III. COLUMBIAN LANGUAGES…

III. COLUMBIAN LANGUAGES

THE HAIDAH, ITS CONSTRUCTION AND CONJUGATION -- THE NASS LANGUAGE AND ITS DIALECTS -- BELLACOOLA AND CHIMSYAN COMPARISONS -- THE NOOTKA LANGUAGES OF VANCOUVER ISLAND -- NANAIMO TEN COMMANDMENTS AND LORD'S PRAYER -- AZTEC ANALOGIES -- FRASER AND THOMPSON RIVER LANGUAGES -- THE NEETLAKAPAMUCK GRAMMAR AND LORD'S PRAYER -- SOUND LANGUAGES -- THE SALISH FAMILY -- FLATHEAD GRAMMAR AND LORD'S PRAYER -- THE KOOTENAI -- THE SAHAPTIN FAMILY -- NEZ PERCÉ GRAMMAR -- YAKIMA LORD'S PRAYER -- SAHAPTIN STATE AND SLAVE LANGUAGES -- THE CHINOOK FAMILY -- GRAMMAR OF THE CHINOOK LANGUAGE -- AZTEC AFFINITIES -- THE CHINOOK JARGON.

Returned from the south, whither we were led by the Apache branch of the Tinneh family, let us examine the languages of our Columbian group. Next along the seaboard, south of the Thlinkeets, are the Haidahs and Kaiganies, whose language is spoken on the southern part of the Prince of Wales Archipelago, and on Queen Charlotte Island. This language is sometimes called Haidah, and sometimes Kaiganie,[III'-1] and although many tribes belong to these nations, I find among them no dialectic difference, except that between the Haidahs of Queen Charlotte Island and the Kaiganies of the Prince of Wales Archipelago.

Marchand claims that this language is understood by the Thlinkeets and other eastern tribes;[III'-2] Capt. Dixon thinks it is a distinct and separate tongue;[III'-3] Scouler makes one large northern family, which he says spreads "from the Arctic Circle to the northern extremity of Quadra and Vancouver's Island;"[III'-4] Radloff's comparative researches incline him to the opinion that, although there may be a few similarities in words between this and other idioms, as, for example, the Thlinkeet, they are yet insufficient to prove identity.[III'-5]

[Sidenote: THE HAIDAH AND KAIGANIE.]

Some of those who have heard the Haidahs speak, say that their language is uncouth and difficult to articulate, abounding in consonants, and with a labial and dental pronunciation;[III'-6] others affirm that it does not possess the hard aspirated consonants so frequently found in the Thlinkeet language, that it is richer in vowels and softer, though, like the Thlinkeet, it is wanting in labials, in the dental r, and in the guttural l, while the Haidah has the clear l.[III'-7] The Haidah language lacks the letters b, p, f, and the dental r; neither its substantives nor adjectives have any gender, and to express the feminine the word dshetta, woman, is added. Itlk dshetta, wife of the chief; ha, dog; ha dshetta, slut. Neither is there any particular expression for the plural. Kjéganei, my house; kjeganei tljönxl lágun, my three houses are good; tön dsha, thy wife; tön dsha s'töng hána, thy two wives are both pretty. Two exceptions have been mentioned;--gjeà, mast; gjeàng hlöhnhl, three masts; hätä, man (homo); hátei, men. Substantives are not declined, but remain unchanged in all cases. Hantl, water; hall hantl, bring water; tlu, boat; tlu tön gistasa, I give thee a boat; katt, deer; katt hutsu ziggin, I have a small deer; slei, hand; hall tön slei, give thy hand. Pronouns are either distinct words, or are prefixes to substantives and verbs. Prefixes also denote the possessive case. To the former class belong htlä, I; and tonga, thou. To the latter belong te, ti, de, di, zi, kje, teea, tl, t, mine, all of which are used in the first person singular. Second person singular, töng, tön, ten, thine; second person plural, töllöng, yours.

Of the conjugation of the verb, the following may serve as example: Present indicative--I am hungry, tekutke; thou art hungry, töng khúttus; he is hungry, law khúttung; we are hungry, itl khúttung; you are hungry, töllöng khúttus; they are hungry, únnas khúttung. Root words are not of great length. The larger part are words of one or two syllables; some are of three or four, but these are rare; nevertheless, words may be agglutinated to any length.[III'-8]

The Nass language is spoken with very slight differences by the Nass, Hailtzas, and Sebassas, who dwell around Observatory Inlet, Millbank Sound, and the islands of Pitt Archipelago, respectively. Harsh sounds and gutturals predominate.[III'-9] The personal pronouns are--nookwa, I; cusho, thou; nesho, mine; cusho, thine; nookwintok, we; kycusko, ye; caigh qua, he; elee caigh qua, they.[III'-10]

Dunn gives a few sentences, which I insert as specimens: whealey lowels kussú, where are you going? howmithlem pooquialla iltsouk, do you understand our language? lowels, cah cúnter cah míllah, go shoot deer.[III'-11]

[Sidenote: BELLACOOLA AND CHIMSYAN.]

In the immediate vicinity of the Nass are two other languages, the Bellacoola and Chimsyan, of which hardly anything is known. Tolmie supposes the Chimsyan to be related to the Tacully language, but Buschmann, on comparing the vocabularies, could not find the affinity. The Rev. Mr Good informs me that the Chimsyan tongue extends inland as far as Fraser and Stuart Lake.[III'-12] Compare the following words:

BELLACOOLA. CHIMSYAN.

I untsh newyo Thou eno noone Mine untshil nawhawae We unshto neuhami Ye enooh neumi He teechtil taigh qua They teech til tin no mo taight queet Man tlimsdah tzib Knife teech tah ilth-a-peesh Water kull ah use Stone quils tolomick loap Sun skin nuch kium uk Moon tlooki kium ugum aat uk Good teeah aam Bad ushee atuchk

The Hailtzas and the Bellacoolas have the following words in common;--watz, dog; poe, halibut; tlah, black bear; nun, grizzly bear.[III'-13]

[Sidenote: LANGUAGES OF VANCOUVER ISLAND.]

On Vancouver Island a multitude of dialects are spoken, and various and contradictory classifications have been made, none of which, in my opinion, are correct. From the evidence, dialetic diversity prevails to such an extent that almost every petty tribe has its idiom; so that, even if affinities do exist, sufficient to justify a classification into languages and dialects, so meagre is our knowledge that it is impossible in many instances to say which are languages and which dialects. Hence in my classification I cannot do better than to make of the Nootka one language, and give a list of the dialects on the island, with all the information concerning them at my command. Four languages of the island--the Quackoll in the north, the Cowichin on the east, the Clallam at the south, and the Makah on the west, are said to be "totally distinct from each other, both in sound, formation, and modes of expression." The one last mentioned is said to bear some affinity to the language spoken at the mouth of the Columbia River,[III'-14] and is called by Sproat the Aht language, for which he claims in like manner that it "can be traced through all the tribes on the ocean coast, as far south as the mouth of the Columbia." The Comux, which people he locates on the east coast between the Cowichins and Quackolls, migrated thither, he says, from the main land, and the tribes "do not readily understand one another's language;" from all of which we may infer that in reality there is only one language, of which these four are the chief dialects.[III'-15] Yet this is partially contradicted by Grant, who affirms that the Cowichins and Clallams can communicate with each other, though not very easily, but that the Makahs and Quackolls cannot converse with each other or with any of the other nations.[III'-16] Another authority, who certainly ought to be entitled to an opinion, having been a captive among these nations for some years, also intimates that in reality there was only one language dominant on the island. After enumerating the different tribes he concludes; "all of whom speak the same language. But the Newchemass who come from a great way Northward, and from some distance inland, speak quite a different language, although it is well understood by those of Nootka."[III'-17]

National differences appear to consist more in pronunciation than in grammatical construction. Thus the articulation of the Klaizzahts is hoarser and more guttural than that of the people of Nootka Sound.[III'-18] Dialectic differences sometimes go so far that the several bands of the same tribe find difficulty in making themselves understood; as for instance the Nitinaht tribes when conversing with one another, have frequently to repeat their sentences differently accented to make them intelligible. The chief peculiarity of the Nitinaht dialect is the transmutation of the letters m and n, which are in universal use throughout the island, for which it substitutes b and d. Thus for mamook, to work, the Nitinahts say baboik; nismah, country, they pronounce dissibach, and so on.[III'-19]

As compared with that of the Thlinkeets, the Nootka language is neither harsh nor disagreeable. Its most curious feature is the predominance of labials and dentals over gutturals. The Nootkas possess fine oratorical powers, lending assistance to their words by shaking their head, gesticulating forcibly, and even jumping at each other. A singular sound, and one which it is hardly possible to express by any combination of letters, happens in many of their words. Spreading the corners of the mouth to their widest extent, and raising the point of the tongue against the palate, they expel the air from the sides of the mouth, at the same time bringing the tongue down strongly, which obviously produces a sound altogether foreign to the English vocabulary. Captain Cook says of this sound, "it is formed, in a particular manner, by clashing the tongue partly against the roof of the mouth, with considerable force; and may be compared to a very coarse or harsh method of lisping," and he attempts to give the sound by the letters lszthl. Many words end with this sound, and also with a tl, z, or ss;--as opulszthl, sun; onulszthl, moon; kahsheetl, dead; teeshcheetl, to throw a stone; kooomitz, a human skull; quahmiss, fish-roe. Captain Cook further remarks upon their language that it "can only be inferred, from their method of speaking, which is very slow and distinct, that it has few prepositions or conjunctions; and, as far as we could discover, is destitute of even a single interjection, to express admiration or surprize."[III'-20]

Furthermore, I may add, there is no case, nor gender, nor tense, and number is expressed only in the personal pronoun and in the inflection of verbs. In the first persons singular and plural, verbs end in a or mah; in the second persons, huk or ayts; and in the third persons, in mah, win, or utlma. Sometimes these endings go over to the adverb which accompanies the verb, and they are subject to phonetic rules, according to which syllables are sometimes changed or left out altogether. We have wik, not; and kumotop, to understand; wikahkumotop or wimmutomah, I do not understand; the latter mode being a change for the sake of euphony. Plurals, and particularly frequentative plurals, are expressed by duplication: as mahte or mahs, house; mahtmahs, all the houses. Different classes of words appear to have different terminals: for example, instruments end with ik--hukkaik, a knife; hissik, a saw. Colors end in uk or ook--eyyohquk, green; kistokkuk, blue; klayhook, purple; kleesook, white; toopkook, black. Hissit, red, forms an exception. Trees and plants end in pt--kowwhipt, seewhipt, ootsmupt, klakkupt, etc. Verbs end in shitl, shetl, and chitl, although some exceptions occur. Another distinctive ending is up--châtayup, to cut off with a knife; kââsup, to hurt or wound; hyyusatyup, to diminish; ashsup, to break a string or cord; quoyup, to break a stick, etc.[III'-21] As a specimen of the language, I give the first three of the Ten Commandments, and the Lord's Prayer, in the dialect of the Nanaimos.[III'-22]

[Sidenote: NANAIMO COMMANDMENTS.]

NUTSA.

Owa tonowa quinet ta eesaila tseetsel seeam, ohi tanca tseetsel seeam.

EESAILA.

Owa tanowa seeise ta seeathl sta ta stem nay quo tseetsel, sta ta stem aitna tomuck, e sta ta stem nay ta ka, kokoo taswa tseetsel seeam owa tanowa cappausom e stayweeil ta sta, ohi tanca tseetsel seeam. Towhat oyas kullstuck, tanca ouseete tanca quaquat e towhat ighstuck tanca e oyas shatlm tanswan squell oseete tanca igh lalamat.

TLEEUGH.

Owa tanowa heewaulim ta squish quo tseetsel seeam oseete tseetsel seeam quaquasaum towhat oyas sta.

TA KALHEM TA JESUKIT.

Saulth man nay quo tseetsel igh telneemelth oyas stlay stuck ta statsn squish. Tel-neemelth ohi stlay tanowa sthee seeam nay toumuck tomuck. Igh taswa mestiu shatlm ta squell aitna tomuck sta ta tseetsel mestiu. Tana quial e muck squial mistook ta saulth saulthan. Igh tanowa nahi tataeuk whawa telneemelth e ta saulth kull squiaxits sta telneemelth nahi tataeuk whunem toumuck mestiu kull squiaxits whawa telneemelth. Igh telneemelth owanam ethlkalth ta kull, igh tanowa awistuck etha igh. Ohi tanowa oonans sthee seeam, tanowa ohi sthee quamqum telneemelth ohi cappausom high quo tanowa oyas oyas. Amen.

From certain interpretations placed upon the ancient Aztec manuscripts, it was by some inferred that the origin of that people must be sought in the north; hence speculative philologists have, from time to time, discovered many fancied resemblances between the language of the aboriginal Mexicans and those of various northern nations. Thus, in the speech of the Nootkas, a distinct phonetic resemblance, and the frequent occurrence of the ending tl were sufficient evidence to Vater and others that a relationship exists between the Aztecs and the Nootkas. Prescott, following his predecessors, fell into the same error. Humboldt, although struck with the similarities mentioned, yet pronounced them different tongues,[III'-23] while Buschmann, who has examined the subject more than all others combined, denies all such relationship.[III'-24]

* * * * *

Coming over to the main land we find, for the most part, in each of the many inlets and canals a separate language. Between these languages, from perpetual intertribal intercourse, it is impossible to determine, in some instances, what relationship, if any, exists. Several of the languages of the island we find also on the main land adjacent. The Clallams are found on both sides of Juan de Fuca Straits; and nearly related to the Cowichins, who are found as well on the main land near the mouth of Fraser River as on the island, are the Noosdalums of Hood Canal, one language being but a dialect of the other.

[Sidenote: LANGUAGES OF BRITISH COLUMBIA.]

Respecting the languages spoken in the interior of British Columbia, the Rev. Mr Good, who has spent fifteen years among the inland nations, and who is fully conversant with their languages, gives me the following information: From Yale to Lillooet, on the Fraser River, thence from Bonaparte to Nicola River, the Neetlakapamuch, or Thompson River, language is spoken. From Douglas, along the Harrison River and lake, to its confluence with the Fraser, as far as Chilicothe, and again from Lillooet northward to Clinton, the Stlatelemuck, or Lillooet, language prevails. Next, from Bonaparte River northward to William Lake, to Shushwap Lake, around Lake Kamloops, and for some distance on the Thompson River, the Suwapamuck, or Shushwap, tongue prevails; and finally, from Nicola Lake to Kamloops, and southward as far as Columbia River, the Chitwout, or Similkameen, language is used. Mr Good further asserts that, although there are four distinct languages, they are nevertheless in some degree affiliated. From the same gentleman, I also obtained the following grammatical notes and specimens of the Neetlakapamuch tongue. Personal pronouns are--I, ens; thou, awee; he, cheneelt; we, nemeemult; you, aweepeeaps; they, chinkoast.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO GIVE.

PRESENT INDICATIVE.

I give, ens nahktinna | We give, nemeemult nahktam Thou givest, awee nahktatta | You give, aweepeeaps nahktattose He gives, cheneelt nahktass | They give, chinkvast nahkteeiks

IMPERFECT.

I gave, huinahktlam

FIRST FUTURE.

I shall give, huinahkchin

IMPERATIVE.

Give me, nahkchams | Give us, nahkteea

Mamans inserted in a word, signifies a desire to do a thing; thus, winaskin means to go; and winasmamankin, I am wishing to go. The syllable weltin, affixed to a word, expresses that a thing has been done effectively;--tlokhtinnaweltin, I have fastened it well, or thoroughly. Tata is a negative preposition.

THE LORD'S PRAYER.

Takamote nemeemult skatzazact whohakn nil Our Father who art in

kakhtomew. Axseeas chutam clas squest awee. Eyah heaven. Good to be done the name thine. Good

huntohs stakums asait cunamah axclahaks swonakum make haste all men come truly

eah tuksmite Jesu Cree huntoseamal. Awee kaseah good children of Jesus Christ make haste. Thy will

eah ah chuwo naanatomew, clah seeatahah L'angels good done on earth, as the angels

archkhwamo incheah nilkahtomew. Takamose nuk do there heaven. All and

stakum a tseetlekut nahkteea nemeemult stakums as every day give us all our

skhlayans. Altla quonquonstyea nemeenult takamote food. And forgive us all

nemeemult outkest, tseeah nemeemult quonquonstama our evil, as we forgive

takamote tooal saitcunama aks weetsikteese tekest whoa all of men who accomplish any evil to

nemeemult. Atahmose tah hoshaman as masteel us. Never let the evil one lead

nemeemult axkhokestumtum a quonteese akest. Kamult us to wish to lay hold of any evil. But

akklokpistyip nemeemult takamote too a kest wilkakow. deliver us all that is evil far from us.

Shutenmeenwawee takamose atomew. Shutenmeenwawee Thine all the world. Thine

takamose azozoht. Shutenmeenwawee takamose all strength. Thine all

asyameet. Taeah asklakameemus astinansouse, worship. Good evermore to come,

asklakameemus astinansouse. Axseahs. evermore to come. Amen.

[Sidenote: PUGET SOUND DIALECTS.]

Proceeding southward to Puget Sound, we have the Shimiahmoo, Nooksak, Lummi, Samish, Snohomish, and others; and around Cape Flattery, the Classet. The Makah, Classet, or Klaizzaht, I have spoken of already, in connection with the language of Vancouver Island, and it also appears that the Clallam, S'klalum, or as they call themselves, Nusklaiyum, is also connected with the Vancouver Island language.[III'-25] It is probably the same which Dr Scouler has called the Noosdalum. The Lummi, or Nukhlumi, and the Shimiahmoo have also some affinity with the Sanetch dialect of Vancouver Island, and the languages of the Skagits and Samish approach that of the Nisquallies. Yet while the Clallam and Lummi show certain affinities to the Nootka dialect, they nevertheless clearly belong to the Salish, or Flathead family.[III'-26]

* * * * *

[Sidenote: SALISH DIALECTS.]

We now come to the great interior Salish family, although I shall have occasion again to refer to the coast language in this vicinity. The northernmost Salish language is the Shushwap, or Atnah, which approaches near to its neighbor the Salish proper;[III'-27] then there are the Kullespelm, or Pend d'Oreille, the Spokane, the Soaiatlpi, and the Okanagan, which with others spoken on the Columbia show close affinities.

The Salish proper, or Flathead, is harsh and guttural. The letters b, d, f, r, v, do not exist in this language. The plural of substantives is formed in different ways: first, by duplicating the root--skoi, mother; skoikoi, mothers: second by duplicating and dropping a vowel from the root--skaltmigu, man; sklkaltmigu, men; esmòck, mountain; esmòkmck, mountains: third, by duplicating a consonant in the middle of the word--skòlchemùs, eyelid; skòlchammùs, eyelids: fourth, by prefixing the syllable ul--nackoèmen, thief; ulnakoèmen, thieves: and lastly there are divers formations, as es´schíte, tree; szlzlíl, trees, forest; s´m´èm, woman (mulier); pèlplgui, women. Diminutives are expressed by placing l before the root, as, s´m´èm, woman; slm´èm, small woman; lùk, wood; llùl´lk, a small piece of wood. Augmentatives are formed by prefixing the syllable kutn, or kuti, when the word commences with an s or l, thus, skagae, horse; kuti-skagae, a great horse; sm´ot, smoke; kuti-sm´ot, a great smoke. There are pronouns, personal, possessive, demonstrative, relative, interrogative, and indefinite. According to Mengarini the personal pronoun has two forms, absolute and copulative, the exact meaning attached to these terms not being explained.

ABSOLUTE. COPULATIVE.

I koie ko Thou anúi ku He zuilz We kaémpile kae You mpilèpstemp p, or mp They zni´ilz

As examples of the others there are possessives--mine, in; thine, an; his, s; ours, kao; yours, mp; theirs, s: demonstratives--this, iè; that, zi: interrogative--who, suèt: and indefinite--some one, chnáksi.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO BE ANGRY.

PRESENT INDICATIVE.

I am angry, tnes aimt-i | We are angry, kaes aimt-i Thou art angry, kues aimt-i | You are angry, pes aimt-i He is angry, es aimt-i | They are angry, es afimt-i

PERFECT.

I have been angry, tn-aimt or tnes aimt

FIRST FUTURE.

I shall be angry, nem tn aimt

IMPERATIVE.

Be angry, aimt sch

PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE.

If I be angry, tiks aimt-i | If we be angry, kaeks aímt-i If thou be angry, kuks aimt-i | If you be angry, pks aimt-i If he be angry, ks aimt-i | If they be angry, ks aíimt-i

IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE.

If I were angry, k neu tn aimt

OPTATIVE.

If I might be angry, komi tn aimt

Following is a Lord's Prayer, the nationality not given:

Kae l'eu l's'chichmáskat u ku l'zii, asku èst kuks Our father in heaven who liveth, thy name of thee

gamènchltm; ku kl chèltich s esià sp'us; aszntèls ks be loved; thou be Lord of all hearts; thy will

kólli iè l stóligu, ezgail l's'chichmáskat. Kae guizlilt be done this on earth, as in heaven. Us give to-day

iè tlgoa lu kaesiapzínm. Kaelkolgoèllilt lu kae gulguílt what we need. Us forgive our debts,

ezgail lu tkaempilè kaes kolgoelltm, lu e épl gulguílt l as we forgive (those) who have debts with

kaempilè. Kae olkschílilt ta ka keskuèstm lu tèie; u kai us. Us assist not at any time receive evil; but us

gulguillilt lu tel teié. Komi ezgail. preserve uninjured from evil. Be it so.[III'-28]

The above is taken from the grammar of Mengarini, written in Latin; following is a Lord's Prayer of the Pend d'Oreilles, from Father De Smet, who wrote in French:

Kyleeyou, Itchitchemask, askwees kowaaskshamenshem Our father of heaven, that your name be respected

ailetzemilkou yeelskyloog; ntziezie telletzia spoo by all the earth; reign in all the

oez. Assinteels astskole, yelstoloeg etzageel hearts. That your will be done on earth as also

Itchichemask. Hoogwitzilt yettilgwa lokaitssia petzim. in heaven. Give us now all our necessaries.

Knwaasksmeemiltem klotayie kloitskeyen etzageel Forgive us the evil which we have done, as

kaitsskolgwelem klotoiye kloitskwen klielskyloog. we forgive (the evil) to those who us have offended.

Koaxalock shitem takaakskwentem klotaiye; Accord to us assistance to evade evil;

kowaaksgweeltem klotaiye. Komieetzegeel. but deliver us from evil. So be it.[III'-29]

Also belonging to this family are the languages spoken by the Skitsuish, Pisquouse, Nsietshaws, Nisquallies, and Chehalis. The Nsietshaw differs more than the others from the Salish proper, which is the stock language of this family, and particularly in not possessing any labials; the letters m and b being changed to w, and p to h. Thus, in the Chehalis and Nisqually languages, we have, numan, son; tomokh, earth; pansototsi, winter; which, in the Nsietshaw, are pronounced respectively, nuwon, tawekh and hansototsi. The Chehalis is spoken in three dialects, the Chehalis proper, the Quaiantl, and the Queniauitl.[III'-30]

The languages of the Salish Family, particularly that of the Chehalis, are rich in words, by means of which everything coming within their knowledge may find expression; they are not easily acquired by strangers; it is difficult for the different nations and tribes to make themselves understood to one another. This is owing principally to the many localisms in vogue among them, of which there is a good specimen in the Chehalis language. Thus, tolneuch means west-wind, off shore, toward the sea, or to the west. Now, if the Chehalis are leaving the shore in a canoe, and one of them wants to tell his mate to put her head off shore, he will say tolneuch, but if in a hurry, neuch neuch. Claathlum signifies east-wind, also ashore; this they transpose into clath clath.[III'-31] The Clallum and Lummi languages have another peculiarity, which is a certain nasal sound at the commencement and ending of words like a strong nasal ns; also a broad a sound as in far, path. The sounds of the letters v, r, z, are wanting.[III'-32] The frequently occurring ending tl has also led to speculation, and to a search for Aztec affinities among these languages, but nothing except this phonetic similarity has been discovered. This tl ending is very common. Swan says that, "sometimes they will, as if for amusement, end all their words with tl; and the effect is ludicrous to hear three or four talking at the same time, with this singular sound, like so many sitting hens.'[III'-33] East of the Salish, the Kitunaha, Kootenai, or Coutanie language is spoken. Authorities differ widely in describing this language. Parker calls it "open and sonorous, and free from gutturals, which are common in the language of the surrounding tribes;" while Capt. Palliser affirms that it is "most guttural and unpronounceable by a European, every word appearing to be brought from their lowest extremities with difficulty."[III'-34] The following Lord's Prayer, taken by a Frenchman will give a better idea of the language than any description:

Katitoe naitle naite, akiklenais zedabitskinne Our father, who art in heaven, may thy name be great

wilkane. Ninshalinne oshemake kapaik akaitlainam. and honored. Be thou the master of all hearts.

