The Circle of Knowledge: A Classified, Simplified, Visualized Book of Answers (part 5 of 9)

The Circle of Knowledge: A Classified, Simplified, Visualized Book of Answers (part 5 of 9)

In the foreign affairs of Austria the chief aim was to arrive at a satisfactory understanding with Germany and Russia. After 1871 Bismarck arranged as between Germany, Austria and Russia a “Three Emperors’ Alliance,” which after the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-1878 was superseded by an alliance between Germany and Austria. This, by the inclusion of Italy, in 1882, became the Triple Alliance, which remained in full force down to the great European war of 1914.

During the Turkish revolution of 1908 Austria-Hungary annexed the Turkish provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which the Treaty of Berlin had placed under Austro-Hungarian administration and military occupation in 1878.

=Racial Difficulties Bearing Upon the European War, 1914-1917.=--The multiplicity of races and their mutual jealousies rendered the task of the central government in Austria-Hungary both delicate and difficult. (See Peoples and Races.) Russia, as a Slav nation and a great power, had long exercised a predominant influence in the Balkans. Acting under this influence, Servia secretly fostered aspirations in the direction of a Pan-Slavic propaganda with the apparent object of not only lessening Austrian influence in the Balkans but of breaking up, through internal defections, the Austrian Empire; from the accomplishment of this Servia hoped to profit.

The Slavs are closely allied with Russia. The spread of Pan-Slavism constituted a menace to the very existence of the Dual Monarchy. The growth of German and Russian aspirations directed at expansion through the Balkan States had, therefore, a direct connection with the racial element of which Pan-Slavism was but one manifestation. As an evidence of the spread of the doctrine of “Pan-Slavic Unity” and of the bitterness of the racial antipathy which it engendered, the Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife, the Duchess of Hohenberg, were assassinated on June 28, 1914, at Sarajevo, the capital of the Austrian province of Bosnia. This act led directly to a declaration of war against Servia on July 28th, followed by an Austrian invasion on July 30th. (Further causes and details of the war will be found under the European War.)

SOVEREIGNS OF AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

The following is a list of the Hapsburg rulers of Austria (Dukes and, from 1453, Archdukes of Austria, from 1526, also Kings of Hungary and Bohemia, from 1804 Emperors of Austria).

HOUSE OF HAPSBURG Albert I. 1282 *Rudolf II. 1282 *Rudolf III. 1293 Frederick (III. as rival Imperial claimant) 1307 *Leopold I. 1314 *Albert II. 1314 *Rudolf IV. 1358 *Albert III. 1365 *Albert IV. 1395 Albert V. (II. as Emperor, King of Hungary and Bohemia) 1404 *Ladislaus (King of Hungary and Bohemia) 1439 Fredrick V. (III. as Emperor) 1457 Maximilian I. 1493 Charles I. (V. as Emperor) 1519 Ferdinand I. 1520 Maximilian II. 1564 Rudolf V. (II. as Emperor) 1576 Matthias 1611 Ferdinand II. 1619 Ferdinand III. 1637 Leopold I. 1658 Joseph I. 1705 Charles II. (VI. as Emperor, III. of Hungary) 1711 *Maria Theresa. 1740 HOUSE OF HAPSBURG-LORRAINE Joseph II. 1780 Leopold II. 1790 Francis I. (II. as Emperor) 1792 *Ferdinand I. (V. of Hungary) 1835 *Francis Joseph I. 1848 Charles Francis Joseph 1916

* All except those marked with an asterisk likewise filled the throne of the Holy Roman Empire.

THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE

Russia extends over eastern Europe, the whole of northern Asia, and a part of central Asia. This area, which is more than twice as large as Europe, and embraces one-sixth of the land-surface of the globe, has a population estimated at near one hundred and seventy-four millions. The Russian Empire consists of two well-defined parts: European Russia less than one-fourth of the whole but including nearly three-fourths of its population; and Asiatic Russia. The inhabitants of European Russia mostly belong to the Slavic branch of the human race.

The subdivisions are indicated in the following table:

=======================================+=========+=========== | AREA | GOVERNMENTS AND | ENGLISH |POPULATION PROVINCES | SQUARE |JAN. 1912 | MILES | ---------------------------------------+---------+----------- European Russia: | | Russia proper (50 Provs.) |1,862,524|122,550,700 Poland (10 Provs.) | 49,018| 12,776,100 Finland (Grand Duchy) | 144,178| 3,140,100 Asiatic Russia: | | Caucasia (11 Provs.) | 180,703| 12,288,100 Central Asia (10 Provs. and Regions)|1,325,530| 10,727,000 Siberia (8 Provs. and Regions) |4,786,730| 9,577,900 Dependencies: | | Khiva | 26,028| 800,000 Bokhara | 78,524| 1,500,000 Inland Lakes | 317,468| -- +---------+----------- |8,770,703|173,359,900 ---------------------------------------+---------+-----------

The various sections of European Russia differ greatly from one another, and have thereby given rise to certain popular divisions that are even better known generally than the strictly governmental provinces. These, with their distinguishing features, may be indicated as follows:

Great Russia (Muscovy).--All the central and northern regions to the Arctic shores. Chief towns: Moscow, Tula.

Except on its outskirts, this region presents everywhere the same aspects, wide, undulating plains covered with cornfields and dotted with small deciduous forests. The soil is of very moderate fertility in the north, but very fertile in the black earth belt of the south.

The Great Russians, numbering about fifty-five millions, are a vigorous and manly stock, usually rather light-haired, with blue or brown eyes, well-formed hands and feet, and a serious, kindly, but somewhat crafty, temperament, an inborn disposition for a wandering life, a very small regard to the value of time, and (especially in the peasantry) an extreme carelessness and slovenliness in all details of daily life.

Little Russia, or the Ukraine.--In the southwest. Chief town: Kieff.

The little Russians, over twenty-two millions in all, are settled in the Ukraine, which contains also in the borderlands some twelve per cent of Jews and six per cent of Poles. Their religion, like their love for music and poetry and their passion for country life, they share with their relations on the north and northeast, but in their developments of folklore and popular song, and in the more feminine character both of their physique and their intellect, they offer marked peculiarities. The Little Russians of the Dnieper basin are closely allied to the Ruthenians of Austria-Hungary.

The Ukraine comprises the governments of Tchernigoff, Kieff, Poltava, and part of Kharkoff, as well as Volhynia and Podolia on the spurs of the Carpathians, the richest and most populous parts of Russia. The soil is mostly a rich black earth, and assumes farther south the aspect of fine grassy steppes, or prairies, yielding rich crops of wheat.

Eastern Russia.--Chief towns: Astrakhan, Kazan, Samara, Saratoff.

This part of the country is more elevated, but less effectively drained; and vast forests stretch from the upper Volga to the Urals.

The peoples are of Turkish origin and include the Tartars of Kazan; the Nogai Tartars of the Crimea in the south, and the Kirgiz on the Caspian. The Bashkirs, Chuvash, and others, in the Ural and Volga, are Tartarized Finns. The Kalmucks may be taken as the purest type of the Mongols; they are short, swarthy, broad-shouldered horsemen, black-haired and black-eyed, the eyes slanting down toward the flat nose.

South Russia.--Along the Black Sea. Chief towns: Odessa, Nikolayeff, Kisheneff.

This is chiefly the steppe-region, a belt more than two hundred miles wide along the littoral of the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov, and extends east through the region of the lower Volga and Ural till it meets the steppes of central Asia.

Here are gently undulating plains, clothed with rich grass and coated with a thick layer of fertile black earth.

In order to people Bessarabia after its conquest in the eighteenth century without depriving the Russian landowners of their serfs, several races of foreigners, as Moldavians, Wallachians (Vlachs), Servians, Greeks, Germans, and even Scotch, were freely invited to settle there. The population of the steppe-region exceeds thirteen millions.

Western Russia.--Including the Lithuanian provinces of Kovno, Vilna, and part of Grodno and Vitebsk, drained by the Niemen and the upper Dwina, and other portions of the former kingdom of Poland. Chief town: Vilna.

Here dwell the White Russians, who number about six millions, but they are more mixed with Poles, Jews and Little Russians. In all essentials they are merely “poor relations” of the Great Russian family, living, on the whole, in a more degraded and undeveloped state than any other Russians.

The Baltic Provinces.--The coast-lands of the Gulfs of Finland and Riga. Chief towns: Petrograd (St. Petersburg), Revel, Riga.

These are four Russian governments bordering on the Baltic--viz., Courland, Livonia, Esthonia, and Petrograd; or in a restricted sense, often the first three. The Baltic provinces once belonged to Sweden, except Courland, which was a dependency of Poland. They came into the possession of Russia partly in the beginning of the eighteenth century through the conquests of Peter the Great, partly under Alexander in 1809.

They occupy an undulating plain three hundred to eight hundred feet above the sea. Owing to the influence of the sea, this region enjoys a milder climate than the rest of Russia, and has maintained its excellent forests, chiefly of oak. The soil is of moderate fertility.

The more important non-Slavic peoples of this region are the Lithuanians (one million two hundred and fifty thousand) and Letts (one million five hundred thousand), chiefly in Kovno, Vilna, Grodno, Vitebsk, Courland, and S. Livonia. The Germans (one million five hundred thousand) are mainly descendants of the mediæval conquerors of the east Baltic coasts (Teutonic Knights, Knights of the Sword, and their followers) and of the agricultural colonists brought by Catherine II.

The Grand-Duchy of Finland.--In the northwest, next Scandinavia. Chief towns: Viborg, Helsingfors, Abo.

Finland was ceded by the Swedes in 1809, but still retains an independent administration. The interior, chiefly elevated plateau, consists largely of forest land, and is well supplied with lakes, many of which are united by canals. (See also under Europe.)

Education is highly advanced; Swedish and Finnish are the two languages of the country, Russian being practically unknown. There is an excellent Saga literature, and the beginnings of a modern literature. The Finns came under the dominion of the Swedes in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and were by them Christianized.

The Finnish race includes the Finns and the Karelians (two million four hundred thousand in Finland and three hundred and fifty thousand in European Russia); the Esthonians, the people of Livonia, and other Western Finns in the Baltic Provinces (about one million); the Lapps and the Samoyedes in the far north; and the Volga Finns and the Ugrians (one million seven hundred and fifty thousand in European Russia and fifty thousand in Siberia). The Eastern Finns are being rapidly absorbed by the Russians; but the Western Finns warmly cherish their nationality.

[7]Poland.--In the west, next Germany. Chief town: Warsaw.

[7] Russian Poland was created into an independent kingdom by a joint edict of Germany and Austria-Hungary promulgated at Warsaw November 5, 1916. What its future status may be when the map of Europe is re-adjusted after the close of the European War is uncertain. For the present it is given a place among the independent nations.

=Surface Features.=--In general these embody the plains of European Russia and the lowlands and plains that extend to the north of the two great plateaus of Asia--the high plateau of East Asia and the western plateau of Persia and Armenia.

In European Russia, apart from the Caucasus, the Urals, and the Crimea, the only districts rising above one thousand feet are the Valdai hills at head of the Volga, the Timan range (over three thousand feet) in the Pechora basin, several heights in Russian Lapland (over one thousand five hundred), and some in Ukraine (over one thousand). The main divisions of its landscape are the treeless northern tundras, frozen in winter, grassy in summer; the rock and lake plateau of Finland; the immense central forest region, the cultivated parts of which supply Europe with grain; and the treeless steppes, which lie across the south of the plain from the saline borders of the northern Caspian toward Roumania on the west.

In Western Asia, the Caucasus is a single chain, so narrow that the same summits may be seen from the steppes which reach out from its northern base, and from the deep valleys which separate it from the heights of Armenia on the south. It has thus no great valleys in the direction of its length. The spurs descending from the main chain have deep gorges or troughs between. The culminating points are the Elbruz peak and Koshtan Tau, towards the western end of the chain; and Mount Kazbek, near the middle of it--all rising grandly from deep valleys.

The two most important passes over it were called in ancient times the Caucasian and Albanian gates. The former, now called the Dariel Pass, lies close to the eastern base of the Kazbek, and is a narrow cleft eight thousand two hundred and fifteen feet above the sea, available for carriages in the summer. The latter skirts the eastern termination of the range on the shores of the Caspian.

Over the whole chain vegetation is vigorous, but more luxuriant on the warmer southern slopes. The valleys opening in that direction are highly fertile, producing rice and cotton and silk, indigo, tobacco, and vines, and luxuriant woods. The northern slopes, exposed to the keen winds of the steppes, are characterized by bare pasture-lands and scattered firwoods.

All Western Siberia, nearest the Ural belt and European Russia, is a vast plain rising almost imperceptibly from the shores of the Arctic Ocean to the Kirghiz steppes and the base of the Altai mountains, which spring up from it like a wall, forming the northern buttress of the great tableland of Central Asia. The northern border of this plain is occupied by the marshy frozen tundras; the broad central belt is covered with forest, in the cleared spaces of which the soil is fertile and well suited to agriculture; all the southern portion of it is occupied by treeless steppes which reach away south towards the Caspian and Aral Seas.

The chief elevation in eastern Siberia is a chain of volcanic mountains running down the center of the peninsula of Kamchatka, some of whose peaks reach an elevation of seventeen thousand feet.

=Rivers.=--The chief rivers of Russia are the Niemen, the Dwina, the Lovat (continued by the Volkhov and the Neva), the Onega, the Dnieper, the Don and the Volga. By means of three lines of canals and canalized rivers, which connect the upper tributaries of the Volga with the streams that flow into Lakes Onega and Ladoga, the real mouth of the Volga has been transferred from the Caspian to the Gulf of Finland--Petrograd being the chief port of the Volga basin. The upper Volga and the upper Kama are also connected by canals with the North Dwina, and the Dnieper with the Düna, the Niemen, and the Vistula.

The rainfall of Russia is small, and as part of it falls in the shape of snow, the rivers are flooded in spring and in early summer. During the winter navigation of course ceases.

=The Lake District.=--This region lies in the north, and includes the governments of Petrograd, Novgorod, and Finland. The lakes in the district are well-nigh innumerable, the government of Novgorod alone containing more than three thousand lakes. The chief lakes of Finland are the Enare and Saima. Lake Ladoga is the largest lake in Russian Europe. For a third of the year its surface is frozen. The lake abounds with fish, and has a peculiar species of seal. The Neva flows from the lake into the Gulf of Finland.

Lake Onega is joined up to the White Sea by means of a series of lakes and streams.

Lake Ilmen is formed by the meeting of a number of rivers in a shallow depression; the average depth does not exceed thirty feet.

Lake Peipus, a part of which is called the Lake of Pskov, connects with the Gulf of Riga and with the Gulf of Finland. This lake also is very shallow and does not in any part exceed a depth of ninety feet.

=Seaboard and Islands.=--The ports on the Arctic coast are of little importance, since for nearly three-quarters of the year the outlets are frozen.

The White Sea with its port, Archangel, had lost much of the importance which it formerly possessed until brought into use during the European war in 1916-1917.

The Bering Sea and the coasts which border on the Sea of Japan lose much of their value because they are bleak and inhospitable. The great gulf which has the town of Vladivostok at its head is separated by miles of waste land from the interior, and the value of one of the most magnificent harbors in the world suffers much from this fact.

The sea which is of most importance to Russia is the Baltic, with its gulfs of Bothnia, Riga, and Finland. The chief Russian ports are to be found situated on its banks, and yet it can in no respect be regarded as a purely Russian sea.

The chief islands of the Baltic are: the Aland Archipelago, Dago, Oesel, Mohn, Hochland, and Kotlin, which contains the fortress of Cronstadt.

The Black Sea is becoming of more and more importance every year. The coast lands are being developed, and as the produce of the interior becomes greater so the importance of the Black Sea increases.

The Sea of Azov is the greatest inlet of this sea, but on the whole the importance of the Black Sea is lessened by the fact that it has so few good ports. The best are those of the peninsula of the Crimea, but these are too remote to be of any great importance.

Odessa is the second port of Russia and the greatest port of the Black Sea. Sebastopol is the great naval station, and Batum owes its importance to the fact that it is the port of the oil fields of the Caucasus.

The great inland sea of Russia, the Caspian, lacks importance chiefly because of the fact that it is an inland sea. It forms a good means of communication from the Transcaucasian provinces to Central Asia, and also between Central Asia and Persia; but although attempts have been made to unite it with the Black Sea, the fact that it lies seventy feet below sea-level prevents any real good from being done. It is, however, of vast importance as a fishing center, and supplies almost the whole of Russia with fish.

=Climate.=--In European Russia, except in the Baltic provinces, the south of the Crimea, and a narrow strip of land on the Black Sea, the climate is continental. A very cold winter, followed by a spring which sets in rapidly; a hot summer; an autumn cooler than spring; early frosts; and a small rainfall, chiefly during the summer and autumn, are the main features. The winter is cold everywhere. All the rivers are frozen over early in December, and they remain under ice for from one hundred days in the south to one hundred and sixty days in the north.

=Products and Industries.=--Excepting along the tundra belt on the Arctic coasts, in Finland, and in the saline steppes of the southeast, the cultivation of grain extends all over the great Russian plains.

=Agriculture and Forests.=--Rye and barley, oats and flax, are the chief crops in the north; wheat and vines, hemp and tobacco, the products of the center and the south. The south central governments, extending from the Upper Oka to the Ukraine on the Dnieper, may be regarded as the granary of Russia, for they produce a third of all its corn supply. Russia is thus most important of all as a grain-producing country.

Its forests extend over about forty per cent of the surface--pine and fir and birch in the north; oak and elm and lime in the center and south. The timber is sent down the Niemen and Vistula to the Baltic, and to Archangel in the White Sea, in enormous quantities for the supply of western Europe. In Russia itself the larger portion of the houses are built of wood.

=Live Stock and Fisheries.=--The steppes of the south are the great pastoral lands of Russia, which possess more than forty-five millions of sheep, about twenty-five per cent yielding fine wool; twenty-five millions of cattle; and twenty millions of horses. Russian leather is famous. Swine are also kept in very large numbers all over the land; the export of bristles and brushes from Russia is very large. Reindeer form the wealth of the Lapps and Samoyeds in the north; camels of the Tartars in the southeastern steppes. Hunting the bear, wolf, fox, and deer, and trapping the sable in the forests for their skins, give employment to many. The Caspian, as well as the Sea of Azof, the Black Sea, and the great rivers, are rich in fish--tunny, sturgeon, salmon, anchovy. Most caviare is made at Astrakhan on the Caspian.

MINERALS.--The Obdorsk and Ural Mountains contain very great mineral riches, and, with the Altai range, are the principal seat of mining and metallic industry, producing gold, platinum, copper, iron of very superior quality, rock-salt, marble, and kaolin, or china-clay. Silver, gold, and lead are also obtained in large quantities from the mines in the Altai Mountains. Russia is now the largest producer of petroleum in the world. Great supplies of petroleum and naptha are found in the Baku, Kerch, and Taman. An immense bed of coal, both steam and anthracite, and apparently inexhaustible, has been discovered in the basin of the Donetz (between the rivers Donetz and Dnieper). Other mineral products are: gold, platinum, pig iron, steel and rails, copper, quicksilver, salt and lead.

=Education.=--From the close of the sixteenth century onward till 1861, the greater portion of the inhabitants of Russia were serfs, belonging either to the crown or to private individuals. Under these circumstances it is not surprising that the masses of the people in Russia are without education. Finland is in advance of all other parts of the empire in respect of education; it possesses a separate system. Probably not more than ten per cent of the population have received instruction of any kind. The control and maintenance of primary schools is divided between the Ministry of Public Instruction and the Holy Synod. Conditions are, however, improving. Secondary institutions comprise gymnasia and good schools, but numbers and attendances are small. Special schools are increasing in number, especially in the European cities. There are universities at Kazan, Kieff, Kharkoff, Moscow, Odessa, Petrograd, Saratoff, Tomsk, Yurieff and Warsaw.

=Religion.=--The great bulk of the Russians--excepting a few White Russians professing the Union--belong to the Greek-Russian Church, or to one of its numberless sects of dissenters. The Poles and most of the Lithuanians are Roman Catholics; while the Finns, the Esthonians, and other Western Finns, the Swedes, and the Germans, are Protestant (about four millions).

=Cities and Towns.=--The largest towns in European Russia are Petrograd (2,018,596), Moscow (1,173,427), Warsaw (756,426), Riga (500,000), Odessa (449,673), Lodz (351,570), Kieff (329,000), Kharkoff (197,405), Vilna (162,633), Saratoff (143,431), Kazan (143,707), Ekaterinoslav (135,552), Rostoff (119,889), Astrakhan (121,580), Tula (109,279), and Kishineff (125,787); while Nijni Novgorod, Nikolaieff, Samara, and Minsk have populations between 90,000 and 95,000. In Asiatic Russia the Caucasus contains two towns with over 100,000 inhabitants: Baku (179,133), and Tiflis (160,645); Turkestan contains five large towns, Tashkend (156,000), Namangan, Samarkand, and Andijan; in Siberia Vladivostok has 90,000 (one-third Chinese), Tomsk, Irkutsk, and Ekaterinburg have each about 50,000 inhabitants. Nijni Novgorod, though small, is a station on the Trans-Siberian Railway, and has annually the largest fair in the world.

=Petrograd=, the splendid looking metropolis of the Russian Empire, is situated on the River Neva, near its entrance into the Gulf of Finland. The flat and low marshy ground upon which the city is built only recently emerged from the sea. The mighty Neva, which flows thirty-six miles from Lake Ladoga, subdivides into many branches, thus forming some one hundred islands.

Peter the Great began to build, in 1703, a small hut for himself, and some wooden hovels near the old fort. Now the quays form noble uninterrupted walks for several miles on each side of the broad, deep, rapid, and clear river. The climate is cold, damp, and changeable with a mean summer temperature of sixty-four degrees, mean winter temperature of fifteen degrees.

GENERAL ASPECT AND DIVISIONS.--The main body of the city stands on the mainland, on the left bank of the Neva; and a beautiful granite quay, with a long series of palaces and mansions, stretches for two and one-half miles. Only three permanent bridges cross the Neva; a bridge of boats is constructed each spring and removed each autumn.

The island Vasilievsky, between the Great and Little Nevas, contains the Stock Exchange, the Academy of Sciences, the University, the Philological Institute, the Academy of Arts, and various schools and colleges.

On the Petrogradsky Island, between the Little Neva and the Great Neva, stands the old fortress and prison of St. Peter and St. Paul, facing the Winter Palace, and containing the mint and the cathedral wherein the members of the imperial family are buried, also the arsenal.

THE CHIEF CENTER.--The main part of Petrograd has for its center the Old Admiralty. Its lofty gilded spire and the gilded dome of St. Isaac’s Cathedral are among the first sights caught on approaching Petrograd by sea. Three streets radiate from it, the first of them, the famous Nevsky Prospect. The street architecture, with its huge brick houses covered with stucco and mostly painted gray, is rigid and military in aspect.

A spacious square, planted with trees, encloses the Old Admiralty on three sides. To the east of it rise the magnificent mass of the Winter Palace, the Hermitage Gallery of Art, and the semicircular buildings of the general staff.

In the Petrogradsky Square is the well-known statue of Peter I. on an immense block of Finland granite. The richly decorated cathedral of St. Isaac of Dalmatia, erected by Nicholas I., is an almost cubic building (three hundred and thirty feet long, two hundred and ninety feet broad, and three hundred and ten feet high), surmounted by one large and lofty and four small gilded domes.

In Nevsky Prospect are the Kazan Cathedral, the Public Library, the square of Catherine II., and the Anitchkoff Palace.

The aristocratic quarter lies between the line of the Nevsky Prospect and the River Neva.

The principal places of interest are: the Imperial or Winter Palace, the Hermitage, St. Isaac’s Cathedral, the Kazan Cathedral, the Cathedral of Saints Peter and Paul, the Smolnoi Church, the Academy of Science, the House of Peter the Great; and, in the environs, Tsarskoe Selo, and Peterhof. For most travelers the greatest attraction in Petrograd is:

THE HERMITAGE.--It is connected with the Winter Palace, and was originally built by the Empress Catherine II. as a retreat. The present building, erected 1840-1852, by Klenze, is in the Greek style; it is a parallelogram, five hundred and twelve feet by three hundred and seventy-five feet, and for elegance of form as well as for beauty and costliness of materials employed has scarcely a rival in Europe.

Baedeker says: “The gallery of the Hermitage unquestionably stands among the first in Europe, not on account of its numbers (it boasts over one thousand nine hundred pictures) or on account of its completeness--the art of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries and the entire German school is lacking--but because it possesses such a number of masterpieces from the best periods of the various schools, that for the Spanish masters it ranks next to the Prado and the Louvre, in French masters it is surpassed only by the Louvre, in Flemish artists it stands on a level with the principal galleries, and it is the premier collection of the Dutch school, especially Rembrandt.”

CATHEDRAL OF ST. PETER AND ST. PAUL is in the fortress. It was erected 1714-1733, and was several times damaged by lightning. It has a beautiful spire, three hundred and two feet, the loftiest in Russia, except that at Reval. All sovereigns of Russia, including and since Peter the Great, except Peter II., who was interred at Moscow, lie buried here. The tomb of Peter the Great is near the south door. On the walls are many military trophies, keys of fortresses, flags, weapons, shields, etc. Nearby the Cathedral, in a brick building, is the boat of Peter the Great, preserved exactly as when it engaged the curious attention of Peter and so led to the creation of the Russian navy, of which it is facetiously called the “Grandfather.”

THE KAZAN CATHEDRAL is situated upon the Nevsky Prospect, and is approached by a circular colonnade, in imitation of St. Peter’s at Rome. In front are fine statues of Smolenskoi and de Tolly. The interior corresponds in its magnificence and display to St. Isaac’s. The special object of interest is the image of “Our Lady of Kazan,” which is covered with gems, the diamonds of the crown being of exceeding value. Around the cathedral are banners of important victories won by Russian arms and valor.

THE SMOLNOI CHURCH, at the eastern extremity of the city, is peculiarly rich in its effects, the entire structure and all its decorations being of the purest white. In connection with this church is a celebrated seminary for young ladies of noble birth.

CATHEDRAL AND MONASTERY OF ST. ALEXANDER NEVSKY is at the extreme east end of the Nevsky Prospect. The buildings cover much ground, and include twelve churches, the monastery, and gardens. The Cathedral, which is that of the Metropolitan, dating from 1790, is enriched with marble and agate and paintings--the altarpiece, the Annunciation, is by Raphael Mengs. On pillars opposite the altar are large portraits of Peter the Great and Catherine II. The shrine of St. Alexander Nevsky is of silver, about two thousand pounds of the metal being used in the whole; near the tomb are suspended the keys of Adrianople. The Monastery has a rich collection of jeweled mitres, gold brocaded vestments, and a mass of valuables, also many objects of interest, including the crown of St. Alexander and the bed on which Peter the Great died.

TSARSKOE SELO (tsär’kō-ye sā´lō), about fifteen miles south of St. Petersburg, contains a famous imperial palace, a favorite summer residence of the court. The Old Palace, begun in 1744, is richly decorated, the walls of one room are incrusted with amber, those of another with lapis lazuli. The magnificent marble gallery, two hundred and seventy feet long, connects the palace with a detached building. The park is full of caprices, such as a Chinese tower and village, an Egyptian pyramid, a Turkish kiosk, and the so-called doll-houses of the royal princesses.

PETERHOF (pā´ter-hōf), near Oranienbaum, was begun in 1720, and built by Leblond for Peter the Great. A marine palace, with a long front, made to retain its original appearance, even its ancient yellow color has been continually renewed. It contains porcelain, malachite, tapestry, paintings of victories in the reign of Catherine II., and a collection of three hundred and sixty-eight portraits of women, painted by Count Rosali for the empress during a journey. All are in the national costume. The gardens are full of Neptunes and Tritons and good fountains. The well-wooded park has many curiosities:--Marli, a favorite resort of Peter the Great; the cottage of the Empress Catherine, brilliant with gold and mirrors; the Palais de Paille; the English Garden, with a ball-room.

=Moscow= (mŏs’kō), the ancient capital of the Russian Empire, is one of the most magnificent and interesting cities of the world. The city is gathered in a semi-circle around the citadel, or Kremlin, which stands immediately upon the river bank. The streets are exceedingly irregular, though generally presenting the appearance of broad, well-paved avenues of a modern European city. The innumerable white, semi-oriental structures which greet the vision from every commanding point, with their unnumbered domes, spires, belfries, towers, and minarets, give to the city a magnificence of beauty scarcely to be found elsewhere in the great cities of Europe.

THE KREMLIN.--The historic, as well as the most interesting part of the city, is within the walls of the Kremlin. It is associated with much that is held in deepest reverence by Russians--here the imperial power receives religious consecration, and the great bell of Ivan Veliky proclaims the new monarch. The Kremlin is an assemblage of many buildings, covering quite a section of the city--churches, palaces, arsenals, barracks, monuments--enclosed within a brick wall about a mile and a half in circuit. Upon the wall, which is sixty feet high, are twenty-one towers. The principal gate, the Gate of the Saviour, is on the east side. Over the passage of the gate is the venerated “Saviour” brought from Smolensk in 1685, and it is the custom for the passer-by to uncover his head.

THE TOWER OF IVAN VELIKY, or John the Great, built in 1600, and three hundred and twenty feet high, contains thirty-four bells, the largest of which weighs sixty-four tons. When all these bells are rung together at Easter the effect is wonderful. At the foot of this tower is the vast Tsar Kolokol, or Monarch of Bells. It once hung in a tower (burned in 1737), weighs four hundred and forty-four thousand pounds, and is twenty feet high and sixty feet round. The value of the metal in the bell is nearly two million dollars.

Outside the Kremlin is the Chinese town, so-called, founded by Helena. Here are the Romanoff Palace, the Iberian Gate and Chapel, the University, the great Riding School, the Theaters, and the largest Bazaar in Russia, except that of Nijni-Novgorod.

THE CHURCH OF THE SAVIOUR, is conspicuous near the river, a quarter mile southwest of the Kremlin. This beautiful church, by the architect Thon, was erected 1837-1883, at a cost of more than eight million dollars. It has five cupolas, the principal being about one hundred feet in diameter; many figures in relief of patriarchs and saints upon the facade. The interior is elaborately decorated with marble and gilding; upon the walls are tablets relating to military events, admirable paintings and sculpture.

THE CATHEDRAL OF ST. BASIL, erected 1554-1557, is a remarkable edifice, consisting of eleven chapels with as many cupolas, all different, but wonderfully proportioned.

=Vladivostok= (vlä-dē-vōs-tok´), capital (since 1903) of the vice-royalty of Eastern Asia, Siberia, is situated on the east shore of Amur Gulf. It has one of the finest harbors in the world, is a naval station, has an arsenal, and is a terminus of the Siberian railroad. It escaped attack during the Russo-Japanese war, but suffered from naval mutiny and unrest in the Russian disturbances of 1905-1906. Its climate is severe--the average annual temperature being only forty degrees Fahrenheit.

HISTORY OF RUSSIA

The races who peopled Russia were vaguely known to the ancients as Scythians, and their country as Sarmatia. It received its name from the Ruotsi or Russ, a tribe of Norse “rovers” or freebooters, who entered the country from the west about the eighth century. The name was later applied to the realm of Moscow, and modified to Russia.

=Early Traditions.=--Three brothers, Rurik, Sineus, and Truvor, Scandinavians, were invited, according to tradition, to come and protect territory in northwest Russia against the Finns and the Lithuanians. They and their successors built new forts, and took part in wars. The times of the “Sunny Vladimir” (980-1015) are the “heroic” epoch of early Russian history, and the feats and feasts of Vladimir and his “war companions” have been handed down through ages in legend and song; while his conversion to Christianity made him the hero of the annals written by monks.

=Kieff the First Historic Center.=--The first half of the eleventh century, during which Yaroslaff the Wise was grand prince at Kieff, was the most brilliant time for Kieff, then the “mother of the Russian towns.” The great cathedral of St. Sophia was built at that time; schools were opened, and the first written Russian law was compiled. At his death (1054) Yaroslaff was ruling over most of the Russian towns.

The next two centuries of Russian history correspond to the feudal period of Western Europe. The Russians at that time were steadily extending their territory toward the east; they colonized the Oka, the Don, and the Finnish territories in the northeast.

=Settlements in and about Moscow.=--Owing to the gradual colonization of the basin of the Oka and the upper Volga, a new Russian territory had grown in importance in the meantime. Suzdal and Rostoff were its chief centers. It differed from southwest Russia in many respects. Its inhabitants were Great Russians--a hard-working race, less poetical and less gifted, but more active than their southern brethren. Besides, a good many of its inhabitants were peasants, settled on the lands of the boyars, and the cities themselves, being of recent creation--like Vladimir and, later on, Moscow--had not those traditions of independence which characterized Kieff or Novgorod. It was therefore easier for the authority of the prince to develop in the northeast, under the guidance of the church and the boyars.

The first Suzdal prince, Andrei Bogolubsky (1157-1174), was the first representative of that policy. He invited many Kieff boyars to settle in the land of Suzdal, and finally he took and burnt Kieff (1169).

The supremacy of Kieff was thus destroyed, and the land of Suzdal became the Ile-de-France of Russia--the nucleus of the future Russian state. The Suzdal land continued to grow and to enjoy prosperity during the next fifty years; economical, educational and literary progress were marked, and the Russian territory extended farther eastward.

=Tartar Invasion.=--But in the thirteenth century a great calamity visited Russia: a Mongol invasion suddenly put a stop to the development of the country and threw it into a totally new direction.

The Tartars first appeared in 1224, but their real conquest, under Batu Khan, was made in 1238 and the years immediately following. They subdued all the little Slav states except the republic of Novgorod. Latterly the rulers or princes of Moscow gained an ascendency over the other states, and formed the nucleus of a central sovereignty.

=Ivan III. Expels the Tartars.=--The Tartar supremacy lasted till about 1480, when Ivan III. (1462-1505) succeeded in throwing off their yoke. He did much to consolidate and extend his kingdom, and conquered Novgorod in 1478. The reign of Ivan IV. “The Terrible” (1533-1584) is of great importance. In 1547 he assumed the title of Czar or Tsar, a variant of Cæsar. He conquered Kazan and Astrakhan, and the conquest of Siberia was begun in his reign. The epithet “terrible” has reference to his cruel persecution of the boyars, a kind of powerful baronial class.

=House of Romanoff Established.=--The accession of the still-reigning Romanoff house took place in 1613 when the States-General elected Michael Romanoff as ruler. Under Alexei (1645-1676), son of Michael, territory was won from Poland, the Cossacks of the Ukraine had to submit, and the power of Russia greatly increased. The reign of Alexei’s son, Feodor III. (1676-1682), witnessed a war with Turkey, but was signalized by many important reforms. His imbecile brother Ivan was heir apparent, but Feodor willed the throne to his half-brother Peter, known in history as the Great; but Peter only obtained sole power in 1689 after overthrowing Sophia, Ivan’s sister.

=Under Peter the Great.=--Peter the Great opened what may be called the European period of Russian history. (See Peter the Great.) He made his country a European state. He gave it a standing army, a navy on the Baltic, the embryo of a modern administration, a diplomatic service, and a financial organization. He made canals, encouraged industry, literature and art. The heart of Russia might remain at Moscow, but henceforth it was to have also a head that looked out westward from the Neva.

On the other hand, Peter increased taxation; his cruelty was oriental, and serfdom under him became more and more extensive.

He completed the conquest of Siberia, waged successful war with Charles XII. of Sweden, and by the treaty of Nystad in 1721 obtained Esthonia, Livonia, Ingermannland, and part of Finland, thus gaining a large maritime territory on the Baltic Sea. He founded Petrograd in 1703, and made it the capital in place of Moscow.

=The Eighteenth Century= in Russian history is a century of empresses. Peter the Great was succeeded by his wife, Catherine I. (1725-1727). A grandson of Peter the Great, Peter II., followed Catherine, reigning from 1727 to 1730. The next sovereign was Anna (1730-1740), whose reign was a period of German influence. Ivan VI. (1740-1741) was soon displaced by the anti-German party, and Elizabeth (1741-1762), daughter of Peter the Great, ascended the throne. A part of Finland was obtained by the treaty of Abo, and Russia took part against Prussia in the Seven Years’ war. The first Russian university, that of Moscow, was founded in 1755.

The death of Elizabeth and the accession of Peter III., in 1762, greatly relieved the hard-pressed Frederick the Great, because Peter at once reversed the Russian policy.

=Catherine II.=--In July, 1762, he was deposed by his wife, Catherine II. (1762-1796), whose reign is of great importance in the progress of Russian power.

Under Catherine II. successful wars were carried on against Turkey, Persia, Sweden and Poland, which largely extended the limits of the empire. The acquisition of the Crimea, which gave Russia a firm footing on the Black Sea, and the first partition of Poland, were two most important steps toward the consolidation of the empire.

=Napoleonic Period.=--Catherine’s son and successor, Paul I. (1796-1801), at first, through apprehension of the revolution in France, joined the Austrians and British against France, but soon after capriciously withdrew, and was about to commence war with Great Britain when his assassination took place. A palace conspiracy put an end to his reign and life.

His eldest son, Alexander I. (1801-1825), was at the outset desirous of peace, but was soon drawn into the vortex of the great struggle with France, in which he played a prominent part. (See Alexander I. and Napoleon.) The Holy Alliance and the example of conservative policy set by Austria exercised a pernicious influence on the later part of his reign; and the higher classes, who had looked for the introduction of at least a portion of the liberal institutions they had seen and admired in Western Europe, became so dissatisfied that, when his youngest brother, Nicholas I. (1825-1855), from whom they had nothing to hope, succeeded, they broke out into open rebellion, which was speedily crushed.

=The Turkish Wars.=--A full stop was now put to the intellectual development of Russia. Wars were declared with Persia and Turkey; and a long and deadly struggle commenced with the Caucasian mountaineers. The cession of Erivan and Nahitchevan by Persia, of the plain of the Kubañ, of the protectorate of the Danubian principalities, and of the free right of navigation of the Black Sea, the Dardanelles, and the Danube by Turkey only induced him to further prosecute his aim of conquering for Russia a free issue from the Black Sea in the Dardanelles.

In 1830 he converted Poland into a Russian province; in 1849 he aided Austria in quelling the insurrection of the Magyars; and in 1853 he began a war with Turkey which became the Crimean war, and in which, though the allies, Great Britain, France and Sardinia, did not obtain any decided success, Russia suffered immense loss.

=Alexander II.=--The accession of Nicholas’ son Alexander II. (1855-1881)--one of whose first acts was the conclusion of the peace of Paris (1856), by which Russia lost the right of navigation on the Danube, a strip of territory to the north of that river, and the right of keeping a navy in the Black Sea--was the signal for a general revival of intellectual life in Russia. Obligatory military service for all Russians was introduced in 1874.

The insurrection in Poland was suppressed with extreme severity, and in 1868 the last relics of Polish independence disappeared in the thorough incorporation of the kingdom with the Russian Empire. The subjugation of the Caucasus was completed in 1859. Russian supremacy was established over all the states of Turkestan. In 1876 the administration of the Baltic provinces was merged in that of the central government; but the autonomy of Finland was respected and even extended.

=Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878.=--In 1877 the Russo-Turkish war broke out. At first the Russian progress was rapid; but the energy displayed by the Turks during the summer, and the resolute defense of Plevna by Osman Pasha from July till December, checked the progress of the Russian army. During the winter, however, she crossed the Balkans, and her vanguard, reaching the Sea of Marmora, stood in view of Constantinople. The armistice signed in January, 1878, was followed in March by the treaty of San Stefano; and after diplomatic difficulties that seemed for a time not unlikely to issue in war between Russia and Great Britain, a Congress of the Great Powers met at Berlin in June, 1878, and sanctioned the cession to Russia of the part of Bessarabia given to Moldavia in 1856, as also of the port of Batoum, of Kars, and of Ardahan.

=Rise of Nihilism.=--The growth of revolutionary discontent, leading to severe repressive measures, was marked by several murders of high officials, and on March 13, 1881, Alexander II. was killed by the revolutionists.

=Reactionary Reign of Alexander III.=--The reign of Alexander III. (1881-1894) was in the main characterized, in contrast to the liberal reforms of the last reign, by reactionary steps. Press freedom disappeared completely, and the universities were again suppressed. The Dumas, or representative assemblies, were deprived of all real independence in 1892. Alexander II.’s judicial reforms were partly undone, and the village communities, known as mirs, were brought under the more direct control of the land-owners. Russification was vigorously pursued in Poland and the Baltic provinces, and in 1890 the first steps toward the Russification of Finland were taken.

Alexander III. was not friendly to Germany, but avoided hostilities more serious than those of a tariff war, although the Bulgarian crisis of 1885 subjected their relations to a severe strain. Russia and France now began to draw close together, but a Franco-Russian alliance was not officially admitted till 1896-1897, and its terms were secret. Merv was annexed in 1884, and the occupation of Penjdeh in 1885 nearly led to war with Great Britain. Alexander III. escaped several attempts at assassination, and died of disease in November, 1894.

=Russia in the Far East.=--After the reign of Alexander III. comes the fateful reign of his son, Nicholas II. In 1896 China granted permission to carry the Siberian railway (begun in 1889) through Manchuria to the far eastern Russian seaport of Vladivostok. In December, 1897, in consequence of the Germans having acquired Kiauchau from China, Russia occupied Port Arthur, and in the following year obtained from China a lease of it and some neighboring territory, although in 1895 she had taken the chief part in preventing Japan from taking it as a prize of victory. She shared in the international expedition to China in 1900, and herself suppressed risings in Manchuria with the utmost cruelty. Professing to be ready, and even anxious to evacuate Manchuria as soon as possible, she was preparing for virtual annexation; but her aggressive action in Korea aroused Japanese opposition, and led to the war of 1904-1905.

By treaty of Portsmouth (1905), which ended this war, Russia lost--for the time being at least--all influence in Manchuria, Korea, and China, and had to cede to Japan Port Arthur and its territory, and also southern Sakhalien.

=The Imperial Duma.=--In August, 1905, the czar issued a manifesto ordering the election of an Imperial Duma or Parliament. Count Witte was made president of a reorganized Council of Ministers, with instructions to form a reform cabinet. The general strike in Finland compelled the czar to restore Finland’s constitution and liberties previously taken away in 1903. The bureaucrats attempted to discredit the reform movement by instigating attacks on Jews, and other outrages, especially in Odessa, where the authorities permitted appalling atrocities.

The Imperial Duma, promised in 1905, was duly elected early in 1906, and held its first meeting on May 10 at Petrograd. It was dissolved later in the year because too liberal, and a second one, elected in 1907, met the same fate. By various devices the government managed to get a less advanced Duma elected late in 1907, which did some useful work in 1908. An important Anglo-Russian convention was signed in 1907, the signatories agreeing to respect the territorial integrity of Thibet and the suzerainty of China. Other conventions were signed (1910) between Russia and Japan respecting the status of Manchuria, and between Russia and Germany in 1911.

After declaration of war by Austria against Servia in 1914, Russia announced that her support would be given to Servia. Consequently Russia joined France and Great Britain in the conflict that followed. (See further under European war.)

=Books of Reference.=--Wallace’s Russia; Leroy-Beaulieu’s The Empire of the Tsars; Norman’s All the Russians; Drage’s Russian Affairs; Suvorin’s All Russia--a Directory of Industries, etc.; Stepniak’s King Log and King Stork; Krapotkin’s Memoirs of a Revolutionist; Morfill’s Russia; Villari’s Russia under the Great Shadow; Wellesley’s With the Russians in Peace and War; Ganz’s The Downfall of Russia; Milyoukov’s Russia and Its Crisis; Meakin’s Russia, Travels and Studies.

SOVEREIGNS OF RUSSIA

A long list of dukes and grand dukes preceded the actual foundation of the Russian monarchy under the rule of a czar.

HOUSE OF RURIK

This royal house includes the descendants of Rurik, Grand Prince of Novgorod, the reputed founder of the Russian royalty. It became extinct in the person of Feodor in 1598.

=1462-1505.=--Ivan (Basilovitz), or John III., took the title of czar, 1482; Grand Duke of Moscow.

=1505-1533.=--Vasali IV., or Basil V., obtained the title of Emperor from Maximilian I.; son of Ivan the Great.

=1533-1584.=--Ivan IV. the Terrible; a tyrant; son of Vasily IV.

=1584-1598.=--Feodor, or Theodor, I.; and his son Demetrius, murdered by his successor; son of Ivan the Terrible: was elected to the throne.

=1598-1604.=--Boris-Godonof, who usurped the throne.

=1605.=--Feodor II., murdered.

=1606.=--Vasali-Chouiski, or Zouinski.

=1606-1610.=--Demetrius the Impostor, a young Polish monk; pretended to be the murdered prince Demetrius; put to death.

=1610-1613.=--Ladislaus of Poland; retired 1613.

HOUSE OF ROMANOFF--MALE LINE

=1613-1645.=--Michael-Feodorovitz, of the house of Romanoff, descended from the czar Ivan Basilovitz; unanimously elected czar.

=1645-1676.=--Alexis, styled the father of his country; son of Michael Feodorovitch.

=1676-1682.=--Feodor, or Theodor, II.; eldest son of Emperor Alexis.

=1682-1689.=--Ivan V.; Peter I., Ivan was the half-brother of Peter the Great, in whose favor he resigned.

=1689-1725.=--Peter I., the Great, alone; took the title of emperor October, 1721; founded St. Petersburg; son of Alexis.

=1725-1727.=--Catherine I., his widow, at first the wife of a Swedish dragoon, said to have been killed on the day of marriage; was married to Peter the Great in 1707.

=1727-1730.=--Peter II., son of Alexis Petrovitz, and grandson of Peter the Great; deposed.

HOUSE OF ROMANOFF--FEMALE LINE

The reign of the next three sovereigns of Russia, Anne, Ivan VI., and Elizabeth, of the female line of Romanoff, formed a transition period, which came to an end with the accession of Peter III., of the house of Holstein-Gottorp.

=1730-1740.=--Anne, duchess of Courland, daughter of the czar Ivan.

=1740-1741.=--Ivan VI., an infant, grand-nephew to Peter the Great; immured in a dungeon for eighteen years; murdered in 1764.

=1741-1762.=--Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great reigned during Ivan’s captivity.

HOUSE OF ROMANOFF-HOLSTEIN

All the subsequent emperors, without exception, connected themselves by marriage with German families. The wife and successor of Peter III., Catherine II., daughter of the Prince of Anhalt Zerbst, general in the Prussian army, left the crown to her only son Paul, who became the father of two emperors, Alexander I. and Nicholas, and the grandfather of a third, Alexander II. All these sovereigns married German princesses, creating intimate family alliances, among others, with the reigning houses of Württemberg, Baden, and Prussia.

=1762.=--Peter III., son of Anne and of Charles Frederick, duke of Holstein-Gottorp; deposed, and died soon after; supposed to have been murdered. Son of Charles Frederick, Duke of Holstein.

=1762-1796.=--Catherine II.; a great sovereign; extended the Russian territories on all sides; died 1796; wife of Peter III.

=1796-1801.=--Paul, her son; murdered, 1801; son of Peter III.

=1801-1825.=--Alexander I., died 1825; son of Paul.

=1825-1855.=--Nicholas I.; died 1855; third son of Paul.

=1855-1881.=--Alexander II., assassinated at St. Petersburg, March, 1881; son of Nicholas I.

=1881-1894.=--Alexander III.; died 1894; married Mary (formerly Dagmar), princess of Denmark; son of Alexander II.

=1894.=--Nicholas II., married princess Alix of Hesse-Darmstadt; son of Alexander III.

SECONDARY POWERS OF EUROPE

=BELGIUM= (Fr. Belgique), one of the smaller European states, consists of the southern portion of the former kingdom of the Netherlands (as created by the Congress of Vienna), lying between France and Holland, the North Sea and Rhenish Prussia. Its greatest length from northwest to southeast is one hundred and seventy-three miles; and its greatest breadth from north to south one hundred and five miles.

=Surface.=--Belgium is, on the whole, a level, and even low lying, country; diversified, however, by hilly districts. The north and west of the country is low and level plain, like Holland, but the undulating forest plateaus of the Ardennes cover all the south and east, rising near the frontier in that direction to a height of two thousand feet above the sea. The Campine, composed of marshes, coal-bearing heaths, and irrigated lands, extends along the Dutch frontier. In Flanders dykes have been raised to check the encroachments of the sea.

=Rivers.=--The land slopes generally northward, and this is the direction of the numerous rivers and streams which water it. The great river of the country is the Meuse, which enters from France and passes out into Holland, being navigable all through Belgium. Its tributary, the Sambre, from France, which joins it on the left near the center of the country, is also a navigable stream; and the Ourthe, from the frontier of Luxemburg, which joins it lower down on the right, is navigable for half its course. The Escaut or Scheldt is the main river of the lowland in the west, and with its chief tributaries, the Lys on the left and the Rupel on the right, forms the waterway of the plain. These rivers and important tributaries, with canals make up one thousand four hundred miles of waterways.

=Climate and Landscape.=--Belgium has a climate which resembles that of England, opposite to it in the same latitude, but which is more excessive. The lowland of the north is foggy and damp, like Holland; the higher country south and east has clearer skies.

=People.=--Belgium is one of the most densely peopled countries of the world, only equaled in this respect by some parts of the plain of China, or of the valley of the Ganges in India, a result which is no doubt due to the combination of natural facilities for agriculture, manufactures, and trade, within its limits. The Flemings (of Teutonic stock) and Walloons (Celtic in origin) speak each their own dialects of Dutch and French; there are also numbers of Germans, Dutch, and French. East and West Flanders, Antwerp, and Limburg are almost wholly Flemish, and Brabant mainly so. The line between the Flemish and Walloon districts is sharply defined, the Flemish part being the richest and most cultivated. The French language has gained the ascendancy in educated society and in the offices of government, but the Flemish dialect prevails numerically in the proportion of nine to eight.

=Religion and Education.=--Almost all the inhabitants of Belgium are Roman Catholics, though complete liberty and social equality is allowed to all religious confessions. Education is not yet generally diffused through the population, and was, until recently, almost entirely in the hands of the Roman Catholic clergy. There are state universities at Ghent and Liège, an independent liberal university at Brussels, and a Catholic university at Louvain.

=Products and Industries.=--About a fourth of all the inhabitants of Belgium are occupied in agriculture. Besides wheat, rye, and oats, hops are cultivated on a large scale, for export chiefly to France and England. Beetroot for the sugar factories, of which there are over a hundred in the country, is also a large crop, and flax is largely grown in the Flemish lowlands.

Two great coalfields extend across the central part of the country from west to east, along the valleys of the Meuse, but Belgium is essentially a manufacturing country, and it is largely dependent upon foreign supplies for its food. The mineral kingdom yields, beside coal, iron, zinc, lead and copper. The leading industries are collieries, quarries, and metal, glass, textiles, lace, flour and starch mills, sugar, distilleries, breweries, etc.

=Government.=--On the re-arrangement of European affairs, after the fall of Napoleon, Holland and Belgium were formed into the ill-assorted kingdom of the Netherlands under the family of Orange. The differences between the northern and southern divisions in race and language, in history, religion, and customs, proved too great.

In 1830 Belgium separated from Holland, and her neutrality was guaranteed by a conference of the European Powers, and by a further treaty, in 1839, signed by Austria, France, Great Britain, Prussia, the Netherlands, and Russia.

The Belgium constitution of 1831 jointly vests the legislative power in the king, the Senate, and the Chamber of Representatives. The one hundred and ten senators (with the exception of twenty-seven elected by the provincial councils) and one hundred and sixty-six representatives are elected by the people, the former for eight, the latter for four years. Universal male suffrage, with plural voting up to three votes by property and educational qualifications, was introduced by the electoral law of 1894, proportional representation being secured by an act of 1900. There are in addition representative Provincial and Communal Councils.

=Cities.=--Brussels, population, 1910, with suburbs, 720,347 inhabitants, is the capital. Other towns with over 100,000 inhabitants are Antwerp, the chief port (320,650 exclusive of suburbs); Ghent (165,149), the center of the iron industry, which has also large cotton and flax spinning mills, and is the second port of importance after Antwerp, while its flower shows are famous; and Liège (174,768).

Its great harbor and commercial city is Antwerp, a strongly fortified city on the Scheldt. The other harbors are Ghent, Bruges, Ostend, Nieuport, Blankenberg, and Zeebrugge.

Antwerp, the principal fortress, and Liège and Namur, also fortified, were designed to afford military protection on the line of the Meuse against a violation of neutrality by either France or Germany.

=Brussels= (Fr. Bruxelles), the capital of Belgium, is situated in a fertile plain on the ditch-like Senne, twenty-seven miles south of Antwerp, and one hundred and ninety-three miles northeast of Paris. It has a circumference of about five miles, and is built partly on the side of a hill. Though some of the streets are so steep that they can be ascended only by means of stairs, Brussels may on the whole be pronounced one of the finest cities in Europe.

The fashionable Upper Town, in which are the royal palace, public offices, and chief hotels, is much more healthy than the older Lower Town, which is greatly subject to fogs, owing to its intersection by canals and the Senne, although the stream now passes under an arched covering, which supports a boulevard. But the closely built old streets, with their numerous handsome buildings, formerly belonging to the Brabant nobility, and now occupied by successful merchants and traders, have a fine picturesque appearance, while some of the public edifices are unrivaled as specimens of Gothic architecture.

French is spoken in the upper division; but in the lower Flemish is the current language prevalent, and by many the Walloon dialect is spoken.

The walls which formerly surrounded Brussels have been removed, and their place is now occupied by pleasant boulevards extending all around the old town, and shaded by alleys of limes. The Allée Verte--a double avenue along the Scheldt Canal--forms a splendid promenade, and leads toward the country palace of Laeken, three miles north of the city.

Besides the fine park of thirty-two acres, in the Upper Town, ornamented with fountains and statues, and surrounded by the palace and other state buildings, Brussels has several other squares or places, among which are: the Place Royale, with its colossal monument of Godfrey of Bouillon; the Grande Place, in which is the hôtel-de-ville, a splendid Gothic structure of the fifteenth century, with a spire of open stonework three hundred and sixty-four feet high; and the Place des Martyrs, where a memorial has been erected to those who fell here in the revolution of 1830. The statue group of the Counts Egmont and Horn is notable. The cathedral of St. Gudule, dating from the thirteenth century, has many richly painted windows, and a pulpit considered to be the masterpiece of Verbruggen. The Palais des Beaux Arts contains the finest specimens of the Flemish school of painting and a sculpture gallery. The Royal Library adjoining has half a million volumes.

The Palais de Justice, built in 1866-1883 at a cost of more than ten million dollars, is one of the most magnificent buildings in Europe, dominating the lower town from the terraced slope of the upper town. The Royal Palace and the National Palace (for the chambers) are important buildings. Besides the University, there are schools of painting and sculpture, and a conservatory of music.

Brussels lace is particularly famous. Of the so-called Brussels carpets only a few are manufactured here, most of those of Belgian make being produced at Tournai. There are also manufactures of damask, linen, ribbons, embroidery, paper, jewelry, hats, soap, porcelain, carriages, etc.

=History.=--The history of Belgium as a kingdom can be said to date only from the time of the Congress of Vienna, in 1830, but its history as part of the Netherlands goes back to the time of the Romans.

The province of Belgica under the Romans passed under the sway of the Franks, and fell later to the Burgundian princes. On the death of Charles the Bold in 1477 it passed by marriage to the House of Hapsburg. The Spanish Netherlands remained (unlike the northern provinces which rebelled against Spain and became a Protestant republic) under the Spanish branch of the Hapsburgs, till in 1713 they were transferred to Austria. From 1794 Belgium was under French sway, but on the fall of Napoleon was united with the kingdom of the Netherlands. It rebelled in 1830, and since then, as above stated, has had a separate career as a limited constitutional monarchy. Again, in 1838, Holland and Belgium seemed on the brink of war, the cause being that Belgium had treated Lembourg and Luxembourg, which by the convention had been given to Holland, as if they were in reality a part of its territory. The crisis was terminated by the action of the Great Powers, who reduced Belgium’s share of the national debt of the Netherlands, and partitioned the territories again in dispute. The tranquillity of the country was again disturbed by the revolutionary spirit of 1848, but after 1850 the constitutional party began that series of reforms which gained for Belgium the position of one of the freest countries in Europe.

The question of Luxembourg threatened in 1861 the peace of Europe, and Belgium took part in the congress which prevented war breaking out. In 1870, on the outbreak of hostilities between France and Germany, Belgium, fearing invasion, mobilized her troops, but her neutrality was recognized and left inviolate by both parties. In 1885 the Congo Free State was acknowledged to be under the presidency of the king of Belgium, Leopold II., who had succeeded his father in 1865. The management of the colony gave cause for much bitterness, and led to a number of scandals. Leopold II. died in 1910, and was succeeded by his nephew, King Albert.

On August 2, 1914, the neutrality of Belgium was violated by the invasion of the German army at Visé, on the ground of military necessity. The German forces met with the most stubborn resistance from the valiant though numerically inferior Belgians at Liège and Namur. The country was subsequently completely overrun by German armies and subjected to military control. The Germans are at present (1917) in occupation of practically the whole country, where they are exercising civil government. The Belgian government has withdrawn temporarily to Havre, in France.

=BULGARIA=, a monarchy in the northeast part of the Balkan Peninsula between the Danube and the Balkans, was created a principality by the treaty of Berlin in 1878, greatly extended by the incorporation of East Rumelia in 1885, and declared an independent kingdom in 1908.

The net result of the wars of 1912-1913 was the increase of Bulgarian territory from 33,600 square miles to about 45,000. The population increased by about 500,000, was in 1910 4,337,513--over three-fourths Bulgarians, 465,000 Turks, 121,000 Gypsies, 80,000 Roumanians, 43,000 Greeks, and 40,000 Jews. The Bulgarians now extend into Macedonia, Bessarabia, etc., their total number being about 8,000,000.

=Surface.=--The north of Bulgaria is fertile plain and hilly country; the south is wooded and mountainous. The country has a fine waterway on the northern boundary, a Black Sea and Ægean seaboard, a mild climate, an agricultural country capable of much, an abundance of iron and some coal, free institutions, a peasantry possessing the solid qualities and persevering industry of northern races, and an assured economic development.

=Productions.=--The chief occupation of the people is agriculture, which engages about seventy per cent of the population. Cereals (wheat, maize, rye, barley, oats) are the principal crops, and rank first among the exports. Wine is produced everywhere, especially near the Black Sea. Roses are cultivated to a large extent, especially round Kazanlik and Karlavo and on the north side of the Rhodope Mountains for attar of roses, which is largely exported. Silkworms are bred in Philippopolis and Haskaro. Tobacco is carefully cultivated. There is little industry apart from domestic branches such as native cloth, carpets, trimmings and ribbons; but there is some brewing and distilling, leather work at Sumen, copper work, and pottery-making. The chief exports are grain, live stock, butter, eggs, hides, and attar of roses, sent chiefly to Turkey, France, Great Britain, and Austria-Hungary.

=People.=--Education has been very zealously and steadily promoted. Elementary education is compulsory. There are few technical schools. Sofia has a university.

The old Bulgarian Slavonic tongue is closely allied to the great Russian, but some Servian, Greek, Romanic, Albanian, and Turkish elements have found their way into the language.

The Orthodox Greek Church counts seventy-seven per cent as its adherents, Islam twenty-one and one-half per cent, and the others are Jews.

=Government.=--Bulgaria possesses one of the freest and most democratic constitutions in Europe, largely modeled on the lines of the Belgian constitution, except that there is no second chamber; and election of the Sobranje or National Assembly is by universal manhood suffrage, in the proportion of one member to every twenty thousand of the population. The executive power is vested in eight ministers nominated by the king. The monarchy, independent since 1908, is hereditary.

