The Circle of Knowledge: A Classified, Simplified, Visualized Book of Answers (part 8 of 9)
=Gulliver, Lemuel.=--The imaginary hero of Swift’s celebrated satirical romance known as Gulliver’s Travels. He is represented as being first a surgeon in London, and then a captain of several ships. After having followed the sea for some years he makes in succession four extraordinary voyages.
=Gummidge= (gum´ij), =Mrs.=--In Dickens’ novel of David Copperfield, described herself as a “lone, lorn, creetur, and everythink that reminds me of creeturs that ain’t lone and lorn goes contrairy with me.”
=Gurton, Gammer.=--The heroine of an old English comedy, long supposed to be the earliest in the language.
=Guy Mannering.=--The second of Scott’s historical novels, published in 1815, just seven months after Waverley. The interest of the tale is well sustained; but the love scenes, female characters, and Guy Mannering himself are quite worthless. Not so the character of Dandy Dinmont, the shrewd and witty counselor Pleydell, the desperate, sea-beaten villainy of Hatteraick, the uncouth devotion of that gentlest of all pedants, poor Dominie Sampson, and the savage, crazed superstition of the gypsy-dweller in Derncleugh.
=Guyon= (gī´on).--The impersonation of Temperance or Self-government in Spenser’s Faërie Queene. He destroyed the witch Acrasia, and her bower, called the “Bower of Bliss.” His companion was Prudence. Sir Guyon represents the quality of temperance in the largest sense; meaning the virtuous self-government which holds in check not only the inferior sensual appetites but also the impulses of passion and revenge.
=Guy, Sir, Earl of Warwick.=--The hero of a famous English legend, which celebrates the wonderful achievements by which he obtained the hand of his ladylove, the fair Felice, as well as the adventures he subsequently met with in a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. He is reputed to have lived in the reign of the Saxon King Athelstan. The romance of Sir Guy, mentioned by Chaucer in the Canterbury Tales, cannot be traced further back than the earlier part of the fourteenth century. His existence at any period is very doubtful.
=H=
=Hadad.=--One of the six wise men led by the guiding star to Jesus.
=Hagen.=--The murderer of Siegfried, in the German epic, the Nibelungenlied. He is a pale-faced dwarf, who knows everything and whose sole desire is mischief. After the death of Siegfried he seized the “Nibelung hoard,” and buried it in the Rhine, intending to appropriate it. Kriemhild invited him to the court and had him slain.
=Haidee= (hī-dē´).--A beautiful young Greek girl in Byron’s poem, _Don Juan_. She is called the “beauty of the Cyclades.”
=Hakim.=--The Talisman, Scott. Saladin, in the disguise of a physician, visited Richard Cœur de Lion in sickness; gave him a medicine in which the “talisman” had been dipped, and the sick king recovered.
=Hamlet.=--A tragedy by Shakespeare. The chief character is Hamlet, prince of Denmark. The ghost of his father appears to him, and urges him to avenge his murder upon his uncle. But the prince feigns madness, and puts off his revenge from day to day by “thinking too precisely on the event.” Hamlet’s mother had married Claudius, king of Denmark, after the death of her former husband. Claudius prepared poisoned wine, which he intended for Hamlet; but the queen, not knowing it, drank it, was poisoned and died. Hamlet, seeing his mother fall dead, rushed on the king and killed him almost by accident, and is killed himself by a poisoned rapier in the hands of Laertes.
=Hanswurst= (häns´vŏrst).--A pantomimic character formerly introduced into German comedies. It corresponds to the Italian Macaroni, the French Jean Potage, and the English Jack Pudding.
=Hardcastle, Mr.=--A character in Goldsmith’s comedy of She Stoops to Conquer, represented as prosy and hospitable.
=Hardcastle, Mrs.=--A very “genteel” lady indeed. Tony Lumpkin is her son by a former husband.
=Hard Times.=--A novel by Dickens. Bounderby, a street Arab, raised himself to banker and cotton prince. When past fifty years of age he married Louisa, daughter of Thomas Gradgrind. The bank was robbed, and Bounderby believed Stephen Blackpool to be the thief, because he had dismissed him from his employ. The culprit was Tom Gradgrind, the banker’s brother-in-law, who escaped out of the country. In the dramatized version, the bank was not robbed, but Tom removed the money to another drawer for safety.
=Harlequin= (här´le-kin, or -´kwin).--The name of a well-known character in the popular extemporized Italian comedy.
=Harlowe, Clarissa.=--The heroine of Richardson’s novel entitled The History of Clarissa Harlowe. In order to avoid a marriage urged upon her by her parents, she casts herself on the protection of Lovelace, who grossly abuses the confidence thus reposed in him. He subsequently proposes to marry her, but Clarissa rejects the offer.
=Haroun-al-Raschid= (hä-rŏn´äl-rash´id).--Caliph of the Abbasside race, contemporary with Charlemagne, and, like him, a patron of literature and the arts. Many of the tales in the Arabian Nights are placed in the caliphate of Haroun-al-Raschid.
=Harpagon= (är-pä-gôn´).--The hero of Molière’s comedy of L’Avare, represented as a wretched miser.
=Harpier=, or Harper.--Some mysterious personage referred to by the witches in Shakespeare’s tragedy Macbeth.
=Hassan= (häs´sän).--The Giaour, Byron. Caliph of the Ottoman empire, noted for his hospitality and splendor. In his seraglio was a beautiful young slave named Leila, who loved a Christian called the Giaour. Leila is put to death by an emir, and Hassan is slain by the Giaour. Caliph Hassan has become the subject of popular romance.
=Hassan, Al.=--The Arabian emir of Persia, father of Hinda, in Moore’s Fire Worshipers.
=Hatto= (hät´tō).--In German legend, an archbishop of Mentz in the tenth century, who, for his hardheartedness to the poor in time of famine, was eaten by mice in the “Mouse Tower” on an island in the Rhine near Bingen. Robert Browning has made this legend the subject of a poem.
=Havelock the Dane= (hav´e-lok).--A fisherman, known as Grim, rescued an infant named Havelock, whom he adopted. This infant was the son of the king of Denmark, and when the boy was restored to his royal sire Grim was laden with gifts. He built the town which he called after his own name. This is the foundation of the mediæval tales about Havelock the Dane.
=Hazlewood, Sir Robert.=--The old baronet of Hazlewood.
=Hazlewood, Charles.=--Guy Mannering, Scott. Son of Sir Robert. In love with Lucy Bertram, whom he marries.
=Heart of Midlothian, The.=--A novel by Sir Walter Scott, published in 1818. It has for heroines Jeanie and Effie Deans. Among the other characters are Dumbiedykes and Madge Wildfire. It has often been dramatized. “The Heart of Midlothian” was the popular name for the tollbooth at Edinburgh, the capital of the county of Midlothian.
=Heep, Uriah.=--David Copperfield, Dickens. A detestable character, who, under the garb of the most abject humility, conceals a diabolic malignity. Mrs. Heep, Uriah’s mother, was a character equally to be despised for her hypocritical assumption of humility.
=Helena.=--(1) A lady in Shakespeare’s Midsummer Night’s Dream, in love with Demetrius. (2) The heroine of Shakespeare’s All’s Well That Ends Well, in love with Bertram, who marries her against his will and leaves her, but is finally won by the strength of her affection. (3) A character in an old popular tale, reproduced in Germany by Tieck.
=Hermann and Dorothea.=--The hero and heroine of Goethe’s poem of the same name.
=Hermengyld= (her´men-gild).--Canterbury Tales, Chaucer. The wife of the lord-constable of Northumberland. She was converted by Constance, but was murdered by a knight. Hermengyld at the bidding of Constance restored sight to a blind Briton.
=Hermia= (her´mi-ä).--A lady in Shakespeare’s _Midsummer Night’s Dream_, in love with Lysander.
=Hermione.=--The heroine of the first three acts of Shakespeare’s Winter’s Tale.
=Hernani=, or =Ernani=.--The hero of Victor Hugo’s tragedy of the same name, and of Verdi’s opera, founded on the play. He was a Spanish noble in revolt against the Emperor Charles V. and killed himself from a high sense of honor.
=Hiawatha= (hi-a-wâ´tä, or hī-a-wâ´thä), =The Song of.=--A poem by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, written in the following peculiar measure:
Should you ask me, “Whence these stories?” ..... I should answer, I should tell you, ..... “I repeat them as I heard them From the lips of Nawadaha, The musician, the sweet singer.”
The poem is entirely devoted to a description of life among the aboriginal tribes of America. It was published in 1855. Hiawatha is a mythical person believed by some of the North American Indians to have been sent among them to clear their rivers, forests, and fishing-grounds, and to teach them the arts of peace. When the white man came, then Hiawatha knew that the time of his departure was at hand, when he must go
To the kingdom of Ponemah, The land of the Hereafter.
=Highland Mary.=--A song by Robert Burns, which Burns himself thought was in his happiest manner, and which refers, he says, to one of the most interesting passages of his youthful days. By this he means his attachment to Mary, a servant in the family of Mr. Hamilton, “who will be remembered,” says Alexander Smith, “with Dante’s Beatrice and Petrarch’s Laura.” It was arranged that the lovers should become man and wife, and that Mary should go to her friends to prepare for the wedding. But before her departure came the farewell scene so touchingly described in the poem:
Our parting was fu’ tender; And, pledging aft to meet again, We tore oursels asunder: But oh! fell death’s untimely frost That nipt my flower sae early! Now green’s the sod, and cauld’s the clay, That wraps my Highland Mary!
=Hilda.=--A New England girl of the most sensitive delicacy and purity of mind, in Hawthorne’s romance, The Marble Faun. She is an artist, living in Rome, and typifies, perhaps, the conscience.
=Hildebrand= (hil´de-brand).--The Nestor of German romance, a magician and champion.
=Hildesheim= (hil´des-hīm).--In an old German legend, the monk of Hildesheim, doubting how a thousand years with God could be “only one day,” listened to the melody of a bird, as he supposed, for only three minutes, but found that he had been listening to it for a hundred years.
=Hobbididance.=--The name of one of the fiends mentioned by Shakespeare in Lear, and taken from the history of the Jesuits’ impostures.
=Hohenlinden= (hō[´]en-lin´den).--A poem by Thomas Campbell, published in 1802, celebrating the battle of Hohenlinden, gained by Moreau and the French over the Austrians. The poet visited the battle field on December 3, 1800.
=Holofernes= (hol-ō-fer´nēz).--(1) A pedant living in Paris, under whose care Gargantua is placed for instruction. (2) A pedantic schoolmaster in Shakespeare’s Love’s Labor’s Lost.
=Holt, Felix.=--The hero of George Eliot’s novel by the same name.
=Home, Sweet Home.=--A popular lyric contained in the drama of Clari, the Maid of Milan, by John Howard Payne. The beautiful melody to which it has been wedded is said to be of Italian or Sicilian origin, though by some it is attributed to Sir Henry Rowley Bishop. Perhaps the latter merely arranged and harmonized it.
=Homilies.=--The latter entries in the Peterborough Chronicle and a few homilies are almost all that we have left of the literature of the twelfth century. Some of these homilies are copied or imitated from those of Ælfric.
=Honeycomb= (hun´i-kōm), =Will.=--One of the members of the imaginary club by whom the Spectator was professedly edited. He is distinguished for his graceful affectation, courtly pretension, and knowledge of the gay world.
=Honeyman, Charles.=--A fashionable preacher in Thackeray’s novel, The Newcomes.
=Hopeful.=--A pilgrim in Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress, who accompanies Christian to the end of his journey.
=Hop-o’-my-Thumb.=--A character in the tales of the nursery. Tom Thumb and Hop-o’-my-Thumb are not the same, although they are often confounded. Tom Thumb was the son of peasants, knighted by King Arthur, and was killed by a spider. Hop-o’-my-Thumb was a nix, the same as the German “daumling,” the French “le petit pouce,” and the Scotch “Tom-a-lin” or “Tamlane.” He was not a human dwarf, but a fay.
=Horatio= (hō-rā´shi-ō).--Hamlet, Shakespeare. An intimate friend of Hamlet, a prince, a scholar, and a gentleman.
=Horatius Cocles.=--Captain of the bridge gate over the Tiber. He and two men to help him held the bridge against vast approaching armies. Subject and title of a poem by Lord Macauley.
=Horner, Jack.=--The name of a celebrated personage in the literature of the nursery. A Somersetshire tradition says that the plums which Jack Horner pulled out of the Christmas pie alluded to the title deeds of the abbey estates at Wells, which were sent to Henry VIII., in a pasty, and were abstracted on the way by the messenger, a certain Jack Horner.
=Hortense= (hôr-ten´s, or or-tons´).--Bleak House, Dickens. The vindictive French maid-servant of Lady Dedlock. In revenge for the partiality shown by Lady Dedlock to Rosa, Hortense murdered Mr. Tulkinghorn, and tried to throw the suspicion of the crime on Lady Dedlock.
=House of the Seven Gables, The.=--A romance by Nathaniel Hawthorne, published in 1851. “In The House of the Seven Gables,” says R. H. Hutton, “we have a picture studied to impress on us that both personal character and the malign influences of evil action are transmitted, sometimes with accumulating force, even through centuries, blighting every generation through which they pass. The subject would apparently involve a series of sketches, but only two are introduced from the past, and the family characteristics are so anxiously preserved as to make even these seem like slight modifications of some of the living group. The only incident in the tale is the light thrown upon a crime--which had been committed thirty years before the story opens--by the sudden death of the principal representative of a family from the same disease, in the same chair, and under the same circumstances, as those of the old ancestor and founder of the family, whose picture hangs above the chair.”
=Hubbard, Old Mother.=--A well-known nursery rhyme. _Mother Hubbard’s Tale_, by Edmund Spenser, is a satirical fable in the style of Chaucer.
=Hubert de Burgh= (börg, or berg).--Justice of England, created Earl of Kent, introduced by Shakespeare into King John. He is the one to whom the young prince addresses his piteous plea for life. The lad was found dead soon afterward, either by accident or foul play.
=Hubert, Saint.=--The legend of Saint Hubert makes him a patron saint of huntsmen.
=Hudibras= (hū´di-bras).--The title and hero of a celebrated satirical poem by Samuel Butler. Hudibras is a Presbyterian justice of the time of the commonwealth.
=Hugh of Lincoln.=--A legendary personage who forms the subject of Chaucer’s Prioress’ Tale, and also of an ancient English ballad. Wordsworth has given a modernized version of this tale.
=Hugo Hugonet.=--Castle Dangerous, Scott. Minstrel of the earl of Douglas.
=Humphrey.=--The imaginary collector of the tales in _Master Humphrey’s Clock_, by Charles Dickens.
=Humpty Dumpty.=--The hero of a well-known nursery rhyme. The name signifies humped and dumpy, and is the riddle for an egg.
=Huon de Bordeaux= (ü-ôn´de bor-dō´).--A hero of one of the romances of chivalry bearing this name.
=Hural Oyun.=--In the fairy tales found in the Koran, these are the black-eyed daughters of paradise. They are created from muck, and are free from all physical weakness and are always young. It is held out to every male believer that he will have seventy-two of these girls as his household companions in paradise.
=Hylas= (hī´las).--A beautiful boy, beloved by Hercules, who was drawn into a spring by the enamored nymphs. The story has been treated by Bayard Taylor, and by William Morris in his Life and Death of Jason.
=Hypatia= (hī-ā´shiä).--A novel by the Rev. Charles Kingsley, the scene of which is laid in Alexandria, at a time when Christianity was gaining ground against Paganism and the neo-Platonism of the schools. Hypatia herself was born about the year 370, and, after attracting to her lectures on philosophy a large and brilliant auditory, was torn to pieces by the rabble of her native city in 415. Hypatia appeared in 1853.
=Hyperion= (hī-pē´ri-on, or hī-per-ī´on).--A romance in four books, by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. This work, which was the result of an extensive tour in Germany, was published in 1839, and with much that is purely fanciful and imaginative, contains much that came within the actual experience of the author who is represented, idealized, in the character of Paul Flemming. The episode with Mary Ashburton is supposed to have reference to a real occurrence. The book is full of description and of eloquent discussion, besides being interspersed with snatches of legend and of song.
=Hypocrites’ Isle.=--An island described by Rabelais in one of his satires. He pictures this island of Hypocrites as wholly inhabited by people of low and defiled natures, as, by sham saints, spiritual comedians, seducers, and “such-like sorry rogues who live on the alms of passengers like the hermit of Lamont.”
=I=
=Iago= (ē-ä´gō).--Othello, Shakespeare. Othello’s ensign and the villain of the play. Iago is said to be a character next to a devil, yet not quite a devil, which Shakespeare alone could execute without scandal.
=Idleness, The Lake of.=--Faërie Queene, Spenser. Whoever drank thereof grew instantly “faint and weary.” The Red Cross Knight drank of it, and was readily made captive by Orgoglio.
=Idylls of the King.=--A series of poems by Tennyson. Taken together they form a parable of the life of man. Each idyll taken as a separate picture represents the war between sense and soul. In Lancelot and Guinevere the lower nature leads them astray and there is intense struggle before the higher nature prevails. In Vivien, Tristram, and Modred, the base and sensual triumph. In Arthur, Sir Galahad and Percivale, it is the victory of the spiritual.
=Ignaro.=--Faërie Queene, Spenser. Fosterfather of Orgoglio. Spenser says this old man walks one way and looks another, because ignorance is always “wrong-headed.”
=Iliad= (il´ē-ad).--A famous Greek epic poem by Homer. It is the tale of the siege of Troy, in twenty-four books. It is written in Greek hexameters, and commemorates the deeds of Achilles and other Greek heroes at the siege of Troy. Books one, two and three are introductory to the war. Paris proposes to decide the contest by a single combat, and Menelaus accepts the challenge. Paris, being overthrown, is carried off by Venus, and Agamemnon demands that the Trojans shall give up Troy in fulfillment of the compact, and the siege follows. The gods take part, and frightful slaughter ensues. At length Achilles slays Hector, and the battle is at an end. Old Priam, going to the tent of Achilles, craves the body of his son Hector; Achilles gives it up, and the poem concludes with the funeral rites of the Trojan hero. Vergil continues the tale from this point, shows how the city was taken and burnt, and then continues with the adventures of Æneas, who escapes from the burning city, and makes his way to Italy.
=Imogen= (im´ō-jen).--The wife of Posthumus, and the daughter of Cymbeline in the play of Shakespeare’s under title Cymbeline. “Of all Shakespeare’s women,” says Hazlitt, “she is, perhaps, the most tender and the most artless.”
=Incantation.=--Is derived from a Latin root meaning simply “to sing.” It is the term in use to denote one of the most powerful and awe-inspiring modes of magic, resting on a belief in the mysterious power of words solemnly conceived and passionately uttered.
=Inchcape Rock.=--It is dangerous for navigators, and therefore the abbot of Aberbrothock fixed a bell on a float, which gave notice to sailors. Southey says that Ralph the Rover, in a mischievous joke, cut the bell from the buoy, and it fell into the sea; but on his return voyage his boat ran on the rock, and Ralph was drowned. Precisely the same tale is told of St. Goven’s bell.
=Inferno, The.=--Divine Comedy, Dante. Epic poem in thirty-four cantos. Inferno is the place of the souls who are wholly given up to sin. The ascent is through Purgatory to Paradise.
=Ingoldsby Legends= (ing´gōldz-bi lej´endz, or lē´jendz).--A collection of legends in prose and verse, supposed to have been found in the family chest of the Ingoldsby family, and related by Thomas Ingoldsby. Of the poetical pieces it is not too much to say that, for originality of design and diction, for quaint illustration and musical verse, they are not surpassed in the English language. From the days of Hudibras to our time, the drollery invested in rhyme has never been so amply or so felicitously exemplified; and if derision has been unsparingly applied, it has been to lash knavery and imposture.
=In Memoriam.=--A poem by Alfred Tennyson, published in 1850, and consisting of one hundred and thirty “short swallow flights of song,” in a measure which Tennyson has made his own. It is well known that these “brief lays, of sorrow born,” were written in memory of the author’s friend, Arthur Henry Hallam, who died in 1833. They are characterized by George MacDonald as forming “the poem of the hoping doubters, the poem of our age--the grand minor organ fugue of In Memoriam. It is the cry of the bereaved Psyche into the dark infinite after the vanished love. His friend is nowhere in his sight, and God is silent. Death, God’s final compulsion to prayer, in its dread, its gloom, its utter stillness, its apparent nothingness, urges the cry. Moanings over the dead are mingled with the profoundest questionings of philosophy, the signs of nature, and the story of Jesus, while now and then the star of the morning, bright Phosphor, flashes a few rays through the shifting cloudy dark. And if the sun has not arisen on the close of the book, yet the aurora of the coming dawn gives light enough to make the onward journey possible and hopeful.”
=Innocents Abroad.=--By Mark Twain. Travelers seeing Europe without any illusions. The fun consists in an irreverent application of modern common sense to historic associations, ridiculing sentimental humbug. An air of innocence and surprise adds to the drolleries of their adventures.
=Instauratio Magna= (in-stâ-rā´shi-ō mag´nä).--The title (The Great Restoration) which Bacon gave to his Magnum Opus, the design of which was for six divisions:--(1) The Advancement of Learning; (2) the Novum Organum; (3) the Experimental History of Nature; (4) the Scala Intellectus, which leads from experience to science; (5) the Bodronic, or anticipations of the second philosophy; and (6) Active Science, or experiment. Of these, only the first two, and a portion of the third (Sylva Sylvarum), were published. The idea that was to run through the Instauratio was that invention must be based upon experience, and experience upon experiment.
=Interludes, The.=--Springing from the moralities and bearing some resemblance to them, though nearer the regular drama, are the interludes, a class of compositions in dialogue, much shorter and more merry and farcical. They were generally played in the intervals of a festival.
=Invocation.=--An address at the commencement of a poem, in which the author calls for the aid of some divinity, particularly of his muse.
=Iphigenia= (if=´=i-jē-nī´ä).--The heroine of Euripides’ tragedy Iphigenia in Aulis, and of Goethe’s tragedy Iphigenia auf Tauris. She was placed on the altar in a rash vow by her father. Artemis at the last moment snatched her from the altar and carried her to heaven, substituting a hind in her place. The similarity of this legend to the scripture stories of Jephthah’s vow and Abraham’s offering of his son Isaac is noticeable.
=Iras.=--A strongly delineated character in _Ben Hur, a Tale of The Christ_, by Lew Wallace.
=Iras.=--A female attendant on Cleopatra in Shakespeare’s play, Antony and Cleopatra.
=Isaac of York.=--A wealthy Jew, the father of Rebecca, in Sir Walter Scott’s novel, Ivanhoe.
=Isabella.=--The heroine in Shakespeare’s comedy, Measure for Measure.
=Island of Lanterns.=--In the celebrated satire of Rabelais, an imaginary country inhabited by false pretenders to knowledge. The name was probably suggested by the City of Lanterns, in the Greek romance of Lucian. Swift has copied this same idea in his Island of Laputa.
=Island of St. Brandan.=--A marvelous flying island, the subject of an old and widely spread legend of the middle ages. Though the island of St. Brandan has been a disappointment to voyagers, it has been a favorite theme with poets.
=Island of the Blest.=--Imaginary island in the west. Hither the favorites of the gods were conveyed without dying, and dwelt in never-ending joy. The name first occurs in Hesiod’s Works and Days. This phrase is often used in modern literature.
=Ithuriel= (i-thö´ri-el).--In Milton’s Paradise Lost, an angel commissioned by Gabriel to search through paradise, in company with Zephon, to find Satan, who had eluded the vigilance of the angelic guard, and effected an entrance into the garden. It is related that Ithuriel found Satan “squat like a toad, close at the ear of Eve,” and transformed him by a touch of his spear into his proper shape.
=Ivanhoe.=--A novel by Sir Walter Scott. The hero, also Ivanhoe, figures as Cedric of Rotherwood’s disinherited son, the favorite of King Richard I., and the lover of the Lady Rowena, whom, in the end, he marries. The scene is laid in England in the reign of Richard I., and we are introduced to Robin Hood in Sherwood forest, banquets in Saxon halls, tournaments, and all the pomp of ancient chivalry. Rowena, the heroine, is quite thrown into the shade by the gentle, meek, yet high-souled Rebecca.
=Ivory Gate of Dreams.=--Dreams which delude pass through the ivory gate, but those which come true through the horn gate.
=J=
=Jack and the Bean-Stalk.=--A nursery legend said to be an allegory of the Teutonic Al-fader, the “red hen” representing the all-producing sun, the “money-bags” the fertilizing rain, and the “harp” the winds.
=Jack-in-the-Green.=--A prominent character in Maypole dances.
=Jack Robinson.=--A famous comic song by Hudson.
=Jack Sprat.=--The hero of a nursery rhyme. Jack and his wife form a fine combination in domestic economy.
=Jack the Giant-killer.=--The name of a famous hero in the literature of the nursery, the subject of one of the Teutonic or Indo-European legends, which have become nationalized in England and America.
=Jaquenetta= (jak-e-net´ä).--Love’s Labor’s Lost, Shakespeare. A country wench courted by Don Adriano de Armado.
=Jaques= (zhä´kes).--A lord attending upon the exiled duke, in Shakespeare’s As You Like It. A contemplative character who thinks and does--nothing. He is called the “melancholy Jaques,” and affects a cynical philosophy. He could “suck melancholy out of a song, as a weasel sucks eggs.”
=Jarley, Mrs.=--The proprietor of a waxwork show in Dickens’ Old Curiosity Shop. She has lent her name to a popular game of parlor tableaux.
=Jarndyce= (järn´dis), =John.=--A prominent figure in Dickens’ Bleak House, distinguished for his philanthropy, easy good-nature and good sense, and for always saying, “The wind is in the east,” when anything went wrong with him. The famous suit of Jarndyce vs. Jarndyce, in this novel, is a satire upon the court of chancery.
=Jarvie, Nicol.=--A prominent character in Sir Walter Scott’s novel _Rob Roy_. He is a bailie of Glasgow.
=Javert= (zhä-var´).--An officer of the police force in _Les Misérables_, by Victor Hugo. He is the incarnation of inexorable law.
=Jarvis.=--A faithful old servant, in Moore’s The Gamester, who tries to save his master, Beverley, from his fatal passion of gambling.
=Jaup.=--An old woman at Middlemas village, in Scott’s The Surgeon’s Daughter.
=Jekyll, Doctor, and Mr. Hyde.=--A singular romance by Robert Louis Stevenson. The hero is a duplex character--Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. Doctor Jekyll is a benevolent and upright physician, who by means of a potion is able to transform himself for a time into a second personality, Mr. Hyde, of a brutal and animal nature.
=Jellyby= (jel´i-bi), =Mrs.=--A character in Dickens’ novel, Bleak House, a type of sham philanthropy. She spends her time and energy on foreign missions to the neglect of her family. Mrs. Jellyby is quite overwhelmed with business correspondence relative to the affairs of Borrioboola Gha.
=Jenkins, Winifred.=--The name of Miss Tabitha Bramble’s maid in Smollett’s Expedition of Humphrey Clinker. She makes ridiculous blunders in speaking and writing.
=Jenkinson, Ephraim.=--A green old swindler, whom Dr. Primrose met in a public tavern. Dr. Primrose sold the swindler his horse, Old Blackberry, for a draft upon Farmer Flamborough.
=Jeroboam= (jer-ō-bō´am) =Sermon.=--One of Dr. Emmons’ sermons, which made a great noise at the time. It was known as his Jeroboam Sermon. It was written on the occasion of Jefferson’s inauguration as president, and, although Jefferson is not named, the delineation of the character of Jeroboam is such that no one can doubt the personal application intended.
=Jerusalem Delivered.=--An epic in twenty books, by Torquato Tasso. The crusaders, encamped on the plains of Tortosa, chose Godfrey for their chief, and Alandine, king of Jerusalem, made preparations for defense. The Christian army having reached Jerusalem, the king of Damascus sent Armida to beguile the Christians. It was found that Jerusalem could never be taken without the aid of Rinaldo. Godfrey, being informed that the hero was dallying with Armida in the enchanted island, sent to invite him back to the army; he returned, and Jerusalem was taken. Armida fled into Egypt, and offered to marry any knight who slew Rinaldo. The love of Rinaldo returned, he pursued her and she relented. The poem concludes with the triumphant entry of the Christian army into the Holy City, and their devotions at the tomb of the Redeemer. The two chief episodes are the loves of Olindo and Sofronia, and of Tancred and Clorinda.
=Jessica= (jes´i-kä).--The beautiful daughter of Shylock, in Shakespeare’s Merchant of Venice.
=Jones, Tom.=--The hero of Fielding’s novel entitled The History of a Foundling, represented as a model of generosity, openness, and manly spirit, though thoughtless and dissipated.
=Joyeuse= (zhwä-yez´).--The sword of Charlemagne as mentioned in romances of chivalry.
=Joyeuse Garde= (zhwä-yez´ gärd).--The residence of the famous Lancelot du Lac.
=Judith.=--The heroine in the book by the same name in the Apocrypha. She was a beautiful Jewess of Bethulia, who, when her town was besieged by Holofernes, the general of Nebuchadnezzar, attended him in his tent, and, when he was drunk, killed him, whereupon her townsmen fell upon the Assyrians and defeated them with great slaughter. The tale is not mentioned by Josephus, and has, from an early period, been held to be an allegory. It has frequently furnished poets and painters with subjects.
=Julius Cæsar.=--An historical tragedy by William Shakespeare. The poet was in this, as in other plays, materially assisted by North’s translation of Plutarch. “Shakespeare’s Julius Cæsar,” says Hazlitt, “is not equal, as a whole, to either of his other plays taken from the Roman history. It is inferior in interest to Coriolanus, and both in interest and power to Antony and Cleopatra. It, however, abounds in admirable and affecting passages, and is remarkable for the profound knowledge of character, in which Shakespeare could hardly fail.”
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=Kadir, Al.=--The night on which the Koran was sent down to Mohammed. Al Kadir is supposed to be the seventh of the last ten nights of Ramadan, or the night between the twenty-third and twenty-fourth days of the month.
=Kay.=--A foster brother of King Arthur, and a rude and boastful knight of the Round Table. He was the butt of King Arthur’s court. Called also Sir Queux. He appears in the Boy and the Mantle, in Percy’s Reliques. Sir Kay is represented as the type of rude boastfulness, Sir Gawain of courtesy, Sir Launcelot of chivalry, Sir Mordred of treachery, Sir Galahad of chastity, Sir Mark of cowardice.
=Kehama= (kē-hä´mä).--A Hindu rajah who obtains and sports with supernatural power. His adventures are related in Southey’s poem entitled The Curse of Kehama.
=Kenilworth.=--A novel by Sir Walter Scott. This is very superior to The Abbot and The Monastery. For interest it comes next to Ivanhoe, and the portrait of Queen Elizabeth is lifelike and correct. That of Queen Mary is given in The Abbot. Full of courtly gayeties and splendor, the novel contains the unhappy tale of the beautiful Amy Robsart, which cannot fail to excite our sympathy and pity.
=Kent, Earl of.=--A rough, plain-spoken, but faithful nobleman in Shakespeare’s King Lear, who follows the fallen fortunes of the king, disguised as a servant, under the assumed name of Caius.
=Kenwigs= (ken´wigz).--A family in Dickens’ novel Nicholas Nickleby, including a number of little girls who differed from one another only in the length of their frilled pantalets and of their flaxen pigtails tied with bows of blue ribbon.
=Kilkenny Cats.=--Two cats, in an Irish story, which fought till nothing was left but their tails. It is probably a parable of a local contest between Kilkenny and Irishtown, which impoverished both boroughs.
=Kilmansegg, Miss.=--An heiress with great expectations and an artificial leg of solid gold, in Hood’s poem, A Golden Legend.
=King Horn.=--A metrical romance which was very popular in the thirteenth century. King Horn is a beautiful young prince who is carried away by pirates; but his life is spared, and after many wonderful adventures he weds a princess, and regains his father’s kingdom.
=King Lear.=--A tragedy by Shakespeare whose hero is a fabulous or legendary king of Britain. He had three daughters, and when four score years old, wishing to retire from the active duties of sovereignty, resolved to divide his kingdom between them, but was persuaded to disinherit Cordelia. The beauty of the play is the exquisite character of Cordelia, who is a “perfect woman.”
=King Log and King Stork.=--Characters in a celebrated fable of Æsop, which relates that the frogs, grown weary of living without a government, petitioned Jupiter for a king. Jupiter accordingly threw down a log among them, which made a satisfactory ruler till the frogs recovered from their fright and discovered his real nature. They, therefore, entreated Jupiter for another king, whereupon he sent them a stork, who immediately began to devour them.
=Klaus, Peter.=--The hero of an old popular tradition of Germany--the prototype of Rip Van Winkle--represented as a goatherd.
=Knickerbocker, Diedrich.=--The imaginary author of a humorous fictitious History of New York, written by Washington Irving.
=Knight of the Swan.=--Lohengrin, son of Parsival, because his boat was drawn by a swan.
=Knights of the Round Table.=--King Arthur’s knights were so called because they sat with him at a round table made by Merlin for King Leodogran. This king gave it to Arthur on his marriage with Guinevere, his daughter.
=Koppenberg.=--The mountain of Westphalia to which the pied piper (Bunting) led the children, when the people of Hamelin refused to pay him for killing their rats. Browning’s poem, The Pied Piper, tells the tale.
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=Lady of Lyons, The.=--A drama, by Lord Lytton, in which Pauline Deschappelles, daughter of a Lyonese merchant, rejects the suits of Beauseant, Glavis, and Claude Melnotte, who therefore combined. Claude, who was a gardener’s son, aided by the other two, passed himself off as Prince Como, married Pauline, and brought her home to his mother’s cottage. The proud beauty was very indignant, and Claude left her to join the French army. He became a colonel, and returned to Lyons. He found his father-in-law on the eve of bankruptcy, and that Beauseant had promised to satisfy the creditors if Pauline would consent to marry him. Pauline was heartbroken; Claude revealed himself, paid the money required, and carried home the bride.
=Lady of Shalott, The.=--A poem by Alfred Tennyson, founded on an incident in King Arthur. It is descriptive of “a being whose existence passes without emotion, without changes, without intelligible motive for living on, without hope or fear, here or hereafter.”
=Lady of the Lake, The.=--A poem in six cantos by Sir Walter Scott, published in 1810. “Measured even by the standard of the Minstrel and Marmion, the Lady of the Lake possessed,” says Palgrave, “merits of its own, which raised his reputation still higher. Jeffrey’s prediction has been perfectly fulfilled, that the Lady of the Lake would be ‘oftener read than either of the former,’ and it is generally acknowledged to be, in Lockhart’s words, ‘the most interesting, romantic, picturesque, and graceful of his great poems.’” The descriptions of scenery, which form one of the chief charms of the poem, render it, even now, one of the most minute and faithful handbooks to the region in which the drama of Ellen and the Knight of Snowdon is laid.
=Lake Poets, The.=--Wordsworth, Southey, and Coleridge, who lived about the lakes of Cumberland.
=Lalla Rookh= (lal´ä rök).--An oriental romance by Thomas Moore, consisting of four tales in verse, entitled The Veiled Prophet of Khorassan, Paradise and the Peri, The Fire-Worshipers, and The Light of the Harem, and connected by a short prose narrative, in which it is described how Lalla Rookh, daughter of the Emperor Aurungzebe, journeys toward Bucharia to meet her engaged husband, and how the prince gains her love on the way, in the guise of a Cashmerian minstrel. Lalla Rookh was published in 1817.
=L’Allegro= (läl-lā´grō).--A descriptive poem by John Milton, probably written during his college life.
=L’Amour Médecin= (_la-mōōr´ mād-sa_N´) (or, The Love Doctor).--A comedy by Molière, written about the year 1665. Lucinde, the daughter of Sganarelle, is in love, and the father calls in four doctors to consult upon the nature of her malady. They see the patient, and retire to consult together, but talk about Paris, about their visits, about the topics of the day; and when the father enters to know what opinion they have formed, they all prescribe different remedies, and pronounce different opinions. Lisette then calls in a “quack” doctor (Clitandre, the lover), who says he must act on the imagination, and proposes a seeming marriage, to which Sganarelle assents. The assistant being a notary, Clitandre and Lucinde are married.
=Lampoon.=--A personal satire, often bitter and malignant. These libels, carried to excess in the reign of Charles II., acquired the name of lampoons from the burden sung to them: “Lampone, lampone, camerada lampone.”
=Land of Beulah.=--The paradise in which souls wait before the resurrection. In Pilgrim’s Progress the land from which the pilgrims enter the Celestial City. The name is found in Isaiah lxii., 4.
=Land of Bondage.=--Name given to Egypt in the Bible.
=Land of Cakes.=--A name sometimes given to Scotland, because oatmeal cakes are a common national article of food, particularly among the poorer classes.
=Land of Nod.=--In common speech sleepy-land or land of dreams.
=Land of Promise.=--The land promised to Abraham--Canaan.
=Land of Shadows.=--A place of unreality, sometimes meaning land of ghosts.
=Land o’ the Leal.=--An unknown land of happiness, loyalty, and virtue. Caroline Oliphant, baroness Nairne, meant heaven in her song and this is now its accepted meaning.
=Land of Wisdom.=--A name given to Normandy, in France, because of the wise customs which have prevailed there, and also because of the skill and judgment of the people in making laws.
=Land of Veda= (vē´dä).--Name often given to India.
=Landlady’s Daughter.=--She rowed Flemming “over the Rhine-stream, rapid and roaring wide,” and told to him the story of the Liebenstein.
=Last Days of Pompeii= (pom-pā´yē), =The.=--A novel by Bulwer Lytton, Edward George, Baron Lytton, which was published in 1834. The interest of the book is one of situation and of action rather than of character. The scenes which linger on our memories longest are the noonday excursion on the Campanian seas, the temple of Isis, with its hidden machinery; the funeral pomp and dirge of the murdered Apæcides, Lydon perishing in the unequal struggle; the price which was to have been paid for a father’s liberty; and lastly, the grand catastrophe, a subject which called forth all Lord Lytton’s brilliant powers.
=Last of the Mohicans.=--The Indian chief Uncas is so called by Cooper in his novel of that title.
=Launfal= (län´fal), =Sir.=--Steward of King Arthur. James Russell Lowell has a poem entitled The Vision of Sir Launfal.
=Lavaine.=--Son of the lord of Astolat, who accompanied Sir Lancelot when he went to tilt for the ninth diamond. Lavaine is described as young, brave, and a true knight. He was brother to Elaine.
=Lavinia= (la-vin´i-ä) =and Palemon.=--Lavinia was the daughter of Acasto, patron of Palemon. Through Acasto Palemon gained a fortune and wandered away from his friend. Acasto lost his property, and dying, left a widow and daughter in poverty. Palemon often sought them, but could never find them. One day, a lovely modest maiden came to glean in Palemon’s fields. The young squire was greatly struck with her exceeding beauty and modesty, but she was known as a pauper and he dared not give her more than a passing glance. Upon inquiry he found that the beautiful gleaner was the daughter of Acasto; he proposed marriage, and Lavinia was restored to her rightful place.
=Leonato= (lē-ō-nä´tō).--Governor of Missina in Shakespeare’s Much Ado About Nothing. He prematurely accredited the accusations against his daughter, Hero.
=Leonine= (lē´ō-nīn).--In Shakespeare’s Pericles. Servant to Dionyza. The latter conspired with him to murder Marina, and was saved from the crime only by the intervention of pirates.
=Léonore= (lā-ō-nōr´).--In Molière’s L’ecole des Maris, sister of Isabelle, an orphan; brought up by Ariste according to his notions of training a girl to make him a good wife. He put her on her honor, tried to win her confidence and love, gave her all the liberty consistent with propriety and social etiquette, and found that she loved him, and made a fond and faithful wife.
=Leviathan= (lē-vi´a-than) (or, the Matter, Form, and Power of a Commonwealth, Ecclesiastical and Civil).--A work by Thomas Hobbes, published in 1651. In Leviathan, Hobbes’ peculiar theories in politics received their fullest and ablest expression. They found an illustrious opponent in Lord Clarendon, who, in 1676, published A Brief View and Survey of the Dangerous and Pernicious Errors to Church and State in Mr. Hobbes’ book Entitled Leviathan.
=Little Dorrit.=--The heroine and title of a novel by Charles Dickens. Little Dorrit was born and brought up in the Marshalsea prison, Bermondsey, where her father was confined for debt; and when about fourteen years of age she used to do needlework, to earn a subsistence for herself and her father. The child had a pale, transparent face; was quick in expression, though not beautiful in feature. Her eyes were a soft hazel, and her figure slight. The little dove of the prison was idolized by the prisoners, and when she walked out, every man in Bermondsey who passed her, touched or took off his hat out of respect to her good works and active benevolence. Her father, coming into a property, was set free at length, and Little Dorrit married Arthur Clennam, the marriage service being celebrated in the Marshalsea, by the prison chaplain.
=Little John.=--A big, stalwart fellow, named John Little, who encountered Robin Hood, and gave him a sound thrashing, after which he was rechristened, and Robin stood godfather. Little John is introduced by Sir Walter Scott in The Talisman.
=Little Nell.=--Old Curiosity Shop, Dickens. The prominent character of the story, pure and true, though living in the midst of selfishness and crime. She was brought up by her grandfather, who was in his dotage, and who tried to eke out a narrow living by selling curiosities. At length, through terror of Quilp, the old man and his grandchild stole away, and led a vagrant life.
=Lochinvar= (lock´in-var).--A young highlander, in the poem of Marmion, was much in love with a lady whose fate was decreed that she should marry a “laggard.” Young Lochinvar persuaded the too-willing lassie to be his partner in a dance; and, while the guests were intent on their amusements, swung her into his saddle and made off with her before the bridegroom could recover from his amazement.
=Locksley.=--So Robin Hood is sometimes called, from the village in which he was born.
=Locksley Hall.=--A poem by Tennyson, in which the hero, the lord of Locksley Hall, having been jilted by his cousin Amy for a rich boor, pours forth his feelings in a flood of scorn and indignation. The poem is understood to have been occasioned by a similar incident in the poet’s own life, but this has been questioned.
=Lohengrin= (lō´hen-grin).--The Knight of the Swan; the hero of a romance by Wolfram von Eschenbach, a German minnesinger of the thirteenth century, and also of a modern musical drama by Richard Wagner. He was the son of Parsival, and came to Brabant in a ship drawn by a white swan, which took him away again when his bride, disobeying his injunction, pressed him to discover his name and parentage.
=Lorelei=, or =Loreley= (lō´re-li).--In German poetry and romance, a siren supposed to haunt the Lurlenberg rock on the Rhine, and lure sailors and fisherman to destruction. She is the subject of a beautiful ballad by Heine.
=Lorna Doone.=--A novel by R. D. Blackmore, published in 1869, the scene of which is laid in Exmoor. The Doones are a family of robbers and freebooters from which Lorna, otherwise Lady Lorna Dugal, is rescued by John Ridd, a young man. Ridd finally broke up the band, drove them from Doone valley, and married Lorna.
=Love’s Labor’s Lost.=--A comedy by Shakespeare. Ferdinand, king of Navarre, with three lords named Biron, Dumain, and Longaville, agree to spend three years in study, during which time no woman was to approach the court. The compact signed, all went well until the princess of France, attended by Rosaline, Maria, and Katharine, besought an interview respecting certain debts said to be due from the king of France to the king of Navarre. The four gentleman fell in love with the four ladies. The love of the king sought the princess, by right, Biron loved Rosaline, Longaville admired Maria, and Dumain adored Katharine. In order to carry their suits, the four gentlemen, disguised as Muscovites, presented themselves before the ladies; but the ladies, being warned of the masquerade, disguised themselves also, so that the gentlemen in every case addressed the wrong lady. A mutual arrangement was made that the suits should be deferred for twelve months and a day; and if, at the expiration of that time, they remained of the same mind, the matter should be taken into serious consideration.
=Lusiad= (lū´si-ad), =The.=--A Portuguese poem by Luiz Camoëns, in 1572. The Lusiad celebrates the chief events in the history of Portugal, and is remarkable as the only modern epic poem which is pervaded by anything approaching the national and popular spirit of ancient epic poems. Bacchus was the guardian power of the Mohammedans, and Venus, or Divine Love, of the Lusians. The fleet first sailed to Mozambique, then to Melinda (in Africa), where the adventurers were hospitably received and provided with a pilot to conduct them to India. In the Indian Ocean, Bacchus tried to destroy the fleet; Venus, however, calmed the sea, and Gama arrived in India in safety. Having accomplished his object, he returned to Lisbon. Among the most famous passages are the tragical story of Inez de Castro, and the apparition of the giant Adamastor, who appears as the spirit of the storm to Vasco da Gama, when crossing the cape. The versification of The Lusiad is extremely charming.
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=Mab.=--The queen of the fairies, famous in English literature if only on account of the exquisite description of her put into the mouth of Mercutio, in Romeo and Juliet, beginning “O, then, I see Queen Mab hath been with you.”
=Macbeth.=--One of Shakespeare’s most celebrated tragedies, whose chief characters are Macbeth, king of Scotland, and Lady Macbeth, his murderously ambitious wife. Urged by the latter he kills Duncan, the rightful king, and in turn is himself slain by Macduff. The tale of Macbeth and Banquo was borrowed from the legendary history of Scotland, but the interest of the play is not historical. It is a tragedy of human life, intensely real, the soul, with all its powers for good or evil, deliberately choosing evil. The three witches in the desert place, in thunder, lightning, storm, strike the keynote of evil suggestion. The awfulness of soul destruction is felt in Macbeth and Lady Macbeth as in no other of Shakespeare’s dramas.
=Macheath, Captain.=--A highwayman who is the hero of Gay’s _Beggar’s Opera_.
=Mac-Ivor= (mak-ē´vor), =Fergus.=--Waverley, Scott, Fergus Mac-Ivor is a prominent character in the novel, and his sister, Flora Mac-Ivor, the heroine. They are of the family of a Scottish chieftain.
=Macreons, The Island of.=--Pantagruel, Rabelais. The title is given to Great Britain, derived from a Greek word meaning long-lived, “because no one is put to death there for his religious opinions.” Rabelais says the island “is full of antique ruins and relics of popery and ancient superstitions.”
=Madasima, Queen.=--An important character in the old romance called Amadis de Gaul; her constant attendant was Elisabat, a famous surgeon with whom she roamed in solitary retreats.
=Madoc= (mad´ok).--A poem by Southey, founded on one of the legends connected with the early history of America. Madoc, a Welsh prince of the twelfth century, is represented as making the discovery of the western world. His contests with the Mexicans form the subject.
=Maidens’ Castle.=--An allegorical castle mentioned in Malory’s History of Prince Arthur. It was taken from a duke by seven knights, and held by them till Sir Galahad expelled them. It was called The Maidens’ Castle because these knights made a vow that every maiden who passed it should be made a captive.
=Maid Marian.=--A half mythical character, but the name is said to have been assumed by Matilda, daughter of Robert, Lord Fitzwalter, while Robin Hood remained in a state of outlawry. The name is considered the foundation of the word marionettes, from Maid Marian’s connection with the morris dance, or May-day dance, at which she was said to appear.
=Maid of Athens.=--Made famous by Lord Byron’s song of this title. Twenty-four years after this song was written an Englishman sought out “the Athenian maid,” and found a beggar without a vestige of beauty.
=Maid of Saragossa.=--Childe Harold, Byron. A young Spanish woman distinguished for her heroism during the defense of Saragossa in 1808-1809. She first attracted notice by mounting a battery where her lover had fallen, and working a gun in his place.
=Malade Imaginaire, Le= (or, The Imaginary Invalid).--A comedy by Molière. Mons. Argan, who took seven mixtures and twelve lavements in one month instead of twelve mixtures with twenty lavements, as he had hitherto done. “No wonder,” he says, “I am not so well.” He fancies his wife loves him dearly, and that his daughter is undutiful, because she declines to marry a young medical prig instead of Cleante, whom she loves. His brother persuades “the malade” to counterfeit death, in order to test the sincerity of his wife and daughter. The wife rejoices greatly at his death, and proceeds to filch his property, when Argan starts up and puts an end to her pillage. Next comes the daughter’s turn. When she hears of her father’s death, she bewails him with great grief, says she has lost her best friend, and that she will devote her whole life in prayer for the repose of his soul. Argan is delighted, starts up in a frenzy of joy, declares she is a darling, and shall marry the man of her choice freely, and receive a father’s blessing.
=Malaprop= (mal´a-prop), =Mrs.=--A character in Sheridan’s Rivals, noted for her blundering use of words.
=Malbecco.=--Faërie Queene, Spenser. The husband of a young wife, Helinore, and himself a crabbed, jealous old fellow.
=Malengrin.=--A character in Spenser’s Faërie Queene, who carried a net on his back “to catch fools with.” The name has grown to mean the personification of guile or flattery.
=Malepardus.=--The castle of Master Reynard, the Fox, in the beast epic of Reynard the Fox.
=Malvoisin.=--Ivanhoe, Scott. One of the challenging knights at the tournament (Sir Philip de Malvoisin). Sir Albert de Malvoisin was a preceptor of the Knights Templar.
=Mambrino= (mäm-brē´nō).--Poems, Ariosto, etc. A king of the Moors, who was the possessor of an enchanted golden helmet, which rendered the wearer invulnerable and which was the object of eager quest to the paladins of Charlemagne. This helmet was borne away by the knight Rinaldo. In Don Quixote we are told of a barber who was caught in a shower of rain, and who, to protect his hat, clapped his brazen basin on his head. Don Quixote insisted that this basin was the helmet of the Moorish king; and, taking possession of it, wore it as such.
=Managarm.=--Prose Edda. The largest and most formidable of the race of giants. He dwells in the Iron-wood, Jamvid. Managarm will first fill himself with the blood of man, and then he will swallow up the moon. This giant symbolizes war, and the iron wood in which he dwells is the wood of spears.
=Manfred.=--A poem by Byron. Manfred sold himself to the prince of darkness, and received from him seven spirits to do his bidding. They were the spirits of “earth, ocean, air, night, mountains, winds, and the star of his own destiny.” Wholly without human sympathies, the count dwelt in splendid solitude among the Alpine mountains. He loved Astarte, and was visited by her spirit after her death. In spirit form she told Manfred that he would die the following day; and, when asked if she loved him, she signed “Manfred,” and vanished.
=Manon l’Escaut= (mä-non´ les-kō).--A French novel by A. F. Prévost. Manon is the “fair mischief” of the story. Her charms seduce and ruin the chevalier des Grieux, who marries her. After marriage, the selfish mistress becomes converted into the faithful wife, who follows her husband into disgrace and banishment, and dies by his side in the wilds of America. The object of this novel, like that of La Dame aux Camélias, by Dumas fils, is to show how true hearted, how self-sacrificing, how attractive, a fille de joie may be.
=Mantalini= (man-ta-lē´nē).--Nicholas Nickleby, Dickens. The husband of madame; he is a man doll, noted for his white teeth, his oaths, and his gorgeous morning gown. This “exquisite” lives on his wife’s earnings, and thinks he confers a favor on her by spending. Madame Mantalini is represented as a fashionable dressmaker near Cavendish Square, London.
=Marble Faun, The.=--A romance by Hawthorne, published in 1860. The English edition, published in the same year, is called Transformation, or the Romance of Monte Beni. See Donatello. The sole idea of the Marble Faun is to illustrate the intellectually and morally awakening power of a sudden impulsive sin, committed by a simple, joyous, instinctive, “natural” man. The whole group of characters is imagined solely with a view to the development of this idea.
=Marcellus= (mär-sel´us).--Hamlet, Shakespeare. An officer of Denmark, to whom the ghost of the murdered king appeared before it presented itself to Prince Hamlet.
=Marchioness, The.=--Old Curiosity Shop, Dickens. A half-starved maid-of-all-work, in the service of Sampson Brass and his sister Sally. She was so lonesome and dull that it afforded her relief to peep at Mr. Swiveller even through the keyhole of his door. Mr. Swiveller called her the “marchioness,” when she played cards with him, “because it seemed more real and pleasant” to play with a marchioness than with a domestic. While enjoying these games they made the well known “orange peel wine.”
=Mariana= (mä-rē-ä´nä).--In Tennyson’s poem The Moated Grange, a young damsel, who sits in the moated grange, looking out for her lover, who never comes. (2) In Shakespeare’s Measure for Measure Mariana is a lovely and lovable lady, betrothed to Angelo, who, during the absence of Vincentio, the duke of Vienna, acted as his lord deputy. Her pleadings to the duke for Angelo are wholly unrivaled.
=Martin’s Summer, St.=--Halcyon days; a time of prosperity; fine weather. Mentioned by Shakespeare in Henry VI., etc.
=Masora.=--A critical work or canon, whereby is fixed and ascertained the reading of the text of the Hebrew version of the Bible.
=Mauth Dog.=--Lay of the Last Minstrel, Scott. A black specter spaniel that haunted the guard room of Peeltown in the Isle of Man. A drunken trooper entered the guard room while the dog was there, but lost his speech, and died within three days.
=Mazeppa= (mä-zep´ä).--A poem by Byron. Mazeppa was a Cossack of noble family who became a page in the court of the king of Poland, and while in this capacity intrigued with Theresia, the young wife of a count, who discovered the amour, and had the young page lashed to a wild horse, and turned adrift.
=McFingal.=--The hero of Trumbull’s political poem of the same name; represented as a burly New England squire, enlisted on the side of the Tory part of the American revolution, and constantly engaged in controversy with Honorius, the champion of the Whigs.
=Measure for Measure.=--A comedy by Shakespeare. There was a law in Vienna that made it death for a man to live with a woman not his wife; but the law was so little enforced that the mothers of Vienna complained to the duke of its neglect. So the duke deputed Angelo to enforce it; and, assuming the dress of a friar, absented himself awhile, to watch the result. Scarcely was the duke gone, when Claudio was sentenced to death for violating the law. His sister Isabel went to intercede on his behalf, and Angelo told her he would spare her brother if she would become his Phryne. Isabel told her brother he must prepare to die, as the conditions proposed by Angelo were out of the question. The duke, disguised as a friar, heard the whole story, and persuaded Isabel to “assent in words,” but to send Mariana (the divorced wife of Angelo) to take her place. This was done; but Angelo sent the provost to behead Claudio, a crime which “the friar” contrived to avert. Next day the duke returned to the city, and Isabel told her tale. Finally the duke married Isabel, Angelo took back his wife, and Claudio married Juliet.
=Medea= (mē-dē´ä).--A play by Euripides. The Medea came out in 431 B. C. along with the poet’s Philoctetes, Dictys, and the satiric Reapers (the last was early lost). It was based upon a play of Neophron’s, and only obtained the third prize, Euphorion being first, and Sophocles second. It may accordingly be regarded as a failure in its day--an opinion apparently confirmed by the faults (viz., Ægeus and the winged chariot) selected from it as specimens in Aristotle’s Poetica. There is considerable evidence of there being a second edition of the play, and many of the variants, or so-called interpolations, seem to arise from both versions being preserved and confused. Nevertheless, there was no play of Euripides more praised and imitated.
=Médecine Malgré Lui, Le= (mād-saN´ mal-grā´lwē lu), (or, The Doctor in Spite of Himself).--A comedy by Molière. The “enforced doctor” is Sganarelle, a fagot maker, who is called in by Géronte to cure his daughter of dumbness. Sganarelle soon perceives that the malady is assumed in order to prevent a hateful marriage, and introduces her lover as an apothecary. The dumb spirit is at once exorcized, and the lovers made happy with “pills matrimonial.”
In 1733 Fielding produced a farce called The Mock Doctor, which was based on this comedy. The doctor he calls “Gregory,” and Géronte “Sir Jasper.” Lucinde, the dumb girl, he calls “Charlotta;” and Anglicizes her lover’s name, Léandre, into “Leander.”
=Meg Merrilies= (mer´i-lēz).--A prominent character in Scott’s Guy Mannering, a half-crazy gypsy or sibyl.
=Meistersingers= (mīs´ter-sing-ers).--In Germany an association of master tradesmen, to revive the national minstrelsy, which had fallen into decay with the decline of the minnesingers or love minstrels (1350-1523). Their subjects were chiefly moral or religious, and constructed according to rigid rules.
=Melissa= (me-lis´ä).--Orlando Furioso, Ariosto. The prophetess who lived in Merlin’s cave. Bradamante gave her the enchanted ring to take to Rogero; so, assuming the form of Atlantes, she not only delivered Rogero but disenchanted all the forms metamorphosed in the island where he was captive.
=Melnotte, Claude.=--Lady of Lyons, Bulwer. The son of a gardener in love with Pauline, “the Beauty of Lyons,” but treated by her with contempt. Beauseant and Glavis, two other rejected suitors, conspired with him to humble her.
=Merchant of Venice.=--A comedy by Shakespeare. Antonio the merchant, signs a bond in order to borrow money from Shylock, a Jew, for Bassanio, the lover of Portia. If the loan was repaid within three months, only the principal would be required; if not, the Jew should be at liberty to claim a pound of flesh from Antonio’s body. The ships of Antonio being delayed by contrary winds, the merchant was unable to meet his bill, and the Jew claimed the forfeiture. Portia, in the dress of a law doctor, conducted the defense, and saved Antonio by reminding the Jew that a pound of flesh gave him no drop of blood.
=Merlin.=--The name of an ancient Welsh prophet and enchanter. He is often alluded to by the older poets, especially Spenser, in his Faërie Queene, and also figures in Tennyson’s Idylls of the King. In the History of Prince Arthur by Malory, Merlin is the prince of enchanters and of a supernatural origin. He is said to have built the Round Table and to have brought from Ireland the stones of Stonehenge.
=Merlin’s Cave.=--In Dynevor, near Carmarthen, noted for its ghastly noises of rattling iron chains, groans, and strokes of hammers. The cause is said to be this: Merlin set his spirits to fabricate a brazen wall to encompass the city of Carmarthen, and, as he had to call on the Lady of the Lake, bade them not slacken their labor till he returned; but he never did return, for Vivian held him prisoner by her wiles.
=Merry Wives of Windsor, The.=--A comedy by Shakespeare. It is said that Queen Elizabeth was so pleased with the Falstaff of Henry IV. that she commanded Shakespeare to show how he conducted himself when in love. For the plot he was probably but little indebted to other writers. The Two Lovers of Pisa from Straparola, in Tarleton’s News Out of Purgatory, and a story from Il Pecorone which suggests the hiding of Falstaff in the soiled linen, may possibly have suggested some of the incidents. John Dennis wrote a play, The Comical Gallant, or the Amours of Sir John Falstaff, in 1702, in which The Merry Wives may be recognized.
=Messiah= (me-sī´ä), =The=.--An epic poem in fifteen books, by F. G. Klopstock. The subject is the last days of Jesus, his crucifixion and resurrection.
=Middlemarch=: A Study of Provincial Life.--A novel, by George Eliot, published in 1872, and characterized by The Quarterly Review “as the most remarkable work of the ablest of living novelists, and, considered as a study of character, unique.” The heroine is Dorothea Brooke, first married to Mr. Casaubon, afterward to Will Ladislaw. Among the other characters are Mr. Lydgate, Rosamond Vincy, Mary Garth, and Mrs. Cadwallader.
=Midlothian=, or =Mid-Lothian= (_mid-lō´_TH_i-an_), =The Heart of=.--A tale by Scott, of the Porteous riot, in which the incidents of Effie and Jeanie Deans are of absorbing interest. Effie was seduced by Geordie Robertson (alias George Staunton), while in the service of Mrs. Saddletree. She murdered her infant, and was condemned to death; but her half sister Jeanie went to London, pleaded her cause before the queen, and obtained her pardon. Jeanie, on her return to Scotland, married Reuben Butler; and Geordie Robertson (then Sir George Staunton) married Effie. Sir George being shot by a gypsy boy, Effie (i. e., Lady Staunton) retired to a convent on the continent.
=Midsummer Night’s Dream.=--A comedy by Shakespeare. The author says there was a law in Athens that if a daughter refused to marry the husband selected for her by her father, she might be put to death. Ægeus, an Athenian, promised to give his daughter Hermia in marriage to Demetrius; but, as the lady loved Lysander, she refused to marry the man selected by her father, and fled from Athens with her lover. Demetrius went in pursuit of her, followed by Helena, who doted on him. All four came to a forest, and fell asleep. In their dreams a vision of fairies passed before them, and, on awaking, Demetrius resolved to forego Hermia, who disliked him, and to take to wife Helena, who sincerely loved him. When Ægeus was informed thereof, he readily agreed to give his daughter to Lysander, and the force of the law was not called into action (1592).
=Mildendo.=--Gulliver’s Travels, Swift. The metropolis of Lilliput, the wall of which was two feet and a half in height, and at least eleven inches thick. The emperor’s palace, called Belfaborac, was in the center of the city.
=Miles Standish= (or, Courtship of Miles Standish).--A poem by H. W. Longfellow. From this poem the robust figures of the Puritan captain in his haps and mishaps, and of John Alden and Priscilla, are now part of our national treasures.
=Miller, Daisy.=--Title and heroine of a story by Henry James. An American girl traveling in Europe, where her innocence, ignorance, and disregard of European customs and standards of propriety put her in compromising situations, and frequently expose her conduct to misconstruction.
=Mill on the Floss.=--A novel by George Eliot, published in 1860. There is a simplicity about The Mill on the Floss which reminds us of the classic tragedy. The vast power of nature over the career and fate of a family is figured forth in the river, beside which the child Maggie played, filling her mother’s heart with gloomy and not unveracious presentiments, and down which she passed with Stephen in her hour of temptation, with Tom in her last moments; the whole strength of association and of the ties and instinct of blood breaking in at every critical point in the story, like the voice of a Greek chorus, full of traditionary warning and stern common sense, but speaking in the dialect of English rusticity, and by the mouths of Mr. Tulliver and his wife’s relations.
=Minna von Barnhelm= (min´ä fon bärn´helm).--A comedy by Lessing, published in 1767. It is the first German national drama which deals with contemporary events.
=Minnehaha= (min-e-hä´hä).--Hiawatha, Henry W. Longfellow. The daughter of the arrow maker of Dacotah, and wife of Hiawatha. She was called Minnehaha from the waterfall of that name.
=Minnesingers= (min´e-sing-erz).--A name given to the German lyric poets of the middle ages, on account of love being the principal theme of their lays, the German word “minne” being used to denote a pure and faithful love.
=Miranda.=--The Tempest, Shakespeare. The daughter of Prospero, the exiled duke of Milan, and niece of Antonio, the usurping duke. She is brought up on a desert island, with Ariel, the fairy spirit, and Caliban, the monster, as her only companions.
=Miriam.=--A beautiful and mysterious woman in Hawthorne’s romance The Marble Faun, for love of whom Donatello commits murder, thus becoming her partner in crime.
