius, &c. Tacitus, Annals, bk. 12, ch. 29.

=Vapineum=, a town of Gaul.

=Varanes=, a name common to some of the Persian monarchs, in the age of the Roman emperors.

=Vardæi=, a people of Dalmatia. Cicero, Letters to his Friends, bk. 5, ltr. 9.

=Varia=, a town of Latium.

=Varia lex=, de majestate, by the tribune ♦Quintus Varius, A.U.C. 662. It ordained that all such as had assisted the confederates in their war against Rome, should be publicly tried.――――Another, de civiate, by Quintus Varius Hybrida. It punished all such as were suspected of having assisted or supported the people of Italy in their petition to become free citizens of Rome. Cicero, For Milo, ch. 36; Brutus, chs. 56, 88, &c.

♦ ‘L. Varrus’ replaced with ‘Quintus Varius’

=Varīni=, a people of Germany. Tacitus, Germania, ch. 40.

=Varisti=, a people of Germany.

=Lucius Varius=, or =Varus=, a tragic poet intimate with Horace and Virgil. He was one of those whom Augustus appointed to revise Virgil’s Æneid. Some fragments of his poetry are still extant. Besides tragedies, he wrote a panegyric on the emperor. Quintilian says, bk. 10, that his Thyestes was equal to any composition of the Greek poets. Horace, bk. 1, satire 5, li. 40.――――A man who raised his reputation by the power of his oratory. Cicero, On Oratory, bk. 1, ch. 25.――――One of the friends of Antony, surnamed Cotylon. ――――A man in the reign of Otho, punished for his adulteries, &c.

=Varro Marcus Terentius=, a Roman consul defeated at Cannæ, by Annibal. See: Terentius. A Latin writer, celebrated for his great learning. He wrote no less than 500 different volumes, which are all now lost, except a treatise de Re Rusticâ, and another de Linguâ Latinâ, in five books, written in his 80th year, and dedicated to the orator Cicero. He was Pompey’s lieutenant in his piratical wars, and obtained a naval crown. In the civil wars he was taken by Cæsar and proscribed, but he escaped. He has been greatly commended by Cicero for his erudition, and St. Augustin says that it cannot but be wondered how Varro, who read such a number of books, could find time to compose so many volumes; and how he who composed so many volumes, could be at leisure to peruse such a variety of books, and gain so much literary information. He died B.C. 28, in the 88th year of his age. The best edition of Varro is that of Dordrac, 8vo, 1619. Cicero, Academica, &c.――Quintilian.――――Atacinus, a native of Gaul, in the age of Julius Cæsar. He translated into Latin verse the Argonautica of Apollonius Rhodius, with great correctness and elegance. He also wrote a poem entitled de Bello Sequanico, besides epigrams and elegies. Some fragments of his poetry are still extant. He failed in his attempt to write satire. Horace, bk. 1, satire 10, li. 46.――Ovid, Amores, bk. 1, li. 15.――Quintilian, bk. 10, ch. 1.

=Varrōnis villa=, now Vicovaro, was situate on the Anio, in the country of the Sabines. Cicero, Philippics, bk. 2, ltr. 41.

=Varus Quintilius=, a Roman proconsul, descended from an illustrious family. He was appointed governor of Syria, and afterwards made commander of the armies in Germany. He was surprised by the enemy, under Arminius, a crafty and dissimulating chief, and his army was cut to pieces. When he saw that everything was lost, he killed himself, A.D. 10, and his example was followed by some of his officers. His head was afterwards sent to Augustus at Rome, by one of the barbarian chiefs, as also his body; and so great was the influence of this defeat upon the emperor, that he continued for whole months to show all the marks of dejection, and of deep sorrow, often exclaiming, “O Varus, restore me my legions!” The bodies of the slain were left in the field of battle, where they were found six years after by Germanicus, and buried with great pomp. Varus has been taxed with indolence and cowardice, and some have intimated, that if he had not trusted too much to the insinuations of the barbarian chiefs, he might have not only escaped ruin, but awed the Germans to their duty. His avarice was also conspicuous; he went poor to Syria, whence he returned loaded with riches. Horace, bk. 1, ode 24. ――Paterculus, bk. 2, ch. 117.――Florus, bk. 4, ch. 12.――Virgil, Eclogues, poem 6.――――A son of Varus, who married a daughter of Germanicus. Tacitus, Annals, bk. 4, ch. 6.――――The father and grandfather of Varus, who was killed in Germany, slew themselves with their own swords, the one after the battle of Philippi, and the other in the plains of Pharsalia.――――Quintilius, a friend of Horace, and other great men in the Augustan age. He was a good judge of poetry, and a great critic, as Horace, Art of Poetry, li. 438, seems to insinuate. The poet has addressed the 18th ode of his first book to him, and in the 24th he mourns pathetically his death. Some suppose this Varus to be the person killed in Germany, while others believe him to be a man who devoted his time more to the muses than to war. See: Varius.――――Lucius, an epicurean philosopher, intimate with Julius Cæsar. Some suppose that it was to him that Virgil inscribed his sixth eclogue. He is commended by Quintilian, bk. 6, chs. 3, 78. ――――Alfrenus, a Roman, who, though originally a shoemaker, became consul, and distinguished himself by his abilities as an orator. He was buried at the public expense, an honour granted to few, and only to persons of merit. Horace, bk. 1, satire 3.――――Accius, one of the friends of Cato in Africa, &c.――――A river which falls into the Mediterranean, to the west of Nice, after separating Liguria from Gallia Narbonensis. Lucan, bk. 1, li. 404.

=Vasates=, a people of Gaul.

=Vascŏnes=, a people of Spain, on the Pyrenees. They were so reduced by a famine by Metellus, that they fed on human flesh. Pliny, bk. 3, ch. 3.――Ausonius, bk. 2, li. 100.――Juvenal, satire 15, li. 93.

=Vasio=, a town of Gaul in modern Provence. Cicero, Letters to his Friends, bk. 10, ltr. 34.

=Vaticānus=, a hill at Rome, near the Tiber and the Janiculum, which produced wine of no great esteem. It was disregarded by the Romans on account of the unwholesomeness of the air, and the continual stench of the filth that was there, and of stagnated waters. Heliogabalus was the first who cleared it of all disagreeable nuisances. It is now admired for ancient monuments and pillars, for a celebrated public library, and for the palace of the pope. Horace, bk. 1, ode 20.

=Vătiēnus=, now Saterno, a river rising in the Alps and falling into the Po. Martial, bk. 3, ltr. 67.――Pliny, bk. 3, ch. 16.

=Vātinia lex=, de provinciis, by the tribune Publius Vatinius, A.U.C. 694. It appointed Cæsar governor of Gallia Cisalpina and Illyricum, for five years, without a decree of the senate, or the usual custom of casting lots. Some persons were also appointed to attend him as lieutenants without the interference of the senate. His army was to be paid out of the public treasury, and he was empowered to plant a Roman colony in the town of Novocomum in Gaul.――――Another by Publius Vatinius the tribune, A.U.C. 694, de repetundis, for the better management of the trial of those who were accused of extortion.

=Vatinius=, an intimate friend of Cicero, once distinguished for his enmity to the orator. He hated the people of Rome for their great vices and corruption, whence excessive hatred became proverbial in the words Vatinianum odium. Catullus, bk. 14, li. 3.――――A shoemaker, ridiculed for his deformities, and the oddity of his character. He was one of Nero’s favourites, and he surpassed the rest of the courtiers in flattery, and in the commission of every impious deed. Large cups, of no value, are called Vatiniana from him, because he used one which was both ill-shaped and uncouth. Tacitus, Annals, bk. 13, ch. 34.――Juvenal.――Martial, bk. 14, ltr. 96.

=Ubii=, a people of Germany near the Rhine, transported across the river by Agrippa, who gave them the name of Agrippinenses, from his daughter Agrippina, who had been born in the country. Their chief town, Ubiorum oppidum, is now Cologne. Tacitus, Germania, ch. 28; Annals, bk. 12, ch. 27.――Pliny, bk. 4, ch. 17.――Cæsar, bk. 4, ch. 30.

=Ucălĕgon=, a Trojan chief, remarkable for his great age, and praised for the soundness of his counsels and his good intentions, though accused by some of betraying his country to the enemy. His house was first set on fire by the Greeks. Virgil, Æneid, bk. 2, li. 312. ――Homer, Iliad, bk. 3, li. 148.

=Ucetia=, a town of Gaul.

=Ucubis=, now Lucubi, a town of Spain. Hirtius.

=Udina=, or =Vedĭnum=, now Udino, a town of Italy.

=Vectis=, the isle of Wight, south of Britain. Suetonius, Claudius, ch. 5.

=Vectius=, a rhetorician, &c. Juvenal, satire 7, li. 150.

=Vectones.= See: Vettones.

=Vedius Pollio=, a friend of Augustus, very cruel to his servants, &c. See: Pollio.――――Aquila, an officer at the battle of Bebriacum, &c. Tacitus, Histories, bk. 2, ch. 44.

=Vegetius=, a Latin writer, who flourished B.C. 386. The best edition of his treatise de Re Militari, together with Modestus, is that of Paris, 4to, 1607.

=Vegia=, an island on the coast of Dalmatia.

=Veia=, a sorceress, in the age of Horace, epode 5, li. 29.

=Veianus=, a gladiator, in the age of Horace, bk. 1, ltr. 1, li. 4.

=Veientes=, the inhabitants of Veii. They were carried to Rome, where the tribe they composed was called Veientina. See: Veii.

=Veiento Fabricius=, a Roman, as arrogant as he was satirical. Nero banished him for his libellous writings. Juvenal, satire 3, li. 185.

=Veii=, a powerful city of Etruria, at the distance of about 12 miles from Rome. It sustained many long wars against the Romans, and was at last taken and destroyed by Camillus, after a siege of 10 years. At the time of its destruction, Veii was larger and far more magnificent than the city of Rome. Its situation was so eligible, that the Romans, after the burning of the city by the Gauls, were long inclined to migrate there, and totally abandon their native home; and this would have been carried into execution, if not opposed by the authority and eloquence of Camillus. Ovid, Fasti, bk. 2, li. 195.――Cicero, De Divinatione, bk. 1, ch. 44.――Horace, bk. 2, satire 3, li. 143. ――Livy, bk. 5, ch. 21, &c.

=Vejŏvis=, or =Vejupĭter=, a deity of ill omen at Rome. He had a temple on the Capitoline hill built by Romulus. Some suppose that he was the same as Jupiter the infant, or in the cradle, because he was represented without thunder, or a sceptre, and had only by his side the goat Amalthæa, and the Cretan nymph who fed him when young. Ovid, Fasti, bk. 3, li. 430.

=Velabrum=, a marshy piece of ground on the side of the Tiber, between the Aventine, Palatine, and Capitoline hills, which Augustus drained, and where he built houses. The place was frequented as a market, where oil, cheese, and other commodities were exposed to sale. Horace, bk. 2, satire 3, li. 229.――Ovid, Fasti, bk. 6, li. 401. ――Tibullus, bk. 2, poem 5, li. 33.――Plautus, bk. 3, Captivi, ch. 1, li. 29.

=Velanius=, one of Cæsar’s officers in Gaul, &c.

=Velauni=, a people of Gaul.

=Velia=, a maritime town of Lucania, founded by a colony of Phoceans, about 600 years after the coming of Æneas into Italy. The port in its neighbourhood was called Velinus portus. Strabo, bk. 6.――Mela, bk. 2, ch. 4.――Cicero, Philippics, bk. 10, ch. 4.――Virgil, Æneid, bk. 6, li. 366.――――An eminence near the Roman forum, where Poplicola built himself a house. Livy, bk. 2, ch. 6.――Cicero, bk. 7, Letters to Atticus, ltr. 15.

=Velica=, or =Vellica=, a town of the Cantabri.

=Velīna=, a part of the city of Rome, adjoining mount Palatine. It was also one of the Roman tribes. Horace, bk. 1, ltr. 6, li. 52. ――Cicero, bk. 4, Letters to Atticus, ltr. 15.

=Velīnus=, a lake in the country of the Sabines, formed by the stagnant waters of the Velinus, between some hills near Reate. The river Velinus rises in the Apennines, and after it has formed the lake, it falls into the Nar, near Spoletium. Virgil, Æneid, bk. 7, li. 517. ――Cicero, De Divinatione, bk. 1, ch. 36.

=Veliocassi=, a people of Gaul.

=Veliterna=, or =Velitræ=, an ancient town of Latium on the Appian road, 20 miles at the east of Rome. The inhabitants were called Veliterni. It became a Roman colony. Livy, bk. 8, ch. 12, &c.――Suetonius Augustus.――Silius Italicus, bk. 8, li. 378, &c.

=Vellari=, a people of Gaul.

=Vellaunodūnum=, a town of the Senones, now Beaune. Cæsar, ♦Gallic War, bk. 7, ch. 11.

♦ Book name omitted from text.

=Velleda=, a woman famous among the Germans, in the age of Vespasian, and worshipped as a deity. Tacitus, Germania, ch. 8.

=Velleius Paterculus=, a Roman historian, descended from an equestrian family of Campania. He was at first a military tribune in the Roman armies, and for nine years served under Tiberius in the various expeditions which he undertook in Gaul and Germany. Velleius wrote an epitome of the history of Greece, and of Rome, and of other nations of the most remote antiquity, but of this authentic composition there remain only fragments of the history of Greece and Rome from the conquest of Perseus, by Paulus, to the 17th year of the reign of Tiberius, in two books. It is a judicious account of celebrated men and illustrious cities; the historian is happy in his descriptions, and accurate in his dates; his pictures are true, and his narrations lively and interesting. The whole is candid and impartial, but only till the reign of the Cæsars, when the writer began to be influenced by the presence of the emperor, or the power of his favourites. Paterculus is deservedly censured for his invectives against Cicero and Pompey, and his encomiums on the cruel Tiberius, and the unfortunate Sejanus. Some suppose that he was involved in the ruin of this disappointed courtier, whom he had extolled as a pattern of virtue and morality. The best editions of Paterculus are those of Ruhnkenius, 8vo, 2 vols., Leiden, 1779; of Barbou, Paris, 12mo, 1777; and of Burman, 8vo, Leiden, 1719.――――Caius, the grandfather of the historian of that name, was one of the friends of Livia. He killed himself when old and unable to accompany Livia in her flight.

=Velocasses=, the people of Vexin, in Normandy. Cæsar, Gallic War, bk. 2, ch. 4.

=Venāfrum=, a town of Campania near Arpinum, abounding in olive trees. It became a Roman colony. It had been founded by Diomedes. Horace, bk. 2, ode 6, li. 16.――Martial, bk. 13, ltr. 98.――Juvenal, satire 5, li. 86.――Strabo, bk. 5.――Pliny, bk. 3, ch. 5.

=Venedi=, a people of Germany, near the mouth of the Vistula, or gulf of Dantzic. Tacitus, Germania, ch. 46.――Pliny, bk. 4, ch. 13.

=Veneli=, a people of Gallia Celtica.

=Venĕti=, a people of Italy in Cisalpine Gaul, near the mouth of the Po. They were descended from a nation of Paphlagonia, who settled there under Antenor some time after the Trojan war. The Venetians, who have been long a powerful and commercial nation, were originally very poor, whence a writer in the age of the Roman emperors said, they had no other fence against the waves of the sea but hurdles, no food but fish, no wealth besides their fishing-boats, and no merchandise but salt. Strabo, bk. 4, &c.――Livy, bk. 1, ch. 1.――Mela, bk. 1, ch. 2; bk. 2, ch. 4.――Cæsar, Gallic War, bk. 3, ch. 8.――Lucan, bk. 4, li. 134.――Silius Italicus, bk. 8, li. 605.――――A nation of Gaul, at the south of Armorica, on the western coast, powerful by sea. Their chief city is now called Vannes. Cæsar, bk. 3, Gallic War, ch. 8.

=Venĕtia=, a part of Gaul, on the mouths of the Po. See: Veneti.

=Venetus Paulus=, a centurion who conspired against Nero with Piso, &c. Tacitus, Annals, bk. 15, ch. 50.――――A lake through which the Rhine passes, now Bodensee or Constance. Mela, bk. 3, ch. 2.

=Vĕnīlia=, a nymph, sister to Amata, and mother of Turnus by Daunus. Amphitrite the sea goddess is also called Venilia. Virgil, Æneid, bk. 10, li. 76.――Ovid, Metamorphoses, bk. 14, li. 334.――Varro, de Lingua Latina, bk. 4, ch. 10.

=Vennones=, a people of the Rhæetian Alps.

=Venonius=, an historian mentioned by Cicero, Letters to Atticus, bk. 12, ltr. 3, &c.

=Venta Belgarum=, a town of Britain, now Winchester.――――Silurum, a town of Britain, now Caerwent, in Monmouthshire.――――Icenorum, now Norwich.

=Venti.= The ancients, and especially the Athenians, paid particular attention to the winds, and offered them sacrifices as to deities, intent upon the destruction of mankind, by continually causing storms, tempests, and earthquakes. The winds were represented in different attitudes and forms. The four principal winds were Eurus, the south-east, who is represented as a young man flying with great impetuosity, and often appearing in a playsome and wanton humour. Auster, the south wind, appeared generally as an old man with grey hair, a gloomy countenance, a head covered with clouds, a sable vesture, and dusky wings. He is the dispenser of rain, and of all heavy showers. Zephyrus is represented as the mildest of all the winds. He is young and gentle, and his lap is filled with vernal flowers. He married Flora the goddess, with whom he enjoyed the most perfect felicity. Boreas, or the north wind, appears always rough and shivering. He is the father of rain, snow, hail, and tempests, and is always represented as surrounded with impenetrable clouds. Those of inferior note were Solanus, whose name is seldom mentioned. He appeared as a young man holding fruit in his lap, such as peaches, oranges, &c. Africus, or south-west, is represented with black wings, and a melancholy countenance. Corus, or north-west, drives clouds of snow before him, and Aquilo, the north-east, is equally dreadful in appearance. The winds, according to some mythologists, were confined in a large cave, of which Æolus had the management; and without this necessary precaution, they would have overturned the earth, and reduced everything to its original chaos. Virgil, Æneid, bk. 1, li. 57, &c.

=Ventĭdius Bassus=, a native of Picenum, born of an obscure family. When Asculum was taken, he was carried before the triumphant chariot of Pompeius Strabo, hanging on his mother’s breast. A bold, aspiring soul, aided by the patronage of the family of Cæsar, raised him from the mean occupation of a chairman and muleteer to dignity in the state. He displayed valour in the Roman armies, and gradually arose to the offices of tribune, pretor, high priest, and consul. He made war against the Parthians, and conquered them in three great battles, B.C. 39. He was the first Roman ever honoured with a triumph over Parthia. He died greatly lamented by all the Roman people, and was buried at the public expense. Plutarch, Antonius.――Juvenal, satire 7, li. 199.――――Cumanus, governor of Palestine, &c. Tacitus, Annals, bk. 13, ch. 54.――――Two brothers in the age of Pompey, who favoured Carbo’s interest, &c. Plutarch.

=Venŭleius=, a writer in the age of the emperor Alexander.――――A friend of Verres. Cicero, Against Verres, bk. 3, ch. 42.

=Venŭlus=, one of the Latin elders sent into Magna Græcia to demand the assistance of Diomedes, &c. Virgil, Æneid, bk. 8, li. 9.