=Cities.=--The chief towns of Bulgaria are Sofia, Philippopolis, Rustchuk and Varna. Varna and Burgas are ports on the Black Sea, Dedeagatch on the Ægean.

=Sofia= (sofee´a), the capital since 1878 of Bulgaria, stands in a broad valley of the Balkans, on the railway from Constantinople to Belgrade and Vienna. It lies two hundred and six miles northwest of Belgrade, while Constantinople lies three hundred miles southeast. The valley at Sofia is an upland plateau, seventeen hundred feet above sea level, and near the heart of the peninsula, between the Vitosha Mountains and the main Balkan chain. At the end of almost every vista in the city are the distant hill masses, and fringing mountains.

The city early became important as a trade center, and probably would have developed into one of the great cities of Europe had not periodical destruction, almost continual dangers of war, and centuries of misrule held it back.

The rebuilding of Sofia began around 1880. It now has many creditable public buildings, electric lighting, an electric street railway and good sewerage and water systems.

It possesses the largest theater in southeastern Europe. The Bulgarian National Theater, with a competent corps of actors and singers, and offering the best in opera and drama, is a revelation of the strides that have been made in the Balkans since the Turks were driven back a brief generation ago. The theater is a handsome modern structure, planned with greater luxury of detail than most buildings in Sofia, and it cost four hundred thousand dollars.

Sofia has a public bathhouse which is one of the finest buildings of its kind in the world. It was built over a hot mineral spring, famed since the days of the Romans. This building, in Byzantine style, including in its interior appointments all of the most modern luxuries, cost the Bulgarians six hundred thousand dollars.

Their capital city is one of the peculiar prides of the hard-working, long-enduring, persistent Bulgarians. It typifies to them the promise of a great Bulgarian future, and they also look upon it as an earnest of their right to a respected place among the civilized nations of the West.

=History.=--The country now known as Bulgaria was originally inhabited by Thracians, and under the Romans formed the province of Mœsia. The Bulgars originally came from the banks of the Volga and crossed the Danube in the sixth century, and occupied the East. They overcame the Slavs, adopted their language and customs, and thus became a great Slav power; but by 1186 they had split up into three principalities, and from 1393 fell under the domination of the Turks. For close upon five hundred years the Bulgars were subject to the rule of the Ottoman Empire.

The first national awakening dates from the year 1762, when the monk Paysios, then at Mt. Athos, wrote the national chronicles, and revived memories of ancient glory. A new national literature began; the first Bulgarian school was opened in 1835, and was followed by others. A newspaper appeared in 1844. The Crimean war stirred up Slavonic sympathies which Russia sedulously and naturally cherished. In 1872 the Bulgarian Church and archbishop became again independent of the supremacy of the Greek patriarch.

In 1877 Russia, as guardian of the Slav races of Turkey, declared war. As a result of the war, Bulgaria was created by the treaty of Berlin. July 13, 1878, and in 1885 Eastern Rumelia was added to the newly created principality. In 1908 the country was declared to be an independent kingdom. In 1912-1913 a successful war of the Balkan League against Turkey increased the size of the kingdom, but in August, 1913, a short campaign against the remaining members of the League reduced the acquired area, and led to the surrender of about two thousand square miles to Roumania. In October, 1915, Bulgaria decided to participate in the European conflict, and sided with Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey, and attacked Servia.

=DENMARK,= the smallest of the three Scandinavian kingdoms, consists of the peninsula of Jutland and a group of islands in the Baltic, and is bounded by the Skager-Rak, the Cattegat, the Sound, the Baltic, the Little Belt, Sleswick, and the North Sea.

=Surface.=--Except in Bornholm, the surface of Denmark is very similar in every part of the kingdom, and is uniformly low, its highest point (in southeast Jutland) being only five hundred and sixty-four feet above sea-level. The coast is generally flat, skirted by sand-dunes and shallow lagoons, especially along the west side. Both the continental portion and the islands are penetrated deeply; by numerous fiords, the largest being Limfiord, which intersects Jutland, and has isolated the northern extremity of the peninsula since 1825, when it broke through the narrow isthmus which had separated it from the North Sea.

=Rivers.=--Denmark has numerous streams but no large rivers; the principal is the Guden, which flows northeast through Jutland into the Cattegat. It is navigable for part of its course. Less important streams are the Holm, the Lonborg, and the Stor Aa. All the others are insignificant brooks and streamlets.

The lakes are very numerous but not large, none exceeding five and one-half miles in length by about one and one-half miles broad. There are numerous winding inlets of the sea that penetrate far into the land. The largest of these, the Limfiord in Jutland, entering from the Cattegat by a narrow channel, winds its way through to the North Sea, thus making northern Jutland really an island. In this fiord, which widens out greatly in the interior and gives off various minor fiords, there are one large and various small islands.

=Climate.=--The climate is milder, and the air more humid than in the more southern but continental Germany; it is not unhealthy, except in the low lying islands, such as Laaland, where the short and sudden heat of the summer occasions fevers.

=Production and Industry.=--The common products are wheat, rye, oats, barley, potatoes, cattle, horses, pigs, sheep, and butter. Its manufactures are, for the most part, for home consumption. Its chief exports are agricultural produce, including wheat and barley, bacon, hams, flour, butter, eggs, hides, skins, corn meal and oil cake, horses and cattle.

=People.=--The population of Denmark is composed almost exclusively of Danes, with a few thousand Jews and others. The Danes have regular features, fair or brownish hair, and blue eyes. They still maintain their reputation for seafaring skill and hospitable customs. They belong to the Scandinavian branch of the Teutonic peoples, and speak the Danish form of the old Norse, which was fixed in writing about the time of the Reformation.

Since the Reformation the Danes have been adherents of the Lutheran Church. Education is well advanced, and there are very few people in the country who can neither read nor write.

=Government.=--The present constitution of Denmark dates from 1866. The executive power is vested in the king and his ministers, the legislative in the Rigsdag or Diet, comprising the Landsthing or Upper House, and the Folkething or House of Commons, partly nominated by the Crown, partly elected, indirectly, by the people.

=Cities.=--Copenhagen is the capital, population, 560,000; other chief towns are Odense, Aarhuus, Aalborg, Randers and Horsens.

=Copenhagen= (kō-pen-hāgen; Dan. Kjöbenhavn, “Merchants Haven”), the capital of Denmark, is situated on the low-lying eastern shore of the island of Zealand, in the Sound, which is here about twelve miles broad. The channel forms a fine and capacious harbor, which is bridged over so as to connect the isolated suburb of Christianshavn and the main part of the city at two points. Copenhagen is still defended by the old citadel of Frederikshavn and by forts on the seaward side.

Among its buildings of historical interest or intrinsic beauty, the Cathedral, rebuilt after the bombardment of 1807, possesses statues of Christ and the Apostles, and a baptismal font, designed and in part executed by Thorwaldsen. Frederick’s Church, or Trinitatiskirke, is remarkable for its round tower, which is ascended by a spiral incline instead of steps.

The Royal Palace, called Christiansborg, was rebuilt between 1794 and 1828, but suffered greatly from fire in 1884. In the castle of Rosenborg are kept the regalia; the palace of Charlottenborg, is now used as an Academy of Arts. The University, founded by Christian I. in 1479, has a library of three hundred and fifty thousand volumes; the royal library contains six hundred thousand volumes.

Copenhagen is the center, not only of Danish, but of northern literature and art, and is the seat of the unrivaled Museum of Northern Antiquities, and the Thorwaldsen Museum.

The exports include grain, rape-seed, butter, cheese, beef, cattle, wool, etc.; and porcelain, pianos, clocks, watches, mathematical instruments, chemicals, sugar, beer, and tobacco are manufactured.

=History.=--The early history of Denmark is lost in the twilight of the Vikings and their valiant deeds. The Danes coming from the islands occupied the lands deserted by the Jutes and Angles who had in the fifth century migrated to England. The Danish monarchy was founded in 936 by Gorm the Old, whose son became a Christian. Waldemar I. (1157-1182) ruled Norway also, and conquered Mecklenburg and Pomerania; under his son Waldemar II. further conquests were made in German and Wendish lands, so that the Baltic became a Danish sea.

By the treaty of Calmar in 1397, Norway, Sweden and Denmark, already under one monarch, Margaret, were formally united into one state. In 1448 the Danes elected as king Christian of Oldenburg, a descendant of their royal family, who was also Duke of Sleswick and Holstein; and his line continued on the throne till 1863.

Sweden became independent in 1523. Lutheranism was introduced into Denmark in 1527. In 1815 Denmark had to cede Norway to Sweden; and in 1848 the Germanic peoples of the duchies Sleswick and Holstein rebelled against Denmark. For the time the Danes succeeded in retaining the duchies, but the controversy, renewed in 1863, led to the defeat of the Danes by Austria and Prussia (1864), followed by the incorporation of the duchies in the Germanic Confederation, and, after the Austro-Prussian war of 1866, in Prussia.

Denmark although reduced to the narrow limits of the islands and Jutland, has greatly prospered, in spite of the spread of socialistic opinions, and political dissensions. Christian IX. died January 29, 1906, and was succeeded by his son, Frederick VIII.

=GREECE= is a maritime kingdom in the southeast of Europe. The country is composed of a continental portion, almost separated into two parts by the gulfs of Patras and Lepanto on the west, and the gulf of Ægina on the east, the archipelago of the Ægean Sea and the Ionian Islands, and is divided into twenty-six provinces, called nomarchies.

=Surface.=--The mountain range which cuts off the peninsula from the continent of Europe is an extension of the Balkans. From it run chains from north-northwest to south-southeast, which form the skeleton of Greece. The western boundary of Thessaly is formed by Pindus, the main offshoot of the Balkans. The eastern boundary is also marked not only by the sea but by important mountains derived from the Balkan system. These are Olympus, Ossa, Mavrovuni, and Pelion. Othrys, a branch of Pindus, forms the south boundary of Thessaly. This branch is continued in the celebrated mountains Parnassus and Helicon, forms the land of Attica, and reappears as the islands of Ceos, Cythnos, Seriphos, and Siphnos. The Peloponnese, “the island of Pelops,” or by its modern name the Morea, is connected with northern Greece merely by the narrow isthmus of Corinth, now pierced by a canal; its highest point is Taygetus.

=Rivers.=--The rivers of Greece are unimportant. The chief in the Peloponnesus are the Eurotas (Basilipotamo), the Alpheus (Ruphia), draining Arcadia and Elis; and the Peneus draining Elis.

=Climate.=--The climate is generally mild, in the parts exposed to the sea equable and genial, but in the mountainous regions of the interior sometimes very cold. None of the mountains attain the limit of perpetual snow; but several retain it far into the summer. During summer rain scarcely ever falls, and the channels of the minor streams become dry. Toward the end of harvest rain becomes frequent and copious, and fevers become common.

=Production and Industry.=--The most important of the fruit trees are the olive, the vine, orange, lemon, fig, almond, citron, pomegranate, and currant grape. Its exports consist of currants, figs, olive oil, wine, cognac, tobacco, hides, lead, iron ore, magnesium, emery, marble, and sponges.

=People.=--The Greeks called themselves Hellenes, and the inhabitants of Italy called them Graeci. The modern Greeks are by no means pure-bred descendants of the ancient Greeks. Indeed, it has been maintained that from the seventh century A. D. there have been no pure Greeks in the country, but only Slavs. It is, however, pretty certain that the two and one-quarter million of modern inhabitants are descendants of the three races that occupied the soil at the time of the Roman conquest. They speak the modern Greek tongue, which is a greatly modified form of the old.

Education is free and compulsory, maintained by local taxation supplemented by State grants. Secondary education is somewhat backward, particularly in the country districts. There is a university of some repute at Athens, which is largely attended by Turks.

=Government.=--According to the constitution, which was framed by an assembly in 1864, the executive power is vested in the king and his responsible ministry; the legislature is a single chamber of deputies called the Boulé, elected by the people, and meets at Athens.

=Cities.=--Athens is the capital, population 167,500; the towns next in size are Patras, Piræus, and Trikhala, all above 20,000; and there are eight others between 20,000 and 10,000.

=Athens=, in the southeast of Attica, occupies an extensive area round the site and remains of the classical city, four and one-half miles from its harbor of Piræus, on the Gulf of Ægina. The city, which takes its name from Athena, “goddess of science, arts, and arms,” and its own patron divinity, was originally built on the Acropolis, a conspicuous limestone rock rising three hundred and twenty feet above the Attic plain, and afterwards spread out on the plain below. The Acropolis became the citadel and subsequently the site of a group of beautiful temples of the time of Pericles (fifth century, B. C.).

The ruins of the Parthenon, the Erechtheum, the temple of Nike Apteros (“Wingless Victory”), and the Propylæa, still remain to testify to the former glory of the Acropolis. Of the other ancient buildings the most notable are the Theseum (also of the Periclean period, and still almost perfect), and the fragments of the vast temple of Zeus (begun in 530 B. C. and finished by the Roman Emperor Hadrian), with the theater of Dionysus and other structures.

Not far from the Acropolis rose the hill Lycabettus (nine hundred and eleven feet), and the hillocks or ridges of the Pnyx and the Areopagus or Mars Hill. At a greater distance the plain is bounded by Hymettus (three thousand three hundred and sixty-eight feet), Pentelicus (three thousand six hundred and forty-one feet), and other ranges.

Athens was fabled to have been founded by the hero Cecrops. The most brilliant period of its history was when, after the Persian wars (fifth century, B. C.), Athens took the lead among the Greek states, became powerful by land and sea, was adorned by Pericles with most glorious buildings, and brought Greek literature and Greek philosophy to their highest development. Its decline dates from the disastrous conclusion of the Peloponnesian war (403 B. C.). It was plundered and ruined by Sulla in 87 B. C.; and neither under Byzantine nor Turkish rule ever attained any prosperity. In the days of its glory Athens had some one hundred thousand free inhabitants and twice as many slaves; when after the liberation of Greece Athens was made the capital of the new kingdom (1834), it was a wretched village of a few hundred houses. Since then it has had a prosperous growth, looks like a well built German town, with a fine royal palace, a marble stadium (restored), a university with over one hundred and fifty professors and lecturers and two thousand five hundred students, and a good deal of miscellaneous trade by the way of the Piræus. It is connected by rail also with Corinth, and the Athens-Larissa line brings Greece into railway communication with the rest of Europe. (See also under ancient Greece.)

=History.=--Modern Greece threw off the Turkish yoke in 1830 and was declared an independent kingdom and the boundaries were defined. The liberated state was at first governed by a national assembly, but the president, Count Capo D’Istrias, assumed autocratic powers, and sedition culminated in his assassination. Subsequently the Powers offered the throne to Prince Leopold (afterwards king of Belgium), but the offer was refused. The crown was then given to Otho, son of Louis I. of Bavaria. Throughout his reign discontent was rife, and an insurrection in 1862 resulted in the deposal of the king. George, second son of the king of Denmark, was then chosen king, and the Ionian Islands, at that time under British protection, were ceded unconditionally to the kingdom.

By the Berlin Congress of 1878, Greece was promised a modification of her frontier, and in 1881 a readjustment was accepted. The adjustment proved distasteful to the Hellenes, who demanded Crete, and hostilities commenced with Turkey in 1897. The war was short-lived, and was disastrous to the Greeks, and on the intervention of the Powers an armistice was concluded. By the Treaty of Constantinople Greece was compelled to pay an indemnity to submit to the readjustment of her frontier, and to accept the control of the Powers in financial affairs.

In October, 1912, war broke out in the Balkan states, known as the Balkan war. The permanent effects on the Greek frontier, owing to the Hellenic participation in the victory over the Turks, are not yet determinable, but all deeply affect Greek interests, and depend on the decision of the Great Powers. George, King of the Hellenes, was assassinated in Salonica by a maniac named Schinas in March, 1913. The perpetrator of the crime subsequently committed suicide. The present ruler is the late king’s eldest son, who was proclaimed King Constantine XII.

=HOLLAND=, the popular name of a country officially described as “Netherland,” or “The Netherlands,” is bounded by the North Sea, Prussia, and Belgium. Its greatest length, north to south, is one hundred and ninety-five miles, and its greatest breadth one hundred and ten miles. Luxemburg was, till 1890, connected with Holland.

=Surface.=--Almost the whole country is flat and low; the parts of it nearest the coasts are even below the sea level, the waters being kept out by dykes, which are maintained at a great annual cost. One stretch of fifty miles of the coast is guarded by a triple wall of piles driven into the soil, filled up between, and buttressed by huge granite blocks brought from Norway. If it were not for these dykes controlling the rivers and keeping out the sea, nearly half the country would be under water.

All the southern part of Holland belongs to the alluvial delta lands formed at the mouths of the Rhine (the chief branch of which is named the Waal), the Meuse or Maas, and Scheldt. Opening out into broad, shallow estuaries these river mouths form a number of islands, of which Walcheren and Beveland, Schouwen and Tholen, Over Flakkee, Voorne and Beyerland, are the largest.

Toward the north appears the great shallow gulf called the Zuider Zee (or South Sea, in distinction from the North Sea outside), which was formed in the thirteenth century by the bursting of the sea into a former inland lake called “Flevo” by the Roman geographers. Outside of it a chain of islands marks the line of the former coast of the mainland.

=Rivers and Canals.=--Besides the natural channels formed by the estuaries of the Scheldt, the Maas, and the delta branches of the Rhine (the Waal, Lek, Old Rhine, Vecht, Amstel, and Yssel) the country is intersected in all directions by Grachts or larger canals, lined with rows of trees, joining river to river. No country in the world has such a network of waterways; ships’ masts, and windmills with large sails, pumping the water from the smaller drainage canals, are seen everywhere.

=Climate.=--The general climate of Holland resembles that of England, opposite to it, in its rapid variations; but it is more humid. Dense sea fogs from the North Sea drive over it. In most winters the rivers and canals are frozen over for two or three months, when even women skate to market; in summer the thermometer rises to eighty or ninety degrees in the shade.

=Production and Industry.=--Cattle rearing, butter and cheese making, are the most general industries of the country, for the grazing meadows are far more extensive than the corn lands. In the latter, rye, barley, wheat, and potatoes, are the chief crops. Flax, and beet-root for sugar, chicory, and tobacco, are grown also to a considerable extent.

The principal manufactures are shipping, bricks, margarine, cocoa, chocolate, linen, rich damasks, cottons, woolens, cigars and other manufactured tobacco, candles, confectionery, earthenware and pottery, glass bottles and ware, chemical and pharmaceutical products, matches, perfumery, sugar, bicycles and automobiles, boots and shoes, starch, potato flour, engines, metal substances, works of art in gold and silver, incandescent lamps, machinery, motors, paper, printing, oils, beer, “geneva” and other liqueurs. Diamond cutting employs numerous hands in Amsterdam.

=People.=--Of the population, the greater part (seventy per cent) is formed by the Dutch or Batavians, the descendants of the Germanic tribe of the Batavi who occupied the delta of the Rhine in the time of the Roman conquest of the land. Frieslanders (fourteen per cent), descendants of the ancient Frisii, occupy the northern borders of the country, where the peasantry still speak a language closely allied to Anglo-Saxon; the Flemings (thirteen per cent) occupy the southeastern borders of the country. Their language differs little from the Dutch; but the dialects throughout the country are very numerous.

The majority, about three-fifths, belong to the several Reformed Churches; and the remainder are Roman Catholics, with about one hundred and seven thousand Jews.

Private state-aided primary instruction is encouraged rather than public, though the latter is provided, if required, by local taxation. Secondary schools for working classes are numerous, well equipped and attended. The principal universities are at Amsterdam, Groningen, Leiden, Utrecht.

=Government.=--The government of Holland is a limited constitutional monarchy. The crown is the executive power; legislation is vested in the States-general of two chambers, called the First Chamber and the Second Chamber. A State Council of fourteen members appointed by the Sovereign is consulted on all legislative and on most executive matters.

There is no state religion, but the state gives financial support to the different churches.

=Cities.=--The capital is The Hague with a population of 300,000; other cities exceeding 50,000 in 1913 were as follows: Amsterdam, 591,053; Rotterdam, 454,135; Utrecht, 123,457; Groningen, 78,670; Haarlem, 70,907; Arnhem, 64,760; Leiden, 59,297; Nymegen, 58,679; Tilburg, 54,216.

=The Hague= (Dutch Gravenhagen, “the count’s hedge”), the capital of the Netherlands is two miles from the North Sea and fifteen miles northwest of Rotterdam. It is intersected by canals and shady avenues of lime-trees, and has many fine public buildings and private houses.

In the center of it is the Vijver, or Fish-pond, to the south of which stands the old castle of the Counts of Holland, where the Dutch parliament sits. In its gatetower the brothers De Witt were confined till dragged thence and torn to pieces by the populace (1672). The picture-gallery has a splendid collection of works by native painters (Paul Potter’s “Bull” and Rembrandt’s “Lesson in Anatomy”); and there are the royal library with five hundred thousand volumes; the municipal and other museums; the Town-House, and the royal palaces.

Among the numerous statues are those of William I. (two in number), William II., Spinoza, Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar, and the monument which commemorates the deliverance from the French. Close to the town is the beautiful pleasure-park called “The Wood” (Bosch), in which stands a royal residence with the magnificent so-called “Orange Hall.”

The great Peace Conference was held here in 1899; The Hague is the seat of the resulting arbitration courts, for which Mr. Carnegie provided permanent buildings of great architectural beauty. Industries are iron-founding, copper and lead smelting, cannon-founding, printing, furniture and carriage making, and the manufacture of gold and silver lace.

=History.=--The ancient inhabitants of the country, the Batavians and the Frisians, became subjects or allies of the Romans in the first century A. D., and so remained till in the fourth century their territories were overrun by the Saxons and Salian Franks.

At the end of the eighth century the Low Countries submitted to Charlemagne, and various feudal dukedoms, counties, and lordships were gradually established (the countship of Holland in the eleventh century). In 1384 the earldom of Flanders passed to the Dukes of Burgundy, and Philip the Good (c. 1450) made the Low Countries as prosperous as any part of his Burgundian state.

The Emperor Charles V. inherited the Burgundian dominions; and under his son, Philip II. of Spain, broke out the bitter quarrel between Holland and Spain, between Dutch Protestantism and persistence and Spanish tyranny and persecution, which ended in 1581 in the establishment of the Dutch Republic as an independent state under William the Silent (of Orange), though the war continued with intervals till 1648, and the Belgian provinces abode by their allegiance to the kings of Spain.

In the seventeenth century Dutch commerce, especially at sea, Dutch science, Dutch classical scholarship, Dutch literature and Dutch art attained an eminence hardly afterwards equalled. The rivalry of Holland and England at sea led to the unfortunate wars of 1652-1654 and 1664-1667. The accession of William III. of Orange to the Stadtholdership of the United Provinces (1672) proved the salvation of the republic from France; in 1678 Louis XIV. signed the peace of Nymegen.

Ten years later William was hailed as the savior of English liberties, and became king of Great Britain and Ireland. On William’s death, the United Provinces became a pure republic once more, the stadtholdership was re-established in 1747 but it made no difference in the downward course.

The National Convention of France having declared war against Great Britain and the stadtholder of Holland in 1793, French armies overran Belgium (1794); they were welcomed by the so-called patriots of the United Provinces and William V. and his family (January 1795) were obliged to escape from Scheveningen to England in a fishing-smack and the French rule began. After several changes Louis Bonaparte, June 5, 1806, was appointed king of Holland, but, four years later, was obliged to resign because he refused to be a mere tool in the hands of the French emperor. Holland was then added to the empire.

The fall of Napoleon I. and the dismemberment of the French empire led to the recall of the Orange family and the formation of the southern and northern provinces into the ill-managed kingdom of the Netherlands, which in 1830 was broken up by the secession of Belgium. In 1839 peace was finally concluded with Belgium; but almost immediately after national discontent with the government showed itself, and William I. in 1840 abdicated in favor of his son.

Holland, being moved by the revolutionary fever of 1848, King William II. granted a new constitution, according to which new chambers were chosen, but they had scarcely met when he died, March, 1849, and William III. (born 1817) ascended the throne.

William III. having no living male issue, the succession to the crown was vested in the princess of Orange, Wilhelmina, the only child of the king’s second marriage, born in 1880. For many years the great question of internal politics was the new constitution, which, promulgated November 30, 1887, increased the electorate of Holland by no less than two hundred thousand voters. On the death of the king (November 23, 1890), when Luxemburg ceased to be connected with the crown of Holland, the Princess Wilhelmina became queen.

Queen Wilhelmina married Prince Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, in 1901, and in 1909 a daughter (the Princess Juliana) was born to them.

=NORWAY= (Norweg. Norge), the western division of the Scandinavian peninsula, is one thousand one hundred and sixty miles in length (coast-line three thousand miles) and varies in width from twenty to one hundred miles north of 63° N. lat.; below that line it swells out to two hundred and sixty miles. The coast-line is extensive, deeply indented with numerous fiords, and fringed with an immense number of rocky islands. The surface is mountainous, consisting of elevated and barren tablelands, separated by deep and narrow valleys. The finest of the valleys stretching inland from the fiords is Romsdal, where the rounded pure gneiss mountains tower up to six thousand feet with almost perpendicular walls. The cultivated area is about one-thirtieth part of the country; forests cover nearly one-fourth; the rest consists of highland pastures or mountains.

Norway is separated from Sweden by the Kjolen Mountains (three thousand to six thousand feet), the backbone of the peninsula, which divide south of 63°; the western branch widens out into a broad plateau, undulating between two thousand and four thousand feet and embossed with mountain-knots--Dovre, Jotun, Lang, Fille, Hardanger Fjelde (fells)--the separate peaks of which shoot up to six thousand feet and higher.

=Rivers.=--The few important rivers that Norway can claim as exclusively her own have a southerly direction, and discharge themselves into the Skager-Rack; of these the chief are the Glommen (four hundred miles), and its affluent, the Lougen. The most important river in the north is the Tana, which forms part of the boundary between Russia and Norway, and falls into the Arctic Ocean. Lofty waterfalls are numerous. Lakes are extremely numerous but generally small. The principal is the Miösen Vand. The streams are turned to account in floating down the valuable timber of the forests, and their rapids give abundant mill power.

=Production and Industry.=--Agriculture, though pursued with some vigor of late, is unable to furnish sufficient products for home consumption; hence it has been necessary to import considerable quantities of corn, meat, and pork. The fisheries give employment to a large part of the population throughout the year. The most important are cod and herring. The mineral products are of late increasing.

The purely industrial establishments are grouped mainly around Christiania, and include textile factories, machine shops, chemical works, flour mills, breweries, etc. The use of water power for electrical enterprises is growing. The Norwegians rank among the busiest sea carriers of the world, the Norwegian mercantile marine ranking third among maritime nations, or first in proportion to population.

The chief exports consist of timber, matches, fish, oil, and other products of the fisheries, pulp, paper, skins and furs, nails, minerals, stone, ice, calcium carbide, condensed milk, butter, margarine, tinned goods, etc.

=People.=--The people of the peninsula are of Germanic race, with the exception of the small number of Finns and the Lapps in the north. The Norsemen of Norway, of middle stature, strong, generally blonde haired and blue eyed, seamen by choice, have adopted the Danish as the language of the towns and of literature, the modernized Old Norse being banished to the outlying country districts and unfrequented fiords.

Education is compulsory and free between the ages of seven and fourteen, schools being maintained by local taxation with state grants in aid. The attendance is high. Secondary schools are provided by the state, by local authorities, and privately. There are a number of special schools and industrial and technical institutes. The University of Christiania is an important institution for higher education.

Except 52,700 persons (including Methodists, Baptists, Roman Catholics, Jews, Mormons), the entire population belong to the Lutheran Church.

=Government.=--After the crisis of European affairs brought about by Napoleon’s wars, Denmark lost her hold over Norway, which had been united to it for more than four centuries, and that country was united to Sweden in exchange for Finland, which then passed under Russian sway. Norway, however, was again separated from Sweden as an independent kingdom under King Haakon VII. in 1905.

The Storthing or Parliament consists of one hundred and twenty-three members, women being eligible and electors (since 1907); and divides for legislative purposes into two chambers called “Odelsting” and “Lagting.”

The Norwegians share with the Swiss the distinction of being the most democratic people in Europe; all titles of nobility were abolished in 1821. In 1912 practically all offices except in the cabinet, diplomatic service, army, navy, and church, were thrown open to women.

=Cities.=--The chief cities are the capital, Christiania, and Bergen. Other important towns are Trondhjem, Stavanger, and Drammen.

=Christiania=, the modern capital and chief commercial town of Norway (the ancient capital is Trondhjem, “home of the throne,” where the kings are still crowned), is built on the northern end of the Christiania Fiord. Population, in 1910, 241,834. It is named after Christian IV., who commenced building it in 1624 after the destruction of the ancient city of Oslo by fire. It is the seat of Parliament, of the High Court of Judicature, and of the National University. Connected with this are the students’ garden, a library of four hundred and fifty thousand volumes, a botanical garden, zoological and other museums, laboratories, and observatory. The Meteorological Institute was established in 1866. There are two national and historical palaces here, one in the city quite near the university, and one, Oscarshall, beautifully situated two miles from the city on an eminence overlooking the fiord. There is a national picture-gallery, and a very interesting museum of northern antiquities. The Dom or Cathedral and Trinity Church are the principal ecclesiastical buildings. The old fortress Akershus Faestning still remains, but has little military value.

The staple industry of Christiania is its shipping trade; its chief export is timber. A considerable industry is the brewing of Christiania öl, a sort of lager beer, with resinous flavor, largely consumed throughout Norway, and exported. The minor manufactures are cotton, canvas, engine-works, nailworks, paper-mills, and cariole-making. The harbor is closed by ice for three or four months most winters.

=History.=--It is not until the ninth century that the story of Norway begins to emerge from the obscurities of myth and legend. At first it was occupied by Lapps and by several Gothic tribes, then became an independent kingdom, founded in 872, and was united to Denmark in 1380.

The Napoleonic crisis in Europe may be said to have severed the union, which had existed for more than four hundred years between Norway and Denmark. The latter country after having given unequivocal proofs of adhesion to the cause of Bonaparte, was compelled, after the war of 1813, to sign the treaty of Kiel in 1814, in which it was stipulated by the allied powers that she should resign Norway to Sweden. Charles XIII. was declared joint king of Sweden and Norway in 1818. From that time down to 1905 Norway remained in union with Sweden. In June of that year Norway declared the union dissolved, and the repeal of the union was signed in October of the same year. The throne was offered to and declined by a prince of the reigning house of Sweden, but was afterwards accepted by Prince Carl of Sweden, who was thereupon elected as King Haakon VII. In 1908 a treaty was signed by Great Britain, Germany, France, Russia, and Norway guaranteeing the integrity of the Norwegian kingdom.

=Poland= (called by the natives Polska, a word of the same root as Pole, “a plain”), a kingdom of Europe, proclaimed, in 1916, by the governments of Austria-Hungary and the German Empire as the result of conquests by the Central Powers, comprises substantially what is geographically known as Russian Poland (the kingdom of Poland formed in 1815) and Austrian Poland (or the Austrian province of Galicia). The former has an area of about 49,000 square miles, with a population of more than 12,000,000; the latter, an area of 30,300 square miles, and a population of 8,000,000.

=Surface.=--This extensive tract forms part of the great European central plain, and is crossed by only one range of hills, which run northeast from the Carpathians, forming the watershed between the Baltic and Black Seas.

Its principal streams are the Vistula, the Niemen, and the Dwina, all belonging to the basin of the Baltic; and the Dniester, South Bug, and Dnieper, with its tributary, Pripet, belonging to the basin of the Black Sea.

The physical configuration of the country makes it admirably adapted for agriculture. Next to grain and cattle its most important product is timber.

The soil is mostly a light fertile loam, though there are large barren tracts of sand, heath, and swamp, especially in the east. Much of the fertile soil is rich pasture land, and much is occupied with forests of pine, birch, oak, etc. Rye, wheat, barley, and other cereals, hemp, timber, honey, and wax, cattle, sheep, and horses, vast mines of salt and coal, some silver, iron, copper, and lead constitute the natural riches of the country.

=People.=--The present population of the provinces, included in the Poland of former days, consists chiefly of Poles, Lithuanians, Germans, Jews, Malo-Russians, Roumanians and Gypsies. The Poles, who number 10,000,000, form the bulk of the population; the Lithuanians, 2,100,000 in number, inhabit the northeast of the country; the Germans, of whom there are 2,000,000, live mostly in the towns; the Jews are very numerous being estimated, at 2,200,000.

Roman Catholics preponderate; then come in order the Greek Church, Protestants, Jews, and Armenians.

=Cities.=--The following are the populations of the chief cities: Capital, Warsaw, 800,000; Lodz, 400,000; Lemberg, 225,000; Cracow, 160,000; Przemysl, 60,000.

=Warsaw= (Polish Warszawa), the capital of Poland, stands on the Vistula’s left bank, three hundred and thirty miles east of Berlin by rail and seven hundred miles southwest of Petrograd. Two iron bridges lead to the suburb of Prague, on the opposite bank. Standing on a navigable river, with great railway lines to Moscow, Petrograd, Vienna, Danzig, and Berlin, Warsaw is one of the most important cities of eastern Europe, being smaller only than Petrograd and Moscow. Corn and flax are largely exported, and coal and manufactured goods imported. Warsaw itself manufactures electroplate, machinery, boots, woolens, pianos, carriages, tobacco, sugar, chemicals, beer, and spirits.

Of over one hundred Catholic churches the cathedral of St. John is the most notable; there are also several Greek churches, two Lutheran ones, and many synagogues. The castle is an imposing building, and there are many fine private palaces. The university, suppressed at various times, was reopened in 1915, and has seventy-five professors who now teach in Polish.

=History.=--The early history of Poland is legendary and obscure. The Poles, like the Russians, are a Slavonic race, and are first spoken of as the Polani, a tribe or people between the Vistula and Oder. The country was divided into small communities until the reign of Mieczyslaw I. (962-992) of the Piast dynasty, who renounced paganism in favor of Christianity, and was a vassal of the German emperor.

He was succeeded by Boleslaw the Great (992-1025), who raised Poland into an independent kingdom and increased its territories. In succeeding reigns the country was involved in war with Germany, the Prussians, the Teutonic knights, and with Russia. The last of the Piast dynasty was Casimir the Great (1364-1370), during whose reign the material prosperity of Poland greatly increased. He was succeeded by his nephew, Louis of Anjou, king of Hungary, whose daughter, Hedwig, was recognized as “king” in 1384, and having married Jagello, prince of Lithuania, thus established the dynasty of the Jagellons, which lasted from 1386 to 1572.

During this period Poland attained its most powerful and flourishing condition. In 1572 the Jagellon dynasty became extinct in the male line, and the monarchy, hitherto elective in theory, now became so in fact. The more important of the elective kings were Sigismund III. (1587-1637), Wladislaw or Ladislaus IV. (1632-1648), John Casimir, (1648-1669), and the Polish general Sobieski, who became king under the title of John III. (1674-1696). He was succeeded by Augustus II., Elector of Saxony, who got entangled in the war of Russia with Charles XII., and had as a rival in the kingdom Stanislaus Lesczynski. Augustus III. (1733-1763) followed, and by the end of his reign internal dissensions and other causes had brought the country into a state of helplessness.

In 1772 under the last feeble king Stanislaus Augustus (1764-1795), the first actual partition of Poland took place, when about a third of her territories were seized by Prussia, Austria, and Russia, the respective shares of the spoil being Prussia 13,415 square miles, Austria 27,000 square miles, Russia 42,000 square miles.

A second division between Russia and Prussia took place in 1793. Prussia received nearly all the present province of Posen, and the western part of what is now Russian Poland; Russia received all the territory east of about long. 44°. A third division between Russia, Prussia, and Austria occurred in 1795. Prussia took a large part of the present Russian Poland, including Warsaw; Austria received part of the present Russian Poland between the Bug, Vistula, and Pilica; and Russia received all the remainder, situated east of the Niemen and Bug.

An insurrection under Koszciusko had taken place in 1794, but he was defeated at the battle of Maciejowice and taken prisoner. Suvorov (Suwarrow), the Russian general, took Warsaw, and the Polish monarchy was at an end. King Stanislaus resigned his crown, and died at Petrograd in 1798.

Part of Poland was formed by Napoleon into the duchy of Warsaw. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 made a resettlement of the territory, creating a kingdom of Poland, under Russian rule, with a constitution. An insurrection which began in November, 1830, was suppressed in September, 1831; the constitution was abolished in 1832. From this time the independence of Poland was suppressed, and in 1832 it was declared an integral part of the Russian empire, with a separate administration, headed by a viceroy chosen by the Czar. On November 6, 1848, the republic of Cracow became Austrian; and the subsequent rebellion against Russian rule in 1863 only brought further humiliation on Polish hopes and aspirations.

During the European war Poland, in 1914, first suffered invasion and devastation by the Russian armies, and during the two following years was completely overrun by the Austro-German armies, and placed under the military rule of the latter. The proclamation of Poland as a new independent kingdom took effect in 1916.

=PORTUGAL= (named from Portus Cale, the Roman name of Oporto), a republic of Europe, lying between Spain and the Atlantic, on the west side of the Iberian Peninsula, is three hundred and fifty miles in length and varies in width from seventy to one hundred and forty miles. The area is 36,038 square miles--a little larger than Ireland.

=Surface and Climate.=--The coast is mostly low and flat, except immediately north and south of the mouth of the Tagus, and at Cape St. Vincent. The north of Portugal is diversified by spurs (five thousand feet) of the mountains of Spanish Galicia. The Sierra da Estrella (six thousand five hundred and forty feet) is a westward continuation of the Spanish Sierra Guadarrama system. The Sierra Morena is continued westwards in southern Portugal.

The principal rivers of the country--the Guadiana in the south, the Tagus in the center, and the Douro and Minho in the north--are simply the lower courses of Spanish rivers; but the Mondego has its sources in the country.

The vicinity to the ocean tempers the climate and exempts it from the dry heat of Spain. The inequalities of the surface produce, however, diversities of climate; for, while snow falls abundantly on the mountains in the northern provinces, it is never seen in the southern lowlands. Rain falls abundantly throughout the year.

=Production and Industry.=--The chief products are wheat, barley, oats, maize, flax, hemp, and the vine in elevated tracts; in the lowlands, rice, olives, oranges, lemons, citrons, figs, and almonds. There are extensive forests of oak, chestnut, sea pine, and cork, the cultivation of the vine and the olive being among the chief branches of industry; the rich red wine known to us as “port” is shipped from Oporto. Its mineral products are important--copper, lead, tin, antimony, coal, manganese, iron, slate, and bay salt, which last, from its hardness and purity, is in demand. Its manufactures consist of gloves, silk, woolens, linen, and cotton fabrics, metal and earthenware goods, tobacco, cigars, etc. The exports consist to the extent of fifty per cent of wine, which is the chief industrial product of the country; others are cork, cattle, copper ore, fruits, oil, sardines, and salt.

=People.=--The Portuguese are a mixed race--original Iberian or Basque, with later Celtic admixture. Galician blood (derived from the ancient Gallaici, presumably Gallic invaders) predominates in the north; Jewish and Arabic blood are strongly present in the center, and African in the south.

The Portuguese differ widely from their Spanish brethren, whom they regard with inveterate hatred and jealousy, mainly on account of their attempts to subvert the independence of Portugal.

Education is free and nominally compulsory between the ages of seven and fifteen, but is not strictly enforced, and over seventy-five per cent of the population above seven years old are illiterate. Secondary education is conducted in state lyceums. There are also military, naval and other special schools. The University of Coimbra is the chief higher institution.

=Government.=--Portugal was a constitutional monarchy till 1910, when a republic was established. The constitution of 1911 provides a Senate, elected by municipal councils, and a National Council, by direct suffrage. The two chambers united constitute the Congress of the republic. The president of the republic is elected by both chambers for a period of four years. He cannot be re-elected.

=Cities.=--Capital, Lisbon, on the Tagus, population, 435,359. Oporto had a population (1911) of 194,664. There are no other large towns, but Braga, Loulé, Setubal, and Funchal (Madeira) had populations exceeding 20,000 in 1911.

=Lisbon= (Port. Lisboa), capital of Portugal, stands on the northern shore of a bottle-shaped expansion of the Tagus, nine miles from its mouth; it is four hundred and twelve miles by rail west by southwest of Madrid. The city extends for four or five miles along the shore, and climbs up the slopes of a low range of hills, occupying a site of imposing beauty.

The oldest part of Lisbon is that which escaped the earthquake of 1755; it lies on the east, round the citadel, and consists of narrow, intricate streets, not over clean. It is still known by its Moorish name of Alfama. The western portions were built after the earthquake, with wide and regular streets, fine squares, and good houses. The summits are mostly crowned with what were formerly large monasteries.

The gloomy cathedral of the “patriarch,” built in 1147, restored after 1755, has a Gothic facade and choir. The large church of St. Vincent contains the tombs of the former royal (Braganza) family. The church of Estrella is a reduced copy of St. Peter’s at Rome. In San Roque is a chapel thickly encrusted with mosaics and costly marbles. But the finest structure in the city is the Gothic monastery and church of Belem, a monument to the great seamen of Portugal; it was begun in 1500 on the spot from which Vasco da Gama embarked (1497) on his momentous voyage. Inside the church are tombs to Camoens and Vasco da Gama, and the grave of Catharine, wife of Charles II. of England.

A fine square facing the bay is surrounded with government offices, the handsome custom-house, and the marine arsenal. There are an academy of sciences, with a library of one hundred and twenty thousand volumes, a polytechnic school, a medical school, a conservatory of music, a public library of four hundred thousand volumes and two observatories.

A magnificent aqueduct brings water to the city from springs nine miles to the northwest.

A series of forts protect the seaward approaches. The harbor is one of the finest in the world, well sheltered, deep close to the quays, and capacious enough to hold all the navies of Europe at once.

=History.=--Like the rest of Iberia, Portugal (the southern part of which was known to the Romans as Lusitania, often taken as a poetical name for the whole country) was thoroughly Romanized after the conquest of the Carthaginians by the Romans in 138 B. C. Then the peninsula was overrun by the Visigoths, and next by the Saracens. Northern Portugal fell under the influence of Castile; but under Alfonso I. (1143) Portugal became an independent kingdom, though the Saracens were not conquered in the south till 1250. Wars with Castile were frequent.

Under John (1385-1433) began a close alliance between Portugal and England, and the Portuguese king John married John of Gaunt’s daughter. With their son, Prince Henry the Navigator, began the most brilliant era of discovery and conquest, including the acquisition of Madeira, the Azores, and the doubling of the Cape of Good Hope (1486), the reaching of India by sea and settlements there (1497), and the discovery and occupation of Brazil (1500).

In the sixteenth century Portugal was one of the most powerful monarchies of Europe, and most prosperous of commercial peoples; but its decline was swift, and Philip II. annexed Portugal to Spain for sixty years. English assistance secured the independence of the kingdom in 1640; but the glory had departed. Portugal shared in the troubles of the French occupation and the Peninsular war; after Napoleon’s defeat, the old family, which had taken refuge in Brazil, was restored, but the country was rent by intrigue, dissension, and civil war.

The rush of the European powers to occupy central and southern Africa stirred Portugal to cling tenaciously to her once great colonial empire in Africa; but the march of events has given to Britain, Germany, France, and Belgium much that Portugal once claimed as hers.

Popular discontent culminated in the assassination of King Carlos and his eldest son in the streets of Lisbon in February, 1908. His second son, Manoel, succeeded. In 1910 the murder of Dr. Bombarda, a republican, hastened on a revolution already arranged for. The army and navy assisted in deposing Manoel and setting up a provisional government, with Theophile Braga as provisional president. He retired in 1911, and in August of that year Dr. Manoel Arriaga was elected as the first president of the republic.

The republic was formally recognized by the United States upon the meeting of the Portuguese chambers in June, 1911, and by the other powers on the formation of the cabinet in September, 1911. In 1915 Portugal joined the Entente Allies in the European war.

=ROUMANIA=, a kingdom in southeast Europe, lies mainly between the Carpathians, the Purth, and the Danube (the Dobruja being south of the Danube). It includes the strip added from Bulgaria as “compensation” for changes consequent on the Balkan war of 1912-1913, from a point on the Danube above Silistria to Cape Sabla on the Black Sea. Bordering on Hungary, Russia, Bulgaria, and Servia, its area is 52,000 square miles, and population 7,500,000.

=Surface.=--Roumania consists for the most part of a great treeless steppe-like plain, occupying nearly the whole of the northern watershed of the Lower Danube; behind this plain rise the wooded Transylvania Alps. Between the northern bend of the river to its marshy delta and the Black Sea there rises the bare plateau called the Dobruja, partly grass-covered, partly swampy, without tree or bush. This famous old battle-ground is crossed by Trajan’s double wall or rampart, built to keep the northern barbarians out of the Roman provinces.

=Rivers.=--All the rivers are tributaries of the Danube, and flow from the Carpathians and the Transylvanian Alps across the level steppe to join its left bank. The chief are the Pruth, which now forms the boundary towards Russia, the Sereth, and the Oltu (Aluta).

=People.=--Most of the Roumanians are supposed to be descendants of the race formed by the alliance of the Roman colonists with the original inhabitants of Dacia. The Roumanian language is derived mainly from Latin, with Slavonic, Hungarian, and other elements.

They are strong, well-knit men, with black hair, lively, but not very active. The mass of the people live in great poverty; a few thousand Boyars, nobles or landed proprietors, really form the nation. Large numbers of Jews and Gypsies live among the Roumanians. Almost the entire population belongs to the Greek Church, but religious equality prevails.

=Government.=--The constitution, voted by a popular assembly in 1866, vests the executive authority in the reigning king and his council of ministers; the legislative body consists of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies.

=Production and Industry.=--The agricultural products consist of wheat, maize, millet, barley, rye, beans, and peas. Vines and fruits are abundant. The forests are of great extent and importance, but the riches of the country consist mainly in its cattle and sheep. Minerals and precious metals are said to be abundant, but only salt and petroleum are obtained.

Education is free and nominally compulsory, but owing to inadequate provision over sixty per cent of those above seven years of age are illiterate. Secondary education is relatively better, and the schools are well attended. There are also special schools and universities at Bucharest and Jassy. A government high school of commerce was opened in 1913.

=Cities.=--Capital, Bucharest, has a population (1912) of about 500,000. Other towns are: Jassy, 80,000; Galatz, 66,000; Braīla, 60,000; Ploesci, 50,000; Craiova, 46,000.

=Bucharest= (Bucuresci), the “Paris of the East,” stands two hundred and sixty-five feet above sea-level, in the fertile but treeless plain of the small, sluggish Dambovitza. By rail it is seven hundred and sixteen miles southeast of Vienna, forty miles north of Giurgevo on the Danube, and one hundred and seventy-nine miles northwest of Varna on the Black Sea. Viewed from the hills which lie to the west and southwest, Bucharest presents a most striking appearance. It is sprawled out on both banks of the river, occupying more than twenty square miles of territory in the slight depression through which the stream makes its way.

Most of its houses are low, not more than two stories, with flat roofs that shimmer in the sun. High above them rise almost innumerable towers, cupolas and minarets of churches, in which the city abounds. The Catholic Cathedral is a fine edifice, built 1875-1884.

Great spots and stretches of greenery mark the spacious parks and gardens and the great boulevards, some of which extend along the river bank, others out to the distant sections of the city.

Three of these thoroughfares skirt the river on the left, where the greater part of the city lies. They are the Plevna, Lipscani and Vacaresci, in order. From the Lipscani extend the Elizabeth Boulevard and Calea Victorie, the avenue of Victory, which connect with another broad highway extending nearly around the city on its outskirts.

Parks and drives are frequent. Then there are the botanical and zoological gardens, and a racecourse, where meets are held at least twice a year.

In these streets the East meets the West. Women gowned in the latest Paris creations and men in perfect European dress are in contrast with the wandering bands of gypsies, the brilliant-clad Roumanian country folk come in to market, the fez-topped Turk, and the distinctly dressed Russian cabmen.

Besides the parkways and busy thoroughfares there are many beautiful buildings--the National Bank, the Athenaeum, with its collection of rare antiques dating back to the days of the Roman conquest; the National Library and Theater; the University of Bucharest, founded in 1864; the many other schools and academies; the great home for the blind established by the late Queen Elizabeth, better known by her pen name “Carmen Sylvia”; a hundred-and-one other places that go to make the city notable as a center of learning, culture and modern progress.

Nearly all of these institutions have homes that are masterpieces of architecture. The Treasury Building and the Postoffice are notable examples. It is said that the Roumanian government has the finest home for its foreign ministry of any country in Europe.

Bucharest is the center for trade between Austria and the Balkan Peninsula, the chief articles of commerce being textile fabrics, grain, hides, metal, coal, timber, and cattle. It has been several times besieged; and between 1793 and 1812 suffered twice from earthquakes, twice from inundations, once from fire, and twice from pestilence.

=History.=--The Roumanians are descended from the ancient inhabitants--probably Thracians or Dacians--of the country, modified by elements derived from the Roman, Gothic, Bulgarian, and Slavonic invaders. Dacia was a Roman colony from 101 A.D. till 274, when it became the prey of successive swarms of wandering tribes.

Out of numerous small states, two, Wallachia and Moldavia, had become dominant, when they had to bow to the Turkish yoke, and became tributary to the Porte. They were governed by rulers nominated by the Porte, who were generally extortionate Greeks of Constantinople. Russian intervention during the eighteenth century somewhat improved the condition of the downtrodden principalities, which at times were wholly under Russian influence. In 1859 they elected the same prince, Couza. He ruled till he was deposed for misgovernment in 1866, and was succeeded by Prince Charles of Hohenzollern.

The Roumanians fought bravely on the Russian side in the Turkish war of 1877-1878, and at the end obtained complete independence, though they had to give Russia part of Bessarabia for the Dobruja. In 1881 the prince was recognized as a king.

Roumania is not a Balkan state, and took no part in the operations of the Balkan League (Bulgaria, Servia, Montenegro, and Greece) against the Ottoman Empire in 1912-1913; but during the second war (1913), when Bulgaria was in opposition to the remaining members of the League, Roumania was able to exact terms from Bulgaria at the Treaty of Bucharest, by which Bulgarian territory amounting to 7,609 square miles, with a population of 285,000, was surrendered to Roumania.

=SERVIA= (ser´vi-ä), a kingdom in the Balkan peninsula, southeastern Europe, is bounded by Austria-Hungary (separated by the Save and Danube) on the north, Roumania (separated by the Danube) and Bulgaria on the east, Turkey and Bosnia on the south, and Bosnia (mainly separated by the Drina) on the west.

=Surface.=--The greater part of the country is mountainous and wooded; it is full of forests and hills, hedged fields, and fresh meadows, forming pretty but never very grand landscapes. The principal river (besides the frontier rivers) is the Morava.

=Production and Industry.=--Nearly nine-tenths of the land is left under its primitive woods and pastures. The principal crops are maize for home consumption, and wheat for export; flax, hemp, and tobacco are also grown, and silk-culture is carried on to a limited extent. The exports consist of dried prunes, pigs, and wool, besides wheat, wine, hides, cattle, and horses. The bulk of the trade is with Austria. The mineral treasures of Servia are considerable; gold, copper, and zinc occur in the hills which reach towards the “Iron Gates” of the Danube, and coal beds extend along the river.

Fruit trees exist in very great abundance, especially plums, from which the brandy of the Servians (slovovitza) is extensively made.

=People.=--The Servians are a well-built, stalwart Slavonic (or perhaps in part Slavonized Albanian) race, proud and martial by temperament; the most striking feature of their social life is the family community or Zadruga. Their literature is rich in poetry, especially lyrics. The population, about 3,000,000 at the outbreak of the war of 1912-1913, was raised by conquests to about 5,000,000. Besides these the Montenegrins (450,000) are almost all pure Servians by race, as are also the Bosnians and Herzegovinians (2,000,000), not to speak of over 3,700,000 Servians in other parts of Austria-Hungary.

The people of Servia belong to the Greek Catholic Church. Education does not reach a very high standard, although a school exists in every commune. There is a university at Belgrade.

=Government.=--Servia is a constitutional and hereditary monarchy. The legislative power is vested in the king and the National Assembly. This last, called the Skupshtina, consists of one hundred and sixty deputies. Besides this body there is a senate of sixteen members, eight chosen by the king and eight by the National Assembly; this body acts as a permanent state council.

=Cities.=--Capital, Belgrade (Biograd, “White Fortress”) at the confluence of the Save and Danube, is now a modern city, with electric railways and light, and wide streets, containing the university, national museum and library, and the old Turkish citadel. Population (1910) 91,000. It lies opposite Semlin, at the confluence of the Save and Danube, two hundred and fifteen miles southeast of Budapesth. The walls disappeared in 1862; the last and finest of the five gates was demolished in 1868. Year by year the town is losing its old Turkish aspect, becoming more modern, more European. The royal palace, the residence of the metropolitan, the national theater (1871), and the public offices are the principal buildings. Opposite the theater is a bronze monument to the murdered Prince Michael III.

Belgrade has but trifling manufactures of arms, cutlery, saddlery, silk goods, carpets, etc. It is, however, an entrepôt of trade between Turkey and Austria.

Other towns are Nish, 25,000; Kragojevatz, 19,000; Leskovatz, 15,000; Podjeravatz, 14,000; Shabatz, 12,000; Vranya, 11,500; Pirot, 11,000; and Krutchevatz, 10,000.

The principal towns in the territories acquired in 1913 are Monastir, 60,000; Prisrend, 42,000; Uskub, 32,000; Prilip, 24,000; Istip, or Shtip, 21,000; Kalkandelen, or Tetovo, 20,000; Koprili, or Veles, 20,000; Dibra, 16,000; Pristina, 16,000; Kumanovo, 15,000; Ochrida, 15,000; and Novi Bazar, 13,000.

=History.=--The Servians came from the Carpathians in the seventh century, and founded a great state, which, about 1350, embraced Albania and much of Bulgaria and Macedonia; but at Kossovo in 1389 the Turks crushed the Servian power and made Servia first tributary and then a province of the Ottoman empire.

A national rising had some success under Kara George in 1807-1810 and through Russian influence it was arranged that Servia should have some measure of internal autonomy. Still more successful was a rising in 1815 under Obrenovich. Under his successors there was considerable progress; and after the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-1878 Servia obtained complete independence and became a kingdom. King Milan abdicated in 1889.

In 1903 a party of officers, representing a wide conspiracy, assassinated King Alexander and Queen Draga, and Peter Karageorgevitch was proclaimed king. In 1913 Servia, as a member of the Balkan League (Bulgaria, Greece, Servia, and Montenegro), waged a successful war against Turkey. In August, 1913, Servia and Greece were attacked by Bulgaria, their former ally, owing to disputes concerning the division of the spoils. The second war collapsed in a few weeks through the threatened intervention of Roumania, and ended in the Treaty of Bucharest. Servia also became involved with the Austro-Hungarian monarchy on a question of the Albanian frontier, where desultory fighting had taken place for some months, but eventually the smaller power withdrew from the disputed area. The outcome of the military operations was the inclusion of the whole of “Old Servia” (the greater part of Macedonia) within the Servian boundaries, which thus embrace an area (1914) of close on thirty-four thousand square miles, with a population estimated at five million.

The assassination of the Austrian heir presumptive, in June, 1914, brought about an invasion of Servia by the forces of Austria-Hungary, and started the Pan-European war that is still in progress.

=SPAIN= (Span. España), occupying the larger part of the southwestern peninsula of Europe, is bounded on the south and east by the Mediterranean, on the west by the Atlantic and Portugal, and on the north by the Bay of Biscay and France, from which it is separated by the Pyrenees. Its coast line extends 1,317 miles--712 formed by the Mediterranean and 605 by the Atlantic--and it comprises a total area of 196,700 English square miles, and a population (1910) of 19,588,688.

=Surface.=--The interior of the peninsula consists of an elevated tableland, surrounded and traversed by mountain ranges. The uniform coast line and the great elevation of its central plateau give Spain a more continental character in its extreme range of temperature than any of the other peninsulas of Europe.

Outside the plateau lie the highest summits in the country, the Pic de Néthou, in the Pyrenees, Mulhacen and Veleta in the Sierra Nevada, while the Picos de Europa in the Cantabrian Range attain over eight thousand feet. The plateau itself is traversed by four mountain ranges which separate the valley of the Ebro from that of the Douro; and the whole of it has a general slight inclination from east or northeast to southwest. Hence all the considerable rivers except the Ebro flow westward to the Atlantic.

These include the Guadalaviar, Júcar, and Segura, important rivers of the eastern watershed. The Minho, Douro, Tagus, Guadiana, and Guadalquivir drain the western valleys, which are formed between the mountain ranges of the Peninsula. The Tagus is the largest river of the Peninsula, the estuary of which forms a magnificent harbor. The Guadalquivir, though the shortest of the larger streams, is the most important on account of its fullness and its course through the most extensive lowland of the Peninsula. The effect of the tide in it is felt for several leagues above Seville, to which city it is navigable, eighty miles from the sea.

The configuration of the country renders the climate very varied. In parts of the northwest the rainfall is among the heaviest in Europe. In the east and southeast occasionally no rain falls in the whole year. The rainfall in the western Pyrenees is very great, yet on the northern slope of the valley of the Ebro there are districts almost rainless. The western side of the great plateau, speaking generally, is more humid and much colder than the eastern, where irrigation is necessary for successful cultivation.

=Production and Industry.=--Galicia is almost a cattle country; Estremadura possesses vast flocks of sheep and herds of swine. The country is generally fertile, and well adapted to agriculture and the cultivation of heat-loving fruits--as olives, oranges, lemons, almonds, pomegranates, and dates. The agricultural products comprise wheat, barley, maize, oats, rice, with hemp and flax of the best quality. The vine is cultivated in every province; in the southwest, Jerez, the well-known sherry and tent wines are made; in the southeast, the Malaga and Alicante.

Spain is rich in iron, copper and lead, but the mines have been only partially developed.

The seat of the manufacturing industries is chiefly Catalonia. Cotton and woolen manufactures engage many hands, and there are also considerable silk, paper, and cork industries.

The principal exports are wine, copper and copper ores, lead, iron ores, olive oil, raisins, oranges, cork, esparto grass, wool, salt, quicksilver, grapes, etc.

=People.=--The basis of the population of the whole Peninsula is that of the old Iberians, modified by the admixture of Celtic, Phœnician, Roman, Germanic, and Moorish (Arab) invaders who from time to time gained ascendency in the land and became intermixed with the ancient inhabitants.

Until lately the only religion tolerated was that of the state, the Roman Catholic; now a certain toleration is allowed to other denominations.

Education varies greatly among different classes and in different provinces. In the large towns and in some of the provinces a great effort is made to keep the higher and the technical schools on a level with the best in other European countries. In other parts the neglect is very great. There are ten universities: Madrid, Barcelona, Granada, Oviedo, Salamanca, Seville, Santiago, Valencia, Valladolid, and Saragossa. Primary education is by law compulsory, but the law is not strictly enforced, which accounts for the large percentage of illiterates.

=Government.=--The government of Spain is an hereditary monarchy founded on the constitution of 1876. The Cortes consists of two bodies--the Senate, of about three hundred and sixty members (one-half elected), and a Congress of Deputies, elected at the rate of one member to every fifty thousand inhabitants.

=Cities.=--The principal cities are Madrid, population 597,573; Barcelona, 587,219; Valencia, 233,348; Seville, 155,366; Malaga, 136,192; Murcia, 125,380; Saragossa, 111,701; Carthagena, 96,983; Bilbao, 93,536; and San Sebastian, 92,514; and there are also twelve towns with over 50,000 inhabitants.