=Misanthrope, Le= (_mi-zä_N-trop´, lu).--A comedy by Molière, produced in 1666. This play is an almost inexhaustible source of allusions, quotations, proverbial sayings, etc. Its principal interest lies in the development of various pairs of opposing characters in even their lightest shades. It is the ideal of classic comedy. Alceste, the impatient, but not cynical, hero. Célimène the coquette, Oronte the fop, Éliante the reasonable woman, Arsinœ the mischief maker, are all immortal types.
=Misérables, Les= [(mi-zā-rabl´, lâ); or, The Unfortunates.]--A novel by Victor Hugo, in five parts: Fantine, Cosette, Marius, L’Idylle Rue Plumet, and Jean Valjean. It was published in 1862.
=Morte d’Arthur= (môrt där´ther).--(1) Compilation of Arthurian tales, called on the title page The History of Prince Arthur, compiled from the French by Sir Thomas Malory, and printed by William Caxton in 1470. It is divided into three parts. The first part contains the birth of King Arthur, the establishment of the Round Table, the romance of Balin and Balan, and the beautiful allegory of Gareth and Linet. The second part is mainly the romance of Sir Tristram. The third part is the romance of Sir Launcelot, the quest of the holy grail, and the death of Arthur, Guinevere, Tristram, Lamorake, and Launcelot.
(2) An idyll by Tennyson, called The Passing of Arthur, in the Idylls of the King. The poet supposes Arthur (wounded in the great battle of the west) to be borne off the field by Sir Bedivere. The wounded monarch directed Sir Bedivere to cast Excalibur into the mere. Sir Bedivere then carried the dying king to a barge, in which were three queens, who conveyed him to the island valley of Avilion.
=Mualox.=--The Fair God, Lew Wallace. The old paba or prophet who assured Nenetzin that she was to be the future queen in her father’s palace.
=Much Ado About Nothing.=--A comedy by Shakespeare. It was first printed in 1600. The play was known as Benedict and Bettris in 1613, and is probably the same as Love’s Labor’s Won. The story of Hero is taken with some variations from one of Bandello’s tales, which probably was borrowed from the story of Geneura and Ariodantes in the Orlando Furioso of Ariosto. This part of the play, however, is subordinated by Shakespeare to the loves of Benedict and Beatrice.
=Mucklebacket.=--The Antiquary, Scott. Name of a conspicuous family, consisting of Saunders Mucklebacket, the old fisherman of Musselcrag; Old Elspeth, mother of Saunders; Maggie, wife of Saunders; Steenie, the eldest son, who was drowned; Little Jennie, Saunders’ child.
=Mumblecrust, Madge.=--A character in Edall’s Ralph Roister Doister, whose name was subsequently employed in Dekker’s Satiro-Mastix, and the comedy of Patient Grissel. Madge is mentioned in the MS. comedy of Misogonus.
=Münchausen= (münch´hou-zen), =The Baron=.--A hero of most marvelous adventures, and the fictitious author of a book of travels filled with most extravagant tales. The name is said to refer to Hieronymus Karl Friedrich von Münchausen, a German officer in the Russian army, noted for his marvelous stories.
=Mutual Friend, Our.=--A novel by Charles Dickens. The “mutual friend” is Mr. Boffin, the golden dustman, who was the mutual friend of John Harmon and of Bella Wilfer. The tale is this: John Harmon was supposed to have been murdered by Julius Handford; but it was Ratford, who was murdered by Rogue Riderhood, and the mistake arose from a resemblance between the two persons. By his father’s will, John Harmon was to marry Bella Wilfer; but John Harmon knew not the person destined by his father for his wife, and made up his mind to dislike her. After his supposed murder, he assumed the name of John Rokesmith, and became the secretary of Mr. Boffin, “the golden dustman,” residuary legatee of old John Harmon, by which he became possessor of one hundred thousand dollars. Boffin knew Rokesmith, but concealed his knowledge for a time. At Boffin’s house John Harmon (as Rokesmith) met Bella Wilfer, and fell in love with her. Mr. Boffin, in order to test Bella’s love, pretended to be angry with Rokesmith for presuming to love Bella; and, as Bella married him, he cast them both off “for a time,” to live on John’s earnings. A babe was born, and then the husband took the young mother to a beautiful house, and told her he was John Harmon, that the house was their house, that he was the possessor of five hundred thousand dollars through the disinterested conduct of their “mutual friend,” Mr. Boffin, and the young couple live happily with Mr. and Mrs. Boffin, in wealth and luxury.
=My Novel.=--A work of fiction by Edward, Lord Lytton, published in 1853. It is described as the “great work which marks the culminating point in Lord Lytton’s genius, the work to which, with a rare estimate of his own powers, he has given the singularly appropriate title of My Novel.... If we except one or two melodramatic scenes, it is throughout an admirable work.... The plot is complex, but it is unfolded with marvelous directness and ingenuity, and, notwithstanding the digressions, the interest never for a moment flags.” Among the characters are Squire Hazeldean, Mr. Dale, Dick Avenel, Leonard Fairfield, and Harley L’Estrange.
=N=
=Nathan the Wise= [Nathan der Wise (nä´tän der vī´ze).]--A drama by G. E. Lessing, so called from the name of its principal character. Its tendency is toward religious tolerance, especially in the episode of the three rings, which was taken from Boccaccio. Nathan is a persecuted but noble Jew, an ideal character resembling Moses Mendelssohn.
=Natty Bumppo.=--Called “Leather-Stocking.” He appears in five of Cooper’s novels: (1) The Deerslayer; (2) The Pathfinder; (3) As “Hawk-eye” in The Last of the Mohicans; (4) “Natty Bumppo” in _The Pioneers_; and (5) as the “Trapper” in The Prairie, in which he dies.
=Neæra= (nē-ē´rä).--The name of a girl mentioned by the Latin poets Horace, Vergil, and Tibullus; sometimes also introduced into modern pastoral poetry as the name of a mistress or sweetheart.
=Nepenthe.=--A care-dispelling drug, which Polydamna, wife of Thonis, king of Egypt, gave to Helen. A drink containing this drug “changed grief to mirth, melancholy to joyfulness, and hatred to love.” The water of Ardenne had the opposite effects. Homer mentions this drug nepenthe in his Odyssey. It is also mentioned in Poe’s Raven.
=New Atlantis, The.=--An imaginary island in the middle of the Atlantic. Bacon, in his allegorical fiction, so called, supposes himself wrecked on this island, where he finds an association for the cultivation of natural science and the promotion of arts. Called the “New” Atlantis to distinguish it from Plato’s Atlantis, an imaginary island of fabulous charms.
=Newcomes, The.=--Memoirs of a Most Respectable Family, by William Makepeace Thackeray. The hero is Clive Newcome, a young artist, son of Colonel Newcome, and cousin of Ethel Newcome, whom he marries after the death of his first wife, Rosa Mackenzie. Among the other characters are Comte de Florac, Charles Honeyman, “J. J.,” Fred Bayham, Lady Kew, Jack Belsize, Dr. Goodenough, and others.
Colonel Newcome, is “the finest portrait,” says Hannay, “that has been added to the gallery of English fiction since Sir Walter’s time. The pathos, at once manly and delicate, with which his ruin and death are treated, places Thackeray in a high rank in poetic sentiment.”
=Nibelungenlied= (nē´be-loong-en-lēd).--An historic poem, generally called the German Iliad. It is the only great national epic that European writers have produced since antiquity, and belongs to every country that has been peopled by Germanic tribes, as it includes the hero traditions of the Franks, the Burgundians and the Goths, with memorials of the ancient myths carried with them from Asia. The poem is divided into two parts, and thirty-two lieds, or cantos. The first part ends with the death of Siegfried, and the second part with the death of Kriemhild. The death of Siegfried and the revenge of Kriemhild have been celebrated in popular songs dating back to the lyric chants now a thousand years old. These are the foundation of the great poem.
=Nicholas Nickleby.=--A novel by Dickens. The mother of the hero, Nicholas, is a widow fond of talking and of telling long stories with no connection. She imagined her neighbor, a mildly insane man, was in love with her because he tossed cabbages and other articles over the garden wall. She had a habit of introducing in conversation topics wholly irrelevant to the subject under consideration, and of always declaring, when anything unanticipated occurred, that she had expected it all along, and had prophesied to that precise effect on divers (unknown) occasions. Nicholas Nickleby has to make his own way in the world. He first goes as usher to Mr. Squeers, schoolmaster at Dotheboys Hall; but leaves in disgust with the tyranny of Squeers and his wife, especially to a poor boy named Smike. Smike runs away from the school to follow Nicholas, and remains his humble follower till death. At Portsmouth, Nicholas joins the theatrical company of Mr. Crummles, but leaves the profession for other adventures. He falls in with the Brothers Cheeryble, who make him their clerk; and in this post he rises to become a merchant, and finally marries Madeline Bray.
=Nightingale, Ode to a.=--Poem by John Keats, which “was written,” says Leigh Hunt, “in a house at the foot of Highgate Hill, on the border of the fields looking toward Hampstead. The poet had then his mortal illness upon him, and knew it; never was the voice of death sweeter.”
Thou wast not born for death, immortal Bird! No hungry generations tread thee down; The voice I hear this passing night was heard In ancient days by emperor and clown; Perhaps the selfsame song that found a path Through the sad heart of Ruth, when, sick for home, She stood in tears amid the alien corn; The same that ofttimes hath Charm’d magic casements, opening on the foam Of perilous seas, in faëry lands forlorn.
=Notre Dame de Paris.=--A prose romance by Victor Hugo, published in 1831. The scene is laid in Paris at the end of the reign of Louis XI. It is a vigorous but somber picture of mediæval manners.
=Nourmahal= (nör-ma-häl´).--Lalla Rookh, Moore. “Light of the Harem.” She was for a season estranged from the sultan, till he gave a grand banquet, at which she appeared in disguise as a lute-player and singer. The sultan was so enchanted with her performance that he exclaimed, “If Nourmahal had so played and sung, I could forgive her all;” whereupon the sultana threw off her mask.
=Nucta.=--Paradise and the Peri, Moore. The name given to the miraculous drop which falls from heaven, in Egypt, on St. John’s day, and is supposed to stop the plague.
=Nun of Nidaros.=--Tales of a Wayside Inn, Longfellow. The abbess of the Drontheim convent, who heard the voice of St. John while she was kneeling at her midnight devotions.
=Nut-Brown Maid.=--Reliques, Percy. The maid who was wooed by the “banished man.” The “banished man” described to her the hardships she would have to undergo if she married him; but finding that she accounted these hardships as nothing compared with his love, he revealed himself to be an earl’s son, with large hereditary estates in Westmoreland, and married her.
=O=
=Obermann= (ō-ber-män´).--The impersonation of high moral worth without talent, and the tortures endured by the consciousness of this defect. This name was given to the hero and imaginary author of a work of the same name by Etienne Pivert de Senancourt, a French writer.
=Oberon= ([=o]´be-ron).--King of the fairies, whose wife was Titania. Shakespeare introduces both Oberon and Titania in his Midsummer Night’s Dream. He and Titania, his queen, are fabled to have lived in India, and to have crossed the seas to northern Europe to dance by the light of the moon.
=Oberon the Fay.=--A humpty dwarf only three feet high, but of angelic face, lord and king of Mommur.
=Odyssey= (od´i-si).--Homer’s epic poem recording the adventures of Odysseus (Ulysses) in his voyage home from Troy. The poem opens in the island of Calypso, with a complaint against Neptune and Calypso for preventing the return of Odysseus to Ithaca. Telemachos, the son of Odysseus, starts in search of his father, accompanied by Pallas in the guise of Mentor. He goes to Pylos to consult old Nestor, and is sent by him to Sparta, where he is told by Menelaus that Odysseus is detained in the island of Calypso. In the meantime, Odysseus leaves the island, and, being shipwrecked, is cast on the shore of Phæacia. After twenty years’ absence Odysseus returns to his home. Penelope is tormented by suitors. To excuse herself, Penelope tells her suitors he only shall be her husband who can bend Odysseus’ bow. None can do so but the stranger, who bends it with ease. Odysseus is recognized by his wife, and the false suitors are all slain, and peace is restored to Ithaca.
=Œdipus= (ed´i-pus) =Coloneus= [(kō-lō-nē´us); or, Œdipus at Colonus (kō-lō´nus)].--A tragedy of Sophocles, which was not exhibited till four years after his death, and was said to be the last he wrote. In it Œdipus, driven from Thebes by Creon, with his daughters, Antigone and Ismene, seeks asylum with Theseus at Athens, and there obtains pardon from the gods, and peace.
=Œdipus Tyrannus= (ti-ran´us).--A tragedy by Sophocles, of uncertain date, “placed by the scholiasts, and by most modern critics, at the very summit of Greek tragic art.”
=Ogier= (ō-zhyā´) the Dane.--One of the paladins of the Charlemagne epoch. Also made the hero of an ancient French romance, and the subject of a ballad whose story is probably a contribution from the stores of Norman tradition, Holger, or Olger, Danske, being the national hero of Denmark. He figures in Ariosto’s Orlando Furioso.
=O’Groat.=--A name often alluded to in early English parables or sayings coming from the legend of John O’Groat’s House. This ancient building was supposed to stand on the most northerly point in Great Britain. John of Groat and his brothers were originally from Holland. According to tradition, the house was of an octagonal shape, being one room with eight windows and eight doors, to admit eight members of the family, the heads of eight different branches of it, to prevent their quarrels for precedence at table, which, on a previous occasion, had well-nigh proved fatal.
=Oldbuck, Jonathan.=--Antiquary, Scott. The character whose whimsies gave name to the novel. He is represented as devoted to the study and accumulation of old coins, medals, and relics. He is irritable, sarcastic, and cynical from an early disappointment in love, but full of humor and a faithful friend.
=Old Curiosity Shop, The.=--A tale by Charles Dickens. An old man, having run through his fortune, opened a curiosity shop in order to earn a living and brought up a granddaughter, named Nell [Trent], fourteen years of age. The child was the darling of the old man, but, deluding himself with the hope of making a fortune by gaming, he lost everything, and went forth, with the child, a beggar. Their wanderings and adventures are recounted till they reach a quiet country village, where the old clergyman gives them a cottage to live in. Here Nell soon dies, and the grandfather is found dead upon her grave. The main character, next to Nell, is that of a lad named Kit [Nubbles], employed in the curiosity shop, who adored Nell as “an angel.” This boy gets in the service of Mr. Garland, a genial, benevolent, well-to-do man, in the suburbs of London; but Quilp hates the lad, and induces Brass, a solicitor of Bevis Marks, to put a five pound banknote in the boy’s hat, and then accuse him of theft. Kit is tried, and condemned to transportation; but, the villainy being exposed by a girl-of-all-work nicknamed “The Marchioness,” Kit is liberated and restored to his place, and Quilp drowns himself.
=Old Man of the Sea.=--In the Arabian Nights, a monster encountered by Sindbad the sailor in his fifth voyage. After carrying him upon his shoulders a long time, Sindbad at last succeeds in intoxicating him, and effects his escape. The Old Man of the Sea was also made the title of a humorous and well-known poem by O. W. Holmes.
=Old Mortality=, the best of Scott’s historical novels. Morton is the best of his young heroes, and serves as an excellent foil to the fanatical and gloomy Burley. The two classes of actors, viz., the brave and dissolute cavaliers, and the resolute oppressed covenanters, are drawn in bold relief. The most striking incidents are the terrible encounter with Burley in his rocky fastness; the dejection and anxiety of Morton on his return from Holland; and the rural comfort of Cuddie Headrigg’s cottage on the banks of the Clyde, with its thin blue smoke among the trees, “showing that the evening meal was being made ready.” Old Mortality is an itinerant antiquary, whose craze is to clean the moss from gravestones, and keep their letters and effigies in good condition.
=Old Red Sandstone.=--One of the most noted of Hugh Miller’s famous writings on geological subjects. It revealed his discovery of fossils in a formation which, up to that time, had been deemed almost destitute of them.
=Oliver.=--As You Like It, Shakespeare. Son and heir of Sir Rowland de Bois, who hated his youngest brother, Orlando, and whom he planned to murder by indirect methods. Orlando, finding it impossible to live in his brother’s house, fled to the forest of Arden, where he joined the society of the banished duke. Oliver pursued him, and as he slept in the forest a snake and a lioness lurked near to make him their prey. Orlando chanced to be passing, slew the two monsters, and then found that the sleeper was his brother Oliver. Oliver’s feelings underwent a change, and he loved his brother as much as he had before hated him. In the forest the two brothers met Rosalind and Celia. The former, who was the daughter of the banished duke, married Orlando; and the latter, who was the daughter of Frederick, the usurping duke, married Oliver.
=Oliver Twist.=--A novel by Charles Dickens. Thackeray, writing of this novel, in the character of “Ikey Solomons,” says: “The power of the writer is so amazing that the reader at once becomes his captive, and must follow him whithersoever he leads: and to what are we led? Breathless to watch all the crimes of Fagin, tenderly to deplore the errors of Nancy, to have for Bill Sikes a kind of pity and admiration, and an absolute love for the society of the Dodger. All these heroes stepped from the novel on to the stage; and the whole London public, from peers to chimney sweeps, were interested about a set of ruffians whose occupations are thievery, murder, and prostitution.” A remarkable feature of the work, and one which, on its publication, brought considerable odium on the writer, was its unsparing exposure of the poor-law and the workhouse system, which led to its representation on the stage being forbidden for a time.
=Olivia.=--Twelfth Night, Shakespeare. A rich countess, whose love was sought by Orsino, duke of Illyria; but, having lost her brother, Olivia lived for a time in entire seclusion, and in no wise reciprocated the duke’s love. Olivia fell in love with Viola, who was dressed as the duke’s page, and sent her a ring. Mistaking Sebastian (Viola’s brother) for Viola, she married him out of hand.
=Ophelia= (ō-fē´liä).--Hamlet, Shakespeare. Daughter of Polonius, the chamberlain. Hamlet fell in love with her, but, after his interview with the Ghost, finds that his plans must lead away from her. During his real or assumed madness, he treats her with undeserved and angry rudeness, and afterward, in a fit of inconsiderate rashness, kills her father, the old Polonius. The terrible shock given to her mind by these events completely shatters her intellect, and leads to her accidental death by drowning.
=Organon= (ôr´ga-non).--The name given to the first work on logic by Aristotle. He is said to have created the science of logic. The Organon has been enlarged and recast by some modern authors, especially by Mr. John Stuart Mill in his System of Logic, into a structure commensurate with the vast increase of knowledge and extension of positive method belonging to the present day.
=Origin of Species, The.=--A work by Charles Robert Darwin, in which he put forward his theory of “natural selection.” It was published in 1859, and by many is regarded as the most important scientific work of the nineteenth century.
=Orlando Furioso= (or-län´dō fö-rē-ō´sō).--An epic poem in forty-six cantos, by Ariosto, which occupied his leisure for eleven years, and was published in 1516. This poem, which celebrates the semi-mythical achievements of the paladins of Charlemagne in the wars between the Christians and the Moors, became immediately popular, and has since been translated into all European languages, and passed through innumerable editions.
=Ormulum= (ôr´mū-lum).--The Ormulum is a collection of metrical homilies, one for each day of the year; but the single existing copy gives the homilies for thirty-two days only. There are very few French words in the poem, but Scandinavian words and constructions abound. The writer, Orm, or Ormin, belonged to the east of England, and he and his brother Walter were Augustinian monks. He makes no use of rhyme, but his verses are smooth and regular.
=Osbaldistone= (os-bâl´dis-ton).--Rob Roy, Scott. A family name in the story which tells of nine of the members: (1) the London merchant and Sir Hildebrand, the heads of two families; (2) the son of the merchant is Francis; (3) the offspring of the brother are Percival, the sot; Thorncliffe, the bully; John, the gamekeeper; Richard, the horse-jockey; Wilfred, the fool; and Rashleigh, the scholar, by far the worst of all. This last worthy is slain by Rob Roy, and dies cursing his cousin Frank, whom he had injured.
=O’Shanter.=--See Tam O’Shanter.
=Osman= (os-män´).--Sultan of the East, conqueror of the Christians, a magnanimous man. He loved Yara, a young Christian captive. This forms the subject of a once famous ballad.
=Osrick= (oz´rik).--A court fop in Shakespeare’s Hamlet. He is made umpire by Claudius in the combat between Hamlet and Laertes.
=Osseo.=--Hiawatha, Longfellow. Son of the Evening Star. When broken with age, he married Oweenee, one of ten daughters of a northland hunter. She loved him in spite of his ugliness and decrepitude, because “all was beautiful within him.” As he was walking with his nine sisters-in-law and their husbands, he leaped into the hollow of an oak tree and came out strong and handsome; but Oweenee at the same moment was changed into a weak old woman. But the love of Osseo was not weakened. The nine brothers and sisters-in-law were transformed into birds. Oweenee, recovering her beauty, had a son, whose delight was to shoot the birds that mocked his father and mother. An Algonquin legend gave the foundation of the story.
=Othello= (ō-thel´ō).--A tragedy by Shakespeare. The chief character is a Moor of Venice, who marries Desdemona, the daughter of a Venetian senator, and is led by his ensign, Iago, a consummate villain, to distrust her fidelity and virtue. Iago hated the Moor both because Cassio, a Florentine, was preferred to the lieutenancy instead of himself, and also from a suspicion that the Moor had tampered with his wife; but he concealed his hatred so well that Othello wholly trusted him. Iago persuaded Othello that Desdemona intrigued with Cassio, and urged him on till he murdered his bride.
=Outre-Mer= (ōōtr-mèr).--A Pilgrimage Beyond the Sea.--A series of prose tales and sketches by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, published in 1835. “The Pays d’Outre-Mer,” says the writer, “is a name by which the pilgrims and crusaders of old designated the Holy Land. I, too, in a certain sense, have been a pilgrim of Outre-Mer; for to my youthful imagination the Old World was a kind of Holy Land, lying afar off beyond the blue horizon of the ocean. In this, my pilgrimage, I have traversed France from Normandy to Navarre; smoked my pipe in a Flemish inn; floated through Holland in a Trekschuit; trimmed my midnight lamp in a German university; wandered and mused amid the classic scenes of Italy; and listened to the gay guitar and merry castanet on the borders of the blue Guadalquivir.”
=P=
=Pacolet= (pak´ō-let).--In Valentine and Orson, an old romance, a character who owned an enchanted steed, often alluded to by early writers. The name of Pacolet was borrowed by Steele for his familiar spirit in the Tatler. The French have a proverb, “It is the horse of Pacolet;” that is, it is one that goes very fast.
=Page.=--Merry Wives of Windsor, Shakespeare. Name of a family of Windsor, conspicuous in the play. When Sir John Falstaff made love to Mrs. Page, Page himself assumed the name of Brook. Sir John told the supposed Brook his whole “course of wooing.”
=Page, Anne.=--Daughter of the above, in love with Fenton. Slender calls her “the sweet Anne Page.”
=Page, Mrs.=--Wife of Mr. Page, of Windsor. When Sir John Falstaff made love to her, she joined with Mrs. Ford to dupe him and punish him.
=Palamon.=--(1) A character in The Knight’s Tale in Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales, in love with Emilia, who is also beloved by Palamon’s friend, Arcite. (2) In Falconer’s poem of The Shipwreck, is in love with the daughter of Albert, the commander of the vessel in which he sails. (3) In Thomson’s poem of Autumn in The Seasons, is a young man, “the pride of swains,” in love with Lavinia. He is a poetical representation of Boaz, while Lavinia is intended for Ruth.
=Pangloss= (pan´glos), =Doctor.=--(1) A poor pedant, in Colman the Younger’s comedy of the Heir at Law, who has been created an Artium Societatis Socius (A. S. S.). He is remarkable for the aptness, if triteness, of his quotations. (2) An optimist philosopher in Voltaire’s Candide.
=Pantagruelian= (pan-tag´rö-el-an) =Law Case.=--Pantagruel, Rabelais. This case, having nonplused all the judges in Paris, was referred to Lord Pantagruel for decision. After much “statement” the bench declared, “We have not understood one single circumstances of the defense.” Then Pantagruel gave sentence, but his judgment was as unintelligible as the case itself. So, as no one understood a single sentence of the whole affair, all were perfectly satisfied.
=Paracelsus= (par-a-sel´sus).--A dramatic poem by Robert Browning, published in 1835. It is a work of singular beauty, and is replete with lofty and solemn thoughts on the fate of genius and the chance and change of life. The Paracelsus of the poem is a very different person from the Paracelsus of history--the brilliant and daring quack who professed to have discovered the philosopher’s stone, but who, by the introduction of opium among the remedies of the Pharmacopæia, in some wise made amends for his absurd extravagance.
=Paradise and the Peri.=--The second tale in Moore’s poetical romance of Lalla Rookh. The Peri laments her expulsion from heaven, and is told that she will be readmitted if she will bring to the gate of heaven the “gift most dear to the Almighty.” After several failures the Peri offered the “Repentant Tear,” and the gates flew open to receive the gift.
=Paradise Lost.=--An epic poem by Milton. The poem opens with the awaking of the rebel angels in hell after their fall from heaven, the consultation of their chiefs how best to carry on the war with God, and the resolve of Satan to go forth and tempt newly created man to fall. Satan reaches Eden, and finds Adam and Eve in their innocence. This is told in the first four books. The next four books contain the Archangel Raphael’s story of the war in heaven, the fall of Satan, and the creation of the world. The last four books describe the temptation and the fall of man, and tell of the redemption of man by Christ, and the expulsion from Paradise.
=Paradise Regained.=--An epic by Milton on the redemption of man. In this poem the author tells of the journey of Christ into the wilderness after his baptism, and its four books describe the temptation of Christ by Satan.
=Parallel Lives of Greeks and Romans.=--A celebrated biographical work by Plutarch, consisting of forty-six comparisons. In spite of all exceptions on the score of inaccuracy, want of information, or prejudice, Plutarch’s Lives must remain one of the most valuable relics of Greek literature, not only because they stand in the place of many volumes of lost history, but also because they are written with a graphic and dramatic vivacity such as we find in few biographies, ancient or modern; because they are replete with reflections which, if not profound, are always moderate and sensible; and because the author’s aim throughout is to enforce the highest standard of morality of which a heathen was capable. As one of his most enthusiastic admirers has said, “He stands before us as the legate, the ambassador, and the orator on behalf of those institutions whereby the old-time men were rendered wise and virtuous.”
=Partington= (pär´ting-ton), =Mrs.=--An imaginary old lady whose laughable sayings have been recorded by an American humorist, B. P. Shillaber.
=Paul and Virginia.=--A popular romance by Bernardin de St. Pierre. According to a tradition, or version, Paul and Virginia are brought up in the belief that they are brother and sister. Don Antonio is sent to bring her to Spain, and make her his bride. She is taken by force on board ship, but scarcely has the ship started, when a hurricane dashes it on the rocks and it is wrecked. Alhambra, a runaway slave, whom Paul and Virginia had befriended, rescues Virginia, who is brought to shore and married to Paul. Antonio is drowned.
=Pauline.=--The Lady of Lyons in Bulwer-Lytton’s play of this name. She was married to Claude Melnotte, a gardener’s son, who pretended to be a count.
=Paul Pry.=--Paul Pry, John Poole. An idle, inquisitive, meddlesome fellow, who has no occupation of his own, and is forever poking his nose into other people’s affairs. He always comes in with the apology “I hope I don’t intrude.”
=Peau de Chagrin= (pō du shä-grin), “The Ass’ Skin.”--A story by Balzac. The hero becomes possessed of a magical wild ass’ skin, which yields him the means of gratifying every wish; but for every wish thus gratified the skin shrank somewhat, and at last vanished, having been wished entirely away. Life is a peau d’âne, for every vital act diminishes its force, and when all its force is gone, life is spent.
=Peeping Tom of Coventry.=--A tailor of Coventry, the only soul in the town mean enough to peep at the Lady Godiva as she rode naked through the streets to relieve the people from oppression.
=Peggotty= (peg´o-ti), =Clara.=--The nurse of David Copperfield in Dickens’ novel of this name. Being very plump, whenever she makes any exertion some of the buttons on the back of her dress fly off.
=Peggotty, Dan’l.=--Brother of David Copperfield’s nurse. Dan’l was a Yarmouth fisherman. His nephew, Ham Peggotty, and his brother-in-law’s child, “little Em’ly,” lived with him.
=Peggotty, Em’ly.=--She was engaged to Ham Peggotty; but being fascinated with Steerforth she eloped. She was afterward reclaimed, and emigrated to Australia.
=Peggotty, Ham.=--Represented as the very beau ideal of an uneducated, simple-minded, honest, and warm-hearted fisherman. He was drowned in his attempt to rescue Steerforth from the sea.
=Pendennis= (pen-den´is), =The History of.=--By William Makepeace Thackeray. The hero, Arthur Pendennis, reappears in the author’s Adventures of Philip, and is represented as telling the story of _The Newcomes_.
=Pendennis.=--Name of the hero of a novel by Thackeray, published in 1849 and 1850, the immediate successor of Vanity Fair. Literary life is described in the history of Pen, a hero of no very great worth.
=Pendennis, Laura.=--Sister of Arthur, considered one of the best of Thackeray’s characters.
=Pendennis, Major.=--A tuft-hunter, who fawns on his patrons for the sake of wedging himself into their society.
=Penseroso= (pen-se-rō´sō), =Il.=--A poem by John Milton, written as a companion to L’Allegro. The latter is composed in the character of a cheerful, the former in that of a melancholy man, and the whole tone of each poem is regulated accordingly. The one begins with the dawn, the other with evening. The one opens with the lark, the other with the nightingale, and so on.
=Pepys’= (pēps, or pips, or pep´is) =Diary.=--A book by Samuel Pepys, written in shorthand, and deciphered and published in 1825. It extends over the nine years from 1660 to 1669, and is the gossipy chronicle of that gay and profligate time. We have no other book which gives so lifelike a picture of that extraordinary state of society.
=Peregrine Pickle= (per´e-grin pik´l).--The title of a novel by Smollett. Peregrine Pickle is a savage, ungrateful spendthrift, fond of practical jokes, and suffering with evil temper the misfortunes brought on himself by his own willfulness.
=Peter Bell.=--A tale in verse, by Wordsworth. A wandering tinker, subject of Wordsworth’s poem, whose hard heart was touched by the fidelity of an ass to its dead master. Shelley wrote a burlesque of this poem, entitled Peter Bell the Third, intended to ridicule the ludicrous puerility of language and sentiment which Wordsworth often affected. This burlesque was given the name of the Third because it followed a parody already published as Peter the Second.
=Petruchio= (pe-trö´chō, or ki-ō).--A gentleman of Verona, in Shakespeare’s Taming of the Shrew. A very honest fellow, who hardly speaks a word of truth, and succeeds in all his tricks. He acts his assumed character to the life, with untired animal spirits, and without a particle of ill-humor.
=Phædo= (fē´dō), or =Phædon= (fe´don).--An ancient and well known work by Plato, in which the doctrine of the immortality of the soul is most fully set forth. It is in the form of a dialogue, which combines, with the abstract philosophical discussion, a graphic narrative of the last hours of Socrates, which, for pathos and dignity, is unsurpassed.
=Phédre= (fā´dr).--A tragedy by Racine, produced January 1, 1677. It was founded on the story of Phædra, daughter of Minos, king of Crete, and wife of Theseus. She conceived a criminal love for Hippolytus, her stepson, and, being repulsed by him, accused him to her husband of attempting to dishonor her. Hippolytus was put to death, and Phædra, wrung with remorse, strangled herself. Phédre was the great part of Mdlle. Rachel; she first appeared in this character in 1838. It is unquestionably the most remarkable of Racine’s regular tragedies. By it the style must stand or fall, and a reader need hardly go farther to appreciate it. For excellence of construction, artful beauty of verse, skillful use of the limited means of appeal at the command of the dramatist, no play can surpass Phédre.
=Philip.=--The Madness of Philip, Josephine Daskam. A representation of the unregenerate child--“the child of strong native impulses who has not yet yielded to the shaping force of education; the child, therefore, of originality, of vivacity, of humor, and of fascinating power of invention in the field of mischief.”
=Philippics= (fi-lip´iks), =The.=--A group of nine orations of Demosthenes, directed against Philip of Macedon. The real adversary in all these famous speeches is not so much the king of Macedon as the sloth and supineness of the Athenians, and the influence of the peace party, whether honest or bribed by Philip. They are the first Philippic, urging the sending of a military force to Thrace, delivered 351 B. C; three orations in behalf of the city of Olynthus (destroyed by Philip), delivered in 349-348; the oration On the Peace, 346; the second Philippic, 344; the oration On the Embassy, 344; the speech On the Chersonese, 341; and the third Philippic, 341.
The name is also given to a series of fourteen orations of Cicero against Mark Antony, delivered 44-43 B. C.
=Philtra.=--Faërie Queene, Spenser. A lady of large fortune, betrothed to Bracidas; but, seeing the fortune of Amidas daily increasing, and that of Bracidas getting smaller, she attached herself to the more prosperous younger brother.
=Phineas= (fin´e-as).--Uncle Tom’s Cabin, Mrs. Stowe. The quaker, an “underground railroad” man who helped the slave family of George and Eliza to reach Canada, after Eliza had crossed the river on cakes of floating ice.
=Phyllis= (fil´is).--In Vergil’s Eclogues, the name of a rustic maiden. This name, also written Phillis, has been in common use as meaning any unsophisticated country girl.
=Pickwick= (pik´wik), =Mr. Samuel.=--The hero of the Pickwick Papers, by Charles Dickens. He is a simple-minded, benevolent old gentleman, who wears spectacles and short black gaiters. He founds a club, and travels with its members over England, each member being under his guardianship. They meet many laughable adventures.
=Pied Piper of Hameln= (hä´meln).--Old German legend. Robert Browning, in his poem entitled The Pied Piper, has given a metrical version. The legend recounts how a certain musician came into the town of Hameln, in the country of Brunswick, and offered, for a sum of money, to rid the town of the rats by which it was infested. Having executed his task, and the promised reward having been withheld, he in revenge blew again his pipe, and by its tones drew the children of the town to a cavern in the side of a hill, which, upon their entrance, closed and shut them in forever.
=Piers Plowman= (pērs plou´man).--A satirical poem of the fourteenth century. The hero falls asleep, like John Bunyan, on the Malvern hills, and has different visions, which he describes, and in which he exposes the corruptions of society, the dissoluteness of the clergy, and the allurements to sin. The author is supposed to be Robert or William Langland. No other writings so faithfully reflect the popular feeling during the great social and religious movements of that century as the bitterly satirical poem. The Vision of Piers Plowman. In its allegory, the discontent of the commons with the course of affairs in church and state found a voice.
=Pietro.=--The Ring and the Book, Browning. The professed father of Pompilia, criminally assumed as his child to prevent certain property from passing to an heir not his own.
=Pilgrim’s Progress.=--A celebrated allegory by Bunyan. It recounts the adventures of the hero, Christian, from his conversion to his death. He wanders from the way to Doubting Castle, and is held there by Giant Despair. His sins are a pack; his Bible is a chart, his minister Evangelist, his conversion a flight from the City of Destruction, his struggle with besetting sins a fight with Apollyon, his death a toilsome passage over a deep stream which flows between him and heaven.
=Pilot, The.=--Title of a sea-story by Cooper, which was called the “first sea-novel of the English language.” It was published in the year 1823, and soon translated into Italian, German, and French. It is founded on the adventures of John Paul Jones.
=Pinch, Tom.=--A character in Dickens’ Martin Chuzzlewit, distinguished by his guilelessness, his oddity, and his exhaustless goodness of heart.
=Pippa= (pēp´pä) =Passes.=--A drama, Italian in scene and character, by Robert Browning. “It is,” says Stedman, “a cluster of four scenes, with prologue, epilogue, and interludes, half prose, half poetry, varying with the refinement of the dialogue. Pippa is a delicately pure, good, blithesome peasant maid. It is New Year’s Day at Ardo. She springs from bed at sunrise, resolved to enjoy to the full her sole holiday. Others may be happy throughout the year; haughty Ottima and Sebald, the lovers on the hill; Jules and Phene, the artist and his bride; Luigi and his mother; Monsignor, the bishop; but Pippa has only this one day to enjoy. Now, it so happens that she passes, this day, each of the groups or persons we have named, at an important crisis in their lives, and they hear her various carols as she trills them forth in the innocent gladness of her heart. Pippa Passes is a work of pure art, and has a wealth of original fancy and romance, apart from its wisdom.” It appeared in 1842.
=Pistol= (pis´tol).--A follower of Falstaff, in Shakespeare’s comedy of The Merry Wives of Windsor, and in the second part of King Henry IV. “A roguing beggar, a cantler, an upright man that liveth by cozenage.”
=Pocket.=--Great Expectations, Dickens. Name of a family prominent in the story.
=Pocket.=--A real scholar, educated at Harrow, and an honor-man at Cambridge, but, having married young, he had to take up the calling of “grinder” and literary fag for a living. Pip was placed in his care.
=Pocket, Herbert.=--Son of Mr. Matthew Pocket, wonderfully hopeful, but had not the stuff to push his way into wealth.
=Pocket, Mrs.=--Daughter of a city knight, brought up to be an ornamental nonentity, helpless, shiftless, and useless. She was the mother of eight children, whom she allowed to “tumble up” as best they could, under the charge of her maid, Flopson.
=Pocket, Sarah.=--Sister of Matthew Pocket, a little, dry, old woman, with a small face that might have been made of walnut-shell, and a large mouth.
=Poor Richard’s Almanac.=--An almanac published by Benjamin Franklin, 1732-1757, noted for its maxims. He made it the medium for teaching thrift, temperance, order, cleanliness, chastity, forgiveness, and so on. The maxims or precepts of these almanacs generally end with the words, “as poor Richard says.”
=Portia= (pôr´shiä).--In The Merchant of Venice, a rich heiress, whose hand and fortune hang upon the right choosing between a gold, a silver, and a leaden casket. She is in love with Bassanio, who, luckily, chooses well. She appears at the trial of Antonio as a “young doctor of Rome,” named Balthazar.
=Poyser= (poi´zer), =Mrs.=--A character in Adam Bede. Some of her wonderfully shrewd and humorous observations have passed into the language. Here are some specimens: “It seems as if them as aren’t wanted here are th’ only folks as aren’t wanted in the other world.” “I’m not denyin’ the women are foolish; God Almighty made ’em to match the men.” “It’s hard to tell which is Old Harry when everybody’s got boots on.” “There’s many a good bit o’ work done with a sad heart.” “It’s poor work allays settin’ the dead above the livin’. It ’ud be better if folks ’ud make much on us beforehand, istid o’ beginning when we’re gone.” “Some folks’ tongues are like the clocks as run on strikin’ not to tell you the time of day, but because there’s summat wrong in their own inside.”
=Précieuses Ridicules= (prā-syuz´ ri-di-kul´), =Les.=--A comedy by Molière, in ridicule of the Précieuses, as they were styled, forming the coterie of the Hotel de Rambouillet in the seventeenth century. The soirées held in this hotel were a great improvement on the licentious assemblies of the period; but many imitators made the thing ridiculous, because they lacked the same presiding talent and good taste.
The two girls of Molière’s comedy are Madelon and Cathos, the daughter and niece of Gargibus, a bourgeois. They change their names to Polixène and Aminte, which they think more genteel, and look on the affectations of two flunkies as far more distingués than the simple, gentlemanly manners of their masters. However, they are cured of their folly, and no harm comes of it.
=Prelude= (prē´lūd, or prel´ūd), =The=, or The Growth of a Poet’s Mind.--An autobiographical poem, in blank verse, by William Wordsworth. It was intended as an introduction to “a philosophical poem, containing views of Man, Nature, and Society; and to be entitled The Recluse, as having for its principal subject the sensations and opinions of a poet living in retirement.” This poem was to have consisted of three parts, of which the second only, The Excursion, was completed and published. The Prelude consists of fourteen books: Book one, Childhood and Schooltime; book two, Schooltime, continued; book three, Residence at Cambridge; book four, Summer Vacation; book five, Books; book six, Cambridge and the Alps; book seven, Residence in London; book eight, Retrospect--Love of Nature Leading to Love of Man; book nine, Residence in France; book ten, Residence in France, continued; book eleven, France, concluded; book twelve, Imagination and Taste, How Impaired and Restored; book thirteen, the same subject continued and concluded; and book fourteen, Conclusion.
=Primrose= (prim´rōz), =Rev. Charles.=--Vicar of Wakefield, Goldsmith. A clergyman, rich in heavenly wisdom, but poor indeed in all worldly knowledge.
=Primrose, Moses.=--Brother of the above, noted for giving in barter a good horse for a gross of worthless green spectacles with copper rims.
=Primrose, Olivia.=--The eldest daughter of the doctor. Pretty, enthusiastic, a sort of Hebê in beauty. “She wished for many lovers,” and eloped with Squire Thorndill.
=Primrose, Sophia.=--The second daughter of Dr. Primrose. She was “soft, modest, and alluring.”
=Princess:= a Medley.--A poem by Alfred Tennyson. “It is,” says Stedman, “as he entitles it, a medley, constructed of ancient and modern materials--a show of mediæval pomp and movement, observed through an atmosphere of latterday thought and emotion. The poet, in his prelude, anticipates every stricture, and to me the anachronisms and impossibilities of the story seem not only lawful, but attractive. Tennyson’s special gift of reducing incongruous details to a common structure and tone is fully illustrated in a poem made--
“‘To suit with time and place, A Gothic ruin and a Grecian house, A talk at college and of ladies’ rights, A feudal knight in silken masquerade.’
Other works of our poet are greater, but none is so fascinating. Some of the author’s most delicately musical lines are herein contained. The tournament scene is the most vehement and rapid passage in the whole range of Tennyson’s poetry. The songs reach the high water mark of lyrical compositions. The five melodies--As Thro’ the Land, Sweet and Low, The Splendor Falls, Home They Brought and Ask Me No More--constitute the finest group of songs produced in our century, and the third seems to many the most perfect English lyric since the time of Shakespeare.” The name of the Princess is Ida.
=Priscilla= (pri-sil´ä).--Courtship of Miles Standish, Longfellow. A Puritan maiden who is wooed by Captain Standish through the mediation of his friend, John Alden, who is in love with Priscilla. She prefers John Alden and marries him after the captain’s supposed death. The captain, however, appears at the close of the wedding service, and the friends are reconciled.
=Prometheus= (prō-mē´thūs) =Bound.=--A tragedy of Æschylus, of uncertain date. Prometheus is fabled to have made men of clay, and to have imparted life to them by means of fire brought from heaven. It was said that for this he was bound to the rock by order of Zeus, that he resisted all efforts to subdue his will and purpose, bade defiance to the father of the gods, and disappeared in an appalling tempest. Mrs. Browning published a poetical translation in 1833.
=Prospero= (pros´pe-rō).--Tempest, Shakespeare. Rightful duke of Milan, deposed by his brother. Drifted on a desert island, he practised magic, and raised a tempest in which his brother was shipwrecked. Ultimately Prospero “broke his wand,” and his daughter married the son of the King of Naples.
=Puff, Mr.=--In Sheridan’s farce The Critic, a hack writer, who, having failed at other occupations, tries criticism for a living, and is a “professor of the art of puffing.”
=Puss in Boots.=--The subject and title of a well-known nursery tale derived from a fairy story in the Nights of the Italian author Straparola, and Charles Perrault’s Contes des Fées. The wonderful cat secures a princess and a fortune for his master, a poor young miller, whom he passes off as the rich marquis of Carabas.
=Pygmalion= (pig-mā´li-on) =and Galatea= (gal-a-tē´ä).--A mythological comedy, by W. S. Gilbert, embodying the fable of the Athenian sculptor who prayed the gods to put life into the statue of Galatea which he had fashioned. In the comedy, Galatea evokes the jealousy of the sculptor’s wife Cynisca; and, after causing great misery by her very innocence, voluntarily returns to the original stone.
=Pyncheon= (pin´chon).--The name of an ancient but decayed family in Hawthorne’s romance The House of the Seven Gables. There are: (1) Judge Pyncheon, a selfish, cunning, worldly man. (2) His cousin Clifford, a delicate, sensitive nature, reduced to childishness by long imprisonment and suffering. (3) Hepzibah, the latter’s sister, an old maid who devotes herself to the care of Clifford. (4) A second cousin, Phœbe, a fresh, cheerful young girl, who restores the fallen fortunes of the family and removes the curse which rested on it.
=Q=
=Quasimodo= (kwā-si-mō´dō).--Notre Dame de Paris, Hugo. A misshapen dwarf, one of the prominent characters in the story. He is brought up in the cathedral of Notre Dame de Paris. One day, he sees Esmeralda, who had been dancing in the cathedral close, set upon by a mob, and he conceals her for a time in the church. When, at length, the beautiful gypsy girl is gibbeted, Quasimodo disappears mysteriously, but a skeleton corresponding to the deformed figure is found after a time in a hole under the gibbet.
=Quaver.=--The Virgin Unmasked, Fielding. A singing-master, who says, “if it were not for singing-masters, men and women might as well have been born dumb.” He courts Lucy by promising to give her singing-lessons.
=Queen Lab.=--Arabian Nights. The queen of magic, ruler over the enchanted city, in the story of Beder, prince of Persia. She transforms men into horses, mules, and other animals. Beder marries her, defeats her plots against him, but is himself turned into an owl for a time.
=Quentin Durward= (kwen´tin der´wärd).--A novel by Sir Walter Scott. A story of French history. The delineations of Louis XI. and Charles the Bold of Burgundy will stand comparison with any in the whole range of fiction or history.
=Quickly, Mistress.=--Merry Wives of Windsor, Shakespeare. A serving woman to Dr. Caius, a French physician. She is the go-between of three suitors for “sweet Anne Page,” and with perfect disinterestedness wishes all three to succeed.
=Quickly, Mistress Nell.=--Hostess of a tavern in Eastcheap, frequented by Harry, Prince of Wales, Sir John Falstaff, and all their disreputable crew.
=Quidnunkis.=--Title and name of hero in a fable found or written by Gay in 1726. This hero was a monkey which climbed higher than its neighbors, and fell into a river.
=Quilp= (kwilp).--Old Curiosity Shop, Dickens. A hideous dwarf, cunning, malicious, and a perfect master in tormenting. Of hard, forbidding features, with head and face large enough for a giant, he lived on Tower hill, collected rents, advanced money to seamen, and kept a sort of wharf, calling himself a ship-breaker.
=Quintus Fixlein.=--Title of a romance by Jean Paul Richter and the name of the principal character.
=Quirk, Gammon, and Snap.=--A firm of rascally, scheming, hypocritical solicitors in Warren’s Ten Thousand a Year.
=R=
=Raby, Aurora.=--In Byron’s Don Juan. She was a rich, noble English orphan, “a rose with all its sweetest leaves yet folded.”
=Radigund.=--Faërie Queene, Spenser. Queen of the fabled Amazons. Having been rejected by Bellodant “the Bold,” she revenged herself by degrading all the men who fell into her power by dressing them like women, and giving them women’s work.
=Ramayana= [(rä´-mä´yȧ-nȧ); Rāma-ayana, the goings or doings of Rama].--One of the two great epics of India, the other being the Mahabharata. It is ascribed to a poet, Valmiki, and consists at present of about twenty-four thousand stanzas, divided into seven books. It is the production of one man, though many parts are later additions, such as those in which Rama is represented as an incarnation of Vishnu, all the episodes in the first book, and the whole of the seventh. It was at first handed down orally, and variously modified in transmission, and afterward reduced to writing.
=Ramona= (ra-mō´nä).--Title of a romance by Helen Hunt Jackson. Ramona saw the American Indian followed by “civilization” while retreating slowly but surely toward his own extinction, and had herself a share in the tragedy. Ramona is considered the great romance of Indian life.
=Random= (ran´dom).--Roderick Random, Smollett. A young Scotch scapegrace in quest of fortune. At one time he revels in prosperity, again he is in utter destitution. He roams at random, in keeping with his name.
=Rappaccini= (rap-ä-chē´nē).--Mosses from an Old Manse, Hawthorne. A doctor in whose garden grew strange plants whose juices and fragrance were poison. His daughter, nourished on these odors, became poisonous herself. Her lover found an antidote which she took, but the poison meant life and the antidote meant death to her.
=Rasselas= (ras´e-las).--An imaginary romance by Dr. Johnson. According to the custom of his country, Abyssinia, Rasselas was confined in paradise, with the rest of the royal family. This paradise was in the valley of Amhara, surrounded by high mountains. It had only one entrance, a cavern concealed by woods, and closed by iron gates. He escaped with his sister Nekayah and Imlac the poet, and wandered about to find what condition or rank of life was the most happy. After investigation, he found no lot without its drawbacks, and resolved to return to the “Happy Valley.”
=Raud the Strong.=--Tales of a Wayside Inn, Henry W. Longfellow. The viking who worshiped the old gods and lived by fire and sword. King Olaf went against him, sailing from Drontheim to Salten Fjord.
=Raven, The.=--A poem by Edgar Allan Poe, published in 1845, which has attained a world-wide popularity. For the author’s account of the mode of its construction, see The Philosophy of Composition, an essay, in the collected edition of his works. The last verse runs:
And the Raven, never flitting, still is sitting, still is sitting, On the pallid bust of Pallas, just above my chamber door; And his eyes have all the seeming of a demon’s that is dreaming, And the lamplight o’er him streaming throws his shadow on the floor; And my soul from out that shadow that lies floating on the floor Shall be lifted--Nevermore!
=Ravenswood.=--Bride of Lammermoor, Scott. The lord of Ravenswood, an old Scotch nobleman and a decayed royalist. His son Edgar falls in love with Lucy Ashton, daughter of Sir William Ashton, Lord-Keeper of Scotland. The lovers plight their troth, but Lucy is compelled to marry Frank Hayston, laird of Bucklaw. The bride, in a fit of insanity, attempts to murder the bridegroom and dies. Bucklaw goes abroad. Colonel Ashton, seeing Edgar at the funeral of Lucy, appoints a hostile meeting; and Edgar, on his way to the place appointed, is lost in the quicksands. A prophecy, noted as a curse, hung over the family and was thus fulfilled.
=Raymond.=--In Jerusalem Delivered, by Tasso. Raymond was known as the Nestor of the crusaders, slew Aladine, the king of Jerusalem, and planted the Christian standard upon the tower of David.
=Rebecca.=--Ivanhoe, Scott. Daughter of Isaac the Jew, in love with Ivanhoe.
=Red-cross Knight.=--The Red-cross Knight is St. George, the patron saint of England, and, in the obvious and general interpretation, typifies holiness, or the perfection of the spiritual man in religion. In Spenser’s Faërie Queene the task of slaying a dragon was assigned to him as the champion of Una.
=Redgauntlet= (red-gänt´let).--One of the principal characters in Sir Walter Scott’s novel of the same name, a political enthusiast and Jacobite, who scruples at no means of upholding the cause of the Pretender and finally accompanies him into exile. His race bore a fatal mark resembling a horseshoe which appeared on the face of Red-gauntlet as he frowned when angry.
=Red-Riding-Hood.=--This nursery tale is, with slight variations, common to Sweden, Germany, and France. In Charles Perrault’s Contes des Fées it is called Le Petit Chaperon Rouge.
=Religio Medici= (rē-lij´i-ō med´i-sī).--A prose work by Sir Thomas Browne. “The Religio Medici,” says the elder Lytton, “is one of the most beautiful prose poems in the language; its power of diction, its subtlety and largeness of thought, its exquisite conceits and images, have no parallel out of the writers of that brilliant age when Poetry and Prose had not yet divided their domain, and the Lyceum of Philosophy was watered by the mixing of the wine!”
=Representative Men.=--A work by Emerson which more nearly than any of his other works, gives expression to his system as a whole. The topics are: (1) Plato, the Philosopher; (2) Swedenborg, the Mystic; (3) Montaigne, the Skeptic; (4) Shakespeare, the Poet; (5) Napoleon, the Man of the World; (6) Goethe, the Writer. The mental portraits sketched under these six heads give us Emerson himself, so far as he is capable of being formulated at all.
=Republic, The.=--A work composed by Plato four hundred years before Christ. The Republic is not, as the title would suggest, a political work, like the Politics of Aristotle. The principles and government of an ideal moral organism, of which the rulers shall be types of fully developed and perfectly educated men, are the real subject. In the Republic we find the necessity of virtue to the very idea of social life proved in the first book; then the whole process of a complete moral and scientific education is set forth. It has been said that the most complete record of the beliefs or opinions of Plato are found in this work.
=Reveries of a Bachelor.=--By D. G. Mitchell. The Reveries is a collection of sketches of life and character, painted in such a dreamlike, delicate manner as to make the reader lose for the time being the full consciousness of his surroundings. It has called forth a number of imitators more or less successful, no one of whom, however, is comparable to the original.
=Reynard= (rā´närd, or ren´ärd) =the Fox=.--A beast-epic, so called. This prose poem is a satire on the state of Germany in the middle ages. Reynard represents the Church; Isengrin the wolf (his uncle) typifies the baronial element; and Nodel the lion stands for the regal power. The plot turns on the struggle for supremacy between Reynard and Isengrin. Reynard uses all his endeavors to victimize everyone, especially his uncle Isengrin, and generally succeeds.
=Richelieu= (rēsh-y-lōō´), or The Conspiracy.--A drama in five acts, by Edward, Lord Lytton; produced in 1839, the part of the hero being played by Macready. For some of the incidents the author confesses himself indebted to the authors of Cinq Mars and Picciola. Among the characters are Baradas, the favorite; De Mauprat, in love with Julie; Julie de Mortemar herself; Marion de Lorme, mistress of Orleans; Orleans himself; Louis XIII., and others.
=Rights of Man, The.=--“Being an answer to Mr. Burke’s Attack on the French Revolution,” by Thomas Paine. This work, which was published in 1791-1792, procured for the writer the distinction of a trial for sedition, which he escaped by flying to France.
=Rinaldo= (ri-nal´dō).--A Christian hero in Tasso’s Jerusalem Delivered. He was the son of Bertoldo and Sophia, and nephew of Guelpho, but was brought up by Matilda. He was one of Charlemagne’s paladins, and cousin to Orlando. Having killed Charlemagne’s nephew Berthelot, he was banished and outlawed. After various adventures and disasters, he went to the Holy Land, and, on his return, succeeded in making peace with the emperor.
=Ring and the Book, The.=--A poem by Robert Browning, published in 1869. It is the story of a tragedy which took place at Rome in 1698. The versified narrative of the child Pompilia’s sale to Count Guido, of his cruelty and violence, of her rescue by a young priest, the pursuit, the lawful separation, the murder by Guido of the girl and her putative parents, the trial and condemnation of the murderer, and the affirmation of his sentence by the pope--all this is made to fill out a poem of twenty-one thousand lines; but these include ten different versions of the tale, besides the poet’s prelude, in which latter he gives a general outline of it. The chapters which contain the statements of the priest lover and Pompilia are full of tragic beauty and emotion. The pope’s soliloquy, though too prolonged, is a wonderful piece of literary metempsychosis.
=Rip Van Winkle.=--A tale by Washington Irving, adapted from the old German legend of Peter Klaus, a goatherd, who drank a miraculous draught of wine in a dell of the Harz mountains, which brought on sleep from which he did not wake until twenty years after, when he returned to his native village to find everything changed, and no one who knew him. In Irving’s tale the hero is a Dutchman living in America, and the scene is the Catskill mountains. The story is most picturesquely told, and has been effectively dramatized, the leading personage being illustrated by the genius of Jefferson.
=Rivals, The.=--A comedy by Richard Brinsley Sheridan, produced at Covent Garden, London, in 1775, and described by Hazlitt as “a play of even more action and incident, but of less wit and satire, than The School for Scandal. It is as good as a novel in the reading, and has the broadest and most palpable effect upon the stage.”
=Roaring Camp, The Luck of.=--A prose sketch by Francis Bret Harte, an American poet, in which the softening effects of the presence of a little child in a camp of ruffians are very touchingly described. It has been dramatized.
=Rob Roy.=--A romance by Sir Walter Scott which is founded on some passages in the career of the famous Highlander, Robert MacGregor, who was popularly called Rob Roy. The nominal hero of Rob Roy is Francis Osbaldistone; the heroine, Diana Vernon. Among the other characters are Baillie Nicol Jarvie, “The Dougal Cratur” Andrew Fairservice, Helen MacGregor, Sir Frederick Vernon, and Rashleigh Osbaldistone. The novel has been dramatized in a version which still holds the stage in Scotland. Scott speaks of Rob as “the Robin Hood of Scotland--the dread of the wealthy, but the friend of the poor, and possessed of many qualities, both of head and heart, which would have graced a less equivocal profession than that to which his fate condemned him.”
=Roderick=, or =Roderic= (rod´er-ik) =Dhu=.--Lady of the Lake, Scott. An outlaw and chief of a band of Scots who resolved to win back what had been lost to the Saxons. In connection with Red Murdock he sought the life of the Saxon Fitz-James.
=Roderigo= (rod-e-rē´gō).--In Shakespeare’s Othello, a Venetian in love with Desdemona, who, when the lady eloped with Othello, hated the “noble Moor.”
=Roland= (rō´land).--The hero of one of the most ancient and popular epics of early French or Frankish literature, and, according to tradition, the favorite nephew and captain of the Emperor Charlemagne. Roland is the hero of Théroulde’s Chanson de Roland; of Turpin’s Chronique; of Bojardo’s Orlando Innamorato; of Ariosto’s Orlando Furioso.
=Romance of the Rose.=--A poetical allegory, begun by Guillaume de Lorris in the latter part of the thirteenth century, and continued by Jean Meung in the first half of the fourteenth century. The poet dreams that Dame Idleness conducts him to the Palace of Pleasure, where he meets many adventures among the attendant maidens, Youth, Joy, Courtesy, and others, by whom he is conducted to a bed of roses. He singles out one, when an arrow from Love’s bow stretches him fainting on the ground. Fear, Slander, and Jealousy are afterward introduced.
=Romeo.=--In Shakespeare’s tragedy of Romeo and Juliet, a son of Montague, in love with Juliet, the daughter of Capulet, who was the head of a noble house of Verona, in feudal enmity with the house of Montague.
=Romeo and Juliet.=--A tragedy by William Shakespeare. Romeo, a son of Montague, in love with Juliet, the daughter of Capulet; but between the houses of Montague and Capulet there existed a deadly feud. As the families were irreconcilable, Juliet took a sleeping draught, that she might get away from her parents and elope with Romeo. Romeo, thinking her to be dead, killed himself; and when Juliet awoke and found her lover dead, she also killed herself.
=Romola= (rom´ō-lä).--A novel of Italian life and character by George Eliot. Romola is a marvelously able story of the revival of the taste and beauty and freedom of Hellenic manners and letters, under Lorenzo de’ Medici and the scholars of his court, side by side with the revival of Roman virtue, and more than the ancient austerity and piety, under the great Dominican Savonarola. This period of history is one which of all others may well have engrossing interest for George Eliot. Treasures of learning and discipline, amassed for mankind ages before, for ages stored and hidden away, see again the sun, are recognized and put to use. What use they will be put to, with what new and fruitful effects on the state and the citizen, with what momentary and with what lasting consequences, this she strives to discover; this she follows through the public history of Italy during the modern invasion of Charles VIII., and the events which succeed his invasion, and through the private fortunes of her admirably chosen group of characters, some of them drawn from life, all of them true to nature.
=Rosetta= (rō-zet´tä) =Stone=.--Found at Rosetta in the delta of the Nile, contains equivalent inscriptions in hieroglyphics in demotic and in Greek letters. The meaning of the Greek text being known, the hieroglyphics could be translated.
=Rowena= (rō-ē´nä).--A Saxon princess, ward of Cedric of Rotherwood, in Sir Walter Scott’s romance of Ivanhoe.
=Rumpelstilzchen.=--Old German Tales. According to Grimm, this name is a compound, but the spirit represented is one familiar to all German children. The original story tells of him as a dwarf who spun straw into gold for a certain miller’s daughter.
=S=
=Sacripant= (sak´ri-pant), =King=.--(1) King of Circassia, and a lover of Angelica, in Bojordo and Ariosto. (2) A personage in Tassoni’s mock heroic poem, Rape of the Bucket, represented as false, brave, noisy and hectoring.
=Sagas= (sä´gas).--Title of the ancient traditions which form the substance of the history and mythology of the Scandinavian races. The language in which they are written is supposed to be the old Icelandic. In the Edda there are numerous sagas. As our Bible contains the history of the Jews, religious songs, moral proverbs, and religious stories, so the Edda contains the history of Norway, religious songs, a book of proverbs, and numerous stories. The original Edda was compiled and edited by Sæmund Sigfusson, an Icelandic priest and scald, in the eleventh century. It contains twenty-eight parts or books, all of which are in verse. Two hundred years later Snorri Sturleson, of Iceland, abridged, rearranged, and reduced to prose the Edda, and his work was called The Younger Edda. In this we find the famous story called by the Germans the Nibelungenlied. Besides the sagas contained in the Eddas, there are numerous others, and the whole saga literature makes over two hundred volumes. Among them are the Völsunga Saga, which is a collection of lays about the early Teutonic heroes. The Saga of St. Olaf is the history of this Norwegian king. Frithjof’s Saga contains the life and adventures of Frithjof of Iceland. Snorri Sturleson, at the close of the twelfth century, made the second great collection of chronicles in verse, called the Heimskringla Saga. This is a most valuable record of the laws, customs and manners of the ancient Scandinavians.
=Sakuntala.=--A famous drama by Kâlidasa. The daughter of Viswamita and a water nymph, abandoned by her parents, and brought up by a hermit. One day, King Dushyanta came to the hermitage, and persuaded Sakuntala to marry him. In due time a son was born, but Dushyanta left his bride at the hermitage. When the boy was six years old, his mother took him to the king, and Dushyanta recognized his wife by a ring which he had given her. Sakuntala was now publicly proclaimed queen, and the boy (whose name was Bhârata) became the founder of the glorious race of the Bhâratas.
=Samson Agonistes= (sam´son ag-o-nis´tēz).--A sacred drama by Milton. Samson, blind and bound, triumphs over his enemies. As in the Bible story, he grasps two of the supporting pillars, and perishes in the general ruin.
=Sancho Panza= (sang´kō pan´zä).--The esquire and counterpart of Don Quixote in Cervantes’ famous novel. He has much shrewdness in practical matters, and a store of proverbial wisdom. He rode upon an ass and was noted for his proverbs.
=Sartor Resartus= (sär´tor rē-sär´tus), (i. e., The Tailor Patched).--The title of an old Scottish ballad, being The Life and Opinions of Herr Teufelsdröckh, in Three Books, by Thomas Carlyle. It may be described as a kind of philosophical romance, in which the author gives us, in the form of a review of a supposed German work on dress, and a notice of the writer, his opinions on things in general. The hero, it has been said, seems to be intended for a portraiture of human nature as affected by the moral influence to which a cultivated mind would be exposed by acquaintance with the transcendental philosophy of Fichte.