=Vĕnus=, one of the most celebrated deities of the ancients. She was the goddess of beauty, the mother of love, the queen of laughter, the mistress of the graces and of pleasures, and the patroness of courtesans. Some mythologists speak of more than one Venus. Plato mentions two, Venus Urania the daughter of Uranus, and Venus Popularia the daughter of Jupiter and Dione. Cicero speaks of four, a daughter of Cœlus and Light, one sprung from the froth of the sea, a third, daughter of Jupiter and the Nereid Dione, and a fourth born at Tyre, and the same as the Astarte of the Syrians. Of these, however, the Venus sprung from the froth of the sea, after the mutilated part of the body of Uranus had been thrown there by Saturn, is the most known, and of her in particular ancient mythologists, as well as painters, make mention. She arose from the sea near the island of Cyprus, or, according to Hesiod, of Cythera, whither she was wafted by the zephyrs, and received on the sea-shore by the seasons, daughters of Jupiter and Themis. She was soon after carried to heaven, where all the gods admired her beauty, and all the goddesses became jealous of her personal charms. Jupiter attempted to gain her affections and even wished to offer her violence, but Venus refused, and the god, to punish her obstinacy, gave her in marriage to his ugly and deformed son Vulcan. This marriage did not prevent the goddess of Love from gratifying her favourite passions, and she defiled her husband’s bed by her amours with the gods. Her intrigue with Mars is the most celebrated. She was caught in her lover’s arms, and exposed to the ridicule and laughter of all the gods. See: Alectryon. Venus became mother of Hermione, Cupid, and Anteros by Mars; by Mercury she had Hermaphroditus; by Bacchus, Priapus; and by Neptune, Eryx. Her great partiality for Adonis made her abandon the seats of Olympus [See: Adonis], and her regard for Anchises obliged her often to visit the woods and solitary retreats of mount Ida. See: Anchises, Æneas. The power of Venus over the heart was supported and assisted by a celebrated girdle, called zone by the Greeks, and cestus by the Latins. This mysterious girdle gave beauty, grace, and elegance, when worn even by the most deformed; and it excited love and rekindled extinguished flames. Juno herself was indebted to this powerful ornament to gain the favours of Jupiter, and Venus, though herself possessed of every charm, no sooner put on her cestus, than Vulcan, unable to resist the influence of love, forgot all the intrigues and infidelities of his wife, and fabricated arms even for her illegitimate children. The contest of Venus for the golden apple of Discord is well known. She gained the prize over Pallas and Juno [See: Paris, Discordia], and rewarded her impartial judge with the hand of the fairest woman in the world. The worship of Venus was universally established; statues and temples were erected to her in every kingdom, and the ancients were fond of paying homage to a divinity who presided over generation, and by whose influence alone mankind existed. In her sacrifices and in the festivals celebrated in her honour, too much licentiousness prevailed, and public prostitution was often part of the ceremony. Victims were seldom offered to her, or her altars stained with blood, though we find Aspasia making repeated sacrifices. No pigs, however, or male animals were deemed acceptable. The rose, the myrtle, and the apple, were sacred to Venus; and among birds, the dove, the swan, and the sparrow, were her favourites; and among fishes, those called the aphya and the lycostomus. The goddess of beauty was represented among the ancients in different forms. At Elis she appeared seated on a goat, with one foot resting on a tortoise. At Sparta and Cythera, she was represented armed like Minerva, and sometimes wearing chains on her feet. In the temple of Jupiter Olympius, she was represented by Phidias, as rising from the sea, received by love, and crowned by the goddess of persuasion. At Cnidos her statue, made by Praxiteles, represented her naked, with one hand hiding what modesty keeps concealed. Her statue at Elephantis was the same, with only a naked Cupid by her side. In Sicyon she held a poppy in one hand, and in the other an apple, while on her head she had a crown, which terminated in a point, to intimate the pole. She is generally represented with her son Cupid, on a chariot drawn by doves, or at other times by swans and sparrows. The surnames of the goddess are numerous, and only show how well established her worship was all over the earth. She was called Cypria, because particularly worshipped in the island of Cyprus, and in that character she was often represented with a beard, and the male parts of generation, with a sceptre in her hand, and the body and dress of a female, whence she is called duplex Amathusia by Catullus. She received the name of Paphia, because worshipped at Paphos, where she had a temple with an altar, on which rain never fell, though exposed in the open air. Some of the ancients called her Apostrophia or Epistrophia, as also Venus Urania, and Venus Pandemos. The first of these she received as presiding over wantonness and incestuous enjoyments; the second because she patronized pure love, and chaste and moderate gratifications; and the third because she favoured the propensities of the vulgar, and was fond of sensual pleasures. The Cnidians raised her temples under the name of Venus Acræa, of Doris, and of Euploea. In her temple under the name of Euploea, at Cnidos, was the most celebrated of her statues, being the most perfect piece of Praxiteles. It was made with white marble, and appeared so engaging, and so much like life, that, according to some historians, a youth of the place introduced himself in the night into her temple, and attempted to gratify his passions on the lifeless image. Venus was also surnamed Cytheræa, because she was the chief deity of Cythera; Exopolis, because her statue was without the city of Athens; Phallommeda, from her affection for the phallus; Philommedis, because the queen of laughter; Telessigama, because she presided over marriage; Caliada, Colotis, or Colias, because worshipped on a promontory of the same name in Attica; Area, because armed like Mars; Verticordia, because she could turn the hearts of women to cultivate chastity; Apaturia, because she deceived; Calva, because she was represented bald; Ericyna, because worshipped at Eryx; Etaira, because the patroness of courtesans; Acidalia, because of a fountain of Orchomenos: Basilea, because the queen of love; Myrtea, because the myrtle was sacred to her; Libertina, from her inclinations to gratify lust; Mechanitis, in allusion to the many artifices practised in love, &c., &c. As goddess of the sea, because born in the bosom of the waters, Venus was called Pontia, Marina, Limnesia, Epipontia, Pelagia, Saligenia, Pontogenia, Aligena, Thalassia, &c., and as rising from the sea, the name of Anadyomene is applied to her, and rendered immortal by the celebrated painting of Apelles, which represented her as issuing from the bosom of the waves, and wringing her tresses on her shoulder. See: Anadyomene. Cicero de Natura Deorum, bk. 2, ch. 27; bk. 3, ch. 23.――Orpheus, Hymn 54.――Hesiod, Theogony.――Sappho. ――Homer, Hymn to Aphrodite, &c.――Virgil, Æneid, bk. 5, li. 800, &c.――Ovid, Heroides, poems 15, 16, 19, &c.; Metamorphoses, bk. 4, fable 5, &c.――Diodorus, bks. 1 & 5.――Hyginus, fables 94, 271.――Pausanias, bk. 2, ch. 1; bk. 4, ch. 30; bk. 5, ch. 18. ――Martial, bk. 6, ltr. 13.――Euripides, Helen, Iphigeneia in Taurus.――Plutarch, Amatorius.――Ælian, Varia Historia, bk. 12, ch. 1.――Athenæus, bk. 12, &c.――Catullus.――Lactantius, de Falsa Religione.――Quintus Calaber [Smyrnæus], bk. 11. ――Lucian, Dialogi, &c.――Strabo, bk. 14.――Tacitus, Annals, bk. 3, &c.――Valerius Maximus, bk. 8, ch. 11.――Pliny, bk. 36. ――Horace, bk. 3, ode 26; bk. 4, ode 11, &c.――――A planet called by the Greeks Phosphorus, and by the Latins Lucifer, when it rises before the sun, but when it follows it, Hesperus or Vesper. Cicero, de Natura Deorum, bk. 2, ch. 20; Somnium Scipionis.

=Venus Pyrenæa=, a town of Spain near the borders of Gaul.

=Venŭsia=, or =Venŭsium=, a town of Apulia, where Horace was born. Part of the Roman army fled thither after the defeat at Cannæ. The town, though in ruins, contains still many pieces of antiquity, especially a marble bust preserved in the great square, and said falsely to be an original representation of Horace. Venusia was on the confines of Lucania, whence the poet said Lucanus an Apulus anceps, and it was founded by Diomedes, who called it Venusia or Aphrodisia, after Venus, whose divinity he wished to appease. Strabo, bks. 5 & 6.――Horace, bk. 2, satire 1, li. 35.――Livy, bk. 22, ch. 54.――Pliny, bk. 3, ch. 11.

=Veragri=, a people between the Alps and the Allobroges. Livy, bk. 21, ch. 38.――Cæsar, Gallic War, bk. 3, ch. 1.

=Verania=, the wife of Piso Licinianus, whom Galba adopted.

=Veranius=, a governor of Britain under Nero. He succeeded Didius Gallus. Tacitus, Annals, bk. 14.

=Verbānus lacus=, now Majora, a lake of Italy, from which the Ticinus flows. It is in the modern duchy of Milan, and extends 50 miles in length from south to north, and five or six in breadth. Strabo, bk. 4.

=Verbigenus=, a village in the country of the Celtæ.

=Verbinum=, a town in the north of Gaul.

=Vercellæ=, a town on the borders of Insubria, where Marius defeated the Cimbri. Pliny, bk. 3, ch. 17.――Cicero, _Letters to his Friends_, bk. 11, ltr. 19.――Silius Italicus, bk. 8, li. 598.

=Vercingetŏrix=, a chief of the Gauls, in the time of Cæsar. He was conquered and led in triumph, &c. Cæsar, Gallic War, bk. 7, ch. 4. ――Florus, bk. 3, ch. 10.

=Veresis=, a small river of Latium falling into the Anio.

=Vergasillaunus=, one of the generals and friends of Vercingetorix. Cæsar, Gallic War.

=Vergæ=, a town of the Brutii. Livy, bk. 30, ch. 19.

=Vergellus=, a small river near Cannæ, falling into the Aufidus, over which Annibal made a bridge with the slaughtered bodies of the Romans. Florus, bk. 2, ch. 6.――Valerius Maximus, bk. 9, ch. 11.

=Vergilia=, the wife of Coriolanus, &c.

=Vergilia=, a town of Spain, supposed to be Murcia.

=Vergiliæ=, seven stars, called also Pleiades. When they set, the ancients began to sow their corn. They received their name from the spring, quia vere oriantur. Propertius, bk. 1, poem 8, li. 18. ――Cicero, de Natura Deorum, bk. 2, ch. 44.

=Verginius=, one of the officers of the Roman troops in Germany, who refused the absolute power which his soldiers offered to him. Tacitus, Histories, bk. 1, ch. 8.――――A rhetorician in the age of Nero, banished on account of his great fame. Tacitus, Annals, bk. 15, ch. 71.

=Vergium=, a town of Spain.

=Vergobretus=, one of the chiefs of the Ædui, in the age of Cæsar, &c. Cæsar, Gallic War, bk. 1, ch. 16.

=Verĭtas= (truth), was not only personified by the ancients, but also made a deity, and called the daughter of Saturn and the mother of Virtue. She was represented like a young virgin, dressed in white apparel, with all the marks of youthful diffidence and modesty. Democritus used to say that she hid herself at the bottom of a well, to intimate the difficulty with which she is found.

=Verodoctius=, one of the Helvetii. Cæsar, Gallic War, bk. 1, ch. 7.

=Veromandui=, a people of Gaul, the modern Vermandois. The capital is now St. Quintin. Cæsar, Gallic War, bk. 2.

=Vērōna=, a town of Venetia, on the Athesis, in Italy, founded, as some suppose, by Brennus the leader of the Gauls. Cornelius Nepos, Catullus, and Pliny the elder were born there. It was adorned with a circus and an amphitheatre by the Roman emperors, which still exist, and it still preserves its ancient name. Pliny, bk. 9, ch. 22. ――Strabo, bk. 5.――Ovid, Amores, bk. 3, poem 15, li. 7.

=Verōnes=, a people of Hispania Tarraconensis. Silius Italicus, bk. 3, li. 578.

=Verrecīnum=, a town in the country of the Volsci. Livy, bk. 4, ch. 1, &c.――Valerius Maximus, bk. 6, ch. 5.

=Caius Verres=, a Roman who governed the province of Sicily as pretor. The oppression and rapine of which he was guilty, while in office, so offended the Sicilians, that they brought an accusation against him before the Roman senate. Cicero undertook the cause of the Sicilians, and pronounced those celebrated orations which are still extant. Verres was defended by Hortensius, but as he despaired of the success of his defence, he left Rome without waiting for his sentence, and lived in great affluence in one of the provinces. He was at last killed by the soldiers of Antony the triumvir, about 26 years after his voluntary exile from the capital. Cicero, Against Verres. ――Pliny, bk. 34, ch. 2.――Lactantius, bk. 2, ch. 4.

=Verritus=, a general of the Frisii in the age of Nero, &c. Tacitus, Annals, bk. 13, ch. 54.

=Verrius Flaccus=, a freedman and grammarian famous for his powers in instructing. He was appointed over the grandchildren of Augustus, and also distinguished himself by his writings. Aulus Gellius, bk. 4, ch. 5.――Suetonius, Lives of the Grammarians.――――A Latin critic, B.C. 4, whose works have been edited with Dacier’s and Clerk’s notes, 4to, Amsterdam, 1699.

=Verrūgo=, a town in the country of the Volsci. Livy, bk. 4, ch. 1.

=Vertico=, one of the Nervii who deserted to Cæsar’s army, &c. Cæsar, Gallic War, bk. 6, ch. 45.

=Verticordia=, one of the surnames of Venus, the same as the Apostrophia of the Greeks, because her assistance was implored to turn the hearts of the Roman matrons, and teach them to follow virtue and modesty. Valerius Maximus, bk. 8.

=Vertiscus=, one of the Rhemi, who commanded a troop of horse in Cæsar’s army. Cæsar, Gallic War, bk. 8, ch. 12.

=Vertumnus=, a deity among the Romans, who presided over the spring and over orchards. He endeavoured to gain the affections of the goddess Pomona; and to effect this, he assumed the shape and dress of a fisherman, of a soldier, a peasant, a reaper, &c., but all to no purpose, till, under the form of an old woman, he prevailed upon his mistress and married her. He is generally represented as a young man crowned with flowers, covered up to the waist, and holding in his right hand fruit, and a crown of plenty in his left. Ovid, Metamorphoses, bk. 14, li. 642, &c.――Propertius, bk. 4, poem 2, li. 2.――Horace, bk. 2, satire 7, li. 14.

=Verulæ=, a town of the Hernici. Livy, bk. 9, ch. 42.

=Verulānus=, a lieutenant under Corbulo, who drove away Tiridates from Media, &c. Tacitus, Annals, bk. 14, ch. 26.

=Verus Lucius Ceionius Commodus=, a Roman emperor, son of Ælius and Domitia Lucilla. He was adopted in the 7th year of his age by Marcus Aurelius, at the request of Adrian, and he married Lucilia the daughter of his adopted father, who also took him as his colleague on the throne. He was sent by Marcus Aurelius to oppose the barbarians in the east. His arms were attended with success, and he obtained a victory over the Parthians. He was honoured with a triumph at his return home, and soon after he marched with his imperial colleague against the Marcomanni in Germany. He died in this expedition of an apoplexy, in the 39th year of his age, after a reign of eight years and some months. His body was brought back to Rome, and buried by Marcus Aurelius with great pomp and solemnity. Verus has been greatly censured for his debaucheries, which appeared more enormous and disgusting, when compared with the temperance, meekness, and popularity of Aurelius. The example of his father did not influence him, and he often retired from the frugal and moderate repast of Aurelius, to the profuse banquets of his own palace, where the night was spent in riot and debauchery, with the meanest of the populace, with stage-dancers, buffoons, and lascivious courtesans. At one entertainment alone, where there were no more than 12 guests, the emperor spent no less than six millions of sesterces, or about 32,200_l._ sterling. But it is to be observed, that whatever was most scarce and costly was there; the guests never drank twice out of the same cup; and whatever vessels they had touched, they received as a present from the emperor when they left the palace. In his Parthian expedition, Verus did not check his vicious propensities; for four years he left the care of the war to his officers, while he retired to the voluptuous retreats of Daphne, and the luxurious banquets of Antioch. His fondness for a horse has been faithfully recorded. The animal had a statue of gold, he was fed with almonds and raisins by the hand of the emperor, he was clad in purple, and kept in the most splendid of the halls of the palace, and when dead, the emperor, to express his sorrow, raised him a magnificent monument on mount Vatican. Some have suspected Marcus Aurelius of despatching Verus to rid the world of his debaucheries and guilty actions, but this seems to be the report of malevolence.――――Lucius Annæus, a son of the emperor Aurelius, who died in Palestine.――――The father of the emperor Verus. He was adopted by the emperor Adrian, but like his son he disgraced himself by his debaucheries and extravagance. He died before Adrian.

=Vesbius=, or =Vesubius.= See: Vesuvius.

=Vescia=, a town of Campania. Livy, bk. 8, ch. 11.

=Vescianum=, a country house of Cicero in Campania, between Capua and Nola. Cicero bk. 15, Letters to Atticus, ltr. 2.

=Flaccus Vescularius=, a Roman knight intimate with Tiberius, &c. Tacitus, Annals.

♦=Vesontio=, a town of Gaul, now Besancon. Cæsar, Gallic War, ♠bk. 1, ch. 38.

♦ ‘Vesentio’ replaced with ‘Vesontio’

♠ Book reference omitted in text.

=Vesentium=, a town of Tuscany.

=Veseris=, a place or river near mount Vesuvius. Livy, bk. 8, ch. 8. ――Cicero, De Officiis, bk. 3, ch. 31.

=Vesēvius= and =Vesēvus.= See: Vesuvius.

=Vesidia=, a town of Tuscany.

=Vesonna=, a town of Gaul, now Perigueux.

=Vespaciæ=, a small village of Umbria, near Nursia. Suetonius, Vespasian, ch. 1.

=Vespasiānus Titus Flavius=, a Roman emperor, descended from an obscure family at Reate. He was honoured with the consulship, not so much by the influence of the imperial courtiers, as by his own private merit, and his public services. He accompanied Nero into Greece, but he offended the prince by falling asleep while he repeated one of his poetical compositions. This momentary resentment of the emperor did not prevent Vespasian from being sent to carry on a war against the Jews. His operations were crowned with success; many of the cities of Palestine surrendered, and Vespasian began the siege of Jerusalem. This was, however, achieved by the hands of his son Titus, and the death of Vitellus and the affection of his soldiers hastened his rise, and he was proclaimed emperor at Alexandria. The choice of the army was approved by every province of the empire; but Vespasian did not betray any signs of pride at so sudden and so unexpected an exaltation, and though once employed in the mean office of a horse-doctor, he behaved, when invested with the imperial purple, with all the dignity and greatness which became a successor of Augustus. In the beginning of his reign Vespasian attempted to reform the manners of the Romans, and he took away an appointment which he had a few days before granted to a young nobleman who approached him to return him thanks, all smelling of perfumes and covered with ointment, adding, “I had rather you had smelt of garlic.” He repaired the public buildings, embellished the city, and made the great roads more spacious and convenient. After he had reigned with great popularity for 10 years, Vespasian died with a pain in his bowels, A.D. 79, in the 70th year of his age. He was the first Roman emperor that died a natural death, and he was also the first who was succeeded by his own son on the throne. Vespasian has been admired for his great virtues. He was clement, he gave no ear to flattery, and for a long time refused the title of father of his country, which was often bestowed upon the most worthless and tyrannical of the emperors. He despised informers, and rather than punish conspirators, he rewarded them with great liberality. When the king of Parthia addressed him with the subscription of “Arsaces king of kings to Flavius Vespasianus,” the emperor was no way dissatisfied with the pride and insolence of the monarch, and answered him again in his own words, “Flavius Vespasianus to Arsaces king of kings.” To men of learning and merit, Vespasian was very liberal: 100,000 sesterces were annually paid from the public treasury to the different professors that were appointed to encourage and promote the arts and sciences. Yet in spite of this apparent generosity, some authors have taxed Vespasian with avarice. According to their accounts, he loaded the provinces with new taxes, he bought commodities, that he might sell them to a greater advantage, and even laid an impost upon urine, which gave occasion to Titus to ridicule the meanness of his father. Vespasian, regardless of his son’s observation, was satisfied to show him the money that was raised from so productive a tax, asking him at the same time whether it smelt offensive. His ministers were the most avaricious of his subjects, and the emperor used very properly to remark that he treated them as sponges, by wetting them when dry, and squeezing them when they were wet. He has been accused of selling criminals their lives, and of condemning the most opulent to make himself master of their possessions. If, however, he was guilty of these meaner practices, they were all under the name of one of his concubines, who wished to enrich herself by the avarice and credulity of the emperor. Suetonius, Lives.――Tacitus, Histories, bk. 4.

=Vesper=, or =Vespĕrus=, a name applied to the planet Venus when it was the evening star. Virgil.

=Vessa=, a town of Sicily.

=Vesta=, a goddess, daughter of Rhea and Saturn, sister to Ceres and Juno. She is often confounded by the mythologists with Rhea, Ceres, Cybele, Proserpine, Hecate, and Tellus. When considered as the mother of the gods, she is the mother of Rhea and Saturn; and when considered as the patroness of the vestal virgins and the goddess of fire, she is called the daughter of Saturn and Rhea. Under this last name she was worshipped by the Romans. Æneas was the first who introduced her mysteries into Italy, and Numa built her a temple where no males were permitted to go. The palladium of Troy was supposed to be preserved within her sanctuary, and a fire was continually kept lighted by a certain number of virgins, who had dedicated themselves to the service of the goddess. See: Vestales. If the fire of Vesta was ever extinguished, it was supposed to threaten the republic with some sudden calamity. The virgin by whose negligence it had been extinguished, was severely punished, and it was kindled again by the rays of the sun. The temple of Vesta was of a round form, and the goddess was represented in a long, flowing robe, with a veil on her head, holding in one hand a lamp, or a two-eared vessel, and in the other a javelin, or sometimes a palladium. On some medals she appears holding a drum in one hand, and a small figure of victory in the other. Hesiod, Theogony, li. 454.――Cicero, de Legibus, bk. 2, ch. 12.――Apollodorus, bk. 1, ch. 1.――Virgil, Æneid, bk. 2, li. 296.――Diodorus, bk. 5.――Ovid, Fasti, bk. 6; Tristia, bk. 3.――Valerius Maximus, bk. 1, ch. 1.――Plutarch, Numa.――Pausanias, bk. 5, ch. 14.

=Vestāles=, priestesses among the Romans, consecrated to the service of Vesta, as their name indicates. This office was very ancient, as the mother of Romulus was one of the vestals. Æneas is supposed to have first chosen the vestals. Numa first appointed four, to which number Tarquin added two. They were always chosen by the monarchs, but after the expulsion of the Tarquins, the high priest was entrusted with the care of them. As they were to be virgins, they were chosen young, from the age of six to ten; and if there was not a sufficient number that presented themselves as candidates for the office, 20 virgins were selected, and they upon whom the lot fell were obliged to become priestesses. Plebeians as well as patricians were permitted to propose themselves, but it was required that they should be born of a good family, and be without blemish or deformity, in every part of their body. For 30 years they were to remain in the greatest continence; the 10 first years were spent in learning the duties of the order; the 10 following were employed in discharging them with fidelity and sanctity, and the 10 last in instructing such as had entered the noviciate. When the 30 years were elapsed, they were permitted to marry, or if they still preferred celibacy, they waited upon the rest of the vestals. As soon as a vestal was initiated, her head was shaved, to intimate the liberty of her person, as she was then free from the shackles of parental authority, and she was permitted to dispose of her possessions as she pleased. The employment of the vestals was to take care that the sacred fire of Vesta was not extinguished, for if it ever happened, it was deemed the prognostic of great calamities to the state; the offender was punished for her negligence, and severely scourged by the high priest. In such a case all was consternation at Rome, and the fire was again kindled by glasses with the rays of the sun. Another equally particular charge of the vestals was to keep a sacred pledge, on which depended the very existence of Rome, which, according to some, was the palladium of Troy, or some of the mysteries of the gods of Samothrace. The privileges of the vestals were great; they had the most honourable seats at public games and festivals; a lictor with the fasces always preceded them when they walked in public; they were carried in chariots when they pleased; and they had the power of pardoning criminals when led to execution, if they declared that their meeting was accidental. Their declarations in trials were received without the formality of an oath; they were chosen as arbiters in causes of moment and in the execution of wills, and so great was the deference paid them by the magistrates, as well as by the people, that the consuls themselves made way for them, and bowed their fasces when they passed before them. To insult them was a capital crime, and whoever attempted to violate their chastity, was beaten to death with scourges. If any of them died while in office, their body was buried within the walls of the city, an honour granted to few. Such of the vestals as proved incontinent were punished in the most rigorous manner. Numa ordered them to be stoned, but Tarquin the elder dug a large hole under the earth, where a bed was placed with a little bread, wine, water, and oil, and a lighted lamp, and the guilty vestal was stripped of the habit of her order, and compelled to descend into the subterraneous cavity, which was immediately shut, and she was left to die through hunger. Few of the vestals were guilty of incontinence, and for the space of 1000 years, during which the order continued established from the reign of Numa, only 18 were punished for the violation of their vow. The vestals were abolished by Theodosius the Great, and the fire of Vesta extinguished. The dress of the vestals was peculiar; they wore a white vest with purple borders, a white linen surplice called linteum supernum, above which was a great purple mantle which flowed to the ground, and which was tucked up when they offered sacrifices. They had a close covering on their head, called infula, from which hung ribands, or vitta. Their manner of living was sumptuous, as they were maintained at the public expense, and though originally satisfied with the simple diet of the Romans, their tables soon after displayed the luxuries and the superfluities of the great and opulent. Livy, 2, &c.――Plutarch, Numa, &c.――Valerius Maximus, bk. 1, ch. 1.――Cicero, de Natura Deorum, bk. 3, ch. 30. ――Florus, bk. 1.――Propertius, bk. 4, poem 11.――Tacitus, bk. 4, ch. 10.