=Madrid= (Span. pron. Madh-reedh´), the capital of Spain, is situated in the department of Madrid (part of the ancient province of New Castile), eight hundred and eighty miles by rail from Paris. It is built on a treeless, ill-watered plateau, on the left bank of the Manzanares, two thousand and sixty feet above the sea-level.

The Manzanares is merely a mountain-torrent falling into the Jarama, a tributary of the Tagus; water is brought from the Guadarrama Mountains by an aqueduct forty-two miles in length.

The general aspect of the city is clean and gay, while the older parts are picturesque; no trace now remains of the mediæval city. The new streets are generally fine, broad, and planted with trees; the houses well built, lofty, and inhabited by several families living in flats. A great feature is the magnificent open spaces, chief of which is the Prado, running north and south through the eastern part of the city, and, with its continuations, three miles long. It contains four handsome fountains with groups of statuary, a fine obelisk to commemorate the gallant struggle with the French (May 2, 1808), monuments to Columbus, Isabel the Catholic, etc.

The picture-gallery here, founded by Charles III., is one of the finest in Europe, and contains many of the masterpieces of Velasquez, Murillo, Raphael, Tintoretto, Rubens, Teniers, and Van Dyck. Two other parks are the Buen Retiro, the fashionable promenade on the east of the city, and the Casa de Campo on the west. Midway between its extremities the Prado is crossed at right angles by the Calle de Alcala, the finest street in the city, about a mile in length, and leading from outside the fine triumphal arch rebuilt by Charles III. to the Puerta del Sol, the square which is the heart of Madrid; here converge the principal electric lines, and in it and the streets branching off from it are situated the principal shops and places of business.

The finest square is the Plaza Mayor, formerly the scene of bull-fights; it contains a gigantic equestrian statue of Philip III., its founder. On the west of the city are the new cathedral and the royal palace; the latter, commenced in 1738 to replace the ancient Alcazar, which had been burned down, was finished in 1764 at a cost of fifteen million dollars. Other fine buildings are the palace of justice, formerly a convent; the houses of parliament; Buena Vista Palace, now the ministry of war, and the new national bank.

Besides a flourishing university, founded by Cardinal Ximenes, and two high schools, Madrid contains numerous municipal schools. Madrid is well provided with newspapers and public libraries, the chief being the National Library, with more than half a million volumes, and the library of the university.

The opera house is one of the finest in the world; all the theaters must by law be lighted by electricity. The bull ring, situated outside the gates on the east, is a solid structure seating fourteen thousand.

Iron founding and the manufacture of furniture, carriages, and fancy articles are carried on on a small scale. The manufacture of tobacco employs many persons, chiefly women. The publishing trade is important, and books are well printed and cheap. The old tapestry factory still turns out beautiful work, as do the potteries at Moncloa.

=History.=--Spain was originally occupied by Iberian tribes (akin to the present Basque inhabitants of the north), who were partially overlaid by invading Celts. The Carthaginians established themselves in the south of Spain in the third century B. C. The Romans appeared in force in the next century, but it was not till after a fierce and prolonged resistance from Iberians and Celtiberians that, under Augustus, the Roman conquest was complete. Soon Spain, thoroughly Romanized, was contributing largely to Latin literature and Roman culture.

The Germanic invaders from the north, Suevi, Vandals, and Visigoths, crushed the Roman power in the fifth century A. D., and Spain became a province of the Visigothic kingdom (573 A. D.). Then followed the Moorish conquest, which was very rapid (714-732) and complete, except in the north and northwest. The several Christian kingdoms of Spain: Castile, Leon, Navarre, Aragon, etc., as well as Portugal--were formed by the gradual depression of the Moors; but Moorish Granada was not conquered till 1492, and Spain was not united under one rule till 1512.

Spain became a European state with the union of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile in 1469, and the New World was discovered for them. Under the Emperor Charles V., in the sixteenth century, Spain was the most important country in Europe; but the population was unequal to the drain upon it caused by constant warfare, emigration, and adverse economical and industrial conditions.

With Philip II., Charles’s son, the decline of Spain set in, though now for sixty years Portugal was under the Spanish crown. The Bourbon dynasty brought complication in the wars of Louis XIV., and little advantage from the recovery of Naples and Sicily. The nadir of Spanish history is in the time of Napoleon, when Spain, in spite of some national efforts, was nominally a kingdom, but really a mere province of the French empire.

In spite of the valiant patriotism shown in resisting the French, and the ultimate recovery of national independence through the overthrow of Napoleon, the history of Spain in the nineteenth century was in the main inglorious. In Cuba there had been trouble since 1895, the final outcome of which was the disastrous Spanish-American war, leading to the loss of the greater colonies. The twentieth century has seen gradual recovery, growing toleration, a breach with the Vatican, revolutionary and repressive movements, and ambitions in northwest Africa.

In June, 1911, the situation in Morocco led to the dispatch of a Spanish force to Alcazar. But the indignation aroused in France at this action was quite overshadowed by the sensation caused when it became known that Germany had sent a warship to Agadir. Labor troubles in Spain broke out in September, 1911. Martial law was proclaimed throughout the country, and a royal decree suspended the constitutional guarantees, which were not re-established until October 22. In March, 1912, the ministry was reconstituted, but, in 1916, during the European war, again gave way over grave questions over neutrality and internal conditions.

=SWEDEN= (Swedish Sverige), a kingdom of northern Europe, occupies the eastern side of the Scandinavian peninsula. From 1814 till the amicable but definitive separation in 1905, it was associated with Norway under one crown. Its greatest length, north to south, is close to 1000 miles, its greatest breadth 300; its area 170,970 square miles; and its coast line 1550 miles. Besides many skerry islands, Sweden owns Gothland and Œland.

=Surface.=--The country may be generally described as a broad plain sloping southeastward from the Kjölen Mountains to the Baltic. The only mountainous districts adjoin Norway; the peaks sink in altitude from seven thousand feet in the north to three thousand eight hundred feet at the southern end of the chain. Immediately south of this point a subsidiary chain strikes off to the southeast, and, threading the lake region of central Sweden, swells out beyond into a tableland with a mean elevation of eight hundred and fifty feet and maximum of twelve hundred and forty feet. Fully two-thirds of the entire surface lies lower than eight hundred feet, and one-third lower than three hundred feet, above sea level.

Sweden is separated popularly and geographically into three great divisions--Norrland, Svealand, and Gothland. Norrland, in the north, is a region of vast and lonely forests and rapid mountain streams, often forming fine cascades and ribbon-like lakes before they reach the Gulf of Bothnia.

The central division of Svealand, or Sweden proper, is a region of big lakes, and contains most of the mines. Lakes occupy nearly fourteen thousand square miles, or eight and two-tenths per cent of the total area; several of the largest, as Vener, Vetter, Hjelmar, Mälar, are connected with one another and the sea by rivers and canals. Lake Mälar contains some thirteen hundred islands, many beautifully wooded, with royal palaces or noblemen’s castles; and its shores are studded with prosperous towns, castles, palaces, and factories.

Gothland, the southern division, contains a much higher proportion of cultivated land, and its wide plains are all under agriculture.

=Climate.=--The climate of Sweden is continental in the north, along the Norwegian frontier, and on the southern plateau. The lakes in the colder districts of the north are ice bound for some two hundred and twenty days in the year; in the south only for about ninety days. The rainfall is greatest on the coast of the Cattegat.

=Production and Industry.=--The principal articles of cultivation are the various cereals--oats, rye, barley, wheat--and potatoes. The forests are very extensive, covering one-half of the surface of the country, and consisting of pine, birch, fir; these are of great importance, supplying timber, pitch, and tar, and also the chief fuel.

The mineral products are extremely rich: iron of excellent quality, that known as the Dannemora iron, being converted into the finest steel; gold and silver in small proportions; copper, lead, nickel, zinc, cobalt, alum, sulphur, porphyry, and marble. There is a railroad opening up the rich iron ore districts of Lapland, and mineral trains run from Gellivare and Kiruna to Lulea on the Gulf of Bothnia and to Narvik on the Atlantic. Considerable mines of coal are worked in Scania.

The chief articles of export are timber, butter, iron, steel, wood pulp, paper, matches, stone, iron and zinc ores, etc.

=People.=--The Swedes are a Germanic people, tall and strong, but with more variety of characteristics than the Norwegians. The Swedish language, allied closely to Norse and Danish, appears in very many dialects. It has had, especially since the sixteenth century, an extensive literature.

Almost the whole population is Protestant, adhering to the Lutheran Church, members of which alone are permitted to hold public offices. Education is well advanced in both countries, public instruction being gratuitous and compulsory. Sweden has the Universities of Upsala, which dates from 1477, and of Lund, founded in 1668, besides the many scientific and educational institutions of Stockholm.

=Government.=--The constitution of Sweden dates from 1809, but in 1866, when the separate meetings of the four estates--nobles, clergy, burghers, and peasants--were done away, the legislative system was much modified. The executive power is vested in the king, acting under the advice of a Council of State; the legislative in the two Chambers of the Diet, both of which are elected by the people--the first for nine years from proprietors, the second for three years from a lower class. The administration of justice is entirely independent of the government.

=Cities.=--The capital, Stockholm, has a population (1913) of 382,085. In addition to the capital, there are fourteen towns with above 20,000 population, viz.: Göteborg, 178,030; Malmö, 95,821; Norrköping, 46,180; Gefle, 35,736; Helsingborg, 37,385; Örebro, 33,182.

Malmö, on the sound opposite Copenhagen, is the outlet of the corn granary of the southern plain; Norrköping, on an inlet of the Baltic, after Stockholm, is the busiest manufacturing town of Sweden, its mills being driven by the rapids of the Motala; Gefle lies north of Stockholm, and is second only to it as a seaport on the Baltic side of the country; and Karlskrona, on the south coast, is the naval arsenal and headquarters of the fleet of Sweden.

Within recent years a network of railways has been formed over southern Sweden and Norway, connecting the capital towns with the ports of Göteborg, Malmö, and many other points.

=Stockholm= (l pronounced), stands on several islands and the adjacent mainland, between a bay of the Baltic and Lake Mälar, in a situation that is accounted one of the most picturesque in Europe.

Its nucleus is an island in mid-channel called “the Town”; on it stand the imposing royal palace; the chief church (St. Nicholas), in which the kings are crowned; the House of the Nobles; the town house; the ministries of the kingdom; and the principal wharf, a magnificent granite quay, fronting east.

Immediately west of the central island lies the Knights’ Island (Riddarholm); it is almost entirely occupied with public buildings as the old Houses of Parliament; the old Franciscan church, in which all the later sovereigns of Sweden have been buried; the royal archives, and the chief law-courts.

North of these two islands lie the handsomely built districts of Norrmalm, separated from them by a narrow channel, in which is an islet with the new Houses of Parliament. In Norrmalm are the National Museum with valuable prehistoric collections, coins, paintings, sculptures; the principal theaters; the Academy of Fine Arts; the barracks; the Hop Garden, with the Royal Library, two hundred and fifty thousand volumes and eight thousand manuscripts, and with the statue of Linnæus; the Academy of Sciences; the Museum of Northern Antiquities; the Observatory, etc.

Ship Island (Skeppsholm), immediately east of “the Town” island, is the headquarters of the Swedish navy, and is connected with a smaller island on the southeast, that is crowned with a citadel. Beyond these again, and farther to the east, lies the beautiful island of the Zoological Gardens. Immediately south of “the Town” island is the extensive district of Södermalm, the houses of which climb up the steep slopes that rise from the water’s edge. Handsome bridges connect the central islands with the northern and southern districts; quick little steamboats go to the beautiful islands in Lake Mälar on the west, and eastward toward the Baltic Sea, forty miles distant.

Sugar, tobacco, silks and ribbons, candles, linen, cotton, and leather are produced, and there are large iron foundries and machine shops. Though the water approaches are frozen up during winter, Stockholm exports iron and steel, oats and tar.

Stockholm was founded by Birger Jarl in 1255, and grew to be the capital only in modern times.

=History.=--Sweden was originally occupied by Lapps and Finns, but probably (1500 B. C.) Teutonic tribes drove them into the forests of the north, and at the dawn of history we find Svealand occupied by Swedes (Svea) and Gothland by the Goths.

Gothland was christianized and also conquered by the Danes in the ninth century, while Svealand remained fanatically heathen till the time of St. Eric (twelfth century), who conquered Finland, henceforth a Swedish possession. For a century Goths and Swedes had different kings, but gradually melted into one people toward the end of the thirteenth century.

Now arose bitter feuds between king, nobility, peasants, and universal turbulence prevailed; agriculture, industry, literature and culture progressed not at all or hardly existed. Even after the union of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark under one monarch (1397), Sweden was torn by conflicts which lasted down to the expulsion of Danish oppressors, and the restoration of Swedish autonomy by the national rising under Gustavus Vasa (1524), the ablest prince who had yet ruled the Swedes. Under him the reformation was heartily accepted. Gustavus Adolphus and the Swedes were its bulwark, not merely at home but in Germany in the Thirty Years’ war; and by the acquirement of Bremen, Verden, and Pomerania, Sweden became (1648) a member of the empire.

Under Charles XII. and his successor, the enmity of Denmark, Poland, and Russia wrested her new conquests from Sweden, and gave Livonia, Esthonia, Ingermanland, and Karelia (which had long been Swedish) to Russia; thus reducing Sweden from the rank of a first-rate European power. After a bloody struggle Sweden had to cede Finland (1809) to Russia. Norway was united by a personal union (i. e., by the monarch) with Sweden in 1810; and in 1818 the French general Bernadotte was elected king (as Charles XIV.).

Norway’s demand for a larger measure of home rule led in 1905 to a complete separation.

=SWITZERLAND= (Ger. Schweiz; Fr. Suisse), is a confederation of twenty-two cantons, lying practically in the very center of Europe, between France, Germany, Austria, and Italy. No part of it is within one hundred miles of the sea. It is also a very small country (sixteen thousand square miles), not much larger than the half of Scotland. The greatest length from east to west is two hundred and sixteen miles, the width from north to south being one hundred and thirty-seven miles. The population in 1910 was 3,741,971.

=Surface.=--The southern boundary lies for the most part along the highest crests of the Alps, which descend by the Italian valleys to the plain of Lombardy; the summits of the Matterhorn and Monte Rosa rise on the boundary line, which is crossed by the Great St. Bernard, Simplon, and Splügen passes. North of this mass of heights the deep valleys of the Upper Rhone flowing west to the Lake of Geneva, and of the Upper Rhine flowing northeast to that of Constance, mark a deep trench all across the country. In the heart of the country rises the mass of the Bernese Alps or Oberland, the Alps of Uri and Glarus, with the summits of the Finsteraarhorn and Jungfrau. Still farther north the country descends gradually by less elevated mountains and hills to the undulating lowland of Switzerland (still one thousand five hundred feet above the sea), which extends in a curve from the Lake of Constance on the northeast along the Valley of the Aar, by the Lakes of Biel (Bienne) and Neuchâtel to that of Geneva. Beyond this the long parallel ranges of the Jura close in the country on the northwestern frontier.

More than half of the whole country is covered by rocks, glaciers, forest, and mountain pasture, and cannot be permanently inhabited.

=Rivers and Lakes.=--All the northern part of the country belongs to the basin of the Rhine flowing to the North Sea. That river, having purified its waters in its passage through the Boden-See or Lake of Constance (partly in Switzerland), is joined by the Aar, which rises near the Grimsel, and flows through the lakes of Brienz and Thun. To this basin also belong the lakes of Zürich and Zug, Luzerne, Neuchâtel, and Biel or Bienne. The southwestern district drains by the Rhône to the Mediterranean, through the Lake of Geneva or Leman, which is partly in Switzerland, partly in France.

The smaller part of the southern boundary that laps over the Italian valleys of the Alps includes the head of Lake Maggiore, in Switzerland, and the upper Ticino, which flows through it to the plain of Lombardy and the Adriatic. In the east the boundary embraces only one valley, which drains to the Danube, the Engadine, through which the Upper Inn flows northeastward.

From the elevation at which they rise, and their rapids, the rivers of Switzerland are of no value in navigation. The Rhine only begins to be freely navigable at Basel, where it leaves the country. The larger lakes, however, have little steamers plying from shore to shore; that of Geneva, forty-seven miles long, has a considerable traffic.

=Climate and Scenery.=--The climate naturally varies with the elevation above the sea level, from that of the perennial snows at an elevation of about nine thousand feet, downward through the pastoral alpine region and the tall pine forests, to the lower lands in which the chestnut flourishes, and where orchard fruits, the vine, mulberry, and wheat can be grown. There is a variation of about thirty-four and one-half degrees in the mean temperature--between fifty-four and one-half degrees Fahrenheit at Bellinzona, and twenty degrees on the Theodule Pass.

Switzerland has been called the playground of Europe, and is visited by large numbers of tourists from all parts of the world, attracted by its magnificent mountain and lake scenery.

The amount of money brought annually by tourists is estimated at twenty million dollars.

Geneva and Lausanne, on the beautiful lake of Geneva, Interlaken (between the lakes of Thun and Brienz), Luzerne and the Rigi, Schaffhausen at the Rhine fall, Zermatt beneath Monte Rosa, Lugano in the heart of the Italian lake district, are notable tourist stations; St. Moritz in the Engadine, and Leuk (Louèche) in the Rhone Valley, Pfäffers in that of the Upper Rhine, are famous for their baths. Switzerland as a whole--with its mountains, lakes, glaciers, waterfalls, valleys and cities--has been described by an American poet as a “cluster of delights and grandeurs.”

=Production and Industry.=--The forests, which cover about a sixth of the surface, are of immense value to the country, where most of the houses are built of wood. The mountain pastures give the characteristic employments of the people of the Alps and Jura, as herdsmen and shepherds, tending their cattle and making cheese in the mountain châlets during summer.

Agriculture is followed chiefly in the valleys, where wheat, oats, maize, barley, flax, hemp, and tobacco are produced.

The textile industries are the most important, the chief centers being Zürich, Basel, Glarus, and St. Gall. The chief are silk, cotton, and linen fabrics, besides raw silk. Next comes the clock and watchmaking industry, established at Geneva in 1587, which spread to the cantons of Neuchâtel, Berne and Vaud.

Wood carving was introduced in the Oberland about 1820. Other manufactures are chemicals, chocolate, and condensed milk.

Salt, obtained on the banks of the Rhine, is the only valuable mineral of the country.

=People.=--Three-fourths of the population of Switzerland, occupying all the center and north of the country, are Germanic; the remaining fourth belongs to three branches of the Romanic family--the French in the west, the Italian in the south, and the Rhæto-Romanic in the southeast. A little more than half of the population is Protestant, the remainder, chiefly in the mountain region, Roman Catholic.

Education is widely diffused, especially in the Protestant districts of the northeast, where the law of compulsory education is rigidly enforced. There are universities at Basel, Berne, Zurich, Geneva, and Lausanne.

=Government.=--At the close of the political storms which raged in Europe from 1789 till 1815, the affairs of Switzerland were re-arranged by the Congress of Vienna, which provided for the perpetual neutrality and independence of Switzerland in its twenty-two cantons. Since 1848 the independent states or cantons of Switzerland have become a united confederacy (Bundes Staat), the supreme legislative and executive authority of which is vested in a parliament of two chambers, sitting at Berne--the Stände Rath or States Council, and the National Rath, the first composed of two members for each canton, the second of representatives of the people according to numbers. The cantons are still, however, in a great measure, independent democracies, each making its own laws and managing its local affairs.

Referendum and Initiative.--These are two political institutions peculiar to Switzerland, the furthest developments of democracy yet attained.

The referendum, which has now spread throughout the whole Confederation, and by means of which all legislative acts passed in the Federal or Cantonal Assemblies may be referred to the people en masse, was fully developed in 1874, and it has been put in operation on an average once a year. The decisions have generally shown a conservative rather than a radical tendency on the part of the people.

Initiative is the exercise of the right granted to voters to initiate proposals for the enactment of new laws or for the alteration or abolition of the old ones.

=Cities.=--The capital of the Swiss Confederation is Berne, population (1910) 85,650. In 1910 there were twelve communes with populations exceeding 20,000: Zürich, 190,733; Bâle, 132,280; Geneva, 123,160; Berne, 85,650; Lausanne, 63,296; St. Gall, 37,657; Chaux-de-Fonds, 37,626; and Luzerne, 39,152.

=Berne=, since 1849 the capital of Switzerland, sixty-eight miles by rail southwest of Basel, is situated on a lofty sandstone promontory formed by the winding Aar, which surrounds it on three sides. It is one of the best and most regularly built towns in Europe, as it is the finest in Switzerland. The houses are massive structures of freestone, resting upon shop-lined arcades. Rills of water flow through the streets. The view of the Alpine peaks from the city is magnificent.

The principal public buildings are a Gothic cathedral, the magnificent Federal Council Hall, the mint, the hospital, and the university. Berne has an interesting museum, and a valuable public library of fifty thousand volumes.

It was founded in 1191, was made a free imperial city in 1218, under Frederick II.; and between 1288 and 1339 successfully resisted the attacks of Rudolf of Hapsburg, Albert, his son, and Louis of Bavaria. The “Disputation of Berne” between Catholics and Reformers in 1528 prepared the way for the acceptance of the reformed doctrine.

On account of the traditionary derivation of its name (Swabian bern, “a bear”), bears are maintained in a public bear-pit.

=History.=--The original inhabitants of Switzerland were the Celtic Helvetii, and the Rhætii of doubtful affinity. Both were conquered by Julius Cæsar and the generals of Augustus, and Romanized. Overrun by the Burgundians in the west, and their Germanic kinsmen the Alemannians in the east, Helvetia became subject to the Frankish kings and were christianized in the seventh century.

Most of the country was subsequently part of the Holy Roman Empire; and in 1273 a Swiss noble, Rudolf of Hapsburg in Aargau, became German emperor. Soon after his death (in 1291) the inhabitants of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden formed a league to defend their common interests, and in 1315 crushed an Austrian army at Morgarten. In 1332 Luzerne joined the alliance, and in 1353, Berne, Zürich, Glarus, and Zug. The Austrians were again routed in Sempach in 1386, and in 1388 at Näfels.

The Swiss next had a fierce but triumphant struggle with Charles the Bold of Burgundy, whom they routed at Grandson and Morat in 1476, and finally at Nancy (where Charles was slain) in 1477.

When the Reformation began there were thirteen cantons, and the cantons took opposite sides from the beginning, not without serious turmoil and bloodshed. The treaty of Westphalia in 1648 recognized Switzerland as an independent state. Some of the cantons were strictly aristocratic and some highly democratic, and there was much discontent long before the French Revolution, when, in 1798, between civil strife and French armies, the old republic (or rather alliance) came to an end.

The Helvetic Republic of nineteen cantons, under French auspices, endured till 1805; then a new republican constitution was adopted, the Federal Pact of twenty-two cantons. On Napoleon’s downfall, Valais, Neuchâtel, and Geneva, which had been incorporated with France, were restored, and Swiss neutrality and inviolability were recognized by the treaty of Vienna in 1815. Religious troubles led to a Catholic league in 1844, which was suppressed by the Federal forces in 1847. The present constitution was adopted in 1848, but revised in 1874. In 1891 a demand for popular initiative for measures was carried. In 1908 Switzerland entered into an international convention for compulsory arbitration at the court of the Hague.

=TURKEY, or Ottoman Empire=, comprises the wide but heterogeneous territories really or nominally subject to the Osmânlî Sultan, in Europe, Asia, and Africa. These territories, which once extended from the Danube to the cataracts of the Nile, and from the Euphrates to the borders of Morocco, have been greatly reduced in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

Asiatic Turkey is now the true center of gravity of the empire; it includes Anatolia (the great plateau of Asia Minor), the lowlands of Mesopotamia, the highlands of Kurdistan and Armenia, and the island of Samos. The total area of the empire has been estimated as follows:

=Area in Square Miles= Turkey in Europe 12,000 Turkey in Asia: Anatolia 193,800 Armenia and Kurdistan 72,600 Mesopotamia and Syria 244,460 Turkish Arabia 172,000 ------- Total 694,860

=Estimated Population= Turkey in Europe 2,755,000 Turkey in Asia: Anatolia 9,175,000 Armenia and Kurdistan 2,500,000 Mesopotamia and Syria 4,650,000 Turkish Arabia 1,100,000 ---------- Total 20,150,000

Of the above totals only 700,000 square miles (with a population of 21,000,000) are directly under Turkish government.

European Turkey consists of the provinces of Adrianople, Constantinople and Chatalja, and is separated from Asia by the Bosphorus at Constantinople and by the Dardanelles (Hellespont), the only political neighbor being Bulgaria, on the northwest.

=Physical Features.=--Turkey in Europe is a mountainous country and the chief physical features as it is now limited is the strait of Bosphorus and the Dardanelles. The Bosphorus, which guards the approach to the Black Sea from the Sea of Marmora, is at the same time the focus of all maritime trade between the Mediterranean and Russia, etc., as well as of the overland routes from Europe into Asia Minor. It has fitly been likened to a tortuous river valley over whose wooded banks are scattered forts and towers, cities and villages, castles and parks. The southern gate of the Sea of Marmora is the Dardanelles, which gives an opening into the Ægean.

Turkey in Asia is still more mountainous. The two almost parallel ranges, Taurus and Anti-Taurus, which are the basis of its mountain system, cover almost the whole of the peninsula of Asia Minor or Anatolia with their ramifications and offshoots, forming the surface into elevated plateaus, deep valleys, and enclosed plains. From the Taurus chain the Lebanon range proceeds southwards parallel to the coast of Syria, and, diminishing in elevation in Palestine, terminates on the Red Sea coast at Sinai.

The Euphrates, Tigris, Orontes, and Kizil-Ermak are the chief rivers. (See Asia Minor.)

=Climate.=--The climate of Turkey in Asia is as varied as the physical features. The great plateau on the north has a distinctly continental climate, rigorous severe winters with intense scorching heat in summer; in the eastern part of the plateau region the mountains are covered with snow for two-thirds of the year, and some of the principal ranges are capped with perpetual snow; here the peasants build their dwellings underground to escape the severity of the seasons. Towards the west the winters are not quite so severe, but the variations of temperature are excessive.

=Products and Industry.=--The soil of European Turkey is for the most part very fertile, and the cultivated products include most of those usual in central and southern Europe--maize, rice, rye, barley, millet, besides tobacco madder, and cotton. The mineral products are iron in abundance, argentiferous lead ore, copper, sulphur, salt, alum, and a little gold; some deposits of coal have been found, but none are worked. Sheep-breeding is largely carried on.

In Asiatic Turkey the mineral wealth is great; coal and iron are found together in considerable quantities; rich mines of copper exist in the mountains on the south of the Black Sea, and in the Taurus near Diarbekir lead and silver are found at intervals along a line connecting Angora, Sivas, and Trebizond in the north, and the eastern Taurus in the south; green, black, and white marble, and the finest quality of granite, are to be had in many parts of the mountain section.

With a fertile arable soil and a suitable climate, nearly every agricultural product flourishes. Oats, barley, and wheat are produced in great abundance. Almost all kinds of garden produce and orchard fruits abound, grapes and oranges are to be had all round the Mediterranean coast, as well as the choicest tobacco, opium, valonia and madder.

The mulberry is everywhere cultivated for feeding the silkworms, and cotton is grown in most of the western valleys. Vast groves of boxwood and other valuable trees clothe the seaward slopes of the hills. Dates are produced for export in the Babylonian plain, where wheat is indigenous. Petroleum and bitumen springs are found in the Euphrates valley.

Angora is famous for its flocks of goats, which produce the mohair of commerce, and enormous quantities of wool come from the countless flocks of sheep tended by the wandering Bedouin and Kurd shepherds.

There are at present no manufactures worth mention. The sponge fisheries of the Mediterranean are a source of great wealth.

=Commerce.=--The exports include tobacco, cereals, fruits, silk, opium, mohair, cotton, coffee, skins, wool, oil-seeds, valonia, carpets, etc., and are largely derived from the Asiatic provinces. Recently large quantities of wine and of raisins for the manufacture of wine have been exported. Since the establishment of the Anatolian railway by German enterprise the export of cereals, chiefly malting barley, has largely increased.

=People.=--The population consists of a singular mixture of races. Turks, Greeks, Slavs, and Albanians are largely represented, besides Armenians, Kurds, Arabs, Tartars, Jews, Circassians, and Frank residents. (See Book of Races.)

The established religion is Islam or Mohammedanism, but most other creeds are recognized and tolerated. The Protestant religion was for the first time officially recognized in 1845.

Education in all departments has of late been notably improved and has largely contributed to the complete overthrow of the antiquated and despotic system of government.

=Government.=--Until 1908 the government of Turkey was a pure despotism. An amazing change was swiftly and peacefully carried through in the autumn of that year. In connection with the troubles in Macedonia between Christians and Moslems, Greeks and Bulgarians, a Turkish military revolt took place, which, under the guidance of the “Young-Turkish” party (mostly educated abroad), became a great national movement. The sultan, overawed, had to acquiesce; parliamentary government was planned and carried out; equality before the law proclaimed to all races and religions of the empire; and a large measure of local self-government promised not merely to Turks but to Greeks, Bulgarians, Albanians, Armenians, Syrians, Kurds and Arabs.

The enormous difficulties of the crisis were complicated by Bulgaria proclaiming its independence, and Austria-Hungary annexing the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina. But government by a national assembly has taken root in Turkey.

The term “Sublime Porte,” sometimes given to the Turkish government, is derived from the name of the chief gate of Constantinople.

=Cities.=--Of the towns by far the most populous is the capital, Constantinople (1,200,000), while after it come Adrianople (83,000), which by reason of its central position in the Maritza valley, commands an extensive inland commerce, Midia, and Gallipoli, the chief port on the Dardanelles.

The principal towns of Asiatic Turkey are Smyrna, 260,000; Bagdad, 150,000; Damascus, 150,000; Aleppo, 125,000; Beyrout, 120,000; Scutari in Anatolia, 80,000, and Broussa, 80,000.

=Constantinople= was founded in 330 A. D. by Constantine the Great, from whom it derives its name, on a site partly occupied by the ancient Greek colony of Byzantium. The Turks call it Istambol or Stambol.

The city stands on a hilly promontory of triangular shape, having the Sea of Marmora and the Bosphorus on the south and east, and on the north the Golden Horn, an arm of the Bosphorus. It is thus surrounded by water on all sides but the west, where a strong wall shuts the city off, from the mainland. Like Rome, the city is built on seven hills, six of them being separated portions of one long ridge.

As in the case of all great cities, Constantinople has spread far beyond its original bounds, and may be said to include towns originally quite separate from itself.

Constantinople is excellently situated, more advantageously, perhaps, than any European city but Naples.

From the outside its appearance is most picturesque and imposing. At the taking of the city in the fifteenth century most of the churches were destroyed, and mosques were erected in the most prominent situations. Cupolas and minarets, with graceful curves and soaring spires, combine with lofty cypresses to give the city an air of unique grace, and to invest it with the mysterious glamour of the oriental world.

Within, however, the appearance is not so pleasing. The streets form a labyrinth of dirty, crooked, and ill-paved alleys, while most of the houses are low and are built of wood or rough stone. During the last half century the aspect of things has become much more European. The streets, under western influence, have been widened and improved, lighting at night is common, and a European style of building has been introduced, even for the sultan’s palace. Cabs and electric cars are to be seen in most parts, while the old camel service has entirely disappeared. The dress of the people has changed in the same direction. The streets are generally dull in appearance, almost all animation being concentrated in the bazaars.

Constantinople consists of two distinct parts, besides more distant suburbs--Constantinople proper or Stambol, and what may be termed Christian Constantinople because it is there that the Christian colonies chiefly congregate. The two are separated by the Golden Horn, a safe harbor, capable of accommodating twelve hundred vessels, and so deep that the largest ironclads of the Turkish navy find enough water for their draught quite close to the shore.

Stambol or Turkish Constantinople lies on the south side of the Golden Horn, and Christian Constantinople lies on the north side; the two are connected by bridges. Stambol is on the site of Byzantium, and the old walls run a circuit of fourteen miles from the grim but now ruined and disused castle of the Seven Towers--where many sultans met their deaths at the hands of their mutinous soldiery, and where foreign ambassadors were imprisoned upon declaration of war--to the Golden Horn, then along its south shore to Seraglio Point, and so back to the Seven Towers, close along the margin of the Propontis. Here are nearly all the monuments and antiquities worth seeing in Constantinople.

First, next the Seraglio, stands Agia Sophia, Saint Sophia, the church dedicated by Constantine to “Eternal Wisdom,” and rebuilt with added splendor by Theodosius and by Justinian, and now converted into a cathedral mosque. Outside it is not worth a second glance, but within, the airy grace of its stupendous dome, and the beauty of its marbles and mosaics fascinate and amaze the vision.

Next, but not less beautiful, is the Suleymaniya, the mosque which the Great Suleyman and his architect Sinan erected on the model of St. Sophia, but with Saracenic ornament and a loftier though not quite so expansive dome. Some of the monolithic columns are remarkable for their size and beauty, and the general effect is even more imposing than that of St. Sophia.

Scarcely less stately is the Mosque of Sultan Ahmed I. in the Hippodrome; distinguished without by its six minarets (instead of the usual four), and within by the four gigantic columns which support the dome. Here the official celebrations and formal processions take place at the great festivals.

The mosque of the conqueror, Mohammed II., is also notable, though it has been greatly altered in restoration.

There are altogether some eight hundred mosques in Constantinople, and numerous chapels; but very few of them present features of special interest, except sometimes in the beauty of their wall tiles, of the Rhodian style, for the manufacture of which the suburb of Eyyûb was famous.

The remains of the Greek churches are more interesting, and the Fanar, or Greek quarter of Stambol, recall the memories of many distinguished Fanariote statesmen; but among the relics of ancient Constantinople none is more striking than the Hippodrome or “Horse Manège”, originally a circus surrounded by marble seats, long since removed, but still showing remains of antiquity, such as the famous column of the Three Serpents which once stood at the Temple of Delphi, and supported a gold tripod made out of the spoils taken by the Greeks at the battle of Platæa, but was removed to his new capital by Constantine.

Christian Constantinople, on the north side of the Golden Horn, comprises Galata, Pera, and Tophâna. Galata is pre-eminently the merchant quarter, founded by a colony of Genoese merchants in 1216. The Tower of Galata, a Genoese erection, serves the same purpose as the Seraskier’s Tower on the opposite side in giving alarms of fires. A tunnelled railway drags passengers up the steep ascent to Pera.

Pera is the aristocratic quarter; here are all the embassies and consulates. The steep and badly paved Grande Rue is lined with fair if expensive shops, and has an opera house, many cafés and restaurants, besides most of the principal hotels. Turks preponderate at Tophâna, which is so named from its cannon foundry.

The magnificent palace of Dolmabagché is on the brink of the Bosphorus. Other suburbs are Kâsim Pasha, on the Golden Horn, the seat of the admiralty; Hasköi, and the picturesque village of Eyyûb.

Along the European shore of the Bosphorus are the summer resorts of Therapia and Biyukderé.

The Asiatic shore is also lined with settlements from Scutari to Candili. The new palace of Yildiz Köshki stands at the top of the hill of Beshiktâsh, beyond Pera.

The commerce of Constantinople is increasing rapidly, though most of it is in the hands of foreigners, especially of Greek and Armenian merchants. Exports are chiefly cereals, carpets, silk, wool, hides, and all kinds of refuse and waste materials such as horns, hoofs, skins, bones, old iron, etc. Several hundreds of tons of the sweetmeat known as “Turkish delight” are also sent yearly to countries of Europe and America.

The manufactures have all taken their rise during the last twenty years or so, and even now only that of cloth making has made much headway.

=History.=--The Osmanlis or Ottoman Turks sprang from a small clan of the Oghuz, who assisted the Seljûk sultan of Iconium, early in the thirteenth century, to resist the Mongol avalanche.

In the fourteenth century, the Turks under Osmân or Othmân conquered the Seljûk kingdom, and became known as Osmânlis or Ottomans. By 1336 they pushed their way to the Hellespont; under Murâd I. (Amurath) they occupied Adrianople and Philippopolis, received homage from the kings of Servia and Bulgaria, and practically held all the Balkan peninsula except Constantinople, which, after much fighting, fell before Mohammed II. in 1453. In the same century they conquered Albania, Greece, and the Crimea; and in the sixteenth century Syria, Egypt, Tunis, Hungary, and South Russia, and had wars with the Russians, Persians, and Venetians.

Their star began to decline in the seventeenth century; in 1682 they were driven back from Vienna, and lost Hungary, Transylvania, and Podolia. In the eighteenth century the Russians were their most successful enemies, wresting from them the territories from the Dniester to the Caspian. Greece attained independence in 1828, though Egypt failed to throw off its allegiance. The Crimean war (1854-1857) was fought in aid of the Turks against the Russians.

The next great crisis was the Russian war of 1877-1878. The worst Armenian massacres were in 1895-1896. Turkey held her own against Greece in 1897.

Abdul Hamid was deposed and constitutional government nominally established in 1908. But unrest and intrigue still prevent settled conditions.

Until the disastrous war of 1912-1913 with the States of the Balkan League (Bulgaria, Greece, Servia, and Montenegro) the European dominions of Turkey extended westwards to the Adriatic and northwards to Bosnia-Herzegovina (Austria). Under the Treaty of London in 1913 the northwest portion of Turkey was a line drawn from Enos, in the Ægean, to Midia, in the Black Sea, thus excluding Adrianople, which had capitulated to the Bulgarians after a prolonged siege.

During the second Balkan war (Bulgaria against the other members of the Balkan States) Turkey took advantage of the military difficulties of Bulgaria and reoccupied Adrianople, thus recovering a considerable portion of the province of that name. In 1911-1912 Turkey lost the remaining portion of her African possessions through the occupation by Italy of Tripoli and Cyrenaica, which were ceded under the Treaty of Ouchy(1912).

Turkey joined forces with the Austro-Germans in November, 1914, and attacked Russia and invaded Egyptian territory. Far more important than any of the Turkish operations, however, was the attempt of England and France, in 1915, to force the passage of the Dardanelles, so as to take much needed supplies of arms and ammunition to Russia and in turn enable her to export the enormous stocks of wheat which had piled up at her Black Sea ports.

A combined English and French fleet, therefore, attempted to force the passage of the Dardanelles, battering at the Turkish forts from February 21 to March 18, when they attempted to force the Narrows, but were repulsed, with the loss of the British battleships Irresistible and Ocean, and the French battleships Bouvet and Gaulois, in addition to serious injury to a number of other warships engaged.

A joint land and sea expedition was subsequently sent to accomplish what the fleets had failed to achieve.

The most desperate fighting continued there from the beginning of May. The allies employed British and French regulars--the famous Foreign Legion of France, British colonials from Australia and New Zealand, and troops from Egypt, the Soudan and North Africa--but they failed to capture the summits of the hills that command the Narrows and the great Turkish forts.

The land forces had the constant support of British and French fleets, which engaged the defenses at close range.

On May 11 the British battleship Goliath was sunk, and two weeks later a German submarine made its way through the straits of Gibraltar, succeeded in torpedoing the British battleship Triumph and the Majestic and Agamemnon.

On January 9, 1916, the British and French forces entirely withdrew from the Gallipoli Peninsula, and the attempt to force the Dardanelles was abandoned.

INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS.--The railways of Turkey have made great strides in recent years. Constantinople is now in direct communication with Salonica and Monastir by means of a coastal line, and with Sophia, Nisch, and Belgrade, by means of a line passing up the Maritza Valley, through Adrianople and Philipopolis, and thence over a pass between the Balkans and Rhodope Mountains. Salonica is further united with Uskub and Mitrevitza.

The postal and telegraphic services are a long way behind those of other European countries, and foreign nations still find it necessary to maintain their own post-offices in the large towns and ports.

BAGDAD RAILROAD.--The most important step in the industrial progress of Turkey in modern times is the concession for the construction of the Bagdad Railroad, which, when completed, will connect the Mediterranean with the Persian Gulf.

By a provisional convention, preference was given to a German company in 1903. England had a particular interest in the proposed scheme, as the line suggested would provide a short route to India; accordingly, in 1903, the British government objected to the railway being placed under German control, and discussion followed with a view to putting the line under international control. By the agreement of 1903 it was decided the German group should control forty per cent of the capital, the French, through the Imperial Ottoman Bank, thirty per cent, the Austrian, Italian, Swiss, and Turkish twenty per cent, and the Anatolian Railway ten per cent. In 1904, one hundred and twenty-four miles of the line were completed, from Konieh, through Eregli, to Bugurlu. In 1908 sanction was given to extend the line eastwards from Bugurlu across the Taurus to Adana.

The total length of the line will be one thousand five hundred and fifty miles and will run through Aintab and Berejik to Mosul, thence along the right bank of the Tigris to Bagdad.

THE CONTINENT OF NORTH AMERICA

Since the beginning of the sixteenth century America has been the general name for the two continents and adjacent islands, forming the main body of land found in the western hemisphere.

=Position and Extent.=--North America forms the northern section of the “New World” discovered by Columbus. It is separated from Europe by a sea nine hundred and thirty miles broad, from Asia by Bering Strait sixty miles across, and extends from the Arctic Ocean nearly to the equator.

The main mass is triangular in shape, and its outline varied by large peninsulas, broad gulfs and numerous inlets. Development of coast-line, twenty-eight thousand one hundred and thirty miles. Length, four thousand five hundred miles; breadth, three thousand one hundred miles. The area of the continental mainland is estimated at seven million one hundred and forty-six thousand six hundred and forty-one square miles; the entire area, including Greenland, the Arctic Archipelago, the West Indies, Newfoundland, and other islands, at over nine million square miles.

=Islands.=--It is customary to regard Greenland as a part of America, while the adjacent island of Iceland, though partially in the western hemisphere, is usually associated with Europe. The other principal American islands in the Atlantic are Newfoundland, Cape Breton, Anticosti, Prince Edward Island, Long Island, the Bermudas, the Antilles or West Indies, Joannes, Staten Island and South Georgia.

In the Pacific are the Aleutian Islands, Kadiak, the Alexander and Queen Charlotte groups, Vancouver and other British-Columbian Islands, the Santa Barbara group, Bevilla-Gigedo, the Pearl Islands, and others in the Gulf of Panama, the Galápagos, Juan Fernandez and the associated islets, Chiloe and the Chonos Archipelago. In the Arctic Ocean there are many large but unimportant islands. (See Map of Comparative Size of Islands and Table of Areas.)

=Coast-line.=--The coast-line of North America on the west is almost everywhere high and rocky. To the south of Puget Sound good harbors are rare, but British Columbia and Alaska have great numbers of good seaports, the coast-line being, in many places, deeply cut with high-walled fjords, or “canals,” and elsewhere sheltered by ranges of high and well-wooded islands. The Atlantic coast, north of New York Bay, is generally rocky and well sheltered with islands, and has abundance of good natural harbors; but south of the parallel of New York the coast of the mainland is almost everywhere low and sandy. Many of the best ports are formed by river-mouths, and have sandbars across their entrances. Nowhere else in the world is there any such extent of low and sandy coast as on the Atlantic and Gulf seaboards of the United States.

=Surface.=--The western mountain-system of North America comprises a very great number of minor ranges, mostly having a north and south direction. The main chain (Sierra Madre) cannot be said to preserve an unmistakable identity throughout. The Coast Range, the Sierra Nevada, and the Cascade Mountains are the most noted of the western parallel ranges; they all lie on the Pacific slope, and contain some of the highest of North American peaks. The elevated plateau called the Great Basin (chiefly in Utah and Nevada), contains the Great Salt Lake and several smaller bodies of strongly saline water, evidently the remains of a much larger lake which once sent its waters to the sea. The eastern or great Appalachian mountain-system has a general direction nearly parallel with the Atlantic coast-line.

North of the St. Lawrence River is seen the vast and complicated Laurentian mountain-system, which extends from the Atlantic westward to near Lake Superior.

The highest summits are Mt. McKinley, in the north; Mt. Harvard, in the Rocky mountains; Mt. Whitney, in the Sierra Nevadas; and Mt. Popocatepetl or Peak of Orizaba, in Mexico. (See Tables of Mountain Peaks.)

=Rivers and Lakes.=--In the Rocky Mountain region of Canada, the great rivers, Yukon, Fraser, Columbia, Saskatchewan, and Mackenzie, take their rise. Between these mountains and Hudson Bay, a girdle of vast lakes, or inland seas (Great Bear, Great Slave, Athabasca, Deer Lake, Winnipeg, and others), form a regular succession running from the Arctic Circle to Lake Superior, the first of a wonderful chain of great sea-like expansions of the Upper St. Lawrence (the others being Michigan, Huron, Erie and Ontario). North of the St. Lawrence system almost the whole country is thickly studded with lakes, which, with their connecting streams, form a network of important waterways traversable by canoes and boats.

The Atlantic slope of the United States is well supplied with water, and many of its streams afford extensive navigation. The Hudson is noted for its fine scenery; the Potomac is one of the noblest of American rivers; and important streams flowing to the Atlantic are the St. John, the Penobscot, the Kennebec, the Merrimac, the Connecticut, the Delaware, the Susquehanna, the James, and the St. John’s, nearly all navigable in their lower courses.

The chief rivers flowing to the Gulf of Mexico are the Appalachicola, the Mobile, the Pearl, the great Mississippi, the Sabine, the Trinity, the Brazos, the Colorado of Texas and the Rio Grande.

Of the many large Alaskan rivers the principal are the Yukon and the Kuskoquim. The Fraser is a swift and strong river; the great river Columbia is noted alike for its navigation, its salmon fisheries, and its enormous cataracts. The Rio Colorado, whose waters flow to the Gulf of California, traverses a desert plateau. Here nearly every watercourse runs in a deep-walled cañon, a narrow valley with precipitous sides, often of prodigious height.

In the plateau of Central America the largest lake is that of Nicaragua, nearly equal to Ontario in extent, and only one hundred and thirty-one feet above the level of the sea. (See further under the respective countries of North America.)

=Climate.=--Largely determined by the direction of the mountain ranges. Five climatic regions, viz., an arctic region, whose mean temperature is less than thirty-two degrees Fahrenheit; an Atlantic temperate region, extending as far as the Mississippi, with abundant rains and dense woods; an inland temperate region, dry, with steppes or prairies; a Pacific coast region, and a tropical region.

=Political Divisions.=--The political divisions of North America are:

(1) Danish America,[8] which includes Greenland and three small islands of the Virgin group in the West Indies.

[8] The Danish West Indies were transferred to the sovereignty of the United States in 1917 at the purchase price of twenty-five million dollars.

(2) British North America, in which division we may place the Dominion of Canada, Newfoundland, Labrador, the Bermudas, the numerous British West Indian islands, and British Honduras.

(3) The United States, including the detached territory of Alaska.

(4) Mexico.

(5) The Central American republics of Honduras, Guatemala, Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, together with Panama--unless its southern part be regarded as belonging to the South American continent.

(6) The West Indian republics of Hayti and San Domingo.

(7) The Dutch West Indies.

(See the articles on the separate states and colonies.)

THE UNITED STATES

The republic of the United States is by far the most populous, wealthy, and progressive country of all the New World.

=Location and Extent.=--It occupies the most valuable portion of the North American continent, the whole of it (with the exception of the territory of Alaska) lying within the temperate zone, between Canada on the north and Mexico on the south, and reaching across from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean.

Its boundary toward the Canadian Dominion passes through the Haro, or northern channel of the Strait of San Juan de Fuca, south of Vancouver Island, and thence along the forty-ninth parallel of latitude to Lake Superior; then midway through the center of the Great Lakes to the St. Lawrence, and down that river to the forty-fifth parallel, and an irregular boundary which separates New Brunswick from the States of New York and Maine, terminating at Passamaquoddy Bay.

In the south, the Mexican frontier runs from the Pacific coast, northward of the peninsula of California, to the Rio Grande del Norte, which it follows to the Gulf of Mexico.

From Atlantic to Pacific, the breadth of the United States is not less than twenty-five hundred miles; and from north to south the country extends nearly seventeen hundred miles.

=Surface.=--The surface of the United States from east to west may be divided as follows: (1) The Atlantic Plain, which extends from the coast to the Allegheny Mountains. (2) The Mississippi Valley and Great Central Plain, which extends from the Allegheny Mountains west to the Rocky Mountains. (3) The Western Highlands. (4) The Pacific slope, which extends from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean.

=Mountains and Plains.=--The chief mountain systems are the Appalachian region in the east and the Rocky Mountains in the west.

THE APPALACHIAN SYSTEM begins in the northern part of New England (in Maine without the appearance of regular ranges) and New York, and extends southwestward to Alabama and Georgia, being divided by the Hudson River valley and Lake Champlain, and that of the Mohawk River into three distinct sections.

A coast-plain extends from its eastern base to the Atlantic. It is narrow in Maine, where it terminates in a bold rocky coast indented by bays, and broken into projecting promontories and islands. South of Massachusetts the coast becomes lower and more sandy, and the plain grows gradually wider, with the exception of a narrow belt at New York, until in North Carolina it attains a width of two hundred miles.

In the southern part of New England it is characterized by hills, and below New York by a distinct coast region and a more elevated slope. This higher region, which is in Virginia and thence southward, is marked by a somewhat abrupt terrace, varies in altitude from a few hundred to more than a thousand feet, and is known as the Piedmont plateau. The lower coast region is seldom more than one hundred feet above the sea. It has a sandy soil, and in many places there are large swamps near the coast. Much of this swampy country is uninhabitable, but when reclaimed, as it has been in many parts of North and South Carolina, it makes valuable rice-land. Many acres of fertile agricultural land have also been secured in Florida by draining its swamps. The middle elevated region is diversified by hills and valleys, and has a productive soil. The dividing line between it and the low coast-plain marks the head of navigation of most of the streams, and also determines the sites of many important towns.

The surface of this region today is a series of parallel ranges divided by fertile valleys. The various ridges are named as follows: The Blue Ridge, which lies nearest the Atlantic; the Kittatinny Chain; the Allegheny Mountains, which lie in the western part of Virginia and the central part of Pennsylvania; the Cumberland Mountains, on the eastern boundary of Tennessee and Kentucky; the Catskill Mountains, in the State of New York, which are continued in the Sacondago Chain; the Green Mountains, in the State of Vermont; the Hudson River Highlands, and the hills of New Hampshire. There is no peak of marked elevation in the Appalachian region, the highest point being Mt. Washington, in New Hampshire, which reaches a height of nearly seven thousand feet.

GREAT CENTRAL PLAIN.--West of the Appalachian system and lying between it and the western highland is a great central valley, forming part of the continental depression which extends from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. It is almost an absolute plain, rising gradually from the Gulf toward the chain of Great Lakes in the north, and toward the mountains on the east and west. The only important departure from its uniform level character is an elevation of from five hundred to two thousand feet, running from southern Missouri through northwestern Arkansas into eastern Oklahoma, and known as the Ozark Mountains.

This great valley occupies about one-half the entire area of the United States, and the fertile prairies and bottom-lands of the eastern and central portions make it the most important agricultural basin of the globe. From an irregular line west of the Mississippi River the land rises in an almost imperceptible slope till it reaches the base of the western plateau.

THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN SYSTEM extends a distance of about two thousand miles. The system is continued in Canada. The Rocky Mountains are not a single range, but are double and sometimes threefold. These ranges are the edge of a region of plateaus and hills which extends to the coastal mountains. The chief mountain ranges belonging to the United States Rockies are the Bitter Root Mountains, the Blue Mountains, and the Big Horn Mountains in the north; the Wahsatch Mountains, the Wind River Mountains, and the White Mountains in the center; and the Sierra Madre and the Sangra de Cristo Range in the south. In the western part of the southern Rockies lies the Great Basin of Colorado, with the Wahsatch Mountains on the east and the Sierra Nevada on the west. This basin is extremely arid, has suffered much volcanic action.

THE WESTERN OR PACIFIC SYSTEM forms a part of the vast elevation which extends from the northern to the southern extremity of the western continent. In the United States it is a great plateau of four thousand to ten thousand feet surmounted by a complex system of ranges, in its widest part more than one thousand miles broad. Of this Cordilleran region the Rocky Mountains form the eastern and the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Mountains and the Coast Ranges the western border.

In the ranges of central Colorado alone nearly forty of the summits have an altitude of more than fourteen thousand feet. In the Wind River Mountains, in Wyoming, are the head-waters of the Colorado, the Columbia, and the Mississippi, the three great river-systems of the United States; and in the northwestern corner of the same state is situated the National Park, famous for its hot springs and geysers as well as for its magnificent scenery (see Yellowstone).

Between the Wahsatch Range and the lofty masses of mountains in Colorado is a region of peculiar interest, consisting of level plateaus in which the changes of elevation from one plain to another are marked by abrupt descents and steep cliffs. It is furrowed by cañons or gorges, whose sides are nearly vertical; and the bed of the Colorado is in some places more than a mile and a quarter below the surface of the plateau. (See Grand Cañon under Colorado River.)

Between the Wahsatch Range and the Sierra Nevada lies the Great Basin, an immense tract having at best but little rainfall, except upon the summits of the ranges by which it is traversed, and none of whose waters are drained to either ocean. The saline swamps, salt lakes, and sinks of Nevada indicate the former location of one of these lakes; Great Salt Lake is all that now remains of the other.

The Sierra Nevada and the Cascade Range are topographically continuous, and constitute a great mountain-wall, which so far as the height of the peaks and the grandeur of the scenery are concerned, is one of the most striking portions of the Cordilleran system. Most of the peaks of the Sierras are, however, of granite and metamorphic rock, while those of the Cascade Range are volcanic. The greatest altitude is attained with Mt. Whitney as the culminating point. The lofty character of the range is maintained throughout the greater part of California, and the sublimity of the scenery is justly celebrated. (See Yosemite Valley.)

From this point there extends northward one of the most remarkable groups of extinct or faintly active volcanoes to be found anywhere in the world: the lava overflows in this region cover an area of above two hundred thousand square miles. The most prominent peaks are Mt. Shasta, in California, and Mt. Rainier, in Washington. In three separate places rivers have cut a passage through the volcanic portion of the range. The most notable is the passage of the Columbia River in a grand cañon more than three thousand feet in depth.

The Coast Ranges of Washington, Oregon, and northern California consist of numerous and approximately parallel chains, which as a rule pitch off abruptly toward the sea, leaving no coast-plain. Between the Coast Ranges and the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range is a series of broad valleys, occupied mainly in Oregon by the Willamette River, and in California by the Sacramento and San Joaquin. In southern California the mountains of the Coast Ranges diminish in height, but throughout their whole extent they are interspersed with picturesque and fertile valleys.

=Coast.=--The Atlantic coast has a length of about twelve thousand three hundred and sixty miles; the Gulf Coast of five thousand seven hundred and fifty miles, and the Pacific Coast of three thousand two hundred and fifty miles.

On the coast of the New England states there are many indentations which, though small, furnish commodious harbors. Long Island Sound adds greatly to the commercial importance of New York harbor, and farther south are Delaware and Chesapeake Bays; Albemarle and Pamlico sounds, and several small indentations, such as those which form the harbors of Charleston and Savannah. The Chesapeake Bay is the largest indentation of the Atlantic Coast and runs inland in a northward direction for more than one hundred and eighty miles, with an average breadth of about fifteen miles. From Cape Hatteras to Cape Sable, however, the coast is swampy, and, especially in Florida, fringed with lagoons. The harbors of this part of the coast are not good naturally. The coast of the Gulf of Mexico is low and very swampy, but is of special climatic and commercial importance.

The Pacific Coast of the United States has a very narrow Continental Shelf, and few bays or capes. With the exception of Puget Sound, the Bay of San Francisco, and the harbor of San Diego, there is scarcely a noticeable break in the continuity of the coast line.

=Islands.=--There are many small rocky islands along the coast of Maine, and on the southern New England Coast is a group to which belongs Long Island, the largest of the islands of the United States. Farther south, off the Atlantic Coast, and also in portions of the Gulf of Mexico, are many low sand-spits lying parallel to the coast and having behind them shallow channels, lagoons and swamps. On the Pacific Coast there are no islands of importance except the Santa Barbara group off the southern coast of California.

=Rivers.=--The rivers of the Atlantic Plain rise in the Appalachian system, and are comparatively short. In many cases they are too rapid to be of much value for navigation, but are valuable for supplying water power. These rivers almost without exception have good harbors at their mouths. The chief are: the Hudson, the Delaware, the Susquehanna, the Potomac, the James, and the Savannah.

THE GREAT CENTRAL PLAIN is drained by the Mississippi-Missouri river system, the basin of which covers half the area of the United States, and is equal in area to about one-third the area of Europe.

The Mississippi rises in Lake Itasca, in Minnesota, at about fifteen hundred feet above sea-level. After flowing for about one hundred miles in an easterly direction it turns south, and is joined by numerous tributaries. The chief are: St. Peter’s River, which joins the main stream nine miles above St. Anthony’s Falls; the Missouri, which enters the Mississippi just above St. Louis; the Ohio, which joins the main river at Cairo; the Arkansas, the Wisconsin, the Illinois, and the Red River.

The Mississippi-Missouri has made a broad flood plain, varying in width from thirty to sixty miles. This plain is subject to severe inundations, for it slopes very gently away from the river bed, which is in many parts of the river above the level of the surrounding plain. The river carries a vast amount of silt, which it deposits at its mouth, thus forming a delta which stretches a series of long, narrow, tentacle-like arms seaward.

Other rivers falling into the Gulf of Mexico are the Mobile and the Rio Grande. The Mobile, which enters the gulf at the town of Mobile, is the union of the Alabama and the Tombigbee. The Rio Grande forms the boundary between Texas and Mexico.

The rivers flowing into the Pacific are comparatively short, owing to the nearness of the coast ranges to the sea. The Colorado River flows into the Gulf of California, after crossing an arid plateau. (See description below.)

The San Joaquin and the Sacramento rivers unite and flow into the harbor of San Francisco; these and the Columbia are the only important rivers entering the Pacific.

The Great Basin of California is largely an area of inland drainage. The rivers flow into lakes with no outlets to the sea.

=Colorado River= (Spanish for “red” or “reddish”), is a remarkable river formed by the union of the Grand and Green Rivers, and flowing through the great plateau region. Below the junction of the Green and Grand, the main affluent in Utah is the San Juan, which drains an interesting region in the southwest of Colorado and the northwest of New Mexico. In Arizona the main affluents are the Colorado Chiquito or Flax River, the Bill Williams, and the Rio Gila, all from the left. The only important affluent the Colorado receives from the right is the Rio Virgen. From the junction of the Grand and Green the general course of the stream is to the southwest through the southern part of Utah and northwestern Arizona; and it afterwards separates Arizona from Nevada and California. The lower part of its course is in Mexican territory, where it flows into the northern extremity of the Gulf of California.

The most striking features of the Colorado basin are its dryness, and the deeply channeled surface of the greater part of the country. Almost every stream and watercourse, and most of all the Colorado itself, has cut its way through stratum after stratum of rock, until now it flows in a great part of its course, at the bottom of a deep trench or cañon.

THE GRAND CAÑON.--The main stream, for nearly four hundred miles below the mouth of the Colorado Chiquito, thus makes its way through a great plateau, forming what is called the Grand Cañon of the Colorado, the most extensive and marvelous example of the kind anywhere known.