=Satyrane= (sat´i-rān), =Sir=.--Faërie Queene, Spenser. A noble knight who delivered Una from the fauns and satyrs. The meaning seems to be that Truth, driven from the towns and cities, took refuge in caves and dens where for a time it lay concealed. At length Sir Satyrane (Luther) rescues Una from bondage; but no sooner is this the case than she falls in with Archimago, to show how very difficult it was at the time of the Reformation to separate Truth from Error.
=Sawyer, Bob.=--Pickwick Papers, Dickens. A drinking young doctor who tries to establish a practice at Bristol, but without success. Sam Weller calls him “Mr. Sawbones.”
=Scalds=, or =Skalds=.--Court poets and chroniclers of the ancient Scandinavians. They resided at court, were attached to the royal suite, and attended the king in all his wars. These bards celebrated in song the gods, the kings of Norway, and national heroes. Few complete Skaldic poems have survived, but a multitude of fragments exist.
=Scarlet Letter, The.=--A romance by Nathaniel Hawthorne, published in 1850. The heroine, Hester Prynne, was condemned to wear conspicuously the letter “A” in scarlet, token of her sin as mother of her child, Pearl, whose father was not known. She was first exposed in disgrace on a raised scaffold, then served a term in prison, and afterward gained a moderate support for herself and child by embroidering. She refused to reveal the name of the father, although she might then be allowed to lay aside the letter. He was always near, held an important position, and lived a life of wearing remorse. After his death Hester Prynne took her child to another country, but returned to spend her old age in seclusion and comfort in the same place that had witnessed her punishment. She always bore herself proudly, but not defiantly, and brought to herself such love and respect that the scarlet letter became a badge of honor. Roger Chillingworth, Hester’s husband, appeared as a learned foreign physician, visited her in prison, but promised not to reveal his relation to her, and devoted his life to learning her secret. The characters in the story are intense, and the analysis of motives subtle.
=Scheherazade=, or =Sheherazade= (she-hē´rä-zād).--Arabian Nights. The fabled relater of the stories in these “Entertainments.”
=Scaramouche= (skar´a-mouch).--An Italian character whose traits are cowardice and boastfulness. He is of Spanish creation, copied into Italian comedy.
=Schlemihl= (shlem´el), =Peter=.--The name of the hero of a little work by Chamisso, a man who sells his shadow to the devil. The name has become a byword for any poor, silly, and unfortunate fellow.
=Schneider= (shnī´der).--Rip Van Winkle’s dog, in Boucicault’s dramatization of Irving’s Rip Van Winkle. The name of the dog in the story is “Wolf.”
=School for Scandal, The.=--A comedy by Richard Brinsley Sheridan, produced at Covent Garden, London, in 1777, and characterized by Hazlitt as, “if not the most original, perhaps the most finished and faultless comedy which we have. The scene in which Charles Surface sells all the old family pictures but his uncle’s, who is the purchaser in disguise, and that of the discovery of Lady Teazle when the screen falls, are among the happiest and most highly wrought that comedy, in its wide and brilliant range, can boast. Besides the art and ingenuity of this play, there is a genial spirit of frankness and generosity that relieves the heart as well as clears the lungs. While it strips off the mask of hypocrisy, it inspires a confidence between man and man.”
=School for Wives= [L’Ecole des Femmes (lä-kol´ dā fam´)].--A comedy by Molière. Arnolph has a crotchet about the proper training of girls to make good wives, and tries his scheme upon Agnes, whom he adopts from a peasant’s cottage, and designs in due time to make his wife. He sends her from early childhood to a convent, where difference of sex and the conventions of society are wholly ignored. When removed from the convent, she treats men as if they were schoolgirls, kisses them, plays with them, and treats them with girlish familiarity. The consequence is, a young man name Horace falls in love with her, and makes her his wife, and Arnolph loses his painstaking.
=School of Husbands= [L’Ecole des Maris (lä-kol´ da mä-re´)] A comedy by Molière. Ariste and Sganarelle, two brothers, bring up Léonor and Isabelle, two orphan sisters, according to their systems for making them in time their model wives. Sganarelle’s system was to make the woman dress plainly, live retired, attend to domestic duties, and have few indulgences. Ariste’s system was to give the woman great liberty, and trust to her honor. Isabelle, brought up by Sganarelle, deceived him and married another; but Léonor, brought up by Ariste, made him a fond and faithful wife.
=Scottish Chiefs, The.=--A romantic story by Jane Porter, published in 1810, and counting among its heroes Robert Bruce and Sir William Wallace.
=Scourge of God.=--Attila, king of the Huns. A. P. Stanley says the term was first applied to Attila in the Hungarian Chronicles. It is found in a legend belonging to the eighth or ninth century.
=Scrooge= (skröj), =Ebenezer=.--Christmas Carol, Dickens. The prominent character, made partner, executor, and heir of old Jacob Marley, stockbroker.
=Seasons, The.=--A series of poems by James Thomson, which appeared in the following order: Winter; Summer; Spring; and Autumn; the whole being republished, with the famous Hymn. Horace Walpole said that he would rather have written the most absurd lines by Lee than The Seasons; but Wordsworth, on the other hand, speaks of it as “a work of inspiration. Much of it,” he says, “is written from himself, and nobly from himself.”
=Sebastian= (se-bas´tian).--(1) Brother of Viola, in Twelfth Night. They were twins, and so much alike that they could not be distinguished except by their dress. Sebastian and his sister being shipwrecked, escaped to Illyria. Here Sebastian was mistaken for his sister (who had assumed man’s apparel), and was invited by the Countess Olivia to take shelter in her house from a street broil. Olivia was in love with Viola, and thinking Sebastian to be the object of her love, married him. (2) Brother of Alfonso, king of Naples, in The Tempest. (3) Father of Valentine and Alice, in Beaumont and Fletcher’s Mons. Thomas.
=Sedley, Mr.=--Vanity Fair, Thackeray. A wealthy London stockbroker, brought to ruin in the money market just prior to the battle of Waterloo.
=Selith.=--One of the two guardian angels of the Virgin Mary and St. John the divine, in Klopstock’s Messiah.
=Sempronius= (sem-prō´ni-us).--In Shakespeare’s Timon of Athens, a flatterer of Timon, who excuses himself from lending Timon money on the ground that others had been asked first.
=Senena.=--Madoc, Southey. A Welsh maiden in love with Caradoc. Under the assumed name of Mervyn she became the page of the Princess Goervyl, that she might follow her lover to America, where Madoc colonized Caer-Madoc. Senena was promised in marriage to another; but when the wedding day arrived the bride was nowhere to be found.
=Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy.=--By Laurence Sterne, published in 1768. Sterne describes this work as follows: “It is a subject which works well, and suits the frame of mind in which I have been for some time past. I told you my design in it was to teach us to love the world and our fellow creatures better than we do--so it runs most upon these gentler passions and affections which add so much to it.”
=Serena= (sā-rā´nä).--Faërie Queene, Spenser. Allured into the fields by the mildness of the weather, to gather wild flowers for a garland, she was attacked by the Blatant Beast, which carried her off in its mouth. Her cries attracted to the spot Sir Calidore, who compelled the beast to drop its prey.
=Sesame.=--In Arabian tales given as the talismanic word which would open or shut the door leading into the cave of the forty thieves. In order to open it, the words to be uttered were, “Open, Sesame!” and in order to close it, “Shut, Sesame!” Sesame is a plant yielding grain which is sometimes used for food, and from which an oil is expressed. When Cassim forgot the word, he substituted “Barley,” but without effect. Sesame has come into general use in connection with any word or act which will open the way for accomplishment of the thing desired.
=Seven Lamps of Architecture, The.=--A treatise on architecture by Ruskin, published in 1849. The “seven lamps” are those of Sacrifice, Truth, Power, Beauty, Life, Memory, and Obedience. They are symbolic rules for the guidance of the student.
=Sganarelle= (sgä-nä-rel´).--The hero of Molière’s comedy La Mariage Force. He is represented as a humorist of about fifty-three, who, having a mind to marry a fashionable young woman, but feeling a doubt, consults his friends upon this momentous question. Receiving no satisfactory counsel, and not much pleased with the proceedings of his bride elect, he at last determines to give up his engagement, but is cudgeled into compliance by the brother of his intended.
=Shallow.=--A braggart and absurd country justice in Shakespeare’s Merry Wives of Windsor, and in the second part of King Henry IV.
=Shandy, Mrs.=--The mother of Tristram Shandy in Sterne’s novel of this name. She is the ideal of nonentity, a character individual from its very absence of individuality.
=Shandy, Tristram.=--The nominal hero of Sterne’s The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gent.
=Shandy, Walter.=--The name of Tristram Shandy’s father in Sterne’s novel of this name, a man of an active and metaphysical, but at the same time a whimsical, cast of mind, whom too much and too miscellaneous learning had brought within a step or two of madness.
=Sharp, Becky.=--A leading character in Thackeray’s Vanity Fair, the daughter of a poor painter, dashing, selfish, unprincipled, and very clever.
=Shepherd of Salisbury Plain, The.=--The hero and title of a religious tract by Hannah More. The shepherd is noted for his homely wisdom and simple piety.
=Shepherd’s Calendar, The.=--Twelve eclogues in various meters, by Spenser, one for each month. January: Colin Clout (Spenser) bewails that Rosalind does not return his love. February: Cuddy, a lad, complains of the cold, and Thenot laments the degeneracy of pastoral life. March: Willie and Thomalin discourse of love. April: Hobbinol sings a song on Eliza. May: Palinode exhorts Piers to join the festivities of May, but Piers replies that good shepherds who seek their own indulgence expose their flocks to the wolves. June: Hobbinol exhorts Colin to greater cheerfulness. July: Morrel, a goatherd, invites Thomalin to come with him to the uplands. August: Perigot and Willie contend in song, and Cuddy is appointed arbiter. September: Diggon Davie complains to Hobbinol of clerical abuses. October: On poetry. November: Colin being asked by Thenot to sing, excuses himself because of his grief for Dido, but finally sings her elegy. December: Colin again complains that his heart is desolate. Thenot is an old shepherd bent with age, who tells Cuddy, the herdsman’s boy, the fable of the oak and the brier, one of the best-known fables included in the calendar.
=Shepherd’s Pipe.=--Pan, in Greek mythology, was the god of forests, pastures, and flocks, and the reputed inventor of the shepherd’s flute or pipe.
=Sheridan’s Ride.=--A lyric by T. B. Read, one of the few things written during the heat of the Civil war that is likely to survive.
=She Stoops to Conquer.=--A comedy by Oliver Goldsmith, said to have been founded on an incident which actually occurred to its author. When Goldsmith was sixteen years of age, a wag residing at Ardagh directed him, when passing through that village, to Squire Fetherstone’s house as the village inn. The mistake was not discovered for some time, but all concerned enjoyed the joke. She Stoops to Conquer is one of the gayest, pleasantest, and most amusing pieces of English comedy.
=Shingebis.=--In Longfellow’s Hiawatha, the diver who challenged the North Wind and put him to flight in combat.
=Shocky.=--The Hoosier Schoolmaster, Edw. Eggleston. The little lad from the poorhouse who adores the schoolmaster and early warns him of plans for upsetting his authority. He is also a small poet, not in rhyming, but in comprehension of things about him and in his way of looking at life, and he grows to be a helper in the Church of the Best Licks, founded by the schoolmaster.
=Shylock.=--A sordid, avaricious, revengeful Jew, in Shakespeare’s Merchant of Venice.
=Siege Perilous, The.=--The Round Table contained sieges, or seats, in the names of different knights. One was reserved for him who was destined to attainment in the quest of the Holy Grail. This seat was called “perilous” because if anyone sat therein except he for whom it was reserved, he would “lose himself.” It finally bore the name of Sir Galahad.
=Siegfried= (sēg´frēd).--The hero of various Scandinavian and Teutonic legends, particularly of the old German epic poem, the Nibelungenlied. He is represented as a young warrior of physical strength and beauty, and in valor superior to all men of his time. He cannot easily be identified with any historical personage.
=Sikes, Bill.=--A brutal thief and housebreaker in Dickens’ novel Oliver Twist. He murders his mistress, Nancy, and, in trying to lower himself by a rope from the roof of a building where he had taken refuge from the crowd, he falls, and is choked in a noose of his own making. Sikes had an ill-conditioned, savage dog, the beast-image of his master, which he kicked and loved, ill-treated and fondled.
=Silas Marner= (mär´ner).--A novel by George Eliot, published in 1861. This novel is one of the authoress’ most beautiful stories, the most poetical of them all--the tale of Silas Marner, who deems himself deserted and rejected utterly of God and man, and to whom, in his deepest misery, in place of lost gold, a little foundling girl is sent. This tale is the most hopeful of all her books. The contemplation of the renewal of enterprise and energy, which comes with little children, and of the promise with which each new generation gilds the crown of honor for its sires, is pleasant and grateful to her. She writes upon her title page the lines of Wordsworth:
A child, more than all other gifts That earth can offer to declining man, Brings hope with it and forward-looking thoughts.
The weaver of Raveloe and Eppie are creations after Wordsworth’s own heart.
=Silken Thread.=--Gulliver’s Travels. In the kingdom of Lilliput, the three great prizes of honor are “fine silk threads six inches long, one blue, another red, and a third green.” The thread is girt about the loins, and no ribbon of the Legion of Honor, or of the Knight of the Garter, is worn more worthily or more proudly.
=Sindbad= (sind´bad) =the Sailor.=--A character in the Arabian Nights, in which is related the story of his strange voyages and wonderful adventures.
=Sinon.=--In Vergil’s Æneid the cunning Greek who, by a false tale, induced the Trojans to drag the wooden horse into Troy.
=Sir Roger de Coverley= (kuv´er-li).--In Addison’s The Spectator. The prototype of this famous character was Sir John Pakington, a hypothetical baronet of Coverley or Cowley, near Oxford.
=Skeleton in Armor, The.=--A lyric by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, suggested to him while riding on the seashore at Newport. A year or two previous a skeleton had been dug up at Fall River, clad in broken and corroded armor; and the idea occurred to him of connecting it with the Round Tower at Newport, generally known hitherto as the Old Windmill, though now claimed by the Danes as a work of their early ancestors.
=Sketch-Book, The.=--A series of short tales, sketches, and essays, published by Washington Irving in 1820. They are chiefly descriptive of English manners and scenery, and have often been reprinted.
=Skylark, Ode to the.=--By Percy Bysshe Shelley, written in 1820. “In sweetness,” says Leigh Hunt, “and not even there in passages, the Ode to the Skylark is inferior only to Coleridge--in rapturous passion to no man. It is like the bird it sings--enchanting, profuse, continuous, and alone; small, but filling the heavens.”
Hail to thee, blithe spirit! Bird thou never wert, That, from heaven, or near it, Pourest thy full heart In profuse strains of unpremeditated art.
=Slick, Sam.=--The hero of various humorous narratives, by Haliburton, illustrating and exaggerating the peculiarities of the Yankee character and dialect.
=Slop, Dr.=--The name of a choleric and uncharitable physician in Sterne’s Tristram Shandy, Gent.
=Slough of Despond.=--Pilgrim’s Progress, Bunyan. A deep bog, which Christian had to pass on his way to the Wicket Gate.
=Sly, Christopher.=--Taming of the Shrew, Shakespeare. A keeper of bears and a tinker and a sad drinker, son of a peddler.
=Sofronia= (sof-rō´ni-ä).--A young Christian of Jerusalem, the heroine of an episode in Tasso’s Jerusalem Delivered. She and her lover, Olinda, are condemned to death by Aladine, king of Jerusalem. The king finally, at the solicitation of Clorinda, spares them and they are married.
=Sohrab= (sö-hrâb´) =and Rustum.=--An episode, or narrative in verse, by Matthew Arnold. The story is told in prose in Sir John Malcolm’s History of Persia. “The powerful conception of the relation between the two chieftains, and the slaying of the son by the father, are,” says Stedman, “tragical and heroic. The descriptive passage at the close beginning--
But the majestic river floated on,
for diction and breadth of tone would do honor to any living poet.”
=Song of Roland.=--An ancient song recounting the deeds of Roland, the renowned nephew of Charlemagne, slain in the pass of Roncesvalles. At the battle of Hastings, Taillefer advanced on horseback before the invading army, and gave the signal for onset by singing this famous song.
=Spanker, Lady Gay.=--In London Assurance, by Boucicault, is a woman of great spirit, devoted to the chase.
=Speed.=--An inveterate punster and the clownish servant of Valentine, one of the two “gentlemen” in Shakespeare’s The Two Gentlemen of Verona.
=Spenlow= (spen´lō).--Lavinia and Clarissa, in Dickens’ David Copperfield, two spinster aunts of Dora Spenlow, with whom she lived at the death of her father.
=Squeers.=--Name of a family prominent in Dickens’ Nicholas Nickleby. Wackford Squeers, master of Dotheboys Hall, in Yorkshire, is a vulgar, conceited, ignorant schoolmaster, overbearing and mean. He steals the boys’ pocket money, clothes his son in their best suits, half starves them, and teaches them next to nothing. Ultimately he is transported for theft. Mrs. Squeers, a raw-boned, harsh, heartless virago, with no womanly feeling for the boys put under her charge. Miss Fanny Squeers, daughter of the schoolmaster. Miss Fanny falls in love with Nicholas Nickleby, but later hates him because he is insensible to the soft impeachment. Master Wackford Squeers, over-bearing, self-willed and passionate.
=Squire of Dames.=--A personage introduced by Spenser in the Faërie Queene, and whose curious adventures are there recorded. The expression is sometimes applied to a person devoted to the fair sex.
=Steerforth= (stēr´fōrth), =James.=--David Copperfield, Dickens. The young man who led little Em’ly astray. When tired of his toy, he proposed to her to marry his valet. Steerforth, being shipwrecked off the coast of Yarmouth, Ham Peggotty tried to rescue him, but both were drowned.
=Stentor= (sten´tor).--A Grecian herald in the Trojan war whom Homer describes as great-hearted, brazen-voiced Stentor, accustomed to shout as loud as fifty other men.
=Stephano= (stef´a-nō).--(1) In Tasso’s Jerusalem Delivered, earl of Carnuti, the leader of four hundred men in the allied Christian army. He was noted for his military prowess and wise counsel; (2) a drunken butler in Shakespeare’s The Tempest; (3) servant to Portia in Shakespeare’s Merchant of Venice.
=Stiggins, Rev. Mr.=--A red-nosed, hypocritical “shepherd,” or Methodist parson, in Dickens’ Pickwick Papers, with a great appetite for pineapple rum. He is the spiritual adviser of Mrs. Weller, and lectures on temperance.
=Strephon= (stref´on).--The shepherd in Sir Philip Sidney’s Arcadia, who makes love to the beautiful Urania. It is a stock name for a lover, Chloe being usually the corresponding lady.
=Strongback.=--One of the seven attendants of Fortunio, in D’Aulnoy’s Fairy Tales. He could never be overweighted, and could fell a forest in a few hours without fatigue.
=Summer, St. Martin’s.=--The fine weather which generally occurs in October and November; referred to in Henry VI.
=T=
=Tabard= (tab´ārd), =The.=--Is the inn, in High Street, Southwark, London, from which Chaucer makes his pilgrims start on their journey to Canterbury. It took its name from its sign--a tabard.
=Tale of Two Cities, A.=--A novel, by Charles Dickens, originally produced in All the Year Round for 1859, and afterward republished in complete form. The author says he first conceived the main idea of the story when acting, with his children and friends, in Wilkie Collins’ drama of The Frozen Deep. His narrative is drawn from the scenes of the French revolution of 1789; and it was one of Dickens’ hopes, he says, to add something to the popular and picturesque means of understanding that terrible time; “though no one,” he continues, “can hope to add anything to the philosophy of Carlyle’s wonderful book.”
=Tales of a Wayside Inn.=--Name given by Longfellow to a collection of short poems arranged by himself and collected together much in the same form as Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales. These “tales” were mostly gathered from old literature and translated into Longfellow’s own verses--only one, The Birds of Killingworth, being said to be entirely original. Seven narratives are represented: the Landlord, the Student, the Spanish Cavalier, the Jew, the Sicilian, the Musician, and the Theologian. Four colonial tales are included in the work: Paul Revere’s Ride, Elizabeth, Lady Wentworth, and The Rhyme of Sir Christopher.
=Taming of the Shrew, The.=--A comedy by Shakespeare. The incident of Vincentio’s personation by the pedant was borrowed by Shakespeare from George Gascoigne’s Supposes. The chief characters are Petruchio and his wife Katharine, the shrew.
=Tam O’Shanter.=--The title of a poem by Burns, and the name of its hero, a farmer, who, riding home very late and very drunk from Ayr, in a stormy night, had to pass by the kirk of Alloway, a place reputed to be a favorite haunt of the devil and his friends and emissaries. On approaching the kirk, he perceived a light gleaming through the windows; but, having got courageously drunk, he ventured on till he could look into the edifice, when he saw a dance of witches. His presence became known, and in an instant all was dark; and Tam, recollecting himself, turned and spurred his horse to the top of her speed, chased by the whole fiendish crew. It is a current belief that witches, or any evil spirits, have no power to follow a poor wight any farther than the middle of the next running stream. Fortunately for Tam, the River Doon was near, and he escaped, while the witches held only the tail of his mare Maggie. It has been said of Tam O’Shanter that in no other poem of the same length can there be found so much brilliant description, pathos, and quaint humor, nor such a combination of the terrific and the ludicrous.
=Tancred= (tang´kred).--In Tasso’s Jerusalem Delivered, was the greatest of all the Christian warriors, except Rinaldo.
=Tartufe=, or =Tartuffe= (tār-tūf´).--One of Molière’s best known comedies. Tartuffe is a religious hypocrite and impostor, who uses “religion” as the means of gaining money, covering deceit, and promoting self-indulgence. He is taken up by one Orgon, a man of property, who promises him his daughter in marriage; but, his true character being exposed, he is not only turned out of the house, but is lodged in jail for felony.
Isaac Bickerstaff adapted Molière’s comedy to the English stage, under the title of The Hypocrite. Tartuffe he calls “Dr. Cantwell,” and Orgon “Sir John Lambert.” It is thought that “Tartuffe” is a caricature of Père la Chaise, the confessor of Louis XIV., who was very fond of truffles (French, truffes), and that this suggested the name to the dramatist.
=Task, The.=--A poem by William Cowper. “The Task,” says Southey, “was at once descriptive, moral, and satirical. The descriptive parts everywhere bore evidence of a thoughtful mind and a gentle spirit, as well as of an observant eye; and the moral sentiment which pervaded them gave a charm in which descriptive poetry is often found wanting. The best didactic poems, when compared with The Task, are like formal gardens in comparison with woodland scenery.” “The Task,” says Hazlitt, “has fewer blemishes than The Seasons; but it has not the same capital excellence, the ‘unsought grace’ of poetry, the power of moving and infusing the warmth of the author’s mind into that of the reader.”
=Teazle= (tē´zl), =Lady.=--The heroine of Sheridan’s comedy The School for Scandal, and the wife of Sir Peter Teazle, an old gentleman who marries late in life. She is represented as being “a lively and innocent, though imprudent, country girl, transplanted into the midst of all that can bewilder and endanger her, but with enough of purity about her to keep the blight of the world from settling upon her.”
=Teazle, Sir Peter.=--A character in Sheridan’s play _The School for Scandal_, husband of Lady Teazle.
=Télémaque= (tā-lā-mȧk´), =Les Aventures de:= “Adventures of Telemachus”.--A romance by Fenelon, published in 1699. It is founded on the legendary history of Telemachus, and is one of the classics of French literature. Though the beautiful fiction of Telemachus, which has much in common with, and was doubtless suggested to Fenelon by the Argenis, be rather an epic poem in prose than a romance, it seems to have led the way to several political romances, or, at least, to have nourished a state for this species of composition.
=Tell, William.=--Title of a drama by Schiller. The hero is chief of the confederates of the forest cantons of Switzerland, and son-in-law of Walter Fürst. Having refused to salute the Austrian cap which Gessler, the Austrian governor, had set up in the market-place of Altdorf, he was condemned to shoot an apple from the head of his own son. He succeeded in this perilous task, but, letting fall a concealed arrow, was asked by Gessler with what object he had secreted it. “To kill thee, tyrant,” he replied, “if I had failed.” The governor now ordered him to be carried in chains across the Lake Lucerne to Küssnacht Castle, “there to be devoured alive by reptiles”; but, a violent storm having arisen on the lake, he was unchained, that he might take the helm. Gessler was on board; and, when the vessel neared the castle, Tell leaped ashore, gave the boat a push into the lake, and shot the governor. After this he liberated his country from the Austrian yoke.
=Tempest, The.=--One of Shakespeare’s fairy plays. The story runs: Prospero, duke of Milan, was dethroned by his brother Antonio, and left on the open sea with his three-year-old daughter Miranda, in “a rotten carcass of a boat.” In this they were carried to an enchanted island, uninhabited except by a hideous creature, Caliban, the son of a witch. Prospero was a powerful enchanter, and soon had not only Caliban, but all the spirits of the region under his control, including Ariel, chief of the spirits of the air. Years afterward Antonio, Alfonso, Sebastian and other friends of the usurper came near the island. Prospero, by his magic, raises a storm which casts their ship on the shore and the whole party are spellbound and brought to Prospero. Plots and counterplots follow, bringing in Caliban and clowns; but all are made ridiculous and are defeated by Prospero and Ariel.
=Tessa= (tes´ä).--In George Eliot’s novel of Romola is the peasant girl who is deceived into marriage with Tito Melema.
=Thangbrand.=--Tales of a Wayside Inn, Henry W. Longfellow. King Olaf’s drunken priest, “short of stature, large of limb,” who was sent to Iceland, found the people poring over their books, and sailed backed to Norway to say to Olaf “little hope is there of these Iceland men.”
=Theagenes= (thē-aj´e-nēz)= and Chariclea= (kar-i-klē´ä).--The chief characters in a Greek love story, by Heliodorus, bishop of Trikka, fourth century. A charming fiction, largely borrowed from by subsequent novelists, and especially by Mdlle. de Scudéri, Tasso, Guarini, and D’Urfé.
=Thekla.=--The daughter of Wallenstein in Schiller’s drama of this name. She is an invention of the poet.
=Theodorus.=--The name of a physician, in Rabelais’ romance of Gargantua. At the request of Ponocrates, Gargantua’s tutor, he undertook to cure the latter of his vicious manner of living, and accordingly “purged him canonically with Anticyrian hellebore,” by which medicine he cleared out all the perverse habits of his brain, so that he became a man of honor, sense, courage, and piety.
=Theresa=, or =Teresa= (te-rē´sä, or tā-rā´sä).--Daughter of the count palatine of Padolia, beloved by Mazeppa, in Byron’s Mazeppa.
=Thersites= (ther-sī´tēz).--A scurrilous Grecian chief, loquacious, loud and coarse, in the Iliad. His chief delight was to inveigh against the kings of Greece. He squinted, halted, and on his tapering head grew a few white patches of starveling down.
=Thopas, Sir.=--In the Canterbury Tales, a capital sportsman, archer, wrestler, and runner, who resolved to marry no one but an “elf queen,” and accordingly started for Faëryland. Story left unfinished.
=Thorberg Skafting.=--Tales of a Wayside Inn, Henry W. Longfellow. The master-builder ordered by King Olaf to build a ship twice as long and twice as large as the Dragon, built by Raud the Strong, which was stranded.
=Three Musketeers= [Trois Mousquetaires (trwä mös-ke-tar´), Les].--A novel by Alexander Dumas père, published in 1844. The scene is laid in the time of Richelieu. The three musketeers are Athos, Porthos, and Aramis, but D’Artagnan is the principal character. He is a young Gascon of an adventurous yet practical nature, with a genius for intrigue, who goes up to Paris to seek his fortune with an old horse, a box of miraculous salve given to him by his mother, and his father’s counsels. His career is one of hairbreadth escapes (with death, in the end, on the field of battle) in the society of the three musketeers.
=Thyestean Banquet.=--Referred to in Milton’s Paradise Lost. A cannibal feast. Thyestes was given his own two sons to eat at a banquet served up to him by his brother Atreus.
=Thyrsis= (ther´sis).--A herdsman introduced in the Idylls of Theocritos, and in Vergil’s Eclogues.
Hard by, a cottage chimney smokes From betwixt two aged oaks, Where Corydon and Thyrsis, met, Are at their savory dinner set. Milton, L’Allegro.
=Timias.=--King Arthur’s squire in Spenser’s Faërie Queene. He went after the “wicked foster,” from whom Florimel fled, and the “foster” with his two brothers, falling on him, were all slain.
=Tobey, Uncle.=--A character in Sterne’s Tristram Shandy. A captain who was wounded at the siege of Namur, and was obliged to retire from the service. He is the impersonation of kindness, benevolence, and simple-heartedness; his courage is undoubted, and his gallantry delightful for its innocence and modesty.
=Tommy Atkins.=--Barrack-Room Ballads, Kipling. The name is here used in its general meaning, a British soldier. The name came from the little pocket ledgers served out, at one time, to all British soldiers. In these manuals were to be entered the name, the age, the date of enlistment, etc. The war office sent with each little book a form for filling it in, and the hypothetical name selected was Tommy Atkins. The books were instantly so called, and it did not require many days to transfer the name from the book to the soldier.
=Tom Sawyer, Adventures of.=--By Mark Twain. An “elastic” youth whose performances delight both old and young readers. Queer enterprises, influenced by the old superstitions among slaves and children in the Western states give reliable pictures of boy-life in the middle of the nineteenth century.
=Topsy.=--Uncle Tom’s Cabin, Mrs. Stowe. A young slave-girl, who never knew whether she had either father or mother, and being asked by Miss Ophelia St. Clare how she supposed she came into the world, replied, “I ’spects I growed.”
=Touchstone= (tuch´stōn).--A clown in Shakespeare’s As You Like It. His seven degrees of the lie are: (1) The retort courteous, (2) the quip modest, (3) the reply churlish, (4) the reproof valiant, (5) the countercheck quarrelsome, (6) the lie circumstantial, (7) the lie direct.
=Townley Mysteries.=--Certain religious dramas; so called because the MS. containing them belonged to P. Townley. These dramas are supposed to have been acted at Widkirk abbey, in Yorkshire.
=Tranio= (trā´ni-ō).--In Shakespeare’s Taming of the Shrew, one of the servants of Lucentio, the gentleman who marries Bianca, sister of Katharina “the Paduan shrew.”
=Triads.=--Three subjects, more or less connected, formed into one continuous poem or subject; thus the “Creation, Redemption, and Resurrection” would form a triad.
=Trim, Corporal.=--Uncle Toby’s attendant, in Sterne’s novel, The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gent., distinguished for his fidelity and affection, his respectfulness, and his volubility.
=Tristram= (tris´tram), =Sir.=--One of the most celebrated heroes of mediæval romance. His adventures form an episode in the history of Arthur’s court, and are related by Thomas the Rhymer, as well as by many romancists.
=Tubal= (tū´bal).--A wealthy Jew, the friend of Shylock, in Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Venice.
=Tuck, Friar.=--Ivanhoe, Scott. The father-confessor of Robin Hood and connected with Fountain’s Abbey. He is represented as a clerical Falstaff, very fat and self-indulgent, very humorous, and somewhat coarse. His dress was a russet habit of the Franciscan order. He was sometimes girt with a rope of rushes. Friar Tuck also appears in the “morris dance” on Mayday.
=Turveydrop.=--Bleak House, Dickens. A conceited dancing-master, who imposes on the world by his majestic appearance and elaborate toilette. He is represented as living upon the earnings of his son, who has a most slavish reverence for him as a perfect “master of deportment.”
=Tutivillus= (tū-ti-vil´us).--In Langland’s Visions of Piers Plowman, the demon who collects all the fragments of words omitted, mutilated, or mispronounced by priests in the performance of religious services, and stores them up in that “bottomless” pit which is “paved with good intentions.”
=Tweedledum and Tweedledee.=--The prince of Wales was the leader of the Handel party, supported by Pope and Dr. Arbuthnot; and the duke of Marlborough led the Bononcinists, and was supported by most of the nobility.
=Twelfth Night.=--A drama by Shakespeare. The story is said to have come from a novelette written early in the sixteenth century. A brother and sister, twins, are shipwrecked. Viola, dressed like her brother, becomes page to the duke Orsino. The duke was in love with Olivia, and, as the lady looked coldly on his suit, he sent Viola to advance it; but the willful Olivia, instead of melting toward the duke, fell in love with his beautiful page. Sebastian, the twin-brother of Viola, was attacked in a street brawl before Olivia, and, thinking him to be the page, she invited him in. The result was the marriage of Sebastian to Olivia, and of the duke to Viola.
=Twice-Told Tales.=--A collection of tales by Nathaniel Hawthorne, some of which had been already published in the Token, and other periodicals. They are mystical and, though in prose form, are the work of a poet. The tales are nearly all American in subject, but are treated from the spiritual rather than the practical side.
=Two Gentlemen of Verona= (vā-rō´nä).--A drama by Shakespeare, the story of which is taken from the Diana of Montemayor (sixteenth century). The plot resembles that of Twelfth Night, as Julia, disguised as a page, is a prominent figure.
=U=
=Uarda= (ö-är´dä).--A novel by Ebers, published in 1877. The scene is laid chiefly in Egypt at the time of the reign of Rameses II.
=Ubaldo.=--Jerusalem Delivered, Tasso. One of the older crusaders, who had visited many regions. He and Charles the Dane went to bring back Rinaldo from the enchanted castle.
=Ubeda.=--Don Quixote, Cervantes. A noted artist who one day painted a picture, but was obliged to write under it, “This is a cock,” in order that the spectator might know what was intended to be represented.
=Thule= (thū´lē).--“Ultima Thule.” The extremity of the world; the most northern point known to the ancient Romans. Pliny and others say it is Iceland.
=Una= (ū´nä).--Faërie Queene, Spenser. The personification of truth. She goes, leading a lamb and riding on a white ass, to the court of Gloriana, to crave that one of her knights might undertake to slay the dragon which kept her father and mother prisoners. The adventure is accorded to the Red Cross Knight. Being driven by a storm into Wandering Wood, a vision is sent to the knight which causes him to leave Una, and she goes in search of him. In her wanderings a lion becomes her attendant. After many adventures, she finds St. George, “the Red Cross Knight,” but he is severely wounded. Una takes him to the House of Holiness, where he is carefully nursed, and then leads him to Eden.
=Uncle Tom’s Cabin.=--A work of fiction by Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe. It had an enormous sale, and at once made the author famous. As a picture of slave life as it once obtained in the Southern states of America it is certainly unsurpassed. The scenes described in it are so terrible that Mrs. Stowe deemed it advisable to publish in 1853 a Key to the work, showing the large extent to which it is founded upon fact. The hero is, of course, Uncle Tom.
Uncle Tom was an old negro slave of unaffected piety, and most faithful in the discharge of all his duties. His master, a humane man, becomes embarrassed in his affairs, and sells him to a slave-dealer. After passing through various hands, and suffering intolerable cruelties, he dies. The figure next in interest is Legree, the brutal slave-owner. Everyone, also, will remember Eva and Topsy.
=Urganda= (ör-gän´dä).--In the romance of Amadis de Gaul, a powerful fairy sometimes appearing in all the terrors of an evil enchantress.
=Uriel= (ū´ri-el), or =Israfil=.--In the Koran, the angel who is to sound the resurrection trumpet. Longfellow, in The Golden Legend, calls him “the minister of Mars,” and says that he inspires man with “fortitude to bear the brunt and suffering of life.”
=Uther= (ū´ther).--Son of Constans, one of the fabulous or legendary kings of Britain, and the father of Arthur.
=Utopia= (ū-tö´pi-ä).--The name of an imaginary island described in the celebrated work of Sir Thomas More, in which was found the utmost perfection in laws, politics, and social arrangements. More’s romance obtained a wide popularity, and the epithet Utopian has since been applied to schemes for the improvement of society which are deemed not practicable.
=Uzziel.=--In Paradise Lost, the next in command to Gabriel. The word means “God’s strength.”
=V=
=Valentine= (val´en-tīn).--(1) One of the heroes in the old romance of Valentine and Orson. (2) One of the Two Gentlemen of Verona, by Shakespeare. (3) A gentleman attending on the duke in Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night. (4) One of the characters in Goethe’s Faust. He is a brother of Margaret.
=Valerian= (va-lē´ri-an).--Canterbury Tales, Chaucer. The husband of St. Cecilia. Cecilia told him she was beloved by an angel, who constantly visited her; and Valerian requested to see this visitant. Cecilia replied that he could do so if he went to Pope Urban to be baptized. This he did, and on returning home the angel gave him a crown of lilies, and to Cecilia a crown of roses, both from the garden of paradise.
=Valley of Humiliation.=--Pilgrim’s Progress, Bunyan. The place where Christian encountered Apollyon, just before he came to the “Valley of the Shadow of Death.”
=Vanity Fair.=--A novel without a hero, by Thackeray. “There are scenes of all sorts,” says the author in his preface to the work, “some dreadful combats, some grand and lofty horse-riding, some scenes of high life and some of very middling indeed, some love making for the sentimental, and some light comic business; the whole accompanied by appropriate scenery, and brilliantly illuminated by the author’s own candle.”
=Vathek= (vath´ek).--By Beckford. Originally written in French. “It was composed,” says the author, “at twenty-two years of age. It took me three days and two nights of hard labor. I never took off my clothes the whole time.” The description of the Hall of Eblis, which is often quoted, was taken, it appears, from the old hall at Fonthill, Beckford’s residence, probably the largest in any private house in England. “It was from that hall I worked, magnifying and coloring it with Eastern character. All the female characters were portraits drawn from the domestic establishment of old Fonthill, their good or evil qualities ideally exaggerated to suit my purpose.” Vathek was translated into English, it is not known by whom, immediately on its appearance. “It was one of the tales,” says Byron, “I had a very early admiration of. For correctness of costume, beauty of description, and power of imagination, it far surpasses all European imitations, and bears such marks of originality that those who have visited the East will find some difficulty in believing it to be more than a translation.”
=Veck, Toby.=--The Chimes, Dickens. A ticket-porter who went on errands and bore the nickname Trotty. One New Year’s eve he had a nightmare and fancied he had mounted to the steeple of a neighboring church, and that goblins issued out of the bells. He was roused from his sleep by the sound of the bells ringing in the new year.
=Veiled Prophet.=--Lalla Rookh, Moore. He assumed to be a god, and maintained that he had been Adam, Noah, and other representative men. Having lost an eye, and being otherwise disfigured in battle, he wore a veil to conceal his face, but his followers said it was done to screen his dazzling brightness.
=Vernon, Di=, or =Diana=.--Rob Roy, Scott. The heroine of the story, a high-born girl of great beauty and talents. She is an enthusiastic adherent to a persecuted religion and an exiled king.
=Vicar of Wakefield.=--A novel by Goldsmith. The hero is Dr. Primrose, a simple-minded, pious clergyman, with six children. He begins life with a good fortune, a handsome house, and wealthy friends, but is reduced to poverty without any fault of his own, and, being reduced like Job, like Job he is restored.
=Vincentio= (vin-sen´shiō).--The duke of Vienna in Shakespeare’s Measure for Measure. He commits his scepter to Angelo, under the pretext of being called to take an urgent and distant journey, and by exchanging the royal purple for a monk’s hood, observes incognito the condition of his people.
=Vincy= (vin´si), =Rosamond.=--One of the principal female characters in George Eliot’s novel Middlemarch.
=Viola.= (vi´ō-lä)--Twelfth Night, Shakespeare. A sister of Sebastian. They were twins, and so much alike that they could be distinguished only by their dress. When they were shipwrecked Viola was brought to shore by the captain, but her brother was left to shift for himself. Being in a strange land, Viola dressed as a page, and, under the name of Cesario, entered the service of Orsino, duke of Illyria. The duke greatly liked his beautiful page, and, when he discovered her true sex, married her.
=Violenta.=--All’s Well That Ends Well, Shakespeare. A character in the play who enters upon the scene only once, and then she neither speaks nor is spoken to. The name has been used to designate any young lady nonentity; one who contributes nothing to the amusement or conversation of a party.
=Virgilia= (ver-jil´i-ä).--In Shakespeare’s Coriolanus, was the wife of Coriolanus, and Volumnia his mother; but historically Volumnia was his wife and Veturia his mother.
=Virginia= (ver-jin´i-ä).--A young Roman plebeian of great beauty, decoyed by Appius Claudius, one of the decemvirs, and claimed as his slave. Her father, Virginius, being told of it, hastened to the forum, and arrived at the moment when Virginia was about to be delivered up to Appius. He seized a butcher’s knife, stabbed his daughter to the heart, rushed from the forum, and raised a revolt. This has been the subject of a host of tragedies. It is one of Lord Macauley’s lays (1842), supposed to be sung in the forum on the day when Sextus and Licinius were elected tribunes for the fifth time.
=Vivian= (viv´i-an), or =Viviane=, or =Vivien=.--In the Arthurian cycle of romance, an enchantress, the mistress of Merlin. She brought up Lancelot in her palace, which was situated in the midst of a magical lake; hence her name “the Lady of the Lake.”
=Volpone= (vol-pō´ne), or the Fox.--A comedy by Ben Jonson, written in 1605. Hazlitt calls it his best play; prolix and improbable, but intense and powerful. It seems formed on the model of Plautus in unity of plot and interest. The principal character is represented as a wealthy sensualist, who tests the character of his friends and kinsmen by a variety of strategems, obtains from them a large addition to his riches by the success of his impostures, and finally falls under the vengeance of the law. “Volpone,” says Campbell, “is not, like the common misers of comedy, a mere money-loving dotard, a hard, shriveled old mummy, with no other spice than his avarice to preserve him--he is a happy villain, a jolly misanthrope, a little god in his own selfishness; and Mosca is his priest and prophet. Vigorous and healthy, though past the prime of life, he hugs himself in his harsh humor, his successful knavery and imposture, his sensuality and his wealth, with an unhallowed relish of selfish existence.”
=W=
=Wallenstein= (väl´len-stīn).--A trilogy by Schiller, comprising Wallenstein’s Lager, Die Piccolomini, and Wallenstein’s Tod. Schiller conceives his hero in these dramas as the type of the practical realist, serious, solitary, and reserved.
=Wandering Jew, The=--(F. Le Juif Errant).--A novel by Eugene Sue. The chief character is an imaginary person in a legend connected with the history of Christ’s passion. As the Savior was on the way to the place of execution, overcome with the weight of the cross, he wished to rest on a stone before the house of a Jew, who drove him away with curses. Driven by fear and remorse, he has since wandered, according to the command of the Lord, from place to place, and has never yet been able to find a grave.
=War and Peace.=--An historical novel by Tolstoi, published 1865-1868. The scene is laid in the time of the Czar Alexander I., and the novel is a picture of Russian society during the Russo-French wars.
=Waverley= (wā´ver-li) =Novels.=--General name given to Scott’s historical novels.
=Wayside Inn, Tales of a.=--Poems in various meters by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. The first series includes a Prelude (The Wayside Inn), the Landlord’s Tale (Paul Revere’s Ride), the Student’s Tale (The Falcon of Ser Federigo), the Spanish Jew’s Tale (The Legend of Rabbi Ben Levi), the Sicilian’s Tale (King Robert of Sicily), the Musician’s Tale (The Saga of King Olaf), the Theologian’s Tale (Torquemada), the Poet’s Tale (The Birds of Killingworth), several Interludes, and Finale.
=Weller= (wel´er), =Sam.=--In Dickens’ celebrated Pickwick Papers. A servant to Mr. Pickwick, to whom he becomes devotedly attached. Rather than leave his master when he is sent to the Fleet, Sam Weller gets his father to arrest him for debt. He is an inimitable compound of wit, simplicity, quaint humor, and fidelity. Tony Weller, father of Sam; a coachman of the old school, who drives between London and Dorking. On the coachbox he is a king, elsewhere a mere London “cabby.” He marries a widow, and his constant advice to his son is, “Sam, beware of the vidders.”
=Westward Ho!=--A novel by Charles Kingsley, the scene of which is laid in “the spacious times of great Elizabeth,” when the safety of England was threatened by the Spanish armada. Several historical personages figure in the story, such as Sir Walter Raleigh, Sir Richard Grenville, Admiral Hawkins, and Sir Francis Drake; and the narrative carries the reader from Bideford to London, and from thence to Ireland, to the Spanish main, and the South American continent, back again to Bideford and Plymouth, whence the hero, Amyas Leigh, sails to take part in the famous sea-fight.
=Wild= (wīld), =Jonathan.=--A cool, calculating, heartless villain, with the voice of a Stentor, hero of Defoe’s romance of the same name.
=Wilford.=--(1) In Knowles’ The Hunchback, supposed to be earl of Rochdale. (2) In Knowles’ The Beggar of Bethnal Green, the truant son of Lord Woodville, who fell in love with Bess, the daughter of the “blind beggar of Bethnal Green.”
=Wilhelm Meister= (vil´helm mīs´ter).--Title of a philosophic novel by Goethe. The object is to show that man, despite his errors and shortcomings, is led by a guiding hand, and reaches some higher aim at last. This is considered to be the first true German novel.
=Wimble= (wim´bl), =Will.=--A member of the fictitious Spectator Club, said to be intended as a portrait of a Mr. Thomas Morecroft, a gentleman of simple habits and good nature.
=Winter’s Tale, The.=--A play by Shakespeare. Leontês, King of Sicily, invites his friend Polixenês to visit him, becomes jealous, and commands Camillo to poison him. Camillo warns Polixenês, and flees with him to Bohemia. Leontês casts his queen, Hermionê, into prison, where she gives birth to a daughter. Hermoinê is reported dead and the child is brought up by a shepherd, who calls it Perdita. Florizel sees Perdita and falls in love with her; but Polixenês, his father, tells her that she and the shepherd shall be put to death if she encourages the suit. Florizel and Perdita flee to Sicily, and being introduced to Leontês, it is soon discovered that Perdita is his lost daughter. Polixenês tracks his son to Sicily, and consents to the union. The party are invited to inspect a statue of Hermoinê, and the statue turns out to be the living queen.
=Worldly-Wiseman, Mr.=--One of the characters in Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress, who converses with Christian by the way, and endeavors to deter him from proceeding on his journey.
=Wrayburn= (rā´bern) =Eugene.=--Our Mutual Friend, Dickens. Barrister-at-law; an indolent, moody, whimsical young man, who loves Lizzie Hexam. After he is nearly killed by Bradley Headstone, he reforms and marries Lizzie, who saved his life.
=Y=
=Yahoo= (yȧ-hö´).--A name given by Swift, in his satirical romance of Gulliver’s Travels, to one of a race of brutes having the form and all the vices of man. The Yahoos are represented as being subject to the Houyhnhnms, or horses endowed with reason.
=Yorick= (yor´ik).--(1) The King of Denmark’s jester, mentioned in Shakespeare’s Hamlet. Hamlet picks up his skull in the churchyard and apostrophizes it. (2) A humorous and careless parson in Sterne’s Tristram Shandy.
=Z=
=Zadig.=--The title of a novel by Voltaire. Zadig is a wealthy young Babylonian, and the object of the novel is to show that the events of life are beyond human control.
=Zanoni= (za-nō´ni).--Hero of a novel, so-called, by Lord Lytton. Zanoni is supposed to possess the power of communicating with spirits, prolonging life, and producing gold, silver, and precious stones.
=Zara= (zä´rä; French, zaire), a tragedy by Voltaire. Zara is the daughter of Lusignan d’Outremer, king of Jerusalem and brother of Nerestan. For twenty years Lusignan and his two children were captives at the court of the sultan Osman. The latter loves Zara, and was jealous of Nerestan, of whose relationship he was ignorant, and stabbed her to the heart. Nerestan being brought before the sultan, told him he had slain his sister. Osman then stabbed himself out of remorse.
=Zenobia= (ze-nō´bi-ä).--Blithedale Romance, Hawthorne. A strong-minded woman, beautiful and intelligent, who was interested in playing out the pastoral of the life at Brook Farm. She is represented as disappointed in love, and at last she drowned herself.
=Zephon.=--A “strong and subtle spirit” in Milton’s Paradise Lost, whom Gabriel dispatched with Ithuriel to find Satan.
=Zillah.=--One of Southey’s characters, beloved by Hamuel, a brutish sot. Zillah rejected his suit, and Hamuel vowed vengeance. Accordingly, he gave out that Zillah had intercourse with the devil, and she was condemned to be burnt alive. God averted the flames, which consumed Hamuel; but Zillah stood unharmed, and the stake to which she was bound threw forth white roses, “the first ever seen on earth since paradise was lost.”
=Zimri= (zim´ri).--In Dryden’s Absalom and Achitophel, is intended for George Villiers, duke of Buckingham, who had satirized Dryden in The Rehearsal as Bayes.
=Zophiel= (zō´fi-el).--In Milton’s Paradise Lost, an angelic scout.
=Zuleika= (zū-lē´kä).--The heroine in Byron’s poem of _The Bride of Abydos_, in love with Selim:
“Fair, as the first that fell of womankind... Soft, as the memory of buried love; Pure, as the prayer which childhood wafts above: Such was Zuleika--such around her shone The nameless charms unmark’d by her alone: The light of love, the purity of grace, The mind, the music breathing from her face, The heart whose softness harmonized the whole-- And, oh! that eye was in itself a soul!”
GODS, HEROES AND MYTHICAL WONDER TALES
A myth is a story told about gods or heroes. Mythology is a term applied to the collected myths of a nation or people, sometimes to the scientific study of myths. The first to busy itself in a large sense with mythology was the Greeks, whose myths had the most luxuriant and fanciful development. When the Romans received the arts and sciences from the Greeks, they adopted also their gods and their entire religious system. Thus it was that the Greek and Roman mythologies were to a great extent the same.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MYTHOLOGY IN EDUCATION
On account of their great beauty and universal interest, myths were made the themes of poets, priests, artists and commentators alike. Not only were the myths the inspiration of classical literature, art and religion, but they kept their place in later civilizations, and mythological allusions are so frequent in our own literature that an acquaintance with classic fable is a necessary part of modern education.
HOW THE MYTHS ORIGINATED
A large proportion of these myths are due to men’s observations of Nature, and her various active and creative forces, which appeared to their lively Southern fancy as manifestations of single supernatural beings. These were regarded now as friendly, now as hostile, to man; and men therefore strove as eagerly to gain their favor as to appease their wrath. Of the appearance of the deities who thus manifested themselves in the workings of nature, men necessarily formed at first very crude and fantastic ideas. But later, when men emerged from the simple conditions of the early patriarchal epoch, and began to dwell in regular political communities, they gradually ceased to regard the gods as mere personifications of natural forces. They began to regard them as beings acting in accordance with unchangeable moral laws, and endowed with forms similar to those of men. They brought the gods into connection with each other by means of genealogies in a great measure artificial, and built up a vast political system, which has its center in Zeus, or Jupiter, the “father of gods and men.” (See Chart on following pages.)
HOW THE GODS RESEMBLE MORTALS
The ancient Greeks believed their gods to be of the same shape and form as themselves, but of far greater beauty, strength, and dignity. They also regarded them as being of much larger size than men; for in those times great size was esteemed a perfection, supposed to be an attribute of divinities, to whom they ascribed all perfections. A fluid named ichor supplied the place of blood in the veins of the gods. They were immortal, but they might be wounded or otherwise injured. They could make themselves visible or invisible to men, and assume the forms of men or of animals. Like men they stood in daily need of food and sleep. The meat of the gods was called ambrosia, their drink nectar. The gods, when they came among men, often partook of their food and hospitality.
Like mankind, the gods were divided into two sexes; namely, gods and goddesses. They married and had children. Often a god became enamored of a mortal woman, or a goddess was smitten with the charms of a handsome youth, and these love tales form a large portion of Grecian mythology.
To make the resemblance between gods and men more complete, the Greeks ascribed to their deities all human passions, both good and evil. They were capable of love, friendship, gratitude, and all affections; on the other hand, they were frequently envious, jealous, and revengeful. They were particularly careful to exact all due respect and attention from mankind, whom they required to honor them with temples, prayers, costly sacrifices, splendid processions, and rich gifts; and they severely punished insult or neglect.
HOW AND WHERE THE GODS LIVED
If we look to the employment of the gods, we find that it consists chiefly in pleasant idleness; though they endeavor, like the rich among mankind, to make time fly by indulging in their favorite pastimes. They take their meals in common, and assemble for this purpose in the palace of Zeus, on the windy heights of Olympus. There they refresh themselves, while Hebe ministers to their wants, listening to the strains of Apollo’s lute, and to the songs of the sweet-voiced Muses, and entertaining themselves with pleasant conversation. Not always, indeed, is the company so peaceful and pleasant. At times these great gods quarrel finely; nay, even small conspiracies arise to interrupt the uniformity of their existence, such as that of Hera, Poseidon, and Athene against Zeus during the Trojan war, which is related in the fifteenth book of the “Iliad.”
RELATIONSHIP AND DOMINION OF THE GODS
Lastly, that no point in their resemblance to mankind may be omitted, all the different deities are united in one great family, of which Zeus, or Jupiter, the father of men and the ruler of the gods, is the head and center. Zeus has, however, a special dominion over the celestial deities only, those of the sea and waters being subjected to Neptune or Poseidon, and those of the lower world to Hades, or Pluto.
A PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF MYTHOLOGY
KEY TO PRONUNCIATION
The long (marked) vowels are pronounced as in the following words; fāte, fāre, far; mē; mīne; mōte; mūte. The short vowels, which include all not marked as above, are pronounced as in the following words: pat; pet; pit; pot; put. The accented syllable in each word is indicated by a mark placed immediately after it. (q.v.), quod vide (L)--which see.
=A=
=Abaris= (ab´a-ris).--A mythical personage who is said to have taken no earthly food, and to have ridden on an arrow--the gift of Apollo, whose priest he was--through the air.
=Absyrtus= (ab-sir´tus).--A son of Æetes, king of Colchis, sister of Medea. (See “Medea.”)
=Acamas= (ak´a-mās).--(i) Son of Theseus and Phædra; went with Diomedes to Troy to recover Helen.
=Acantha= (ak-an´tha).--A nymph beloved by Apollo and changed into the acanthus.
=Acca Laurentia= (ak´ka law-ren´shi-a).--The nurse of Romulus and Remus, after they had been taken from the she-wolf. (See “Romulus.”)
=Achates= (a-kā´tēz).--A friend of Æneas--“fidus Achates” famous for his fidelity.
=Acheloiades= (a-ke-lō´i-a-dẽz).--The Sirens, so called because they were the daughters of Achelous.
=Achelous= (ak-el´ō-us).--The river-god was the son of Oceanus and Tethys, and the eldest of three thousand brothers. He and Hercules both loved Deianira, and fought for the possession of her. Hercules conquered him, when he took the form of a bull, but was defeated again and deprived by Hercules of one of his horns. Achelous, who was looked upon as the representative of all fresh water, was considered a great divinity throughout Greece.
=Acheron= (ak´er-ōn).--Generally signifies the whole of the lower world. Properly, it is the river of the lower world, around which the shades of the departed hover, and into which the Cocytus and Pyriphlegethon flow. There are other rivers also named Acheron.
=Achilles= (a-kill´ẽz).--The great hero of the Iliad. He was the son of Peleus, king of the Myrmidones, and the Nereid Thetis. His mother, wishing to make him immortal, plunged him, when an infant, into the river Styx, and succeeded with the exception of the ankles, by which she held him. He was educated by Phoenix and Chiron, the centaur--the former teaching him eloquence and the arts of war, the latter the healing art. When he was but nine years old, Calchas declared that Troy could not be taken without his aid. His mother, knowing that this war would be fatal to him, disguised him as a girl and sent him to dwell with the daughters of Lycomedes, at whose court he was called Pyrrha (pir´ra), i.e., red or tawny, on account of his auburn hair. Seeing, however, that Troy could not be taken without his aid, the crafty Ulysses, disguised as a merchant, sought him out, offering for sale jewels and articles of feminine attire, among which he had placed some arms. The ruse succeeded, as Achilles, by eagerly seizing the arms, at once betrayed his sex, and accompanied Ulysses to the Greek army before Troy. While at Lycomedes’ court he became by Deidamia the father of Pyrrhus, or Neoptolemus. Before Troy he performed great feats of valor. After killing numbers of Trojans, he at length met Hector, whom he chased thrice round the walls of the city, and, having slain him, tied his body to his chariot and dragged it to the ships of the Greeks. He had an invulnerable suit of armor made, at his mother’s request, by Vulcan. Finally, he was slain by Paris, son of Priam, who shot him in the heel, his only vulnerable part. He is the principal hero of the Iliad, and is represented as the handsomest and bravest of all the Greeks. After his death Achilles became one of the judges in the lower world, and dwelt in the islands of the blessed, where he was united to Medea, or Iphigenia.
=Acis= (ā´sis).--A Sicilian shepherd, beloved by the nymph Galatea. He was crushed, through jealousy, under a huge rock by Polyphemus, the Cyclop, and his blood gushing forth from under was changed by the nymph into the river Acis, at the foot of Mount Etna.
=Actæon= (ak-tē´ōn).--A mighty huntsman, son of Aristæus and Autonoë. One day while hunting he saw Diana and her nymphs bathing, and was immediately changed by the goddess into a stag, in which form he was torn to pieces by his fifty dogs.
=Admetus= (ad-mē´tus).--King of Pheræ, in Thessaly. On the death of his first wife he sued for the hand of Alcestis, whom he obtained, by Apollo’s aid, only on coming in a chariot drawn by a lion and a wild boar. The god (Apollo) tended the flocks of Admetus for nine years, when he was compelled to serve a mortal for having slain the Cyclops. Apollo prevailed on the Fates to grant that Admetus should never die if another would lay down his life for him. This Alcestis did, but was brought back from the lower world by Hercules.
=Adonis= (a-dō´nis).--A beautiful youth beloved by Venus. While hunting he was killed by a wild boar, and was changed by Venus into the anemone. The grief of Venus was so great that the gods of the nether regions allowed him to spend six months of every year with Venus upon the earth. (This myth seems to refer to the apparent death of nature in winter and its revival in spring; hence Adonis spends six months in the lower and a like period in the upper world.)
=Æacus= (ē´ak-us).--Son of Jupiter and Ægina. It is related that at his birth in the island of Ægina, which was named after his mother, there were no inhabitants on the island, and that Jupiter changed the ants there into men; hence the latter were called Myrmidones (Gr. ants), and Æacus ruled over them. Æacus was renowned throughout Greece for his justice and piety, and after his death became one of the three judges in Hades (the other two being Rhadamanthus and Minos).
=Aedon= (a-ē´dōn).--Daughter of Pandareus and wife of Zethus, king of Thebes. Jealous of Niobe, her brother Amphion’s wife, having six sons and six daughters, while she had but one son, she determined to kill the eldest of Niobe’s sons, but by mistake slew her own son Itylus. Jupiter changed her into a nightingale, whose melancholy notes are represented as Ædon’s lamentations for her son.
=Æetes= (ē-ē´tēz) or =Æeta=, (ē-ē´ta).--Son of Helios (the sun) and Persëis, and king of Colchis at the time Phrixus had fled to his court on a ram with golden fleece, the gift of Mercury. (See “Phrixus.”) After having sacrificed to Jupiter the ram that had carried him, Phrixus gave its golden fleece to Æetes, who suspended it to an oak tree in the grove of Mars, where it was guarded day and night by an ever-watchful dragon. It was, however, greatly coveted, and an expedition was fitted out, consisting of all the great heroes of the age, with the special object, which proved successful, of obtaining it. (See “Argonautæ.”)
=Ægæon= (ē-jē´ōn).--Son of Uranus (heaven) and Gæa (earth). Ægæon and his brothers, Gyas and Cottus, were huge monsters with a hundred arms and fifty heads. Ægæon and his brothers, who are often called the Uranids, conquered the Titans when they made war upon the gods, and secured the victory to Jupiter, who thrust the Titans into Tartarus, and placed Ægæon and his brothers to guard them. Ægæon is often referred to under the name Briareus.
=Æneas= (ē-nē´as), the hero of Virgil’s great epic poem the Æneid (ē-ne´id), was the son of Anchises and Venus, and was born on Mount Ida. Having been attacked on Mount Ida by Achilles, who also drove away his flocks, he led the Dardanians against the Greeks, and at once took part in the Trojan war. Æneas and Hector were the great Trojan heroes, and the former, being beloved by gods and men, was on more than one occasion saved in battle by the gods. Venus saved him from Diomedes, and Neptune from Achilles, when the latter was on the point of killing him. From the flames of Troy he carried on his back his father, Anchises, and the household gods, and led Ascanius, his son, leaving his wife, Creusa, daughter of Priam, to follow. Æneas then set out on those wanderings that form the subject of the Æneid. After visiting Epirus and Sicily he was driven by a storm on the coast of Africa, where he met with Dido, queen of Carthage, who hospitably entertained him and became enamored of him. Æneas, however, left suddenly, and Dido (q.v.) killed herself. He then sailed to Latium, where he married Lavinia, the daughter of King Latinus, and founded the town of Lavinium, so named in honor of his wife. Turnus, to whom Lavinia had been betrothed, made war against Latinus and Æneas, but was slain by the latter, who now became ruler of the Aborigines and Trojans. Soon afterwards, however, he was slain in battle by the Rutulians.
=Æolus= (ē´o-lus).--The happy ruler of the Æolian Islands. He had been given, by Jupiter, dominion over the winds, which he kept enclosed in a mountain. When Ulysses was on his journey from Troy to Ithaca, Æolus gave him all the adverse winds in bags, but his companions, from curiosity, opened them.
=Æsculapius= (ēs-kū-lā´pi-us).--The god of healing. He was the son of Apollo and Coronis, and was brought up by Chiron, the centaur, who instructed him in the art of healing and in hunting. When he was grown up, he not only healed the sick, but recalled the dead to life. He was killed by a thunderbolt by Jupiter, who feared lest men should, by his aid, escape death altogether. Serpents were sacred to him, and the cock was sacrificed to him.
=Agamemnon= (ag-a-mem´nōn).--King of Mycenæ, and brother of Menelaus. He married Clytemnestra, who bore him Iphigenia, Chrysothemis, Laodice (Electra) and Orestes. He was the most powerful prince in Greece. When Helen (q.v.) was carried off by Paris, and the Greek chiefs sought to regain her, Agamemnon was chosen commander-in-chief of the expedition. He is not, however, the hero of the Iliad, as he is the inferior of Achilles in true nobility of character. At the capture of Troy he received Cassandra, the daughter of Priam, as his prize. On his return home he was murdered by Ægisthus, who, during his absence at Troy, had been living with Agamemnon’s wife Clytemnestra. His son Orestes avenged his father’s death by slaying both Ægisthus and Clytemnestra.
=Aganippe= (ag-a-nip´pē).--A fountain at the foot of Mount Helicon, in Bœotia, sacred to the Muses, who were hence called Aganippides (ag-a-nip´pi-dēz).