=Vestālia=, festival in honour of Vesta, observed at Rome on the 9th of June. Banquets were then prepared before the houses, and meat was sent to the vestals to be offered to the gods; millstones were decked with garlands, and the asses that turned them were led round the city covered with garlands. The ladies walked in the procession bare-footed to the temple of the goddess, and an altar was erected to Jupiter surnamed Pistor. Ovid, Fasti, bk. 6, li. 305.

=Vestalium Mater=, a title given by the senate to Livia the mother of Tiberius, with the permission to sit among the vestal virgins at plays. Tacitus, bk. 4, Annals, ch. 16.

=Vestia Oppia=, a common prostitute of Capua.

=Vesticius Spurina=, an officer sent by Otho to the borders of the Po, &c. Tacitus.

=Vestilius Sextus=, a pretorian disgraced by Tiberius, because he was esteemed by Drusus. He killed himself. Tacitus, Annals, bk. 4, ch. 16.

=Vestilla=, a matron of a patrician family, who declared publicly before the magistrates that she was a common prostitute. She was banished to the island of Seriphos for her immodesty.

=Vestīni=, a people of Italy near the Sabines, famous for the making of cheese. Pliny, bk. 3, ch. 5.――Martial, bk. 13, ltr. 31.――Strabo, bk. 5.

=Lucius Vestīnus=, a Roman knight appointed by Vespasian to repair the capitol, &c. Tacitus, Histories, bk. 4, ch. 53.――Livy, bk. 8, ch. 29.――――A consul put to death by Nero in the time of Piso’s conspiracy.

=Vesvius.= See: Vesuvius.

=Vesŭlus=, now Viso, a large mountain of Liguria, near the Alps, where the Po takes its rise. Virgil, Æneid, bk. 10, li. 708. ――Pliny, bk. 3, ch. 19.

=Vesŭvius=, a mountain of Campania, about six miles at the east of Naples, celebrated for its volcano, and now called Mount Soma. The ancients, particularly the writers of the Augustan age, spoke of Vesuvius as a place covered with orchards and vineyards, of which the middle was dry and barren. The first eruption of this volcano was in the 79th year of the christian era under Titus. It was accompanied by an earthquake, which overturned several cities of Campania, particularly Pompeii and Herculaneum, and the burning ashes which it threw up were carried not only over the neighbouring country, but as far as the shores of Egypt, Libya, and Syria. This eruption proved fatal to Pliny the naturalist. From that time the eruptions have been frequent. Vesuvius continually throws up a smoke, and sometimes ashes and flames. The perpendicular height of this mountain is 3780 feet. Dio Cassius, bk. 46.――Varro, de Re Rustica, bk. 1, ch. 6. ――Livy, bk. 23, ch. 39.――Strabo, bk. 5.――Tacitus, Histories, bk. 1, ch. 2.――Mela, bk. 2, ch. 4.――Pliny, bk. 6, ltr. 16. ――Silius Italicus, bk. 12, li. 152, &c.――Virgil, Georgics, bk. 2, li. 224.――Martial, bk. 4, ltrs. 43 & 44.

=Vetera castra=, a Roman encampment in Germany, which became a town, now Sanlen, near Cleves. Tacitus, Histories, bk. 4, ch. 18; Annals, bk. 1, ch. 45.

=Vettius Spurius=, a Roman senator who was made interrex at the death of Romulus, till the election of another king. He nominated Numa, and resigned his office. Plutarch, Numa.――――A man who accused Cæsar of being concerned in Catiline’s conspiracy.――――Cato, one of the officers of the allies in the Marsian war. He defeated the Romans, and was at last betrayed and murdered.――――A Roman knight who became enamoured of a young female at Capua, and raised a tumult among the slaves who proclaimed him king. He was betrayed by one of his adherents, upon which he laid violent hands upon himself.

=Vettona=, a town of Umbria. Pliny, bk. 3, ch. 14.

=Vettōnes=, =Vetones=, or =Vectones=, an ancient nation of Spain. Silius Italicus, bk. 3, li. 378.――Pliny, bk. 25, ch. 8.

=Vetulōnia=, one of the chief cities of Etruria, whose hot waters were famous. The Romans were said to derive the badges of their magisterial offices from thence. Pliny, bk. 2, ch. 103; bk. 3, ch. 3.――Silius Italicus, bk. 8, li. 484.

=Vetūria=, one of the Roman tribes, divided into two branches of the Junii and Senii. It received its name from the Veturian family, which was originally called Vetusian. Livy, bk. 36.――――The mother of Coriolanus. She was solicited by all the Roman matrons to go to her son with her daughter-in-law, and entreat him not to make war against his country. She went and prevailed over Coriolanus, and for her services to the state, the Roman senate offered to reward her as she pleased. She only asked to raise a temple to the goddess of female fortune, which was done on the very spot where she had pacified her son. Livy, bk. 2, ch. 40.――_Dionysius of Halicarnassus_, bk. 7, &c.

=Veturius=, a Roman artist who made shields for Numa. See: Mamurius. ――――Caius, a Roman consul, accused before the people, and fined because he had acted with imprudence while in office.――――A Roman who conspired against Galba. Tacitus, Histories, bk. 1, ch. 25.――――A consul appointed one of the decemvirs.――――Another consul defeated by the Samnites, and obliged to pass under the yoke with great ignominy. ――――A tribune of the people, &c.

=Lucius Vetus=, a Roman who proposed to open a communication between the Mediterranean and the German ocean by means of a canal. He was put to death by order of Nero.――――A man accused of adultery, &c.

=Ufens=, a river of Italy near Tarracina. Virgil, Æneid, bk. 7, li. 892.――――Another river of Picenum. Livy, bk. 5, ch. 35.――――A prince who assisted Turnus against Æneas. The Trojan monarch made a vow to sacrifice his four sons to appease the manes of his friend Pallas, in the same manner as Achilles is represented killing some Trojan youths on the tomb of Patroclus. Virgil, Æneid, bk. 7, li. 745; bk. 10, li. 518. He was afterwards killed by Gyas. Virgil, Æneid, bk. 12, li. 460.

=Ufentina=, a Roman tribe first created A.U.C. 435, with the tribe Falerina, in consequence of the great increase of population at Rome. Livy, bk. 9, ch. 20.――Festus.

=Via Æmylia=, a celebrated road, made by the consul Marcus Æmylius Lepidus, A.U.C. 567. It led with the Flaminian road to Aquileia. There was also another of the same name in Etruria, which led from Pisæ to Dertona.――――Appia, was made by the censor Appius, and led from Rome to Capua, and from Capua to Brundusium, to the distance of 350 miles, which the Romans call a five days’ journey. It passed successively through the towns and stages of Aricia, Forum Appii, Tarracina, Fundi, Minturnæ, Sinuessa, Capua, Caudium, Beneventum, Equotuticum, Herdonia, Canusium, Barium, Egnatia, to Brundusium. It was called, by way of eminence, regina viarum, made so strong, and the stones so well cemented together, that it remained entire for many hundred years. Some parts of it are still to be seen in the neighbourhood of Naples. Appius carried it only 130 miles, as far as Capua, A.U.C. 442, and it was finished as far as Brundusium by Augustus.――――There was also another road called Minucia or Numicia, which led to Brundusium, but by what places is now uncertain. ――――Flaminia, was made by the censor Flaminius, A.U.C. 533. It led from the Campus Martius to the modern town of Rimini, on the Adriatic, through the country of the Osci and Etrurians, at the distance of about 360 miles.――――Lata, one of the ancient streets of Rome. ――――Valeria, led from Rome to the country of the Marsi, through the territories of the Sabines. There were, besides, many streets and roads of inferior note, such as the Aurelia, Cassia, Campania, Ardentina, Labicana, Domitiana, Ostiensis, Prænestina, &c., all of which were made and constantly kept in repair at the public expense.

=Viadrus=, the classical name of the Oder, which rises in Moravia, and falls by three mouths into the Baltic. Ptolemy.

=Vibidia=, one of the vestal virgins in the favour of Messalina, &c. Tacitus, Annals, bk. 11, ch. 32.

=Vibidius=, a friend of Mæcenas. Horace, bk. 2, satire 8, li. 22.

=Vibius=, a Roman who refused to pay any attention to Cicero when banished, though he had received from him the most unbounded favours. ――――Siculus. See: Sica.――――A proconsul of Spain, banished for ill conduct.――――A Roman knight accused of extortion in Africa, and banished.――――A man who poisoned himself at Capua.――――Sequester, a Latin writer, whose treatise de Fluminibus, &c., is best edited by Oberlin, 8vo, Strasbourg, 1778.

=Vibo=, a town of Lucania, anciently called Hipponium and Hippo. Cicero. Letters to Atticus, bk. 3, ch. 3.――Pliny, bk. 3, ch. 5. ――――A town of Spain,――――of the Brutii.

=Vibulēnus Agrippa=, a Roman knight accused of treason. He attempted to poison himself, and was strangled in prison, though almost dead. Tacitus, Annals, bk. 6, ch. 40.――――A mutinous soldier in the army of Germanicus, &c.

=Vibullius Rufus=, a friend of Pompey, taken by Cæsar, &c. Plutarch. ――Cicero, Letters.――――A pretor in Nero’s reign.

=Vica Pota=, a goddess at Rome, who presided over victory (à vincere et potiri). Livy, bk. 2, ch. 7.

=Vicellius=, a friend of Galba, who brought him news of Nero’s death.

=Vicentia=, or =Vicetia=, a town of Cisalpine Gaul, at the north-west of the Adriatic. Tacitus, Histories, bk. 3.

=Victor Sextus Aurelius=, a writer in the age of Constantius. He gave the world a concise history of the Roman emperors, from the age of Augustus to his own time, or A.D. 360. He also wrote an abridgment of the Roman history before the age of Julius Cæsar, which is now extant, and ascribed by different authors to Cornelius Nepos, to Tacitus, Suetonius, Pliny, &c. Victor was greatly esteemed by the emperors, and honoured with the consulship. The best editions of Victor are that of Pitiscus, 8vo, Utrecht, 1696; and that of Artnzenius, 4to, Amsterdam, 1733.

=Victōria=, one of the deities of the Romans, called by the Greeks Nice, supposed to be the daughter of the giant Pallas, or of Titan and Styx. The goddess of victory was sister to Strength and Valour, and was one of the attendants of Jupiter. She was greatly honoured by the Greeks, particularly at Athens. Sylla raised her a temple at Rome, and instituted festivals in her honour. She was represented with wings, crowned with laurel, and holding the branch of a palm tree in her hand. A golden statue of this goddess, weighing 320 pounds, was presented to the Romans by Hiero king of Syracuse, and deposited in the temple of Jupiter, on the Capitoline hill. Livy, bk. 22.――Varro, de Lingua Latina.――Hesiod, Theogony. ――Hyginus, preface to fables.――Suetonius.

=Victoriæ mons=, a place of Spain at the mouth of the Iberus. Livy, bk. 24, ch. 41.

=Victōrius=, a man of Aquitain, who, A.D. 463, invented the paschal cycle of 532 years.

=Victorīna=, a celebrated matron who placed herself at the head of the Roman armies, and made war against the emperor Gallienus. Her son Victorinus, and her grandson of the same name, were declared emperors, but when they were assassinated, Victorina invested with the imperial purple one of her favourites called Tetricus. She was some time after poisoned, A.D. 269, and according to some by Tetricus himself.

=Victorīnus=, a christian writer, who composed a worthless epic poem on the death of the seven children mentioned in the Maccabees, and distinguished himself more by the active part he took in his writings against the Arians.

=Victumviæ=, a small town of Insubria near Placentia. Livy, bk. 21, ch. 45.

=Vicus longus=, a street at Rome, where an altar was raised to the goddess Pudicitia, or the modesty of the plebeians. Livy, bk. 10, ch. 23.――――Cyprius, a place on the Esquiline hill, where the Sabines dwelt.

=Viducasses=, a people of Normandy. Pliny, bk. 4, ch. 18.

=Vienna=, a town of Gallia Narbonensis on the Rhone, below Lyons. Strabo, bk. 1.――Cæsar, Gallic War, bk. 7, ch. 9.

=Villia lex=, annalis or annaria, by Lucius Villius the tribune, A.U.C. 574, defined the proper age required for exercising the office of a magistrate, 25 years for the questorship, 27 or 28 for the edileship or tribuneship, for the office of pretor 30, and for that of consul 43. Livy, bk. 11, ch. 44.

=Villius=, a tribune of the people, author of the Villian law, and thence called Annalis, a surname borne by his family. Livy, bk. 11, ch. 44.――――Publius, a Roman ambassador sent to Antiochus. He held a conference with Annibal, who was at that monarch’s court.――――A man who disgraced himself by his criminal amours with the daughter of Sylla. Horace, bk. 1, satire 2, li. 64.

=Viminālis=, one of the seven hills on which Rome was built, so called from the number of osiers (vimines) which grew there. Servius Tullius first made it part of the city. Jupiter had a temple there, whence he was called Viminalis. Livy, bk. 1, ch. 44.――Varro, de Lingua Latina, bk. 4, ch. 8.

=Vinalia=, festivals at Rome in honour of Jupiter and Venus.

♦=Vincentius=, one of the christian fathers, A.D. 434, whose works are best edited by Baluzius, Paris, 1669.

♦ ‘Vicentius’ replaced with ‘Vincentius’

=Vincius=, a Roman knight, condemned under Nero. Tacitus, Annals, bk. 14, ch. 40.――――An officer in Germany.

=Vindalius=, a writer in the reign of Constantius, who wrote 10 books on agriculture.

=Vindelĭci=, an ancient people of Germany, between the heads of the Rhine and the Danube. Their country, which was called Vindelicia, forms now part of Swabia and Bavaria, and their chief town, Augusta Vindelicorum, is now ♦Augsburg. Horace, bk. 4, ode 4, li. 18.

♦ ‘Ausburg’ replaced with ‘Augsburg’

=Vindemiātor=, a constellation that rose about the nones of March. Ovid, Fasti, bk. 3, li. 407.――Pliny, bk. 18, ch. 13.

=Vindex Julius=, a governor of Gaul, who revolted against Nero, and determined to deliver the Roman empire from his tyranny. He was followed by a numerous army, but at last defeated by one of the emperor’s generals. When he perceived that all was lost he laid violent hands upon himself, 68 A.D. Seutonius, Galba.――Tacitus, Histories, bk. 1, ch. 51.――Pliny, bk. 9, ltr. 19.

=Vindicius=, a slave who discovered the conspiracy which some of the most noble of the Roman citizens had formed to restore Tarquin to his throne. He was amply rewarded and made a citizen of Rome. Livy, bk. 2, ch. 5.――Plutarch, Publicola.

=Vindili=, a nation of Germany. Pliny, bk. 4, ch. 14.

=Vindonissa=, now Wendish, a town of the Helvetii on the Aar, in the territory of Berne. Tacitus, bk. 4, Histories, chs. 61 & 70.

=Vinicius=, a Roman consul poisoned by Messalina, &c.――――A man who conspired against Nero, &c.

=Vinidius=, a miser mentioned by Horace, bk. 1, satire 1, li. 95. Some manuscripts read Numidius and Umidius.

=Titus Vinius=, a commander in the pretorian guards, intimate with Galba, of whom he became the first minister. He was honoured with the consulship, and some time after murdered. Tacitus, Histories, bk. 1, chs. 11, 42 & 48.――Plutarch.――――A man who revolted from Nero.

=Vinnius Asella=, a servant of Horace, to whom ltr. 13 is addressed, as injunctions how to deliver to Augustus some poems from his master.

=Vipsania=, a daughter of Marcus Agrippa, mother of Drusus. She was the only one of Agrippa’s daughters who died a natural death. She was married to Tiberius when a private man, and when she had been repudiated, she married Asinius Gallus. Tacitus, Annals, bk. 1, ch. 12; bk. 3, ch. 19.

=Virbius= (qui inter viros bis fuit), a name given to Hippolytus, after he had been brought back to life by Æsculapius, at the instance of Diana, who pitied his unfortunate end. Virgil makes him son of Hippolytus. Æneid, bk. 7, li. 762.――Ovid, Metamorphoses, bk. 15, li. 544.――Hyginus, fable 251.

=Publius Virgĭlius Marco=, called the prince of the Latin poets, was born at Andes, a village near Mantua, about 70 years before Christ, on the 15th of October. His first years were spent at Cremona, where his taste was formed, and his rising talents first exercised. The distribution of the lands of Cremona to the soldiers of Augustus, after the battle of Philippi, nearly proved fatal to the poet, and when he attempted to dispute the possession of his fields with a soldier, Virgil was obliged to save his life from the resentment of the lawless veteran, by swimming across a river. This was the beginning of his greatness; he with his father repaired to Rome, where he soon formed an acquaintance with Mecænas, and recommended himself to the favours of Augustus. The emperor restored his lands to the poet, whose modest muse knew so well how to pay the tribute of gratitude, and his first bucolic was written to thank the patron, as well as to tell the world that his favours were not unworthily bestowed. The 10 bucolics were written in about three years. The poet showed his countrymen that he could write with graceful simplicity, with elegance, delicacy of sentiments, and with purity of language. Some time after, Virgil undertook the Georgics, a poem the most perfect and finished of all Latin compositions. The Æneid was begun, as some suppose, at the particular request of Augustus, and the poet, while he attempted to prove that the Julian family was lineally descended from the founder of Lavinium, visibly described in the pious and benevolent character of his hero the amiable qualities of his imperial patron. The great merit of this poem is well known, and it will ever remain undecided which of the two poets, either Homer or Virgil, is more entitled to our praise, our applause, and our admiration. The writer of the Iliad stood as a pattern to the favourite of Augustus. The voyage of Æneas is copied from the Odyssey; and for his battles, Virgil found a model in the wars of Troy, and the animated descriptions of the Iliad. The poet died before he had revised this immortal work, which had already engaged his time for 11 successive years. He had attempted to attend his patron in the east, but he was detained at Naples on account of his ill health. He, however, went to Athens, where he met Augustus in his return, but he soon after fell sick at Megara, and though indisposed, he ordered himself to be removed to Italy. He landed at Brundusium, where a few days after he expired, the 22nd of September, in the 51st year of his age, B.C. 19. He left the greatest part of his immense possessions to his friends, particularly to Mecænas, Tucca, and Augustus, and he ordered, as his last will, his unfinished poem to be burnt. These last injunctions were disobeyed; and according to the words of an ancient poet, Augustus saved his favourite Troy from a second and more dismal conflagration. The poem was delivered by the emperor to three of his literary friends. They were ordered to revise and to expunge whatever they deemed improper; but they were strictly enjoined not to make any additions, and hence, as some suppose, the causes that so many lines of the Æneid are unfinished, particularly in the last books. The body of the poet, according to his own directions, was conveyed to Naples, and interred with much solemnity in a monument, erected on the road that leads from Naples to Puteoli. The following modest distich was engraved on the tomb, written by the poet some few moments before he expired:

_Mantua me genuit; Calabri rapuere; tenet nunc Parthenope: cecini pascua, rura, duces._

The Romans were not insensible of the merit of their poet. Virgil received much applause in the capital, and when he entered the theatre, he was astonished and delighted to see the crowded audience rise up to him as to an emperor, and welcome his approach by reiterated plaudits. He was naturally modest, and of a timorous disposition. When people crowded to gaze upon him, or pointed at him with the finger with rapture, the poet blushed, and stole away from them, and often hid himself in shops to be removed from the curiosity and the admiration of the public. The most liberal and gratifying marks of approbation he received were from the emperor and from Octavia. He attempted in his Æneid to paint the virtues, and to lament the premature death of the son of Octavia, and he was desired by the emperor to repeat the lines in the presence of the afflicted mother. He had no sooner begun O nate, &c., than Octavia burst into tears; he continued, but he had artfully suppressed the name of her son, and when he repeated in the 16th line the well-known words, Tu Marcellus eris, the princess swooned away, and the poet withdrew, but not without being liberally rewarded. Octavia presented him 10 sesterces for every one of his verses in praise of her son, the whole of which was equivalent to 2000_l._ English money. As an instance of his modesty, the following circumstance has been recorded. Virgil wrote this distich, in which he compared his patron to Jupiter,

_Nocte pluit totâ, redeunt spectacula mane, Divisum imperium cum Jove Cæsar habet,_

and placed it in the night on the gates of the palace of Augustus. Inquiries were made for the author by order of Augustus, and when Virgil had the diffidence not to declare himself, Bathyllus, a contemptible poet of the age, claimed the verses as his own, and was liberally rewarded. This displeased Virgil; he again wrote the verses near the palace and under them

Hos ego versiculos feci, tulit alter honores;

with the beginning of another line in these words,

Sic vos non vobis,

four times repeated. Augustus wished the lines to be finished. Bathyllus seemed unable, and Virgil at last, by completing the stanza in the following order――

_Sic vos non vobis nidificatis aves; Sic vos non vobis vellera fertis oves; Sic vos non vobis mellificatis apes; Sic vos non vobis fertis aratra boves;_

proved himself to be the author of the distich, and the poetical usurper became the sport and ridicule of Rome. In the works of Virgil we can find a more perfect and satisfactory account of the religious ceremonies and customs of the Romans, than in all the other Latin poets, Ovid excepted. Everything he mentions is founded upon historical truth, and though he borrowed much from his predecessors, and even whole lines from Ennius, yet he has had the happiness to make it all his own. He was uncommonly severe in revising his own poetry, and he used often to compare himself to a bear that licks her cubs into shape. In his connections, Virgil was remarkable; his friends enjoyed his unbounded confidence, and his library and possessions seemed to be the property of the public. Like other great men, he was not without his enemies and detractors in his lifetime, but from their aspersions he received additional lustre. Among the very numerous and excellent editions of Virgil, these few may be collected as the best: that of Masvicius, 2 vols., 4to, Leovardiæ, 1717; of Baskerville, 4to, Birmingham, 1757; of the Variorum, in 8vo, Leiden, 1661; of Heyne, 4 vols., 8vo, Lipscomb, 1767; of Edinburgh, 2 vols., 12mo, 1755; and of Glasgow, 12mo, 1758. Paterculus, bk. 2, ch. 36.――Horace, bk. 1, satire 5, li. 40.――Propertius, bk. 2, poem 34, li. 61.――Ovid, Tristia, bk. 4, poem 10, li. 51. ――Martial, bk. 8, ltr. 56.――Juvenal, satire 11, li. 178. ――Quintilian, bk. 10, ch. 1.――Pliny, bk. 3, ltr. 21.――――Caius, a pretor of Sicily, who, when Cicero was banished, refused to receive the exiled orator, though his friend, for fear of the resentment of Clodius. Cicero, Letters to his brother Quintus.