Inshazetluité younoamake yekakaekinaitte. May thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven.

Komnakaike logenie niggenawaishne naiosaem miaitéke. Grant us this day all our wants.

Kekepaime nekoetjekoetleaitle ixzeai, iyakaikakaaike Forgive us all the evil we have done, as we forgive

iyazeaikinawash kokakipaimenaitle. Amatikezawes all the evil done unto us. Strengthen us

itchkestshimmekakkowêlle akatakzen. Shaeykiakakaaike. against all evil, and deliver us from it. May it be so.[III'-35]

[Sidenote: SAHAPTIN LANGUAGES.]

The languages of the Sahaptin family are spoken along the Lewis and Snake Rivers and their tributaries, as far as the foot of the Rocky Mountains. The Walla Walla, Palouse, Yakima, Kliketat, and Sahaptin proper, some of them widely divergent from the mother tongue, are of this family.[III'-36] The Walla Walla differs from the Sahaptin proper not more than the Portuguese from the Spanish. Father Pandosy made a grammar of the Yakima language, under which he ranges the whole Sahaptin family, dividing it into dialects, as the Walla Walla, the Tairtla, the Roilroilpam, or Kliketat, and the Palouse.[III'-37]

In the Nez Percé language, the following letters only are found: h, k, l, m, n, p, s, t, w, a, e, i, o, u, but the missionaries having introduced some new words, it was found necessary to add b, d, f, g, v, z. Agglutination is carried to a great length, and long words are very frequent. In fact, wherever a sentence can be expressed by joining one word to another, it is done, leaving out letters in places, for the sake of euphony. The following is a fair illustration: hitautualawihnankauna, he traveled past in a rainy night. Analysed, hi expresses the third person singular; tau a thing done at night; tuala, something done in the rain; wihnan, to travel on foot; kau is derived from the verb kokauna, to pass by; na expresses the indicative mood, aorist tense, direction from the speaker. The plural of substantives is formed by duplicating the first syllable: pitin, girl; pipitin, girls. Or when the word commences with a vowel, the vowel is sometimes repeated: atwai, old woman; aatwai, old women. Exceptions to this rule are made in words expressing family relations, the prefix ma being employed in such cases, as pika, mother; pikama, mothers. If p terminates the word, it is omitted, as askap, plural askama. To express gender, the words hama, male, and aiat, female, are employed, but the substantive remains unchanged. Nouns are declined either by changing their terminals, or by affixes:

Nom. a house init Gen. of a house ininm Acc. house inina

1st Dat. to or for a house initph 2d Dat. in on, or upon a house initpa

1st Abl. with a house initki 2d Abl. from a house initpkinih 3d Abl. for the purpose of a house initain

Comparison--tahs, good; tahs kanmakanm, better; tahsni, best. Personal prounouns--in, I; im, thou; ipi, he, or she; nun, we; ima, ye; imma, they. Of the verb numerous variations are made. They are divided into three classes, neuter, active transitive, and active intransitive. The two neuter verbs are wash, to be; and witsasha, to become. Active intransitive verbs cannot be followed by any accusative.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO BE.

PRESENT INDICATIVE.

DIRECTION FROM. DIRECTION TOWARDS.

I am, in wash Thou art, im a wash im a wam He is, it is his, ipi hiwash, ipnim ush ipi hiwam We are, nun washih You are, ima ath washih ima ath washinm They are, it is theirs, imma hiushih, imman aushih imma hiushinm

RECENT PAST TENSE.

I have just been, waka wamka Thou hast just been, a waka a wamka He has just been, it has just been his, hiwaka, awaka hiwamka We have just been, washeka washinmka You have just been, ath washeka ath washinmka They have just been, it has just been theirs, kinsheka, ausheka hiushinmka [III'-38]

[Sidenote: YAKIMA, WALLA WALLA, AND PALOUSE.]

The following grammatical notes will serve to illustrate the Yakima and some of the other languages of the Sahaptin family.

SINGULAR.

Nom. the horse kussi-nan Gen. of the horse kussi-nmi Dat. to the horse kussi-ow Acc. the horse kussi-nan Voc. O horse na-kussi Abl. for the horse kussi-ei

PLURAL.

Nom. the horses kussi-ma Gen. of the horses kussi-ma mi Dat. to the horses kussi-ma-miow Acc. the horses kussi ma-man Voc. O horses na-kussi-ma Abl. for the horses kussi-ma-miei

In the Palouse and Walla Walla languages the affix nan is changed into na. Personal pronouns--I, ink, nes, nesh, or sh; of me, enmi; to me, enmiow; me, inak; for me, enmiei; we, namak, natés, nanam, aatés, or namtk; of us, néémi; to us néémiow; us, némanak; for us, néémiei. The Walla Wallas leaves off the k from the affix ak; thus, instead of inak, me, they say ina, and instead of namak, we, nama.

YAKIMA. WALLA WALLA AND PALOUSE.

He penk penk Of him pin-mink pinmin To him pin-miwk pinmiow Him pin-nim pinminnan For Him pin-mikaiei pinmiei They pmak pma Of Them pe-mink pamin To them pe-miwk pamiwk Them pe-minak pamanak For them pe-mikaiei pamikaiei

In one dialect the terminal ak is changed into ei.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO HAVE.

PRESENT INDICATIVE.

I have, nesh wa, or wash nesh Thou hast, mesh wa, or wash mesh He has, penk awa, or pinmink awa We have, natesh wa, or wash natesh You have, matesh wa, or wash matesh. They have, pa wa, or pemink awa

PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT.

I had, or have had, nesh wacha

FIRST FUTURE.

I shall have, nesh wata

As a specimen of agglutination there is the word ipinashapatawtrahliktamawarsha, he himself makes night disagreeably tiresome long wait; that is, he keeps one long waiting for him at night.

YAKIMA LORD'S PRAYER.

Neemi Psht, imk nam wamsh Roiemich-nik; Our Father, thou who art high on the side (heaven);

shir nam 'manak p'a t-maknani tarnei wanicht; shir well thou they (indef.) should respect the name; well

ewianawitarnei emink miawarwit; shir nammanak pa should arrive thy chieftainship; well thee they

twanenitarnei, ichinak techampa, tenma, prw, should follow here earth (on) inhabitants (the) will

amakwsrimmanak pa twanenishamsh roiemipama thou as thyself they follow high of the (heaven)

tenma. Nemanak nim t-kwatak kwalissim maisr inhabitants (the). Our (us) give us food always to-morrow

maisr. Nemanak laknanim chélwitit: aateskwsri to-morrow. Our (us) forget sins: us as

namak t'normaman laknánisha chélwitit anakwnkink we others forget sins have by which

neémiow pa chelwitia. R-t-to anianim nemanak us have offended. Strong make our (us)

temna; t-kraw krial. Nemanak eikrenkem chelwitknik heart; that it fall not. Us snatch bad from the side.

Ekws iwa neemi temna. So it is our heart.[III'-39]

The Nez Percés make use of two languages, one the native language proper, or, as a European might say, the court language, and the other a slave language, or jargon. They differ so much, that a stranger fully conversant with one cannot understand the other. This jargon originated, probably, from intermixing prisoners of war of different nationalities who were enslaved, and their languages mingled with each other, and with that of their conquerors. The pure-blooded Nez Percés all understand the jargon, learning it when children, together with their own proper language. Nor is this all. The jargon is more or less modified by each of the several languages, or dialects, in which it is spoken. The employés of the fur companies, who first came in contact with the Sahaptins, were greatly annoyed by this multiformity; as, for example, one Nez Percé coming to sell a beaver skin would say, tammecess taxpool, I wish to sell a beaver; another would say, towèyou weespoose, I wish to trade a beaver; and a third would say, e'towpa e'yechcoe, I wish to trade a beaver.

[Sidenote: COURT LANGUAGE OF THE SAHAPTINS.]

The following short vocabulary will show some of the differences between the Nez Percé language and the jargon:

NEZ PERCÉ JARGON.

Man kewas winch Woman eyatt tealacky Boy tachnutsem tuchnoot Girl tochanough peten No waatown, tsya Knife waltz whapallmeh, Horse she came koosy Hair tootanick kookoo Eyes shelaw Atchass.[III'-40]

Professor Rafinesque, out of twenty-four Sahaptin words, claims to have found six bearing close affinities to the English, but Buschmann says that of these twenty-four, many are not Sahaptin at all.[III'-41] The Waiilatpu language, conterminous with the Sahaptin, is spoken in two dialects, the Cayuse and Mollale. The Cayuses mingle frequently with the Sahaptins, and therefore many words of the latter have been adopted into their tongue. They mostly understand and speak the Sahaptin, and frequently the Walla Walla, and this not from any relationship in the several languages, but from intercourse.[III'-42]

Like their neighbors, the Cayuses employ two languages; one in the transaction of the common affairs of life, and the other on high state occasions, such as when making speeches round the council fire, to determine questions of war and peace, as well as all other intertribal affairs. That is to say, the Sahaptins use their court language on all ordinary, as well as extraordinary occasions, keeping the jargon for their servants, while the Cayuses employ the baser tongue for common, and the higher for state occasions.

The Cayuses were eloquent speakers; their language abounded in elegant expressions, and they well knew how to make the most of it. When first known to Europeans, it was fast fading away, and subsequently merged into the Sahaptin; so fleeting are these native idioms.[III'-43]

[Sidenote: DIFFICULTIES OF THE CHINOOK.]

The Chinook language is spoken by the different tribes inhabiting the banks of the Lower Columbia and adjacent country. This family is divided into many dialects, which diverge from the mother tongue as we ascend the river; in fact, the upper tribes have mostly to employ an interpreter, when they communicate with those on the lower part of the river. The chief diversities of this language are the Chinook proper, the Wakiakum, Cathlamet, and Clatsop, and the various dialects mentioned by Lewis and Clarke as belonging to those inhabiting this region at the time of their expedition, but which cannot now be positively identified with any of the languages known to us. Two of the last-mentioned dialects, the Multnomah and the Skilloot, the explorers describe as belonging to the Chinook.[III'-44] Among all the languages of north-western America, except perhaps that of the Thlinkeets, the Chinook is considered in its construction the most intricate; and in its pronunciation the most difficult. No words are to be found in the English vocabulary which can accurately describe it. To say that it is guttural, clucking, spluttering, and the like conveys but a faint conception of the sound produced by a Chinook in his frantic effort to unburden his mind of an idea. He does not appear to have yet discovered the use of the lips and tongue in speaking, but struggles with the lower part of the throat to produce sounds for the expression of his thoughts. Some declare that the speech of the Thlinkeets, whose language like that of the Chinook contains no labials, is melody in comparison to the croakings of the Chinooks. Ross says, that "to speak the Chinook dialect, you must be a Chinook."[III'-45] Indeed, they appear to have become tired of their own language and to have voluntarily abandoned it, for, to-day, the youthful Chinook speaks almost wholly Chehalis and the jargon. The employés of the fur companies, voyageurs, trappers and traders, who were accustomed to master with little difficulty the aboriginal tongues which they encountered, were completely nonplussed by the Chinook. A Canadian of Astor's company is the only person known to have acquired it so as to speak it fluently. During a long illness he was nursed by the Chinooks, and during his convalescence devoted his entire time to perfecting himself in their tongue.[III'-46]

Here the sounds of the letters f, r, v, and z do not exist, the pronunciation is generally very indistinct, and ç and s, k and g, d and t, are almost always confounded.

In the first person of the dual and plural of pronouns, the person present and addressed is either included or excluded according to the form used.

Personal pronouns in the Watlala dialect are:

SINGULAR. DUAL. PLURAL.

I naika | We (two) (exc.) ndaika | We (ex.) nçtaika | We (two) (incl.) tkhaika | We (incl.) olkhaika Thou maika | You (two) mdaika | You miçaika He iakhka | They (two) içtakhka | They tkhlaitçka

Of the possessive pronouns the following will serve as examples. They are joined to the noun itukutkhle, or itukwutkhle, house.

SINGULAR.

My house kukwutkhl Thy house meokwitkhl His house iakwitkhl

DUAL. PLURAL.

Our house (exc.) ndakwitkhl ntçakwitkhl (exc.) Our house (incl.) tkhakwitkhl olkhakwitkhl (incl.) Your house mdakwitkhl mçakwitkhl Their house içtakwitkhl tkhlakwitkhl

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO BE COLD.

PRESENT INDICATIVE, SINGULAR.

I am cold, naika tçinokhkeakh Thou art cold, maika tçiçomkeakh He is cold, iakhka tçikeakh

DUAL.

We (two) are cold (exc.), ndaika tçiçontkeakh We (two) are cold (incl.), tkhaika tçiçtkeakh You (two) are cold, mdaika tçimokeakh They (two) are cold, ictakhka tçiçtkeakh

PLURAL.

We are cold (exc.), ntçaika tçicontçkeakh We are cold (incl.), olkhaika tçilokeakh You are cold, mçaika tçiçomçkeakh They are cold, tkhlaitçka tçiçotkhlkeakh

IMPERFECT.

Yesterday I was cold, takotkhl naika tçinotkeakh

FIRST FUTURE.

By and bye I shall be cold, atkhlke naika tçiçonkhatka I shall be cold, naika onçkhatka tçiç

THE VERB TO KILL.

I kill thee, aminowagua I kill him, tçinowagua I kill you (dual), omtkinowagua I kill them (dual), oçtkinowagua I kill you (pl.), omçkinowagua I kill them, otkhlkinowngua You kill him, omçkiwagua You kill them, otkhlkiwagua

Dialectic differences particularly among the upper Chinooks, or Watlalas, are found principally in words; grammatical forms being alike in both.[III'-47] Kane remarks as a peculiarity that this language contains "no oaths, or any words conveying gratitude or thanks."[III'-48]

Moving again southward to the Willamette Valley, I find the Calapooya language, and for the first time a soft and harmonious idiom. Although the guttural kh sometimes occurs, it is more frequently softened to h. The consonants are ç, or s, f, j, k, l, m, n, ng, p, or b, t, or d, q, and w. Unlike the Sahaptin and Chinook there are neither dual nor plural forms in the Calapooya language.

[Sidenote: CALAPOOYA PRONOUNS.]

The personal pronouns are:

I tsi, or tsii Thou maha, or maa He koka, or kak We soto You miti They kinuk

My father tsi simna Thy father maha kaham His father kok inifam Our father soto tufam Your father miti tifam Their father kinuk inifam

My mother tsi sinni Thy mother maha kanni His mother kok ininnim Our mother soto tunnim Your mother miti tinnim Their mother kinuk ininnim

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO BE SICK, ILFATIN.

PRESENT NEUTER.

I am sick, tsi ilfatin Thou art sick, intsi ilfatin He is sick, ilfatin We are sick, tsiti ilfaf You are sick, intsip ilfaf They are sick, kinuk in ilfaf

NEGATIVE.

I am not sick, wangk tsik ilfatit

IMPERFECT.

I was sick yesterday, ilfatin tsi kuyi Thou wast sick yesterday, imku ilfatin He was sick yesterday, hu ilfatin

FIRST FUTURE.

To-morrow I shall be sick, midji taïlfit tsii

The following example will serve to illustrate the great changes verbs undergo in their conjugations;--ksitapatsitup maha, I love thee; tsitapintsuo kok, I love him; himtapintsiwata tsii kak, he loves me; hintsitapintsiwata tsii, dost thou love me?[III'-49]

The Yamkally is spoken at the sources of the Willamette River. A comparison of the Yamkally and Calapooya vocabularies shows a certain relationship between them.[III'-50]

[Sidenote: COLUMBIAN AND MEXICAN COMPARISONS.]

I have said that certain affinities are discovered between the Waiilatpu and Mollale, and also between the Watlala and Chinook; in these, as well as in the Calapooya and Yamkally, Buschmann discovers faint traces of the Aztec language. Others have discovered a fancied relationship between the language of the Mexicans and those of more northern nations, but Mr Buschmann believes that, descending from the north, the peoples mentioned, whose lands are drained by the Columbia, are the first in which the Aztec, in dim shadows, makes its appearance. These similarities, he discovered not alone by direct comparisons with the Aztec, but also by detecting resemblances between these Columbian dialects and those of certain nations which he calls his Sonora group and its affiliations, all of which contain elements of the Aztec tongue. Yet Mr Buschmann does not therefrom claim any relationship between the Aztecs and Columbians, but only notices these few slight assimilations.[III'-51]

Herewith is a comparative table, containing a few similar words:

COMPARATIVE TABLE, SHOWING SIMILARITIES BETWEEN THE COLUMBIAN AND MEXICAN TONGUES.

ENGLISH. WAIILATPU. MOLLALE. WATLALA. CHINOOK. CALA- AZTEC. SONORA POOYA. FAMILY. Yes i ia a ah he, aw e, ha Tooth tenif tanti tlantli Red tkhlpal tkhlpolpol tlapalli Wind ikkhala itskhakh ikhala ehecatl heicala Black tkhlol tkhlalukh tlilli Water wematkhl webatkhl atl I naika nëe ne Chief iatoiang iakant iout, iauta

The Chinook jargon is employed by the white people in their intercourse with the natives, as well as by the natives among themselves. It is spoken throughout Oregon, Washington Territory, on Vancouver Island, and extends inland into Idaho and some parts of Montana. It is more than probable that, like other languages de convenance, it formed itself gradually, first among the natives themselves, and that in the course of time, in order to facilitate their intercourse with the aborigines, trappers and traders adopted and improved it, until it was finally brought into its present state. Indeed, so great was the diversity of languages in this vicinity, and so intricate were they, that without something of this kind there could have been but little intercourse between the people.

A somewhat similar mixture I have already mentioned as existing in Alaska. Father Paul Le Jeune gives a short account of a jargon in use between the French and the Indians, in the north-eastern part of America, as early as the year 1633.[III'-52] In Europe a similar mixture, or patois, prevails to this day, the lingua franca, used by the many nationalities that congregate upon the shores of the Mediterranean. In China, and in the East Indies, the so-called pigeon English occupies the same place; and in various parts of Central and Southern America, neutral languages may be found. To show how languages spring up and grow, Vancouver, when visiting the coast in 1792, found in various places along the shores of Oregon, Washington, and Vancouver Island, nations that now and then understood words and sentences of the Nootka and other tongues, some of which had been adopted into their own language.

When Lewis and Clarke, in 1806, reached the coast, the jargon seems to have already assumed a fixed shape, as may be seen from the sentences quoted by the explorers. But not until the arrival of the expedition sent out by John Jacob Astor does it appear that either English or French words, of which it contains a large percentage, were incorporated. Very few, if any, of the words of which the jargon is composed, retain their original shape. The harsh, guttural, and unpronounceable native cackling was softened or omitted, thus forming a speech suited to all. In the same manner, some of the English sounds, like f and r, unpronounceable by the native, were dropped, or transferred into p and l, while all grammatical forms were reduced to the fewest and plainest rules possible.[III'-53] But even in this jargon, there are what may be called dialectic differences; for instance, many words used at the Dalles, are quite unintelligible at the mouth of the Columbia and at Puget Sound. It has often been asserted that the jargon was invented or originated by the Hudson's Bay Company, but although the fur company undoubtedly greatly aided its development, and assisted in perfecting it, it is well known, first, that this jargon existed before the advent of Europeans, and secondly, that languages are not made in this way.

[Sidenote: ANALYSIS OF THE CHINOOK JARGON.]

Mr Gibbs states the number of words to be nearly five hundred, and after a careful analysis of the language, has arrived at the following conclusion as to the number contributed by the several nationalities:

Chinook and Clatsop 200 words Chinook, having analogies with other languages 21 " Interjections common to several 8 " Nootka, including dialects 24 " Chehalis, 32, and Nisqually, 7 39 " Kliketat and Yakima 2 " Cree 2 " Chippeway (Ojibway) 1 " Wasco (probably) 4 " Calapooya (probably) 4 " By direct onomatopoeia 6 " Derivation unknown, or undetermined 18 " French, 90, Canadian, 4 94 " English 67 "[III'-54]

As before mentioned, foreign words adopted into the jargon vocabulary are changed to suit the taste of the speaker, as in the word Français, being unable to pronounce the f, r, and n, for Frenchman they say pasaiuks, and for French, pasai. The few words formed by onomatopoeia, are after this fashion;--tumtum, heart, an imitation of its beating; tintin, bell; tiktik, watch; liplip, to boil, from the sound of boiling water, and so on.

Neither article nor inflections are employed. Okok, this, at times takes the place of the English the. As a rule, plurals are not distinguished, but sometimes the word haiu, many, is used. Adjectives precede nouns, as in English--lasuai hakatshum, silk handkerchief; masatsi tilikum, bad people. The comparative is expressed, for example, in the sentence, I am stronger than thou, by wek maika skukum kakwa naika, thou not strong as I. Superlative--haias oluman okok kanem, very old that canoe. There are only two conjunctions, pi, derived from the French puis, which denotes and or then; and pos, from suppose, meaning if, in case that, provided that. The particle na is at times used as an interrogative.[III'-55]

The Lord's Prayer in the Chinook jargon is as follows:

Nesika papa klaksta mitlite kopa saghalie, kloshe Our Father who stayeth in the above, good

kopa nesika tumtum mika nem; kloshe mika tyee in our hearts (be) thy name; good thou chief

kopa konoway tilikum; kloshe mika tumtum kopa among all people; good thy will upon

illahie, kahkwe kopa saghalie. Potlatch konaway sun earth, as in the above. Give every day

nesika muckamuck. Spose nesika mamook masahchie, our food. If we do ill,

wake mika hyas solleks, pe spose klaksta masahchie (be) not thou very angry, and if any one evil

kopa nesika, wake nesika solleks kopa klaska. Mahsh towards us, not we angry towards them. Send away

siah kopa nesaika konaway masahchie. Kloshe kahkwa. far from us. all evil.[III'-56]

FOOTNOTES:

[III'-1] 'Die Kaigan-Sprache wird auf der Insel Kaigan und den Charlotten Inseln ... gesprochen.' Veniaminoff, in Erman, Archiv, tom. vii., No. 1., p. 128.

[III'-2] 'En parlant du langage de Tchinkîtâiné, j'ai rapporté d'avance les termes numériques employés aux îles de Queen-Charlotte, tels que le capitaine Chanal a pu les recueillir á Cloak-Bay; il observe que quelques-uns de ces termes sont communs aux autres parties de ces îsles qu'il a visitées, ainsi que quelques autres termes qu'il a pu saisir, et par lesquels les Naturels expriment les objets suivanes.... Cette similitude des termes numériques et d'autres termes, employés également par les diverses Tribus, séparées les unes des autres, qui occupent la partie de côtes des îles de Queen-Charlotte que le Capitaine Chanal a visitée, me semble démontrer, contre l'opinion hasardée du Rédacteur du Journal de Dixon, que ces Tribus communiquent habituellement entre elles: cette identité du langage pourroit encore prouver que les Peuplades qui habitent ces îles ont une origine commune.' Marchand, Voyage, tom. ii., p. 216.

[III'-3] 'There are at least two or three different languages spoken on the coast, and yet probably they are all pretty generally understood; though if we may credit the old Chief at Queen Charlotte's Islands, his people were totally ignorant of that spoken by the inhabitants to the Eastward.' Dixon's Voy., p. 240.