=Ajax= (ā´jaks).--There are two heroes having this name, Ajax the Great, or Ajax Telamonius, and The Lesser Ajax, or Ajax Oïleus. (i) Ajax the Great was son of Telamon, king of Salamis, and grandson of Æacus. He took a very prominent part in the Trojan war, and was placed second to Achilles alone in bravery. He was conquered by Ulysses in struggle for the armor of Achilles, and this, according to Homer, was the cause of his death. (ii) The Lesser Ajax, or Ajax, son of Oïleus, also took part in the Trojan war. He was, next to Achilles, the most swift-footed among the Greeks.
=Alcathous= (al-kath´o-us).--Son of Pelops and Hippodamia. Obtained his wife by slaying the Cithæronian lion, which had killed the king’s son, and succeeded his father-in-law as king of Megara, the walls of which he restored.
=Alcestis= or =Alceste= (al-ses´tē).--Wife of Admetus (q.v.).
=Alcmene= (alk-mē´nē).--Wife of Amphitryon. Jupiter, who appeared disguised as her husband, became by her the father of Hercules.
=Alcyone= (al´si-on-ē) or =Halcyone=.--Daughter of Æolus and wife of Ceyx. Her husband having perished in a shipwreck, Alcyone’s grief became so intense that she threw herself into the sea. Out of compassion the gods changed the two into birds, and while these birds (halcyons) were breeding the sea always remained calm.
=Alecto= (a-lek´tô).--One of the Furies (q.v.).
=Aloeus= (al-lō´-ūs).--Son of Neptune and Canace. His wife had, by Neptune, two sons, Otus and Ephialtes, the Aloidæ (a-lō´i-dē), who were of extraordinary size and strength. At the age of nine years they attempted to scale heaven by piling Mount Ossa upon Olympus and Pelion upon Ossa. To prevent them accomplishing this when they grew older Apollo destroyed them before their beards began to appear.
=Althæa= (al-the´a).--Wife of Æneus and mother of Meleager (q.v.).
=Amalthea= (am-al-thē´a).--Nurse of the infant Jupiter in Crete, whom she fed with goat’s milk. Jupiter broke off one of the horns of the goat and gave it the power of becoming filled with whatever the possessor might wish; hence it was called the cornucopia--i.e., horn of plenty.
=Amazones= (a-māz´on-ēz).--The Amazones, a mythical race of warlike women living near the river Thermodon. The female children had their right breasts cut off that they might use the bow with greater ease; hence their name Amazon, which means, “without breast.” One of the twelve labors of Hercules was to obtain the girdle of Hippolyte, the queen of the Amazons. They came, under their queen, Penthesilea, to the assistance of Priam in the Trojan war; but she was killed by Achilles.
=Amphion= (am-fi´ōn).--Son of Jupiter and Antiope, and twin-brother of Zethus. They were born on Mount Cithæron, and were brought up by a shepherd. Amphion received a lyre from Mercury, on which he learned to play with marvelous skill. Amphion married Niobe (q.v.).
=Amphitrite= (am-fi-trī´tē).--Wife of Neptune and goddess of the sea. She was the mother of Triton.
=Ancæus= (an-sē´us).--One of the Argonauts. Having left a cup of wine untasted to pursue a wild boar, he was killed by it, which gave rise to the proverb. “There’s many a slip twixt the cup and the lip.”
=Anchises= (an-kī´sēz).--Son of Capys and Themis, the daughter of Ilus, king of Dardanus, on Mount Ida. He was so handsome that he was beloved by Venus, who became by him the mother of Æneas. On the capture of Troy by the Greeks, he was carried off on his son’s shoulders from the burning city. He set forth with Æneas for Italy, but died and was buried in Sicily.
=Androgeos= (an-droj´e-ōs).--Son of Minos and Pasiphaë. Slain at the instigation of King Ægus, after having overcome all his opponents in the Panathenæa, at Athens. To avenge his death Minos made war on the Athenians, and compelled them to send every year to Crete seven youths and seven maidens to be devoured by the Minotaur (q.v.). Theseus, however, slew the monster, and so delivered them from the terrible tribute.
=Andromache= (an-drom´a-kē); literal meaning, “fighting with men.”--Daughter of King Eëtion and wife of Hector, by whom she had a son, Scamandrius, or Astyanax. On the taking of Troy she fell to the lot of Neoptolemus (Pyrrhus), the son of Achilles, who took her to Epirus, and treated her as his wife. She afterwards married Hector’s brother Helenus.
=Andromeda= (an-drom´e-da).--Daughter of Cepheus, king of Æthiopia, and Cassiopea. Her beauty was so great that her mother boasted that she surpassed in that respect the Nereids, the marine nymphs of the Mediterranean. Consequently, Neptune sent a sea-monster to lay waste the country. The oracle of Ammon promised deliverance, on condition that Andromeda was chained to a rock and left to the fury of the monster. This was done, but she was saved by Perseus (q.v.), who slew the monster and obtained Andromeda for his wife. Having been previously promised to her uncle Phineus, however, the latter appeared at the wedding, and a great fight ensued in which Phineus and all associated with him were slain. After her death Andromeda was placed among the stars.
=Antaeus= (an-tē´us).--A giant of Libya (i.e. Africa), son of Neptune and Earth, who remained invincible so long as he touched his mother Earth. Hercules, having discovered this, held him up in the air and squeezed him to death.
=Antenor= (ant-ē´nor).--One of the wisest of the elders of Troy. When Menelaus and Ulysses came to Troy as ambassadors he received them, and advised the Trojans to give up Helen to Menelaus, which, however, they refused to do. When the city was captured by the Greeks Antenor’s life was spared.
=Aphrodite= (af-ro-di´tē)--i.e. sea-foam.--The goddess of love and beauty, called Aphrodite by the Greeks, because she was supposed to have been born from the sea-foam. She was called Venus by the Romans. See “Venus.”
=Apollo= (a-poll´ō).--The sun-god. He was the son of Jupiter and Latona, and twin-brother of Diana. Apollo was the god of music and the fine arts, of prophecy, and the god who protects flocks and cattle. He is also represented as taking great interest in the foundation and government of cities, and was looked upon as the god who punishes; hence carrying a bow and arrows. He had a celebrated oracle at Delphi. The invention of the flute and lyre was ascribed to Apollo. He was challenged to musical contests by Marsyas and Pan (see “Marsyas” and “Midas”). Apollo, as sun-god, is frequently called Phœbus--i.e. the bright one. There are several statues of Apollo, the most beautiful being the Apollo Belvedere at Rome.
=Arachne= (ar-ak´nē).--A Lydian maiden who so greatly excelled in the art of weaving that she challenged Minerva to a trial of skill. Being defeated, she hanged herself, and was changed by the goddess into a spider. This fable indicates that man learned the art of weaving from the spider, and that it was first pursued in Lydia. Arachne is the Greek word for spider.
=Ares= (ā´rēz).--The Greek god of war. See “Mars.”
=Arethusa= (a-re-thū´sa).--One of the Nereids or marine nymphs of the Mediterranean. She was the nymph of the celebrated fountain of Arethusa in the island of Ortygia, near Syracuse. Arethusa was being pursued by the river-god Alpheus, when she was changed by Diana into the fountain of the same name.
=Argonautæ= (ar-go-naw´tē).--The Argonauts, or sailors of the Argo, were the heroes who went with Jason on the celebrated expedition to Colchis to recover the golden fleece. The origin of the expedition was as follows: Jason’s father had been deprived of his kingdom by his half-brother Pelias, who also, to make himself more secure, attempted to take the life of Jason, then an infant. The latter, was, however, saved, and given over to the care of the centaur Chiron. When he grew up Pelias promised to surrender the kingdom to him on what he considered to be an impossible condition--namely that he brought him the golden fleece. This golden fleece (for the history of which see “Phrixus”) was suspended to an oak in the grove of Mars, in Colchis, and was guarded day and night by a dragon. Jason at once undertook the enterprise, and instructed Argus, son of Phrixus, to build a ship with fifty oars, which he called the Argo, from the name of the builder. Minerva herself superintended the building of the ship. In the expedition Jason was accompanied by all the great heroes of the age--Hercules, Laertes, Theseus, Ajax, etc.--to the number of fifty. After an adventurous voyage they at length arrived at their destination. Æëtes (q.v.), king of Colchis, on learning the object of their visit, promised to give up the golden fleece if Jason would perform the following feats: first, tame two bulls, which had brazen feet and vomited fire, and yoke them to a plow; second, sow the unused teeth of the dragon slain by Cadmus (q.v.), from which armed men would spring, and slay them with his own hand; third kill the dragon who guarded the fleece. Medea, daughter of Æëtes, who was well skilled in magic, enabled Jason, with whom she had fallen in love, to do all these things; and, after taking the treasure, he and his Argonauts and Medea embarked by night and sailed away. After another eventful journey they finally reached Colchis again.
=Argus= (ar´gus).--A being with a hundred eyes; hence called “Panoptes” (pan-op´tēz).--i.e. the all-seeing. Juno appointed him to watch over the cow into which Io had been changed; but Mercury, at the command of Jupiter, lulled him to sleep by playing on his flute, and then cut off his head. Juno transplanted his eyes to the tail of the peacock, her favorite bird.
=Ariadne= (ar-i-ad´nē).--Daughter of Minos and Pasiphaë. When Theseus was sent as part of the yearly tribute of seven youths and seven maidens to be devoured in the labyrinth by the Minotaur, Ariadne fell in love with him, and gave him the clue of thread, by means of which he escaped from the labyrinth. Theseus promised to marry her, and they left Crete together; but he deserted her in Naxos, where she was found by Bacchus, who made her his wife. At their marriage he gave her a crown of seven stars, which after her death was made a constellation.
=Aricia= (a-ri´si-a).--A town of Latium, sixteen miles from Rome, near which was a celebrated grove and temple of Diana.
=Arion= (a-rī´on).--A celebrated lyric poet and cithara player of Methymna, in Lesbos, about B. C. 625. Once, when returning from a successful musical contest in Sicily, the sailors, in order to possess themselves of his presents, were about to murder him, but, on his urgent entreaty, allowed him to play once more on his cithara. He then invoked the gods, and threw himself into the sea. He was not drowned, however, for one of a number of dolphins that had been attracted round the vessel by his sweet strains took him on his back and bore him safely to land.
=Aristæus= (ar-is-tē´us).--Son of Apollo and Cyrene, who is said to have taught men the management of bees, and to have first planted olive trees. He was, after his death, worshiped as a god, and regarded as the protector of flocks and shepherds, of vine and olive plantations.
=Artemis= (ar´tem-is).--The Greek name of Diana (q. v.).
=Ascanius= (as-kā´ni-us).--Son of Æneas and Creusa, afterwards called Iulus. He founded Alba Longa, and was succeeded on the throne by his son Silvius.
=Asgard.=--In Scandinavian mythology Asgard represents the city of the gods, situated at the center of the universe, and accessible only by the bridge Bifrost i. e., the rainbow.
=Asir.=--In northern mythology the most powerful, though not the oldest, of the deities; usually reckoned as twelve gods and twelve goddesses. The gods are Odin, Thor, Baldur, Niörd, Frey, Tyr, Bragi, Heimdall, Vidar, Vali, Ullur, and Forseti; the best-known of the goddesses, Frigga, Freyja, Iduna, and Saga.
=Assaracus= (as-sar´a-cus).--King of Troy, son of Tros, father of Capys, the father of Anchises.
=Astarte= (as-tar´tē).--A powerful goddess of Syria, corresponding to the Roman Venus.
=Astræa= (as-trē´a).--Goddess of justice, daughter of Jupiter and Themis; lived during the golden age among men.
=Astræus= (as-trē´us).--A Titan, husband of Aurora (the goddess of the dawn), and father of the winds and the stars.
=Astyanax= (as-tī´an-ax)--i. e. lord of the city.--A name given by the people of Troy to Scamandrius (or Scamander), son of Hector and Andromache, because his father was the protector of Troy. His mother saved him from the flames at the fall of Troy, but the Greeks hurled him down from the walls.
=Atalanta= (at-a-lan´ta).--A maiden of great beauty and exceedingly swift of foot, who determined to live in celibacy. She was the daughter of Iasus and Clymene, and was exposed by her father in her infancy. She was, however, suckled by a she-bear, the symbol of Diana. She took part in the celebrated Calydonian boar hunt, and received the boar’s hide from Meleager, who slew the animal. She was subsequently recognized by her father, who desired her to marry. She agreed to do so on condition that every suitor should run a race with her, and that the first that outran her should be her husband, but all those whom she beat in the race should be put to death. In this way many suitors perished; but at last came Milanion (mī-lan´i-on), who, with the aid of Venus, reached the goal first, and was rewarded with her hand. The goddess gave him three golden apples, which he dropped during the race, one after the other. Attracted by their beauty, Atalanta stopped to pick them up, thus enabling Milanion to reach the goal first. “Atalanta’s race” has formed the subject of several magnificent pictures.
=Athamas= (ath´am-as).--King of Orchomenus, in Bœotia. He married Nephele, who bore him Helle and Phrixus. He fell in love, however, with Ino, daughter of Cadmus, whom he married, and became by her the father of Melicertes and Learchus. As he had married Nephele at the command of Juno, he thus incurred the wrath of both Juno and Nephele, and was seized with madness. In this state he slew his son Learchus. Ino and Melicertes then leaped into the sea and became changed into marine deities, Leucothea and Palæmon respectively.
=Athena= (a-thē´na).--The great divinity of the Greeks, corresponding to the Roman Minerva (q. v.).
=Athenæum= (a-thē-nē´um).--A school founded by the emperor Hadrian at Rome, about A. D. 133, for the advancement of literature and philosophy. The name Athenæum means a place sacred to Minerva, who was the goddess of wisdom.
=Atlas= (at´las).--A Titan, son of Japetus and Clymene, and brother of Prometheus and Epimetheus. It is related that Perseus, after his conquest of the Gorgons, asked Atlas to shelter him, which Atlas declined to do. Whereupon Perseus, by exposing Medusa’s head, changed him into the mountain Atlas (in the northwest of Africa), on which rested heaven and all the stars. Atlas married Pleione (plē´i-ō-nē), daughter of Oceanus, and became by her the father of the Pleiades (plē´i-a-dēz).
=Atreus= (ā´trūs).--Son of Pelops and Hippodamia, and brother of Thyestes. By his first wife, Cleola, he was the father of Plisthenes, and by his second--Aërope, widow of his son Plisthenes--the father of the heroes Agamemnon and Menelaus, and a daughter, Anaxibia. Atreus became king of Mycenæ. His brother, Thyestes, having seduced his wife Aërope, Atreus banished him. Thyestes then sent, from his place of exile, Atreus’s son Plisthenes to slay his own father, but the converse actually took place, Atreus unwittingly killing his son. Atreus took terrible revenge on Thyestes for this. He recalled him to Mycenæ, and in a banquet placed before him the flesh of Thyestes’ two sons, whom he had slain, and Thyestes unknowingly partook of the horrible repast. After the feast, Atreus produced the heads of Thyestes’ sons, and convinced him of what had been done. Thyestes fled with horror, and the gods cursed Atreus and his house. The country was now visited by famine, and Atreus, following the advice of the oracle, went in search of Thyestes. In the course of his wanderings he married, as his third wife, Thyestes’ daughter Pelopia, thinking she was the daughter of Thesprotus. Pelopia became, by her own father, the mother of Ægisthus, who afterwards slew his uncle, Atreus, because the latter had commanded him to kill his father, Thyestes. This tragic story forms the foundation of several Greek plays.
=Atropos= (at´rop-os).--One of the Fates or Parcæ (q.v.).
=Atys= (ā´tis).--A beautiful shepherd of Phrygia, beloved by Cybele (sib´el-ē). Having proved unfaithful, the goddess caused him to become mad, and he was changed into a fir tree.
=Augeas= (aw´je-as), or =Augias= (aw-jī´as).--A king of Elis, whose stable, containing three thousand head of cattle, uncleansed for thirty years, was cleaned out in one day by Hercules (q.v.).
=Aulis= (aw´lis).--A harbor in Bœotia, where the Greek fleet assembled before sailing for Troy.
=Aurora= (aw-ror´a).--The goddess of the dawn, called Eos (ē´ōz) by the Greeks; daughter of Hyperion and Thia, wife of Tithonus. She is represented as rising, at the close of every night, from the river Oceanus, in her rose-colored chariot drawn by swift horses, and opening with her rosy fingers the gates of the East. She bore Memnon to Tithonus.
=Auster= (aws´ter); the Greek Notus, the southwest wind. In the winter it brought fogs and rain; but in the summer it was a harmful dry and parching wind.
=Autolycus= (aw-tol´ik-us).--A very dexterous robber, who could transform himself into various shapes. He was the son of Mercury (the god of cunning and theft) and Chione (kī´on-ē), and the father of Anticlea, the mother of Ulysses, who was celebrated for his cunning.
=Avatar.=--The incarnation or descent of the deity Vishnu, of which nine are believed to be past, and the tenth is yet to come, when Vishnu will descend from heaven on a white-winged horse, and introduce on earth a golden age of virtue and peace.
=Avernus lacus= (a-ver´nus lā´kus).--Lake Avernus. A lake near Cumæ, enclosed by steep and wooded hills, whose deadly exhalations were said to kill the birds flying over it. Near it was the cave of the Sibyl, through which Æneas (see Æneid, Book VI.) descended to the lower world. Sometimes Avernus is used to mean the lower world itself. In the latter sense it is used in the well-known quotation, Facilis descensus Averno, “The descent to hell is easy.”
=Azazel.=--Ewald considers Azazel to have been a demon belonging to the pre-Mosaic religion. Another opinion identifies him with Satan, or the devil. Milton makes him Satan’s standard bearer.
=Azrael=.--Meaning in Hebrew “help of God.” In the Jewish and the Mohammedan mythology, the name of an angel who watches over the dying, and separates the soul from the body.
=B=
=Baal.=--A sun god, the center of whose worship was Phœnicia, whence it spread to neighboring countries.
=Bacchantes= (bak-an´tez), or =Bacchæ= (bak´ē).--Priestesses of Bacchus.
=Bacchus= (bak´us); called Dionysus (dī-on-ī´sus) by the Greeks. The god of wine; was the son of Jupiter and Semele, the daughter of Cadmus. Bacchus went on a traveling expedition through Syria and Asia, returning to Europe through Thrace, during which he taught men the cultivation of the vine and the elements of civilization. He married Ariadne (q.v.). Feasts in honor of Bacchus were called Bacchanalia, and were of a very noisy and riotous character. The vine, ivy and laurel were sacred to him, as were also the tiger, lynx, panther, ass, serpent and dolphin. Rams were usually sacrificed to his honor.
=Banshee.=--The domestic spirit of certain Irish or Scottish families, supposed to wail shortly before the death of one of the family. The banshee is allowed only to families of pure stock.
=Baldur= (bâl´dör,) or =Balder= (bâl´der).--In old Norse mythology, a son of Odin, and one of the principal gods. Baldur’s characteristics are those of a sun-god. He is the “whitest” of the gods, and so beautiful and bright that a light emanates from him. He is the wisest, most eloquent and mildest of the Ases, His dwelling is Breidablik. His wife is Nanna. He is finally slain, at the instigation of Loki, by a twig of mistletoe in the hands of the blind god Hodur. Baldur is specifically a Northern god; among the other Germanic races there is no existing record of him whatsoever.
=Bellerophon= (bel-ler´o-fon).--Son of Glaucus and grandson of Sisyphus. He incurred the hatred of Antea, wife of Proetus, king of Argos, who sent him to his father-in-law (Iobates) with a letter requesting the latter to put the young man to death. Iobates selected what seemed to be a sure method of compassing his death, by asking him to go and kill the Chimæra (kī-mē´ra) (q.v.). Bellerophon, however, obtained possession of the winged horse Pegasus (q.v.), which enabled him to rise in the air. He then slew the monster with his arrows. Iobates then sent him against the Solymi, a warlike race in Lycia, and afterwards against the Amazons; but in these expeditions also he was successful. Finally, he attempted to fly to heaven on Pegasus; but Jupiter sent a gad-fly to sting the horse, which threw its rider on to the earth.
=Bellona= (bel-lō´na).--The Roman goddess of war, sister of Mars.
=Belphegor.=--A god of evil, worshiped by the Moabites. An archfiend who had been an archangel.
=Belus.=--The name of the Chaldean sun-god.
=Berg Folk.=--Pagan spirits doomed to live on the Scandinavian hills till the day of redemption.
=Bertha.=--The white lady who guards good German children, but is the terror of the bad, who fear her iron nose and big feet. Corresponds to the Italian La Befana.
=Bheem.=--One of the five brotherhoods of Indian demigods, famous for strength.
=Bifrost.=--In Norse mythology, a bridge between earth and heaven, over which none but the gods could travel. It leads to the palace of the Fates.
=Bilskirnir.=--A wonderful palace built by Thor for the use of peasants after death.
=Bona Dea= (bon´a de´a), or =Fauna=, or =Fatua=.--A Roman goddess, sister, wife or daughter of Faunus. She was the goddess of chastity and prophecy, and revealed her oracles to females only. During her annual festival on the first of May, in the house of the consul or prætor, no male person was allowed to be present.
=Boreas= (bor´e-as).--The north wind; was the son of Astræus and Aurora, and brother of the other three winds, Notus, Zephyrus and Hesperus. He was worshiped at Athens, where a festival was celebrated in his honor.
=Bosphorus=, or =Bosporus=.--The Straits of Constantinople, so called from Io, who, in the form of a heifer, swam across it (Bosphorus = Ox-ford). See “Io.”
=Brahma.=--The supreme god of the Hindus, represented with four heads and four arms. He is regarded as the creator of the universe, and forms, with Vishnu the preserver, and Síva the destroyer, the divine triad.
=Briareus= (brī-ār´e-us).--A hundred-armed giant, also called Ægæon (q.v.). Pope thus expresses his admiration for Handel:--
“Strong in new arms the giant Handel stands, Like bold Briareus with a hundred hands.”
=Briseis= (brī-sē´is).--Daughter of Brises and beloved by Achilles. She was the occasion of a feud between Achilles and Agamemnon.
=Bucephalus= (bū-sef´a-lus)--i. e. bull-headed. The favorite charger of Alexander the Great, so named because he was branded with a bull’s head. No one but Alexander was able to mount this celebrated horse, which always knelt down to receive his master. He died in India after carrying Alexander through all his campaigns. Alexander built a city near the place where he died, and named it Bucephala in memory of him.
=Busiris= (bū-sī´ris).--A king of Egypt who cruelly sacrificed strangers to Jupiter. He attempted to sacrifice Hercules, but the latter slew him and all his ministers.
=Buto= (bū´tō).--An Egyptian goddess identified with Latona.
=C=
=Cacus= (kā´kus).--Son of Vulcan; a huge giant and notorious robber; lived in a cave on Mount Aventine. He stole the oxen of Hercules, which the latter had taken from Geryon, in Spain, whereupon Hercules slew him.
=Cadmus= (kad´mus).--Son of the Phœnician king Agenor, and brother of Europa. His father sent him to search for his sister, who had been carried off by Jupiter, and he was directed to follow a certain cow, and to build a city on the spot where the cow fell down with fatigue. In this way he became the founder of Thebes, in Bœotia. Near this place was a well guarded by a dragon, which Cadmus slew, and sowed the teeth of the monster. From these arose armed men, who killed each other, with the exception of five, who were the ancestors of the Thebans. All this he did on the direction of Minerva, and Jupiter gave him Harmonia for his wife. The marriage was celebrated in the citadel of Thebes, and all the Olympian gods were present at the ceremony. Cadmus gave Harmonia a famous robe of state (peplus) and a necklace (see “Harmonia”) which he had received from Vulcan. Their children were Autonoë, Ino, Semele, Agave, Polydorus and Illyrius. Cadmus introduced among the Greeks an alphabet of sixteen letters.
=Cæneus= (sē´nūs).--Originally a maiden, named Cænis, who was beloved by Neptune and changed by him into a boy, and at the same time made invulnerable. In the lower worlds she recovered her female form.
=Calchas= (kal´kas).--The most eminent of the Greek soothsayers at the siege of Troy. He died of grief on meeting Mopsus, who was a wiser soothsayer, and predicted things which Calchas could not.
=Calliope= (kal-lī´op-ē).--The Muse of epic poetry. See “Musæ.”
=Callirrhoe= (kal-lir´ro-ē).--Second wife of Alcmæon. She induced her husband to get the peplus and necklace of Harmonia, whereupon he was slain. See “Alcmæon.”
=Callisto= (kal-lis´tō).--An Arcadian nymph beloved by Jupiter, by whom she became the mother of Arcas. Jupiter changed her into a she-bear, and afterwards placed her among the stars as Ursa major.
=Calpe= (kal´pē).--One of the Pillars of Hercules; now Gibraltar.
=Calydon= (kal´i-dōn).--A very ancient town in Ætolia. In the mountains around it the celebrated Calydonian Boar Hunt took place. The story is as follows: During the reign of Œneus, king of Calydon, Diana sent a huge boar to devastate the country, because the king had neglected her divinity. All the heroes of the age joined together for the purpose of killing this boar. Meleager, son of Œneus, slew the boar, and gave its hide to Atalanta, with whom he was in love. See “Atalanta.”
=Calypso= (kal-ip´sō).--A nymph who ruled in the island of Ogygia, on which Ulysses was shipwrecked on his journey home from Troy. She desired Ulysses to marry her, and detained him on the island for seven years.
=Camenæ= (kam-ē´nē).--Originally prophetic nymphs belonging to the religion of ancient Italy, afterwards identified with the Muses.
=Campus Martius= (kam´pus mar´shi-us)--i. e. the plain of Mars; so named because it was consecrated to the god Mars. An open plain outside the walls of Rome, where the Roman youths performed their gymnastic and warlike exercises, and where the Roman people met for the purpose of electing magistrates.
=Capitolium= (kap-it-ō´li-um).--The temple of Jupiter and the citadel of Rome.
=Cassandra= (kas-san´dra).--Daughter of Priam, king of Troy, and Hecuba. She possessed great beauty, and was beloved by Apollo, who bestowed on her the gift of prophecy. She disappointed him, however, whereupon the god ordained that no one should believe her predictions. On the fall of Troy she fell to the share of Agamemnon, who took her to Mycenæ, where she was murdered by Clytæmnestra.
=Castor= and =Pollux= (kas´tor, pol´luks).--Twin brothers, often called the Dioscuri (di-os´ku-rī), i. e. sons of Zeus (Jupiter), because they were the sons of Jupiter and Leda, the wife of Tyndareus, king of Sparta. Castor was famous for his skill in managing horses, and Pollux for his ability as a boxer. Castor was supposed to be mortal, while Pollux was immortal. They took part in the celebrated expedition of the Argonauts, and assisted the Romans against the Latins in the great battle of Lake Regillus. They were greatly attached to each other, and were placed by Jupiter among the stars as Gemini (jem´in-ī), i. e. twins, where they served as a guide to mariners. They were worshiped more especially as the protectors of sailors.
=Cauther.=--In Mohammedan mythology the lake of paradise, whose waters are as sweet as honey, as cold as snow, and as clear as crystal; and any believer who tastes thereof is said to thirst no more.
=Cecrops= (sē´krops).--The most ancient king of Attica, founder of Athens. He decided in favor of Athena (Minerva) when she and Neptune contended for the possession of Attica. The citadel of Athens was called Cecropia after him.
=Celeus= (sel´e-us).--King of Eleusis, husband of Metanira, and father of Triptolemus and Demophon. He entertained the goddess Ceres, who in return taught his son Triptolemus (q.v.) agriculture.
=Centauri= (sen-taw´rī), or =Centaurs=--i.e. the bull-killers--were a fabulous race living in Thessaly, half men and half horses. They were defeated in a famous fight with the Lapithæ (q.v.), and expelled from their country. Chiron (kī´ron) was the most celebrated of them (q.v.).
=Cephalus= (sef´al-us).--Was beloved by Aurora, whose advances he rejected from love of his wife Procris. Aurora asked him to try the fidelity of Procris. Having metamorphosed him into a stranger, he appeared, laden with rich presents, before her. The presents caused her to yield, whereupon her husband discovered himself. She fled in shame to Crete, but afterwards returned, disguised as a youth, with a dog and spear (the gifts of Diana) that never missed their object. To obtain these, Cephalus promised to love the youth, who then made herself known to him as his wife Procris. In this way a reconciliation was effected. Afterwards Cephalus, while out hunting, accidentally killed her with the never-erring spear.
=Cepheus= (sē´fūs).--King of Ethiopia and father of Andromeda.
=Cerberus= (ser´ber-us).--The three-headed dog that guarded the entrance to the lower world.
=Ceres= (sē´rēz).--The goddess of agriculture, especially of the cultivation of corn; called Demeter (dē-mē-tēr) by the Greeks. She was the daughter of Saturn and Rhea, and sister of Jupiter and Pluto. She became by Jupiter the mother of Proserpine. The latter was carried off by Pluto. When Ceres found this out, she did not allow the earth to bring forth any fruits, and Jupiter was compelled to send Mercury into the lower world to fetch back Proserpine. Pluto consented, but gave Proserpine part of a pomegranate to eat. In consequence of this she was obliged to spend one-third of the year with Pluto. The earth then brought forth fruit again. This legend evidently refers to the concealment of seed-corn in the earth and its subsequent reappearance above the surface. The Romans sacrificed pigs to Ceres. The decrees of the senate were deposited in her temple.
=Ceyx= (sē´ix).--Son of Lucifer and husband of Alcyone.
=Charites= (char´it-ēz)--Gr., the =Graces=--were the goddesses who confer all grace. They were the daughters of Jupiter and were three in number, their names being Aglaia (ag-lā´i-a), i. e. the bright one; Euphrosyne (ū-fros´i-nē), i. e. the cheerful or mirthful one; and Thalia (thal-ī´a), i. e. the blooming one. They were the personifications of grace and beauty, and enhanced by refinement and gentleness the enjoyments of life. They were the friends of the Muses and specially favored poetry.
=Charon= (kär´on).--Son of Erebus; was the ferryman of Hades who conveyed the souls of the departed across the rivers Acheron and Styx, receiving in return the obolus placed in the mouth of every corpse before burial.
=Charybdis= (ka-rib´dis).--A dangerous whirlpool between Italy and Sicily, opposite Scylla (q.v.).
=Chibiabos.=--A musician, ruler in the land of spirits, and friend of Hiawatha. Personification of harmony in nature.
=Chimæra= (ki-mē´ra)--i. e. a she-goat.--A fabulous, fire-breathing monster with a lion’s head, a serpent’s tail, and a goat’s body. She was killed by Bellerophon, mounted on Pegasus. The myth relates to a volcano in Lycia.
=Chione= (ki´on-ē).--Daughter of Dædalion. She was shot by Diana because she compared her beauty with that of the goddess.
=Chiron= (kī´ron).--A centaur famous for his knowledge of medicine, plants, music and divination. Son of Saturn and Philyra, the tutor of Æsculapius, Achilles and Hercules. Being accidentally wounded by one of the poisoned arrows of Hercules, he gave up his immortality and was changed into the constellation Sagittarius.
=Chloris= (klor´is).--The Greek goddess of flowers, identical with Flora.
=Chou.=--An Egyptian god corresponding to the Roman Hercules.
=Circe= (sir´sē).--Daughter of Helios (the sun) and Perse, famous for her magic arts. She lived on the Island of Ææa, on which Ulysses was cast on his voyage home from Troy. Circe met his companions, whom he had sent to explore the country, and offered them a magic cup, on tasting which they all became, with the single exception of Eurylochus, changed into swine. Ulysses, on hearing of it, obtained from Mercury the root moly, which fortified him against enchantment, and compelled Circe to restore his companions to their former shape. He then remained with her for a year, and she bore him a son, Telegonus.
=Clio= (klē´o).--The Muse of history. See “Musæ.”
=Clotho= (klō´tho).--The spinner of the thread of life; one of the Fates. See “Parcæ.”
=Clusium= (klū´si-um).--One of the oldest and most important of the twelve Etruscan cities, the residence of Porsena, in the neighborhood of which was the famous sepulchre of this king in the form of a labyrinth.
=Clytæmnestra= (klī-tem-nes´tra).--Daughter of Tyndarus and Leda, and sister of Helen, Castor and Pollux; wife of Agamemnon, and mother of Orestes, Electra and Iphigenia. While her husband was absent at Troy she lived with Ægisthus, and on his return the guilty pair murdered him. In revenge for this deed, her own son Orestes put her to death.
=Cnidus= (knī´dus), or =Gnidus=.--A city on the southwestern coast of Caria, in Asia Minor, highly celebrated for the statue of Venus, by Praxiteles, the famous sculptor, which stood in her temple there.
=Cocytus= (ko-sī´tus)--i.e. the river of wailing. A river in the lower world.
=Colchis= (kol´chis).--A country in Asia, lying on the eastern part of the Black Sea, celebrated on account of the Golden Fleece (see “Argonautæ”).
=Comus= (kō´mus).--The god of mirth and joy, represented as a winged youth.
=Concordia= (kon-kor´di-a).--The Roman goddess of concord. Camillus, in B. C. 367, erected a temple in her honor to celebrate the reconciliation between the patricians and plebians.
=Corybantes= (kor-i-ban´tes).--Priests of Cybele (sib´el-ē), or Rhea, in Phrygia, who worshiped her with riotous dances to the sound of cymbals.
=Creusa= (kre-ū´sa).--Daughter of Priam and Hecuba, wife of Æneas, and mother of Ascanius. She perished at the capture of Troy.
=Cronos= (kron´os).--The Greek divinity corresponding to the Roman Saturnus (q.v.).
=Cumæ= (kū´mē).--A very ancient town on the coast of Campania, said to have been founded B. C. 1050. It was celebrated as the residence of the earliest Sibyl. Tarquinius Superbus died here.
=Cupido= (kū-pī´dō), or =Cupid= (kū´pid); called Eros (er´ōz) by the Greeks. The god of love, son of Venus, his father being either Jupiter, Mars or Mercury. He is represented as a boy with golden wings, armed with a bow and a golden quiver full of arrows. He is so mischievous that he shoots his arrows at gods and men alike. Sometimes his eyes are covered, so that he acts blindly. He is the usual companion of his mother.
=Cybele= (sib´e-lē); called Rhea (rē´a) by the Greeks. A goddess, originally Phrygian, regarded as goddess of the earth. She was daughter of Uranus (ū´ran-us) and Ge (jē), and the wife of Saturn, and the mother of Jupiter, Juno, Pluto, Neptune, Ceres and Vesta. As Saturn devoured all her children, Cybele, just before the birth of Jupiter, went to Crete. When Jupiter was born, she gave Saturn a stone wrapped up like an infant, which the god, supposing it to be the child, swallowed. Cybele is usually figured seated on a throne and having a crown of towers on her head. She is frequently referred to as the “tower-crowned Cybele.” The lion was sacred to her.
=Cyclopes= (sī-klō´pēz), or =Cyclops= (sī´klops)--i. e. beings with one circular eye in the middle of their foreheads. These were a fabulous race of giants living in Sicily. They were shepherds, but devoured human beings. They were also Vulcan’s workmen, volcanoes, especially Mount Ætna in Sicily, being regarded as their workshops, in which they made the armor for gods and heroes. The chief among them was Polyphemus (q.v.).
=Cyllene= (sil-lē´nē).--The highest mountain in Peloponnesus, on which Mercury was born.
=Cynthus= (sin´thus).--A mountain of Delos, celebrated as the birthplace of Apollo and Diana, who are hence called, respectively, Cynthius and Cynthia (sin´thi-a).
=Cyprus= (sī´prus).--A large island in the Mediterranean, renowned in ancient, no less than in modern, times for its fertility. It was one of the chief seats of the worship of Venus.
=Cythera= (si-thē´ra).--An island in the Ægean Sea, celebrated for the worship of Venus.
=D=
=Dædalus= (dē´da-lus).--A mythical personage skillful as a sculptor and architect. He made the wooden cow for Pasiphaë, and when Pasiphaë gave birth to the monster, the Minotaur, Dædalus constructed the labyrinth in which it was kept. For doing this Minos, king of Crete, imprisoned him; but he escaped, and as Minos had seized all the ships on the coast of the island, Dædalus made wings for himself and his son Icarus, and they flew away. Dædalus flew safely over the Ægean, alighting at Cumæ, in Italy; but Icarus was slower in his flight, and the rising sun melted the wax by which the wings were fastened to his body, and he fell into the sea and was drowned; hence that part of the sea was called Icarian.
=Danae= (dan´a-ē).--Daughter of Acrisius, king of Argos. Her father confined her in a brazen tower, as an oracle declared that she would have a son that would kill his grandfather. Here, however, Jupiter visited her in a golden shower, and she became the mother of Perseus. Acrisius then shut up mother and child in a chest, which he threw into the sea; but Jupiter caused the chest to come ashore at the island of Seriphos, when Dictys, a fisherman, found them and took them to the king of the country. See “Perseus.”
=Danai= (dan´a-ī).--The Greeks. See “Danaus.”
=Danaides= (dan-ā´i-dēz).--The fifty daughters of King Danaus (q.v.).
=Danaus= (dan´a-us).--Son of Belus and twin-brother of Ægyptus (see “Ægyptus”). Lynceus, son of Belus, whose life was spared by Hypermnestra, avenged the death of his brothers by killing his father-in-law, Danaus. The fifty daughters of Danaus--called the Danaides--were punished in the lower world by being compelled everlastingly to pour water into a sieve. From Danaus, who was king of Argos (which was the most ancient city of Greece), the Greeks collectively were called Danai.
=Daphne= (daf´nē).--Daughter of the river-god Peneus. Her great beauty attracted the god Apollo, who pursued her; but just as she was being overtaken her prayer for aid was answered by her being changed into a laurel tree, the Greek word for which is Daphne. This tree consequently became the favorite tree of Apollo and was sacred to him.
=Dardanus= (dar´dan-us).--Son of Jupiter and Electra, the mythical ancestor of the Trojans.
=Deianira= (dē-ya-nī´ra).--Daughter of Œneus and wife of Hercules. She was beloved by the river god Achelous and by Hercules; but Hercules overcame his opponent in a fight for her, and obtained her as his wife. She accidentally killed her husband by giving him a poisoned garment to wear, and on seeing what she had done hanged herself (see “Hercules”).
=Deidamia= (dē-id-a-mī´a).--Daughter of Lycomedes, at whose court Achilles was concealed in maiden’s attire. She became, by Achilles, the mother of Pyrrhus or Neoptolemus.
=Deiphobus= (dē-if´ob-us).--Son of Priam and Hecuba. After the death of Paris he married Helen. He was killed in a barbarous manner by Menelaus, Helen’s first husband.
=Delos= (dē´los).--The smallest of the Cyclades (islands), the birthplace of Apollo and Diana, and the most holy seat of the worship of the former.
=Delphi= (del´fī).--A small town in Phocis, very celebrated on account of its oracle of Apollo. Homer always refers to it under its old name, Pytho. It was looked upon as the central point of the whole earth, and was hence called “the navel of the earth.” The oracle was consulted in the center of the splendid temple of Apollo. Here there was a small opening in the ground, from which a mephitic vapor occasionally arose. A tripod was placed over this opening, and the priestess--called Pythia, from Pytho--sat on it. In this way she inhaled the vapor, and the words she then uttered were believed to be inspired by Apollo. The priests took the words down and communicated them to the persons who had desired to consult the oracle.
=Demeter= (dē-mē-tēr). See “Ceres.”
=Deucalion= (dū-kā´li-on).--Son of Prometheus, king of Phthia, in Thessaly, and husband of Pyrrha. He and his wife were the only human survivors of a great deluge which Jupiter sent to destroy mankind. They were preserved during the nine days’ flood in a ship which Deucalion built on the advice of his father. The ship finally rested on Mount Parnassus, in Phocis. On the direction of Themis, Deucalion and his wife threw “the bones of their mother,” i. e. the stones of the earth, behind them, those thrown by Deucalion becoming men, and those thrown by Pyrrha becoming women. In this way the earth was repeopled.
=Diana= (dī-ā´na).--Twin-sister of Apollo, the virgin goddess of the moon and of hunting, called by the Greeks Artemis (ar´te-mis). She was the daughter of Jupiter and Latona, and was born on the island of Delos. She is represented as armed with a bow, quiver and arrows, and was also regarded as identical with the moon (in Greek, Selene), her brother Apollo being looked upon as the sun (or Helois).
=Dido= (dī´dō).--Daughter of the Tyrian king Belus, and reputed founder of Carthage. Æneas, on his journey from Troy, landed at Carthage, and was handsomely entertained by Dido. She fell in love with the hero, and, on his leaving her to proceed to Italy, she, in despair, destroyed herself on a funeral pile. Dido is also called Elissa.
=Diomedes= (di-o-mē´dēz).--A famous hero at the siege of Troy. He was the son of Tydeus and Deïpyle, and is hence frequently called Tydides (ti-dī´dēz). Next to Achilles, he was the bravest hero in the Greek army. The gods themselves were supposed to be taking part in this memorable siege, some being ranged on one side and some on the other. Diomedes was under the special protection of Minerva. He not only engaged in conflict with the Trojan heroes, Hector and Æneas, but even wounded both Venus and Mars, who had espoused the cause of the Trojans. Diomedes and Ulysses carried off the palladium from the city of Troy, the safety of which was contingent on its possession (see “Troy”). At the end of the Trojan war he returned to Argos, where he found his wife (Ægialea) living in adultery with Hippolytus--a punishment visited upon him by the angry Venus. He consequently left Argos, and went to Ætolia. He afterwards settled at Daunia, in Italy, where he married Evippe, the daughter of Daunus, and died at an advanced age.
=Dione= (di-ō´nē).--A female Titan who became, by Jupiter, the mother of Venus.
=Dirce= (dir´sē).--Wife of Lycus, king of Thebes, who married her after divorcing his former wife, Antiope (an´ti-o-pē). On account of the cruelty with which she treated Antiope, Amphion and Zethus--Antiope’s sons by Jupiter--took terrible vengeance on Dirce. They tied her to a wild bull, which dragged her about till she perished, and then threw her body into a fountain near Thebes, which was from that time called the Fountain of Dirce.
=Dis= (dīs).--A contraction of Dives, i. e. rich; the god of the infernal regions. See “Pluto.”
=Discordia= (dis-kor´di-a); in Greek, Eris (er´is).--The goddess of strife or discord. She was the sister of Mars, and, with him, delighted in the noise and tumult of war. It was she who threw the celebrated golden apple into the assembly of gods, for a full account of the results of which see “Paris.”
=Donar.=--A name given, sometimes, to Thor, the thunder-god, in Norse mythology.
=Doris= (dōr´is).--Daughter of Oceanus and Thetis. She married her brother Nereus (q.v.), and became the mother of the fifty Nereides.
=Draupnir.=--The marvelous ring belonging to Odin, with which he worked magic. It was burned on the funeral pyre of his son Balder.
=Droma.=--The chain forged for the purpose of binding the Fenris wolf, but which he broke. Hence the proverb, “to dash out of Droma.”
=Dryades= (dry´a-dez), or =Dryads=.--Wood-nymphs. See “Nymphæ.”
=E=
=Echidna= (e-kīd´na).--A monster, half woman and half serpent. She was the mother of the Chimæra, Cerberus, the Lernean Hydra, and other monsters. She was killed in her sleep by Argus with the hundred eyes.
=Echo= (ek´ō).--A nymph who, because she kept Juno in incessant conversation while Jupiter was sporting with the nymphs, was punished by being changed into an echo. In this state she fell in love with Narcissus--a beautiful youth, who was incapable of the tender passion--and, as her love was not returned, she pined away till nothing remained but her voice.
=Elbegast.=--One of the dwarfs of Scandinavian mythology who dwelt in a magnificent palace underground, and drew their servants from the bosom of the earth.
=Elberich.=--In the German hero-legends a dwarf who aided the Lombard emperor Otnit to win the daughter of the soldan of Syria. He is identical with the Oberon of French and English fairy mythology.
=Egil.=--The Vulcan of northern mythology, one of the three brothers who married the swan-maidens. He was a great archer, killed his brother, Volünd, by command of the king, and himself later became a peasant.
=Electra= (e-lek´tra).--Daughter of Agamemnon and Clytæmnestra. She saved the life of her brother Orestes, and afterwards the two avenged the death of Agamemnon by slaying their mother, Clytæmnestra. See “Orestes.”
=Eira.=--An attendant of the goddess Fuigga, and a skillful nurse. She gathered herbs and plants for the cure of both sickness and wounds and taught the science to women.
=Eleusis= (el-ū´sis).--A very ancient city of Attica, famous for its mysteries of Ceres, to whom was erected a magnificent temple.
=Elis= (ē´lis).--A country on the west coast of the Peloponnesus. In it was Olympia, where every four years a splendid festival was held in honor of Jupiter.
=Elysium= (e-lizh´i-um).--The Elysian fields. That part of the lower world which forms the abode of the blessed.
=Enceladus= (en-sel´ad-us).--One of the hundred-armed giants who made war upon the gods. He was slain by Jupiter, and buried under Mount Ætna.
=Endymion= (en-dim´i-on).--A youth of surpassing beauty who so moved the cold heart of the virgin goddess of the moon (Diana or Selene), that she kept him in a perpetual sleep on Mount Latmus, in Caria, that she might kiss him without his knowledge.
=Eos= (ē´ōz).--See “Aurora.”
=Ephesus= (ef´e-sus).--The chief of the twelve Ionian cities in Asia Minor, with a celebrated temple of Diana. The latter was regarded as one of the wonders of the world. It was always a very flourishing city, and was visited by St. Paul and St. John.
=Elf.=--The water sprite, known also as Elb, from which the name of the river Elbe is said to be derived. Elves are more properly known as mountain fairies, or those airy creatures that dance on the grass or sit in the leaves of trees and delight in the full moon.
=Elivagar.=--In Norse mythology the name of a great stream in Chaos, flowing from a fountain in the land of mist. This stream was much frequented by the elves at their creation.
=Erato= (er’a-tō).--The Muse of amatory poetry. See “Musæ.”
=Erebus= (er´e-bus).--The god of darkness, son of Chaos and brother of Nox (night). The name signifies darkness, and is frequently used to designate the lower world.
=Erechtheus= (e-rek´thūs).--An ancient and mythical king of Athens. See “Athenæ.”
=Eridanus= (ē-rid´an-us).--The Greek name of the river Padus (Po), into which Phaethon fell when struck by the lightning of Jupiter. See “Phaethon.”
=Erinyes= (er-in´i-es).--The Furiæ (q.v.).
=Erl-king.=--Name given to the king of the elves, or a spirit of the air. According to tradition, its home is in the Black Forest of Germany, and it appears as a goblin, working harm and ruin, especially among children.
=Eryx= (er´ix).--A high mountain in the northwest of Sicily, on the summit of which stood an ancient and celebrated temple of Venus.
=Eumenides= (ū-men´i-dēz).--See “Furiæ.”
=Euphrosyne.=--See “Charites.”
=Europa= (ū-rō´pa).--The beautiful daughter of the Phœnician king Agenor. Jupiter was so charmed with her that he obtained possession of her by the following stratagem: He assumed the form of a bull among the herds of Agenor, and Europa and her maidens were delighted with the tameness of the noble animal, so much so that at length Europa ventured to mount his back, whereupon the god plunged into the sea and carried her over to Crete. Here Jupiter assumed his proper shape, and Europa bore him Minos, Rhadamanthus and Sarpedon.
=Eurydice= (ū-rid´i-sē).--Wife of Orpheus (q.v.).
=Eurystheus= (ū-ris´thūs).--Son of Sthenelus and grandson of Perseus, a king of Mycenæ. Jealous of the fame of Hercules, and wishing to destroy him, Eurystheus, at the command of Juno, imposed upon Hercules his famous twelve labors.
=Euterpe= (ū-ter´pē).--One of the Muses (q.v.).
=F=
=Fada.=--A fée or kobold of the south of France, sometimes called “Hada.” These house-spirits, of which, strictly speaking, there are but three, bring good luck in their right hand and ill luck in their left.
=Fafnir.=--In northern mythology the eldest son of the dwarf king Hreidmar. The slaying of Fafnir is the destruction of the demon of cold or darkness who had stolen the golden light of the sun.
=Fates.=--See “Parcæ.”
=Faunus= (faw´nus).--Son of Picus, grandson of Saturn, institutor of tillage and grazing, and after his death the protecting deity of agriculture and of shepherds, and also a giver of oracles. He is identical with the Greek god Pan, and is represented with horns and goat’s feet.
=Faustulus= (faws´tu-lus).--A shepherd who brought up Romulus and Remus.
=Flora= (flō´ra).--The Roman goddess of flowers and spring.
=Fortuna= (for-tū´na); called Tyche (tik´ē) by the Greeks. The goddess of fortune. She is variously represented: with the horn of plenty, indicative of the plentiful gifts of fortune; with a rudder, to signify that she guides the affairs of men; with a ball, emblematic of the shifting and changing character of the fickle goddess.
=Freki= and =Geri=.--The two wolves of Odin. When Odin, seated on his throne, overlooks heaven and earth, his two wolves lie at his feet.
=Frey.=--Scandinavian god of the sun and of rain, and hence of fertility and peace. He was one of the most popular of the northern divinities. No weapons were ever allowed in Frey’s temple, although oxen and horses were sacrificed to him. His name was connected with the taking of any solemn oath, a heavy gold ring being dipped in the blood of the sacrifice and the oath sworn upon the ring. One of the most celebrated of the temples built to Frey was at Therva, in Iceland.
=Freyja.=--She was the sister of Frey, and the wife of Odur, who abandoned her on her loss of youth and beauty, and was changed into a statue by Odin, as a punishment. She is known as the northern goddess of beauty and love; plants were called Freyja’s hair, and the butterfly, Freyja’s hen.
=Frigga.=--In Scandinavian mythology the wife of Odin, the queen of the gods, and the mother of Baldur, Thor, etc. She sometimes typifies the earth, as Odin does the heavens. The Anglo-Saxons worshiped her as Frea. The name survives in Friday.
=Frodi.=--The son of Frey, a god of peace. Under his direction two giantesses turned a pair of magic millstones which ground out gold according to his wish and filled his coffers. Excited by greed he forced them to labor, allowing rest only long enough for the singing of one verse. When Frodi himself slept, the giantesses changed their song and proceeded to grind out an army of troops to invade the land. These troops represent the vikings.
=Furiæ= (fū´ri-ē).--The Furies; called Eumenides (ū-men´-i-dēz), i. e. the gracious or well-meaning ones, by the Greeks; three goddesses of vengeance, whom the Greeks so much dreaded that they dared not to call them by their real names, hence referred to them by the euphemism Eumenides. The Romans also called them Diræ (dī´rē). Their names were Alecto (a-lek´tō), Megæra (me-gē´ra) and Tisiphone (tī-sif´-onē). They were the daughters of Earth or of Night, and were terrible winged maidens with serpents twined in their hair and with blood dripping from their eyes. They were stern and inexorable, punishing the guilty both in this world and after death. They dwelt in Tartarus--i. e. Hades. The sacrifices offered to them were black sheep and a drink of honey mixed with water, the latter, called a libation (lī-bā´shun), being poured forth out of a cup in their honor.
=G=
=Galatea= (gal-a-tē´a).--A sea nymph. See “Acis.”
=Ganesa.=--Goddess of wisdom, in Hindu mythology.
=Gangler.=--The gate-keeper in Odin’s palace who gave the explanation of the northern mythology that it might be recorded.
=Ganymedes= (gan-i-mē´dēz), or =Ganymede= (gan´i-mēd).--Son of Tros and Callirrhoe, a beautiful youth who was carried off by Jupiter’s eagle from Mount Ida to heaven, that he might be cup-bearer to the gods in place of Hebe. Jupiter compensated his father by presenting him with a pair of divine horses.
=Garm.=--A fierce dog that kept guard at the entrance of Hel’s kingdom, the realm of the dead. He could be appeased by the offering of a Hel-cake which always appeared in the hand of one who, on earth, had given bread to the needy.
=Genius= (jē´ni-us).--The protecting spirit or genius of a person, place, etc.; called by the Greeks Dæmon. They were represented as the guardians of men and of justice, and the Greek philosophers held that every human being at his birth had a dæmon assigned to him, which accompanied him throughout life. Every place, also, had its genius, which appeared in the form of a serpent eating fruit placed before him. In works of art genii are commonly represented as winged beings.
=Gerda.=--Wife of Frey, and daughter of the frost giant Gymir. She is so beautiful that the brightness of her naked arms illuminates both air and sea.
=Giallar Bridge.=--The bridge of death, over which all must pass.
=Giallar Horn, The.=--Heimdall’s horn, which went out into all worlds whenever he chose to blow it. According to northern mythology, he blew a long-expected blast as a rallying call to the battle which ended the reign of the gods Odin, Frey, and Tyr.
=Gian ben Gian.=--In Arabia, king of the Ginns or Genii, and founder of the Pyramids. He was overthrown by Azazel or Lucifer.
=Gigantes= (ji-gan´tēz).--A fabulous race of huge beings, with terrible countenances and the tails of dragons. They endeavored to storm the heavens, being armed with huge rocks and trunks of trees; but the gods, with the assistance of Hercules, destroyed them all, and buried them under Ætna and other volcanoes. This story probably had its origin in volcanic convulsions.
=Glaucus= (glaw´kus).--(i) A fisherman who became a sea-god by eating a part of the divine herb sown by Saturn, (ii) Son of Sisyphus. Was torn to pieces by his own mares, because he had despised the power of Venus. (iii) The commander of the Lycians in the Trojan war. He was slain by Ajax.
=Golden Fleece.=--See “Argonautæ.”
=Gill.=--The infernal river of Scandinavian mythology.
=Ginungagap.=--In Norse mythology the vast chaotic gulf of perpetual twilight which existed before the present world, and separated the region of fog from the region of heat. Giants were the first beings who came to life among the icebergs that filled this vast abyss.
=Gorgons= (gor’gonz).--Three frightful female monsters who turned all they looked upon into stone. Their names were Medusa (me-dū´-sa), Euryale (ū-rī´al-e) and Stheno (sthē´no), and they were daughters of Phorcys and Ceto. Their heads were covered with serpents in place of hair, and they had wings, frightful teeth and brazen claws. Of the three, Medusa alone was mortal. She was killed by Perseus (q.v.).
=Gladsheim.=--The palace of Odin, in which were the great hall Valhalla (the hall of the slain) and the twelve seats occupied by the gods when holding council.
=Glasir.=--A marvelous grove in Asgard, in which the leaves were all of shimmering red gold.
=Glendoveer.=--In Hindu mythology is a kind of sylph, the most lovely of the good spirits.
=Gnome.=--One of a class of spirits or imaginary beings which were supposed to tenant the interior parts of the earth, and in whose charge mines, quarries, etc., were left. Rübezahl, of the German legends, is often cited as a representative of the class.
=Goblins and Bogies=.--Familiar demons of popular superstition, a spirit which lurks about houses. It is also called hobgoblin. Goblin is used in a serious sense by Shakespeare in Hamlet, where the ghost is supposed to be a “spirit of health or goblin damned.”
=Graces, The Three.=--See “Charites.”
=Gradivus= (grad-i´vus).--i. e. the marching one. A surname of Mars.
=Grææ= (grē´ē), lit., “the old women” (Gr.).--So called because they had gray hair from their birth. They were the sisters of the Gorgons, and were three in number. They had but one eye and one tooth to use between them.
=Gyas= (jī´as), =Gyes= (jī´ēz), or =Gyges= (jī´jēz).--One of the giants with a hundred hands who made war upon the gods.
=H=
=Hades= (hā´dez).--See “Pluto.”
=Hæmon= (hē´mon).--Son of Creon, king of Thebes. He loved Antigone, and killed himself on hearing that she was condemned by Creon to be shut up in a subterranean cave.
=Harmonia= (har-mō´ni-a).--Daughter of Mars and Venus, and wife of Cadmus. On the wedding-day Cadmus received a necklace, which afterwards became famous, inasmuch as it became fatal to all who possessed it.
=Harpocrates= (har-pok´ra-tēz).--The god of mystery and silence, and, on that account, represented as having been born with his finger in his mouth. He was the son of Osiris. His statue stood at the entrance of most of the Egyptian temples.
=Harpyiæ= (har´pi-ē).--The Harpies--i. e. the Robbers or Spoilers, hideous rapacious monsters, half bird and half woman. They were three in number. Homer described them as carrying off people who had disappeared.
=Hebe= (hē-bē).--The goddess of youth, daughter of Jupiter and Juno. She was the cup-bearer to the gods, in which office she was afterwards supplanted by Ganymede. She became the wife of Hercules after he was deified.
=Hecate= (hek´a-tē).--Daughter of Perses and Asteria, the presider over enchantments, etc. She was looked upon as a kind of threefold goddess--viz., Luna (the moon) in heaven, Diana on earth, and Proserpine in the lower world--and is accordingly represented with three bodies or three heads. Dogs, honey and black female lambs were sacrificed to her.
=Hector= (hek´tor).--Eldest son of Priam, king of Troy, and Hecuba, and husband of Andromache. He was the chief hero of the Trojans in their war with the Greeks. He was slain in single combat by Achilles, who chased him thrice round the walls of the city, and, after having slain him, tied his body to his chariot and dragged it thrice round the walls. The character of Hector as a warrior, husband, father and son is very finely drawn by Homer in the Iliad.
=Hecuba= (hek´u-ba).--Wife of Priam, king of Troy. After the fall of Troy she was carried away as a slave by the Greeks and suffered great misfortunes.
=Heimdall.=--In northern tales a god who lived in the celestial fort Himinsbjorg, under the farther extremity of the bridge Bifrost, and kept the keys of heaven. He is the watchman or sentinel of Asgard, sees even in sleep, can hear the grass grow, and even the wool on a lamb’s back. Heimdall, at the end of the world, will wake the gods with his trumpet.
=Helena= (hel´en-a), or =Helene= (hel´en-ē); commonly called Helen of Troy. Daughter of Jupiter and Leda, and sister of Castor and Pollux. She was the greatest beauty of her age, and her hand was sought by the noblest chiefs of Greece. She chose Menelaus (men-e-lā´us), and became by him the mother of Hermione. She eloped with Paris (q.v.) to Troy, and hence arose the Trojan war, as all the Greek chiefs, who had been former suitors of Helen, resolved to avenge her abduction, and sailed with Menelaus against Troy. After the death of Paris she married his brother Deiphobus (de-if´ob-us). On the capture of Troy, after a ten years’ siege, she became reconciled to Menelaus, and returned with him to Sparta, where they lived for a number of years in peace and happiness.
=Helenus= (hel´e-nus).--A celebrated soothsayer, son of Priam, king of Troy, and Hecuba. He deserted his countrymen and joined the Greeks--some say voluntarily, others that he was taken prisoner by the Greeks.
=Heliades= (hē´li-a-dēz).--Daughters of the Sun (Helios). They lamented the death of their brother Phaethon so bitterly that the gods, in compassion, metamorphosed them into poplar trees and their tears into amber.
=Helicon= (hel´i-kon).--A mountain in Bœotia, sacred to Apollo and the Muses. The famous fountains of the Muses, Aganippe and Hippocrene, sprang here.
=Helios= (hē´li-os).--The god of the sun. See “Phœbus” and “Apollo.”
=Helle= (hel´lē).--Sister of Phrixus (q.v.). When she and her brother were riding through the air upon the ram with the golden fleece she fell into the sea, which was thence called the Hellespont--i. e. the sea of Helle; now called the Dardanelles.
=Hephæstus= (hē-fēs´tus).--The god of fire. See “Vulcan.”
=Hera.=--See “Juno.”
=Hercules= (her´kū-lēz); called Heracles (hē´ra-klēz) by the Greeks.--The most celebrated hero of antiquity, noted especially for his Twelve Labors. He was the son of Jupiter and Alcmene. He showed his prowess at a very early age, for when the jealous Juno sent two serpents to destroy him as he lay in his cradle, the infant hero strangled them with his own hands. His first great adventure happened while he was tending the oxen of his supposititious father, Amphitryon, the husband of Alcmene. A huge lion devastated the flocks of Amphitryon and Thespius, king of Thespiæ. Hercules slew the lion, and thenceforth wore the skin as a garment, although some state that the lion’s skin of Hercules was taken from the Nemean lion which Hercules killed as one of his labors. Next he defeated and killed King Erginus, to whom the Thebans paid tribute. Creon, king of Thebes, gave him his daughter Megara in marriage, and she bore him several children. Soon afterwards Juno drove him mad, and in this state he killed his children. His grief was so great that he went into voluntary exile and was purified by Thespius. He then consulted the celebrated oracle at Delphi as to where he should settle, and was ordered to live at Tiryns and to serve Eurystheus (ū-ris´thūs) for twelve years, after which he should become immortal. It was at the bidding of Eurystheus that he performed the following Twelve Labors. Hercules usually carried a huge club which he had cut for himself in the neighborhood of Nemea.
(i) The fight with the Nemean lion. Eurystheus ordered Hercules to bring him the skin of this monster. Finding his club and arrows useless, he strangled the animal with his own hands.
(ii) The fight against the Lernean Hydra. This monster, which had nine heads, of which the middle one was immortal, dwelt in a swamp, and ravaged the country of Lerna, near Argos. When Hercules struck its heads with his club, for each head he struck off two more appeared. With the assistance of his servant he then burned off its heads, and buried the immortal one under a huge rock. Having done this, he poisoned his arrows with the bile of the monster, thus rendering the wounds inflicted by them incurable.
(iii) Capture of the Arcadian stag. This animal had golden antlers and brazen feet, and Hercules was ordered to bring it alive to Eurystheus. After pursuing it in vain for a whole year, he at length wounded it with an arrow, caught it, and bore it away on his shoulders.
(iv) Capture of the Erymanthian boar. Hercules chased this animal through the deep snow, and at last caught it in a net and delivered it alive to Eurystheus.
(v) Cleansing of the stables of Augeas. Augeas, king of Elis, had a herd of three thousand oxen, whose stalls had not been cleansed for thirty years, and Hercules was ordered to cleanse them in one day. He did it by turning the rivers Alpheus and Peneus through the stalls.
(vi) Destruction of the Stymphalian birds. These birds had brazen claws, wings and beaks, used their feathers as arrows, and ate human flesh. They dwelt on a lake near Stymphalus, in Arcadia. Minerva provided Hercules with a brazen rattle, by the noise of which he roused the birds and then killed them with his arrows.
(vii) Capture of the Cretan bull. This was a mad bull that made great havoc in the island of Crete. Hercules caught it, and brought it home on his shoulders.
(viii) Capture of the mares of Diomedes. These mares were fed with human flesh. Hercules, with a few friends, seized them and led them to Eurystheus.
(ix) Seizure of the girdle of the queen of the Amazons. The daughter of Eurystheus having expressed a desire to obtain the girdle of Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons, Hercules was sent to fetch it. After an eventful journey he at length reached the country of the Amazons, and was kindly received by Hippolyte. Juno, however, excited the Amazons against him, and in the contest that ensued Hercules killed Hippolyte and carried off her girdle.