=Virgĭnia=, a daughter of the centurion Lucius Virginius. Appius Claudius the decemvir became enamoured of her, and attempted to remove her from the place where she resided. She was claimed by one of his favourites as the daughter of a slave, and Appius, in the capacity and with the authority of judge, had pronounced the sentence, and delivered her into the hands of his friend, when Virginius, informed of his violent proceedings, arrived from the camp. The father demanded to see his daughter, and when this request was granted, he snatched a knife and plunged it into Virginia’s breast, exclaiming, “This is all, my dearest daughter, I can give thee, to preserve thy chastity from the lust and violence of a tyrant.” No sooner was the blow given, than Virginius ran to the camp with the bloody knife in his hand. The soldiers were astonished and incensed, not against the murderer, but the tyrant that was the cause of Virginia’s death, and they immediately marched to Rome. Appius was seized, but he destroyed himself in prison, and prevented the execution of the law. Spurius Oppius, another of the decemvirs who had not opposed the tyrant’s views, killed himself also, and Marcus Claudius the favourite of Appius was put to death, and the decemviral power abolished, about 449 years before Christ. Livy, bk. 3, ch. 44, &c.――Juvenal, satire 10, li. 294.

=Virginius=, the father of Virginia, made tribune of the people. See: Virginia.――――A tribune of the people who accused Quinctius Cæso the son of Cincinnatus. He increased the number of the tribunes to 10, and distinguished himself by his seditions against the patricians. ――――Another tribune in the age of Camillus, fined for his opposition to a law which proposed going to Veii.――――An augur who died of the plague.――――Caius, a pretor of Sicily, who opposed the entrance of Cicero into his province, though under many obligations to the orator. Some read Virgilius.――――A tribune who encouraged Cinna to criminate Sylla.――――One of the generals of Nero in Germany. He made war against Vindex and conquered him. He was treated with great coldness by Galba, whose interest he had supported with so much success. He refused all dangerous stations, and though twice offered the imperial purple, he rejected it with disdain. Plutarch.――――A Roman orator and rhetorician.

=Viriāthus=, a mean shepherd of Lusitania, who gradually rose to power, and by first heading a gang of robbers, saw himself at last followed by a numerous army. He made war against the Romans with uncommon success, and for 14 years enjoyed the envied title of protector of public liberty in the provinces of Spain. Many generals were defeated, and Pompey himself was ashamed to find himself beaten. Cæpio was at last sent against him. But his despair of conquering him by force of arms, obliged him to have recourse to artifice, and he had the meanness to bribe the servants of Viriathus to murder their master, B.C. 40. Florus, bk. 2, ch. 17.――Valerius Maximus, bk. 6, ch. 4. ――Livy, bks. 52 & 54.

=Viridomărus=, a young man of great power among the Ædui. Cæsar greatly honoured him, but he fought at last against the Romans. Cæsar, Gallic War, bk. 7, ch. 39, &c.

=Viriplāca=, a goddess among the Romans who presided over the peace of families, whence her name (virum placare). If any quarrel happened between a man and his wife, they generally repaired to the temple of the goddess, which was erected on the Palatine mount, and came back reconciled. Valerius Maximus, bk. 2, ch. 1.

=Virro=, a fictitious name introduced in Juvenal’s fifth satire.

=Virtus.= All virtues were made deities among the Romans. Marcellus erected two temples, one to Virtue, and the other to Honour. They were built in such a manner, that to see the temple of Honour it was necessary to pass through that of Virtue; a happy allegory among a nation free and independent. The principal Virtues were distinguished, each by their attire. Prudence was known by her rule, and her pointing to a globe at her feet; Temperance had a bridle; Justice had an equal balance, and Fortitude leant against her sword; Honesty was clad in a transparent vest; Modesty appeared veiled; Clemency wore an olive branch, and Devotion threw incense upon an altar; Tranquillity was seen to lean on a column; Health was known by her serpent, Liberty by her cap, and Gaiety by her myrtle. Cicero, de Natura Deorum, bk. 2, ch. 23.――Plautus, Amphitruo, Prologue.――Livy, bk. 29, ch. 11.――Valerius Maximus, bk. 1, ch. 1.――Augustine, City of God, bk. 4, ch. 20.

=Visargis=, a river of Germany, now called the Weser, and falling into the German ocean. Varus and his legions were cut to pieces there by the Germans. Velleius Paterculus, bk. 2, ch. 105.――Tacitus, Annals, bk. 1, ch. 70; bk. 2, ch. 9.

=Viscellæ=, now Weltz, a town of Noricum, between the Ens and Mure.

=Spurius Cassius Viscellinus=, Cicero, De Amicitia, ch. 11.

=Visellia lex=, was made by Visellius Varro the consul, A.U.C. 776, to restrain the introduction of improper persons into the offices of the state.

=Lucius Visellius Varro=, a lieutenant in Germany under Tiberius. Tacitus, Annals, bk. 3, ch. 41; bk. 4, ch. 17.

=Visellus=, a man whose father-in-law the commentators of Horace believe to have been afflicted with a hernia, on their observations on this verse (bk. 1, satire 1, li. 105), _Est inter Tanaim quiddam, socerumque Viselli_.

=Vistŭla=, a river falling into the Baltic, the eastern boundary of ancient Germany.

=Vitellia=, a Roman colony on the borders of the Æqui. Livy, bk. 5, ch. 29.

=Vitellius Aulus=, a Roman raised by his vices to the throne. He was descended from one of the most illustrious families of Rome, and as such he gained an easy admission to the palace of the emperors. The greatest part of his youth was spent at Capreæ, where his willingness and compliance to gratify the most vicious propensities of Tiberius raised his father to the dignity of consul and governor of Syria. The applause he gained in this school of debauchery was too great and flattering to induce Vitellius to alter his conduct, and no longer to be one of the votaries of vice. Caligula was pleased with his skill in driving a chariot. Claudius loved him because he was a great gamester, and he recommended himself to the favours of Nero by wishing him to sing publicly in the crowded theatre. With such an insinuating disposition, it is not to be wondered that Vitellius became so great. He did not fall with his patrons, like the other favourites, but the death of an emperor seemed to raise him to greater honours, and to procure him fresh applause. He passed through all the offices of the state, and gained over the soldiery by donations and liberal promises. He was at the head of the ♦Roman legions in Germany when Otho was proclaimed emperor, and the exaltation of his rival was no sooner heard in the camp, than he was likewise invested with the purple by his soldiers. He accepted with pleasure the dangerous office, and instantly marched against Otho. Three battles were fought, and in all Vitellius was conquered. A fourth, however, in the plains between Mantua and Cremona, left him master of the field and of the Roman empire. He feasted his eyes in viewing the bodies of the slain and the ground covered with blood, and regardless of the insalubrity of the air, proceeding from so many carcases, he told his attendants that the smell of a dead enemy was always sweet. His first care was not like that of a true conqueror, to alleviate the distresses of the conquered, or patronize the friends of the dead, but it was to insult their misfortunes, and to intoxicate himself with the companions of his debauchery in the field of battle. Each successive day exhibited a scene of greater extravagance. Vitellius feasted four or five times a day, and such was his excess that he often made himself vomit to begin his repast afresh, and to gratify his palate with more luxury. His food was of the most rare and exquisite nature; the deserts of Libya, the shores of Spain, and the waters of the Carpathian sea, were diligently searched to supply the table of the emperor. The most celebrated of his feasts was that with which he was treated by his brother Lucius. The table, among other meats, was covered with 2000 different dishes of fish, and 7000 of fowls, and so expensive was he in everything, that above seven millions sterling were spent in maintaining his table in the space of four months; and Josephus has properly observed, that if Vitellius had reigned long, the great opulence of all the Roman empire would have been found insufficient to defray the expenses of his banquets. This extravagance, which delighted the favourites, soon raised the indignation of the people. Vespasian was proclaimed emperor by the army, and his minister Primus was sent to destroy the imperial glutton. Vitellius concealed himself under the bed of the porter of his palace, but this obscure retreat betrayed him; he was dragged naked through the streets, his hands were tied behind his back, and a drawn sword was placed under his chin to make him lift his head. After suffering the greatest insults from the populace, he was at last carried to the place of execution, and put to death with repeated blows. His head was cut off and fixed to a pole, and his mutilated body dragged with a hook and thrown into the Tiber, A.D. 69, after a reign of one year, except 12 days. Suetonius.――Tacitus, Histories, bk. 2.――Eutropius.――Dio Cassius.――Plutarch.――――Lucius, the father of the emperor, obtained great honours by his flattery to the emperors. He was made governor of Syria, and in this distant province he obliged the Parthians to sue for peace. His adulation to Messalina is well known, and he obtained as a particular favour the honourable office of pulling off the shoes of the empress, &c. Suetonius, &c.――――A brother of the emperor, who enjoyed his favours by encouraging his gluttony, &c. ――――Publius, an uncle of the emperor of that name. He was accused under Nero of attempts to bribe the people with money from the treasury against the emperor. He killed himself before his trial. ――――One of the flatterers of Tiberius.――――An officer of the pretorians under Otho.――――A son of the emperor Vitellius, put to death by one of his father’s friends.――――Some of the family of the Vitellii conspired with the Aquilii and other illustrious Romans to restore Tarquin to his throne. Their conspiracy was discovered by the consuls, and they were severely punished. Plutarch, &c.

♦ ‘Romans’ replaced with ‘Roman’

=Viterbum=, a town of Tuscany, where Fanum Volumnæ stood. It is not mentioned by classical writers. Livy, bk. 4, chs. 23 & 61; bk. 5, ch. 17.

=Vitia=, a mother put to death by Tiberius for weeping at the death of her son, &c. Tacitus, Annals, bk. 7, ch. 10.

=Vītrĭcus=, a surname of Mars. Ovid.

=Marcus Vitruvius Pollio=, a celebrated architect in the age of Augustus, born at Formiæ. He is known only by his writings, and nothing is recorded in history of his life or private character. He wrote a treatise on his profession, which he dedicated to Augustus, and it is the only book on architecture now extant written by the ancients. In this work he plainly shows that he was master of his profession, and that he possessed both genius and abilities. The best edition of Vitruvius is that of De Laet, Amsterdam, 1649.

=Vitŭla=, a deity among the Romans who presided over festivals and rejoicings. Macrobius, bk. 3, ch. 2.

=Vitularia via=, a road in the country of Arpinum. Cicero, _Letters to his brother Quintus_, bk. 3, ltr. 1.

=Ulpia Trajāna=, a Roman colony planted in Sarmatia by Trajan.

=Ulpiānus Domitius=, a lawyer in the reign of Alexander Severus, of whom he became the secretary and principal minister. He raised a persecution against the christians, and was at last murdered by the pretorian guards, of which he had the command, A.D. 226. There are some fragments of his compositions on civil law still extant. The Greek commentaries of Ulpian on Demosthenes were printed in folio, 1527, with Aldus Manutius.――――Marcellus, an officer in the age of Commodus.――――Julianus, a man sent to oppose Heliogabalus, &c.

=Ulŭbræ=, a small town of Latium on the river Astura, where Augustus was educated. Juvenal, satire 10, li. 102.――Horace, bk. 1, ltr. 11.

=Ulysses=, a king of the islands of Ithaca and Dulichium, son of Anticlea and Laertes, or, according to some, of Sisyphus. See: Sisyphus and Anticlea. He became, like the other princes of Greece, one of the suitors of Helen, but as he despaired of success in his applications, on account of the great numbers of his competitors, he solicited the hand of Penelope the daughter of Icarius. Tyndarus the father of Helen favoured the addresses of Ulysses, as by him he was directed to choose one of his daughter’s suitors without offending the others, and to bind them all by a solemn oath, that they would unite together in protecting Helen if any violence was ever offered to her person. Ulysses had no sooner obtained the hand of Penelope, than he returned to Ithaca, where his father resigned him the crown, and retired to peace and rural solitude. The rape of Helen, however, by Paris, did not long permit him to remain in his kingdom, and as he was bound to defend her against every intruder, he was summoned to the war with the other princes of Greece. Pretending to be insane, not to leave his beloved Penelope, he yoked a horse and a bull together, and ploughed the sea-shore, where he sowed salt instead of corn. This dissimulation was soon discovered, and Palamedes, by placing before the plough of Ulysses his infant son Telemachus, convinced the world that the father was not mad who had the providence to turn away the plough from the furrow, not to hurt his child. Ulysses was therefore obliged to go to the war, but he did not forget him who had discovered his pretended insanity. See: Palamedes. During the Trojan war, the king of Ithaca was courted for his superior prudence and sagacity. By his means Achilles was discovered among the daughters of Lycomedes king of Scyros [See: Achilles], and Philoctetes was induced to abandon Lemnos, and to fight the Trojans with the arrows of Hercules. See: Philoctetes. He was not less distinguished for his activity and valour. With the assistance of Diomedes he murdered Rhesus, and slaughtered the sleeping Thracians in the midst of their camp, [See: Rhesus and Dolon], and he introduced himself into the city of Priam, and carried away the Palladium of the Trojans. See: Palladium. For these eminent services he was universally applauded by the Greeks, and he was rewarded with the arms of Achilles, which Ajax had disputed with him. After the Trojan war Ulysses embarked on board his ships to return to Greece, but he was exposed to a number of misfortunes before he reached his native country. He was thrown by the winds upon the coasts of Africa, and visited the country of the Lotophagi, and of the Cyclops in Sicily. Polyphemus, who was the king of the Cyclops, seized Ulysses with his companions, five of whom he devoured [See: Polyphemus], but the prince of Ithaca intoxicated him and put out his eye, and at last escaped from the dangerous cave where he was confined, by tying himself under the belly of the sheep of the Cyclops when led to pasture. In Æolia he met with a friendly reception, and Æolus gave him, confined in bags, all the wind which could obstruct his return to Ithaca, but the curiosity of his companions to know what the bags contained proved nearly fatal. The winds rushed with impetuosity, and all the fleet was destroyed, except the ship which carried Ulysses. From thence he was thrown upon the coasts of the Læstrygones, and of the island Æea, where the magician Circe changed all his companions into pigs for their voluptuousness. He escaped their fate by means of an herb which he had received from Mercury, and after he had obliged the magician by force of arms to restore his companions to ♦their original shape, he yielded to her charms, and made her mother of Telegonus. He visited the infernal regions and consulted Tiresias how to regain his country in safety; and after he had received every necessary information, he returned on earth. He passed along the coasts of the Sirens unhurt, by the directions of Circe [See: Sirenes], and escaped the whirlpools and shoals of Scylla, and Charybdis. On the coast of Sicily his companions stole and killed some oxen that were sacred to Apollo, for which the god destroyed the ships, and all were drowned except Ulysses, who saved himself on a plank, and swam to the island of Calypso, in Ogygia. There, for seven years, he forgot Ithaca, in the arms of the goddess, by whom he had two children. The gods at last interfered, and Calypso, by order of Mercury, suffered him to depart, after she had furnished him with a ship, and everything requisite for the voyage. He had almost reached the island of Corcyra, when Neptune, still mindful that his son Polyphemus had been robbed of his sight by the perfidy of Ulysses, raised a storm and sunk his ship. Ulysses swam with difficulty to the island of the Phæacians, where the kindness of Nausicaa, and the humanity of her father king Alcinous, entertained him for a while. He related the series of his misfortunes to the monarch, and at last, by his benevolence, he was conducted in a ship to Ithaca. The Phæacians laid him on the sea-shore as he was asleep, and Ulysses found himself safely restored to his country after a long absence of 20 years. He was well informed that his palace was besieged by a number of suitors, who continually disturbed the peace of Penelope, and therefore he assumed the habit of a beggar, by the advice of Minerva, and made himself known to his son, and his faithful shepherd Eumæus. With them he took measures to re-establish himself on his throne; he went to the palace, and was personally convinced of the virtues and of the fidelity of Penelope. Before his arrival was publicly known, all the importuning suitors were put to death, and Ulysses restored to the peace and bosom of his family. See: Laertes, Penelope, Telemachus, Eumæus. He lived about 16 years after his return, and was at last killed by his son Telegonus, who had landed in Ithaca, with the hopes of making himself known to his father. This unfortunate event had been foretold to him by Tiresias, who assured him that he should die by the violence of something that was to issue from the bosom of the sea. See: Telegonus. According to some authors, Ulysses went to consult the oracle of Apollo after his return to Ithaca, and he had the meanness to seduce Erippe the daughter of a king of Epirus, who had treated him with great kindness. Erippe had a son by him whom she called Euryalus. When come to years of puberty, Euryalus was sent to Ithaca by his mother, but Penelope no sooner knew who he was than she resolved to destroy him. Therefore, when Ulysses returned, he put to immediate death his unknown son on the crimination of Penelope his wife, who accused him of attempts upon her virtue. The adventures of Ulysses in his return to Ithaca from the Trojan war are the subject of Homer’s Odyssey. Homer, Iliad & Odyssey.――Virgil, Æneid, bks. 2, 3, &c.――Dictys Cretensis, bk. 1, &c.――Ovid, Metamorphoses, bk. 13; Heroides, poem 1.――Hyginus, fable 201, &c.――Apollodorus, bk. 3, ch. 10.――Pausanias, bk. 1, chs. 17 & 22; bk. 3, ch. 12; bk. 7, ch. 4.――Ælian, Varia Historia, bk. 13, ch. 12.――Horace, bk. 3, ode 29, li. 8.――Parthenius, Narrationes Amatoriæ, ch. 3.――Plutarch.――Pliny, bk. 35.――Tzetzes, ad Lycurgus.

♦ ‘his’ replaced with ‘their’

=Ulysseum=, a promontory of Sicily, west of Pachinus.

=Umber=, a lake of Umbria near the Tiber. Propertius, bk. 4, poem 1, li. 124.

=Umbra Pompeia=, a portico of Pompey at Rome. Martial, bk. 5, ltr. 10.

=Umbria=, a country of Italy, separated from Etruria by the Tiber, bounded on the north by the Adriatic sea, east by Picenum and the country of the Sabines, and south by the river Nar. Some derive the word Umbria ab imbribus, the frequent showers that were supposed to fall there, or from the shadow (umbra) of the Apennines which hung over it. Umbria had many cities of note. The Umbrians opposed the Romans in the infancy of their empire, but afterwards they became their allies, about the year ♦A.U.C. 434. Catullus, bk. 40, li. 11.――Strabo, bk. 5.――Pliny, bk. 3, ch. 12.――Dionysius of Halicarnassus.

♦ ‘U.C.’ replaced with ‘A.U.C.’

=Umbrigius=, a soothsayer, who foretold approaching calamities to Galba. Juvenal, satire 3, li. 21.――Tacitus, Histories, bk. 1, ch. 27.

=Umbro=, a navigable river of Italy. Pliny, bk. 3, ch. 5.――――A general who assisted Turnus against Æneas, and was killed during the war. He could assuage the fury of serpents by his songs, and counteract the poisonous effects of their bite. Virgil, Æneid, bk. 7, li. 752; bk. 10, li. 544.

=Unca=, a surname of Minerva among the Phœnicians and Thebans.

=Unchæ=, a town of Mesopotamia.

=Undecemvĭri=, magistrates at Athens, to whom such as were publicly condemned were delivered to be executed. Cornelius Nepos, Phocion.

=Unelli=, a people of Cotantin in Gaul, conquered by Cæsar. Cæsar, Gallic War, bk. 2, ch. 34.

=Unigĕna=, a surname of Minerva, as sprung of Jupiter alone.

=Unxia=, a surname of Juno, derived from ungere, to anoint, because it was usual among the Romans for the bride to anoint the threshold of her husband, and from this necessary ceremony wives were called Unxores, and afterwards Uxores, from Unxia, who presided over them. Arnobius, bk. 3.

=Vocetius=, part of mount Jura in Gaul. Tacitus, Histories, bk. 1, ch. 68.

=Vŏcōnia lex=, de testamentis, by Quintus Voconius Saxa the tribune, A.U.C. 584, enacted that no woman should be left heiress to an estate, and that no rich person should leave by his will more than the fourth part of his fortune to a woman. This step was taken to prevent the decay of the noblest and most illustrious of the families of Rome. This law was abrogated by Augustus.

=Voconii forum=, a town of Gaul, between Antibes and Marseilles. Cicero, bk. 10, Letters to his Friends, ltr. 17.

=Vŏcōnius Victor=, a Latin poet, &c. Martial, bk. 7, ltr. 28.――――Saxa, a tribune who made a law.――――An officer of Lucullus in Asia.

=Vocontia=, now Vasio. Silius Italicus, bk. 3, li. 167.

=Vŏgēsus=, now Vauge, a mountain of Belgic Gaul, which separates the Sequani from the Lingones. Lucan, bk. 1, li. 397.――Cæsar, Gallic War, bk. 4, ch. 10.

=Volæ=, a city of the Æqui. Livy, bk. 4, ch. 49.

=Volaginius=, a soldier who assassinated one of his officers, &c. Tacitus, Histories, bk. 2, ch. 75.

=Volana=, a town of the Samnites.

=Volandum=, a fortified place of Armenia.

=Volaterra=, an ancient town of Etruria, famous for hot baths. Perseus the satirist was born there. Livy, bk. 10, ch. 12.――Strabo, bk. 5. ――Cicero, bk. 15, Letters to his Friends, ltr. 4.

=Volcæ=, or =Volgæ=, a people of Gaul between the Garonne and the Rhone. Livy, bk. 21, ch. 26.――Mela, bk. 2, ch. 5.