Throughout the upper part of the great cañon the walls are from four thousand to seven thousand feet in height, and are often nearly perpendicular. Frequently they are terraced and carved into a myriad of pinnacles and towers, tinted with various brilliant colors. At some points the walls on either side rise sheer from the water; at others there is a talus of fallen rock, or occasionally a strip of fertile soil, on one or both banks. There are two main trails by which the bottom of the cañon may be reached. The Bright Angel Trail is seven miles down from the rim to the river and requires three hours for the descent. The Grand View Trail is somewhat longer and more difficult.

This over-drained river basin has an area of two hundred and twenty-five thousand square miles. The whole course of the river below the junction is about nine hundred miles; to its remotest sources it is over two thousand miles. Navigation is possible for light-draft steamers for over six hundred miles. The river is subject to vast and frequent changes of volume, and except where confined by cañon-walls, the river channel shifts to and fro in a very remarkable degree.

=Hudson River=, one of the most beautiful and important in America, rises in the Adirondack Mountains, four thousand three hundred and twenty-six feet above the level of the sea, where its head-streams are the outlets of many mountain-lakes. At Glens Falls it has a fall of fifty feet, and soon after, taking a southerly course, runs nearly in a straight line to its mouth, at New York City. It is tidal up to Troy, one hundred and fifty-one miles from its mouth, and magnificent steamboats ply daily between New York and Albany.

Below Newburg, sixty miles from New York, the river enters the highlands, which rise abruptly from the water to the height of sixteen hundred feet. Here historical associations add to the interest of varied scenery of singular beauty and grandeur: here was the scene of Arnold’s treason and of André’s fate; and at West Point, the seat of the United States military academy, eight miles below Newburg, are the ruins of Fort Putnam, built during the War of Independence.

Emerging from the highlands the river widens into a broad expanse called Tappan Bay, which is four and one-half miles wide and thirteen miles long. Below, on the right bank, a steep wall of trap rock, called the Palisades, rises from the river’s brink to a height of three hundred to five hundred and ten feet, and extends for nearly twenty miles to the upper portion of the city of New York.

The river from here is known as the North River, and is from one to two miles wide; and after passing between New York and Hoboken and Jersey City, it falls into New York Bay. Its whole length is about three hundred and fifty miles, and its principal tributaries are the Sacondaga, Mohawk, and Walkill.

The Hudson has valuable shad and sturgeon fisheries, and has large commercial value. It is connected by the Erie Canal with Buffalo and the Great Lakes, while the Richelieu Canal connects it with Montreal. The Hudson River Railroad, connecting New York with Albany, runs along the east bank.

The river is named for the English navigator who explored it in 1609. Robert Fulton’s first successful experiment in steamboat navigation was made on this river in 1807.

=The St. Lawrence=, issuing from Lake Ontario, flows northeast for some seven hundred and fifty miles--part of the way forming the boundary between Canada and the United States--and falls into the Gulf of St. Lawrence by a broad estuary. But in its widest acceptation the name includes the whole system of the Great Lakes and their connecting streams, with a total length from source to mouth of two thousand miles, and a drainage basin of five hundred and sixty-five thousand two hundred square miles. It pours more fresh water into the ocean than any other river except the Amazon.

This mighty artery rises, under the name of the St. Louis, on the spacious plateau which sends forth also the Mississippi toward the Gulf of Mexico, and the Red River of the North toward Hudson Bay. Lake Superior (six hundred and two feet above sea-level), the next link in the chain, finds its way to Lake Huron through St. Mary’s River, whose rapids have a fall of twenty and one-half feet. Below Lake Huron, which receives Lake Michigan from the south, St. Clair River, Lake St. Clair, Detroit River, and Lake Erie, maintain pretty nearly the same level (there is a fall of some eight feet, however, in Detroit River) till the river Niagara descends three hundred and twenty-six feet to Lake Ontario, which is itself still two hundred and forty-seven feet above the sea-level.

The St. Lawrence proper, with a number of lakelike expansions (such as the Lake of the Thousand Isles, of St. Francis, St. Peter, etc.), presents the character first of a river, and then of an estuary, down to the gulf. What is known as the Lake of the Thousand Islands contains about seventeen hundred islands, big and little, many of them extremely picturesque. This is a famous tourist region, with numerous hotels and other resorts as well as many fine private estates.

Prior to 1858 only vessels drawing not more than eleven feet of water could pass up the river above Quebec, but since then a channel has been made in the shallow parts of the river, three hundred feet wide and twenty-seven and one-quarter deep, which permits the passage up to Montreal of large vessels.

Between Lake Ontario and Montreal there are several rapids, which, however, may be all avoided by means of canals that have been constructed at a very great expense. Immediately above the island of Montreal, the St. Lawrence is joined by its principal auxiliary, the Ottawa, from the northwest; and a little more than half-way between this confluence and Three Rivers, the highest point of tidal influence, the Richelieu from the south brings in the tribute of Lake Champlain. Other principal tributaries are the St. Maurice, the Saguenay, and the Batiscan. The width of the St. Lawrence varies from less than one to four miles; the estuary at its mouth is above one hundred miles across. During winter the river is frozen over and navigation closed.

=Lakes.=--Of the Great Lakes of North America, Lake Michigan lies within the United States, and the southern shores of Lake Ontario, Lake Erie, Lake Huron, and Lake Superior are United States territory. These lakes were formed by the action of the glacier which once covered the continent as far south as the forty-second parallel, roughly speaking. They are remainders of much larger lakes and are of the utmost importance as waterways.

New England has very many smaller lakes, which are also the result of glacial action. The largest lake of the United States apart from the Great Lakes is the Great Salt Lake of Utah. The extremely low rainfall of this region and the intense evaporation consequent upon the high temperature are responsible for the salinity of the waters of the lake.

=The Great Lakes.=--The five Great Lakes cover a total area of over ninety thousand square miles, forming the largest collective mass of fresh water in the world.

LAKE SUPERIOR.--The northern shores of Superior are mostly precipitous cliffs ranging from three hundred to one thousand feet in height. On the southeast sandy coasts prevail. The coast on the south and southwest is composed largely of sandstone cliffs, rich in iron and other metal deposits. The bed of Superior is supposed to be an ancient volcanic crater. Its depth of one thousand and eight feet represents a depression extending four hundred feet below sea-level. Superior is, therefore, distinct in origin from the other lakes of the group, whose beds represent ancient river systems and date from the glacial period. The basin of the lake, closely circumscribed by the Mississippi and Hudson Bay watersheds, receives many streams, but all of them short.

LAKE HURON, the second of the Great Lakes, is bounded north, east and south by the Province of Ontario, and south and west by the State of Michigan, including Georgian Bay (five thousand six hundred and twenty-six square miles), and North Passage, one thousand five hundred and fifty-six square miles. It is connected with Lake Michigan by the Straits of Mackinac, three and one-half miles broad and one hundred and thirty-five feet deep.

The discharge of Lake Huron is about two hundred and seventeen thousand cubic feet per second. By reason of evaporation and rainfall, the level of the lake varies annually between four and five feet, but much greater local variation is caused by the strong winds. The densely wooded northeast is broken by many low islands of limestone and glacial débris. Elsewhere the shores are almost unbroken and low, except when cliffs of one hundred or one hundred and fifty feet high rise from the northeast border and afford good sites for the many Canadian towns and villages. Nearly all the harbors on this coast are protected by breakwaters.

LAKE MICHIGAN.--The area of Lake Michigan includes Green Bay on the northwestern shore, and Grand Travers Bay directly on the eastern shore. Many islands lie in the lake between these two breaks in the shore, which elsewhere is low and unbroken.

About the southern and eastern borders are immense heaps of sand which have been piled up by waves and currents, and drift inland by the winds, sometimes, as at Sleeping Bear bluffs, completely burying the heavy forests.

The level of Michigan varies, but not as greatly as does that of Huron, according to the direction and force of the winds, the changes in rainfall, evaporation, atmospheric pressure, etc. Except when caused by protracted gales blowing steadily in one direction, this variation rarely exceeds one and three-tenths feet. The lake has a lunar tide with accompanying variation of from one and one-half inches neap to about three inches spring tide, and the water is warmer than the air in winter and cooler in summer, and visibly ameliorates the climate of the shores, as may be shown in the quantity and rich quality of the Michigan fruits. Like all the Great Lakes, Michigan abounds in fish, such as whitefish and trout.

LAKE ERIE has a northeast and southwest direction, bounded on the entire upper shore by the Province of Ontario, and on the southern and eastern shores by Ohio, Pennsylvania and New York. At its southwestern end it is connected with Lake St. Clair by the Detroit River. At its northwestern end it discharges into Lake Ontario through the Niagara River. It is connected by the Welland Canal with Lake Ontario and by other canals with the Hudson and Ohio Rivers, making it thus a link in the waterway from east to west.

Besides the drainage from the Lake Superior system, Lake Erie receives the Grand River, the Maumee from the west, and the Sandusky and Cuyahoga from the south. The west coast is broken by the islands of Put-in-Bay.

LAKE ONTARIO is the most eastern, with a northeast and southwest direction, like Lake Erie. It is the lowest of the Great Lakes, and has naturally the largest discharge, three hundred thousand cubic feet per second. The shores are flat, except in the Bay of Quinte, which extends on the northeast fifty miles inland. There are many harbors and flourishing ports. The waters have a surface current, due to the fact that the larger axis of the lake coincides with the direction of the prevailing westerly winds. This, added to frequent violent storms, keeps the lake from freezing, except a few miles in width along the shores.

Lake Ontario is connected with the Erie Canal and Hudson River by the Oswego Canal and with the Ottawa River by the Rideau Canal.

=Great Salt Lake=, in Utah, stretches along the western base of the Wahsatch Mountains, about four thousand two hundred feet above the sea, forming a principal drainage center of the Great Basin. Well-marked shore-lines on the mountains around, reaching one thousand feet higher than the present level, show that the lake had formerly a vastly greater extent; this prehistoric sea has been named Lake Bonneville. Great Salt Lake is over eighty miles long and from twenty to thirty-two broad, but for the most part exceedingly shallow. It contains several islands, the largest Antelope I., about eighteen miles long. Its tributaries are the Bear, Ogden, Jordan and Weber, the Jordan bringing the fresh waters of Lake Utah; but Great Salt Lake has no outlet save evaporation, and its clear water consequently holds at all times a considerable quantity of saline matter in solution. Several species of insects and a brine-shrimp have been found in its waters, but no fishes; large flocks of water-fowls frequent the shores.

The first mention of Great Salt Lake was by the Franciscan friar Escalante in 1776, but it was first explored and described in 1843 by Fremont.

=Champlain= is a beautiful lake separating the states of New York and Vermont, and penetrating, at its north end, about six miles into the Dominion of Canada. Lying ninety-one feet above sea-level, it is one hundred and ten miles long, by from one to fifteen broad, empties itself into the St. Lawrence by the Richelieu River, and has communication by canal with the Hudson. The lake, now an important trade channel, was the scene of several incidents of the French and Indian revolutionary wars; and here a British flotilla was defeated by the Americans September 11, 1814. It was discovered by Champlain in 1609, and in 1909 tercentenary celebrations of its discovery were held along its shores.

=Natural Wonders.=--Of the great natural wonders the chief are the Niagara Falls, the Grand Cañon of Colorado, and Yellowstone Park. The Sequoia, General Grant and Calaveras Parks--all reservations of the famous big trees, many thousands of years old, have also great scenic interest. Mt. Ranier Park, in Washington, encloses the noblest and most interesting mountain of our Pacific Coast. The chief feature of Crater Lake Park, in southern Oregon, is a lake two thousand feet deep, occupying the crater of an extinct volcano on the summit of the Cascade Range, with walls one thousand to two thousand feet high. The latest addition is Glacier Park, in northwestern Montana. It is named from its glaciers, of which there are over sixty within an area of five square miles, and contains numerous snow-capped peaks seven thousand to twelve thousand feet high. It also contains Lake McDonald, one of the most beautiful alpine lakes. Among the national monuments are the petrified forests in Arizona.

=Garden of the Gods=, a region in Colorado, is noted for its view of Pike’s Peak, and its weird and grotesque rock pinnacles, needles, etc., some of which receive descriptive names such as Cathedral Spires. The region is about five hundred acres in extent, and in 1908 was presented to Colorado Springs city.

=Grand Canyon.=--See under Colorado River.

=Mammoth Cave=, in Kentucky, is eighty-five miles by railroad southwest of Louisville. The cave is about ten miles long; but it is said to require upwards of one hundred and fifty miles of traveling to explore its multitudinous avenues, chambers, grottoes, rivers and cataracts. It is the largest cavern in the world. The main cave is only four miles long, but it is from forty to three hundred feet wide, and rises in height to one hundred and twenty-five feet. Lucy’s Dome is three hundred feet high, the loftiest of the many vertical shafts that pierce through all the levels.

It is estimated that there are more than four thousand sink-holes and five hundred open caverns. Some avenues are covered with a continuous incrustation of the most beautiful crystals; stalactites and stalagmites abound.

There are several lakes or rivers connected with Green River outside the cave, rising with the river, but subsiding more slowly, so that they are generally impassible for more than six months in the year. The largest is Echo River, three-fourths of a mile long, and in some places two hundred feet wide. The air of the cave is pure; the temperature keeps at about fifty-four degrees.

Among the most striking facts which exploration has revealed are the following: there is a pit, named the Bottomless Pit, one hundred and five feet deep, besides Scylla, one hundred and thirty-five feet deep. Crevice Pit, with Klett’s Dome, which forms a part of it, is one hundred and fifty feet in total vertical measurement. Cleveland Avenue is two miles long, Silliman’s one and one-half miles and in places two hundred feet in width. Large stretches of water have been christened Dead Sea, Lake Lethe; also there are the Styx, and Roaring and Echo rivers. In the outer galleries of the cave millions of bats are congregated. There are also blind fish, crayfish, crickets, and other abnormal insect inhabitants of the cave.

=Niagara Falls.=--See under Famous Waterfalls.

=Yosemite Valley= is the name of a cleft in the west slope of the Sierra Nevada, about the center of California, and one hundred and forty miles east of San Francisco. The name Yosemite is an Indian word which signifies “large grizzly bear.” This celebrated valley, noted for the sublimity and beauty of its scenery, is about six miles long and from one-half to nearly two miles in breadth, and is traversed by the Merced River. The beholder is awed and impressed by the massiveness of its mountain elevations, the nearly perpendicular granite walls, from three thousand to six thousand feet high, by which it is shut in throughout its entire length, and the grandeur of its waterfalls, which are in some respects the most remarkable in the world.

At the lower end of the valley stands the striking cliff known as El Capitan, three thousand three hundred feet high, while from near its lower corner the Virgin’s Tears Fall descends one thousand feet. But the eye turns from it to the remarkable fall opposite, happily named the Bridal Veil, which leaps from the brow of a cliff nine hundred feet high, and descends in a broad sheet of spray and finally mist, swaying in the wind and constantly changing its form of fleecy beauty. Farther up the valley are Cathedral Rock (two thousand six hundred and sixty feet), the Three Brothers (three thousand eight hundred and thirty feet), Sentinel Rock (three thousand and forty-three feet), and directly opposite it the grand Yosemite Falls. (See Famous Waterfalls.) Above the falls are the North Dome (three thousand five hundred and sixty-eight feet) and the vast Half Dome, nearly one mile (four thousand seven hundred and thirty-seven feet) high, whose summit can now be reached by a long climb. Two miles above the great falls the stream enters the main valley in two arms, coming out of two canyons. In that of the south fork is the Illilouet Fall, some six hundred feet high; in the main canyon are Vernal Fall and Nevada Fall, the latter one of the finest in the world.

(See Famous Waterfalls.)

The country surrounding the valley and constituting the National Park is a rolling and hilly region varying from eight thousand to ten thousand feet above sea-level. There is little soil or vegetation except a scattered forest growth. Small glaciers still remain near the summits of some of the adjacent mountains. Bare granite peaks rise still higher from this surface.

=Yellowstone National Park= comprises a tract of land originally comprising three thousand five hundred and seventy-five square miles in northwestern Wyoming, set apart by act of Congress in 1872 as a national park to preserve from destructive molestation the most wonderful group of natural features and phenomena known within the boundaries of the United States. It is readily reached over the Northern Pacific Railroad, which has a branch from Livingston to Gardiner, just outside the north park boundary, thirty-six hours’ ride from St. Paul; or it may be reached from the Oregon Short Line R. R. from the west side by a more difficult stage connection.

The whole park plateau lies between six thousand and eight thousand feet above sea-level. The mountains rise in great grandeur upon this plateau, giving evidence of their volcanic origin, though now extinct, by their form, and their rock structure, and the many evidences of pent-up heat that one sees in the hot springs and geysers for which the locality is justly famous. Twenty-four peaks rise over ten thousand feet, several over eleven thousand. Electric Peak on the border is eleven thousand one hundred and fifty-five feet. Many have been glaciated. Just outside the Teton Range peaks rise to nearly fourteen thousand feet. It is a part of the continental divide and from Two-ocean Pond the waters may flow into either the Atlantic or the Pacific. The Yellowstone, Snake and Madison rivers are fed by the waters from this area.

The surface of the park is dotted with lakes, the largest being Yellowstone Lake, standing seven thousand seven hundred and forty-one feet above sea-level, ten by twenty miles in average dimensions, the largest body at so great elevation in the United States.

The streams contain numerous falls and rapids, twenty-five of special interest, some as picturesque as the Falls of the Yellowstone, though not on such a grand scale, and some far removed from the usual routes of travel. The falls and canyons of the Yellowstone are considered among the most wonderful in the world. The canyon is cut more than two thousand feet deep into the lavas and sediments, exhibiting the most fantastic carvings of erosion, modified by an exquisite blending of colors. Into it plunges the river by two great leaps, the Upper and the Lower Falls, one hundred and twelve and three hundred and ten feet high respectively, and then flows on as a narrow ribbon scarcely more than one hundred and sixty to two hundred feet wide for twelve miles of this wonderfully beautiful chasm.

Yellowstone Park includes within its borders the largest geysers in the world. There are about seventy in all, included in six groups or geyser basins. Norris, Upper, Middle and Lower basins, ten to fifteen miles apart, are on the headwaters of the Madison, here called Five Hole River. The Upper is most active and is called the Great Geyser Basin. A group is also found at Shoshone Lake, at the head of Snake River, and another group at Heart Lake. Fifty geysers spout water and steam from thirty to two hundred and fifty feet into the air. Some spout from open bowl-shaped basins, and others have built cones or tubes by their deposits. Extinct geysers are marked by the remains of these cones, among which is Liberty Cap. Excelsior geyser is the largest of all. It has a bowl-shaped opening two hundred by three hundred feet, flows four thousand gallons of boiling hot water per minute, and throws a fifty-foot column of water and steam seventy-five feet to two hundred and fifty feet high. Giant throws a five-foot column over two hundred feet high for an hour. Old Faithful, so named because of its exceptional regularity, every sixty-four to sixty-five minutes without a failure within the memory of the oldest observers, discharges a column one hundred and fifty feet high amounting to one and a half million gallons of water at each eruption. There is every gradation in size and violence and periodicity.

In the Mammoth Hot Springs area, near the northern boundary, where there are fifty active springs within an area of one hundred and seventy acres, there is a travertine accumulation of one thousand feet. Others deposit silica in similar manner, both types aided much by algous plant growth in the mineralized warm waters. In some places sulphur has been deposited.

Nine-tenths of the whole area is forest. The tree limit varies from nine thousand four hundred to nine thousand seven hundred feet. Few of the plateau localities are bare. Pine, poplar, balsam, cedar and spruce grow abundantly and many to large size. In the spring and geyser localities the trees are often covered by deposits and buried. Whole forests have been thus entombed. Petrified trees are common. Wild animals are wholly unmolested. Deer, elk, buffalo and bear may be seen and approached near enough to photograph. Trout abound in the waters throughout.

The first white man to attempt an exploration of the region was a trapper named Coulter, who in 1805 traversed a part of this district. His tales were disbelieved, but were confirmed thirty years later by the discoveries of Bridger. In 1870 the first official survey was made, and in 1871 Hayden’s famous expedition revealed the glories of the Yellowstone district.

=Climate and Irrigation.=--The United States, stretching over such a vast area and having such great tracts of mountain and plain, must necessarily present a great variety of climate. The mean annual temperature ranges from under forty degrees to seventy-five degrees. The isotherm of fifty-five degrees mean annual temperature crosses the center of the country from east to west, passing through St. Louis. The mean annual rainfall for the whole country is about thirty inches, but there is a great difference in this respect between different parts. The rainfall is most abundant on the northwest Pacific Coast, on the Gulf Coast, and on the higher mountain ranges. On the great plains it is only ten to twenty inches, and there are large desert stretches in the Rocky Mountain region with a rainfall of less than ten inches.

=Irrigation.=--As far as lack of rainfall is concerned in the so-called rainless regions of the United States, this has been notably offset by great works of irrigation that have been steadily going forward. Agriculture, horticulture and vitaculture are, therefore, no longer dependent on chance but science, as the National Irrigation Congress expresses it.

Modern irrigation in the United States began in 1750 with the watering of the gardens in the hills and deserts of the coast of California by the adventurous missionaries from Mexico. Irrigation by English-speaking people had its origin in Utah one hundred years later. There the Mormons, separated by one thousand miles of untrodden desert from all cultivated land, found in irrigation their only means of escape from starvation.

In 1870 there were twenty thousand acres under irrigation, followed by a rapid development of small ditches, until in 1880 there were one million acres irrigated. Today (1917) upward of fifty million acres are included in reclamation projects, and it is estimated that there are upward of four hundred and fifty million acres still awaiting the scientific use of water.

The diversity of methods used in irrigation in the United States is remarkable. Practically every system to be found in the world can be seen in some part of the arid west. This is due to the fact that many of the irrigators have come from distant parts of the world and each seeks to introduce on his farm customs and practices of his old environments. This is particularly noticeable in California, where the Chinese irrigate their truck gardens in Chinese fashion, and Italians, Spaniards and Mexicans imitate for a time at least the practices of their forefathers.

Upward of one hundred and fifty thousand miles of irrigation canals, with reservoirs and supplementary works, have been built at a cost of more than six hundred million dollars. These projects are distributed through the States of Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, Texas, Utah, Washington and Wyoming. The most notable among them are: the Truckee-Carson Canal and Reservoir, in Nevada; the Minidoka project, in southern Idaho; that of the Uncompahgre Valley, in Colorado; the Roosevelt Dam, in the Salt River Valley, Arizona; the Klamath Reservoir, on the Oregon-California boundary; the Boisé project, Idaho; that of Yuma, on the Arizona-California boundary; North Platte, on the Nebraska-Wyoming boundary; and the gigantic Elephant Butte Reservoir, in New Mexico--the second largest in the world.

=Political Divisions.=--Under its present organization the United States comprises fifty-one political divisions. Of these forty-eight are states enjoying the full privileges afforded by the federal constitution. The three territories--Alaska, Hawaii and Porto Rico--all are organized but not yet admitted to statehood. The Philippines have a modified territorial government.

(See Tables appended.)

It is worthy of remark that the center of population advanced westward during the ten decades since 1790 in a nearly uniform line along the thirty-ninth parallel of latitude.

=THE CENTER OF POPULATION=

======+=============================================+============== CENSUS| | FROM POINT YEAR | |TO POINT IN | APPROXIMATE LOCATION BY IMPORTANT TOWNS |DIRECT LINE[9] ------+---------------------------------------------+-------------- 1790 |Twenty-three miles east of Baltimore, Md. | ... 1800 |Eighteen miles west of Baltimore, Md. | 40.6 1810 |Forty miles northwest by west of Washington, | |D. C. | 36.9 1820 |Sixteen miles north of Woodstock, Va. | 50.5 1830 |Nineteen miles west by southwest of Moore- | |field, W. Va.[10] | 40.4 1840 |Sixteen miles south of Clarksburg, W. Va.[10]| 55.0 1850 |Twenty-three miles southeast of Parkersburg, | |W. Va.[10] | 54.8 1860 |Twenty miles south of Chillicothe, Ohio | 80.6 1870 |Forty-eight miles east by north of Cincin- | |nati, Ohio | 44.1 1880 |Eight miles west by south of Cincinnati, Ohio| 58.1 1890 |Twenty miles east of Columbus, Ind. | 48.6 1900 |Six miles southeast of Columbus, Ind. | 14.6 1910 |In the city of Bloomington, Ind. | 39.0 ------+---------------------------------------------+-----------

[9] Movement in miles during preceding decade.

[10] West Virginia formed part of Virginia until 1860.

=Public Lands.=--The United States originally owned nearly all the area of the states, with the exception of the original thirteen. Homesteads have been given, or sold at a nominal price, to all bona fide settlers. Vast areas have been given to railroad companies and in aid of education. The country’s Indian wards have been provided with ample reservations. The government has established great national parks, and it has reserved more than seventy-two thousand square miles of forest land.

The following tabulations give numerous important facts concerning the states and territories:

=TABLE OF STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES=

=====+======================+======================+====================== DATE | STATE OR TERRITORY | SETTLEMENT | CAPITALS AND OF | ORIGIN AND | WHERE, WHEN, BY WHOM | POPULATIONS AD- | MEANING OF NAME | | MIS- | | ORIGINAL TERRITORY | CHIEF PRODUCTIONS SION | AREA AND POPULATION | FROM WHICH DERIVED | OF STATE INTO | | | UNION| MOTTO AND MEANING | | -----+----------------------+----------------------+---------------------- 1819|=Alabama= (Indian-- |Mobile Bay, 1702, by |Montgomery: Pop. |Here we rest). |the French. |38,136. |51,998 sq. miles. Pop.|From Louisiana, |Corn, oats, wheat, |2,138,093. |Georgia, Mississippi |rice, cotton, sugar, |Motto: Here we rest.|and Alabama territo- |iron, lumber, manufac- | |ries. |tures, potatoes. | | | 1867|‡=Alaska= (_Al-ay- |Three Saints, 1784, by|Juneau: Pop. 1,864. |eska_, meaning “the |the Russians. |Seals, salmon, gold, |great country”). |Purchased from Russia |copper, silver, |590,884 sq. miles. |in 1867 for |lumber, tin, lead, |No motto. |$7,200,000. |coal. | | | 1911|=Arizona= (Indian-- |Tucson, 1580, by the |Phoenix: Pop. 11,134. |Sand Hills). |Spanish. |Copper, gold, silver, |113,956 sq. miles. |From New Mexico terri-|alfalfa, fruits, live |Pop. 204,354. |tory. |stock, wheat, barley. |Motto: Ditat deus | | |(Founded by God). | | | | | 1836|=Arkansas= (From a |Arkansas Post, 1685, |Little Rock: Pop. |tribe of Indians). |by the French. |45,941. |53,335 sq. miles. Pop.|From Louisiana, |Cotton, lumber, corn, |1,574,449. |Missouri and Arkansas |oats, wheat, fruits, |Motto: Regnat populi|territories. |wool, coal, tobacco. |(The people rule). | | | | | 1850|=California= (From an |San Diego, 1768, by |Sacramento: Pop. |old Spanish romance). |the Spanish. |44,696. |158,297 sq. miles. |From New Albion, Upper|Gold, silver, copper, |Pop. 2,377,549. |California. |lead, petroleum, |Motto: Eureka (I | |borax, lumber, fruits, |have found it). | |wine, olives, beet | | |sugar. | | | 1876|=Colorado= (Spanish-- |Auroria, 1859, by the |Denver: Pop. 213,381. |Red, or Ruddy). |Americans. |Gold, silver, coal, |103,948 sq. miles. |From Louisiana and |copper, vegetables, |Pop. 799,024. |Mexican cession. |fruits, live stock, |Motto: _Nil sine |Colorado territory. |wheat, beet sugar, |numine_ (Nothing with-| |oats, corn. |out providence). | | | | | *1788|=Connecticut= (Indian |Windsor, 1636, by the |Hartford: Pop. 98,915. |--Long River). |English. |Manufactures, woolen, |4,965 sq. miles. Pop. |From North Virginia, |cotton, notions; |1,114,756. |New England. |tobacco, iron, |Motto: _Qui transtulit| |granite, cereals. |sustinet_ (He who | | |transplanted still | | |sustains). | | | | | *1787|=Delaware= (In honor |Wilmington, 1637, by |Dover: Pop. 3,720. |of Lord De La Warr). |the Swedes. |Corn, wheat, tomatoes, |2,370 sq. miles. Pop. |From New Sweden, New |fruits, manufactures, |202,322. |Netherlands, three |leather, iron, steel, |Motto: _Liberty and |lower counties on the |machinery. |independence._ |Delaware. | | | | 1791|=District of Columbia=|Rome, 1663, by the |Washington: Pop. |(In honor of Colum- |English. |331,069. |bus). |Ceded to government by|Flour mills, |70 sq. miles. Pop. |Maryland and Virginia.|manufactures. |331,069. | | |Motto: _Justitia | | |omnibus_ (Justice to | | |all). | | | | | 1845|=Florida= (Spanish-- |St. Augustine, 1565, |Tallahassee: Pop. |Blooming). |by the Spanish. |5,018. |58,666 sq. miles. Pop.|From Florida territo- |Fruits, vegetables, |752,619. |ry. |tobacco, rice, cotton, |Motto: _In God is our | |lumber, turpentine, |trust._ | |resin, fish, phos- | | |phate. | | | *1788|=Georgia= (In honor of|Savannah, 1733, by the|Atlanta: Pop. 154,839. |George II.). |English. |Cotton, corn, rice, |59,265 sq. miles. Pop.|One of the original |oats, tobacco, |2,609,121. Motto: Ob- |thirteen states. |oysters, peaches, |verse: _Wisdom, | |melons, marble, clay; |justice, moderation._ | |cotton goods, lumber, |Reverse: _Agriculture | |fertilizers, tar. |and commerce._ | | | | | ----|‡=Hawaii= (From the |Honolulu, 1820, by the|Honolulu: Pop. 52,183. |native Owhyhee). |Americans. |Sugar, fruits, rice, |6,449 sq. miles. |From Sandwich Islands.|coffee, hides, wool, |No motto. | |honey, sisal. | | | 1890|=Idaho= (Indian--Gem |Coeur d’Alene, 1842, |Boise City: Pop. |of the Mountains). |by the Americans. |17,358. |84,313 sq. miles. Pop.|From Oregon, Washing- |Gold, silver, copper, |325,594. |ton and Idaho territo-|lead, lumber, flour, |Motto: Salve (Hail).|ries. |wheat, oats, barley, | | |live stock. | | | 1818|=Illinois= (Indian-- |Kaskaskia, 1682, by |Springfield: Pop. |The Men). |the French. |51,678. |56,665 sq. miles. Pop.|From Northwest, Indian|Corn, wheat, oats, |5,638,591. |and Illinois territo- |potatoes, hay, live |Motto: _National |ries. |stock, wool, meat, |union, state sover- | |manufactures. |eignty._ | | | | | 1816|=Indiana= (Indian’s |Vincennes, 1702, by |Indianapolis: Pop. |Ground). |the French. |233,650. |36,354 sq. miles. Pop.|From Northwest and |Corn, wheat, tobacco, |2,700,876. |Indiana territories. |vegetables, fruits, |No motto. | |wool, coal, clay, | | |flour, machinery. | | | 1846|=Iowa= (Indian--Drowsy|Dubuque, 1833, by the |Des Moines: Pop. |Ones). |Americans. |86,368. |56,147 sq. miles. Pop.|From Louisiana, |Corn, wheat, oats, |2,224,771. |Missouri, Michigan, |potatoes, hay, live |Motto: _Our liberties |Wisconsin and Iowa |stock, butter, coal, |we prize and our |territories. |lumber, poultry. |rights we will main- | | |tain._ | | | | | 1861|=Kansas= (Indian-- |Leavenworth, 1854, by |Topeka: Pop. 43,684. |Smoky Water). |the Americans. |Corn, wheat, hay, live |82,158 sq. miles. Pop.|From Louisiana, Kansas|stock, fruits, coal, |1,690,949. |territory. |petroleum, salt, |Motto: _Ad astra per | |meats, Kaffir corn. |aspera_ (To the stars | | |through difficulties).| | | | | 1792|=Kentucky= (Indian-- |Boonesboro, 1769, by |Frankfort: Pop. |Dark and Bloody |the English. |10,465. |Ground). |From Virginia. |Tobacco, hemp, wheat, |40,598 sq. miles. Pop.| |cotton, live stock, |2,289,905. | |lumber, coal, sorghum, |Motto: _United we | |flour. |stand, divided we | | |fall._ | | | | | 1812|=Louisiana= (In honor |New Orleans, 1718, by |Baton Rouge: Pop. |of Louis XIV.). |the French. |14,897. |48,506 sq. miles. Pop.|From Louisiana, Terri-|Cotton, corn, rice, |1,656,388. |tory of Orleans. |sugar, lumber, |Motto: _Union, jus- | |oysters, salt, |tice, and confidence._| |sulphur. | | | 1820|=Maine= (The Main |Saco, 1623, by the |Augusta: Pop. 13,211. |Land). |English. |Hay, grains, dairying, |33,040 sq. miles. Pop.|From New England, |potatoes, wool, |742,371. |Laconia and Massa- |granite, ice, lumber, |Motto: Dirigo (I |chusetts. |apples, paper. |direct). | | | | | *1788|=Maryland= (In honor |St. Mary’s, 1632, by |Annapolis: Pop. 8,609. |of Queen Henriette |the English. |Wheat, hay, corn, |Maria). |From one of the |vegetables, fruits, |12,327 sq. miles. Pop.|original states. |oysters, coal, wool, |1,295,346. | |canned fruits, |Motto: _Fatti maschii,| |vegetables. |parole femine_ (Manly | | |deeds, womanly words).| | | | | *1788|=Massachusetts= (The |Plymouth, 1620, by the|Boston: Pop. 670,585. |Place of Great Hills).|English. |Manufactures (woolen, |8,266 sq. miles. Pop. |From North Virginia, |cotton), boots, shoes, |3,366,416. |New England, Massa- |fish, tobacco, |Motto: _Ense petit |chusetts Bay. |granite, marble. |placidam sub liberate | | |quietem_ (With the | | |sword she seeks calm | | |peace under liberty). | | | | | 1837|=Michigan= (Indian-- |Sault Ste. Marie, |Lansing: Pop. 31,229. |Great Lake). |1668, by the French. |Corn, wheat, oats, |57,980 sq. miles. Pop.|From Northwest, |hay, fruits, vege- |2,810,173. |Indiana and Michigan |tables, iron, copper, |Motto: _Si quaeris |territories. |clay, lumber, manu- |peninsulam amoenam, | |factures. |circumspice_ (If you | | |seek a beautiful pen- | | |insula, behold it | | |here). | | | | | 1858|=Minnesota= (Indian-- |St. Paul, 1838, by the|St. Paul: Pop. |Cloudy Water). |Americans. |214,744. |84,682 sq. miles. Pop.|From Louisiana and |Corn, wheat, oats, |2,075,708. |Northwest and |barley, flaxseed, |Motto: _L’étoile du |Minnesota territories.|wool, live stock, |nord_ (The star of the| |flour, iron, |north). | |lumber, dairying. | | | 1817|=Mississippi= (Indian |Biloxi, 1699, by the |Jackson: Pop. 21,262. |--Great River, or |French. |Cotton, corn, wheat, |Father of Waters). |From Louisiana and |oats, potatoes, rice, |46,865 sq. miles. Pop.|Georgia, Mississippi |tobacco, oysters, |1,797,114. |territory. |shrimps. |No motto. | | | | | 1821|=Missouri= (Indian-- |St. Genevieve, 1755, |Jefferson City: Pop. |Great Muddy). |by the French. |11,850. |69,420 sq. miles. Pop.|From Louisiana and |Corn, wheat, oats, |3,293,335. |Louisiana and Missouri|rye, cotton, swine, |Motto: _Salus populi |territories. |honey, zinc, lead, |suprema lex esto_ (The| |tobacco, meats. |welfare of the people | | |is the supreme law). | | | | | 1889|=Montana= (Spanish--A |Yellowstone River, |Helena: Pop. 39,165. |Mountain). |1809, by the Ameri- |Wheat, wool, live |146,572 sq. miles. |cans. |stock, fruit, oats, |Pop. 375,053. |From Louisiana and |barley, lumber, |Motto: Oro y plata |Nebraska, Idaho, |copper, lead, silver, |(Gold and silver). |Dakota and Montana |coal. | |territories. | | | | 1867|=Nebraska= (Indian-- |Bellevue, 1847, by the|Lincoln: Pop. 43,973. |Shallow Water). |Americans. |Corn, wheat, oats, |77,520 sq. miles. Pop.|From Louisiana, |live stock, hay, |1,192,214. |Nebraska territory. |chicory, sugar beets, |Motto: _Equality be- | |fruits, potatoes. |fore the law._ | | | | | 1864|=Nevada= (Spanish-- |Genoa, 1850, by the |Carson City: Pop. |Snow-covered). |Americans. |2,466. |110,690 sq. miles. |From Upper California |Gold, silver, copper, |Pop. 81,875. |and Utah and Nevada |zinc, wool, live |Motto: _All for our |territories. |stock, lumber, borax. |country._ | | | | | *1788|=New Hampshire= |Portsmouth, 1623, by |Concord: Pop. 21,497. |(Hampshire, England). |the English. |Hay, corn, potatoes, |9,341 sq. miles. Pop. |From North Virginia, |oats, apples, granite, |430,572. |New England, Laconia. |mica, manufactures. |No motto. | | | | | *1787|=New Jersey= (In honor|Elizabethtown, 1617, |Trenton: Pop. 96,815. |of governor of Jersey |by the Dutch. |Market garden crops, |Island). |From New Netherland. |cereals, fruits, |8,224 sq. miles. Pop. | |fisheries, manufac- |2,537,167. | |tures, textiles, |No motto. | |machinery. | | | 1911|=New Mexico= (From Old|... |Santa Fe: Pop. 5,072. |Mexico). | |Gold, silver, fruits, |122,634 sq. miles. | |vegetables, live |Pop. 327,301. | |stock, wool, lumber, |Motto: Crescit eundo| |copper, coal, |(It increases by | |turquoise. |going). | | | | | *1788|=New York= (In honor |New York, 1614, by the|Albany: Pop. 100,253. |of Duke of York). |Dutch. |Market garden crops, |49,204 sq. miles. Pop.|From New Netherland. |fruits, corn, wheat, |9,113,614. | |dairying, manufac- |Motto: Excelsior | |tures, clothing, |(Higher). | |textiles, books, | | |magazines, papers. | | | *1789|=North Carolina= (In |Albemarle Sound, 1653,|Raleigh: Pop. 19,218. |honor of Charles II.).|by the English. |Cotton, corn, tobacco, |52,426 sq. miles. Pop.|From Albemarle colony.|wheat, shad, oysters, |2,206,287. | |lumber, mining. |Motto: _Esse quam | | |videri_ (To be, rather| | |than to seem). | | | | | 1889|=North Dakota= (Indian|Pembino, 1859, by the |Bismarck: Pop. 5,443. |--Allied). |Americans. |Wheat, oats, barley, |70,837 sq. miles. Pop.|From Louisiana, |flaxseed, live stock, |577,056. |Minnesota and Nebraska|wool, minerals. |Motto: _Liberty and |and Dakota territo- | |union, now and for- |ries. | |ever, one and in- | | |separable._ | | | | | 1803|=Ohio= (Indian-- |Marietta, 1788, by the|Columbus: Pop. |Beautiful River). |Americans. |181,548. |41,040 sq. miles. Pop.|From Northwest terri- |Corn, wheat, oats, |4,767,121. |tory. |hay, potatoes, fruits, |No motto. | |tobacco, live stock, | | |wool, dairying, coal, | | |petroleum, salt, iron, | | |steel, machinery, | | |flour. | | | 1907|=Oklahoma= (Indian-- |Guthrie, 1890, by the |Oklahoma City: Pop. |Beautiful Land). |Americans. |64,205. |70,057 sq. miles. Pop.|From Indian and |Corn, wheat, oats, |1,657,155. |Oklahoma territories. |cotton, flax, live |Motto: _Labor omnia | |stock, petroleum, |vincit_ (Labor con- | |minerals. |quers everything). | | | | | 1859|=Oregon= (Spanish-- |Astoria, 1811, by the |Salem: Pop. 14,094. |Wild Marjoram). |Americans. |Lumber, live stock, |96,699 sq. miles. Pop.|From Oregon territory.|wheat, hay, fruits, |672,765. | |hops, wool, salmon, |Motto: The union. | |gold, silver, paper | | |making. | | | *1787|=Pennsylvania= (Latin |Chester, 1638, by the |Harrisburg: Pop. |--Penn’s Woods). |Swedes. |64,186. |45,126 sq. miles. Pop.|From original state. |Manufactures, steel, |7,665,111. | |machinery, textiles, |Motto: _Virtue, liber-| |coal, coke, petroleum, |ty and independence._ | |natural gas, iron, | | |grains, wool, leather. | | | ----|‡=Philippines= (In |Cebu, 1565, by the |Manila: Pop. 250,000. |honor of Philip II.). |Spanish. |Cocoa, coffee, |115,026 sq. miles. |From Archipelago de |tobacco, cotton, hemp, | |San Lazaro. | cocoanuts, corn, | | |sugar, rice, timber, | | |dyewoods. | | | ----|=Porto Rico= (Spanish |San Juan, 1510, by the|San Juan: Pop. 50,000. |--Rich Port). |Spanish. |Coffee, sugar, |3,435 sq. miles. |Ceded by Spain. |tobacco, cotton, | | |citrus fruits, | | |bananas, pineapples, | | |salt. | | | *1790|=Rhode Island= |Providence, 1636, by |Providence: Pop. |(Rhodes, an island in |the English. |224,326. |the Ægean Sea). |From Providence and |Manufactures, worsted, |1,248 sq. miles. Pop. |Rhode Island planta- |cotton, jewelry, |542,610. |tions. |machinery, rubber, |Motto: Hope. | |minerals. | | | *1788|=South Carolina= (In |Ashley River, 1670, by|Columbia: Pop. 26,319. |honor of Charles II.).|the English. |Cotton, wheat, corn, |30,989 sq. miles. Pop.|From Carteret colony. |oats, tobacco, rice, |1,515,400. | |oysters, turpentine, |Motto: _Dum spiro, | |lumber, phosphates. |spero. Spes_ (While I | | |breathe, I hope. | | |Hope). | | | | | 1889|=South Dakota= (Indian|Southeast part, 1859, |Pierre: Pop. 3,656. |--Allied). |by the Americans. |Corn, wheat, oats, |77,615 sq. miles. Pop.|From Louisiana, |flax, potatoes, live |583,888. |Minnesota and Nebraska|stock, wool, gold, |Motto: _Under God the |and Dakota territo- |silver, tin, dairying. |people rule._ |ries. | | | | 1796|=Tennessee= (Indian-- |Fort Loudon, 1757, by |Nashville: Pop. |River with the Great |the English. |110,364. |Bend). |From North Carolina, |Corn, wheat, cotton, |42,022 sq. miles. Pop.|territory south of the|potatoes, tobacco, |2,184,789. |Ohio River. |live stock, coal, |Motto: _Agriculture, | |iron, marble, lumber. |commerce._ | | | | | 1845|=Texas= (From tribe of|San Antonio, 1692, by |Austin: Pop. 29,860. |Indians). |the Spanish. |Cotton, corn, oats, |265,896 sq. miles. |From Mexican cession. |wheat, rice, sugar, |Pop. 3,896,542. | |live stock, wool, |No motto. | |fruits, lumber, | | |petroleum, coal. | | | 1896|=Utah= (Indian-- |Salt Lake City, 1847, |Salt Lake City: Pop. |Mountain Dwellers). |by the Americans. |92,777. |84,990 sq. miles. Pop.|From Mexican cession, |Gold, silver, copper, |373,351. |Utah territory. |lead, coal, vege- |Motto: Industry. | |tables, fruits, sugar, | | |wheat, oats, live | | |stock, wool. | | | 1791|=Vermont= (French-- |Fort Dummer, 1724, by |Montpelier: Pop. |Green Mountain). |the English. |7,856. |9,564 sq. miles. Pop. |From New Netherland, |Hay, cereals, |355,956. |New Hampshire grants. |potatoes, lumber, |Motto: _Freedom and | |marble, dairying, |unity._ | |maple sugar, manufac- | | |tures, wood pulp. | | | *1788|=Virginia= (In honor |Jamestown, 1607, by |Richmond: Pop. |of Elizabeth, the |the English. |127,628. |virgin queen). |From South Virginia. |Corn, wheat, oats, |42,627 sq. miles. Pop.| |tobacco, potatoes, |2,061,212. | |cotton, oysters, coal, |Motto: Obverse; _Sic | |iron, cotton, manu- |semper tyrannis_ (Ever| |factures. |so to tyrants). Re- | | |verse: Perseverando | | |(By perseverance). | | | | | 1889|=Washington= (After |Columbia River, 1811, |Olympia: Pop. 6,996. |George Washington, |by the English. |Lumber, coal, wheat, |first president). |From Oregon and |barley, oats, fruits, |69,127 sq. miles. Pop.|Washington territo- |salmon, live stock, |1,141,990. |ries. |minerals. |Motto: Al-Ki (Bye- | | |bye). | | | | | 1863|=West Virginia= (From |Berkeley County, 1726,|Charleston: Pop. |Virginia). |by the Americans. |22,996. |24,170 sq. miles. Pop.|From Virginia. |Corn, oats, hay, |1,221,119. | |wheat, fruits, cattle, |Motto: Obverse: | |sheep, lumber, coal, |_Montani semper | |petroleum, natural |liberi_ (Mountaineers | |gas, mining. |are always free men). | | |Reverse: _Libertas et | | |fidelitas_ (Liberty | | |and fidelity). | | | | | 1848|=Wisconsin= (Indian-- |Green Bay, 1745, by |Madison: Pop. 25,531. |Wild Rushing Channel).|the French. |Corn, oats, barley, |56,066 sq. miles. Pop.|From Northwest, |wheat, hay, potatoes, |2,333,860. |Illinois, Michigan and|fruits, beet sugar, |Motto: Forward. |Wisconsin territories.|dairying, iron, | | |lumber. | | | 1890|=Wyoming= (Indian-- |Cheyenne, 1867, by the|Cheyenne: Pop. 11,320. |Extensive Plain). |Americans. |Wool, lumber, coal, |97,914 sq. miles. Pop.|From Louisiana (chief-|copper, petroleum, |145,965. |ly), Nebraska, Dakota,|minerals. |Motto: Equal rights.|Idaho, and Wyoming | | |territories. | -----+----------------------+----------------------+----------------------

* Original Thirteen States. ‡ Organized Territories.

=Cities.=--In January, 1917, three cities of the United States, New York, Chicago and Philadelphia, had a population of over one million. St. Louis, Boston, Cleveland, Baltimore, Pittsburgh and Detroit had each over 500,000. Buffalo, San Francisco, Los Angeles, Milwaukee, Cincinnati, Newark, New Orleans, Washington, Minneapolis and Seattle had over 300,000. Forty-seven others had populations ranging from 100,000 to 300,000; while altogether there were one hundred and ninety-eight above 30,000.

The following table gives the approximate population of all cities in excess of 100,000.

=POPULATION OF CITIES HAVING OVER 100,000 IN 1917=

====================+========= |Est. Pop. =Cities= | Jan. 1, | 1917 --------------------+--------- Akron, Ohio | 106,000 Albany, N.Y. | 110,000 Atlanta, Ga. | 191,000 Baltimore, Md. | 590,000 Birmingham, Ala. | 182,000 Boston, Mass. | 757,000 Bridgeport, Ct. | 150,000 Buffalo, N.Y. | 469,000 Cambridge, Mass. | 112,000 Camden, N.J. | 105,000 Chicago, Ill. |2,498,000 Cincinnati, Ohio | 411,000 Cleveland, Ohio | 674,000 Columbus, Ohio | 215,000 Dallas, Tex. | 135,000 Dayton, Ohio. | 130,000 Denver, Col. | 261,000 Des Moines, Iowa | 106,000 Detroit, Mich. | 572,000 Fall River, Mass. | 130,000 Fort Worth, Tex. | 100,000 Grand Rapids, Mich. | 141,856 Hartford, Ct. | 145,000 Houston, Tex. | 148,000 Indianapolis, Ind. | 272,000 Jersey, City, N.J. | 306,000 Kansas City, Mo. | 298,000 Los Angeles, Cal. | 504,000 Louisville, Ky. | 239,000 Lowell, Mass. | 111,000 Memphis, Tenn. | 160,000 Milwaukee, Wis. | 437,000 Minneapolis, Minn. | 364,000 Nashville, Tenn. | 135,000 Newark, N.J. | 408,000 New Bedford, Mass. | 113,000 New Haven, Ct. | 150,000 New Orleans, La. | 372,000 New York City |5,603,000 Oakland, Cal. | 192,000 Omaha, Neb. | 166,000 Paterson, N.J. | 126,000 Philadelphia, Pa. |1,710,000 Pittsburgh, Pa. | 580,000 Portland, Ore. | 296,000 Providence, R.I. | 255,000 Reading, Pa. | 107,000 Richmond, Va. | 157,000 Rochester, N.Y. | 257,000 Salt Lake City, Utah| 125,000 San Antonio, Tex. | 125,000 San Diego, Cal. | 100,000 San Francisco, Cal. | 464,000 Scranton, Pa. | 150,000 Seattle, Wash. | 349,000 Spokane, Wash. | 125,000 Springfield, Mass. | 102,103 St. Joseph, Mo. | 101,800 St. Louis, Mo. | 758,000 St. Paul, Minn. | 247,000 Syracuse, N.Y. | 155,000 Tacoma, Wash. | 108,094 Toledo, Ohio | 192,000 Trenton, N.J. | 110,000 Washington, D.C. | 364,000 Worcester, Mass. | 164,000 Youngstown, Ohio | 118,000 --------------------+---------

=Atlanta= (ăt-lăn´tȧ), =Ga.= [The “Gate City”; the name Atlanta was suggested by its geographical position, immediately on the dividing ridge, separating the Gulf and Atlantic waters.]

It is situated at the base of the Blue Ridge, near the Chattahoochee River; has an elevation of over one thousand feet, and a remarkably healthful climate.

Atlanta is laid out in the form of a circle, with the Union Depot as its center. A little to the south of the old Union Station is the State Capitol, which contains a library of about sixty thousand volumes and an interesting geological collection. A little to the northwest is the New Court House; and farther to the north, beyond the railway, are the Custom House and the L. & N. Freight House, an enormous concrete structure. The City Hall, the Chamber of Commerce, the Opera House, the Carnegie Library (of white marble), the Century Building, the Empire Building, the Equitable Building, the Jewish Temple, and the First Methodist Church are notable edifices. Among the chief educational establishments are the Georgia School of Technology, the Atlanta University (for colored students), the Agnes Scott Institute, and the Clark University (colored students). The finest private houses are in Peachtree Street.

Several railroads, converging at Atlanta and leading to other important Southern cities, greatly facilitate the city’s extensive and rapidly increasing trade. It has a large export trade in tobacco, cotton, horses, and mules, its mule market being one of the most important in the United States. Its manufactures include implements, fertilizers, cotton goods, other foundry and machine products.

Atlanta was first settled in 1830. In 1843 it was incorporated as a town, and called Marthasville. In 1845 changed its name to Atlanta, and two years later secured a city charter. It was an important city in the Confederacy and the objective point of General Sherman’s campaign. The battle of Atlanta (July 22, 1864) was fought southeast of the city. In September the city was made a military camp by Sherman, and in November he left the city in flames, and started on his “march to the sea.” The city was almost entirely destroyed, but recovered rapidly after the war, and in 1878 became the capital of Georgia.

=Baltimore= (bôl´tĭ-mōr), =Md.= [The “Monumental City”; named for the proprietor of a large tract of land in Maryland, Cecil Calvert, Lord Baltimore, who settled the province in 1635.]

It is situated on an estuary of the Patapsco River, at the head of navigation, about fourteen miles from Chesapeake Bay, and is on the Baltimore and Ohio, the Philadelphia, Baltimore and Washington, and other railroads. A good harbor and fine geographical situation give Baltimore unusual trade advantages, and it has become one of the great export centers of the United States.

The city is roughly divided into two nearly equal parts by a small stream, Jones Falls, which flows entirely through the city. The portion of the city northeast of the stream is called “Old Town.” Baltimore Street is the chief longitudinal thoroughfare.

The natural center for the visitor is Mt. Vernon Place, a small square, prettily laid out and suggesting Paris in its tasteful monuments and surrounding buildings. In the middle rises the Washington Monument, a column one hundred and thirty feet high, surmounted by a colossal statue of George Washington.

At the northeast corner of the square is the handsome Mt. Vernon Methodist Episcopal Church; at the southeast corner, Peabody Institute, for the encouragement of science, art, and general knowledge.

On the south side of the square is the house of Henry Walters, connected by an overhead bridge with a new picture-gallery containing the celebrated Walters Collection, one of the finest private collections of art in America.

Charles Street, one of the chief thoroughfares of the city, leads to the north from the Washington Monument past the Union Station, near which, at the north end of the B. & O. tunnel, is the Mt. Royal Station. Following Charles Street to the south we pass (right) the First Unitarian Church and the back of the Roman Catholic Cathedral, which faces Cathedral Street. The latter is surmounted by a dome one hundred and twenty-five feet high, and contains some interesting paintings. Adjacent is the residence of the Cardinal.

Farther on Charles Street passes the Masonic Temple, intersects Baltimore Street, the chief business street of the city, and is continued to South Baltimore. In East Fayette Street, to the left, is the Court House, a handsome white marble building, and the Post Office, in front of which rises the Battle Monument, erected in 1815 in memory of the struggles of the war of 1812-1814. The interior of the Court House is adorned with admirable mural paintings. To the east of the Post Office is the City Hall, a large and handsome building, with a dome two hundred and sixty feet high.

To the south of the City Hall, in Gay Street, between Water and Lombard Streets, is the imposing new Custom House, which was damaged by the fire of 1904, but has since been repaired and completed.

A little to the west of Mt. Vernon Place, between Howard St. and Eutaw St., are the unpretentious buildings formerly occupied by Johns Hopkins University, one of the foremost institutions of learning in the country. It was endowed with over three million five hundred thousand dollars by Johns Hopkins, a Quaker. In 1902 a suburban site about two miles north of the Washington Monument was secured for this famous university, and the first of a fine group of buildings was occupied by it in 1914.

The Johns Hopkins Hospital, opened in 1889, is also due to the liberality of Mr. Hopkins, who bequeathed over three million dollars for its foundation.

Both as a scientific and charitable institution, this hospital is an important adjunct to the University; and in the completeness of its equipment and excellence of its system, it ranks with the foremost hospitals in the world. The buildings of the Medical School of Johns Hopkins University adjoin the hospital.

Druid Hill Park, a pleasure-ground of about seven hundred acres, owes its beauty in great part to the fact that is has been preserved as a private park for one hundred years before passing into the hands of the city. Its hills afford beautiful views. Druid Lake, one-half mile long, is one of the reservoirs of the city waterworks.

Baltimore is an important center of the traffic in breadstuffs, and is also the seat of extensive and varied industries--cotton and woolen goods, flour, tobacco and cigars, beer, glassware, boots and shoes, iron and steel (including machinery, car-wheels, iron bridges, stoves, furnaces, etc.), clothing, pianos, organs, and the canning of oysters. Shipbuilding has become an important development, and Sparrows Point, with its immense Bessemer steel plant, is a place of great industrial activity.

The construction of the first important line of railway in the United States was begun at Baltimore in 1828 and carried on by private enterprise, and the first telegraph line was constructed to, and the first message received in, Baltimore. In 1904 Baltimore was visited by a fire which consumed fifty million dollars’ worth of property.

=Boston= (bôs´ton), =Mass.= [Called the “Hub” and “Athens of America”; name is derived from Boston, a seaport in England, originally called Botalf, or Botolph’s town.]

The capital of Massachusetts, the chief town of New England, Boston is one of the oldest and most interesting cities of the United States. Whether considered from the point of view of its educational and charitable institutions, its trade, manufactures and public buildings, its influence upon the intellectual life and literary culture of the nation, or its historic part as an inspirational center of political liberty and social reform, its record and position command attention.

In no other American city are the civic and other public buildings more closely associated with events of national importance.

Boston is situated at the head of Massachusetts Bay, about two hundred miles northeast of New York, and occupies a peninsula between the Charles River and the arm of the bay known as Boston Harbor. Originally the town was founded on three hills, Beacon, Copp’s and Fort, which, however, have been materially cut down. The metropolitan area now includes also East Boston, on Noddle’s or Maverick Island, on the other side of the harbor; South Boston, separated from the old city by an arm of the harbor; Charlestown, on the other side of the river; and the suburban districts of Brighton, Roxbury (or Boston Highlands), West Roxbury (including Jamaica Plain), and Dorchester. Boston is connected with the city of Cambridge by several bridges across the Charles. The old town is cramped and irregular, and its streets are narrow and crooked; but the new parts, especially the so-called Back Bay, formed by filling in the tide-water flats on the Charles, are laid out on a very spacious scale.

The chief retail business streets of Boston are Washington Street and Tremont Street. Among the finest residence streets are Commonwealth Avenue, Beacon Street, Marlborough Street, Mt. Vernon Street, and Bay State Road.

Boston Common, a park of forty-eight acres in the heart of the city, shaded by fine elms and other trees and crossed by many pleasant walks, has been reserved for public use since 1634 and is carefully guarded for this purpose in the charter of 1822. Just across Charles from the Common is the fine Public Garden, reclaimed from what was low-lying waste land.

That part of the Common adjoining Tremont Street and known as the Tremont Street Mall is now occupied by eight small buildings, covering the entrances to the stations of the Boston Subway, a wonderful piece of engineering that facilitates traffic by an underground system of electric cars. The subway was, in part, constructed in 1895-1898, at a cost of about four million one hundred and sixty-five thousand dollars, and since greatly extended by the expenditure of many millions more.

Near the northeast angle of the Common, on Beacon Hill, stands the State House, an imposing building surmounted by a huge gilded dome, and preceded by a Corinthian portico and a flight of steps. On the terrace in front are statues of Daniel Webster and Horace Mann. The dome is illuminated at night.

In Beacon Street, opposite the State House, is the beautiful Shaw Monument, by Saint-Gaudens, erected in honor of Colonel Shaw and his regiment, the first colored regiment raised during the Civil war.

In Pemberton Square is the new County Court House, a massive granite building in the German Renaissance style, with an imposing central hall adorned with emblematic figures. In School Street, to the left, is the City Hall, behind which is the Old Court House. In front of the City Hall are statues of Franklin and Josiah Quincy.

School Street ends at the large Old South Building in Washington Street, the most crowded thoroughfare in Boston, with many of the best shops. Following Washington Street (“Newspaper Row”) to the left, we soon reach, at the corner of State Street, the Old State House, dating from 1748 and restored as far as possible to its original appearance, even to the figures of the British lion and unicorn on the roof.

State Street, the center of financial life, leads to the east, past the Exchange Building (with the Stock Exchange) and other large office buildings, to the Custom House, a massive granite building in the shape of a Greek cross, with lofty tower.

Change Alley (now inappropriately styled “Avenue”), diverging to the left from State Street leads to Faneuil Hall, the “cradle of American liberty,” originally presented to the city in 1742, by Peter Faneuil, a Huguenot merchant, but rebuilt after a fire in 1761 and reconstructed on the original plan in 1898.

Devonshire Street leads to the right from State Street to the Government Building, a huge edifice occupying the entire block between Milk Street, Devonshire Street, Water Street and Post Office Square. The Post Office occupies the ground floor, the basement, and part of the first floor, while the rest of the building is devoted to the United States Sub-Treasury and the United States Courts.