[III'-4] Scouler, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. ii., pp. 218, 220.

[III'-5] Radloff, Sprache der Kaiganen, in Mél. Russes. tom. iii., liv. v., p. 575; Green, in Amer. Antiq. Soc., Transact., vol. iii., p. 302.

[III'-6] Dixon's Voy., p. 240.

[III'-7] 'Es fehlen dem Kaigáni (Haidah) jene harten aspirirten Consonanten, die dem Thlinkít so geläufig sind, es ist vocalreicher und weicher. Dagegen theilt es mit dem Thlinkít den Mangel der Labialen, des dentalen r, wie auch der Verbindung des l mit Dentalen, Gutturalen und Sibilanten, während jenem dagegen das reine l des Kaigani ganz fremd ist.' Radloff, Sprache der Kaiganen, in Mél. Russes, tom. iii., liv. v., pp. 575-6.

[III'-8] Id., pp. 569-607.

[III'-9] Green, in Amer. Antiq. Soc., Transact., vol. ii., p. 302. 'Náss ... in custom and language, resemble the Sabassa.' Dunn's Oregon, p. 279. Buschmann, Spr. N. Mex. u. der Westseite des b. Nordamer., p. 398, et seq.

[III'-10] Scouler, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. ix., p. 234.

[III'-11] Dunn's Oregon, p. 358.

[III'-12] Scouler, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. ix., p. 221.

[III'-13] Id., p. 230, et seq.

[III'-14] Grant's Vanc. Isl., in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxvii., pp. 295-6.

[III'-15] Sproat's Scenes, p. 311.

[III'-16] Grant's Vanc. Isl., in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxvii., p. 295.

[III'-17] 'The inhabitants of Nootka Sound and the Tlaoquatch, who occupy the south-western points of the island, speak the same language.' Scouler, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xi., p. 224; Jewitt's Nar., pp. 74-77; Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 220; Meares' Voy., pp. 229-32; Douglas' Report, in Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour., vol. xxiv., p. 246. At Point Discovery, Vancouver met people some of whom 'understood a few words of the Nootka language.' Voyage, vol. i., p. 228. 'The distinct languages spoken by the Indians are few in number, but the dialects employed by the various tribes are so many, that, although the inhabitants of any particular district have no great difficulty in communicating with each other, ...' Mayne's B. C., p. 244; Sproat's Scenes, p. 311. The Rev. Mr Good divides and locates the languages of Vancouver Island and the opposite shore on the mainland as follows. The first language, he says, runs along the coast from Nitinaht to Nootka Sound; the second prevails from Sooke to Nanaimo, and across the Sound up to Bird Inlet on the main land, thence following up the Fraser River as far as Yale; this he names the Cowichin. On the island north of Cowichin he locates the Comux and adjoining it the Ucleta; finally starting at Fort Rupert and following the north coast of the island and also on the opposite shore of the main land is the Quackoll.

[III'-18] Jewitt's Nar., p. 75.

[III'-19] Sproat's Scenes, p. 132.

[III'-20] 'El idioma de estos naturales es tal vez el mas áspero y duro de los conocidos. Abundan mucho en él las consonantes, y las terminaciones en tl y tz, constando el intermedio y el principio de los vocablos de aspiraciones muy fuertes.' Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. 147. 'Their language is very guttural, and if it were possible to reduce it to our orthography, it would very much abound with consonants.' Sparks' Life of Ledyard, p. 72; Cook's Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., pp. 334-6.

[III'-21] Sproat's Scenes, p. 124, et seq.

[III'-22] For a copy of which I am indebted to the late proprietor of the Overland Monthly of San Francisco.

[III'-23] 'En examinant avec soin des vocabulaires formés à Noutka et à Monterey, j'ai été frappé de l'homotonie et des désinences mexicaines de plusieurs mots, comme, par exemple, dans la langue des Noutkiens.... Cependant, en général, les langues de la Nouvelle-Californie et de l'île de Quadra, diffèrent essentiellement de l'aztèque.' Humboldt, Essai Pol., tom. i., p. 321. 'Sprachähnlichkeiten ... hat man, wie auch nachher bey der Betrachtung der Mexikanischen Sprache aus einander gesetzt werden soll, an dieser Nordwest-Küste am Nutka-Sunde und bey den Völkern in der Nähe der Russischen Colonien gefunden.' Vater, Mithridates, tom. iii., pt iii., p. 76. 'In the neighborhood of Nootka, tribes still exist whose dialects, both in the termination and general sound of the words, bear considerable resemblance to the Mexican.' Prescott's Mex., vol. iii., p. 399.

[III'-24] 'So gewinnt die Nutka-Sprache, durch eine reiche Zahl von Wörtern und durch grosse Züge ihres Lautwesens, einzig vor allen anderen fremden ... in einem bedeutenden Theile eine täuschende Ähnlichkeit mit der aztekischen oder mexicanischen; und so wird die ihr schon früher gewidmete Aufmerksamkeit vollständig gerechtfertigt. Ihrer mexicanischen Erscheinung fehlt aber, wie ich von meiner Seite hier ausspreche, jede Wirklichkeit.' Buschmann, Spr. N. Mex. u. der Westküste des b. Nordamer., p. 371.

[III'-25] They spoke the same language as the Nootkas. Vancouver's Voy., vol. i., p. 218.

[III'-26] 'The affinities of the Clallam and Lummi are too obvious to require demonstration.' Gibbs' Clallam and Lummi Vocab., p. vii. 'The Tsihaili-Selish languages reach the sea in the part opposite Vancouver's Island. Perhaps they touch it to the north also.' Latham's Comp. Phil., vol. viii., p. 401; Gairdner, in _Lond. Geog. Soc., Jour._, vol. xi., p. 255.

[III'-27] 'Les Indiens de la côte ou de la Nouvelle Calédonie, les Tokalis, les Chargeurs (Carriers), les Schouchouaps, les Atnas appartiennent tous à la nation des Chipeouaïans.' Mofras, Explor., tom. ii., p. 337. 'The Atnah language has no affinity to any with which I am acquainted.' Mackenzie's Voyages, p. 258.

[III'-28] Mengarini, Selish Gram.

[III'-29] 'Nationes que radicaliter linguam Selicam loquuntur sunt saltem decem: Calispelm, (vulgo) Pends d'oreilles du Lac Inférieur. Slkatkomlchi, Pends d'oreilles du Lac Superieur. Selish, Têtes Plattes. Sngomènei, Snpoilschi, Szk'eszilni, Spokanes. S´chizni, Coeurs d'alène. Sgoièlpi, Chaudières. Okinakein, Stlakam, Okanagan.' Mengarini, Selish Gram., p. 120. 'Their language is the same as the Spokeins' and Flatheads'.' Parker's Explor. Tour, p. 307. 'The Spokanes speak the same dialect as the Flatheads and Pend d'Oreilles.' Chapman, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1866, p. 201; De Smet, Voy., p. 237. 'The Flatheads are divided into numerous tribes, each having its own peculiar locality, and differing more or less from the others in language, customs, and manners.' 'The Spokan Indians are a small tribe, differing very little from the Indians at Colville either in their appearance, habits, or language.' Kane's Wand., pp. 173, 307. 'The Pend' d'Oreilles are generally called the Flatheads, the two clans, in fact, being united.... Still, the two races are entirely distinct, their languages being fundamentally different. The variety of tongues on the west side of the (Rocky) mountains is almost infinite, so that scarcely any two tribes understand each other perfectly. They have all, however, the common character of being very guttural; and, in fact, the sentences often appear to be mere jumbles of grunts and croaks, such as no alphabet could express in writing.' Simpson's Overland Jour., vol. i., p. 146.

[III'-30] Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., pp. 535-7.

[III'-31] Swan's N. W. Coast, p. 315.

[III'-32] Gibbs' Clallam and Lummi Vocab., p. 7.

[III'-33] 'In the northern districts of the great chain of Rocky Mountains which were visited by Sir Alexander Mackenzie, there are several nations of unknown language and origin. The Atnah nation is one of them. Their dialect appears, from the short vocabulary given by that traveller, to be one of those languages which, in the frequent recurrence of peculiar consonants, bears a certain resemblance to the Mexican.' Prichard's Nat. Hist. Man, vol. ii., p. 550; Swan's N. W. Coast, pp. 315-6.

[III'-34] 'Der Prinz bezeugt (Bd. ii., 511) dass der behauptete Mangel an Gurgellauten ein Irrthum ist; er bemerkt: dass die Sprache durch den ihr eignen "Zungenschnalz" für das Aussprechen schwierig werde, und dass sie eine Menge von Gutturaltönen habe. Man spreche die Wörter leise und undeutlich aus; dabei gebe es darin viele schnalzende Töne, indem man mit der Zungenspitze anstösst; auch gebe es darin viele dumpfe Kehllaute.' Prinz Max zu Wied, in Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Spr., p. 661. 'Their language bears no affinity whatever to that of any of the western nations. It is infinitely softer and more free from those unpronounceable gutturals so common among the lower tribes.' Cox's Adven., p. 233; Blakiston's Rept., in Palliser's Explor., p. 73; Parker's Explor. Tour, p. 307.

[III'-35] De Smet's Oregon Miss., p. 409.

[III'-36] Tribes speaking the Kliketat language: Whulwhypum, Tait-inapum, Yakima, Walla Wallapum, Kyoose, Umatilla, Peloose, Wyampam; the Yakimas and Kliketats or Whulwhypum ... speaking the Walla-Walla language, otherwise known as the Kliketat. Lord's Nat., vol. ii., pp. 244, 232. 'The Kyeuse resemble the Walla-Wallas very much.... Their language and customs are almost identical.' Kane's Wand., p. 280. The Pend d'Oreilles 'speak the same language' (Nez Percé.) Hutchins, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1863, p. 456. The Palouse Indians 'speak the same language.' Cain, in Id., 1860, p. 210. 'The Wallah-Wallahs, whose language belongs to the same family.' 'The Wallah-Wallahs and Nez Perces speak dialects of a common language, and the Cayuses have abandoned their own for that of the latter.' Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., pp. 416, 425; Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., pp. 213, 542. 'The nation among which we now are call themselves Sokulks; and with them are united a few of another nation, who reside on a western branch, emptying itself into the Columbia a few miles above the mouth of the latter river, and whose name is Chimnapum. The language of both these nations differs but little from each other, or from that of the Chopunnish who inhabit the Kooskooskee and Lewis's river.' Lewis and Clarke's Trav., p. 12. 'The language of the Walla-Wallas differs from the Nez Percés'. Parker's Explor. Tour, p. 137.

[III'-37] Pandosy's Yakama Lang., p. 9.

[III'-38] Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 542, et seq.

[III'-39] Pandosy's Yakama Lang.

[III'-40] Ross' Fur Hunters, vol. i., p. 313, et seq.

[III'-41] Rafinesque, Atlantic Jour., p. 133, quoted in Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Spr., p. 615. 'Ich habe diese Wörter Rafinesque's zu einem Theil ganz verschieden von den Sahaptan gefunden.' Ib.

[III'-42] Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 561.

[III'-43] 'The Skyuse have two distinct languages: the one used in ordinary intercourse, the other on extraordinary occasions; as in war counsels, &c.' Farnham's Travels, p. 153. 'The Cayuses have abandoned their own for that of the Nez Percés.' Gibbs, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. i., pp. 416, 425. 'Their language bears some affinity to the Sahaptin or Nez-Percé language.' Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 199; Coke's Rocky Mts., p 295; Kane's Wand., p. 279. 'Their original language, now almost extinct ... having affinity to that of the Carriers, of North Caledonia, and the Umpqua Indians of Southern Oregon.' Lord's Nat., vol. ii., pp. 249-50.

[III'-44] 'The language of the bands farther up the river departed more and more widely from the Chinook proper, so that the lower ones could not have understood the others without an interpreter.' Gibbs' Chinook Vocab., p. 4. 'The vocabulary given by Dr. Scouler as "Chenook" is almost altogether Chihalis. His "Cathlascon" ... is Chinook.' Id., p. 5. 'Des Tchinooks, d'où est sortie la langue-mère de ces sauvages.' Saint-Amant, Voyages, p. 381. 'Cathlamahs speak the same language as the Chinnooks and Clatsops.' Lewis and Clarke's Travels, p. 424. Chinooks 'in language ... resemble the Clatsops, Cathlamahs, and indeed all the people near the mouth of the Columbia.' Id., p. 426. 'The Chinooks, Clatsops, Wahkiacums and Cathlamahs ... resembled each other in person, dress, language.' Irving's Astoria, pp. 85, 336. Chinooks, Clatsops, Cathlamux, Wakicums, Wacalamus, Cattleputles, Clatscanias, Killimux, Moltnomas, Chickelis, ... resemble one another in language. Ross' Adven., pp. 87-88. 'The Chinook language is spoken by all the nations from the mouth of the Columbia to the falls.' Franchère's Nar., p. 262.

[III'-45] 'The language spoken by these people is guttural, very difficult for a foreigner to learn, and equally hard to pronounce.' Ross' Adven., p. 101. 'Decidedly the most unpronounceable compound of gutturals ever formed for the communication of human thoughts, or the expression of human wants.' Cox's Adven., vol. ii., p. 133. 'I would willingly give a specimen of the barbarous language of this people, were it possible to represent by any combination of our alphabet the horrible, harsh, spluttering sounds which proceed from their throats apparently unguided either by the tongue or lip.' Kane's Wand., p. 182. 'It is hard and difficult to pronounce, for strangers; being full of gutturals, like the Gaelic. The combinations thl, or tl, and lt, are as frequent in the Chinook as in the Mexican.' Franchère's Nar., p. 262. 'After the soft languages and rapid enunciation of the islanders, the Chinooks presented a singular contrast in the slow, deliberate manner in which they seemed to choke out their words; giving utterance to sounds, some of which could scarcely be represented by combinations of known letters.' Pickering's Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 23. 'It abounds with gutturals and "clucking" sounds, almost as difficult to analyse as to utter.' Gibbs' Chinook Vocab., p. 5.

[III'-46] 'The ancient Chenook is such a guttural, difficult tongue, that many of the young Chenook Indians can not speak it, but have been taught by their parents the Chehalis language and the Jargon.' Swan's N. W. Coast, p. 306; Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 562. 'The very difficult pronunciation and excessively complicated form of the Chinook has effectually prevented its acquisition, even by missionaries and fur traders.' Gibbs' Chinook Vocab., p. 5.

[III'-47] Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol., vi., p. 562, et seq.

[III'-48] Kane's Wand., p. 183.

[III'-49] Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 566, et seq.

[III'-50] 'Yamkallie, Kallapuiah. Oregon Indians of the plains of the Wallamette, speaking a language related to that of the Cathlascons and Haeeltzuk.' Ludewig's Ab. Lang., p. 202. 'Gross die Verwandtschaft der Kalapuya und des Yamkallie; aber an verschiedenen Wörtern fehlt es nicht.' Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Spr., p. 628.

[III'-51] 'Höchst merkwürdig sind einzelne unläugbare aztekische und zweitens einzelne sonorische Wörter, welche ich in diesen Sprachen aufgefunden habe.' Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Spr., p. 629.

[III'-52] 'This system of jargons began very early, and has, doubtless, led to many errors. As early as 1633, the Jesuit Father Paul Le Jeune wrote: "I have remarked, in the study of their language, that there is a certain jargon between the French and Indians, which is neither French nor Indian; and yet, when the French use it, they think they are speaking Indian, and the Indians using it, think they speak good French."' Hist. Mag., vol. v., p. 345.

[III'-53] Gibbs' Chinook Dic., p. 6; San Francisco Evening Bulletin, June 15, 1866. 'Chinook is a jargon which was invented by the Hudson's Bay Company for the purpose of facilitating communication with the different Indian tribes. These were so numerous, and their languages so various, that the traders found it impossible to learn them all, and adopted the device of a judicious mixture of English, French, Russian, and several Indian tongues, which has a very limited vocabulary; but which, by the help of signs, is readily understood by all the natives, and serves as a common language.' Milton and Cheadle's N. W. Passage, p. 344. 'The jargon so much in use all over the North Pacific Coast, among both whites and Indians, as a verbal medium of communicating with each other, was originally invented by the Hudson's Bay Company, in order to facilitate the progress of their commerce with Indians.' Stuart's Dictionary of Chinook Jargon, p. 161. 'Chinook is a jargon, consisting of not more than three or four hundred words, drawn from the French, English, Spanish, Indian, and the fancy of the inventor. It was contrived by the Hudson's Bay Company for the convenience of trade.' Brunot, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1871, p. 124. Sproat disputes the invention of the jargon, and says: 'Such an achievement as the invention of a language, is beyond the capabilities of even a chief factor.' Scenes, p. 139. 'I think that, among the Coast Indians in particular, the Indian part of the language has been in use for years.' Swan's N. W. Coast, p. 307. Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 635, et seq.

[III'-54] Gibbs' Chinook Dic., pp. vii.-viii. 'All the words thus brought together and combined in this singularly constructed speech are about two hundred and fifty in number.' Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 636. 'Words undoubtedly of Japanese origin are still used in the jargon spoken on the coast called Chinook.' Lord's Nat., vol. ii., p. 217.

[III'-55] Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 636, et seq.

[III'-56] Gibbs' Chinook Dic., p. 44.

IV. CALIFORNIAN LANGUAGES

MULTIPLICITY OF TONGUES -- YAKON, KLAMATH, AND PALAIK COMPARISONS -- PITT RIVER AND WINTOON VOCABULARIES -- WEEYOT, WISHOSK, WEITSPEK, AND EHNEK COMPARISONS -- LANGUAGES OF HUMBOLDT BAY -- POTTER VALLEY, RUSSIAN AND EEL RIVER LANGUAGES -- POMO LANGUAGES -- GALLINOMERO GRAMMAR -- TRANS-PACIFIC COMPARISONS -- CHOCUYEM LORD'S PRAYER -- LANGUAGES OF THE SACRAMENTO, SAN JOAQUIN, NAPA AND SONOMA VALLEYS -- THE OLHONE AND OTHER LANGUAGES OF SAN FRANCISCO BAY -- RUNSIEN AND ESLENE OF MONTEREY -- SANTA CLARA LORD'S PRAYER -- MUTSUN GRAMMAR -- LANGUAGES OF THE MISSIONS SANTA CRUZ, SAN ANTONIO DE PADUA, SOLEDAD, AND SAN MIGUEL -- TATCHÉ GRAMMAR -- THE DIALECTS OF SANTA CRUZ AND OTHER ISLANDS.

Notwithstanding the great diversity of tongues encountered in the regions of the north, the confusion increases ten-fold on entering California. Probably nowhere in America is there a greater multiformity of languages and dialects than here. Until quite recently, no attempt has been made to bring order out of this linguistic chaos, owing mainly to a lack of grammars and vocabularies. Within the last few years this want has, in a measure, been supplied, and I hope to be able to present some broader classifications than have hitherto been attempted. Through the researches of Mr Powers, who has kindly placed his materials at my disposal, and the valuable information communicated by Judge Roseborough, the dialects of northern California have been reduced to some sort of system, yet there remains the fact that, in central and southern California, hundreds of dialects have been permitted to die out, without leaving us so much as their name.[IV'-1]

In attempting the classification of Californian tongues, no little difficulty arises from the ambiguity of tribal names. So far as appearances go, some peoples have no distinctive name; others are known by the name of their chief alone, or their ranchería; the affiliation of chief, ranchería, and tribe being identical or distinct, as the case may be. Some writers have a common name for all tribes speaking the same, or dialects of the same, language; others name a people from each dialect. Last of all, there are nations and tribes that call themselves by one name, while their neighbors call them by another, so that the classifier, ethnologic or philologic, is apt to enumerate one people under two names, while omitting many.[IV'-2]

We have seen in the Columbian languages, as we approach the south, that they become softer and less guttural; this is yet more observable among Californians, whose speech, for the most part, is harmonious, pronounceable, and rich in vowels; and this feature becomes more and more marked as we proceed from northern to southern California. On this point, Mr Powers writes: "Not only are the California languages distinguished for that affluence of vowel sounds, which is more or less characteristic of all tongues spoken in warm climates; but most of them are also remarkable for their special striving after harmony. There are a few languages found in the northern mountains which are harsh and sesquipedalian, and some on the coast that are guttural beyond the compass of our American organs of speech; but with these few exceptions, the numerous languages of the state are beautiful above all their neighbors for their simplicity, the brevity of their words, their melody, and their harmonious sequences."[IV'-3]

[Sidenote: RULES OF EUPHONY IN CALIFORNIA.]

Throughout California, much attention is paid to the euphony of words; and if, in the inevitable manufacturing process, a syllable does not sound well, or does not exactly harmonize according to the native ear, it is ruthlessly sacrificed. In many languages these elisions are made in accordance with fixed rules, while others, again, obey no other mandate but harmony.

Concerning the languages of northern California, Judge Roseborough writes: "In an ethnological view, the language of these various tribes is a subject of great interest. They seem to be governed by the geographical nature of the country, which has had much influence in directing the migrations and settlement of the various tribes in this state, where they have been found by the whites; and there have been in remote times at least three currents, or lines of migration, namely--first, one along the coast southward, dispersing more or less towards the interior as the nature of the country and hostile tribes permitted. In so broken and rough a country the migrations must have been slow, and the eddies numerous, leaving many fragments of aboriginal tribes here and there with language and customs wholly dissimilar. Second, that along the Willamette Valley, over the passes of the Calapooya, across the open lands of the Umpqua, southward through Rogue River Valley into Shasta and Scott valleys. As an evidence of this trace I may mention that all the tribes on this line, from the Calapooya mountains southward to the head of Shasta and Scott valleys, speak the same language, and were confederate in their wars with the tribes on Pitt River, who seem to have arrested their progress southward. In this connection I may mention two facts worthy of remark, namely, first, in this cataclysm of tribes, there have been some singular displacements; for instance, the similarity of language and customs of the Cumbatwas and other cognate tribes on Pitt River denotes a common origin with a small tribe found on Smith River, on the north-west coast: and secondly, the traditions of the Shastas settled in Shasta and Scott valleys, the advance of this line of migrations, show that a former tribe had been found in possession of those valleys and mountains, and had been driven out. The remains of their ancient villages, and the arrangements still visible in their excavations confirm the fact, and also the further fact that the expelled tribes were the same, or cognate to those which the whites found in occupation of the Sacramento Valley. For instance, in all of these ancient villages, there was one house of very large dimensions, used for feasts, ceremonious dances, etc., just as we found on the settlement of California, in the valley of Sacramento. The existing tribes in those mountains have no such domicil and no public houses. They say, when asked, that the villages were built and inhabited by a tribe that lived there before they came, and that those ancient dwellers worshiped the great snowy Mount Shasta, and always built their villages in places from which they could behold that mountain. Thirdly, another wave of migration evidently came southward along the Des Chutes River, upon the great plateau of the lakes, which conclusion is borne out by a similarity of languages and customs, as well as by traditions."[IV'-4]

In support of this theory, Judge Roseborough states that the languages spoken on Smith River, and extending thence forty miles along the coast, are radically and wholly different from those of the neighboring tribes. The former are harsh, guttural, irregular, and apparently monosyllabic, while on the other hand, the neighboring tribes inhabiting the coast southward to Humboldt Bay, and along the Klamath as far up as the mouth of the Trinity, speak a language very regular in its structure; copious in its capacity for expressing ideas and shades of thought, and not unpleasing to the ear, being free from harsh and guttural sounds. Of all the languages spoken in this part, that which prevails along the Klamath River, as far up as Happy Camp, and along the Salmon to its sources, is by far the most regular and musical. In fact, for its regular and musical accents it occupies among the Indian tongues of the continent the same preëminence that the Spanish does among the Caucasian languages. For instance, their proper nouns for persons and places are very euphoneous, as, euphippa, escassasoo, names of persons, and tahasoofca, cheenich, panumna, chimicanee, tooyook, savorum, names of noted localities along the river.