=Volci=, an inland town of Lucania, now Lauria. Livy, bk. 27, ch. 15.――――A town of Etruria. Pliny, bk. 3, ch. 5.

=Vologĕses=, a name common to many of the kings of Parthia, who made war against the Roman emperors. Tacitus, bk. 12, Annals, ch. 14.

=Volscens=, a Latin chief who discovered Nisus and Euryalus as they returned from the Rutulian camp loaded with spoils. He killed Euryalus, and was himself immediately stabbed by Nisus. Virgil, Æneid, bk. 9, lis. 370 & 442.

=Volsci=, or =Volci=, a people of Latium, whose territories are bounded on the south by the Tyrrhene sea, north by the country of the Hernici and Marsi, west by the Latins and Rutulians, and east by Campania. Their chief cities were Antium, Circeii, Anxur, Corioli, Fregellæ, Arpinum, &c. Ancus king of Rome made war against them, and in the time of the republic they became formidable enemies, till they were at last conquered with the rest of the Latins. Livy, bks. 3 & 4. ――Virgil, Georgics, bk. 2, li. 168; Æneid, bk. 9, li. 505; bk. 11, li. 546, &c.――Strabo, bk. 5.――Mela, bk. 2, chs. 4 & 5.

=Volsinium=, a town of Etruria in Italy, destroyed, according to Pliny, bk. 2, ch. 53, by fire from heaven. The inhabitants numbered their years by fixing nails in the temple of Nortia, a Tuscan goddess. Livy, bk. 5, ch. 31; bk. 7, ch. 3.――Juvenal, satire 15, li. 191. ――Tacitus, Annals, bk. 4.

=Voltinia=, one of the Roman tribes.

=Volubilis=, a town of Africa, supposed Fez, the capital of Morocco. Pliny, bk. 5, ch. 1.

=Volumnæ Fanum=, a temple in Etruria, sacred to the goddess Volumna, who presided over the will and over complaisance, where the states of the country used to assemble. Viterbo now stands on the spot. Livy, bk. 4, ch. 23; bk. 5, ch. 17; bk. 6, ch. 2.

=Volumnia=, the wife of Coriolanus. Livy, bk. 2, ch. 40.――――The freedwoman of Volumnius Eutrapelus. Cicero, Philippics, bk. 2, ch. 24.

=Volumnus= and =Volumna=, two deities who presided over the will. They were chiefly invoked at marriages to preserve concord between the husband and wife. They were particularly worshipped by the Etrurians. Livy, bk. 4, ch. 61.

=T. Volumnius=, a Roman famous for his friendship towards Marcus Lucullus, whom Marcus Antony had put to death. His great lamentations were the cause that he was dragged to the triumvir, of whom he demanded to be conducted to the body of his friend, and there to be put to death. His request was easily granted. Livy, bk. 124, ch. 20.――――A mimic whom Brutus put to death.――――An Etrurian who wrote tragedies in his own native language.――――A consul who defeated the Samnites and the Etrurians, &c. Livy, bk. 9.――――A friend of Marcus Brutus. He was preserved when that great republican killed himself, and he wrote an account of his death and of his actions, from which Plutarch selected some remarks.――――A prefect of Syria, B.C. 11.――――A Roman knight put to death by Catiline.

=Voluptas= and =Volupia=, the goddess of sensual pleasures, worshipped at Rome, where she had a temple. She was represented as a young and beautiful woman, well dressed, and elegantly adorned, seated on a throne, and having virtue under her feet. Cicero, de Natura Deorum, bk. 2, ch. 25.――Macrobius, bk. 1, ch. 10.――Augustine, City of God, bk. 4, ch. 8.

=Caius Volusēnus=, a military tribune in Cæsar’s army, &c. Cæsar, Gallic War, bk. 3.

=Volusiānus=, a Roman taken as colleague on the imperial throne, by his father Gallus. He was killed by his soldiers.

=Vŏlŭsius=, a poet of Patavia, who wrote, like Ennius, the annals of Rome in verse. Seneca, ltr. 93.――Catullus, bk. 96, li. 7. ――――Saturninus, a governor of Rome, who died in the 93rd year of his age, beloved and respected, under Nero. Tacitus, Annals, bk. 13. ――――Caius, a soldier at the siege of Cremona, &c.――――One of Nero’s officers. Tacitus, Annals, bk. 15, ch. 51.

=Volusus=, a friend of Turnus. Virgil, Æneid, bk. 11, li. 463.

=Volux=, a son of Bocchus, whom the Romans defeated. Sylla suspected his fidelity, &c. Sallust, Jugurthine War, ch. 105.

=Vomanus=, a river of Picenum in Italy. Pliny, bk. 3, ch. 13. ――Silius Italicus, bk. 8, li. 438.

=Vonōnes=, a king of Parthia expelled by his subjects, and afterwards placed on the throne of Armenia. Tacitus, Annals, bk. 12, ch. 14.――――Another king of Armenia.――――A man made king of Parthia by Augustus.

=Vopiscus=, a native of Syracuse, 303, A.D. who wrote the life of Aurelian, Tacitus, Florianus, Probus, Firmus, Carus, &c. He is one of the six authors who are called Historiæ Augustæ scriptores, but he excels all others in the elegance of his style, and the manner in which he relates the various actions of the emperors. He is not, however, without his faults, and we look in vain for the purity or perspicuity of the writers of the Augustan age.

=Vŏrānus=, a freedman of Quintus Luctatius Catulus, famous for his robberies as well as his cunning, &c. Horace, bk. 1, satire 8, li. 39.

=Votiēnus Montanus=, a man of learning, banished to one of the Baleares for his malevolent reflections upon Tiberius. Ovid has celebrated him as an excellent poet. Tacitus, Annals, bk. 4, ch. 42.

=Upis=, the father of one of the Dianas, mentioned by the ancients, from which circumstance Diana herself is called Upis. Cicero, de Natura Deorum, bk. 3, ch. 23.――Callimachus, Artemis.

=Urănia=, one of the Muses, daughter of Jupiter and Mnemosyne, who presided over astronomy. She is generally called mother of Linus by Apollo, and of the god Hymenæus by Bacchus. She was represented as a young virgin dressed in an azure-coloured robe, crowned with stars, and holding a globe in her hands, and having many mathematical instruments placed round. Hesiod, Theogony, li. 77. ――Apollodorus, bk. 1, ch. 2.――Hyginus, fable 161.――――A surname of Venus, the same as Celestial. She was supposed, in that character, to preside over beauty and generation, and was called daughter of Uranus or Cœlus by the Light. Her temples in Asia, Africa, Greece, and Italy were numerous. Plato, Convivium Septem Sapientium. ――Cicero, de Natura Deorum, bk. 3, ch. 23.――Pausanias, bk. 1, ch. 14, &c.; bk. 7, ch. 26, &c.――――A town of Cyprus.

=Urănii=, or =Urii=, a people of Gaul.

=Uranopŏlis=, a town at the top of Athos.

=Urănus=, or =Ouranus=, a deity, the same as Cœlus, the most ancient of all the gods. He married Tithea or the Earth, by whom he had Ceus, Creus, Hyperion, Mnemosyne, Cottus, Phœbe, Briareus, Thetis, Saturn, Gyges, called from their mother Titans. His children conspired against him, because he confined them in the bosom of the earth, and his son Saturn mutilated him, and drove him from his throne.

=Urba=, now Orbe, a town of the Helvetii, on a river of the same name.

=Urbicua=, a town of Hispania Tarraconensis.

=Urbicus=, an actor at Rome, in Domitian’s reign. Juvenal, satire 6.

=Urbinum=, now Urbino, a town of Umbria. Pliny, bk. 3, ch. 14.

=Urgo=, now Gorgona, an island in the bay of Pisa, 25 miles west of Leghorn, famous for anchovies. Pliny, bk. 3, ch. 6.

=Uria=, a town of Calabria, built by a Cretan colony, and called also Hyria. Pliny, bk. 3, ch. 11.――Strabo, bk. 6.――――Of Apulia.

=Urites=, a people of Italy. Livy, bk. 42, ch. 48.

=Ursentum=, a town of the Brutii, now Orso. Pliny, bk. 3, ch. 11.

=Ursidius=, an adulterer. Juvenal, satire 6, li. 38.

=Uscana=, a town of Macedonia. Livy, bk. 43, ch. 18.

=Usceta=, a town of Africa Propria. Aulus Hirtius, African War, ch. 89.

=Uscudama=, a town of Thrace. Eutropius, bk. 6, ch. 8.

=Usipĕtes=, or =Usipii=, a people of Germany. Cæsar, Gallic War, bk. 4, ch. 1, &c.

=Ustīca=, a town in an island on the coast of Sicily, near Panormum. Horace, bk. 1, ode 17, li. 11.

=Utens=, a river of Gaul, now Montone, falling into the Adriatic by Ravenna. Livy, bk. 5, ch. 35.

=Utĭca=, now Satcor, a celebrated city of Africa, on the coast of the Mediterranean, on the same bay as Carthage, founded by a Tyrian colony above 287 years before Carthage. It had a large and commodious harbour, and it became the metropolis of Africa, after the destruction of Carthage in the third Punic war, and the Romans granted it all the lands situate between Hippo and Carthage. It is celebrated for the death of Cato, who from thence is called Uticensis, or of Utica. Strabo, bk. 17.――Lucan, bk. 6, li. 306. ――Justin, bk. 18, ch. 4.――Pliny, bk. 16, ch. 40.――Livy, bk. 25, ch. 31.――Silius Italicus, bk. 3, li. 242.――Horace, bk. 1, ltr. 20, li. 513.

=Vulcanālia=, festivals in honour of Vulcan, brought to Rome from Præneste, and observed in the month of August. The streets were illuminated, fires kindled everywhere, and animals thrown into the flames, as a sacrifice to the deity. Varro, de Lingua Latina, bk. 5.――Dionysius of Halicarnassus, bk. 1.――Columella, bk. 11. ――Pliny, bk. 18, ch. 13.

=Vulcāni insula=, or =Vulcania=, a name given to the islands between Sicily and Italy, now called Lipari. Virgil, Æneid, bk. 8, li. 422. They received it because there were there subterraneous fires, supposed to be excited by Vulcan the god of fire.

=Vulcanius Terentianus=, a Latin historian, who wrote an account of the life of the three Gordians, &c.

=Vulcānus=, a god of the ancients who presided over fire, and was the patron of all artists who worked iron and metal. He was son of Juno alone, who in this wished to imitate Jupiter, who had produced Minerva from his brains. According to Homer, he was son of Jupiter and Juno, and the mother was so disgusted with the deformities of her son, that she threw him into the sea as soon as born, where he remained for nine years. According to the more received opinion, Vulcan was educated in heaven with the rest of the gods, but his father kicked him down from ♦Olympus, when he attempted to deliver his mother, who had been fastened by a golden chain for her insolence. He was nine days in coming from heaven upon earth, and he fell in the island of Lemnos, where, according to Lucian, the inhabitants, seeing him in the air, caught him in their arms. He, however, broke his leg by the fall, and ever after remained lame of one foot. He fixed his residence in Lemnos, where he built himself a palace, and raised forges to work metals. The inhabitants of the island became sensible of his industry, and were taught all the useful arts which could civilize their rude manners, and render them serviceable to the good of society. The first work of Vulcan was, according to some, a throne of gold with secret springs, which he presented to his mother to avenge himself for her want of affection towards him. Juno no sooner was seated on the throne, than she found herself unable to move. The gods attempted to deliver her by breaking the chains which held her, but to no purpose, and Vulcan alone had the power to set her at liberty. Bacchus intoxicated him, and prevailed upon him to come to Olympus, where he was reconciled to his parents. Vulcan has been celebrated by the ancient poets for the ingenious works and automatical figures which he made, and many speak of two golden statues, which not only seemed animated, but which walked by his side, and even assisted him in the working of metals. It is said that, at the request of Jupiter, he made the first woman that ever appeared on earth, well known under the name of Pandora. See: Pandora. The Cyclops of Sicily were his ministers and attendants, and with him they fabricated not only the thunderbolts of Jupiter, but also arms for the gods and the most celebrated heroes. His forges were supposed to be under mount Ætna, in the island of Sicily, as well as in every part of the earth where there were volcanoes. The most known of the works of Vulcan which were presented to mortals are the arms of Achilles, those of Æneas, the shield of Hercules described by Hesiod, a collar given to ♠Hermione the wife of Cadmus, and a sceptre, which was in the possession of Agamemnon king of Argos and Mycenæ. The collar proved fatal to all those that wore it, but the sceptre, after the death of Agamemnon, was carefully preserved at Cheronæa, and regarded as a divinity. The amours of Vulcan are not numerous. He demanded Minerva from Jupiter, who had promised him in marriage whatever goddess he should choose, and when she refused his addresses, he attempted to offer her violence. Minerva resisted with success, though there remained on her body some marks of Vulcan’s passion, which she threw down upon earth wrapped up in wool. See: ♣Erichthonius. This disappointment in his love was repaired by Jupiter, who gave him one of the Graces. Venus is universally acknowledged to have been the wife of Vulcan; but her infidelity is well known, as well as her amours with Mars, which were discovered by Phœbus, and exposed to the gods by her own husband. See: Alectryon. The worship of Vulcan was well established, particularly in Egypt, at Athens, and at Rome. It was usual, in the sacrifices that were offered to him, to burn the whole victim, and not reserve part of it, as in the immolations to the rest of the gods. A calf and a boar pig were the principal victims offered. Vulcan was represented as covered with sweat, blowing with his nervous arm the fires of his forges. His breast was hairy, and his forehead was blackened with smoke. Some represent him lame and deformed, holding a hammer raised in the air, ready to strike; while with the other hand he turns, with pincers, a thunderbolt on his anvil, for which an eagle waits by his side to carry it to Jupiter. He appears on some monuments with a long beard, dishevelled hair, half naked, and a small round cap on his head, while he holds a hammer and pincers in his hand. The Egyptians represented him under the figure of a monkey. Vulcan has received the names of Mulciber, Pamphanes, Clytotechnes, Pandamator, Cyllopodes, Chalaipoda, &c., all expressive of his lameness and his profession. He was father of Cupid by Venus; of Cæculus, Cecrops, Cacus, Periphetes, Cercyon, Ocrisia, &c. Cicero speaks of more than one deity of the name of Vulcan. One he calls son of Cœlus and father of Apollo by Minerva; the second he mentions is son of the Nile, and called Phtas by the Egyptians; the third was the son of Jupiter and Juno, and fixed his residence in Lemnos; and the fourth who built his forges in the Lipari islands was son of Menalius. Vulcan seems to have been admitted into heaven more for ridicule than any other purpose. He seems to be the great cuckold of Olympus, and even his wife is represented as laughing at his deformities, and mimicking his lameness to gain the smiles of her lovers. Hesiod, Theogony & Shield of Heracles, lis. 140 & 320.――Apollodorus, bk. 1, ch. 3, &c.――Homer, Iliad, bk. 1, li. 57; bk. 15, li. 18; bk. 11, li. 397, &c.――Diodorus, bk. 5.――Pausanias, bk. 1, ch. 20; bk. 3, ch. 17. ――Cicero, de Natura Deorum, bk. 3, ch. 22.――Herodotus, bks. 2 & 3.――Varro, de Lingua Latina.――Virgil, Æneid, 7, &c.

♦‘Olympas’ replaced with ‘Olympus’

♠‘Hermoine’ replaced with ‘Hermione’

♣‘Erichsithonius’ replaced with ‘Erichthonius’

=Vulcātius=, a Roman knight, who conspired with Piso against Nero, &c. Tacitus.――――A senator in the reign of Diocletian, who attempted to write a history of all such as had reigned at Rome, either as lawful sovereigns or by usurpation. Of his works nothing is extant but an account of Avidius Cassius, who revolted in the east during the reign of Marcus Aurelius, which some ascribe to Spartianus.

=Vulsīnum=, a town of Etruria. See: Volsinium.

=Vulso=, a Roman consul who invaded Africa with Regulus.――――Another consul. He had the provinces of Asia while in office, and triumphed over the Galatians.

=Vultŭra=, or =Vulturaria=, a mountain on the borders of Apulia. Horace, bk. 3, ode 4, li. 9.――Lucan, bk. 9, li. 183.

=Vulturius=, a man who conspired against his country with Catiline.

=Vulturnius=, a surname of Apollo. See: Vulturnus.

=Vulturnum=, a town of Campania, near the mouth of the Vulturnus. Livy, bk. 25, ch. 20.――Pliny, bk. 3, ch. 5.――――Also an ancient name of Capua. Livy, bk. 4, ch. 37.

=Vulturnus=, a river of Campania rising in the Apennines, and falling into the Tyrrhene sea, after passing by the town of Capua. Lucretius, bk. 5, li. 664.――Virgil, Æneid, bk. 7, li. 729. ――――The god of the Tiber was also known by that name. Varro, de Lingua Latina, bk. 4, ch. 5.――――The wind, which received the name of Vulturnus when it blew from the side of the Vulturnus, highly incommoded the Romans at the battle of Cannæ. Livy, bk. 22, chs. 43 & 46.――――A surname of Apollo on mount Lissus in Ionia, near Ephesus. The god received this name from a shepherd who raised him a temple after he had been drawn out of a subterraneous cavern by vultures.

=Vulsinum=, a town of Etruria, where Sejanus was born.

=Uxama=, a town of Spain on the Iberus. Silius Italicus, bk. 3, li. 384.

=Uxantis=, now Ushant, an island on the coast of Britany.

=Uxellodunum=, a town of Gaul defended by steep rocks, now Puech d’Issoiu. Cæsar, Gallic War, bk. 8, ch. 33.

=Uxentum=, a town of Calabria, now Ugento.

=Uxii=, mountains of Armenia, with a nation of the same name, conquered by Alexander. The Tigris rises in their country. Strabo. ――Diodorus.

=Uxisama=, an island in the western ocean.

=Uzita=, an inland town of Africa destroyed by Cæsar. Hirtius, African War, ch. 41, &c.

X

=Xanthe=, one of the Oceanides. Hesiod, Theogony, li. 356.

=Xanthi=, a people of Thrace.――――The inhabitants of Xanthus in Asia. See: Xanthus.

=Xanthia Phoceus=, a Roman whom Horace addresses in his bk. 2, ode 4, and of whom he speaks as enamoured of a servant-maid.

=Xanthĭca=, a festival observed by the Macedonians in the month called Xanthicus, the same as April. It was then usual to make a lustration of the army with great solemnity. A bitch was cut into two parts, and one half of the body placed on one side, and the other part on the other side, after which the soldiers marched between, and they imitated a real battle by a sham engagement.

=Xanthippe=, a daughter of Dorus. See: Xantippe.

=Xanthippus=, a son of Melas killed by Tydeus. See: Xantippus.

=Xantho=, one of Cyrene’s attendant nymphs. Virgil, Georgics, bk. 4, li. 336.

=Xanthus=, or =Xanthos=, a river of Troas, in Asia Minor. It is the same as the Scamander, but, according to Homer, it was called Xanthus by the gods and Scamander by men. See: Scamander.――――A river of Lycia, anciently called Sirbes. It was sacred to Apollo, and fell into the sea near Patara. Homer, Iliad, bk. 6, li. 172. ――Virgil, Æneid, bk. 4, li. 143.――Mela, bk. 1, ch. 15.――――One of the horses of Achilles, who spoke to his master when chid with severity, and told him he must soon be killed. Homer, Iliad, bk. 19.――――One of the horses given to Juno by Neptune, and afterwards to the sons of Leda.――――An historian of Sardes in the reign of Darius.――――A Greek historian of Lydia, who wrote an account of his country, of which some fragments remain. Dionysius of Halicarnassus. ――――A king of Lesbos.――――A king of Bœotia, who made war against the Athenians. He was killed by the artifice of Melanthus. See: Apaturia.――――A Greek poet. Ælian, Varia Historia, bk. 4, ch. 26. ――Suidas.――――A philosopher of Samos, in whose house Æsop lived some time as servant.――――A town of Lycia, on the river of the same name, at the distance of about 15 miles from the sea-shore. The inhabitants were celebrated for their love of liberty and national independence. Brutus laid siege to their city, and when at last they were unable longer to support themselves against the enemy, they set fire to their houses and destroyed themselves. The conqueror wished to spare them, but though he offered rewards to his soldiers if they brought any of the Xanthians alive into his presence, only 150 were saved, much against their will. Appian, bk. 4.――Plutarch, Brutus.

=Xantĭcles=, one of the leaders of the 10,000 Greeks, after the battle of Cunaxa.

=Xantippe=, a daughter of Dorus, who married Pleuron, by whom she had Agenor, &c. Apollodorus, bk. 1, ch. 7.――――The wife of Socrates, remarkable for her ill humour and peevish disposition, which are become proverbial. Some suppose that the philosopher was acquainted with her moroseness and insolence before he married her, and that he took her for his wife to try his patience, and inure himself to the malevolent reflections of mankind. She continually tormented him with her impertinence; and one day, not satisfied with using the most bitter invectives, she emptied a vessel of dirty water on his head, upon which the philosopher coolly observed, “After thunder there generally falls rain.” Ælian, Varia Historia, bk. 7, ch. 10; bk. 9, ch. 7; bk. 11, ch. 12.――Diogenes Laërtius, Socrates.

=Xantippus=, a Lacedæmonian general who assisted the Carthaginians in the first Punic war. He defeated the Romans, 256 B.C., and took the celebrated Regulus prisoner. Such signal services deserved to be rewarded, but the Carthaginians looked with envious jealousy upon Xantippus, and he retired to Corinth after he had saved them from destruction. Some authors support that the Carthaginians ordered him to be assassinated, and his body to be thrown into the sea as he was returning home; while others say that they had prepared a leaky ship to convey him to Corinth, which he artfully avoided. Livy, bk. 18 & bk. 28, ch. 43.――Appian, Punic Wars.――――An Athenian general who defeated the Persian fleet at Mycale with Leotychides. A statue was erected to his honour at the citadel of Athens. He made some conquests in Thrace, and increased the power of Athens. He was father to the celebrated Pericles by Agariste the niece of Clisthenes, who expelled the Pisistratidæ from Athens. Pausanias, bk. 3, ch. 7; bk. 8, ch. 52.――――A son of Pericles who disgraced his father by his disobedience, his ingratitude, and his extravagance. He died of the plague in the Peloponnesian war. Plutarch.