At the corner of Washington Street stands the Old South Meeting House, built in 1729 on the site of an earlier church of wood, which lay near Governor Winthrop’s house.

Boylston Street, another important thoroughfare, diverging from Washington Street to the right, skirts the Common and Public Garden and leads to the Back Bay. At the corner of Berkeley Street (right) stands the Museum of Natural History, with a library of thirty thousand volumes and good zoological, ornithological, entomological and mineralogical collections. Opposite is the Berkeley Building, a structure of a fine commercial type. Adjacent are old buildings of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, one of the leading institutions of the kind in the world. It now occupies a magnificent group of buildings on the Cambridge side of the Charles River, erected at a cost of ten million dollars.

Boylston Street now reaches Copley Square, which offers perhaps the finest architectural group in Boston, including Trinity Church, the Copley-Plaza Hotel, the Public Library, the New Old South Church, and a number of imposing business structures. (See illustrations.)

Trinity Church, on the east side of the square, the masterpiece of H. H. Richardson and a typical example of “Richardsonian” architecture, is deservedly regarded as one of the finest buildings in America. Its style may be described as a free treatment of the Romanesque of Central France.

The Public Library, on the west side of the square, designed by McKim, Mead & White, and erected in 1888-1895, is a dignified, simple and scholarly edifice which forms a worthy mate to the Trinity Church. Its style is that of the Roman Renaissance.

The New Old South Church, so called as the successor of the Old South Church, is a fine building in the Italian Gothic style, with a tower two hundred and forty-eight feet in height. The marbles and ornamental stone work are very fine.

Huntington Avenue, which diverges to the left from Boylston Street at Copley Square, contains many important buildings. This thoroughfare, and the district known as the Back Bay Fens, is celebrated for its cultural institutions. Among them are Mechanics Hall, Horticultural Hall, the imposing Symphony Hall, the New England Conservatory of Music, and the new Opera House--all in Huntington Avenue. Just beyond this is the New Museum of Fine Arts, a large granite edifice by Guy Lowell, admirably adapted for its ends. Farther out, at the corner of Longwood Avenue, are the extensive new buildings of the Harvard Medical School, erected at a cost of five million dollars, and equipped in the most complete and up-to-date manner.

Commonwealth Avenue, which runs parallel with Boylston Street, is one of the finest residence streets in America, with rows of trees and handsome houses. It is two hundred and forty feet wide and adorned with statues.

Beacon Street, beginning on Beacon Hill, skirting the north side of the Common, and then running parallel with Commonwealth Avenue is the aristocratic street of Boston. Its back-windows command a fine view of the Charles River.

The Back Bay, the fashionable west end district traversed by the above-named streets, was at the beginning of the nineteenth century occupied by dreary mud-flats, salt-marshes and water.

The Back Bay Fens have been skillfully laid out on the site of unsightly swamps and form the first link in the splendid chain of parks and boulevards, of which Franklin Park is the chief ornament. The chief entrances to the Fens are marked by a gateway and a fountain; and at the end of Boylston Street is a fine memorial of John Boyle O’Reilly, by D. C. French.

Fenway Court, the residence of Mrs. John L. Gardner, a building in a Venetian style, enclosing a courtyard and incorporating many original balconies, windows, and other details brought from Italy, contains a choice collection of art, which is open to the public from time to time.

Franklin Park is five hundred and twenty acres in extent and lies in West Roxbury (reached by electric car). It abounds in natural beauty and many of its drives and walks are very attractive.

The Public Park System of Boston, as a whole, is almost unique. The City Park System, with a total area of twenty-four hundred acres, forms an almost unbroken line of parks and parkways from the Public Garden to City Point, in Boston Harbor. The Metropolitan System, forming an outer line of parks, has an area of eleven thousand acres, including two large wooded reservations (Blue Hills, and Middlesex Fells), three beaches (Revere Beach, Nantasket Beach, and Lynn Beach), and the boating section of the Charles River. When completed this system will afford fifty miles of drives.

The North End of Boston, embracing the site of Copp’s Hill, now one of the poorer districts and occupied mainly by foreigners, contains some points of considerable historical interest. The Copp’s Hill Burial Ground, dating from 1660, contains the graves of Increase, Cotton and Samuel Mather. Adjacent, in Salem Street, is Christ Church, the oldest church now standing in the city (1723), on the steeple of which the signal-lanterns of Paul Revere are said to have been displayed on April 18th, 1775, to warn the country of the march of the British troops to Lexington and Concord. North Square is the center of what is known as “Little Italy.” The House of Paul Revere has recently been restored and contains some relics.

Within metropolitan Boston are many famous institutions of learning. At the head of these stand Harvard University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Radcliffe College, the greater part of whose schools are in the adjoining city of Cambridge and the remaining in Boston. Among the institutions of higher education are Boston University, with its affiliated colleges, its schools of law, medicine, and theology, and its post-graduate department in philosophy, science, and language; the medical, dental, and agricultural schools of Harvard University; Boston College; the medical and dental schools of Tufts College; Simmons College for Women; the New England Conservatory of Music; the Massachusetts Normal Art School; the Lowell Institute; and the Massachusetts College of Pharmacy.

Wellesley College is situated in the beautiful village of Wellesley, about fifteen miles from Boston, on Lake Waban.

Besides Trinity Church, already referred to, there are upward of three hundred other edifices. Chief of these are the Cathedral of the Holy Cross, on the corner of Washington and Malden Streets, the largest and most noteworthy Catholic church in New England; Arlington Street Church, corner of Arlington and Boylston Streets; First Church of Christ, Scientist, on Falmouth Street, corner of Norway; and Fremont Temple, a Free Baptist Church.

The beauty of the parks, squares, and of many public buildings is enhanced by monuments and statues, of which the following are the chief: Bunker Hill Monument in Charlestown, two hundred and twenty feet high, built of granite and commemorative of the resistance and heroism of American patriots at the Battle of Bunker Hill; the equestrian statue of Washington in the Public Garden; the monument to Colonel Shaw; the Soldiers’ Monument in the Common; the Crispus Attucks monument, a memorial of the Boston Massacre of 1770; statues to General Joseph Warren, Edward Everett, Charles Sumner, Alexander Hamilton, Governor Winthrop, William Lloyd Garrison, Benjamin Franklin, Josiah Quincy, Beethoven, Daniel Webster, Horace Mann, Phillips Brooks and many other notable men.

The principal industries of Boston are the manufacture of food preparations, clothing, building, printing, publishing, and book-binding, distilled liquors, machinery, metals and metallic goods, and furniture. Other important manufactures include musical instruments, woolen goods, boots and shoes, rubber goods, tobacco, and drugs and medicines. As a commercial port, Boston ranks next to New York, the value of foreign trade amounting to two hundred million dollars annually. After London, the city is the leading wool market of the world.

Boston was settled in 1630 by a party of Puritans from Salem. A memorable massacre occurred here in 1770, and in 1773 several cargoes of English tea were thrown overboard in the harbor by citizens. The battle of Bunker Hill was fought on Breed’s Hill, within the present city limits, June 17, 1775. The city charter was granted in 1822.

=Cambridge= (kām´brĭj), =Mass.= [So named for the English university town of that name. The English name is supposed to mean “the bridge over the river Cam,” the real name of which is the Granta.]

It is virtually a suburb of Boston, from which it is separated by the Charles River, and with which it is connected by several bridges. The city comprises Old Cambridge, the seat of Harvard University, North Cambridge, East Cambridge, Cambridgeport, and Mount Auburn. The streets are broad and shaded with elms, and there are many places of historical and literary interest, among these the Craigie House and “Elmwood,” the homes of Longfellow and Lowell, respectively; and Mount Auburn Cemetery, containing the graves of Longfellow, Lowell, Prescott, Motley, Agassiz, Holmes, and other noted men.

The chief interest of Cambridge, however, lies in its educational institutions, which include Harvard University, Radcliffe College (for women), Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Episcopal Theological School, and Andover Theological Seminary. All these institutions are now in close working alliance with Harvard University.

Harvard University, founded in 1636, is not only the oldest but the richest of American universities, and the roster of graduates contains more than twenty thousand names. Massachusetts Hall is the oldest of the present buildings, being built in 1720. The most notable buildings architecturally (besides the fine Medical School group in Boston) are: Austin Hall and Longdell Hall, devoted to the Law School; Widener Memorial Library, a splendid new building dominating the college yard; Busch Hall, devoted to the art collections of the Germanic Museum; Memorial Hall, containing Sanders Theater; and Sever Hall, containing class-rooms.

The activities of the university require upward of sixty other buildings, including laboratories, lecture halls, museums, residence halls, and a number of fine structures devoted to the social, religious, athletic and art life of the student body.

The Massachusetts Institute of Technology, founded in 1861, is located on the Charles River Parkway, and occupies a newly acquired area of about seventy acres. Here has been erected a magnificent group of buildings, unrivaled, perhaps, in design, adaptation for their respective uses, and general equipment. This institution is devoted to the teaching of science as applied to the various engineering professions--civil, mechanical, mining, electrical, chemical, and sanitary engineering--as well as to architecture, chemistry, metallurgy, physics, and geology.

Among the industrial establishments are foundries, machine shops, and extensive manufactories. The Riverside, Athenæum, and University Presses are well-known printing establishments, and the “Bay Psalm Book,” the first book printed in America, was published in Cambridge in 1640.

Cambridge was settled in 1630 by Governor Winthrop under the name of Newtowne. In 1636 Harvard College was founded at Newtowne, and in 1638 Newtowne became Cambridge. The Washington elm, under which Washington received command of the American troops, is still standing.

=Chicago= (shĭ-kä´gō), =Ill.= [The “Windy City”], probably received its name from the Indian Checagua, meaning “wild onion” and “pole-cat.”

It is the second city and largest railway center of the United States, and is situated on the southwest shore of Lake Michigan, at the mouths of the rivers Chicago and Calumet, five hundred and ninety feet above sea level and fifteen to seventy-five feet above the lake. It is eight hundred and fifty miles from Baltimore, the nearest Atlantic port, and two thousand four hundred and fifteen miles from San Francisco.

Chicago is noted for the magnitude of its commercial enterprises; for the greatness of its financial institutions; for the excellence of its parks and public playgrounds--particularly in the number, equipment, and splendid use of its small parks in congested localities; for its universities, its efficient public-school system, and for other educational, artistic, and morally uplifting institutions that give to it an enlightened, a cultured, and a progressive citizenship.

It is estimated that not more than 350,000 of the inhabitants are of native American parentage; about 550,000 are Germans, 250,000 are Irish, 225,000 Scandinavians, 160,000 Poles, 110,000 Bohemians, 40,000 Italians, 60,000 Canadians, and 100,000 English and Scottish. There are some fourteen languages, besides English, each of which is spoken by ten thousand or more persons.

The city has a water-front on the lake of twenty-six miles and is divided by the Chicago River and its branches into three portions, known as the North, South, and West Sides, to which must be added the “Loop,” or business part of the city. The site of the city is remarkably level, rising very slightly from the lake; and its streets are usually wide and straight. Among the chief business-thoroughfares are State, Clark, Madison, Randolph, Dearborn, and La Salle Streets, and Wabash Avenue. Perhaps the finest residence streets are Prairie and Michigan Avenues and Drexel and Grand Boulevards, on the South Side, and Lake Shore Drive, on the North Side.

A splendid bird’s-eye view of Chicago is obtained by ascending to the top of the tower of the Auditorium on Congress Street and Michigan Boulevard. This huge building, erected in 1887-1889 at a cost of three million five hundred thousand dollars, includes a large hotel and a handsome theater. The Fine Arts or Studebaker Building, adjoining the Auditorium, on Michigan Boulevard, is one of the show buildings of Chicago, and has deservedly been described as the focus of the artistic and intellectual life of Chicago, containing as it does a theater, concert, assembly, and lecture rooms, studios of leading artists, and the meeting-places of several clubs. The beautiful Romanesque building to the north of the Fine Arts Building is the Chicago Club. A little farther to the north, at the corner of Jackson Boulevard, is the tall Railway Exchange Building, erected in 1903-1904, and cased in tiles. Next to this on the north is the new building of the Chicago Orchestra Association, on the roof of which is the house of the “Cliff Dwellers,” a literary and artistic club. A little to the south of the Auditorium, at the corner of Harrison Street, is the Harvester Building, erected in 1907, beyond which is the palatial Blackstone Hotel. A little farther to the south is the Illinois Central Station.

Following Michigan Avenue toward the north from the Auditorium, we reach the Art Institute of Chicago, an imposing building in a semi-classical style, containing a valuable collection of paintings, sculptures, and other objects of art. Opposite is the magnificent People’s Gas Building, erected at a cost of eight million dollars.

Farther to the north, on the opposite side of Michigan Avenue, are the buildings of the Illinois Athletic Club, the University Club, and the Chicago Athletic Club. At the corner of Madison Street is the Montgomery Ward Building, with its tower, and a little farther up, at the corner of Washington Street, is the Chicago Public Library, an imposing building in a classical style, erected in 1893-1897, at a cost of two million dollars.

This fine edifice is worthy to rank with the Library of Congress and the Boston Public Library. The main entrances are to the north and south, in Randolph Street and Washington Street. The interior is sumptuously adorned with marble, mosaics, frescoes and mottoes. It contains three hundred and fifty thousand volumes. On the first floor is a large Memorial Hall, used by the Grand Army of the Republic and covered by a dome; it contains an interesting collection of Civil War and other historical relics.

On the north, Michigan Avenue ends at the Chicago River. Fort Dearborn stood to the left, on the river, at the end of the avenue.

The business quarters of Chicago occupy chiefly the great central district called the “Loop,” which is bounded by the lines of the Elevated Railway. We may follow Randolph Street to the west to the City Hall and County Building, two large adjoining buildings, in a modern classical style with huge Corinthian columns, built at a cost of five million dollars.

La Salle Street, leading to the south from the County Building, contains some of the finest office buildings in the city. Among these are the Chamber of Commerce at the corner of Washington Street; the Tacoma Building at the corner of Madison Street; the Y. M. C. A. Building, a little farther to the south; the New York Life Insurance Building; the low but impressive Northern Trust Co. Building, and the oddly shaped Women’s Temperance Temple, all three at the corners of Monroe Street; the new granite building of the Corn Exchange National Bank, the Home Insurance Co. Building, and the Rookery, with a very attractive interior lined with white marble. Farther on in La Salle Street, at the corner of Jackson Boulevard, is the Illinois Trust & Savings Bank, a massive two-storied edifice, with a fine central court. At the end of La Salle Street stands the granite building of the Board of Trade.

Jackson Boulevard leads hence to the east to the Federal Building, containing the Post Office and Custom House and occupying an entire city square. It is in the Corinthian style, with a large central dome two hundred feet in height.

Other notable buildings within the “Loop” district include: the Continental and Commercial Bank, Hotel La Salle, First National Bank, and the great department store, office, newspaper, and hotel buildings.

The park system of Chicago is without a parallel in America; it embraces Lincoln Park, on the lake shore to the north, and six others, and is divided into three sections, all connected or nearly so by magnificent boulevards, which, with the park drives, measure over sixty miles. In all, Chicago has ninety-three parks, covering more than four thousand four hundred acres. A characteristic feature of the system is the large number of small “People’s Parks” scattered through the poorer districts and provided with baths, gymnasiums and playgrounds. On the north side is Lincoln Park, reached via Lake Shore Drive, one of the finest residence streets in Chicago, containing some very handsome houses. This passes near the Water Works, at the foot of Chicago Avenue, and ends on the north at Lincoln Park, which is at present three hundred acres in area, but is being extended by filling in the adjacent shallows of Lake Michigan.

Among the attractions of this park are the conservatories, palm-house, lily-ponds, and flower-beds; a small zoological collection; a fountain illuminated at night by electric light; the statues of Lincoln (by Saint-Gaudens), Grant (by Rebisso), Beethoven, Schiller, La Salle, a Mounted Indian, and Linnaeus; and the boating lake. Near the main entrance is the Academy of Sciences, containing admirably arranged and classified collections illustrating the various natural sciences.

Grant Park, consisting of a public pleasure ground of two hundred and ten acres, lies between Michigan Boulevard and Lake Michigan. This park has been improved of late by the depression of the tracks of the Illinois Central Railway and by the construction of massive stone viaducts connecting the park proper with the lake shore. The adjoining part of the lake, between the shore and the breakwater, has been filled in and added to the park. In Grant Park, to the south of the Auditorium and opposite Eldredge Place, is an equestrian statute of General John A. Logan, in bronze, by Saint-Gaudens.

The South Side parks are also fine. They are best reached by Michigan Avenue and Drexel Boulevards, two fine residence streets with tasteful houses and ornamental gardens. Michigan Avenue also contains several churches, the Calumet Club, numerous large hotels and apartment houses, and the First Regiment Armory. In Drexel Boulevard is the handsome Drexel Memorial Fountain.

Washington Park (three hundred and seventy-one acres) and Jackson Park (five hundred and twenty-three acres) are connected by a wide boulevard known as the Midway Plaisance, on which is located the University of Chicago.

The West Side parks, Douglas Park, Garfield Park, and Humboldt Park are little inferior to those of the North and South Sides.

The University of Chicago, between Fifty-sixth and Fifty-ninth Streets, occupies probably the finest group of buildings, architecturally, devoted to higher education in the United States. The total value of buildings and equipment is more than thirty million dollars, one-fourth of which was contributed by citizens of Chicago and the balance by John D. Rockefeller. The ground has an area of sixty-six acres, and the university includes faculties of Arts, Literature, Science, Commerce and Administration, Education, Medicine, Law, and Divinity.

Above thirty different buildings have already been erected, mainly of limestone and in a Gothic style, from the designs of H. I. Cobb and Mr. Coolidge. Perhaps the most successful group is that at the corner of Fifty-seventh Street and Lexington Avenue, including an Assembly Hall, a Students’ Club House, the University Tower, and the University Commons. Other important buildings are the Cobb Lecture Hall, the Kent Chemical Laboratory, the Ryerson Physical Laboratory, the Law School, the Anatomy, Physiology, Zoology, and Botany Buildings, the Walker Museum, the Haskell Oriental Museum, the handsome Bartlett Gymnasium, dormitories for women and dormitories for men. On the south edge of the campus stands the main structure of the Harper Memorial Library, an enormous Gothic building by Shepley, Rutan & Coolidge, erected in memory of President Wm. R. Harper. The Yerkes Observatory, at Williams Bay on Lake Geneva, containing one of the largest refracting telescopes in the world, belongs to the University of Chicago. Connected with the University is the large School of Education, facing the Midway Plaisance, between Monroe and Kimbark Avenues.

Other notable educational institutions include the Lewis Institute, founded and endowed by the late Mr. A. A. Lewis and opened in 1896, comprising a School of Arts and a School of Engineering, tuition in which is furnished at a nominal cost; and the Armour Institute, a well equipped institution for higher technical education, endowed by its founder with three million dollars.

Hull House, at the southwest corner of Polk and South Halsted Streets, is a social settlement of men and women, furnishing a social, intellectual, and charitable center for the surrounding district. It includes a free kindergarten, a coffee-house, a residential boys’ club, a theater, a labor-museum, and a free gymnasium, while classes, lectures, and concerts of various kinds are held.

The famous Union Stockyards (“Packingtown”) are in South Halsted Street, five and one-half miles to the southwest of the City Hall, and may be reached by the South Halsted Street or Racine Avenue trolley-lines, both running directly to the main entrance at Forty-first Street. The yards proper cover an area of about five hundred acres, have twenty-five miles of feeding-troughs, and twenty miles of water-troughs, and can accommodate seventy-five thousand cattle, three hundred thousand hogs, fifty thousand sheep, and five thousand horses. From two-thirds to three-fourths of the cattle and hogs are killed in the yards, and sent out in the form of meat. About thirty thousand workers are employed by the packing-houses. Chicago is the greatest live stock and grain market in the world.

Among the more important general manufactures of the city may be mentioned those of railway cars, locomotives, agricultural implements, mining appliances, clothing, electrical apparatus, lumber products, furniture, pianos, organs, leather, cigars, chemicals, beer, spirits, and flour. The steel and iron industry is conducted on a large scale, and the city has some large rolling mills. Chicago is also one of the leading publishing centers of the United States, and is an active jobbing center for the book trade.

As a center of railroad industry Chicago takes precedence over all cities of the world. Twenty-six of the principal trunk-line railroads of the United States run trains into Chicago terminals, and in addition to these there are numerous belt transfer, terminal and industrial lines which have either a part or all of their trackage in the city. Within the corporate limits of the city are eight hundred miles of main line railway and one thousand four hundred miles of auxiliary track. The total mileage of the twenty-six roads entering Chicago approximates ninety-seven thousand miles, or about forty-two per cent of the total mileage of the United States. The land occupied by main line property within Chicago represents nine thousand six hundred acres, or eight per cent of the entire area of the city.

There are six principal passenger terminals in Chicago, located as follows:

Baltimore & Ohio Terminal (Grand Central Station), at Fifth Avenue and Harrison Street. Central Station, at Michigan Avenue and Twelfth Street. Chicago & North Western Passenger Terminal, at North Clinton, West Madison, and North Canal Streets. La Salle Street Station, with entrance on Van Buren Street. Dearborn Station, at Dearborn and Polk Streets. Union Passenger Station, at Adams and Canal Streets.

Present plans are under way, however, to concentrate all roads entering Chicago in three great union stations--the North Western Station (already built, at a cost of $25,000,000), the Illinois Central Station, and the Pennsylvania Station, the two latter involving an expenditure of one hundred and fifty million dollars.

The water carrying trade of Chicago is comparable to that of New York and Boston, and exceeds that of Philadelphia, New Orleans, Baltimore, and San Francisco.

The Chicago Tunnel System involves a labyrinth of small tunnels or subways, six by seven and one-half feet in size, and sixty-two miles long, forty feet under the principal business streets within the Loop district. These tunnels connect with all railway freight depots, passenger stations and, through their sub-basements, with a number of the larger mercantile concerns. They also extend beyond the Loop--north, south, and west--a distance of about two miles. They are not designed for passenger traffic, but are used by cars laden with all sorts of merchandise, coal, ashes, etc.

There are three underground power stations, four universal freight and transfer stations (one of them occupying five floors below the ground), eighty-five ordinary stations, and twelve tunnels, extending sixty feet under the Chicago River or its branches. So far, between thirty million and forty million dollars have been expended on construction and equipment. The bores also contain the cables of the automatic telephone company.

The site of Chicago was first visited by Joliet and Marquette in 1673. The United States Government established there the frontier post of Fort Dearborn in 1804. On October 8 and 9, 1871, occurred the memorable fire which reduced the greater part of the city to ashes. In 1886 occurred the Haymarket riot, in 1893 the World’s Columbian Exposition was held in Chicago, and in 1894 the Pullman strike, the greatest in history, centered in Chicago.

=Cincinnati= (sin-si-nä´ti), =Ohio=. [The “Queen City,” named in honor of Cincinnatus, the Roman patriot.]

It is the second city of Ohio, on the north bank of the river Ohio, two hundred and seventy miles southeast of Chicago by rail, opposite the cities of Covington and Newport, in Kentucky. Steam ferries and six lofty bridges connect the city with the Kentucky shore; the suspension bridge by Roebling is two thousand two hundred and fifty feet long, and cost one million eight hundred thousand dollars.

Cincinnati occupies an exceedingly broken and irregular site, the more densely built parts being enclosed between the Ohio River and steep hills. The river front is upwards of fourteen miles in length. A second terrace is fifty or sixty feet higher, and a district between the hills and the Miami Canal, known as “over the Rhine,” is occupied by the large German colony.

The main portion of the city is regularly laid out and its streets are well paved. The chief shopping district is bounded by Fourth, Main, Seventh, and Elm Streets. The best residential quarters are on the surrounding highlands, built on a succession of irregular hills, by whose steepness they are broken into a series of some five and twenty villages, interspersed with parks.

Fountain Square, an expansion of Fifth Street, may, perhaps, be called the business center of the city and from it start most of the street railway lines. In the middle of the square stands the Tyler Davidson Fountain, cast at the Royal Bronze Foundry at Munich. To the north, at the corner of Fifth Street and Walnut Street, is the United States Government Building containing the Post Office, Custom House, and United States Law Courts, erected at a cost of five million dollars. It is of sawed freestone in the Corinthian style.

By following Fifth Street to the west and turning to the left down Vine Street, we pass the entrance to the Emery Arcade and reach, at the corner of the busy Fourth Street, the Chamber of Commerce. Opposite, at the northeast corner of Fourth and Vine Streets, stands the Ingalls Building. On the north side of Fourth Street, between Vine and Race Streets, is the fine Third National Bank.

Following Fourth Street towards the west, we soon reach Plum Street, which we may follow to the right to St. Paul’s Protestant Cathedral, at the corner of Seventh Street; the Roman Catholic Cathedral of St. Peter, at the corner of Eighth Street, and the Synagogue, opposite the last. In the block bounded by Central Avenue and Eighth, Ninth and Plum Streets is the City Hall, a large red building in a Romanesque style, with a lofty tower, constructed of brown granite and red sandstone at a cost of one million six hundred thousand dollars. A little to the east, in Vine Street, between Sixth and Seventh Streets, is the Public Library. To the north of this point, “over the Rhine,” is Washington Park, with the Springer Music Hall and the Exposition Building.

Among other buildings may be mentioned the County Court House, St. Xavier’s College, the Oddfellows’ Temple and the Cincinnati Hospital. Recent buildings of the modern type include the Traction Building, the Mercantile Library, the Union Trust Building, and the First National Bank.

The chief park of Cincinnati is Eden Park, which lies on the hills to the east and affords fine views of the city and river. It contains the Art Museum, a storage reservoir of the City Water Works, and the Water Tower. The top of the last affords the best view of the city and its environs, the river, and the Kentucky Highlands.

The Art Museum is a handsome group of buildings on a hill-top, some in a Romanesque, others in a Grecian style. Adjacent is the Art Academy. Both are maintained by a private corporation.

There are more than two hundred and fifty churches, including a Roman Catholic cathedral; besides many handsome theaters, hotels, and public halls, hospitals and asylums, and schools.

The educational institutions are of the highest order. They include the University of Cincinnati, which has associated with it the Cincinnati Hospital and the Cincinnati Observatory, the Ohio and Miami Medical Colleges, St. Joseph’s and St. Xavier’s Jesuit Colleges, the Law Theological Seminary, Cincinnati Conservatory of Music and the Ohio Mechanics’ Institute.

Cincinnati is a center of musical and art culture, and its decorative pottery and wood-carving have a national reputation. It has a large river and canal traffic, and many railways converge here.

Among the factories are clothing factories, foundries, machine shops, coach-works, works for the manufacture of furniture, tobacco, shoes, leather, etc. There is some boat-building and printing; and the slaughter-houses, stockyards, and grain elevators are very extensive.

Cincinnati was settled by white men in 1780, was incorporated as a city in 1819, and early attained the name of “the Queen City of the West;” as also that of “Porkopolis,” from its great trade in pork. Great riots occurred in 1884, and were with difficulty suppressed by the military.

=Cleveland, Ohio.= [The “Forest City;” named in honor of General Moses Cleveland of Connecticut, who had charge of the surveying of this region, acting as general agent for the Connecticut Land Company.]

It is the largest city of Ohio, and is situated on the south shore of Lake Erie, three hundred and fifty miles by rail east of Chicago. The city is built mainly upon a plain from sixty to one hundred and fifty feet above the lake, and five hundred and eighty feet above sea-level. It is divided into the East and West Sides by the tortuous valley of the Cuyahoga River, which is crossed by two high-level bridges--one mainly of stone, and one of iron, three thousand nine hundred and thirty-one feet long. The former, one thousand and seventy feet long, was completed in 1878 at a cost of two million two hundred thousand dollars. There are three other similar viaducts in different parts of the city.

The chief business street is Superior Avenue, a really fine and wide thoroughfare, the west end of which is lined with substantial business blocks, such as the Perry-Payne Building. A little farther on the street expands into Monumental Park or the Public Square, containing a Soldiers’ Monument and a statue of General Moses Cleveland. The new Federal Building, at the northeast corner of the square, contains the Post Office, the Custom House, and the Court House.

This building is the first of several public buildings comprised in the so-called “Group Plan,” the others being the City Hall, County Building, Public Library, and Union Station. A broad mall connects all these buildings.

At the northwest corner is the Old Court House, adjoined by the American Trust Building. On the north side of the square, at the corner of Ontario Street, is the handsome building of the Society for Savings, established in 1849, and now having deposits of upwards of fifty million dollars. Adjacent is the Chamber of Commerce, containing a handsome auditorium, with a library and reading room. In Superior Avenue, beyond the Federal Building, is the massive City Hall, which is adjoined by the temporary building of the Public Library. A little to the north of this point is the huge Central Armory.

Euclid Avenue, which begins at the southeast angle of the Public Square, is, at its east end, also an important artery of business, and farther out becomes one of the most beautiful residence streets in America, with each of its handsome houses surrounded by pleasant grounds and shady trees. At the northeast corner of the Square and Euclid Avenue is the Williamson Building; a little farther on, also on the north side of the Avenue, is the handsome First National Bank; on the right is the tall, narrow building of the Guardian Savings & Trust Co. To the left is the Arcade, four hundred feet long, one hundred and eighty feet wide, and one hundred and forty-four feet high, with a fine five-balconied interior, running through to Superior Avenue; and to the right is the Colonial Arcade, running through to Prospect Avenue. At the corner of East Sixth Street are the tall Garfield and New England Buildings. Nearly opposite the New England Building is the new Taylor Arcade, just east of which is the Hippodrome Building. Farther on, near east Ninth Street, is the Citizens Building, with the offices of the Citizens Savings & Trust Co., and at the corner is the Schofield Building. Directly opposite the latter, at the southeast corner of East Ninth Street and Euclid Avenue, is the Cleveland Trust Co. At the corner of East Twelfth Street is the handsome Union Club. Farther on are several fine churches. About four and one-half miles from the Public Square Euclid Avenue reaches University Circle, with a statue of Senator M. A. Hanna by Saint-Gaudens, and one of Kossuth, erected by the Hungarians of Cleveland. To the right is the building of the Western Reserve Historical Society, to the left is the Elysium, an artificial ice skating rink. Just beyond the Circle is the entrance to Wade Park, which contains statues of Commodore Perry, and a Goethe-Schiller Monument. Opposite the Park are the buildings of the Western Reserve University (including Adelbert College, Woman’s College, Law, Medical, and Dental Schools, and a Library School, in addition to the graduate department) and the Case School of Applied Science. About one mile farther on the avenue passes Lake View Cemetery, containing the Garfield Memorial, the Rockefeller Monolith, the graves of Senator Hanna and John Hay, and the Wade Memorial Chapel.

Prospect Avenue, which runs parallel to Euclid Avenue on the south, is little inferior to it in beauty.

Cleveland’s rapid growth is due mainly to the fact that nowhere else can the rich iron ores of Lake Superior, the coal of Northern Ohio, and the limestone of the Lake Erie islands, be brought together so cheaply; its position at the north terminus of the Ohio Canal being very advantageous, and seven railways terminate here.

The chief industries of the city are the various manufactures of iron, including steel rails, forgings, wire, bridges, steel and iron ships, engines, boilers, nails, screws, sewing machines, agricultural implements and machinery of all kinds, the refining of petroleum, wood-work, and other manufactures of endless variety. Cleveland is the greatest iron ore receiving point in America, one of the largest lumber markets and extensively engaged in the automobile industry.

Cleveland was founded in 1796 by General Moses Cleveland, under the direction of the Connecticut Land Company. In 1814 Cleveland was incorporated as a village with less than one hundred inhabitants. The opening of the Ohio land served as an impetus to growth, and in 1836 Cleveland was incorporated as a city. Its great prosperity dates from its connection by rail with the cities of the East and the manufacturing establishments set up during the Civil War.

=Des Moines= (dē-moin´), =Iowa=. [This name was applied by the Indians to a place in the form of Moingona, which the French shortened into Moin, calling the river “rivière des Moins.” Finally, the name became associated with the Trappist monks, and the river by a spurious etymology was called “la rivière des moines,” “the river of the monks.”]

The capital and largest city of Iowa, it is an important manufacturing and commercial city, and noted especially for its extensive insurance interests and exceptional railroad facilities. It has many important buildings, among them the Capitol, built at a cost of three million dollars, the United States Government Building, the State Arsenal, a State Historical Building, completed in 1908 at a cost of five hundred thousand dollars, Drake University, Highland Park College, Des Moines College, and a state library. A new city hall at a cost of four hundred thousand dollars, and a great coliseum to seat ten thousand are recent additions.

The city has nearly one hundred churches of all denominations. Half a dozen bridges over the two rivers connect the different parts of the town, and there is a public park, with fine groves of forest trees.

Vast bituminous coal fields have contributed to the growth of the manufacturing industries. These include typewriters, wagons, sleighs, cotton and woolen goods, pottery, furniture, and electrical appliances. The city was one of the first to adopt the electric car system.

Des Moines was settled in 1846, incorporated as the town of Fort Des Moines, 1851, chartered as a city and became the capital of the State in 1857. In 1907 Des Moines adopted the commission form of government and attained wide celebrity as a leader in progressive municipal government.

=Denver, Colo.= [The “Queen City of the Plains”; named after James W. Denver, ex-Governor of Kansas, upon the consolidation in 1860 of the towns of St. Charles and Aurora.]

The capital of Colorado, it is situated on the South Platte River, nine hundred and twenty-two miles west of St. Louis. It lies on a level plain, five thousand one hundred and ninety-six feet above the sea, beyond which rise the snow-capped peaks and deep blue shoulders of the Rocky Mountains.

The Union Depot lies at the foot of Seventeenth Street, one of the chief business thoroughfares, and electric cars start from here for all parts of the city. Near the station is a large bronze Arch, bearing the work “Welcome.” The route up Seventeenth Street and Seventeenth Avenue by electric car to the City Park and then across to Colfax (or Fifteenth) Avenue and return traverses the chief features of the city. On the way out is passed the Equitable Building, the roof of which affords a superb view.

The Rocky Mountains are seen to the west in an unbroken line of about one hundred and seventy miles, extending from beyond Long’s Peak on the north to Pike’s Peak on the south. Among the loftiest of the intervening summits are Grey’s Peak, Torrey’s Peak, and Mount Evans. The bird’s-eye view of the city in the immediate foreground includes the State Capitol and the fine residences of Capitol Hill on the east.

At the corner of Seventeenth and Glenarm Streets is the Denver Club, and at the corner of Sherman Avenue are the University Club and the Central Presbyterian Church. In returning through Colfax (or Fifteenth) Avenue the following buildings may be observed: the State Capitol, an imposing structure erected at a cost of two million five hundred thousand dollars; the new Public Library, between Acoma and Bannock Streets; the United States Mint, at the corner of Cherokee street, and the West Side Court House. The County Court House occupies the block bounded by Court Place and Fifteenth, Sixteenth and Tremont Streets. The Custom House and Post Office, on Sixteenth Street, is another imposing building. In Fourteenth Street is a handsome Auditorium used by the Democratic Convention in 1908.

The other important buildings of the city include the Denver High School, Stout Street, between Nineteenth and Twentieth Streets; the City Hall, corner Fourteenth and Larimer Streets; the Mining Exchange; the Chamber of Commerce; Baptist College (Montclair); the Tabor Opera House Block; the Broadway Theater; the Denver Athletic Club; Trinity Church, Broadway and Eighteenth Street; the Church of Christ, Scientist, Fourteenth and Logan Avenues; the Y. M. C. A., Lincoln and Sixteenth Avenues; Mystic Shrine Temple, Sherman and Eighteenth Avenues; the Westminster University of Colorado, and the Jesuit College of the Sacred Heart (College Avenue, corner of Homer Avenue). On Capitol Hill are the new buildings of St. Mary’s Cathedral (Roman Catholic) and St. John’s Cathedral (Episcopalian). The Art Museum, in Montclair, contains a collection of paintings and other objects of art. The Museum in the City Park includes an interesting collection of Colorado animals. In University Park, eight miles to the southeast of the Union Depot, is the University of Denver.

The city is the center of a great agricultural and mining district, and has a large trade in cattle, hides, wool, and tallow. It is chiefly, however, to its position as the center of a great mining region that Denver owes its marvelous progress; the discovery, in 1878, of the fabulous wealth of the Leadville Hills attracted capital and emigration from all parts of the continent. It has a United States assaying mint, is an important ore market, and is noted for its smelting and refining works, foundry and machine shops.

Denver has an abundant water supply, and the clear invigorating air and dry climate of Denver are famous. It was founded on a barren waste, dry and treeless, in 1858, and the following year incorporated as a city by the Provisional Legislature.

=Detroit= (dē-troit´), =Mich.= [The “City of the Straits”; named from the river or strait on which the city is built. Derived from two French words, detroit, “the narrows.”]

It is situated on the Detroit River, eighteen miles from Lake Erie, at an altitude of six hundred feet. The river, sometimes called the “Dardanelles of the New World,” is here the boundary between the United States and Canada. It affords a splendid harbor, with a water-front of about nine miles. Ferries connect with the Canadian side. Many beautiful islands, with those of Lake St. Clair, are popular as places of summer residence and resort.

One of these, Belle Isle, is about seven hundred acres in extent and forms a beautiful public park, with fine trees, and still retaining many of its natural features unimpaired. It contains a statute of Schiller, a small zoological collection, a large aquarium and horticultural building, and a casino.

Woodward Avenue, the principal thoroughfare, divides the city into two very nearly equal parts. It is also the main business street, and at its northern end has many of the city’s most prominent buildings. Its expansion, about half a mile from the river, is known as the Campus Martius, adorned with a handsome fountain, from which Michigan and Gratiot Avenues diverge to the left and right. To the left stands the City Hall, the tower of which contains a clock with a dial eight and one-half feet in diameter. In front of the City Hall is the Soldiers’ Monument.

In Gratiot Avenue, near the Campus Martius, is the Public Library, containing two hundred and twenty thousand volumes and some historical relics. The Chamber of Commerce, at the corner of Griswold and State Streets, is thirteen stories high. The Post Office, in Fort Street, adjoining the site of the old Fort Lernoult, is a handsome building. In the same street, at the southeast corner of Shelby Street, is the State Savings Bank, and adjoining it on the east is the tall Penobscot Building.

Just to the east of the Campus Martius, in Cadillac Square, stands the County Building. It is in a plain renaissance style with a Corinthian portico over the main entrance, sculptures in the pediment, and a tower surmounted by a gilded dome. In front of it is the Cadillac Chair, erected in 1901 to commemorate the two hundredth anniversary of the city’s foundation.

A little farther on Woodward Avenue reaches Grand Circus Park, a square with trees, fountains, and a statue of ex-Governor Pingree. To the north, at the corner of Adams Street, is the Central Methodist Church, with a richly decorated interior. One block to the east, between Adams and Elizabeth Streets, is the new building of the Y. M. C. A. At the corner of Edmund Place, one-half mile farther on, are the First Unitarian and First Presbyterian churches, two fine Romanesque buildings of red stone. Between Erskine and Eliot Streets, to the right, is the Temple Bethel, an effective Jewish synagogue. Also to the right, at the head of Martin Place, is the handsome Harper Hospital; and Grace Hospital is also seen to the right (corner of Willis Avenue and John R. Street) a little farther on. To the left, a little higher up, is the Detroit Athletic Club. The north end of Woodward Avenue and the adjoining streets form the principal residence quarter.

Jefferson Avenue, which runs at right angles to Woodward Avenue, crossing it one-fifth mile from the river, contains many of the chief wholesale houses, and toward its northeast end has also many pleasant residences. The site of Fort Pontchartrain was at the corner of Jefferson Avenue and Griswold Street, two squares to the west of Woodward Avenue. To the east, on the left side of the street, are the Roman Catholic Cathedral of Saints Peter and Paul and the Jesuit College, and on the right side the Academy of the Sacred Heart. On the same side, at the corner of Jefferson Avenue and Hastings Street, about one-half mile to the east of Woodward Avenue, stands the Museum of Art, containing paintings, sculptures and oriental curiosities.

The commerce of Detroit is enormous, a number of conditions favoring it as a commercial and industrial center. Its geographical position brings it into relation with an immense lake traffic and with the Canadian trade. About three-fourths of the total trade is with Canada. The principal exports are grain, wool, pork, lard, hides, and copper. It has important lumbering interests and large tanneries.

The manufactures include stoves, freight cars, drugs, varnish, paint, furniture, carriages, cigars, and matches. Other industries are those of iron and steel, foundry and machine shop products, and the manufacture of malt liquors.

The site of Detroit was visited by a party of Frenchmen as early as 1610, and again by La Salle in 1670, but no permanent settlement was made until 1701, when Sieur de la Mothe Cadillac, the first Governor of the French territory in this vicinity, built Fort Pontchartrain and established a small trading village. In 1815 Detroit was incorporated as a village, and in 1824 was chartered as a city by the Legislature of Michigan Territory. It was the capital of the Territory from 1805 to 1837, and of the State from 1837 to 1847.

=Hartford, Conn.= [Named from Hertford, England.] It is the capital of Connecticut, on the right bank of the Connecticut River, fifty miles from its mouth, and one hundred and twelve by rail northeast of New York. It is a handsome city, finely situated on the navigable Connecticut River, at its confluence with the Park River. The Union Depot is near the center of the town. To the southwest of it, beyond the Park River, lies Bushnell Park, containing the handsome white marble Capitol, a conspicuous object in most views of the town.

The fine sculptural embellishment of the north facade of the Capitol was done under the supervision of Paul W. Bartlett and partly by his own hand. The Senate Chamber contains a good portrait of Washington, by Stuart, and an elaborately carved chair, made from the wood of the “Charter Oak.” In the Library are the Charter of Connecticut and portraits of Connecticut governors. In the east wing of the ground floor is a statue of Nathan Hale, and in the west wing are the tombstone of General Putnam and a statue of Governor Buckingham.

The gateway to the park was erected as a Soldiers’ Memorial.

Following Capitol Avenue to the east and then turning to the left, along Main Street, is the Wadsworth Athenæum, containing a gallery and libraries with one hundred and fifty thousand volumes, and the collections of the Historical Society. Adjacent are the buildings of the Ætna Life Insurance, the Ætna Fire Insurance, and the Travelers Insurance Co. A little farther on is the Post Office, adjoined by the interesting Old State House, erected by Chas. Bulfinch. Opposite is the Connecticut Mutual Life Insurance Co. The State Arsenal is also on Main Street farther along.

Near the State House are the High School, the Hartford Orphan Asylum, and the Hartford Theological Institute. About a mile to the south is Trinity College, with fine buildings and equally fine location. The Colt Firearms factory is in the southeast part of the city, and near it is the handsome Church of the Good Shepherd, erected in memory of Colonel Colt, inventor of the revolver, by his wife.

A tablet at the corner of Charter Oak Place marks the site of the “Charter Oak,” where, in 1687, the charter of Connecticut was concealed to save it from Sir Edmund Andros, a tyrannical British governor. Charter Oak Park is famous for its trotting races. Elizabeth Park has a fine show of flowers.

Among other large buildings are the Retreat for the Insane, the Deaf and Dumb Asylum, the Old Folks Home, the City Hospital, and St. Joseph’s Roman Catholic Cathedral. The last is in Farmington Avenue, which, with its continuation, Asylum Street, contains many fine private residences.

Hartford is a prominent commercial and manufacturing city, and is particularly noted for the importance of its insurance companies, rating third in this regard among the cities of the United States. It is the farthest point, at present, to which large steamers can ascend the Connecticut River. Among the manufactures are firearms--the celebrated Colt manufactory is here--typewriters, rubber goods, especially tires, electrical supplies, automobiles, bicycles, sewing-machines, hardware, tools, carriages, silver plate, woven wire mattresses, book binding machinery, cash registers, knit goods, etc.

The site of a Dutch fort in 1633, and of a colony of Massachusetts settlers as early as 1635-1636, Hartford was incorporated as a city in 1784. Here (January 14, 1639) was adopted the first constitution in writing ever proclaimed by a people organizing a government, therefore Hartford is called the birthplace of American democracy. In 1687 occurred the famous attempt of Governor Andros to seize the charter of Connecticut. Hartford was the capital of Connecticut until 1701, thenceforth until 1873 it divided the responsibility with New Haven. Since 1875 it has been sole capital. Here in 1814 took place the famous meeting of New England delegates known as the Hartford Convention.

About 1780 the “Hartford wits,” of whom Joel Barlow was one, made the city a literary center. Since that time it has been the residence of a large number of literary men and women; among them Harriet Beecher Stowe, Whittier, Trumbull, Charles Dudley Warner, and Samuel L. Clemens. Noah Webster, Henry Barnard, Frederick Law Olmsted, and John Fiske were born here.

=Indianapolis= (in-di-a-nap´o-lis), =Ind.= [Literally, the City of Indiana, from Indiana and polis, city.]

It is the capital of Indiana, on the west fork of White River, in a level plain one hundred and ninety-five miles southeast of Chicago by rail. It is a regularly built and beautiful city.

The focus of the city is the circular Monument Place, from which four wide avenues run diagonally to the four corners of the city. The other streets, many of them one hundred feet wide, are laid out at right angles to each other. In the center of this place rises the Soldiers and Sailors’ Monument, two hundred and eighty-five feet high, by Bruno Schmitz of Berlin. Round the monument are statues of General G. R. Clark, Governor Whitcomb, President W. H. Harrison, and Governor Morton. A little to the west is the State Capitol, a large building with a central tower and dome, erected at a cost of two million dollars. At the east entrance to the Capitol is a statue of Governor Morton and near by is that of Governor Hendricks. The Marion County Court House, also an imposing edifice, lies to the east of Monument Place, while to the north of it is the United States Court House and Post Office, erected in 1902-1904. To the southwest of the former is a statue of General H. W. Lawton, by A. O’Connor. In University Park is a statue of Benjamin Harrison, erected in 1908.

The John Herron Art Institute, at the corner of Pennsylvania Avenue and Sixteenth Street, contains a School of Art and a collection of modern paintings. Other large and important buildings are the Blind Asylum; the Propylæum, owned and controlled by a stock company of women for literary purposes; the Deaf and Dumb Asylum; the Union Railway Station; the City Hall; the Public Library; the Masonic Temple; the Oddfellows Building; the Deutsche Haus, a German club-house; the Mænnerchor Building, and several churches. The Winona Technical Institute is installed in buildings erected for the United States Arsenal. The Central Hospital for the Insane lies one and one-half miles to the west of the city, beyond the White River. The Riverside, Broad Ripple, Brookside, Fairview, and Garfield Parks deserve mention.

Indianapolis is one of the chief railroad centers of the United States, fifteen main lines converging here. It is also a great center of electric railways, which radiate hence in all directions, two hundred and fifty cars leaving the terminal station daily. The trade in agricultural produce is very considerable. Pork-packing is the leading industry, but there are also large flour and cotton and woolen mills, numerous foundries, and manufactories of furniture, carriages, tiles, etc.

Indianapolis was first settled in 1819, the city founded in 1821, became the seat of the state government in 1825, was incorporated as a town in 1836, and received its city charter in 1847. In the same year the first railroad in the state was opened.

=Los Angeles= (los an´je-les, Sp. pron. _lōs äng´_h_e-lās_), =Cal.= [Named by the Spaniards Pueblo de la Reina de los Angeles, “The Town of the Queen of the Angels,” hence Los Angeles, “the angels.”]

It is the metropolis of southern California, lies on the Los Angeles River, twenty miles above its mouth and fifteen miles in a direct line from the Pacific Ocean, and four hundred and eighty-three miles southeast of San Francisco by the Southern Pacific Railroad.

It is a splendid city of wide streets and spacious sidewalks, with an extensive residential quarter, one hundred and thirty churches, over sixty public schools, and about one thousand seven hundred manufactories. It publishes newspapers in seven languages.

The city, especially the residential quarters, is embowered in plants, among the characteristic features of which are the swift-growing eucalyptus, the graceful pepper-tree, many palms, Norfolk Island pines, live-oaks, india-rubber trees, orange trees, roses, geraniums, yuccas, century plants, bananas, calla lilies, and pomegranates. A distinguished French traveler pronounces Los Angeles one of the few really beautiful cities in the United States.

Broadway, running parallel to Main Street, is the dividing line for east and west, as First Street is for north and south. Among the many substantial buildings in Main Street are the City Hall, between Second and Third Streets, and the new Chamber of Commerce. The latter contains an interesting collection of California products, the Palmer collection of Indian antiquities, and the Coronel collection, illustrating the Spanish period. Here is also the first cannon brought to California by Padre Junipero Serra in 1769. In Temple Street, near Broadway, stands the County Court House. The Public Library is at the southeast corner of Broadway and Third Street.

Other edifices worthy of mention are the Women’s Club, in the Mission-Renaissance style (940 South Figueroa Street), the State Normal School (corner Grand Avenue and Fifth Street), the Security Savings Bank (corner Spring and Fifth Streets), the Union Trust and Hellman Buildings (opposite corners of Spring and Fourth Streets), the Auditorium (corner Fifth and Olive Streets), the Y. M. C. A. (Hope Street, between Seventh and Eighth Streets), the Y. W. C. A. (corner Hill and Third Streets), the Farmers and Merchants National Bank (corner Fourth and Main Streets), the Grant Building (corner Broadway and Fourth Street), Hamburger’s (corner Broadway and Eighth Street), Merchants Trust (207 Broadway), and the International Bank (corner Temple, Spring and Main Streets). The viaduct of the Electric Railway, in San Fernando Street, spanning the railway tracks on the east side of the city, is an interesting piece of engineering.

Los Angeles also contains many parks, including the Griffith Park of three thousand acres, and the Eastlake Park and Westlake Park, each with a small lake. The University of Southern California is situated at Wesley Avenue and Thirty-fifth Street.

The small plaza, with the Old Mission Church, at the north end of the business-town, is interesting as a survival of the ancient settlement. Just beyond is a genuine Chinatown, keeping many of the original adobe structures. An excellent view of the city can be obtained from the tower at “Angel’s Flight,” corner Hill and Third Streets. Opposite Eastlake Park is an Ostrich Farm, with some two hundred adult birds.

Los Angeles is the center of the orange-growing industry. The residents are principally occupied in the cultivation and export of oranges, grapes, and other fruits, as well as the manufacture of wine. There are rich oil-wells in and near the city and this district now forms part of one of the richest petroleum fields in the world. Many invalids resort to Los Angeles in the winter because of its mild and equable climate. The city has a harbor on the coast, eighteen miles off.

It is one of the oldest towns in the Western states, and was already a thriving place when the Franciscan fathers established a mission there in 1781. Under Mexican rule Los Angeles alternated with Monterey as the capital of California. From 1835 to 1847 it was the capital of the State of California. In 1846 it was occupied by the United States forces. For the first century of its history Los Angeles was only a small pueblo constructed mainly of adobe in the Mexican style, but the advent of the railroad brought a sudden impetus. It was the first city in the United States to be lighted with electricity.

=Louisville= (lōō´ĭ-vĭl, or lōō´ĭs-vĭl), =Ky.= [The “Falls City”; named by act of the Virginian Legislature in 1780, in honor of Louis XVI. of France, then assisting the American colonies in their revolutionary struggle.]

It is the largest city of Kentucky, and is situated on the Ohio River, one hundred and thirty miles by water southwest of Cincinnati. The river is here crossed by two railroad bridges, and forms a series of rapids--the “Falls of Ohio”--descending twenty-six feet in two miles.

Louisville covers about forty square miles of a plain, and is nearly enclosed by hills. It is handsomely built and extends for nearly eight miles along the river. Its well-shaded streets are from sixty to one hundred and twenty feet wide, and slope up from the river.

Perhaps the most prominent building in Louisville is the Custom House, in Chestnut Street between Third and Fourth Streets. The Court House is in Jefferson Street between Fifth and Sixth Streets, and is adjoined by the City Hall, with its square clock-tower.

The Louisville Public Library, at the corner of Fourth and York Streets, contains also an art gallery and a small museum, including the Troost Collection of Minerals.

The Farmers’ Tobacco Warehouse, in Main Street, is the center of the tobacco trade and has a large storage capacity. The University of Louisville, at corner of Eighth and Chestnut Streets, is housed in a handsome building. The Lincoln Bank, corner of Fourth and Market Streets, is fifteen stories high, with a splendid view from upper windows and roof.

Fourth Avenue, with many pleasant residences, leads south, passing the pretty little Central Park, to the Racecourse. Louisville possesses three fine parks: Iroquois Park, Cherokee Park, and Shawnee Park, to the south, east and west of the city. The First Regiment Armory has an enormous drill-hall and can seat fifteen thousand persons.

The Louisville Bridge, one mile long, crossing to the west end of Jeffersonville, was built in 1868-1872 and has twenty-seven iron spans supported by limestone piers. The Kentucky and Indiana Bridge, leading to New Albany, is one-half mile long. A third bridge, also leading to Jeffersonville, was constructed in 1892.

President Zachary Taylor (1784-1850) is buried near his old home, five miles to the east of Louisville.

Louisville is the greatest market for tobacco in the world, and has large pork-packing establishments, distilleries, and tanneries, with manufactories of plows, furniture, castings, gas and water pipes, machinery, flour, cement, cotton seed oil and cake, steam railroad cars, and carriages and wagons.

It was founded in 1778 and in 1780 named in honor of Louis XVI. of France, whose troops were then assisting the Americans. A great part of the town, including the tobacco-market and the city hall, was destroyed by a cyclone in March, 1890. Since the Civil War, Louisville has rapidly grown in importance as one of the chief gateways to the southwest.

=Milwaukee= (mĭl-wau´kē), =Wis.= [Named from the river, called by the Algonquins Minnwaukee, or Me-ne-wau-kee, “good earth, good country, rich or beautiful country.”]

It is the largest city in Wisconsin, and is situated on the west shore of Lake Michigan at the common mouth of three improved and navigable rivers, which, with a canal, supply twenty-four miles of dockage. An excellent harbor has been formed by the erection of huge breakwaters, and the river admits the largest lake-vessels to the doors of the warehouses.

The city is well built, largely of a light-colored brick, and many of its streets are lined with beautiful shade trees, recalling some of the older eastern cities. Among the finest residence streets are Grand Avenue, Prospect Avenue, Waverly Place, Juneau Avenue, Marshall Street and Astor Street. About two-thirds of the inhabitants are Germans, which may account for its successful cultivation of music and art. There are no fewer than seventy-five musical societies in the city.

Grand Avenue, which runs east and west, contains many of the chief buildings and best shops, while Wisconsin Street and East Water Street are also busy thoroughfares. Among the most prominent buildings is the Federal Building, a handsome structure of granite in a turreted baronial style, occupying the block bounded by Jefferson, Jackson, Michigan and Wisconsin Streets, and containing the Post Office, Custom House and United States Court House. The interior is finely finished in marbles, mosaics, mahogany, and oak. The County Court House, a brown sandstone edifice, is in the square bounded by Jefferson, Jackson, Oneida, and Biddle Streets. The tall Wells Building, at the corner of Milwaukee and Wisconsin Streets; the Chamber of Commerce, Michigan Street; Plymouth Church, a massive building at the corner of Van Buren and Oneida Streets, and St. Paul’s Church, Marshall Street, are other important structures. The Auditorium, in Cedar Street, can accommodate ten thousand people.

The Layton Art Gallery, a well-lighted structure at the corner of Jefferson and Mason Streets, has some interesting pictures and statues. The paintings include examples of Rosa Bonheur, Constable, Corot, Millet, Achenbach, Alma-Tadema, Clays, Inness, Kensett, Mauve, Holmberg, Pradilla, Mesdag, Munkácsy, Van Marcke, and other modern masters. In the Sculpture Hall are works by Hiram Powers and Romanelli. The magnificent Public Library in Grand Avenue, between Eighth and Ninth Streets, contains two hundred thousand volumes and a free museum of natural history, palæontology, etc.

The curiously thin looking City Hall, with one of the largest bells in the world and an illuminated clock-dial, visible for two miles at night, occupies a triangular site bounded by East Water, Market and Biddle Streets.

Other notable structures in the business district are the Germania Building, the Evening Wisconsin Building, the Sentinel, the New Insurance Building, the Mitchell Building and the Pabst Building.

Among the public monuments are statues of Washington, near Ninth Street, and the Soldiers’ Monument.

Juneau Park, laid out on a bluff overlooking Lake Michigan, contains statues of Solomon Juneau, the earliest white settler, and Leif Ericson; it commands fine views. Lake Park, farther to the north, also overlooks the lake. Near it is the North Point Pumping Station, with a tall and graceful water tower. The Forest Home Cemetery, at the southwest corner of the city, deserves notice. The attractions of Washington Park, on the west limits of the city, include a large herd of deer.

The great breweries, such as Pabst’s, which covers thirty-four acres, or Schlitz’s, are wonderfully interesting plants, while the grain elevators, the flour mills, the coal docks, the International Harvester Co., and the workshops of the C. M. St. P. Railway are also great concerns. To the south are the rolling mills of the Illinois Steel Co., covering one hundred and fifty-four acres of ground. To the southwest, chiefly in the valley of the Menomonee, are the large brick yards that produce the light colored bricks which give Milwaukee the name of “Cream City.” To the north, along the Milwaukee River, are extensive cement works.

Sheridan Drive, skirting the lake to the south for two miles, is intended to be prolonged so as ultimately to meet the boulevard of that name running from Chicago to Fort Sheridan.

The other industries include manufactories of leather, machinery, iron and steel goods, tobacco, clothing, stoves, tinware, brick, furnaces, cars, steel and malleable iron. Pork packing is also carried on extensively.

Milwaukee became a village in 1835 and received a city charter in 1846. Its growth has been rapid, particularly in the last twenty-five years.

=Minneapolis= (min-e-ap´ō-lis), =Minn.= [The “Flour City”; named from Dakota Indian words, Minni, “water,” ha, “curling,” and the Greek word polis, “a city,” namely “city of the curling water,” alluding to the Falls of St. Anthony.]

It is the largest city of Minnesota, adjoins the capital, St. Paul, and is situated on both sides of the Mississippi, which is here crossed by numerous bridges. The Falls of St. Anthony, with a perpendicular descent of sixteen feet, afford a water power which has been a chief source of the city’s prosperity.

At the corner of Second Avenue South and Third Street stands the Metropolitan Life Building, erected at a cost of one million six hundred thousand dollars. Adjacent is the Post Office, in a Romanesque style.

On Hennepin Avenue, at the corner of North Fifth Street, is the imposing Lumber Exchange. To the right are the West Hotel and the Masonic Temple. At the corner of Eighth Street is the private art gallery of Mr. T. B. Walker, containing good specimens of British portrait painters and of the Barbison school and also works by or ascribed to Raphael, Michael Angelo, Rubens, Rembrandt, Van Dyck, Holbein, and Murillo.

Farther on, at the corner of Tenth Street, is the Public Library and Art Gallery, an ornate Romanesque structure.

At the corner of Sixteenth Street is the new Roman Catholic Cathedral.

Other prominent churches are the First Unitarian Church, at the corner of Mary’s Place and Eighth Street; the Westminster Presbyterian Church, Nicollet Avenue; the Church of the Redeemer; the Fowler Methodist Episcopal Church, on Lowry Hill; the Second Church of Christ, Scientist; Plymouth Church, and St. Mark’s Cathedral.

At the other end of Hennepin Avenue is the Union Depot. Among other prominent buildings in the business quarter are the Court House and City Hall, a handsome building in Fourth Street, completed at a cost of three million dollars, with a tower three hundred and forty-five feet high; the New York Life Insurance Building, Fifth Street and Second Avenue, with an elaborate interior; the Northwestern National Bank; the First National Bank; the Andrus Building; Donaldson’s Glass Block Store; the Security Bank Building, and the Chamber of Commerce, Fourth Street South and Fourth Avenue.