As an example of the copiousness and richness of the coast languages above Humboldt Bay, Judge Roseborough cites the following, for one, two, three, four, they say, kor, nihhi, naxil, chohnah; so for to-morrow they say, kohchamol; for the day after to-morrow, nahamohl; three days hence, naxamohl; four days hence, chohnahamol. Nor do they stop here; mare, being five, and marunimícha, fifteen; the fifteenth day from the present is, marunimîcháhamohl.

Mr George Bancroft in his Indianology erroneously asserts that the sound of our letter r does not occur in any of the aboriginal languages of America. A similar assertion has been made with regard to Asiatic tongues, that there is not a people from the peninsula of Hindostan to Kamchatka who make use of this sound. Although this idea is now exploded, evidence goes to show the rarity of the use of the letter r in these regions; yet, Judge Roseborough assures me that in these northern Californian dialects the sound of this letter is not only frequent, but is uttered with its most rolling, whirring emphasis; that such words as arrarra, Indian; carrook, or cahroc, up; eurook, or euroc, down; seearrook, across and up; micarra, the name of a village; tahasoofcarrah, that is to say the village of upper Tahasoofca, are brought forth with an intensity that a Frenchman could not exceed.

* * * * *

On both sides of the Oregon and Californian boundary line is spoken the Klamath language; adjoining it on the north is the Yakon, and on the south the Shasta and the Palaik. A dialect of the Klamath is also spoken by the Modocs. Herewith I give a short comparative table, and although no relationship between them is claimed, yet many of the words which I have selected are not without a similarity.[IV'-5]

YAKON. KLAMATH. SHASTA. PALAIK.

Man kalt hisuatsos awatikoa yaliu Woman tkhlaks snawats taritsi omtewitsen Mouth qai sum au, or aof, ap Leg sia tsoks halaway, or hatis, atetewa Water kilo ampo atsa as Blood pouts poits ime ahati Earth onitstoh kaela tarak kela Stone kelih kotai itsa olisti Wood kukh anko awa hau Beaver kaatsilawa pum tawai pum Dog tskekh watsak hapso watsaqa Bird kokoaia lalak tararakh lauitsa Salmon tsutais tsialus kitari tsialas Great haihaiat moönis kempe wawa

[Sidenote: THE WINTOON, EUROC, AND CAHROC.]

Along Pitt River and its tributaries are the Pitt River Indians and the Wintoons, of which languages short vocabularies are given.

PITT RIVER.

Man t'elyou Hair teee Woman emmetowchan Eyes ossa House teoomchee Nose yame Tree (pine) oswoo Mouth yanena Water oss Teeth etesä Stone alliste Legs säyä Sun tsool Fire mallis Moon tchool Big walswa Crow owwicha Little chowkootcha Dog chahoom Dead deoome Deer doshshe Mountain akoo Bear loehta Fish oll[IV'-6]

WINTOON.

Yes ummina Warm pela Woman darcus Eyes toomb House boss Nose sono I, or me net Mouth all Water mem Teeth see Rain luhay Talk teene Sun sash To kill kloma Moon chamitta Large bohama Night kenavina, or peno To fight cluckapooda Dog suco Dead menil Deer nope North wy Bear chilch, or weemer South nora[IV'-7]

On the lower Klamath, the Euroc language prevails. As compared with the dialects of southern California, it is guttural; there being apparently in some of its words, or rather grunts, a total absence of vowels--mrprh, nose; chlh, earth; ynx, child. Among other sounds peculiar to it, there is that of the ll, so frequent in the Welsh language. Mr Powers says that, "in conversation they terminate many words with an aspiration which is imperfectly indicated by the letter h, a sort of catching of the sound, immediately followed by the letting out of the residue of breath, with a quick little grunt. This makes their speech harsh and halting; the voice often comes to a dead stop in the middle of a sentence." He further adds that "the language seems to have had a monosyllabic origin, and, in fact, they pronounce many dissyllables as if they were two monosyllables."

Along the upper Klamath, the Cahroc language is spoken, which is entirely distinct from that of the Eurocs. It is sonorous, and its intonation has even been compared with that of the Spanish, being not at all guttural like the Euroc. The r, when it occurs in such words as chareya, and cahroc, is strangely rolled. The language is copious; the people speaking it having a name for everything, and on seeing any article new to them, if a proper designation is not immediately at hand, they forthwith proceed to manufacture one.

Another guttural language is the Pataway, spoken on Trinity River. Its pronunciation is like the Euroc, and it has the same curious, abrupt stopping of the voice at the end of syllables terminating with a vowel, as Mr Powers describes it. Related to it is the Veeard of lower Humboldt Bay. The numerals in the latter language are: koh-tseh, one; dee-teh, two; dee-keh, three; deeh-oh, four; weh-sah, five; chilókeh, six; awtloh, seven; owit, eight; serókeh, nine; lokél ten.[IV'-8]

The language known as the Weitspek, spoken at the junction of the Trinity and Klamath rivers, is probably the same which Mr Powers has named the Pataway. It is also said to have the frequently occurring rolling r. The f, as in the Oregon languages, is wanting. Dialects of the Weitspek are the Weeyot and Wishosk, on Eel and Mad rivers. This language is understood from the coast range down to the coast between Cape Mendocino and Mad River.[IV'-9] The Ehnek, or Pehtsik, language is spoken on Salmon River; thence in the region of the Klamath, are the Watsahewah, Howteteoh, and Nabiltse languages.[IV'-10]

COMPARISONS.

WEEYOT. WISHOSK. WEITSPEK. EHNEK.

Man ko éh ko-éh pagehk ah wunsh Arrow sáhpe tsahpé nah qut kha-wish Water merah tche mer ah ché pa ha iss shah Earth let kuk let kuk chahk steep Dog wyets wy'ts chishé chish ee Fire mass mess mets ah Sun taum tahm wá noush leh kosh rah One koh tse kohtsa spinekoh issah Two er ee ta ritta nun ehr ach bok Three er ee ka rihk nak sa kui rahk Four re aw wa ri yah toh hun ne peehs Five wessa wéhsah mahr o tum ti rah o

The Chillulah, Wheelcutta, and Kailta were spoken on Redwood Creek, but before the extinction of these people, their languages were merged into that of the Hoopahs by whom they were subjugated. The language of the Chimalquays of New River has also been absorbed by the Hoopah. Of the Chimalquays Powers hyperbolically remarks "their language was like the mountain city of California, beautiful in its simplicity, but frail."[IV'-11]

[Sidenote: THE POMO FAMILY AND ITS DIALECTS.]

At Humboldt Bay a language called Patawat is mentioned, and in Round Valley the Yuka. The numerals in the latter tongue are--pongwe, one; opeh, two; malmeh, three; and omehet, four. In Potter Valley is the Tahtoo language which Mr Powers thinks may belong to the Pomo or the Yuka.[IV'-12] In the Eel River and Russian River valleys as far as the mouth of Russian River and in Potter Valley, the different tribes known by the names of Ukiahs or Yokias, Sanèls, Gallinomeros, Masallamagoons, Gualalas, and Matoles, speak various dialects of the Pomo language, which obtains in Potter Valley and the dialects of which become more and more estranged according to the distance from the aboriginal centre. The Pomo men are good linguists; they readily acquire all the different dialects of their language, which in places differ to such an extent, that unless they are previously learned they cannot be understood. Pomo women are not allowed to learn any dialect but their own.

The following comparative table of numerals will illustrate the relationship of these tribes, among which I include the Kulanapo spoken near Clear Lake, and of which Mr Gibbs has also noticed an affinity to the Russian River and Eel River languages; also, the language spoken by the natives of the Yonios Ranchería in Marin County.[IV'-13]

POMO. UKIAH. SANÉL. GALINO- KULANAPO. YUNIO. MERO.

One cha taro tate cha k'hah lih kalli Two co can co aco kots hotz Three sibbo sibbo sibboo mesibbo homeka humka Four tack duhan ducho meta dol caddol Five shal native mato tooshuh leh ma lema Six padeh tsadeh tsadeh lancha tsa di sav Seven copah hoyneit cóëmar latco ku la hots kolaus Eight cowal cogodol cogodol cométa ko ka dohl kadol Nine shalshal némgoshum númoshum chaco hah da rol shum gin Ten sala némpotec návacotec chasúto hah da rul tek hidelema

[Sidenote: GALLINOMERO GRAMMAR.]

On the Gallinomero dialect I make a few grammatical remarks. In conversation the Gallinomeros are rather slovenly and make use of frequent contractions and abbreviations like the English can't and shan't, which makes it difficult for a stranger to understand them. Another difficulty for the student is the convertibility of a number of letters, such as t into ch, sh into ch, i into ah, etc. Nouns have neither number, case, nor gender; the first being only occasionally indicated by a separate word--cha ataboónya, one man; aco ataboónja, two men. The genitive is formed by placing the words in juxtaposition--atópte meätega, the chief's brother; the governed word being always prepositive. None of the remaining cases are distinguished; for example--chadúna bidácha, I see the river; bidácha hoalye, I go to the river, or, into the river; bidácha huodúna, I come out of the river; didácha toholeéna, I go away from the river; the accusative may be recognized as being placed immediately after the verb, but there are many exceptions to this rule. Sometimes the accusative is also marked by the ending ga or gen--chechoanoótugen, I strike the boy; but this is seldom used. Verbs are always regular. There are present, imperfect, and future tenses, and three forms of the imperative, all distinctly marked by tense endings.

PRESENT INDICATIVE. IMPERFECT. FIRST FUTURE.

Do, tseena tseeteéna tseecúwa Go, hoalye hoaleteéna hoalecúwa Break, matsána matsanteéna matsancúwa Kill, matemána matemanteéna matemancúwa See, chadúna chaduteéna chaducúwa Fight, mehailme mehailmooteéna mehailmoocúwa

In some instances these endings are changed for the sake of euphony, certain letters being elided. The endings may really be called auxiliary verbs, attached to the principal verb. Thus the imperfect reads, literally, 'would be I go do,' the ending teena, being nothing but the word tseena, with the s omitted. In like manner the future is formed, as in tudáwa, to want, which is changed into cúwa.

There is nothing to denote number in the verb, as can be seen in the

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO BE.

I am, ahwa | We are, áyawa Thou art, ámawa | You are, ámawa He is, hámowa | They are, hámowa

Of the imperative, the following may serve as an example: hoáleluh, let me go; hoalin, go thou; hoálegun, let him go. The verb chadúna, to see, may signify either I see, or seeing, or to see, or it may be construed as a substantive--sight; or as an adjective in agglutination, as chadunatoboónya, a watchful man. Chanhódin is an auxiliary verb and is always prepositive. The pronouns are, ah, ahto, or ahmet, I; ama, thou; and wemo, waymo, hamo, or ámata, he. The first person of the pronoun is always omitted, except with the verb to be, and the second and third persons frequently. Pronominal adjectives are quite irregular, as owkey, from ah; maykey, from ama; wébakey, from wemo; and they are also used irregularly with nouns. Thus in medde, father; ahmen, or owkáhmen, or áhmedde, being equivalent to I father, my father. Here, also, euphony steps in and makes words sometimes wholly unrecognizable, as ahtótána, equivalent to méhand, and still more different, as mamówky, this is for me. Your father is máykemay; his father, wébamen. Thus it will be seen that medde is changed, or abbreviated, into men, and may. Sometimes the personal pronoun is agglutinated to the verb, and sometimes it is not;--chechoánomdo (chechoána meto), I strike you; meto tudáwa, I love you. As in many other Pacific States languages, we have here a reverential syllable, which in this language is always prefixed, whereas in others, for instance the Aztec, it is an affix. Speaking of persons related, or of things belonging, to the chief, the reverential me or jin, is always prefixed;--owkeybaì, my wife; maykeybaì, your wife; atópte meëtchen, the chief's wife; shinna, head; metoshin, your head; webashin, his head; atópte jinshinna, the chief's head. All adjectives are really substantives, and are used for both purposes. Thus, ootu, boy, also signifies little, or young. Adjectives are generally placed after nouns--majey codey, good day; but there are also many exceptions to this rule. Comparatives are expressed by the particle pala, more;--paleyabáta waymo ahmet, he is greater than I, pala becoming paléya, in composition. This is only used by the more intelligent class. A Gallinomero of the lower order would say, bata waymo ahmet, great he I. The principal characteristics of the language are euphony and brevity, to which all things else are subservient, but nevertheless, as I have shown already, agglutination is carried to the farthest extent.[IV'-14]

As will be seen by the following comparative table, the Pomo language, or rather one of its dialects, the Kulanapo, shows some affinity to the Malay family of languages. Of one hundred and seventy words which I have compared, I find fifteen per cent. showing Malay similarities, and more could perhaps have been found if the several vocabularies had been made upon some one system. As it is, I have been obliged to use a Malay, a Tonga, and other Polynesian vocabularies, taken by different persons, at different times. Without attempting to establish any relationship between the Polynesians and Californians, I present these similarities merely as a fact; these analogies I find existing nowhere else in California, and between them and no other Trans-Pacific peoples.[IV'-15]

[Sidenote: TRANS-PACIFIC COMPARISONS.]

DIALECT OF THE KULANAPO. MALAY. MALAY.

Woman dah do Kayan Mother nihk indi, ini Sakarran Husband dah'k laki, lake Malay Wife bai le bini Malay Head kai yah kapala Malay Hair moo sooh fooloo Tonga Neck mi yah gia Tonga Foot kah mah kaki Malay House kah (calli, Aztec) falle Tonga Sun lah láa Tonga Fire poh (Copeh) apoé Millanow Water k'hah vy, cawna Tonga Mountain dah no darud Suntah Black keela keelick kele Polynesian Bed keh dah reh duk dadara Malay Green doh tor ota Polynesian Dead mu dal mati Malay I hah au Polynesian One k'hah lih tasi Polynesian " tchah (Yukai) satu Malay Four dol tau Polynesian Five leh ma lima Malay Eat ku hu kai Polynesian Drink mih mea inoo Tonga To see el lih (Chocuyem) ilaw Tonga To go le loom aloo Tonga Bow pah chee pana Malay Tongue lehn teep (Chocuyem) lida Malay Leg co yok (Chocuyem) ku jak Suntah

The similarities existing between the Japanese and Chinese, and the Californian languages, appearing from a careful comparison of the same one hundred and seventy words, are insufficient to establish any relationship; the few resemblances may be regarded as purely accidental. Of these words I insert the following, which are all between which I have been able to discover any likeness:

Husband Japanese muko Costaños makho Teeth Chinese chi Copeh see ih Knife Japanese deba Costaños tepah Fire Chinese ho Choweshak ho Water Japanese sui Costaños see ee Dog Japanese chin Weitepek and chishe Ehnek Deer Japanese sh'ka Copeh siáh

The Choweshak and Batemdakaiee are mentioned as being spoken at the head of Eel River, and the Chocuyem in Marin County, near the Mission of San Rafael. On Russian River, there yet remain to be mentioned the Olamentke, and the Chwachamaju. All these may be properly classed as dialects nearly related to the Pomo family, and some of them may even be the same dialects under different names.[IV'-16]

Of the Chocuyem I give the following Lord's Prayer:

Api maco su lilecoe, ma nénas mi aués omai mácono mi taucuchs oyópa mi tauco chaquenit opú neyatto chaquenit opu liletto. Tu maco muye genum ji naya macono sucuji sulia mácono masócte, chague mat opu ma suli mayaco. Macoi yangia ume omutto, ulémi mácono omu incapo. Nette esa Jesus.[IV'-17]

In Round Valley, northern California, there is the before-mentioned Yuka language, which is connected with the Wapo, or Ashochemie, spoken near Calistoga, and in the mountains leading thence to the Geysers.[IV'-18]

On Yuba and Feather rivers are the Meidoos and Neeshenams of whose language Powers says that "the Meidoo shades away so gradually into the Neeshenam that it is extremely difficult to draw a line anywhere. But it must be drawn somewhere, because a vocabulary taken down on Feather River will lose three fourths of its words before it reaches the Cosumnes. Even a vocabulary taken on Bear River will lose half or more of its words in going to the Cosumnes, which denotes, as is the fact, that the Neeshenam language varies greatly within itself. Indeed, it is probably less homogeneous and more thronged with dialects than any other tongue in California. Let an Indian go even from Georgetown to American Flat, or from Bear River to Auburn, and, with the exception of the numerals he will not at first understand above one word in four, or five, or six. But, with this small stock in common, and the same laws of grammar to guide them, they pick up each others dialects with amazing rapidity. It is these wide variations which have caused some pioneers to believe that there is one tongue spoken on the plains around Sacramento, and another in the mountains; whereas they are as nearly identical as the mountain dialects are. So long as the numerals remain the same, I count it one language; and so long as this is the case, the Indians generally learn each others dialects; but when the numerals change utterly, they often find it easier to speak the English together than to acquire another tongue. As to the southern boundary of the Neeshenam there is no doubt, for at the Cosumnes the language changes abruptly and totally."

[Sidenote: LANGUAGES OF THE SACRAMENTO VALLEY.]

Along the banks of the Sacramento, two distinct linguistic systems are said to prevail. But to what extent all the languages mentioned in that vicinity are related, or can be classified, it is difficult to say; for not only is there great confusion in names, but what is more essential, vocabularies of most of them are wanting. On the eastern bank of the Sacramento and extending along Feather River, the Cosumnes, and other tributaries of the Sacramento, the following languages are mentioned: Ochecamne, Serouskumne, Chupumne, Omochumne, Siecumne, Walagumne, Cosumne, Sololumne, Turealumne, Saywamine, Newichumne, Matchemne, Sagayayumne, Muthelemne, Sopotatumne, and Talatiu. In all these dialects the word for water is kik, but in the dialects spoken on the west bank it is mómi. On the western bank are mentioned the dialects of the Pujuni, Puzlumne, Secumne, Tsamak, Yasumne, Nemshaw, Kisky, Yalesumne, Huk, and others.[IV'-19] Undoubtedly all these Sacramento Valley dialects are more or less related, but of them we have no positive knowledge except that the Secumne and Tsamak are closely related, while the Puzlumne and Talatiu also show many words in common, but cannot be said to affiliate.[IV'-20] In the mountains south of the Yuba, and also on some parts of the Sacramento the Cushna language obtains. On the latter river Wilkes mentions the Kinkla, of which he says that in comparison with the language of the northern nations it may be called soft, "as much so as that of the Polynesians." Repetitions of syllables appear to be frequent as wai-wai, and hau-hau-hau.[IV'-21] In Napa Valley six dialects were spoken, the Myacoma, Calayomane, Caymus, Napa, Uluka, and Suscol.[IV'-22] In Solano County the Guiluco language was spoken, of which the following Lord's Prayer may serve as a specimen:

Allá igamé mutryocusé mi zahuá om mi yahuatail cha usqui etra shou mur tzecali ziam pac onjinta mul zhaiíge nasoyate chelegua mul znatzoitze tzecali zicmatan zchiitiilaa chalehua mesqui pihuatzite yteima omahuá. Emqui Jesus.[IV'-23]

Near the straits of Karquines, and also in the San Joaquin and Tulare valleys, the Tulare tongue prevailed. In this language, if we may believe M. Duflot de Mofras, the letters b, d, f, g, and r do not exist, the r being changed into l, as maria, malia. Many guttural sounds like kh, tsh, lm, tp, tsp, th, etc., are found, yet softer than the gutturals of the north. Notwithstanding the above statement M. de Mofras gives as a specimen of the Tulare language the following Lord's Prayer, in which the r frequently occurs:

Appa macquen erinigmo tasunimac emracat, jinnin eccey macquen iunisínmac macquen quitti éné soteyma erinigmo: sumimac macquen hamjamú jinnan guara ayei: sunun macquen quit ti enesunumac ayacma: aquectsem unisimtac nininti equetmini: juriná macquen equetmini em men.

[Sidenote: SPECIMENS OF SOUTHERN LANGUAGES.]

Of the languages spoken at the mission of Santa Inez the following Lord's Prayer is given by M. de Mofras; and this is very likely in the true Tulare language in place of the one above.

Dios caquicoco upalequen alapa, quiaenicho opte: paquininigug quique eccuet upalacs huatahuc itimisshup caneche alapa. Ulamuhu ilahulalisahue. Picsiyug equepe ginsucutaniyug uquiyagmagin, canechequique quisagin sucutanagun utiyagmayiyug peux hoyug quie utic lex ulechop santequiyug ilautechop. Amen Jesus.[IV'-24]

The Tulare language is probably the same which was known under the name of Kahweyah in central California and may have some connection with the Cahuillo in the southern part of the state.[IV'-25]

Languages in the interior, of which but little more than the name and the region where they were spoken is known, are, on the Tuolumne River the Hawhaw and another which has no particular name; on the Merced River the Coconoon with a dialect extending to King River and to Tulare Lake.[IV'-26] Mr Powers makes of the tribes inhabiting Kern and Tulare valleys the Yocut nation, yocut signifying an aggregation of people, while myee, or nono, means man. "It is a singular fact," observes this writer, "that in several of the northern languages kiya denotes dog, while in the Yocut, kiya is coyote."

From Mr Powers I have also the following vocabularies, which have never before been published.

CAHROC. MEIDOO. PALEGAWONÀP.

Man awans midoo anghanil Woman asicitáwa catee coyeem Sun coosooda pocum tahl Earth soosaney caweh serwahl Dog cheshee seyu poongool Water ahs momeh pahl Stone ass ohm tuhnt Fire alih sum quoat Head huchwa onum koönte Mouth apman cumbo tawkunte Hand teeik ma mah Big nuckishnuck haylin Little neenums wedaka To eat ohámt pin To give tanneëh meëy To work ickeeàht tawale

MEEWOC. YOCUT. NEESHENAM.

Man Meewa nono neeshenam or maidee Woman Osuh mokella cülleh Sun Watoo ope ophy Earth Toleh hoocheh cow Dog Chookoo chehca sooh Water Kikuh ilic moh Stone Sawa sileh oam Fire Wookeh osit sah Head Hanna oochuh tsoll Mouth Awoh samah sim Hand Tissuh poonose mah Big Oyaneh koteh nem Little Toonchickche colich hunum To eat Sowuh hateh pap To give wahneh meh To work tawhaleh towhàn

Information regarding the languages spoken where the city of San Francisco now stands, and throughout the adjacent country, is meagre, and of a very indefinite character. On the shores of San Francisco Bay, there are the languages spoken by the Matalans, Salses, and Quirotes, which are dialects of one mother language.[IV'-27] This language has by some been called the Olhone, and although other dialects are mentioned as belonging to it, it is generally stated that but one general language was spoken by all of them.[IV'-28] Southward, near Monterey, there are more positive data. Here we find as the principal languages, the two spoken by the Runsiens and Eslenes; besides which, the Ismuracan and Aspianaque are mentioned.[IV'-29]

[Sidenote: DIALECTS OF THE RUNSIEN AND ESLENE.]

But although they are called distinct languages, Taylor affirms that the Eslenes, Sakhones, Chalones, Katlendarukas, Poytoquis, Mutsunes, Thamiens, and many others, spoke different dialects of the Runsien language, and that over a stretch of country one hundred and seventy miles in length, the natives were all able to converse with greater or less facility with each other, and that although "their dialects were infinitesimal and puzzling, their vocal communications were intelligible enough when brought together at the different missions." La Pérouse's Achastliens and Ecclemachs are probably nothing more than other names for some of the above-mentioned dialects.[IV'-30]

Not only do all these before-mentioned languages show a relationship one with another, but there are faint resemblances detected between them and the Olhone language of San Francisco Bay. Furthermore, between the latter and the language spoken at La Soledad Mission, as well as that of the Olamentkes of Russian River, which I have already classed with the Pomo family, there are faint traces of relationship.[IV'-31]

MUTSUN. LA SOLEDAD. RUNSIEN. ACHASTLIEN.