(x) Capture of the oxen of Geryon. Geryon was a monster with three bodies. His cattle were guarded by a giant and a two-headed dog. On his journey he erected two pillars (Calpe and Abyla) on the two sides of the Straits of Gibraltar, which were hence called the Pillars of Hercules. He slew the giant, the dog and Geryon himself, and reached home safely with the oxen.
(xi) Bringing the golden apples of the Hesperides (Hes-per´id-ēz). These apples, which were given by Ge (the earth) to Juno at her wedding, were kept by the Hesperides and a dragon on Mount Atlas. Hercules obtained the apples, and afterwards dedicated them to Minerva, who restored them to their former place.
(xii) Bringing Cerberus from the lower world. This was not only the last, but the most difficult of the Twelve Labors of Hercules. Pluto, the god of the lower world, having given Hercules permission to carry off Cerberus provided he did not use force of arms, he succeeded in seizing the monster and carrying it to the upper world, taking it back again after having shown it to Eurystheus.
Having concluded his Twelve Labors, Hercules was released from the servitude of Eurystheus and returned to Thebes. Later, he became a servant to Omphale (om´fal-ē), queen of Lydia and widow of Tmolus, and lived with her in an effeminate manner, he wearing woman’s attire, while Omphale put on his lion’s skin. He afterwards married Deianira (q.v.), who accompanied him into exile after he had accidentally killed the boy Eunomus. Having to cross a river, Hercules went on first, leaving his wife to be carried over by the centaur Nessus. The latter attempted to do violence to her, but her screams were heard by Hercules, who shot an arrow into the heart of Nessus. Deianira preserved some of the blood of the centaur, as he told her it would enable her to keep the love of her husband. Unfortunately, however, the blood was poisoned with the arrow with which Hercules had shot Nessus, so that when Hercules put on a garment which had been steeped in the blood he speedily suffered most terrible torture, and in endeavoring to wrench the garment off, tore whole pieces of flesh from his body. Deianira, on seeing what she had unwittingly done, hanged herself. Hercules was carried off by the gods to Olympus and married Hebe.
=Hermes= (her´mēz).--See “Mercury.”
=Hermione= (her´mi-o-nē).--The beautiful daughter of Menelaus and Helen. She was married, first to Neoptolemus and secondly to Orestes.
=Hero= (he´rō).--A priestess of Venus in Sestos, beloved by Leander (q.v.).
=Hesione= (hē´si-o-nē).--Daughter of Laomedon, king of Troy, who was exposed by her father to the fury of a sea-monster in order to appease the anger of Apollo and Neptune. Hercules rescued her and gave her to Telamon, to whom she bore Teucer.
=Hesperides= (hes-per´id-ēz).--The guardians of the golden apples given by Ge (the Earth) to Juno at her marriage with Jupiter. They were three in number, and were the daughters of Atlas and Hesperis. See “Hercules.”
=Hestia.=--See “Vesta.”
=Hippocrene= (hip-po-krē´nē)--i. e. the Fountain of the Horse. A fountain near Mount Helicon, sacred to the Muses, and which is fabled to have been produced by a stroke of the hoof of the winged horse Pegasus.
=Hippodamia= (hip-po-da-mī´a).--Wife of Pirithous, at whose nuptials took place the celebrated fight between the Centaurs and Lapithæ.
=Hippolyte= (hip-pol´it-ē).--Daughter of Mars and queen of the Amazons. She was slain by Hercules (q.v.).
=Hippolytus= (hip-pol´it-us).--Son of Theseus and Hippolyte. In consequence of a false accusation brought against him by his stepmother Phædra, he was thrown out of his chariot and dragged along the ground till he was dead. He was restored to life by Æsculapius.
=Hippomenes= (hip-pō´men-ēz).--Son of Megarus, who conquered Atalanta (q.v.) in a race.
=Hobomoko.=--An evil spirit known among American Indians.
=Hōdeken.=--A famous German kobold, or domestic fairy servant; so called from wearing a little felt hat pulled down over his face.
=Hoder.=--In Norse mythology a blind god who destroyed his brother Baldur, at the instigation of Loki, without meaning to do so. He is the type of night and darkness, as Baldur is of light and day.
=Hofvarpnir.=--The fleet steed of Ina, in Scandinavian legend, which traveled through fire and air and enabled this messenger of the gods to see all that was happening on the earth.
=Honir.=--In Asgard tales, name given to the god of mind or thought.
=Horæ= (ho´rē); the Hours.--Daughters of Jupiter and Themis. They presided over the changes of the seasons, and kept watch at the gates of Olympus.
=Horn of Plenty.=--See “Amalthea.”
=Horus.=--The Egyptian god of the sun, son of Osiris and Isis, who was also worshiped in Greece and at Rome.
=Hugin.=--One of Odin’s two ravens, which carried him news from earth, and when not thus employed, perched upon his shoulders. The personification of thought or intellect.
=Hugon.=--A kind of evil spirit in the popular superstition of France--a sort of ogre made use of to frighten children.
=Hyacinthus= (hi-a-sin´thus).--A beautiful Spartan youth, beloved by Apollo, but accidentally killed by a blow of his quoit. From his blood sprang the flower of the same name.
=Hyades= (hī´a-dēz)--i. e. the Rainers. The name of seven nymphs forming a group in the head of Taurus. They were so called because when they rise simultaneously with the sun rainy weather is announced.
=Hygeia= (hi-jē´i-a).--The goddess of health, daughter of Æsculapius. She is often represented as a maiden in a long robe, and feeding a serpent from a cup.
=Hylas= (hi´las).--A beautiful youth who accompanied Hercules in the Argonautic expedition. On landing for water on the coast of Mysia, he was carried off by the Naiads.
=Hymen= (hi´men).--The god of marriage; represented as a handsome youth carrying in his hand a bridal torch.
=Hymettus= (hi-met´tus).--A mountain near Athens, famed for its honey and its marble.
=Hyperborei= (hī-per-bor´e-ī)--lit. “beyond the north wind.” A fabulous people living in the extreme north in a land of perpetual sunshine, in a state of perfect happiness.
=Hyperion= (hī-per-ī´ōn)--lit. “he who goes above.” (i) A name applied to the sun. (ii) A Titan, father of the sun.
=Hypsipyle= (hip-sip´i-lē).--Daughter of Thoas, king of Lemnos, in the time of the Argonauts.
=I=
=Iacchus= (i-ak’us).--A name of Bacchus.
=Iapetus= (i-ap’et-us), or Japetus.--One of the Titans; father of Atlas, Prometheus and Epimetheus.
=Icarus= (ī-kar’us).--See “Dædalus.”
=Ichthyophagi= (ik-thi-of´a-jī)--i. e. fish-eaters.--A name given by the ancients to various peoples on the coasts of Asia and Africa.
=Ida= (ī´da).--(i) A mountain range near Troy, celebrated as the scene of the judgment of Paris (q.v.). From the summit of Ida the gods watched the battles in the plain of Troy. (ii) A high mountain in Crete, on which Jupiter was brought up.
=Idomeneus= (ī-dom´en-ūs).--King of Crete, and leader of the Cretans against Troy. He rashly vowed to Neptune that, if the god granted him a safe return, he would sacrifice to him whatever he should first meet on landing. He was met by his son, whom he accordingly sacrificed. A plague came in consequence, and the Cretans expelled Idomeneus.
=Iduna=, or =Idun=.--Daughter of the dwarf Svald, and wife of Bragi. She kept in a box the golden apples which the gods tasted as often as they wished to renew their youth. Loki on one occasion stole the box, but the gods compelled him to restore it. Iduna seems to personify that part of the year when the sun is north of the equator. Her apples indicate fruits generally. Loki carries her off to Giant-land when the sun descends below the equator, and he steals her apples. In time, Iduna makes her escape, in the form of a sparrow, when the sun again rises above the equator; and both gods and men rejoice in her return.
=Ifing.=--In Scandinavian mythology the great stream between the earth and the sacred lands, whose waters never froze.
=Ilioneus= (ī´li-o-nūs).--The youngest son of Niobe.
=Ilium= (ī´li-um).--A poetical name for Troy, derived from Ilus, the son of Tros, its founder. See “Troja.”
=Indra.=--In Hindu mythology the ever-youthful god of the firmament, and the omnipotent ruler of the elements. He is a most important personage in Indian fable. In the Vedic period of the Hindu religion, he occupied a foremost rank, and, though degraded to an inferior position in the Epic, he long enjoyed a great legendary popularity. In works of art he is represented as riding on an elephant.
=Ino= (ī´nō).--Daughter of Cadmus and Hermione, wife of Athamas, king of Thebes.
=Io= (ī´ō).--Daughter of a king of Argos; beloved by Jupiter, and through fear of Juno changed into a cow (see “Argus”). Juno now tormented her with a gadfly, and drove her from land to land, swimming the Bosphorus (i. e. ox-ford), until she found rest at length in Egypt, where she regained her original form. She was afterwards worshiped as an Egyptian divinity under the name of Isis.
=Iolaus= (ī-o-lā´us).--The faithful companion and charioteer of Hercules.
=Iphigenia= (if-i-jen-ī´a).--Daughter of Agamemnon and Clytæmnestra, who was to have been offered up by way of expiation for an offense committed by her father against Diana in killing a hart in her sacred grove; but the goddess put a hart in her place and conveyed her to Tauris, when she became the priestess of the goddess. Here she afterwards saved her brother Orestes (q.v.).
=Iris= (ī´ris).--The swift-footed messenger of the gods, the personification of the rainbow. She was the sister of the Harpies.
=Isis= (ī´sis).--One of the chief Egyptian goddesses. See “Io.”
=Isocrates= (ī-sok´ra-tēz).--A celebrated orator and teacher of rhetoric at Athens. He acquired a large fortune by his profession. He put an end to his life B. C. 338, aged ninety-eight.
=Israfil.=--Known among Arabians as the angel of music, who possessed the most melodious voice of all God’s creatures. This is the angel who is to sound the resurrection trump, and make music for the saints in paradise. Israfil, Gabriel and Michael were the three angels that warned Abraham of Sodom’s destruction.
=Ithaca= (ith´ak-a).--An island in the Ionian Sea, celebrated as the birthplace and the kingdom of Ulysses.
=Iulus= (i-ūl´us).--Son of Ascanius and grandson of Æneas.
=Ixion= (iks-ī´on).--King of the Lapithæ, in Thessaly, and father of Pirithous. Jupiter purified him of a treacherous murder, yet he was sufficiently ungrateful to attempt to win the love of Juno. Jupiter then hurled him into Tartarus, where he was bound fast to a perpetually revolving wheel.
=J=
=Jamshid.=--King of the genii, famous for a golden cup full of the elixir of life. This cup, hidden by the genii, was discovered while digging the foundations of Persepolis.
=Janus= (jā´nus).--An old Latin deity, the sun-god. He presided over the beginning of everything; he opened the year, and hence the first month of the year was called after him. He was the porter of heaven. His temple in the Forum had two doors opposite each other, which in time of war were open and in time of peace were shut. The latter happened only thrice in Roman history. He is represented with a face at the back, as well as one at the front, of his head.
=Japetus.=--See “Iapetus.”
=Jason= (jā´son).--The famous leader of the Argonauts; was the son of Æson, king of Thessaly, who reigned at Iolcus. The principal part of his history is given under “Argonautæ.” During his absence, while on the Argonautic expedition, his uncle Pelias had slain his father. In order to avenge this deed Medea, the wife of Jason, persuaded the daughters of Pelias to cut their father to pieces and boil him, in the belief that he would thus be restored to youth and vigor. Medea, who was well versed in magic arts, had previously changed a ram into a lamb by similar treatment. In this way, then, Pelias perished miserably, and his son Acastus expelled Jason and Medea from Iolcus. They then went to Corinth, where they lived happily for several years, until Jason deserted her in favor of Creusa, the daughter of Creon, king of Corinth. Medea took fearful vengeance. She sent Creusa a poisoned garment, which burned her to death when she put it on; the palace also took fire, and her father, Creon, perished in the flames. Medea then killed her children, and fled to Athens in a chariot drawn by winged dragons.
=Jinn.=--A sort of fairies in Arabian mythology, the offspring of fire. They are governed by a race of kings named Suleyman, one of whom “built the pyramids.” Their chief abode is the mountain Kâf, and they appear to men under the forms of serpents, dogs, cats, monsters, or even human beings, and become invisible at pleasure. The evil jinn are ugly, but the good are beautiful. According to fable, they were created from fire two thousand years before Adam was made of earth.
=Jord.=--Daughter of Night and mother of Thor. In Scandinavian mythology the name given to primitive earth.
=Juggernaut=, or =Jaggernaut=.--A Hindu god. The temple of this god is in a town of the same name in Orissa.
=Juno= (jū´no); called Hera (hē´ra) by the Greeks.--The sister and wife of Jupiter, and queen of heaven; daughter of Saturn and Rhea. She was the guardian deity of women, and presided over marriage. She specially watched over the birth of children, and was then invoked under the name of Lucina (lū-sī´na). Homer described her as being of a jealous, obstinate and quarrelsome disposition. In consequence of the judgment of Paris (q.v.), she was hostile to the Trojans, and accordingly sided with the Greeks in the Trojan war. The peacock was sacred to Juno. Juno was also regarded as the guardian of the finances, and had a temple on the Capitoline hill, which contained the mint. Mars, Vulcan and Hebe were her children.
=Jupiter= (jū´pit-er); called Zeus (zūs) by the Greeks.--King of heaven, and greatest of the Olympian gods; was a son of Saturn and Rhea. He dwelt on Mount Olympus, in Thessaly. He was the father and supreme ruler of gods and men. His first wife was Metis (q.v.). By Juno, his second wife, he had two sons, Mars and Vulcan, and one daughter, Hebe. The eagle, the oak, and doves were sacred to Jupiter. He was armed with thunderbolts, and surrounded with thick clouds, the former being provided for him by the Cyclops who worked under the direction of Vulcan. Jupiter was regarded as the special protector of Rome, and had a temple on the Capitol. He was looked upon as the guardian of law and the protector of justice and virtue. He was also the ruler of the lower air, hence rain and storms were supposed to come from him. In this connection the Romans applied the surname Pluvius (i. e. the rain-bringer) to him, and special sacrifices were offered to him during long-protracted droughts.
=Juventas= (jū-ven´tas).--The Roman name for Hebe (q.v.), the goddess of youth.
=K=
=Kama.=--The Hindu god of love. His wife is Rati (voluptuousness), and he is represented as riding on a sparrow, holding in his hand a bow of flowers and five arrows, each tipped with the bloom of a flower supposed to conquer one of the senses. His power is so much exalted that even the god Brahma is said to succumb to it.
=Kami.=--The gods of ancient Japan. The name, in modern times, designates any spiritual saint, and may also be applied to a prince.
=Kaswa.=--The camel admitted into Moslem paradise, the favorite camel of Mohammed which fell on its knees in adoration when “the prophet” delivered the last clause of the Koran to the assembled multitude at Mecca.
=Kederli.=--In Mohammedan mythology is a god corresponding to the English St. George, and is still invoked by the Turks when they go to war.
=Kelpie.=--In mythology of Scotland a spirit of the water seen in the form of a horse. Each lake has its kelpie.
=Kobold.=--A house-spirit in German superstition. In northern lands the name is sometimes used in place of elf or dwarf, representing an underground spirit. Probably the same as the Scotch brownie.
=Koppelberg.=--The hill which miraculously opened to receive the children who followed the Pied Piper. This belongs to mythology, as people in the middle ages considered Odin as the leader of disembodied spirits, and from this came the Pied Piper. The rats were the restless souls of the dead, which the Pied Piper released by drowning.
=Krishna.=--In Hindu mythology the eighth incarnation of Vishnu. According to some authorities, he is considered distinct from all the Avatars, as these had only a portion of the divinity, and Krishna was Vishnu himself in the form of “the Black One.”
=L=
=Ladon= (lā´don).--The dragon that guarded the apples of the Hesperides. It was slain by Hercules.
=Laertes= (lā-er´tēz).--King of the island of Ithaca and father of Ulysses. He took part in the Calydonian boar hunt, and in the Argonautic expedition. He lived to see the return of his son to Ithaca, after the fall of Troy.
=Laius= (lā´i-us).--King of Thebes and father of Œdipus.
=Laocoon= (lā-ok´o-on).--A Trojan, priest of Apollo, who strenuously opposed the admission of the wooden horse into Troy (q.v.). As he was preparing to sacrifice a bull to Neptune, two fearful serpents swam out of the sea and strangled both him and his two sons.
=Laodamia= (lā-od-a-mī´a).--Daughter of Acastus and wife of Protesilaus.
Laodice (la-od´i-sē).--(i) Daughter of Priam and Hecuba. (ii) The name given by Homer to Electra, daughter of Agamemnon and Clytæmnestra.
=Laomedon= (lā-om´e-don).--King of Troy, father of Priam.
=Lapithæ= (lap´i-thē).--A mythical people inhabiting the mountains of Thessaly. They were ruled by Pirithous, who, as Ixion’s son, was half-brother of the Centaurs. When Pirithous married Hippodamia, and invited the Centaurs to the marriage feast, the latter, fired by wine, attempted to carry off the bride and the other women. Hence arose the celebrated fight between the Centaurs and the Lapithæ, in which the former were defeated. The Lapithæ are said to have invented bits and bridles for horses.
=Lares= (lār´ēz).--Household divinities--the divinities presiding over the hearth, and the whole house. In great houses the images of the Lares were placed in a separate compartment. At meal times some portion was offered to the Lares, and on festive occasions they were adorned with wreaths.
=Latinus= (la-tī´nus).--King of Latium, who gave Æneas his daughter Lavinia in marriage.
=Latmus= (lat´mus).--A mountain in Caria, on which Endymion (q.v.) lay in perpetual sleep.
=Latona= (la-tō´na); called Leto (lē´tō) by the Greeks. The mother of Apollo and Diana, by Jupiter. She was persecuted by Juno, and wandered from place to place till she came to Delos, which was then a floating island, but which Jupiter fastened by adamantine chains to the bottom of the sea. Here Apollo and Diana were born.
=Lavinia= (la-vin´i-a).--Daughter of Latinus and wife of Æneas.
=Leander= (lē-an´der).--A young man of Abydos (a-bī´dos), who swam across the Hellespont every night to visit Hero, the priestess of Venus, in Sestus. One night, however, during a storm, he perished; and when his corpse was washed on the coast, on the following morning, Hero threw herself into the sea.
=Leda= (lē´da).--Wife of Tyndarus, king of Sparta. Jupiter visited her in the form of a swan, and she became the mother of Castor and Pollux, the celebrated Helen of Troy, and Clyæmnestra.
=Lemnos= (lem´nos).--One of the largest islands in the Ægean Sea; the abode of Vulcan, who was said to have fallen here when he was hurled down from Olympus. It is now called Stalimene.
=Lemures.=--The specters or spirits of the dead. They were said to wander about at night, as specters, and to torment and frighten the living. In order to propitiate them the Romans celebrated the festival of the Lemuralia or Lemuria.
=Lerna= (ler´na).--A forest and marsh near Argos, through which flowed a stream of the same name. Here Hercules killed the famous Lernean hydra. See “Hercules.”
=Lesbos= (les´bos).--A celebrated island in the Ægean Sea, off the coast of Mysia. Its principal city was Mytilene. It was the birthplace of Sappho, Arion, Alcæus and Theophrastus.
=Lethe= (lē´thē)--lit. “forgetfulness” (Gr.).--A river in the lower world, the water of which was drunk by the shades, who thus obtained forgetfulness of the past.
=Leto.=--See “Latona.”
=Liber= (lī´ber).--An old Italian deity who presided over planting and fructification. Subsequently the name was applied to Bacchus.
=Libera= (lī´ber-a).--Another name for Proserpine, daughter of Ceres, and sister of Liber.
=Libitina= (lib-i-tī´na).--The goddess of the dead, in whose temple at Rome everything pertaining to burials was sold or hired out.
=Lidskialf.=--The throne of Alfadir, whence he can view the whole universe.
=Lif.=--In Norse mythology the name given to a man who is to occupy the purified earth when goodness resumes its sway.
=Lilinau.=--In American Indian folk-lore Lilinau was wooed by a phantom. She followed his green waving plume through the forest, and was never seen again.
=Lilith.=--In Hebrew mythology a female specter who lies in wait for children in order to destroy them. The older traditions tell of Lilith as a former wife of Adam and the mother of demons. Amulets were worn as protection from her powers.
=Lobaircin.=--In Irish mythical tales a fairy shoemaker resembling an old man, who resorts to out-of-way places where he is discovered by the noise of his hammer. He is rich, and, while anyone keeps his eye fixed upon him, cannot escape, but the moment the eye is withdrawn he vanishes.
=Lofu.=--The Scandinavian god who guards friendship.
=Lofua.=--The Scandinavian goddess who reconciles lovers.
=Loki.=--The great god of fire in Norse mythology.
=Lorelei.=--In German legend a siren who haunted a rock of the same name on the right bank of the Rhine. She combed her hair with a golden comb, and sang a wild song which enticed fishermen and sailors to destruction on the rocks and rapids at the foot of the precipice. In northern mythology Lorelei is represented as immortal, a daughter of the Rhine, and dwelling in the river bed.
=Lotis= (lō´tis).--A nymph who, to escape from Priapus, son of Bacchus, was changed into the lotus tree.
=Lotophagi= (lō-tof´a-jī)--i. e. lotus-eaters.--A people visited by Ulysses during his voyage homewards from Troy. The lotus was a fruit the taste of which was so delicious that all who ate it lost all desire to return to their native land.
=Lua= (lu´a).--A goddess to whom were devoted the arms taken in battle.
=Lucifer= (Lat.), or =Phosphorus= (Gr.)--i. e. the light-bringer. The planet Venus when it appears as the morning-star.
=Lucina= (lū-sī´na).--The goddess that presides over the birth of children. It was used as a surname for Juno.
=Lud.=--In ancient British mythology the king of the Britons.
=Luna= (lū´na).--Goddess of the moon, called by the Greeks Selene (sel-ē´nē), and identified with Diana.
=Lupercus= (lu-per´kus).--A deity who protected the flocks from wolves.
=Lycæus= (li-sē´us).--A lofty mountain in Arcadia, where Jupiter and Pan were worshiped.
=Lycaon= (li-kā´ōn).--King of Arcadia, who impiously placed a dish of human flesh before Jupiter when the god visited him. He and all his sons were metamorphosed into wolves.
=Lyceum= (li-sē´um).--A gymnasium at Athens, outside of the city; celebrated as the place where Aristotle and the Peripatetics taught. It derived its name from the temple of Apollo Lyceus (li-sē´us) in the neighborhood.
=Lycomedes= (li-ko-mē´dēz).--King of Scyros, to whose court Achilles was sent, disguised as a maiden, by his mother Thetis, in order to prevent him going to the Trojan war.
=Lycurgus= (li-sur´gus).--Son of Dryas, and king of the Edones in Thrace. He prohibited the worship of Bacchus, and was hence driven mad by the gods, and subsequently killed.
=Lynceus= (lin´sūs).--One of the Argonauts, famous for the keenness of his sight.
=Lyncus= (lin´sus).--A Scythian king, who was changed by Ceres into a lynx.
=M=
=Machaon= (ma-kā´on).--Son of Æsculapius, a famous surgeon of the Greeks before Troy.
=Maia= (mā´i-a)--Daughter of Atlas and Pleione, and the eldest and most beautiful of the several Pleiades. She became, by Jupiter, the mother of Mercury.
=Manes= (mā´nēz)--lit. “the good, benevolent.”--The name given by the Romans to the souls of the dead, who were worshiped as gods.
=Mani.=--Name given in ancient Norse mythology to the moon. Later known as the son of Mundilfori; taken to heaven by the gods to drive the moon-car. He is followed by a wolf, which, when time shall be no more, will devour both Mani and his sister Sol.
=Manitou.=--The great spirit of American Indians.
=Marica= (ma-rī´ka).--A Latin nymph, the mother of Latinus.
=Mars= (märz); called by the Greeks Ares (ā´rē).--The god of war, of husbandry, of shepherds, and seers, who, as father of Romulus, was the progenitor of the Roman people. He was the son of Jupiter and Juno. He loved, and was beloved by Venus. The wolf and the woodpecker were sacred to Mars.
=Marsyas= (mar’si-as).--A satyr who, having found the flute which Minerva had thrown away because it distorted her features whilst playing it, rashly challenged Apollo to a musical contest. Apollo played upon the cithara and Marsyas upon the flute, and the Muses were the umpires. They decided in favor of Apollo, who then bound Marsyas to a tree and flayed him alive in accordance with the conditions of the contest--namely, that the victor should do what he pleased with the vanquished.
=Medea= (mē-dē´a).--Daughter of Æëtes, king of Colchis; celebrated for her skill in magic. She assisted Jason in obtaining the Golden Fleece (see “Argonautæ”), and accompanied him to Greece. She effectually stopped her father’s pursuit by killing her brother Absyrtus (q.v.), and strewing his body cut in pieces on the seashore. See “Jason.”
=Medusa= (me-dū´sa).--See “Gorgons.”
=Megæra= (me-gē´ra).--See “Furiæ.”
=Megin-giord.=--A magic belt worn by the god Thor. He once proposed to show his strength by lifting great weights, but when challenged to pick up the giant’s cat, he tugged and strained, only to succeed in raising one paw from the floor, although he had taken the precaution to enhance his strength as much as possible by tightening his belt Megin-giord.
=Meleager= (mel-e-ā´ger).--Son of Œneus, king of Calydon; was one of the Argonauts, and also the leader of the heroes who took part in the celebrated Calydonian boar hunt. See “Calydon.”
=Melicerta= (mel-i-ser’ta), or =Melicertes=.--Son of Ino and Athamas. When Athamas was seized with madness he pursued Ino and Melicertes, who in order to escape had to throw themselves into the sea, whereupon both were changed into marine deities. Ino becoming Leucothea, and Melicertes a sea-god, called by the Greeks Palaemon, and by the Romans Portunus.
=Melos= (mē´los).--An island in the Ægean Sea, and the most southwesterly of the Cyclades. It is now called Milo, and here was found the celebrated statue known as the “Venus of Milo.” See “Venus.”
=Melpomene= (mel-pom’en-ā).--The muse of tragedy. See “Musæ.”
=Memnon= (mem’nōn).--The handsome son of Tithonus and Aurora; was king of the Ethiopians. He went to the aid of Priam, king of Troy, towards the end of the Trojan war, but was slain by Achilles. His colossal marble statue at Thebes (which, however, in reality represented the Egyptian king Amenophis) when struck by the first rays of the rising sun was said to emit a sound resembling that of a plucked string.
=Menelaus= (men-e-lā´us).--Son of Atreus, the husband of the beautiful Helen and father of Hermione; king of Lacedæmon (or Sparta), younger brother of Agamemnon. Paris (q.v.), having been promised the most beautiful woman in the world for his wife, sailed to Greece under the protection of Venus, and was hospitably received in the palace of Menelaus at Sparta. Here he succeeded in carrying off Helen, and thus arose the Trojan war, the object of which was to recover Helen. In the Trojan war Menelaus met Paris in single combat, and would have killed him had he not been carried off in a cloud by Venus. After the death of Paris, Helen married his brother Deiphobus, who was barbarously put to death by Menelaus at the taking of Troy. Helen secretly introduced Menelaus into the chamber of Deiphobus, and thus became reconciled to him. Menelaus and Helen then sailed away from Troy, and after eight years’ wandering about the shores of the Mediterranean finally reached Sparta, where they passed the rest of their lives in peace and wealth.
=Mentor= (men’tor).--The faithful friend of Ulysses.
=Mephistopheles.=--One of the seven chief devils in the old demonology, the second of the fallen archangels, and the most powerful of the infernal legionaries after Satan. He figures in the old legend of Dr. Faustus as the familiar spirit of that magician. To modern readers he is chiefly known as the cold, scoffing, relentless fiend of Goethe’s Faust, and the attendant demon in Marlowe’s Faustus.
=Mercurius= (mer-kū´ri-us), or =Mercury= (mer´kū-ri), called Hermes (her´mēz) by the Greeks.--Son of Jupiter and Maia; the messenger of the gods, and the god of commerce and gain. As the herald of the gods, he was the god of eloquence. He was the god of prudence and cunning, also of fraud and theft. Being the messenger of the gods, he was likewise looked upon as the god of roads who protected travelers; and was the god of music and of chemistry, hence the words hermetic, hermetically (sealed). He was employed by the gods to conduct departed souls to the lower world. He invented the lyre, which he first made by stretching strings across the shell of a tortoise. The palm tree, the tortoise, the number 4, and several kinds of fish were sacred to him. He is generally represented with a hat having two wings; a pair of winged sandals, which carried him with the speed of wind across land and sea; and, as messenger of the gods, he carries in his hand a wand or caduceus (ka-dū´se-us), having two serpents intertwined at one end of it.
=Meriones= (mē´ri-o-nēz).--The charioteer of Idomeneus, and one of the bravest heroes in the Trojan war.
=Mermaids.=--Wave maidens of northern mythology and classed with nymphs in Grecian and Roman. They were generally represented as young and beautiful virgins, partially covered with a veil or thin cloth, bearing in their hands vases of water, or shells, leaves, or grass, or having something as a symbol of their appropriate offices. They were attendants of the gods.
=Meru.=--In Hindu mythology a sacred mountain, eighty thousand leagues high, situated in the center of the world. It is the abode of Indra, and abounds with every charm that can be imagined. The Olympus of the Indians.
=Merope= (mer´o-pē).--Daughter of Atlas, one of the Pleiades.
=Metis= (mē´tis)--lit. wisdom, prudence (Gr.).--Daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, and the first wife of Jupiter. Fearing that she might give birth to a child who should become more powerful than himself, Jupiter swallowed her. Afterwards Minerva sprang from his head.
=Midgard.=--In Scandinavian mythology the name given to the earth. Out of the giant’s flesh they fashioned Midgard (middle garden), as the earth was called, which was placed in the exact center of the vast space, and hedged all around with Ymir’s eyebrows, which formed its bulwarks or ramparts. The solid portion of Midgard was surrounded by the giant’s blood or sweat, which now formed the ocean, while his bones made the hills, his flat teeth the cliffs, and his curly hair the trees and all vegetation.
=Midgard Sormen= (earth’s monster).--The great serpent that lay in the abyss at the root of the celestial ash. Child of Loki.
=Milo.=--The modern name for the island of Melos (q.v.).
=Mimir.=--In Scandinavian mythology the god of wisdom. Also god of the ocean, which is called “Mimir’s well,” in which wit and wisdom lay hidden, and of which he drank every morning from the horn Gjallar.
=Minerva= (min-er´va); called Athena (a-thē´na), Pallas Athene (pal´las), or simply Pallas, by the Greeks.--The goddess of wisdom, of the arts and sciences, of poetry and of spinning and weaving, and the protectress of agriculture. She was also a goddess of war. She was the daughter of Jupiter and Metis (q.v.). She was the protective deity of Athens, which was so named in honor of her (Athena): see “Athenæ.” The owl, serpent, cock and olive tree were sacred to her.
=Minos= (mī´nos).--(i) Son of Jupiter and Europa, brother of Rhadamanthus, king and lawgiver in Crete, and after death one of the three judges of the shades in the infernal regions (the other two being Rhadamanthus and Æacus). (ii) Grandson of the former, likewise king of Crete, the husband of Pasiphaë and the father of Ariadne and other children. His son Androgeos (q.v.) having been shamefully treated by the Athenians, he made war against the latter and compelled them to send every year to Crete, as tribute, seven young men and seven maidens to be devoured by the Minotaur. This Minotaur was a terrible monster, with the head of a bull and the body of a man, the offspring of Pasiphaë and a bull. It was kept in a labyrinth constructed by Dædalus, but was slain by Theseus (q.v.), with the help of Ariadne, the daughter of Minos.
=Minotaur= (mī´no-tawr)--i.e. the bull of Minos (Lat.).--See “Minos.”
=Minyæ= (min´i-ē).--The Minyans, an ancient Greek race dwelling in Thessaly. The Argonauts, being mainly Minyans, are called Minyæ.
=Mithras= (mith´ras).--The sun-god of the Persians.
=Mjolnir.=--From mythology of northern lands. The name of Thor’s celebrated hammer--a type of the thunderbolt--which, however far it might be cast, was never lost, as it always returned to his hand; and which, whenever he wished, became so small that he could put it in his pocket.
=Mnemosyne= (nē-mos´i-nē)--i. e. memory (Gr.).--The mother of the Muses.
=Moakkibat.=--A class of angels, according to the Mohammedan mythology. Two angels of this class attend every child of Adam from the cradle to the grave. At sunset they fly up with the record of the deeds done since sunrise. Every good deed is entered ten times by the recording angel on the credit or right side of his ledger, but when an evil deed is reported the angel waits seven hours, “if happily in that time the evil-doer may repent.”
=Moloch.=--A god of the Phœnicians to whom human victims, principally children, were sacrificed. Moloch is figurative of the influence which impels us to sacrifice that which we ought to cherish most dearly.
=Momus= (mō´mus).--The god of mockery and censure.
=Mona= (mon´a).--The isle of Anglesey; sometimes supposed to be the isle of Man. It was one of the chief seats of the Druids.
=Moneta= (mon-ē´ta).--A Roman surname of Juno as the protectress of money.
=Mopsus= (mop´sus).--The name of two soothsayers, one being the prophet of the Argonauts, and the other the son of Apollo and Manto. He contended in prophecy with Calchas (q.v.), whose superior he proved himself to be.
=Morpheus= (mor´fe-us).--The son of sleep and the god of dreams. The name signifies (Gr.) the fashioner, moulder, so called from the shapes he calls up before the sleeper.
=Mowis.=--The bridegroom of Snow, who (according to American Indian tradition) wooed and won a beautiful bride; but when morning dawned, Mowis left the wigwam, and melted into the sunshine. The bride hunted for him night and day in the forests, but never saw him more.
=Musæ= (mū´zē).--The Muses, daughters of Jupiter and Mnemosyne, were nine in number, and presided over the different kinds of poetry, the arts and sciences. Their names and special attributes were as follows: (i) Calliope (kal-lī´o-pē), the muse of epic poetry; (ii) Clio (klī´ō), of history; (iii) Erato (er´a-tō), of erotic poetry and mimic imitation; (iv) Euterpe (ū-ter´pē), of lyric poetry; (v) Melpomene (mel-pom´en-ē), of tragedy; (vi) Polyhymnia (pol-i-him´ni-a), of the sublime hymn; (vii) Terpsichore (terp-sik´o-rē), of choral song and dancing; (viii) Thalia (tha-li´a), of comedy; and (ix) Urania (ū-rā´ni-a), of astronomy. The favorite haunt of the Muses was Mount Helicon in Bœotia, where were the sacred fountains of Aganippe and Hippocrene. Mount Parnassus was also sacred to them.
=Myrmidones= (mer-mid´on-ēz), or =Myrmidons= (mer´mid-ons).--A people of Thessaly, under the rule of Achilles, whom they accompanied to Troy.
=Myrtilus= (mer´til-us).--Son of Mercury, and charioteer of Œnomaus. See “Pelops.”
=Mysterious Three, The.=--In Scandinavian mythology were Har “the Mighty,” the “Like-Mighty,” and the “Third Person,” who sat on three thrones above the rainbow. Then came the Æsir, of which Odin was chief, who lived in Asgard (between the rainbow and earth); next came the Vanir, or gods of the ocean, air, and clouds, of which deities Niörd was chief.
=N=
=Naiades= (nā´i-a-dēz), or =Naiads= (nā´yadz).--The nymphs of freshwater. See “Nymphæ.”
=Naraka.=--The hell of the Hindus. It has twenty-eight divisions, in some of which the victims are mangled by ravens and owls; in others they are doomed to swallow cakes boiling hot, or walk over burning sands.
=Narcissus= (nar-sis´us).--A beautiful youth, inaccessible to the feeling of love. The nymph Echo fell in love with him, but, her love not being returned, she pined away in grief (see “Echo”). In order to punish him, Nemesis made him see his own reflected image in a fountain, whereupon he became so enamored of it that he gradually pined away until changed into the flower that bears his name.
=Nausicaa= (naw-sik´a-a).--Daughter of Alcinous, who conducted Ulysses, when shipwrecked on the coast of Scheria (an island), to her father’s court.
=Neleus= (nē´lūs).--Son of Neptune and the nymph Tyro; king of Pylos, in Peloponnesus, and father of Nestor (q.v.).
=Nemea= (ne-mē´a).--A city in Argolis, near which Hercules slew the Nemean lion.
=Nemesis= (nem´e-sis)--i. e. vengeance (Gr.).--The goddess of retribution, who brings down all immoderate good fortune. She was also regarded as the goddess who punished crimes. She was the daughter of Night, and was represented as a crowned virgin, of great beauty and grace, with a whip in one hand and a pair of scales in the other.
=Neoptolemus= (ne-op-tol´em-us).--Son of Achilles and Deidamia. He was also called Pyrrhus (pir´us), on account of his reddish hair (Gr.); his other name, Neoptolemus, which signifies New-to-war (Gr.), having been given to him because he came late to Troy. He displayed great valor at Troy, and was one of the heroes concealed in the wooden horse (see “Troy”). He slew Priam and his daughter Polyxena. At the distribution of captives Andromache, the widow of Hector, fell to his lot, and he took her to Epirus. He married Hermione, the beautiful daughter of Menelaus and Helen, but was slain by Orestes, to whom she had been previously promised.
=Neptunus= (nep-tū´nus), or =Neptune=; called Poseidon (po-sī´don) by the Greeks.--The god of the sea and other waters, the brother of Jupiter, and husband of Amphitrite. His palace was in the depth of the sea, near Ægæ, in Eubœa, where he kept his horses with brazen hoofs and golden manes, which drew his chariot over the waves of the sea. His celebrated contest with Minerva for the possession of Athens is narrated under “Athenæ.” In the Trojan war he sided with the Greeks. He not only created the horse, but also taught men the art of managing horses by the bit and bridle. The symbol of his power was a trident, or spear with three prongs, with which he called forth or hushed storms, shook the earth, etc. Besides the trident, his attributes are the dolphin and the horse.
=Nereides= (nē´re-i-dēz or nē-rē´id-ēz); the Nereids (nē´-re-ids).--The fifty daughters of Nereus and Doris. They were the marine nymphs of the Mediterranean (see “Nymphæ”). Thetis, the mother of Achilles, was a Nereid.
=Nereus= (nē´rūs).--Son of Pontus and Gæa, and husband of Doris, father of the fifty Nereids. He dwelt at the bottom of the sea, and was regarded as the wise old man of the sea. Like other marine divinities, he was supposed to have the power of prophesying the future, and of appearing to mortals in various shapes. The Ægean Sea was his empire--possibly the whole of the Mediterranean.
=Nessus= (ness´us).--A Centaur who was slain with a poisoned arrow by Hercules (q.v.).
=Nestor= (nes´tor).--Son of Neleus and king of Pylos. He was famous among the heroes before Troy for his wisdom, justice and eloquence. In early life he was a distinguished warrior, and took part in the fight between the Centaurs and the Lapithæ, and was one of the Calydonian hunters and one of the Argonauts. He is said to have lived through three generations of men. He safely reached Pylos again after the fall of Troy.
=Nicneven.=--A gigantic and malignant female spirit of the old popular Scottish mythology. The hag is represented as riding at the head of witches and fairies at Hallowe’en.
=Nidhogg.=--The dragon that gnaws at the root of Yggdrasil, the tree of the universe in Scandinavian mythology.
=Niflheim.=--Mist-home of old Norse mythology. The region of endless cold and everlasting night, ruled over by Hela. It consists of nine worlds, to which are consigned those who die of disease or old age. This region existed “from the beginning” in the north, and in the middle thereof was the well Hvergelmir, from which flowed twelve rivers.
=Niobe= (nī´o-bē).--Daughter of Tantalus and wife of Amphion, king of Thebes. Having seven sons and seven daughters, she imprudently boasted of her superiority to Latona, who had but two children--Apollo and Diana. The latter, indignant at her presumption, slew all her children with their arrows. Niobe herself was changed into a stone.
=Niord.=--The Scandinavian sea-god. He was not one of the Æsir. Niord’s son was Frey (the fairy of the clouds), and his daughter was Freyja. His home was Noatun. Niord was not a sea-god like Neptune, but the spirit of water and air. The Scandinavian Neptune was Ægir, whose wife was Skadi. His temples were near the seashore and all aquatic plants belonged to him.
=Nisus= (nī´sus).--A friend of Euryalus (ū-rī´a-lus).--The two accompanied Æneas to Italy, and perished in a night attack on the Rutulian camp.
=Nix.=--Little creatures not unlike the Scotch brownie and German kobold. They wear a red cap, and are ever ready to lend a helping hand to the industrious and thrifty.
=Nokomis.=--Daughter of the moon, American Indian myths. Sporting one day with her maidens on a swing made of vine canes, a rival cut the swing, and Nokomis fell to earth, where she gave birth to a daughter named Wenonah.
=Nornir=, or =Norns=.--The three fates of Scandinavian mythology, past, present, and future. They spin the events of human life, sitting under the ash-tree Yggdrasil which they carefully tend. Their names are Urda (the past), Verdandi (the present), and Skuld (the future). Besides these three Norns, every human creature has a personal Norn or fate. The home of the Norns is called in Scandinavian mythology Doomstead.
=Notus= (nō´tus) (Gr.); called Auster by the Romans.--The south or southwest wind.
=Nox= (noks); called Nux (nūks) by the Greeks.--Night, daughter of Chaos.
=Numitor= (nū´mi-tor).--A king of Alba, grandfather of Romulus and Remus.
=Nymphæ= (nim´fē), or =Nymphs=.--Lesser female divinities supposed by the Greeks to dwell in the sea, springs, rivers, grottoes, trees and mountains. They had distinctive names, according to their habitat, as follows:
(i) The sea-nymphs, which were divided into two classes--the Oceanides (ō-se-an´id-ēz), or Nymphs of the Ocean, who were daughters of Oceanus (ō-sē´an-us); and the Nereides (nē´re-id-ēz or nē-rē´id-ēz), or Nereids (nē´re-ids), the nymphs of the Mediterranean, who were the daughters of Nereus.
(ii) The nymphs of fresh-water (rivers, lakes, brooks or springs); called Naiades (nā´i-a-dēz), or Naiads (nā´yads).
(iii) Oreades (o-rē´ad-ēz), the nymphs of mountains and grottoes.
(iv) Napææ (na-pē´ē), the nymphs of glens.
(v) Dryades (drī´ad-ēz), or Dryads, and Hamadryades (ham-a-dri´ad-ēz), the nymphs of trees; these nymphs died with the trees that had been their abode, and with which they had come into existence.
=Nysa= (nī´sa).--A city in India, where Bacchus was brought up.
=O=
=Oceanus= (ō-sē´an-us).--Son of Heaven and Earth, the god of the water that was supposed to surround the whole earth, the husband of Tethys, and the father of all the river-gods and water-nymphs of the whole earth. The ancient Greeks imagined the earth to be flat and circular, and to be surrounded by a river, which flowed perpetually around it, and which they called Oceanus. It was the great Outward Sea, opposed to the Inward or Mediterranean.
=Odhærir.=--In Scandinavian mythology the mead or nectar made of Kvasir´s blood, kept in three jars. The second of these jars is called “Sohn,” and the third “Bohn.” Probably the nectar is the “spirit of poetry.”
=Odin.=--The king of gods and men, and the reputed progenitor of the Scandinavian kings. He corresponds both to the Jupiter and the Mars of classical mythology. As god of war, he holds his court in Valhalla, surrounded by all warriors who have fallen in battle, and attended by two wolves, to whom he gives his share of food; for he himself lives on wine alone. On his shoulders he carries two ravens, Hugin (mind) and Munin (memory), whom he dispatches every day to bring him news of all that is doing throughout the world. He has three great treasures, namely, Sleipnir, an eight-footed horse of marvelous swiftness; Gungnir, a spear, which never fails to strike what it is aimed at; and Draupnir, a magic ring, which every ninth night drops eight other rings of equal value. The German tribes worshiped Odin under the name of “Woden.” The fourth day of the week, Wednesday, was sacred to him.
=Odur.=--In Scandinavian mythology, husband of Freyja, whom he deserted. He abandoned his wife on her loss of youth and beauty, and was punished.
=Odysseus= (od-is´sūs).--The Greek form of Ulysses, king of Ithaca, whose return from Troy to Ithaca forms the subject of the Odyssey. See “Ulysses.”
=Œneus= (ē´nūs).--King of Pleuron and Calydon, in Ætolia, husband of Althæa, and father of Meleager, Deianira, and other children. During his reign the boar that laid waste the lands of Calydon gave rise to the celebrated Calydonian boar hunt.
=Œnone= (ē-nō´nē).--Wife of Paris of Troy, before he carried off Helen.
=Oileus= (o-ī´lūs).--King of the Locrians, father of the lesser Ajax, and one of the Argonauts.
=Olympia= (o-lim´pi-a).--A plain in Elis, where the Olympian games were held. In the plain was the sacred grove of Jupiter, which contained the masterpiece of Greek art--the colossal statue of Jupiter by Phidias. The Olympic games were held every four years, this interval being called an Olympiad.
=Olympus= (o-lim´pus).--A mountain range on the boundary of Macedonia and Thessaly, of great height, and consequently regarded as the abode of the gods. Once the giants tried to reach heaven, and to do so piled Mount Pelion on Mount Ossa (both being high mountains in the neighborhood of Olympus); but Jupiter used his thunderbolts against them, and, with the assistance of Hercules, destroyed them all, and buried them under Mount Ætna.
=Omphale= (om´fa-lē).--A queen of Lydia, whom Hercules served as a slave a short time. She put on his lion´s skin, and carried his club, whilst he donned woman´s attire and spun wool.
=Ops.=--Wife of Saturn, the goddess of plenty and fertility, and especially the patroness of husbandry.
=Oreades.=--See “Nymphæ.”
=Orestes= (o-res´tēz).--Son of Agamemnon and Clytæmnestra, who, on the murder of Agamemnon, after his return from Troy, by Clytæmnestra and her paramour Ægisthus, was saved from the same fate by his sister Electra. He went to Strophius, king of Phocis, who was the husband of his aunt Anaxibia. Here he formed a memorable friendship with Pylades (pī´la-dēz), the king’s son. Later he avenged his father’s death by slaying his mother and Ægisthus; but was, in consequence, seized with madness and wandered from place to place. Apollo told him he could recover from his madness only by bringing the statue of Diana from the Tauric Chersonesus. Accordingly he set out, in company with his friend Pylades; but on their arrival they would have been sacrificed by the Tauri (q.v.) to Diana had not Orestes’ sister Iphigenia, who was the priestess of Diana, recognized him and intervened in time to save their lives. All three then escaped with the statue of the goddess. After this Orestes became king of Mycenæ, his father’s kingdom, and married the beautiful Hermione, daughter of Menelaus and Helen (of Troy), after slaying Neoptolemus (q.v.).
=Orion= (o-rī´on).--A handsome giant and hunter. He was beloved by Diana, which so displeased Apollo that he asserted that she was unable to hit, with one of her arrows, a distant point he showed her in the sea. This point was the head of Orion, who was swimming in the sea. Thus Orion perished, and he was placed among the stars, where he appears as a giant with a girdle, sword, a lion’s skin, and a club.
=Orlog.=--A god of Norse fable personifying the eternal law of the universe, from whose decree there was no appeal.
=Ormuzd.=--The name of the supreme deity of the ancient Persians, and of their descendants, the Parsees and Ghebers. He is an embodiment of the principle of good, and was created by the will of the great eternal spirit, Zervan-Akharana, simultaneously with Ahriman, the principle of evil, with whom he is in perpetual conflict. Ormuzd is the creator of the earth, sun, moon, and stars, to each of which he originally assigned its proper place, and whose various movements he continues to regulate.
=Orpheus= (or´fe-us).--A pre-Homeric poet, son of Œagrus and Calliope, lived in Thrace, and accompanied the Argonauts in their celebrated expedition. He played so skillfully on the lyre, which had been presented to him by Apollo, and which he had been taught to play by the Muses, that not only were wild beasts made tame, but even the rocks and trees moved from their places to follow him. He married the nymph Eurydice (ū-rid´is-ē), who died from the bite of a snake. He followed her into the lower world, where his beautiful strains of music even suspended the punishment of the wicked. Pluto promised to yield back his wife to him on the condition that he did not look back until he arrived in the upper world again. At the very moment, however, of passing the fatal bounds, Orpheus glanced back to see if she were following him, and just beheld her snatched back into the infernal regions. His grief for the loss of Eurydice was such that he treated all the Thracian women with contempt, and they in revenge, during the Bacchanalian orgies, tore him to pieces.
=Ortygia= (or-tij´i-a).--The ancient name of Delos, where Apollo and Diana were born.
=Osiris= (o-sī´ris).--A great deity of the Egyptians, husband of Isis. The ancients differ in opinion concerning this celebrated god, but they all agree that as ruler of Egypt he took care to civilize his subjects, to improve their morals, to give them good and salutary laws, and to teach them agriculture. He was worshiped under the form of an ox.
=Ossa= (os’sa).--A celebrated mountain in the northeast of Thessaly, near Mount Olympus. When the giants tried to scale heaven, they heaped Pelion, another mountain, on Ossa in order to reach the lofty mount Olympus, on the top of which Jupiter and the other gods dwelt.
=P=
=Pæan= (pē´an)--lit. “physician” (Gr.).--The name of the physician of the gods. Later the name was transferred to Apollo, and afterwards it was applied to a choral song, hymn or chant addressed to Apollo, and also to a war song before battle or after a victory.
=Pagasæ= (pag´a-sē), or =Pagasa=.--A maritime town of Thessaly, where the Argo (see “Argonautæ”) was built.
=Paimosaid.=--In American Indian myths a walking thief, especially one who walks through cornfields about harvest time to pluck the ears of maize or corn.
=Palæmon= (pal-ē´mon).--A sea-god; originally called Melicerta (q.v.).
=Palamedes= (pal-a-mē´dēz).--Son of Mauplius, and one of the Greek heroes who sailed against Troy. Having exposed Ulysses (q.v.) when he feigned madness in order to avoid going to Troy, the latter, who was famous for his craft, revenged himself by contriving to get a letter, purporting to be written by Priam, king of Troy, concealed under Palamedes’ bed. Ulysses then accused Palamedes of treachery, the fatal letter apparently established the charge, and Palamedes was stoned to death by the Greeks. Palamedes is credited with having added four letters--θ, ξ, χ, φ--to the original Greek alphabet of Cadmus, and also with the invention of quoits, dice, lighthouses, measures, scales, etc.
=Pales= (pal´ēz).--The Roman protecting deity of flocks and shepherds.
=Palici= (pal-ī´sī).--Twin sons of Jupiter and the nymph Thalia. They were worshiped in Sicily, in the neighborhood of Mount Ætna.
=Palinurus= (pal-i-nū´rus).--The pilot of Æneas, who fell into the sea off the west coast of Lucania.
=Palladium= (pal-lad´i-um).--Properly any statue of Pallas--i. e. Minerva; but the Palladium was an ancient image of the goddess at Troy, on the preservation of which the safety of the city was supposed to depend. Ulysses and Diomedes succeeded in carrying it off and afterwards took it to Greece. See “Troy.”
=Pallas= (pal´las).--The Greek name of Minerva (q.v.).
=Pan.=--The chief god of shepherds and flocks; son of Mercury, and the inventor of the syrinx or shepherd’s flute. He was also god of woods, in which he dwelt, and occasionally appeared suddenly before travelers, whose consequent fright was hence called “Panic fear.” Pan is usually represented as a being with horns, puck-nose and goat’s legs and feet.
=Pandarus= (pan´da-rus).--A celebrated archer in the Trojan army.
=Pandora= (pan-dō´ra)--lit. “giver of all” (Gr.).--A beautiful woman, made by Vulcan at Jupiter’s command, who received presents from the gods--hence her name. She was the first woman on earth, and was designed to work the ruin of man in revenge for Prometheus having stolen fire from heaven and thus benefited mankind against the will of Jupiter. Venus adorned her with beauty, Mercury endowed her with boldness and cunning, and the gods, each and all, provided her with a combination of destructive powers wherewith to work out the ruin of man. Thus provided, Mercury took her to Epimetheus (i. e. afterthought), who made her his wife, forgetting, till too late, that his brother Prometheus (i. e. forethought) had strictly enjoined him not to receive any gifts from the gods. Pandora brought with her from heaven a box containing every human ill, which, with feminine curiosity, she opened, and out of it they all flew, to afflict mankind, Hope alone remaining.
=Paphos= (paf´os).--A town in Cyprus; the chief seat of the worship of Venus.
=Parcæ= (par´sē).--The Fates; called by the Greeks Moiræ (moy´rē).--They were three in number; and their names were:
(i) Clotho (klō´tho), the spinner of the thread of life.
(ii) Lachesis (lak´e-sis), the disposer of lots in life.
(iii) Atropos (at´ro-pos)--lit. “the inflexible”--the fate that cannot be avoided. To these mighty goddesses both gods and men must submit. Sometimes Atropos is represented as cutting the thread of life spun by Clotho.
=Paris=, usually called Alexander (lit. “defending men”) in the Iliad. The second son of Priam, king of Troy, and Hecuba. He was brought up on Mount Ida by a shepherd, who gave him the name Paris. He was afterwards called Alexander on account of the bravery he displayed in defending the flocks and shepherds. He married Œnone (ē-nō´nē), the daughter of the river-god Cebren. He soon deserted her, however, in the following manner: At the marriage of Peleus and the Nereid Thetis all the gods, with the single exception of the goddess of Discord, were invited. Annoyed at being thus passed over, she threw among the guests a golden apple--usually called the Apple of Discord--with the inscription, “To the fairest.” Three were claimants for it--Juno, Venus and Minerva. Jupiter ordered Mercury to take the three goddesses to Mount Ida, and submit the matter to the judgment of the shepherd Paris, hence giving rise to the celebrated “Judgment of Paris,” which has formed the subject of so many masterpieces of art. In order to influence him in their favor severally, Juno promised him the sovereignty of Asia, Minerva renown in war, and Venus the most beautiful woman in the world for his wife. Paris decided in favor of Venus, and awarded her the golden apple. He then, under the guidance of Venus, sailed for Greece, to the court of Menelaus, king of Sparta, whose wife, Helen, was the most beautiful of women. He succeeded in carrying Helen off, and so gave rise to the famous Trojan war, as all the chiefs in Greece joined with Menelaus in an expedition to fetch her back from Troy (see “Helena”). Paris fought with Menelaus before the walls of Troy, and would have been slain by him, had not Venus interposed and carried him off in a cloud. He was killed by the celebrated archer Philoctetes, who shot him with one of the poisoned arrows of Hercules. When wounded he returned to his long-neglected wife Œnone, and requested her to heal the wound; but she refused, and he died in consequence. Œnone soon repented, however, and put an end to her own life. During the Trojan war Paris killed Achilles (q.v.).
=Parnassus= (par-nas´sus).--A high mountain in Phocis (Greece), with two peaks, sacred to Apollo and the Muses. Near it was the town of Delphi; and on the mountain was the famous Castalian spring, also sacred to Apollo and the Muses, in which the Pythia, the priestess, at Delphi, used to bathe.
=Parthenopæus= (par´then-o-pē´us).--Son of Meleager and Atalanta, and one of the “Seven against Thebes.”
=Parthenope= (par-then´o-pē).--One of the Sirens (q.v.), and the name of an ancient city forming the site of the present city of Naples (Neapolis).
=Pasiphae= (pā-sif´a-ē).--Daughter of the Sun and Perseis, wife of Minos and mother of Androgeos, Ariadne and Phædra; also of the Minotaur (see “Minos”).
=Patroclus= (pa-trok´lus).--The beloved friend of Achilles. Whilst Achilles remained inactive during part of the Trojan war, Patroclus was allowed by Achilles to lead the latter’s Myrmidons against the Trojans at a critical time. Achilles, in order to enhance the effect, equipped him with his own armor and arms. Patroclus, whom the Trojans supposed to be Achilles himself, drove them back to the walls of Troy, where, however, he was slain by Hector. To avenge his death, Achilles quickly reappeared in the field, and slew Hector in single combat.
=Pauguk.=--Name given to the great power, death, in American Indian mythology.
=Pau-Puk-Keewis.=--In American Indian folk-lore a mischievous magician, who is pursued by Hiawatha, goes through a series of wonderful transformations in his endeavors to escape, and finally becomes an eagle.
=Peboan.=--In American Indian folk-lore the personification of winter in form of a great giant who shook the snow from his hair and turned water into stone by his breath.
=Pegasus= (peg´a-sus).--The winged horse which sprang from the blood of the Gorgon Medusa, when her head was struck off by Perseus (q.v.). It was named Pegasus from the springs of Ocean, near which Medusa was killed. With a blow of his hoof he caused the fountain of the Muses (Hippocrene) to spring from Mount Helicon. Bellerophon rode him when he slew the Chimæra (ki-mē´ra).
=Peleus= (pē´lūs).--Son of Æacus, king of the Myrmidons in Thessaly, husband of Thetis and father of Achilles. The Nereid Thetis, who was his second wife, had the power, possessed also by Proteus, of assuming any form she pleased, a power she exercised in order to escape from Peleus. But the latter, having been taught by Chiron, held the goddess fast till she promised to marry him. At their marriage all the gods, save one, were present, and the uninvited one, the goddess of strife, threw the celebrated golden apple among the guests (see “Paris”). Peleus survived the death of his famous son Achilles.
=Pelias= (pe´li-as).--King of Ioclus, in Thessaly. In order to get rid of his nephew Jason, who claimed the throne, he sent him to fetch the golden fleece, thus giving rise to the celebrated expedition of the Argonauts (see “Argonautæ”). When Jason returned with Medea, the latter persuaded the daughters of Pelias to cut him in pieces and boil him, with the idea of thus restoring him to youth and vigor. In this way he perished. See “Jason.”
=Pelion= (pē´li-on).--A lofty range of well-wooded mountains in Thessaly. The giants heaped it on Mount Ossa, in their attempt to scale heaven (see “Ossa” and “Olympus”). The Centaur Chiron dwelt in a cave near its summit. The Argo (see “Argonautæ”) was built from timber felled here.
=Pelops= (pē´lops).--Son of Tantalus, king of Phrygia, father of Atreus and Thyestes, grandfather of Agamemnon and Menelaus. When a boy he was cut in pieces and boiled to make a savory dish to set before the gods, whom Tantalus, the favorite of the gods, had invited to a repast; but the gods would not touch it, and ordered Mercury to again put him into a caldron, whereby he was restored to life. Being driven out of Phrygia, he went to Elis, a province of Peloponnesus, and there obtained the hand of Hippodamia, daughter of King Œnomaus, whom he succeeded on the throne. He afterwards became so powerful that the whole peninsula was called after him “the island of Pelops.” In order to gain Hippodamia (hip-po-da-mī´a) he had first to engage in a chariot race with Œnomaus (ē-nom´a-us), a condition which the latter imposed on every suitor for his daughter’s hand, as an oracle had declared that he would be killed by his son-in-law. His horses being swifter than those of any mortal, many a suitor had suffered death, the stipulated penalty of defeat. Pelops, however, bribed Myrtilus, the charioteer of Œnomaus, to remove the linchpins of his master’s chariot, the bribe being the promise of half the kingdom. In the race the wheels of Œnomaus’ chariot soon came off, and Œnomaus was thrown out, and killed. Pelops thus gained Hippodamia, but was unwilling to keep faith with Myrtilus, whom he threw from a cliff into the sea.
=Penates= (pē-nā´tēz).--Old Latin guardian deities both of a household and of the state. The images of these gods were kept in the penetralia (pen-e-trā´li-a)--that is, the innermost or central part of the house. The Lares (q.v.) formed part of the Penates. On the hearth a perpetual fire was kept up in their honor, and the table, which was also sacred to them, always contained the salt-cellar and offerings of first fruits for them.
=Penelope= (pe-nel´o-pē).--The wife of Ulysses; celebrated for her constancy to her husband during his twenty years’ absence from Ithaca. She was the daughter of Icarius and Peribœa, of Sparta, and was won by Ulysses in the following way: Her father promised her to the suitor who should win a foot-race; but when Ulysses was the successful competitor her father tried to persuade her not to leave him. Ulysses left her free to act as she pleased in the matter, whereupon she covered her face with her veil to hide her blushes, and thus intimated that she preferred to accompany him as her husband. By Ulysses she became the mother of an only child, Telemachus. During Ulysses’ long absence she was the object of much undesired attention on the part of a host of importunate suitors, who declared that Ulysses must surely be dead. Penelope at last promised to make a selection of one of their number to be her husband as soon as she had finished a robe she was making for Ulysses’ aged father, Laërtes (lā-er´tēz). This was only a ruse (generally referred to as “Penelope’s web”), however, to put them off, as she undid every night the work done during the day. At last the secret was betrayed by one of her servants, and she was importuned more than ever. Ulysses now arrived home after twenty years’ absence at Troy and his subsequent celebrated wanderings, and came at first disguised as a beggar to see how the land lay. Having soon ascertained his wife’s noble fidelity, he still further tested her by getting her to promise her hand to the suitor who could draw his bow. This none of them could do, so Ulysses took it up and slew them all. He then made himself known to Penelope, and went to see his aged father.
=Peneus= (pē-nē´us).--The principal river of Thessaly, which flows in the valley of Tempe, between Mount Pelion and Mount Ossa, into the sea; also the river-god, who was the father of Daphne and Cyrene.
=Penthesilea= (pen-thes-i-lē´a).--The young and beautiful queen of the Amazons, who fought against the Greeks before Troy, and was slain by Achilles.
=Pentheus= (pen´thūs).--Grandson of Cadmus, whom he succeeded as king of Thebes. He was opposed to the introduction of the worship of Bacchus into his kingdom, and in consequence was torn to pieces by his mother and her sisters, who in their Bacchic frenzy imagined him to be a wild beast.
=Perdix= (per´diks).--The nephew of Dædalus (q.v.), the inventor of the chisel, saw, compasses, etc.
=Peri.=--Peris are delicate, gentle, fairy-like beings of eastern mythology, begotten by fallen spirits. They direct with a wand the pure in mind the way to heaven. These lovely creatures, according to the Koran, are under the sovereignty of Eblis; and Mohammed was sent for their conversion, as well as for that of man.
=Persephone= (per-sef´on-ē).--The Greek name for Proserpina (q.v.).