The University of Minnesota lies on the left bank of the river, between Washington and University Avenues, and occupies various well-equipped buildings.

Other notable institutions are the Augsburg Theological School, Minneapolis Normal School, and a Conservatory of Music.

Within the urban limits of Minneapolis are fourteen wooded lakes, while the gorges of the Mississippi and the Minnehaha Creek are very picturesque. These natural features have been made the basis of a fine system of boulevards. From the southeast side of Lake Harriet the road runs to the east along the Minnehaha Creek, passing Lake Amelia, to Minnehaha Park, containing the graceful Falls of the Minnehaha, fifty feet high and immortalized by Longfellow.

The most delightful resort near Minneapolis or St. Paul is Lake Minnetonka (eight hundred and twenty feet above the sea), which lies fifteen miles to the west. The lake is singularly irregular in outline, and with a total length of twelve to fifteen miles has a shore line of perhaps one hundred and fifty miles.

Minneapolis is the foremost city in the world in flour and lumber products. The flour mills, perhaps its most characteristic sight, are congregated on the banks of the Mississippi, near St. Anthony’s Falls. Other important industries are the manufacture of agricultural implements and machinery, bread and baking products, cars and general shop construction, food preparations, foundry products, furniture, fur goods, dressed fur, malt liquors, patent medicines, and printing and publishing.

The Falls of St. Anthony were named in 1680 by Father Hennepin. In 1819 Fort Snelling was built by the United States government. Though a large mill was built as early as 1822, it was not till 1850 that a permanent settlement was made. In 1856 Minneapolis was incorporated as a town on the west bank of the river, and in 1867 it was incorporated as a city. St. Anthony on the east bank was annexed in 1872.

=Nashville, Tenn.= [The “Rock City”; first named as a settlement, Nashborough, in honor of Francis Nash of North Carolina, a brigadier-general in the Continental Army. In June, 1784, changed to Nashville.]

It is the capital of Tennessee, on the navigable Cumberland River, two hundred miles above the Ohio, and one hundred and eighty-five miles by railroad southwest of Louisville. The city, which is one of the principal railroad centers in the Southern states, is built mainly on the left bank of the river, which is crossed by a suspension bridge and a railroad drawbridge to the suburb of Edgefield. Nashville is a handsome, well-built town, and it is, perhaps, the most important educational center in the South.

The most prominent building in the city is the State Capitol, conspicuously situated on a hill. In its grounds are a bronze equestrian statue of Andrew Jackson, and the tomb of President Polk, whose home stood at the corner of Vine and Union Streets. Among the other chief buildings are the Court House, the Custom House, the Parthenon, used for exhibitions of art, Greek plays by students, etc., the Vendome and Bijou Theaters, the Carnegie Library, the Board of Trade, the First National Bank, and the Stahlman Building.

At the head of the educational institutions stands Vanderbilt University, endowed by Cornelius Vanderbilt with one million dollars. In the campus is a colossal statue of the founder, by Moretti. Other well-known institutions are the Peabody Teachers’ College, Boscobel College, Belmont College, the Saint Cecilia Academy, Radnor College, Buford College and Ward’s Seminary.

There are also several large colleges for colored students.

Among the places of interest near Nashville are the Hermitage, the home of General Andrew Jackson, eleven miles to the east.

Nashville occupies a foremost place among the manufacturing centers of the country. It is the fifth boot and shoe market in the United States, the largest candy and cracker manufacturing city in the South, and does an enormous wholesale dry goods, grocery, and drug business. It carries on an extensive trade in cotton and tobacco; while its manufactures, which are rapidly extending, include cotton, flour, oil, paper, furniture, timber, leather, iron, and spirits. The iron interests of the South are largely controlled here.

Nashville was settled in 1780, received its charter in 1806, and in 1843 was made the permanent capital.

=New Haven, Conn.= [The “City of Elms”; named by the original settlers the “new haven.” The original Indian name was Quinnippac. The present name substituted “by the court” September 5, 1640.]

It is the chief city and seaport of Connecticut, at the head of New Haven Bay, is situated four miles from Long Island Sound, seventy-three miles by railroad northeast of New York and thirty-five miles southwest of Hartford.

The city is situated on a level plain, with a background of hills. Its broad streets are shaded with elms, and the public squares, parks, and gardens, with its handsome public and private edifices, make it one of the most beautiful of American cities.

From the large Union Station, which adjoins the harbor, Meadow Street leads north to the Public Green, on which are the City Hall, three churches, the Second National Bank, and the Free Public Library, United States Court House and Post Office. At the southeast corner of the Green is the Bennett Fountain, designed by John F. Weir after the monument of Lysicrates at Athens.

In College Street are most of the substantial buildings of Yale University, which, besides the Academic Department, has schools of Science, Theology, Medicine, Law, Forestry, Music, and Fine Arts, and also a Graduate School.

From the Public Green the university “campus” or quadrangle is entered by an imposing tower-gateway known as Phelps Hall. Among the buildings in the campus are the Art School, containing a good collection of Italian, American, and other paintings and sculptures; Connecticut Hall, the oldest Yale building (1750); Osborn Hall; Battell Chapel; Vanderbilt Hall; Alumni Hall; Dwight Hall, and the College Library. At the corner of Elm and High Streets is the Peabody Museum of Natural History, in which the mineralogical collections are especially fine.

Other important buildings of the university are the buildings of the Sheffield Scientific School, the Schools of Law, Medicine, and Divinity, the Chemical and Physical Laboratories, Memorial and other large halls.

Hillhouse Avenue is especially noted for its trees, and Chapel Street, the principal promenade, for the gardens surrounding many of the residences.

The parks have an aggregate area of one thousand two hundred acres. Besides the Green are the parks at East Rock (three hundred and sixty feet high) and West Rock (four hundred feet high), two masses of trap rock near the city which afford fine views. East Rock is surmounted by a soldiers’ monument. West Rock is famous for a cave in which the regicides Goffe and Whalley were for a time concealed. Savin Rock, Morris Cove, and Momaugin are shore resorts accessible from the city by electric car lines.

The railway lines from New Haven to New York City are the only ones of consequence that have been completely electrified.

New Haven is an important industrial city and has considerable commerce. The harbor has a jetty and a breakwater surmounted by a lighthouse, and the port has a large coasting trade. But it is of more consequence as a manufacturing town, employing many thousands of workers producing hardware, wire, locks, clocks, cutlery, firearms, corsets, india-rubber goods, carriages, furniture, paper, matches, musical instruments, etc.

New Haven was settled in 1638 by a company chiefly from London. In 1639 a government was established under a written constitution, and Theophilus Eaton, the pastor of the colony, was chosen and continued in the governorship until 1658. Church membership was a qualification for suffrage and eligibility to office. The New Haven colony was founded in 1643 by the union of Milford, Guilford and Stamford with New Haven. In the same year it became a member of the confederacy of the United Colonies of New England. The charter of Charles II. for Connecticut (1662) included the New Haven colony, but the latter, supported by Massachusetts and Plymouth, stubbornly opposed absorption and was only forced to accede in 1664. Yale College, founded in Saybrook, was removed to New Haven in 1717. The town was captured by the British under Tryon and Garth, July 5, 1779. It was incorporated as a city in 1784. Joint capital with Hartford from 1701; the government was removed from New Haven altogether in 1873.

=New Orleans= (nū ôr’lē-ănz), =La.= [The “Crescent City”; its name is a translation of the French name Nouvelle Orleans, given by them in honor of the Duc d’Orleans, then Regent of France.]

It is the chief city of Louisiana, a great port and mart, and is situated on both sides of the Mississippi River--the greater portion on the east bank--one hundred and seven miles from its mouth, and one thousand one hundred and ninety miles southwest of New York. The Mississippi makes two bends here, whence the city was called “The Crescent City,” but it is now shaped like the letter S. The river is from six hundred to one thousand yards wide, and sixty to two hundred and forty feet deep. The bar at its mouth was removed in 1874-1879 by the Eads jetties in South Pass, and vessels of thirty feet now easily reach New Orleans.

A great part of the city is below the level of the river during the high flood tides, which last for a few days each year, and is protected by a levee or embankment, fifteen feet wide and fourteen feet high. The city is laid out with considerable regularity, and many of the chief streets are wide and shaded with trees. The most important business thoroughfare is Canal Street, which runs at right angles to the river and divides the French Quarter, or “Vieux Carré” on the northeast, from the New City, or American Quarter, on the southwest. The finest residences are in St. Charles Avenue, and in Esplanada Avenue, where the wealthy Creoles have their homes. Of the total population about one-quarter are negroes, while the remaining three-fourths include large proportions of French, German, Irish, Italian and Spanish blood.

While it possesses few imposing buildings, New Orleans is a picturesque city. There are several parks, little improved, but with handsome monuments or statues of Jackson, Lee, Franklin, and others. The custom house of granite cost four million five hundred thousand dollars, and is the largest and most imposing building in the city. It is a large granite building in Canal Street, near the river, and contains a large Marble Hall.

Just below the Custom House, Canal Street ends at the Levee, which extends along the west bank of the Mississippi for about six miles and presents a very animated and interesting scene. At the left is Jackson Square, the old Place d’Armes, which retains its ancient iron railing, and contains a statue of General Andrew Jackson, by Mills. It is adjoined by the Cathedral of St. Louis, a good specimen of the Spanish-Creole style, built in 1792-1794, on the site of the first church in Louisiana, but altered in 1850. It contains some paintings and interesting tombs.

The buildings to the right and left are Court Houses, that to the south having been built for the Cabildo, or City Council of the Spanish régime. In it and in front of it were held the ceremonies attending the cession of Louisiana by the French Government to the United States in 1803.

In Orleans Street, near the east end of the Cathedral, is a Convent of Colored Nuns, which contains what was formerly the famous Quadroon Ballroom, mentioned by Cable, the scene of many celebrated festivities.

On the Levee, just beyond Jackson Square, is the French Market, which often reveals a scene of the greatest picturesqueness and animation. A little farther on, at the foot of Esplanade Avenue, is the United States Branch Mint, a large building in the Ionic style. In Royal Street, four blocks from Canal Street, is the new Court House, a handsome structure of white marble and terra cotta.

In the fine French Quarter the chief promenades are Esplanade Avenue, Rampart Street and Bourbon, Toulouse, Conti and Royal Streets. At the corner of Chartres and Hospital Streets is the Archbishop’s Residence, in the unchanged Ursuline Convent, built in 1730.

Following St. Charles Avenue from Canal Street to the south, is the St. Charles Hotel and the Orpheum and, just beyond, Lafayette Square, around which are grouped the City Hall, the new Post Office, St. Patrick’s Church, the First Presbyterian Church, and the Odd Fellows’ Hall. In the square are a statue of Franklin, by Hiram Powers, a monument to John McDonough, and a statue of Henry Clay. Farther on is Lee Circle, with a monument to General Robert E. Lee. At the corner of Camp Street and Howard Avenue, adjoining Lee Circle, stands the Howard Library, the last work of H. H. Richardson, who was a native of Louisiana. Adjacent are Memorial Hall, a museum of Confederate relics, and the new building of the Public Library. To the southwest, in Carondelet Street, is the Jewish Temple Sinai. The monument to Margaret Haughery, the “Orphans’ Friend,” is said to have been the first statue of a woman erected in the United States.

Tulane Avenue, named in honor of the chief benefactor of Tulane University, and its continuation Common Street, contain the Law Department of Tulane University, the House of Detention, the Jesuit Church of the Immaculate Conception in a singular Moorish style, the Parish Prison and Criminal Courts, the Hôtel Dieu, and the large Charity Hospital, originally established in 1784. The large Cotton Exchange is at the corner of Carondelet and Gravier Streets; the Produce Exchange is in Magazine Street, and the Sugar Exchange is at the foot of Bienville Street. The United States Marine Hospital lies near the river.

St. Charles Avenue, extending in a crescent from Lee Circle past Audubon Park to the river, is lined with oaks and magnolias and contains many old and admirable private residences. Among its public buildings are Christ Church, the New Orleans University, the Academy of the Sacred Heart, the Jewish Orphan Home, and the Harmony Club. At the point where the avenue crosses Audubon Park are the newer buildings of the Tulane University, an important and well-equipped institution. A department of Tulane University is the H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College for Women, founded in 1886. A legacy of John McDonough has built and equipped thirty handsome school houses in different parts of the city.

The City Park, on the Metairie Ridge, is one hundred and fifty acres in extent. The Audubon Park, in which the Great Exhibition of 1884-1885 was held, and which now holds the “Sugar Experimental Station” of the State of Louisiana, is a long segment extending back from the river, being the ground in which the sugar cane was first grown in this state. Both parks contain fine live-oaks.

New Orleans is the largest cotton market in the world except Liverpool, handling annually two million bales. The manufacturing products include machinery, cotton goods, boots and shoes, and amount in a year to sixty million dollars. As the outlet of the Mississippi Valley it commands a large export trade.

The site of New Orleans was first visited in 1699 by Bienville, who in 1718 laid the foundations of the city, and in 1726 made it the capital. In 1763 it was ceded to Spain by France, with the rest of Louisiana; but when in 1765 the Spanish governor attempted to take possession, he was driven out, and the people established a government of their own till 1769, when the Spaniards occupied it. It was ceded to France in 1802, and transferred to the United States a few days later. Incorporated as a city in 1804, it was divided in 1836-1852 into three separate municipalities, in consequence of the jealousies between the Creoles and the Americans. Other outstanding events have been the defeat of the British by Andrew Jackson in 1815; the capture in 1862 by the Federal fleet; serious political troubles with fighting in 1874 and 1877; and the lynching in 1891 of eleven Italian maffiosi. In 1880 the capital of Louisiana was removed from New Orleans to Baton Rouge.

=Newport, R. I.= [The “City of Mansions”; named in honor of the English admiral Christopher Newport (under James I.).]

It was, until 1900, one of the capitals of Rhode Island, and lies on the west shore of the island, in Narragansett Bay, five miles from the ocean, and sixty-nine miles by railroad southwest of Boston. It has a deep and excellent harbor, defended by Fort Adams.

The town is noted for fine scenery, and is one of the most fashionable watering-places in America, containing some of the finest mansions in the United States. Bathing facilities are unrivaled, and there are many fashionable promenades.

The chief attractions are Touro Park, and the Old Mill, Cliff Walk, Bailey’s Beach, and the Ocean Drive.

The central point of Old Newport is Washington Square, or the Parade, within a few minutes’ walk of the railway station and steamboat wharf. Here are the State House, with portrait of Washington, by Stuart; the old City Hall (new one in Broadway, corner of Bull Street); a statue of Commodore O. H. Perry, the hero of Lake Erie; the Perry Mansion, and the Roman Catholic Church, with an Ionic portico.

Following Touro Street, to the southeast, is the Synagogue built in 1762 and the oldest in the United States; the Newport Historical Society; and, a little beyond, the picturesque Hebrew Cemetery. Touro Street ends here and Bellevue Avenue, the fashionable promenade, begins, running to the south.

The fine Fern-leaf Beech is at the corner of Bellevue Avenue and Redwood Street. Nearly opposite this is Touro Park, containing the Round Tower or Old Stone Mill, the origin of which is still somewhat of a mystery. Some authorities believe that it was built by Governor Arnold in the seventeenth century as a wind-mill, while others regard it as very possibly the central part of a church built by the Norsemen in the eleventh century. Longfellow mentions it in his Skeleton in Armor. The park also contains statues of M. C. Perry and W. E. Channing; and opposite its south side stands the Channing Memorial Church.

A few hundred paces farther on, Bath Road leads to the left from Bellevue Avenue to the First Beach.

Bellevue Avenue soon passes the Casino, a long, low, many-gabled building, containing a club, a theater, etc. The Lawn Tennis Championship of America is decided in the courts attached to the Casino. Farther on, the avenue passes between a series of magnificent villas, and then turns sharply to the right and ends at Bailey’s Beach.

First or Easton’s Beach, a strip of smooth hard sand, three-fourths mile long, affords some of the best and safest surf-bathing on the Atlantic coast. From the east end of the beach a road leads round Easton’s Point to Purgatory, a curious fissure in the conglomerate rocks, one hundred and fifty feet long, seven to fourteen feet wide, and fifty feet deep.

At the west end of Easton’s Beach begins the famous Cliff Walk, which runs along the winding brow of the cliffs for about three miles, with the ocean on one side and the smooth lawns of handsome homes on the other. Here are summer residences, owned by the wealthiest society people of Boston, New York, and other cities.

Across the hill is Bailey’s Beach, a small bay with a long row of bathing-houses, which has become the fashionable bathing-resort of the Newport cottagers.

From Bailey’s Beach begins the beautiful Ocean or Ten Mile Drive, which skirts the coast of the peninsula to the south of the town for about ten miles, commanding magnificent views.

The locality of Newport has many natural curiosities, including the Hanging Rocks, Spouting Cave, and the Glen, or “Purgatory,” already referred to. Newport is the seat of the United States Naval War College, United States Training Station, Torpedo Station, Naval Hospital, Newport Hospital, and Hazard Memorial School.

The manufactures are flour, cotton goods, copper, brass, oil, etc.

Newport was settled in 1638 by eighteen adherents of Roger Williams, and was an important commercial town prior to the Revolutionary war, which effected its ruin and transferred its trade to New York. During the war it was occupied for three years by the British, and for a while by the French under Rochambeau. It was the birthplace of Commodore Perry and William Ellery Channing, and for a while the place of residence of Bishop Berkeley, the English philosopher.

=New York City, N. Y.= [The “Empire City”; also “Gotham”; named from the State which was named in honor of James, Duke of York, afterwards James II.]

It is the largest and most important city on the American continent, the second wealthiest on the globe, and, next to London, the most populous in the world. Situated on New York Bay at the confluence of the Hudson and East Rivers, about twelve miles from the Atlantic Ocean, it consists of the boroughs of Manhattan, The Bronx, Brooklyn, Queens, and Richmond, which have a joint area of three hundred and twenty-six square miles. Its extreme length, north and south, is thirty-five miles, its extreme width nineteen miles.

Manhattan, or New York proper, consists mainly of Manhattan Island, a long and narrow tongue of land bounded by the Hudson or North River on the west and the East River (part of Long Island Sound) on the east and separated from the mainland on the north and northeast by the narrow Harlem River and Spuyten Duyvil Creek; but also includes several small islands in New York Bay and the East River.

Manhattan Island is thirteen and one-half miles long, with an average breadth of one and three-fifths miles, and with the exception of a small, wild, and rocky portion, which is utilized for ornamental purposes, the entire island is laid out in avenues and streets. It includes several greens and parks, and its area has been considerably extended by filling in on the two river-sides.

The strikingly beautiful landlocked harbor of New York includes the lower bay, the upper bay, the East River, and the North, or Hudson River. Ocean steamships enter it from the sea by Sandy Hook through the Narrows, and coasting ships from the north through Long Island Sound. The North River averages a mile wide; the East River is not so wide, but both are deep enough for the largest ships, and furnish many miles of wharfage. The Harlem River, at the north end of Manhattan Island, connects the two great rivers.

The bar at Sandy Hook, eighteen miles south of the city, which divides the Atlantic Ocean from the outer or lower bay, is crossed by two ship-channels, from twenty-one to thirty-two feet deep at ebb-tide. The lower bay covers eighty-eight square miles. The Narrows, through which all large ships pass on their way to the inner harbor, is a strait between Long Island and Staten Island, about a mile in width, and like other approaches is defended by forts. New York’s harbor or inner bay covers about fourteen square miles; it is one of the amplest, safest, and most picturesque on the globe, open all the year round.

Liberty Island, for a long time known as Bedloe’s Island, is situated in the harbor, about one and three-fourths miles from the lower end of the city. In 1886 the famous Bartholdi statue was erected on this spot, and occupies its central surface. It is a colossal bronze female figure one hundred and fifty-one feet in height, on a pedestal one hundred and fifty-five feet high, and holding aloft a torch which is lit by electricity at night.

Immense bridges span the East River and Harlem River, and there are some thirty steam-ferries.

The New York and Brooklyn Suspension Bridge, opened in 1883, which cost twenty million dollars, was soon found inadequate for the enormous traffic, and a second bridge from Canal Street to Brooklyn was opened in 1909.

The Williamsburg Suspension Bridge, between Manhattan and Williamsburg, was opened in 1903. It cost twelve million dollars.

The Queensboro Bridge, of cantilever type, between Long Island and Fifty-ninth Street, was opened in 1909. Its cost was twenty million dollars.

In 1909 another bridge from Manhattan to Brooklyn, built at a cost of twenty-six million dollars, was completed.

The Harlem River is crossed by several bridges, of which the Washington is noteworthy as being one of the finest in America.

Hell Gate Arch Bridge spans the East River at Hell Gate, between Ward’s Island and Astoria, Long Island. It was designed and built by Gustav Lindenthal for the New York Connecting Railroad to connect the Pennsylvania and New York, New Haven systems, at a cost, including approaches, of twenty-five million dollars. It is the longest arch in the world. The span is one thousand and sixteen feet ten inches between tower faces. The upper chord of the arch is three hundred feet above mean high water at the center and one hundred and eighty feet at the ends of the span; the lower chord is two hundred and sixty feet above mean high water at the center and forty feet at the ends; the roadway is one hundred and forty feet above mean high water.

Old New York is laid out very irregularly. Here the money interests and wholesale traffic are centered; Wall, New, and Broad Streets being the great centers of banking and speculative enterprises.

The newer part of the city, from Fourteenth Street to the end of the island, northward, is divided into twelve great avenues and several smaller ones, from seventy-five to one hundred and fifty feet in width, running north and south. These are crossed at right angles by streets, mostly sixty feet in width, running from river to river.

Fifth Avenue, the great modern central thoroughfare, divides the city into eastside and westside. Here or hereabout are the largest banks, churches, museums, libraries, shops, palaces, and tenements in America.

Fifth Avenue below Fifty-ninth Street is now largely occupied by store and office buildings where once were palatial private houses; and between Madison Square and Fifty-ninth Street contains many hotels and clubs, and the New York Public Library.

The original great thoroughfare, Broadway, runs a northwesterly course through the regular cross street arrangement, making some slight deflections, quite through the middle of the island.

For a distance of two and one-half miles from Fifty-ninth to One Hundred and Tenth Street, Central Park divides the city into two parts.

Other parks are Van Cortlandt, one thousand and sixty-nine acres; Pelham Bay, one thousand seven hundred acres; and Bronx Park, six hundred and sixty-one and sixty-one hundredths acres, containing the Botanical and Zoological Gardens. Prospect Park, Brooklyn, contains five hundred and sixteen and one-quarter acres. A recreation course, skirting the Harlem River, and reserved for fast driving, is the “Speedway,” and extending along the Hudson for three miles is Riverside Drive, with its striking views of the Palisades. On an abrupt elevation is Morningside Park, on which are located the new buildings of Columbia University, St. Luke’s Hospital, and the Cathedral of St. John the Divine. Beyond Morningside Park is a rocky ridge known as Washington Heights.

The most thickly settled part of Brooklyn borough is in the north, and the business portion is that part fronting on East River and the upper harbor. The southern part is largely marshland. At the southwestern extremity of Long Island, in this borough, stretches a sandbar known as Coney Island, on which are the widely-known popular summer resorts. Queensboro has several large population centers, among them Long Island City and Flushing. Richmond borough (Staten Island) contains numerous villages.

Communication throughout the city is afforded by an extensive system of electric surface, electric elevated roads, the great subway railroad system, and by ferries plying between the boroughs.

The subway has, for part of its course, four tracks, two of which are for express trains. It begins at the City Hall and traverses the whole length of Manhattan Island. The first length of eight miles to Washington Heights was opened in 1904. The following year the line was extended to the Battery, and also under the Harlem River into Bronx. In 1908 a further extension was opened between the Battery and Brooklyn by way of a tunnel. In 1909, a double-tube tunnel, the McAdoo, connected the city at Sixth Avenue and Twenty-third Street with Hoboken, N. J.

In 1910 several tunnels under the Hudson and East Rivers were opened. Other great works of development are almost constantly in progress to deal with the traffic requirements, including further subways, a number of river tunnels, and additional railroad terminals. A recent gigantic railway enterprise is the construction of the Pennsylvania tunnel under the Hudson River.

Some of the larger features of New York call for more detailed notice.

The architecture of New York exhibits great contrasts, including styles as diverse as the quaint old Dutch houses, and skyscrapers of twenty-five and thirty stories.

At the extreme south end of the island is the Custom House, a large quadrangular granite building, in the French Renaissance style, which occupies the site of Fort Amsterdam. The facade toward Bowling Green is adorned with colossal groups of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, and with twelve heroic figures representing the great sea-powers.

In Whitehall Street, opposite the Custom House, is the Produce Exchange, a huge brick and terra cotta structure in the Italian Renaissance style, containing numerous offices and a large hall. The tower, two hundred and twenty-five feet high, commands a fine view of the city and harbor.

Broadway begins at the Bowling Green, extending hence all the way to Yonkers, a distance of nineteen miles. Up to Thirty-third Street, Broadway is the scene of a most busy and varied traffic, which reaches its culminating point in the lower part of the street during business-hours. This part of the street is almost entirely occupied by wholesale houses, insurance offices, banks, and the like; but farther up are numerous fine shops. Broadway is no longer the broadest street in New York, but it is still the most important. The number of immensely tall office buildings with which it is now lined give it a curiously canyon-like appearance.

No. 1 Broadway, to the left, is the Washington Building, which is adjoined by the Bowling Green Building (sixteen stories), designed by English architects. Other conspicuous business buildings in the lower part of Broadway are the large Welles and Standard Oil Co. Buildings, Nos. 18, 26, the 42 Broadway Building, twenty stories, and Aldrich Court, on the site of the first habitation of white men on Manhattan Island. At Nos. 64-68 is the Manhattan Life Insurance Co., the tower of which is three hundred and sixty feet high. To the left, at the corner of Rector Street, is the imposing Empire Building, twenty stories, the hall of which forms a busy thoroughfare between Broadway and the Rector Street “L” station.

Wall Street diverging from Broadway to the right, at this point, is the great financial street of New York, the financial barometer of the country. On this street stands the United States Sub-Treasury, a marble structure with a Doric portico, occupying the site of the old Federal Hall, in which the first United States Congress assembled, and Washington was inaugurated as President; the Drexel Building, a white marble structure in the Renaissance style, occupied by J. Pierpont Morgan & Co.; the National City Bank, largest in the country, occupying the old Custom House.

Trinity Church, on the west side of Broadway, is a handsome Gothic edifice of brown stone, with a spire two hundred and eighty-five feet high. The present building dates from 1839-1846, but occupies the site of a church of 1696. The church owns property to the value of at least twenty million dollars used in the support of several subsidiary churches and numerous charities.

Just above Trinity Church are the enormous Trinity and United States Realty buildings, two dignified structures, the former with an admirable facade in a modified Gothic style, and nearly opposite are the Union Trust Co. and the twenty-three story building of the American Surety Co., the latter containing the United States Weather Bureau (“Old Probabilities”). On the same side, between Pine Street and Cedar Street, is the office of the Equitable Life Insurance Co.

The block to the left, between Liberty Street and Cortland Street, is occupied by the buildings of the Singer Manufacturing Co., the City Realty Co., and the City Investing Co. The tower of the Singer Building, with its forty-one stories, rises to a height of six hundred and twelve feet. Between Broadway and Park Row is the Post Office, a large Renaissance building.

City Hall, containing the headquarters of the Mayor of Greater New York and other municipal authorities, is a well-proportioned building of marble in the Italian style, with a central portico, two projecting wings, and a cupola clock tower.

To the north of the City Hall is the Court House, a large building of white marble, with its principal entrance, garnished with lofty Corinthian columns, facing Chambers Street. The interior, which contains the State Courts and several municipal offices, is well fitted up. This building, one of the “Tweed ring” structures, is said to have cost twelve million dollars. Opposite the Court House, in Chambers Street, are various City Offices. These include the new Register Office or Hall of Records, a handsome building in the French Renaissance style, erected at a cost of six million dollars and faced with granite. The facade is adorned with sculptures, and the interior is also elaborately decorated. To the southwest of the City Hall, facing Broadway, is a statue of Nathan Hale.

Park Row, bounding the southeast side of the City Hall Park, contains the offices of many of the principal New York newspapers, the Pulitzer Building, with the World office, Tribune Building, New York Press, and Park Row Building with its lofty towers. Opposite the newspaper offices, in Printing House Square, is a bronze statue of Benjamin Franklin, and in front of the Tribune Building is a seated bronze figure of its famous founder, Horace Greeley.

Beyond Astor Place, Broadway passes the large building occupied by John Wanamaker, but originally erected for A. T. Stewart & Co. With its new annexes, it is heralded as the largest department store in the world.

Broadway now inclines to the left. At the bend rises Grace Church, which, with the adjoining rectory, chantry, and church-house, forms one of the most attractive ecclesiastical groups in New York. The church is of white limestone and has a lofty marble spire. The interior is well-proportioned, and all the windows contain stained glass.

At Fourteenth Street Broadway reaches Union Square, which is beautified with pleasure grounds, statues, and an ornamental fountain. At the corner of East Sixteenth Street is the massive office building of the Bank of Metropolis. Near the southeast corner is a good equestrian statue of Washington, in the center of the south side is a bronze statue of Lafayette, in the southwest corner is a statue of Abraham Lincoln, and on the west side is the James Fountain.

Broadway, between Union Square and Madison Square, is one of the chief shopping-resorts of New York, containing many fine stores for the sale of furniture, dry goods, etc. At Twenty-third Street it intersects Fifth Avenue and at the point of intersection stands the daring Fuller Building, generally known as the “Flat-iron Building” on account of its strange triangular shape. It is two hundred and ninety feet high, has twenty stories, and cost four million dollars.

Broadway now skirts the west side of Madison Square, a prettily laid out public garden, containing a bronze statue of Admiral Farragut, an obelisk to the memory of General Worth, a statue of Roscoe Conkling, a statue of President Arthur, and a statue of William H. Seward. The statue of Farragut is among the finest in New York, and the imaginative treatment of the pedestal is very beautiful. On the west side of the square is the new Fifth Avenue Building.

On the east side is the new Appellate Court House, a handsome building, perhaps somewhat overloaded with ornamentation.

On the east side of the square, between Twenty-third and Twenty-fourth Streets, is the enormous building of the Metropolitan Life Insurance Co., the tower of which has fifty stories and reaches a height of six hundred and ninety-three feet. Two elevators run to a height of five hundred and forty-four feet. Adjacent is the Madison Square Presbyterian Church, with its massive dome. At the southeast corner of Twenty-sixth Street stands the Manhattan Club, and at the northeast corner is the huge Madison Square Garden, with its Moorish tower capped by a fine statue of Diana.

The Herald Office, a Venetian palace, stands at Broadway and Thirty-fifth Street, in Herald Square.

West of Herald Square, at Seventh Avenue and Thirty-third Street, is the magnificent station of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, covering an area four hundred and fifty by one thousand eight hundred feet, the largest structure of the kind in the world, connected by tunnels under the Hudson River with New Jersey, and under the East River with Long Island. The tracks are forty feet below the level of the city streets.

The Metropolitan Opera House, opened in 1883 and rebuilt ten years later, after a fire, stands between Thirty-ninth and Fortieth Streets.

At Forty-second Street and Broadway is the Times Building, an ornamental structure sixteen stories high, upon a triangle of ground.

To the east of Madison Avenue is the Grand Central Station, the terminus of the New York Central, the New York, New Haven and Hartford, and the Harlem Railways. Opposite the station is the Belmont Hotel, twenty-two stories high.

The corner at Broadway and Forty-second Street is the recent heart of the theatrical and hotel district, for clustered there are a dozen hotels, the immense Astor and Knickerbocker among them, and there are twenty theaters within half a mile, six of them almost side by side on Forty-second Street.

Beyond Times Square, Broadway is rather uninteresting, but there are some lofty specimens of apartment houses or French flats farther up. From Forty-fifth Street on, Broadway is largely occupied by automobile stores and garages. At the corner of Fifty-sixth Street is the new Broadway Tabernacle and at Fifty-ninth Street Broadway reaches the southwest corner of Central Park and intersects Eighth Avenue.

At the intersection, the so-called Circle, stands the Columbus Monument by Gaetano Russo, erected in 1892, and consisting of a tall shaft surmounted by a marble statue, in all seventy-seven feet high. Beyond Seventy-eighth Street, Broadway, now a wide street with rows of trees, is usually known as the Boulevard. From One Hundred and Eighth Street to One Hundred and Sixty-second Street it coincides with Eleventh Avenue, at One Hundred and Sixteenth Street it passes Columbia University, and from One Hundred and Sixty-second Street it, as Kingsbridge Road, runs on to Yonkers.

Fifth Avenue, the chief street in New York from the standpoint of wealth and fashion, begins at Washington Square to the north of West Fourth Street and a little to the west of Broadway, and runs north to the Harlem River, a distance of six miles. Below Forty-seventh Street the Avenue has now been largely invaded by shops, tall office buildings, and hotels. The avenue has been kept sacred from the marring touch of the street railway or the elevated railroad, and is traversed by a line of motor omnibuses. The avenue is wide and well-paved, and many of the buildings are of brown sandstone. On a fine afternoon Fifth Avenue is alive with carriages and horsemen on their way to and from Central Park and it is, perhaps, seen at its best on a fine Sunday.

At Twenty-third Street the Avenue intersects Broadway and skirts Madison Square. To the right is the Flat-iron Building. At Twenty-sixth Street is the Café Martin.

The whole block between Thirty-third and Thirty-fourth Streets, to the left, is occupied by the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, a huge double building of red brick and sandstone in a German Renaissance style. The restaurants and other large halls in the interior are freely adorned with mural paintings by American artists.

The Union League Club, the chief Republican club of New York, is a handsome and substantial building at the corner of Thirty-ninth Street.

Between Fortieth Street and Forty-second Street, to the left, on the site of the old reservoir of the Croton Aqueduct, stands the New York Public Library, a very dignified and imposing structure of white marble, built at a cost of ten million dollars.

A little to the east of this point, in Forty-second Street, is the Grand Central Station already referred to. At the southeast corner of Forty-second Street rises the tasteful Columbia Bank. The Temple Emanu-El, or chief synagogue of New York, at the corner of Forty-third Street, is a fine specimen of Moorish architecture with a richly decorated interior.

At the northeast corner of Forty-fourth Street is Delmonico’s Restaurant, a substantial building with elaborate ornamentation; and at the southwest corner is Sherry’s, a rival establishment, equally patronized by the fashionable world.

The Collegiate Church of St. Nicholas (Dutch Reformed), at the corner of Forty-eighth Street, is one of the handsomest and most elaborately adorned ecclesiastical edifices in the city. It is in decorated Gothic style and has a spire two hundred and seventy feet high. Just below Fiftieth Street, on the right, is the Democratic Club, the stronghold of Tammany and popularly known as “Tamany Hall” or the “Wigwam.”

Between Fiftieth and Fifty-first Streets, to the right, stands St. Patrick’s Cathedral, an extensive building of white marble in the decorated Gothic style, and the most important ecclesiastical edifice in the United States. It is four hundred feet long, one hundred and twenty-five feet wide and one hundred and twelve feet high, and the two beautiful spires are three hundred and thirty-two feet high. The building, which was designed by James Renwick, was erected in 1850-1879, at a cost of three million five hundred thousand dollars.

Adjoining the cathedral, to the right, is the handsome Union Club, and at the corner of Fifty-fourth Street is the University Club, adorned with carvings of the seals of eighteen American colleges. The library contains admirable mural paintings, adapted from Pinturicchio’s work in the Borgia apartments of the Vatican. At the corner of Fifty-fifth Street are the St. Regis Hotel and the Gotham Hotel. The Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church has one of the loftiest spires in the city.

Between Fifty-ninth and One Hundred and Tenth Streets Fifth Avenue skirts the east side of Central Park, having buildings on one side only. Among these, many of which are very handsome, is the Metropolitan Club.

At Fifty-ninth Street, where Fifth Avenue reaches Central Park, are three huge hotels: the New Plaza, the Savoy, and the Netherland. In the middle of the Plaza rises a bronze-gilt equestrian statue of General Sherman, of fine artistic merit.

Mt. Sinai Hospital is between One Hundredth and One Hundred and First Streets.

In Central Park, close to Fifth Avenue at Eighty-second Street, is the Metropolitan Museum of Art.

At One Hundred and Twentieth Street Fifth Avenue reaches Mount Morris Square, the mound in the center of which commands good views. Beyond Mt. Morris Square the Avenue is lined with handsome villas, some of them surrounded by gardens. It ends in a district of tenements and small shops at the Harlem River.

New York has many public parks, the finest of which is the Central Park. The district in which it is located was once a wilderness of rocks and swamps. Plans by Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux were so admirably carried out as to make the Central Park in ten years one of the most beautiful pleasure-grounds in the world.

Of its eight hundred and forty acres, four hundred are wooded. There are nine miles of drives, with thirty miles of paths, several lakes used for boats in summer and for skating in winter, immense lawns for baseball, tennis, etc., a zoological garden, and conservatories.

The chief promenade is the Mall, near the Fifth Avenue entrance, which is lined with fine elms and contains several statues and groups of sculpture, including Shakespeare, Scott, Burns, Halleck, Columbus, and the Indian Hunter. From the Terrace, at the north end of the Mall, flights of steps descend to the Bethesda Fountain and to the Lake, used for boating in summer and skating in winter. The most extensive view in the park is afforded by the Belvedere, which occupies the highest point of the Ramble, to the north of the Lake.

The North Park, beyond the Croton Reservoir, has fewer artificial features than the South Park, but its natural beauties are greater, and the Harlem Mere, of twelve acres, is very picturesque. Near the southeast corner of the park (nearest entrance in Sixty-fourth Street) are the Old State Arsenal and a small Zoological Garden. On the west side of the park is the American Museum of Natural History, and on the east side is the Metropolitan Museum of Art. To the west of the latter museum rises Cleopatra’s Needle, an Egyptian obelisk from Alexandria, presented by Khedive Ismail Pasha to the City of New York in 1877. The obelisk is of red syenite, is sixty-nine feet high and weighs two hundred tons. Among the other monuments in the park are statues of Webster, Bolivar, Hamilton and Morse, allegorical figures of Commerce and the Pilgrim, and several busts and animal groups. Just outside the park, beside the Sixth Avenue entrance, is a statue of Thorwaldsen.

In Manhattan Square, on the west side of Central Park, between Seventy-seventh and Eighty-first Streets, stands the American Museum of Natural History, which contains collections of natural history, paleontology and ethnology.

The Metropolitan Museum contains paintings, statuary, ivories, tapestries, porcelains, Greek, Roman, and Egyptian antiquities. Beginning with one structure erected by the city at a cost of five hundred thousand dollars in 1880, it now comprises a series of buildings which cost several million dollars. The collections of paintings, sculpture, antiquities, porcelains, jades, armor, etc., are valued at ten million dollars, most of which has been contributed by art lovers of the city. In 1903 the institution received a bequest of six million dollars from the well-known locomotive builder John T. Rogers, which has enabled it to compete with other great museums.

At the corner of Morningside Avenue and One Hundred and Twelfth Street is the new Episcopal Cathedral of St. John the Divine, designed by Heins and La Farge, the corner-stone of which was laid in 1892, but the building of which has not progressed very far. The Crypt, including the curious Tiffany Chapel of mosaic glass, and the Belmont or St. Saviour’s Chapel are the only portions completed. To the north of this, in the block bounded by Morningside Avenue, Tenth Avenue, One Hundred and Thirteenth Street, and One Hundred and Fourteenth Street, is the large building of St. Luke’s Hospital, constructed of white marble and white pressed brick, with a tower and clock over the main entrance.

To the northwest of this point, on a magnificent site extending from One Hundred and Fourteenth Street to One Hundred and Twenty-first Street, one hundred and ten to one hundred and fifty feet above the Hudson River, are the new buildings of Columbia University, the oldest, largest, and most important educational institution in New York. The finest building in the center of the group is the Low Memorial Library, built at a cost of one million dollars.

On a commanding site bounded by One Hundred and Thirty-eighth Street, Amsterdam Avenue, One Hundred and Fortieth Street, and St. Nicholas Terrace, are the imposing new buildings of the College of the City of New York, erected in 1903-1908 by Mr. George B. Post, in the low-arch Gothic style, at a cost of nearly five million dollars, and notable for their uniformity of design and symmetry of grouping.

Among other educational institutions are the Normal College, at Sixty-ninth Street and Park Avenue; the College of Physicians and Surgeons; the New York University; Cooper Union, in which nearly all the courses are free; St. John’s (Fordham), Manhattan, and St. Francis Xavier, Roman Catholic colleges; the National Academy of Design; Society of American Artists; the Art Students’ League; Chase Art School; New York Institute of Music, and various theological schools.

Riverside Drive or Park, skirting the hills fronting on the Hudson from Seventy-second Street to One Hundred and Twenty-seventh Street, affords beautiful views of the river and is one of the most striking roads of which any city can boast. It has become, perhaps, the most attractive residential quarter of New York, though a great architectural opportunity has been lost in the buildings that border it, these consisting largely of apartment hotels, remarkable mainly for their size.

Near the north end of the drive, on Claremont Heights (West One Hundred and Twenty-second Street), is the Tomb of General Ulysses S. Grant, a huge and solid mausoleum of white granite, erected in 1891-1897 at a cost of six hundred thousand dollars, from a design by J. H. Duncan. The monument consists of a lower story in the Doric style, ninety feet square, surmounted by a cupola borne by Ionic columns. The total height is one hundred and fifty feet.

John Verrazani, a Florentine navigator, was the first European who entered New York Bay (1525). In 1614 the Dutch built a fort on Manhattan Island, and in 1623 a permanent settlement was made, named Nieuw Amsterdam. In 1674 Manhattan Island came into the possession of Great Britain. At the Revolution the population was less than that of Philadelphia or Boston. It was evacuated by the forces of Great Britain in 1783, and from 1785 to 1789 was the seat of government of the United States. The opening of the Erie Canal in 1825 gave a vast impetus to New York City’s growth. The city by 1874 had extended beyond the Harlem River and a part of Westchester County was incorporated in it. In 1896 a law was passed consolidating with New York City, Brooklyn (Kings County), Long Island City, Staten Island, Westchester, Flushing, Newtown, Jamaica, and parts of Eastchester, Pelham, and Hempstead. By the charter adopted in 1897 this territory was divided into the boroughs of Manhattan, Brooklyn, Bronx, Richmond, and Queens. A new charter was secured in 1907 under which the mayor presides over the entire city, with absolute power of appointment and removal of the heads of all city departments. In 1911 a new charter was drawn up which evoked considerable opposition, as it seemed to place still greater powers in the hands of the mayor.

=Philadelphia= (fĭl-ȧ-del´fĭ-ȧ), =Pa.= [The “Quaker City”; named from two Greek words meaning “loved or friendly,” and “brother,” applied as “brotherly love.” The Indian name of the locality was Coaquannok, “grove of tall pine trees.”]

The chief city of Pennsylvania and the third city in population and importance of the United States, it is situated on the Delaware River, about one hundred miles by ship-channel (via Delaware Bay) from the Atlantic Ocean, ninety miles by railroad southwest of New York City, and one hundred and thirty-six miles northeast of Washington.

The city occupies mainly a broad plain between the Delaware and the Schuylkill Rivers. It is twenty-two miles long from north to south and five to ten miles wide, covering one hundred and thirty square miles, and is laid out with chessboard regularity. The characteristic Philadelphia house is a two-storied or three-storied structure of red pressed brick, with white marble steps. The two rivers give it about thirty miles of water-front for docks and wharfage, and it is the headquarters of two of the greatest American railways--the Pennsylvania and the Reading.

The great wholesale business thoroughfare is Market Street, running east and west between the two rivers, while Chestnut Street, parallel with it on the south, contains the finest shops, many of the newspaper offices, etc. Broad Street is the chief street running north and south. Among the most fashionable residence quarters are Rittenhouse Square and the west parts of Walnut, Locust, Spruce, and Pine Streets. Eighth Street is the great district for shops and amusements.

The City Hall (or Public Buildings) is in the center of the city at the intersection of Broad and Market Streets. The structure is the largest exclusively municipal building in the world. It is built of white marble upon a granite base, in French Renaissance style, and covers an area of four hundred and eighty-six by four hundred and seventy feet. The height of the tower and dome is five hundred and thirty-seven feet four and one-half inches; or five hundred and seventy-three feet four and one-half inches with the colossal figure of Penn (thirty-six feet), to surmount the whole. The entire cost, when completely furnished for occupancy, was estimated at twenty-five million dollars.

The broad pavement round the City Hall is adorned with statues of General Reynolds, General McClellan, Stephen Girard, John C. Bullitt, President McKinley, and Joseph Leidy, the naturalist, and with the “Pilgrim” by Saint-Gaudens.

On the west side of City Hall Square, opposite the City Hall, is the enormous Broad Street Station of the Pennsylvania Railroad. The waiting-room contains a large allegorical relief, while one wall is covered with a mammoth railway map of the United States. On the north side of the square, at the corner of Broad Street and Filbert Street, is the Masonic Temple, a huge granite structure with a tower two hundred and fifty feet high and an elaborately carved Norman porch.

On the east side of the square, occupying the block bounded by the square, Market Street, Thirteenth Street, and Chestnut Street, is Wanamaker’s Store, one of the largest in the United States. On the south side of the square is the Betz Building, with heads of the Presidents of the United States in the bronze cornice above the third-story windows.

Chestnut Street is the chief street of Philadelphia, containing many of the handsomest and most interesting buildings. To the left, at the corner of Broad Street and adjoining the Betz Building, is the Franklin National Bank, while to the right rises the fine office of the Real Estate Trust Co. At the corner of Twelfth Street is the tall Commonwealth Trust Building, and at the corner of Tenth Street, on the same side, is the New York Mutual Life Insurance Co.

Between Tenth and Ninth Streets, to the left, are the Mortgage Trust Co., the Penn Mutual Life Building, with an elaborate facade, and the office of the Philadelphia Record. At the corner of Ninth Street, extending on the north to Market Street, is the Post Office, a large granite building in the Renaissance style, erected at a cost of five million dollars. It also contains the United States Courts and the offices of various Federal officials. In front of the Post Office is a colossal seated figure of Benjamin Franklin. Between Eighth and Seventh Streets is the ornamented front of the Union Trust Co. This neighborhood contains several newspaper offices. At the corner of Sixth Street, on the Public Ledger Building, is another statue of Franklin.

In Seventh Street, a little to the north of Chestnut Street, is the Franklin Institute with a library, museum and lecture-hall.

Between Fifth and Sixth Streets is Independence Hall, or the old State House, a modest brick edifice (1732-1735), which is in some respects the most interesting building in the United States. Here the Continental Congress met during the American Revolution (1775-1781), and here, on July 4th, 1776, the Declaration of Independence was adopted. In 1897-1898 the whole building was restored as far as possible to its original condition.

The Custom House, with a Doric portico, was originally erected in 1819-1824 for the United States Bank. It is copied from the Parthenon, and considered one of the best examples of Doric architecture in the world.

A lane diverging to the right between Fourth and Third Streets, opposite the Fidelity Trust Co., leads to Carpenters’ Hall, where the First Colonial Congress assembled in 1774. It contains the chairs used at the Congress, various historical relics, and the inscription: “Within these walls Henry, Hancock, and Adams inspired the delegates of the colonies with nerve and sinew for the toils of war.” Chestnut Street ends at the Delaware River.

Walnut Street runs parallel to Chestnut Street, one block to the south. In this street, at the intersection of Dock Street and Third Street, is the Stock Exchange, formerly the Merchants Exchange, with a semi-circular portico facing the river. Near it, in Third Street, is the Girard Bank, built for the first United States Bank and long owned by Stephen Girard. At Fourth Street is the building of the Manhattan Insurance Co.

Walnut Street now crosses Broad Street, to the west of which it consists mainly of private residences. Between Eighteenth and Nineteenth Streets we pass Rittenhouse Square, a fashionable residence quarter.

At the corner of Broad and Chestnut Streets are the white marble building of the Girard Trust Co., with a rotunda, and the tall Land Title Building.

North Broad Street, beginning on the north side of the City Hall Square, a handsome street one hundred and thirteen feet wide, contains in its upper portion many of the finest private residences in Philadelphia. To the right, at the corner of Filbert Street, is the Masonic Temple, which is adjoined by the Arch Street Methodist Episcopal Church. On the opposite side of the street are the tall buildings of the United Gas Improvement Co. and the Fidelity Mutual Life Association. To the right is the Odd Fellows’ Temple.

To the left, at the corner of Cherry Street, is the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, a building in the Venetian style of architecture. The Academy was founded in 1805. Besides its collections it supports an important art-school, the lecture hall of which is adorned with effective decorations by the pupils. Its collections include five hundred paintings, numerous sculptures, several hundred casts, and fifty thousand engravings. The early American school is especially well represented.

On the west side of Broad Street, between Race and Vine Streets, are the Hahnemann College and Hospital, one of the chief homœopathic institutions of the kind. To the right, at the corner of Spring Garden Street, is the Spring Garden Institute for instruction in drawing, painting, and the mechanic arts. Opposite are the Baldwin Locomotive Works, a highly interesting industrial establishment.

A little farther on is the Boys’ Central High School, an unusually large and handsome structure, and the Synagogue Rodef Shalom, in a Moorish style.

Farther up Broad Street are numerous handsome private houses, churches, and other edifices. At the northwest corner of Broad Street and Girard Avenue is the handsome Widener Mansion, presented to the city and used as a branch of the Free Library. Beyond Master Street, to the left, is the elaborate home of the Mercantile Club. Beyond this Broad Street runs out to Germantown, six miles from the City Hall.

Girard Avenue runs west from North Broad Street to Girard College, one of the richest and most notable philanthropic institutions in the United States. It was founded by Stephen Girard, a native of France, for the education of male orphans. The original bequest of over five million dollars has increased to about thirty-five million dollars.

The main building is a dignified marble structure in the Corinthian style, resembling the Madeleine at Paris. In the vestibule are a statute of Stephen Girard, and his sarcophagus. A room on the ground floor contains several relics of him.

Market Street is the chief wholesale business thoroughfare of the city. A little to the east of City Hall Square it passes the Philadelphia & Reading Railway Station, a tall Renaissance building with a train shed little smaller than that of the Pennsylvania Railroad. The department store of Gimbel Brothers, on the south side of the street, between Eighth and Ninth Streets, is one of the largest in the world. The Penn National Bank, at the corner of South Seventh Street, occupies the site of the house in which Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence.

South Broad Street leads to the south from City Hall Square. Its intersection with Chestnut Street, just to the south of the City Hall, is environed with tall office buildings. To the right is the annex of the Land Title Building, extending to Sansom Street. Opposite, adjoining the Real Estate Trust Co., is the North American Building, named after the newspaper which occupies it. Below is the Union League Club, the chief Republican club of Pennsylvania. On the same side is the large Bellevue-Stratford Hotel, the leading hotel of Philadelphia, and one of the great hostelries of the country. Farther on, to the right, is the Art Club, in the Renaissance style, in which exhibitions of paintings, concerts, and public lectures are held. At Locust Street, to the right, is the Academy of Music, while to the left is the Pennsylvania School of Industrial Art, incorporated in 1876, with a special view to the development of the art industries of Pennsylvania. A characteristic feature is the department of weaving and textile design. The Industrial Museum Hall is connected with this excellent institution.

Below Pine Street, Broad Street contains few important buildings. Of special note, however, is the Ridgway Library, which stands to the left, between Christian and Carpenter Streets, nearly one mile from the City Hall. This handsome building was erected with a legacy of one million five hundred thousand dollars left by Dr. Rush in 1869, as a branch of the Philadelphia Library. Adjoining the main hall is the tomb of the founder.

Broad Street ends, four miles from the City Hall, at League Island Park, three hundred acres in extent. League Island itself, in the Delaware, contains a United States Navy Yard.

WEST PHILADELPHIA, the extension of the city beyond the Schuylkill, contains many of the chief residence streets and several public buildings and charitable institutions.

The University of Pennsylvania, founded in 1740, and removed to West Philadelphia in 1872, occupies a group of more than thirty buildings scattered over an area of sixty acres bounded by Woodland and Cleveland Avenues and Pine and Thirty-second Streets.

The College, the Medical School, Dental School, and Law School, are all provided with spacious and well-equipped buildings. Houston Hall, behind College Hall, is the social center of the University student life. The Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology is recognized as the headquarters of anatomical research in the United States and contains the first museum of human anatomy founded in America. The Morgan Laboratory of Physics, the Harrison Laboratory of Chemistry, the Gymnasium, and the Dormitories are all notable structures. Franklin Field, adjoining Thirty-third Street, is the athletic ground of the University and contains a large stadium.

The Museum of Science and Art occupies a tasteful building in South Street, owing part of its inspiration to the Certosa at Pavia, and is divided into five sections. Its value is largely due to the fact that many of its contents were found by expeditions organized by the University itself.

A little to the northeast, at the corner of Chestnut Street and Thirty-second Street, is the Drexel Institute, founded by A. J. Drexel, and opened in 1892. The total cost of buildings and equipment was four million five hundred thousand dollars.

Fairmount Park, the chief park of Philadelphia, is one of the largest in the world, and covers an area of three thousand three hundred and forty acres. The park proper extends along both banks of the Schuylkill for about four miles, and the narrow strip along the Wissahickon, six miles, and one of the noted drives of the world, is also included in the park limits. The principal entrances are at the end of Green Street, which is connected with the City Hall by the wide Park Boulevard, and at Girard Avenue.

In this park, in 1876 was held the Centennial Exhibition; and in its environs are the Zoological Garden, the Fairmount Waterworks, which supply to the city one hundred million gallons of water daily, the beautiful Horticultural Hall and Memorial Hall, built as part of the Centennial Exhibition of 1876 at a cost of one million five hundred thousand dollars, and now containing a permanent collection of art and industry known as Pennsylvania Museum of Industrial Art.

At Sackamaxon, in Beach Street, is the small Penn Treaty Park, supposed to occupy the spot where Penn made his treaty with the Indians in 1682, under an elm that has long since vanished, a treaty, in the words of Voltaire, “never sworn to and never broken.”

In its manufacturing products Philadelphia ranks next to New York. There are upward of twenty thousand manufacturing establishments, the combined output of which amounts to more than eight hundred million dollars. The chief products are locomotives, sugar and molasses, men’s clothing, foundry and machine-shop products, carpets and rugs, hosiery and knit goods, woolen and cotton goods, malt liquors, morocco, chemicals, packed meat, refined petroleum and silk, and silk goods. The great Cramp ship-building yards are on the Delaware River. The Baldwin Locomotive Works are the largest in the world.

Philadelphia was founded by William Penn in 1682, the year after was made the capital of Pennsylvania, and soon became a place of importance. It was the central point in the War of Independence, where the first Continental Congress met, September 4, 1774, and where the Declaration of Independence was adopted in 1776. At Philadelphia, also, the Federal Union was signed, in 1778; and here, too, the Constitution of the United States was framed, in 1787. An interest of another kind attaches to the fact that the Protestant Episcopal Church of North America was organized here in 1786. From 1790 to 1800 Philadelphia was the Federal Capital; and the first mint was established here in 1792. Later events have been the holding of the Centennial Exhibition, in 1876, and the commemoration of Penn’s landing in 1882.

=Pittsburgh, Pa.= [The “Smoky City,” “Iron City”; named in 1758, when the French had been driven out by Washington; Fort Pitt, after William Pitt, Earl of Chatham, the name Pittsburgh being adopted in 1769.]

It is the second city of Pennsylvania and one of the chief industrial centers of the United States, and occupies the tongue of land between the Monongahela and the Allegheny, which here unite to form the Ohio, and also a strip of land on the south side of the Monongahela. The sister city, Allegheny, situated on the north bank of the Allegheny and extending down to the Ohio, was incorporated with Pittsburgh in 1907 and is now known as the North Side. The rivers are crossed by numerous bridges.

Smithfield Street, diverging from Liberty Avenue, not far from the Union Station, leads to the river Monongahela, on the other side of which, from Washington Heights, may be obtained a fine view of the city. On Liberty Avenue, to the right, is the City Hall a fine structure of white sandstone. A little farther on, to the left, is the Post Office. At the bridge are the Monongahela Hotel and the Baltimore & Ohio Station.

Crossing the Smithfield Street Bridge, Mt. Washington (three hundred and seventy feet) may be ascended by one of the three inclined railways on this side. These interesting, but at first somewhat startling, pieces of apparatus are worked by cables and transport horses and carriages as well as persons.

The finest building in Pittsburgh is the Allegheny County Court House, in Grant Street, a splendid example of H. H. Richardson’s treatment of Romanesque, erected in 1888 at a cost of two million five hundred thousand dollars. The massive Prison is connected with the Court House by a finely handled stone bridge. The main tower is three hundred and twenty feet high. The government building cost one million five hundred thousand dollars.

Other buildings of importance are the Frick Building, a granite office structure of twenty stories at the corner of Fifth Avenue and Grant Street; the Carnegie Building and the Farmers’ Bank Building (these two also in Fifth Avenue); the Union National Bank Building and the Commonwealth Trust Co. Building, in Fourth Avenue; the First Presbyterian Church, in Sixth Avenue; the Fulton Building, and the Bessemer Building (the last two at the corner of Sixth Street and Duquesne Way).

More to the east are the Academy of Our Lady of Mercy and the new Calvary Episcopal Church (at the corner of Shady Avenue and Walnut Street), a beautiful example of thirteenth century Gothic. The Roman Catholic Cathedral of St. Paul stands in Fifth Avenue, at the corner of Craig Street.

To the east of the city lies Schenley Park, containing the fine Phipps Conservatory and the Hall of Botany. Near the Forbes Street entrance to the Park is the great central building of the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh, in which are housed not only the main collection of the library, but also two of the three departments of the Carnegie Institute. The structure, originally built in the Italian Renaissance style at a cost of eight hundred thousand dollars, was remodeled and enlarged in 1904-1907 at an additional cost of five million dollars. The city is also the seat of Pittsburgh University, Holy Ghost College, and Penn’s College for Women. The great iron and steel works have made the prosperity and reputation of Pittsburgh. Among these are the Edgar Thomson Steel Works, the Homestead Steel Works, the Duquesne Steel Works, the American Bridge Co., the Jones & Laughlin Works, the Oliver Iron & Steel Co., the Crescent Steel Works, and the Pressed Steel Car Co.

Its manufactures include everything, indeed, which can be made of iron, from a fifty-eight-ton gun to nails and tacks; steel in its various applications; electrical machinery and appliances; all descriptions of glass and glassware; silver and nickel-plated ware; Japan and Britannia ware; pressed tin, brass, copper, bronzes; Portland cement, earthenware, crucibles, fire-pots, bricks; furniture, wagons and carriages; brushes, bellows, mechanical supplies of all kinds; natural-gas fittings, and tools for oil and gas wells. Pittsburgh has, also, the largest manufactory of cork, and the largest pickling and preserving establishment in the world.

In 1754 a few English traders built a stockade here, but were driven away by the French. The latter replaced the stockade by a fort, which, in honor of the Governor of Canada, they called Duquesne. In 1758 it was taken by the English, who next year commenced a large and strong fortification, which, in honor of the elder Pitt, then Prime Minister, they called Fort Pitt. The settlement became a borough in 1804, and in 1816 was incorporated as the city of Pittsburgh. In 1872 the limits of the city were extended across the Monongahela, and by 1906 it extended over twenty-eight square miles. In 1907 Allegheny City (in spite of the opposition of a large majority of its inhabitants) was annexed; the Supreme Court of the United States declared the act valid, and thus Allegheny became the North Side of the present Pittsburgh.

=Richmond, Va.= [Named from Richmond-on-the-Thames, a suburb of London; the name suggested owing to analogy in situation.]

It is the capital of Virginia, on the left bank of the James River, at the head of tide water, one hundred and fifty miles from its mouth, and one hundred and sixteen miles by rail south of Washington. It is a port of entry, and vessels drawing sixteen feet of water can come up to the lower end of the city, where there are large docks. Richmond is picturesquely situated on a group of hills, and fine water power is afforded by the James River, which descends one hundred and sixteen feet in nine miles.

Near the center of the city, on Shockoe Hill, is Capitol Square, a tree-shaded area of twelve acres. The Capitol, or State House, partly designed after the Maison Carrée at Nîmes, France, occupies the highest point of the square and dates from 1785. The wings were added in 1906.

In the Central Hall, surmounted by a dome, are Houdon’s statue of Washington (which Washington himself is said to have seen in its present position) and a bust of Lafayette by the same artist. The Senate Chamber, to the right, was used as the Confederate House of Representatives during the Civil War. The House of Delegates, to the left, contains portraits of Chatham and Jefferson, and was the scene of Aaron Burr’s trial for high treason in 1807, and of the State Secession Convention in 1861.

Capitol Square also contains a fine equestrian statue of Washington, with figures of Patrick Henry, George Mason, Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Nelson, Andrew Lewis, and Chief Justice Marshall round the pedestal; a statue of Stonewall Jackson; a statue of Hunter Holmes McGuire, the most noted surgeon of the South; and a statue of Henry Clay. At the northeast corner of the square stands the Governor’s Mansion.

On the north side, in Broad Street, is the City Hall, a handsome Gothic structure with a clock-tower. To the east of the Capitol is the State Library. In Twelfth Street, at the corner of Clay Street, a little to the north of Capitol Square, is the Jefferson Davis Mansion, or “White House of the Confederacy,” occupied by Mr. Davis as President of the Southern Confederacy. It is now fitted up as a Museum of Confederate Relics.

St. John’s Church, erected in 1740, but since much enlarged, is at the corner of Broad and Twenty-fourth Streets. The Virginia Convention was held in this church in 1775, and it was here that Patrick Henry made his famous “give me liberty or give me death” speech.

On Monument Avenue (a prolongation of Franklin Street) is the equestrian statue of General Lee. Adjacent is an equestrian statue of General J. E. B. Stuart, and a half mile farther on, at the west end of the avenue, is the Jefferson Davis Monument, consisting of a semi-circular colonnade with a pillar supporting an allegorical female figure and inscribed “Deo Vindice,” with a heroic statue of the ex-president in front. A little to the east of the Lee Statue is Richmond College, a leading educational institution of Virginia.

Among other points of interest in Richmond are the Westmoreland Club, at the corner of Grace and Sixth Streets; the Commonwealth Club, at the corner of Franklin and Madison Streets; the Virginia Club, 2311 East Grace Street; Chief Justice Marshall’s House; the Tobacco Exchange, Shockoe Slip; the University College of Medicine; the Medical College of Virginia; the National Cemetery, two miles to the northeast of the city; the Sheltering Arms Hospital, and Idlewood Park, a favorite summer-resort, close to the city on the west.

Hollywood Cemetery is the most interesting of the cemeteries. Near the west gate of the cemetery is the Confederate Monument, a rude pyramid of stone ninety feet high, erected as a memorial to the sixteen thousand Confederate soldiers buried here. On President’s Hill, in the southwest corner of the cemetery, overlooking the river, are the graves of Monroe and Tyler, two of the seven presidents born in Virginia. John Randolph, Jefferson Davis, General Pickett, General J. E. B. Stuart and Commodore Maury are also buried here. Patrick Henry is buried in St. John’s Churchyard.

During the last three years of the Civil War (1862-1865) battles raged all round Richmond, and remains of the fortified lines constructed to protect the city are visible in various parts of the environs.

The leading industry is the manufacture of tobacco. Other important products are lumber and planing-mill supplies, foundry and machine-shop products (including locomotives), fancy and paper boxes, packing boxes, saddlery and harness, carriages and wagons, confectionery, flavoring extracts, patent medicines and compounds, etc. There are also large railroad repair shops, establishments for grinding and roasting coffee, etc. Richmond was formerly noted as a center of the flour-milling industry.

Richmond was settled in 1733 and incorporated in 1742. Captain John Smith’s settlement of “None Such” in 1609 and Fort Charles, erected in 1645, were both near the site of the present city. In 1779 it became the capital of the state. During the American Revolution the place was taken by a British force under Benedict Arnold, January 5, 1781, and the warehouses and public buildings were burned. The following year the city was chartered. Richmond, as the capital of the Confederacy, was the main objective of Federal operations during the Civil War. It was evacuated April 2, 1865. The warehouses and a considerable part of the business section of the city were burned by the Confederates.

=Salt Lake City, Utah.= [The “City of the Saints;” named for the famous lake of that state.]

It is the chief town and ecclesiastical capital of the State of Utah, and is situated on the river Jordan, eleven miles from Great Salt Lake. It is built at the base of the Wasatch Mountains, four thousand three hundred and thirty-four feet above sea-level. The valley is world-famed for its beauty, resources, climate, and health-giving properties. By rail it is thirty-six miles south of Ogden, on the Union Pacific Railroad; eight hundred and thirty-three miles from San Francisco, and one thousand and thirty-one miles from Omaha.

The city is regularly laid out and the streets are wide and shaded with trees. Each house in the residence quarters stands in its own garden.

Temple Block, “the sacred square of the Mormons,” covering ten acres, is the center of the city. Here are the Great Temple, and the Tabernacle, the latter one hundred and fifty by two hundred and fifty feet, with a self-supporting roof shaped like a tortoise shell, supported by forty-four sandstone pillars, and having a seating capacity of eight thousand, accommodations for twelve thousand, and one of the finest pipe organs in America.

A little to the east of the Tabernacle is the Temple, a large and handsome building of granite, erected at a cost of over four million dollars. At each end are three pointed towers, the loftiest of which, in the center of the east or principal facade, is two hundred and ten feet high and is surmounted by a colossal gilded figure (twelve and one-half feet high) of the Angel Moroni, by C. E. Dallin. The interior is elaborately fitted up and artistically adorned.

The Assembly Hall, to the south of the Tabernacle, is a granite building with accommodation for three thousand people, intended for divine service.

At the corner of North Temple and Main Streets stands the Latter-Day Saints University. At the southeast corner of Temple Square is the Pioneer Monument, surmounted by a copper statue of Brigham Young, which was unveiled in 1897.

On South Temple Street towards the east is the Deseret News Block, a large brown-stone building where the oldest newspaper to the west of the Missouri is published. To the left are the Tithing Office and Tithing Storehouse where the Mormons pay their tithes in kind. A little farther on, also to the left, are the Lion House, one of the residences of Brigham Young; the office of the president of the Mormon Church; and the Beehive House, another of Brigham Young’s houses. On the opposite side of the street are the huge shoe-factory and warehouse of Zion’s Coöperative Mercantile Institution; the office of the Juvenile Instructor; the office of the Historian of the Mormon Church; and the Gardo House, or Amelia Palace, opposite the Beehive House.

A little farther to the northeast, through the Eagle Gate, is Brigham Young’s grave, surrounded by an ornamental iron railing.

The imposing City and County Building is in Washington Square, and the Federal Building is in Main Street, between Third and Fourth South Streets. A new Capitol is in contemplation in Capitol grounds, near Prospect Hill. Among the educational establishments are the Utah State University, to the east of the city, near Fort Douglas, and the High School, in Union Square. The Roman Catholic Cathedral and several other religious edifices also are represented, including Presbyterian, Congregationalist, and Methodist churches. St. Mark’s Cathedral is a handsome building. Other noteworthy edifices are those of the museum, the Mining Institute, St. Mary’s Hospital, the University of Utah, and the theaters and opera house.

The city is more important as a trading center than for manufactures. The leading industries are beet-sugar refining, smelting, salt making, and the manufacture of boots and shoes, glass, woolens, paper, cutlery, pottery, etc. A large business is done in bullion and mining stocks. The city has a large jobbing trade, being the distributing center for an immense mining agricultural and stock raising region in Utah, West Wyoming, South Idaho, and East Nevada.

Salt Lake City was founded in 1847 by Brigham Young and incorporated in 1851. Until 1870 it was almost wholly a Mormon city.

=San Antonio= (săn ăn-to´nĭ-ō), =Texas=. [Named for the Roman Catholic mission, San Antonio de Valero, otherwise the Alamo.]

After Dallas it is the largest city in the state, and is located on the San Antonio River, two hundred and ten miles by railroad west of Houston, one hundred and eighty-eight miles west of Galveston, on both banks of the San Antonio Creek, at the mouth of San Pedro River. Built on a level plateau, with an elevation of six hundred and sixty feet above the sea, it includes the old Mexican town of San Fernando, west of San Pedro Creek, inhabited chiefly by Americans and largely rebuilt since 1860. The San Antonio River winds for thirteen miles through the city, and San Pedro Creek for ten miles. These are spanned by numerous little bridges. It is one of the most interesting in the United States.

The first object of interest in San Antonio is the Church of the Mission del Alamo, situated in the Alamo Plaza, in the quarter to the east of the San Antonio River. The church, which seems to have derived its name from being built in a grove of alamo or cottonwood trees, is a low and strong structure of adobe, with very thick walls. It was built in 1744, but has lost many of its original features. It is now preserved as a national monument for its historical interests.

At the north end of the Alamo Plaza, in Houston Street, is the handsome Federal Building. On the west side of the plaza is the building containing the San Antonio Club and the Grand Opera House.

Houston Street towards the west crosses the San Antonio and reaches Soledad Street, which leads to the left to the Main Plaza (Plaza de Las Yslas), pleasantly laid out with gardens. On its south side rises the imposing Court House and on its west side stands the Cathedral of San Fernando, dating in its present form mainly from 1868 to 1873, but incorporating parts of the earlier building, where Santa Ana had his headquarters in 1836. To the west of the Cathedral is the Military Plaza (Plaza de Armas), with the City Hall.

The Military Post (Fort Sam Houston), on Government Hill, one mile to the north of the city, costing over two million dollars, is one of the largest in the United States and deserves a visit. The tower (eighty-eight feet high), in the center of the quadrangle, commands a splendid view of the city and its environs.

The old Spanish Missions near the city most often visited are the First and Second Missions, but, the Third and Fourth Missions have much interest also.

The Mission of the Conception, or First Mission, lies about two and a quarter miles to the south of the city (reached via Garden Street), dates from 1731 to 1752, and is well preserved. The church has two towers and a central dome. The Mission San Jose de Aguayo, or Second Mission, four miles to the south of the city, dates from 1720 to 1731 and is the most beautiful of all.

Among the educational institutions are St. Louis College (Roman Catholic), St. Mary’s Hall, St. Mary’s College, Wolfe Memorial School, and the Ursuline Convent and School.

San Antonio is the natural trading center for an immense area, its jobbing houses have an extensive trade in Mexico as well as in Texas. The industrial establishments are machine shops, foundries, breweries, flour mills, binderies, cotton presses, ice plants, tanneries, marble works, cement works, and manufactories of brooms, carriages and wagons, candy, soda and mineral waters, mattresses, bricks and tiles. It is a leading cattle, horse, and mule market, ships large quantities of cotton, wool, and hides; and is the financial center of the largest stock raising interests of the Southwest. The surrounding district, irrigated by water, obtained from deep artesian wells, is extensively engaged in truck farming for Northern markets.

Although the Spaniards built a fort at San Antonio in 1689, its real settlement began in 1714. In 1718 the Franciscan mission of San Antonio de Valero was founded, and, about 1722, on another site was built the Alamo, the “cradle of Texans’ liberty,” in which in 1836 a garrison of about one hundred and eighty men, among them Davy Crockett and James Bowie, for eleven days resisted General Santa Ana’s Mexican army, numbering thousands of men. Eight battles for independence were fought in or near San Antonio between 1776 and 1836, successively under Spanish, French, Mexican, and Texan flags. It received a city charter in 1873.

=San Francisco, Cal.= [The “City of the Golden Gate”; said by some to have been named for the old Spanish mission of San Francisco de Assisi, by others to have been named for the founder of the order to which Father Junipero, the discoverer of the bay, belonged.]

It is grandly situated at the north end of a peninsula thirty miles long, separating the Pacific Ocean from San Francisco Bay, two thousand four hundred and thirty-four miles west of St. Louis, and three thousand four hundred and fifty-two miles from New York. The city lies mainly on the shore of the bay and on the steep hills rising from it, but is gradually extending across the peninsula (here six miles wide) to the ocean. On the north it is bounded by the famous Golden Gate, the narrow entrance (one mile across and about five miles long) to San Francisco Bay. The commercial part of the town is fairly level and lies along the bay. The chief business thoroughfare is Market Street, three and one-half miles long, with which the streets from the north and west hills intersect. This feature gives the city a striking skyline.

San Francisco Bay, a noble sheet of water, gives San Francisco one of the finest harbors in the world and affords numerous charming excursions. It gives the city much of its commercial importance, also, and extends from Fort Point past the city in a southerly direction for about fifty miles, varying in width from six to twelve miles. Northward this bay connects by a strait with San Pablo Bay, ten miles in length, having at its northerly end Mare Island and the United States Navy Yard.

Across the bay are Oakland, Alameda, and Berkeley.

In 1906 a large part of the city was destroyed by earthquake and fire, the estimated loss reaching over three hundred million dollars. The business district has since been largely rebuilt, and many costly buildings of marble, granite, and terra cotta, and iron and steel-framed “skyscrapers” have been constructed. Before the earthquake of 1906 the most conspicuous public buildings were the City Hall, erected at a cost of six million dollars, and which occupied twenty-five years in building; the Post Office, completed at a total cost of five million dollars; the Hall of Justice, the Custom House, a Mint and a Sub-treasury; the building of the Society of California Pioneers, and stock and merchants’ exchanges; and the Ferry Building containing a display of the mineral resources of California.

Market Street, the chief business thoroughfare, extends to the southwest from the Union Ferry Depot, a handsome structure, with a tower two hundred and fifty feet high, to a point near the twin Mission Peaks, a distance of about three and one-half miles.

Following Market Street towards the southwest, at the intersection with Battery Street is the Labor Monument, a vigorous bronze group dedicated to the memory of Peter Donahue of the Union Iron Works. At the southwest corner of Market and Montgomery Streets stands the Palace Hotel, opposite which is the Union Trust Building, the first of the buildings whose steel and concrete frame withstood the fire. Close by, at the corner of Montgomery and Post Streets, are the Crocker Building, another survivor, and the new stone structure of the First National Bank.

At the corners of Kearney and Third Streets rise the Chronicle Building and the tall Spreckels or Call Building, the top of either of which affords a good bird’s-eye view of the city.

Market Street, towards the southwest from the Chronicle Building, contains many large office buildings, including the tall Humboldt Savings Building. At the corner of Fourth Street is the Pacific Building, a huge structure of re-enforced concrete, with a facade of green and brown tiles. In the same block is the Emporium, which has been rehabilitated since the disaster of 1906. On the right, at the corner of Powell Street, is the large Flood Building, another survivor of the fire. It is chiefly occupied by railway offices.

Powell Street leads to Union Square, with the St. Francis Hotel and a Naval Monument commemorating the exploits of the United States fleet in the Philippines during the war with Spain (1898).

At the junction of Market Street with Mason Street is a monument commemorating the admission of California to the Union (1850). To the left, at the corner of Seventh Street, we catch a glimpse of the long frontage of the Post Office with its fine granite carvings. Just beyond this corner, in a small triangular park, is the large Californian Monument, presented to the city by James Lick. The stately monument erected in honor of the achievements of the navy in the Spanish-American war remains uninjured.

The district containing the United States Appraisers Stores and the large new Custom House was spared by the great fire.

The United States Branch Mint, in Fifth Street, at the corner of Mission Street, contains interesting machinery and a collection of coins and relics. The effect of the fire may be clearly seen on the granite at the north end of the building.

Montgomery Street and the southern part of Sansome Street, form the center of the banking district. On the former is the Union Trust Building, and a series of large office buildings, of which the most important are the Mills Building, corner of Montgomery and Bush Streets; the Merchants Exchange, California Street, near Montgomery Street; Kohl Building, corner Montgomery and California Streets; Italian-American Bank, a one-story building with Doric columns, corner Montgomery and Sacramento Streets; and the Bank of Italy, corner Montgomery and Clay Streets. At the northeast corner of Sansome and California Streets rises the tall Alaska Commercial Building, with the handsome Bank of California opposite.

Nob Hill was the name given about 1870 to that section of California Street, between Powell Street and Leavenworth Street, containing many of the largest private residences in San Francisco. Most of these were of wood, and no expense was spared to make them luxurious dwellings, but with unfortunate architectural results. Few relics of these are now extant. The hill is crowned by the huge Fairmont Hotel, opposite which is the Hopkins Institute of Art.

The present fashionable residential quarter is on Pacific Heights, including the western parts of Jackson Street, Washington Street, Pacific Avenue, and Central Avenue.

The educational institutions of San Francisco, include the Academy of Sciences, endowed by James Lick; the Hopkins Art Academy, situated on Nob Hill; Memorial Museum, in Golden Gate Park; Mechanics’ Institute, which contains property valued at two million dollars, and a library of seventy thousand volumes. Other fine libraries are the Sutro library of two hundred thousand volumes, the public library of one hundred thousand volumes, while the California Historical Society, San Francisco Medical Society, the San Francisco Law Library; the French and Mercantile libraries all have collections of more than thirty thousand volumes. The California School of Mechanical Arts, Cooper Medical College, Cogswell Polytechnic School, College of Notre Dame, Sacred Heart Academy, Irving Institute, the medical and law faculties of the University of California, are also located here.

The city was always conspicuous for its fine churches. The most prominent of these were the Roman Catholic Cathedral, the Jesuit Church of St. Ignatius, and the Mission Dolores, a survival of Spanish occupation.

The largest of the city parks is Golden Gate Park, covering more than one thousand acres and redeemed from a waste of sand-dunes, now one of the most beautiful in the country. It extends from Stanryan Street to the Pacific Ocean, a distance of three miles. Its fine trees and shrubbery, semi-tropical plants and flowers, artificial lakes and Japanese tea gardens combine to make it a veritable wonderland. Through the park a broad, smooth, and well-kept speedway runs out to the ocean beach, and the famous old Cliff House, the Sutro Heights, on the hills of the west or ocean side, from which is a magnificent view of the Seal Rocks and Pacific Ocean.

To the north of the park, beyond the intervening Richmond district, lies the Presidio, the United States military reservation. Here are the harbor fortifications with their big and powerful rapid fire machine guns, the officers’ quarters with picturesque gardens and hedgerows, and the hospital and barracks for the soldiers, while down at the water’s edge is old Fort Mason, a circular brick structure now used as a storehouse.

The population is very heterogeneous, every European nationality being represented here, to say nothing of the Mexicans, Chinese, Japanese, Negroes (relatively few), Filipinos, Hawaiians, and other non-European races.

The Chinese Quarter, rebuilt since the fire, is still one of the most interesting and characteristic features of San Francisco. It lies, roughly defined, between Stockton, Sacramento, Kearney, and Pacific Streets, and now consists mainly of large modern store buildings in a modified Oriental style, and of tall tenements, swarming with Chinese occupants. Chinatown contains about ten thousand inhabitants.

To the north of Chinatown, spreading about the base of Telegraph Hill, is the so-named Latin Quarter, peopled by Italians, Greeks and Mexicans. Their houses, shops, and restaurants are most characteristic. The Japanese Quarter is bounded by Van Ness, Fillmore, Geary, and Pine Streets.

In the pretty park that separates busy Kearney Street from Chinatown, the beautiful golden galleon monument to Robert Louis Stevenson still stands.

San Francisco as the western terminus of the great continental railroads and of many short lines, has important steamship communication with the ports of the world. The bay is accessible to the largest vessels. It is one of the most important grain ports in the United States; and gold and silver, wine, fruit, and wool are exported. There are large sugar refineries, foundries, shipyards, cordage works, wood factories, woolen mills, and many others.

A Spanish post and mission station were established on the site of San Francisco in 1776. The mission was secularized in 1834, and a town was laid out in 1835. A United States man-of-war took possession of it in 1846, and it became an important place in 1849 on account of the discovery of gold (1848). It was devastated by fires, 1849-1851. In 1850 it was incorporated as a city. The original name of the place was Yerba Buena (Spanish, “good herb”). It was changed to San Francisco in 1847. In 1869 railway connection was established with the eastern United States. In 1877 Denis Kearney began a violent agitation against the competition of Chinese labor. This was known as the “sand lots” movement, from the name of the place where the meetings were held. On April 18, 1906, the city was visited with a severe shock of earthquake, and the resultant fires destroyed much of the business section and one-third of the residence portion of the city.

Berkeley, across the Bay from San Francisco, is the seat of the Colleges of Letters and Science of the University of California. The University, founded in 1868, has played a very important part in the educational development of California and of the Pacific Slope. Its other departments are at San Francisco and the Lick Observatory, with the great telescope, is at Mt. Hamilton.

A number of the buildings at Berkeley are handsome, and the picturesque grounds, two hundred and fifty acres in extent, command a splendid view of the Golden Gate and San Francisco. The very interesting open-air Greek Theater, built in 1903 on the general type of the theater at Epidaurus, accommodates twelve thousand spectators and is used for university meetings, commencement exercises, and concerts. The museums, the library, and the laboratories are admirably adapted to their uses.

At Palo Alto, thirty-four miles south of San Francisco, one mile from the station is the Leland Stanford, Jr. University, founded by Mr. and Mrs. Leland Stanford in memory of their only son and endowed by them with upwards of thirty million dollars. The buildings were mainly designed by H. H. Richardson, who took the motif of their architecture from the cloisters of the San Antonio Mission. The material is buff, rough-faced sandstone, surmounted by red-tiled roofs, producing brilliant effects of color in conjunction with the live oak, white oak, and eucalyptus trees outside, and tropical plants in the quadrangle, and the blue sky overhead. In the earthquake of 1906 the buildings suffered severely, the damage done being estimated at nearly two million dollars. Much, however, has been restored or rebuilt. The buildings include a low quadrangle, enclosing a court five hundred and eighty-six feet long and two hundred and forty-six feet wide, with a beautiful colonnade on the inner side; an outer, two-storied quadrangle, with cloisters on the outside; a Chapel; various dormitories; an Art Museum; a mechanical department; and a village of professors’ houses.

=Seattle= (sē-ăt´t´l), =Wash.= [Named for the chief of the Duwamish tribe of Indians, See-aa-thl.]

It is finely situated on Elliot Bay, an arm of Puget Sound, one thousand eight hundred and twenty-eight miles from St. Paul. It occupies a series of terraces rising from the shore of the Sound, with steep hills rising from the water, the heights commanding superb views of the snow-crowned Olympic Mountains and the Cascades, including Mounts Rainier and Baker.

The residence streets run up the slope of a hill, with the business portion built on the level ground at the foot, stretching along the excellent harbor, with its many wharves.

Among the finest edifices are the Roman Catholic Cathedral, the Union or King Street Passenger Station, with Carnegie Library, the American Bank, and the Alaska, Lowman, White, Central, and Empire Buildings.

Its notable buildings include, also, the County Court House, County Almshouse, Opera House, High School, and Hospital. The city is beautified with monuments and statues, unique among which is the Totem Pole, in Pioneer Square, near the Union Station, which was brought from Alaska and is one of the best examples of its kind. There is a good statue of Wm. H. Seward, by Richard Brooks, and in the campus of the University of Washington is a colossal statue of Washington, by Lorado Taft.

The University has grounds three hundred and fifty-five acres in extent, and furnished the site for the Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition of 1909.

Other leading educational institutions are Seattle Seminary (Methodist), Seattle Female College, College of the Immaculate Conception and Academy of the Holy Name (both Roman Catholic).

There are several fine parks connected, together with the lakes, by a system of boulevards. Fort Lawton, a military post, is within the city limits.

The harbor, which is in Lake Washington and is four miles long and two miles wide, admits the largest vessels at all times. As the terminal of two transcontinental railroads and as an oceanic seaport, Seattle has extraordinary commercial advantages. It has direct steamship lines to Japan, China, the Philippines, and to Honolulu, and is also connected with European and South American ports. It is the chief outfitting port for the Yukon and Alaskan gold fields, and the chief trading center for the numerous ports on the extensive coast-line of Puget Sound. It has abundant electric power generated by falls in the rivers of the Cascades at a very low cost. Snoqualnite Falls, nineteen miles distant, are one hundred and twenty-six feet higher than Niagara, and supply an immense power.

Seattle largely owes its phenomenal growth to the lumber trade. The manufactures include beside, flour, iron and steel products, boots and shoes, beer, etc. Other industries are bridge-works, shipyards, meat-packing, and fish-canning. The city has also smelting and refining works, and a United States assay office. The chief exports are lumber, coal, meats, fruits, wheat, and hops.

Seattle was first settled in 1852. The place was laid out in 1853 and was incorporated in 1865 as a town and in 1880 as a city. In 1889 it was almost wiped out by fire, but one business building escaping destruction. From June 1 to November 30, 1909, the Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition was held here, the average daily attendance being twenty-eight thousand. In the spring of 1910 a Municipal Plans Commission of twenty-one members was created by an amendment to the city charter of Seattle, and in 1911 their report was issued containing sketches and plans illustrating their proposals for the beautification and future growth of the city.

=St. Louis= (sānt lōō´ĭs or lōō´ĭ), =Mo.= [Named in honor of Louis XV. of France; the name originally applied to a depot established at this point February 15, 1764, by Pierre Láclede Liguest.]

It is the principal city of Missouri, and is located on the west bank of the Mississippi River, twenty-one miles south of the mouth of the Missouri River, and by rail one thousand one hundred and eight miles southwest of New York, two thousand four hundred and thirty-four miles east of San Francisco, and six hundred and ninety-six miles north of New Orleans. It has a frontage of nearly twenty miles on the river and rises from it in three terraces, the third of which is about two hundred feet above the river level.

The city is regularly laid out, on the Philadelphia plan, Market Street running east and west, being the dividing line between north and south. The streets running north and south are numbered, though many of them are also known by names. Broadway or Fifth Street is the chief shopping thoroughfare, while other important business streets are Fourth Street, Olive Street, Washington Avenue, Third Street, and First Street (or Main) and Second Streets. The city is also divided into a north and south section by the valley of Mill Creek (now filled in), which is spanned by seven bridges. The city has recently extended greatly to the west, and commerce is steadily encroaching on the residential quarters.

The Court House, in Broadway, between Market and Chestnut Streets, is a substantial building in the form of a Greek Cross. It is surmounted by a dome, one hundred and seventy-five feet high, the gallery of which commands an excellent view of the city and river. A little to the east, in Third Street, corner of Chestnut Street, is the Merchants’ Exchange, the main hall of which, with a painted ceiling, is two hundred and twenty feet long. The grand ball of the Veiled Prophet is held here. The Cotton Exchange is at the corner of Main and Walnut Streets.

By following Market Street to the west from the Court House, the square, named Washington Park, is reached, and also the City Hall. A little to the south, in the square enclosed by Clark Avenue and Spruce, Eleventh and Twelfth Streets, are the so-called Four Courts, built on the model of the Louvre, in Paris, with a large semi-circular jail at the back. A little to the north of the City Hall runs the busy Olive Street, which toward Broadway, passes the Post Office on the left. Among the numerous substantial business buildings in this part of Olive Street are the Star, Century, Frisco, Chemical, Missouri Trust, Commercial, Laclede, Commonwealth Trust, National Bank of Commerce, and Third National Bank, a large and very fine structure. In Broadway, at the corner of Locust Street, is the Mercantile Library, which contains one hundred and fifty thousand volumes, statues by Harriet Hosmer, and others.

Other important buildings in this business section of the city are the Security Building (at the southwest corner of Fourth and Locust Streets); the Mercantile Trust Co., at the northeast corner of Eighth and Locust Streets (with vaults closed by a circular steel door of marvelous mechanism weighing four and one-half tons); the St. Louis Union Trust Co., at the northwest corner of Fourth and Locust Streets; the Mercantile Club, southeast corner of Seventh and Locust Streets; the Public Library, Locust Street, corner of Ninth Street; the Lincoln Trust and Wainwright Buildings, corner of Seventh and Chestnut Streets; and the Missouri Pacific Building, northwest corner of Market and Seventh Streets.

On the block between Thirteenth, Fourteenth, Olive and St. Charles Streets is the new Carnegie Central Library, erected at a cost of one million dollars.

At the corner of Locust and Nineteenth Streets is the handsome School of Fine Arts, which is connected with Washington University.

The Episcopal Cathedral, the Roman Catholic Cathedral, old and new, and many of the new Protestant churches in the West End are architecturally striking.

The parks of St. Louis are among the most notable in the United States, and their area (two thousand three hundred acres) is exceeded by those of Philadelphia alone. The finest are Forest Park (one thousand three hundred and seventy acres); Tower Grove Park (two hundred and sixty-six acres); Carondelet Park, O’Fallon Park, and the Missouri Botanical Garden, which is one of the foremost in North America.

To the west of Forest Park is the new home of Washington University, forming one of the most successful and appropriate groups of collegiate buildings in the New World. They were designed by Messrs. Cope & Stewardson in a Tudor-Gothic style and enclose several quadrangles. The material is red Missouri granite. Among the buildings already completed are University Hall, the Chemical and Physical Laboratories, the Architectural and Engineering Buildings, the Chapel (resembling King’s College Chapel at Cambridge, England), the library (with a fine reading room), various dormitories, and the gymnasium. The university grounds are one hundred and ten acres in extent.

The other institutions of higher education are St. Louis University, the College of the Christian Brothers, Maria Consilia Convent, training school for nurses, several medical colleges, dental college, the theological seminaries, manual training school, the State School for the Blind, and the St. Louis Day School for Deaf Mutes.

In Forest Park, not far from the University, is the handsome Museum of Fine Arts, originally erected as the Fine Arts Building of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition. In front of the entrance is a colossal equestrian bronze statue of St. Louis.

The great St. Louis or Eads Bridge, across the Mississippi, is deservedly one of the monuments of the city. It was designed by Capt. James B. Eads and was constructed in 1869-1874 at a cost of ten million dollars. It consists of three steel spans (center five hundred and twenty feet, others five hundred and two feet each) resting on massive limestone piers. The total length is two thousand and seventy yards. The bridge is built in two stories, the lower for the railway, the upper for the roadway and foot passengers. Trains enter the lower track by a tunnel, one thousand six hundred and thirty yards long, beginning near the corner of Twelfth and Cerre Streets. The highest part of the arches is fifty-five feet above the water.

The Merchants’ Bridge, three miles farther up the river, is a steel truss bridge, and was built in 1889-1890, at a cost of three million dollars. It is used by railways only. It has three spans, each five hundred feet long and seventy feet high.

St. Louis ranks fourth among the manufacturing cities of the United States. It is the largest tobacco manufacturing city in the world, and also has a large production of malt liquors, flour, boots and shoes, hardware, stoves, railways and electric cars, woodenware, brick, biscuit, crackers, etc. The city is also the largest mule mart in the world, and noted as a drug market.

Founded from New Orleans in 1764, by Pierre Làclede-Liguest and Auguste Chouteau, St. Louis remained a fur-trading post until the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. Its first era of marked development began with the arrival of the first steamboat, 1817. Steam navigation of its river connection made it the most important point in the settlement of the trans-Mississippi West. It had repeatedly doubled its population before the first period of German immigration, following the German revolution of 1848. In 1875 St. Louis was separated from the County of St. Louis and given an independent government of its own. In 1896 the city was swept by a destructive tornado. In 1903 an exposition was held in St. Louis to celebrate the Louisiana Purchase.

Its population of American birth heavily predominates, but its German population is large and every element of European population is represented, with a recent increase from Southern Europe and Russia in excess of all other elements.

=St. Paul, Minn.= [Named from the Chapel of St. Paul, a log chapel erected here by Roman Catholics. Indian name, imnijaska, “white rock,” a reference to the sandstone bluff on which the city stands.]

It is the capital of Minnesota, and located on both banks of the Mississippi River, immediately below Minneapolis, the suburbs of the “Twin Cities” being contiguous.

It has a picturesque site at an elevation of six hundred and seventy to eight hundred and eighty feet above sea level on a series of terraces, the highest of which is two hundred and sixty-six feet above the river. The two divisions of the city are connected by three municipal bridges. In addition to these there are a number of railway bridges and scores of smaller bridges over ravines, valleys, railway crossings, etc. The municipal limits include the suburbs of Merriam, St. Anthony, Union, Groveland, Macalester, and Desnoyer Parks, Arlington Hills, and others.

Of the three plateaus, the first contains the railway yards, Union Station, wholesale houses and factories. Above the flats are the business section and part of the residential district; still higher are the bluffs, the most fashionable residential quarter, with extensive views of the river and the lower terraces.

The business part of the town is well built and regularly laid out, and the suburban quarters contain many fine streets and handsome residences.

The new State Capitol, erected in 1898-1906, at a cost of four million five hundred thousand dollars, is a large and handsome edifice of granite and Georgia marble, with an unusually successful central dome.

The most impressive parts of the interior are the central rotunda, the two great staircases, the Supreme Court, and the Senate Chamber. The dominant note in the color scheme is furnished by Minnesota yellow limestone. The mural paintings are by La Farge, Simmons, Blashfield, Garnsey, Kenyon Cox, and H. O. Walker. In the Governor’s reception room are paintings by F. P. Millet, Howard Pyle, Douglas Volk, and others. The State Law Library and that of the State Historical Society are both housed in the Capitol.

Four blocks to the south of the Old Capitol are the Custom House and the City Hall, the latter a handsome building erected at a cost of one million dollars. Among other important buildings in the business quarter are the Public Library; the Auditorium, a hall for meetings and theatrical performances; the new Y. M. C. A. Building; the New York Life Insurance Building, corner Sixth and Minnesota Streets; the Roman Catholic Cathedral of St. Paul, Sixth Street, corner of St. Peter Street; the High School, corner Tenth and Minnesota Streets; the Globe Building, Fourth Street, corner Cedar Street; the Germania Life Insurance Office; the former Bank of Minnesota, now used for various offices; the Manhattan Building, corner of Fifth and Robert Streets; the Gilfillan Building; the Endicott Arcade; the Central Presbyterian Church; the Bethel Hotel, resembling the Mills House of New York; the Minnesota Club House; the People’s Church; the Field, Mahler & Co. Building, Fourth Street; and the Great Northern and the Northern Pacific Railway Offices.

The finest residence street is Summit Avenue. It begins at Wabasha Street and runs from Summit Park along a high ridge. The most prominent dwelling is the large brown stone mansion of the late James J. Hill, containing a good collection of paintings by Corot, Delacroix, Courbet, Troyon, Decamps, etc.

A Roman Catholic Cathedral is being erected at Summit Park; and to the west of the town, near the west end of Summit Avenue, by the river, is the extensive Roman Catholic Seminary of St. Thomas Aquinas. On the bluff above, at the end of Grand Avenue (parallel to Summit Avenue) are the various buildings of the Hill Seminary.

It is also the seat of Hamline University (Methodist Episcopal), Concordia College (Lutheran), Macalester College (Presbyterian), several medical colleges, a State Reform School, and an Academy of Natural Sciences.

St. Paul has a park system of remarkable beauty. Como and Phalen Parks have picturesque lakes, and Indian Mound Park is said to have views unsurpassed anywhere else on the Mississippi River. Harriet Island, in the river opposite the business district, is provided with public baths. There are twenty-two miles of park and boulevard driveways, not including the River Boulevard. The total park area is one thousand two hundred and four acres. Fort Snelling, attractively located at the mouth of the Minnesota River, occupies a large tract adjacent to the city on the southwest.

The manufactures of St. Paul include machinery, farming implements, furniture, carriages, boots and shoes, and malt liquors. Here also are located the extensive meat packing plants of Swift & Co., and quarries of fine limestone. It is the center of the wholesale grocery and dry-goods business in Minnesota. It is also an important printing and publishing center, and has large car shops, lumber and planing mills, and breweries.

In 1841 Father Galtier, a French Canadian, induced the settlers, chiefly French Catholic hunters and traders in furs and whiskey, to build a log church which was dedicated to St. Paul. In 1849 the town became the capital of the newly organized territory of Minnesota, and was incorporated. It received its city charter in 1854.

=Washington, D. C.= [The “City of Magnificent Distances,” from its being laid out on a large and regular scale; originally named Georgetown, but when selected in 1790 as the Federal Capital was re-named Washington in honor of the first President of the United States.]

The City of Washington, the Capital of the United States, lies on the left bank of the Potomac River, in the District of Columbia, one hundred and fifty-six miles from Chesapeake Bay, one hundred and eighty-five miles from the Atlantic Ocean, two hundred and twenty-six miles southwest of New York, one hundred and thirty-six miles of Philadelphia, and forty miles of Baltimore.

The city lies on a plain with slight elevations and surrounded by hills, and is generally accepted as the most beautiful in the United States, being finely laid out, with wide asphalted streets, opening up vistas of handsome public buildings, monuments, or leafy squares, with the Capitol and the Washington Monument dominating the entire view.

The original plan of Washington City was made by L’Enfant, a French engineer, who had adopted America as his residence. Based largely upon the topography of Versailles, its characteristic features are the crossing of the rectangular streets by frequent broad transverse avenues, one hundred and twenty to one hundred and sixty feet wide, lined with trees and named for various States of the Union. The streets running north and south are numbered, those running east and west are named by the letters of the alphabet. The circles formed by the intersection of the streets and avenues are one of the most charming features of the city.

Pennsylvania Avenue, between the Capitol and the White House (a distance of one and one-third miles), is the chief thoroughfare, and other important business streets are Seventh Street, Fourteenth Street, Ninth Street, and F Street. Among the finest residence streets are New Hampshire Avenue, Massachusetts Avenue, Vermont Avenue, Connecticut Avenue, and Sixteenth Street.

The new Union Railway Station, completed in 1908 at a cost of fifteen million dollars, including grounds and tunnels, is undoubtedly one of the most successful buildings in the country. It is situated at the junction of Massachusetts and Delaware Avenues, about one-third of a mile, and in full view of the Capitol. In front is a large plaza, embellished with shrubbery, fountains, and the finely sculptured Columbus monument.

The Capitol, splendidly situated on a hill ninety feet above the level of the Potomac, dominates the entire city with its soaring dome and ranks among the most beautiful buildings in the world. It stands in a park of about fifty acres, is seven hundred and fifty-one feet in length and one hundred and twenty-one to three hundred and twenty-four feet wide, and consists of a main edifice of sandstone, painted white, and of two wings of white marble. The building covers an area of three and one-half acres.

The cornerstone was laid by Washington in 1793. The main building, with its original low-crowned dome, was completed in 1827; the wings and the new iron dome were added in 1851-1865. The general style is classic, with Corinthian details. The principal facade looks towards the east, as the city was expected to spread in that direction, and the Capitol thus turns its back upon the main part of the city and on the other government buildings.

A fine marble terrace, eight hundred and eighty-four feet long, approached by two broad flights of steps, has been constructed on the west side of the Capitol and adds great dignity to this view of the building. The dome, which is two hundred and sixty-eight and one-half feet high, is surmounted by a figure of Liberty, nineteen and one-half feet high. The total cost of the building has been sixteen million dollars.

The front or east facade is preceded by three porticos, the main entrance being in the center. To the right of the central portico is the Settlement of America, a marble group by Greenough; to the left is the Discovery of America, a figure of Columbus by Persico. In the pediment above the portico is a relief of the Genius of America, by Persico; and in the pediment above the north portico is a group representing the Civilization of the United States, by Crawford.

The inauguration of the Presidents of the United States takes place on the broad steps in front of the main doorway.

In the interior beside the rotunda with its historical paintings, are the Senate Chamber in the north wing; the House of Representatives in the south wing, the Supreme Court in the central building, and the old Hall of Representatives, now used for historical statues.

To the north and south of the Capitol and connected with it by subways are the Senate and House of Representatives office buildings, two white marble edifices in a classic style, containing offices for senators and representatives.

To the southeast of the Capitol stands the Library of Congress, an enormous structure in the Italian renaissance style, four hundred and seventy feet long and three hundred and forty feet wide, erected in 1888-1897, at a cost of six million one hundred and eighty thousand dollars. It is in the form of a quadrangle, enclosing four courts and a central rotunda surmounted by a flat gilded dome and lantern. The main entrance, on the west side, is preceded by a broad flight of steps and a granite terrace, against the retaining wall of which is an effective fountain.

The interior of the Congressional Library is sumptuously adorned with paintings, sculptures, colored marbles, and gilding. To the right and left are massive marble staircases, richly adorned with sculptures and with bronze figures as lamp-bearers. The ceiling of the hall, seventy-two feet above the marble flooring, is resplendent in blue, green, and yellow.

The reading room rotunda is perhaps the finest and most thoroughly satisfactory part of the whole building. The chamber, which is one hundred feet in diameter and one hundred and twenty-five feet in height, accommodates about three hundred readers, is richly adorned with dark marble from Tennessee, red marble from Numidia, and yellow marble from Siena. The eight massive piers are surmounted by symbolical female figures.

At the foot of the flights of steps descending from the terrace on the west side of the Capitol is an heroic statue of Chief Justice Marshall, by Story. The broad walk to the north leads to the Naval or Peace Monument, by Simmons. The walk to the south leads to the statue of President Garfield, by J. Q. A. Ward.

Diagonally to the southwest and northwest extend two grand avenues as far as eye can see--Maryland Avenue to the left leading down to the Potomac and carrying the line of the Pennsylvania Railroad to the river, where it crosses over the Long Bridge into Virginia; and Pennsylvania Avenue to the right stretching to the distant colonnade of the Treasury Building and the tree covered park south of the Executive Mansion. Between these diverging avenues and extending to the Potomac, more than a mile away, is the Mall, a broad inclosure of lawns and gardens. Upon it in the foreground is the government Botanical Garden, and behind this the spacious grounds surrounding the Smithsonian Institution; and the National Museum; while beyond, near the river bank, rises the tall, white shaft of the Washington Monument with its pointed apex; on either side spreads out the city, the houses bordering the foliage lined streets and having at frequent intervals the tall spires of churches and the massive marble, granite, and brick edifices that are used for government buildings.

The Smithsonian Institution is a red stone building in the late Norman style, erected in 1847-1856 at a cost of four hundred and fifty thousand dollars. The loftiest of the nine towers is one hundred and forty-five feet high. In front of it is a statue of Prof. Joseph Henry, the first secretary of the Institution, by Story.

New buildings for the National Museum, on the Mall between Ninth and Twelfth Streets, and the new one million five hundred thousand dollar marble building of the Department of Agriculture, west of the Smithsonian grounds, are notable. The former, originally established to exhibit the rich contributions given to the government by various countries from the Centennial at Philadelphia in 1876, has become a most extensive and instructive collection of antiquities, ethnology, geology, and natural history generally; and there are many museums, libraries and art galleries.

The Bureau of Engraving and Printing, where the paper money, bonds and stamps of the United States are printed, is at the corner of B Street and the Mall, southwest.

The national monument to Washington, popularly known as the “Washington Monument,” is a towering obelisk of white marble, on the bank of the Potomac, erected at a cost of one million two hundred and thirty thousand dollars. It has a total height of five hundred and fifty-five feet, an area at the foundation of sixteen thousand feet, and a weight of thirty-six thousand nine hundred and twelve gross tons. The apex has an aluminum point, and there is an elevator and an iron stairway of nine hundred steps in the interior of the shaft.

From the Washington Monument the Treasury Department at Pennsylvania Avenue and Fifteenth Street comes into full view. It is an immense edifice, five hundred and ten feet long and two hundred and eighty feet wide, with an Ionic colonnade on the east front and porticos on the other three sides. The materials are freestone and granite, and it cost seven million dollars to erect the edifice. Among the chief objects of interest are the United States Cash Room, in the north corridor; the Redemption Division, in the basement; the Silver Vaults, containing bullion and coin to the value of hundreds of millions of dollars; and the Secret Service Division, with its collection of forged money and portraits of forgers.

On the south, opposite the Treasury, is the fine equestrian monument of General Sherman, by Rohl-Smith, erected in 1903. The pedestal is embellished with bronze reliefs, medallions, and figures of Indian women, and at the corners are four sentinels.

Following Pennsylvania Avenue towards the west, Lafayette Square, is approached. Here are bronze statues of General Andrew Jackson, by Clark Mills; the Rochambeau Monument, by F. Hamar; and the Lafayette Monument, by Falguiére and Mercié. On the east side of the square is the Belasco Theater, occupying the site of the house in which an attempt was made to assassinate Secretary Seward in 1865.

Opposite Lafayette Square is the entrance to the White House or Executive Mansion of the President of the United States. The White House is a two-story stone building, painted white, one hundred and seventy feet long and eighty-six feet deep, with an Ionic portico. It was first built in 1792, occupied by President Adams in 1800, burned by the British in 1814, and rebuilt in 1818. In 1902-1903 the whole building was admirably restored, within and without. The esplanade or terrace on the west side connects the house with the new Executive Offices and Cabinet Room. The large East Room (eighty by forty by twenty-two feet) is open to the public from ten to two. The Reception Rooms, which contain portraits of Presidents and valuable gifts, and the handsome Dining Room are shown by special order only. The rest of the house is private. The grounds surrounding the house are seventy-five acres in extent.

To the west of the White House is the huge building of the State, War, and Navy Departments, enclosing two courts and measuring five hundred and sixty-seven feet in length by three hundred and forty-two feet in breadth. It is a granite building, in Renaissance style, the largest public edifice in Washington, covering four and one-half acres, has five hundred and sixty-six rooms, and cost eleven million dollars. The north and west wings are occupied by the War Department. The Navy Department is in the eastern part of the building.

The Department of State occupies the southern part of the building. Among the finest rooms are the Diplomatic Reception Rooms, containing portraits of the Secretaries of State from 1789 to the present day, and the Library, with Jefferson’s original draft of the Declaration of Independence and other relics.

In Seventeenth Street, to the southwest of the State Building, between New York Avenue and E Street, is the Corcoran Gallery of Art, built and endowed by the late W. W. Corcoran. The present building, erected in 1894-1897, is a handsome white marble structure in a Neo-Grecian style, by Ernest Flagg. The semicircular hall at the north end is used for occasional exhibitions, while the rest of this part of the building is occupied by a School of Art. The steps to the main entrance are flanked by colossal bronze lions, modeled after those by Canova at the tomb of Pope Clement XIII. The Gallery contains more than two hundred paintings, the finest collection of Barye bronzes, Power’s Greek Slave, and Vela’s Dying Napoleon in marble.

Also in Seventeenth Street, south of the Corcoran Gallery, are the new Continental Hall, built by the Daughters of the American Revolution, and the new building of the International Bureau of the American Republics, erected at a cost of one million dollars by Andrew Carnegie.

The Interior Department occupies an entire square in the heart of the city, and is constructed of white marble in pure Doric, costing three million dollars. The General Land Office opposite is a Corinthian marble edifice.

In Judiciary Square on the north side stands the Pension Office, an enormous structure of brick, four hundred feet long and two hundred feet wide. It is surrounded by a terra cotta frieze illustrating military and naval operations. The interior, with its mammoth columns (seventy-five feet high), can accommodate about twenty thousand people at an inauguration ball, or other occasions.

Nearby, in B Street, is the large Census Bureau, in which a large staff is constantly at work. The enumerating machines are especially interesting.

To the northeast of this point, at the corner of North Capitol and H Streets, is the Government Printing Office, a twelve-story building erected at a cost of two million dollars.

Ford Theater, in which President Lincoln was assassinated by Booth on April 14, 1865, is in Tenth Street. A house opposite bears a tablet stating that Lincoln died there, and contains a collection of Lincoln relics.

On the south side of Pennsylvania Avenue, between Eleventh and Twelfth Streets, is the Post Office Department, with a tower three hundred feet high. At the corner of Pennsylvania Avenue and Fourteenth Streets is the new District or Municipal Building, a fine marble structure completed in 1908, and occupied by the District Commissioners and other officials of the local government.

At the intersection of Massachusetts Avenue and New York Avenue is Mt. Vernon Square, containing the Public Library, a white marble building, presented by Mr. Andrew Carnegie.

Beyond the Capitol to the southeast are the Washington Barracks, at the junction of the Potomac and its Eastern Branch, an artillery post, and the War College, a fine brick building, erected 1903-1908. In front of the latter is a statue of Frederick the Great by T. Uphues, presented to the United States by Emperor William II.

About one mile to the northeast, on the Anacostia River, is the Washington Navy Yard, with a museum, an important gun foundry, and manufactories of naval stores.

There are more than two hundred and fifty churches in Washington, of which the more important are St. John’s (the “President’s Church”), and St. Thomas’ Episcopal; the New York Avenue, and Church of the Covenant, Presbyterian; the Metropolitan and Foundry, Methodist; St. Matthew’s and St. Aloysius’, Roman Catholic; Calvary, Baptist; Garfield Memorial, Christian; and Mount St. Sepulchre, with its reproduction of the sacred places of the Holy Land.

The National Soldiers’ Home, two miles above the city, founded in 1851, has six hundred acres of park and forest, which serve as a public driving park and rural resort. To the north lies the National Military Cemetery, with the graves of General Logan, General Kearney, and seven thousand soldiers. On the west this is adjoined by Rock Creek Cemetery, containing Saint-Gauden’s beautiful monument to Mrs. Henry Adams. To the east of the Soldiers’ Home Park is the important Catholic University of America, around which has grown up a somewhat remarkable group of ecclesiastical establishments, including a Franciscan Convent, houses of the Dominicans, Paulists and Marists, and Trinity College for young women. The university has a number of fine stone buildings of striking architectural effect. The other colleges of note are: George Washington University, with academic, scientific, graduate, medical, and technological departments, and a famous law school; Georgetown University, a Jesuit institution with academic and professional schools; American University, for graduate instruction only; and the National Deaf-Mute College, founded in 1864, a government institution for the education of deaf and dumb pupils from the army, the navy, and the District of Columbia. Its fine stone buildings lie just north of the city.

Among the more important private buildings may be mentioned those of the Washington Post and Evening Star, and the Munsey buildings, all on Pennsylvania Avenue; the Riggs National Bank, American Security and Trust Company, Washington Loan and Trust, Union Trust and Storage Company, and the National Metropolitan Bank. The larger office buildings are the Bond, the Colorado, the Ouray, the Southern, and Woodward buildings. The Masonic Temple, the Scottish Rite Temple, and the Y. M. C. A. buildings, are important structures.

More and more Washington is becoming the home of a class of wealthy Americans, many of whom have erected beautiful residences, and among those of conspicuous architectural value are the Leiter, Townsend, Walsh, McLean, Belmont, Hale, Anderson, Boardman, Patterson, Thomas Nelson Page, Wayne McVeagh, Henderson, and Gale houses. Of similar interest are the embassy buildings of the British, Chinese, French, Russian, and other nations. The Metropolitan, the Cosmos, the Army and Navy, University, National Press, and the Washington (for women) are the principal clubs, and have homes of their own.

An elaborate park system is in course of development, which will ultimately surround the city with parks and connecting boulevards. The principal park is Rock Creek Park, to the north of the city, containing two thousand acres extending along both sides of Rock Creek. Its natural beauties are very great. On Mt. St. Alban, near Woodley, to the northwest of Georgetown, is the Peace Cross, a large Celtic cross erected at the close of the war with Spain (1898) on the grounds of the new Episcopal Cathedral, of which the cornerstone was laid in 1907. It affords a fine view of Washington. On the Chevy Chase Road, to the northwest of the Zoölogical Park, are the National Bureau of Standards and the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution, the administration building of which latter is in Sixteenth Street.

South of Rock Creek Park, on Rock Creek, lies the National Zoölogical Park of one hundred and seventy acres, reached from Washington in a half hour.

On a commanding site overlooking Rock Creek, north of Georgetown, in handsome grounds, is the United States Naval Observatory, of white marble, with its twenty-six-inch equatorial telescope.

Scattered throughout the city are numerous squares, circles, and small parks, nearly all of which contain statues.

Of bronze statues erected in honor of famous men, Washington has an abundance--mainly to military characters. Equestrian statues of Washington, Jackson, Greene, Scott, Thomas, and McPherson are erected, besides full-length statues of Lafayette, Luther, Franklin, Chief Justice Marshall, Lincoln, Garfield, Professor Henry Farragut, General Rawlins, and Admiral Dupont.

At Arlington, across the river from Washington, on commanding heights, is the National Cemetery containing the graves of about sixteen thousand soldiers. Arlington House, in the middle of the grounds, two hundred feet above the river, was once the residence of George Washington Parke Custis (step-grandson of Washington) and afterwards of General Robert Lee, who married Miss Custis. Near the house are the graves of General Sheridan, Admiral Porter, General Lawton, General Wheeler, and other distinguished officers.

To the south is a tomb containing the remains of two thousand one hundred and eleven unknown soldiers. The sailors destroyed by the blowing up of the “Maine” in 1898 and other victims of the war with Spain are buried in the southern part of the cemetery.

The cornerstone of a splendid military memorial or Hall of Fame was laid here in 1916, to be erected in classic style, of marble, and to cost several millions of dollars.

MOUNT VERNON, Washington’s home and burial place, is in Fairfax County, Va., about fifteen miles below the city. It is in full view, standing among the trees on the top of a bluff rising about two hundred feet above the river. As the steamboat approaches, its bell is tolled, this being the universal custom on nearing or passing Washington’s tomb. The estate was originally a domain of about eight thousand acres, and Augustine Washington, dying in 1743, bequeathed it to Lawrence Washington, who, having served in the Spanish wars under Admiral Vernon, named it Mount Vernon in his honor. General Washington, in 1752, inherited Mount Vernon from Lawrence. After his death the estate passed to his nephew, Bushrod Washington, subsequently descending to other members of the family.

Congress repeatedly endeavored to have Washington’s remains removed to the crypt under the rotunda of the Capitol, originally constructed for their reception, but the family always refused, knowing it was his desire to rest at Mount Vernon.

In 1856 the mansion and surrounding property were saved from the auctioneer’s hammer, and secured as a national possession by the Ladies’ Mount Vernon Association, assisted principally by Edward Everett, at a cost of two hundred thousand dollars.

Washington, originally called Federal City, was named after Washington in 1791, and became the capital in 1800. In 1814 the Capitol, White House, and other public buildings, were burned by the British.

LEADING EVENTS IN THE COLONIAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES IN THE FORM OF PARALLEL OUTLINES

I. PERIOD OF AUTHENTIC DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION, FROM 1492 TO 1607

Preceding this Period there are some legendary accounts of discoveries by Norsemen, Irish missionaries and even Asiatics. Little importance attaches to any except those of the Norse discoverers, chief of which was Lief Ericsson and his brother Thorwald who came upon the mainland of North America about 1000 to 1004. The discoveries of Columbus and Vasco da Gama opened a new era, during which the Spaniards explored and settled the West Indies, Mexico, and the southern part of the present United States; while the English and French explored, claimed, and made unsuccessful attempts at settlement in the North.