=Xenagŏras=, an historian. Dionysius of Halicarnassus.――――A philosopher who measured the height of mount Olympus.

=Xenarchus=, a comic poet.――――A peripatetic philosopher of Seleucia, who taught at Alexandria and at Rome, and was intimate with Augustus. Strabo, bk. 14.――――A pretor of the Achæan league, who wished to favour the interest of Perseus king of Macedonia against the Romans.

=Xenares=, an intimate friend of Cleomenes king of Sparta.

=Xenetus=, a rich Locrian, whose daughter Doris married Dionysius of Sicily, &c. Aristotle, Politics, bk. 5, ch. 7.

=Xeneus=, a Chian writer who composed a history of his country.

=Xeniădes=, a Corinthian who went to buy Diogenes the Cynic when sold as a slave. He asked him what he could do; upon which the Cynic answered, “Command freemen.” This noble answer so pleased Xeniades, that he gave the Cynic his liberty, and entrusted him with the care and education of his children. Diogenes Laërtius.――Aulus Gellius, bk. 2, ch. 18.

=Xenius=, a surname given to Jupiter as the god of hospitality.

=Xenoclea=, a priestess of Apollo’s temple at Delphi, from whom Hercules extorted an oracle by force, when she refused to answer him because he was not purified of the blood and death of Iphitus. Pausanias, bk. 10, ch. 13.

=Xenŏcles=, a tragic writer, who obtained four times a poetical prize in a contention in which Euripides was competitor, either through the ignorance or by the bribery of his judges. The names of his tragedies which obtained the victory were Œdipus, Lycaon, Bacchæ, Athamas Satyricus, against the Alexander, Palamedes, Trojani, and Sisyphus Satyricus of Euripides. His grandson bore also the name of Xenocles, and excelled in tragical compositions. Ælian, Varia Historia, bk. 2, ch. 8.――――A Spartan officer in the expedition which Agesilaus undertook against the Persians.――――An architect of Eleusis.――――A friend of Aratus.――――One of the friends of Cicero.――――A celebrated rhetorician of Adramyttium. Strabo, bk. 13.

=Xenocrătes=, an ancient philosopher born at Chalcedonia, and educated in the school of Plato, whose friendship he gained, and whose approbation he merited. Though of a dull and sluggish disposition, he supplied the defects of nature by unwearied attention and industry, and was at last found capable of succeeding in the school of Plato after Speusippus, about 339 years before Christ. He was remarkable as a disciplinarian, and he required that his pupils should be acquainted with mathematics before they came under his care, and he even rejected some who had not the necessary qualification, saying that they had not yet found the key of philosophy. He recommended himself to his pupils not only by precepts, but more powerfully by example, and since the wonderful change he had made upon the conduct of one of his auditors [See: Polemon], his company was as much shunned by the dissolute and extravagant, as it was courted by the virtuous and benevolent. Philip of Macedon attempted to gain his confidence with money, but with no success. Alexander in this imitated his father, and sent some of his friends with 50 talents for the philosopher. They were introduced, and supped with Xenocrates. The repast was small, frugal, and elegant, without ostentation. On the morrow, the officers of Alexander wished to pay down the 50 talents, but the philosopher asked them whether they had not perceived from the entertainment of the preceding day that he was not in want of money. “Tell your master,” said he, “to keep his money; he has more people to maintain than I have.” Yet, not to offend the monarch, he accepted a small sum, about the 200th part of one talent. His character was not less conspicuous in every other particular, and he has been cited as an instance of virtue from the following circumstance: The courtesan Lais had pledged herself to forfeit an immense sum of money, if she did not triumph over the virtue of Xenocrates. She tried every art, assumed the most captivating looks, and used the most tempting attitudes to gain the philosopher, but in vain; and she declared at last that she had not lost her money, as she had pledged herself to conquer a human being, not a lifeless stone. Though so respected and admired, yet Xenocrates was poor, and he was dragged to prison, because he was unable to pay a small tribute to the state. He was delivered from confinement by one of his friends. His integrity was so well known, that when he appeared in the court as a witness, the judges dispensed with his oath. He died B.C. 314, in his 82nd year, after he had presided in the academy for above 25 years. It is said that he fell in the night with his head into a basin of water, and that he was suffocated. He had written above 60 treatises on different subjects, all now lost. He acknowledged no other deity but heaven, and the seven planets. Diogenes Laërtius.――Cicero, Letters to Atticus, bk. 10, ltr. 1, &c. Tusculanæ Disputationes, bk. 5, ch. 32.――Valerius Maximus, bk. 2, ch. 10.――Lucian.――――A physician in the age of Nero, not in great esteem. His Greek treatise, de alimento ex aquatilibus, is best edited by Franzius, Lipscomb, 8vo, 1774.――――An excellent painter. Pliny, bk. 34, ch. 8.

=Xenodamus=, an illegitimate son of Menelaus by Gnossia. Apollodorus, bk. 3, ch. 11.――――An athlete of Anticyra. Pausanias, bk. 10, ch. 36.

=Xēnodĭce=, a daughter of Syleus, killed by Hercules. Apollodorus, bk. 2, ch. 6.――――A daughter of Minos and Pasiphae. Apollodorus, bk. 3, ch. 1.

=Xenodŏchus=, a Messenian crowned at the Olympic games. Pausanias, bk. 4, ch. 5.――――A native of Cardia, &c.

=Xenophănes=, a Greek philosopher of Colophon, disciple of Archelaus, B.C. 535. He wrote several poems and treatises, and founded a sect which was called the Eleatic, in Sicily. Wild in his opinions about astronomy, he supposed that the stars were extinguished every morning, and rekindled at night; that eclipses were occasioned by the temporary extinction of the sun; that the moon was inhabited, and 18 times bigger than the earth; and that there were several suns and moons for the convenience of the different climates of the earth. He further imagined that God and the world were the same, and he credited the eternity of the universe, but his incoherent opinion about the divinity raised the indignation of his countrymen, and he was banished. He died very poor, when about 100 years old. Cicero, Academica Priora, bk. 4, ch. 37; de Divinatione, bk. 1, ch. 3; De Natura Deorum, bk. 1, ch. 11.――Lactantius, Divinae institutiones, bk. 3, ch. 23.――――A governor of Olbus, in the age of Marcus Antony. Strabo, bk. 14.――――One of the ministers of Philip, who went to Annibal’s camp, and made a treaty of alliance between Macedonia and Carthage.

=Xenophĭlus=, a Pythagorean philosopher, who lived to his 170th year, and enjoyed all his faculties to the last. He wrote upon music, and thence he was called the musician. Lucian, Macrobii.――Pliny, bk. 7, ch. 50.――Valerius Maximus, bk. 8, ch. 13.――――One of Alexander’s generals. Curtius, bk. 5, ch. 2.――――A robber of whom Aratus hired some troops.

=Xenŏphon=, an Athenian, son of Gryllus, celebrated as a general, an historian, and a philosopher. In the school of Socrates he received those instructions and precepts which afterwards so eminently distinguished him at the head of an army, in literary solitude, and as the prudent father of a family. He was invited by Proxenus, one of his intimate friends, to accompany Cyrus the younger in an expedition against his brother Artaxerxes king of Persia; but he refused to comply without previously consulting his venerable master, and inquiring into the propriety of such a measure. Socrates strongly opposed it, and observed that it might raise the resentment of his countrymen, as Sparta had made an alliance with the Persian monarch; but, however, before he proceeded further, he advised him to consult the oracle of Apollo. Xenophon paid due deference to the injunctions of Socrates, but as he was ambitious of glory, and eager to engage in a distant expedition, he hastened with precipitation to Sardis, where he was introduced to the young prince, and treated with great attention. In the army of Cyrus, Xenophon showed that he was a true disciple of Socrates, and that he had been educated in the warlike city of Athens. After the decisive battle in the plains of Cunaxa, and the fall of young Cyrus, the prudence and vigour of his mind were called into action. The 10,000 Greeks who had followed the standard of an ambitious prince were now at the distance of above 600 leagues from their native home, in a country surrounded on every side by a victorious enemy, without money, without provisions, and without a leader. Xenophon was selected from among the officers to superintend the retreat of his countrymen, and though he was often opposed by malevolence and envy, yet his persuasive eloquence and his activity convinced the Greeks that no general could extricate them from every difficulty better than the disciple of Socrates. He rose superior to danger, and though under continual alarms from the sudden attacks of the Persians, he was enabled to cross rapid rivers, penetrate through vast deserts, gain the tops of mountains, till he could rest secure for a while and refresh his tired companions. This celebrated retreat was at last happily effected; the Greeks returned home after a march of 1155 parasangs, or leagues, which was performed in 215 days, after an absence of 15 months. The whole, perhaps, might now be forgotten, or at least obscurely known, if the great philosopher who planned it had not employed his pen in describing the dangers which he escaped, and the difficulties which he surmounted. He was no sooner returned from Cunaxa, than he sought new honours in following the fortune of Agesilaus in Asia. He enjoyed his confidence, he fought under his standard, and conquered with him in the Asiatic provinces, as well as at the battle of Coronæa. His fame, however, did not escape the aspersions of jealousy; he was publicly banished from Athens for accompanying Cyrus against his brother, and being now without a home, he retired to Scillus, a small town of the Lacedæmonians, in the neighbourhood of Olympia. In this solitary retreat he dedicated his time to literary pursuits, and as he had acquired riches in his Asiatic expeditions, he began to adorn and variegate by the hand of art, for his pleasure and enjoyment, the country which surrounded Scillus. He built a magnificent temple to Diana, in imitation of that of Ephesus, and spent part of his time in rural employments, or in hunting in the woods and mountains. His peaceful occupations, however, were soon disturbed. A war arose between the Lacedæmonians and Elis, and the sanctity of Diana’s temple, and the venerable age of the philosopher, who lived in the delightful retreats of Scillus, were disregarded, and Xenophon, driven by the Elians from his favourite spot, where he had composed and written for the information of posterity, and the honour of his country, retired to the city of Corinth. In this place he died in the 90th year of his age, 359 years before the christian era. The works of Xenophon are numerous. He wrote an account of the expedition of Cyrus, called the Anabasis, and as he had no inconsiderable share in the enterprise, his description must be authentic, as he was himself an eye-witness. Many, however, have accused him of partiality. He appeared often too fond of extolling the virtues of his favourite Cyrus, and while he describes with contempt the imprudent operations of the Persians, he does not neglect to show that he was a native of Greece. His Cyropædia, divided into eight books, has given rise to much criticism, and while some warmly maintain that it is a faithful account of the life and the actions of Cyrus the Great, and declare that it is supported by the authority of Scripture, others as vehemently deny its authenticity. According to the opinions of Plato and of Cicero, the Cyropædia of Xenophon was a moral romance, and these venerable philosophers support that the historian did not so much write what Cyrus had been, as what every true, good, and virtuous monarch ought to be. His Hellenica were written as a continuation of the history of Thucydides; and in his Memorabilia of Socrates, and in his Apology, he has shown himself, as Valerius Maximus observes, a perfect master of the philosophy of that great man, and he has explained his doctrines and moral precepts with all the success of persuasive eloquence and conscious integrity. These are the most famous of his compositions, besides which there are other small tracts, his eulogium given on Agesilaus, his œconomics, on the duties of domestic life, the dialogue entitled Hiero, in which he happily describes and compares the misery which attended the tyrant, with the felicity of a virtuous prince; a treatise on hunting, the symposium of the philosophers, on the government of Athens and Sparta, a treatise on the revenues of Attica, &c. The simplicity and the elegance of Xenophon’s diction have procured him the name of the Athenian muse, and the bee of Greece, and they have induced Quintilian to say that the graces dictated his language, and that the goddess of persuasion dwelt upon his lips. His sentiments, as to the divinity and religion, were the same as those of the venerable Socrates; he supported the immortality of the soul, and exhorted his friends to cultivate those virtues which ensure the happiness of mankind, with all the zeal and fervour of a christian. He has been quoted as an instance of tenderness and of resignation on Providence. As he was offering a sacrifice, he was informed that Gryllus his eldest son had been killed at the battle of Mantinea. Upon this he tore the garland from his head, but when he was told that his son had died like a Greek, and had given a mortal wound to Epaminondas, the enemy’s general, he replaced the flowers on his head, and continued the sacrifice, exclaiming that the pleasure he derived from the valour of his son was greater than the grief which his unfortunate death occasioned. The best editions of Xenophon are those of Leunclavius, folio, Frankfurt, 1596, of Ernesti, 4 vols., 8vo, Lipscomb, 1763, and the Glasgow edition, 12mo; of the Cyropædia, 1767, the expedition of Cyrus, 1764, the Memorabilia, 1761, and the history of Greece, 1762, and likewise the edition of Zeunius, published at Leipsic, in 8vo, in 6 vols., between the years 1778 and 1791. Cicero, Orator, ch. 19.――Valerius Maximus, bk. 5, ch. 10. ――Quintilian, bk. 10, ch. 2.――Ælian, Varia Historia, bk. 3, ch. 13; bk. 4, ch. 5.――Diogenes Laërtius, Xenophon.――Seneca.――――A writer in the beginning of the fourth century, known by his Greek romance in five books, De Amoribus Anthiæ et Abrocomæ, published in 8vo and 4to by Cocceius, London, 1726.――――A physician of the emperor Claudius, born in the island of Cos, and said to be descended from the Asclepiades. He enjoyed the emperor’s favours, and through him the people of Cos were exempt from all taxes. He had the meanness to poison his benefactor at the instigation of Agrippina. Tacitus, Annals, bk. 12, chs. 61 & 67.――――An officer under Adrian, &c.

=Xera=, a town of Spain, now Xerex, where the Moors gained a battle over Roderic king of the Goths, and became masters of the country.

=Xerolibya=, a part of Africa between Egypt and Cyrene.

=Xerxena=, a part of Armenia. Strabo, bk. 11.

=Xerxes I.=, succeeded his father Darius on the throne of Persia, and though but the second son of the monarch, he was preferred to his elder brother Artabazanes. The causes alleged for this preference were, that Artabazanes was son of Darius when a private man, and that Xerxes was born, after his father had been raised on the Persian throne, of Atossa the daughter of Cyrus. Xerxes continued the warlike preparations of his father, and added the revolted kingdom of Egypt to his extensive possessions. He afterwards invaded Europe, and entered Greece with an army which, together with the numerous retinue of servants, eunuchs, and women that attended it, amounted to no less than 5,283,220 souls. This multitude, which the fidelity of the historians has not exaggerated, was stopped at Thermopylæ, by the valour of 300 Spartans, under king Leonidas. Xerxes, astonished that such a handful of men should dare to oppose his progress, ordered some of his soldiers to bring them alive into his presence; but for three successive days the most valiant of the Persian troops were repeatedly defeated in attempting to execute the monarch’s injunctions, and the courage of the Spartans might perhaps have triumphed longer, if a Trachinian had not led a detachment to the top of the mountain, and suddenly fallen upon the devoted Leonidas. The king himself nearly perished on this occasion, and it has been reported that, in the night, the desperate Spartans sought, for a while, the royal tent, which they found deserted, and wandered through the Persian army, slaughtering thousands before them. The battle of Thermopylæ was the beginning of the disgrace of Xerxes. The more he advanced, it was to experience new disappointments; his fleet was defeated at Artemisium and Salamis, and though he burnt the deserted city of Athens, and trusted to the artful insinuations of Themistocles, yet he found his millions unable to conquer a nation that was superior to him in the knowledge of war and maritime affairs. Mortified with the ill success of his expedition, and apprehensive of imminent danger in an enemy’s country, Xerxes hastened to Persia, and in 30 days he marched over all that territory which before he had passed with much pomp and parade in the space of six months. Mardonius, the best of his generals, was left behind with an army of 300,000 men, and the rest that had survived the ravages of war, of famine, and pestilence, followed their timid monarch into Thrace, where his steps were marked by the numerous birds of prey that hovered round him, and fed upon the dead carcases of the Persians. When he reached the Hellespont, Xerxes found the bridge of boats which he had erected there totally destroyed by the storms, and he crossed the straits in a small fishing vessel. Restored to his kingdom and safety, he forgot his dangers, his losses, and his defeats, and gave himself up to riot and debauchery. His indolence and luxurious voluptuousness offended his subjects, and Artabanus, the captain of his guards, conspired against him, and murdered him in his bed, in the 21st year of his reign, about 464 years before the christian era. The personal accomplishments of Xerxes have been commended by ancient authors, and Herodotus observes that there was not one man among the millions of his army that was equal to the monarch in comeliness or stature, or that was as worthy to preside over a great and extensive empire. The picture is finished, and the character of Xerxes completely known, when we hear Justin exclaim that the vast armament which invaded Greece was without a head. Xerxes has been cited as an instance of humanity. When he reviewed his millions from a stately throne in the plains of Asia, he suddenly shed a torrent of tears on the recollection that the multitude of men he saw before his eyes in 100 years should be no more. His pride and insolence have been deservedly censured; he ordered chains to be thrown into the sea, and the waves to be whipped, because the first bridge he had laid across the Hellespont had been destroyed by a storm. He cut a channel through mount Athos, and saw his fleet sail in a place which before was dry ground. The very rivers were dried up by his army as he advanced towards Greece, and the cities which he entered reduced to want and poverty. Herodotus, bk. 1, ch. 183; bk. 7, ch. 2, &c.――Diodorus, bk. 11.――Strabo, bk. 9.――Ælian, bk. 3, Varia Historia, ch. 25.――Justin, bk. 2, ch. 10, &c.――Pausanias, bk. 3, ch. 4; bk. 8, ch. 46.――Lucan, bk. 2, li. 672.――Plutarch, Themistocles, &c. Valerius Maximus.――Isocrates, Panathenaicus. ――Seneca, de Constantia Sapientis, ch. 4.

=Xerxes II.=, succeeded his father Artaxerxes Longimanus on the throne of Persia, 425 B.C., and was assassinated in the first year of his reign by his brother Sogdianus.

=Xerxes=, a painter of Heraclea, who made a beautiful representation of Venus.

=Xeuxes=, an officer of Antiochus the Great king of Syria.

=Xiline=, a town of Colchis.

=Xiphonia=, a promontory of Sicily at the north of Syracuse, now Cruce. Strabo, bk. 6.――――Also a town near it, now Augusta.

=Xois=, an island formed by the mouths of the Nile. Strabo, bk. 17.

=Xuthia=, the ancient name of the plains of Leontium in Sicily. Diodorus, bk. 5.

=Xuthus=, a son of Hellen, grandson of Deucalion. He was banished from Thessaly by his brothers, and came to Athens, where he married Creusa the daughter of king Erechtheus, by whom he had Achæus and Ion. He retired after the death of his father-in-law into Achaia, where he died. According to some, he had no children, but adopted Ion, the son whom Creusa, before her marriage, had borne to Apollo. Apollodorus, bk. 1, ch. 7.――Pausanias, bk. 7, ch. 1.――Euripides, Ion, bk. 1, scene 1.

=Xychus=, a Macedonian who told Philip of his cruelty when he had put his son Demetrius to death, at the instigation of Perseus.

=Xylenopŏlis=, a town at the mouth of the Indus, built by Alexander, supposed to be Laheri. Pliny, bk. 6, ch. 23.

=Xyline=, a town of Pamphylia. Livy, bk. 38, ch. 15.

=Xylopŏlis=, a town of Macedonia. Pliny, bk. 4, ch. 10.

=Xynias=, a lake of Thessaly, or, according to some, of Bœotia. Livy, bk. 32, ch. 13; bk. 33, ch. 3.

=Xynoichia=, an anniversary day observed at Athens in honour of Minerva, and in commemoration of the time in which the people of Attica left their country seats, and, by advice of Theseus, all united in one body.

Z

=Zabatus=, a river of Media, falling into the Tigris, near which the 10,000 Greeks stopped in their return. Xenophon.

=Zabdicēne=, a province of Persia.

=Zabirna=, a town of Libya, where Bacchus destroyed a large beast that infested the country. Diodorus, bk. 3.

=Zabus=, a river of Assyria, falling into the Tigris.

=Zacynthus=, a native of Bœotia, who accompanied Hercules when he went into Spain to destroy Geryon. At the end of the expedition he was entrusted with the care of Geryon’s flocks by the hero, and ordered to conduct them to Thebes. As he went on his journey, he was bit by a serpent, and some time after died. His companions carried his body away, and buried it in an island of the Ionian sea, which from that time was called Zacynthus. The island of Zacynthus, now called Zante, is situate at the south of Cephalenia, and at the west of the Peloponnesus. It is about 60 miles in circumference. Livy, bk. 26, ch. 24.――Pliny, bk. 4, ch. 12.――Strabo, bks. 2 & 8.――Mela, bk. 2, ch. 7.――Homer, Odyssey, bk. 1, li. 246; bk. 9, li. 24. ――Ovid, Ars Amatoria, bk. 2, li. 432.――Pausanias, bk. 4, ch. 23. ――Virgil, Æneid, bk. 3, li. 270.――――A son of Dardanus. Pausanias, bk. 8.

=Zadris=, a town of Colchis.

=Zagræus=, a son of Jupiter and Proserpine, the same as the first Bacchus, of whom Cicero speaks. Some say that Jupiter obtained Proserpine’s favours in the form of a serpent in one of the caves of Sicily, where her mother had concealed her from his pursuits, and that from this union Zagræus was born.

=Zagrus=, a mountain on the confines of Media and Babylonia. Strabo, bk. 11.

=Zalates=, an effeminate youth brought to Rome from Armenia as a hostage, &c. Juvenal, satire 20, li. 164.

=Zaleucus=, a lawgiver of the Locrians in Italy, and one of the disciples of Pythagoras, 550 B.C. He was very humane, and at the same time very austere, and he attempted to enforce his laws more by inspiring shame than dread. He had wisely decreed that a person guilty of adultery should lose both his eyes. His philosophy was called to a trial when he was informed that his son was an adulterer. He ordered the law to be executed; the people interfered, but Zaleucus resisted, and rather than violate his own institutions, he commanded one of his own eyes, and one of those of his son, to be put out. This made such an impression upon the people, that while Zaleucus presided over the Locrians, no person was again found guilty of adultery. Valerius Maximus, bk. 1, ch. 2; bk. 6, ch. 5. ――Cicero, de Legibus, bk. 2, ch. 6; Letters to Atticus, bk. 6, ltr. 1.――Ælian, Varia Historia, bk. 2, ch. 37; bk. 3, ch. 17; bk. 13, ch. 24.――Strabo, bk. 6.