One hemethscha himítsa enjalá moukala Two usthrgin utshe ultis outis Three capjan hapkha kappei capes Four uthrit utjit ultizim outiti Five parnes paruash hali izú is Father appá nikápa appan Mother anan nikána aán Daughter ca niká kaana Nose us us Ears ocho otsho Mouth jai hai

A further confirmation of this relationship is found in the statement of the first missionary Fathers, who traveled overland from Monterey to San Francisco, and who, although at that time totally unacquainted with these languages, recognized resemblances in certain words.[IV'-32] The dialect spoken at the Mission of Santa Clara has been preserved to us only in the shape of the Lord's Prayer which follows:

Appa macréne mé saura saraahtiga elecpuhmen imragat, sacan macréne mensaraah assueiy nouman ourun macari pireca numa ban saraathtiga poluma macréne souhaii naltis anat macréne neéna, ia annanit macréne nieena, ia annanit macréne macrec équetr maccari noumabaú mare annan, nou maroté, jassemper macréne in eckoué tamouniri innam tattahné icatrarca oniet macréne equets naccaritkoun oun och á Jésus.[IV'-33]

[Sidenote: MUTSUN GRAMMAR.]

Of the Mutsun dialect I give the following grammatical notes. Words of this language do not contain the letters b, d, k, f, v, x, and the rolling r.

DECLENSION OF THE WORD APPA, FATHER.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

Nom. appa appagma Gen. appa appagma Dat. appahuas appagmahuas Acc. appase apagamase Voc. appa appagma Abl. appatsu {or appatca appagmatsu {or appamatca {or appame {or appagmane

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB ARÁ, TO GIVE.

PRESENT INDICATIVE.

I give, can ará | We give, macse ará Thou givest, men ará | You give, macam ará He gives, nunissia ará | They give, nupcan ará

PAST.

I gave (a very short time ago), can itzs arán I gave (a long while ago), can cus arás I gave (very long ago), can hocs ará I gave (from time immemorial), can munna arás I gave (without mentioning time), can arán I gave (who knows when), can arás I gave (sometime ago), can araicun I gave (already), can aragte

FUTURE.

I shall give (soon), can et (or iete) ará I shall give (after many days), can iti ará I shall give (after many years), can múnna ará I shall have given (perhaps), can piñ arán

IMPERATIVE.

Give me, arat, or aratit Give thyself, araia Give him, arai, or arati Give them, arais

SUBJUNCTIVE.

That I give, cat ará If I gave, imatcum can ará, or cochop tucne can ará

The language abounds in adverbs, of which I give the following.

This day neppe tengis To-morrow aruta Now naha Since yete Immediately iñaha Always imi Never ecue et Before aru Never more ecue imi Much tolon Good miste, utin Very much tompe Bad equitseste Little cutis Gently chequen Very little cuti Certainly amane Yes gehe No ecue Truly asaha, eres To-day naha Look giré

Adjectives are declined the same as substantives when they are declined alone; but they differ in their declension from substantives when they are declined in connection with them, because then they do not change their terminations, but remain the same in all the cases. The rules of syntax are intricate and very difficult.

Father Comelias speaks of a language at the Mission of Santa Cruz, with numerous dialects, in fact so many, that the language changed nearly every two leagues, and being at times so divergent, that it was with difficulty neighboring people could understand one another.[IV'-34] In the vicinity of the Mission San Antonio de Padua, there is a language which has been variously named, Tatché, Telamé, and Sextapay. It appears to be a distinct language, and Taylor affirms that the people speaking it could not understand those of La Soledad Mission, thirty miles north.[IV'-35] In this language the letters b, d, r, do not appear; na expresses the article the, and also this. There are many different ways of expressing the plural of nouns. Some add the syllable il, el, l, or li, others insert ti, or t, while others again add leg, aten, ten, or teno, as may be seen in the following examples.[IV'-36]

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

Counsellor tayito tayilito Flame me^ache^alíya me^ache^aliliya Work tácâto taquele^ato My enemy zitcho^fn zitcho^fne^al Brother citol citolanél Grass ca*tz ca*tza^onél Man tama tamaten Mouse e^azzqui*lmog e^azzqui*lmoco*ten Oven aloconíya alocotiníya Prison que^aluezúgne que^aluezúgtine Fat cu*pinit cupinitleg Woman lixii litzzin Bone ejacô ejaclíto

[Sidenote: TATCHE GRAMMAR.]

Cases do not appear to exist, the relations of the nouns being expressed by particles. Adjectives do not vary to show gender or degree. Personal pronouns are usually copulative and included in the verb, whether subjective or objective. Of the use of the possessive pronoun the following examples will give the clearest idea: Brother, citolo; my brother, cítol; thy brother, e^atsmitol; brothers, citolanélo; my brothers, citolanél; thy brothers, e^atsmitolanel; mother, epjo; thy mother, petsmipeg; house, ch^viconou; my house, ch^vícono^v; thy house, zimch^vicono; blood, akata; my blood, ekata; thy blood, cimekata; father, ecco; my father, tili; thy father, cimic; our father, tatilli; work, tácâto; my work, tácât; thy work, cimtácât; our work, zatúcât; your work, zugtácât; mine, zeé; thine, e^atsme^amée; this, na; that, pe^a.

Verbs have also a plural form. Ca*lom, to teach; ca*^ólilom, to teach much, or, to teach many.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

To desire quia^olep quia^olilep To drink cácheme cáchetem To run quenole quenoltec To say maláco maloltaco To walk qui*tipa^v qui*lipa{_v}

VERB AND PRONOUN.

I teach, 'eca^o*lom | Give me, me^aya^oc He teaches me, quepa^oalác | Give us, maítiltac Speak thou to me, pssia^oc | He gives us, pe^aya^oc Speak you to me, pssitác | He gives us, paitiltac To give, peyaco, pe^aíco

I love thee, 'epe^apa^omaqueca Thou lovest thyself, mimo e^atame^apa^omapque*co

The following are prepositions: by, zo; in ne^ape^a; to zui, zuiyo, zo; from, ze^ape^a; on, zui; within, zine^apa^v. A few examples of adverbs are--here, _zopa{v}; there, ne^apé; to-day, taha; to-morrow, tixjáy; yesterday, notcieyo.

LORD'S PRAYER.

Za tili, mo quixco ne^ape^a limaatnil. An zucueteyem Our father, thou art in heaven. Hallowed

na etsmatz: antsiejtsitia na ejtmilina. An citaha the thy name: come the thy kingdom. Be done

natsmalog zui lac* quicha ne^ap^ae lima. Ma^itiltac taha thy will on earth as in heaven. Give us to-day

zizalamaget zizucanatel ziczia. Za manimtiltac na our food our daily. Forgive us the

zanayl, quicha na kac apaninitílico na zananaol. Zi Debts, as the we forgive them the our debt.

quetza commanatatelnec za alimeta zo na ziuxnia. Let not us fall into the temptation.

Za no quissili jom zig zumtaylitee. Amen.[IV'-37] Us from evil defend.

[Sidenote: SAN MIGUEL AND SANTA CRUZ VOCABULARY.]

Another distinct language is found at and near the Mission of San Miguel, but of it nothing but a short vocabulary taken by Mr Hale is known. The language spoken at San Gabriel and at San Fernando Rey, called Kizh, and the Netela used at San Juan Capistrano, I shall not describe here, but include them with the Shoshone family, to which they are related. The Chemehuevi and Cahuillo I also place among the Shoshone dialects, while the Diegeño and Comeya will be included in the Yuma family. It therefore only remains for me to speak of the languages of the islands near the coast of California. Of these, the principal, or mother language, was spoken on the island of Santa Cruz. The different tribes inhabiting the various islands all spoke dialects of one language, which was somewhat guttural. I insert a short vocabulary of the Santa Cruz Island language with that of the Mission of San Miguel.

SAN MIGUEL. SANTA CRUZ ISLAND.

Man loaí, or loguai alamuün Woman tlené hemutch Father tata ceske Mother apai osloe Head tobuko pispulaoah Hair teasakho toffooll Ears tentkhito pasthoo Eyes trugento tisplesoose Mouth treliko pasaotch One tohi ismala Two kogsu ischum Three tlobahi maseghe Four kesa scumoo Five oldrato sietisma Six paiate sietischum Seven tepa sietmasshugh Eight sratel malawah Nine teditrup spah Ten trupa kascum[IV'-38]

FOOTNOTES:

[IV'-1] Roseborough's Letter to the Author, MS.; The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS. 'The diversity of language is so great in California, that at almost every 15 or 20 leagues, you find a distinct dialect.' Boscana, in Robinson's Life in Cal., p. 240. 'Il n'est peut-être aucun pays où les différens idiomes soient aussi multipliés que dans la Californie septentrionale.' La Pérouse, Voy., tom. ii., p. 323. 'One might spend years with diligence in acquiring an Indian tongue, then journey a three-hours' space, and find himself adrift again, so multitudinous are the languages and dialects of California.' Powers' North. Cal. Ind., in Overland Monthly, vol. viii., p. 328. 'The diversity is such as to preclude almost entirely all verbal communication.' Hutchings' Cal. Mag., vol. iii., p. 159. 'Languages vary from tribe to tribe.' Pickering's Races, in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. ix., p. 106. 'In California, there appears to be spoken two or more distinct languages.' McCulloh's Researches in Amer., p. 37; Kotzebue's Voyage, vol. iii., p. 48; Id., New Voy., vol. ii., p. 98; Taylor, in Bancroft's Handbook Almanac, 1864, p. 29.

[IV'-2] See vol. i., p. 325; Roseborough's Letter to the Author, MS.; The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS.; Hutchings' Cal. Mag., vol. iii., p. 159

[IV'-3] Powers' Pomo, MS.

[IV'-4] Roseborough's Letter to the Author, MS.

[IV'-5] 'The Lutuami, Shasti and Palaik are thrown by Gallatin into three separate classes. They are without doubt mutually unintelligible. Nevertheless they cannot be very widely separated.' Latham's Comp. Phil., vol. viii., p. 407. The T-ka, Id-do-a, Ho-te-day, We-o-how, or Shasta Indians, speak the same language. Steele, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1864, p. 120. The Modocs speak the same language as the Klamaths. Palmer, in Id., 1854, p. 262; Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 218; Berghaus, Geographisches Jahrbuch, tom. iii., p. 48; Taylor, in Cal. Farmer, June 8, 1860. 'A branch of the latter (Shoshone) is the tribe of Tlamath Indians.' Ruxton's Adven. Mex., p. 244.

[IV'-6] The Shastas and their Neighbors, MS.

[IV'-7] Jackson's Vocab. of the Wintoon Language, MS.; Powers' Vocabularies, MS.

[IV'-8] Powers' Pomo, MS.

[IV'-9] Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 422. 'The junction of the rivers Klamath, or Trinity, gives us the locality of the Weitspek. Its dialects, the Weyot and Wishosk, extend far into Humboldt county, where they are probably the prevailing form of speech, being used on the Mad River, and the parts about Cape Mendocino. From the Weitspek they differ much more than they do from each other.' Latham's Comp. Phil., vol. viii., p. 40. 'Weeyot und Wish-osk, unter einander verwandt.' Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Spr., p. 575.

[IV'-10] Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., pp. 422-3.

[IV'-11] Powers' Pomo, MS.

[IV'-12] Roseborouqh's Letter to the Author, MS.; Powers' Pomo, MS.

[IV'-13] Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., pp. 421-2; Powers' Pomo, MS.; Taylor, in Cal. Farmer, March 30, 1860.

[IV'-14] Powers' Notes on Cal. Languages, MS.

[IV'-15] Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 428, et seq.; Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 342, et seq; Keppel's Exped., vol. i., appendix, p. 14, et Seq.; Martin's Tonga Isl., vol. ii.

[IV'-16] 'Die Indianer in Bodega verstehen nur mit Mühe die Sprache derjenigen welche in den Ebenen am Slawänka-Flusse leben; die Sprache der nördlich von Ross lebenden Stämme ist ihnen völlig unverständlich.' Baer, Stat. u. Ethno., p. 75. 'Die Bodegischen Indianer verstehen die nördlichen nicht, sowohl die Sprache als die Art der Aussprache ist verschieden. Die Entferten und die Steppen-Indianer sprechen eine Menge Dialecte oder Sprachen, deren Eigenthümlichkeit und Verwandtschaft noch nicht bekannt sind.' Kostromitonow, in Id., p. 80; Gibbs, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 421. 'Kulanapo und Yukai, verwandt: d. h. in dem beschränkten Grade, dass viele Wörter zwischen ihnen übereinstimmen, viele andere, z. B. ein guter Theil der Zahlwörter, verschieden sind.... Choweshak und Batemdakaiee sehr genau und im vollkommnen Maasse unter einander und wiederum beide ganz genau mit Yukai, und auch Kulanapo verwandt.... Wichtig ist es aber zu sagen, dass die Sprache Tchokoyem mit dem Olamentke der Bodega Bai und mit der Mission S. Raphael nahe gleich ist.' Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Spr., p. 575. 'The Kanimares speak a different dialect from the Tamalos. The Sonoma Indians also speak different from Tamalos. The Sonomos speak a similar dialect as the Suisuns. The San Rafael Indians speak the same as the Tamalos.' Taylor, in Cal. Farmer, March 30th, 1860.

[IV'-17] Mofras, Explor., tom. ii., p. 391.

[IV'-18] Powers' Pomo, MS.

[IV'-19] Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., pp. 222, 630; Wilkes' Nar., in Id., vol. v., p. 201.

[IV'-20] 'Puzhune, Sekamne, Tsamak und Talatui ... Sekumne und Tsamak sind nahe verwandt, die übrigen zeigen gemeinsames und fremdes.' Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Spr., p. 571. 'Hale's vocubulary of the Talatiu belongs to the group for which the name of Moquelumne is proposed, a Moquelumne Hill and a Moquelumne River being found within the area over which the languages belonging to it are spoken. Again, the names of the tribes that speak them end largely in mne, Chupumne, etc. As far south as Tuolumne County the language belongs to this division, viz., 1, the Mumaltachi; 2, Mullateco; 3, Apaugasi; 4, Lapappu; 5, Siyante, or Typoxi band, speak this language.' Latham's Comp. Phil., vol. viii., p. 414.

[IV'-21] Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. v., p. 201.

[IV'-22] Montgomery's Indianology of Napa County, MS.

[IV'-23] Mofras, Explor., tom. ii., p. 391.

[IV'-24] Arroyo, Gram. de la lengua Tulareña, MS., quoted in Mofras, Explor., tom. ii., p. 388, see also pp. 392-3. 'Malgré le grand nombre de dialectes des Missions de la Californie, les Franciscains espagnols s'étaient attachés à apprendre la langue générale de la grande vallée de los Tulares, dont presque toutes les tribus sont originaires, et ils ont rédigés le vocabulaire et une sorte de grammaire de cette langue nommée el Tulareño.' Id., p. 387.

[IV'-25] Taylor, in Cal. Farmer, May 25, 1860.

[IV'-26] Johnston, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 407. 'Die Sprachen der Coconoons und die vom King's River sind nahe verwandt.' Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Spr., p. 564.

[IV'-27] 'Dans la baie de San Francisco on distingue les tribus des Matalans, Salsen et Quirotes, dont les langues dérivent d'une souche commune.' Humboldt, Essai Pol., tom. i., pp. 321-2; Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. ii., pt ii., p. 454.

[IV'-28] 'The tribe of Indians which roamed over this great valley, from San Francisco to near San Juan Bautista Mission ... were the Olhones. Their language slightly resembled that spoken by the Mutsuns, at the Mission of San Juan Bautista, although it was by no means the same.' Hall's San José, p. 40. 'In the single Mission Santa Clara more than twenty languages are spoken.' Kotzebue's New Voy., vol. ii., p. 98; Kotzebue's Voyage, vol. iii., p. 51; Beechey's Voyage, vol. ii., p. 78; Choris, Voy. Pitt., pt iii., pp. 5-6; Conder's Mex. Guat., vol. ii., pp. 94-5.

[IV'-29] 'La misma diferencia que se advierte en los usos y costumbres de una y otra nacion hay en sus idiomas.' Sutil y Mexicana, Viage, p. 172.

[IV'-30] 'Each tribe has a different dialect; and though their districts are small, the languages are sometimes so different that the neighbouring tribes cannot understand each other. I have before observed that in the Mission of San Carlos there are eleven different dialects.' Beechey's Voyage, vol. ii., p. 73. 'La langue de ces habitans (Ecclemachs) diffère absolument de toutes celles de leurs voisins; elle a même plus de rapport avec nos langues Européennes qu'avec celles de l'Amérique.... L'idiome de cette nation est d'ailleurs plus riche que celui des autres peuples de la Californie.' La Pérouse, Voy., tom. ii., pp. 324-326. 'La partie septentrionale de la Nouvelle-Californie est habitée par les deux nations de Rumsen et Escelen. Elles parlent des langues entièrement différentes.' Humboldt, Essai Pol., tom. i., p. 321. 'Beyde Darstellungen derselben sind, wie man aus der so bestimmten Erklärung beider Schriftsteller, dass diese zwey Völker die Bevölkerung jener Gegend ausmachen, schliessen muss, ohne Zweifel unter verschiedenen Abtheilungen Eines Volkes aufgefasst, unter dessen Zweigen die Dialekte, ungeregelt, wie sie sind, leicht grosse Abweichungen von einander zeigen werden.' Vater, Mithridates, tom. iii., pt. iii., p. 202; Taylor, in Cal. Farmer, Feb. 22, Apr. 20, 1860.

[IV'-31] 'Es erhellt aber aus den Zahlwörtern und anderen Wörtern, dass die Sprache von la Soledad, der Runsien nahe gleich und der Achastlier ähnlich ist.' Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Spr., p. 561; Turner, in Hist. Mag., vol. i., p. 206.

[IV'-32] 'En estos indios reparé que entendian mas que otros los términos de Monterey y entendí muchos términos de lo que hablaban.... El diciéndome meapam tu eres mi padre, que es la misma palabra que usan los de Monterey.' Palou, Noticias, in Doc. Hist. Mex., série iv., tom. vii., pp. 62-3, 59, 65, 67, 69.

[IV'-33] Mofras, Explor., tom. ii., p. 392.

[IV'-34] Comelias, in Cal. Farmer, April 5, 1860.

[IV'-35] Taylor, in Id., April 27, 1860.

[IV'-36] 'Quod quanquam hoc idioma ineloquens videatur et inelegans, in rei veritate non est ita: est valde copiosum, oblongum, abundans et eloquens.' Arroyo de la Cuesta, Alphabs Rivulus Obeundus, preface, also, Arroyo de la Cuesta, Mutsun Grammar. On the cover of the manuscript is the following important note. 'Copia de la lengua Mutsun en estilo Catalan á causa la escribió un Catalan. La Castellana usa de la fuerza de la pronunciacion de letras de otro modo en su alfabeto.' The Catalans pronounce ch hard, and j like the Germans.

[IV'-37] Sitjar, Vocabulario de la M. de San Antonio. The orthography employed by Father Sitjar is very curious; accents, stars, small letters above or below the line, and various other marks are constantly used; but no explanation of these have been found in the MS. I have therefore, as far as possible, presented the original style of writing. See also Mofras, Explor., tom. ii., pp. 392-3.

[IV'-38] Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., pp. 633-4; Taylor, in Cal. Farmer, May 4, 1860.

V. SHOSHONE LANGUAGES

AZTEC-SONORA CONNECTIONS WITH THE SHOSHONE FAMILY -- THE UTAH, COMANCHE, MOQUI, KIZH, NETELA, KECHI, CAHUILLO, AND CHEMEHUEVI -- EASTERN AND WESTERN SHOSHONE, OR WIHINASHT -- THE BANNACK AND DIGGER, OR SHOSHOKEE -- THE UTAH AND ITS DIALECTS -- THE GOSHUTE, WASHOE, PAIULEE, PIUTE, SAMPITCHE, AND MONO -- POPULAR BELIEF AS TO THE AZTEC ELEMENT IN THE NORTH -- GRIMM'S LAW -- SHOSHONE, COMANCHE, AND MOQUI COMPARATIVE TABLE -- NETELA STANZA -- KIZH GRAMMAR -- THE LORD'S PRAYER IN TWO DIALECTS OF THE KIZH -- CHEMEHUEVI AND CAHUILLO GRAMMAR -- COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY.

In this chapter I include all the languages of the Shoshone family, the Wihinasht or western Shoshone of Idaho and Oregon, the Utah with its many dialects, the Comanche or Yetan of Texas and New Mexico, the Moqui of Arizona, the Kizh, Netela, and Kechi of the San Fernando Mission, and their dialects, and the Cahuillo and Chemehuevi of south-eastern California. The six last mentioned do not properly belong to the Shoshone family, but on account of certain faint traces of Aztec, found alike in them and in all Shoshone idioms, I cannot do better than to speak of them in this connection. As regards this Aztec element, I do not mean to say that these languages are related to the Aztec language, in the same sense that other languages are spoken of as being related to each other, for this might lead those who are searching for the former habitation or fatherland of the Aztecs, to suppose that it has been found. This element consists simply in a number of words, identical or reasonably approximate to the like Aztec words, and in the similarity, perhaps, of a few grammatical rules. How this Aztec word-material crept into the languages of the Shoshones, whether by intercommunication, or Aztec colonization, we do not know. Nor do I wish to be understood as attempting to sustain the popular theory of an Aztec migration from the north; on the contrary, the evidence of language is all on the other side. Whether or not the Great Basin, or any part of the Northwest, was once occupied by the ancient Mexicans, it is certain that the Aztec language, as a base, is found nowhere north of central Mexico, so that these incidental or accidental word-analogies if they prove anything, indicate only a scattering from some primeval centre, other than the place where they are found, and tend to show that the language whose words are thus thinly sprinkled over so broad an area, could not have been the aboriginal stock language of the country.

[Sidenote: SHOSHONE AND UTAH DIALECTS.]

The Shoshone and the Utah are the principal languages of the great interior basin; and these may be regarded as sisters of a common mother language, the Shoshone preponderating. Each has many dialects. The Shoshone language may be divided into eastern, or Shoshone proper, and western Shoshone, or Wihinasht. Of the former the Bannack, and the Digger, or Shoshokee, are the chief variations. The Utah dialects, more numerous, are the Goshute, Washoe, Paiulee, Piute, Sampitche, Mono, and a few others, which latter vary so little from some one of the others, that it is unnecessary to trace them as separate dialects. The Comanche dialects I shall not attempt to classify.[V'-1] No grammar has ever been written of any of these languages. In all of them words are generally accented on the first syllable, except when a possessive pronoun is prefixed. Words of more than four syllables, generally have a secondary accent on the fifth, as in té-ith-tis-chi-hó-no, valley.[V'-2] A few words in these languages are found almost identical with like words of the Tinneh family, which have probably found their way into them by intercommunication. Of these the following are the principal ones, so far as designated by existing vocabularies:

[Sidenote: SHOSHONE AND TINNEH SIMILARITIES.]

Fire: Comanche, ku-ona; Shoshone, kuna; Chepewyan, counn, kon, kone; Utah, coon. Bow: Comanche, eth; Shoshone, atschö; Wihinasht, ati; Chepewyan, atheike. Cold: Comanche, etscho; Shoshone, ötschoin; Wihinasht, izíts; Chepewyan, edzah. Eye: Comanche, nachich; Chepewyan, nackhay.[V'-3]

In the Wihinasht, words occur sometimes in which an unusual number of vowels are combined--paöaíu, great; long words are also not infrequent, like pimatiyimwaiákin, salt.[V'-4] A short comparative vocabulary to show the connection between these languages, is given further on.

[Sidenote: AZTEC TRACES NORTH OF MEXICO.]

Let us now consider the often discussed but ill understood question of the Aztec language in the north. Torquemada and Vetancvrt narrate the expedition of Juan de Oñate, who invaded New Mexico during the last years of the sixteenth century. Father Roque de Figueredo, who accompanied the expedition, says that while searching for a lost mule, at the Rio del Tizon, the Mexican muleteers met certain natives who addressed them in their own language, and who, on being asked whence they came, answered that they came from the north, where that language was spoken. Clavigero, who repeats the above, also asserts, that during the expedition made by the Spaniards, in 1606, to New Mexico, when north of the Rio del Tizon, they saw some large houses, and near them certain natives who spoke the Mexican language. Then we have the statement of Father Gerónimo de Zárate, that while searching for the Laguna de Copala, he was informed, among other things, that the country in its vicinity was densely peopled by men who spoke a language similar to that of his Aztec servants. Zárate was at this time at the Rio del Tizon, and the natives, who are close observers in such matters, assured the Spaniards that they detected in the speech of the servant certain words common to both his own and the language of the people of the Laguna de Copala. And again, in the region toward the east, Acosta says that "of late they have discovered a new land, which they call New Mexico, where they say is much people that speake the Mexican tongue."