+-------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+ |=Dates=| =Spanish Explorers and Rulers= | =Portuguese Explorers and | | | | Rulers= | +-------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+ | |=Ferdinand and Isabella, 1474- |=Emanuel I., the Great, 1469- | | |1516.= |1521.= | | | | | | =1492=|1492. CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS, an | | | |Italian, supported by Ferdinand | | | |and Isabella, set sail from | | | |Palos, Spain (August 3), and | | | |discovered America (October 12),| | | |landing at one of the Bahamas, | | | |which he named San Salvador. | | | |During the following three | | | |months he visited the islands of| | | |Cuba and Hayti. | | | | | | | |1498. Columbus made a THIRD | | | |voyage, discovering the island | | | |of Trinidad and the mainland of | | | |South America, near the mouth of| | | |the Orinoco River. | | | | | | | |1499-1507. Amerigo Vespucci |1499. VASCO DA GAMA DOUBLED THE | | |wrote a letter to a friend |CAPE OF GOOD HOPE AND REACHED | | |claiming to have discovered a |INDIA. Another route to India | | |part of the South American coast|was thus revealed. | | |in 1499, and an account of this | | | =1500=|voyage was published. The new |1500. Cortereal, a Portuguese, | | |continent, therefore, was named |explored the coast from Labrador| | |after him by the German geo- |to Nova Scotia. | | |grapher Waldseemüller, who had | | | |read the account. | | | | | | | |1502. Columbus made a FOURTH | | | |voyage. He explored the coast of| | | |Central America and Panama, re- | | | |turned to Spain discouraged and | | | |died four years later in the | | | |belief that he had discovered | | | |India by sailing west. | | | =1510=| | | | |1512. PONCE DE LEON, seeking a | | | |legendary fountain of youth, | | | |DISCOVERED FLORIDA, so named be-| | | |cause he landed on Easter Sun- | | | |day, the Spanish “Feast of | | | |Flowers.” | | | | +--------------------------------+ | |1513. BALBOA crossed the Isthmus| =French Explorers and Rulers= | | |of Panama and discovered THE +--------------------------------+ | |PACIFIC, which he took posses- | | | |sion of, with its coast and | | | |islands, for Spain. | | | | | | | |=Charles I. of Spain and Charles| | | |V. of Germany, Emperor. 1516- | | | |1556.= | | | | | | | |1519-1521. CORTEZ CONQUERED |=Francis I., 1515-1547.= | | |MEXICO for Spain. This conquest | | | |led to the establishment of | | | |Spain’s Empire in the new world.| | | |The mines brought great wealth | | | |to Spain and formed thebasis of | | | |Spanish prosperity in the | | | |following years. | | | | | | | =1520=|1520. MAGELLAN, a Portuguese in | | | |Spain’s service, discovered the | | | |strait named after him. He | | | |reached and named the PACIFIC | | | |OCEAN. | | | | | | | |1521. Magellan discovered the | | | |PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. His fol- |1524. VERRAZANO, sailing in the | | |lowers, after his death, con- |service of France, traced the | | |tinued westward and completed |American coast northward from | | |the first circumnavigation of Cape Fear, and discovered New | | |the globe in 1522. |York harbor. | | =1530=| | | | | |1535. Cartier, in search of a | | |1539. Coronado and a force of |northwest passage, ascended the | | |Spaniards marched northward from|St. Lawrence to Lachine Rapids | | |Mexico to Colorado and Kansas |and Mont Réal (Montreal). | | =1540=|and discovered the GRAND CANON | | | |OF THE COLORADO RIVER. |1541. Roberval and Cartier made | | | |an unsuccessful attempt to es- | | |DE SOTO, at the same time, led |tablish a French colony on the | | |an army of about a thousand into|St. Lawrence. | | |northwest Florida. HE REACHED | | | =1550=|THE MISSISSIPPI in 1541. | | | | | | | |=Philip II., 1556-1598.= | | | =1560=| |=Charles IX., 1560-1574.= | | | | | | | |1562. Jean Ribault establishes a| | | |Huguenot settlement at Port | | | |Royal. | | | | | | |1565. The Spaniards, under |1565. The Huguenot settlement | | |MENENDEZ, founded ST. AUGUSTINE,|destroyed by Menendez. | | |Florida. | | | =1570=| | | | =1580=| | | | |1582. Spanish monks planted | | | |missions in New Mexico and | | | |Arizona. | | | =1590=| | | | |1598. A Spanish settlement was |=Henry IV., 1589-1610.= | | =1600=|planted by OÑATE near SANTA FE, | | | |New Mexico. |1603. CHAMPLAIN entered the St. | | | |Lawrence. THE FRENCH OCCUPATION | | | |OF CANADA began with Champlain. | | | |His maps, reports, and settle- | | | |ments stimulated French enter- | | | |prise. | | | | | | | |1605. Champlain founded PORT | | | |ROYAL (Annapolis, N. S.), and | | | |sailed in an exploring expedi- | | | |tion as far south as Cape Cod. | +-------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+

+-------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+ |=Dates=| =English Explorers and Rulers= | =European Events= | +-------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+ | |=Henry VII., 1485-1509= | | | =1492=| |1492. End of the Moorish domin- | | | |ion in Spain. Death of Lorenzo | | | |de Medici, the “Magnificent” at | | | |Florence. | | | | | | | |1494. Beginning of a series of | | |1497. JOHN CABOT, an Italian in |Italian wars, lasting till 1539.| | |the service of Henry VII. of | | | |England discovered the coast of | | | |NORTH AMERICA, probably at | | | |Labrador. He was accompanied by | | | |his son, Sebastian. | | | | | | | |1498. Sebastian Cabot, on a | | | |SECOND voyage, probably explored|1499. The Swiss gain their inde-| | |the Atlantic coast from Labrador|pendence from the Emperor | | |to Carolina. These voyages were |Maximilian. | | =1500=|not followed by any attempt at | | | |colonization. |1502. Outbreak of war between | | | |France and Spain in Italy. | | =1510=| | | | | |1511. Pope Julius II. forms the | | | |Holy League against France and | | | |Spain. | | | | | | | |1513. James IV. of Scotland in- | | | |vades England, and is killed at | | | |battle of Flodden Field. | | |=Henry VIII., 1509-1547.= | | | | |1515. Wolsey appointed Chancel- | | | |lor by Henry VIII. of England. | | | | | | | |1519. The German Empire, Spain, | | | |Netherlands, Two Sicilies and | | | |the Spanish Indies united under | | | |Charles V. | | =1520=| | | | | |1521. Beginning of the wars be- | | | |tween Charles V. of Germany and | | | |Francis I. of France. | | | | | | |1527. Captain John Rut explores |1527. Expulsion of the Medici | | |the coast of North America. |from Florence. | | =1530=| | | | | |1535. Henry VIII. of England | | | |assumes the title of supreme | | | |head of the Church in England. | | | | | | =1540=| |1543. England enters into an | | | |alliance with Charles V. against| | =1550=| |France. | | =1560=|=Elizabeth 1558-1603.= | | | | |1562. Beginning of the Huguenot | | =1570=| |wars. | | |1576-1578. FROBISHER, in the | | | |interest of England, made three | | | |attempts to find a northwest | | | |passage to Asia. | | | | | | | |1578. DRAKE explored the Pacific| | | =1580=|coast as far north as the state | | | |of Washington. He had previously|1581. Declaration of indepen- | | |doubled Cape Horn. He claimed |dence by the Dutch. | | |the land for England. | | | | |Queen Elizabeth was financially | | |1583. HUMPHREY GILBERT landed at|interested in many of the expe- | | |St. John’s, Newfoundland, and |ditions which followed, and she | | |took possession of the country |knighted most of the men who | | |for England. |commanded expeditions. | | | | | | |1584. SIR WALTER RALEIGH sent | | | |out an expedition under Captain | | | |Arthur Barlow. The expedition | | | |landed at Pamlico Sound and the | | | |region was named VIRGINIA in | | | |honor of Elizabeth. | | | | | | | |1587. Raleigh despatched another|1587. Execution of Mary, Queen | | |expedition, consisting of two |of Scots. | | |ships with one hundred and fifty| | | |men and women, to Roanoke |1588. Battle of the Spanish | | |Island. John White was the |Armada. | | =1590=|Governor. Virginia Dare, the | | | |first white child born in Ameri-|1595. France declares war | | |ca, was born here. |against Spain. | | =1600=| | | | |1602. GOSNOLD, an English mer- | | | |chant, made a settlement at | | | |Buzzard’s Bay, R. I. | | | | | | | |=James I., 1603-1625.= | | | | | | | |1603. Martin Pring enters the | | | |present harbor of Plymouth. |1604. Charles IX. ascends throne| | | |of Sweden. | | | | | | | |1606. In England there was orga-| | | |nized the VIRGINIA COMPANY for | | | |the purpose of establishing | | | |trading colonies in America. | +-------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+

=II. THE COLONIAL PERIOD OF UNITED STATES HISTORY, INCLUDING ITS SETTLEMENT (1607 TO 1689); AND ITS CONSOLIDATION (1689 TO 1763)=

The real history of the United States begins with this period. Within it the original Thirteen Colonies were established; New England and Virginia grew in influence and population; the Indian power in the East was subdued; the Colonies increased in strength and self-reliance, and the struggle between England and France for control of the New World was settled in favor of the English.

+--------------------------------------------------------------------------+ | =THE SOUTHERN COLONIES= | +--------------------------------------------------------------------------+ | =Virginia= | +--------------------------------------------------------------------------+ |1607. The London Company made THE FIRST PERMANENT ENGLISH SETTLEMENT IN | |AMERICA, AT JAMESTOWN, VIRGINIA (MAY 13). Jamestown was named after the | |English King, James I. | | | |1619. Virginia settlers establish the FIRST REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY IN | |AMERICA, called The House of Burgesses. | | | |The FIRST SLAVES were sold in Virginia. | | | |1622. An Indian attack was made on Jamestown. | | | |1624. Virginia was made into a royal colony. | | +------------------------+ | : =Maryland= | | +------------------------+ | :1632. Lord Baltimore ob-| | :tained a charter to | | :Maryland. | | : | | :1634. First permanent | | :settlement made at ST. | | :MARY’S by CALVERT. | |1642-1652. William Berkeley governor of : | |Virginia, which became a refuge for Cavaliers :1645. Maryland Catholics| |from England. :and Virginia Puritans | | :engaged in rebellion. | | +------------------------+ | | : =Carolinas= :1649. The Maryland | |1652. Puritan Commis- +------------------------+Assembly passed a | |sioners with an army :1653. Settlement of :TOLERATION Act. | |compelled Virginia to :ALBEMARLE, North : | |accept the rule of the :Carolina, by Virginia : | |Puritan Commonwealth. :pioneers. : | | : : | |1660. The restoration of: : | |Charles II. in England : :1661. Charles Calvert | |brought about the return:1663. Carolina granted :appointed governor. | |of Berkeley in Virginia.:to a company of pro- : | | :prietors. : | |The restoration was wel-: : | |comed by the Cavaliers :1669. John Locke drafts : | |of Virginia, but the :a constitution for : | |Massachusetts Puritans :Carolina. : | |delayed a year before : : | |proclaiming Charles :1670. CHARLESTON, S. C.,: | |king. A SECOND INFLUX OF:settled and territory : | |PURITAN IMMIGRANTS FOL- :divided into North and : | |LOWED THE RESTORATION. :South Carolina. : | | : : | |1676. BACON’S REBELLION : : | |broke out in Virginia. : : | | : : | |1689-1697. KING WILLIAM’S WAR. The FIRST INTER-COLONIAL WAR. This marked | |the beginning of a contest which continued with little intermission until | |the downfall of French power in America. | | : : | |1702-1714. QUEEN ANNE’S WAR. The SECOND INTER-COLONIAL WAR began between | |France and England. This war was confined mainly to the east; the French | |attacking New England, and the New Englanders retaliating. | | : : | | :1721-1729. The Carolinas: | |1728. Boundary estab- :are royal colonies. : | |lished between Virginia : : | |and North Carolina. :1729. North and South :1729. BALTIMORE founded.| | :Carolina permanently : | | :divided into two pro- : | | :vinces. : | | +------------------------+ | | : =Georgia= : | | +------------------------+ | | :1733. Last of the thir- : | | :teen original colonies : | | :settled by Oglethorpe at: | | :SAVANNAH. : | | : : | | :1742. Spaniards attacked: | | :Georgia; defeated by : | | :Oglethorpe. : | | : : | |1744-1748. KING GEORGE’S WAR. The THIRD INTER-COLONIAL WAR broke out | |between England and France. Louisburg was restored to France, much to the | |dissatisfaction of the New England colonists. | | : : | | : :1744. Treaty with the | | :1749. First English ship:“Six Nations.” | | :reaches Georgia. : | |1753. GEORGE WASHINGTON : :1753. The Potomac River | |was sent by Governor : :explored to its source. | |Dinwiddie to order the : : | |French out of the Ohio : : | |valley. : : | | : : | |1754-1763. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. The FOURTH and LAST INTER-COLONIAL | |WAR broke out between the French and English, which was ended by THE | |TREATY OF PARIS in 1763. | +--------------------------------------------------------------------------+

+---------------------------------------------------------------------------+ | =NEW ENGLAND COLONIES= | +---------------------------------------------------------------------------+ | =Massachusetts= | +---------------------------------------------------------------------------+ |1607. The Plymouth Company established a colony on the Kennebec River, in | |Maine under Sir Ferdinando Gorges. The colony failed. | | | |1620. The Pilgrim Fathers landed at Cape Cod November 11, and formed the | |FIRST SETTLEMENT IN NEW ENGLAND AT PLYMOUTH (December 22), under the FIRST | |REPUBLICAN FORM OF GOVERNMENT IN AMERICA. | | +------------------+ | : =New Hampshire= | | +------------------+ | :1623. First | |1628. The permanent settlement of Massachusetts Bay :settlement on | |Colony began by the settlement of SALEM under JOHN :Piscataqua River, | |ENDICOTT. :by John Mason. | | : | |1629-1640. The “Great Migration” of Puritans to Massa- : | |chusetts. : | | +------------------+ | |1630. BOSTON WAS FOUNDED by the En- : =Connecticut= | | |glish Puritans. The first general +------------------+ | |court in New England met there :1633. Settled at : | |October 19. :Windsor by : | | :Pilgrims. : | | : : | | +------------------+1633-1636. Coloni-: | | : =Rhode Island= :zation of : | | +------------------+Connecticut River : | | :1636. Roger :valley. : | | :Williams settles : : | | :at Providence. :1637. =Pequot : | | : :Indian War.= : | | :1638. Ann : : | | :Hutchinson settled: : | | :in Rhode Island. : : | | : : : | | :1639. Newport : : | | :founded. : :1640. Provisional | |1641. Massachu- : : :government estab- | |setts Bay Colony : : :lished at Dover. | |adopted laws known: : : | |as the Body of : : : | |Liberties. : : : | | : : : | |1643. THE FIRST INTER-COLONIAL UNION IN New England. It was formed for | |protection. | | : : : | |1658. Massachu- : :1662. Charter : | |setts made it a :1663. Charter :granted to : | |capital offense :granted to Rhode :Connecticut. : | |for Quakers to :Island. : : | |return to the : : : | |colony after ex- : : : | |pulsion. : : : | | : : : | |1675. KING PHILIP’S WAR broke out in New England. | | : : : | |1677. Maine became: : : | |part of Massachu- : : :1680. New Hamp- | |setts by purchase.: : :shire declared a | | : : :royal province. | |1684. Massachu- : : : | |setts becomes a : : : | |royal colony. : : : | | : : : | |1686-1689. Andros : : : | |governor of all : : : | |New England by : : : | |royal appointment.: : : | | : : : | |1689-1697. KING WILLIAM’S WAR. The FIRST INTER-COLONIAL WAR. This marked | |the beginning of a contest which continued with little intermission until | |the downfall of French power in America. | | : : : | |1691-1693. Salem : : : | |witchcraft. : : : | | : : : | |1702-1714. QUEEN ANNE’S WAR. The SECOND INTER-COLONIAL WAR began between | |France and England. This war was confined mainly to the east; the French | |attacking New England, and the New Englanders retaliating. | | : : : | |1702. Joseph : : : | |Dudley appointed : :1728-1731. Final : | |governor. :1734. Assembly :boundaries estab- : | | :meets for first :lished with New :1740. Boundaries | |1742. Peter :time at Greenwich.:York and Rhode :of New Hampshire | |Faneuil builds : :Island. :determined. | |“Faneuil Hall.” : : : | | : : : | |1744-1748. KING GEORGE’S WAR. The THIRD INTER-COLONIAL WAR broke out | |between England and France. Louisburg was restored to France, much to the | |dissatisfaction of the New England colonists. | | : : :1744. George | | : :1745. One thousand:Whitefield | |1749. Famous : :men sent against :preaches in New | |Indian treaty re- :1754. Providence :Louisburg. :Hampshire. | |newed at Falmouth.:library chartered.: : | | : : : | |1754-1763. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. The FOURTH and LAST INTER-COLONIAL | |WAR broke out between the French and English, which was ended by THE TREATY| |OF PARIS in 1763. | +---------------------------------------------------------------------------+

+---------------------------------------------------------------------------+ | =THE MIDDLE COLONIES= | +---------------------------------------------------------------------------+ | =New York= | +---------------------------------------------------------------------------+ |1609. HENRY HUDSON, employed by the Dutch East India Company, SAILED UP THE| |HUDSON RIVER searching for a passage to the Indies. | | | |1614. The DUTCH established trading stations on Manhattan Island and at | |Fort Orange (Albany) on the Hudson. They called their possessions NEW | |NETHERLAND. +------------------+ | | =New Jersey= | | +------------------+ |1623. The Dutch founded a settlement on Manhattan Island:1623. Ft. Nassau | |which they called NEW AMSTERDAM (later New York City). :(now Gloucester, | | :N. J.) established| |1626. Peter Minuit, director-general of New Netherland, :by the Dutch. | |purchased Manhattan Island from the Indians for $24. : | | +------------------+ | | : =Delaware= : | | +------------------+ | | :1627. Swaanendael : | |1629. Establishment of the patroon :(now Lewis, Del.) : | |system to encourage settlement in New:founded. : | |Netherland. : : | | : : | |1636. Wealthy colonists from Holland : : | |settle at Ft. Orange. :1638. A Swedish : | | :settlement was :1640. English | |1647-1664. Peter Stuyvesant governor :made near Wilming-:settlements begun | |of New Netherland. :ton, on the :on Salem Creek. | | :Delaware. : | | : : | | :1655. The Swedish : | |1657. Proclamation issued against the:settlements on the: | |Quakers. :Delaware conquered: | | :by the Dutch. : | | : : | | :1664. Delaware :1664. New Jersey | |1670. Staten Island purchased from :passes under En- :granted to | |the Indians. :glish rule. :Berkeley and | | +------------------+ :Carteret. | | : =Pennsylvania= : : | | +------------------+ : | | :1681. Grant of : : | | :Pennsylvania to : : | | :William Penn. : : | | : : : | | :1682. Philadelphia:1682. Delaware be-: | |1683. First :laid out by Penn, :comes part of : | |Assembly in New :and Quaker emigra-:Pennsylvania. : | |York under English:tion encouraged. : : | |rule. : : : | | :Penn’s treaty with: : | |1689-1690. :the Indians. : : | |Leisler’s re- : : : | |bellion in New : : : | |York. : : : | | : : : | |1689-1697. KING WILLIAM’S WAR. The FIRST INTER-COLONIAL WAR. This marked | |the beginning of a contest which continued with little intermission until | |the downfall of French power in America. | | : : : | | :1701. Penn granted: : | | :a CHARTER OF : : | | :PRIVILEGES to : : | | :Pennsylvania which: : | | :remained in force : : | | :until 1776. : : | | : : : | |1702-1714. QUEEN ANNE’S WAR. The SECOND INTER-COLONIAL WAR began between | |France and England. This war was confined mainly to the east; the French | |attacking New England, and the New Englanders retaliating. | | : : : | | : : :1702. New Jersey | | : :1703. Delaware is :becomes a royal | | : :made a separate :province under the| | : :colony. :governor of New | | : : :York. | | : : : | | :1733. Treaty with :1733. Delaware : | |1735. Zenger’s :the “Six Nations.”:boundaries defined: | |trial and acquit- : :after twenty :1738. Separate | |tal in New York, : :years’ litigation.:charter granted to| |establishes free- : : :New Jersey. | |dom of the press. : : : | | : : : | |1743. Sir George : : : | |Clinton, governor.: : : | | : : : | |1744-1748. KING GEORGE’S WAR. The THIRD INTER-COLONIAL WAR broke out be- | |tween England and France. Louisburg was restored to France, much to the | |dissatisfaction of the New England colonists. | | : : : | | :1746. Thomas and : : | | :Richard Penn sole :1750. Trenton : | |1754. Convention :proprietors of :public library : | |at Albany to con- :Pennsylvania. :founded. : | |sider a colonial : : : | |confederacy. : : : | | : : : | |1754-1763. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. The FOURTH and LAST INTER-COLONIAL | |WAR broke out between the French and English, which was ended by THE TREATY| |OF PARIS in 1763. | +---------------------------------------------------------------------------+

+-------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+ | =Progress and Population= | ENGLISH RULERS AND EVENTS | +-------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+ | |1603-1625. =James I.= | | | | | |1603. Union of England and Scotland. | |1616. Tobacco first cultivated by the| | |English in Virginia. |1625-1649. =Charles I.= | | | | | |1627. War with France, over the | |1636. First college in America |Huguenots. | |founded by Massachusetts. Two years | | |later it is named HARVARD in honor of| | |John Harvard. | | | | | |1639. First press in America set up | | |at Cambridge. Stephen Daye was the | | |printer, and THE FIRST AMERICAN BOOK | | |was The Bay Psalm Book. | | | | | |1640. =Whole number of emigrants to |1640. Meeting of the Long Parliament.| |New England previous to this time | | |about 21,200.= |1642. Civil war begins. | | | | |1645. Massachusetts established free | | |schools supported by the State. |1649. Execution of Charles I. | | | | | |1649-1660. The Commonwealth under | | |Cromwell. | | | | | |1660. Restoration of the Stuarts. | | | | | |1660-1685. =Charles II.= | |1661. Eliot’s “Indian Testament” | | |printed at Cambridge. | | | | | |1664. Eliot’s “Indian Bible” printed | | |at Cambridge. |1668. Triple alliance of England, | | |Sweden and Holland against France. | |1676. =Population of New England | | |estimated at 60,000.= | | | | | |1680. John Buckner brings a printing | | |press to Virginia and prints the |1685-1689. =James II.= | |session laws. | | | |1688-1689. The “Glorious Revolution.”| | | | |1689. First American newspaper |1689-1702. =William III. and Mary.= | |published in Boston; suppressed by | | |Massachusetts government. | | | | | |1692. THE COLLEGE OF WILLIAM AND MARY| | |was established in Virginia. | | | | | |1700. =Population of colonies about | | |260,000.= | | | | | |1701. YALE COLLEGE was established in|1701. War of the Spanish succession. | |Connecticut. | | | |1702-1714. =Queen Anne.= | | | | | |1702. Queen Anne war against France | |1704. Appearance of “The Boston News |and Spain. | |Letter,” the first newspaper in | | |America. | | | | | |1710. First post office in America at| | |New York. |1714-1727. =George II.= | | | | | |1718. War with Spain. | |1719. First Spinning-wheel and | | |cultivation of potatoes introduced | | |by the settlers of Londonderry, N. H.| | | | | |1720. Tea begins to be used in New | | |England. |1727-1760. =George II.= | | | | |1729. “Pennsylvania Gazette” started | | |by Franklin. | | | | | |1736. Appearance of “The Virginia | | |Gazette,” first newspaper in the | | |South. | | | |1739. War with Spain. | |1740. University of Pennsylvania | | |founded. | | | | | |1741. Moravians first settle in | | |United States at Bethlehem. |1744. War between England, France and| | |Austria. | |1746. New Jersey College, afterwards | | |PRINCETON. | | | | | |1749. =White population of the | | |colonies 1,046,000.= | | | | | |1752. English Bible first printed | | |in America. | | | | | |Franklin experiments in electricity. | | | | | |1754. King’s College (now COLUMBIA), | | |New York City, founded. |1756-1763. Seven Years’ war. | +-------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+

HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES

When first visited by Europeans, the country now comprised within the United States was exclusively inhabited by the race commonly called American Indians.

=Period of Discovery.=--According to the Scandinavian sagas, Leif, a Norwegian, sailed about 1001 from Iceland for Greenland, but was driven southward by storms till he reached a country called Vinland, which is supposed to have been Rhode Island or some other part of the coast of New England.

It is possible that some vague rumors of the Norse journeys had come to Christopher Columbus when he set out on Friday, August 3, 1492, to discover the western route to India. He sighted one of the Bahama Islands on October 12, and landed the following day. After cruising about for some time, he returned to Spain. He made in all four voyages to the New World for treasure-getting and discovery. His discoveries, it should be remembered, did not extend to the territory now occupied by the United States, but were confined to certain of the West India Islands, and parts of Central, and possibly, South America. (See further, under Outlines of American History.)

Among the earliest of his followers was Amerigo Vespucci, who in 1497-1498 explored the coasts of the Gulf of Mexico, and who has given his name to the whole continent.

In 1497, about five years after the discovery of America by Columbus, John Cabot sailed westward from Bristol, England, and on June 24 discovered land (Labrador), along which he coasted to the southwest nearly one thousand miles. In 1498 his son, Sebastian Cabot, sailed from the same port in search of a northwest passage to China, but finding the ice impenetrable, he turned to the south and coasted as far as Chesapeake Bay.

In 1513 the Spaniard Ponce de Leon discovered Florida. In 1539 took place the expedition of the Spaniard De Soto, who in the course of two years penetrated overland from Tampa Bay on the west coast of Florida to a point two hundred miles beyond the Mississippi.

=Period of Settlement.=--In 1565 the Spaniards founded St. Augustine, the first permanent settlement in the United States. In 1585 an expedition sent by Sir Walter Raleigh made a settlement on Roanoke Island, N. C., which failed. In 1607 the English founded Jamestown on James River, Virginia, their first permanent settlement.[11] The master spirit of this enterprise was Captain John Smith. Plymouth, Mass., was founded in 1620 by the “Pilgrim Fathers,” a body of Puritans led by John Carver and others, who sailed from England in the Mayflower. Salem was settled by John Endicott in 1628. In 1630 John Winthrop settled Boston. In 1692 Plymouth colony was united to Massachusetts. Portsmouth and Dover, in New Hampshire, were settled in 1623. The first permanent English settlements in Maine were made about the same time. These settlements ultimately fell under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts. Connecticut was colonized in 1635-1636 by emigrants from Massachusetts, who settled at Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield. Rhode Island was first settled at Providence in 1636 by Roger Williams. In 1623 permanent settlements were made by the Dutch at Fort Orange (now Albany) and at New Amsterdam on the present site of New York. The Swedes settled on the Delaware in 1638, and were expelled in 1655 by the Dutch army. The English seized New Amsterdam in 1664, and with it the whole of New Netherland, which they named New York from the Duke of York, to whom it had been granted by Charles II. New Jersey at this time acquired its distinctive name. In 1681 the territory west of the Delaware was granted to William Penn, who colonized it chiefly with Friends or Quakers, and founded Philadelphia in 1682. Maryland was settled in 1634 by Roman Catholics sent out by Lord Baltimore. The first permanent settlement in North Carolina appears to have been made about 1663, on Albemarle Sound, by emigrants from Virginia. The first permanent settlement in South Carolina was made in 1670 by colonists from England on the Ashley River, near the site of Charleston, which began to be settled about the same time. Georgia was settled by General James Oglethorpe, who in 1733 founded Savannah.

[11] Jamestown is seven miles from Williamsburg, formerly the ancient capital of Virginia and seat of the colonial governor. The only remains of the ancient town are the tower of the church (in which Pocahontas was married in 1614; church itself rebuilt in 1907) and a few tombstones.

=How Europe First Divided the American Colonies.=--It will thus be seen that what is now the territory of the United States has been derived from six European nations. Resting on the discovery by Columbus and the bulls of the popes, Spain claimed the whole continent, but has been in actual possession only of the Gulf coast from Florida to Texas, and of the interior from the Mississippi to the Pacific. The Swedes once had settlements on the Delaware. The Dutch, following up the voyage of Hudson to the river bearing his name, claimed and held the country from the Delaware to the Connecticut. The French discovered the St. Lawrence and explored and held military possession of the valleys of the Mississippi and Ohio and the Great Lakes. The English, by virtue of the voyages of the Cabots, claimed the Atlantic coast, and there founded the colonies which grew into the thirteen United States.

In the course of the struggle, sometimes peaceful, often bloody, by which the rule of these nations has been thrown off, the Dutch conquered the Swedes; the English conquered the Dutch and the French; the United States expelled the English, and in time, by purchase or conquest, drove out the Spaniards and the Mexicans.

=Struggle of England and France for America.=--The first serious struggle for possession occurred in the middle of the eighteenth century, when the English, moving westward, met the French moving eastward at the source of the river Ohio. In that struggle, which has come down to us as the “French and Indian war,” France was worsted, and, retiring from this continent, divided her possessions between England and Spain. To England she gave Canada and the islands and shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and, entering what is now the United States, drew a line down the middle of the Mississippi River, and gave all to the east of that line (save the island on which is the city of New Orleans) to Great Britain, and all to the west of it to Spain; Spain at the same time gave Florida to England as the price of Cuba.

=Oppression of the Colonies under British Rule.=--Having thus come into possession of all the country to the east of the Great River, King George determined to send out an army of ten thousand men to defend the colonies, and have the latter bear a part of the expense. This part he attempted to collect by duties on goods imported, and by a Stamp Tax (1765) on legal documents and printed matter. No tax for revenue had before been laid on America by act of Parliament. The colonists, therefore, resisted this first attempt, and raising the cry, “No taxation without representation,” they forced Parliament to repeal the Stamp Tax in 1766. The right to tax was at the same time distinctly asserted, and in 1767 was again used, and duties laid on paints, oils, lead, glass, and tea. Once more the colonists resisted, and, by refusing to import any goods, wares, or merchandise of English make, so distressed the manufacturers of England that Parliament repealed every tax save that on tea. All the tea needed in America was now smuggled in from Holland. The East India Company, deprived of the American market, became embarrassed, and, calling on Parliament for aid, was suffered to export tea, a privilege never before enjoyed.

Selecting commissioners in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston, cargoes of tea were duly consigned to them by the East India Company; but the people agreed not to buy any of this tea or allow it to be sold. At Boston men disguised as Indians boarded the tea ships, overcame the guards, and destroyed the tea by throwing the boxes into the harbor. This has gone down in history as the “Boston Tea Party.”

=The Continental Congress and the Revolution.=--As a punishment for this, Parliament shut the port of Boston and deprived the people of Massachusetts of many functions of local government. The Assembly of Massachusetts thereupon called for a General Congress to meet at Philadelphia on September 5, 1774. The colonies gladly responded and this congress, having issued a Declaration of Rights and Addresses to the king, to Parliament, and to the people of England, adjourned to await the result.

The day for the reassembling of Congress was May 10, 1775; but, before that day came, the attempt of General Gage to seize military stores brought on a fight at Lexington, April 19, 1775. The fight at Lexington was followed by the siege of the British in Boston, by the formation of the “Continental Army,” by the appointment of George Washington to command it, by the battle of Bunker Hill, June 17, 1775, and by an expedition against Quebec, which came to naught, on the last day of the year.

General William Howe meantime had succeeded Gage in command of the British at Boston, and, finding himself hard pressed by Washington, evacuated the city and sailed for Halifax. Believing New York was to be attacked, Washington now hurried to Long Island, where, August 27, 1776, Howe defeated him, took possession of New York, and drove him first up the Hudson and then southward across New Jersey.

=American Independence Declared.=--Congress, which, July 4, 1776, at Philadelphia, had declared the colonies to be free and independent states, now fled from that city to Baltimore. But Washington, turning in his retreat, surprised and captured the British outpost at Trenton. Cornwallis instantly hurried toward that town, but Washington, passing around the British rear, attacked and captured at Princeton, January 3, 1777, a detachment on its march to Trenton, and then went into winter quarters at Morristown.

With the return of spring Howe, finding that he could not reach Philadelphia by land without passing in front of the Continental army stretched out on a strongly intrenched line across New Jersey, went by sea. Washington met him at Chadd’s Ford on the Brandywine, was defeated, and on September 25, 1777, Howe entered Philadelphia. In the attempt to dislodge him Washington fought and lost the battle of Germantown, October 4, 1777; the loss of Philadelphia was more than made good by the capture of Burgoyne and his army at Saratoga, October 17, 1777, while on his way from Canada to New York City.

The fruits of this victory were the recognition of the independence of the United States by France, the treaty of alliance with France, February 8, 1778, and the evacuation of Philadelphia by General Clinton, who had succeeded Howe. Washington, who had spent the winter at Valley Forge, instantly followed, and overtaking Clinton at Monmouth fought and won the battle at that place, June 29, 1778. Clinton escaped to New York, and Washington, drawing his army in a circle about the city from Morristown on the south to West Point on the north, awaited further movements.

=PRINCIPAL CAMPAIGNS AND BATTLES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION=

The leading battles are indicated in =bold-face=; successful commanders in italics

=====================+===================================+============== =Names, Dates and | =Commanders= | =Engaged= Places of Campaigns +-----------------------------------+-------+------ and Battles= | =American= | =British= |=Amer.=|=Brit- | | | | ish= ---------------------+-----------------+-----------------+-------+------ =1775-1776= | | | | =Campaign in | | | | New England= | | | | | | | | =Lexington, Concord= |Barret and |Smith and | ...| 1,700 (April 19, 1775) |Butterick |Lord Percy | | | | | | Ticonderoga (May 10, |Ethan Allen and|Delaplace | 83| 48 1775) |Eaton | | | | | | | =Bunker Hill= (June |Warren, Prescott |Howe and | 3,000| 4,500 17, 1775) |and Putnam |Pigot | | | | | | Quebec (December 6- |Schuyler, Mont- |M’Lean and | 900| 1,200 31, 1775) |gomery and Arnold|Carleton | | | | | | Norfolk, Va. (Dec. 9,|Woodford |Lord Dunsmore | ...| ... 1775) | | | | | | | | Boston (March 17, |The British evacuate the city and | | 1776) |harbor. | | | | | | Charleston (Ft. |Moultrie, Lee|Clinton | 400| 4,000 Moultrie) (June 28, |and Armstrong | | | 1776) | | | | | | | | =1776-1778= | | | | =Campaign in Middle | | | | States= | | | | | | | | Brooklyn, L. I. (Aug.|Green and |Howe, | 10,000|20,000 26, 1776) |Sullivan |Clinton, and | | | |Cornwallis | | | | | | Harlem Plains, N. Y. |Washington |... | ...| ... (Sept. 16, 1776) | | | | | | | | =White Plains, N. Y.=|Washington |Howe | 1,600| 2,000 (Oct. 28, 1776) | | | | | | | | Fort Washington, |Magaw |Howe | 3,000| 5,000 N. Y. (Nov. 16, 1776)| | | | | | | | =Trenton, N. J.= |Washington |Lord Cornwallis | 2,400| 1,000 (Dec. 26, 1776) | |and Rahl | | | | | | =Princeton, N. J.= |Washington |Mawhood | 3,000| 1,800 (Jan. 3, 1777) | | | | | | | | =Bennington, Vt.= |Stark and |Baum and Beyman | ...| 1,200 (Aug. 15, 16, 1777) |Warner | | | | | | | Brandywine, Pa. |Washington |Howe | 11,000|18,000 (Sept. 11, 1777) | | | | | | | | =Bemis Heights, |Gates |Burgoyne | 2,500| 3,000 N. Y.= (Sept. 19, | | | | 1777) | | | | | | | | Germantown, Pa. (Oct.|Washington |Howe | 11,000|15,000 4, 1777) | | | | | | | | =Stillwater= |Gates |Burgoyne | 8,000| 6,000 (Saratoga) (Oct. 7, | | | | 1777) | | | | | | | | =Monmouth, N. J.= |Washington |Sir Henry Clinton| 12,000|11,000 (June 28, 1778) | | | | | | | | =1778-1781= | | | | =Campaign in the | | | | South= | | | | | | | | Savannah, Ga. (Dec. |Robert Howe |Campbell | 900| 2,000 29, 1778) | | | | | | | | Brier Creek, Ga. |Ashe |Prevost | 1,200| 1,800 (Mar. 3, 1779) | | | | | | | | Stony Point, N. Y. |Wayne |Clinton | 1,200| 600 (July 16, 1779) | | | | | | | | Chemung, N. Y. (Aug. |Sullivan |Brant | 4,000| 1,500 29, 1779) | | | | | | | | Savannah, Ga. (Oct. |Lincoln |Prevost | 4,500| 2,900 9, 1779) | | | | | | | | Charleston, S. C. |Lincoln |Clinton | 3,700| 9,000 (May 12, 1780) | | | | | | | | Camden, S. C. |Gates |Cornwallis | 3,000| 2,200 (Sanders Creek) (Aug.| | | | 15, 1780) | | | | | | | | =King’s Mountain, |Campbell |Ferguson | 900| 1,100 S. C.= (Oct. 7, 1780)| | | | | | | | =Cowpens, S. C.= |Morgan |Cornwallis and | 900| 1,100 (Jan. 17, 1781) | |Tarleton | | | | | | Guilford C. H., N. C.|Greene |Cornwallis | 4,400| 2,400 (Mar. 15, 1781) | | | | | | | | Hobkirk’s Hill, S. C.|Greene |Rawdon | 1,200| 900 (April 25, 1781) | | | | | | | | New London, Conn., |Ledyard |Benedict Arnold| 150| 800 Fort Griswold (Sept. | |and Eyre | | 6, 1781) | | | | | | | | =Eutaw Springs, S. |Greene |Lord Rawdon | 2,000| 2,800 C.= (Sept. 8, 1781) | | | | | | | | =Yorktown, Va.= (Oct.|Washington |Cornwallis | 16,000| 7,500 17-19, 1781) | | | | ---------------------+-----------------+-----------------+-------+------

=Treason of Arnold and Execution of André.=--Turning towards the Southern states, the British commander now dispatched an expedition which took Savannah and overran the State of Georgia. The year which followed (1779) is memorable for the capture of Stony Point by Anthony Wayne; for the treason of Benedict Arnold; for the execution of Major John André; for the capture of the “Serapis” by Paul Jones after one of the most desperate naval battles on record, and by the failure of an attempt by the Americans to retake Savannah. In 1780 Clinton led an expedition from New York to Charleston, took the city, swept over South Carolina, and, leaving Cornwallis in command, hurried back to New York. Gates, who now attempted to dislodge the British, was beaten. Greene now succeeded Gates, and Morgan, the commander of his light troops, won the battle of the Cowpens, January 17, 1781. This victory brought up Cornwallis, who chased Greene across the State of North Carolina to Guilford Court House, where Greene was beaten and Cornwallis forced to retreat to Wilmington. Moving southward, Greene was again beaten in two pitched battles, but forced the British to withdraw within their lines at Charleston and Savannah.

Cornwallis meantime moved from Wilmington into Virginia and took possession of Yorktown. And now Washington, who had long been watching New York, again took the offensive, hurried across New Jersey and Pennsylvania, and, while a French fleet closed the Chesapeake Bay, he besieged Cornwallis by land, till, October 19, 1781, the British general surrendered. This practically ended the war.

The treaty of peace, at Paris, in 1783, actually ended it, secured the independence of the United States, and fixed her boundaries, roughly speaking, as the Atlantic Ocean on the east, the Mississippi on the west, New Brunswick, the St. Lawrence, and the Great Lakes on the north, and the parallel of thirty-one degrees on the south.

=Articles of Confederation and their Weakness.=--While the war was still raging Congress had framed an instrument of government, which the states ratified and put in force on March 1, 1781. This instrument of government which bound the thirteen states in perpetual union was known as the Articles of Confederation, and established a government as bad as any yet devised by man. There was no executive, no judiciary, and only the semblance of a legislature. The Congress consisted of not more than seven nor less than two delegates from each state; sat in secret session; was presided over by a president elected from its own members; and could not pass any law unless the delegates of nine states assented. It could wage war, make treaties, and borrow money; but it could not lay a tax of any kind whatsoever; nor regulate commerce between the states, or with foreign powers; and was dependent entirely on the liberality of the states for revenues. This defect proved fatal. Inability to regulate foreign commerce by duties stripped the country of its specie. Lack of specie forced the states to issue paper money. Paper money was followed by tender acts and force acts, and in some places by a violent stoppage of justice to the debtor class. A commercial and financial crisis followed and the people of the states, reduced to desperation, gladly acceded to a call for a national trade convention, which met in Philadelphia in May, 1787. The instructions of the delegates bade them suggest amendments to the Articles of Confederation. But the convention, considering the Articles too bad to be mended, framed the Constitution, which the people, acting through conventions in the various states, ratified during 1787 and 1788.

=Adoption of the Constitution and Organization of Parties.=--On March 4, 1789, the Constitution became the supreme law of the land. In the first Congress no trace of party lines is visible. But the work of establishing government had not gone far when differences of opinion sprang up; when the cry of partial legislation was raised, and the people all over the country began to divide into two great parties--those who favored and those who opposed a liberal construction of the language of the Constitution and the establishment of a strong national government.

The friends of national government took the name of Federalists, and under the lead of Alexander Hamilton, who as Secretary of the Treasury marked out the financial policy of the administration, they funded the foreign and domestic debt occasioned by the war for independence, assumed the debts incurred by the states in that struggle, set up a national bank with branches, and laid a tax on distilled liquors.

Each one of these acts was met with violent opposition, as designed to benefit a class, as unconstitutional, and as highly detrimental to the interests of the South. Against the Federalists were now brought charges of a leaning towards monarchy and aristocracy. Great Britain, it was said, has a funded debt, a bank, and an excise. These things are, therefore, monarchial institutions. But the Federalists have introduced them into the United States. The Federalists, therefore, are aristocrats, monarchists, and monopolists.

Of all who believed these charges, none believed them more sincerely than Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of State. Seeing in these acts a wide departure from the true principles of democracy, he set himself to work to organize a party of opposition, and was soon looked up to as the recognized leader of the Federal Republicans.

Hardly had the two parties thus been called into existence by difference of opinion on questions of home affairs, when they were parted yet more widely, and the dispute between them intensely embittered by questions of foreign affairs.

=Effect of the French and English Affairs Upon the New Nation.=--In 1793 the French Republic declared war against England, and sent a minister to the United States. As the United States was bound to France by the treaty of alliance and by a treaty of amity and commerce, and was not bound to Great Britain by any commercial treaty whatever, it seemed not unlikely that she would be dragged unwillingly into the war. But Washington, with the advice of his secretaries, proclaimed neutrality, and from that time every Republican was the firm friend of France and every Federalist the ally of England. Then began a seven years’ struggle for neutrality. France threw open her colonial ports to neutral commerce; Great Britain asserting the “Rule of the War of 1756,” a rule prescribing that no neutral should have in time of war a trade it did not have in peace, declared this trade was contraband, and seized the ships of the United States engaged in it. The Republicans denounced neutrality and attempted to force a war. The Federalists in alarm dispatched John Jay, the Chief Justice, to London, with offers of a commercial treaty. England responded and on February 29, 1796, the first treaty of amity and commerce between her and the United States became law. At this France took offense, rejected the new minister (C. C. Pinckney) from the United States, and drove him from her soil, suspended the treaties, insulted a special commission (sent out in the interest of peace), with demands for bribes and tribute, and almost brought on war.

Never since the days of Bunker Hill had the country been so stirred as this act of the French Directory stirred it in the summer of 1798. Then was written our national song, “Hail Columbia.” Then was established the department of the navy. Then, under the cry, “Millions for defense; not a cent for tribute,” went forth that gallant little fleet which humbled the tri-color in the West Indies and brought France to her senses.

=Causes and Events of the War of 1812.=--With the elevation of Napoleon to the First Consulship came peace in 1800. In that same year the Federalists fell from power, never to return. Once in power, the Republicans began to carry out the principles they had so long preached. They reduced the national debt; they repealed the internal taxes. They sold the navy; boldly assaulted the Supreme Court; and in 1811, when the charter of the National Bank expired, refused to renew it. Their doctrine of strict construction, however, was ruined, when, in 1803, they bought the Province of Louisiana from France and added to the public domain that splendid region which lies between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains.

At that moment it seemed as if the people were about to enter on a career of unwonted prosperity. But Napoleon suddenly made war on England, and by 1806 the United States was involved in a desperate struggle of nine years, both with France and England, for commercial independence. Great Britain searched our ships, impressed our sailors, violated the neutrality of our ports, and by the decisions of her admiralty courts and by orders in council sought to ruin our neutral commerce with Europe, unless carried on through her ports and under her license. Napoleon attacked us with his decrees of Berlin and Milan, and sought to ruin our neutral commerce with England. The United States retaliated by means of the embargo and non-intercourse, and, in 1812, declared war.

CAMPAIGNS AND BATTLES OF THE WAR OF 1812-1815

=Principal Land Battles=

=1812.=--August 16, the surrender of Detroit by Hull to Brock.

October 13, defeat of Van Rensselaer by Brock at Queenstown.

=1813.=--January 18-22, the Americans were defeated at Frenchtown by General Proctor, whose Indians massacred the wounded Americans.

April 27, York (Toronto) was captured by the Americans under General Pike.

October 5, General Harrison forced General Proctor to retreat into Canada, and October 5 at the battle of the Thames routed the British and their Indian allies. Tecumseh was killed, the territory lost by Hull regained, and Upper Canada was retained to the end of the war.

November 11, the Americans moved on Montreal, but were defeated at Chryslers Field, and retreated.

=1814.=--July 25, Winfield Scott again invaded Canada and gained victories at Chippewa (July 5) and at Lundy’s Lane.

August 24, capture of Washington and burning of the Capitol, the White House, and other buildings.

=1815.=--January 8, a large body of English veterans were landed in Louisiana, and attacked New Orleans; in this battle, which took place before the news of the treaty of peace reached the combatants, Jackson won a decisive victory.

=Principal Naval Battles=

=1812.=--August 19, the Constitution destroys the British Guerriere, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

October 18, the American Wasp captures the Frolic.

October 25, Captain Decatur in the United States took the Macedonian.

December 29, the Constitution captures the Java.

=1813.=--February 24, the American Hornet captures the Peacock.

June 1, the Chesapeake is captured by the British Shannon.

September 10, Commodore Perry with a fleet of nine vessels destroys the British squadron of six vessels on Lake Erie.

=1814.=--September 3, naval attack on Fort McHenry by the British fails.

September 11, Captain Macdonough, on Lake Champlain, completely defeated a British fleet stronger than his own; this checked a serious invasion of the enemy.

=Treaty and Results of the War=

December 24, 1814, a treaty of peace was made at Ghent, the end of the Napoleonic wars having removed the cause for England’s offensive policy at sea.

The provisions included:

(1) A return of captured territory.

(2) Nothing was said about impressment.

(3) No compensation was secured by the Americans for ships captured previous to 1812.

The results of the war were:

(1) An increase of debt.

(2) An outburst of national patriotism.

(3) The removal of America from participation in European politics.

(4) The development of manufacturing.

(5) The establishment of the protective tariff policy.

=With the Cessation of Hostilities Another Epoch in Our History Begins.=--From the day when Washington proclaimed neutrality in 1793, to the day when the people celebrated, with bonfires and with fireworks, and with public dinners, the return of peace, in 1815, the political and industrial history of the United States is deeply affected by the political history of Europe. It was questions of foreign policy, not of domestic policy, that divided the two parties, that took up the time of Congress, that raised up and pulled down politicians. But after 1815 foreign affairs sank into insignificance, and for the next thirty years the history of the United States is the history of political and economic development of the country to the east of the Mississippi River.

=Fall of the Federalists, or Pro-British Party.=--The opposition which the Federalists made to the war completed their ruin. In 1816 for the last time they put forward a presidential candidate, carried three states out of nineteen, and expired in the effort. During the eight years of Monroe’s administration (1817-1825) but one great and harmonious party ruled the political destinies of the country. This remarkable period has come down to us in history as the “era of good feelings.” It was indeed such an era, and so good were the feelings that in 1820 when Monroe was re-elected no competitor was named to run against him. Every state, every electoral vote save one was his. Even that one was his. But the elector who controlled it threw it away on John Quincy Adams lest Monroe should have the unanimous vote of the presidential electors, an honor which has been bestowed on no man save Washington.

=Rise of the Protective Tariff Policy.=--In the midst of this harmony, however, events were fast ripening for a great schism. Under the protection offered by the commercial restrictions which began with the embargo and ended with the peace, manufactures had sprung up and flourished. If they were to continue to flourish they must continue to be protected, and the question of free trade and protection rose for the first time into really national importance.

The rush of population into the West led to the admission of Indiana (1816), Mississippi (1817), Illinois (1818), Alabama (1819), and Missouri (1820) into the Union, and brought up for serious discussion the uses to be made of public lands lying within them.

The steamboat, which had been adopted far and wide, had produced a demand for some improved means of communication by land to join the greater water highways of the country and opened the era of internal improvements.

The application of Missouri for admission into the Union brought up the question of the admission of slavery to the west of the Mississippi. A series of decisions of the Supreme Court, setting aside acts of the state legislatures, gave new prominence to the question of state rights.

=A Decade of Great Political Contests.=--The Missouri question was settled by the famous Compromise of 1820 (the first great political compromise), which drew the line thirty-six degrees thirty minutes from the Mississippi to the hundredth meridian, and pledged all to the north of it, save Missouri, to freedom. But the others were not to be settled by compromise, and in the campaign of 1824 the once harmonious Republican party was rent in pieces. Each of the four quarters of the Republic put a candidate in the field and “the scrub-race for the presidency” began.

The new manufacturing interests of the East put forward John Quincy Adams. The West, demanding internal improvements at public expense, had for its candidate Henry Clay. William H. Crawford of Georgia (nominated by a caucus of Congressmen) represented the old Republican party of the South. Andrew Jackson of Tennessee stood for the new Democracy, for the people, with all their hatred of monopolies and class control, their prejudices, their half formed notions, their violent outbursts of feeling.

Behind none of them was there an organized party. But taking the name of “Adams men” and “Clay men,” “Crawford men” and “Jackson men,” the friends of each entered the campaign and lost it. No candidate secured a majority of the electoral college, and the House of Representatives chose John Quincy Adams.

=The Triumph of Democracy and Industrial Expansion.=--Under the administration of Adams (1825-1829) the men who wished for protection and the men who wished for internal improvements at government expense united, took the name first of National Republicans, and then of Whigs, and, led on by Henry Clay and Daniel Webster, carried through the high protection tariffs of 1828 and 1832. The friends of Jackson and Crawford took the name of Democrats, won the election of 1829, and during twelve years governed the country.

In the course of these years the population of the United States rose to seventeen million, and the number of states to twenty-six. Steam navigation began on the ocean; two thousand miles of railroad were built in the land; new inventions came into use; and the social and industrial life of the people was completely revolutionized. The national debt was paid; a surplus accumulated in the Treasury; the sale of public lands rose from three million dollars in 1831 to twenty-five million dollars in 1836; and the rage for internal improvements burned more fiercely than ever. A great financial panic spread over the country; the charter of the National Bank expired, a hundred “wild-cat banks” sprang up to take its place, and the question of the abolition of slavery became troublesome.

=Early Troubles in Our System of Public Finance.=--On the great questions which grew out of this condition of affairs the position of the two parties was well defined. The Democrats demanded a strict construction of the Constitution; no internal improvements at public expense; a surrender of the public lands to the state in which they lay; no tariff for protection; no National Bank; no agitation of the question of the abolition of slavery; the establishment of subtreasuries for the safe keeping of the public funds, and the distribution of the surplus revenue. The Whigs demanded a recharter of the National Bank; a tariff for protection; the expenditure of the surplus on internal improvements; the distribution of the money derived from the sale of public lands; a limitation of the veto power of the President; and no removals from office for political reasons.

The Democrats, true to their principles, and having the power, carried them out. They destroyed the Bank; they defeated bill after bill for the construction of roads and canals; they distributed thirty-eight million dollars of the surplus revenue among the states, and by the cartage of immense sums of money from the East to the far distant West, hastened that inevitable financial crisis known as the “panic of 1837.”

Andrew Jackson had just been succeeded in the presidency by Martin Van Buren (1837-1841) and on him the storm burst in all its fury. But he stood it bravely, held to a strict construction of the Constitution, insisted that the panic would right itself without interference by the Government, and stoutly refused to meddle. Since the refusal of Congress to recharter the Bank of the United States, whose charter expired in 1836, the revenue of the Government had been deposited in certain “pet banks” designated by the Secretary of the Treasury. Every one of them failed in the panic of 1837. Van Buren therefore recommended “the divorce of Bank and State,” and after a struggle of three years his friends carried the “subtreasury” scheme in 1840. This law cast off all connection between the state banks and the Government, put the collectors of the revenue under heavy bonds to keep the money safely till called for by the Secretary of the Treasury, and limited payments to or by the United States to specie.

=National Conventions and Rise of Slavery Issue.=--The year 1840 was presidential year, and is memorable for the introduction of new political methods; for the rise of a new and vigorous party; and for the appearance of a new political issue. The new machinery consisted in the permanent introduction of the national convention for the nomination of a president, now used by the Democrats for the second time, and by the Whigs for the first; in the promulgation of a party platform by the convention, now used by the Democrats for the first time; and in the use of mass meetings, processions, songs, and all the paraphernalia of a modern campaign by the Whigs.

The new party was the Liberty Party, and the new issue the “absolute and unqualified divorce of the general Government from slavery, and the restoration of equality of rights among men.” The principles of that party were: slavery is against natural right, is strictly local, is a state institution, and derives no support from the authority of Congress, which has no power to set up or continue slavery anywhere; every treaty, every act, establishing, favoring, or continuing slavery in the District of Columbia, in the territories, on the high seas, is, therefore, unconstitutional.

=The Short-lived Era of the Whigs.=--The candidate of this party was James Gillespie Birney. The Democrats nominated Martin Van Buren. The Whigs put forward William Henry Harrison and elected him. Harrison died one month after his inauguration, and John Tyler, the Vice-President and a Democrat of the Calhoun wing, became President.

The Whig policy as sketched by Clay was the repeal of the Subtreasury Act; the charter of a National Bank; tariff for protection; and the distribution of the sales of public lands. To the repeal of the Subtreasury Act Tyler gladly assented. To the establishment of a bank even when called “Fiscal Corporation,” he would not assent, and, having twice vetoed such bills, was read out of the party by a formal manifesto issued by Whig congressmen.

It mattered little, however, for the question of the hour was not the bank, nor the tariff, nor the distribution of the sales of lands, but the annexation of the republic Texas. Joined to the demand for the reoccupation of Oregon, it became the chief plank in the Democratic platform of 1844. The Whig platform said not a word on the subject, and the Liberty Party, turning with loathing from the cowardice of Clay, voted again for Birney, gave the State of New York to the Democrats, and with it the presidency.

=The Annexation of Texas, and Wilmot Proviso.=--Accepting the result of the election as “instruction from the people,” Congress passed the needed act and Tyler in the last hours of his administration declared Texas annexed.

The boundary of the new state was ill-defined. Texas claimed to the Rio Grande. Mexico would probably have acknowledged the Nueces River. The United States attempted to enforce the claim of Texas, sent troops to the Rio Grande, and so brought on the Mexican war.

At the close of the Mexican war the boundary of the United States was carried south from forty-two degrees to the Gila River, and what is now California, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, and more than half of Wyoming and Colorado were added to the public domain. While the war was still raging, Polk, who had succeeded Tyler, asked for two million dollars to aid him in negotiating peace. Well knowing that the money was to be used to buy land from Mexico, David Wilmot moved in the House of Representatives that from all territory bought with the money slavery should be excluded. This was the famous Wilmot proviso. It failed of adoption and the territory was acquired in 1848, with its character as to slavery or freedom wholly undetermined.

=The Preliminary Struggle over the Slave Problem.=--And now the old parties began to break up. Democrats who believed in the Wilmot proviso, and Whigs who detested the annexation of Texas, the war with Mexico, and the extension of slavery went over in a body to the Liberty Party, formed with it the Freesoil Party, nominated Martin Van Buren, and gave him three hundred thousand votes. In their platform they declared that Congress had no more power to make a slave than to make a king; that they accepted the issue thrust on them by the South; that to the demand for more slave states and more slave territories they answered, no more slave states, no more slave territories; and that on their banner was inscribed “Free Soil, Free Speech, Free Labor, and Free Men.” As the defection of Whigs to the Liberty Party in 1844 gave New York state to the Democrats and elected Polk, so the defection of Democrats to the Free Soilers in 1848 gave New York to the Whigs and elected Taylor. As Harrison, the first Whig president, died one month after taking office, so Taylor, the second Whig president, died suddenly when a little over one year in office, just as the great Whig compromise of 1850 was closing. The imperative need of civil government in the new territory, the discovery of gold in California, the rush of men from all parts of the earth to the Pacific Coast forced Congress to establish organized territories. The question was: shall they be opened or closed to slavery? But, as the soil had been free when acquired from Mexico, the question really was: shall the United States establish slavery?

THE MEXICAN WAR, 1846-1848

Causes of the War

(1) Long-standing irritation over claims of American citizens upon Mexico, which the latter refused to pay.

(2) The annexation by the United States of Texas, which Mexico claimed as still a part of her territory.

(3) Disputes as to whether the Rio Grande or Nueces River was the boundary of Texas.

Results of the War

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, in 1848, closed the war. Its chief provisions were:

(1) The Rio Grande was made the boundary between Texas and Mexico.

(2) California and New Mexico were ceded to the United States.

(3) The United States paid Mexico $15,000,000, and assumed $3,500,000 due American citizens.

The slavery question was intensified in American politics.

=PRINCIPAL BATTLES=

NOTE: The Americans were victorious in every conflict.

==============+==============+========================+=============== =Place of | =Dates= | =Commanders= | =Engaged= Battle= | |----------+-------------+-------+------- | |=American=| =Mexican= |=Ameri-|=Mexi- | | | | can= | can= --------------+--------------+----------+-------------+-------+------- Bracite |Dec. 25, 1846|Doniphan |Ponce de Leon| 500| 1,200 Buena Vista |Feb. 23, 1847|Taylor |Santa Anna | 4,700| 17,000 Cerro Gordo |April 18, 1847|Scott |Santa Anna | 8,500| 12,000 Chapultepec |Sept. 13, 1847|Scott |Santa Anna | 7,200| 25,000 Contreras |Aug. 20, 1847|Scott |Valencia | 4,000| 7,000 Churubusco |Aug. 20, 1847|Scott |Santa Anna | 8,000| 25,000 Huamantla |Oct. 9, 1847|Lane |Santa Anna | 500| 1,000 Mexico |Sept. 14, 1847|Scott |Santa Anna | 6,000| ... Molino del Rey|Sept. 8, 1847|Worth |Alverez | 3,500| 14,000 Monterey |Sept. 24, 1846|Taylor |Ampudia | 6,600| 10,000 Palo Alto |May 8, 1846|Taylor |Arista | 2,300| 6,000 Resaca de la |May 9, 1846|Taylor |Arista | 2,000| 5,000 Palma | | | | | Sacramento |Feb. 28, 1847|Doniphan |Trias | 900| 4,000 Vera Cruz |Mar. 27, 1847|Scott |Landero | 12,000| 6,000 --------------+--------------+----------+-------------+-------+-------

The only naval engagements of importance during the war with Mexico were the bombardment of Vera Cruz, by Commodore Conner, which lasted four days, and the bombardment of Monterey, Commodore Sloat, both cities being forced to surrender.

The Democrats, holding that slaves were property, claimed the right to take them into any territory, and asserting the principle of “squatter sovereignty,” claimed the right of the people living in any territory to settle for themselves whether it should be slave or free. The Free Soilers demanded that the soil having been free when a part of Mexico, should be free as a part of the United States. Between these two Clay now stepped in to act as pacificator. Taking up the grievances of each side, he framed and carried through the measure known as the Compromise of 1850, the third great political compromise in our history. The fruit of this was the admission of California as a free state; the passage of a more stringent law for the recovery of fugitive slaves; the abolition of the slave trade in the District of Columbia; and the organization of Utah and New Mexico on the basis of “squatter sovereignty.”

This done, senators and representatives of all parties joined in a manifesto declaring that the issues resting on slavery were dead issues, and that they would neither vote for, nor work for any man who thought otherwise. But thousands did think otherwise. The action of Clay pleased none. Anti-slavery men deserted him in the North; pro-slavery men deserted him in the South; and in 1852 the Whig party carried but four states out of thirty-one and perished. Even its two great leaders, Clay and Webster, were, by that time, in their graves.

Excited by such success, the Democrats, led on by Stephen A. Douglas, now broke through the compromise of 1820 and in 1854 applied “squatter sovereignty” to the organization of the territories of Kansas and Nebraska. Against this violation state legislatures, the people, the pulpit, and the press protested vigorously, for every acre of Kansas and Nebraska lay to the north of 36° 30′ and was solemnly pledged to freedom. But the Democratic leaders would not listen and drove from their ranks another detachment of voters. The effect was soon manifest. The little parties began to unite and when, in 1856, the time came to elect another president, the Republican Party of to-day was fully organized and ready. Once more and for the last time for twenty-eight years the Democrats won.

=Buchanan’s Administration the Prelude to the Civil War.=--The administration of James Buchanan (1857-1861) marks an epoch. The question before the country was that of the extension of slavery into the new territories. Hardly had he been inaugurated when the Supreme Court handed down a decision on the case of Dred Scott, which denied the right of Congress to legislate on slavery, set aside the compromises of 1820 and 1850 as unconstitutional, and opened all the territories to slavery.

=Rise of the Republican Party and Election of Lincoln.=--From that moment the Whig and Democratic parties began to break up rapidly till, when 1860 came, four parties and four presidential candidates were in the field. The Democratic party, having finally split at the national convention for nominating a president and vice-president, the southern wing put forward Breckenridge and Lane and demanded that Congress should protect slavery in the territories. The northern wing nominated Stephen A. Douglas and declared for squatter sovereignty and the compromise of 1850. A third party, taking the name of “Constitutional Union,” declared for the Constitution and the Union at any price and no agitation of slavery, nominated Bell and Everett, and drew the support of the old Whigs of the Clay and Webster school. The Republicans, declaring that Congress should prohibit slavery in the territories, nominated Abraham Lincoln and Hannibal Hamlin and won the election.

=Secession, and the Formation of the Confederacy.=--The State of South Carolina immediately seceded and before the end of February, 1861, was followed by Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. Taking the name of the Confederate States of America, they formed first a temporary and then a permanent government, elected Jefferson Davis president, raised an army, and besieged Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor. The attempt to relieve the fort brought on the bombardment and surrender (April 19, 1861). The Confederate States were now joined by Virginia, North Carolina, Arkansas, and Tennessee. Richmond was made the capital, and the Civil war opened.

=Civil War between the Union and the Confederacy.=--The line of separation between the states then became the Potomac River, the Ohio River, and a line across southern Missouri and Indian Territory to New Mexico. Along this line the troops of the Union were drawn up in many places under many commanders. Yet there were in the main but three great armies. That of the East or Potomac under General McClellan, that of the Center or the Ohio under General Buell, that of the West or Missouri under General Halleck. In command of all as Lieutenant-General was Winfield Scott. Confronting them were the troops of the Confederacy, drawn up in three corresponding armies: that of North Virginia under Johnston and Lee, that of the Cumberland under Albert Sidney Johnston, and that of the trans-Mississippi under McCulloch and Price.

Yielding to the demand of the North for the capture of Richmond before the Confederate Congress could meet there (July 20, 1861), McDowell went forth with thirty-eight thousand three-months volunteers to the ever memorable field of Bull Run.

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