=Zama=, or =Zagma=, a town of Numidia, 300 miles from Carthage, celebrated for the victory which Scipio obtained there over the great Annibal, B.C. 202. Metellus besieged it, and was obliged to retire with great loss. After Juba’s death it was destroyed by the Romans. Hirtius, African War, ch. 91.――Cornelius Nepos, Hannibal. ――Livy, bk. 30, ch. 29.――Sallust, Jugurthine War.――Florus, bk. 3, ch. 1.――Silius Italicus, bk. 3, li. 261.――Strabo, bk. 17. ――――A town of Cappadocia,――――of Mesopotamia.

=Zameis=, a debauched king of Assyria, son of Semiramis and Ninus, as some report. He reigned 38 years.

=Zamolxis=, or =Zalmoxis=, a slave and disciple of Pythagoras. He accompanied his master in Egypt, and afterwards retired into the country of the Getæ, which had given him birth. He began to civilize his countrymen, and the more easily to gain reputation, he concealed himself for three years in a subterraneous cave, and afterwards made them believe that he was just raised from the dead. Some place him before the age of Pythagoras. After death he received divine honours. Diodorus.――Herodotus, bk. 4, ch. 19, &c.

=Zancle=, a town of Sicily, on the straits which separate that island from Italy. It received its name from its appearing like a scythe, which was called ξανκλον in the language of the country, or, as others say, because the scythe with which Saturn mutilated his father fell there, or because, as Diodorus reports, a person named Zanclus had either built it or exercised its sovereignty. Zancle fell into the hands of the Samians 497 years before the christian era, and three years after it was recovered by Anaxilaus the Messenian tyrant of Rhegium, who gave it the name of his native country, and called it Messana. It was founded, as most chronologers support, about 1058 years before the christian era, by the pirates of Cumæ in Italy, and peopled by Samians, Ionians, and Chalcidians. Strabo, bk. 6. ――Diodorus, bk. 4.――Silius Italicus, bk. 1, li. 662.――Ovid, Fasti, bk. 4, li. 499; Metamorphoses, bk. 14, li. 6; bk. 15, li. 290.――Pausanias, bk. 4, ch. 23.

=Zarax=, a town of Peloponnesus.

=Zarbiēnus=, a petty monarch of Asia, who was gained to the interest of the Romans by one of the officers of Lucullus. Tigranes put him to death for his desertion, and his funeral was celebrated with great magnificence by the Roman general. Plutarch, Lucullus.

=Zariaspes=, a Persian who attempted to revolt from Alexander, &c. Curtius, bk. 9, ch. 10.――――A river, now Dehash, on which Bactria, the capital of Bactriana, was built. It is called Bactrus by Curtius, bk. 7, ch. 4.――Pliny, bk. 6, chs. 15 & 16.

=Zathes=, a river of Armenia.

=Zaueces=, a people of Libya. Herodotus, bk. 4, ch. 193.

=Zebīna Alexander=, an impostor who usurped the throne of Syria, at the instigation of Ptolemy Physcon.

=Zela=, or =Zelia=, a town of Pontus near the river Lycus, where Cæsar defeated Pharnaces son of Mithridates. In expressing this victory, the general used the words, Veni, vidi, vinci. Suetonius, Cæsar, ch. 37.――Hirtius, Alexandrine War, ch. 72.――――A town of Troas at the foot of Ida.――――Another in Lycia.

=Zelasium=, a promontory of Thessaly. Livy, bk. 31, ch. 46.

=Zeles=, a town of Spain.

=Zelus=, a daughter of Pallas.

=Zeno=, a philosopher of Elia or Velia in Italy, the disciple, or, according to some, the adopted son of Parmenides, and the supposed inventor of dialectic. His opinions about the universe, the unity, incomprehensibility, and immutability of all things, were the same with those of Xenophanes and the rest of the Eleatic philosophers. It is said that he attempted to deliver his country from the tyranny of Nearchus. His plot was discovered, and he was exposed to the most excruciating torments to reveal the name of his accomplices, but this he bore with unparalleled fortitude, and not to be at last conquered by tortures, he cut off his tongue with his teeth, and spit it into the face of the tyrant. Some say that he was pounded alive in a mortar, and that in the midst of his torments he called to Nearchus, as if to reveal something of importance; the tyrant approached him, and Zeno, as if willing to whisper to him, caught his ear with his teeth, and bit it off. Cicero, Tusculanæ Disputationes, bk. 2, ch. 22; De Natura Deorum, bk. 3, ch. 33.――Diodorus Siculus, Fragment.――Valerius Maximus, bk. 3, ch. 3.――Diogenes Laërtius, bk. 9.――――The founder of the sect of the stoics, born at Citium in the island of Cyprus. The first part of his life was spent in commercial pursuits, but he was soon called to more elevated employments. As he was returning from Phœnicia, a storm drove his ship on the coast of Attica, and he was shipwrecked near the Piræus. This moment of calamity he regarded as the beginning of his fame. He entered the house of a bookseller, and, to dissipate his melancholy reflections, he began to read. The book was written by Xenophon; and the merchant was so pleased and captivated by the eloquence and beauties of the philosopher, that from that time he renounced the pursuits of a busy life, and applied himself to the study of philosophy. Ten years were spent in frequenting the school of Crates, and the same number under Stilpo, Xenocrates, and Polemon. Perfect in every branch of knowledge, and improved from experience as well as observation, Zeno opened a school at Athens, and soon saw himself attended by the great, the learned, and the powerful. His followers were called Stoics, because they received the instructions of the philosopher in the portico called στοα. He was so respected during his lifetime, that the Athenians publicly decreed him a brazen statue and a crown of gold, and engraved their decree, to give it more publicity, on two columns in the academy, and in the Lyceum. His life was an example of soberness and moderation; his manners were austere, and to his temperance and regularity he was indebted for the continual flow of health which he always enjoyed. After he had taught publicly for 48 years, he died in the 98th year of his age, B.C. 264, a stranger to diseases, and never incommoded by a real indisposition. He was buried in that part of the city called Ceramicus, where the Athenians raised him a monument. The founder of the stoic philosophy shone before his followers as a pure example of imitation. Virtue he perceived to be the ultimate aim of his researches. He wished to live in the world as if nothing was properly his own; he loved others, and his affections were extended even to his enemies. He felt a pleasure in being kind, benevolent, and attentive, and he found that these sentiments of pleasure were reciprocal. He saw a connection and dependence in the system of the universe, and perceived that from thence arose the harmony of civil society, the tenderness of parents, and filial gratitude. In the attainment of virtue the goods of the mind were to be preferred to those of the body, and when that point was once gained, nothing could equal our happiness and perfection, and the stoic could view with indifference health or sickness, riches or poverty, pain and pleasure, which could neither move nor influence the serenity of his mind. Zeno recommended resignation; he knew that the laws of the universe cannot be changed by man, and therefore he wished that his disciples should not in prayer deprecate impending calamities, but rather beseech Providence to grant them fortitude to bear the severest trials with pleasure and due resignation to the will of Heaven. An arbitrary command over the passions was one of the rules of stoicism; to assist our friends in the hour of calamity was our duty, but to give way to childish sensations was unbecoming our nature. Pity, therefore, and anger, were to be banished from the heart, propriety and decorum were to be the guides in everything, and the external actions of men were the best indications of their inward feelings, their secret inclinations, and their character. It was the duty of the stoic to study himself; in the evening he was enjoined to review with critical accuracy the events of the day, and to regulate his future conduct with more care, and always to find an impartial witness within his own breast. Such were the leading characters of the stoic philosophy, whose followers were so illustrious, so perfect, and so numerous, and whose effects were productive of such exemplary virtues in the annals of the human mind. Zeno in his maxims used to say, that with virtue man could live happy under the most pressing calamities. He said that nature had given us two ears, and only one mouth, to tell us that we ought to listen more than speak. He compared those whose actions were dissonant with their professions, to the coin of Alexandria, which appeared beautiful to the eye, though made of the basest metals. He acknowledged only one God, the soul of the universe, which he conceived to be the body, and therefore he believed that those two together united, the soul and the body, formed one perfect animal, which was the god of the stoics. Amongst the most illustrious followers of his doctrine, and as the most respectable writers, may be mentioned Epictetus, Seneca, the emperor Antoninus, &c. Cicero, Academica, bk. 1, ch. 12; De Natura Deorum, bk. 1, ch. 14; bk. 2, chs. 8 & 24; bk. 3, ch. 24; For Marcellus; Orator, ch. 32, &c.; de Finibus Bonorum et Malorum.――Seneca.――Epictetus.――Arrian.――Ælian, Varia Historia, bk. 9, ch. 26.――Diogenes Laërtius.――――An Epicurean philosopher of Sidon, who numbered among his pupils Cicero, Pomponius Atticus, Cotta, Pompey, &c. Cicero, de Natura Deorum, bk. 1, chs. 21 & 34.――――A rhetorician, father to Polemon, who was made king of Pontus.――――The son of Polemon, who was king of Armenia, was also called Zeno. Strabo, bk. 12.――Tacitus, Annals, bk. 2, ch. 56. ――――A native of Lepreos, son of Calliteles, crowned at the Olympic games, and honoured with a statue in the grove of Jupiter, and at Olympia. Pausanias, bk. 6, ch. 15.――――A general of Antiochus.――――A philosopher of Tarsus, B.C. 207.――――The name of Zeno was common to some of the Roman emperors on the throne of Constantinople, in the fifth and sixth centuries.

=Zenobia=, a queen of Iberia, wife to Rhadamistus. She accompanied her husband when he was banished from his kingdom by the Armenians; but as she was unable to follow him on account of her pregnancy, she entreated him to murder her. Rhadamistus long hesitated, but fearful of her falling into the hands of his enemy, he obeyed, and threw her body into the Araxes. Her clothes kept her up on the surface of the water, where she was found by some shepherds, and as the wound was not mortal, her life was preserved, and she was carried to Tiridates, who acknowledged her as queen. Tacitus, Annals, bk. 12, ch. 51.――――Septimia, a celebrated princess of Palmyra, who married Odenatus, whom Gallienus acknowledged as his partner on the Roman throne. After the death of her husband, which, according to some authors, she is said to have hastened, Zenobia reigned in the east as regent of her infant children, who were honoured with the title of Cæsars. She assumed the name of Augusta, and she appeared in imperial robes, and ordered herself to be styled the queen of the east. The troubles which at that time agitated the western parts of the empire, prevented the emperor from checking the insolence and ambition of this princess, who boasted to be sprung from the Ptolemies of Egypt. Aurelian was no sooner invested with the imperial purple than he marched into the east, determined to punish the pride of Zenobia. He well knew her valour, and he was not ignorant that in her wars against the Persians she had distinguished herself no less than Odenatus. She was the mistress of the east; Egypt acknowledged her power, and all the provinces of Asia Minor were subject to her command. When Aurelian approached the plains of Syria, the Palmyrean queen appeared at the head of 700,000 men. She bore the labours of the field like the meanest of her soldiers, and walked on foot fearless of danger. Two battles were fought; the courage of the queen gained the superiority, but an imprudent evolution of the Palmyrean cavalry ruined her cause; and while they pursued with spirit the flying enemy, the Roman infantry suddenly fell upon the main body of Zenobia’s army, and the defeat was inevitable. The queen fled to Palmyra, determined to support a siege. Aurelian followed her, and after he had almost exhausted his stores, he proposed terms of accommodation, which were rejected with disdain by the warlike princess. Her hopes of victory, however, soon vanished, and though she harassed the Romans night and day by continual sallies from her walls, and the working of her military engines, she despaired of success when she heard that the armies which were marching to her relief from Armenia, Persia, and the east, had partly been defeated and partly bribed from her allegiance. She fled from Palmyra in the night, but Aurelian, who was apprised of her escape, pursued her, and she was caught as she was crossing the river Euphrates. She was brought into the presence of Aurelian, and though the soldiers were clamorous for her death, she was reserved to adorn the triumph of the conqueror. She was treated with great humanity, and Aurelian gave her large possessions near Tibur, where she was permitted to live the rest of her days in peace, with all the grandeur and majesty which became a queen of the east, and a warlike princess. Her children were patronized by the emperor, and married to persons of the first distinction at Rome. Zenobia has been admired not only for her military abilities, but also for her literary talents. She was acquainted with every branch of useful learning, and spoke with fluency the language of the Egyptians, the Greeks, and the Latins. She composed an abridgment of the history of the oriental nations, and of Egypt, which was greatly commended by the ancients. She received no less honour from the patronage she afforded to the celebrated Longinus, who was one of her favourites, and who taught her the Greek tongue. She has also been praised for her great chastity, and her constancy, though she betrayed too often her propensities to cruelty and intoxication when in the midst of her officers. She fell into the hands of Aurelian about the 273rd year of the christian era. Aurelius Victor.――Zosimus, &c.――――A town of Syria on the Euphrates.

=Zenobii insulæ=, small islands at the mouth of the Arabian gulf.

=Zenodōrus=, a sculptor in the age of Nero. He made a statue of Mercury, as also a colossus for the emperor, which was 110 or 120 feet high, and which was consecrated to the sun. The head of this colossus was some time after broken by Vespasian, who placed there the head of an Apollo surrounded with seven beams, each of which was seven feet and a half long. From this famous colossus the modern coliseum, whose ruins are now so much admired at Rome, took its name. Pliny, bk. 54, ch. 7.

=Zenodotia=, a town of Mesopotamia, near Nicephorium. Plutarch, Crassus.

=Zenodōtus=, a native of Trœzene, who wrote a history of Umbria. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, bk. 2.――――A grammarian of Alexandria, in the age of Ptolemy Soter, by whom he was appointed to take care of the celebrated library of Alexandria. He died B.C. 245.

=Zenothemis=, a Greek writer. Ælian, Varia Historia, bk. 17, ch. 30.

=Zephyrium=, a promontory of Magna Græcia towards the Ionian sea, whence, according to some, the Locrians are called Epizephyrii. ――――A town of Cilicia. Livy, bk. 33, ch. 20.――――A cape of Crete, now San Zuane.――――Of Pontus, &c.

=Zephy̆rum=, a promontory in the island of Cyprus, where Venus had a temple built by Ptolemy Philadelphus, whence she was called Zephyria. It was in this temple that Arsione made an offering of her hair to the goddess of beauty.

=Zephy̆rus=, one of the winds, son of Astreus and Aurora, the same as the Favonius of the Latins. He married a nymph called Chloris, or Flora, by whom he had a son called Carpos. Zephyr was said to produce flowers and fruits by the sweetness of his breath. He had a temple at Athens, where he was represented as a young man of delicate form, with two wings on his shoulders, and with his head covered with all sorts of flowers. He was ♦supposed to be the same as the west wind. Hesiod, Theogony, li. 377.――Virgil, Æneid, bk. 1, li. 135; bk. 2, li. 417; bk. 4, li. 223, &c.――Ovid, Metamorphoses, bk. 1, li. 64; bk. 15, li. 700.――Propertius, bk. 1, poem 16, li. 34, &c.

♦ ‘suppossd’ replaced with ‘supposed’

=Zerynthus=, a town of Samothrace, with a cave sacred to Hecate. The epithet of Zerynthius is applied to Apollo, and also to Venus. Ovid, Tristia, bk. 1, poem 9, li. 19.――Livy, bk. 38, ch. 41.

=Zethes=, =Zetes=, or =Zetus=, a son of Boreas king of Thrace and Orithyia, who accompanied, with his brother Cailas, the Argonauts to Colchis. In Bithynia, the two brothers, who are represented with wings, delivered Phineus from the continual persecution of the Harpies, and drove these monsters as far as the islands called Strophades, where at last they were stopped by Iris, who promised them that Phineus should no longer be tormented by them. They were both killed, as some say, by Hercules during the Argonautic expedition, and were changed into those winds which generally blow eight or ten days before the dog-star appears, and are called Prodromi by the Greeks. Their sister Cleopatra married Phineus king of Bithynia. Orpheus, Argonautica.――Apollodorus, bk. 1, ch. 9; bk. 3, ch. 15.――Hyginus, fable 14.――Ovid, Metamorphoses, bk. 8, li. 716.――Pausanias, bk. 3, ch. 18.――Valerius Flaccus.

=Zetta=, a town of Africa, near Thapsus, now Zerbi. Strabo, bk. 17. ――Hirtius, African War, ch. 68.

=Zetus=, or =Zethus=, a son of Jupiter and Antiope, brother to Amphion. The two brothers were born on mount Cithæron, where Antiope had fled to avoid the resentment of her father Nycteus. When they had attained the years of manhood, they collected a number of their friends to avenge the injuries which their mother had suffered from Lycus, the successor of Nycteus on the throne of Thebes, and from his wife Dirce. Lycus was put to death, and his wife tied to the tail of a wild bull, that dragged her over rocks and precipices till she died. The crown of Thebes was seized by the two brothers, not only as the reward of this victory, but as their inheritance, and Zethus surrounded the capital of his dominions with a strong wall, while his brother amused himself with playing on his lyre. Music and verses were disagreeable to Zethus, and, according to some, he prevailed upon his brother no longer to pursue so unproductive a study. Hyginus, fable 7. ――Pausanias, bk. 2, ch. 6, &c.――Apollodorus, bk. 3, chs. 5 & 10. ――Horace, bk. 1, ltr. 18, li. 41.

=Zeugis=, a portion of Africa, in which Carthage was. The other division was called Byzacium. Isidorus, bk. 14, ch. 5.――Pliny, bk. 5, ch. 4.

=Zeugma=, a town of Mesopotamia, on the western bank of the Euphrates, where was a well-known passage across the river. It was the eastern boundary of the Roman empire, and in Pliny’s age a chain of iron was said to extend across it. Pliny, bk. 5, ch. 24.――Strabo, bk. 16. ――Curtius, bk. 3, ch. 7.――Tacitus, Annals, bk. 12, ch. 12.――――A town of Dacia.

=Zeus=, a name of Jupiter among the Greeks, expressive of his being the father of mankind, and by whom all things live. Diodorus, bk. 5.

=Zeuxidămus=, a king of Sparta, of the family of the Proclidæ. He was father of Archidamus and grandson of Theopompus, and was succeeded by his son Archidamus. Pausanias, bk. 3, ch. 7.

=Zeuxidas=, a pretor of the Achæan league, deposed because he had promised to his countrymen an alliance with the Romans.

=Zeuxippe=, a daughter of Eridanus, mother of Butes, one of the Argonauts, &c. Apollodorus, bk. 3, ch. 15.――――A daughter of Laomedon. She married Sicyon, who after his father-in-law’s death became king of that city of Peloponnesus, which from him has been called Sicyon. Pausanias, bk. 2, ch. 6.

=Zeuxis=, a celebrated painter, born at Heraclea, which some suppose to be the Heraclea of Sicily. He flourished about 468 years before the christian era, and was the disciple of Apollodorus, and contemporary with Parrhasius. In the art of painting he surpassed not only all his contemporaries, but also his master, and became so sensible, and at the same time so proud, of the value of his pieces, that he refused to sell them, observing that no sum of money, however great, was sufficient to buy them. His most celebrated paintings were his Jupiter sitting on a throne, surrounded by the gods; his Hercules strangling the serpents in the presence of his affrighted parents; his modest Penelope; and his Helen, which was afterwards placed in the temple of Juno Lacinia, in Italy. This last piece he had painted at the request of the people of Crotona, and that he might not be without a model, they sent him the most beautiful of their virgins. Zeuxis examined their naked beauties, and retained five, from whose elegance and graces united, he conceived in his mind the form of the most perfect woman in the universe, which his pencil at last executed with wonderful success. His contest with Parrhasius is well known [See: Parrhasius]; but though he represented nature in such perfection, and copied all her beauties with such exactness, he often found himself deceived. He painted grapes, and formed an idea of the goodness of his piece from the birds which came to eat the fruit on the canvas. But he soon acknowledged that the whole was an ill-executed piece, as the figure of the man who carried the grapes was not done with sufficient expression to terrify the birds. According to some, Zeuxis died from laughing at a comical picture which he had made of an old woman. Cicero, de Inventione, bk. 2, ch. 1.――Plutarch, Parallela minora, &c.――Quintilian.

=Zeuxo=, one of the Oceanides. Hesiod.

=Zilia=, or =Zelis=, a town in Mauritania, at the mouth of a river of the same name. Pliny, bk. 5, ch. 1.

=Zimara=, a town of Armenia Minor, 12 miles from the sources of the Euphrates. Pliny, bk. 5, ch. 24.

=Zingis=, a promontory of Æthiopia, near the entrance of the Red sea, now cape Orfui.

=Ziobĕris=, a river of Hyrcania, whose rapid course is described by Curtius, bk. 6, ch. 4.

=Zipætes=, a king of Bithynia, who died in his 70th year, B.C. 279.

=Zitha=, a town of Mesopotamia.

=Ziza=, a town of Arabia.

=Zōĭlus=, a sophist and grammarian of Amphipolis, B.C. 259. He rendered himself known by his severe criticisms on the works of Isocrates and Plato, and the poems of Homer, for which he received the name of Homeromastic, or the chastiser of Homer. He presented his criticisms to Ptolemy Philadelphus, but they were rejected with indignation, though the author declared that he starved for want of bread. Some say that Zoilus was cruelly stoned to death, or exposed on a cross by order of Ptolemy, while others support that he was burnt alive at Smyrna. The name of Zoilus is generally applied to austere critics. The works of this unfortunate grammarian are lost. Ælian, Varia Historia, bk. 11, ch. 10.――_Dionysius of Halicarnassus._――Ovid, Remedia Amoris, li. 266.――――An officer in the army of Alexander.

=Zoippus=, a son-in-law of Hiero of Sicily.

=Zona=, a town of Africa. Dio Cassius, bk. 48.――――Of Thrace, on the Ægean sea, where the woods are said to have followed the strains of Orpheus. Mela, bk. 2, ch. 2.――Herodotus.

=Zonăras=, one of the Byzantine historians, whose Greek Annals were edited, 2 vols., folio, Paris, 1686.

=Zopy̆rio=, one of Alexander’s officers left in Greece when the conqueror was in Asia, &c. Curtius, bk. 10, ch. 1.

=Zopy̆rion=, a governor of Pontus, who made war against Scythia, &c. Justin, bk. 2, ch. 3.