=Perseus= (per´sūs).--Son of Jupiter and Danaë (q.v.). His most heroic deed was the slaying of the Gorgon Medusa, which he accomplished in the following manner: With the aid of Mercury and Minerva he possessed himself of the winged sandals, the magic wallet, and the helmet of Pluto, which rendered the wearer invisible, and further received from Mercury a sickle, and from Minerva a mirror. Thus provided, he rose into the air and made his way to the abode of the Gorgons. He found them asleep, and cut off with the sickle the head of Medusa, looking at her terrible form in the mirror, as a single glance would have immediately changed him into stone. Perseus placed her head in the magic wallet, which he carried on his back, and escaped in safety from the pursuit of the two other Gorgons, the helmet rendering him invisible. He then proceeded to Æthiopia, where he slew the sea-monster, and saved and married the beautiful Andromeda (q.v.). The latter having been previously promised, however, to her uncle Phineus, he and several armed companions made their appearance at the nuptials, and endeavored to carry off the bride; but Perseus brought out Medusa’s head, and they were all turned into stone. Perseus afterwards gave the head of Medusa to Minerva, who placed it in the middle of her breastplate or shield. In fulfillment of the oracle he accidentally killed his grandfather Acrisius (q.v.) with a quoit. He is said to have founded Mycenæ.
=Phæaces= (fē-ā´sēz).--A fabulous people represented in the Odyssey as inhabiting the island of Scheria (afterwards Corcyra; now Corfu), and famous as sailors. Alcinous (q.v.) was their king.
=Phaethon= (fā´e-thon)--lit. “the shining” (Gr.).--Son of the sungod (Apollo) and Clymene (klī´men-ē). Having obtained permission from his father to drive the chariot of the sun across the heavens for one day, he drove so near the earth that he almost set it on fire, his strength being insufficient to keep the horses in the right track. Consequently Jupiter hurled him down with a thunderbolt into the river Padus (Po).
=Phaon= (fā´ōn).--A boatman at Mytilene, who, originally an ugly old man, was made young and handsome by Venus, whom he had carried across the sea without payment. Sappho (q.v.) thus fell in love with him, and, on her love not being returned, threw herself into the sea.
=Philoctetes= (fil-ok-tē´tēz).--A very famous archer, a friend of Hercules, who gave him at his death the poisoned arrows without which Troy could not be taken. In the tenth year of the Trojan war he was specially fetched from Lemnos, where he had been detained by a wound, by Ulysses and Diomedes. On arriving at Troy, Æsculapius or his sons cured his wound. He slew Paris and other Trojans.
=Phlegethon= (fleg´e-thon)--lit. “the blazing” (Gr.).--A river in the lower world, which ran with fire instead of water.
=Phœbe= (fē´bē).--A feminine form of Phœbus (lit. “the bright one”); applied to Diana, the sister of Apollo, as the goddess of the moon.
=Phœbus= (fē´bus)--lit. “the bright one” (Gr.).--An epithet applied to Apollo as the god of the sun. See “Apollo.”
=Phœnix= (fē´nix).--(i) A fabulous bird described as being as large as an eagle; its head finely crested with a beautiful plumage, its neck covered with gold-colored feathers, its tail white, and its body purple or crimson. (ii) Son of Amyntor, the teacher of Achilles, and his companion during the Trojan war.
=Phorcys= (for´sis), or =Phorcus= (for´kus).--A sea-god, father of the Gorgons and of the Grææ.
=Phrixus= (frix´us).--Son of Athamas and Nephele. Athamas having neglected Nephele (nef´el-ë), and married Ino, the latter persuaded him to sacrifice Nephele’s son Phrixus to Jupiter. Nephele, however, enabled her two children, Phrixus and Helle, to escape by means of a ram with golden fleece, the gift of Mercury, which carried them through the air. Helle fell into the sea (see “Helle”), but Phrixus arrived safely in Colchis, the kingdom of Æëtes (q.v.). Here he sacrificed the ram to Jupiter, and gave its golden fleece to Æëtes, who suspended it to an oak tree in the grove of Mars. To fetch this golden fleece the famous expedition of the Argonauts (see “Argonautæ”) was undertaken.
=Picus= (pī´kus).--Son of Saturn and father of Faunus. He was changed by Circe into a woodpecker, because he did not requite her love. The Romans regarded the woodpecker as a prophetic bird, sacred to Mars.
=Pieria= (pī-er´i-a).--A district of Macedonia, in the north of Greece; celebrated as one of the earliest seats of the worship of the Muses, who are hence called Pierides (pī-er´id-ēz). Hence the following lines:--
“A little learning is a dangerous thing; Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring.” Pope’s Essay on Criticism.
=Pirene= (pī-rē´nē).--A noted fountain at Corinth, at which Bellerophon caught Pegasus.
=Pirithous= (pī-rith´o-us).--Son of Ixion, whom he succeeded as king of the Lapithæ; famous for his friendship with Theseus. When Pirithous was invading Attica he was opposed by Theseus, king of Athens, for whom he soon conceived feelings of admiration, which afterwards deepened into a lasting friendship. At the marriage of Pirithous with Hippodamia (hip-po-da-mī´a) the bride was seized by a drunken Centaur, and thus arose the celebrated fight between the Centaurs and Lapithæ (q.v.), in which, with the assistance of Theseus, Pirithous and the Lapithæ came off victorious. On the death of Hippodamia, Pirithous conceived the bold project of carrying off Proserpine, wife of Pluto. Accordingly the two friends descended into the lower world, but were seized by Pluto and chained to a rock, where they both remained till Hercules visited that region. Hercules then delivered Theseus, who was suffering punishment merely on account of his friendship for Pirithous; but the latter he left to his fate.
=Pleiades= (plē´ya-dēz).--The seven daughters of Atlas and Pleione (plē´yo-nē).--They were the virgin companions of Diana, and when pursued by Orion were changed into doves and placed among the stars.
=Pluto= (plū´tō).--The god of the nether world; originally called Hades (hā´dēz), the name Pluto (lit. “wealth”) being applied to him because corn, the wealth of early times, was sent from beneath the earth as his gift. He was the son of Saturn and Rhea, brother of Jupiter and Neptune, and the husband of Proserpine. He possessed a celebrated helmet, which rendered the wearer invisible, and which Perseus (q.v.) borrowed when he went to slay the Gorgon Medusa. Black sheep were sacrificed to him. Pluto was also called Dis (dīs) and Orcus (or´-kus).
=Plutus= (plū´tus).--The god of wealth; represented as blind.
=Pluvius= (plū´vi-us)--lit. “rain-bringing” (Lat.).--A surname of Jupiter, to whom sacrifices were offered in times of drought. See “Jupiter.”
=Pollux.=--See “Castor.”
=Polyhymnia.=--See “Musæ.”
=Polyphemus= (pol-i-fē´mus).--Son of Neptune; was one of the celebrated Cyclops living in Sicily. He was a huge monster, having but one eye in the center of his forehead, and ate human flesh. Being rejected by the nymph Galatea in favor of Acis, he crushed the latter under an enormous rock. Ulysses, during his wanderings on his journey homeward after the fall of Troy, was driven upon Sicily, and at once seized by Polyphemus, who shut him and his companions in the great cave in which he dwelt. In the evening he drove his flock into the cave, closed the mouth of the cave with a heavy rock, and ate two of Ulysses’ companions for his supper. The next morning he led his sheep out to pasture, closing the mouth of the cave after him. The wily Ulysses then contrived and successfully carried out the following plan of escape: When the monster returned in the evening, Ulysses offered him some wine he had brought with him, and gave him enough to make him intoxicated. Polyphemus asked Ulysses his name, and the latter gave that of Noman. The giant then fell asleep, whereupon Ulysses and his companions, having made everything ready, bored out his eye with a red-hot piece of timber. Polyphemus roared out, and the other Cyclops dwelling on the island came to the mouth of the cave and inquired what was the matter; Polyphemus replied that no man had injured him, whereupon they all went away. Even now, however, Ulysses could not escape, the cave being closed by such a heavy rock, and had to wait till the following morning. Polyphemus then removed the rock, but sat by the opening and felt the back of each sheep as it passed out. Ulysses, whose name is synonymous with craft itself, had foreseen this, however, and he and his six companions safely passed out by clinging to the wool on the bellies of the sheep. They then made their way to their ships, and quickly put out from the shore. When a little way out Ulysses derided Polyphemus, whereupon the latter threw several immense rocks after him, one of which nearly struck his ship. See Odyssey, Book IX.
=Polyxena= (pol-ix´en-a).--Daughter of Priam and Hecuba. She was beloved by Achilles, and sacrificed at the grave of the latter by his son Pyrrhus.
=Pomona= (pō-mō´na).--The goddess of fruit and fruit trees. Her name is derived from Lat. pomum, fruit (of any kind).
=Ponemah.=--In American Indian mythology the name of the land of the future life, or the spirit land.
=Portunus= (por-tū´nus), or =Portumnus= (por-tum´nus).--The protecting god of harbors.
=Poseidon= (po-sī´don).--See “Neptune.”
=Priam= (prī´am).--Son of Laomedon, the famous king of Troy at the time of the Trojan war. The name Priam (Gr.) means the Chief, or Leader. He was the husband of Hecuba, and the father of Paris, Hector, Deiphobus, Cassandra, Polyxena, etc. On the capture of Troy he was slain by Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles.
=Priapus= (pri-ā´pus).--Son of Bacchus and Venus. The god of fruitfulness in general, and the protector of flocks of sheep and goats, of bees, of the vine, and of all garden produce.
=Procas= (prō´kas).--King of Alba Longa, and father of Numitor and Amulius.
=Procne= (prok´nē).--Sister of Philomela (q.v.).
=Procris= (prō´kris).--Wife of Cephalus (q.v.).
=Procrustes= (prō-krus´tēz)--lit. “the Stretcher” (Gr.).--The name of a famous robber of Greece, who used to make all his captives fit into his iron bed, either by cutting pieces off their legs if they were too long, or by stretching them out if they were too short. He was slain by Theseus.
=Prometheus= (pro-mē´thūs)--lit. “Forethought” (Gr.).--Son of the Titan Iapetos, brother of Epimetheus (ep-i-mē´thūs), or “After-thought.” The great benefactor of mankind, in spite of Jupiter. He stole fire from Olympus (heaven), and was the inventor of many arts, especially of working in metal and clay, whence he is said to have made man from clay. As a set-off against these advantages, Jupiter gave Pandora (q.v.) to Epimetheus. He also chained Prometheus to a rock, where in the daytime an eagle consumed his liver, which grew again during each succeeding night. From this perpetual torture he was delivered by Hercules, who killed the eagle.
=Proserpina= (pro-ser´pin-a); usually called =Proserpine= (pros´er-pīn); called by the Greeks Persephone (per-sef´on-ē).--Daughter of Jupiter and Ceres, and queen of the lower world. Her father, unknown to her mother, promised her to Pluto, who carried her off by causing the earth to open beneath her as she was gathering flowers. In consequence of this, Ceres did not allow the earth to bring forth any fruits, and Jupiter was obliged to send Mercury into the lower world to fetch Proserpine back. Pluto allowed her to go, but first gave her a pomegranate to eat. Having thus eaten in the lower world, she was obliged to spend one-third of the year with Pluto, remaining during the other two-thirds with her mother (see “Ceres”). Pluto and Proserpine ruled over the souls of the dead in the lower world.
=Proteus= (prō´tūs).--A sea-god who had the power of assuming any form he pleased. He tended the flocks (seals) of Neptune, and at midday rose from the sea and slept in the shade of the rocks. At such times he was much sought after, his prophetic powers being highly valued. When seized by the person wishing to consult him, he, in order to escape, assumed several different shapes in succession; but, if firmly held, he speedily returned to his original form, and prophesied.
=Psyche= (si´kē)--lit. “the soul” (Gr.).--The following beautiful story shows in an allegorical manner how the human soul is purified by misfortunes and prepared for the enjoyment of true and lasting happiness hereafter: Psyche was the youngest and most beautiful of the three daughters of a king, and by her beauty excited the jealousy of Venus. The goddess consequently ordered Cupid to inspire her with love for some utterly unworthy object; but instead of doing this Cupid himself fell in love with her. He accordingly visited her every night, leaving her always at daybreak. Her jealous sisters, however, made her believe that her midnight lover was a monster, and accordingly she one night brought a lamp while Cupid was asleep, and was astonished to behold the lovely god. In her excitement she let fall a drop of hot oil on the shoulder of Cupid, and so awoke him. He blamed her for her mistrust, and fled. In misery Psyche now wandered from temple to temple, inquiring after her lover, and at length came to the palace of Venus. Here she was treated with great severity and compelled to perform hard and menial tasks, which would have overcome her had not Cupid secretly and invisibly sustained her. At length she overcame the jealousy of Venus, and, becoming immortal, was united to Cupid forever. In works of art Psyche is represented as a maiden with the wings of a butterfly.
=Pukwana.=--The smoke from the calumet or peace pipe among American Indians. The pipe was made from stone found near the headwaters of the Mississippi. A quarry, located near the mountains, was famous among the Indians, who had made the adjacent territory neutral ground. Here they came and provided themselves with pipes. To apply the stone to any other use than that of pipe-making would have been sacrilege in their mind. From the color, they even fancied it to have been made, at the great deluge, out of the flesh of the perishing Indian.
=Puk-Wudjies.=--The pygmies of American Indian folklore; little wild men of the woods.
=Pygmalion= (pig-mā´li-on).--King of Cyprus, who became enamored of an ivory statue which he had made. Venus having answered his prayer to her to breathe life into it, he married the maiden.
=Pylades= (pi´la-dēz).--Nephew of Agamemnon, and celebrated as the friend of Orestes (q.v.). He married Electra, the sister of Orestes.
=Pyramus= (pī´ra-mus).--The lover of Thisbe (q.v.).
=Pyrrhus= (pir´us).--See “Neoptolemus.”
=Python= (pi´thon).--The famous serpent produced from the mud left after the subsidence of the deluge of Deucalion. It was slain near Delphi by Apollo, who founded the Pythian games to commemorate the victory.
=Q=
=Quirinus= (kwi-rī´nus).--The name of Romulus after his deification.
=R=
=Rachaders.=--In Indian mythology the second tribe of giants or evil genii, who had frequently made the earth subject to their kings, but were ultimately punished by Siva and Vishnu.
=Radegaste.=--In Slavonic mythology a tutelary god of the Slavi. The head was that of a cow, the breast was covered with an ægis, the left hand held a spear, and a cock surmounted its helmet.
=Ragnarök= (twilight of the gods).--The day of doom, when the present world and all its inhabitants will be annihilated. Vidar and Vali will survive the conflagration, and reconstruct the universe. In Scandinavian mythology the belief is taught that after this time the earth or realm will become imperishable and happiness sure.
=Rahu.=--In Hindu mythology the demon that causes eclipses. One day Rahu stole into Valhalla to quaff some of the nectar of immortality. He was discovered by the Sun and Moon, who informed against him, and Vishnu cut off his head. As he had already taken some of the nectar into his mouth, the head was immortal; and he ever afterward hunted the Sun and Moon, which he caught occasionally, causing eclipses.
=Rakshas.=--Evil spirits in Hindu myths, who guard the treasure of Kuvera, the god of riches. They haunt cemeteries and devour human beings; assume any shape at will, and their strength increases as the day declines. Some are hideously ugly, but others, especially the female spirits, allure by their beauty.
=Ravana.=--According to Indian mythology, was fastened down between heaven and earth for ten thousand years by Siva’s leg, for attempting to move the hill of heaven to Ceylon. He is described as a demon giant with ten faces.
=Ravens.=--According to an oracle from the gods, delivered at ancient Athens, ravens prognosticate famine and death because they bear the characteristics of Saturn, the author of these calamities, and have a very early perception of the malign influence of that planet.
=Remus= (rē´mus).--The brother of Romulus (q.v.).
=Rhadamanthus= (rad-a-man´thus).--Son of Jupiter and Europa, and brother of Minos. He was one of the three judges in the lower world, the other two being Æacus and Minos.
=Rhea= (rē´a).--See “Cybele.”
=Rhea Silvia= (rē´a sil´vi-a).--Daughter of Numitor, and mother of Romulus and Remus.
=Rhesus= (rē´sus).--A Thracian prince, who went to the assistance of Troy. As an oracle had declared that Troy would never be taken if the snow-white horses of Rhesus once drank of the Xanthus and fed on the grass of the Trojan plain. Diomedes and Ulysses slew Rhesus on the night of his arrival on Trojan territory, and carried off his horses.
=Rhodope= (rod´o-pē).--A lofty mountain range in Thrace, which, like the rest of Thrace, was sacred to Bacchus.
=Romulus= (rom´u-lus).--The founder and first king of Rome; twin-brother of Remus, son of Silvia by Mars. Silvia was the daughter of Numitor and a vestal virgin, hence the twins were condemned to be thrown into the Tiber. This was done; but the cradle stranded, and they were suckled by a she-wolf. They were afterwards found by Faustulus, the shepherd of king Amulius, who handed them over to the care of his wife Acca Larentia. When grown up, they decided to found a city on the Tiber; but in a dispute as to the site, Romulus killed Remus. When the city was built, it was found that women were very scarce. Romulus accordingly proclaimed that games were to be celebrated, and invited his neighbors, the Latins and Sabines, to the festival, during which the Roman youths carried off the maidens--this being generally referred to as “The Rape of the Sabine Women.” Hence arose a war between the two peoples, which was brought to a termination by the Sabine women rushing in between the armies and praying them to be reconciled. After a reign of thirty-seven years, Romulus was taken up to heaven by his father Mars in a fiery chariot. He was then worshiped by the Romans as Quirinus (kwi-rī´nus).
=S=
=Saga.=--Goddess of history in Scandinavian mythology.
=Salamander.=--A fabulous animal supposed by the ancients to live in and have the quality of eating fire.
=Salmoneus= (sal-mō´nūs).--Son of Æolus and brother of Sisyphus. He presumed to imitate the thunder and lightning of Jupiter, and was consequently hurled down to Tartarus with a thunderbolt by the father of the gods.
=Sarpedon= (sar-pē´don).--(i) Son of Jupiter and Europa, king of the Lycians. Jupiter granted him the privilege of living three generations. (ii) Grandson of the preceding; assisted the Trojans in the Trojan war, but was slain by Patroclus.
=Saturnus= (sā-tur´nus); usually called =Saturn= (sat´urn); called by the Greeks Cronos.--A mythical king of Italy, whose reign was the “golden age.” He was the son of Uranus (Heaven) and Gæa (Earth), the husband of Rhea, and the father of Jupiter, Juno, Pluto, Neptune, etc. He was the god of agriculture and of civilization in general. He was dethroned from the government of the world by his son Jupiter. His temple in Rome was used as the state treasury.
=Satyri= (sat´er-ī), or =Satyrs= (sat´erz).--A kind of wood-deities, resembling apes, with two goats-feet, and very lascivious. The older Satyrs were generally called Sileni (sī-lē´nī), and the younger ones Satyrisci. They were described as fond of wine, sleep, and music.
=Scamander= (ska-man´der).--A celebrated river near Troy.
=Scamandrius= (ska-man´dri-us), or =Scamander=.--Son of Hector and Andromache (an-drom´a-kē), whom the Trojans called Astyanax (q.v.).
=Sciron= (sĩ´ron).--A famous robber of Attica, slain by Theseus. He compelled those he robbed to wash his feet on the Scironian rock (which was named after him), and at the completion of the process kicked them over the rock into the sea. At the base of the rock was a tortoise, which devoured them.
=Scylla= (sill´a), and =Charybdis= (ka-rib´dis).--The names of two rocks, opposite to one another, between Italy and Sicily. In the one nearest to Italy was a cave in which dwelt Scylla, who was a terrible creature (female) with six long necks and heads, each of which contained three rows of sharp teeth, twelve feet, and barking like a dog. On the opposite rock, Charybdis, dwelt a being of the same name under an immense fig tree. Thrice a day she swallowed the waters of the sea and thrice threw them up again. Between these rocks, Scylla and Charybdis, the sea was very narrow and very dangerous. Hence mariners had to exercise great vigilance lest while avoiding Scylla they did not fall on Charybdis. This last expression is often used in speaking of cases where a middle course has to be carefully steered between two threatening difficulties.
=Scyros= (sī´ros).--An island in the Ægean Sea, near Eubœa. Here Achilles--at the court of King Lycomedes--was concealed, dressed as a woman, by his mother Thetis, in order to prevent his going to the Trojan war.
=Sedrat.=--The lotus tree which stands on the right hand side of the invisible throne of Allah. Its branches extend wider than the distance between heaven and earth. Its leaves resemble the ears of an elephant. Each seed of its fruit incloses an houri; and two rivers issue from its roots. Numberless birds sing among its branches, and numberless angels rest beneath its shade.
=SCENES FROM THE STORY OF PSYCHE AND VENUS=
=Semele= (sem´el-ē).--Daughter of Cadmus and Harmonia, and mother, by Jupiter, of Bacchus. Juno, actuated by jealousy, persuaded her to ask Jupiter to appear before her in his terrible majesty as king of heaven. Having promised to grant whatever she desired, Jupiter did so; but warned her of the danger she would incur. The result was that she was consumed by the lightning; but Jupiter saved her child Bacchus.
=Serapis= (se-rā´pis).--An Egyptian divinity (male), whose worship was introduced into Rome, together with that of Isis, toward the end of the republic.
=Seven Sages.=--Same as Seven Wise Men of Greece (q.v.).
=Seven Wise Men of Greece.=--The title applied to seven Greeks of the sixth century B. C., who were distinguished for their practical wisdom and their terse maxims or principles of life. Their names are as follows: Bias, Chilo, Cleobulus, Periander (in place of whom some give Epimenides), Pittacus, Solon and Thales. They were the authors of the following famous mottoes, inscribed in later times in the temple of Apollo at Delphi: “Most men are bad,” Bias; “Consider the end,” Chilo; “Avoid excess,” Cleobulus; “Nothing is impossible to industry,” Periander; “Know thy opportunity,” Pittacus; “Know thyself,” Solon; “Suretyship is the precursor of ruin,” Thales.
=Seven Wonders of the World.=--A name applied to seven very remarkable objects of the ancient world. They are usually given as follows:
(i) The Pyramids of Egypt.
(ii) The Pharos (fā´ros) of Alexandria, which was a lofty lighthouse built by Ptolemy II. on the island of the same name, just opposite to Alexandria and united to it by a mole.
(iii) The walls and hanging gardens of Babylon. The walls are described under “Ninus.” The hanging gardens of Nebuchadnezzar were laid out upon terraces, which were raised one above another on arches.
(iv) The Temple of Diana at Ephesus.
(v) The colossal statue of the Olympian Jupiter by Phidias. It was made of ivory and gold, and the god was represented as seated on a throne of cedar wood, adorned with gold, ivory, ebony and precious stones.
(vi) The mausoleum of Artemisia.
(vii) The Colossus of Rhodes.
=Sibyllæ= (si-bil´lē), or =Sibyls=.--Prophetesses, supposed to be ten in number. The most famous of them is the Cumæan, who was consulted by Æneas before he descended into the lower world and gave him the sop to throw to Cerberus, which, when he had devoured it, threw him into a deep sleep and so enabled Æneas to slip by.
=Sichæus= (si-kē´us).--Dido’s uncle and husband; often called Acerbas. He was murdered by Pygmalion, Dido’s brother.
=Silenus= (si-lē´nus).--A name specially applied to a satyr (q.v.) who brought up and instructed Bacchus and was his constant companion. He is described as a bald-headed, jovial old man, generally intoxicated, and hence unable to trust his own legs to carry him safely. He generally rode on an ass. He possessed prophetic powers, which he could be made to exercise by surrounding him with chains of flowers while he was drunk and asleep.
=Silvanus= (sil-vā´nus).--A Latin deity presiding over woods and forests.
=Sinon= (sin´on).--Son of Æsimus, who allowed the Trojans to take him prisoner, and then persuaded them to take the famous wooden horse into their city. See “Troy.”
=Sirenes= (sī-rē´nēz), or =Sirens= (si´renz).--Sea nymphs, three in number, who had the power of enticing mariners to their destruction on dangerous rocks by their sweet music. In order to get his ship away in safety from them, Ulysses stuffed the ears of his companions with wax and then tied himself to the mast of the vessel, and did not release himself till he could no longer hear their charming voices. They dwelt on an island near the southwest coast of Italy.
=Sisyphus= (sis´i-fus).--Son of Æolus and king of Corinth; notorious for his avarice and deceit. His punishment in the lower world was to roll to the top of a hill a huge marble block, which no sooner reached the top than it rolled down again: hence a never-ending punishment.
=Siva.=--The third of the Hindu triad of divinities, who, among a thousand names, bears also that of Mahadeva. The greatest confusion exists as to his attributes; now he is said to be the destroyer, and now the creative principle.
=Somnus= (som´nus).--The god of sleep; was a son of Night and a brother of Death.
=Soracte= (sō-rak´tē).--A high mountain, near the Tiber, in Etruria, on the summit of which was a temple of Apollo.
=Specter of the Brocken.=--Among German myths, a singular colossal apparition seen in the clouds, at certain times of the day, by those who ascend the Brocken, or Blocksberg, the highest peak of the Hartz mountains.
=Sphinx= (sfingks).--A she-monster, who proposed a riddle to the Thebans, and murdered all who failed to guess it (see “Œdipus”). In works of art she is represented with a woman’s bust on the body of a lioness. The word Sphinx (Gr.) means the Throttler, from her manner of killing her victims.
=Stentor= (sten´tor).--A Grecian herald in the Trojan war. His voice was as loud as that of fifty ordinary men together: hence our word stentorian.
=Stheno.=--See “Gorgons.”
=Stymphalus= (stim-fā´lus).--A town in Arcadia; the haunt of the terrible birds slain by Hercules. See “Hercules (vi).”
=Styx= (stiks)--i. e., “the hateful, horrible” (Gr.).--The principal river of the lower world, around which it flows seven times. Charon (q.v.) ferried the souls of the departed across it. By the Styx the gods swore their most sacred oaths.
=Surya.=--The sun-god, according to the Hindu Veda, whose car is drawn by seven green horses, the charioteer being Dawn.
=Sybaris= (sib´ar-is).--A Greek town in Lucania, notorious for the luxury of its inhabitants: hence our word Sybarite.
=Syphax= (sif´ax).--King of one of the tribes of the Numidians. See “Sophonisba.”
=Syrinx= (sī´rinks).--A nymph, who, being pursued by Pan, was metamorphosed into a reed, of which Pan then made his shepherd’s pipe, usually called Pan’s pipe.
=T=
=Tantalus= (tan´ta-lus).--Son of Jupiter and the nymph Pluto; father of Pelops and Niobe. Having divulged some of his father’s secrets, he received a terrible punishment in the lower world. He was made to stand up to his chin in water, being at the same time afflicted with a raging thirst, and over his head hung branches of tempting fruit, yet when he attempted to drink the waters receded from him, and when he would pluck the fruit the branches immediately sprang out of his reach. Moreover, a huge rock was suspended above his head, threatening every moment to crush him. (Hence our word tantalize, meaning to torment by holding out hopes or prospects which cannot be realized.)
=Tarpeia= (tar-pē´ya).--Daughter of the governor of the Roman citadel: was tempted by the gold bracelets of the Sabines, who, in the time of Romulus, were besieging the fortress, to treacherously open one of the gates. As they rushed in they threw their shields upon her and crushed her to death. The Tarpeian Rock (tar-pē´yan), from which criminals were hurled headlong, was named after her.
=Tartarus= (tar´ta-rus).--The place of punishment of the wicked in the lower world, as opposed to the Elysian Fields, the abode of the blessed. Sometimes it means the lower world generally.
=Taygete= (tā-ij´et-ē).--Daughter of Atlas and Pleione, one of the Pleiones.
=Tecmessa= (tek-mes´sa).--Daughter of Teleutas, king of Phrygia, and mistress of Ajax the Great.
=Telamon= (tel´a-mōn).--Son of Æacus and brother of Peleus. He was king of Salamis and father of Ajax the Great (or Telamonius) and of Teucer, the celebrated archer. He was one of the Argonauts, and took part in the Calydonian boar hunt.
=Telegonus= (te-leg´on-us).--Son of Ulysses and Circe. He killed his father without knowing it. See “Ulysses.”
=Telemachus= (tē-lem´ak-us).--Son of Ulysses (q.v.) and Penelope.
=Telephus= (tē´le-fus).--Son of Hercules and king of Mysia. He married Laodice, daughter of Priam, king of Troy. He was wounded by the spear of Achilles, but was afterward cured by its rust.
=Tenedos= (ten´e-dos).--A small island in the Ægean Sea, off the coast of Troas. Hither the Greeks brought their fleet when they pretended to sail away from Troy (q.v.).
=Tereus= (tē´rūs).--Son of Mars, king of Thrace and husband of Procne, by whom he became the father of Itys. He hid Procne and married Philomela (q.v.). Procne killed her son Itys and served him up in a dish to Tereus. She then fled with her sister Philomela. Procne was afterwards changed into a swallow, Philomela into a nightingale, and Tereus into a hawk.
=Terpsichore.=--See “Musæ.”
=Tethys= (tē´this).--Wife of Oceanus and mother of the sea-nymphs and sea-gods.
=Teucer= (tū´ser).--(i) Brother of Ajax the Great, and the most skillful archer among the Greeks before Troy. (ii) The first king of Troy: whence the Trojans are sometimes called Teucri.
=Thalia.=--See “Musæ.”
=Themis= (them´is).--The goddess of justice and of prophecy. She is generally represented holding a cornucopia and a pair of scales.
=Thersites= (ther-sī´tēz).--A Greek before Troy, notorious for his ugliness and scurrility. He was killed by Achilles.
=Theseus= (thē´sūs).--The great legendary hero of Attica; was the son of Ægeus, king of Athens, and of Æthra. He went of his own accord as part of the yearly tribute of Athens to the Minotaur (q.v.). Ariadne, the daughter of Minos, however, fell in love with the hero, and gave him a sword wherewith he slew the monster, and a clue of threads by means of which he found his way out of the labyrinth. Theseus then sailed away in company with Ariadne, but he abandoned her (see “Ariadne”) in the island of Naxos. When approaching Attica, he forgot to hoist the white sail, as a token of success, and so caused the death of his father (see “Ægeus”). Theseus thus became king of Athens. His life was full of adventure. He was an Argonaut, and took part in the Calydonian boar hunt. His friendship with Pirithous is proverbial. He even accompanied Pirithous into the lower world with the object of carrying off Proserpine (see “Pirithous”). On his return from the lower world he found himself unable to re-establish himself as king of Athens, and retired to the island of Scyros, where he was killed by Lycomedes, the king, who treacherously thrust him down a rock.
=Thetis= (thet´is).--A sea-nymph; daughter of Nereus and Doris, wife of Peleus and mother of Achilles. At her wedding with Peleus occurred the celebrated incident of the Golden Apple (see “Paris”).
=Thisbe= (this´be).--A beautiful maiden of Babylon, beloved by Pyramus (pi´ra-mus).--Their parents being averse to their union, they used to converse secretly through a hole in the wall, as they lived in adjoining houses. Once they agreed to meet at the tomb of Ninus. Thisbe arrived first, but perceiving a lioness devouring an ox, she took flight. While running she lost her garment, which the lioness seized and soiled with blood. Meanwhile Pyramus came on the scene, and finding her garment soiled with blood, he imagined that she had been slain, and killed himself. Thisbe returned later, and finding the dead body of her lover killed herself also.
=Thor.=--In Scandinavian mythology the eldest son of Odin and Frigga; strongest and bravest of the gods. He launched the thunder, presided over the air and the seasons, and protected man from lightning and evil spirits. His wife was Sif (“love”); his chariot was drawn by two he-goats; his mace or hammer was called Mjolner; his belt was Megin-giord, and whenever he put it on his strength was doubled; his palace, Thrudvangr, contained five hundred and forty halls; Thursday is Thor’s day. This word means “refuge from terror.”
=Thyone= (thi-ō´nē).--The name given to Semele when she was brought from the lower world by her son Bacchus and placed among the immortals.
=Tiresias= (tī-res´i-as).--A celebrated blind soothsayer of Thebes. He was blind from his seventh year; but lived to a great age. He was one of the most famous soothsayers in all antiquity.
=Tiryns= (tī´rins).--A town in Argolis; one of the most ancient in all Greece, where Hercules was brought up. Remains of the city are still to be seen.
=Tisiphone.=--See “Furiæ.”
=Titanes= (tī-tā´nēz).--The Titans; the six sons and six daughters of Uranus (Heaven) and Ge (Earth), who contended with Jupiter for the sovereignty of heaven, but were overcome by him and precipitated into Tartarus.
=Tithonus= (tī-thō´nus).--Son of Laomedon and brother of Priam. He was beloved by the goddess Aurora, who endowed him with immortality, but not with eternal youth. Consequently, with the gradual decay of nature, he became at length a decrepit old man, whose immortality with ever-weakening physical vigor became a terrible burden to him. Aurora eventually changed him into a grasshopper.
=Trimurti.=--The name of the Hindu triad of deities; or Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva united in one god-head, and spoken of as an inseparable unity.
=Triptolemus= (trip-tol´em-us).--Son of Celeus, king of Eleusis. He was the favorite of Ceres, and the inventor of the plow and agriculture: hence introduced civilization, which follows the latter. He introduced the worship of Ceres.
=Triton= (trī´ton).--A sea-god; son of Neptune, who blows through a shell to calm the sea. He is represented with a man’s head and body, the lower part being that of a fish.
=Troas= (trō´as).--The region about Troy (or Ilium), forming one of the five parts into which Mysia, a district occupying the northwest corner of Asia Minor, was divided. Troas is frequently called The Troad.
=Troilus= (trō´il-us).--Son of Priam and Hecuba; slain by Achilles.
=Troja= (trō´ja), or =Troy=, called by the Greeks =Ilium= (ī´li-um).--A city of Asia Minor, situated in the Troad, famous for its ten years’ siege by the Greeks. The name Troy was derived from king Tros (trōs), who gave his name originally to the district (Troas) and the people; Ilium from Ilus, son of Tros, who founded the city--which, however, was also called, after his father, Troy. The Trojan war forms the subject of Homer’s immortal poem, the Iliad. The history of this celebrated war may be briefly told as follows: The war arose from the abduction of Helen, wife of Menelaus, king of Sparta, and the most beautiful woman of her time, by Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy. The cause of her abduction is given under “Paris” and “Helen.” All the chiefs of Greece, who had been former suitors of Helen, joined Menelaus in an expedition to Troy to bring her back. They accordingly massed all their forces and sailed for the coast of Troas. Even the gods took an active part in the contest: Juno and Minerva, owing to the judgment of Paris, were hostile to the Trojans, and accordingly sided with the Greeks; while Venus, to whom Paris had awarded the golden apple, took the side of the Trojans. The innumerable incidents of the siege itself must be passed over; only the remarkable way in which, after a ten years’ siege, the city was finally taken, must be told. The city contained an ancient statue of Pallas (i. e. Minerva), called the Palladium, (q.v.) on the preservation of which the safety of the city was supposed to depend. Accordingly the Greeks make a night attack on Troy, and Ulysses and Diomedes succeeded in carrying off this Palladium. A little later the Greeks returned to their ships and sailed away, pretending that they had relinquished the siege. On the plain before the city, however, they left behind them the celebrated wooden horse, the invention of Ulysses, which was hollowed out in the interior sufficiently to admit of the presence of its wily inventor and a few other heroes within it. Meanwhile Sinon, a relation of Ulysses, had allowed himself to be taken prisoner by the Trojans, and then persuaded them to draw this wooden horse, which he pretended was an atonement for the Palladium, into the city. They foolishly believed him and dragged the horse into the city, and in the dead of night Sinon let the Greeks out of the horse, and they at once set fire to the city. Meanwhile the main body of the Greeks, who had gone no farther than the island of Tenedos, returned and rushed through the gates of the city, opened by their friends within, and in this way the city was taken. The date most generally accepted for the capture of Troy is B. C. 1184.
=Trolls.=--Dwarfs of Northern mythology, living in hills or mounds; they are represented as stumpy, misshapen, and humpbacked, inclined to thieving, and fond of carrying off children or substituting one of their own offspring for that of a human mother. They are called hill-people, and are especially averse to noise, from a recollection of the time when Thor used to fling his hammer after them.
=Tydeus= (tī´dēs).--Son of Œneus, king of Calydon, and father of Diomedes, who was one of the principal Greek heroes at the Trojan war. Hence Diomedes is often called by his patronymic Tydides (ti-dī´dēz).
=Tyndareus= (tin´dar-ūs).--King of Sparta and husband of Leda. He invited Menelaus to come to Sparta, and handed over the kingdom to him.
=Typhoeus= (ti-fō´ūs), or =Typhon= (ti´fon).--A giant who wished to acquire the sovereign power over gods and men, but was overcome with a thunderbolt from Jupiter and buried under Mount Ætna.
=Tyr.=--In Norse mythology, a warrior deity, and the protector of champions and brave men; he was also noted for his sagacity. When the gods wished to bind the wolf Fenrir, Tyr put his hand into the demon’s mouth as a pledge that the bonds should be removed again. But Fenrir found that the gods had no intention of keeping their word, and revenged himself in some degree by biting the hand off. Tyr was the son of Odin and brother of Thor.
=U=
=Ulin.=--An enchantress, who had no power over those who remained faithful to Allah and their duty; but if any fell into error or sin, she had full power to do as she liked. Thus, when Misnar (sultan of India) mistrusted the protection of Allah, she transformed him into a toad. When the Vizier Horam believed a false report, obviously untrue, she transformed him also into a toad. And when the Princess Hemjunah, to avoid a marriage projected by her father, ran away with a stranger, her indiscretion placed her in the power of the enchantress, who transformed her likewise into a toad. Ulin was ultimately killed by Misnar, sultan of Delhi, who felled her to the ground with a blow.
=Ulysses= (ū-lis´ēz), or =Ulixes= (u-lix´ēz); called =Odysseus= (od-is´sūs) by the Greeks.--A king of Ithaca, famed among the Grecian heroes of the Trojan war for his craft and eloquence; the son of Laertes, husband of Penelope, and father of Telemachus and Telegonus (by Circe). In order to escape from going with the other Greek heroes against Troy, he feigned madness, ploughing the sea-shore with a horse and bull yoked together and sowing salt. The imposture, however, was laid bare by Palamedes (q.v.), who placed Telemachus, the infant son of Ulysses, in the furrow, when the latter at once turned aside the plough; but the wily Ulysses had his revenge on Palamedes. Ulysses, in his turn, sought out and obtained the indispensable assistance of Achilles (q.v.). At the siege of Troy his cunning and valor were of the greatest service to the Greeks. In company with Diomedes he slew the horses of Rhesus, and also carried off the Palladium (q.v.). Perhaps the crowning effort of his ingenuity was the invention of the famous wooden horse, by means of which the city of Troy (q.v.) was ultimately taken by the Greeks. After the taking of Troy Ulysses set out for Ithaca, which, however, he did not reach for twenty years. During this time he passed through the adventures which form the subject of Homer’s glorious poem, the Odyssey, which takes its name from Odysseus, the Greek name for Ulysses. He thus visited Circe (q.v.), Polyphemus (q.v.), the Lotophagi, and other persons and places. In order to get safely past the island of the Sirens, he, with his usual sagacity, devised special means, which proved entirely successful (see “Sirens”). He lost six of his companions while sailing between Scylla (q.v.) and Charybdis. He then suffered shipwreck, he alone escaping by means of the mast and planks. In ten days he was drifted on to the island of Ogygia, inhabited by Calypso (q.v.), with whom he stayed for eight years. He then constructed a raft, and made his way to the island of Scheria (q.v.), whence he obtained a ship that carried him to Ithaca. He did not, however, make himself known at once to his wife and son. In order to see how the land lay, he disguised himself as a beggar, but was kindly received by the old swineherd. Meanwhile his son Telemachus, now grown up to manhood, returned from a journey to Pylos and Sparta, undertaken with a view to gleaning what information he could as to the probable whereabouts of his father. Ulysses then made himself known to Telemachus, and the two resolved on a plan of revenge on the numerous unfortunate suitors for the hand of the virtuous and constant Penelope (q.v.). With great difficulty she was induced (being, as yet, unaware of the safe arrival of her husband) to promise her hand to that suitor who could shoot with the bow of Ulysses. Not one of them, however, was able to draw this bow, whereupon Ulysses himself took it up and slew them all. He then made himself known to Penelope, and went to see his father Laertes, bowed down with grief and years. Now Circe, who had had a son, Telegonus, by Ulysses, sent him in search of his father. Telegonus encountered a storm which cast his ship on the coast of Ithaca, and being pressed by hunger, he began to plunder the fields. Ulysses and Telemachus hearing of this, went out against the spoliator; but Telegonus, not knowing Ulysses, ran him through the body with a spear given to him by his mother. Thus the famous hero died at the hands of his own son. Telegonus afterwards married Penelope, and became by her the father of Italus.
=Urania= (ū-rā´ni-a).--The muse of astronomy. See “Musæ.”
=Uranus= (ū´ra-nus), or =Heaven=.--Husband of Gæa (Earth), and father of Oceanus, Hyperion, Rhea, Themis, Cronos, and other children. At the instigation of Gæa he was dethroned by Cronos.
=Utgard-Loki.=--The chief of the giants, in Norse mythology.
=V=
=Varuna=, or =Vrauna=.--In Hindu mythology, the deity who presides over the waters of the ocean, corresponding with Neptune of classic mythology.
=Valhalla.=--In Scandinavian mythology the palace of immortality wherein are received the souls of heroes slain in battle.
=Valkyrs.=--The battle-maidens of Scandinavian mythology. They were mounted on swift horses and held drawn swords. They rushed into battle and selected those destined to death and conducted them to Valhalla. The number of Valkyrs differs greatly according to the various mythologists and ranges from three to sixteen, the greater part of them, however, naming only nine.
=Venus= (vē´nus); called by the Greeks =Aphrodite= (af-ro-dī´tē)--i. e. “sea-foam.”--The goddess of love and beauty. She was supposed to have sprung from the foam of the sea: hence her Greek name. She was the wife of Vulcan, but was very unfaithful to him. She loved the gods Mars, Bacchus, Neptune and Mercury, and the mortals Adonis and Anchises. She was considered by Paris (q.v.) the most beautiful of the goddesses and had awarded to her the celebrated Golden Apple. Anyone who wore her magic girdle immediately became beautiful and the object of love and desire. She is generally accompanied by her son Cupid. The month of April, as the commencement of spring, was considered peculiarly sacred to the goddess of love. The myrtle, rose, apple and poppy, and the sparrow, dove, swan and swallow, were all sacred to her. She was probably originally identical with Astarte, a Syrian goddess, called by the Hebrews Ashtoreth. As might have been anticipated, the representation of the Queen of Beauty on canvas and in marble has resulted in some of the finest works of the most celebrated painters and sculptors of antiquity. Among the former, Apelles’ masterpiece of Venus rising from the sea deserves special mention; and among the latter the “Cnidian Venus” (so called because it stood in her temple at Cnidus), by Praxiteles, is unquestionably the most famous. Phryne (q.v.) sat as model for both of these noble works of art. The fame of the “Cnidian Venus” was so great that travelers from all parts of the civilized world resorted to Cnidus in order to see it. In fact, Pliny and others declared it to be the finest statue in the world. The “Venus of Milo” is, however, the noblest extant representation of Venus. It was found, in 1820, in the island of Melos, the modern Milo (hence the epithet), which is one of the group of islands named the Cyclades, in the Ægean Sea. It now forms one of the treasures of the Louvre, Paris.
=Vertumnus= (ver-tum´nus).--The god of the changing year--that is, of the seasons and their productions. His festival was celebrated by the whole Roman people on the 23rd of August.
=Vesta= (ves´ta); called by the Greeks =Hestia= (hes´ti-a)--i. e. “the hearth.”--One of the twelve great Roman deities, the goddess and guardian of the hearth and home. She was the daughter of Saturn and Rhea. In her temple in the Forum at Rome stood no statue, the goddess being represented by the eternal fire burning on her altar as her abiding symbol. This fire was kept up and attended to by a number of virgin priestesses, called Vestals, who were chaste and pure like the goddess herself. On March 1 in every year the sacred fire was renewed, and on June 15 her temple was cleaned and purified.
=Vidar.=--The Scandinavian god of wisdom, noted for his thick shoes, and not infrequently called “The god with the thick shoes.”
=Vishnu.=--In Hindu mythology one of the great deities of the Hindu triad, ranking as the Preserver, after Brahma, the Creator, and before Siva, the Destroyer. It is believed that he has appeared on earth nine times, his tenth avatar, or incarnation, having yet to come.
=Volumnia= (vol-um´ni-a).--Wife of Coriolanus (q.v.).
=Vulcanus= (vul-kā´nus), or =Vulcan=; called =Hephæstus= (hē-fēs´tus) by the Greeks. The god of fire. He was the son of Jupiter and Juno, and was lame from his birth. Besides being the god of fire, he was master of the arts which need the aid of fire, especially of working in metal. He made all the palaces of the gods on Olympus, the armor of Achilles, the fatal necklace of Harmonia, the fire-breathing and brazen-hoofed bulls of Æëtes (see “Argonautæ”), etc. The Cyclops were his workmen, and his workshops were situated under Mount Ætna in Sicily. Vulcan’s wife was Venus. His favorite abode on the earth was the island of Lemnos. His great festival was celebrated on the 23rd of August.
=W=
=White Lady.=--In German folk-lore, the ancient Teutonic goddess Holda or Berchta, who was the receiver of the souls of maidens and children, and who still exists as the White Lady, not infrequently, in German legends, transforming herself, or those whom she decoys into her home, into a white mouse.
=Wild Huntsman, The.=--A spectral hunter in folk-lore, especially in German folk-lore; the subject of a ballad by Bürger.
=Woden= (wō´den), or =Wotan=.--The Anglo-Saxon form of the Scandinavian god Odin; Wednesday is called after him.
=Y=
=Yama.=--In the Rigveda, the name of the god who rules in heaven over the blessed--the Manes, Fathers, or Pitris--and is therefore called king.
=Yggdrasil.=--In Scandinavian mythology the great ash tree which binds together heaven, earth, and hell. Its branches extend over the whole earth, its top reaches heaven, and its roots hell. The three nornas, or fates, sit under the tree, spinning the events of man’s life.
=Z=
=Zem.=--The sacred well of Mecca. According to Arab tradition, this is the very well that was shown to Hagar when with Ishmael in the desert. It is supposed to be in the heart of the city of Mecca.
=Zephyrus= (zef´i-rus).--The west wind, or properly, the northwest.
=Zeus= (zūs).--See “Jupiter.”
=Zohak.=--The giant of Persian mythology who keeps the “mouth of hell.” He was the fifth of the Pischdadian dynasty, and was a lineal descendant of Shedâd, king of Ad. He murdered his predecessor, and invented both flaying men alive and killing them by crucifixion. The devil kissed him on the shoulders, and immediately two serpents grew out of his back and fed constantly upon him. He was dethroned by the famous blacksmith of Ispahan, and appointed by the devil to keep hell-gate.
=Zohara.=--An oriental queen of love, and mother of mischief. When Harût and Marût were selected by the host of heaven to be judges on earth, they judged righteous judgment till Zohara, in the shape of a lovely woman, appeared before them with her complaint. They then both fell in love with her and tried to corrupt her, but she flew from them to heaven; and the two angel-judges were forever shut out.
=Zulzul.=--According to Chinese mythology the sage whose life was saved in the form of a rat by Gedy, the youngest of the four sons of Corcud. Zulzul gave him, in gratitude, two poniards, by the help of which he could climb the highest tree or most inaccessible castle.
=EXPLANATORY CHART OF GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY: SHOWING THE ORIGIN, RELATIONSHIP AND DESCENT OF CHIEF MYTHS=
The relationship of these mythical personages are quite unlike those of mortals and are full of inconsistencies. To reconcile all the contradictions of the poets and mythologists is impossible. Perhaps this chart is as consistent with their fabulous tales as can well be made.
CHAOS Produced EREBUS, god of darkness, NOX, goddess of night, and TERRA, Earth.
TERRA or TITÆA produced CŒLUS or URANUS, Heaven.
CŒLUS or URANUS, i.e. Heaven, and TERRA or TITÆA, i.e. Earth. had | +->=TITAN= Oldest of the twelve Titans. | +->=THE CYCLOPS= Giants, at first three in number: Arges, Brontes, | Steropes. | +->=BRIAREUS= A famous giant called by men Ægæon, and by the gods | Braireus. | +->=TETHYS= Wife of Oceanus; for offspring, see =Oceanus=. | +->=THEA= Wife of Hyperion; the mother of rivers, and of about three | thousand daughters, called Ocean´i-des. | +->=SATURN= or =Cronos=, god of Time, had by Rhea same as Ops, | same as Cybele. | | | +->=JUNO=, wife and sister of Jupiter, queen of the gods, and of | | Heaven and Earth. | | | +->=JUPITER= or =Zeus=, the most powerful of all the gods; king of | | gods and men, had | | | | | +->By Them´is. | | | | | | | +->=Astræa=, the goddess of justice; | | | | | | | +->=Nemesis=, of vengeance. | | | | | +->By Juno. | | | | | | | +->=Mars=, the god of war; by Venus, Anteros, Harmonia; | | | | the goddess of youth; once cupbearer to Jupiter. | | | | | | | +->=Hebe=, by her husband Hercules, Alexiares and Anicetus. | | | | | | | +->=Typhon=, by the monster Echidna, Chimæra and Sphinx. | | | | | | | +->=Vulcan=, the god of fire and of blacksmiths, and | | | husband of Venus; by his wife Venus, Cupid; by | | | Medusa, Cacus, by Juno, Cæculus. | | | | | +->By Lato´na. | | | | | | | +->=Apollo=, the god of poetry, music, eloquence, | | | | medicine, the fine arts, augury, and archery. | | | | | | | +->=Diana=, the goddess of hunting, the patroness of | | | chastity, presided also over childbirth. | | | | | +->By Ma´ia. | | | | | | | +->=Mercury=, the messenger of the gods, the god of | | | eloquence and commerce, the patron of travellers, | | | thieves, and knaves, and the conductor of the souls of | | | the dead to the infernal regions. By Penelope, Pan. By | | | the Greeks he was called Hermes. | | | | | +->By Mnemos´y-ne. | | | | | | | +->=The Nine Muses.= | | | | | | | +->Cli´o presided over History. } | | | | } | | | +->Calli´o-pe presided over } | | | | eloquence and epic poetry. } | | | | } | | | +->Er´ato presided over lyric } | | | | and amorous poetry. } | | | | } | | | +->Thali´a presided over } | | | | pastoral and comic poetry and } | | | | festivals. } | | | | }See | | | +->Melpom´e-ne presided over }Dictionary of | | | | tragedy. }Mythology. | | | | } | | | +->Terpsich´o-re presided over } | | | | dancing. } | | | | } | | | +->Euter´pe presided over music.} | | | | } | | | +->Polyhym´nia presided over } | | | | singing and rhetoric. } | | | | } | | | +->Ura´nia presided over } | | | astronomy. } | | | | | +->By Euryn´o-me. | | | | | | | +->=Graces.= | | | | | | | +->Agla´ia }Three beautiful virgins, attendants on | | | | }Venus; presided over kindness and good | | | +->Thali´a }offices, and were supposed to give to | | | | }beauty its charms; represented dancing | | | +->Euphros´y-ne}in a circle with their hands joined. | | | | | +->By Sem´e-le. | | | | | | | +->=Bacchus=, god of wine; by his wife Ariadne, Thoas, | | | Œnopion, Ceranus, Tauropolis, and others. | | | | | +->By Metis. | | | | | | | +->=Minerva=, the goddess of wisdom, war, and the | | | liberal and useful arts. | | | | | +->By Dione. | | | | | | | +->=Venus=, said to have been borne in the foam of the sea; | | | the goddess of love and beauty, and mistress of the | | | graces; wife of Vulcan; for offspring, see =Vulcan=. | | | | | +->By Ceres. | | | | | | | +->=Pros´erpine=, wife of Pluto, queen of hell, presided | | | over death. She was stolen away by Pluto while gathering | | | flowers in Sicily, and became the mother of the Fates and | | | Furies, which see under Dictionary. | | | | | +->By Euro´pa. | | | | | | | +->=Minos=, =Rhadamanthus=, and =Æ´acus=, three inflexible | | | judges of Hades. | | | | | +->By Leda. } | | | | } | | | +->=Castor= and =Pollux=. } | | | } | | +->By Dan´a-e. } | | | | }See Dictionary | | | +->=Per´seus.= }of Mythology. | | | } | | +->By Anti´o-pe. } | | | | } | | | +->=Amphi´on= and =Zethus=.} | | | | | +->By Segesta. | | | | | | | +->=Æolus=, whose offspring were the various Winds. | | | | | +->By Alcmena. | | | | | +->=Hercules=, whose descendants were the Heraclidæ. | | | +->=VESTA=, the goddess of fire, and patroness of _Vestal | | Virgins_, who had the care of the sacred fire in the temple of | | Vesta at Rome, which was kept continually burning. | | | +->=CERES=, the goddess of corn and harvest. The famous | | Eleusinian mysteries were celebrated in honor of Ceres, during | | the representation of which it was death to speak; as it was | | also to reveal afterwards what took place. | | | +->=LATONIA=, celebrated for her beauty, and for being greatly | | beloved by Jupiter and persecuted by Juno. | | | +->=NEPTUNE=, the god of the sea, the father of rivers and | | fountains, and, next to Jupiter, the most powerful deity; had by | | Amphitrite, TRITON, his father’s companion and herald. | | | +->=PLUTO=, the god of the infernal regions, of death and | funerals; the dog Cer´berus, a frightful mastiff with three | heads, and a tail like a serpent, watches at his feet, and three | Har´pies, winged monsters, hover about him. | +->=MNEMOSYNE= Mother of the nine Muses. | +->=THEMIS= Mother of Astræa, goddess of Justice. | +->=CYBELE= OPS or RHEA, wife of Saturn; the goddess of _all | things_; styled Magna Mater or Great Mother, Bona Mater or | Good Mother; for off-spring, see =Saturn=. | +->=OCEANUS= The god of water, to whom the ancients recommended | themselves when going on a voyage, had by Tethys. | | | +->AMPHITRITE had by Neptune TRITON, who had no offspring. | | | +->CYLMENE had by Japetus ATLAS, also Menœtius, Prometheus, | | Epimetheus, and others. | | | +->PHORCYS had by Ceto {The Gorgons, viz., Medusa, | | {Stheno, and Euryale; three | | {sisters whose heads were covered | | {with vipers. | | {The Graiæ, viz., Pephredo, Enyo, | | {and Dinon. | | | +->ACHELOUS had by Calliope. The Sirens were three sea | | nymphs, named Parthen´ope, | | Lige´ia, and Leuco´sia, having | | the form of a woman above the | | waist, and the rest of the body | | like a flying fish. | | | +->The Harpies, viz., Aello, Ocypete, and Celæus. | +->=HYPERION=, god of the Sun, had by Thea, AURORA, the goddess of | the morning; represented riding in a rose-colored chariot drawn | by white horses, usually covered with a veil, the morning star | appearing overhead. She was called rosy-fingered, because she | scattered roses; by Tithon´us, a mortal, she had Memnon and | Æmathion. | +->=JAPETUS=, father of mankind, had by Clymene, ATLAS, also Prometheus, Epimetheus, Menœtius, and others, called Japitonides.
}Nox or Night, Mors or Death, EREBUS } {Light, or Day,}Somnus or Sleep, and Morpheus (the and }had{Somnus, Mors, }minister of Somnus, who brought dreams to NOX } {and Charon, }men) were infernal divinities. {the Ferryman }Momus, god of laughter and satire, son of }Somnus and Nox.
Ancient Roman Sun-god--=Janus=, the god of the year, presided over the gates of heaven, and over peace and war; represented with two faces. His temple in Rome was open in time of war and shut in time of peace.
BOOK OF THE SCIENCES AND INVENTION
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE SCIENCES
OUTLINES OF SCIENCE FOR SCHOOLS
PRACTICAL MATHEMATICS FOR DAILY USE: BUSINESS AND INDUSTRIAL ARITHMETIC, EVERYDAY APPLICATIONS OF PERCENTAGE, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, MENSURATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS
COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL LAW
PHYSICS: ITS PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS
CHEMISTRY: ITS THEORY AND USES
THE CHEMISTRY OF COMMON THINGS
REVISED TABLE OF CHEMICAL ELEMENTS
GREAT INVENTIONS AND SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERIES
RELATION OF THE GOVERNMENT TO SCIENCE
BOOK OF SCIENCE AND INVENTION
Science in its widest significance is sometimes defined as the correlation of all knowledge. In this sense it would include philosophy. In a more restricted and generally accepted sense, the term is applied to the systematized divisions of knowledge.
Science and philosophy resemble each other in so far as they both have to do with knowledge; but while the latter deals with the whole sum of knowledge and goes back to generalized first principles, the former takes up special branches of it. That is, a science is such in fact when a sufficient number of interrelated facts are so arranged and classified by referring them to the general truths and principles on which they are founded that they constitute a well-certified and more or less complete branch of knowledge.
From the present development of knowledge the separate entities of the universe are five--namely, ether, matter, energy, life, and mind. The first three are inseparable agents in the simplest phenomena that occur in nature. They may ultimately be reduced to two, or, conceivably, to one. It is with these that the various branches of science have to deal--to observe, to experiment, to classify, to define.
CLASSIFICATION OF THE SCIENCES.--The sciences may be grouped in two ways. First, from what has been said above, they may be divided into:
(a) the physical sciences, which have to do with inorganic nature--that is with the laws and properties of matter, energy, and ether;
(b) the biological sciences, which consider the laws of life; and
(c) the psychical sciences, which deal with the phenomena of mind.
Second.--Another, and probably more practical, division is that of (a) pure or theoretic sciences, and (b) applied or practical sciences. The latter consist of those branches which deal with facts, events, or phenomena as explained, accounted for, or produced by means of powers, causes, or laws; the former as the knowledge of these powers, causes, or laws, considered apart or as pure from all applications. To the class of pure or fundamental sciences belong mathematics, physics, chemistry, psychology, and sociology; to the applied or concrete belong geology, mineralogy, botany, zoology, meteorology, geography, ethics, politics, law, jurisprudence, logic, grammar, rhetoric, philology, and political economy; navigation, engineering, and practical mechanics; surgery, medicine, materia medica, etc.
METHODS OF SCIENCE.--The great method of scientific inquiry is experiment--the laboratory. Contrasted with experiment is observation. But even in astronomy, emphatically an observational science, experiment plays an important part. The dynamical knowledge which Newton developed into the cosmic law of gravitation was founded on experiment. Meteorology, again, has made great strides in these days by appealing to laboratory experiments for elucidation of its phenomena. Likewise in biology, botany, and zoology experiment has led to striking discoveries; while such branches as embryology and bacteriology are as truly experimental as chemistry itself.
In the psychical group of sciences the method of experimenting still awaits development. The complexity of the problems presented, and the manner in which they affect the welfare and happiness of humanity, render social and political experimenting excessively hazardous. Such sciences as those studied by the economist, the ethnologist, the moralist, or the theologian are of necessity essentially observational.
APPLIED ARITHMETIC, WEIGHTS AND MEASUREMENTS
It would be difficult to overestimate the extent to which mathematics enters into the conditions of everyday life. In its elementary stages, as the science of number, it teaches us the relations of magnitude, and enables us to build up a system of calculation and measurement which, applied to the relations observed to exist in nature, gives results of far-reaching importance.
The properties of number are investigated in arithmetic, and methods examined by which those engaged in practical science are able to work out their results to any degree of approximation.
With the help of algebra, we arrive at a system of logarithms by which many of these results may be reached with the minimum of labor.
The measurement of lines and angles, by methods investigated in geometry and trigonometry, enables us to calculate areas, and work out various problems met with in surveying, and is of the first importance in astronomy.
Arithmetic, which deals with the properties of numbers, forms the basis of all mathematical calculation. (For the primary treatment of numbers, see under The Child World.)
COMMON FRACTIONS
A Fraction is one or more of the equal parts into which a unit has been divided. A Common Fraction is expressed by two numbers; the one written above the line is called the Numerator, the one below, the Denominator: both, called the Terms, denote the value of the fraction.
Thus, in the fraction 3/4, the denominator 4, denotes that a unit or whole thing has been divided into four equal parts; and the numerator 3, shows that three of those parts are taken or expressed in the fraction.
A Proper Fraction is one whose numerator is less than its denominator; as 1/2, 3/4, 7/8, etc. Its value is always less than 1.
An Improper Fraction is one whose numerator is equal to, or greater than its denominator, as 5/5, 9/7, 30/12, etc. Its value is never less than 1.
A Mixed Number is a whole number and a fraction; as 3-2/5, 10-1/2, 6-2/3.
The mixed number means that there are whole things taken together with a fraction of another.
A Complex Fraction is one in which the numerator or denominator, or both, are fractions.
3-1/7 1 15/17 Thus, -----, ---------, -----, are complex fractions. 2-3/8 5/6 × 3/4 8
SIMPLE FRACTIONS
A very good method of learning the combinations in small fractions is by the use of paper or cardboard disks.
Cut out a large number of them, and, in order to avoid trouble later on, it might be better to have the disks all of one size--about 4 inches in diameter.
LEARNING THE FRACTION 1/2 WITH DISKS
EXPLANATION:--Take a circular disk and cut it into two equal parts. Then proceed in this manner: What is this part called? What is other part called? How many halves in the whole circle? One-half and one-half are what? One-half taken away from one leaves what? If I take a half two times, what do I get? How many halves in a whole?
Now I will write these--
1 1 - + - = 2 2
1 ÷ 2 =
1 1 less - = 2
1 1 - - = 2
1 2 × - = 2 1 1 divided by - = 2
Give me the answers and I will write them.
Drawings showing the “placing” of disks for number combinations can then be made; as,
Make similar drawings to tell about halves.
Proceed like this--How many halves in a pie? If a pie cost 10 cents, what will half a pie cost? Who can tell other stories about halves? etc.
Learn fourths along with halves.
LEARNING THE FRACTION 1/3 AND OTHERS WITH DISKS
Cut several disks into thirds and have children practice on cutting, so that they will be able to make the three parts of each disk equal. Frequently children will find pleasure in “teaching” one another.
Then proceed like this: What do you call each of these parts? Why are they called thirds? How many thirds in a circle? I am going to take a circle and cut it any way, so as to make three parts; do I call these unequal parts thirds? Why not? Let me write one-third on a piece of paper for you. (Write, 1/3.) Draw a circle for me. Instead of cutting it, draw lines where you would cut it to make thirds. Write one-third (1/3) on each third of a circle. I write this (1/3 + 1/3). Who can tell me what the answer is? Are two-thirds and two-thirds more than one? How much more? I have two-thirds of an apple and give Mary one-third, how much have I left? Who can give other story problems about thirds? Everybody try, etc.
Learn sixths along with thirds. Use disks, dots, marks, sticks, and inches to illustrate.
Remember that no advance should be made until each little part is understood. Then have fifths compared with fourths, thirds, and halves.
Teach tenths along with fifths.
When twelfths are taught, show the relations between twelfths and sixths, fourths, thirds, and halves.