Vater, in his Mithridates, intimates that the Mexican language spread far northward, through the roamings of wild tribes, particularly the Chichimecs; but when we remember that the term Chichimec was applied by the early Spaniards to all the immense unknown nomadic hordes north and west, this mention carries with it but little weight. Mr Anderson, who accompanied Captain Cook to the north-west coast, in 1778, fancied he detected a resemblance between the Aztec and the language of the Nootkas. "From the few Mexican words," he says, "I have been able to procure, there is the most obvious agreement, in the very frequent terminations of the vowels in l, tl, or z, throughout the language." And remarks the editor, "may we not, in confirmation of Mr. Anderson's remark, observe, that Opulszthl, the Nootka name of the Sun; and Vitziputzli, the name of the Mexican Divinity, have no very distant affinity in sound." Now the absurdity of all idle speculations is apparent when we encounter such far-fetched comparisons as this. In the first place, there is no affinity in the sounds of the two words, and in the next place there is no such Aztec god--Huitzilopochtli probably being the god meant. Neither has this last word any resemblance to the sun; it is composed of the two words, huitzilin, an abbreviation of the Mexican huitzitzilin, which signifies 'humming-bird,' and opochtli, that is to say 'left.' Vater also draws analogies between the Aztec and the Nootka, and Ugalenze, which on close comparison do not hold good.

Regarding the affinity of the Aztec language with those of the Pueblos, Moquis, Apaches, Yumas, and others of New Mexico and Arizona, Ruxton ventures the assertion, "all these speak dialects of the same language.... They likewise all understand each other's tongue. What relation this language bears to the Mexican is unknown; but my impression is, that it will be found to assimilate greatly, if not to be identical,"--in all of which assertions Mr Ruxton is greatly in error.

All this, as evidence, does not amount to much; it only indicates the origin of a popular belief which placed a Mexican language in various parts of the north, while at the same time it shows upon how slender a thread hangs this belief, and how the vaguest traditionary rumors come, by repetition, to be accredited as fixed facts.

Buschmann asks himself the question whether the Aztec words, in any considerable number, are not found in any other languages of the great Mexican empire--in the Zapotec, Miztec, Tarasco, Otomí, or Huastec--and the answer is no; he has discovered a few accidental word-similarities, such as may be found between the Aztec and other American languages, or between any two languages of the world, but nothing which, by any possibility, could denote relationship.

From another class of evidence we approach a little nearer the truth. Andres Perez de Ribas, missionary to Sinaloa writing about 1640, says, that while studying the language of his people, he noticed many Mexican words particularly radicals, and also words which appeared to have been originally Mexican, but which had been so altered that only one or two syllables in them could be recognized as Aztec.

Father Ortega, in 1732, wrote a vocabulary of the Cora language, in which he says, the people had incorporated in their language many words of the Mexican and some few of the Spanish languages, and this at a period so early that at the time of his writing they were regarded as belonging to the original language.

Hervas, whose work appeared in 1787, says that the Tarahumara language is full of Mexican words. Vater, writing early in the nineteenth century, affirms that the Cora is remarkable for its relation to the Mexican, and that the Tarahumara, which is a more polished language than its neighbors, contains some words similar to the Aztec. In his Mithridates, Vater notices a relationship between the Cora and the Aztec, furthermore asserting that the conjugations of the two are so alike as plainly to prove the connection.

Wilhelm von Humboldt left us a short manuscript grammar of the Cora and Tarahumara, in which he remarks that for languages which are related, the Cora and the Mexican have great differences in their sound-systems, and although these two languages certainly appear to be related, yet he is unwilling to assert that either is derived from the other. "There are more ways than one," says the great philologist Wilhelm von Humboldt, "by which languages are connected. The impression left upon me by the Cora, is that it is a mixture of two different languages: one the Mexican, and the other some older and richer language, but rougher. In the grammar of the Cora there are found very many forms which strikingly call to mind the Mexican, yet at the same time there are many forms wholly different, made by rules directly opposite, among which are the pronouns." He further remarks two other important differences between the Cora and the Mexican which are the absence of the reduplication of syllables and of the reverential forms.

Such was the attitude of the subject when Mr Buschmann took it up. From the prevailing impression of an Aztec origin in the north, but more particularly from certain remarks of Alexander von Humboldt concerning the probable passing of the ancient Mexicans through the regions of the north, he set himself to work to find this line of migration, and the exact relations of their language in various parts. Commencing at the Valley of Mexico he made a careful analysis of every western language north of that place of which he could obtain any material. The result of Mr Buschmann's researches was the discovery of Aztec traces in certain parts, but nowhere did he find the Aztec language as a base.

[Sidenote: AZTEC TRACES IN NORTHERN MEXICO.]

More particularly were these Aztec words and word-analogies perceptible in four certain languages of north-western Mexico; in the Cora, spoken in the Nayarit district of Jalisco, commencing about fifteen leagues from the coast at the mouth of the Rio Tololotlan, and extending between the parallels 21°30' and 20° back irregularly into the interior about twenty leagues; in the Tepehuana of northern Sinaloa, northern Durango, and southern Chihuahua, or as laid down on the map of Orozco y Berra, commencing near the twenty-third parallel about twenty leagues from the eastern shore of the Gulf of California, and extending over a horse-shoe shaped territory to about the twenty-seventh parallel; in the Tarahumara spoken immediately north of the Tepehuana in the states of Chihuahua and Sonora, in the centre of the Sierra Madre; and lastly in the Cahita spoken by the people inhabiting the eastern shore of the Gulf of California, between latitude 26° and 28° north, and extending back from the coast irregularly about forty leagues, being almost directly west of the Tarahumara, though not exactly contiguous. The name Cahita is applied by the missionaries only to the language, and not to the people speaking it. In the license prefixed to the Manual para administrar à los Indios del idioma Cahita los santos sacramentos compuesto por un Sacerdote de la Compañia de Jesus, printed in Mexico in 1740, it is called the common language of the missions of the province of Sinaloa, spoken by the Yaquis and the Mayos, the latter extending far into southern Sonora. In a vocabulary of the Cahita given by Ternaux-Compans, in the Nouvelles Annales, there are likewise found many Aztec words. Neither of these languages are related to the others, yet in all of them is a sprinkling of Aztec word-material. The Aztec substantive ending tl and tli, in the Cora are found changed in ti, te, and t; in the Tepehuana into de, re, and sci; in the Tarahumara into ki, ke, ca, and la; and in the Cahita, into ri. In all four of the languages substantive endings are dropped, first, in composition when the substantive is united with the possessive pronoun; secondly, before an affix; thirdly, in the Cora alone, before the ending of the plural; and before affixes in the formation of words. They are not dropped in verbs derived from substantives; and when two substantives are combined to form a word the Aztec terminal is dropped in the first, and also in the combination of a substantive and verb.

In the Cora, the ending tyahta has the same meaning as the Aztec local ending tla, or tlan, which signifies the locality of a thing; as, acotn, a fir-tree; (Aztec, ocotl) ocotyahta, a fir-forest; (Aztec, ocotlan). Another striking similarity between these four languages and the Aztec consists in the use of a postfix in the formation of substantives of locality and names of places. Then come the numerals, in which are found similarities in all their formations. The Aztec verb ca, to be, and even its irregular branch, catqui, is found disseminated throughout all these languages. In the Tarahumara dictionary of Steffel, and in the Cora dictionary of Ortega, Buschmann found the Aztec element even stronger than he had supposed, and he wondered how Gallatin, who had Tellechea's grammar, could have allowed these similarities to escape his observations.

[Sidenote: AZTEC MATERIAL IN THE AZTEC-SONORA FAMILY.]

Of these four languages Buschmann makes what he calls his Sonora family; which term is somewhat a misnomer as applied to languages not related, and spoken more without than within the province of Sonora. Their only bond of union is this Aztec element, which may have found its way into them at different times and under different circumstances. The most peculiar feature of it all, is the departure which is made by these Aztec-Sonora languages, as from an original centre, and their several appearance, each stamped alike with Aztec marks while at the same time sustaining its own individuality, in different parts of the great northern regions. It is as though a handful of Aztec words had been thrown, at intervals, into the languages of each of these four peoples, and, after partial amalgamations of these foreign words with those of the aboriginal tongues, by some means the words so modified had found their way in greater or less quantities into the languages of other and remote tribes. It is at such times, when we obtain a glance from a distance at their shadowy history, that there arise in the mind visions of their illimitable unwritten past, and of the mighty turmoils and revolutions which must forever remain as they are, shrouded in the deepest mystery.

In these four Aztec-Sonora languages there are nearly two hundred Aztec words, and the words derived from them by the respective native idioms into which they were projected, swell the list to four times that number; and these, with other pure Aztec words in every stage of mutilation and transformation are found re-scattered throughout the before-mentioned Pueblo, Shoshone, and other languages of the north. But again, let me say, nowhere does the Aztec, or any of its affiliations appear as a base north of central Mexico.[V'-5]

Taking into consideration that some Aztec and Shoshone words are almost identical, and that the endings of others are almost exactly alike, it is not surprising if the acute ear of the natives detected phonetic resemblances. The connection between these languages may not be in one respect as positive as that between the languages which compose the great Aryan family on the Asiatic and European continents, but, on the other hand, it presents a somewhat analogous system, by means of which it becomes possible to establish a connection. I allude to Mr Grimm's discovery of what has been termed 'Lautverschiebung,' or 'Lautveränderung,' anglicé 'Sound-shunting.'[V'-6]

This phenomenon consists of the changing, or shunting, of certain vowels or consonants in the words of one language, into certain other vowels and consonants in the same words of another language; and this not accidentally, but in accordance with fixed rules. Sound-shunting, originally discovered by Mr Grimm in the Aryan tongues, has also been found by Mr Buschmann in the languages of his Sonora family, where it is more particularly prominent in the word-endings. In a subsequent place I shall have occasion to refer again to this point, and particularly when speaking of the North Mexican languages, the Tarahumara, Tepehuana, Cora, and Cahita, where it can be clearly shown by comparison with the Aztec, that such shunting, or changing, has taken place. In the languages at present under consideration, the Shoshone, Utah, and Comanche, we have this shunting system illustrated in the substantives and adjective endings p, pa, pe, pi, be, wa, ph, pee, rp, and rpe; and more particularly in the Utah and Shoshone ts, tse, tsi, all of which may be referred to the Aztec endings tl, tli, and others. In the last-mentioned case the endings have been preserved in a purer form, while in the former the shunting or changing law is observed. As illustrating the connection between the languages under consideration and those before mentioned of Sonora and through them with the Aztec, I append on the next page a short vocabulary in which the similarities can be easily observed.[V'-7]

[Sidenote: THE MOQUI LANGUAGE.]

The Moqui, as before observed, does not properly belong to the Shoshone family, but shows a connection with the Aztec. It is strange that two permanently located peoples, the Moquis and the Pueblos, both living in well-built towns not far apart, and both showing signs of a budding civilization, should speak languages totally different from each other; that one of these languages should show a connection with the Aztec and the other not; that neither is related to the tongue of the Shoshones, who nearly surround them; and, furthermore, that in six of the seven Moqui towns only, the Moqui language is spoken, while in the seventh, Harno, the Tegua, a language of one of the New Mexican Pueblos is spoken. The people of Harno can converse with the Moquis of the six other towns, but among themselves they never make use of the Moqui, always speaking the Tegua.[V'-8]

------+----------+-----------+---------+----------+---------+ | SHOSHONE.| WIHINASHT.| UTAH. | COMANCHE.| MOQUE. | +----------+-----------+---------+----------+---------+ Foot |namps |kuki |namp |nahap |herkuck | Eye |pui, umboi|pui |puttyshoe|puile |pose | Water |pa |pa |pah |pa | | Arm |puiró |putá |pooir |pur(e) |mahat | Dog |schari | |sahreets |zari |poku | Tongue|aku |ego |ahoh |ehk |linga | Wife |wepee | | | | | Winter|tumu |tomó | |tohane | | {|nupáhw | | | | | Egg {| or |anohó | |uno io | | {|nanki | | | | | {|nongkawa | | | | | Ear {| or |inaka |nink |nahkarke |nookawuck| {|masoaki | | | | | Hand |mashitu |imai |masseer |mashpa |mocktay | Teeth |tangwa |tama |tong |tahnee |tahmah | {|chermti | | | | | One {| or |singwáiu | |semmus | | {|shímutsi | | | | | Ten |paimanusch|síngwaloyu | |matoëcut | | Lip |timpa |tupa |timp |tupe | | Sun |taba |tava |tap |tabih |tahwah | House |uinkán |noöí | |kanuke | | Stone |timpi |tipí | |terp | | Moon |mungá |muschhá |mahtots |mushe |mooyah | Head |pampi |pompi |tuts |páaph |quatah | Nose |mui |moöi |mahvetah |moopee |yakuck | God | | | | |tockill | ------+----------+-----------+---------+----------+---------+

------+--------------+---------------+-----------+--------+-------- | AZTEC. | TARAHUMARA. | TEPEHUANA.| CAHITA.| CORA. +--------------+---------------+-----------+--------+-------- Foot | | | | | Eye |yxtelolotli |pusiki |buy |pusi | Water |atl |bagui, pauguiki| |baa | Arm | | | | | Dog |chichi | | | | Tongue|nenetl | | | | Wife |tenamic |upi | |hubi | Winter| | |gu tomojo | | Egg |nitla, tlemina| |nono | | Ear |nacaztli |nachcala |naxa |naca |naxaihti Hand |maitl | | |mama |moamati Teeth |tlantli |tamela |tatamo |tami |tameti One |ce, cen, cem | |senn |semi |ce Ten |matlactli | | | | Lip |tentli |chumi |tuní |teni |tenniti Sun | | | |taa | House |calli | | |cari | Stone |tetl | | | | Moon |metztli |mecha |massade |mecha | Head |quaitl | | | | Nose |yacatl |jachcala |daca |ieca | God |teotl | | | | ------+--------------+---------------+-----------+--------+--------

No grammar has been written of the Moqui language, and a few vocabularies are all we possess of it. Gov. Lane, speaking of the Pueblo languages collectively, writes: "All these languages are extremely guttural, and, to my ear, seemed so much alike, that I imagine they have sprung from the same parent stock."[V'-9]

[Sidenote: MOQUI AFFILIATIONS.]

Some claim a relationship between the Moquis and the Apaches and others, but no such connection has ever been established.[V'-10] The only positive statement in this regard is made by Buschmann, who, by actual comparison of vocabularies, has determined its status.[V'-11] Among other connecting links he particularly mentions the substantive endings pe, be, and others, by means of which, he says, the Moqui attaches itself to the Shoshone-Comanche branch of the Sonora idioms. The comparative vocabulary before given will further illustrate their affiliation.[V'-12]

* * * * *

[Sidenote: KIZH AND NETELA SPECIMENS.]

Returning to southern California, let us examine the three languages, Kizh, Netela, and Kechi, spoken near the missions of San Gabriel, San Juan Capistrano, and San Luis Rey, respectively, which are not only distantly related to each other, but show traces of the Sonora-Aztec idioms. Father Boscana, who has left us an accurate description of the natives at San Juan Capistrano, unfortunately devoted little attention to their language, and only gives us a few scattered words and stanzas. One of the latter reads as follows:

Quic noit noivam Quic secat peleblich Ybicnum majaar vesagnec Ibi panal, ibi urusar, Ibi ecbal, ibi seja, ibi calcel.

Which may be rendered thus:

I go to my home That is shaded with willows. These five they have placed, This agave, this stone pot, This sand, this honey, etc.[V'-13]

But very little is known of the grammatical structure of these languages. In the Kizh, the plural is formed in various ways, as may be seen in the following examples:

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

Man woroit wororoit House kitsh kikitsh Mountain haikh hahaikh

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

Wolf ishot ishishot Good tihorwait tiriwait Small tshinui tshitshínui Black yupikha yupinot Woman tokor totokor Bow paítkhuar papaítkhuar Bad mohai momohoi White arawatai rawanot Red kwauokha kwaukhonot

DECLENSION WITH PRONOUN.

My father ninak Our father ayoinak Thy father monak Your father asoinak His father anak My house nikin Our house eyoknga Thy house mukin Your house asoknga His house akinga Their house pomoknga

Of the Netela there are also the following few specimens of plural formation and pronouns;--suol, star; sulum, stars; nopulum, my eyes; nanakom, my ears; nikíwalom, my cheeks; natakalom, my hand; netémelum, my knees.

DECLENSION WITH PRONOUN.

My house niki Our house tshomki Thy house om aki Your house omomomki His house poki Their house omp omki My boat nokh Our boat tshomikh Thy boat om omikh Your boat omom omikh His boat ompomikh Their boat ompomikh[V'-14]

The Kizh appears also to have been spoken, in a slightly divergent dialect, at the Mission of San Fernando, as may be easily seen by comparing the following two versions of the Lord's Prayer; the first in the language of San Fernando, and the latter in that spoken at San Gabriel.

Y yorac yona taray tucúpuma sagoucó motoanian majarmi moin main monó muismi miojor yiactucupar. Pan yyogin gimiamerin majarmi mifema coyó ogorná yio mamainay mii, yiarmá ogonug y yoná, y yo ocaynen coijarmea main ytomo mojay coiyamá huermi. Parima.

* * * * *

Yyonac y yogin tucupugnaisá sujucoy motuanían masarmí magin tucupra maimanó muísme mílléosar y ya tucupar jiman bxí y yoní masaxmí mítema coy aboxmi y yo mamaínatar momojaích milli y yaxma abonac y yo no y yo ocaihuc coy jaxmea main itan momosaích coy jama juexme huememesaích.

In like manner do the Netela and Kechi show a close affinity. The Netela Lord's Prayer reads:

Chana ech tupana ave onench, otune a cuachin, chame om reino, libi yb chosonec esna tupána cham nechetepe, micate tom cha chaom, pepsum yg cai caychame, y i julugcalme cai ech. Depupnn opco chame chum oyote. Amen Jésus.

The Kechi is as follows:

Cham na cham mig tu panga auc onan moquiz cham to gai ha cua che nag omreina li vi hiche ca noc ybá heg gá y vi au qui gá topanga. Cham na cholane mim cha pan pituo mag ma jan pohi cala cai gui cha me holloto gai tom chame o gui chag cay ne che cal me tus so lli olo calme alla linoc chame cham cho sivo.[V'-15]

Although Mr Turner classed these languages with the Shoshone family, in reality they only form such a tie through their Sonora and Aztec connection.[V'-16] This is illustrated by Mr Buschmann in an extensive comparative vocabulary of the three languages, of which I shall give a brief extract on a subsequent page.[V'-17]

[Sidenote: CHEMEHUEVI AND CAHUILLO PRONOUNS.]

The Chemehuevi and Cahuillo, the last two of this division, have also been classed as belonging to the Shoshone family, and some have even called them bands of Pah-Utes, but what has been said concerning the affiliation of the three last mentioned will apply to these with equal force. That they are distinct languages has already been stated by Padre Garcés, who describes them under the name of Chemegue cajuala, Chemegue sebita, Chemeguaba, and Chemegue, ascribing the same language to all of them in distinction from their neighbors. He includes with the Chemehuevi the Yavipai muca oraive or Moqui, who, although not speaking the same language, are still somewhat connected with them, through their Sonora and Aztec relations, which conjectures are singularly significant.[V'-18] Grammatical remarks on these languages there are but few to offer. The accentuation is in neither very regular; in the Chemehuevi, it is generally on the second syllable, while in the Cahuillo it is mostly on the first.[V'-19] I give here the personal pronouns of the two languages.

CHEMEHUEVI. CAHUILLO.

I nuu neh Thou háiïco eh He einpá peh We chémim You éhmim They íwim

To illustrate the Sonora and Aztec connection, I offer the following short comparative vocabulary.

SHOSHONE LANGUAGES.

--------+------------+------------+-----------+----------+------------ | CHEMEHUEVI.| CAHUILLO. | KECHI. | NETELA. | KIZH. +------------+------------+-----------+----------+------------ Water |pa |pal |pala |pala |bar Sun |tabaputz |tamit |temet |temét |tamet Day |tuwaruwit |tamyit | |temé |oronga Eye |puoui |napush |pusun-opush|nopulum |atshotshon Three |paii |mepa |pai |pahe |pahe I |nuu |neh |no |no |noma House |cani |kish |kicha |niki |kitsh Arrow |nu |hul |nohu |hul |nihun Father |muo |nena |pehnah |nana |anak Girl |naiitsit |inismal | |nawitmal | Forehead|cobanim |nepush | | | Five |manu |momequadnun | |mahar | Ear |nancaba |nanocka |nonak |nanakum |anana, najas To die | |muqush | | | Stone |timp |cow-wish | |tot |tota Black |shawagaré |tuliksh | |yaöatkhnot|yupikha Beard |mutza |nultaman | |numus |aong, pehen Hill |caib |{ow-so-ni, | | | | |{or tu-qnush| |haikh |tule To kill |pacai |meca | |kakshitkhl| Woman | |mukeadi | | | --------+------------+------------+-----------+----------+------------

--------+-----------+--------+-----------+------------+-------- | AZTEC. | CAHITA.| TEPEHUANA.| TARAHUMARA.| CORA. +-----------+--------+-----------+------------+-------- Water |atl |baa | | |atih Sun | |taa | | | Day | | | | | Eye | |pusi |buy |pusiki | Three |yei |bahi | | | I |ne, ni | | | | House |calli |cari |qui |caliki | Arrow |mitl | |vu, or u | | Father |tatli | | |nono | Girl | | | | | Forehead|ixquaitl | |coba |covara | Five |macuilli |mammi | | | Ear |nacaztli |naca |naxa |nachcala |naxaihti To die |miqui | | |mucu | Stone |tetl |teta |jodde |teéke |teteti, Black |tlilli |chuculi |tucu |tschocameke |muaizitl Beard | | | | | Hill | | | |cagui | To kill |nomac miqui|ameya | |mea |mea Woman | | | |muki[V'-20] | --------+-----------+--------+-----------+------------+--------

[Sidenote: AZTEC TRACES IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA.]

As regards the Sonora and Aztec relationship, we have here again the substantive endings p, b, t, in various forms, which, as before stated, may be compared with Aztec endings, changed according to certain linguistic laws. In the Cahuillo, as in the Kechi, prefixed possessive pronouns, before substantives representing parts of the human body, particularly that in the first person singular, n, are proof of the Sonora affiliation. In the same words, the Chemehuevi has the two pronouns ni and wi, which always carry with them the ending, m.[V'-21]

FOOTNOTES:

[V'-1] 'The Shoshóni and Pánasht (Bonnaks) of the Columbia, the Yutes and Sampitches ... the Commanches of Texas, and some other tribes along the northern frontier of Mexico, are said to speak dialects of a common language.' Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., pp. 218-9. 'The great Shoshonee, or Snake, family: which comprehends the Shoshones proper ... the Utahs ... Pah-Utahs ... the Kizh ... the Netela ... the Kechi ... the Comanches.' Turner, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 76. 'Shoshónies ou Serpents et de Soshocos ou Déterreurs de racines ... parlent la même langue.' De Smet, Voy., p. 126. 'The Shoshone language is spoken mostly by all the bands of Indians in southeastern Nevada.' Parker, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1866, p. 114. 'Their language (Shoshones) is very different from that of either the Bannocks, or Pi-Utes.' Campbell, in Id., p. 120. Goshautes speak the same language as Shoshones. Forney, in Id., 1859, p. 363. 'The language is spoken by bands in the gold mine region of the Sacramento.' Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. i., p. 198. 'Pai-uches speak the same language as the Yutas.' Farnham's Life in Cal., pp. 371, 375. 'Pi-Edes, allied in language to the Utahs.' Cooley, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1865, p. 18. Goships, or Gosha Utes 'talk very nearly the Shoshonee language.' Irish, in Id., p. 144. Shoshones and Comanches 'both speak the same language.' Sampiches. 'Their language is said to be allied to that of the Snakes.' Youtas. 'Their language is by some thought to be peculiar.' Wilkes' Nar., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. iv., p. 501. 'Pueblan todas las partes de esta sierra por el sueste, sur sudoeste y oeste, gran número de gentes de la misma nacion, idioma etc.,' which they call Timpanogotzis. Dominguez and Escalante, in Doc. Hist. Mex., série ii., tom. i., p. 467. 'The language spoken by the Comanches is of great antiquity, and differs but little from that of the Incas of Peru.' Maillard's Hist. Tex., p. 249; Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Spr., pp. 349, 351. Yam-pah. 'This is what the Snakes call the Comanches, of which they are either the parents or descendants, for the two languages are nearly the same, and they readily understand each other, and say that they were once one people.' 'The Snake language is talked and understood by all the tribes from the Rocky mountains to California, and from the Colorado to the Columbia, and by a few in many tribes outside of these limits.' Stuart's Montana, pp. 58, 82. 'The different bands of the Comanches and Shoshonies or Snakes, constitute another extensive stock, speaking one language.' Gregg's Com. Prairies, vol. ii., p. 251. 'The vernacular language of the Yutas is said to be distantly allied to that of the Navajoes, but it has appeared to me much more guttural, having a deep sepulchral sound resembling ventriloquism.' Id., vol. i., p. 300. 'The Utahs, who speak the same language as the Kyaways.' Conder's Mex. Guat., vol. ii., p. 74; Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 197. The Goshutes are of different language from the Shoshones. Douglas, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1870, p. 96. Diggers, 'differ from the other Snakes somewhat in language.' Wyeth, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. i., p. 206; Berghaus, in Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Spr., p. 371. The Kusi-Utahs, 'in speaking they clipped their words ... we recognized the sounds of the language of the Shoshonès.' Remy and Brenchley's Journey, vol. ii., p. 412; Thümmel, Mexiko, p. 359; Catlin's N. Amer. Ind., vol. ii., p. 113. 'Their native language (Comanches), in sound differs from the language of any other nation, and no one can easily learn to speak it. They have also a language of signs, by which they converse among themselves.' French's Hist. La., (N. Y. 1869), p. 156. 'The primitive terms of the Comanches are short, and several are combined for the expression of complex ideas. The language is very barren of verbs, the functions of which are frequently performed by the aid of gestures and grimaces.' Kennedy's Texas, vol. i., p. 348.

[V'-2] Turner, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 77.

[V'-3] Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Spr., pp. 402-3.

[V'-4] Id., p. 645, et seq.

[V'-5] 'Que en casi todas ellas (que son muchas y varias) se hallan vocablos, principalmente los que llaman radicales, que o son de la lengua Mexicana, o se deriuan della, y retienen muchas de sus silabas, de que pudiera hazer aqui vn muy largo catalago. De todo lo qual se infieren dos cosas. La primera que casi todas estas Naciones comunicaron en puestas y lenguas con la Mexicana: y aunque los Artes y Gramaticas dellas son diferentes; pero en muchos de sus preceptos concuerdan.' Ribas, Hist. de los Triumphos, p. 20. 'Pintaron esta laguna en tierra y muy poblada de gentes, y oyendo hablar á un indio, criado de un soldado, en el idioma mexicano, preguntaron si era de Copala, porque así hablaban los de alla ... que distaba de allí diez jornadas pobladas.' Zarate, in Doc. Hist. Mex., série iii., tom. iv., p. 83. 'El Padre Fr. Roque d Figueredo haze del viage que hizo con D. Iuan de Oñate 500 leguas al Norte hallaremos que dice, que aviendoseles perdido vnas bestias, buscandolas el rio de Tizon arriba encontraron los mosos vn Indio que les hablò en lengua mexicana que preguntado de donde era, dixo ser del Reyno adentro ... que està en las Provincias del Norte donde se habla en esta lengua Mexicana cuyo es vocablo.' Vetancurt, Teatro Mex., pt ii., p. 11. 'In un viaggio, che fecero gli Spagnuoli l'anno 1606. dal Nuovo Messico fino al fiume, che eglino appellarono del Tizon, seicento miglia da quella Provincia verso Maestro, vi trovarono alcuni grandi edificj, e s'abbatterono in alcuni Indiani, che parlavano la lingua messicana.' Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Messico, tom. iv., p. 29. Tarahumara 'la cui lingua abbonda di parole Messicane.' Hervás, Saggio Practico delle Lingue, p. 71. 'Die Sprache (Cora) ist auch wegen ihres Verhältnisses zur Mexicanischen merkwürdig.' 'Die Sprache (Tarahumara) welche eine gewisse Ausbildung zeigt, hat manche dem Mexicanischen ähnliche Wörter,' Vater, Litteratur der Grammatiken, Lexica und Wörter-Sammlungen aller Sprachen der Erde, pp. 52, 231; Cook's Voy. to Pac., vol. ii., p. 336; Ruxton's Adven. Mex., p. 194.

[V'-6] Max Müller simply names it 'Grimm's Law.' Science of Language, series ii., p. 213, et seq.

[V'-7] 'Indem ich die Urtheile wegen der comanchischen und schoschonischen Verwandtschaft bestätige, erkläre ich die Yutah-Sprache für ein Glied des sonorischen Sprachstammes.' 'Noch ehe ich zur Wortvergleichung übergehe, kann ich die sonorische Natur der Sprache nach den beiden Elementen der aztekischen und sonorischen Gemeinschaft, und sogar ihre besondere Stellung zwischen der comanche-schoschonischen Ligue, durch blosse zwei, in ihr sich hervorthuende Substantiv-Endungen (ts und p) darlegen.' 'Die zwiefache Schoschonen Sprache und das Volk der Schoschonen sind das äusserste Glied meiner Entdeckungen: des grossen Bundes, durch ein mächtiges eignes Element zusammengehaltener Sprachen, von einem kleinen Erbtheil aztekischen Wortstoffes durchdrungen; welches ich, von Guadalaxara aus nordwärts suchend nach den Spuren des Azteken-Idioms und seines Volkes, angetroffen habe; sie bilden den Schlusstein meines sonorischen Baues.' Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Spr., pp. 349, 351, 648, 391, 652, et seq.; Sivers, Mittelamerika, pp. 291-2.

[V'-8] 'They all speak the same language except Harno, the most northern town of the three, which has a language and some custom peculiar to itself.' Marcy's Army Life, p. 111. 'In six of the seven Moqui pueblos, the same language is said to be spoken.... Those of San Juan ... and one Moqui pueblo all speak the same language ... Tay-waugh.' Lane, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 689; Ten Broeck, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iv., p. 87. 'The Moquis ... do not all speak the same language. At Oraybe some of the Indians actually professed to be unable to understand what was said by the Mooshahneh chief, and the latter told me that the language of the two towns was different. At Tegua they say that a third distinct tongue is spoken.... The people ... have abandoned the habit of visiting each other till the languages, which, with all Indian tribes, are subject to great mutations, have gradually become dissimilar.' Ives' Colorado Riv., p. 127. 'Wie ich erfuhr, sollen die Moquis nicht alle eine und dieselbe Sprache haben, und die Bewohner einiger Städte nicht nur fremde Dialekte, sondern sogar fremde Sprachen reden.' Möllhausen, Reisen, tom. ii., p. 239. Davis, referring to a MS. by Cruzate, a former Governor of New Mexico, maintains that the Moqui speak the Queres language, but at the same time he says 'it is maintained by some that ... four of the Moqui villages speak a dialect very nearly the same as that of the Navajos, while a fifth speaks that of San Juan, which is Tegua.... The distance from Picoris to the Moqui villages is about four hundred miles ... yet these widely separated pueblos speak ... the same language.' El Gringo, pp. 116-7, 155. Comparisons of the vocabularies in Simpson, Davis, and Meline prove the Moqui to be a distinct language. Ward, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1864, p. 191.

[V'-9] Lane, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 689.

[V'-10] 'The language of the Môquis, or the Môquinos, is said to differ but little from that of the Navajos.' Hughes' Doniphan's Ex., p. 197. Speaking of all the Pueblo languages, including the Moqui: 'All these speak dialects of the same language, more or less approximating to the Apache, and of all of which the idiomatic structure is the same. They likewise all understand each other's tongue. What relation this language bears to the Mexican is unknown, but my impression is that it will be found to assimilate greatly, if not to be identical.' Ruxton's Adven. Mex., p. 194; Gregg's Com. Prairies, vol. i., p. 269.

[V'-11] 'No analogy has yet been traced between the language of the old Mexicans and any tribe at the north in the district from which they are supposed to have come.' Bartlett's Pers. Nar., vol. ii., p. 283. 'Reste der Mexikanischen Sprache fanden dagegen in den Sprachen dieser Völker die im Mexikanischen sehr geübten Missionäre nicht, sondern die Sprache von Moqui, und die der Yabipais, welche lange Bärte tragen, wesentlich unterschieden von dem Mexikanischen.' Vater, Mithridates, tom. iii., pt iii., p. 182. 'Cependant la langue que parlent les Indiens du Moqui, les Yabipais, qui portent de longue barbes, et ceux qui habitent les plaines voisines du Rio Colorado, diffère essentiellement de la langue mexicaine.' Humboldt, Essai Pol., tom. i., p. 305. 'Doch reden die Moquis.... Sprachen ganz verschieden vom Aztekischen.' Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. ii., pt ii., p. 539. 'Die Moqui-Sprache ist doch der mexikanischen befreundet! sie ist--dies ist meine Erfindung--ein Zweig des Idioms, welches dem Suchenden als ein Phantom statt des leibhaften nahuatl als sein Schattenbild, in dem alten Norden überall entgegentritt: ein Gebilde der sonorischen Zunge, bei welchem Namen ein kleines aztekisches Erbtheil sich von selbst versteht.... Ich erkläre die Moqui-Sprache für ein Glied meines Sonorischen Sprachstammes. Schon die auffallend vielen, manchmal in vorzüglich reiner Form erscheinenden, aztekischen Wörter bezeichnen die Sprache als eine sonorische; es kommt das zweite Kennzeichen hinzu: der Besitz gewisser ächt sonorischer Wörter. In einem grossen Theile erscheint die Sprache aber überaus fremdartig: um so mehr als sie auch von den 5 Pueblo-Sprachen, wie schon Simpson bemerkt hat, gänzlich verschieden ist.... Die Spuren der Subst. Endung pe, be u.ä. weisen der Moqui-Sprache ihren Platz unter der comanche-schoschonischen Familie des Sonora Idioms an. Dieses allgemeine Urtheil über die Sprache ist sicher.' Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Spr., pp. 289-90.

[V'-12] Simpson's Jour. Mil. Recon., pp. 128-30; Davis' El Gringo, pp. 157-9.

[V'-13] Boscana, in Robinson's Life in Cal., p. 282.

[V'-14] Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., pp. 566-7; Buschmann, Kizh und Netela, pp. 512-13.

[V'-15] Mofras, Explor., tom. ii., pp. 393-4.

[V'-16] 'Belong to the great Shoshonee, or Snake family.' Turner, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 76. 'The similarity which exists between many words in these two languages, and in the Shoshoni, is evident enough from a comparison of the vocabularies. The resemblance is too great to be attributed to mere casual intercourse, but it is doubtful whether the evidence which it affords will justify us in classing them together as branches of the same family.' Hale's Ethnog., in U. S. Ex. Ex., vol. vi., p. 567. 'The natives of St. Diego cannot understand a word of the language used in this mission, and in like manner, those in the neighborhood of St. Barbara, and farther north.' Boscana, in Robinson's Life in Cal., p. 240; Gleeson's Hist. Cath. Church, p. 97.

[V'-17] 'Ich habe in dem Kizh ... und in der Netela ... zwei Glieder meines sonorischen Sprachstammes, ausgestattet mit Aztekischem Sprachstoff, entdeckt.' Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Spr., p. 546. 'Bei der, genugsam von mir aufgezeigten Gemeinschaft der zwei californischen Idiome, so lautet mein Urtheil, hofft man auch hier vergebens auf ein genaues, glückliches Zutreffen eigenthümlicher Formen dieser Sprachen mit dem Comanche und Schoschonischen oder mit den südlicheren sonorischen Hauptsprachen, ein Zusammentreffen mit etwas recht Besonderem Einer Sprache mit einer anderen: so nahe liegen die Sprachen sich nie, sie sind alle fremd genug gegen einander.' Buschmann, Kizh und Netela, p. 518.

[V'-18] Garcés, Diario, in Doc. Hist. Mex., série ii., tom. i., p. 351. Orozco y Berra includes them as well as the Utahs and Moquis with the Apache family of languages, in support of which he cites Balbi, tableau xxxii. 'Die Chimehwhuebes, Comanches und Cahuillos, also Stämme, die zwischen den Küsten der Südsee und Texas verbreitet sind, als Nebenstämme der Nation der Schoschone oder Schlangen-Indianer betrachtet werden können.' Möllhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb., tom. i., pp. 435-6. 'The Chemehuevis are a band of Pah-Utahs ... whose language ... agrees most nearly with Simpson's Utah, and Hale's East Shoshonee.' The Cahuillo 'exhibits the closest affinity to the Kechi and Netela, especially the former. Its affinity to the Kizh is equally evident.' Turner, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 76. 'Die Chemehuevi- und Cahuillo-Sprache sind einander so fremd, dass sie beinahe für alle Begriffe ganz andere Wörter besitzen; ihre Verschiedenheit ist so gross, dass man aus ihnen allein nicht ahnden sollte, sie seien beide gleichmässig sonorische Glieder.' Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Spr., p. 554.

[V'-19] Turner, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 77.

[V'-20] Compiled from Buschmann, Turner, Hale, Molina, Ortega, and others.

[V'-21] Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Spr., pp. 553-4.

VI. THE PUEBLO, COLORADO RIVER, AND LOWER CALIFORNIA LANGUAGES

TRACES OF THE AZTEC NOT FOUND AMONG THE PUEBLOS OF NEW MEXICO AND ARIZONA -- THE FIVE LANGUAGES OF THE PUEBLOS, THE QUERES, THE TEGUA, THE PICORIS, JEMEZ, AND ZUÑI -- PUEBLO COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY -- THE YUMA AND ITS DIALECTS, THE MARICOPA, CUCHAN, MOJAVE, DIEGEÑO, YAMPAIS, AND YAVIPAIS -- THE COCHIMÍ, GUAICURÍ, AND PERICÚ, WITH THEIR DIALECTS OF LOWER CALIFORNIA -- GUAICURÍ GRAMMAR -- PATER NOSTER IN THREE COCHIMÍ DIALECTS -- THE LANGUAGES OF LOWER CALIFORNIA WHOLLY ISOLATED.

Having already mentioned some of the principal idioms spoken in the southern part of the Great Basin, as parts of the trunks to which they belong, or with which they affiliate, I shall devote the present chapter to such languages of New Mexico and Arizona as cannot be brought into the Tinneh or Sonora stocks, and to those of Lower California. Beginning with the several tongues of the Pueblos, thence proceeding westward to the Colorado River, and following its course southward to the Gulf of California, I shall include the languages of the southern extremity of California, and finally those of the peninsula. These languages are none of them cognate with any spoken in Mexico. Respecting those of the Pueblos which have long been popularly regarded as allied to southern tongues, it is now very certain that they are in no wise related to them, if we except the Aztec word-material found in the Moqui. From analogous manners and customs, from ancient traditions and time-honored beliefs, many have claimed that these New Mexican towns-people are the remains of aboriginal Aztec civilization, attempting meanwhile to explain away the adverse testimony of language, by amalgamation of the ancient tongue with those of other nations, or by absorption or annihilation; all of which, so far as arriving at definite conclusions is concerned, amounts to nothing. Analogies may be drawn between any nations of the earth; human beings are not so unlike but that in every community much may be found that is common to other communities, irrespective of distance and race, especially when the comparison is drawn between two peoples both just emerging from savagism. The facts before us concerning the Pueblo languages are these: although all alike are well advanced from primeval savagism, live in similar substantial houses, and have many common customs, yet their languages, though distinct as a whole from those of the more savage surrounding tribes, do not agree with each other. It is difficult to prove that the Aztec, although now perhaps extinguished, never was the tongue of New Mexico; on the other hand, it is impossible to prove that it was, and surely theorists go far out of their way in attempting to establish a people in a land where no trace of their language exists, or exists only in such a phase as proves conclusively that it could not possibly have ever been the basis of the language now spoken.

[Sidenote: THE FIVE PUEBLO LANGUAGES.]

Five distinct languages, with numerous dialects, more or less deviating, are spoken by the Pueblos. By the inhabitants of Santo Domingo, San Felipe, Santa Ana, Silla, Laguna, Pojuate, Acoma, and Cochiti, the Queres language is spoken; in San Juan, Santa Clara, San Ildefonso, Pojuaque, Nambe, Tezuque, and also in Harno, one of the Moqui towns, the Tegua language prevails; in Taos, Picoris, Zandia, and Isleta, there is the Picoris language; in Jemez and Old Pecos, the Jemez; in Zuñi, the Zuñi language.[VI'-1] The three principal dialects of Queres are the Kiwomi, Cochitemi, and Acoma. Of these the first two are very similar, in some cases almost identical, while the Acoma is more distinct.[VI'-2] In the Queres the accent is almost invariably on the first syllable, and the words are in general rather short, although a few long words occur. Possessive pronouns appear to be affixed; they are ini, ni, ne, in, and i.

In the Tegua and Zuñi the personal pronouns are:

TEGUA. ZUÑI.

I nah hóo Thou uh tóo He ihih lóoko She ihih We (incl.) tahquireh hóono We (exc.) nihyeuboh You nahih ahchée They ihnah lóoko

In the Tegua, although many monosyllabics appear, there are also a number of long words, such as pehgnahvicahmborih, shrub; haihiombotahrei, for ever; hahnguenaahnpih, to be; haihahgnuhai, great; heinginubainboyoh, nothing. In the Zuñi, long words appear to predominate--ákmeeashneekeeah, autumn; áhseeailahpalhtonnai, finger; lahtailoopeetsínnah, gold; téhleenahweeteekeeah, midnight; táhmchahpahnáhmnee, war-club, and others.[VI'-3] As will more clearly appear by the following comparative vocabulary, none of these languages are cognate; they have no affinity among themselves, nor with any other family or group.[VI'-4]

[Sidenote: PUEBLO COMPARATIVE VOCABULARY.]

QUERES. TEGUA. PICORIS. JEMEZ. ZUÑI.

Sun pah hoolennah pay yattockkah Moon poyye pannah pahah Star shecat adoyeah hahheglannah woonhah moyatchuway Earth hahats nah pahhannah dockah oulocknannay Man hatssee sayen tahhahnenah shuotish oatse Woman naiatsay ker clayannah steosh ocare Head nashcanne pumbah pinemah chitchous oshuckquinnay Eye kannah chay chenay saech toonahway Nose karwishshe shay pooaenah forsaech nolinnay Mouth tseeikah sho clahmoenah eaequah aewahtinnay Ear kahupah oyeo taglayonay washchish lahschucktinnay Hand kahmoshtay mah mahtish shoncheway Dog tish cher sodornah cannu watsetah Fire hahkanye fah pahannah fwaah mackke Water tseats ogh pohahoon pah keaoway

[Sidenote: COLORADO RIVER LANGUAGES.]

In the region through which flows the Colorado, and between that river and the Gila, many different languages are mentioned by the early missionaries but at this time it is difficult to ascertain how far different names are applied to any one nation.

The missionaries themselves frequently did not know how to name the people; often they gave several names to one language, and several languages one name; many of the then existing dialects are known to have since become extinct, and many more have mysteriously disappeared, along with those who spoke them, so that in many instances, a century after their first mention no such language could be found. It seems seldom to have occurred to the missionaries and conquerors that the barbarous tongues of these heathen could ever be of interest or value to Christendom, still less lists of their words; so that vocabularies, almost the only valuable speech-material of the philologist, are exceedingly rare among the writings of the early missionary Fathers. If one half of their profitless homilies on savage salvation had been devoted to the simple gleaning of facts, science would have been the gainer, and the souls of the natives no whit less at peace. Of late, however, vocabularies of the dialects of this region have become numerous, and relationships are at length becoming permanently established.

The languages under consideration, on comparison, may nearly all be comprised in what may be called the Yuma family. The principal dialects which constitute the Yuma family are the Yuma, Maricopa, Cuchan, Mojave, and Diegueño, which last is spoken in southern California, and more particularly around the bay of San Diego. Among others mentioned are the Yavipais and Yampais.[VI'-5] Compared with that of their neighbors the language of the Diegueños is soft and harmonious, and as it contains all the sounds of the letters in the English alphabet, the people speaking it readily learn to pronounce the English and Spanish languages correctly.[VI'-6] The following Lord's Prayer is a specimen of the dialect of the Diegueños.

[Sidenote: DIEGUEÑO LORD'S PRAYER.]

Nagua anall amaí tacaguach naguanetuuxp mamamulpo cayuca amaíbo mamatam meyayam canaao amat amaibo quexuic echasau naguaguí ñaña chonñaquin ñípil meñeque pachís echeyuchapo ñagua quexuíc ñaguaích ñacaguaihpo ñamechamel anipuch uch-guelích-cuíapo. Nacuíuch-pambo-cuchlích-cuíatpo-ñamat. Napuíjá.[VI'-7]

Of the other dialects the short vocabulary on the following page will give an illustration:

CUCHAN. MARICOPA. MOJAVE. DIEGUEÑO.

Man épatch eepáche ipah aycóotchet Woman seenyack sinchayaíxhutch sinyax seen House eenouwa ahba awáh Sun n'yatch n'yatz n'yatz Moon hullyar hullash hullya Fire aawo áhooch awa Water ahá ahha ahá Maize terditch terdítz terdicha Good ahotk ahotk abhotk han I n'yat inyátz n'yatz n'yat Go n'yeemoom n'yimoom Sleep aseemáh esoma'om [VI'-8]

Then there are the Yampai and Yavipai, said to approach the Cuchan and Mojave;[VI'-9] the Chevet reported as a distinct tongue;[VI'-10] the Cajuenche said to be another language, and the Jalliquamai, a dialect of the Cajuenche.[VI'-11] The Tamajab is a strange language, described by Don José Cortez as "spoken with violent utterance and lofty arrogance of manner; and in making speeches, the thighs are violently struck with the palms of the hands."[VI'-12]

There are further mentioned the Benemó with the dialects Tecuiche and Teniqueche, and lastly the Covaji and Noche, each a distinct tongue.[VI'-13] The people speaking the Noche probably were the northern and eastern neighbors of the Diegueños, and may have been mentioned by some writers under other names. I have preferred to enumerate them here, because the names frequently occur in the reports of the earlier expeditions to the Yuma nations.

* * * * *

[Sidenote: THREE STOCK LANGUAGES IN LOWER CALIFORNIA.]

On the peninsula of Lower California, there are three distinct languages with many dialects, more or less related to each other. Some of these dialects appear so remote from the parent stock that the early missionaries believed them to be independent languages, and accordingly the number of tongues on the peninsula has been variously estimated, some saying four, others six; but careful comparisons refer them all to three stock languages. These are the Cochimí, with its principal dialects, the Laymon and Ika; the Guaicuri, with the Cora, Monqui, Didiú, Liyúe, Edú, and Uchiti dialects; and lastly the Pericú. Besides the above, there were also other dialectic differences in almost every mission, such as the variations of word-endings, and other minor points.[VI'-14] In general these languages have been described as harsh and poverty-stricken. The missionaries complained of not being able to find terms with which to express many of the doctrines which they wished to inculcate; but from the grammatical notes left by Father Baegert and those of Ducrue contained in Murr's Nachrichten, as well as from the various Pater Nosters at hand, it appears that these languages are not so very poor after all. Much there may have been wanting to the zealous Fathers, many burning words and soul-stirring expressions, which would have greatly assisted their efforts, but except that there is certainly no redundancy in these languages, they offer nothing very extraordinary.[VI'-15] Following I give a few grammatical notes on the Guaicuri language. The sounds represented by the German letters, o, f, g, l, x, z, and s, excepting in tsh, do not appear. Possessive pronouns are shown in the following examples:

My father bedáre My nose minamù Thy father edáre Thy nose einamú His father tiáre His nose tinamù Our father kepedáre

[Sidenote: GUAICURI GRAMMAR.]

Of prepositions only two are mentioned--tina, on or upon; and déve, or tipítscheû, on account of, or for (propter). There is no article, and nouns are indeclinable. The conjunction tshie is always placed after the words to be connected. Verbs have only one mood and three tenses--the present, the perfect, and the future. The present is formed by the affix re or reke; the perfect by the affix rikíri, rujére, raúpe, or raúpere; and the future by adding in like manner me, méje, or éneme. If the action of several persons is to be expressed, the syllable ku or k is prefixed to the verb, or the first syllable is changed into ku.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

To fight piabakè kupiábake To remember umutù kumutú To speak jake kuáke

Some verbs have also a perfect passive participle in the form of a substantive--tschípake, to beat; tschipitschürre, a person who has been beaten. The personal pronouns are: be, I, me, to me, my; ei, thou, thee, to thee, thy; becùn, beticùn, ecûn, or eiticûn, mine, thine.

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB AMUKÍRI, TO PLAY.

PRESENT INDICATIVE.

I play, bè amukirire | We play, catè amukírire Thou playest, eï amukirire | You play, petè amukirire He plays, tutâu amukirire | They play, tucáva amukirire

PERFECT. FIRST FUTURE.

I have played, bè amukiririkíri | I shall play, bè amukírime

IMPERATIVE.

Play thou, amukiri tei | Play you, amukiri tu

OPTATIVE.

Would that I had not played, beri amukiririkirikára or, beri amukirirujerára

I also add a Guaicuri Lord's Prayer with literal translation.

Kepè; dáre tekerekádatembà daï, eïrì Our father arched earth (heaven) thou art, thee O that

akátuikè-pu-me, tschakárrake-pu-me ti tschie: ecùn acknowledge all will, praise all will people and: thy

gracia-ri atúme catè tekerekádatembà tschie: eïri grace O that have will we arched earth and: thee O that

jebarrakéme ti pù jaûpe datembà, páe eï jebarrakére, obey will people all here earth, as thee obey,

aëna kéa: kepecùn búe kepe kên jatúpe untâiri: catè above are: our food us give this day: us

kuitscharrakè têi tschie kepecùn atacámara, pàe forgive thou and our evil, as

kuitscharrakère catè tschie cávape atukiàra kepetujakè: forgive we also the evil us do:

catè tikakambà têi tschie, cuvumerà catè uë us help thou and, desire will not we something

atukiára: kepe kakunjà pe atacára tschie. Amen.[VI'-16] evil: us protect from evil and. Amen.

[Sidenote: LORD'S PRAYERS IN DIFFERENT DIALECTS.]

As regards the other two languages, the only materials at hand are some Lord's Prayers in various dialects of the Cochimí, as used in the different missions. Of these I insert the following as samples of the dialects spoken--I. at the Mission of Santa Maria, II. at San Francisco de Borgia, and III. at San Ignacio:

Father our heaven in who art: thy name I. Lahai-apa ambeing mia: mimbangajua val II. Cahaí apá, ambeing miá, mimbang-ajuá val III. Ua-bappá amma-bang miamú, ma mang-á-juá huit

all honored: earth thy kingdom come: will thine I. vuit-maha: amet mididivvaijua kukuem: jenmu-jua II. vuit-mahá; amét mididuvaijuá cucyém; jemmu-juá III. maja tegem amat-ma-thadabajuá ucuem: kemmu-juá

heaven done be earth on I. amabang vihi mieng ametetenang II. amabáng vihí miéng ametenáug III. ammabang vahi-mang amatànang

as Bread I. luvihim. Thevap yi-cue ti-mi-ei-di-gua II. luichim. Theváp yiecué ti-mi-eì-di-guá, III. lauahim. Teguap ibang gual gúiang-avit-á-jua

Day I. ibang-a-nang na-kahit tevichip II. ibang-anáng gna cahit tevichip III. ibang ánane pac-kagit: machi

I. nuhigua aviuve ham: vichip iyeg-ua na II. nuhiguá aviuvehám vichip iyeguá gna III. pugijua abadakegem, machi uayecg-juá

I. kaviu-vem cassetajuang inamenit nakum II. caviu vém cassetasuàng mamenit guakúm III. pac kabaya guem; kazet-à juan à juang-amuegnit

I. guang tevisiec na-kaviñaha. II. guang tevisiec gna cavignahà. III. pacum guang mayi-acg packanajam.[VI'-17]

The dialect spoken at the Missions of San Francisco Xavier, San José de Comondú, and at Santa Gertrudis, differed considerably from the above as will be seen by the following Lord's Prayer as used in the last mentioned places.

Pennayù makenambà, yaà ambayujùp miya mò, Our father who heaven thou art,

buhù mombojuà tammalà gkomendá hi nagodognò demuejueg thy name men recognize and love all;

gkajim: pennayulà bogodognò gkajim, guihí as and

ambayujup mabà yaà kæammet è decuinyi mò puegign: heaven above earth satisfy

yaàm buhula mùjua ambayujupmò de dahijua, amet è thy will heaven in done be, earth on

nò guilugui, ji pagkajim. Tamadà yaà ibò tejuèg guiluguigui this as. Bread this day

pamijich è mò, ibò yanno puegin: guihi tammà day and men

yaà gambuegjula kæpujui ambinyijuà pennayula who have done evil us

dedaudugùjua, guilugui pagkajim: guìhi yaà tagamueglà done have as: and

huì ambinyyjùa hi doomò puguegjuà, hi doomò pogounyim; evil and although and although

tamuegjua, guihì usi mahel kæmmet è dicuin also earth satisfy

yumò, guihì yaà hui mabinyì yaà, gambuegjuà pagkaudugum.[VI'-18] and what is evil

Clavigero does not give a translation of this Lord's Prayer, but Hervás, who copies it in his Saggio Pratico, translates all words which he could find in a short vocabulary; Buschmann and others copy from him, and even at this time no complete translation is obtainable.

Lastly, I present a few sentences in the Laymon dialect, literally translated.

Tamma amayben metañ aguinañi Man years many lives not

Kenedabapa urap, guang lizi, quimib tejunoey Father mine eats, and drinks, but little.

Kenassa maba guimma Sister thine sleeps.

Kadagua gadey iguimil decuiñi The fish sees but not hears

Juetabajua tahipeñi Blood mine good not

Kotajua kamang gehua The stone (is) great, hard

Ibungajua ganehmajen kaluhù Moon sun greater is.[VI'-19]

[Sidenote: THE CORA DIALECT IN LOWER CALIFORNIA.]

None of the Lower Californian languages are in any way related to, or connected with, any other language. In Jalisco an idiom is spoken which is called the Cora, but Señor Pimentel after comparing it with the Cora of the peninsula as well as with others in Lower California, assures us that not the least connection exists between them.[VI'-20] It has also been stated that the languages spoken on the peninsula north of La Paz are affiliated with the Yuma tongue, but this is not the case. As we have seen, the dialect of the Diegueños reaches the seacoast near San Diego, and again south of that point, and this being a Yuma dialect, it has perhaps given rise to the belief that the Lower Californian languages incline the same way.[VI'-21] In South America there is a language called the Guaicuru, which has nothing in common with the Guaicuri of Lower California.[VI'-22]

FOOTNOTES:

[VI'-1] 'No one showing anything more than the faintest, if any, indications of a cognate origin with the other.' Simpson's Jour. Mil. Recon., pp. 5, 128-9. 'Classed by dialects, the Pueblos of New Mexico at the period of the arrival of the Spaniards spoke four separate and distinct languages, called the Tegua, the Piro, the Queres, and the Tagnos.' 'There are now five different dialects spoken by the Pueblos.' No Pueblo can 'understand another of a different dialect.' 'It does not follow that the groups by dialect correspond with their geographical grouping; for, frequently, those furthest apart speak the same, and those nearest speak different languages.' Meline's Two Thousand Miles, pp. 203-4; Lane, in Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. v., p. 689. 'The Pueblo Indians of Taos, Pecuris and Acoma speak a language of which a dialect is used by those of the Rio Abajo, including the Pueblos of San Felipe, Sandia, Ysleta, and Xeméz.' Ruxton's Adven. Mex., p. 194. 'There are but three or four different languages spoken among them, and these, indeed, may be distantly allied to each other.' 'Those further to the westward are perhaps allied to the Navajoes.' Gregg's Com. Prairies, vol. i., p. 269. 'In ancient times the several pueblos formed four distinct nations, called the Piro, Tegua, Queres, and Tagnos or Tanos, speaking as many different dialects or languages.' Davis' El Gringo, p. 116; see also pp. 155-6, on classification according to Cruzate. 'The Jemez ... speak precisely the same language as the Pecos.' Domenech's Deserts, vol. i., p. 198; Turner, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., pp. 90, et seq. 'There are five different dialects spoken by the nineteen pueblos.' These are so distinct that the Spanish language 'has to be resorted to as a common medium of communication.' Ward, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1864, p. 191; Buschmann, Spr. N. Mex. u. der Westseite des b. Nordamer., p. 280, et seq.

[VI'-2] Turner, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 90; Buschmann, Spr. N. Mex. u. der Westseite des b. Nordamer., p. 302.

[VI'-3] Tusuque words 'are monosyllabic, and suggest a connection with Asiatic stocks, in which this feature is prominent.' Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. iii., p. 406. 'All these languages are extremely guttural and to my ear seemed so much alike that I imagine they have sprung from the same parent stock.' Lane, in Id., vol. v., p. 689; Turner, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 93 et seq.; Buschmann, New Mex. und Brit. N. Amer., p. 280 et seq.

[VI'-4] 'Die Queres-Sprache ist trotz einiger Anklänge an andere eine ganz besondere Sprache, von der keine Verwandtschaft aufzufinden.' Buschmann, Spr. N. Mex. u. der Westseite des b. Nordamer., p. 303. 'Die Fremdheit der Tezuque-Sprache gegen alles Bekannte ist durch das Wortverzeichniss genugsam erwiesen.' 'Ich unterlasse es spielende aztekische oder Sonorische Aehnlichkeiten zu bezeichnen, da auch die Zuñi-Sprache diesen Idiomen ganz fremd ist.' Id., pp. 296-7. Tanos, 'one of the Moqui villages, at present speak the Tegua language, which is also spoken by several of the New Mexican Pueblo Indians, which leaves but little doubt us to the common origin of all the village Indians of this country and Old Mexico.' Arny, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1871, p. 381. 'These Indians claim, and are generally supposed, to have descended from the ancient Aztec race, but the fact of their speaking three or four different languages would tend to cast a doubt upon this point.' Merriwether, in Id., 1854, p. 174. 'The words in the Zuñi language very much resemble the English.' Hutchings' Cal. Mag., vol. ii., p. 348; Gregg's Com. Prairies, vol. i., p. 285.

[VI'-5] Cocomaricopa, Yuma, Jalchedun and Jamajab, speak the same language. Garcés, Diario, in Doc. Hist. Mex., série ii., tom. i., p. 350; Kino, Relacion, in Id., série iv., tom. i., pp. 292-3. 'Opas, que hablan la lengua de los Yumas y Cocomaricopas ... Corre la gentilidad de éstos y de su misma lengua por los rios Azul, Verde, Salado y otros que entran el Colorado.' Arricivita, Crónica Seráfica, p. 416. 'La lengua de todas estas naciones es una, Cocomaricopas, Yuma, Nijora, Quicamopa.' Sedelmair, Relacion, in Doc. Hist. Mex., série iii., tom. iv., p. 852. Cuchans, or Yumas, 'speak the same dialect' as the Maricopas. Emory's Rept. U. S. and Mex. Boundary Survey, p. 107; Turner, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., pp. 101-3; Möllhausen, Reisen in die Felsengeb., tom. i., p. 433. Yumas 'no ser Nacion distinta de la Cocomaricopa, pues usan el mesmo Idioma.' Villa-Señor y Sanchez, Theatro, tom. ii., p. 408; Gallatin, in Emory's Reconnoissance, p. 129; Cremony's Apaches, p. 90. 'The Pimos and Cocomaricopas ... speaking different languages. Cutts' Conq. of Cal., p. 189. Cosninos and Tontos, 'leur langue aurait plus d'affinité avec celle des Mohaves et des Cuchans du Colorado.' 'Les Yumas, auxquels se joignent les Cocopas, les Mohaves, les Hawalcoes, et les Dieguenos. Chacune de ces tribus a une langue particulière, mais qui, jusqu'à un certain point, se rapproche de celles des tribus du même groupe.' Brasseur de Bourbourg, Esquisses, pp. 28-9. 'Gewiss ist, dass die Cocomaricópas und Yumas nur Dialecte einer und derselben Sprache reden.' Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. i., p 211. 'The Maricopas speak ... a dialect of the Cocapa, Yuma, Mohave and Diegana tongue.' Mowry, in Ind. Aff. Rept., 1859, p. 361; Id., 1857, p. 302. Papagos, Pimos, and Maricopas. 'These tribes speak a common language, which is conceded to be the ancient Aztec tongue.' Davidson, in Id., 1865, p. 131. Pima and Maricopa. 'Their languages are totally different, so much so that I was enabled to distinguish them when spoken.' Bartlett's Pers. Nar., vol. ii., p. 262. 'Los opas, cocomaricopas, hudcoadan, yumas, cuhuanas, quiquimas, y otros mas allá del rio Colorado, se pueden tambien llamar pimas y contar por otras tantas tribus de esta nacion; pues la lengua de que usan es una misma con sola la diferencia del dilecto.' Sonora, Descrip. Geog., in Doc. Hist. Mex., série iii., p. 554; Sonora, Rudo Ensayo, p. 103. 'Yuma. Dialecto del Pima, lo tienen los Yumas, ó chirumas, gileños ó xileños, opas, cocopas, cocomaricopas, hudcoadanes, jamajabs ó cuesninas, ó cuismer ó cosninas ó culisnisnas ó culisnurs y los quicamopas. Cajuenche. Dialecto del pima, pertenecen á esta seccion los cucapá ó cuhanas, jallicuamai, cajuenches, quiquimas ó quihuimas, yuanes, cutganes, alchedomas, bagiopas, cuñai y quemeyá.' Orozco y Berra, Geografía, pp. 353, 37; Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Spr., p. 264, et seq. 'Die Yumas, deren Sprache von der Cocomericoopas ... wenig verschieden ist.' 'Cocomericoopas, Yumas, Pimas ... haben jede ihre besondere Sprache.' Pfefferkorn, in Vater, Mithridates, tom. iii., pt iii., p. 159. 'Alike in other respects the Pima and Cocomaricopa Indians differ in language.' Latham's Comp. Phil., vol. viii., p. 421.

[VI'-6] 'Suave al parecer, y mas fácil que no la pima, pues tiene la suave vocal el la que falta á los pimas, repitiendo ellos la u hablan su idioma cantando.' Sedelmair, Relacion, in Doc. Hist. Mex., série iii., tom. iv., p. 852. 'Soft and melodious.' Bartlett's Pers. Nar., vol. ii., p. 262; Turner, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 101.

[VI'-7] Mofras, Explor., tom. ii., p. 395.

[VI'-8] Turner, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 95, et seq.; Schoolcraft's Arch., vol. ii., p. 118, et seq.

[VI'-9] Whipple, Ewbank, and Turner, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 14.

[VI'-10] 'La Nacion Chevet ... de muy distinto idioma de los que tienen las demas Naciones.' Arricivita, Crónica Seráfica, p. 472.

[VI'-11] 'La lengua de los cajuenches es muy distinta de la yuma.' Jalliquamais 'aunque parece el mismo idioma que el de los cajuenches, se diferencía mucho.' Garcés, Diario, in Doc. Hist. Mex., série ii., tom. i., pp. 247, 251.

[VI'-12] 'The Cucápas, Talliguamays, and Cajuenches speak one tongue; the Yumas, Talchedums, and Tamajabs have a distinct one.' Cortez, Hist. Apache Nations, in Pac. R. R. Rept., vol. iii., p. 124.

[VI'-13] Id., p. 125.

[VI'-14] 'Nun dann fünf andere ganz verschiedene, und in dem bisher entdeckten Californien übliche Sprachen (welche seynd die Laymóna, in der Gegend der Mission von Loreto, die Cotschimì, in der Mission des heil. Xaverii und anderen gegen Norden, die Utschitì, und die Pericúa in Suden, und die annoch unbekannte welche die Völker reden, so P. Linck auf seiner Reis hat angetroffen) nebst einer Menge Absprossen oder Dialekten, auf Seit gesetzt, und von der Waïcurischen allein etwas anzumerken.' Baegert, Nachr. von Cal., pp. 176-7. 'Tres son (dice el Padre Taravàl) las Lenguas: la Cochimi, la Pericù y la de Loreto. De esta ultima salen dos ramos, y son: la Guaycùra, y la Uchiti; verdad es, que es la variacion tanta, que ... juzgarà, no solo que hay quatro Lenguas, sino que hay cinco.' Venegas, Noticia de la Cal., tom. i., pp. 63-7. Pericui, Guaicuri, Cochimí. 'Ognuna di queste tre Nazioni aveva il suo linguaggio proprio.' Clavigero, Storia della Cal., tom. i., p. 109. 'Vehitls, Coras, Pericos, Guaicuras, Cantils, Cayeyus, y otros muchos.' 'Los de la baja peninzula ... hablan distintos idiomas pero todos se entienden.' Revillagigedo, Carta, MS., p. 7. Edues, Cochimies, et Periuches. 'Ces trois tribus parlent neuf dialectes différents, dérivés de trois langues-matrices.' Pauw, Rech. Phil., tom. i., p. 168. 'Les unes parlant la Langue Monqui ... les autres la Langue Laimone.' Picolo, Mémoire, in Recueil de Voiages au Nord, tom. iii., p. 279. 'Dreyerley Sprachen in Californien,' 'die de los Picos, dann die de los Waïcuros ... und endlich die de los Laymónes.' Ducrue, in Murr, Nachrichten, p. 392. 'Die Pericu; die Waicura mit den Dialecten Cora, Uchidie und Aripe; die Laymon; die Cochima mit 4 verschiedenen Dialecten, worunter der von S. Francesco und Borgia; die Utschita; die Ika.' Hassel, Mex. Guat., p. 57. 'Die Perícues, dann die Monquis oder Menguis, zu welchen die Familien der Guaycúras und Coras gehören, die Cochímas oder Colímiës, die Laimónes, die Utschitas oder Vehítis, und die Icas.' Mühlenpfordt, Mejico, tom. i., p. 212. See also tom. ii., pt ii., pp. 443-4; Taylor, in Browne's L. Cal., pp. 53-4. 'The Cochimi, Pericu, and Loretto languages; the former is the same as the Laymon, for the Laymones are the northern Cochimies; the Loretto has two dialects, that of the Guaycuru and the Uchiti.' Prichard's Nat. Hist. Man, vol. ii., p. 553. 'The languages of old California were: 1. The Waikur, spoken in several dialects; 2. The Utshiti; 3. The Laymon; 4. The Cochimi North and the Pericu at the southern extremity of the peninsula; 5. A probably new form of speech used by some tribes visited by Link.' Latham's Comp. Phil., vol. viii., p. 423. Morrell mentions three languages, the Pericues, Menquis, and Cochimies. Nar., p. 198. Forbes, quoting Father Taraval, also speaks of three languages, Pericues, Monquis, and Cochimís. Cal., p. 21. 'Solo habia dos idiomas distintos; el uno todo lo que comprehende la parte del Mediodía, y llamaban Ado; y el otro todo lo que abraza el Departamento del Norte y llamaban Cochimi.' Californias, Noticias, carta i., p. 99; Vater, Mithridates, tom. iii., pt iii., p. 182, et seq.; Baegert, in Smithsonian Rept., 1864, p. 393. Orozco y Berra also accepts three, naming them, Pericu; Guaicura, with the dialects, Cora, Conchos, Uchita and Aripa; and the Cochimí with the dialects, Edú, Didú, and Northern Cochimi. Geografía, pp. 365-7; Pimentel, Cuadro, tom. ii., p. 207, et seq.; Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Spr., p. 469, et seq.

[VI'-15] 'La lingua Cochimi, la quale è la più distesa, è molto dificile, è piena d'aspirazioni, ed ha alcune maniere di pronunziare, che non è possibile di darle ad intendere.... La lingua Pericù è oggimai estinta.... La branca degli Uchiti, e quasi tutta quella de' Cori si sono estinte.' Clavigero, Storia della Cal., tom. i., pp. 110, 109. Edues and Didius, 'sus palabras no eran de muy difícil pronunciacion, pero carecian enteramente de la f y s.' Alegre, Hist. Comp. de Jesus, tom. iii., pp. 46-7. 'Die Aussprache ist meistentheils gutturalis und narium.' Ducrue, in Murr, Nachrichten, p. 392. Waïcuri. 'Kann man von derselben sagen, dass sie im höchsten Grad wild sey und barbarisch ... so bestehet derselben Barbarey in folgendem, und zwar--1. In einem erbärmlichen und erstaunlichen Mangel unendlich vieler Wörter ... in dem Mangel und Abgang der Präpositionen, Conjunctionen, und Relativorum, das déve, oder tipitscheû, so wegen, und das tina, welches auf heisset ausgenommen.... Im Abgang des Comparativi und Superlativi, und der Wörter mehr und weniger, item, aller Adverbiorum, so wohl deren, welche von Adjectivis herkommen, als auch schier aller anderen.... Im Abgang des Modi Conjunctivi, mandativi und schier gar des optativi. Item, des verbi Passivi, oder an statt dessen, des verbi Reciproci, dessen sich die Spanier und Franzosen bedienen. Item, in Abgang der Declinationen, und zugleich der Artiklen der, die, das, etc.' Baegert, Nachr. von Cal., pp. 177-83. See also, Smithsonian Rept., 1864, pp. 394-5.

[VI'-16] Baegert, Nachr. von Cal., pp. 175-94; Id., in Smithsonian Rept., 1864, pp. 394-393; also in Pimentel, Cuadro, tom. ii., pp. 207-14; Soc. Mex. Geog., Boletin, 2da época, tom. iv., pp. 31-40; Vater, Mithridates, tom. iii., pt iii., pp. 188-92; Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Spr., pp. 484-95.

[VI'-17] Hervás, Saggio Pratico, p. 125; Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Spr., pp. 496-7; Vater, Mithridates, tom. iii., pt iii., pp. 193-4; Pimentel, Cuadro, tom. ii., p. 222; Mofras, Explor., tom. ii., pp. 395-6; Clavigero, Storia della Cal., tom. i., p. 265.

[VI'-18] Clavigero, Storia della Cal., tom. i., pp. 264-5; Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Spr., p. 497; Hervás, Saggio Pratico, p. 125; Vater, Mithridates, tom. iii., pt iii., pp. 192-4; Mofras, Explor., tom. ii., pp. 395-6; Pimentel, Cuadro, tom. ii., pp. 221-2.

[VI'-19] Ducrue, in Murr, Nachrichten, pp. 394-7.

[VI'-20] 'Hay otra idioma llamado Cora en California, que es un dialecto del Guaicura ó Vaicura, diferente al que se habla en Jalisco.' Pimentel, in Soc. Mex. Geog., Boletin, tom. viii., p. 603.

[VI'-21] 'All the Indian tribes of the peninsula seem to be affiliated with the Yumas of the Colorado, and with the Coras below La Paz.' Taylor, in Browne's L. Cal., p. 53.

[VI'-22] 'Beide Sprachen, die californische und die Südamerikanische Guaycura oder Guaycuru (Mbaya) von einander gänzlich verschieden sind.' Buschmann, Spuren der Aztek. Spr., p. 494.