=Zopy̆rus=, a Persian, son of Megabyzus, who, to show his attachment to Darius the son of Hystaspes, while he besieged Babylon, cut off his ears and nose, and fled to the enemy, telling them that he had received such a treatment from his royal master because he had advised him to raise the siege, as the city was impregnable. This was credited by the Babylonians, and Zopyrus was appointed commander of all their forces. When he had totally gained their confidence, he betrayed the city into the hands of Darius, for which he was liberally rewarded. The regard of Darius for Zopyrus could never be more strongly expressed than in what he used often to say, that he had rather have Zopyrus not mutilated than 20 Babylons. Herodotus, bk. 3, ch. 154, &c.――Plutarch, Regum et imperatorum apophthegmata, ch. 3.――Justin, bk. 1, ch. 10.――――An orator of Clazomenæ. Quintilian, bk. 3, ch. 6.――――A physician in the age of Mithridates. He gave the monarch a description of an antidote which would prevail against all sorts of poisons. The experiment was tried upon criminals, and succeeded.――――A physician in the age of Plutarch.――――An officer of Argos, who cut off the head of Pyrrhus. Plutarch.――――A man appointed master of Alcibiades, by Pericles. Plutarch.――――A physiognomist. Cicero, de Fato, ch. 5.――――A rhetorician of Colophon. Diogenes Laërtius.

=Zoroanda=, a part of Taurus between Mesopotamia and Armenia, near which the Tigris flows. Pliny, bk. 6, ch. 27.

=Zoroaster=, a king of Bactria, supposed to have lived in the age of Ninus king of Assyria, some time before the Trojan war. According to Justin, he first invented magic, or the doctrines of the Magi, and rendered himself known by his deep and acute researches in philosophy, the origin of the world, and the study of astronomy. He was respected by his subjects and contemporaries for his abilities as a monarch, a lawgiver, and a philosopher, and though many of his doctrines are puerile and ridiculous, yet his followers are still found in numbers in the wilds of Persia, and the extensive provinces of India. Like Pythagoras, Zoroaster admitted no visible object of devotion except fire, which he considered as the most proper emblem of a supreme being; which doctrines seem to have been preserved by Numa, in the worship and ceremonies which he instituted in honour of Vesta. According to some of the moderns, the doctrines, the laws, and regulations of this celebrated Bactrian are still extant, and they have been lately introduced in Europe in a French translation by Marcus Anquetil. The age of Zoroaster is so little known that many speak of two, three, four, and even six lawgivers of that name. Some authors, who support that two persons only of this name flourished, describe the first as an astronomer living in Babylon, 2459 years B.C., whilst the era of the other, who is supposed to have been a native of Persia, and the restorer of the religion of the Magi, is fixed 589, and by some 519 years B.C. Justin, bk. 1, ch. 1. ――Augustine, City of God, bk. 21, ch. 14.――Orosius, bk. 1. ――Pliny, bk. 7, ch. 10; bk. 30, ch. 1.

=Zosĭmus=, an officer in the reign of Theodosius the younger, about the year 410 of the christian era. He wrote the history of the Roman emperors in Greek, from the age of Augustus to the beginning of the fifth century, of which only the five first books, and the beginning of the sixth, are extant. In the first of those he is very succinct in his account from the time of Augustus to the reign of Diocletian, but in the succeeding he becomes more diffuse and interesting. His composition is written with elegance, but not much fidelity, and the author showed his malevolence against the christians in his history of Constantine, and some of his successors. The best editions of Zosimus are that of Celarius, 8vo. Jenæ, 1728, and that of Reiemier, 8vo, Lipscomb, 1784.

=Zosine=, the wife of king Tigranes, led in triumph by Pompey. Plutarch.

=Zoster=, a town, harbour, and promontory of Attica. Cicero, Letters to Atticus, bk. 5, ltr. 12.

=Zosteria=, a surname of Minerva. She had two statues under that name in the city of Thebes, in Bœotia. The word signified girt, or armed for battle, words synonymous among the ancients. Pausanias, bk. 9, ch. 17.――Homer, Iliad, bk. 2, li. 478; bk. 11, li. 15.

=Zotale=, a place near Antiochia in Margiana, where the Margus was divided into small streams. Pliny, bk. 6, ch. 16.

=Zothraustes=, a lawgiver among the Arimaspi. Diodorus.

=Zuchis=, a lake to the east of the Syrtis Minor, with a town of the same name, famous for a purple dye, and salt-fish. Strabo, bk. 17.

=Zygantes=, a people of Africa.

=Zygia=, a surname of Juno, because she presided over marriage (a ζευγνυμι jungo). She is the same as the Pronuba of the Latins. Pindar.――Pollux, bk. 3, ch. 3.

=Zygii=, a savage nation at the north of Colchis. Strabo, bk. 11.

=Zygopŏlis=, a town of Cappadocia, on the borders of Colchis. Strabo, bk. 12.

=Zygrītæ=, a nation of Libya.

APPENDIX OF TABLES

GRECIAN MEASURES OF LENGTH REDUCED TO

English paces. ft. in. dec. Dactylus or Digit 0 0 0 7554¹¹⁄₁₆ 4 Doron 0 0 3 0218¾ 10 2½ Lichas 0 0 4 5546⅞ 11 2¾ 1¹⁄₁₀ Orthodoron 0 0 8 3101⁹⁄₁₆ 12 3 1⅕ 1¹⁄₁₁ Spithame 0 0 9 0656¼ 16 4 1⅗ 5¹⁄₁₁ 1⅓ Foot 0 1 0 0875 18 4½ 1⅘ 1⁷⁄₁₁ 1½ 1⅛ Cubit (πυγμη) 0 1 1 5984⅜ 20 5 2 1⁹⁄₁₁ 1⅔ 1¼ 1½ Pygon 0 1 3 1093⅜ 24 6 2⅖ 2²⁄₁₁ 2 1½ 1⅓ 1⅕ Larger Cubit (πηχυς) 0 1 6 13125 96 24 9⅖ 8⁸⁄₁₁ 8 6 5⅓ 4⅕ 4 Pace (οργυια) 0 6 0 525 9600 2400 960 872⁸⁄₁₁ 800 600 533½ 480 400 100 Stadium 100 4 4 5 76800 19200 7680 6981⁹⁄₁₁ 6400 4800 4266⅔ 3840 3200 800 8 Milion 805 5 0 0

ROMAN MEASURES OF LENGTH REDUCED TO

English paces. ft. in. dec. Digitus transversus 0 0 0 725¼ 1⅓ Unica 0 0 0 967 4 3 Palmus minor 0 0 2 901 16 12 4 Pes 0 0 11 604 20 15 5 1¼ Palmpipes 0 1 2 505 24 18 6 1½ 1⅕ Cubitus 0 1 5 406 40 30 10 2½ 2 1 Gradus 0 2 5 01 80 60 20 5 4 3⅓ 2 Passus 0 4 10 02 10000 7500 2500 625 500 416⅔ 250 125 Stadium 120 4 4 5 80000 60000 20000 5000 4000 3333⅓ 2000 1000 8 Milliare 967 0 0 0

The Grecian square measures were the plethron, or acre, containing 1444, as some say, or as others report, 10,000 square feet; the aroura, which was half the plethron. The aroura of the Egyptians was the square of 100 cubits.

The Roman square measure was the jugerum, which, like their libra and their as, was divided into twelve parts called unciæ, as the following table shows:――

Square English Square Square Unciæ. feet. Scruples. roods. poles. feet. 1 As or 12 28800 288 2 18 250,05 ¹¹⁄₁₂ Deunx 11 26400 264 2 10 183,85 ⅚ Dextans 10 24000 240 2 2 117,64 ¾ Dodrans 9 21600 216 1 34 51,42 ⅔ Bes 8 19200 192 1 25 257,46 ⁷⁄₁₂ Septunx 7 16800 168 1 17 191,25 ½ Semis 6 14400 144 1 9 125,03 ⁵⁄₁₂ Quincunx 5 12000 120 1 1 58,82 ⅓ Triens 4 9600 96 0 32 264,85 ¼ Quadrans 3 7200 72 0 24 198,64 ⅙ Sextans 2 4800 48 0 16 132,43 ¹⁄₁₂ Uncia 1 2400 24 0 8 66,21

N.B. The Actus Major was 14,400 square feet, equal to a Semis. The Clima was 3600 square feet, equal to a sescuncia, or an uncia and a half, and the actus minimus was equal to a sextans.

The Roman as or æs was called so because it was made of brass.

ATTIC MEASURES OF CAPACITY FOR THINGS LIQUID, REDUCED TO THE ENGLISH WINE MEASURE.

sol. gals. pts. in. dec. Cochlearion 0 ¹⁄₁₂₀ 0 0356⁵⁄₁₂ 2 Cheme 0 ¹⁄₆₀ 0 0712⅝ 2½ 1¼ Mystron 0 ¹⁄₄₈ 0 089¹¹⁄₄₈ 5 2½ 2 Conche 0 ¹⁄₂₄ 0 178¹¹⁄₂₄ 10 5 4 2 Cyathus 0 ¹⁄₁₂ 0 356¹¹⁄₁₂ 15 7½ 6 3 1½ Oxybaphon 0 ⅛ 0 335⅜ 60 30 24 12 6 4 Cotyle 0 ½ 2 141½ 120 60 48 24 12 8 2 Xestes 0 1 4 283 720 360 388 144 72 48 12 6 Chous 0 6 25 698 8640 4320 3456 1728 864 576 144 72 12 Metretes 10 2 19 626

ROMAN MEASURES OF CAPACITY FOR THINGS LIQUID, REDUCED TO ENGLISH WINE MEASURE.

sol. gals. pts. in. dec. Ligula 0 ¹⁄₄₈ 0 117⁶⁄₁₂ 4 Cyathus 0 ¹⁄₁₂ 0 469⅔ 6 1½ Acetabulum 0 ⅛ 0 704½ 12 3 2 Quartarius 0 ¼ 1 409 24 6 4 2 Hemina 0 ½ 2 818 48 12 8 4 2 Sextarius 0 1 5 636 288 72 48 24 12 6 Congius 0 7 4 942 1152 288 192 96 48 24 4 Urna 3 4½ 5 33 2304 576 384 192 96 48 8 2 Amphora 7 1 10 66 46080 11520 7680 3840 1920 960 160 40 20 Culeus 143 3 11 095

N.B. The quadrantal is the same as the amphora. The Cadus, Congiarius, and Dolium denote no certain measure. The Romans divided the Sextarius, like the libra, into 12 equal parts, called Cyathi, and therefore their calices were called sextantes, quadrantes, trientes, &c., according to the number of cyathi which they contained.

ATTIC MEASURE OF CAPACITY FOR THINGS DRY, REDUCED TO ENGLISH CORN MEASURE.

sol. pecks. gals. pts. in. dec. Cochlearion 0 0 0 0 276⁷⁄₂₀ 1 Cyathus 0 0 0 2 763½ 15 1½ Oxybaphon 0 0 0 4 144¾ 60 6 4 Cotyle 0 0 0 16 579 120 12 8 2 Xestes 0 0 0 33 158 180 18 12 3 1½ Chœnix 0 0 1 15 705¾ 8040 864 576 144 72 48 Medimnus 4 0 6 3 501

N.B. Besides this Medimnus, which is the Medicus, there was a Medimnus Georgicus, equal to six Roman Modii.

ROMAN MEASURES OF CAPACITY FOR THINGS DRY, REDUCED TO ENGLISH CORN MEASURE.

sol. pecks. gals. pts. in. dec. Ligula 0 0 ¹⁄₄₈ 0 01 4 Cyathus 0 0 ¹⁄₁₂ 0 04 6 1½ Acetabulum 0 0 ⅛ 0 06 24 6 4 Hemina 0 0 ½ 0 24 48 12 8 2 Sextarius 0 0 1 0 48 384 96 64 16 8 Semimodius 0 1 0 3 84 768 192 128 32 16 2 Modius 1 0 0 7 68

THE MOST ANCIENT GRECIAN WEIGHTS, REDUCED TO ENGLISH TROY WEIGHT.

lb. oz. dwt. gr. dec. Drachma 0 0 6 2 ²²⁄₄₉ 100 Mina 1 1 0 4 ⁴⁴⁄₄₉ 6000 60 Talentum 65 0 12 5 ⁴³⁄₄₉

LESS ANCIENT GRECIAN AND ROMAN WEIGHTS, REDUCED TO ENGLISH TROY WEIGHT.

lb. oz. dwt. gr. dec. Lentes 0 0 0 0 ⁸⁵⁄₁₁₂ 4 Siliquæ 0 0 0 3 ¹⁄₂₈ 12 3 Obolus 0 0 0 9 ³⁄₂₈ 24 6 2 Scriptulum 0 0 0 18 ³⁄₁₄ 72 18 6 3 Drachma 0 0 2 6 ⁹⁄₁₄ 96 24 8 4 1⅓ Sextula 0 0 3 0 ⁶⁄₇ 144 36 12 6 2 1½ Sicilius 0 0 4 13 ²⁄₇ 192 48 16 8 2⅔ 2 1⅓ Duella 0 0 6 1 ⁵⁄₇ 576 144 48 24 8 6 4 3 Unica 0 0 18 5 ¹⁄₇ 6912 1728 576 288 96 72 48 36 12 Libra 0 10 18 13 ⁵⁄₇

N.B. The Roman ounce is the English avoirdupois ounce, which was anciently divided into seven denarii, and eight drachmæ, and as they reckoned the denarius equal to an Attic drachma, the Attic weights were one-eighth heavier than the correspondent weights among the Romans.

The Greeks divided their obolus into chalci and smaller proportions; some into six chalci, and every chalcus into seven smaller parts; and others divided into eight chalci, and each chalcus into eight parts.

THE GREATER WEIGHTS REDUCED TO ENGLISH TROY WEIGHT.

lb. oz. dwt. gr. Libra 0 10 18 13⁵⁄₇ 1¹⁄₂₄ Mina Attica communis 0 11 7 16²⁄₇ ⅓ 1⁷⁄₂₅ Mina Attica media 1 2 11 10²⁄₇ 62½ 60 46⅞ Talentum Atticum commune 56 11 0 17¹⁄₇

N.B. There was also another Attic talent which consisted of 80, or, according to some, of 100 minæ. It must, however, be remembered, that every mina contains 100 drachmæ, and every talent 60 minæ. The talents differ according to the different standard of their minæ and drachmæ, as the following table indicates:――

lb. oz. dwt. gr. The Mina Ægyptiaca } { 133⅓ } { 1 5 6 22²⁶⁄₄₉ Antiochica } Consists { 133⅓ } Equivalent { 1 5 6 22²⁶⁄₄₉ Cleopatræ } of Attic { } to English { Ptolemaica } drachmæ { 144 } troy { 1 6 14 16³²⁄₄₉ Alexandrina } { } weight { Dioscoridis } { 160 } { 1 8 16 7⁴¹⁄₄₉

The Talentum } { } { Ægyptiacum } { 80 } { 86 8 16 8 Antiochicum } Consists { 80 } Equivalent { 86 8 16 8 Ptolemaicum } of Attic { } to English { Cleop. } minæ { 86⅔ } troy { 93 11 11 0 Alexandriæ } { 96 } weight { 104 0 19 14 Insulanum } { 120 } { 130 1 4 12 Antiochiæ } { 360 } { 390 3 13 11

THE VALUE AND PROPORTION OF THE GRECIAN COINS.

£ s. d. q. Lepton 0 0 0 0³¹⁄₃₃₆ 7 Chalcus 0 0 0 0³¹⁄₄₈ 14 2 Dichalcus 0 0 0 1⁷⁄₂₄ 28 4 2 Hemiobolus 0 0 0 2⁷⁄₁₂ 56 8 4 2 Obolus 0 0 1 1⅙ 112 16 8 4 2 Diobolus 0 0 2 2⅓ 224 32 16 8 4 2 Tetrobolus 0 0 5 0⅔ 336 48 24 12 6 3 1½ Drachma 0 0 7 3 662 96 48 24 12 6 3 2 Didrachmon 0 1 3 2 1324 112 96 48 24 12 6 4 2 Tetradrachmon 0 2 7 0 1660 384 120 60 30 15 7½ 5 2½ 1¼ Pentadrachmon 0 3 2 3

N.B. The drachma, and the didrachmon, were silver, the others generally of brass. The tridrachmon, triobolus, &c., were sometimes coined. The drachma and the denarius are here supposed to be equal, though often the former exceeded in weight.

The gold coin among the Greeks was the stater aureus, which weighed two Attic drachmæ, or half the stater argenteus, and was worth 25 Attic drachmæ, of silver, or in £ s. d. English money 0 16 1¾ Or according to the proportion of gold to silver, at present 1 0 9 The Stater Cyzicenus exchanged for 28 Attic drachmæ, or 0 18 1 The Stater Philippi and Stater Alexandri were of the same value. The Stater Daricus, according to Josephus, was worth 50 Attic drachmæ, or 1 12 3½ The Stater Cræsi was of the same value.

THE VALUE AND PROPORTION OF THE ROMAN COINS.

£ s. d. q. Terentius 0 0 0 0⁷⁷⁵⁄₁₀₀₀ 2 Sembella 0 0 0 1¹¹⁄₂₀ 4 2 Libella, or As 0 0 0 3¹⁄₁₀ 10 5 2½ Sestertius 0 0 1 3¾ 20 10 5 2 Quinarius, or Victoriatus 0 0 3 3½ 40 20 10 4 2 Denarius 0 0 7 3

N.B. The denarius, victoriatus, sestertius, and sometimes the as, were of silver, the others were of brass. The triens, sextans, uncia, sextula, and dupondius, were sometimes coined of brass.

THE COMPUTATION OF MONEY AMONG THE GREEKS WAS BY DRACHMÆ, AS FOLLOWS:――

£ s. d. q. 1 Drachma 0 0 7 3 10 Drachmæ 0 6 5 2 100 Drachmæ equal to a Mina 3 4 7 10 Minæ 32 5 10 60 Minæ equal to a Talent 193 15 0 10 Talents 1937 10 0 100 Talents 19375 0 0

AMONG THE ROMANS THE COMPUTATION WAS BY SESTERTII NUMMI, AS――

£ s. d. q. A Sestertius 0 0 0 1½ 10 Sestertii 0 1 7 1¾ 1000 Sestertii equal to one Sestertium 8 1 5 2 10 Sestertia 80 14 7 0 100 Sestertia 807 5 10 0 1000 Sestertia or decies Sestertiûm (centies und.) or _decies centena millia nummûm_ 8072 18 4 0 Centies vel centies H. S. 80729 3 4 0 Millies H. S. 807291 13 4 0 Millies centies H. S. 888020 16 8 0

The Mina Syria } { 25 Ptolemaica } { 33⅓ Antiochica } Was { 100 Euboica } worth { 100 Babylonica } of { 116 Attica major } Attic { 133⅓ Tyria } Drachmæ { 133⅓ Æginæa } { 166⅔ Rhodia } { 166⅔

The Talentum Syrium } { 15 Ptolemaicum } { 20 Antiochicum } Was { 60 Euboicum } worth { 60 Babylonicum } of { 70 Atticum majus } Attic { 80 Tyrium } minæ { 80 Æginæum } { 100 Rhodium } { 100 Ægyptium } { 80

The Roman gold coin was the aureus, which generally weighed double the denarius. £ s. d. q. The value of it was, according to the first proportion of coinage mentioned by Pliny 1 4 3 3 Or according to the proportion of coinage at present 1 0 9 According to the decuple proportion mentioned by Livy and Julius Pollux 0 12 11 According to Tacitus, as it was afterwards valued and exchanged for 25 denarii 0 16 1 3

The value of coin underwent many changes during the existence of the Roman republic, and stood, as Pliny mentions it, as follows:

In the reign of Servius } The as { 1 pound A.U.C. 490 } weighed { 2 ounces A.U.C. 537 } of brass { 1 ounce A.U.C. 586 } { ½ ounce A.U.C. 485 } The denarius { 10 asses A.U.C. 537 } exchanged for { 16 asses A.U.C. 547, a scruple of gold was worth 20 sestertii; coined afterwards of the pound of gold, 20 _denarii aurei_; and in Nero’s reign of the pound of gold, 45 denarii aurei.

N. B. In the above tables of money, it is to be observed that the silver has been reckoned at 5_s._ and gold at _£_4 per ounce.

A talent of gold among the Jews was worth _£_5475, and one of silver _£_342 3_s._ 9_d._

The greater talent of the Romans was worth _£_99 6_s._ 8_d._, and the less _£_60, or, as some say, _£_75, and the great talent _£_1125.

The value of the Roman pondo is not precisely known, though some suppose it equivalent to an Attic mina, or _£_3 4_s._ 7_d._ It is used indifferently by ancient authors for æs, as, and mina, and was supposed to consist of 100, or 96 denarii. It is to be observed, that whenever the word pondo is joined to numbers, it signifies the same as libra, but when it is used with other words it bears the same signification as the σταθμη or ὁλκη of the Greeks, or the pondus of the Latins. The word nummus, when mentioned as a sum of money, was supposed to be equivalent to a sestertius, and though the words sestertius and nummus are often joined together, yet their signification is the same, and they intimate no more than either does separately.

We must particularly remark, that in reckoning their sesterces, the Romans had an art which can be rendered intelligible by the observation of these rules: If a numeral noun agreed in case, gender, and number with the word sestertius, it denoted precisely as many sestertii; as for example, decem sestertii was ten sestertii. If a numeral noun of another case was joined with the genitive plural of sestertius, it denoted so many thousand, as decem sestertiûm signifies so many thousand sestertii. If the adverb numeral was joined, it denoted so many hundred thousand, as decies sestertiûm was ten hundred thousand sesterii. If the numeral adverb was put by itself, the signification was not altered; therefore decies, vigesies, &c., in a sentence, imply as many hundred thousand sestertii, or hundred sestertia, as if the word sestertiûm was expressed.

The denarius, which was the chief silver coin used at Rome, received its name because it contained denos æris, ten asses.

The as is often expressed by an Lucius because it was one pound weight; and the sestertius, because it was equivalent to two pounds and a half of brass, is frequently denoted by H. S. or L. L. S.

The Roman libra contained twelve ounces of silver, and was worth about _£_3, sterling.

The Roman talent was supposed to be equivalent to twenty-four sestertia, or nearly _£_193 sterling.

THE END.

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