EQUAL FRACTIONS IN DIFFERENT FORMS
Have the children see how fractions may differ in form but still remain the same in value.
Begin with his knowledge of smaller fractions as
1 2 3 4 5 -, -, -, -, and -- of an apple. 2 4 6 8 10
Let them show by the use of drawings that fractions may have large or small terms but be equal in value.
Write a number of proper fractions, improper fractions, and mixed numbers, and have the children pick out those of each kind; as,
3 5 19 20 18 11 -, 27-1/2, --, --, --, --, --, 3-1/2, 16-2/3 8 11 20 20 16 5
PRINCIPLES OF FRACTIONS
1. A fraction’s value is the quotient obtained by dividing the numerator by the denominator.
6 6 - = 3 3 is the value of - 2 2
2 2 2 2 - = - - is the value of - 3 3 3 3
2. Multiplying the denominator of a fraction divides the fraction by that number.
1 1 - = - 2 × 4 8
3 3 - = -- 7 × 3 21
2 2 - = -- 3 × 9 27
3. Dividing the denominator of a fraction multiplies the fraction by that number.
3 3 - = - 8 ÷ 4 2
10 10 -- = -- 9 ÷ 3 3
3 3 -- = - 10 ÷ 5 2
4. Multiplying the numerator of a fraction multiplies the fraction by that number.
2 × 2 4 - = - 3 3
1 × 8 8 - = - 9 9
5 × 3 15 - = -- 8 8
5. Dividing the numerator of a fraction divides the fraction by that number.
4 ÷ 2 2 - = - 7 7
12 ÷ 12 1 -- = -- 16 16
3 ÷ 3 1 - = - 7 7
6. Multiplying both numerator and denominator of a fraction by the same number does not change the value of the fraction.
1 × 3 3 1 - = - = - 3 × 3 9 3
6 × 2 12 6 - = -- = - 7 × 2 14 7
7. Dividing both numerator and denominator of a fraction by the same number does not change the value of the fraction.
12 ÷ 3 4 12 -- = - = -- 15 ÷ 3 5 15
18 ÷ 9 2 18 -- = - = -- 27 ÷ 9 3 27
REDUCTION OF FRACTIONS
is the process of changing their forms without altering their values.
To reduce a fraction to its lowest terms:
RULE.--Divide both terms by their greatest common divisor.
Reduce 8/12 to its lowest terms.
WORK: 4) 8/12 (2/3 Ans. 2/3
Four is the G. C. D. of 8 and 12; hence 8/12 ÷ 4 = 2/3.
Reduce 35/56 to its lowest terms.
WORK: 7) 35/56 (5/8 Ans. 5/8
Seven is the G. C. D. of 35 and 56; hence 35/56 ÷ 7 = 5/8.
A fraction whose terms have no common divisor is in its lowest terms, as 9/16.
To reduce an improper fraction to a whole or mixed number:
RULE.--Divide the numerator by the denominator; the quotient will be the whole or mixed number.
How many units in 30/6?
WORK: 30 ÷ 6 = 5 Ans. 5.
There are as many units in 30 sixths as 6 is contained times in 30.
Reduce 75/4 to a mixed number.
WORK: 75 ÷ 4 = 18 + 3 Ans. 18-3/4.
In 75 fourths there are 18 units, and 3 fourths over, which equals 18-3/4.
To reduce a mixed number to an improper fraction:
RULE.--Multiply the whole number by the denominator of the fraction; add the numerator to the product, and write the sum over the denominator.
Reduce 18-3/4 to an improper fraction.
WORK: 18 × 4 = 72
72/4 + 3/4 = 75/4
Ans. 75/4.
In 18 are 72 fourths, plus the 3 fourths, equals 75 fourths.
To reduce two or more fractions to their least common denominator:
RULE.--Find the least common multiple of the given denominators for a common denominator. Then for each new numerator take such a part of this common denominator as the fraction is part of 1.
Reduce 1/2, 2/3 and 3/4 to their L. C. D.
WORK:
1 6 - = -- 2 12
2 8 - = -- 3 12
3 9 - = -- 4 12
Ans. 6/12, 8/12 and 9/12.
The L. C. M. of the denominators 2, 3 and 4 is 12. Hence, 12 is the L. C. D. to which the given fractions can be reduced. Then to change 1/2 to 12ths, say, 1/2 of 12 is 6, and write it over 12; to change 2/3 to 12ths, say 2/3 of 12 is 8, and write it over 12; to change 3/4 to 12ths, say, 3/4 of 12 is 9, and write it over 12.
Fractions must be reduced to a common denominator to be added or subtracted.
ADDITION OF FRACTIONS
If two or more fractions have the same denominator, their sum is obtained by adding the numerators.
WORK: 1 4 5 1 + 4 + 5 10 3 - + - + - = --------- = -- = 1- 7 7 7 7 7 7
If the fractions have different denominators, we must first express them as equivalent fractions with the same denominator.
EXAMPLE 1: Find the value of
1 3 5 2 - + - + -- + - 9 7 21 3
The lowest common multiple is 63. The several denominators, when divided into 63, give 7, 9, 3, 21 respectively, for quotients. Therefore, we multiply the numerators and denominators of the fractions by 7, 9, 3, 21, and add the numerators to obtain the required sum. The result must be reduced to a mixed number or to lower terms, if necessary.
WORK:
1 3 5 2 - + - + -- + - 9 7 21 3
7 + 27 + 15 + 42 = ---------------- 63
= 91/63 = 1-28/63 = 1-4/9 Ans.
In adding mixed numbers, first add the whole numbers, then the fractions, finally adding the two results.
EXAMPLE 2: Add together 3-1/8 + 7/24 + 7-11/15 + 4-3/20. Given expression:
1 7 11 3 = 3 + 7 + 4 + - + -- + -- + -- 8 24 15 20
15 + 35 + 88 + 18 = 14 + ----------------- 120
156 36 3 = 14 + --- = 14 + 1--- = 15-- Ans. 120 120 10
SUBTRACTION OF FRACTIONS
The principle is the same as in addition. Reduce the fractions, if they have different denominators, to a common denominator, and then take the difference of the numerators. In the case of mixed numbers, subtract the whole numbers and the fractions separately.
EXAMPLE 1: Take 4-5/21 from 6-3/7.
3 5 3 5 6- - 4-- = 6 - 4 + - - -- 7 21 7 21
9 - 5 = 2 + ----- 21
4 4 = 2 + -- = 2-- Ans. 21 21
If the fractional part of the number to be subtracted be greater than the fractional part of the other number, we proceed as follows:
EXAMPLE 2: From 7-4/15 take 4-11/25.
4 11 4 11 7-- - 4-- = 7 - 4 + -- - -- 15 25 15 25
20 - 33 = 3 + ------- 75
75 + 20 - 33 = 2 + ------------ 75
62 62 = 2 + -- = 2-- Ans. 75 75
EXAMPLE 3: Simplify 3-2/9 + 4-5/7 - 5-13/21 + 2/35 - 1-14/15. Given expression:
2 5 13 2 14 = 3 + 4 - 5 - 1 + - + - - -- + -- - -- 9 7 21 35 15
70 + 225 - 195 + 18 - 294 = 1 + ------------------------- 315
313 - 489[15] = 1 + --------- 315
628 - 489 139 = --------- = --- Ans. 315 315
[15] Obtained by adding all the numerators with + before them, and then all those with - before them.
MULTIPLICATION OF FRACTIONS
(i) When the multiplier is a whole number. This, as in the case of whole numbers, means that we have to find the sum of a given number of repetitions of the fraction.
EXAMPLE 1:
7 7 7 7 7 28 - × 4 means - + - + - + -, i.e., --; or 9 9 9 9 9 9
7 × 4 ----- 9
Hence, to multiply a fraction by a whole number, simply multiply the numerator by that number.
Since the multiplier thus becomes a factor of the numerator, we cancel any common factors contained in the multiplier and the denominator; and this may be done before we perform the actual multiplication:
EXAMPLE 2: Multiply 19/46 by 69.
19 19 × 69 19 × 3 57 -- × 69 = ------- + ------ (cancelling 23), = -- = 28-1/2 Ans. 46 46 2 2
It follows that if the multiplier be itself a factor of the denominator, we may, to multiply a fraction by a whole number, divide the denominator by that number.
(ii) When the multiplier is a fraction.
EXAMPLE: In performing the operation 7 × 9, it is plain that we do to 7 what we do to a unit to obtain 9. Similarly, 3/5 × 4/11 may be looked upon as doing to 3/5 what we do to the unit to obtain 4/11.
Now, to obtain 4/11 from the unit, we must divide the unit into 11 equal parts and take 4 of them.
Therefore, to find the value of 3/5 × 4/11 we must divide 3/5 into 11 equal parts and take 4 of them.
But 3/5 = 33/55 = 3/55 × 11, so that, the eleventh part of 3/5 is 3/55; and, if we take 4 of these parts, we get 3/55 × 4 or 12/55.
3 4 12 Thus, - × -- = --. Now 12 = 3 × 4, and 55 = 5 × 11. 5 11 55
Hence we have the following rule: To multiply two fractions together, multiply the numerators for a new numerator and the denominators for a new denominator.
As in Example 2 the work is shortened if we cancel common factors from the numerators and denominators.
EXAMPLE: Multiply 22/91 by 13/77.
2 2̸2̸ × 1̸3̸ 2 The product = -------- = -- Ans. 9̸1̸ × 7̸7̸ 49 7 7
Here, the 22 of the numerator and the 77 of the denominator contain a common factor, 11. Therefore, we cross out the 22 and write 2 above it, and cross out the 77 and write 7 under it. Similarly, we cancel the factor 13 from 13 and 91. There is now 2 left for numerator and 7 × 7 for denominator.
To multiply more than two fractions together, we proceed in the same way.
In multiplication of fractions, mixed numbers must first be expressed as improper fractions.
EXAMPLE: Simplify 5-1/7 × 11/27 × 1-11/24.
3̸ 5 3̸6̸ 11 3̸5̸ 55 1 Given expression = -- × -- × -- = -- = 3-- Ans. 7̸ 2̸7̸ 2̸4̸ 18 18 9 2
DIVISION OF FRACTIONS
(i) When the divisor is a whole number. Suppose we have to divide 7/9 by 4.
We know 7/9 = 28/36. This fraction means that the unit is divided into 36 equal parts, and 28 of the parts taken. If we divide the 28 parts by 4, we get 7 of them--i.e. 7/36. Hence 7/9 ÷ 4 = 7/36.
Therefore, to divide a fraction by a whole number, we multiply the denominator by that number.
In the same way as already explained for multiplication, we cancel any common factors contained in the divisor and the numerator. Hence, if the numerator be exactly divisible by the divisor, we may divide a fraction by a whole number by dividing the numerator by that number.
EXAMPLE 1:
3 27 2̸7̸ 3 -- ÷ 18 = ------- = -- Ans. 31 31 × 1̸8̸ 62 2
EXAMPLE 2:
36 4 -- ÷ 9 = -- Ans. 41 41
(ii) When the divisor is a fraction.
In the operation 24 ÷ 3, we have to find the number which, when multiplied by 3, will give 24. Similarly, to find the value of 3/7 ÷ 5/9 we have to find the fraction which, when multiplied by 5/9, will give 3/7.
3 × 9 But ----- is the fraction which gives 3/7 when multiplied by 5/9. 7 × 5
3 5 3 × 9 Therefore, - ÷ - = -----. 7 9 7 × 5
Hence, to divide by a fraction, invert the divisor and multiply.
As in multiplication, mixed numbers must first be reduced to improper fractions.
EXAMPLE 3: Divide 3-1/14 by 5-5/42.
3 1 5 43 215 4̸3̸ 4̸2̸ 3 3-- ÷ 5-- = -- ÷ --- = -- × --- = - Ans. 14 42 14 42 1̸4̸ 2̸1̸5̸ 5 5
DECIMAL FRACTIONS
Differ in form from common fractions, in not having a written denominator; and from whole numbers, by having the decimal point (.) prefixed; which also separates the integral part from the decimal. The word decimal is derived from the Latin word decem, which signifies ten. The denominator of a decimal is always 10, or some power of 10, as 100, 1000, etc.
A Complex Decimal is a decimal with a common fraction at the right, as, .12-1/2.
A Mixed Decimal is a whole number with a decimal fraction to its right, as, 34.5.
The denominations of United States money are based on the decimal system--the dollar occupying the unit’s place, the dime the tenth’s place, the cent the hundredth’s place, and the mill the thousandth’s place.
The rules given for addition, subtraction, and so on, also apply to decimals.
ADDITION IN DECIMALS
EXAMPLE: 27.295 + .0287 + 591.68 + 9.1846.
27.295 .0287 591.68 9.1846 -------- 628.1883 Ans.
Write the numbers so that the same powers of 10 come under one another, or, what is the same thing, write the numbers so that the decimal points come under one another. Then, adding the ten-thousandths first, 6, 13, carry 1, etc.
SUBTRACTION IN DECIMALS
EXAMPLE: Subtract .07295 from 21.651.
21.651 .07295 -------- 21.57805 Ans.
Write the first number under the second, so that the point comes under the point. Remember that we may consider there are 0’s above the 9 and 5, since in 21.651 there are no ten-thousandths and no hundred-thousandths.
Say, mentally 5 and 5 make 10, carry 1. 10 and 0 make 10, carry 1. 3 and 8 make 11, carry 1, etc.
MULTIPLICATION IN DECIMALS
RULE.--Multiply as in whole numbers, and point off from the right of the product as many places as there are decimal places in both multiplier and multiplicand--prefixing ciphers if necessary.
EXAMPLE 1: Multiply 87.432 by 564.
87.432 564 --------- 43716.0 5245.92 349.728 --------- 49311.648 Ans.
Place the multiplier so that its unit’s digit comes under the right-hand digit of the multiplicand. Then place the first figure of each product underneath the multiplying digit. The decimal point of the answer will then be directly under the decimal point of the multiplicand.
EXAMPLE 2: Multiply 31.56 by 5.49.
31.56 5.49 -------- 157.80 12.624 2.8404 --------- 173.2644 Ans.
As before, place the unit’s figure of the multiplier--that is, the 5--under the right-hand digit of 31.56, and proceed as above.
Note.--The number of decimal places in the product will always be equal to the sum of the number of decimal places in the multiplier and the multiplicand. Thus, in Example 2, there are two places of decimals (i.e. two figures to the right of the point) in 31.56, and two places of decimals in 5.49; and we found 2 + 2 = 4 places in the product 173.2644.
To multiply a decimal by 10, 100, etc.
Rule.--Remove the (.) as many places to the right as there are ciphers in the multiplier.
Work: 8.75 × 10 = 87.5 8.75 × 100 = 875. 8.75 × 1000 = 8750.
DIVISION OF DECIMALS
RULE.--Divide as in whole numbers, annexing ciphers to the dividend, if necessary; then point off from the right of the quotient as many places as the decimal places in the dividend exceed those in the divisor--prefixing ciphers if necessary.
(a) Division of a decimal by a whole number.
EXAMPLE 1: Divide 18.2754 by 4.
4)18.2754 -------- 4.56885
We divide 4 into 18 (units) and have 4 (units) quotient and 3 units remainder. Since the 4 is the unit’s figure of the quotient, we write the decimal point immediately after it. Then, the 2 units remainder and the 2 tenths of the dividend make 22 tenths to be divided by 4, and so on. Having reached the 4 (ten-thousandths) of the dividend, we find 8 (ten-thousandths) quotient and 2 remainder. This remainder is 20 hundred-thousandths, which when divided by 4 gives 5 (hundred-thousandths) and no further remainder.
EXAMPLE 2: Divide 18.2758 by 11.
11)18.2758 -------- 1.66143636
Here we find the digits 3, 6 repeated indefinitely in the quotient. Decimals of this sort will be fully considered later.
EXAMPLE 3: Divide 354.43 by 184.
184)354.43(1.92625 Ans. ---- 1704 ---- 483 --- 1150[16] ---- 460 --- 920 ---
Here we find the first figure of the quotient is obtained by dividing 184 into 354 units. Having now reached the decimal point in the dividend we also put the decimal point in the answer, and go on as before.
[16] At this stage there is a remainder 115 hundredths. We bring down 0 from the dividend, and obtain 1150 thousandths, etc.
(b) Division of a decimal.
EXAMPLE 4: Divide 10.6603 by 7.85.
Thus:
785)1066.03(1.358 Ans. ----- 2810 ---- 4553 ---- 6280 ----
Here 7.85 is 785 hundredths, and 10.6603 is 1066.03 hundredths; so that the required quotient is obtained by dividing 1066.03 by 785.
Therefore, to divide by a decimal, move the point as many places to the right as will make the divisor a whole number; move the point in the dividend the same number of places to the right. Then proceed as in Example 3.
EXAMPLE 5: Divide 176.4 by .00012.
12)17640000 --------- Ans. 1470000
Here, to make the divisor a whole number, we have to move the point 5 places. Therefore we also move the point 5 places to the right in the dividend, first writing enough 0’s after the 176.4 to enable us to do so.
To divide a decimal by 10, 100, etc.
RULE.--Remove the (.) as many places to the left as there are ciphers in the divisor.
WORK:
62.5 ÷ 10 = 6.25 62.5 ÷ 100 = .625 62.5 ÷ 1000 = .0625
Expression of decimal fractions as common fractions.
EXAMPLE: Express 5.375 as a common fraction.
.375 = 375 thousandths.
375 3 Therefore 5.375 = 5---- = 5- Ans. 1000 8
RULE.--Take the digits of the decimal for numerator; for the denominator put down 1 followed by as many ciphers as there are digits in the decimal. Reduce this fraction to its lowest terms.
Expression of common fractions as decimals.
We have seen that a common fraction represents the quotient of the numerator divided by the denominator. Therefore, to convert a common fraction to a decimal fraction, we divide the numerator by the denominator.
EXAMPLE: Express 3/32 as a decimal.
4) 3.0 --------- 8) .75 --------- .09375 Ans.
It will be found in many cases that there is always a remainder, so that the quotient can be continued indefinitely.
CIRCULATING DECIMALS
The learner has already discovered that some common fractions cannot be changed to exact decimal fractions, as--
1/3 =.33333 on to infinity. 2/3 =.66666 on to infinity. 7/33 =.212121, etc.
These decimals are known as Circulates, Recurring or Circulating decimals.
The part which recurs is called the Repetend.
This is marked by putting a dot over the first and last figures of it. For instance, if we write the 21 in the last case above, this way: 2̊1̊, it indicates that, if written out, the result would be 21212121, etc., on to infinity.
Where a circulating decimal occurs in work, it is best to reduce it to a common fraction. If need be, it may be expressed in the result as a circulate to any number of decimal places.
To change a pure circulate to a common fraction.
RULE.--Omit the (.) and write the figures of the repetend for the numerator, and as many 9’s for the denominator as there are places in the repetend.
EXAMPLES: Change the pure circulates .3̊, .2̊7̊, .1̊42857̊, to common fractions.
(3 1) .3̊, (- = -) Ans. 1/3. (9 3)
(27 3) .2̊7̊, (-- = --) Ans. 3/11 (99 11)
(142857 1) .1̊42857̊, (------ = -) Ans. 1/7 (999999 7)
To change a mixed circulate to a common fraction.
RULE.--From the whole decimal subtract the finite part, and make the remainder the numerator. For the denominator, write as many 9’s as there are figures in the repetend, and annex as many 0’s as there are finite places.
EXAMPLE: Change the mixed circulates .16̊ and .416̊ to common fractions.
15 1 16 - 1 = 15, --- = -. Ans. 1/6. 90 6
375 5 416 - 41 = 375, --- = -- Ans. 5/12. 900 12
To add, subtract, multiply and divide circulates, reduce them to common fractions, then apply the respective rules.
SHORT METHODS IN MERCHANDISING
When one of the numbers is an aliquot part of 100, the process of multiplication and division can often be very much shortened, as shown below.
Find cost of 27 yards of goods at 16-2/3c ($1/6) per yard. At $1 per yard, 27 yards cost $27; at $1/6, (27 ÷ 6), $4-1/2. Ans. $4-1/2.
Find cost of a bale of cotton, 528 pounds at 8-1/3c ($1/12) per pound. At $1 per pound, 528 pounds cost $528; at $1/12 (528 ÷ 12) $44. Ans. $44.
Find cost of 1845 pounds of iron, at 3-1/3c ($1/30) per pound. Take 1/30 of 1845, since 3-1/3c is 1/30 of $1. (1845 ÷ 30 = 61-1/2). Ans. $61-1/2.
Find cost of 16 pounds of butter at 37-1/2c ($3/8) per pound. Here we take 3/8 of 16. Say 1/8 of 16 is 2, and 3/8 is (2 × 3) 6. Or say 3 times 16 is 48, and 1/8 of 48 is 6. Ans. $6.
Find cost of 17-1/2 bushels of apples at 75c ($3/4) per bushel. The shortest way to find 3/4 of $17.50 is to diminish it by 1/4 of itself.
4)17.50 at $1 ------ 4.37-1/2 at $1/4 13.12-1/2 at $3/4
Ans. $13.12-1/2.
At 6-1/4c per pound how much sugar will $5 buy? As 6-1/4c is 1/16 of $1, evidently each dollar will buy 16 pounds. Ans. 80 pounds.
In multiplying by a fraction, write the quantity in a line with the numerator and cancel common factors.
Find cost of 72 yards of carpet, at 87-1/2c ($7/8) a yard. Cancel 8, also 72 and write 9 instead. Ans. $63.
7 × 7̸2̸ 9 = 63 - 8̸
Of 28 pounds of coffee, at 18-3/4c ($3/16) per pound. Cancel 28 and 16, write 7 and 4. Ans. $5-1/4.
3 × 2̸8̸ 7 21 ---- = -- or 5-1/4 1̸6̸ 4 4
At 66-2/3c ($2/3) per bushel, how many bushel of wheat will $34 buy? Ans. 51 bushel.
3 × 3̸4̸ 17 = 51 - 2̸
In division, invert terms of fraction.
How much syrup, at 41-2/3c ($5/12) per gallon can be bought for $15? Ans. 36 gallons.
12 × 1̸5̸ 3 = 36 -- 5̸
TABLE OF ALIQUOT PARTS OF 100
3-1/3 is 1/30 6-1/4 is 1/16 8-1/3 is 1/12 12-1/2 is 1/8 16-2/3 is 1/6 18-3/4 is 3/16 20 is 1/5 25 is 1/4 31-1/4 is 5/16 33-1/3 is 1/3 37-1/2 is 3/8 40 is 2/5 41-2/3 is 5/12 43-3/4 is 7/16 50 is 1/2 56-1/4 is 9/16 58-1/3 is 7/12 60 is 3/5 62-1/2 is 5/8 66-2/3 is 2/3 68-3/4 is 11/16 75 is 3/4 80 is 4/5 81-1/4 is 13/16 83-1/3 is 5/6 87-1/2 is 7/8 91-2/3 is 11/12 93-3/4 is 15/16
This table embodies all the aliquot parts of 100 and their equivalent fractions which are generally used in practical calculations.
PROBLEMS IN GRAIN, STOCK, COTTON, COAL, HAY, LUMBER, ETC.
To find the value of articles sold by the unit, hundred or thousand.
RULE.--Multiply the quantity by the price, or vice versa, and point off the proper number of decimal places in the result.
Find the cost of a bale (518 pounds) of cotton at 7-3/8c per pound.
518 × .07 = 36.26 „ .00-3/8 = 1.94-1/4 --------- Ans. $38.20-1/4
At 7c (.07) per pound, 518 pounds cost $36.26; at 3/8c, $1.94-1/4. For 3/8 of 518, multiply by 3, and divide product by 8.
Find cost of a lot of hogs, weighing 8740 pounds, at $4.35 per hundredweight.
87.40 4.35 -------- 380.1900
The price being $4.35 per 100 pounds and as in 8740 pounds there are 87.40 hundredweight, four decimal places are pointed off. Ans. $380.19.
Find the cost of 2864 feet of lumber, at $17-1/4 per 1000 feet.
Price being dollars per 1000, point off three places. (2.864 × 17-1/4 = 49.404.) Ans. $49.40.
To find the value of articles sold by the ton (2000 pounds).
RULE.--Multiply the weight by the price and take half of the product.
Find the cost of 2680 pounds of hay, at $11-1/2 per ton.
Point off three places, when price is dollars; five if dollars and cents. (2680 × 11-1/2 = 30820; 30820 ÷ 2 = 15.410.) Ans. $15.41.
When the long ton of 2240 pounds is used.
RULE.--Multiply the weight by the price and divide the product by 2.240.
Find the cost of 4800 pounds coal, at $6-3/4 per long ton. (4800 × 6-3/4) ÷ 2.24 = $14.46, Ans.
To find the cost of grain, when the price per bushel and weight is given.
RULE.--Reduce the weight to bushels, and multiply by the price.
Find the cost of 3570 pounds of shelled corn, at 36c per bushel.
56)3570(63.75 bu. .36 ------ Ans. $22.9500
To reduce pounds of shelled corn to bushels, divide by 56. At 36c per bushel, 63.75 bushels come to $22.95.
Find cost of 2900 pounds of wheat, at 57c per bushel.
To reduce pounds of wheat to bushels divide by 60. 2900 ÷ 60 = 48-1/3 bushels; 48-1/3 × .57 = $27.55, Ans.
In computing the value of grain, the operation can often be abbreviated by cancellation.
RULE.--Write the weight and price per bushel, on the right of a vertical line, and the number of pounds to the bushel on the left. Then cancel common factors, as explained above.
Find the cost of 3230 bushels of wheat, at 72c per bushel.
60 ¦ 3230 ¦ 72 12 323 × 12 = 38.76
Here we cancel the 0’s on both sides; then, 6 and 72, which leaves 323 and 12. Their product being the answer.
At 28c per bushel, what will 4080 pounds of oats cost?
32 ¦ 4080 510 4 ¦ 28 7 ------ Ans. $35.70
Oats, 32 pounds to the bushel. See table, page 861. Cancel 32 and 4080, then, 4 and 28, leaving the factors 510 and 7.
Other short cuts for computing cost of merchandise, produce, etc.
Find cost of 26-1/2 dozen eggs, at 18-1/2c a dozen.
26 × 18 = 4.68 1/2 of 44 = .22 --------- 1/2 × 1/2 = 1/4 4.90-1/4 Ans. $4.90.
When both fractions are 1/2. To product of the whole numbers, add 1/2 of their sum, and annex 1/4 to answer.
Of 53-3/4 pounds of butter, at 28-3/4c per pound.
53 × .28 = 14.84 3/4 of 81 = .60-3/4 --------- 3/4 × 3/4 = 9/16 15.45 Ans. $15.45-9/16.
To the product of the whole numbers, add 3/4 of their sum, plus the square of 3/4.
Of 13-1/4 yards of flannel, at 31-1/4c per yard.
13 × .31 = 4.03 + .11 = 4.14, Ans.
To 4.03 add .11, 1/4 of 44 (13 + 31). The 1/16 (1/4 × 1/4) is disregarded.
DENOMINATE NUMBERS
Simple denominate numbers.--When we speak of measures, whether they are of money, extension, time, or weight, we use terms like 5 dollars, 4 yards, 3 hours, or 10 pounds to express the quantity we are talking about.
Sometimes we use two or more terms or names to express the measure, as 3 hours, 15 minutes, 10 seconds; 4 gallons, 3 quarts, 1 pint. These are compound denominate numbers.
The chief differences between compound numbers and simple numbers is, that with the exceptions of United States money, and the metric system of weights and measures, the denominations of compound numbers do not increase or decrease by the scale of ten.
REDUCTION.--Reduction of Compound Numbers is the process of changing them from one denomination to another without altering their value.
Reduction Descending is changing the denomination of a number to another that is lower, as: 2 hours = 120 minutes; 2 feet = 24 inches.
Reduction Ascending is changing the denomination of a number to another that is higher, as: 120 minutes = 2 hours; 24 inches = 2 feet.
RULES FOR ADDITION OF DENOMINATE NUMBERS
First.--Write the names of the different units to be used in addition, placing them in a horizontal row, the largest to the left.
Next.--Write the numbers of each unit to be added, below the names of the units, each in its proper place.
Then.--Add and place each sum below the column added.
EXAMPLE: Add 7 hours 15 minutes 30 seconds, 9 hours 30 minutes 40 seconds, and 11 hours 40 minutes 32 seconds.
WORK:
hours minutes seconds 7 15 30 9 30 40 11 40 32 --------------------------- 28 26 42
EXPLANATION: 32 seconds + 40 seconds + 30 seconds = 102 seconds. But, 102 seconds = 1 minute 42 seconds. Write the 42 below and carry the 1 minute. 1 minute (carried) + 15 minutes + 30 minutes + 40 minutes = 86 minutes. But, 86 minutes = 1 hour 26 minutes. Write the 26 and carry the 1 hour. 1 hour + 11 hours + 9 hours + 7 hours = 28 hours. Result = 28 hours 26 minutes 42 seconds.
SUBTRACTION OF DENOMINATE QUANTITIES
EXAMPLE: Subtract 6 tons 12 cwt. 9 pounds 10 ounces from 15 tons 7 cwt. 13 pounds 9 ounces.
WORK:
Tons Cwt. Pounds Ounces 15 7 13 9 6 12 9 10 -------------------------------- 8 15 3 15
EXPLANATION: (1) Place as in addition of denominate quantities. 10 ounces cannot be taken from 9 ounces, so we must take 1 pound from the 13 pounds and add it to the nine ounces. 16 ounces + 9 ounces = 25 ounces. 25 - 10 = 15. Write the 15 below.
(2) Now there are only 12 pounds left to take the 9 from. 12 - 9 = 3. Write the 3 below.
(3) 12 is larger than 7. 1 ton + 7 cwt. = 27 cwt. 27 - 12 = 15. Write the 15 below.
(4) 14 - 6 = 8. Write the 8 below.
(5) Result = 8 tons 15 cwt. 3 pounds 15 ounces.
MULTIPLICATION OF DENOMINATE QUANTITIES
EXAMPLE: Multiply 21 yards 2 feet 11 inches by 6.
WORK:
Yards Feet Inches 21 2 11 6 --------------------- 131 2 6
EXPLANATION: (1) 6 × 11 inches = 66 inches = 5 feet 6 inches. Write the 6 below and carry the 5.
(2) 6 × 2 feet = 12 feet. 12 feet + 5 feet (carried) = 17 feet, or 5 yards 2 feet. Write the 2 below and carry the 5.
(3) 6 × 21 yards = 126 yards. 126 yards + 5 yards = 131 yards.
(4) Result = 131 yards 2 feet 6 inches.
DIVISION OF DENOMINATE QUANTITIES
PROBLEM: Divide 3 years 9 months 4 days by 12.
WORK
Years Months Days Hours 12)3 9 4 0 --------------------------------- 0 3 22 20
EXPLANATION: (1) We cannot divide 3 by 12, so we reduce 3 years to months. 3 years = 36 months. 36 months + 9 months = 45 months. 45 ÷ 12 = 3, and a remainder 9. Write the 3 and carry the remainder 9.
(2) 9 months (carried) = 270 days. 270 days + 4 days = 274 days. 274 ÷ 12 = 22, and a remainder 10. Write the 22 and carry the 10.
(3) 10 days = 240 hours. 240 ÷ 12 = 20. Write the 20.
(4) Result = 3 months 22 days 20 hours.
REDUCTION ASCENDING
RULES: 1. Divide the given denomination by the number which will reduce it to the next higher denomination. Divide the quotient in the same manner, and continue the operation until the entire quantity is reduced.
2. To the last quotient annex the several remainders in their proper order. The result will be the answer.
EXAMPLE: Reduce 201458 inches to higher denominations.
WORK: SOLUTION: 12 | 201458 inches 201458 inches = 16788 feet 2 inches. +------------------------- 3 | 16788 feet 2 inches 16788 feet 2 inches = 5596 yards 2 +------------------------- inches. 5-1/2| 5596 yards 5596 yards 2 inches = 1017 rods 2 2 | 2 yards 1 foot 8 inches. -------+------------------------- 11 | 11192 half yards +------------------------- 320 | 1017 rods 5 half yards 1017 rods 2 yards 1 foot 8 inches = +----------------\/------- 3 miles 57 rods 2 yards 1 foot 8 |3 miles 57 rods || inches. +----------------/\------- | 2 yds. 1 ft. 6 in.
201458 inches = 3 miles 57 rods 2 yards 1 foot 8 inches.
REDUCTION DESCENDING
RULES: 1. Write the given quantity in the order of its denominations, beginning with the highest, and supply vacant denominations with ciphers.
2. Multiply the highest denomination by the number which will reduce it to the next lower denomination, and add to the product the units of the lower denomination, if there be any.
3. Proceed in the same manner until the entire quantity is reduced to the required denomination.
EXAMPLE: Reduce 10 yards 8 feet 10 inches to inches.
WORK: SOLUTION: Yards Feet Inches 10 8 10 10 yards = 10 × 3 feet = 30 feet. 30 feet and 8 3 feet are 38 feet. --- 38 38 feet = 38 × 12 inches, or 456 inches. 456 12 inches + 10 inches = 466 inches. --- 456 10 --- 466
Note.--To prove the above work, use reduction ascending, beginning with the result.
LONG OR LINEAR MEASURE
Long or linear measure is used in measuring lines and distances.
There are two systems in use in the United States, the English System and the French System. The English system is the one commonly used, while the French system is used in making scientific measurements. (See under Metric System.)
TABLE OF LONG MEASURE
12 inches (in.) = 1 foot (ft.) 3 feet = 1 yard (yd.) 5-1/2 yards, or 16-1/2 feet = 1 rod (rd.) 320 rods, or 5280 feet = 1 mile (mi.) 1760 yards = 1 mile
mi. rd. yd. ft. in. 1 = 320 = 1760 = 5280 = 63360
Architects, carpenters, and mechanics frequently write ′ for foot, and ′′ for inch. Thus 8′ 7′′ means 8 feet 7 inches.
Other measures of length are:
1 hand = 4 in. Used in measuring the height of horses. 1 fathom = 6 ft. Used in measuring depths at sea. 1 knot, nautical or geographical mile = 1.1526-2/3 miles or 6086 feet.
The knot is used in measuring distances at sea. It is equivalent to 1 minute of longitude at the equator.
SURVEYORS’ LINEAR MEASURE
7.92 inches = 1 link (l.) 25 links = 1 rod (rd.) 4 rods or 100 links = 1 chain (ch.) 80 chains = 1 mile (mi.)
mi. ch. rd. l. in. 1 = 80 = 320 = 8000 = 63360
The linear unit commonly employed by surveyors is Gunter’s chain, which is 4 rods or 66 feet.
An engineers’ Chain, used by civil engineers, is 100 feet long, and consists of 100 links.
MEASURES OF LENGTH
The following measures of length are also used:
3 barleycorns = 1 inch. Used by shoemakers. 4 inches = 1 hand. Used to measure the height of horses. 6 feet = 1 fathom. Used to measure depths at sea. 3 feet = 1 pace. } Used in pacing distances. 5 paces = 1 rod. } 8 furlongs = 1 mile. 1.15 statute miles = 1 geographical, or nautical mile. 3 geographical miles = 1 league.
60 geographical miles} {of Latitude on a Meridian, } = 1 degree {or of Longitude 69.16 statute miles } {on the Equator.
The length of a degree of latitude varies. 69.16 miles is the average length, and is that adopted by the United States Coast Survey.
The standard unit of length is identical with the imperial yard of Great Britain.
The standard yard, under William IV., was declared to be fixed by dividing a pendulum which vibrates seconds in a vacuum, at the level of the sea, at 62 degrees Fahrenheit, in the latitude of London, into 391,393 equal parts, and taking 360,000 of these parts for the yard.
The following denominations also occur: The span = 9 inches; 1 common cubit (the distance from the elbow to the end of the middle finger) = 18 inches; 1 sacred cubit = 21.888 inches.
SURFACE MEASURES
Square Measure, used in measuring surfaces, such as cloth, ceilings, floors, etc.; paving, glazing, and stone-cutting, by the square foot; roofing, flooring, and slating by the square of 100 feet.
A surface has two dimensions, length and breadth.
A square is a figure that has four equal sides and four right angles.
The unit of measure for surfaces is a square, each of whose sides is a linear unit. Thus, a square inch is a square, each of whose sides is one inch long; a square foot is a square, each of whose sides is one foot long, etc.
The area of a square is the product of two of its sides. Thus, the area of a surface 3 feet square is 3 × 3 = 9 square feet.
Hence, to find the area of a rectangle:
RULE.--Multiply the length by the breadth expressed in units of the same denomination.
As the area of a rectangle is found by taking the product of the numbers representing its length and breadth, it is evident that if the area be divided by either of those numbers, the quotient will be the other number. Hence, to find either side of a rectangle when its area and the other side are given:
RULE.--Divide the area by the given side. The quotient will be the required side.
Table of Square Measure
144 square inches (sq. in.) = 1 square foot (sq. ft.) 9 square feet = 1 square yard (sq. yd.) 30-1/4 square yards = 1 square rod (sq. rd.) 160 square rods = 1 acre (A.) 640 acres = 1 square mile (sq. mi.)
Sq. ′ and sq. ′′ are frequently used for square foot and square inch. Thus, 15 sq.′ 6 sq.′′ means 15 square feet 6 square inches.
A square is 100 square feet. It is used in measuring roofing.
PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF SQUARE MEASURE
PAPERING
Facts about Wall Paper:
(1) Wall paper in this country is 1/2 yard wide, and comes in rolls 8 yards long, or in double rolls, 16 yards long.
(2) It is sold by the roll only.
(3) Bordering is sold by the linear yard.
(4) Make liberal allowances for waste in matching figures.
(5) If the border is wide, the strips need not extend to the ceiling.
Rules for Measuring:
(1) Measure the distance around the room in feet.
(2) Deduct the width of doors and windows.
(3) Divide the difference by 1-1/2, and the quotient will be the number of strips needed.
(4) Multiply the number of strips by the number of yards in a strip, and the product is the number of yards needed, approximately.
(5) Divide the number of yards by 8, and the result is the number of single rolls needed.
EXAMPLE: A room of ordinary height, 16 feet by 24 feet, has three windows and 2 doors, each 4 feet wide. How many rolls of paper are needed to paper the sides?
SOLUTION:
Distance around the room = 80 feet
Width of doors and windows = 20 feet ------- After deducting for doors and windows 60 feet 60 ÷ 7 = 8-4/7, or 9 double rolls.
CARPETING
Facts about Carpets:
(1) Carpets are usually 3/4 yard wide and are sold by the linear yard.
(2) Always draw a diagram of the floor or stairs to be covered.
(3) The number of yards required depends on which way the strips run--whether lengthwise or across the room. Sometimes by running the strips lengthwise, there is less waste in matching the pattern.
(4) The part cut off in matching patterns is charged to the purchaser.
Rules for Estimating:
The number of yards required will be the number of yards in a strip (including the waste for matching), multiplied by the number of strips.
EXAMPLE: What is the cost of carpeting a room 16 feet by 24 feet at 85c per yard? The carpet is 2-1/4 feet wide and the strips run lengthwise.
SOLUTION:
16 ÷ 2-1/4 = 7-1/9. Hence, I must buy 8 strips.
24 ÷ 3 = 8, which is the number of yards in a strip.
8 × 8 yards = 64 yards.
64 yards will cost 64 × 85c, or $54.40.
To this must be added the cost of sewing, the laying of the carpet, and the waste in matching the pattern.
LAND MEASURE
RULE.--To find the number of acres in a tract of land, divide the number of square rods by 160, or number of square chains by 10.
EXAMPLE: (1) How many square rods, also acres, in a field 80 rods long and 62-1/2 rods wide?
80 × 62-1/2 = 5000 square rods; 5000 ÷ 160 = 31-1/4 acres.
Ans. 31-1/4 acres.
(2) In tract, 79 chains 84 links (79.84 chains) by 41 chains 25 links (41.25 chains)?
79.84 × 41.25 = 3293.4 square chains; 3293.4 ÷10 = 329.34 acres. Ans. 329.34 acres.
Table showing one side of a Square Tract or Lot containing
1 acre = 208.7 feet = 43,560 square feet 1-1/2 acres = 255.6 feet = 65,340 square feet 2 acres = 295.2 feet = 87,120 square feet 2-1/2 acres = 330 feet = 108,900 square feet 3 acres = 361.5 feet = 130,680 square feet 5 acres = 466.7 feet = 217,800 square feet 10 acres = 660 feet = 435,600 square feet 1/10 acre = 66 feet = 4,356 square feet 1/8 acre = 73.8 feet = 5,445 square feet 1/6 acre = 85.2 feet = 7,260 square feet 1/4 acre = 104.4 feet = 10,890 square feet 1/3 acre = 120.5 feet = 14,520 square feet 1/2 acre = 147.6 feet = 21,780 square feet 3/4 acre = 180.8 feet = 32,670 square feet
TABLE OF SURVEYORS’ SQUARE MEASURE
272-1/2 square feet = 1 square rod 16 square rods = 1 square chain 160 square rods, or 10 square chains = 1 acre 640 acres = 1 square mile, or section 36 square miles, or 36 sections = 1 township
TEXAS LAND MEASURE
(Also used in Mexico, New Mexico, Arizona, and California)
26,000,000 square varas (square of 5,099 varas) = 1 league and 1 labor = 4,605.5 acres 1,000,000 square varas (square of 1,000 varas) = 1 labor = 177.136 acres 25,000,000 square varas (square of 5,000 varas) = 1 league = 4,428.4 acres 12,500,000 square varas (square of 3,535.5 varas) = 1/2 league = 2,214.2 acres 8,333,333 square varas (square of 2,886.7 varas) = 1/3 league = 1,476.13 acres 6,250,000 square varas (square of 2,500 varas) = 1/4 league = 1,107.1 acres 7,225,600 square varas (square of 2,688 varas) = 1,280 acres 3,612,800 square varas (square of 1,900.8 varas) = 1 section = 640 acres 1,806,400 square varas (square of 1,344 varas) = 1/2 section = 320 acres 903,200 square varas (square of 950.44 varas) = 1/4 section = 160 acres 451,600 square varas (square of 672 varas) = 1/8 section = 80 acres 225,800 square varas (square of 475 varas) = 1/16 section = 40 acres 5,645.376 square varas (square of 75.137 varas) = 4,840 square yards = 1 acre
To find the number of acres in any number of square varas, multiply the latter by 177 (or to be more exact, by 177-1/8), and cut off six decimals.
1 vara = 33-1/3 inches
1,900.8 varas = 1 mile.
THE MEASURE OF SOLIDS, OR CUBIC MEASURE
Just as the rectangle is the chief surface considered in arithmetic, so the rectangular solid is the chief solid body.
A rectangular solid is bounded by six rectangular surfaces, each opposite pair of rectangles being equal and parallel to each other.
A rectangular solid thus has three dimensions--length, breadth, and thickness.
If the length, breadth, and thickness are all equal to one another, the solid is called a cube. Hence, a cubic foot, the unit of volume, is a solid body whose length, breadth, and thickness are each a linear foot. Similarly, a cubic inch measures one linear inch in length, breadth, and thickness; and a cubic yard measures one linear yard in length, breadth, and thickness.
The number of cubic feet (or inches, or yards) in the volume of a rectangular solid is equal to the number of linear feet (or inches, or yards) in the length, multiplied by the number of linear feet (or inches, or yards) in the breadth, multiplied by the number of linear feet (or inches, or yards) in the thickness.
This is usually abbreviated into
Length × breadth × thickness = volume, or cubic content.
For example, suppose the solid in the diagram is 10 feet in length, 8 feet in breadth, and 5 feet in thickness. It is clear that the solid can be cut into five slices, each 1 foot thick, by planes parallel to the bottom. But, the bottom contains 10×8 square feet and above each square foot there is a cubic foot. Thus, each slice contains 10×8 cubic feet. Therefore, since there are five slices, the whole solid contains 10×8×5, or 400 cubic feet.
Since length × breadth × thickness = cubic content, it follows that, if we know any three of these four quantities, we can find the fourth.
The student should remember that
(a) A cubic foot of water weighs 1000 ounces (avoirdupois) approximately.
(b) A gallon of pure water weighs 10 pounds (avoirdupois).
We have thus a relation between weight, capacity, and cubic content.
TABLE OF CUBIC MEASURE
1728 cubic inches (cu. in.) = 1 cubic foot (cu. ft.) 27 cubic feet = 1 cubic yard (cu. yd.) 128 cubic feet = 1 cord (C.)
Cubic Cubic Cubic Yard Feet Inches 1 = 27 = 46656
A cord of wood or stone is a pile 8 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 4 feet high.
A pile of wood 4 feet high, 4 feet wide and 1 foot long makes a cord foot. 8 cord feet = 1 cord.
A perch of stone or masonry is 16-1/2 feet long, 1-1/2 feet thick, and 1 foot high, and contains 24-3/4 cubic feet.
A cubic yard of earth is considered a load.
Brick work is commonly estimated by the thousand bricks.
Bricklayers, masons, and joiners commonly make a deduction of one half the space occupied by windows and doors in the walls of buildings.
In computing the contents of walls, masons and bricklayers multiply the entire distance around on the outside of the wall by the height and thickness. The corners are thus measured twice.
A cubic foot of distilled water at the maximum density, at the level of the sea, and the barometer at 30 inches, weighs 62-1/2 pounds or 1000 ounces avoirdupois.
By actual measurements, it has been found that a bushel, dry measure, contains about 1-1/4 cubic feet. This makes it easy to estimate about how many bushels any bin will hold.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF CUBIC MEASURE
EXAMPLE: An open tank made of iron 1/4 inch thick, is 4 feet long, 2 feet 6 inches broad, and 2 feet deep, outside measurement. Assuming that iron weighs 7.8 times as much as water, find the weight of the tank.
The external volume of the tank = 2 × 2-1/2 × 4 cubic feet = 20 cubic feet.
Since the iron is 1/4 inch thick, the inside length is 1/2 inch less than the outside, the inside breadth is 1/2 inch less than the outside, and the inside depth is 1/4 inch less than the outside.
Therefore the interior volume
= 29-1/2 × 47-1/2 × 23-3/4 cubic inches
59 × 95 × 95 = ------------ cubic inches 16
= 33279-11/16 cubic inches
Therefore, volume of iron in the tank
= 20 cubic feet - 33279-11/16 cubic inches = 1280-5/16 cubic inches.
But 1 cubic foot of iron weighs as much as 7.8 cubic feet of water, i. e., 7.8 × 1000 ounces, or 7800 ounces.
1280-5/16 × 7800 ∴ Weight of tank = ---------------- pounds. 1728 × 16
= 361.199 pounds, Ans.
EXAMPLE: A wood pile is 8 feet high and 40 feet long. The sticks are 4 feet long. How many cords in it?
SOLUTION: Being 8 feet high, it is 2 cords high. 40 feet in length equal 5 cords in length. Hence, the pile contains 2 × 5 cords, or 10 cords.
To estimate a bin:
(1) Find the number of cubic feet in the bin.
(2) Divide the number of cubic feet by 1-1/4.
(3) The result is the number of bushels.
EXAMPLE: How many bushels will a bin hold, if its inside measurements are, length 20 feet, width 12 feet, depth 8 feet?
SOLUTION: The number of cubic feet in a bin is 8 × 12 × 20, or 1920.
If 1 bushel contains 1-1/4 cubic feet, in 1920 cubic feet there are as many bushels as 1-1/4 is contained times in 1920, or 1536.
WORK:
8 × 12 × 20 = 1920 1920 ÷ 1-1/4 = 1536.
The work may be indicated in this way as well:--
8 × 12 × 20 × 4/5 = 1536.
To get the number of heaped bushels of corn in the ear in a crib:
(1) Multiply the length of the crib in inches by the width in inches.
(2) Multiply the product obtained, by the height of the corn in the crib in inches.
(3) Divide the result by 2748.
EXAMPLE: How much corn in the ear can I put into a crib 12 feet wide, 20 feet long, and 10 feet deep?
SOLUTION: The number of cubic inches in the crib is 144 × 240 × 120, or 4,147,200.
Since 2748 cubic inches hold 1 bushel, 4,147,200 cubic inches hold as many bushels as 2748 is contained times in 4,147,200, or 1509+ bushels.
WORK:
144 × 240 × 120 --------------- = 1509+. 2748
MEASURES OF CAPACITY
Measures used in telling the extent of room in vessels are called measures of capacity.
There are two kinds of capacity measures, dry measures and liquid measures.
Dry measures are used to measure grain, seeds, and the like.
Liquid measures are used to measure water, milk, oils, etc.
COMMON LIQUID MEASURE TABLE
4 gills (gi.) = 1 pint (pt.) 2 pints = 1 quart (qt.) 4 quarts = 1 gallon (gal.) 31-1/2 gallons = 1 barrel (bbl.) 2 barrels = 1 hogshead (hhd.)
Gallon Quarts Pints Gills 1 = 4 = 8 = 32
A pint, quart, or gallon, dry measure, is more than the same quantity, liquid measure; for a quart, dry measure, is 1/32 of a bushel, or 1/32 of 2150.4 cubic inches, which is about 67-1/5 cubic inches, while a quart liquid measure is 1/4 of 231 cubic inches, or 57-3/4 cubic inches.
Cu. In. Cu. In. Cu. In. Cu. In. in 1 Gal. in 1 Qt. in 1 Pt. in 1 Gi. Liquid measure 231 57-3/4 28-7/8 7-7/32 Dry measure 268-4/5 67-1/5 33-3/5 8-2/5
In determining the capacity of cisterns, reservoirs, etc., 31-1/2 gallons are considered a barrel (bbl.), and 2 barrels, or 63 gallons, a hogshead (hhd.). In commerce, however, the barrel and hogshead are not fixed measures.
Casks of large size, called tierces, pipes, butts, tuns, etc., do not hold any fixed quantity. Their capacity is usually marked upon them.
The standard gallon of the United States contains 231 cubic inches, and will hold a little over 8-1/3 pounds of distilled water. The imperial gallon, now adopted by Great Britain, contains 277.274 cubic inches, or 10 pounds of distilled water, temperature 62 degrees Fahrenheit, the barometer standing at 30 inches.
TABLE OF APOTHECARIES’ LIQUID MEASURE
These measures are used in mixing medicines.
60 minims (m) = 1 fluid dram (_f_ʒ) 8 fluid drams = 1 fluid ounce (f℥) 16 fluid ounces = 1 pint (O.) 8 pints = 1 gallon (Cong.)
A minim is about 1 drop.
TABLE OF DRY MEASURE
2 pints (pt.) = 1 quart (qt.) 8 quarts = 1 peck (pk.) 4 pecks = 1 bushel (bu.)
Bushel Pecks Quarts Pints 1 = 4 = 32 = 64
A common Winchester bushel (the standard of the United States) contains 2150.42 cubic inches.
A dry quart contains 67.2 cubic inches.
A liquid quart contains 57.75 cubic inches.
EXAMPLE 1: Reduce 5 bushels 2 pecks 4 quarts 1 pint to pints.
OPERATION:
4 8 2 bu. pk. qt. pts. 5 2 4 1 4 --- 22 pk. 8 --- 180 qt. 2 --- 361 pt.
EXPLANATION: As there are 4 pecks in 1 bushel, any number of bushels is equal to 4 times that number of pecks. Then, 5 bushels = 20 pecks, and 2 pecks added make 22 pecks. As there are 8 quarts in 1 peck, any number of pecks is equal to 8 times that number of quarts. Then 22 pecks = 176 quarts, and 4 quarts added make 180 quarts. As there are 2 pints in 1 quart, any number of quarts is equal to 2 times that number of pints. Then, 180 quarts = 360 pints, and 1 pint added make 361 pints. Hence, 5 bushels 2 pecks 4 quarts 1 pint = 361 pints.
EXAMPLE 2: Reduce 361 pints to bushels.
OPERATION: 2 |361 pt. +--- 8 |180 qt. + 1 pt. +--- 4 | 22 pk. + 4 qt. +--- | 5 bu. + 2 pk.
EXPLANATION: As there are 2 pints in 1 quart, 361 pints are equal to one-half that number of quarts = 180 quarts, with a remainder of 1 pint. Also, 180 quarts are equal to one-eighth of that number of pecks = 22 pecks, with a remainder of 4 quarts. Finally, 22 pecks are equal to one-fourth of that number of bushels = 5 bushels, with a remainder of 2 pecks. Hence, 361 pints are equal to 5 bushels 2 pecks 4 quarts 1 pint.
MEASURES OF WEIGHT
AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT
Avoirdupois Weight is used for weighing heavy articles as grain, groceries, coarse metals, etc.
16 ounces (oz.) = 1 pound (lb.) 100 pounds = 1 hundredweight (cwt.) 20 hundredweight = 1 ton (T.)
Hundred- Ton weight Pounds Ounces 1 = 20 = 2000 = 32000
Scale.--20, 100, 16.
In weighing coal at the mines and in levying duties at the United States Custom House, the long ton of 2240 pounds is sometimes used.
The ounce is considered as 16 drams.
The unit is the pound. It contains 7000 grains.
The following denominations are also used:
14 pounds = 1 stone 100 pounds butter = 1 firkin 100 pound grain or flour = 1 cental 100 pounds dried fish = 1 quintal 100 pounds nails = 1 keg 196 pounds flour = 1 barrel 200 pounds pork or beef = 1 barrel 280 pounds salt at N. Y. works = 1 barrel
TROY WEIGHT
Troy Weight is used in weighing gold, silver, and jewels.
TABLE
24 grains (gr.) = 1 pennyweight (pwt.) 20 pennyweights = 1 ounce (oz.) 12 ounces = 1 pound (lb.)
Penny- Pounds Ounces weights Grains 1 = 12 = 240 = 5760
In weighing diamonds, pearls, and other jewels, the unit commonly employed is the carat, which is equal to 4 carat grains, or 3.168 Troy grains.
The term carat is also used to express the fineness of gold, and means 1/24 part. Thus, gold that is 18 carats fine is 18/24 gold, and 6/24 alloy.
The standard unit of weight is the Troy pound. It is equal to the weight of 22.7944 cubic inches of distilled water at its maximum density, the barometer being at 30 inches. It is identical with the Troy pound of Great Britain.
The following are approximate avoirdupois weights of certain articles of produce according to the laws of the United States, and in the majority of States:
=Table I. UNITED STATES LEGAL WEIGHTS= (in pounds) =PER BUSHEL=
=Prepared by the United States Bureau of Standards=
================+============+====+=============+=====+=====+=====+====== STATE OR | APPLES | | BEANS | | | | TERRITORY +-----+------+ +-----+-------+ | | | |Apple| Dried|BAR-|Beans| Castor|BEETS|BLUE-|BRAN*|BROOM- | * |Apples| LEY| * | Beans,| |GRASS| | CORN | | | | |Shelled| | SEED| | SEED ----------------+-----+------+----+-----+-------+-----+-----+-----+------ =United States= | ...| ...| 48| 60| 50| ...| ...| ...| ... +-----+------+----+-----+-------+-----+-----+-----+------ =Alabama= | ...| 24| 47| 60| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Arizona= | ...| ...| 45|_a_55| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Arkansas= |_b_50| 24| 48|_a_60| ...| ...| 14| 20| 48 =California= | ...| ...| 50| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Colorado= | ...| ...| 48| 60| ...| ...| 14| ...| ... =Connecticut= | 48| 25| 48| 60| ...|_c_60| ...| 20| ... =Delaware= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Florida= |_b_48| 24| 48|_d_60| 48| ...| ...| 20| ... =Georgia= | ...| 24| 47|_e_60| ...| ...| 14|_f_20| ... =Hawaii= | ...| ...| 48| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Idaho= | ...| 28| 48| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Illinois= | ...| 24| 48|_e_60| 46| ...| 14| 20| ... =Indiana= | ...| 25| 48| 60| 46| ...| 14| ...| ... =Iowa= | 48| 24| 48| 60| 46| 56| 14| 20| 50 =Kansas= |_b_48| 24| 48| 60| 46| 56|_h_14| 20| ... =Kentucky= | ...| 24| 47|_e_60| *45| ...| 14| 20| ... =Louisiana= | ...| ...| 32| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Maine= | 44| ...| 48| 60| ...| 60| ...| ...| ... =Maryland= | ...| 28| ...| ...| 50| ...| 14| 20| ... =Massachusetts= | 48| 25| 48|_k_60| ...| 60| ...| 20| ... =Michigan= | 48| 22| 48| 60| 46| ...| 14| ...| ... =Minnesota= |_b_50| 28| 48| 60| ...| 50| 14| ...| 57 =Mississippi= | ...| 26| 48|_e_60| _m_46| ...| 14| 20| ... =Missouri= | 48| 24| 48|_m_60| 46| ...| 14| 20| ... =Montana= | 45| ...| 48| 60| ...| 50| 14| 20| ... =Nebraska= | 48| 24| 48|_e_60| 46| ...| 14| 20| ... =Nevada= |_b_48| 24| 48| 60| 46| 56| h| 20| ... =New Hampshire= | 48| 25| 48| 62| ...| 60| ...| 20| ... =New Jersey= | 50| 25| 48| 60| ...| 60| ...| ...| ... =New York= | 48| 25| 48| 60| ...| ...| ...| 20| ... =North Carolina=| 48| ...| 48| ...| *46| ...| 14| ...| 46 =North Dakota= | 50| ...| 48| 60| ...| 60| ...| 20| 30 =Ohio= | 50| 24| 48| 60| ...| 56| ...| ...| ... =Oklahoma= | 48| 24| 48| 60| ...| 60| 14| 20| 30 =Oregon= | 45| 28| 46| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Pennsylvania= | ...| ...| 47| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Rhode Island= | 48| 25| 48| 60| 46| 50| ...| 20| ... =South Carolina=| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =South Dakota= | ...| ...| 48| 60| ...| 60| ...| 20| 30 =Tennessee= |_b_50| 24| 48|_p_60| 46| 50| 14| 20| 42 =Texas= | 45| 28| 48|_e_60| ...| ...| ...| 20| ... =Vermont= | 46| ...| 48| 62| ...| 60| ...| ...| ... =Virginia= | 45| 28| 48|_e_60| ...| ...| 14| ...| ... =Washington= |_b_45| 28| 48| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =West Virginia= | ...| 25| 48| 60| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Wisconsin= | 50| 25| 48| 60| ...| 50| ...| 20| ... ----------------+-----+------+----+-----+-------+-----+-----+-----+------
================+=====+====+=====+=====+====+=============+==== STATE OR | | | | | | CORN | TERRITORY | | | | | +-----+-------+ |BUCK-|CAR-| CLO-| COAL|COKE|Corn |Shelled|CORN |WHEAT|ROTS| VER | | | in | Corn |MEAL | | | SEED| | | Ear | | * ----------------+-----+----+-----+-----+----+-----+-------+---- =United States= | 48| ...| ...| 80| ...| ...| ...| ... +-----+----+-----+-----+----+-----+-------+---- =Alabama= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 70| 56| ... =Arizona= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Arkansas= | 52| ...| 60| ...| ...| 70| 56| 48 =California= | 40| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Colorado= | 52| ...| 60| 80| ...| 70| ...| 50 =Connecticut= | 48| 50| 60| 80| ...| ...| ...| 50 =Delaware= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Florida= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 70| 56| 48 =Georgia= | 52| ...| 60| 80| ...| 70| 56| 48 =Hawaii= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Idaho= | 42| ...| 60| ...| ...| ...| 56| ... =Illinois= | 52| ...| 60| 80| ...| 70| 56| 48 =Indiana= | 50| ...| 60| 80| ...|_g_68| 56| 50 =Iowa= | 52| 50| 60| 80| 38| 70| 56| 50 =Kansas= | 50| 50| 60| 80| ...| 70| _i_56| ... =Kentucky= | 56| ...| 60| 76| ...|_j_70| 56| 50 =Louisiana= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Maine= | 48| 50| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 50 =Maryland= | ...| 50| 60| 80| ...| ...| 56| 48 =Massachusetts= | 48| 50| 60| ...| ...| ...| _l_56| 50 =Michigan= | 48| ...| 60| 80| ...| 70| 56| 50 =Minnesota= | 50| 45| 60| 80| ...| 70| 56| ... =Mississippi= | 48| ...| 60| 80| ...| 72| 56| 48 =Missouri= | 52| 50| 60| 80| ...| 70| 56| 50 =Montana= | 52| 50| 60| 76| ...| 70| 56| 50 =Nebraska= | 52| ...| 60| 80| ...| 70| 56| 50 =Nevada= | 50| 50| 60| ...| ...| 70| 56| 48 =New Hampshire= | 48| 50| 60| ...| ...|_e_50| ...| 50 =New Jersey= | 50| 50| 64| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =New York= | 48| 50| 60| ...| ...| ...| ...| 50 =North Carolina=| 50| ...| 60| ...| ...| ...| ...| 48 =North Dakota= | 42| ...| 60| 80| ...| 70| 56| ... =Ohio= | 50| 50| 60|_n_80| 40| 68| 56| ... =Oklahoma= | 52| 50| 60| 80| ...| 70| 56| 50 =Oregon= | 42| ...| 60| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Pennsylvania= | 48| ...| 60|_o_76| 40| ...| ...| ... =Rhode Island= | 48| 50| 60| 80| 40| 70| 56| 50 =South Carolina=| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 48 =South Dakota= | 42| ...| 60| 80| ...| 70| 56| ... =Tennessee= | 50| 50|_q_60| 80| 40| 70| 56| ... =Texas= | 42| ...| 60| 80| ...| 70| 56| ... =Vermont= | 48| 50| 60| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Virginia= | 52| ...| 60| 80| ...| 70| 56| 50 =Washington= | 42| ...| 60| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =West Virginia= | 52| ...| 60| 80| ...| ...| ...| ... =Wisconsin= | 50| 50| 60| ...| ...| ...| ...| 50 ----------------+-----+----+-----+-----+----+-----+-------+----
=Table I. UNITED STATES LEGAL WEIGHTS= (in pounds) =PER BUSHEL--Continued=
================+======+======+=============+=====+=====+======+=====+===== STATE OR | | | COTTON SEED | | | | | TERRITORY | | +------+------+ | | | | | CORN | CORN |Cotton|Sea- |CRAN-|FLAX-|GOOSE-|PLAS-|HEMP- | MEAL,| MEAL,| Seed*|Island| BER-| SEED| BER- | TER-| SEED |BOLTED| UN- | | | RIES|(LIN-| RIES | ING | | |BOLTED| | | |SEED)| | HAIR| ----------------+------+------+------+------+-----+-----+------+-----+----- =United States= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| ... +------+------+------+------+-----+-----+------+-----+----- =Alabama= | ...| ...| 32| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Arizona= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Arkansas= | ...| ...|33-1/3| ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| ... =California= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Colorado= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 44 =Connecticut= | ...| ...| 30| 44| ...| 55| ...| ...| ... =Delaware= | 44| 48| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Florida= | ...| ...| 32| 46| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Georgia= | ...| ...| 30| ...| ...| 56| ...| 8| 44 =Hawaii= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Idaho= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| ... =Illinois= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 56| ...| 8| 44 =Indiana= | ...| ...| ...| ...| 33| ...| ...| ...| 44 =Iowa= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 56| 40| ...| 44 =Kansas= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 56| ...| _r_8| 44 =Kentucky= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 56| ...| 8| 44 =Louisiana= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Maine= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 11| ... =Maryland= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| 44 =Massachusetts= | ...| ...| 30| 44| 32| 55| ...| ...| ... =Michigan= | ...| ...| ...| ...| 40| 56| ...| ...| 44 =Minnesota= | ...| ...| ...| ...| 36| ...| 40| _r_8| 50 =Mississippi= | 44| 48| 32| ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| 44 =Missouri= | ...| ...| 33| ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| 44 =Montana= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| 44 =Nebraska= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 56| ...| 8| 44 =Nevada= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| 48 =New Hampshire= | ...| ...| ...| ...| 32| 56| ...| ...| ... =New Jersey= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 55| ...| ...| ... =New York= | ...| ...| 30| 44| ...| 55| ...| ...| ... =North Carolina=| 48| 48| 30| 44| ...| 55| ...| ...| 44 =North Dakota= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| ... =Ohio= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| 44 =Oklahoma= | ...| ...| 32| ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| 44 =Oregon= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Pennsylvania= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Rhode Island= | ...| ...| 30| 44| ...| 56| ...| ...| 44 =South Carolina=| 48| 48| 30| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =South Dakota= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| ... =Tennessee= | 50| 48| 28| ...| ...| 56| 48| 8| 44 =Texas= | ...| ...| 32| ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| 44 =Vermont= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Virginia= | ...| ...| 32| ...| ...| 56| ...| 8| 44 =Washington= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| ... =West Virginia= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| ... =Wisconsin= | ...| ...| 30| 44| ...| 56| ...| 8| 44 ----------------+------+------+------+------+-----+-----+------+-----+-----
================+=====+======+====+====+=========+=====+=====+=====+======= STATE OR | | | | | ONIONS | | | | TERRITORY | | | | +----+----+ | | | | HER-| HUN- |MIL-|OATS| On-| On-| OR- |OSAGE|PARS-|PEACHES | DES |GARIAN| LET| |ions| ion|CHARD| OR- | NIPS| |GRASS| GRASS| | | * |Sets|GRASS| ANGE| | | | SEED | | | | | SEED| SEED| | ----------------+-----+------+----+----+----+----+-----+-----+-----+------- =United States= | ...| ...| ...| 32| 57| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... +-----+------+----+----+----+----+-----+-----+-----+------- =Alabama= | ...| ...| ...| 32| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Arizona= | ...| ...| ...| 32| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Arkansas= | ...| ...| 50| 32| 57| ...| 14| ...| ...| ... =California= | ...| ...| ...| 32| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Colorado= | ...| ...| ...| 32| 57| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Connecticut= | 45| ...| ...| 32| 52| ...| ...| ...| 45| ... =Delaware= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Florida= | ...| ...| 50| 32| 56| ...| ...| ...| ...| 54 =Georgia= | ...| ...| ...| 32| 57| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Hawaii= | ...| ...| ...| 32| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Idaho= | ...| ...| ...| 36| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Illinois= | ...| ...| ...| 32| 57| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Indiana= | ...| ...| 50| 32| 48| ...| 14| 33| 55| ... =Iowa= | ...| 50| 50| 32| 57| ...| 14| 32| 42| 48 =Kansas= | ...| 50| 50| 32| 57| ...| ...| ...| 52| 48 =Kentucky= | ...| 50| 50| 32| 57| 36| 14| ...| ...| ... =Louisiana= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Maine= | 45| ...| ...| 32| 52| ...| ...| ...| 45| ... =Maryland= | 45| 50| 50| 32| 57| ...| 14| ...| ...| 40 =Massachusetts= | 45| ...| ...| 32| 52| ...| ...| ...| 45| 48 =Michigan= | ...| 50| 50| 32| 54| ...| 14| 33| ...| ... =Minnesota= | ...| 48| 48| 32| 52| ...| 14| ...| 42| ... =Mississippi= | ...| 50| 50| 32| 57| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Missouri= | ...| 48| 50| 32| 57| 28| 14| 36| 44| 48 =Montana= | ...| 50| ...| 32| 57| ...| ...| ...| 50| ... =Nebraska= | ...| 50| 50| 32| 57| 25| ...| 32| ...| ... =Nevada= | ...| 50| 50| 32| 57| ...| ...| ...| 50| 48 =New Hampshire= | 45| ...| ...| 32| 52| ...| ...| ...| 45| 48 =New Jersey= | ...| ...| ...| 30| 57| ...| ...| ...| ...| 50 =New York= | 45| ...| ...| 32| 57| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =North Carolina=| ...| ...| 50| 32| 57| ...| 14| ...| ...| ... =North Dakota= | ...| ...| 50| 32| 52| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Ohio= | ...| 50| 50| 32| 55| ...| ...| ...| ...| 48 =Oklahoma= | ...| ...| 50| 32| 57| 28| 14| 36| 44| 48 =Oregon= | ...| ...| ...| 32| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Pennsylvania= | ...| ...| ...| 32| 50| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Rhode Island= | ...| 50| 50| 32| 50| ...| ...| ...| 50| 48 =South Carolina=| ...| ...| ...| ...| 52| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =South Dakota= | ...| ...| ...| 32| 52| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Tennessee= | ...| 48| 50| 32| 56| 28| 14| 33| 50| 50 =Texas= | ...| 48| 50| 32| 57| ...| ...| ...| ...| 50 =Vermont= | 45| ...| ...| 32| 52| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Virginia= | 12| 48| 50| 30| 57| 28| 14| 34| ...| ... =Washington= | ...| ...| ...| 32| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =West Virginia= | ...| ...| ...| 32| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Wisconsin= | ...| 48| 50| 32| 57| ...| ...| ...| 44| ... ----------------+-----+------+----+----+----+----+-----+-----+-----+-------
=Table I. UNITED STATES LEGAL WEIGHTS= (in pounds) =PER BUSHEL--Continued=
================+=======+====+=====+============+====+=====+====+===== STATE OR | | | | PEAS | | | | TERRITORY | | | +-------+----+ | | | | DRIED |PEA-|PEARS| Green |Peas| PO-|SWEET|RED-|ROUGH |PEACHES|NUTS| * | Peas | * | TA-| PO- |TOP | RICE |PEELED | | | Un- | |TOES| TA- |SEED| | | | |shelled| | | TOES| | ----------------+-------+----+-----+-------+----+----+-----+----+----- =United States= | ...| ...| ...| ...| 60| 60| ...| ...| ... +-------+----+-----+-------+----+----+-----+----+----- =Alabama= | 38| ...| ...| ...| 60| 60| 55| ...| ... =Arizona= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Arkansas= | 33| ...| ...| ...| 60| 60| 50| 14| ... =California= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Colorado= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 60| ...| ...| ... =Connecticut= | 33| ...| ...| ...| 60| 60| 54| ...| 45 =Delaware= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Florida= | 33| 22| 60| ...| ...| 60| 60| ...| ... =Georgia= | 38| ...| ...| ...| 60| 60| 55| ...| 43 =Hawaii= | ...| 25| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Idaho= | ...| ...| 45| ...| ...| 60| ...| ...| ... =Illinois= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 60| 50| ...| ... =Indiana= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 60| 55| ...| ... =Iowa= | ...| 20| ...| 50| 60| 60| 46| 14| ... =Kansas= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 60| 50| ...| ... =Kentucky= | 39| 24| ...| ...| 60| 60| 55| ...| ... =Louisiana= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =Maine= | ...| ...| ...| ...| 60| 60| ...| ...| ... =Maryland= | ...| 22| ...| ...| 60| 60| 60| 14| ... =Massachusetts= | 33| 20| 58| ...| 60| 60| 54| ...| 45 =Michigan= | 28| ...| ...| ...| 60| 60| 56| 14| ... =Minnesota= | 28| ...| ...| ...| 60| 60| 55| 14| ... =Mississippi= | 33| 24| ...| ...| 60| 60| 60| ...| ... =Missouri= | 33| ...| 48| 56| 60| 60| 56| 14| ... =Montana= | ...| ...| 45| ...| 60| 60| ...| ...| ... =Nebraska= | 33| ...| ...| ...| 60| 60| 50| ...| ... =Nevada= | ...| ...| 58| ...| 60| 60| 50| ...| ... =New Hampshire= | ...| 20| ...| ...| 60| 60| 54| ...| ... =New Jersey= | 33| ...| ...| ...| 60| 60| 54| ...| ... =New York= | 33| ...| ...| ...| 60| 60| 54| ...| 45 =North Carolina=| ...| 22| ...| ...| 60| 60| 56| 14| 44 =North Dakota= | ...| ...| ...| ...| 60| 60| 46| ...| ... =Ohio= | 33| ...| ...| ...| 60| 60| 50| ...| ... =Oklahoma= | ...| 22| 48| 56| 60| 60| 55| 14| ... =Oregon= | 28| ...| 45| ...| ...| 60| ...| ...| ... =Pennsylvania= | ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| ... =Rhode Island= | 33| ...| ...| ...| 60| 60| 54| ...| ... =South Carolina=| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =South Dakota= | ...| ...| ...| ...| 60| 60| 46| ...| ... =Tennessee= | 26| 23| 56| 30| 60| 60| 50| 14| ... =Texas= | 28| ...| ...| ...| ...| 60| 55| ...| ... =Vermont= | ...| ...| ...| ...| 60| 60| ...| ...| ... =Virginia= | 40| 22| ...| ...| 60| 56| 56| 12| ... =Washington= | 28| ...| 45| ...| ...| 60| ...| ...| ... =West Virginia= | 33| ...| ...| ...| ...| 60| ...| ...| ... =Wisconsin= | 33| ...| ...| ...| 60| 60| 54| ...| 45 ----------------+-------+----+-----+-------+----+----+-----+----+-----
================+=====+====+===+======+====+====+====+====+===== STATE OR | | | | | | | | | TERRITORY | | | | | | | | | |RUTA-| RYE|RYE|SHORTS|SOR-| TO-|TIM-|TUR-|WHEAT |BAGAS|MEAL| | * |GHUM| MA-|OTHY|NIPS| | | | | |SEED|TOES|SEED| | | | | | | | | | | ----------------+-----+----+---+------+----+----+----+----+----- =United States= | ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 60 +-----+----+---+------+----+----+----+----+----- =Alabama= | ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| ...| ...| 55| 60 =Arizona= | ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 60 =Arkansas= | ...| ...| 56| ...| 50| ...| 60| 57| 60 =California= | ...| ...| 54| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 60 =Colorado= | ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| ...| 45| ...| 60 =Connecticut= | 60| 50| 56| 20| ...| ...| ...| 50| 60 =Delaware= | ...| ...|...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 60 =Florida= | ...| ...| 56| ...| 56| ...| ...| 54| 60 =Georgia= | ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| ...| 45| 55| 60 =Hawaii= | ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 60 =Idaho= | ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 60 =Illinois= | ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| ...| 45| 55| 60 =Indiana= | ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| ...| 45| 55| 60 =Iowa= | 50| ...| 56| ...| 50| 50| 45| 55| 60 =Kansas= | ...| ...| 56| ...| 50| 56| 45| 55| 60 =Kentucky= | ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| ...| 45| 60| 60 =Louisiana= | ...| ...| 32| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 60 =Maine= | 60| 50| 50| ...| ...| ...| ...| 50| 60 =Maryland= | ...| ...| 56| ...| 50| 60| 45| 50| 60 =Massachusetts= | ...| 50| 56| 20| ...| 56| 45| 55| 60 =Michigan= | ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| ...| 45| 58| 60 =Minnesota= | 52| ...| 56| ...| 57| ...| 45| ...| 60 =Mississippi= | ...| ...| 56| ...| 42| ...| 45| 55| 60 =Missouri= | 50| ...| 56| ...| 42| 45| 45| 42| 60 =Montana= | ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| ...| 45| 50| 60 =Nebraska= | ...| ...| 56| ...| 50| ...| 45| 55| 60 =Nevada= | ...| ...| 56| ...| 50| 56| 45| 56| 60 =New Hampshire= | ...| 50| 56| 20| ...| 56| 45| 55| 60 =New Jersey= | ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| ...| 45| ...| 60 =New York= | ...| 50| 56| 20| ...| ...| 45| ...| 60 =North Carolina=| ...| ...| 56| ...| 50| ...| 45| 50| 60 =North Dakota= | ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| ...| 45| 60| 60 =Ohio= | ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| 56| 45| 60| 60 =Oklahoma= | 50| ...| 56| ...| 50| 45| 45| 60| 60 =Oregon= | ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 60 =Pennsylvania= | ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 60 =Rhode Island= | ...| 50| 56| 20| ...| 56| 45| 50| 60 =South Carolina=| ...| ...|...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| ... =South Dakota= | ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| ...| 42| 60| 60 =Tennessee= | ...| ...| 56| ...| 50| 56| 45| 50| 60 =Texas= | ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| 55| 45| 55| 60 =Vermont= | ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| ...| 45| 60| 60 =Virginia= | ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| ...| 45| 55| 60 =Washington= | ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| ...| ...| ...| 60 =West Virginia= | ...| ...| 56| ...| ...| ...| 45| ...| 60 =Wisconsin= | 56| 50| 56| 20| ...| ...| 45| 42| 60 ----------------+-----+----+---+------+----+----+----+----+-----
* Not defined. a Small white beans, 60 pounds. b Green apples. c Sugar beets and mango-wurzels. d Shelled beans, 60 pounds; velvet beans, 78 pounds. e White beans. f Wheat bran. g Corn in ear, 70 pounds until December 1st next after growth; 68 pounds thereafter. h English blue-grass seed, 22 pounds; native blue-grass seed, 14 pounds. i Rice corn. j Corn in ear from November 1st to May 1st following, 70 pounds; 68 pounds from May 1st to November 1st. k Soy beans, 58 pounds. l Cracked corn, 50 pounds. m Green unshelled beans, 30 pounds. n Cannel coal, 70 pounds. o Standard weight in borough of Greensburg, 75 pounds. p Dried beans; green unshelled beans, 30 pounds. q Red and white. r Unwashed plastering hair, 8 pounds; washed plastering hair, 4 pounds.
=Table II. LEGAL WEIGHTS PER BUSHEL FIXED IN BUT ONE OR TWO STATES=
===================+======+============================================ ARTICLE |WEIGHT| STATES -------------------+------+-------------------------------------------- |Pounds| Blackberries | 30|Iowa. Tennessee, 48 pounds; dried 28 pounds. Blueberries | 42|Minnesota. Canary seed | 60|Tennessee. Cantaloupe melon | 50|Tennessee. Cement | 80|Tennessee. Cherries | 40|Iowa. Tennessee, with stems 56 pounds; | |without stems, 64 pounds. Chestnuts | 50|Tennessee. Virginia, 57 pounds. Cotton seed, staple| 42|South Carolina. Cucumbers | 48|Iowa, Tennessee, Missouri. Wisconsin, | |50 pounds. Currants | 40|Iowa and Minnesota. Grapes | 40|Iowa. Tennessee, with stems, 48 pounds; | |without stems, 60 pounds. Hickory nuts | 50|Tennessee. Hominy | 60|Ohio. Tennessee, 62 pounds. Horse-radish | 50|Tennessee. Kaffir corn | 56|Kansas. Kale | 30|Tennessee. Land plaster | 100|Tennessee. Mustard | 30|Tennessee. Plums | 40|Florida. Tennessee, 64 pounds. Plums, dried | 28|Michigan. Popcorn | 70|Iowa, Indiana, Tennessee. Ohio, in the ear, | |42 pounds; Iowa, shelled, 56 pounds. Prunes, dried | 28|Idaho; green, 45 pounds. Quinces | 48|Florida, Iowa and Tennessee. Rape seed | 50|Wisconsin. Raspberries | 32|Iowa, Kansas, Tennessee, 48 pounds. Rhubarb | 50|Tennessee. Salads | 30|Tennessee. Sand | 130|Iowa. Spinach | 30|Tennessee. Strawberries | 32|Iowa. Tennessee, 48 pounds. Sugar-cane seed | 57|New Jersey. Velvet-grass seed | 7|Tennessee. Walnuts | 50|Tennessee, Iowa. -------------------+------+--------------------------------------------
APOTHECARIES’ WEIGHT
Apothecaries’ Weight is used by apothecaries and physicians weighing medicines for prescriptions.
TABLE 20 grains (gr.) = 1 scruple (sc., or ℈) 2 scruples = 1 dram (dr., or ʒ) 8 drams = 1 ounce (oz., or ℥) 12 ounces = 1 pound (lb., or ℔)
Pound Ounces Drams Scruples Grains 1 = 12 = 96 = 288 = 5760
1. In writing prescriptions, physicians express the number in Roman characters, using j instead of i final. They also write the symbol first; thus: ℥v, ʒvj, ℈ij.
MEDICAL SIGNS AND ABBREVIATIONS
℞ (Lat. Recipe), take; āā, of each; ℔, pound; ℥, ounce; ʒ, drachm; ℈, scruple; ♏, minim, or drop; O or o, pint; f℥, fluid ounce; fʒ, fluid drachm; as, ℥ss, half an ounce; ℥i, one ounce; ℥iss, one ounce and a half; ℥ij, two ounces; gr. grain; Q. S., as much as sufficient; Ft. Mist., let a mixture be made; Ft. Haust., let a draught be made; Ad., add to; Ad lib., at pleasure; Aq., water; M., mix; Mac., macerate; Pulv., powder; Pil., pill; Solv., dissolve; St., let it stand; Sum., to be taken; D., dose; Dil., dilute; Filt., filter; Lot., a wash; Garg., a gargle; Hor. Decub., at bed time; Inject., injection; Gtt., drops; ss, one-half; Ess., essence.
COMPARISON OF WEIGHTS
TABLE
1 pound avoirdupois = 7000 grains 1 ounce avoirdupois = 437-1/2 grains 1 pound Troy, or apothecary = 5760 grains 1 ounce Troy, or apothecary = 480 grains
CIRCULAR MEASURES
Circular or Angular Measures are used in surveying, navigation, astronomy, geography, reckoning latitude and longitude, and computing differences in time.
A Circle is a plane figure bounded by a curved line, every point of which is equally distant from a point within, called the center.
The Circumference is the bounding line of a circle.
The Radius of a circle is a straight line drawn from the circumference to the center.
The Diameter is a straight line drawn through the center, with the ends terminating in the circumference.
An Arc of a circle is any portion of the circumference.
An Angle is the difference in direction between two straight lines which meet.
If two diameters divide a circle into four equal parts, these diameters make right angles with each other.
An angle less than a right angle is an acute angle.
The circumference of a circle may be divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees. If the circle is large, the degree is large, and if the circle is small, the degree is small, but the degree is always 1/360 part of the circumference, whatever the size of the circle.
An angle at the center of a circle is measured by the arc which bounds it.
If the angle is a right angle, it is measured by 1/4 of 360 degrees, or 90 degrees; hence, any angle of 90 degrees is a right angle.
An acute angle is always less than 90 degrees.
An obtuse angle is always more than 90 degrees.
TABLE OF CIRCULAR MEASURE
60 seconds (′′) = 1 minute (′) 60 minutes = 1 degree (°) 360 degrees = 1 circumference (cir.)
Circumference Degrees Minutes Seconds 1 = 360 = 21,600 = 1,296,000
A quadrant is 1/4 of a circumference, or 90°; a sextant is 1/6 of a circumference, or 60°.
The length of a degree of longitude on the earth’s surface at the Equator is 69.16 miles.
In astronomical calculation 30° are called a sign, and there are therefore 12 signs in a circle.
LONGITUDE AND TIME
The earth’s circumference (which has the form of a circle) at the equator is (3.1416 × 7926), 24900 miles; which divided by 360, gives 69.17 miles for 1 degree of longitude at the equator. Leaving the equator, degrees of longitude gradually diminish, since all meridians converge at the poles. Thus, 1 degree of longitude, at 10 degrees of latitude, is 68.1 miles; at 20 degrees 65 miles; at 30 degrees 59.9 miles; at 40 degrees 53 miles; at 50 degrees 44.5 miles; at 60 degrees 34.6 miles; at 70 degrees 23.7 miles; at 80 degrees 12 miles; at 90 degrees 0.
Imaginary lines running north and south, through these degrees, from pole to pole, are called meridians. Those east and west, parallels.
One meridian which runs through Greenwich, near London, England, is called the prime meridian, and all the other meridians are reckoned as east or west of it.
Longitude is distance east or west of the prime meridian. When we say that the longitude of Paris is 2° 20′ East, we mean that the meridian running through Paris is 2° 20′ east of the prime meridian that runs through Greenwich, England. The longitude of Washington, D. C., is 77° 7′ West. That means that the meridian which passes through Washington is 77° 7′ west of the prime meridian.
The longitude of a place tells in degrees, minutes, and seconds, the distance it is east or west of the prime meridian.
RULE.--To find the difference of time between two places, when the difference of longitude is known, or vice versa, multiply the given longitude, expressed in degrees, by 4. This gives the equivalent time in minutes. Dividing the given time, expressed in minutes, by 4, gives the equivalent longitude in degrees.
EXAMPLE: The difference of longitude between Boston and San Francisco is nearly 51-1/4°, what is the difference of time?
51-1/4 × 4 = 205. 205 minutes equal 3 hours and 25 minutes. Ans. 3 hours and 25 minutes.
The difference of time between London and New York is about 4 hours and 55-1/2 minutes, what is the difference of longitude?
4 hours and 55-1/2 minutes equals 295-1/2 minutes. 295-1/2 ÷ 4 = 73-7/8. Ans. 73-7/8°.
MEASURES OF TIME
The unit of time measurement is the same among all nations. Practically it is 1-86400 of the mean solar day, but really it is a perfectly arbitrary unit, as the length of the mean solar day is not constant for any two periods of time. There is no constant natural unit of time.
Time measures are used in telling the time of day, in problems in longitude and time, in figuring interest on notes and bills, and in numerous other ways.
TABLE OF THE DIVISIONS OF TIME
60 seconds (sec.) = 1 minute (min.) 60 minutes = 1 hour (hr.) 24 hours = 1 day (da.) 7 days = 1 week (wk.) 30 days = 1 commercial month (mo.) 52 weeks = 1 year (yr.) 12 months = 1 year 360 days = 1 commercial year 365 days = 1 common year 366 days = 1 leap year 100 years = 1 century
Century Years Months Days Hours Minutes 1 = 100 = 1,200 = 36,500 = 876,000 = 52,560,000
Centennial years exactly divisible by 400, and other years exactly divisible by 4, are Leap Years.
WHY WE HAVE LEAP YEAR
The average time it takes the earth to revolve once around the sun (one year) is 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 47.8 seconds, or about 365-1/4 days.
The change in the length of the mean sidereal day, i.e., of the time of the earth’s rotation upon its axis, amounts to 0.01252 seconds in 2400 mean solar years.
Instead of reckoning this part of a day each year, it is disregarded, and an addition is made when this amounts to one day, which is very nearly every fourth year. This addition of one day is made to the month of February. Since the part of a day that is disregarded when 365 days are considered as a year, is a little less than one quarter of a day, the addition of one day every fourth year is a little too much, and, to correct this excess, addition is made to only every fourth centennial year.
STANDARD TIME
By this is meant time which differs from Greenwich mean time by whole hours.
The earth revolves on its axis from west to east, nearly 17.3 miles in 1 minute at the equator; at the latitude of New Orleans, nearly 15 miles in 1 minute; at Memphis, 14 miles; at Chicago, 13 miles; at London, 10.8 miles; at St. Petersburg, 8.6 miles. That is, a watch would gain one minute going west, or lose one minute going east that distance, in the latitudes of the respective cities.
The globe is divided into zones of 15 degrees or one hour breadth, the Greenwich meridian being in the center of the zero zone. Thus Belgium and Holland (since 1892) keep Greenwich time; Denmark, Sweden, Switzerland (1894), Austrian railroads, Germany, and Italy (1893) keep the time of longitude 15 degrees East--i.e. one hour earlier than Greenwich. In North America again five zones are distinguished. The corresponding times are distinguished as Eastern (67-1/2 to 82-1/2 degrees), Central (82-1/2 to 97-1/2 degrees), Mountain (97-1/2 to 112-1/2 degrees), and Pacific (112-1/2 to 127-1/2 degrees) times.
New York people are in the Eastern Time Belt. If they rise at six o’clock in the morning, they will be up a whole hour before Chicago people, who get up at the same hour.
Thus, each day begins an hour sooner in New York than in Chicago, two hours before Denver, and three hours before San Francisco.
Standard time in Japan is nine hours earlier than Greenwich time.
In the western parts of Canada the twenty-four hour system has been adopted, under which four P. M. becomes sixteen o’clock and so on. Steps are being taken to introduce it generally in India, Belgium, and the United States. It is of special convenience in the construction of railroad time tables; and it has long been used by the Italians and by astronomers.
THE CALENDAR
The reckoning of time among the ancients was very inaccurate. This was owning to their ignorance of astronomy, and also to changes that were made from time to time for political reasons. The calendar was reformed by Julius Cæsar, 46 B. C., who made the year consist of 365-1/4 days, adding one day every fourth year. In 1582, the error in the calendar established by him had increased to 10 days; that is, too much time had been reckoned as a year, until the civil year was 10 days behind the solar year. To correct this error, Pope Gregory XIII. decreed that 10 days should be stricken from the calendar, that the day following the 3d day of October, 1582, should be made the 14th, and that henceforth only those centennial years should be leap years which are divisible by 400.
Most Catholic countries adopted the Gregorian Calendar soon after it was established. Great Britain did not adopt it until 1752, when the error amounted to 11 days. By Act of Parliament, the 3d of September was called the 14th. The civil year by the same act was made to commence on the 1st of January, instead of the 25th of March, as was previously the case.
Dates reckoned by the Julian calendar are called Old Style (O.S.), and those reckoned by the Gregorian calendar are called New Style (N.S.). The difference now amounts to 12 days.
PERPETUAL CALENDAR
To find the day of the week for any given date.
1. Take the last two figures of the year, add one-fourth of them (neglecting remainder). Thus: 1949 = 49 + 12 = 61.
2. Add for the month, if for January or October, 1; May, 2; August, 3; February, March, or November, 4; June, 5; September or December, 6; April or July, 0; if leap year (that is, if it be divisible by 4 without remainder) January 0; February 3.
3. Add day of month.
Divide the sum of these three by 7, and remainder gives the number of the day of the week.
Thus:--What day of the week is 15th July, 1908?
1. 8 + 2 = 10 2. July = 0 3. 15th = 15 -- 25 = 7 × 3 + 4
4th day of the week = Wednesday.
What day of the week was December 25th, 1905?
1. 5 + 1 = 6 2. Dec. = 6 3. 25th = 25 -- 37 = 7 × 5 + 2
2nd day of the week = Monday.
The above only applies to 20th Century. For 19th Century, add 2; for 21st Century, add 6; 18th Century, 4; but before 1752 the “old style” was used.
WHERE THE DAY BEGINS
The day begins earlier as you go east until you meet the 180th meridian. This is where the day begins. Starting here, it travels westward, giving the whole world a new day. The 180th meridian is called the International Date Line (I. D. L.) but in reality, the date line is a crooked line which zigzags across the 180th meridian.
From the time the day starts at the International Date Line, until the sun again reaches that line, the same day is in progress the world over.
As marked now, the International Date Line passes southward through Behring Sea, then westerly, then returns to the 180th meridian at about 40 degrees north. It then follows the 180th meridian to 10 degrees south, where it swerves east but returns again to the 180th meridian at about 50 degrees south. It then follows that meridian.
TIME ON SHIPBOARD.--The twenty-four hours are divided on board ship into seven parts, and the crew is divided into two parts or watches, designated port and starboard watches. Each watch is on duty four hours, except from four to eight p. m., which time is divided into two watches of two hours each, called dog watches, by means of which the watches are changed every day, and each watch gets a term of eight hours’ rest at night. First watch, eight p. m. to midnight; middle watch, midnight to four a. m.; morning watch, four to eight a. m.; forenoon watch, eight a. m. to noon; afternoon watch, noon to four p. m.; first dog watch, four to six p. m.; second dog watch, six to eight p. m. The bell is struck every half-hour to indicate the time, as follows:
1 bell 12:30 A.M. 1 bell 12:30 P.M. 2 bells 1:00 A.M. 2 bells 1:00 P.M. 3 bells 1:30 A.M. 3 bells 1:30 P.M. 4 bells 2:00 A.M. 4 bells 2:00 P.M. 5 bells 2:30 A.M. 5 bells 2:30 P.M. 6 bells 3:00 A.M. 6 bells 3:00 P.M. 7 bells 3:30 A.M. 7 bells 3:30 P.M. 8 bells 4:00 A.M. 8 bells 4:00 P.M. 1 bell 4:30 A.M. 1 bell 4:30 P.M. 2 bells 5:00 A.M. 2 bells 5:00 P.M. 3 bells 5:30 A.M. 3 bells 5:30 P.M. 4 bells 6:00 A.M. 4 bells 6:00 P.M. 5 bells 6:30 A.M. 1 bell 6:30 P.M. 6 bells 7:00 A.M. 2 bells 7:00 P.M. 7 bells 7:30 A.M. 3 bells 7:30 P.M. 8 bells 8:00 A.M. 4 bells 8:00 P.M. 1 bell 8:30 A.M. 1 bell 8:30 P.M. 2 bells 9:00 A.M. 2 bells 9:00 P.M. 3 bells 9:30 A.M. 3 bells 9:30 P.M. 4 bells 10:00 A.M. 4 bells 10:00 P.M. 5 bells 10:30 A.M. 5 bells 10:30 P.M. 6 bells 11:00 A.M. 6 bells 11:00 P.M. 7 bells 11:30 A.M. 7 bells 11:30 P.M. 8 bells 12:00 noon 8 bells 12:00 night
HOW THE MONTHS GOT THEIR NAMES
January, from Janus, was the sacred month of the year to the Romans. To them, Janus was the god of the year. During the 18th century, the Europeans started to recognize it as the first month, but previous to this, March was considered the first.
February comes from februa, the name of a Roman festival celebrated on the 15th of the second month.
March is from Mars, the god of war. March was the first month of the year to the Romans.
April, from the Latin aperire, “to open,” was probably so called because during this month buds begin to open.
May is from Maia, the mother of Mercury. The Romans offered sacrifices to this goddess on the first day of May.
The sixth month in our calendar, June, got its name from Juno, the wife of Jupiter.
July was so named in honor of Julius Cæsar, who was born in this month.
Emperor Augustus Cæsar commanded that the eighth month be named August after him.
September is from the Latin septem, meaning seven. At the time when March was the first month of the year, September was the seventh.
October, November, and December were originally the eighth, ninth and tenth months. Octo, novem, and decem are Latin numerals for eighth, ninth, and tenth.
HOW THE DAYS GOT THEIR NAMES
Sunday (that is, day of the sun, like Monday day of the moon), the first day of the week, the Lord’s day, was sacred to Sol or the Sun.
Monday (that is, moon-day; Anglo-Saxon, Monandæg, German, Montag), the second day of our week, was formerly sacred to the moon.
Tuesday, the third day of the week, is so called from Tiwesdæg, the day of Tiw or Tiu, the old Saxon name for the god of war. The day bears a corresponding name in the other Germanic dialects.
Wednesday, the fourth day of the week, the Dies Mercurii of the Romans, the Mittwoch of the modern Germans. The name Wednesday is derived from the Northern mythology, and signifies Woden’s or Odin’s day. The Anglo-Saxon form was Wôdanesday, the Old German Woutanestac. The Swedish and Danish is Onsdag.
Thursday, (Swedish Thorsdag, German Donnerstag), the fifth day of the week, is so called from Donar, or Thor (see Dictionary of Myths), who, as god of the air, had much in common with the Roman Jupiter, to whom the same day was dedicated. (Latin Jovis dies, French Jeudi).
Friday, the sixth day of the week, from the Anglo-Saxon Frige-dæg, is the day sacred to Frigga or to Freya, the Saxon Venus.
Saturday (Anglo-Saxon Sæterdæg, Sæterndæg--Sæter, Sætern, for Saturn, and dæg, a day--the day presided over by the planet Saturn), is the seventh or last day of the week; the day of the Jewish Sabbath.
MEASURES OF VALUE
The common measure of value is Money.
It is also called Currency, and is of two kinds, viz.: coin and paper money.
Stamped pieces of metal having a value fixed by law are Coin or Specie.
Notes and bills issued by the government and banks, and authorized to be used as money, are Paper Money.
All moneys which, if offered, legally satisfy a debt are a _Legal Tender_.
UNITED STATES MONEY
The unit of United States or Federal money is the Dollar.
The dollar mark is probably a combination of U. S., the initials of the words “United States.”
The standard of United States money is the gold dollar. Gold is used because in itself it has great worth and little bulk, and because it varies very little in value.
NAMES OF UNITED STATES COINS
Bronze: One-cent piece
Nickel: Five-cent piece
Silver: Dollar = $1.00 Half-dollar = 0.50 Quarter-dollar = 0.25 Dime = 0.10
Gold: Double eagle = $20.00 Eagle = 10.00 Half eagle = 5.00 Quarter eagle = 2.50
It may be interesting to know that the word dollar is supposed to have come from Dale, the name of a small town where dollars were first coined.
Dime is from the French word disme, which means tenth.
Cent comes from the Latin word centum, meaning hundred.
Mill is also from the Latin, coming from mille, a thousand.
Eagles were named after our national bird.
WEIGHTS OF THE UNITED STATES COINS
And the Amounts for Which They are Legal Tender
GOLD
====================+=======+================ DENOMINATIONS |WEIGHT |AMOUNT FOR WHICH |GRAINS | A LEGAL TENDER --------------------+-------+---------------- Double eagle, $20 | 516. |Gold coins of Eagle, $10 | 258. |denomination Half eagle, $5 | 129. |are legal Three dollars | 77.4 |tenders for Quarter eagle, $2.50| 64.5 |any amount. Dollars | 25.8 | --------------------+-------+----------------
SILVER
====================+=======+================= DENOMINATIONS |WEIGHT |AMOUNT FOR WHICH |GRAINS |A LEGAL TENDER --------------------+-------+----------------- Standard dollar | 412.5 |Unlimited. Trade Dollar | 420. |Demonetized--Not | |a legal tender. Half dollars | 192.9 |Ten dollars. Quarter dollars | 96.45|Ten dollars. Twenty-cent pieces | 77.16|Five dollars. Dimes | 38.58|Ten dollars. Half-dimes | 19.29|Five dollars. Three-cent pieces | 11.52|Five dollars. --------------------+-------+-----------------
MINOR COINS
====================+=========+================ DENOMINATIONS |WEIGHT | AMOUNT FOR WHICH |GRAINS | A LEGAL TENDER --------------------+-------+------------------ Five cents | 77.6 |Twenty-five cents. Three cents | 30. |Twenty-five cents. Two cents | 96. |Twenty-five cents. Cents | 48. |Twenty-five cents. --------------------+-------+------------------
Besides the coins there is paper money, founded on credit. It represents value, but in itself has no value.
This paper money is made up of paper promises to pay the amounts named, in gold or silver, on demand.
It includes bank bills, United States treasury notes, government bonds, etc. They represent the values $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, $100, $500, $1,000 and $10,000.
NOTATION OF UNITED STATES MONEY
Dollars and cents are written together. Thus, two dollars and sixteen cents is written, $2.16.
The dollars are separated from the cents by a period. If the number of cents is less than ten, the tens’ place is filled by a 0. Thus, we write twenty dollars and two cents, $20.02.
Mills, or tenths of a cent, are written to the right of the cents. Five dollars, six cents, four mills is written, $5.064.
NOTE.--The rules and processes of decimals apply to the addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of United States money.
ENGLISH OR STERLING MONEY
Sterling Money is currency of Great Britain and Ireland.
Table of Sterling Money
4 farthings (far.) = 1 penny (d.) 12 pence (not pennies) = 1 shilling (s.) 20 shillings = 1 pound (£), or sovereign 5 shillings = 1 crown 21 shillings = 1 guinea
The standard unit of Sterling Money is 1 pound or sovereign, whose value in our money is $4.8665.
The coins of Great Britain in general use are:--
Gold: Sovereign, half-sovereign, and guinea, which is equal to 21 shillings.
Silver: The crown (equal to 5 shillings), half-crown, florin (equal to 2 shillings), shilling, six-penny and three-penny pieces.
Copper: Penny and half-penny.
EXAMPLE: I have £5 sterling. What is the value in United States money?
SOLUTION:
The value is 5 × $4.8665, or $24.33
FRENCH MONEY
In France the currency is decimal. The unit is the Franc.
TABLE
10 centimes (ct.) [pronounced son-teems] = 1 decime (de.) 10 decimes [pronounced des-seems] = 1 franc (fr.)
Scale.--Decimal
The value of the franc, as determined by the Secretary of the Treasury, is $.193 in United States money.
The coins of France are of gold, silver, bronze, and copper. The gold coins are the hundred, forty, twenty, ten, and five franc pieces; the silver coins are the five, two, and one franc pieces; also the fifty and twenty-five centime pieces. The bronze coins are the ten, five, two, and one centime pieces. There are also copper coins in ten and five centime pieces.
EXAMPLE: When in France, I bought goods as follows:--
3 books at 2 francs,
1/2 dozen pipes at 1 franc,
2 pictures at 4 francs.
What was the cost in United States money?
WORK:
3 books at 2 francs cost 6 francs 1/2 dozen pipes at 1 franc cost 6 francs 2 pictures at 4 francs cost 8 francs ----------------------------------------- Cost of all 20 francs
20 francs = 20 × 19.3 cents, or $3.86
GERMAN MONEY
German money is legal currency of the German Empire.
TABLE
100 pfennigs = 1 mark
Scale.--Decimal
1. The unit is the mark. Its value is $.2385 in United States money.
2. The coins of the German Empire are of gold, silver, nickel, and copper. The gold coins are the 20-mark piece, the 10-mark piece, and the 5-mark piece. The silver coins are the two and one mark pieces; the nickel coins are the ten and five pfennig pieces; and the copper coins are the two and one pfennig pieces.
PHILIPPINES WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
1 pulgada (12 linea) = .927 inch 1 pie = 11.125 inches 1 vara = 33.375 inches 1 gantah = .8796 gallon 1 caban = 21.991 gallons 1 libra (16 onzo) = 1.0144 pounds average 1 arroba = 25.360 pounds average 1 catty (16 tael) = 1.394 pounds average 1 pecul (100 catty) = 139.482 pounds average
PAPER MEASURE
24 sheets = 1 quire (qr.) 20 quires = 1 ream (rm.) 2 reams = 1 bundle 5 bundles = 1 bale
Although a ream contains 480 sheets, 500 sheets are usually sold as a ream.
NUMBER TABLE
12 units = 1 dozen 12 dozen = 1 gross 12 gross = 1 great gross 20 units = 1 score
PERCENTAGE AND ITS BUSINESS APPLICATIONS
The expression “per cent,” which is an abbreviation of the Latin words “per centum,” means “for each hundred.”
The symbol % is often used to denote “per cent.” Thus, 7 per cent, or 7%, means 7 parts out of every 100 parts, i.e., 7/100 of the whole.
Since per cent means hundredths, we may write any fraction whose denominator is 100 as so many per cent. In some cases the corresponding common fractions are so simple that it is advisable to remember them. For example:
25 1 25% = --- = -, 100 4
50 1 50% = --- = -, 100 2
75 3 75% = --- = -, 100 4
33-1/3 1 33-1/3% = ------ = -, 100 3
66-2/3 2 66-2/3% = ------ = -, 100 3
5 1 5% = --- = --, 100 20
2-1/2 1 2-1/2% = ----- = --, 100 40
12-1/2 1 12-1/2% = ------ = -, 100 8
and so on.
The number per cent is called the rate per cent.
TABLE OF ADDITIONAL VALUES
SYMBOL DECIMAL COMMON FRACTION 1% = .01 = 1/100 2% = .02 = 2/100 = 1/50 3% = .03 = 3/100 4% = .04 = 4/100 = 1/25 5% = .05 = 5/100 = 1/20 6% = .06 = 6/100 = 3/50 7% = .07 = 7/100 8% = .08 = 8/100 = 2/25 9% = .09 = 9/100 10% = .10 = 10/100 = 1/10 20% = .20 = 20/100 = 1/5 25% = .25 = 25/100 = 1/4 50% = .50 = 50/100 = 1/2 100% = 1.00 = 100/100 = 1
Here are a few others that should be learned:--
6-1/4% = 1/16 of 100% 16-2/3% = 1/6 of 100% 8-1/2% = 1/12 of 100% 33-1/3% = 1/3 of 100% 12-1/2% = 1/ 8 of 100% 66-2/3% = 2/3 of 100%
A DECIMAL AS PER CENT
Write the decimal as hundredths, and the number expressing the number of hundredths is the per cent.
EXAMPLES:
40 .4 = .40 = --- = 40% 100
80 .8 = .80 = --- = 80% 100
25 .25 = --- = 25% 100
33-1/3 .33-1/3% = ------ = 33-1/3% 100
50 .50 = --- = 50% 100
87-1/2 .87-1/2 = ------ = 87-1/2% 100
If the decimal has more than two decimal places, the figures after the second one are written as a fraction of a per cent, as,--
25-1/2 .255 = ------ = 25-1/2%. 100
16-3/10 .163 = ------- = 16-3/10%. 100
To change a common fraction to per cent:
1. Change the fraction to a decimal.
2. Express the decimal as hundredths.
3. The result is the per cent desired.
EXAMPLES:
1/ 2 = .5 = .50 = 50% 3/ 4 = .75 = 75% 2/ 3 = .66-2/3 = 66-2/3% 9/10 = .90 = 90% 8/ 9 = .88-8/9 = 88-2/9% 7/ 8 = .87-1/2 = 87-1/2% 25/26 = .96-2/13 = 96-2/13%
Or, they may be written this way:
100 75 3/4 = 3/4 of --- = ------ = 75% 100 100
100 66-2/3 2/3 = 2/3 of --- = ------ = 66-2/3 100 100
100 50 1/2 = 1/2 of --- = ------ = 50% 100 100
TERMS USED IN PERCENTAGE
In Percentage, there are five terms or quantities considered; namely, the Base, Rate per cent, Percentage, Amount and Proceeds or Difference; any two being given, a third one may be found.
The base and rate given, to find the percentage.
RULE.--Multiply the base by the rate per cent expressed decimally.
EXAMPLE: How many dollars is 6% of $50?
$50, the Base, or number on which percentage is computed. .06, the Rate, or term denoting number of hundredths taken. ------ $3.00, the Percentage, or the product of the base and rate per cent. $53.00, the Amount, or the base increased by the percentage. $47.00, the Proceeds, or Difference, the base less the percentage.
Ans. $3.00.
When the rate per cent is an aliquot part of 100, the percentage is readily found by taking such a part of the base as the rate per cent is part of 100. Thus, at 10%, take 1/10 of base; at 12-1/2%, 1/8; at 16-2/3%, 1/6, etc.
The base and percentage given, to find the rate.
RULE.--Divide the percentage by 1% of the base
EXAMPLE: Bought a watch for $15 and sold it for $18; what per cent did I make?
.15)3.00 ----- 20
Ans. 20%
Here, $15.00 is the base, and ($18 - $15) $3.00, the gain or percentage. Now, as 1% of 15.00 is .15, it is evident that 3.00 is as many per cent of 15.00, as .15 is contained times is 3.00, which is 20.
Proof: 20% or 1/5 of $15 = $3.
The percentage and rate given, to find the base.
RULE.--Divide the percentage by the rate per cent expressed decimally.
EXAMPLE: Received $6.40, percentage or interest, for money loaned at 4%, what was the base or principal?
.04)6.40 ----- Ans. $160
If $1 produces .04 (4 cents) in a certain time, $6.40 must be the percentage of as many dollars as .04 is contained times in $6.40, which is 160.
Proof: 4% of $160 (160 × .04) = $6.40.
The amount and rate given, to find the base.
RULE.--Divide the given amount by 1.00 plus the rate per cent.
EXAMPLE: Bought a horse at a certain price, and sold him for $84, making 12% on cost; what did he cost?
1.12)84.00 ------ Ans. $75
If I made 12% on cost, every dollar invested gained 12 cents; hence, the horse cost as many dollars as 1.12 is contained times in 84.00, which is 75.
Proof: 12% of $75 (75 × .12) = $9; $75 + $9 = $84.
The proceeds and the rate given, to find the base.
RULE.--Divide the given proceeds by 1.00 minus the rate per cent.
EXAMPLE: Sold a wagon for $51, which is 40% less than it cost; what did it cost?
.60)51.00 ------ Ans. $85
If I lost 40%, or 40 cents on the dollar, I received only 60 cents for every dollar the wagon cost; hence, it cost as many dollars as .60 is contained times in 51.00, which is 85.
Proof: 40% of $85 (85 × .40) = $34; $85 - $34 = $51.
NOTE.--The principles of percentage, in one form or another, enter into nearly all commercial calculations, besides many others. It is therefore of the utmost importance to business men, clerks, accountants, bookkeepers, and others, to become expert in percentage, and to adopt the easiest, simplest and shortest methods in computing interest, partial payments, trade discount, profit and loss, commission, insurance, stocks, bonds, taxes, exchange, etc.
PROFIT AND LOSS
When a thing is sold for more than it cost the seller, it is said to be sold at a profit. If it is sold for less than the cost, it is sold at a loss. Hence,
Profit = Selling Price - Cost Price.
Loss = Cost Price - Selling Price.
A profit or loss is generally reckoned as a percentage.
It is always understood that the percentage is reckoned on the cost price.
EXAMPLE: I buy wheat at 60 cents and sell it for 75 cents. What per cent do I gain?
SOLUTION: I gain the difference between 75 cents and 60 cents, or 15 cents. 15 cents is 25% of the cost. Hence, I gain 25%.
WORK:
75 cents - 60 cents = 15 cents.
15 cents ÷ 60 cents = .25, or 25%.
EXAMPLE: I bought flour at $3.50 per barrel. For what must I sell it to gain 20%?
SOLUTION: I must sell it for 100% of the cost plus 20% of the cost, or 120% of the cost.
120% of $3.50 = $4.20.
∴ I must sell it at $4.20.
EXAMPLE: I sold my carriage for 80% of its cost and received $90 for it. What was the cost?
SOLUTION:
1% of the cost is 1/80 of $90, or $1.125.
100% of the cost = 100 × $1.125, or $112.50.
COMMISSION
is a percentage paid for buying or selling real estate, goods, etc. A consignment is a quantity of goods, sent to an agent, broker or commission merchant, for sale. The consignor is the one who sends the goods, the consignee the one to whom they are sent.
PRINCIPLES:
1. The commission is some number or per cent of the price of what is bought or sold.
2. The proceeds equal the selling price minus the commission.
3. The amount equals the selling price plus the commission.
Commission presents two classes of problems. One of these classes may be called “buying problems.” The other may be called “selling problems.”
BUYING PROBLEM: I sent my agent $1977.60 to buy wild farm lands in northern Wisconsin, at $3 per acre. He was to receive 3% for his work. How many acres did he buy?
WORK AND EXPLANATION:
3% of $3 = $.09.
Cost to me of 1 acre is $3 + .09 = $3.09
For $1977.60 he buys as many acres as $3.09 is contained times in $1977.60, or 640. Hence, he buys 640 acres.
SELLING PROBLEM: My agent sells 360 pounds of butter for me at 20 cents. He pays $4.20 freight charges and $9.60 for storage. His commission is 5%. What does he send me?
WORK AND EXPLANATION:
360 pounds at 20 cents = $72.00 Freight is $4.20 Storage is 9.60 Commission is 5% of $72, or 3.60 Total charges = 17.40 ------ He sends me the difference, or $54.60
TRADE DISCOUNT
is an allowance made by manufacturers and jobbers from their list or marking prices. When the market varies, they change the discount accordingly, or make several discounts instead of changing the list.
Trade discount is a certain per cent off, or from list or marking price; while profit and loss is computed on the cost or purchase price.
The amount of the discount allowed depends sometimes upon the amount of order, and sometimes upon the terms of settlement. Very often two or more discounts are deducted in succession. Thus, 10% and 5% off; or, as it is generally expressed in business, 10 and 5 off, means a discount of 10%, and then 5% from what is left; 20, 10, and 5 off, means three successive discounts. A retailer’s profit is smaller when he is allowed 10 and 5 off, than if he were allowed 15 off. The result is not affected by the order in which the discounts are taken.
EXAMPLE: I receive a bill of goods amounting to $100, 20% off. What is the net cost?
FIRST WAY:
20% of $100 =$20
$100 - $20 = $80
SECOND WAY:
100% - 20% = 80%
80% of $100 = $80
EXAMPLE: A merchant receives two bills of $200 each. On one there is a discount of 25%; on the other, 15% and 10%. What must he pay on each, net?
FIRST BILL:
100% - 25% = 75%, or 3/4
3/4 of $200 = $150.
SECOND BILL:
100% - 15% = 85%
100% - 10% = 90%
90% of 85% = 76.5%
.765 × $200 = $153.
PROMISSORY NOTES
A note is a written promise to pay a specified sum at a certain time.
The person who promises is called the maker, and the person to whom he promises is called the payee.
The FACE of a note is the sum of money promised.
A negotiable note is one which is made payable to the bearer, or to the order of the payee. A negotiable note can be sold or transferred.
A note is non-negotiable when it is payable only to the person or persons named in the note.
An indorser of a note is a person who writes his name on the back of it. The person who indorses, by so doing guarantees its payment. An indorsement in blank is simply the signature of the indorser written across the back of the note or draft. When indorsed in this way the note or draft is made payable without further indorsement to any person holding.
A note or draft is indorsed in full when the indorser states, over his signature, the person to whose order the note or draft is to be paid. If an indorser does not wish to guarantee the payment of a note or draft, he writes “Without recourse” over his name when indorsing it.
A protest of a negotiable note or draft is a formal statement by a notary public that said note or draft was presented for payment or acceptance and refused.
A note, when due, must be presented at the place at which it is made payable. The day of maturity is the day on which a note becomes due.
The days of grace are the three days beyond the specified time for payment. Days of grace are now practically abolished throughout the United States.
KINDS OF NOTES.--There are three principal kinds of notes--Time Notes, Joint Notes, and Joint and Several Notes.
A Time Note must be paid in a specified time.
A Joint Note is one signed by two or more persons who are jointly liable for its payment.
A Joint and Several Note is a note signed by two or more persons who are both jointly and individually liable for its payment. Each man who signs the note is as much responsible for the payment of the whole sum as if he had signed alone.
LEGAL RULES THAT APPLY TO NOTES
A note made out on Sunday is void.
If a note does not state that interest is to be paid, it does not bear interest until after it is due.
If anyone obtains a note by fraud or from an intoxicated person, he cannot collect.
To be negotiable an instrument must be in writing and signed by the maker (of a note) or drawer (of a bill or check).
It must contain an unconditional promise or order to pay a certain sum in money.
Must be payable on demand, or at a fixed future time.
Must be payable to order or to bearer.
In a bill of exchange (check), the party directed to pay must be reasonably certain.
Every negotiable instrument is presumed to have been issued for a valuable consideration, and want of consideration in the creation of the instrument is not a defense against a bona-fide holder.
An instrument is negotiated, that is completely transferred, so as to vest title in the purchaser, if payable to bearer, or indorsed simply with the name of the last holder, by mere delivery; if payable to order, by the indorsement of the party to whom it is payable and delivery.
One who transfers an instrument by indorsement warrants to every subsequent holder that the instrument is genuine, that he has title to it, and that if not paid by the party primarily liable at maturity, he will pay it upon receiving due notice of non-payment.
To hold an indorser liable the holder upon its non-payment at maturity must give prompt notice of such non-payment to the indorser and that the holder looks to the indorser for payment. Such notice should be sent within twenty-four hours.
When an indorser is thus compelled to pay he may hold prior parties, through whom he received the instrument, liable to him by sending them prompt notice of non-payment upon receiving such notice from the holder.
One who transfers a negotiable instrument by delivery, without indorsing it, simply warrants that the instrument is genuine, that he has title to it, and knows of no defense to it, but does not agree to pay it if unpaid at maturity.
The maker of a note is liable to pay it, if unpaid at maturity, without any notice from the holder or indorser.
Notice to one of several partners is sufficient notice to all.
When a check is certified by a bank the bank becomes primarily liable to pay it without notice of its non-payment, and when the holder of a check thus obtains its certification by the bank, the drawer of the check and previous indorsers are released from liability, and the holder looks to the bank for payment.
A bona-fide holder of a negotiable instrument, that is, a party who takes an instrument regular on its face, before its maturity, pays value for it and has no knowledge of any defenses to it, is entitled to hold the party primarily liable responsible for its payment, despite any defenses he may have against the party to whom he gave it, except such as rendered the instrument void in its inception. Thus, if the maker of a note received no value for it, or was induced to issue it through fraud or imposition, that does not defeat the right of a bona-fide holder to compel its payment from him.
The dates and amounts of partial payments on a note, before it is finally paid in full, are placed on the back.
The place of payment, if not mentioned, is at the maker’s place of business or residence, during reasonable business hours.
If a note or a check received in payment of a debt is dishonored, the debt revives.
Ignorance of the law does not excuse anyone. No contract is good unless there be a consideration. No consideration is good that is illegal.
The maker of an accommodation note is not bound to the person accommodated; but he is bound to any other person receiving the note for value.
BANK DISCOUNT
The sum charged by a bank for cashing a note or time draft is called bank discount. This discount is the simple interest, paid in advance, for the number of days the note has to run. Wholesale business houses usually sell goods on time and take notes from the retailers in payment. These notes are not often for a longer period than three months. Some are placed in the banks for collection, others are discounted. When a note is discounted at a bank the payee indorses it, making it payable to the bank. Both maker and payee are then responsible to the bank for its payment. If the note is drawing interest the discount is reckoned on and deducted from the amount due at maturity. Most notes discounted at banks do not draw interest. The time in bank discount is always the number of days from the date of discounting to the date of maturity.
EXAMPLE: A note of $250, dated July 7, payable in 60 days, is discounted July 7 at 6%; find the proceeds.
EXPLANATION: This note is due in 63 days, or September 8. The accurate interest of $250 for 63 days at 6% is $2.59. The proceeds, then, will be $250-$2.59, or $247.41.
The Present Worth of a note or debt is a sum, which, if put at interest, will amount to that debt in the given time.
The True Discount is the difference between the debt at maturity and its present worth.
REMEMBER:
1. To allow three days of grace, if the debt discounted is a note.
2. To add the interest due at maturity to the principal, before discounting, if the note bears interest.
EXAMPLES: Case I.--Note not bearing interest.
What is the present worth and true discount on a note of $200, if paid 6 months before due, the discount being 6%.
SOLUTION: Amount of $1 for 6 months at 6% = $1.03. If $1.03 = amount of $1, $200 is the amount of as many dollars as 200/1.03, or $194.17+.
$194.17 is the present worth. $200 - $194.17 = $5.83 true discount.
The following rule can be deduced from the foregoing solution:--
RULE: 1. To find the present worth, divide the debt by the amount of $1 for the given time.
2. To find the true discount, subtract the present worth from the debt.
Case II.--Note bearing interest.
What is the present worth of a note of $300, bearing 6% interest, due in 2 years 4 months, if money is worth 10%.
SOLUTION: Interest on $300 for 2 years 4 months at 6% = $42.
$300 + $42 = $342. Amount due at maturity.
Amount of $1 for 2 years 4 months at 10% = $1.23-1/3.
If $1.23-1/3 = amount of $1, then $3.42 is the amount of
342 $--------, or $277.29. 1.23-1/3
$277.29 = present worth.
INTEREST
If a person borrows money, he usually pays something for the loan.
The sum of money he borrows is called the Principal; the money he pays for the use of the principal is called Interest. Interest is generally reckoned at so much for the use of each $100 for one year. This amount is called the Rate per cent per Annum.
Thus, if we say that $200 is borrowed for three years at 4 per cent per annum, we mean that the borrower, at the end of each year, pays the lender $4 for each $100 borrowed--i.e., $8 interest for each year.
In the above example the interest is supposed to be paid to the lender at the end of each year. Interest thus reckoned is called Simple Interest.
The sum obtained by adding the interest for any given time to the principal is called the Amount in that time.
COMMON INTEREST METHODS
If we were to find the interest on a sum of money for 3 years 4 months 5 days, we would find the interest for 1 year, then for 1 month (1/12 of a year), then for 1 day (1/360 of a year). Having the interest for 1 year 1 month 1 day, it is a simple matter of multiplication to get it for 3 years 4 months 5 days.
EXAMPLE:
What is the interest on $520 for 1 year 3 months at 6%?
WORK:
1 year 3 months = 1-1/4 year
$520 principal .06 -------- 4)$31.20 interest 1 year -------- $7.80 interest 1/4 year -------- $39.00 interest 1-1/4 year
THE 60-DAY INTEREST METHOD
In what is called the 60-Day Method, 360 days are considered one year, and 30 days one month. Upon this basis the interest for 60 days, or two months, at any rate, will be 1/6 of the interest for one year; and when the rate is 6% the interest for 60 days is one per cent or 1/100 of the principal. Thus, the interest of $247 for 60 days at 6% is $2.47.
EXAMPLE: Find the interest of $1728 for 80 days at 6%.
WORK:
$17¦28 = interest for 60 days. 5¦76 = interest for 20 days. ---+-- $23¦04 = interest for 80 days.
EXPLANATION:
The interest of $1728 for 60 days at 6% is 1% of $1728, or $17.28; and the interest for 20 days (1/3 of 60) is 1/3 of $17.28, or $5.76. Hence for 80 days it will be $17.28 plus $5.76, or $23.04.
METHODS OF RECKONING TIME
The Common Method.--When the time is long, generally 30 days are considered a month.
The Exact Method.--When the time is short, the exact number of days is generally counted but we sometimes find the exact number of days also when the time is long.
The Bankers’ Method.--Bankers get the exact number of days between two dates, but each day is reckoned as 1/360 of a year.
PROBLEM, when the time is long.
Find the time between April 12, 1895, and September 22, 1899.
BEST METHOD
From April 12, 1895, to April 12, 1899, is 4 years.
From April 12, 1899, to Sept. 12, 1899, is 5 months.
From Sept. 12, 1899, to Sept. 22, 1899, is 10 days.
Time between dates = 4 years 5 months 10 days.
ANOTHER METHOD
1899 9 22 1895 4 12 ---------- 4 5 10
PROBLEM, when the time is short. Find the difference in time between April 12 and July 15, 1902.
WORK:
Number of days left in April = 18 in May = 31 in June = 30 in July = 15 -- Total number of days = 94
NOTE.--If the rate and principal are given, it is a simple matter to find the interest, now that we have the time.
Example of the use of Table: What is the time from February 10 to October 18, in the same year. February 10 is numbered 41, and October 18 is numbered 291; 291 - 41 = 250, Ans. This includes the last day, but not the first. If both days are taken, subtract 40 from 291 = 251, Ans. When February 29 occurs in a term, count an additional day. The day of the date of a note is not included in its term; thus, required the last day of grace of a note dated March 24, at 90 days. March 24 = 83; 83 + 93 = 176 = June 25, Ans.
TABLE OF TIME, IN DAYS
The following table gives the exact time, in days, between two dates.
====+====+=====+=====+===+====+====+====+=====+====+====+==== Jan.|Feb.|March|April|May|June|July|Aug.|Sept.|Oct.|Nov.|Dec. ----+----+-----+-----+---+----+----+----+-----+----+----+---- 1| 32| 60| 91|121| 152| 182| 213| 244| 274| 305| 335 2| 33| 61| 92|122| 153| 183| 214| 245| 275| 306| 336 3| 34| 62| 93|123| 154| 184| 215| 246| 276| 307| 337 4| 35| 63| 94|124| 155| 185| 216| 247| 277| 308| 338 5| 36| 64| 95|125| 156| 186| 217| 248| 278| 309| 339 6| 37| 65| 96|126| 157| 187| 218| 249| 279| 310| 340 7| 38| 66| 97|127| 158| 188| 219| 250| 280| 311| 341 8| 39| 67| 98|128| 159| 189| 220| 251| 281| 312| 342 9| 40| 68| 99|129| 160| 190| 221| 252| 282| 313| 343 10| 41| 69| 100|130| 161| 191| 222| 253| 283| 314| 344 11| 42| 70| 101|131| 162| 192| 223| 254| 284| 315| 345 12| 43| 71| 102|132| 163| 193| 224| 255| 285| 316| 346 13| 44| 72| 103|133| 164| 194| 225| 256| 286| 317| 347 14| 45| 73| 104|134| 165| 195| 226| 257| 287| 318| 348 15| 46| 74| 105|135| 166| 196| 227| 258| 288| 319| 349 16| 47| 75| 106|136| 167| 197| 228| 259| 289| 320| 350 17| 48| 76| 107|137| 168| 198| 229| 260| 290| 321| 351 18| 49| 77| 108|138| 169| 199| 230| 261| 291| 322| 352 19| 50| 78| 109|139| 170| 200| 231| 262| 292| 323| 353 20| 51| 79| 110|140| 171| 201| 232| 263| 293| 324| 354 21| 52| 80| 111|141| 172| 202| 233| 264| 294| 325| 355 22| 53| 81| 112|142| 173| 203| 234| 265| 295| 326| 356 23| 54| 82| 113|143| 174| 204| 235| 266| 296| 327| 357 24| 55| 83| 114|144| 175| 205| 236| 267| 297| 328| 358 25| 56| 84| 115|145| 176| 206| 237| 268| 298| 329| 359 26| 57| 85| 116|146| 177| 207| 238| 269| 299| 330| 360 27| 58| 86| 117|147| 178| 208| 239| 270| 300| 331| 361 28| 59| 87| 118|148| 179| 209| 240| 271| 301| 332| 362 29| --| 88| 119|149| 180| 210| 241| 272| 302| 333| 363 30| --| 89| 120|150| 181| 211| 242| 273| 303| 334| 364 31| --| 90| --|151| --| 212| 243| --| 304| --| 365 ----+----+-----+-----+---+----+----+----+-----+----+----+----
COMPOUND INTEREST
Interest computed, at regular intervals, on the sum of the principal and any unpaid interest, is called compound interest. In other words, as soon as interest becomes due and is unpaid, it begins to draw interest at the same rate as the principal. Compound interest is generally paid on the deposits in savings banks and is used in calculating amortization and sinking funds.
Interest may be compounded quarterly, semi-annually, annually, or at the end of any other period agreed upon. In some States the collection of compound interest is not permitted.
EXAMPLE: Find the amount and the compound interest of $1200 at 6% for two years, interest compounded semi-annually.
SOLUTION: