The Circle of Knowledge: A Classified, Simplified, Visualized Book of Answers (part 7 of 9)
Var. Variety.
Vat. Vatican.
V. aux. Verb auxiliary.
V. C. Vice-chancellor; Victoria Cross.
Ven. Venerable.
V. G. Vicar-General.
V. g. (Lat. verbi gratia). For the sake of example.
V. i. Verb intransitive.
Vice-pres. Vice-president.
Vid. (Lat. vide). See.
V. imp. Verb impersonal.
V. irr. Verb irregular.
Vis., Visc. Viscount.
Viz. (Lat. videlicet). Namely; to wit. [OZ.]
V. n. Verb neuter.
Voc. Vocative.
Vol. Volume.
Vols. Volumes.
V. P. Vice-president.
V. Rev. Very Reverend.
Vs. (Lat. versus). Against.
V. S. Veterinary surgeon.
V. t. Verb transitive.
Vt. Vermont.
Vul., Vulg. Vulgate.
vv. ll. (Lat. variæ lectiones). Various readings.
W. Wednesday; Week; Welsh; West, western.
Walt. Walter.
Wash. Washington.
w. c. Water closet.
W. C. A. Women’s Christian Association.
W. C. T. U. Women’s Christian Temperance Union.
Wed. Wednesday.
Wel. Welsh.
w. f. Wrong font (in printing).
Whf. Wharf.
W. I. West Indies, West Indian.
Wis., Wisc. Wisconsin.
Wk. Week.
W. Long. West Longitude.
Wm. William.
W. N. W. West-northwest.
Wp. Worship.
Wpful. Worshipful.
W. S. W. West-southwest.
Wt. Weight.
W. Va. West Virginia.
Wyo. Wyoming.
Xm., Xmas. Christmas.
Y. Year.
Yd. Yard.
Yds. Yards.
Ye. The; Thee.
Y. M. C. A. Young Men’s Christian Association.
Y. M. Cath. A. Young Men’s Catholic Association.
Y. M. H. A. Young Men’s Hebrew Association.
Y. P. S. C. E. Young People’s Society of Christian Endeavor.
Yr. Year; Younger; Your.
Ys. Years; Yours.
Y. W. C. A. Young Women’s Christian Association.
Zach. Zachary.
Zech. Zechariah.
Z. G., Zoo. Zoölogical Gardens.
Zoöl. Zoölogy, zoölogical.
PUNCTUATION
Punctuation is the indication, by means of stops, of the different pauses necessary to show the meaning of a sentence.
Stops, therefore, are used to elucidate the meaning of words in their relation to other words.
=The Period [.].=--Declarative and imperative sentences, when not connected in construction with what follows, are closed by periods.
Examples:--The child is father of the man. The king is dead, long live the king.
A period should be placed after every abbreviation. The period thus used is part of the abbreviation.
Examples:--Wash., Washington; Gen., General; Pro tem., pro tempore, for the time being; Esq., Esquire; Gov., Governor.
Such expressions as 3d, 18th, 8mo, are not abbreviations and do not require a period after them.
A period should always be placed after the Roman numerals.
Examples:--I., II., III., IV., V., VI., VII., VIII., IX., X., etc.
=Interrogation Point [?].=--The interrogation point is used for marking all questions. When the question consists of several parts, or when several questions are contained in one sentence, there is some difficulty in deciding whether there should be one or more interrogation points. The principle is that if one answer is sufficient for all, one point is enough; if different answers are required, a point should be placed after each question.
Examples:--What can I do for you? Now, you understand?
=Exclamation Point [!].=--The exclamation point is placed at the end of every sentence, clause, phrase, or word intended to convey strong emotion.
Examples:--Praise be thine, O God! Lost! Lost! O that I were home!
=Colon [:].=--Two clauses, one or both of which are subdivided by the semicolon, should be separated from each other by the colon.
Example:--This chapter is divided into two sections: the first, which was written many years since, being a history of the institution; the second, a prophecy as to its future.
The colon is used before all direct quotations, if formally introduced, and after all words which formally introduce a sentence to follow. If the quoted matter begins a new paragraph, the colon should be followed by a dash.
Examples:--Cæsar spoke as follows: (His speech to follow.)
He replied in these words: “I shall always be prepared in future.”
My dear Friend: (A letter following.)
The colon is sometimes used between complete sentences where the period would indicate too long a pause, and the semicolon too short a pause.
Examples:--It was a dark and dreary night: the wind was blowing in fitful gusts.
It is over: let us go.
=Semicolon [;].=--When two clauses are united by either of the conjunctions for, but, and, or an equivalent word--the one clause perfect in itself, and the other added as a matter of inference, contrast or explanation--they are separated by a semicolon.
Example:--Economy is no disgrace; for it is better to live on a little than to outlive a great deal.
A semicolon is placed between two or more parts of a sentence when these, or any of them, are divisible by a comma into smaller portions.
Example:--Men are not to be judged by their looks, habits, and appearances; they should be judged by the character of their lives and conversations, and by their works.
When in a series of expressions the particulars depend on a commencing or concluding portion of the sentence, they should be separated from each other by a semicolon if laid down as distinct propositions or of a compound nature.
Example:--Philosophers assert that Nature is unlimited in her operations; that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve; that knowledge will always be progressive; and that all future generations will continue to make discoveries of which we have not the slightest idea.
When several short sentences follow one another, slightly connected in sense or in construction, they should be separated by a semicolon.
Example:--Stones grow; vegetables grow and live; animals grow, live, and feel.
A semicolon is put before as, viz., to-wit, namely, i. e., or that is, when they precede an example or a specification of particulars, or subjects enumerated; and also between these particulars when they consist each of a disjunct pair of words, or of a single word or phrase but slightly connected with the others.
Example:--Many words are differently spelled in English; as, “Inquire, enquire; jail, gaol; skeptic, sceptic.”
=Comma [,].=--Two words belonging to the same part of speech, or used as such, when closely connected by one of the conjunctions and, or, nor, are not separated by a comma from each other.
Example:--Pay supreme and undivided homage to goodness and truth.
Two words of the same part of speech and in the same construction, if used without a conjunction between them, are separated from each other by a comma.
Example:--We are fearfully, wonderfully made.
Two nouns or pronouns in apposition, or a noun and a pronoun, should not be separated by a comma if they may be regarded as a proper name or as a single phrase.
Example:--The poet Milton wrote excellent prose and better poetry.
But a noun or pronoun and a phrase, or two or more phrases, if put in apposition so that they may not be so regarded, are separated by a comma from each other, and from what follows in the same sentence.
Example:--Homer, the greatest poet of antiquity, is said to have been blind.
Words or phrases contrasted with each other, or having a mutual relation to others that follow them in the same clause, are separated by commas.
Example:--False delicacy is affectation, not politeness.
A comma is put before a relative clause when it is explanatory of the antecedent or presents an additional thought.
Example:--Behold the emblem of thy state in flowers, which bloom and die.
But the point is omitted before a relative that restricts the general notion of the antecedent to a particular sense.
Example:--Every teacher must love a boy who is attentive and docile.
Expressions of a parenthetical or intermediate nature are separated from the context by commas.
Example:--The sun, with all its attendant planets, is but a very little part of the grand machine of the universe.
A word or an expression used independently in addressing a person or an object is separated by a comma from the rest of the sentence.
Example:--Antonio, light my lamp within my chamber.
Adjectival, participial, and absolute phrases are each separated by a comma from the remainder of the sentence.
Example:--Awkward in his person, James was ill qualified to command respect.
Adverbs or adverbial phrases, when used as connectives, or when they modify not single words, but clauses or sentences, are each followed by a comma; and if used intermediately they admit a comma before as well as after them.
Example:--The most vigorous thinkers and writers are, in fact, self-taught.
When a phrase beginning with a preposition, an adverb, or a conjunction relates to or modifies a preceding portion of the sentence, a comma is unnecessary if the parts are closely connected in sense.
Example:--For that agency he applied without a recommendation.
Many phrases which, in their natural or usual order, do not require to be punctuated, are, when placed in some other or unnatural position, set off by a comma from the rest of the sentence.
Example:--By Cowley, the philosopher Hobbes is compared to Columbus.
When one of two clauses depends on the other, they are separated by a comma.
Example:--If you would be revenged on your enemies, let your life be blameless.
Two correlative expressions united by the conjunction as or than are written without a point between them.
Example:--Men are never so easily deceived as when they plot to deceive others.
But when united by any other word than one of these conjunctions, the correlative expressions are separated by a comma.
Example:--Though learned and methodical, yet the teacher was not a pedant.
Words or phrases in the same construction, forming a series, are separated from each other by commas.
Example:--Scrooge was his sole executor, his sole administrator, his sole assign, his sole residuary legatee, his sole friend, and sole mourner.--Dickens.
But when the members of the series are closely connected in sense, the commas should be omitted.
Example:--Government of the people by the people for the people.
When in a compound sentence the clauses have each a different nominative, but have only one verb, expressed in the first clause and understood in the others, the ellipsis, or place of the verb, should be supplied by a comma.
Example:--A wise man seeks to shine in himself, a fool to outshine others.
A short quotation, or any expression that resembles a quotation, is separated by a comma from an introductory clause.
Example:--Dr. Thomas Brown truly says, “The benevolent spirit is as universal in its efforts as the miseries which are capable of being relieved.”
=Dash ―.=--The dash denotes an abrupt break in a sentence.
Example:--Here lies the great--false marble, where? Nothing but sordid dust lies here.
The dash is used to indicate that something is left unfinished.
Example:--We cannot hope to succeed unless-- But we must succeed.
The dash is sometimes used instead of brackets before and after a parenthesis.
Example:--The man actually--this is in the strictest confidence--filled his pocket with my cigars when he thought I was not looking.
The dash is used instead of the colon where the word “namely” is implied but not expressed.
Example:--The sentence should be amended to read “--whenever and wherever the president shall determine.”
=Parentheses[()].= --Parentheses are used to inclose an explanation, authority, definition, reference, translation, or any matter not belonging to the grammatical construction of the sentence.
Example:--He gained from heaven (’twas all he wished) a friend.
=Brackets ([]).=--The use of brackets is about the same as that of the marks of parenthesis, but is generally confined to words inserted in quotations for the sake of explanation.
Example:--Dickens has given a very lively account of this place [the Academy] in his paper entitled “Our School,” but it is very mythical in many respects.
=Quotation Marks [“”].=--Quotation marks are used before and after a passage quoted in the exact words of another.
Example:--“My very dog,” sighed poor Rip, “has forgotten me.”
Matter quoted indirectly, or given only in substance, is not placed within quotation marks.
A quotation within a quotation is inclosed in single marks.
Example:--“His staff and knapsack, her little bonnet and basket, etc., lie beside him. ‘She’ll come to-morrow,’ he says, when it gets dark, and goes sorrowfully home.”
Where a quotation consists of several paragraphs, quotation marks should be used at the beginning of each paragraph, but at the close of the last paragraph only.
Titles of books, essays, newspapers, etc., should be placed within quotation marks, unless in italics or capitals.
=Hyphen [-].=--The hyphen is used between the parts of certain compound words, and to mark the division of syllables in showing the spelling of words. It is sometimes used in place of the diæresis after a prefix ending in a vowel before a word beginning with a vowel.
Example:--Horse-chestnut, Franco-Prussian, re-edit, de-vi-ate, truth-telling, text-book.
=Compound Words.=--Rule I.--Compounds made by omitting particles, and used literally, are generally written with a hyphen.
Many such words that coalesce in pronunciation, and have become very familiar, are written continuously.
after-events broomstick almond-oil eyeball arrow-head milkman battle-ax outlook
Rule II.--Two or more normally separate words are joined with hyphens if used in an adjective sense before a noun.
A sight never to be forgotten. A never-to-be-forgotten sight.
Rule III.--A full phrase used as the name of something not literally indicated by the phrase is written with a hyphen or hyphens.
Those here given are names of plants:
Aaron’s-beard forget-me-not
Rule IV.--Compound words showing arbitrary application of the literal idea expressed by their separated elements take no hyphen.
blackberry bluefish everybody however cottonwood (a tree) pronghorn (antelope) marrowfat (a pea) arrowhead (a plant) matchlock (a gun)
(Care should be taken not to apply this rule in cases where it does not really fit. Thus, any one, one’s self, etc., are often wrongly printed as anyone, oneself, etc.)
=Apostrophe [’].= --The apostrophe is used in the possessive case of nouns, to denote the plural of figures and letters, and to mark the elision of letters at the beginning or middle of a word, and the omission of figures in a number or date.
Example:--John’s, men’s, 2’s, 7’s, p’s and q’s, I’ve, I’ll, don’t, won’t, Po’keepsie, tho’, ’92, ’76.
MISCELLANEOUS MARKS
=Ellipsis= [* * * *] signifies a leaving out, defect, omission.
=Leaders= [...] serve to carry the eye across the pages of indexes, tables, contents, etc.; thus:
Needle-gun invented...................1856
=Brace [{].=--It is the vertical curved line used to signify that two or more words or lines are to be taken together--thus:
{Aboriginal Americans {Native {Emigrants
=Asterisk [*].=--It is used in printing or writing as a reference to a passage or note in the margin or at the bottom of a page, and also to supply the omission of letters or words.
=Dagger, or Obelisk [†]= is so called from its resemblance to a dagger, or inverted obelisk. It is also a mark of reference to a note in the margin or at the bottom of the page.
=Double Dagger [‡]= is the third reference mark used when there are more than two used on a page.
=Parallels [‖].=--This character is used in writing and printing to call attention to a similarly marked note in the margin or at the foot of the page.
=Section Mark [§]= is the character often used to denote a division of a writing or subdivision of a chapter; a paragraph.
=Paragraph [¶]= is the sign which notes the division of a writing into distinct parts, sections or subdivisions.
=Index, or Pointer [☞]= is used to direct particular attention to a note or paragraph. It is sometimes called a fist.
=Asterism [⁂= or =⁂]=, or cluster of stars, is used as a sign to direct attention to a passage, or paragraph, especially when such attention is deemed very important.
RHETORICAL FIGURES OF SPEECH
Figures of speech, or tropes, are used to make language more effective by adding special strength and beauty. They are words used in meanings not their own designed to secure a peculiarly happy effect. Thus when the poet writes:
“But yonder comes the powerful king of day, Rejoicing in the East..........”
he uses “king of day” for “sun”; and no one can fail to notice the pleasureable effect produced.
=Chief Rhetorical Figures of Speech= /---------------------------------/\---------------------------------\ | | | Resemblance. Contiguity. Contrast or Surprise. a. Comparison or a. Autonomasia-- a. Antithesis and Simile. Individual for Epigram. class.
b. Metaphor-- b. Synecdoche-- b. Hyperbole. 1. Identification Part for whole. of like qualities. c. Irony and Euphemism. 2. Identification c. Metonymy--Cause of like things. for effect, badge Arrangement. for class, etc. a. Climax. b. Anti-climax. c. Personification. c. Emphasis, or Inversion. d. Allegory.
But the new word images introduced must really be suited to add strength or beauty. Notice the contrast between these two descriptions of morning:
The saffron morn, with early blushes spread, Now rose refulgent from Tithonus’ bed, With new-born day to gladden mortal sight, And gild the courts of heaven with sacred light. --Pope’s Homer.
The sun had long since in the lap Of Thetis taken out his nap; And, like a lobster boiled, the morn From black to red began to turn. --Butler’s Hudibras.
PRINCIPAL FIGURES--The common figures are metaphor, simile, allegory, personification, apostrophe, euphemism, hyperbole, antithesis, epigram, irony, climax, onomatopœia (ŏn-ŏm-a-tō-pœ´-ĭ-a), and alliteration.
=Simile.=--A simile is a comparison between objects that are not of the same class, and usually expressed by either like or as.
Examples:--The warrior fought like a lion. His spear was like the mast of a ship. His wrath was as the storm.
=Metaphor.=--A metaphor is a comparison which is implied between two objects that are not of the same class. Unlike the simile, it does not state the resemblance, it takes that for granted and proceeds as if the two things were one--we no longer say, “He fought like a lion,” but, “He was a lion in the fight.”
=Allegory.=--Under which head fall Fables and Parables, is an extended Metaphor generally accompanied by Personification.
Example:--Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress; Spenser’s Faerie Queene.
=Personification.=--Attributes life to inanimate objects. It speaks of “The childhood of a nation,” of “a learned age” of “the thirsty ground,” of “eager darts,” of “winged words.”
=Apostrophe.=--Is a Personification accompanied by an address, or an address to an absent person.
Example:--
Ye hills and dales, ye rivers, woods, and plains, And ye that live and move, fair creatures, tell.
=Hyperbole= is effective exaggeration.
Example:--
Her eye in heaven Would through the airy region stream so bright, That birds would sing and think it were not night.
=Antithesis= is a contrast of words or thoughts.
Examples:--
Better be first, he said, in a little Iberian village Than be second in Rome.
=Epigram= is a short antithesis. It is often of the nature of a proverb.
Examples:--
Some are too foolish to commit follies.
The child is father of the man.
=Irony= is hidden satire.
Example:--
’Tis pretty, sure, and very probable, That eyes, that are the frail’st and softest things, Should be called tyrants, butchers, murderers.
=Metonymy=.--Metonymy is a figure of rhetoric in which the name of one object is put for another, the two being so related that the mention of one recalls the other.
Examples:--
He writes a good hand (handwriting).
Death fell in showers (bullets).
The kettle boils (water).
The pen is mightier than the sword (intelligence vs. force).
=Synecdoche= occurs where the part is taken for the whole, the species for the genus, the material for the thing made of it, where the person is designated by the most conspicuous trait of his character or the effect he produces.
Thus we may speak of “all hands being at work,” of so many “head” of cattle.
=Climax=.--Climax, or the rhetorical ladder, is the arrangement of a succession of words, or clauses, in such a way that the weakest may stand first; and that each in turn may rise in importance and make a deeper impression on the mind than that which preceded it.
Anti-climax reverses the order: this is often used in humorous writings.
Examples:--
I came, I saw, I conquered.
Since concord was lost, friendship was lost, fidelity was lost, liberty was lost--all was lost.
We have petitioned, we have remonstrated, we have supplicated, we have prostrated ourselves before the throne.--Patrick Henry.
=Alliteration= repeats the same sound in words for the purpose of adding to the euphony.
Examples:--
Silently out of the room there glided the glistening savage, Bearing the serpent’s skin and seeming himself like a serpent, Winding his sinuous way in the dark to the depths of the forest.
=*Onomatopœia= emphasizes the meaning by adapting the sound to the sense.
Example from Cataract of Lodore:--
And sounding and bounding and rounding, And bubbling and troubling and doubling, And grumbling and rumbling and tumbling, And clattering and battering and shattering.
* Name-making; the formation of words in imitation of the sounds made by the things signified: as, buzz, hiss, peewit, etc. It is held by some philologists that all language had its origin in onomatopœia, words formed by this principle being the most natural, and readily suggesting the actions or objects producing the sounds which the words are intended to represent.
=Euphemism= is the form of expression by which bad or dangerous things are spoken of in gracious terms. As an example we say death is “parting” or “falling asleep.”
=Emphasis, or Inversion=, adds greatly to the precision as well as vigor of style when temperately used. That is, when the predicate or object are much more impressive or mentally prominent than the subject they may with advantage precede it.
Any special emphasis may justify inversion. It is frequently used to indicate a swift or abrupt action--Commands frequently assume this form and owe to it half their force.
Examples:--
Great is Diana of the Ephesians, Sweet is the breath of morn. Low she lies who blessed our eyes. Silver and gold have I none. Go he shall. Stay not here. Up goes the fool, and gets sent down again.
FORMS OF WRITTEN ENGLISH
All forms of language composition are either Prose or Poetry; and these in turn are subdivided rhetorically into certain well-recognized special forms. The following classification shows at a glance the most important of these:
I. PROSE
LETTER WRITING.--Business and public letters, social letters, ceremonial letters and notes.
NARRATION.--Letters, journals, memoirs, biographies, history, travel, news, fiction.
DESCRIPTION.--Descriptions of external objects, of character and its development, of intellectual processes.
EXPOSITION.--Essays, treatises, editorials, reviews, criticisms.
ARGUMENT.--Argumentative essays, debates, briefs, etc.
PERSUASION OR ORATORY.--Orations, addresses, lectures, sermons.
II. POETRY
EPIC AND NARRATIVE POETRY.--The great epics, metrical romances, metrical tales, ballads, pastorals, idylls, etc.
DRAMATIC (including all narrative poetry which presents actors as speaking and acting for themselves).--Tragedy, comedy, farce, opera, melodrama, mask, interlude, etc.
LYRIC.--Odes, sacred and secular songs, elegy, sonnets, simple lyrics.
DIDACTIC.--Moral essays in verse, satiric poetry, etc.
LETTER WRITING, OR CORRESPONDENCE.
A letter is a written communication on any subject from one person to another. In other words, it is written conversation, or “speaking by the pen.” Letters deserve very careful attention, for no species of composition is more generally used by all classes of persons. Remember that the letter “bespeaks the person,” and that many will judge of a person’s character and attainments from his correspondence.
The first endeavor of a writer should be to express himself as easily and naturally as in conversation, though with more method and conciseness.
So, before you begin to write a letter, arrange in your mind the ideas you wish to convey; then express them as if you were talking to the person to whom you are writing.
=Divisions of a Letter.=--In every business or social letter there are five things to consider: the heading, the introduction, the body of the letter, the complimentary close, and the signature. Business letters should have an introductory address before the salutation.
THE HEADING.--The heading consists of the name of the place at which the letter is written, and the date. If you write from a city like St. Louis, Boston, or New York, give the door number, the name of the street, of the city, and of the state. If you are at a hotel or a school, its name may take the place of the door number and the name of the street. If in a small country place, give your postoffice address, the name of the county, and that of the state.
The date consists of the month, the day of the month, and the year.
Leave at least one inch vacant on the top of the first page.
Put on the first line, and to the right, your own postoffice address; and, either on the same line or on the next, the date--that is, the month, day, and year, thus:
_25 Endicott Street, Boston, Mass., August 6, 1904._
THE INTRODUCTION.--The introduction consists of the address--the name, the title, and the place of business or the residence of the one addressed--and the salutation.
The Salutation and the Complimentary Close should be appropriate to the person addressed. (See list of forms of Salutation and Complimentary Close on page 737).
Titles of respect and courtesy should appear in the address. Prefix Mr. to a man’s name; Messrs. to the names of several gentlemen; Miss to that of a young lady; Mrs. to that of a married lady. Prefix Dr. to the name of a physician, but never Mr. Dr.; Rev. to the name of a clergyman, or Rev. Mr. if you do not know his christian name; Rev. Dr. if he is a Doctor of Divinity, or write Rev. before the name and D. D. after it.
Salutations vary with the station of the one addressed, or the writer’s degree of intimacy with him. Strangers may be addressed as Sir, _Rev. Sir_, General, Madam, etc.; acquaintances as Dear Sir, _Dear Madam_, etc.; friends as My dear Sir, My dear Madam, _My dear Jones_, etc.; and near relatives and other dear friends as _My dear Wife_, My dear Boy, Dearest Ellen, etc. Examples:
_Mr. William C. Jones, Washington, D. C._
DEAR SIR: Your letter, etc.
_American Book Co., New York City._
DEAR SIRS: Kindly send, etc.
THE BODY.--Begin the body of the letter at the end of the salutation, and on the same line, if the introduction consists of four lines--you may do so even if the introduction consists of but three--in which case the comma after the salutation should be followed by a dash; otherwise, on the line below. (See general observations as to subject matter, style, etc.)
THE CONCLUSION consists of the complimentary close and the signature. The forms of the complimentary close are many, and are determined by the relation of the writer to the one addressed. In letters of friendship may be used Your sincere friend; Yours affectionately; Your loving son or daughter, etc. In business letters, use Yours; Yours truly; Truly yours; Yours respectfully; Very respectfully yours, etc. In official letters use I am, with respect, your obedient servant; I have the honor to be your obedient servant, etc.
The complimentary close often forms part of the last paragraph; at other times it stands separately, and then it usually begins about the middle of the line. Example:
_Very sincerely Mary E. Shattuck_.
A married woman should sign her own given name, but indicate her proper title of address; thus:
Mrs. J. F. Martin.
THE SUPERSCRIPTION, on the outside of the envelope, is the same as the address, consisting of the name, the titles, and the full directions of the one addressed. It should be written very plainly, and include the town, county, state, and country, if it goes abroad.
The number of the postoffice box, or the door number and the name of the street, or the name of the county, may stand at the lower left-hand corner.
=Style of Letters.=--It makes a considerable difference in our style whether we write as officials or business men, or as individual members of society.
The style should be determined in some measure by the nature of the subject, but in a still greater degree by the relative positions of the writer and the person addressed. On important subjects, the composition is expected to be forcible and impressive, on lighter subjects, easy and vivacious; in condolence, tender and sympathetic; in congratulation, lively and joyous. To superiors, it should be respectful; to inferiors, courteous; to friends, familiar; and to relatives, affectionate.
We may, therefore, usefully distinguish letters into three kinds--official or business letters and personal or social letters, and ceremonial letters or notes.
=Official or Business Letters.=--These include all those written by a person in the capacity of an officer, a professional man, a merchant, a tradesman, etc. They are classed together because they are mainly subject to the same rules.
In writing business letters, the following rules should be observed:
1. Be very clear, so that your exact meaning cannot fail to be understood at first sight. Read your letter over with close attention to see that all your thoughts are correctly, fully, and clearly expressed.
2. Take care that the handwriting be legible, else you may get boots for books, matches for hatchets or latches, two ponies instead of one hundred pansies.
3. Be brief and to the point; business men have no time to waste.
4. Confine yourself to strict business. If you wish to add matters of friendship, it is well to write them on a separate leaf, that the business portion may be separately filed.
5. Write grammatical and idiomatic English, and paragraph and punctuate as in other kinds of writing.
=Personal and Social Letters.=--Under this head may be placed those letters written by any person in his private capacity as an individual. Such letters may be dictated by friendship, by charity or kindness, by politeness, by respect, by gratitude, by self-interest, or by any other reasonable motive.
Among these are the following:
LETTERS OF FRIENDSHIP are such as are dictated by mutual affection between relatives and friends. They should be natural, easy, frank, without the least affectation. “I wish you to open to me your soul, not your library,” said Mme. de Sévigné, who wrote exquisitely herself. Such letters may treat of any subject of common interest to the parties concerned. Their language is that of the heart. Kindness, affection, charity, good-nature should dictate, prudence and common sense supervise them.
LETTERS OF CONGRATULATION are written on occasion of the New Year, a birthday, a preferment, or when a friend has met with some uncommon good fortune, and should be dictated by genuine friendship and sincere esteem, and expressed modestly without any exaggerated praise.
LETTERS OF CONDOLENCE.--These require great skill and care. Act like the humane surgeon who touches the wound gently, and only to heal it. If your correspondent knows the sad news already, sympathize sincerely with him. If you are to announce the bad news yourself, prepare the way slowly; state the news as delicately as you can. Express your grief again before you conclude.
LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION OR RECOMMENDATION require special prudence. Think first whether it is proper to write such a letter at all for such a person. Avoid two dangers: do not offend the applicant for a recommendation, do not deceive your correspondent by exaggerated praise of the one recommended.
If the applicant is worthy state his merits, express reasonable confidence in him. If he is unworthy or doubtfully worthy, give him a letter which he will prefer not to present; for every such letter is an open letter, which the bearer is expected to read before delivering.
A letter of introduction or recommendation should never be sealed, as the bearer to whom it is given ought to know the contents.
LETTERS OF PETITION should be modest and every way moderate. Ingratiate yourself in a manly way; state your reasons briefly but forcibly; show your appreciation of the trouble your correspondent may be put to in consequence of the favor; promise gratitude.
In answering such letters favorably be brief and show your pleasure at rendering the little service asked. In refusing show how reluctantly you do so; give good reasons for it. Express your hope of finding, some other time, a better opportunity of showing your affection or esteem.
LETTERS OF THANKS should never be neglected when a favor has been received. Express your appreciation both of the favor and of the kindness with which it was bestowed. Hope for an opportunity, not of repaying the person, but of showing your gratitude.
=Ceremonial Letters and Notes.=--Under this heading may be classed notes of invitation, acceptance, and regret, both formal and informal.
Informal invitations, acceptances, and regrets are simply friendly notes written always in the first person. They vary in form to suit the occasion. They should be cordial in tone, but brief, and are in better taste when confined to the subject of the invitation, outside items being permissible only under special circumstances which may require their mention.
An informal invitation should never, under any circumstances, be answered in the third person.
Invitation:--
_30 Rampart St., May 4th, 1917._
Dear Mr. Brooks:
_We would be very pleased to have you dine with us on Monday next, the 12th, at seven o’clock, if disengaged._
_Cordially yours, Helen Clements._
Acceptance:
_Eastern Point, April 29th, 1917._
Dear Mrs. Clements:
I will be most happy to dine with you on Monday, the 12th, at seven o’clock.
_Faithfully yours, Arthur Brooks._
Formal notes are always expressed in the third person, and all answers to such should correspond in form and style.
Although invitations to large affairs are usually printed from engraved plates, a few forms are here given, principally to show the correct forms of reply to the several kinds of invitation.
Invitation to a reception:
Mr. and Mrs. Charles L. Harrington request the pleasure of your company on Thursday evening, November tenth, from eight until eleven o’clock, 896 Fifth Avenue.
Acceptance:
Miss Evelyn Hall accepts with pleasure Mr. and Mrs. Charles L. Harrington’s invitation for Thursday evening, November tenth.
Dinner invitation:
Mr. and Mrs. Henry W. King request the pleasure of Mr. and Mrs. Mayhew Marbury’s company at dinner on Tuesday evening, April tenth, at eight o’clock, 40 Maple Avenue.
Acceptance:
_14 West Street, March 31st, 1917._
Mr. and Mrs. Mayhew Marbury accept with pleasure Mr. and Mrs. Henry W. King’s invitation to dinner on Tuesday evening, April tenth, at eight o’clock.
=Additional Suggestions.=--Always use good paper and black ink. Decorated or highly colored writing papers are in poor taste. Plain white or slightly tinted paper of medium weight is best.
All letters and notes should be written legibly and neatly, carefully punctuated, and absolutely correct as to spelling.
All letters and notes, with a few special exceptions, require a prompt acknowledgment of receipt, if not an immediate answer.
This is especially the case in business letters and those containing enclosures of any kind.
All letters and notes should be courteous. To inferiors in station be kindly; to superiors, respectful; and to equals, friendly.
All letters and notes asking information should be re-read immediately before answering.
OFFICIAL AND TITLED SALUTATIONS
Titles in the United States are either official or academic.
OFFICIAL TITLES
TO THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES, an official letter commences, Sir.
Conclusion: I have the honor to remain your most obedient servant.
Salutation of a social letter: My dear Mr. President.
Conclusion: I have the honor to remain most respectfully [or sincerely] yours.
Inscription on envelope: President Woodrow Wilson.
TO THE VICE-PRESIDENT, an official letter begins, Sir, or Dear Sir.
Conclusion: I have, Sir, the honor to remain your most obedient servant.
Salutation of a social letter: My Dear Mr. Marshall.
Conclusion: as given for president.
Inscription on envelope: The Vice-President, Thomas R. Marshall.
TO A JUSTICE OF THE SUPREME COURT, an official letter begins and concludes as in the case of a vice-president.
Salutation of a social letter: Dear Mr. Justice White, or _Dear Justice White_.
Conclusion: Believe me, truly [or most sincerely] yours, etc.
Inscription on envelope: Mr. Justice Edward D. White.
TO A SENATOR, an official letter begins and concludes as to a vice-president.
Salutation of a social letter: My Dear Senator Lewis.
Conclusion: as given for a justice.
Inscription on envelope: Senator Hamilton Lewis or _To the Hon. Hamilton Lewis_.
TO A MEMBER OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, an official letter begins as to a senator.
Conclusion: as in the case of a vice-president.
Salutation of a social letter: My dear Mr. Clark.
Conclusion: as given for a justice.
Inscription on envelope: Hon. Champ Clark.
TO A MEMBER OF THE CABINET, an official letter begins and concludes as to a vice-president.
The salutation and conclusion of a social letter are as in the case of a member of the House of Representatives.
Inscription on envelope: Honorable Robert Lansing, Secretary of State.
TO THE GOVERNOR OF A STATE, an official letter begins: Sir.
Conclusion: I have the honor, Sir, to remain your obedient servant.
A social letter begins: Dear Governor McCall or Dear Mr. McCall.
Conclusion: Believe me, truly [or most sincerely] yours.
Inscription on envelope: Governor [or Hon.] Samuel W. McCall.
TO A MAYOR, an official letter begins: Sir or Your Honor.
Conclusion: Same as a governor.
Social letter begins: My dear Mayor Rockwood or Dear Mr. Rockwood.
Conclusion: Same as a governor.
Inscription on envelope: His Honor the Mayor of Cambridge, Wendell D. Rockwood.
CLERICAL TITLES
THE POPE--His Holiness Pope Benedict XV.
TO A ROMAN CATHOLIC ARCHBISHOP, an official or a social letter begins: Most Reverend and Dear Sir.
Conclusion: I have the honor to remain your humble servant.
Inscription on envelope: The Most Reverend John J. Keane, Archbishop of Dubuque, Iowa.
TO A CARDINAL, whether official or social, a letter begins: _Your Eminence._
Conclusion: as to an archbishop.
Inscription on envelope: His Eminence Cardinal Gibbons.
TO A ROMAN CATHOLIC BISHOP, either an official or a social letter begins: Right Reverend and Dear Sir.
Conclusion: as to an archbishop.
Inscription on envelope: _To the Right Reverend Philip J. Garrigan, Bishop of Sioux City, Iowa._
TO A PROTESTANT BISHOP, an official letter begins as in the case of a Roman Catholic bishop. A social letter begins: Dear Bishop Lawrence.
Conclusion: I have the honor to remain your obedient servant, or I remain respectfully or sincerely yours.
Address on envelope: The same as to a Roman Catholic bishop.
TO AN ARCHBISHOP OF THE ANGLICAN CHURCH, an official letter begins: _My Lord Archbishop, may it please your Grace._
Conclusion: I remain, My Lord Archbishop, your Grace’s most obedient servant.
Salutation of a social letter: My dear Lord Archbishop.
Conclusion: I have the honor to remain, my dear Lord Archbishop.
Inscription on envelope: _The Most Rev. His Grace the Archbishop of York._
TO AN ANGLICAN BISHOP, an official letter begins: My Lord.
Conclusion: I have the honor to remain your Lordship’s obedient servant.
Salutation of a social letter: My Dear Lord Bishop.
Conclusion: I have the honor to remain, my dear Lord Bishop, faithfully yours.
Inscription on envelope: To the Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of Oxford.
ENGLISH TITLES OF ROYALTY, NOBILITY AND OFFICE
The following list illustrates the various titles used for the different ranks among individuals either in the complimentary address or superscription on the envelope:
1. In Letters or Conversation. 2. The Directions of Letters.
THE ROYAL FAMILY
THE KING--
1. Sir; Most Gracious Sovereign; May it please your Majesty.
2. To the King’s Most Excellent Majesty.
THE SONS AND DAUGHTERS, BRETHERN AND SISTERS OF SOVEREIGNS--
1. Sir, or Madam, May it please your Royal Highness.
2. To His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales.
To Her Royal Highness the Duchess of Cambridge.
OTHER BRANCHES OF THE ROYAL FAMILY--
1. Sir, or Madam, May it please your Highness.
2. To His Royal Highness the Duke of Cambridge; or, To Her Highness the Princess Mary of Cambridge.
THE NOBILITY
A DUKE, OR DUCHESS--
1. My Lord, or My Lady, May it please your Grace.
2. To His Grace the Duke of Bedford; or, To Her Grace the Duchess of Bedford.
A MARQUIS, OR MARCHIONESS--
1. My Lord, or My Lady, May it please your Lordship, or May it please your Ladyship.
2. To the Most Noble the Marquis, or Marchioness, of Westminster.
AN EARL OR COUNTESS--The same.
To the Right Honorable the Earl, or Countess, of Shrewsbury.
A VISCOUNT OR VISCOUNTESS--
1. My Lord, or Madam, May it please your Lordship, or, May it please your Ladyship.
2. To the Right Honorable Viscount, or Viscountess, Lifford.
A BARON OR BARONESS--The same.
To the Right Honorable, the Lord Wensleydale, or The Lady St. John.
THE WIDOW OF A NOBLEMAN is addressed in the same style, with the introduction of the word Dowager in the superscription of her letters.
To the Right Hon. the Dowager Countess of Chesterfield.
THE SONS OF DUKES AND MARQUISES, AND THE ELDEST SONS OF EARLS, have, by courtesy, the titles of Lord and Right Honorable; and all the daughters have those of a Lady and Right Honorable.
THE YOUNGER SONS OF EARLS, AND THE SONS AND DAUGHTERS OF VISCOUNTS AND BARONS, are styled HONORABLE.
OFFICIAL MEMBERS OF THE STATE
A MEMBER OF HIS MAJESTY’S MOST HONORABLE PRIVY COUNCIL--
1. Sir, or My Lord, Right Honorable Sir, or My Lord, as the case may require.
2. To the Right Honorable ----,[14] His Majesty’s Principal Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs.
AMBASSADORS AND GOVERNORS--
1. Sir, or My Lord, as the case may be; May it please your Excellency.
2. To his Excellency the French (or other) Ambassador.
3. To his Excellency ----,[14] Lieutenant General and General Governor of that part of the United Kingdom called Ireland.
JUDGES--
1. My Lord, May it please your Lordship.
2. To the Right Honorable ----, Lord Chief Justice of England.
THE LORD MAYOR OF LONDON, YORK, or DUBLIN, AND THE LORD PROVOST OF EDINBURGH, during office--The same.
1. My Lord, May it please your Lordship.
2. To the Right Honorable ----, Lord Mayor of London. To the Right Honorable ----, Lord Provost of Edinburgh.
THE LORD PROVOST of every other town in Scotland is styled Honorable.
THE MAYORS OF ALL CORPORATIONS (excepting the preceding Lord Mayors), and the Sheriffs, Aldermen, and the Recorder of London, are addressed Right Worshipful; and the Aldermen and Recorders of other Corporations, and the Justices of the Peace, Worshipful.
[14] Here write the name, and specify the title or rank of the person addressed, as “The Right Honorable the Earl of Wimbourne.”
THE PARLIAMENT
HOUSE OF PEERS--
1. My Lords, May it please your Lordships.
2. To the Right Honorable the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, in Parliament assembled.
HOUSE OF COMMONS--
1. May it please your Honorable House.
2. To the Honorable the Commons of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
THE SPEAKER OF DITTO--
1. Sir, or Mr. Speaker.
2. To the Right Honorable James W. Lowther, the Speaker of the House of Commons.
A MEMBER OF THE HOUSE OF COMMONS NOT ENNOBLED--
1. Sir.
2. To Thomas Hughes, Esq., M.P.
NARRATION
Narration is a species of composition which relates the particulars of a real or fictitious event in the order of their occurrence. In a wider meaning, narration is the statement of successive facts. In a story or drama the plot is the series of incidents which form the skeleton of the story.
If the subject deals with real facts, as in biography, or history, or news, the rule of fidelity to the truth is essential. It requires that not only the main facts shall be true as they are narrated, but also that all the striking and important details be faithfully stated as they are known to have occurred or happened.
=Biography.=--After the letter, the simplest form of composition is biography. The order of events from youth to age is established.
This style of composition is strongly to be recommended for beginners. It affords excellent practice for all. It promotes a habit of putting things in order.
Outline scheme of biography:--
1. When was he born?
2. Where was he born?
3. Who were his parents?
4. Where was he educated?
5. Whom did he marry?
6. What was his profession?
7. What great work did he do?
8. When and where did he die?
9. Where was he buried?
Answer each question in a complete sentence.
You have nine statements in chronological order.
Each of these can be expanded into one or more paragraphs.
=Fiction and Drama.=--If the composition is a story or drama, the principal requirements involve the following:
The story should develop one or more of the following: plot, situation, character.
The story should have interest.
1. It should begin attractively and as directly as possible.
2. It must move, and not simply “mark time.”
3. It may be made effective by dramatic situations and turning points.
4. It may use description, but the description must be closely connected with the story and must not hinder the movement.
5. It should discriminate in the number and the importance of details.
6. It may make effective use of suspense and suggestion.
7. It should have no inconsistency in the speech or the actions of the characters.
8. It should have an effective ending.
=News, or the Newspaper “Story,”= is another very important form of narrative. The newspaper is the great popular educator of the day, and in its columns are found not only excellent examples of vivid and telling narratives, but frequently excellent types of spontaneous writing.
News and news reporting require accuracy, clearness, brevity, and a style that either charms, or compels interest. Indeed, it too frequently happens that to secure the element of interest practically all else is sacrificed.
Reporting and news writing are best learned by careful study of the daily papers, and from constant practice. Shorthand is an invaluable aid in securing the exact words of the speaker if the news takes the form of an interview, or report of a public address or meeting.
The relation of the “facts” and “story” may be illustrated in the following:
Report of exact words of the speaker:--
“I assure you, my friends, that I for my part, will do all I possibly can to resist this measure. You know that I have always been opposed to it; as recently as yesterday I spoke against it here in this very hall. Do you think that the people of this country will tolerate such injustice? I am sure they will not.”
How the newspaper report appeared:--
He assured his friends that he for his part would do all he possibly could to resist that measure. They knew that he had always been opposed to it; as recently as the day before he had spoken against it there in that very hall. Did they think, he asked, that the people of this country would tolerate such injustice? He was sure they would not.
EXPOSITION
Exposition is a form of composition designed to explain. Its important characteristic is clearness, and it, therefore, makes large use of illustration.
The main points may be stated in various ways in order to make them clear.
Essays and editorials are among the best known forms of exposition.
=Essay.=--An essay is a short composition upon any subject. The subject may be of any kind whatever, one fit for treatment, and with great fulness, in any of the species of discourse described above, or one without sufficient dignity for such treatment. No other species of writing ranges over so wide and varied a field of topics--nothing less than that of all others combined--and none other allows such freedom and diversity in the handling.
In style of thought the essay may be dreamy and semi-poetical, and charm by its beauty, it may be simply instructive or critical, it may blaze with its brilliancy, sting with its satire, convulse with its humor, convince with its logic, inflame with its appeal and move to instant duty. The author may wander off in leisurely excursions to the right and the left, and load his pages with gleanings by the way; or, like the orator, he may keep his eye on the point he would reach, and move, with the directness of an arrow’s flight, toward it.
The style of expression should fit the thought, and October woods are not more varied in color than this department of literature in utterance.
Outline of the Essay.--1. Give a clear definition of the subject or proposition to be discussed, amplified, paraphrased, or explained.
2. Set out the reason for, or the truth of, the proposition.
3. Add the confirmation of further proofs, including demonstration of the unreasonableness of the contrary.
4. Illustrate the truth of the proposition by comparison or analogy from nature or art.
5. Give direct examples or instances to corroborate the truth.
6. Quote the testimony of standard authors.
7. Conclude by summing up, with pertinent observations.
Remember that all this working to a formula is only a training in the habit of clear thinking--a mental discipline.
When you can do without the formula, and not till then, you will begin to be a writer.
=Editorials= are, in point of fact, simply little essays, usually following closely the news or issues of the day. Their function is to elucidate, summarize, inform, persuade, or merely comment. In their highest form they are to prose writing what the sonnet is to verse; but it must be confessed that numerous editorials are so completely dominated by the so-called “editorial policy” of newspaper owners, or colored by one of the various hues of partisanship, that their otherwise beneficent influence and power are largely neutralized.
=Description.=--We mean by a description the delineation of some object or scene. Narration deals with successive facts; description with objects that exist at the same time. We rarely find any literary production of great length which is entirely descriptive; but descriptions are often introduced into narratives with happy effect.
Sometimes they serve the purpose of making the narration impressive, by moving the passions of the reader. At other times they are intended to make the events more intelligible. Thus we have seen that some narratives of battles are hard to follow because the writer has neglected to give us a clear description of the battle-field.
Descriptions frequently serve as ornaments, affording an agreeable variety to the narration, and presenting scenes of striking interest to the imagination.
RULES.--The governing rules in description are the following:
1. In every good description a point of view should be established.
2. The description should be governed by the point of view.
3. The general outline of the picture should, ordinarily, be given first.
4. The number of details should be so few and so insignificant as to make a vivid picture.
5. The order of the details should be determined by the character of the object described.
=Argument.=--This form of composition is designed to prove the truth or the falsity of a proposition.
A brief is a summary of an argument showing the development of the argument by a series of headings and sub-headings.
The first step in the argument should be to define the terms of the proposition or to determine the facts in the case.
State reasons to establish facts.
The conclusion should be warranted by the premises.
Illustrations may be used effectively, but not conclusively.
Analogy should be used for illustration, not as a basis for conclusions.
Arguments should usually be arranged in the order of their strength, the strongest last.
POETRY AND POETICS
Poetry is usually classified as epic, lyric, dramatic, and didactic.
=Epic Poetry= is that which deals with the life and adventures of some real or mythic personage, called a hero.
1. The great epic is considered the highest effort of poetic talent, on account of the loftiness of its conceptions, the dignity of its character, and the difficulty of its execution. Few epic poems have gained general admiration. Those most highly prized are Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey; Virgil’s Æneid; Milton’s Paradise Lost; and Tasso’s Jerusalem Delivered.
2. The Metrical Romance differs from the great epic in its theme, which is less serious; its metre, which is lighter; and its control of events, which is mainly human; the love element is more prominent in this form of the epic. Examples: Scott’s Marmion and The Lady of the Lake.
3. The Tale is a simple form of narrative poetry telling a complete story. Examples: Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales; Tennyson’s Enoch Arden.
4. The Ballad is a direct, rapid, and condensed story, having peculiarities of phrase and poetic accent. Examples: Chevy Chase; Coleridge’s Ancient Mariner.
5. Pastorals and Idylls have a great deal of description, often of simple country scenes, mingled with the narrative. Examples: Goldsmith’s Deserted Village; Tennyson’s Idylls of the King.
=Dramatic poetry= tells a story by means of characters speaking and acting in such a way as to develop a plot. The drama is divided into acts, often five, the fifth act showing the results of the plot which has been developing.
The classes of dramatic poetry are tragedy and comedy.
Tragedy deals with the grave situations and problems of life and engenders in the spectator noble emotions.
Comedy deals with the pleasanter and more trivial side of life and chooses its subjects from everyday follies, accidents, or humors.
=Lyric poetry= expresses the deepest emotions of sentiment of the poet. The lyric, as the word suggests, was originally designed to be sung to the music of the lyre.
Lyric poetry includes five classes, as follows:
Song may be either sacred or secular.
The Ode is the loftiest form of lyric, and expresses great range and depth of feeling. This range of emotion often varies the metre. Examples: Tennyson’s Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington; Lowell’s Commemoration Ode.
The Elegy laments the fleeting condition of human affairs. Examples: Gray’s Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard; Milton’s Lycidas; Tennyson’s In Memoriam.
The Sonnet is a short poem of fourteen iambic pentameter lines, and had originally a prescribed arrangement of rhyming lines. The great English sonnet writers are Shakespeare, Milton, Wordsworth, and Mrs. Browning.
Many lyrics have none of the special aims already mentioned. These may be called Simple lyrics. Example: Burns’s To a Daisy.
=Didactic verse= is not the highest type of poetry.
Its aim is not to give pleasure, but to instruct.
Example: Pope’s Essay on Man.
POETICS
Poetry differs from prose in three particulars: in its purpose, in its style, and in its form.
The chief object of poetry is to give pleasure. Of all literature it is the most spontaneous because addressed particularly to the feelings.
It has its own diction and imagery, conforming to the order, gradations and subtleties of its thought. Like other forms of genius, too, it is permitted certain liberties and variations of language or expressions in order to avoid monotony and maintain the life and music of the verse. These are more strictly rhetorical, however, and next in importance to the poetic content is poetic form.
By poetic form we mean the mould and measure whereby, in English, poetry gets itself into the expression adapted to produce its designed effect.
=Metre.=--All impassioned language, as in eloquence for instance, tends to fall into a more or less regular rhythmic swing. In poetry, which is both impassioned and imaginative, this rhythm is timed to definite lengths and called metre, which is the Greek word for measure.
The unit of poetic measure is the foot. A foot is a combination of syllables, two or three distinguished, after the Greek, as long and short, but more truly accented and unaccented, because our syllabic values, unlike the Greek, are more accentual than quantitative. A variety of poetic feet are employed in English, whose names and values are derived from Greek prosody.
POETIC FEET.--For brevity of description a notation is used to designate the foot: the sign (―) for a long, and (◡) for a short syllable. The kinds of feet in most common English use, here marked by their signs and illustrated by a word, are: Iambic or Iambus, a short and a long (◡ ―, e. g. forbid); Trochaic or Trochee, a long and a short (― ◡, e. g. lightly); Spondaic or Spondee, two longs (― ―, e. g. all day); Anapestic, two shorts and a long (◡ ◡ ―, e. g. arabesque); and Dactylic, a long and two shorts (― ◡ ◡, e. g. silently).
Other feet, such as Tribrach, three shorts (◡ ◡ ◡, e. g. rapidly); Amphibrach, short long short (◡ ― ◡, e. g. tremendous), and Amphimacer, long short long (― ◡ ―, e. g. undismayed), are used less frequently, and only as blends with other measures.
VERSE.--The first combination of poetic feet results in the verse or line, somewhat analogous to the clause in a prose sentence. The word verse means by derivation a turning; perhaps because where it reaches a certain designed length the writer turns back and begins a new line. The kinds of verse employed are named by Greek names according to the number of feet they contain; and along with this, if the measure is fully described, is named the kind of foot.
The same notation as given above is kept up through the line, the feet being separated by an upright line. Thus, taking the Iambic foot as unit, we note: Monometer, one-measure, or one foot long (◡ ―); Dimeter, two-measure (◡ ― | ◡ ―); Trimeter, three-measure (◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ―); Tetrameter, four-measure (◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ―); Pentameter, five-measure (◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ―); and Hexameter, six-measure, (◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ―). English names are sometimes used, as 8 and 7, or fourteeners.
A few poetic lines may here be given, with their notation, by way of illustration:
◡ ― ◡ ― ◡ ― ◡ ― I wan|dered lone|ly as | a cloud (Iambic tetrameter)
― ◡ ― ◡ ― ◡ ― ◡ Heard the | lapping | of the | water (Trochaic tetrameter)
― ◡ ◡ ― ◡ ◡ ― ◡ ◡ ― ◡ ◡ ― This is the | forest pri|meval; the | murmuring | pines ◡ ◡ ― ◡ and the | hemlocks (Dactylic hexameter)
◡ ― ◡ ◡ ― ◡ ◡ ― ◡ ◡ ― Oh, young | Lochinvar | is come out | of the West (Anapestic tetrameter)
― ◡ ◡ ― ◡ ◡ One more un|fortunate (Dactylic dimeter)
◡ ― ◡ ― ◡ ― ◡ ― ◡ ― This was | the no|blest Ro|man of | them all (Iambic pentameter)
At some place within a long line, pentameter or hexameter, occurs a natural pause, called the cæsura. The continual varying of the place of the cæsura is one means of breaking up the monotony to which blank verse (Iambic pentameter unrhymed) tends.
=Stanzas.=--The next step of procedure as the combination of poetic elements goes on from the single verse, is some form of stanza structure.
The simplest approach to the stanza, employed principally in what is called Heroic verse, is the couplet (also called the Heroic couplet), two lines, Iambic pentameter, rhymed, and generally pausing at the end of the second line. They form only partially a stanza, however, because these couplets go on, according to the requirements of the thought, to group themselves in paragraphs after the manner of prose. Pope is the great master of the heroic couplet.
Sometimes, if the lines are long, a poem is made up of couplet stanzas, as in Tennyson’s Locksley Hall.
There are certain standard stanza structures, such as the Elegiac stanza, four lines Iambic pentameter, rhymed either in pairs or alternately, of which Gray’s Elegy (rhymed alternately) is the type; the Ballad stanza, four lines Iambic pentameter and trimeter alternating, with second and fourth lines rhymed together, sometimes also first and third; various hymn stanzas, designated Long Metre (L. M.), Common Metre (C. M.), Short Metre (S. M.), 8 and 7, 6 and 4, etc., which can be studied in any hymn-book; and most elaborate of all, the Sonnet, a fourteen-lined stanza which is also a whole poem, with a rather intricate rhyme scheme.
Generally speaking, however, the liberties and varieties of stanza structure, as to kind of measure, length of line and stanza itself, combination of long and short line, and rhyme scheme, is almost unlimited.
RHYME.--A new poetic element enters into the stanza: the element of rhyme. The most prominent regulative feature of English lyric verse, perhaps, is the rhyme by which recurring periods are grouped. Technically speaking, there are three kinds of rhyme, only one of which plays an important, or at least essential part, in modern English poetry.
1. Beginning rhyme, or alliteration (e. g. the mother of months), which in Anglo Saxon poetry was the main principle of verse, but is now introduced only furtively and delicately.
2. Middle rhyme, or assonance, wherein only the vowels rhyme (e. g. blarney, charming), which is introduced with even more caution than alliteration.
3. End-rhyme, which is so constant and essential a principle of the stanza that it needs no further definition here.
In the skillful management and disposition of the end-rhymes, to produce its poetic effects without monotony or undue obtrusiveness, there is room for the finest poetic taste and workmanship. On single rhymes (e. g. face, embrace), double rhymes (e. g. rally, sally), and triple rhymes (e. g. pentameter, sham metre), which explain themselves, there is no occasion to enlarge.
The arrangement of lines in a stanza is indicated, in brief notation, by letters of the alphabet. Thus a a b b indicates a four-line stanza in which the first and second lines rhyme, and the third and fourth; ab ab, a stanza in which the rhymes alternate; a b b a, a stanza like that of Tennyson’s In Memoriam, in which this arrangement is reversed.
In this way, with the use of the other notation mentioned, a complete description of poetic construction, from foot to stanza, may be made in very short space.
HOW RHYTHM IS APPLIED.--Lyric poetry, of which the type is the song; was originally designed to be associated with music. It is in this class of poetry, especially, that the stanza form and the rhyme system prevail; but besides the song and the ballad, which most suggest musical accompaniment, there are the ode, the elegy, the sonnet, the didactic poem, and many others, with which music, except in the natural melody of the verse, has little to do.
In epic poetry, the vehicle of great national deeds and ideals, and the enshrining of deep religious and moral truths, the verse employed is generally blank verse (i. e. unrhymed verse), in paragraphs instead of stanzas, and generally Iambic pentameter. For less sublime or universal purposes, however, this epic class has been enlarged to include narrative and romantic poetry, often rhymed, as in Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales and Scott’s The Lady of the Lake; and sometimes in stanzas, as in Spencer’s Fairy Queene.
Dramatic poetry, designed for representation on the stage, and written in blank verse of a less severe and rigid artistic kind than in the epic, is modeled more after the natural rhythm of impassioned speech. The range and tone of such dramatic verse is very generous and elastic; from the free and colloquial, as in Browning’s dramatic monologues, up to the so-called closet drama, designed to be read rather than played, wherein the artistic demands are as subtle and exacting as in the epic, and the sentiment generally more intense.
While, therefore, the ancient classification remains fundamental and true, the modern art of printing and the discontinuance of the custom of reading aloud, have operated to enlarge the scope of poetry within these elemental lines till every requirement of impassioned and imaginative utterance is freely open to it, in vital and enduring forms.
WORDS AND PHRASES FROM THE MODERN FOREIGN LANGUAGES.
Including proverbs, maxims, quotations, mottoes, idioms, allusions, references, and numerous terms used in law, literature, cookery, the drama, social life, and everyday affairs.
KEY TO PRONUNCIATION
ä, as in farm, father; ȧ, as in ask, fast; a, as in at, fat; ā, as in day, fate; â, as in care, fare; e, as in met, set; ē, as in me, see; ẽ, as in her, ermine; i, as in pin, ill; ī, as in pine, ice; o, as in not, got; ō, as in note, old; ô, as in for, fought; oo, as in cook, look; ōō, as in moon, spoon; u, as in cup, duck; ū, as in use, amuse; û, as in fur, urge; th, as in the, though; y, as in yet, you; ow, as in cow, now; ng, as in sing, ring; ch, as in church, choose.
FOREIGN SOUNDS
ö cannot be exactly represented in English. The English sound of u in b_urn_ is perhaps the nearest equivalent to ö. ü cannot be exactly represented in English. The English sound of u in luke and duke resembles the original sound of ü. N represents the nasal tone (as in French) of the preceding vowel, as in encore (_ä_N-kôr´). K represents ch, as in German ich, ach. zh, sound of s in pleasure. j and g before i or e in Spanish, strongly aspirated h.
Phrases not designated are from the French; those from other languages are distinguished thus: (Ger.)--German; (It.)--Italian; and (Sp.)--Spanish.
=A=
=a bas= (ȧ bä´), down.
=a bas le traitre= (ȧ bä´le tretr´), down with the traitor.
=a beau jeu beau retour= (ȧ bō zhö´ bō retōōr´), one good turn deserves another.
=a bon chat, bon rat= (_ȧ bô_N rȧ´), (to a good cat, a good rat), well matched; set a thief to catch a thief.
=a bon marché= (_ȧ bô_N mȧr shā´), cheap.
=abonnement= (_ȧ bôn mä_N´), subscription.
=a bras ouverts= (ȧ brȧzōō ver´), with open arms.
=abrégé= (ȧ brā zhā´), abridgment.
=absence d’esprit= (_ȧp sä_N_s des prē´_), absence of mind.
=a causa persa, parole assai= (It.), (ä kä´ ōō zä per´sa, pä rô´lāäsä´ē), when the cause is lost, there is enough of words.
=accueil= (ȧ kö´ē), reception; greeting; welcome.
=à charge= (ȧ shȧrzh´), at expense.
=à cheval= (ȧ she vȧl´), on horseback.
=à compte= (_ȧ kô_N_t´_), on account.
=à corps perdu= (ȧ kôr per dū´), headlong; neck or nothing.
=à coup sur= (ȧ kōō sür´), with certainty; surely.
=à couvert= (ȧ kōō ver´), under cover, protected, sheltered.
=acqua Tofana= (It.), (ä kwä tō fä´nä), a subtle poison.
=à demi= (ȧ de mi´), by halves.
=à dessein= (_ȧ de sâ_N), designedly.
=à deux mains= (_ȧ dö mâ_N_´_), (for both hands), having a double office or employment.
=adieu= (ȧ dēö´), (I commit you to God), good-bye.
=adieu, la voiture, adieu, la boutique= (ȧ dēö´, lȧ vwȧ tür´, ȧ dēö´ lȧ bōō tēk´), (good-bye, carriage; good-bye, shop), all is over.
=à discrétion= (_ȧ dēs krā sēô_N_´_), at discretion, unrestrictedly.
=à droite= (ȧ drwȧt´), to the right.
=affaire d’amour= (ȧ fer dȧ mōōr´), a love affair.
=affaire d’honneur= (ȧ fer dô nör´), an affair of honor, a duel.
=affaire du coeur= (ȧ fer dü kör´), an affair of the heart, a love affair.
=affiche= (ȧ fēsh´), a placard; a notice; bulletin.
=affreux= (ȧ frö´), frightful.
=à fin= (_ȧ fâ_N), to the end or object.
=à fond= (_ȧ fô_N_´_), to the bottom; thoroughly.
=à forfait= (ȧ fôr fe´), by contract, by the job.
=à gauche= (ȧ gōsh´), to the left.
=à genoux= (ȧ zhe nōō), on one’s knees.
=agneau= (ä-nyō), lamb.
=à grands frais= (_ȧ grä_N fre´), at great expense.
=a haute voix= (ȧ ōt vwȧ), loudly; openly.
=a huis clos= (ȧ wē klō´), (with closed doors), secretly; in camera.
=aide-toi, et le ciel t´aidera= (ed twȧ´, ā le sēel ted rȧ´), help yourself, and Heaven will help you.
=air distingué= (_er dēs tâ_N gā´), a distinguished appearance.
=air noble= (er nôbl´), a distinguished, patrician air, manner, or presence.
=à la= (ä lä), =au= (ō), =aux= (ō).--With; according to; after the manner of; as huitres aux champignons, oysters with mushrooms.
If a dish is cooked, or served, or made, with anything as an ingredient or garnish, the dish may be said to be “à la” that substance. So it may be possible to ascertain the meaning of phrases not given below by looking elsewhere in the vocabulary under the word used with the words “à la.”
=à l’abandon= (_ȧ lȧ bä_N _dô_N_´_), disregarded, uncared for.
=à la béarnaise= (ä lä bā-är-nāz´).--With a sauce of tarragon vinegar in which shallots have been boiled till it is reduced, then combined with egg yolks and butter, and beaten in a bain-marie, then seasoned with red pepper and lemon juice.
=à la béchamel= (ä lä bā-shä-mel´).--After the fashion of Béchamel (a French gastronomer); said of a sauce (see Bechamel); also prepared or served with this sauce.
=à la belle étoile= (ȧ lȧ be lā twȧl´), under the canopy of Heaven; in the open air.
=à la Bercy= (ȧ lȧ bâr-sē´).--Served with béarnaise sauce, stuffed green pepper and stuffed tomato.
=à la bigarade= (ȧ lä bē-gā-räd´).--Flavored with (Seville) orange juice or peel.
=à la bonne femme= (ȧ lȧ bôn fȧm).--Of, or in the style of, the housewife; specifically said of a kind of maigre soup made with fish, bouillon, legumes, and an assortment of vegetables.
=à la bonne heure= (ȧ lȧ bô nör´), well-timed, in good time; favorably; good.
=à la bordelaise= (ä lä bôr-de-lāz´).--With Bordeaux wine; said of various preparations containing it; as of a sauce, with garlic, shallots, or onions, chopped mushrooms, and a piece of marrow; also with sauce a la bordelaise.
=à la bourguignotte= (ā lä boor-gē-nyot).--Generally prepared with the addition of red wine of Burgundy, or of Bordeaux, or of the Midi (i.e., meridional provinces of France). At Bordeaux, or when made elsewhere with Gironde wine, the dish would be à la bordelaise.
=à la caledo´nian= (ä lä).--Boiled slowly in plain water and then baked with dressing of butter, chopped parsley, and a little lemon juice; said of finnan haddie when so cooked.
=à la Camerani= (ä lä kä-mā-rä´nē).--After the fashion of Camerani; said of a kind of rich chicken-liver soup.
=à la campagne= (_ȧ lȧ kä_N päny´), in the country.
=à la carte= (ȧ lȧ kȧrt´), by the card.
=à la Chateaubriand= (_ä lä shä-tō-brē-ä_N´).--With maitre d’hotel butter.
=à la chevreuil= (ä lä she-vrû´y´).--Served with a savory sauce; said of fillets of beef.
=à la chipolata= (ä lä chē-pō-lä´tä).--Containing an addition of the strongly flavored Italian sausages, or the mince with which they are filled.
=à la chiffonade= (ä lä shē-fo-näd´).--See chiffonade.
=à la cocotte= (ä lä kō-kot´).--Baked (as eggs) in a cocotte, with butter and cream, or with cheese, or the like, and served in a cocotte.
=à la crapaudine= (ä lä krä-pō-dēn´).--Like a crapaudine (the flat piece of iron on which a grate pivot rests;) said of grilled chicken, pigeon, etc., when prepared by boning, removing the legs and wings, and pressing flat.
=à la Créole= (ä lä krā-ōl).--With tomatoes.
=à la Croissy= (ä lä krwä-sē´).--Containing carrots in quantity, or at least strongly flavored with them; said specifically of a puree of onions, carrots, turnips, and parsnips stewed in coulis. According to others, containing turnips in quantity, or strongly flavored with them.
=à la daube= (ä lä dōb).--Stewed in daube; said specifically of dishes cooked with small square pieces of salt pork, the round slices of carrots, glaced onions, and turnips.
=à la Dauphiné= (ä lä dō-fē-nā´).--With various vegetables, spinach, lettuce, leek, onions, sorrel, beets, etc.; said of a kind of soup.
=à la Dauphinoise= (ä lä dō-fē-nwäz´).--Generally, sauced over with a thick sauce (or with egg yolk), bread-crumbed, and then fried.
=à la dérobée= (ȧ lȧ dā rô bā), stealthily.
=à la diable= (ä lä dē-ä´bl).--Deviled.
=à la faveur= (ȧ lȧ fȧ vör´), by the favor of.
=à la financière= (_ä lä fē-nä_N_-syâr´_).--With extract of truffles (literally, after the style of a financier); said of a variety of espagnole sauce, and of dishes served with it.
=à la Flamande= (_ä lä flä-mä_N_d´_).--Containing cabbage, but more particularly Brussels sprouts, and, usually turnips and carrots cut in big slices.
=à la Florentine= (_ä lä flō-rä_N-tēn´).--See à l’Italienne.
=à la Française= (_ȧ lȧ frä_N sez), in French fashion.
=à la Génevoise= (ä lä zhā-ne-vwäz´).--Cooked with champagne; said of certain dishes of fish.
=à la godiveau= (ä lä gō-dē-vō).--With balls made of mincemeat, usually of veal.
=à la Grecque= (ȧ lȧ grek´), after the Greek fashion.
=à la Holstein= (ä lä hōl´ stīn).--Fried, and served with a fried egg, sardelles, capers, pickled beets, and pickles, and sometimes scraped horse-radish.
=à la jardinière= (ä lä zhär-dē-nyâr´).--Made with a typical collection of cooked vegetables, as soups, ragoûts, and removes. See jardinere.
=à la julienne= (ä lä zhü-lyen´).--With various vegetables sliced in strips, as carrots, turnips, leeks, onions, celery, lettuce, tarragon, sorrel; said especially of a kind of rich stock soup. Also said of potatoes cut in very slender strips and fried crisp floating in hot fat.
=à l’Algérienne= (ä läl-zhā-rē-en´).--Cooked with slices of raw ham; said of a preparation of fowl.
=à la Languedoc= (_ä lä lä_N_g-dok´_).--Cooked with or in olive oil; with olive oil.
=à l’Allemande= (_ä läl-mä_N_d´_).--Having a German provincial peculiarity of preparation, as a garnish of sauerkraut, prunes stewed in wine, quenelles of potatoes, etc.
=à la Loren´zo= (ä lä).--Made of minced crab meat, put on toast spread with anchovy paste, then all covered with parmesan cheese and bread crumbs, buttered, browned in the oven, and served.
=à l’Alsacienne= (ä läl-sä-syen´).--With pork and frankfurters; also with onions and pork.
=à la lyonnaise= (ä lä lē-ō-nāz´).--With flaked or sliced fried onions; as, potatoes à la lyonnaise, or lyonnaise potatoes; sauce à la lyonnaise, or Lyons sauce, that is, espagnole sauce with flaked onions fried in oil.
=à la macedoine= (ä lä mä-sā-dwän´).--Made with or of a typical collection of green vegetables, mostly in white sauce; also applied to collections of ripe fruit imbedded in jellies, etc.
=à la Maintenon= (_ä lä ma_N-_te-nô_N´).--A term variously used to designate a mode of cooking mutton or lamb chops; as, (a) wrapped in caul; (b) garnished with cockscombs and truffles; (c) served with a soubise; (d) served with financière sauce; (e) served with d’Uxelles sauce, etc.
=à la maître d’hôtel= (ä lä mā´tr dō-tel´).--Prepared by a substantial, but homely, modest sort of cooking. Also served with maitre d’hotel butter.
=à la Marengo= (ä lä mä-ren´gō).--With some garlic and oil.
=à la Marseillaise= (ä lä mär-sāy-āz´).--With Marsala wine.
=à la Ma´ryland= (ä lä).--With a sauce of butter and cream, with or without wine. It is like à la Newburgh, but less rich.
=à l’Américaine= (ȧ lȧ mā rē ken´), after the American fashion.
=à la Meyerbeer= (ä lä mâ-ûr-bâr´).--Shirred and served with broiled kidney and truffle sauce; said of eggs.
=à la Milanaise= (ä lä mē-lä-nāz´).--See à l’Italienne.
=à la mode= (ȧ lȧ môd´), in the fashion; according to the custom or fashion.
=à la mode de Caën= (_ä lä mōd de kä_N).--A term used to designate tripe prepared with vegetables, leeks, wine, cognac, etc.
=à la Napolitaine= (ä lä nä-pō-lē-tān´).--See à l’Italienne.
=à la neige= (ä lä nāzh´).--In some form that suggests snow, as with white-of-egg froth, or in balls of white boiled rice, or the like.
=à la New´burgh= (ä lä).--With a sauce made of cream, egg yolks, Madeira or sherry wine, and butter shaken in a dish over a slow fire until they thicken. Said also of this sauce.
=à l’Anglaise= (_ȧ lä_N glez´), after the English fashion.
=à la nivernaise= (ä lä nē-vâr-nāz´).--Containing a nivernaise; said of a kind of soup à la julienne. See nivernaise.
=à la Normande= (_ä lä nôr-mä_N_d´_).--Generally, with apples in the composition of the dish in some shape or other.
=à la Parisienne= (ȧ lȧ pȧ-rē-zēen´), after the Parisian fashion.
=à la Périgord= (ä lä pā-rē-gôr´).--Flavored with, or consisting of, truffles--alluding to the circumstance that these mushrooms grow of excellent size and quality in the province of Perigord.
=à la Polonaise= (ä lä pō-lō-nāz´).--Having red beets or red cabbage, so as to have their juice, color, and taste, as Polish ragoût, or borsh, which is the type of dishes à la Polonaise.
=à la poulette= (ä lä poo-let´).--With white velouté sauce.
=à la printanière= (_ä lä pra_N-tä-nyâr´).--Made with a typical collection of cooked early or spring vegetables; of a somewhat wider application than à la jardinière.
=à la Provençale= (_ä lä prō-vä_N-säl´).--Generally, prepared with more or less of olive oil, and flavored with garlic.
=à la Reine= (ä lä rān).--Of, or after the style of, the queen; said specifically of a kind of chicken soup [potage à la reine, (pō-täzh´ ä lä rān)] containing white meat of chicken pounded and rubbed to a powder.
=à la Ro’land= (ä lä).--Made of minced lobster meat in the same manner as à la Lorenzo dishes of crab meat. See à la Lorenzo.
=à la Saint Cloud= (_ä lä sa_N´kloo).--With sliced truffles; said of a kind of velouté sauce.
=à la serviette= (ä lä ser-vyet).--Served in or on a napkin as braised truffles.
=à la Soubise= (ä lä soo-bēz´).--Generally containing onions in quantity; or, at least, strongly garnished and flavored with them; especially, served with a white onion sauce used with lamb or mutton.
=à la Sourdine= (ȧ la sōōr dēn´), silently; with bated breath.
=à la tartare= (ä lä tär-tär´).--With tartare sauce, or a sauce of similar ingredients. Also, said of a steak chopped and garnished with onions, pickles, pickled beets, sardelles, and yolk of egg, to be eaten raw.
=à la Tartufe= (ȧ lȧ tȧr tüf), like Tartufe, the hypocritical hero of Molière’s comedy, Tartufe, hence hypocritically.
=à la turque= (ä lä türk).--Shirred and served with chicken livers and mushrooms; said of eggs. Also boiled with rice and saffron; said of chicken.
=à l’Aurore= (ä lō-rōr´).--With a pink sauce made by coloring velouté sauce with lobster coral or Armenian bole. Also said of sliced hard-boiled eggs put in a dish, covered with velouté, sprinkled with grated egg yolk, and baked.
=à la vert pré= (ä lä vâr prā).--Colored green with vegetables, as with a puree of spinach.
=à la Viennoise= (ä lä vyā-nwäz´).--Applied to dishes usually and typically prepared in the Austrian capital, such as the dumplings termed nockerlin, quenelles of potatoes, and others.
=à la Villeroi= (ä lä vēl-rwä´).--With atelets sauce. Also, said of a poached egg put in a thick white sauce, then covered with egg yolk and bread crumbs, and fried.
=à la vinaigrette= (ä lä vē-nē-gret´).--With vinaigrette sauce.
=al buon vino non bisogna frasca= (It.), (äl bwôn vē´ nō nōn bē zô´ nyä fräs´kä), good wine needs no bush.
=à l’envi= (_ȧ lä_N vē´), with emulation.
=à l’espagnole= (ä lā-spä-nyōl´).--Made savory with espagnole sauce; specifically, served with a garnish of onions, garlic, green peppers, mushrooms, tomatoes, and minced ham cooked together, and bound with espagnole sauce.
=a l’extremite= (ȧ lek strā mē tā´), at the point of death; without resource.
=al fresco= (It.), (äl frās´ko), in the open air.
=alguazil= (Sp.), (äl gwä zēl´), a Spanish constable.
=à l’huile= (ä-lwēl).--In olive oil; with olive oil dressing.
=Alici= (ä-lē´chē).--Anchovies, or a similar small fish preserved in oil according to the Italian fashion.
=à l’imperatrice= (_ä lâ_N-pā-rē-trēs´).--Said of shirred eggs served with a slice of paté de fois gras upon each egg.
=à l’improviste= (_ȧ lâ_N prô vēst´); unawares, on a sudden.
=à l’Irlandaise= (ä lēr-län-dez´).--Containing potatoes in some form, and often cabbage, etc., in mass or as a prevailing garnish.
=à l’Italienne= (ä lē-tä-lē-en´).--Generally made of, or garnished with, savory macaroni, or paste of that kind, or with ravioli; or made savory with Parma cheese.
=all’alba= (It.), (äl läl´bä), at daybreak.
=alla Siciliana= (It.), (äl lä sē chē lē ä´nä), in the Sicilian manner; in shepherd’s dress.
=allégresse= (á lä gres´), liveliness; geniality.
=allemande= (_ál mä_N d´), a kind of German dance.
=Allemande sauce= (_äl-mä_N_d´_).--Veloute sauce, with the addition of essence of mushrooms, cream, and a leason, or binding, of yolk of eggs.
=alles hat seine Zeit= (Ger.), (ä les hät zīne tsīt´), all in good time.
=allez-vous en= (_ȧ lā vōō zä_N´), away with you, be off.
=allons= (_ȧ lô_N´), come on.
=allons donc= (_ȧ lô_N _dô_N), nonsense.
=allzuviel ist ungesund= (Ger.), (äl tsōō fēl´ist oon´ ge-zoont), too much of a good thing.
=al occorrenza= (It.), (ä lō kō ren´dzä), according to circumstances.
=à l’ordinaire= (ȧ lôr dē ner´), in the ordinary manner.
=alose= (ä-lōs´).--Shad.
=á l’outrance= (_á lōō trä_N_s´_), to the death.
=aloyau= (ä-lwä-yō´).--Loin of beef; short rib of beef.
=al piu= (It.), (äl pyōō´), at most.
=alto rilievo= (It.), (äl tō rē lye´vō), in high relief.
=à main armée= (_ȧ mâ_N ȧr mā´), by force of arms.
=am Anfang= (Ger.), (äm än´fäng), at the beginning.
=amar y saber no puede ser= (Sp.), (ä mär ē sä vār´nō pooāthā sār´), no one can love and be wise at the same time.
=âme de boue= (lit., soul of mud), (äm de bōō), a base minded person.
=amende honorable= (_ȧ mä_N dô nô rȧbl´), fit reparation; a satisfactory apology.
=à merveille= (ȧ mer vāy´), marvelously, extraordinarily.
=ami du cour= (lit., a friend of the court), (ȧ mē dü kōōr), a false friend; one who is not to be depended on.
=ami du peuple= (ȧ mē dü pöpl´), friend of the people.
=à moitié= (ȧ mwȧ tēā´), by halves.
=Amontillado= (ä-mōn-tēl-yä´dō).--A cheaper variety of wine classed as sherry, but in reality a wine from Sicily or other Mediterranean or Atlantic islands, mixed with a little real sherry.
=amour propre= (ȧ mōōr prôpr´), vanity, self-love.
=ananas= (ä-nä-nä´).--Pineapple.
=anchois= (_ä_N_-shwä´_).--Anchovies.
=anchovy= (an-chō´vi).--A small fish of the herring family caught in the Mediterranean, and pickled for exportation.
=ancienne noblesse= (_ä_N sē en nôbles´), (the old nobility), French families ennobled before the revolution of 1792.
=ancien régime= (_ä_N _sēâ_N rā zhēm), (the former government or administration), the rulers of the ante-revolution period.
=andouile= (_ä_N_-doo´y_).--Tripe.
=anguilles= (än-gē´y).--Eels.
=anguilles grillée= (än-gē´y grē-yā´).--Spitch-cocked, or grilled, eels.
=anisette´.=--A cordial or liqueur flavored with anise seeds.
=à outrance= (_ȧ ōō trä_N_s´_), to the last extremity.
=à pas de géant= (_ȧ päd zhā ä_N), with a giant’s stride.
=à peindre= (_ȧ pâ_N_dr´_), worth painting.
=à perte de vue= (ȧ pert de vü´), till out of sight.
=à peu près= (ȧ pö pre´), nearly.
=à pezzi= (It.), (ä ped´zē), by the piece.
=à piacere= (It.), (ä pyä´chā rā), at pleasure.
=à pied= (ȧ pēā´), on foot.
=à plomb= (_ȧ plô_N_´_), perpendicularly; firmly.
=à point= (_ȧ pwâ_N_´_), just in time; exactly right.
=appui= (ȧ pwē´), point of support; prop.
=à prima vista= (It.), (ä prē mä vēs´tä), at the first sight.
=à prix d’or= (ȧ prē dôr´), (at price of gold), very costly; fetching a fancy price.
=à propos= (ȧ prô pō´), to the point.
=à propos de rien= (_ȧ prô pō de rēâ_N_´_), apropos to nothing; not pertinently.
=arc-en-ciel= (_ȧr kä_N sēel´), rainbow.
=à rez de chaussée= (ȧ rā d shō sā´), even with the ground.
=argent comptant= (_ȧr zhä_N _kô_N _tä_N_´_), ready money.
=à rivederci= (It.), (ȧ rē vā dār´chē), adieu until we meet again.
=à Rome comme à Rome= (ȧ rôm´ kô mȧ rôm´), at Rome do as Rome does.
=arrière pensée= (_ȧ rēer pä_N sā´), mental reservation; unavowed purpose.
=arroz à la Valencia´na= (är-rō´ä lä).--Valencia rice, a farinaceous substance in grains like rice.
=artichaut= (är-tē-shō).--Artichoke.
=asperge= (ä-spârzh´).--Asparagus.
=aspic= (äs-pēk´).--A savory jelly made of calves’ feet, etc., or with extract of meat, flavored to suit the fancy, and stiffened with gelatine.
=assignat= (ȧ sē nya´).--French paper money issued after the revolution at the end of last century.
=atelier= (ȧt lēā´), a work-shop; studio.
=à tort et à travers= (ȧ tôr ā ȧ trȧ ver´), at random.
=à toute outrance= (_ȧ tōō tōō trä_N_s´_), desperately; tremendously; with a vengeance.
=à tout hasard= (ȧ tōō ȧ zȧr´), at all hazards; at all events.
=à tout prix= (ȧ tōō prē´), at any price.
=attaché= (ȧ tȧsh´), an official belonging to an embassy.
=au= (ō).--See à la.
=au beurre roux= (ō bûr roo).--With browned butter.
=au bon droit= (_ō bô_N drwȧ´), to the just right.
=au bout de son Latin= (_ō bōōd sô_N _lȧ tâ_N_´_), at the end of his Latin; to the extent of his knowledge.
=au chingaras= (_ō sha_N_-gä-rä´_).--Sandwiched with ham and grilled; said of ox palates.
=au contraire= (_ō kô_N trer´), on the contrary.
=au courant= (_ō kōō rä_N_´_), fully acquainted with matters.
=au désespoir= (ō dā zes pwȧr´), in despair.
=au fait= (ō fe´), expert.
=au fond= (_ō fô_N_´_), to the bottom; in the rear (of the stage).
=au four= (ō foor).--Baked in the oven, as a stuffed fish.
=au fromage= (ō frō-mäzh´).--With cheese.
=auf Wiedersehen= (Ger.), (owf vē´der zā en), till we meet again.
=au gras= (ō grä).--Containing meat; said of soups so made.
=au gratin= (_ō grä-ta_N´).--With a crust made by browning in the oven; as spaghetti is often served au gratin.
=au jus= (ō zhü).--In juice; in broth.
=au kirsch= (ō kërsh).--With kirschwasser; as an omelet or a punch containing this liqueur is termed au kirsch.
=au levant= (_ō le vä_N´), to the east; eastward.
=aumelette= (ōm-let´).--Omelet.
=au naturel= (ō nä-tū-rel´).--In the natural condition; as, anchovies au naturel--i. e., without oil or seasoning.
=au pis aller= (ō pē zȧ lā´), at the very worst.
=au reste= (ō rest´), as for the rest.
=au revoir= (ō re vwȧr´), till we meet again.
=au rhum= (ō rüm).--With rum.
=auro´ra sauce.=--Sauce à l’aurore. See à l’Aurore.
=aussitot dit, aussitot fait= (ō sē tō dē´, ō sē tō fe´), no sooner said than done.
=au supreme= (ō sü-prām´).--With supreme sauce.
=autant d’hommes, autant d’avis= (_ō tä_N _dôm´, ō tä_N dȧ vē´), many men, many minds.
=auto da fe= (Port.), (a ōō tō dä fā´), an act of faith; the burning of Jews and heretics.
=autre droit= (ōtre drwä´), another’s right.
=autre fois= (ōtre fwä´), another time.
=autre vie= (ōtre vē´), another’s life.
=aut vincere aut mori= (owt vin´kārā owt mō´rē), victory or death.
=au vert pré = (ō vâr prā).--With sweet or fresh herbs, especially, when they give a green color to the dish.
=au vin blanc= (_ō va_N _blä_N´).--With white-wine sauce, as fillets of fish.
=aux= (ō).--See à la.
=aux armes= (ō zȧrm´), to arms.
=aux cressons= (_ō kres-sô_N´).--With watercresses.
=aux rognons= (_ō rō nyô_N´).--With kidneys.
=avant-propos= (_ȧ vä_N prô pō´), preface; introductory matter.
=avec permission= (_ȧ vek per mē sē ô_N´), by consent.
=à volonté= (_ȧ vô lô_N tā´), at will; at pleasure.
=à vostra salute= (It.), (ä vōs trä sä lōō´tā), to your health.
=à votre santé= (_ȧ vôtre sä_N tā´), to your health.
=a vuestra salud= (Sp.), (ä vwes trä sä lōōth´), to your health.
=B=
=bal champêtre= (_bȧl shä_N petr´), a country ball.
=ballon d’essai= (_bȧ lo_N de sā´), a balloon sent up to test the direction of air currents; hence anything said or done to gauge public feeling on any question.
=ballotine= (bä-lō-tēn´).--A shoulder of lamb boned, stuffed, larded, and braised.
=barbue= (bär-bū´).--A kind of fish.
=bard= (bär).--Barbel, a kind of fish.
=bardes de lard= (bärd de lär).--Fat slices of bacon for covering meat to be braised.
=bar le duc= (bär le dük).--A kind of jam of white gooseberries.
=bas bleu= (bä blö´), a blue-stocking; a woman who seeks a reputation for learning.
=Bava´rian cream.=--A cream jelly thickened with gelatine and set in a mold, and variously flavored and enriched; a Bavaroise; a kind of flummery.
=Bava´rian dumplings.=--Boiled pudding, consisting of bread fried in fat, bread crumbs soaked in cream or milk, eggs, butter, flour, salt, and spice; or some other similar composition.
=Bava´rian sauce.=--A modified Dutch sauce of vinegar, eggs, and butter flavored with crayfish butter.
=Bavaroise= (bä-vä-rwäz´).--Bavarian. See Bavarian cream.
=beau-idéal= (bō ē dā ȧl´), a model of ideal perfection.
=beau monde= (_bō mô_N_d´_), the fashionable world.
=beaux esprits= (bō zes prē´), men of wit or genius.
=beaux yeux= (bō zēö´), handsome eyes; attractive looks.
=bécasse= (bā-käs´).--Woodcock.
=Béchamel= (bā-shä-mel´), or more properly, =Béchamelle.=--Velouté white sauce mixed with cream; named after Louis de Béchamel, a French gastronome.
=beignet= (bā-nyā´).--A fritter.
=bel esprit= (be les prē´), a wit, a genius.
=bel étage= (be lā tȧzh´), the second story of a house.
=belles-lettres= (bel[´]letr´), refined literature.
=benedetto e quel male che vien solo= (It.), (bā nā det´tō ā kwāl mä´lā kī vyān sō´lō), blessed is the misfortune that comes alone.
=bénédictine= (ben-ē-dik´tin).--A cordial resembling chartreuse.
=ben-trovato= (It.), (bān trō vä´tō), well invented.
=bête noire= (lit. a black beast,) (bet nwȧr´), a bugbear.
=beurre= (bûr).--Butter.
=beurre fraîs= (bûr frā).--Fresh (unsalted) butter.
=beurre lié= (bûr lē-ā´).--Dutch sauce with less butter than usual.
=beurre noir= (bûr nwär).--Butter browned without flour.
=beurre roux= (bûr roo).--Butter browned with flour.
=bienséance= (_bēâ_N _sā ä_N_s´_), good manners; decorum.
=bienvenue= (_bēâ_N ve nü´), welcome.
=bijou= (bē´zhōō), a jewel; a treasure.
=bijouterie= (bē zhoo trē), jewelry.
=billet doux=, or =billet d´amour= (bē ye dōō´), a love letter.
=billets-d´état= (bē ye dā tȧ´), a government paper; bank notes.
=biscuit= (bē-skwē´).--French sponge cake.
=bis´cuit à couper= (ä koo-pā´).--A form of sponge cake to be sliced and glacéd with flavored sugar or sugar mixed with fruit juice.
=bis´cuit à la Génoise= (ä lä zhā-nwäz´).--Sponge cake with anise-seed flavor, to be cut and toasted.
=bis´cuit à l’Ursuline= (ä lür-sü-lēn´).--A sponge cake with rice and apple or apricot jam mixed into the paste, and grilled orange flower.
=bisque= (bisk or bēsk).--A soup of crayfish, made by cooking them in broth with herbs, sliced roots, and seasoning; other similarly prepared shellfish soups or sauces are also called bisques.
=bizarre= (be zar), odd; quaint.
=blancmanger= (_blä_N-_ma_N-zhā´) or =blamange= (blä-mänj´).--A jelly made with calves’ feet, or gelatine, and milk of almonds; also, a jelly made of milk and starch, isinglass, or sea moss, with or without added chocolate, grenetine, or the like. This latter dish is more properly called flummery.
=blanquette= (_blä_N-ket´).--A mince of white meat, as of chicken, warmed in velouté sauce, and pointed with butter and lemon juice. It often has added to it mushrooms, morels, or truffles.
=blasé= (blä zā´), surfeited.
=blond= (_blô_N).--Concentrated juice or extract of some viand, used to add to certain sauces to give them body; as blond de veau (de vō), a rich broth of veal made by slowly stewing veal with accessories of ham, rabbit, or the like, with standard broth, shallots, cloves, etc.
=bœuf de chasse= (bûf de shäs).--The sportsman’s round of beef--the biggest joint of the animal.
=bombe glacé= (_bô_N_b glä-sā´_).--A confection consisting of an ice casing frozen in the form of a truncaded cone with cream of some kind, as Bavarian cream, inside.
=bon ami= (bö na mi´), good friend.
=bon bon= (_bô_N _bô_N´), a sweetmeat; confectionery.
=bon diable= (_bô_N dēäbl´), a jolly good fellow.
=bon gré, mal gré= (_bô_N´grā mal´grā), with good or bad grace; willing or unwilling.
=bonhomie= (bô nô mē´), good nature; easy temper; credulity.
=bon jour= (_bô_N zhōōr´), good day; good morning.
=bon mot= (_bô_N mō´), a witticism.
=bonne= (bôn), a nurse.
=bonne-bouche= (bôn bōōsh´), a luscious morsel; a toothsome tit-bit.
=bonne et belle= (bô nā bel´), good and handsome (said of a woman).
=bonne foi= (bôn fwȧ´), good faith.
=bon soir= (_bô_N swȧr´), good evening.
=bon ton= (_bô_N _tô_N´), high fashion; first-class society.
=bon vivant= (_bô_N vē vän´), a good liver; a jolly companion.
=bon voyage= (_bô_N vwȧ yȧzh´), a pleasant journey.
=Bordelaise sauce= (bôr-de-läz´).--Espagnole sauce with garlic, aromatic herbs, and Bordeaux wine.
=boudoir= (bōō dwȧr´), a small private apartment.
=bouillabasse= (boo-e-yä-bäs´).--A soup made of fish broiled and seasoned with onion, orange peel, saffron, oil, and other seasoning to suit the taste.
=bouilli= (boo-e-yē´).--Beef stewed, generally in one piece, and served with sauce.
=boulettes de hachis= (boo-let´ de hä-shē´).--Forcemeat balls.
=bouquet garni= (gär-nē´).--A tied bunch of parsley, onions, bay leaf, and thyme, used to boil in soup to flavor it.
=bourgeoisie= (bōōr zhwa zē´), the body of citizens; burgess; the shop-keeping class.
=bourguignonnes= (boor-gē-nyon´).--Snails baked with a dressing of shallots, garlic, lemon juice, and butter.
=braise= (brāz), or =braisé= (brā-zā´).--A piece of braised meat, or a dish prepared by braising; also a preparation mixed and prepared of various ingredients in or with which dishes are braised.
=braisé de Boulanger= (_brā-zā´ de boo-lä_N-zhā´).--A compound sauce in which meat is smothered when being braised.
=bretonne sauce= (brā-ton´).--Espagnole sauce characterized by juice of fried onions or purée of onions.
=breveté= (brev tā´), patented.
=Brie cheese=, or =Brie= (brē).--A soft, white cream cheese.
=bris´ket=, or =brisquet= (brē-skā´).--The breast; the part of the breast next to the ribs.
=broccoli= (brok´kō-li).--A kind of cabbage resembling the cauliflower.
=brochet= (brō shā´).--Pike; luce--a kind of fish.
=brocheton= (_brō-she-tô_N´).--Pickerel.
=brusquerie= (brüs krē), rudeness.
=brut= (brü).--An effervescent wine.
=bückling= (bük´ling).--Red herring.
=buisson= (_bwē-sô_N´).--A dish disposed in a pyramid, and having a prickly appearance.
=bureau de la guerre= (bü rō dlȧ ger´), the war office.
=bur´goo.=--Oatmeal porridge.
=Burgun´dian sauce=.--Espagnole sauce flavored with shallots and red Burgundy wine.
=C=
=cabaretier= (kȧ bȧre tēā´), an innkeeper.
=cabillaud= (kä-bē-yō´).--A fresh cod.
=cachot= (ka shō´), a dungeon.
=café= (kä-fā´).--Coffee.
=café au lait= (kä-fā´ ō lā).--Coffee with hot milk; coffee to which milk is added during the process of infusion or boiling.
=café bavaroise= (kä-fā´ bä-vä-rwäz´).--Coffee with whipped cream.
=café noir= (kä-fā´nwär).--Black coffee; that is, coffee without milk.
=café parfait= (kä-fā´ pär-fā´).--A form of coffee ice cream.
=café turc= (türk).--Turkish coffee; that is, coffee prepared by pouring boiling water on very finely ground coffee in the cup.
=caille= (käey).--Quail.
=calipash.=--A part of a turtle next to the upper shell containing a dull greenish gelatinous substance, esteemed as a delicacy.
=calipee.=--A part of a turtle attached to the lower shell. It contains a fatty, gelatinous substance of a light yellowish color, esteemed as a delicacy.
=camaraderie= (ka ma ra drē), good fellowship.
=Camembert cheese= (_kä-mä_N-bâr´).--A rich, sweet, cream cheese, of a yellowish color, made in the neighborhood of Camembert, in Normandy, France.
=canaîlle= (kȧ nä´ y), the lowest class of people; the rabble.
=canard= (kȧ nȧr´), a false story.
=canard= (kä-när´).--A duck.
=canellons= (kä-ne-lôn´).--Hollow sticks or rolls of baked puff paste.
=canelons= (_kä-ne-lô_N´).--Rugosities of ox palate, or preparations of them, covered with farce, rolled, and gratinated.
=caneton= (_kä-ne-tô_N)--Young duck; duckling.
=cannelon of meat= (_kä-ne-lô_N´).--A baked roll of highly seasoned mincemeat.
=cap-à-pié= (kȧ pȧ pēā´), from head to foot.
=ca´pers.=--The pungent, grayish green flower buds of a trailing shrub (Capparis spinosa) of southern Europe.
=capilotade of chick´en= (kä-pē-lō-täd´).--A kind of ragoût made of remains of fowl or game and some simple brown sauce.
=ca´pon.=--A castrated cock. It fattens better and is tenderer than the uncastrated ones.
=carbonari= (It.), (kär bō nä´rē), members of a secret political society in Italy.
=car´dinal sauce.=--Velouté variously flavored and colored red, as with cochineal.
=carême= (kȧrem´), fast; Lent.
=carnichons= (_kär-nē-shô_N´).--Gherkins.
=carré= (kä-rā).--Breast.
=carrelet= (kär-lā´).--A fish, the sole or flounder.
=carte blanche= (_kärt blä_N_sh´_), full power.
=carte de visite= (kärt de vē zēt´), visiting card.
=cassareep´.=--A brown, slightly sweet, aromatic thick extract made from the juice of the manioc.
=casserole= (kas´se-rōl; French pron. käs-rōl´).--Stewpan.
=cas´serole of rice.=--An ornamental pie case made of paste of prepared rice.
=cassis= (kä-sēs´).--Black currants; also, a kind of jelly, and a kind of liqueur or cordial, flavored with black currants.
=castello che da orecchia si vuol rendere= (It.), (käs-tel´lō kā dä ō rä´kyä sē vwôl rān dā´rā), the fortress that parleys soon surrenders.
=causerie= (kō-zrē´), a familiar talk.
=caviare= (kä-vē-är´) or =caviar= (kav´i-är).--Roe of sturgeon, and other large fish, prepared and salted, and used as a relish. They often resemble morning-glory seeds in appearance.
=champignons= (_shä_N-_pē-nyô_N´).--Mushrooms.
=Champs Elysées= (_shä_N zā lē zā´), Elysian Fields; a public park in Paris.
=cela va sans dire= (that goes without saying), (_se la vȧ sä_N dēr´), that is understood.
=ce n’est que le premier pas qui coûte= (se ne kle pre-mēā pä´kē-kōōt=´=), it is only the first step that is difficult.
=cèpes= (sāp), or =ceps= (sā).--An edible kind of mushroom.
=c’est à dire= (se tȧ dēr´), that is to say.
=c’est une autre chose= (se tü nō tre shōz´), that is quite another thing.
=chacun à son goût= (_shȧ ko_N _ȧ sô_N gōō´), everyone to his taste.
=chacun tire de son côté= (_shȧ kö_N _tēr´ de sô_N kō tā´), every one inclines to his own side or party.
=chanson= (_shä_N _sô_N´), a song.
=chansons à boire= (_shä_N _sô_N zȧ bwȧr´), drinking songs.
=chapeau= (shȧ pō´), a hat.
=chapeau bas= (shȧ pō bä´), hats off.
=chapeau de bras= (shȧ pō de brȧ´), a military cocked hat.
=chapelle ardente= (_shȧ pe lȧr dä_N_t´_), the chamber where a dead body lies in state.
=chapon= (_shä-pô_N´).--Capon.
=chapon au gros sel= (_shä-pô_N ō grō sel).--Plain boiled capon; literally, capon served with a big lump of salt (placed upon it).
=chargé d´affaires= (shȧr zhā dȧ fer´), one intrusted with state affairs at a foreign court.
=charlotte russe= (shär-lot´ rüs), or =charlotte à la russe= (shär-lot´ ä lä rüs).--A dish of custard or whipped cream inclosed in a cup of sponge cake.
=chartreuse à la Parisienne= (shär-trûz´ ä lä pä-re-syen´).--A showy entrée, consisting chiefly of quenelles of forcemeat, containing ragoût and kebobs; an entrée de force; entrée à surprise.
=chasse café= (shäs kä-fā´).--A drink of liqueur served after the coffee at dinner.
=château= (shä tō´), a castle.
=châteaux en Espagne= (_shä tō zä_N nes pȧyn´), castles in Spain.
=châteaubriand sauce= (_shä-tō-brē-ä_N´).--See maitre d’hôtel butter.
=chauffeur= (shō for´), driver of an automobile.
=chaufroid sauce= (shō-frwä´).--A white or brown jelly containing some sauce; a sauced jelly, or a gelatinized sauce.
=chef= (shef), man cook.
=chef de bataillon= (_shef da bȧ tä yô_N´), a major.
=chef-d’œuvre= (shā dö vr´), a masterpiece.
=chemin de fer= (lit. iron road), (_she mâ_N_t fer´_), a railway.
=chemin faisant= (_she mâ_N fe zän´), by the way; in passing.
=chère amie= (she rȧ mē´), a dear (female) friend, a lover.
=cher´vil=.--A plant (Anthriscus cerefolium) with finely divided leaves. Two curly varieties are used in soups and salads.
=che sara, sara= (It.), (ka sä ra sa ra´), what will be will be.
=cheval de bataille= (lit., a war-horse), (she vȧl de bȧ tä´y) chief dependence or support; one’s strong point.
=chic= (shēk), stylish, smart.
=chiffonade= (shē-fō-näd´).--A salad preparation of lettuce, chervil, sorrel, and scallions, with fresh butter, and some bouillon poured over it. When milk or fresh cream is added, it is called potage à la chiffonade; otherwise potage de santé (_pō-täzh´ de sä_N-tā´).
=chil´i=.--A kind of red pepper or capsicum.
=chil´i sauce=.--A sauce condiment made with chilis, tomatoes, etc.
=Chinese´ stur´geon soup=.--A soup of beef and veal, containing pieces of cartilage from the sturgeon’s head boiled tender.
=chi tace confessa= (It.), (kē tä´chā kōn fes´sä), he who keeps silent admits his guilt.
=chive=.--A plant allied to the onion, of which the young leaves are used in omelets, etc.
=choucroute= (shoo-kroot´).--French sauerkraut, or sauerkraut in general.
=chou-fleur= (shoo-flûr´).--Cauliflower.
=choux= (shoo).--(a) Cabbages. (b) See choux pâtissières.
=choux de Bruxelles= (shoo de brü-sel´).--Brussels sprouts.
=choux de mer= (shoo de mâr).--Sea kale, a kind of cruciferous pottage root.
=choux pâtissières= (shoo pä-tē-syâr´).--Soufflés in small molds; small cakes of baked batter.
=ci git= (sē zhē´), here lies. (A common inscription on tombstones.)
=civet= (sē-vā´).--A ragoût of hare [civet de lièvre (lyā´vr)], deer [civet de chevreuil (she-vrû´y)], or other game, into which wine and onions enter as ingredients.
=clare´mont sauce=.--Butter sauce flavored by frying onions in it. The onions are removed after frying.
=cock´a-lee´kie=.--Capon soup, boiled with leeks and prunes--a favorite Scotch dish.
=cock´tail of oysters or clams=.--A dish containing oysters or clams seasoned with ketchup, pepper, etc., and served in a tumbler or glass.
=cocotte= (kō-kot´).--A kind of iron casserole with two loop handles and a cover.
=cœurs d’artichauts= (kûr-där-tē-shō´).--Artichoke heads.
=cognac= (kō-nyäk´).--A brandy distilled at Cognac, in France; hence, loosely, any French brandy.
=coiffeur= (kwȧ-för´), a hairdresser.
=coiffure= (kwȧ für´), a headdress.
=coing= (_kwa_N).--Quince. A liqueur, or ratafia, is made flavored with quince; and a jelly of quinces is called coing de tranches (de tränsh).
=collared.=--This term is loosely used with no apparent definite meaning in the names of various dishes.
=col´lared beef.=--A thin piece of beef, usually from the flank, rolled into a round form.
=col´lops.=--Small pieces or slices.
=com´fit.=--A dry sweetmeat; fruit, seed, or the like, preserved in sugar and dried.
=comme il faut= (kô mēl fō´), proper, as it should be.
=comment vous portez vous?= (_kô mä_N vōō pôr tā vōō´), how are you?
=commis voyageur= (kô mē vwȧ yȧ zhör´), a commercial traveler.
=compagnon de voyage= (_kô_N _pȧ nyô_N de vwȧ yȧzh´), a traveling companion.
=compiègne cake= (_ko_N-pyān´).--A kind of cake intended to be drenched with liqueur, sliced, and sandwiched with apricot jam.
=com´pote= (French pron. _kô_N-pōt´).--Cooked fruit; fruit preserved with sugar so as to preserve its form. Also, a savory dish of pigeons, quails or larks, mixed with peas or mushrooms.
=compte rendu= (kôNt räN dü´), an account rendered, a report.
=comptoir= (_kô_N twȧr´), a counting-house; a counter.
=comte= (_kô_N_t_), count.
=comtesse= (_kô_N tes´), countess.
=con amore= (It.), (kō nä mō´rā), with affection, very earnestly.
=concierge= (_kô_N s erzh´), a door-keeper.
=conciergerie= (_kô_N sē er zhrē´), a door-keeper’s lodge; a noted prison in Paris.
=concours= (_kô_N kōōr´), competition for, or as for, a prize.
=con diligenza (It.),= (kōn dē lē dshen´dzä), with diligence.
=con dolore= (It.), (kōn dō lō´rā), with grief; sadly.
=confit= (_kô_N-fē´).--A dry sweetmeat; fruit preserved in sugar and dried; a comfit.
=confiture= (_kô_N-fē-tür´).--Preserves.
=confrère= (_kô_N frer´), a colleague.
=conoscente= (It.), (kō nō shen´tā), a connoisseur.
=conseil de famille= (_kô_N se´y de fȧ mē´y), a family council or consultation.
=conseil d’état= (_kô_N se´y dā tȧ´), a council of state; a privy council.
=consommé= (kôN-sō-mā´).--Strong broth of meat and vegetables, concentrated till slightly browned; in restaurants applied to thin soups such as would be made by this broth diluted.
=cor´dial.=--A sweet and aromatic liquor. A liqueur is an alcoholic cordial.
=contretemps= (_kô_N _tre tä_N´), an awkward mishap.
=cordon sanitaire= (kôr dôN sȧ nē ter´), a line of sentries to prevent, as far as possible, the spread of contagion or pestilence. Used also of other precautionary measures.
=corps diplomatique= (kor dē plô mȧ tēk´), a diplomatic body.
=cortège= (kor tezh), a procession.
=côte= (kōt).--A rib.
=côtelette= (kōt-let´).--A small rib; part of a rib; a piece of meat with the rib attached; a cutlet.
=couleur de rose= (kōō lör de rōz´), rose color.
=coup= (kōō), a stroke.
=coup de grâce= (kōō d gräs´), a finishing-stroke. (Formerly applied to the fatal blow by which the executioner put an end to the torments of a culprit broken on the wheel.)
=coup de main= (_kōō d mâ_N´), a sudden attack, enterprise, or undertaking.
=coup de maître= (kōō d metr´), a master-stroke; with consummate skill.
=coup de pied= (kōō d pēā´), a kick.
=coup de plume= (kōō d plüm´), a literary attack.
=coup de soleil= (kōō d sô le´y), a sunstroke.
=coup d’essai= (kōō de sā´), a first attempt.
=coup d’état= (kōō dā tȧ´), a stroke of policy; a sudden and decisive blow, usually inflicted by unconstitutional means.
=coup de théâtre= (kōō dā tā ätr´), a theatrical effect.
=coup d’œil= (kōō dö´y), a rapid glance.
=courage sans peur= (kōō rȧzh sän pör) fearless courage.
=court bouillon= (_boo-e-yô_N´).--A very rich bouillon made by braising bouillon vegetables in butter, evaporating down, and then boiling in wine. It is added to sauces.
=coute qu’il coute= (kōōt kēl kōōt´), cost what it may.
=crême= (krām, or krâm).--A cordial of the relatively thick or visced kind, such as crême de la menth (cream of minth), crême de la moka (cream of mocha coffee), crême de cocoa (cream of cocoa), etc.
=crême bachique= (krām bâ-shēk´).--A custard jelly with wine and egg-froth.
=crême brulée= (krām brü-lā´).--Brown sugar, or caramel, with cream.
=crême fouettée à la paysanne= (foo-et-ta´ ä lä pā-zän´).--Whipped cream.
=créole= (krā-ōl´).--See à la créole.
=crêpes= (krāp).--Small fried cakes; a form of French pancake.
=cressons= (_krā-sô_N´).--Cresses.
=crève-cœur= (krev kör´), deep sorrow; grief.
=crevette= (krā-vet´).--Shrimp.
=croquants= (_krō-kä_N´).--A piece of crisp pastry or confection which makes a crunching sound between the teeth, as a macaroon or a nougat.
=crouton= (_kroo-tô_N´).--Small pieces of bread fried in butter or oil, for use as a garnish to salmis, fricassees, etc., or to serve with soups.
=croquembouches= (_krō-kä_N-boosh´).--Small mounted pieces of crisp pastry, such as macaroons, nougats, gimblettes, etc.
=crum’pet.=--A kind of large, thin, light cake or muffin cooked on a griddle.
=cuisine= (küē-zēn´), a kitchen; cookery.
=cuissot= (kwē-sō´).--Haunch.
=cul-de-sac= (kül de sȧk´), the bottom of the bag; a blind alley.
=cyg´net.=--A young swan.
=D=
=d’accord= (dȧ kôr´), agreed; in tune.
=dame d’honneur= (dȧm dô nör´), a maid of honor.
=dantesques= (_dä_N-tesk´).--Frozen custards.
=dariole= (dä-rē-ōl´).--A piece of pastry consisting of a shallow cup of short paste, filled with a rich compound of cream or custard with macaroons, fruit, or the like.
=darne= (därn).--Slice; cut.
=das geht Sie nichts an= (Ger.), (däs gāt zē nikts än´), that does not concern you.
=de= (de).--Of.
=de bonne augure= (de bô nō-gür´), of good omen.
=de bonne grâce= (de bôn gräs´), with good will, willingly.
=débris= (dā brē´), refuse.
=début= (dā bü´), first appearance.
=débutante= (_dā bü tä_N_t´_), a young lady just entering society.
=décolleté= (dā kôl tā´), open-breasted.
=dégagé= (dā gȧ zhā), free, easy, without constraint.
=de gaieté de cœur= (de gā tā d kör´), in sport, sportively.
=de haute lutte= (de ōt lüt´), by a violent struggle.
=dehors= (dā ôr´), without; out of; foreign; irrelevant.
=déjeuner à la fourchette= (dā zhö nā ȧ lȧ fōōr shet´), a cold breakfast.
=de mal en pis= (_de mȧ lä_N pē´), from bad to worse.
=demeure= (de mör´), dwelling; residence
=demi-jour= (de mē zhōōr´), faint light.
=demi-tasse= (dā-mē-täs´).--A small cup for black coffee.
=dénouement= (_dā nōō mä_N´), an unraveling or winding up.
=dépêche= (dā pesh´), a dispatch; a message.
=dernier cri= (der nēā krē´), (the latest cry), the latest fashionable fad.
=dernier ressort= (der nēā re sôr´), the last resource.
=désagrément= (_dā zȧ grād mä_N´), something disagreeable or unpleasant.
=désorienté= (_dā zô rēä_N tā´), confused.
=désossée= (dā-sō-sā´).--Boned.
=détour= (dā tōōr´), a circuitous march.
=de trop= (de trô´), too much or too many; not wanted.
=devoir= (de vwȧr´), duty.
=diablotins= (_dē-ab-lō-ta_N´).--(a) Frozen custards. (b) Neapolitan dragées. (c) Chocolate bonbons in paper.
=di buona volonta sta pieno l’inferno= (It.), (_dē bwô nä vō lōn’tä sta pyā´nō lē_N fer’nō), hell is full of good intentions.
=Dieu est toujours pour les plus gros bataillons= (_dēö e tōō zhōōr´ pōōr lā plü grō bȧ tä yö_N´), God is always on the side of the largest battalions; the largest army has the best chance.
=Dieu et mon droit= (_dēö ā mô_N drwä´), God and my right.
=Dieu vous garde= (dēö vōō gȧrd´), God protect you.
=di grado en grado= (It.), (dē grä’dō ān grä’dō), step by step; gradually.
=dinde= (_da_N_d_).--Turkey.
=dindonneau= (_da_N-dō-nō´).--Young turkey; turkey pout.
=Dios me libre de hombre de un libro= (Sp.), (dē´ōs mā lē´vrā dā ōm’vrā dā ōōn lē vrō), God deliver me from a man of one book.
=di salto= (It.), (dē säl’tō), by leaps.
=di tutti novello par bello= (It.), (dē tōōt tē nō vel’lo pär bel’lō), everything new seems beautiful.
=divertissement= (_dē ver tēs mä_N´), amusement; sport.
=di zara= (dē zä´rä).--A less common name for maraschino.
=doctrinaire= (dôk trē ner´), a theorist.
=dolce far niente= (It.), (dōl´chā fär nyen´tā), sweet idleness.
=domino= (It.), (dō´mē nō), a mask robe.
=dorer la pilule= (dô rā lȧ pē lül´), to gild the pill.
=double entente= (_dōō blä_N _tä_N_t´_), double meaning; a play on words.
=douceur= (dōō sor´), a bribe.
=doux yeux= (dōō zēö´), soft glances.
=drap d’argent= (_drȧ dȧr zhä_N´), silver lace.
=drap d’or= (drȧ dôr´), gold lace.
=droit des gens= (_drwä dā zhä_N´), the law of nations; international law.
=drôle= (drōl), droll; funny.
=drôle le corps= (drōl le kôr´), a droll fellow; a punster.
=durante vita= (Sp.), (dōō rȧn´tā vē´tä), during life.
=Dutch sauce.=--Butter emulged with yolk of egg, or a sauce with this as a basis; Hollandaise sauce.
=E=
=eau de cologne= (ō d kô lôn´y), Cologne water.
=eau de vie= (ō d vē´), the water of life--applied usually to brandy.
=ébauche= (ā bōsh´), a rough drawing; a sketch.
=éclanche= (_ā klä_N_sh´_).--Shoulder of mutton.
=éclat= (ā klȧ´), splendor; brilliancy.
=école de droit= (ā kôl de drwä´), law school.
=école de médecine= (ā kôl de mād sēn´), medical school.
=école militaire= (ā kôl mē lē ter´), military school.
=école polytechnique= (ā kôl pô lē tek nēk´), polytechnique school.
=écrevisse= (ä-kr-vēs´).--Crayfish.
=édition de luxe= (_ā dē sēô_N´ de lüks´), a splendid edition of a book, handsomely bound, and usually well illustrated.
=égal= (ā gȧl´), equal.
=égalité= (ā gȧ lē tā´), equality.
=égarement= (_ā gär mä_N´), bewilderment.
=ehrlich währt am längsten= (Ger.), (ār´lik vert äm leng´sten), honesty is the best policy.
=elle mit Weile= (Ger.), (ī le mit vī´le), the more haste, the less speed.
=eine Schwalbe macht keinen Sommer= (Ger.), (ī ne shwäl´be mäkt kī nen zô´mer), one swallow does not make a summer.
=ein gebranntes Kind scheut das Feuer= (Ger.), (īn ge brän tes kint´ zhôit däs fôi´er), a burnt child dreads the fire.
=el corazon manda las carnes= (Sp.), (āl kō rä thōn´ mändä läs kär´nās), the heart bears up the body.
=élève= (ā lev´), pupil.
=élite= (ā lēt´), a select body of persons.
=éloge= (ā lôzh´), a funeral oration.
=éloignement= (_ā lwȧn ye mä_N), estrangement.
=embonpoint= (_ä_N _bô_N _pwa_N´), roundness, good condition.
=émigré= (ā mē grā´), an emigrant.
=employé= (_ä_N plwȧ yā´), a person employed; a clerk.
=empotage= (_ä_N-pō-täzh´).--Consommé or gravy broth.
=empressement= (_ä_N _pres mä_N´), ardor; zeal; interest.
=en ami= (_ä_N nȧ mē´), a friend.
=en arrière= (_ä_N nȧ rē er´), in the rear; behind.
=en attendant= (_ä_N _nȧ tä_N _dä_N´), in the meantime.
=en avant= (_ä_N _nȧ vâ_N´), forward.
=en badinant= (_ä_N _bȧ dē nä_N´), in sport, jestingly.
=en bagatelle= (_ä_N bȧ gȧ tel´), trifling; contemptuously.
=en ballon= (_ä_N _bä-lô_N´).--Boned and stuffed with forcemeat, etc.--said of fowls’ legs so cooked.
=en bloc= (_ä_N blôk´), in the lump.
=en brochette= (_ä_N brō-shet´).--On wooden skewers.
=en caneton= (_ä_N _kä-ne-tô_N´).--A term used to designate fowls’ legs boned and stuffed with forcemeat, etc.
=en casserole= (_ä_N kä-s-rōl´).--In a casserole.
=en coquille= (_ä_N kō-kē´y).--(Served) in shells, as oysters prepared as if to be escalloped and then baked in shells and served.
=en cracovie= (_ä_N krä-kō-vē´).--With salpicon wrapped in calf’s udder or pig’s caul--said of ox palates.
=en cueros=, =en cueros vivos= (Sp.), (ān kōōā´rōs, ān kōōä´rōs vē vōs), naked; without clothing.
=ende gut, alles gut= (Ger.), (en´de gōōt, ä´les gōōt), all’s well that ends well.
=en déshabillé= (_ä_N dā zȧ bē yā), in undress; in one’s true colors.
=en Dieu est ma fiance= (_ä_N _dēō´e mȧ fēä_N_s´_), my trust is in God.
=en Dieu est tout= (_ä_N dēō e tōō´), in God are all things.
=en échelon= (_ä_N _nā sh lô_N´), in steps; like stairs.
=en effet= (_ä_N ne fe´), substantially, really, in effect.
=en famille= (_ä_N fȧ mē´y), with one’s family at home.
=enfant gâté= (_ä_N _fä_N gä tā´), a spoiled child.
=enfants perdus= (lit., lost children), (_ä_N _fä_N per dü´), a forlorn hope.
=enfant terrible= (_ä_N _fä_N te rēbl´), (a terrible child), one that is apt to do or say something exceedingly ill-timed and embarrassing.
=enfant trouvé= (_ä_N _fä_N trōō vā´), a foundling.
=enfin= (_ä_N _fâ_N´), in short, finally, at last.
=en flute= (_ä_N flüt´), carrying guns on the upper deck only.
=en foule= (_ä_N fōōl´), in a crowd.
=en grand= (_ä_N _grä_N´), of full size.
=en grande tenue= (_ä_N _grä_Nd te nü´), in full official, or evening, dress.
=en grande toilette= (_ä_N _grä_N_d twȧ let´_), full-dressed; in full rig.
=en haut= (_ä_N ō´), on high; above.
=en masse= (_ä_N mäs´), in a body or mass.
=ennui= (_ä_N nüē´), weariness.
=en passant= (_ä_N _pä sä_N´), in passing, by the way.
=en plein jour= (_ä_N _plâ_N zhōōr), in open day.
=en queue= (_ä_N ko´), immediately after; in the rear. Used specially of persons waiting in line, as at the door of a theater, at the ticket-office of a railway station, etc.
=en rapport= (_ä_N rȧ pôr´), in harmony, relation, or agreement.
=en règle= (_ä_N regl´), regular; regularly; in order.
=en revanche= (_ä_N _re vä_N sh´), in return; as a compensation for.
=en route= (_ä_N rōōt), on the way.
=ensemble= (_ä_N _sä_N bl´), the whole.
=en suite= (_ä_N süēt´), in company; in a set.
=en tasse= (_ä_N täs´), in a cup.
=entente cordiale= (_ä_N _tä_N_t kôr dēȧl´_), a good understanding, especially between two states.
=entourage= (_ä_N tōō rȧzh´), surroundings.
=en tout= (_ä_N tōō´), in all; wholly.
=entre deux feux= (_ä_N tre dö fö´), between two fires.
=entre deux vins= (lit., between two wines), (_ä_N _tre dö vâ_N´), half-drunk.
=entre nous= (_ä_N tre nōō´), between ourselves; in confidence.
=entrepot= (_ä_N tre pō´), a warehouse or magazine.
=entreprenant= (_ä_N _tre pre nä_N´), enterprising.
=entrepreneur= (_ä_N tre pre nör´), a contractor; the chief director of an undertaking.
=entre-sol= (_ä_N tre sôl´), a half story or mezzanine, especially one next above the ground floor.
=en vérité= (_ä_N vā rē tā´), in truth; really.
=en vigueur= (_ä_N vē gör´), in force.
=envoyé= (_ä_N vwȧ yā´), an envoy or messenger.
=escargots= (ās-kär-gō´).--Snails.
=escarole= (es-kä-rōl).--A species of chicory used for salads; also, a variety of lettuce resembling this.
=es fehlt mir nichts= (Ger.), (es fālt mēr nikts´), nothing is the matter with me.
=es freut mich sehr= (Ger.), (es frôit mik zār´), I am very glad.
=es ist nicht alles Gold, was glänzt= (Ger.), (es ist nikt ä les gôlt´ väs glentst´), all is not gold that glitters.
=espagnol=, (es pȧ nyōl´), Spanish; a Spaniard.
=espagnole sauce= (es-pȧ-nyōl´).--Brown sauce made by boiling meat and flavoring vegetables and spices in normal broth to a glace, browning with roux, and removing the fat.
=esprit de corps= (es prē d kôr´), the spirit of honor, loyalty, or enthusiasm in an individual working for the good of a common body, society, or association, as a college class, a military company, fraternal or other association.
=esprit des lois= (es prē dā lwȧ´), spirit of the laws.
=es thut mir sehr leid= (Ger.), (es tōōt mēr zār līt´), I am very sorry.
=esturgeon= (_es-tür-zhô_N´).--Sturgeon.
=Etats-Généraux= (ā tȧ zhā nā rō´), the States-General.
=Ewigkeit= (Ger.), (ā´vik kīt), eternity.
=exposé= (ek spō zā´), an exposition; a recital.
=F=
=façon de parler= (_fȧ sô_N de pȧr lā´), manner of speaking; phrase; locution.
=fade= (fȧd), flat; stale; insipid.
=fainéant= (_fe nā ä_N´), idle.
=faire bonne mine= (fer bôn mēn´), to put a good face on the matter.
=faire l’homme d’importance= (_fer lôm dâ_N _pôr tä_N_s´_), to give one’s self airs.
=faire sans dire= (_fer sä_N dēr´), to act without ostentation or boasting.
=faire son devoir= (_fer sô_N de vwȧr´), to do one’s duty.
=faisan= (_fā-sä_N´).--Pheasant.
=fait accompli= (_fe tȧ kô_N plē´), a thing accomplished; an accomplished fact.
=fanchonettes= (_fä_N-shō-net´).--Small cakes like tartlets covered with meringue froth, with jam, currants, etc.
=farcie= (fär-sē´).--Stuffing of forcemeat.
=farine de riz= (fä-rēn´ de rē´).--Rice flour.
=faubourg= (fō bōōr´), an outskirt of a town; a suburb.
=fausse tortue= (fōs tôr-tû).--Mock turtle.
=fauteuil= (fō tö´y), an easy chair.
=faux pas= (fō pä´), a false step; an act of indiscretion.
=fécule de pommes de terre= (fā-kül´ de pum de târ´).--Potato starch, used especially in making Savoy cakes, and others.
=femme couverte= (fȧm kōō vert), a married woman.
=femme de chambre= (_fȧm de shä_N_br´_), a chambermaid.
=femme de charge= (fȧm de shȧrzh), a housekeeper.
=femme galante= (_fȧm gȧ lä_N_t´_), a gay woman; a prostitute.
=femme sole= (fȧm sōl´), an unmarried woman.
=fendre un cheveu en quatre= (_fä_N _drö_N _she vö ä_N kȧtr´), to split a hair in four; to make subtle distinctions.
=fête= (fet), a feast; festival; holiday.
=fête champêtre= (_fet shä_N petr´), a rural out-of-door feast; a festival in the fields.
=fête Dieu= (fet dē ō´), the Corpus Christi festival in the Roman Catholic church.
=feu de joie= (fö d zhwȧ), a bonfire; a firing of guns in token of joy.
=feuilletage= (fû-ye-täzh´).--Puff paste.
=feuilleton= (_fö y tô_N´), a small leaf; a part of a newspaper devoted to light, entertaining matter.
=filet= (fē-lā´), Eng. =fil´let=.--(a) The under cut of the loin of beef and venison. (b) Breast of fowl or game when cut out [the inner muscles near the bone being the =filet mignons= (_fē-lā´ mē-nyô_N´)]. (c) Any longish strips of meat or vegetables.
=filet du dedans= (_fē-lā´ dü dā-dä_N´).--The under cut of the loin of beef; a filet.
=fille de chambre= (_fē y de shä_N br´), a chambermaid.
=fille d’honneur= (fē y dô nör´), a maid of honor.
=fil´let=.--See filet. Fillet is the usual spelling in English culinary books.
=fils= (fēs), son.
=fin de siècle= (_fâ_N d sēekl´), the end of the century.
=Fin´nan had´die=.--Haddock cured in peat smoke, originally coming from Findon (pronounced fin´an) in Scotland; also, haddock smoked in other ways.
=flageolets= (flä-zhō-lā´).--Beans.
=flamms=.--Pancakes.
=fleur-de-lis= (flör de lē´), the flower of the lily.
=fleur de terre= (flör de ter), even with the surface of the ground.
=fleurons= (_flû-rô_N´).--Punched-out ornaments of bread (crusted or fried), or of paste (baked), or of other materials.
=Flor´ence cakes=, or =Flor´entines=.--A kind of cake consisting of a thin shell of puff paste containing a composition of curds, butter, yolks, flour, bitter almonds, and lemon, or a very similar composition.
=flum´mery=.--A cold, sweet dish chiefly of cereals, often with fruit in it, molded and to be eaten with wine, milk, or sauce.
=foie= (fwä).--Liver.
=flux de bouche= (flüks de bōōsh´), inordinate flow of talk; garrulity.
=fond = (_fô_N).--The broth or juice from braised flesh or fish, usually served as a sauce.
=fondue= (_fô_N_-dü´_).--A preparation of cheese, eggs, and butter melted together.
=fra= (It.), (frä), brother; friar.
=frais= (fre), cost; expense.
=fraise= (frāz).--Strawberry.
=framboise= (_frä_N_-bwäz´_).--Raspberries.
=Fra Modesto non fu mai priore= (It.), (frä mō des tō nōn fōō mä ē pryō´rā). Friar Modest never became prior.
=franco= (It.), (fräng´kō), free from postage.
=frangipane= (French pron. _frä_N_-zhē-pän´_).--A kind of compound pastry cream flavored with almonds, with which pastry is garnished.
=frisch begonnen=, =halb gewonnen= (Ger.), (frish be gô´nen, hälp ge vô´nen), well begun is half done.
=froides mains, chaude amour= (_frwäd mâ_N´ shō dȧ mōōr´), cold hands, warm heart.
=fromage= (frō-mäzh´).--Cheese.
=fromage à la Chantilly= (_ä lä shä_N-tē-yē´).--=fromage de Chantilly= (_de shä_N-tē-yē´).--Apricot jam.
=frondeur= (_frô_N dör´), a declaimer against the administration.
=front à front= (_frô_N _tȧ frô_N´), face to face.
=fru´menty=.--A food prepared by boiling wheat in milk to a jelly, usually with the addition of currants, sugar, egg yolk, and spice.
=fumet= (fü-mā´).--A high-flavored substance, such as extract of game, for flavoring dishes of food; also, less properly, a ragoût of partridge and rabbits braised in wine.
=fuyez les dangers de loisir= (_füē yā lā dä_N zhād lwȧzēr´), fly from the dangers of leisure.
=G=
=gaieté de cœur= (gā tā d kör´), gaiety of heart.
=galatine=.--Boned fowl, veal, or the like, stuffed with pieces of meat and force, boiled, and served cold, with a garnish of jelly or aspic.
=gal’imaufry=, or =galimafrée= (gä-lē-mä-frā´).--A kind of ragoût of various kinds of meat highly flavored.
=garage= (gȧ rȧzh´), a place where automobiles are stored and kept in order.
=garbancas= (gär-bän-säs´).--Chick-peas.
=garbure= (gär-bür´).--A soup of bacon and cabbage or other vegetables sometimes with cheese added.
=garçon= (_gȧr sô_N´), a lad; a waiter.
=garde à cheval= (gȧr dȧ she vȧl´), a mounted guard.
=garde du corps= (gȧrd dü kôr´), a bodyguard.
=garde mobile= (gȧrd mô bēl´), a body of troops liable to be called out for general service.
=garde royale= (gȧrd rwȧ yȧl´), royal guard.
=gardez= (gȧr dā´), take care; be on your guard.
=gardez-bien= (_gȧr dā bēâ_N´), take good care; be very careful.
=gardez la foi= (gȧr dā lȧ fwȧ´), keep the faith.
=Gas´cony sauce=.--Velouté with capers, truffles, and egg yolk.
=gaspacho= (gäs-pä´chō).--A bread-and-vegetable salad, made by the Spanish, containing pimentoes, tomatoes, oil, and vinegar, and (in the richer form) fish, crayfish, piquant preserves, etc.
=gâteau= (gä tō´), cake.
=gâteaux= (gä-tō´).--Cakes of flour, butter and eggs.
=gâteaux de puits d’amour= (de pwē dä-mōōr´).--Love-wells.
=gaucherie= (gōsh rē´), awkwardness.
=gauffres= (gō´fr).--Waffles.
=gehen Sie Ihres weges= (Ger.), (gā´en zē ē res vā´ges), go your way.
=gelée= (zhe-lā´).--Jelly.
=gendarmerie= (_zhä_N dȧr me rē´), the armed police force.
=Gene´va sauce=.--A coulis of fried onions with meat essence or espagnole, with anchovy butter, and usually port or claret wine. It is used especially with fresh water fish.
=génoise sauce= (zhā-nwäz´).--Espagnole sauce flavored with fumet and red wine.
=génoises= (zhā-nwäz´).--Glazed cakes of sugar, eggs, flour and almonds.
=gens d’armes= (_shä_N dȧrm´), men-at-arms; military police.
=gens de condition= (_zhä_N _de kô_N _dē sēô_N´), people of rank.
=gens d’église= (_zhä_N dā glēz´), the clergy; clerics.
=gens de guerre= (_zhä_N d ger´), military men.
=gens de lettres= (_zhä_N d letr´), literary men.
=gens de loi= (_zhä_N d lwȧ´), lawyers.
=gens de même famille= (_zhä_N d mem fȧ mē´y), people of the same family; birds of a feather.
=gens de peu= (_zhä_N d pö´), the lower classes.
=gentilhomme= (_zhä_N tē yôm´), a gentleman.
=gibelotte= (zhē-blot´).--Stewed rabbit; sometimes, stewed chicken or other white meat.
=gibier= (zhē-byā´).--Game, as hare, deer, etc.
=gibier de potence= (_zhē bēā d pô tä_N_s´_), a gallows-bird; one who deserves hanging.
=gigot= (zhē-gō´).--Leg of mutton.
=gimblettes= (_zha_N-blet´).--Small pastry preparations, such as croquignoles and croquembouches. Small pastry, or patés de petit four; they are used as ingredients of croquembouches.
=giovine Italia= (It.), (dzhō vē´nā ē tä´lyä), young Italy.
=giovine santo, diavolo vecchio= (It.), (dzhō vē nā sän´tō dyä´vō lō vek´kyō), a young saint; an old devil.
=gitano= (Sp.), (hē tä´nō), a girl.
=glace= (gläs).--A glaze, or broth, reduced by boiling to a gelatinous paste, so that when poured over meats it will give them a shiny appearance.
=glacé= (glä-sā´).--Covered with glace.
=glaced= (gläst).--Iced; having a shiny appearance produced by a coating of sugar, gelatine, or glace.
=glaize=, or glase (glāz).--A glace.
=gleich und gleich gesellt sich gern= (Ger.), (glīk´ oont glīk´ ge zelt sik gern´), birds of a feather flock together.
=gli assenti hanno torti= (It.), (lyē äs sen´tē än nō tôr´tē), the absent are in the wrong.
=godiveau= (gō-dē-vō´).--A kind of mincemeat, usually of veal, made into balls, to garnish the interior of hot patés and vol-au-vents.
=gold´en buck=.--A Welsh rarebit served with a poached egg on it.
=goujon= (_goo-zhô_N).--Gudgeon, a rather coarse fish.
=goulash= (goo-läsh´).--See gulash.
=goutte à goutte= (gōō tȧ gōō´), drop by drop.
=gouvernante= (_gōō ver nä_N_t´_), governess.
=grâce à Dieu= (gräs ȧ dēö´), thanks be to God.
=grande chère et beau feu= (_grä_N_d sher´ ā bō fö´_), good fare and a good fire; comfortable quarters.
=grande parure= (_grä_N_d pȧ rür´_), full dress.
=grande toilette= (_grä_N_d twȧ let´_), full dress.
=grand merci= (_grä_N mer sē´), many thanks.
=gratin= (_grä-ta_N´).--The brown crust formed upon a gratinated dish; also, the dish itself.
=grat´inate.=--To cook, as macaroni, in a savory sauce or broth until the juice is absorbed and a brown crust forms.
=gren´adine.=--A kind of fricandeau, with a basis of forcemeat.
=grenouille= (gre-noo´y).--Frog.
=grill.=--To broil.
=grenadin= (_grā-nä-da_N´).--A small fricandeau, or dish made with a basis of forcemeat.
=grisette= (grē zet´), dressed in gray. (Applied to French shop girls.)
=groseille à maquereau= (grō-zā´y ä mā-k’rō´).--Gooseberry.
=gros rôti= (grō rō-tē´).--A large joint of roast meat.
=grosse tête et peu de sens= (_grōs tet´ ā pö d sä_N_s´_), a big head and little sense.
=Gruyère cheese= (grü-yâr´).--A kind of salted cheese in thin cakes.
=guava jel´ly= (gwä´vä).--An excellent jelly made from the slightly astringent fruit of either of two tropical trees.
=guerra al chuchillo= (Sp.), (gā´rä äl kōō chē´lō), war to the knife.
=guerra cominciata, inferno scatenato= (It.), (gwe ra kō mēn chyä´tä, ēn fār´nō skatän´tā), war begun; hell unchained.
=guerre à mort= (ge rȧ môr´), war to the death.
=guerre à outrance= (_ge rȧ ōō trä_N_s´_), war to the uttermost.
=gulash= (goo-läsh´), or =Hunga´rian gulash=.--A ragoût of rump steak flavored with paprika.
=gum´bo.=--A soup thickened with the mucilaginous pods of the okra; also, the okra pods themselves.
=H=
=habitué= (ȧ bē tüā´), a frequenter.
=hardiesse= (ȧr dēes´), boldness.
=hareng= (_ä-rä_N´).--Herring.
=haricot= (ä-rē-kō´).--A stew or ragoût of meat. Also, the common string bean.
=haricots verts= (ä-rē-kō´ vâr).--Green string beans.
=haut et bon= (_ō tā bô_N), great and good.
=haut gout= (ō gōō´), high favor; elegant taste.
=hauteur= (ō tör´), haughtiness and pride.
=haut ton= (_ō tô_N´), highest fashion.
=heureusement= (_ö röz mä_N´), happily.
=historiette= (ēs tô rēet´), a short history; a tale.
=Hollandaise sauce= (_ō-lä_N-däz´; Eng. pron. hol´lan-dāz´). See Dutch sauce.
=homard= (ō-mär´).--The European lobster--larger than the American lobster, called homard américaine (ō-mär´dä-mā-rē-kān´).
=homme d’affaires= (ôm dȧ fer´), a man of affairs.
=homme d’état= (ôm dā tȧ´), a statesman.
=homme de robe= (ôm de rôb´), a man in civil office.
=homme de lettres= (ôm de letr´), a literary man.
=homme d’esprit= (ôm des prē´), a man of intellect.
=honi soit qui mal y pense= (_ô nē swȧ´ kē mȧl ē pä_N_s´_), shame be to him who thinks evil of it. (The motto of the Order of the Garter.)
=hors de combat= (_ôr de kô_N bȧ´), disabled; unfit to continue a contest.
=hors de la loi= (ôr de lȧ lwā), outlawed.
=hors de propos= (ôr de prô po´), wide of the point; inapplicable.
=hors de saison= (_ôr de se zô_N´), out of season; unseasonable.
=hors d’œuvre= (ôr dövr´), out of course; out of accustomed place. (Used substantively of small appetizing dishes served between the soup and the second course.)
=hôtel des invalides= (_ō tel dā zâ_N vȧ lēd´), hospital for old and disabled soldiers.
=hôtel de ville= (ō tel de vēl´), a town hall.
=hôtel Dieu= (ō tel dēö´), a house of God; a hospital.
=hôtel garni= (ō tel gȧr nē´), furnished lodgings.
=huitres= (wē´tr’).--Oysters.
=huitres au lit= (ō lē).--Same as pigs in blankets.
=hure de sanglier= (_ür de sä_N-glyā´).--Head of wild boar.
=hurtar para dar por Dios= (Sp.), (ōōr tär´ pä rä där pōr dē´ōs), to steal in order to give to God.
=I=
=ich diene= (Ger.), (ik dēne), I serve.
=idée fixe= (ē dā fēks´), a fixed idea; intellectual monomania.
=ignorance crasse= (_ī nyô rä_N_s´ krȧs´_), gross ignorance.
=i gran dolori sono muti= (It.), (ē grän dō lō´rē sō nō mōō´tē), great griefs are silent.
=il a le diable au corps= (ē lȧ l dēäblō kôr´), the devil is in him.
=il faut de l’argent= (_ēl fō d lȧr zhä_N), money is wanting.
=il n’a ni bouche ni éperon= (_ēl nȧ nē bōōsh nē ā prô_N´), he has neither mouth nor spur; he has neither wit nor courage.
=il ne faut jamais défier un fou= (_ēl ne fō zhȧ me´ dāfēā ö_N fōō), one should never provoke a fool.
=il n’est sauce que d’appétit= (ēl ne sōs ke dȧ pā tē´), hunger is the best sauce.
=il penseroso= (It.), (ēl pān sā rō´sō), the pensive man. (The title of one of Milton’s poems.)
=il sent le fagot= (_ēl sä_N le fȧ gō´), he smells of the faggot; he is suspected of heresy.
=impoli= (_â_N pô lē´), unpolished; rude.
=impolitesse= (_â_N pô lē tes´), coarseness; rudeness.
=impromptu= (_â_N _prô_N_p tü´_), a prompt remark without study.
=in bianco= (It.), (ēn byäng´kō), in blank; in white.
=in petto= (It.), (ēn pet´to), within the breast; in reserve.
=insouciance= (_â_N _sōō sēä_N_s´_), indifference; carelessness.
=in un giorno non si fe’ Roma= (It.), (ēn ōōn dzhōr´nō nōn sē fā rō´mä), Rome was not built in a day.
=ir por lana, y volver trasquilado= (Sp.), (ēr pōr lä´nä, ē vōl vār´ träs kē lä´thō), to go for wool and come back shorn.
=J=
=jalousie= (zhȧ lōō zē´), jealousy; a Venetian window blind.
=jambon= (_zhän-bô_N´).--Ham.
=jamais bon coureur ne fut pris= (_zhȧ me´ bô_N kōō rör´ ne fü prē´), a good runner is not to be taken; old birds are not to be caught with chaff.
=Jardin des Plantes= (_zhȧr dâ_N _dā plä_N_t´_), the botanical garden in Paris.
=jardinière= (zhär-dē-nyâr´).--A dish cooked à la jardinière. See à la jardinière. Jardinière soup has as many roots and green vegetables as can be; it differs from julienne soup by the prevalence of green vegetables in it.
=je maintiendrai le droit= (_zhe mâ_N _tēâ_N drā le drwä´), I will maintain the right.
=je ne sais quoi= (zhe ne se kwä´), I know not what.
=je n’oublierai jamais= (zhe nōō blē rā zhȧ me´), I will never forget.
=je suis prêt= (zhe süē pre´), I am ready.
=jet d’eau= (zhe dō´), a fountain; a jet of water.
=jeu de mots= (zhö d mō´), a play upon words; a pun.
=jeu d’esprit= (zhö des prē´), a witticism.
=jeu de théâtre= (zhö d tā ätr´), a stage trick; clap-trap.
=jeunesse dorée= (zhö nes dô rā´), the gilded youth.
=je vis en espoir= (_zhe vē zä_N nes pwȧr´), I live in hope.
=joli= (zhô lē), pretty; attractive.
=julienne soup= (zhü-lyen´).--Soup à la julienne. See à la julienne.
=jus= (zhü).--Broth; soup juice; gravy.
=juste-milieu= (zhüst mē lēö´), the exact middle; the golden mean; the middle course is the safest.
=K=
=kein Kreuzer, kein Schweizer= (Ger.), (kīn krôi´tser, kīn shwī´tser), no money no Swiss.
=kip´pered her´ring.=--A herring split, salted, and smoked.
=kirschwasser= (kērsh-väs´ûr).--A cordial distilled from the juice of the small black cherry.
=klōsse= (klû´ze).--Dumplings.
=kumiss= (koo´mis), or =kumys=.--A beverage consisting of a liquor made by fermenting milk, originally mare’s or camel’s milk.
=kümmel= (koom´mel).--A liqueur made in Germany and Russia flavored with cumin, caraway, or fennel.
=L=
=lâche= (läsh), lax; relaxed.
=la critique est aisée, l’art est difficile= (lȧ krē tēk´ e te zā´, lȧ´re dā fē sēl´), criticism is easy, art is difficult.
=lade nicht alles in ein Schiff= (Ger.), (lä de nikt ä´les in īn´ shif´), do not ship all in one vessel; do not put all your eggs in one basket.
=l’adversité fait les hommes, et le bonheur les monstres= (_lȧd ver zē tā´ fe lā zôm´, ā le bô nör´ lā mô_N_str´_), adversity makes men, and prosperity monsters.
=la fortuna aiuta i pazzi= (It.), (lä fōr tōō´nä ä yōō´tä´dzē), fortune passes everywhere; all men are subject to the vicissitudes of Fortune.
=laguna= (It.), (lä gōō´nä), a moor; a fen.
=laissez faire= (le sā fer´), let alone.
=laissez-nous faire= (le sā nōō fer´), let us act for ourselves; let us alone.
=laitue= (lā-tü´).--Lettuce.
=la la= (lȧ lȧ´), so so; indifferently.
=l’allegro= (It.), (läl lā´grō), the merry man. (The title of one of Milton’s poems.)
=l’amour et la fumée ne peuvent se cacher= (lȧ mōōr´ ā lȧ fü mā´ ne pöv se kȧ shā´), love and smoke cannot be hidden.
=langage des halles= (_lä_N gȧzh dā ȧ´), the language of markets; Billingsgate.
=langouste= (_lä_N-goost´).--The crawfish.
=langue= (_lä_N_g_).--Tongue.
=lapereau= (lä-p’-rō´).--Young rabbit; cony.
=la patience est amère, mais son fruit est doux= (_lȧ pä sēä_N_s e tȧ mer´, me sô_N früē´ e dōō´), patience is bitter, but its reward is sweet.
=lapins en accolade= (_lä pa_N ä nä-kō-läd´).--A brace of rabbits on a dish.
=la povertà e la madre di tutti le arti= (It.), (lä pō vār tä´ e lä mä´drā dē tōōt´ tē lā är´tē), poverty is the mother of all the arts.
=l’argent= (_lȧr zhä_N), silver; money.
=lasagne= (_lä-sä_N´y).--Ribbonlike strips of macaroni paste; also noodles.
=lasciate ogni speranza voi, ch’entrate= (It.), (lä shyä´tā ō nyē spā rän´dzä vôē, kān trä´tā), all hope abandon ye who enter here.
=lassen Sie mich gehen= (Ger.) (lä´ sen zē mik gā´en), let me alone.
=l’avenir= (lȧv nēr´), the future.
=la vertu est la seule noblesse= (lȧ ver tü´ e lȧ söl nôbles´), virtue is the sole nobility.
=leason= (lē´ son).--Thickening, as flour, starch, egg yolk, etc.
=le beau monde= (_le bō mô_N_d´_), the world of fashion; society.
=lebkuchen= (lāp´koo´ken).--A cake of flour and honey, variously flavored; also, a similar cake of flour and sugar.
=le bon temps viendra= (_le bô_N _tä_N´ _vēâ_N_drȧ´_), there’s a good time coming.
=le coût en ôte le gout= (_le kōō tä_N nōt le gōō´), the expense takes away the pleasure.
=le demi-monde= (_le de mē mô_N_d´_), Bohemia.
=légèreté= (lā zher tā), lightness; levity.
=le grand monarque= (_le grä_N mô nȧrk´), the grand monarch. A title applied to Louis XIV.
=le grand œuvre= (_le grä_N tövr´), the great work; the search for the philosopher’s stone.
=legumes= (lē-gūmz´).--Peas, lentils, or beans; improperly, fruit or green vegetables.
=le jeu n’en vaut pas la chandelle= (_le zhö´ nä_N _vō pä lȧ shä_N del´), the game is not worth the candle (by the light of which it is played); the object is not worth the trouble.
=le mot d’énigme= (le mō dā nēgm´), the solution of the mystery.
=l’empire des lettres= (_lä_N pēr´ dā letr´), the empire of letters.
=le parole son feminine, e i fatti son maschi= (It.) (lā pä rō lā sōn fā mē nē´nā, ā ē fät´tē sōn mäs´kē), words are feminine, and deeds are masculine.
=la pas= (le pä´), precedence.
=le point de jour= (_le pwâ_N_d zhōōr_), daybreak.
=le roi et l’état= (le rwä´ ā lā tȧ), the king and the state.
=le roi le veut= (le rwä´ l vö´), the king wills it.
=les absents ont toujours tort= (_lā zȧp sä_N´ _ô_N tōō zhōōr tôr´) the absent are always wrong.
=les bras croisés= (lā brä krwä ze´), the arms crossed.
=lèse majesté= (lez mȧ zhes tā), high treason.
=les extrèmes se touchent= (lä zek strem´ se tōōsh), extremes meet.
=les larmes aux yeux= (lā lärm´ zō zēö´), tears in one’s eyes.
=les murailles ont des oreilles= (_lā mü rä´ y zô_N dā zô re´ y), walls have ears.
=les plus sages ne le sont pas toujours= (_lā plü sazh ne l sô_N pä tōō zhōōr), the wisest are not always wise.
=l’étoile du nord= (lā twȧl dü nôr´), the star of the north.
=le tout ensemble= (_le tōō tä_N _sä_N bl´), the whole taken together.
=lettre de cachet= (Fr. Hist.), (letre de kȧ she´), a secret letter sealed by the royal seal, containing orders for arrest and imprisonment without trial.
=lettre de change= (_letre d zhä_N zh), bill of exchange; promissory note.
=lettres de créance= (_letre d krā ä_N_s´_), letters of credit.
=lettre de marque= (letre d mȧrk´), a letter of marque or reprisal.
=levée= (le vā´), a morning reception.
=lev´eret=.--A young hare.
=le vrai n’est toujours vraisemblable= (_le vrā ne tōō zōōr vre sä_N blȧbl´), truth is not always probable; truth is stranger than fiction.
=levreau= (lā-vrō´).--A young hare. Levreau au sang (_ō sä_N) is a dish of young hares cooked with added pigeon blood.
=l’homme propose, et Dieu dispose= (lôm prô pōz´, ā dēö´ dēs pōz´), man proposes and God disposes.
=liaisons dangereuses= (_lē e zô_N _dä_N zhröz´), dangerous alliances.
=libraire= (lē brer´), a bookseller.
=l’inconnu= (_lâ_N kô nü´), the unknown.
=l’incroyable= (_lâ_N krwä yȧbl´), the incredible, the marvelous. (The word incroyable was applied substantively to the fops of the directory period in the great French revolution.)
=lingerie= (_lâ_N zhrē), linen goods; also, collectively, all the linen, cotton, and lace articles of a woman’s wardrobe.
=littérateur= (lē tā rȧ tör´), a literary man.
=lo barato es caro= (Sp.), (lō bä rä´tō ās kä´rō), a bargain is dear.
=l’occhio del padrone ingrassa il cavallo= (It.), (lô´kyō dāl pä drō nā ēn gräs´sä ēl kä väl´lō), the master’s eye fattens the horse.
=loyauté m’oblige= (lwȧ yō tā´ mô blēzh´), loyalty binds me.
=M=
=macarons= (_mä-kä-rô_N´).--Macaroons.
=macaro´ni=.--A paste of wheat flour and water dried in the form of long slender tubes. When prepared in still smaller tubes it is called spaghetti and vermicelli.
=macaroon=.--A small cake composed chiefly of whites of eggs and sugar (meringue) with pounded almonds, or sometimes filberts, cocoanut, or the like.
=macédoine of fruit= (_mä-sā-dwä_N´).--A sweet jelly with whole fruit in its substance.
=macédoine of veg´etables=.--A mixture of several vegetables, cooked, with some white sauce added.
=macédoine sal´ad=.--A salad of mixed vegetables.
=ma chère= (mȧ sher´), my dear (fem.).
=macroon´=.--A macaroon.
=mademoiselle= (mȧd mwȧ zel´), title given to a young unmarried lady.
=madère= (mä-dâr´).--Madeira wine.
=maestro di color che sanno= (It.) (mä es´trō dē kō lor´ kā sän´no), master of those that know. (Applied by Dante to Aristotle.)
=ma foi= (mȧ fwȧ´), upon my faith; upon my word.
=maigre= (mē´gr).--Lean meat; also, any food other than meat. Also, a kind of fish. Maigre soups are those without meat, such as those used in Lent.
=maintien le droit= (_mâ_N _tēâ_N le drwä´), maintain the right.
=maison d’arrêt= (_mā zô_N dȧ ret´), house of custody; prison.
=maison de campagne= (_mā zô_N _de kä_N pȧn´y), a country house.
=maison de force= (_mā zô_N d fôrs´), house of correction; bridewell.
=maison de santé= (_mā zô_N _d sä_N tā´), lunatic asylum.
=maison de ville= (_mā zô_N d vēl´), a town hall.
=maitre des basses œuvres= (me´tre dā bäs zövr´), a nightman.
=maitre des hautes œuvres= (me´tre dā ōt zövr´), an executioner; a hangman.
=maitre d’hôtel= (me´tre dō tel´), a house steward.
=maitre d’hôtel but´ter= (mā´tr dō-tel´).--Butter mixed with parsley, lemon juice, salt, and nutmeg--cold maitre d’hôtel sauce.
=maitresse= (me tres´), mistress.
=malade= (mȧ lȧd´), sick.
=maladie du pays= (mȧ lȧ dē´ dü pā ē´), homesickness.
=maladresse= (mȧ lȧ dres´), want of tact, awkwardness.
=manchons de veau à la Gérard= (_mä_N-_shô_N´ de vō ä lä zhā-rär´).--A dish of slices of veal rolled and stuffed.
=manège= (mȧ nezh´), the art of horsemanship.
=mal à propos= (mȧ lȧ prô pō´), ill-timed.
=mal de dents= (_mȧl de dä_N´), toothache.
=mal de mer= (mȧl de mer´), seasickness.
=mal de tête= (mȧl de tet´), headache.
=mal entendre= (_mȧ lä_N tä N_dr´_), a misunderstanding; a mistake.
=malgré nous= (mȧl grā nōō´), in spite of us.
=malheur ne vient jamais seul= (_mȧ lör´ ne vēâ_N zhȧ me söl´), misfortunes never come singly.
=maraschino= (mä-rä-skē´nō).--A cherry cordial made in Dalmatia from a sour cherry called marasca; hence, a similar liqueur prepared elsewhere.
=marasquin= (_mä-rä-ska_N´).--French for maraschino.
=marchand de vin= (_mär-shä_N´ _de va_N´).--Stewed with shallots, espagnole, and claret wine--said especially of kidneys.
=march´pane=.--A cake of pounded almonds or pistachio nuts and sugar.
=mardi gras= (mȧr dē grä´), Shrove Tuesday.
=mariage de conscience= (_mȧ rēȧzh de kô_N _sēä_N_s´_), a private marriage.
=mariage de convenance= (_mȧ rēȧzh de kô_N _vnä_N_s´_), a marriage of convenience; or from interested motives.
=marsala= (mär’sälä-lä).--A class of white Sicilian wines, of which the best kinds resemble Madeira, but are lighter.
=matinée= (mȧ tē nā´), a reception, or a musical or dramatic entertainment, held in the daytime.
=mauvaise honte= (_mô vez ô_N_t´_), false modesty.
=mauvais goût= (mô ve gōō´), false taste.
=mauvaise sujet= (mô ve sü zhe´), a worthless fellow.
=mauvais quart d’heure= (mô ve kȧr dōr´), a bad quarter of an hour; an uncomfortable time; a disagreeable experience.
=mauvais ton= (_mô ve tô_N´), vulgarity.
=mayonnaise sauce= (mā-yō-nāz´).--A sauce of egg yolk and oil worked together, less properly with vinegar.
=médecin, guéris-toi-toi-même= (_mād sâ_N´, gā rē twȧtwȧ mem´), physician, heal thyself.
=mélange= (mā lä N_zh_), a mixture.--A light entertainment of a mixed character.
=mêlée= (me lā´), a disorderly fight.
=ménage= (mā nȧzh´), household.
=menu= (me nü´), bill of fare.
=meringue= (_mā-ra_N_g´_).--Icing of white of egg and sugar thoroughly beaten together, sometimes with starch added. Pure meringues are called baisers (bā-zā´) or Spanish foam.
=meringue glacée= (glä-sā´).--A glazed meringue.
=merluche= (mâr-lüsh´).--The haddock.
=mesalliance= (_mā zȧ lēä_N_z´_), marriage with one of lower station.
=meunière= (me-nyâr´).--With brown butter, lemon juice, and parsley.
=mirabelles= (mē-rä-bel´).--Plums of a certain superior variety.
=mir ist alles einerlei= (Ger.), (Mēr´ ist ä´les ī ner lī´), it’s all the same to me.
=mise-en-scène= (_mē zä_N sen´), the staging of a play.
=mon ami= (mô nȧ mē´), my friend.
=mon cher= (_mô_N sher´), my dear (fellow).
=monde chic= (_mô_N_d shēk´_), world of taste; fashionable people.
=monsieur= (me sēö´), sir, master, gentleman.
=morue= (mō-rü´).--Codfish.
=mot de passe= (mō d päs´), the watchword.
=mot du guet= (mō dü ge´), a watchword.
=mot pour rire= (mō pōōr rēr´), a witty saying; a joke.
=mots d’usage= (mō dü zȧzh´), words in common use.
=moules= (mool).--Mussels.
=moules à la bordelaise= (ä lä bôr-de-lāz´).--Mussels in forcemeat.
=mousseline de laine= (mōōs lēn de len´), a thin woolen material.
=mousseron= (_moo-srô_N´).--Mushroom (the edible kind).
=mouton= (_moo-tō_N´).--Mutton.
=mulled= (muld).--Properly, heated and spiced; but often used to mean, made mild by sugar (acid wines), or by dilution (alcoholized wine).
=mul´ligatawny=, or =mul´ligatunny=.--A spiced or curried soup of hashed chicken and rice.
=muraglia bianca, carta di matto= (It.) (mōō rä´lyä byäng´kä, kär´tä dē māt´tō), a white wall is the fool’s paper.
=N=
=naïve= (nȧ ēv´), having unaffected simplicity.
=naïveté´= (nȧ ēv tā´), native simplicity.
=Na´ples biscuit=.--Lady fingers.
=Na´ples ice, Na´ples ice cream=.--Same as Neapolitan ice; Neapolitan ice cream.
=Neapol´itan ice, Neapol´itan ice cream=.--Ice or ice cream prepared in layers, especially when colored, as in white, red and yellow.
=Neapol´itan sauce=.--Espagnole flavored with grated horseradish, and a sweet and savory wine fumet.
=nec´tarine=.--A smooth skinned variety of peach. The Spanish nectarine is a plum-like West Indian fruit, which is made into a sweet conserve.
=née= (nā´), born.
=négligé= (nā glē zhā´), a morning dress.
=nesselrode pudding= (nes´sel-rō-de).--Iced or frozen chestnut-and-fruit pudding.
=neufchâtel cheese= (nûf-shä-tel´).--A cheese made by thickening cream by heat and pressing it in a small mold.
=neue Besen kehren gut= (Ger.),-(nôi e bā´zen kā ren gōōt´), a new broom sweeps clean.
=ni l’un ni l’autre= (_nē lö_N´ nē lōtr´), neither the one nor the other.
=n’importe= (_nâ_N pôrt´), it is of no consequence.
=nivernaise= (nē-vâr-nāz´).--A ragoût-like dish of carrots stewed in consommé.
=noblesse oblige= (nô ble sô blēzh´), nobility imposes obligations; much is expected from persons of good position.
=nom de guerre= (_nô_N de ger´), a war-name, an assumed name, a pseudonym.
=nom de plume= (_nô_N de plüm´), an assumed title.
=nonchalance= (_nô_N _shȧ lä_N_s´_), coolness; easy indifference.
=non mi ricordo= (It.), (nōn mē rē kôr´dō), I do not remember.
=non obstant clameur de haro= (_nōn ôp stä_N klȧ mör´ de ȧ rō´), despite the hue and cry.
=non ogni fiore fa buon odore= (It.), (nōn ō nyē fyō´rā fȧ bwô nō dō´rā), it is not every flower that smells sweet.
=nonpareil= (_nô_N pȧ re´y), unequaled.
=non vender la pelle dell ´orse prima di pigliarlo= (It.), (nōn vān dār lä pel lā dāl lōr´ sā prē mä dē pē lyär´lō´), don’t sell the bearskin before you have caught the bear.
=Noth kennt kein Gebot= (Ger.), (nōt´ kent kīn ge bōt´), necessity knows no law.
=Notre Dame= (nô tre dȧm), Our Lady, the Virgin Mary.
=n’oubliez pas= (nōō blēā pä´), do not forget.
=nougat= (noo-gä´).--A mixture of almonds, pistachios, filberts, or the like, and honey or sugar baked together.
=nouilles= (noo´y).--Noodles.
=nous verrons= (_nōō ve rô_N´), we shall see.
=nouvelles= (nōō vel´), news.
=nouvellette= (nōō ve let´), a short tale or novel.
=nuance= (_nü ä_N_s´_), shade; gradation; tint.
=nul bien sans peine= (_nül bēâ_N´ _sä_N pen´), no pains, no gains.
=nulla nuova, buona nuova= (It.), (nōōl lä nwô vä, bwô´-nä nwô´vä), no news is good news.
=O=
=octroi= (ôk trwä´), a tax on articles (for sale) entering a town.
=oeil de bœuf= (ö´ēd böf´), a bull’s-eye.
=œufs= (ûf).--Eggs.
=œufs à la farce= (ûf ä lä färs).--Hard boiled eggs with stewed sorrel.
=œufs à la tripe= (ä lä trēp).--Hard boiled eggs with onion sauce.
=œufs broullés=.--Scrambled eggs.
=ognon= (_ō-nyô_N´).--Onion.
=ognon d’Egypte= (dā-zhēpt´).--The rocambole, a mild, sweet onion.
=o’kra=.--A plant, the long green, mucilaginous pods of which are used in soups, stews, etc.
=olla= (ōl´lä).--Ragoût.
=olla podrida= (It.), (ōl´lä pō drē´dä), a heterogeneous mixture.
=omelette au thon= (_ōm-let´ ō tô_N´).--Omelet with tunny, a kind of fish.
=omelette aux confitures= (_ō kô_N-fē-tür´).--An omelet served with fruit jelly. Jams do not go well with omelets.
=on connait l’ami au besoin= (_ô_N _kô ne lȧ mē´ ō be zwâ_N´), a friend is known in time of need.
=on dit= (_ô_N dē´), they say.
=oreilles= (ō-rā´y).--Ears; as, oreilles de veau (de vō), calf’s ears.
=orgeade= (ôr-zhäd´).--Milk of almonds, made by stirring sirup of almonds in water; also, orgeat.
=orgeat= (ôr-zhä´).--Sirup of almonds; also, orgeade.
=Or´leans sauce=.--A mince of carrots, anchovies, hard-boiled eggs, and gherkins, with peppersauce.
=oro e che oro vale= (It.), (ō´rō e kā ō´rō vä´lā), that is gold which is worth gold; all is not gold that glitters.
=oublier je ne puis= (ōō blēā´zhe n pwē´), I can never forget.
=oui-dire= (wē dēr´), hearsay.
=outrance= (_ōō trä_N_s´_), excess; extremity.
=outre= (ōōtr´), eccentric.
=ouvrage= (ōō vrȧzh), work.
=ouvrage de longue haleine= (_ōō vrȧzh de lô_N_g ȧ len´_), a long-winded business.
=ouvrier= (ōō vrē ā´), a workman, an artisan.
=P=
=pabrica= (pä´brē-kä).--Paprika.
=padrone= (It.), (pä drō´nä), master; employer; landlord.
=pain= (_pa_N).--Bread.
=panais= (pä-nā´).--Parsnips.
=panée= (pä-nā´).--Bread-crumbed (over egg yolk, sauce, butter, or fat) previous to frying.
=panier= (pä-nyâ´).--A basket, as that for holding a wine bottle. Also, an entrée panée.
=pannequets= (pän-kā´).--French pancakes.
=papeterie= (pȧ pe trē´), a case with writing materials.
=paprika= (pä´prē-kä).--A mild kind of red-pepper condiment obtained from Capsicum annum.
=par accord= (pȧ rȧ kôr´), by agreement.
=par avance= (_pȧ rȧ vä_N_s´_), in advance.
=par ci, par là= (pȧr sē´ pȧr lȧ´), here and there.
=par excellence= (_pȧ rek se lä_N_s´_), preëminently.
=par exemple= (_pȧ rāg zä_N_pl´_), for instance.
=parfaitement bien= (_pȧr fet mä_N _bēâ_N´), perfectly well.
=Pari´sian loaves=.--Finger cakes ornamented with strips of currant jelly, green-gage jam, or the like.
=Pari´sian sauce=.--Allemande flavored with truffles and tinted.
=pas´caline=.--White mushroom sauce.
=parole d’honneur= (pȧ rôl dô nör´), word of honor.
=partout= (pȧr tōō´), everywhere.
=parvenu= (pȧr ve nü´), a person of low origin who has risen; upstart.
=pas à pas= (pä zȧ pä´), step by step.
=passe= (päs), worn out; out of style.
=passe-partout= (päs pȧr tōō´), a master key.
=pasticcio= (It.), (päs tēch´ chyō), patchwork.
=pâté= (pä-tā´).--A pasty.
=pâté aux choux= (pä-tā´ ō shoo´).--Cream-cake paste, which resembles a cabbage head when baked.
=pâté de foie gras= (pä-tā´ de fwä grä´), a pie made in Strasburg from the livers of geese.
=pâté mollette= (pä-tā´ mō-let´).--A Mecca cake.
=pâtés= (pä-tā´).--Pasties.
=pâtés chauds= (shö).--Hot pasties.
=pâtés de petit four= (de pe-tē´foor).--Small pasties--literally, pasties of the little oven.
=pâtés froids= (frwä).--Cold pasties.
=patois= (pȧ twä´), a dialect.
=pays latin= (_pā ē lȧ tâ_N´), the Latin territory, district, region; the students of the Pays Latin, that is, of the University.
=peine forte et dure= (pen fôr tā dür´), very severe punishment; a kind of judicial torture.
=penchant= (_pä_N _shä_N´),--inclination; liking.
=pensée= (_pä_N sā´), a thought expressed in terse, vigorous language.
=per= (It.), (pār), for, through, by.
=per cantante= (It.), (pār kän tän´tā), for cash.
=per contra= (It.), (pār kōn´trä), on the contrary.
=père de famille= (per de fȧ mē´y), the father of the family.
=perdreux= (pâr-drû´).--Young partridges.
=perdrix= (pâr-drē´).--A partridge.
=perdu= (per dü´), lost.
=per mese= (It.), (pār mā´ sā), by the month.
=per piu strade si va a Roma= (It.), (pār pyōō strä´dā sē vä ä rō´mä), there are many roads to Rome.
=persiflage= (per sē flȧzh), chaff; banter.
=persillade of fish= (pâr-sē-läd´).--Fish with parsley.
=personnel= (per sô nel´), the staff of an establishment.
=petit= (pe tē´), small.
=petit coup= (pe tē kōō´), a small mask; a domino.
=petit rôti= (pe-tē´ rō-tē´).--A roast fowl.
=petit salé= (sä lā´).--Pickled pork in small pieces.
=petites affiches= (pe tēt zȧ fēsh´), advertisements.
=petit maître= (pe tē metr´), a little master; a fop.
=petits choux=.--Same as choux pâtissière.
=petits pois= (pe-tē´ pwä). Peas.
=peu-à-peu= (pö ȧ pö´), little by little; by degrees.
=peu de chose= (pö d shōz´), a trifle.
=pezzo= (It.), (ped´zō), piece; piece of money; a coin.
=piccolo= (It.), (pēk´kō lō), small.
=pièce de résistance= (_pē es de rā zēs tä_N_s´_), the principal dish.
=pied à terre= (pēā tȧ ter´), a temporary lodging.
=pied poudreux= (pē ā pōō drö´), a vagabond.
=pigeonnaux= (pē-zhō-nō´).--Squabs.
=pigeons innocents= (_pē-zhô_N´ _ē-nō-sä_N´).--Squabs.
=pigliar due colombi a una fava= (It.), (pē lyȧr dōō ā kō lōm´bē ä ōō nä fä´vä), to catch two pigeons with one bean; to kill two birds with one stone.
=pilau= (pi-law´), or =pillau=.--An oriental dish of rice stewed with mutton, lamb, or fowl, almonds, raisins, and saffron and other spices.
=pimen´to=.--Allspice, or Jamaica pepper.
=pimo´la=.--An olive stuffed with sweet peppers.
=pioupiou= (pē ōō pē ōō´), a private soldier; a French “Tommy Atkins.”
=piquant= (_pē-kä_N´), pointed, pungent.
=piquante sauce= (_pē-kä_N_t´_).--Espagnole with pickles added and flavored with shallots.
=pis aller= (pē zȧ lā´), the worst or last shift.
=plombière= (_plô_N-byâr´).--A kind of frozen fruit pudding.
=poché= (pō-shā´).--Poached.
=poco à poco= (It.), (pô´kō ä pô´kō), little by little; by degrees.
=point d’appui= (_pwâ_N dȧ pwē´), prop; point of support.
=poisson= (_pwä-sô_N´).--Fish.
=poivrade= (pwä-vräd´).--Peppersauce.
=polen´ta=.--Porridge.
=polonaise cakes= (pō-lō-nāz´).--A kind of tart made of puff paste with jelly at the corners.
=pomme= (pum).--Apple.
=pomme d´api= (pum dä-pē´).--Small rosy apple.
=pomme de terre= (de târ).--Common Irish potato.
=pompa´no.=--A highly esteemed marine food fish.
=porte-chaise= (porte shez´), a sedan.
=poste restante= (_pôs tres tä_N_t´_), to remain until called for; applied to letters in a post office, general delivery.
=potage= (pō-täzh´).--Soup; pottage; broth.
=potage a la Camerani= (ä lä kä-mā-rä´nē).--A rich kind of chicken-liver soup.
=potage croute au pot= (kroöt ō pō).--Plain broth with vegetables and crusts browned in gravy.
=pot pourri= (pō poo-rē´).--A ragoût of various meats and vegetables cooked together.
=pour acquit= (pōō rȧ kē´), paid; settled; the usual form of receipt.
=pour faire rire= (pōōr fer rēr´), to excite laughter.
=pour faire visite= (pōōr fer vē zēt´) to pay a visit.
=pour passer le temps= (_pōōr pä sā l tä_N´), to while away the time.
=pour prendre congé= (_pōōr prä_N_dre kô_N zhā´), to take leave. Usually abbreviated to P. P. C.
=précis= (prā sē´), a summary; an epitome.
=prendre la clef des champs= (_prä_N _dre lȧ klā dā shä_N´), to take the key of the fields; to take French leave.
=prendre la lune avec les dents= (_prä_N _dre lȧ lü´ nȧ vek lā dä_N´), to seize the moon in one’s teeth; to aim at impossibilities.
=presto maturo, presto marcio= (It.) (pres tō ma tōō´rō, pres tō mär´chyō), soon ripe, soon rotten.
=prêt d´accomplir= (_pre dȧ kô_N plēr´), ready to accomplish.
=prêt pour mon pays= (_pre pōōr mô_N pā ē´), ready for my country.
=preux chevalier= (prö shvȧ lēā´), a brave knight.
=prima donna= (prē mä dôn´nä), leading lady singer in opera.
=printanière= (_pra_N-tä-nyâr´).--A dish cooked à la printanière. See à la printanière. Printanière soup is the same as jardinière soup, essentially.
=procès verbal= (prô se ver bȧl´), a detailed statement.
=profiterolles= (prō-fē-trōl´).--Sweet entremets, a kind of cake filled with custard.
=propriétaire= (prô prēā ter´), a proprietor.
=protégé= (prô tā zhā´), one protected by another.
=pumpernickel= (poom´per-nik´l).--Black bread made in Westphalia of unbolted rye. It is of an acid taste.
=purée= (pü-rā´).--A pulpy maceration of meat, vegetables, fruit, or the like, passed through a sieve.
=quartier= (kär-tyā´).--Quarter; especially forequarter.
=quasi de veau= (kä-zē´de vō).--The thick end of a loin of veal.
=Q=
=quelque chose= (kel ke shōz´), something; a trifle.
=quenelle= (ke-nel´).--A kind of delicate forcemeat ball or dumpling.
=qui a bu boira= (kē ȧ bü´ bwä rȧ´), the tippler will go on tippling; it is hard to break off bad habits.
=quien poco sabe, presto lo reza= (Sp.), (kyān pō kō sä´vā, prēs tō lō rā´thä), he who knows little soon tells it.
=quien sabe?= (Sp.), (kyān sä´vā), who knows?
=qu´il soit comme il est désiré= (kēl swȧ´ kô mē le dā zē rā´), let it be as desired.
=qui m´aime aime mon chien= (_kē mem´ em mô_N _shēâ_N´), love me, love my dog.
=qui n’a santé, n’a rien= (_kē nȧ sä_N _tā´, nȧ rē â_N´), he who has not health, has nothing.
=qui va là?= (kē vȧ lȧ´), who goes there?
=qui vive= (kē vēv´), on the alert.
=R=
=raconteur= (_rȧ kô_N tör´), a relater; a teller.
=radis= (rä-dē´).--Radish.
=ragout= (rä-goo´).--A rich compound consisting of quenelles, mushrooms, truffles, etc., mixed with a rich sauce, and used to garnish rich dishes; also, a dish garnished with this.
=raison d´état= (_rā zô_N dā tȧ´), a state reason.
=raison d´être= (_rā zô_N detr´), the reason for a thing´s existence.
=ramequin= (ram´ē-kin; French pron. _rä-me-ka_N´).--A pastry consisting of a preparation of cheese inclosed in or mixed with puff paste, and baked or browned. Cheese straws are thin ramequins of cheese mixed with puff paste.
=rapprochement= (_rȧ prôsh mä_N´), the act of bringing together, reconciliation.
=ratafia= (rä-tä-fē-ä´).--(a) Noyau, curacao, or other liqueur containing kernels of fruit, as of peaches, cherries, etc. (b) A small macaroon made mainly of bitter almonds.
=réchauffé= (rā-shō-fā´), or =réchauffée=.--Warmed or heated over a second time.
=recherche= (re shersh´), elegant; attractive.
=reçu= (re sü´), received; receipt.
=recueil choisi= (re kö y shwȧzē´), a choice collection.
=rédacteur= (=en chef=), (_rā dȧk tö rä_N shef), editor (of a newspaper).
=régime= (rā zhēm´), government; mode of living.
=relevés= (rā-l´-vā´).--Same as removes.
=rémoulade= (rā-moo-läd´).--A purée of anchovies, capers, parsley, shallots, and hard-boiled eggs, dressed with spices, oil, and vinegar.
=rémoulade à la provençale= (_ä lä prō-vä_N-säl´).--Rémoulade not sieved and with more oil.
=remove=.--A dish removed from the table to make room for another; applied generally to the roasts, joints, turkeys, fillets, etc., which follow the soup and fish at an ordinary dinner of several courses.
=renaissance= (_re ne sä_N_s´_), regeneration, revival.
=rendezvous= (_rä_N dā vōō´), a place of meeting.
=rentes= (_rä_N_t_), the funds; government stocks.
=répondez s’il vous plaît= (R. S. V. P.) (_rā pô_N dā sēl vōō ple´), reply if you please.
=répondre en normand= (_rä pô_N _drä_N _nôr mä_N´), to answer in Norman; to speak evasively.
=restaurateur= (res tô rȧ tör´), one who provides.
=résumé= (rā zü mā´), a summing up.
=rete nuova non piglia uccello vecchio= (It.), (rā tā nwô´vä nōn pē lyä ōōch chel´lō vek´kyō), a new net won’t catch an old bird.
=revenons à nos moutons= (_rev nô_N _zȧ nō mōō tô_N´), let us return to our sheep; let us come back to our subject.
=rien n’est beau que le vrai= (_rēâ_N ne bō´ ke l vrā´), there is nothing beautiful but truth.
=rira bien qui rira le dernier= (_rē rȧ bēâ_N´ kē rē rȧ l der nēä´), he laughs well who laughs last.
=rire entre cuir et chair, rire sous cape= (_rē rä_N tre kwē´ rā sher´, rēr sōō kȧp´), to laugh in one’s sleeve.
=ris de veau= (rē de vō).--The sweetbread; pancreas.
=rissole= (rē-sōl´).--A kind of pastry made of minced and spiced meat or vegetables, or fruit, wrapped in paste, and fried in fat--originally one containing rice as an ingredient.
=rissolé= (rē-sō-lā´).--Browned by baking or frying.
=rissolette= (rē-sō-let´).--A croutade, or bit of fried bread containing or holding a little portion of forcemeat.
=robe de chambre= (_rôb de shä_N br´), a dressing-gown; a morning gown.
=robe de nuit= (rôb de nwē´), a night-dress.
=rognons= (_rō-nyô_N´).--Kidneys; fries.
=rôle= (rōl´), a part in a performance.
=romaine salad= (rō-mān´).--A kind of mixed vegetable salad.
=Ro´man punch=.--A water ice flavored, as with lemon, and mixed with rum or other spirits. Also, a complicated punch, similar in preparation to regency punch, with added frozen white of egg froth.
=roquefort= (rōk-fôr´).--A French cheese made from the milk of ewes, cured in a cavern in the limestone rock at Roquefort, France.
=rothe grütze= (rō´te grüt´ se).--A flummery of rice grits and fruit juice.
=roue= (rōō), a debauchee.
=rouge= (rōōzh), red coloring for the skin.
=roulette= (roo-let´).--A dish consisting of a slice of meat spread with stuffing, rolled, and stewed or braised.
=roux= (roo).--Browned by frying in butter or other grease.
=roux blanc= (_blä_N).--Starch or flour fried in fat so as to be hardly colored.
=roux brun= (_brü_N´).--Fried a dark brown.
=ruse de guerre= (rüz de ger´), a military stratagem.
=Rus´sian sauce=.--A velouté with egg yolks and strong herbs.
=Rus´sian soup=.--A gravy soup of veal, fowl, etc., with souchets of salmon, eel, perch, mullet, quenelles of whiting, lobster coral, and mushroom purée.
=S=
=salade russe= (sä-läd´rüs).--A dish of chicken meat, ham, veal, etc., sliced, arranged separately and served with truffles, and tartar sauce, or caviare and sardelles, etc.
=salle= (sȧl), a hall.
=salle à manger= (_sȧ lȧ mä_N zhā), dining room.
=Sal´ly Lunn=.--An English tea cake.
=salmagun´dy=.--A salad of cold chicken, veal, eggs, beets, anchovies, etc., finely minced and spiced.
=salmis= (säl-mē´).--A ragoût of roast game or fowl in rich gravy or sauce.
=sal´picon= (French pron. _säl-pē-kô_N´).--A ragoût or rich compound of chopped meat or fish and vegetables with savory sauce, used as a separate dish, as a garnish, to stuff meats, etc.
=sanan couchilladas, mas no malas palabras= (Sp.), (sä´nän kōō chē lā´thäs, mäs nō mä läs pä lä´vräs), wounds from a knife will heal, but not those from an evil tongue.
=sang-froid= (_sä_N frwä´), coolness; self-possession.
=sans-culottes= (_sä_N kü lôt´), without breeches; a term applied to the rabble of the French revolution.
=sans façon= (_sä_N _fȧ sô_N´), without form or trouble.
=sans pareil= (_sä_N pȧ re´y), without equal.
=sans peine= (_sä_N pen´), without difficulty.
=sans peur et sans reproche= (_sä_N _pör´ ā sä_N re prôsh´), fearless and stainless.
=sans rime et sans raison= (_sä_N _rēm´ ā sä_N _rā zô_N´), without rhyme or reason.
=sans souci= (_sä_N sōō sē´), free from care.
=sauce beurrée à l’Anglaise= (_bû-rā ä lä_N-glāz´).--Butter sauce.
=sauce blanche= (_blä_N_sh_).--Butter sauce.
=sauce Colbert= (kōl-bâr).--Brown sauce with meat glace, lemon juice, parsley, and butter stirred in.
=saucé de gourmets= (de goor-mā´).--A coulis with a purée of tomatoes and crayfish butter.
=sauce en tortue= (_ä_N tôr-tü´).--Espagnole sauce, a kind of sauce used for calf’s head.
=sauce Italienne rousse= (ē-tä-lyen´ roos).--A sauce of espagnole, varied and flavored with shallots, mushrooms, and olive oil.
=sauce piquante= (_pē-kä_N_t´_).--An acid or sour sauce.
=sauce Robert= (French pron. sōs rō-bâr´).--A full-flavored espagnole sauce, strongly flavored with onions, mustard, and zested with lemon juice or vinegar.
=sauce rousse= (roos).--Brown sauce.
=saumon= (_sō-mô_N´).--Salmon.
=sauté= (sō-tā´).--Lightly and quickly fried in little grease.
=sauve qui peut= (sōv kē pö´), save yourself.
=savant= (_sȧ vä_N´), a learned man.
=savoir= (sȧ vwȧr´), knowledge.
=savoir faire= (sȧ vwȧr fer´), tact.
=savoir vivre= (sȧ vwȧr vēvr´), good breeding.
=savon= (_sȧ vô_N´), soap.
=savoy´ cakes.=--Lady fingers or other fancy cakes of sponge-cake paste.
=scones= (skōnz).--Scotch cakes of oatmeal or flour.
=scrutin d’arrondissement= (_skrü tâ_N´ _dȧ rô_N _dēs mä_N´), municipal ballot.
=scrutin de liste= (_skrü tâ_N d lēst´), voting by ballot; the voting for the departmental representatives.
=sdegno d’amante poco dura= (It.), (zdā nyō dä män´tā pô kō dōō´rä), a lover’s anger is short-lived.
=séance= (_sā ä_N_s´_), a sitting.
=selle= (sel).--Saddle.
=selon les règles= (_se lô_N lā regl´), according to rule.
=sempre il mal non vien per nuocere= (It.), (sem´prā ēl mäl´ nōn vyān´ pār nwô chā rā), misfortune is not always an evil.
=se non e vero e ben trovato= (It.), (sā nōn e vā´rō e bān trō vä´tō), if it is not true, it is cleverly invented.
=siècle= (sē ekl´), an age.
=siècle d´or= (sē ekl dôr´), the golden age (of Louis XIV).
=siècles des ténèbres= (sē ekle dā tā nebr´), the dark ages.
=Sie sehen gut aus= (Ger.), (zē zā en gōōt´ ows), you look well.
=sobriquet= (sô brē ke´), a nickname.
=soi-disant= (_swȧ dē zä_N´), self-styled; would-be; pretended.
=soirée= (swȧ rā´), an evening party.
=soubise sauce= (soo-bēz´).--A purée of white onions or souchie.
=soubrette= (sōō bret´), on the stage a servant girl who acts in comedies the part of an intrigante.
=souchet= (soo-shā´), or =souchie= (sōō-shē´).--A stew of fish in a soup-like savory broth.
=soufflé= (soo-flā´).--A dish consisting of batter of starch or flour, eggs, milk or cream, and butter, beaten light and baked and served hot while light and spongy. Soufflés may be variously flavored, as with ginger, vanilla, chocolate, etc.
=souffler le chaud et le froid= (sōō fla l shō´ ā l frwä´), to blow hot and cold.
=spaghetti= (spä-get´tē).--Hollow tubes of dried Italian paste, in size between macaroni and vermicelli.
=Span´ish cream.=--Gelatine pudding containing custard, gelatine, and beaten white of eggs, set in a mold.
=Span´ish puffs.=--Maringues.
=spirituel= (spē rē tü el´), possessing wit, witty.
=Sturm und Drang= (Ger.), (shtoorm oont dräng´), storm and stress.
=suprême sauce= (su-prām).--Velouté flavored with mushrooms and consommé of fowls.
=T=
=tableau vivant= (_tȧ blō vē vä_N´), the representation of a picture by persons grouped together, silent and motionless.
=table d’hôte= (tȧble dōt´), table according to the hostess.
=tâche sans tache= (_tȧsh sä_N tȧsh´), a work without a stain.
=taille= (tä´y), form; stature; shape.
=tapis= (tȧ pē´), the carpet.
=tar´tare sauce=.--Mayonnaise sauce with vinegar and chopped green herbs, pickles, and capers.
=tel maître, tel valet= (tel metr´, tel vȧ le´), like master, like man.
=tendresse= (_tä_N dres´), passion; affection.
=terra cotta= (It.), (ter´rä kôt´tä), baked earth.
=tête= (tāt).--Head.
=tête-à-tête= (te tȧ tet´), a conversation between two parties.
=tiens à la vérité= (_tēâ_N zȧ lȧ vä rē tā´), maintain the truth.
=tiens ta foi= (_tēâ_N tȧ fwä´), keep thy faith.
=timbale= (French pron. _ta_N-bäl´).--A drum-like case of macaroni or rice filled with some composition, as with forcemeat or ragoût.
=timbre-poste= (_tâ_N bre pôst´), postage stamp.
=toujours perdrix= (tōō zhōōr per drē´), always partridges; the same thing over and over again.
=toujours prêt= (tōō zhōōr pre´), always ready.
=tour de force= (tōōr de fôrs´), a feat of strength or skill.
=tour d’expression= (_tōōr dek spre sēô_N´), an idiom.
=tourner casaque= (tōōr nā kȧ zȧk´), to turn one’s coat; to change sides.
=tout-à-fait= (tōō tȧ fe´), wholly, entirely.
=tout-à-l’heure= (tōō tȧ lör´), instantly.
=tout au contraire= (_tōō tō kô_N trer´), on the contrary.
=tout-à-vous= (tōō tȧ vōō´), entirely yours.
=tout bien ou rien= (_tōō bēâ_N´ _ōō rēâ_N´), all or nothing.
=tout-de-suite= (tōō d swēt´), immediately.
=tout ensemble= (_tōō tä_N _sä_N_bl´_), the whole.
=tout le monde est sage après coup= (_tōō l mô_N de sazh ȧ pre kōō´), everybody is wise after the event.
=traduttori, traditori= (It.), (trä dōōt tō´rē, trä dē tō´rē), translators are traitors.
=trottoir= (trô twȧr´), sidewalk.
=trousseau= (trōō sō´), wedding outfit.
=truffes= (trüf).--Truffles.
=truf´fle=.--A kind of edible mushroom that grows underground.
=truite= (trwet).--Trout.
=Turk´ish cof´fee=.--Café au Turc.
=tutte le strade conducono a Roma= (It.), (tōōt´tā lā strä´dā kōn dōō´kō nō ä rō mä), all roads lead to Rome.
=tutti-frutti= (toot´tē-froot´tē).--A confection consisting of preserved fruits of various kinds.
=U=
=Uebung macht den Meister= (Ger.), (ü´boong mäkt den mīs´ter), practice makes perfect.
=un bienfait n’est jamais perdu= (_ö_N _bēâ_N fe´ ne zhȧ me per dü´), a kindness is never lost.
=un sot à triple étage= (_ö_N sō´ ȧ trē plā tȧzh´), a consummate fool.
=un “tiens” vaut mieux que deux “tu l’auras,”= (_ō_N _tēâ_N vō mēö´ ke dö tü lō rȧ´), one “take it” is worth two “you shall have it”; a bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.
=V=
=valen´cia rice=.--Rice boiled till the grains are soft and then mixed with oil and tomatoes.
=valet de chambre= (_vȧ le d shä_N br´), an attendant.
=vaurien= (_vō rēâ_N´), a worthless fellow.
=veau= (vō).--Veal.
=vedi Napoli e poi muori= (It.), (vā dē nä´pō lē ā pôē mwô´rē), see Naples and then die.
=vérité sans peur= (_vā rē tā´ sä_N pör´), truth without fear.
=vers de société= (ver de sô sē ā tā´), society verses; poetry dealing lightly with trifling subjects.
=verve= (verv), animation; spirit.
=Viele Hände machen bald ein End= (Ger.), (fē le hent´-mäken bält īn ent´), many hands make quick work.
=vieux garçon= (_vē ö gȧr sô_N´), old bachelor.
=vigueur de dessus= (vē gör´ de de sü´), strength from on high.
=vin= (_va_N).--Wine.
=vinaigre= (vē-nā´gr´).--Vinegar. _Vinaigre a l’estragon (ä lās trä-gô_N´) is vinegar flavored with tarragon.
=vinaigrette= of (vē-nā-gret´).--A sauce made sour by acid wine or vinegar.
=vino dentro, senno furore= (It.) (vē´nō den´trō, sān´no fōō rō´rā), when the wine is in, the wit is out.
=vin ordinaire= (_va_N ôr-dē-nâr´).--Ordinary table wine; claret.
=virtuoso= (It.), (vēr twō´ sō), one skilled in matters of taste or art.
=vis à vis= (vē zȧ vē), face to face.
=vivat= (vē vȧt´), a shout of “long live.”
=vive la bagatelle= (vēv lȧ bȧ gȧ tel´), success to trifles.
=vive la république= (vēv lȧ rā pü plēk´), long live the republic.
=vive l’empereur= (_vēv lä_N prör´), long live the emperor.
=vive le roi= (vēv le rwä´), long live the king.
=voilà= (vwȧ lȧ´), see there; there is, there are.
=voilà tout= (vwȧ lȧ tōō´), that is all.
=voilà une autre chose= (vwȧ lȧ ü nō tre shōz´), that is quite another thing.
=voiture= (vwȧ tür´), a carriage.
=volaille= (vō-lā´y).--Poultry.
=vol-au-vent= (_vō-lō-vä_N´). A light puff-paste case baked and then filled with a ragoût, fricassée, or the like.
=W=
=wagon-lits= (vȧ gô lē), sleeping cars.
=Was fehlt Ihnen?= (Ger.), (väs fālt´ ē nen), what is the matter with you?
=Wie die Arbeit, so der Lohn= (Ger.), (vē dē är´bīt, zō der lōn´), as the labor, so the reward.
=Welsh rare bit=, or =rab´bit=.--A dish consisting essentially of toasted bread on which is served toasted or melted cheese. The cheese is variously prepared, as with the admixture of ale, or other flavoring material.
=white sauce.=--Same as velouté, or similar sauce.
=wiener schnitzel= (vē´ner shnits´el).--A cut of veal from the leg, fried in batter, and seasoned with paprika, etc., after a style attributed to the Viennese.
=Z=
=Zeitgeist= (Ger.), (tsīt´gīst), the spirit of the age.
PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF CLASSIC WORDS AND PHRASES
Including legal phrases, maxims, mottoes, quotations, proverbs, Latin abbreviations, classic allusions and references of common occurrence in books, periodicals, newspapers and speech.
KEY TO PRONUNCIATION
The long (marked) vowels are pronounced as in the following words: fāte, fāre, cāre; mē; mīne; mōte; mūte. The short vowels, which include all not marked as above, are pronounced as in the following words: pat; pet; pit; pot; put. The accented syllable in each word is indicated by a mark placed immediately after it.
=A=
=Ab extra= (ex´trā).--From without.
=Ab initio= (in-ish´i-ō).--From the beginning.
=Ab origine= (or-ī´jin-e).--From the commencement.
=Ab ovo= (ō´vō).--From the egg--i. e., the beginning. The egg in many ancient mythologies was the supposed origin of life.
=Ab ovo usque ad mala= (us´kwe ad mā´la).--From the egg to the apples--i. e., from the beginning to the end (the Roman custom being to begin dinner with eggs and end with fruit).
=Ab uno disce omnes= (ū´nō dis´se om´nēs).--From a single instance infer the whole.
=Ab urbe condita=--A. U. C. (ur´be kon´di-tā).--From the (year of) building the city (Rome), 753 B. C.
=A capite ad calcem= (ā kap´i-te ad kal´sem).--From head to heel.
=Accipe hoc= (ak´sip-e hock).--Accept this.
=Ac etiam= (ak esh´i-am).--And also.
=Ad arbitrium= (ar-bit´ri-um).--At pleasure.
=Ad captandum vulgus= (cap-tan´dum vul´gus).--To catch the rabble.
=Ad extremum= (ex-tre´mum).--At last.
=Ad finem= (fī´nem).--To the end.
=Ad hominem= (hom´in-em).--To the man.
=Ad infinitum= (in-fī-nī´tum).--To infinity.
=Ad interim= (in´ter-im).--Meanwhile.
=Ad Kalendas Graecas= (kal´en-das grē´kas).--At the Greek kalends--i. e., never (there being no kalends in the Greek year).
=Ad libitum= (lib´it-um).--At pleasure.
=Ad majorem Dei gloriam= (mā-jor´em Dē´ī glor´i-am).--For the greater glory of God. The motto of the Order of the Jesuits, founded by Ignatius Loyola (1539).
=Ad nauseam= (naw´se-am).--To disgust.
=Ad quod damnum= (kwod dam´num).--To what damage.
=Ad referendum= (ref-er-en´dum).--For further consideration.
=Ad rem.=--To the point.
=Ad unguem= (un´gwem).--To a nail--i.e., to a nicety, exactly. An expression borrowed from sculptors, who in modeling, give the finishing touch with the nail.
=Ad unum omnes=--Cicero (ū-num om´nēs).--All to a man.
=Ad valorem= (va-lor´em).--According to the value.
=Ad vivum= (vi´vum).--To the life.
=Aegrescit medendo= (e-gres´sit med-en´dō).--The disorder increases with the remedy, i. e., the remedy is worse than the disease.
=Aequam servare mentem= (ē-kwam ser-vār´e men´tem).--To preserve a well-balanced mind; to be unmoved.
=Aequo animo= (ē´kwo an´im-o).--With resignation, contentedly.
=Aetatis suae= (ē-tā´tis sū´ē).--Of his (or her) age.
=A fortiori= (for-shi-or´ī).--With stronger reason.
=Alere flammam= (al´er-e flam´mam).--To feed the flame.
=Alias= (al´i-as).--Otherwise.
=Alibi= (al´i-bī).--Elsewhere. Legal phrase implying that the accused in a criminal case was not on the scene of a crime at the time of its committal.
=Alma Mater= (al´ma mā´ter).--Benign mother. An expression used by college men, who speak of their college as their Alma mater.
=Alter ego= (al´ter egg´o).--Another self.
=Alter idem= (al´ter ī-dem).--Another exactly similar.
=Amantium irae amoris integratio est=--(am-an´shi-um ī´rē a-mor´iss inte-grā-shi-o est).--The quarrels of lovers are renewals of love.
=A mensa et thoro= (ā men´sā et thor´ō).--From table and bed. A legal phrase used by the judge in pronouncing the decree of separation in the Divorce Court.
=Amicus humani generis= (am-ī-cus hu-mā´nī gen´er-iss).--A friend of the human race.
=Amor patriæ= (am´or pat´ri-ē).--Love of one’s native land.
=Anguis in herba=--Virgil (an´gwiss in her´bā).--A snake in the grass.
=Animo et fide= (an´im-o et fī´dē).--By courage and faith.
=Anno aetatis suae= (an´no ē-tā´tiss sū´ē).--In the year of his (or her) age.
=Anno Christi,= A. C. (an´no kriss´tī).--In the year of Christ.
=Anno Domini,= A. D. (an´no Dom´inī).--In the year of our lord.
=Anno mundi,= A. M. (an´no mun´dī).--In the year of the world. The date of the Creation is given by Bishop Usher as 4004 B. C.
=Ante meridiem,= A. M. (an´te mer-ī´di-em).--Before noon.
=A posse ad esse= (ā poss´e ad ess´e).--From possibility to actuality.
=A posteriori= (ā pos-tē-ri-or´ī).--From the effect to the cause; that is, an argument by induction.
=A priori= (ā prī-or´ī).--From the cause to the effect; that is, an argument by deduction.
=Aqua fortis= (ak´wa for´tiss).--Strong water. A common name for nitric acid.
=Aqua vitae= (ak´wa vī´tē).--Water of life. Alcohol, brandy.
=Arbiter elegantiarum= (ar´bit-er ele-gan-shi-air´um).--An authority in matters of taste.
=Arcana imperii= (ar-kā´na im-per´ī-ī).--Secrets of the state.
=Ardentia verba= (ar-den´shi-a ver´ba).--Burning words.
=Argumentum ad hominem= (ar-gu-men´tum ad hom´-i-nem).--An argument to the man. An argument in refutation drawn from an opponent’s own principles.
=Argumentum ad invidiam= (ar-gu-men´tum ad in-vid´-i-am).--An argument appealing to low passions.
=Argumentum ad judicium= (ar-gu-men´tum ad ju-dish´i-um).--An appeal to the judgment.
=Argumentum ad populum= (ar-gu-men´tum ad pop´-u-lum).--An appeal to popular prejudice.
=Argumentum baculinum= (ar-gu-men´tum back-u-li-num).--The argument of the cudgel; appeal to force. Club-law.
=Ars celare artem= (ars sell-air´e ar´tem).--True art is to conceal art.
=Ars longa, vita brevis= (ars lon´ga vī´ta brev´iss).--Art is long, life short.
=Artium magister=, A. M. or M. A. (ar´ti-um ma-jis´ter).--Master of Arts.
=Audi alteram partem= (aw´dī al´ter-am par´tem).--Hear the other side.
=Aura popularis=--Cicero (aw´ra pop-u-lair´iss).--The shifting breeze of popular favor.
=Aurea mediocritas=--Horace (aw´re-a med-i-ok´ri-tass).--The golden mean.
=Aut Cæsar, aut nullus= (awt Cæsar awt nul´lus).--Either Cæsar or no one.
=Aut vincere aut mori= (awt vin´ser-e awt mor´ī).--Either to conquer or to die.
=A verbis ad verbera= (ā ver´bīs ad ver´ber-a).--From words to blows.
=A vinculo matrimonii= (ā vin´ku-lo mat-ri-mō´nī-ī).--From the bond of marriage.
=B=
=Bis dat, qui cito dat= (biss dat kwī sī´tō dat).--He gives twice who gives quickly.
=Bona fide= (bō´nā fī´dē).--In good faith.
=Brevis esse laboro, obscurus fio=--Horace (brev´iss ess´e lab-or´ō ob-sku´rus fīo).--When I strive to be concise I become obscure.
=Brutum fulmen= (Bru´tum ful´men).--A harmless thunderbolt.
=C=
=Cacoethes loquendi= (kak-o-ē´thēs lo-kwen´dī).--An itch for speaking.
=Cacoethes scribendi= (skrī-ben´dī).--An itch for scribbling.
=Capias= (kap´i-ass).--You may take. A writ to authorize the seizure of a defendant’s person (legal).
=Caput mortuum= (kap´ut mor´tu-um),--The dead head--i.e., the worthless remains.
=Caret= (care´et).--It is wanting.
=Casus belli= (kā´sus bell´ī).--A cause for war.
=Caveat actor= (kav´e-at ak´tor).--Let the doer beware. Law term signifying a notice to stay legal proceedings.
=Caveat emptor= (emp´tor).--Let the purchaser beware. Term used to show that the vendor does not hold himself responsible for the condition of the goods.
=Cetera desunt= (sē´ter-a dē-sunt).--The rest is wanting.
=Ceteris paribus= (sē´ter-is pair´i-bus).--Other things being equal.
=Circa=--c. (sir´kā).--About, towards (of time).
=Circulus in probando= (sir´ku-lus in pro-ban´dō).--A circle in the proof; using the conclusion as one of the arguments.
=Cogito ergo sum= (coj´i-tō er´gõ sum).--I think, therefore I exist. The famous dictum of Descartes, the philosopher.
=Commune bonum= (com-mū´ne bō´num).--A common good.
=Compos mentis= (com´pos men´tiss).--Of sane mind.
=Conscia mens recti= (con´shi-a mens rek´tī).--A mind conscious of rectitude.
=Contra bonos mores= (con´tra bō´nōs mor´ēz).--Against good manners.
=Copia verborum= (cō´pi-a ver-bor´um).--Plenty of words.
=Coram nobis= (cor´am nō´biss).--In our presence; before us.
=Corpus delicti= (cor´pus de-lik´tī).--The body, i. e. substance, of the offense.
=Crimine ab uno disce omnes= (krī´min-e ab ū´nō dis´se om´nēz).--From one crime learn the nature of all.
=Cui bono?= (kī bō´nō).--For whose benefit is it?
=Cum grano salis= (cum grā´nō sā´lis).--With a grain of salt, i. e., with some allowance.
=Cum privilegio= (priv-i-le´ji-ō).--By privilege.
=Curiosa felicitas= (ku-ri-ō´sa fē-lī´si-tas).--Felicity of expression.
=D=
=Data= (dā´ta).--Things given or taken for granted.
=De auditu= (dē aw-dī´tū).--By hearsay.
=Deceptio visus= (dē-sep´shi-ō vī´sūs).--An optical illusion.
=De facto= (dē fac´tō).--In point of fact. A legal phrase used to describe that which is fact as opposed to that which is legal.
=Dei gratia= (Dē´ī grā´shi-ā).--By the grace of God. A phrase used in respect to a sovereign, in royal proclamations, and on coins of the realm.
=Disjecta membra= (dis-jek´ta mem´bra).--Scattered remains.
=Divide et impera= (dī´vi-dē et im´per-ā).--Divide and govern.
=Docendo discimus= (dō-sen´dō dis´si-mus).--By teaching we learn.
=Dominus providebit= (Dom´īn-us prō-vid-ē´bit).--The Lord will provide.
=Dramatis personæ= (drä´ma-tiss per-sō´nē).--Characters of a play.
=Dulce domum= (dul´sē dō´mum).--Sweetly homeward.
=Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori=--Horace (dul´-se et de-kor´um est pro pat´ri-ā mōr´ī).--It is pleasant and befitting to die for one’s country.
=Dum spiro, spero= (dum spi´ro, sper´ō).--While I breathe, I hope.
=Dum vivimus, vivamus= (vī´vim-us, vī-vā´mus).--While we live, let us live--i. e., whilst we have life, let us enjoy it.
=Durante vita= (du-ran´te vī´tā).--During life.
=E=
=Ecce homo!= (ek´se hom´o).--Behold the man! A name given to representations of the suffering Savior, because Pilate used those words when Christ came forth wearing the crown of thorns and purple robe (St. John xix. 5).
=Editio princeps= (e-dish´io prin´seps).--Original edition.
=Emeritus= (ē-mer´itus).--A soldier who has served his time, a veteran: hence, one retired from active official duties, as an Emeritus professor.
=E pluribus unum= (ē plūr´i-bus ūnum).--From many, one. Motto of United States.
=Esse quam videri malim= (es´se kwam vī-dē´rī mā-lim).--I prefer to be, rather than seem to be.
=Esto quod es= (es-tō quod ēz).--Be what thou art.
=Et cetera= (et sē´ter-a), &c., or etc. And so forth.
=E tenebris oritur lux= (ē ten´e-brīs or´i-tur lux).--Out of darkness there arises light.
=Et sequentes= (et se-kwen´tēs).--And those that follow.
=Et sequentia= (se-kwen´shia)--et seq.--And what follows.
=Et sic de ceteris= (et sik dē sē´terīs).--And so of the rest.
=Et tu, Brute= (tū Brū´te).--And thou also, Brutus! The words were used by Cæsar when he discovered Brutus among the conspirators who assassinated him in the senate-house, B. C. 44.
=Ex æquo= (ē´kwo).--In like manner, equally.
=Ex animo= (an´imo).--From the soul, heartily.
=Ex cathedra= (kath´e-drā).--From the chair--i. e., with authority. The phrase originally referred to the decisions given by popes and prelates in their pontifical character; it is now used in reference to any decision given with the air of authority.
=Exceptio probat regulum= (ex-sep´shio prō-bat reg´u-lum).--The exception proves the rule.
=Ex curia= (kū´riā).--Out of court. Originally every full Roman citizen belonged to one of the thirty curiæ or divisions of the city, and was entitled to vote on the laws submitted to his curia. The phrase ex curia was applied to those who had no right to vote in the curia. It is now used to denote a person who has no locus standi before any tribunal.
=Ex delicto= (dē-lik´tō).--From the crime.
=Exempli gratia=--e. g. (ex-em´plī grā´shia).--By way of example.
=Exeunt= (eks´e-unt).--They go out. Used by the older playwrights to indicate the departure of some of the performers from the stage.
=Exit= (eks´it).--He (or she) goes out.
=Exitus acta probat= (ex´it-us ak´ta prō´bat).--The event justifies the deed. Motto of George Washington.
=Ex nihilo nihil fit= (ex nī´hillo ni´hill fit).--Out of nothing nothing comes.
=Ex officio= (of-fish´iō).--By virtue of his office: e. g., the president of a society is ex officio a member of all committees of the society.
=Ex parte= (par´te).--On one side only. A phrase indicating an application, concerning a pending action, to a judge by one party in the action in the absence of the other.
=Experientia docet sapientiam= (ex-pe-ri-en´shia dō´set sap-i-en´shi-am).--Experience teaches wisdom.
=F=
=Faber est quisque fortunæ suæ=--Sallust (fab´er est kwis´kwe for-tū´nē sū´ē).--Every man is the maker of his own fortune.
=Facile princeps= (fas´il-e prin´seps).--Easily the chief--i. e., the admitted chief.
=Facilis descensus Averno=--Virgil (fas´il-iss dē-sen´sus av-er´nō).--The descent to Avernus (or hell) is easy: the downward road is an easy one. Avernus was a lake of Campania, near which was the cave through which Æneas descended to the lower world.
=Fac simile= (fak sim´il-e).--Do the like. An exact copy.
=Factotum= (fak-tō´tum).--Do everything. A man of all work.
=Fecit= (fē´sit).--He did it. Generally affixed to the pedestal of a statue by the sculptor who executed it.
=Felicitas habet multos amicos= (fē´lī´si-tas hab´et mul´tōs am-ī´kōs).--Happiness has many friends: i. e., friends flock around those who are prosperous.
=Feræ naturæ= (fer´ē na-tū´rē).--Of the nature of a wild beast.
=Festina lente= (fes-tī´nā len´tē).--Hasten slowly: i. e., do nothing in a hurry.
=Fiat justitia, ruat cœlum= (fī´at jus-tish´i-a rū´at sē´lum).--Let justice be done, even though the heavens should fall.
=Fiat lux= (fi´at lux).--Let there be light.
=Fides Punica= (fī´dēs Pū´nik-a).--Punic (i. e. Carthaginian) faith: treachery. A proverbial expression among the Romans for faithlessness.
=Fidus Achates= (fī´dus Akā´tēz).--The faithful Achates: a true friend. Achates was the distinguished companion of Æneas in his wanderings after his flight from Troy.
=Fieri facias= (fī´erī fas´i-ass).--Cause it to be done. Usually written fi. fa. The title of a writ of execution issued to give effect to the judgment of a court of justice.
=Finem respice= (fī´nem res´piss-e).--Look to the end.
=Finis coronat opus= (fī´nis korō´nat op´us).--The end crowns the work.
=Flagrante delicto= (de-lik´tō).--In the act of committing the crime: i. e., in the very act.
=Fortes fortuna juvat= (fōr´tēs fortū´na ju´vat).--Fortune helps the brave.
=Fortis cadere, cedere non potest= (for´tiss kad´er-e sē´der-e non pot´est).--The brave may fall, but cannot yield.
=Fortiter et recte= (for´tit-er et rek´tē).--Courageously and uprightly.
=Fortitudine et prudentia= (forti-tu´din-e et prūden´shi-ā).--By fortitude and prudence.
=Fortuna favet fatuis= (fortu´na fav´et fat´uīs).--Fortune favors idiots.
=Fortunæ filius= (for-tu´nē fil´ius).--A son of fortune--i.e., one favored by fortune.
=Fortuna sequator= (sekwā´tur).--Let fortune follow.
=Frangas non flectes= (fran´gas non flek´tēs).--You may break, but you shall not bend, me.
=Fronti nulla fides= (fron´tī null´a fī´dēs).--Do not judge by appearances.
=Frustra laborat qui omnibus placere studet= (frus´trā labōr´at kwī om´nibus pla-sē´re stū´det).--He labors in vain who studies to please all.
=Fugit irreparabile tempus=--Virgil (fū´jit ir-rep-ar-ā´-bil-e tem´pus).--Time, once gone, can never be regained.
=Furor arma ministrat=--Virgil (fū´ror ar´ma min´is-trat).--Rage supplies them with arms.
=Furor loquendi= (fu´ror lo-kwen´dī).--A rage for speaking.
=Furor poeticus= (po-ēt´ik-us).--Poetical fire.
=Furor scribendi= (skrī-ben´dī).--A rage for writing.
=G=
=Gaudeamus= (gawdeā´mus).--Let us rejoice.
=Gloria in excelsis Deo= (glor´i-a in ex-sel´sis dē´ō).--Glory to God in the highest. The opening words of the greater doxology sung in the ancient Church; chiefly used in the Communion service and private devotion.
=Gratis= (grā´tiss).--Free; for nothing.
=Gutta cavat lapidem non vi, sed semper cadendo= (gut´ta kav´at lap´id-em non vī sed sem´per ka-den´dō).--The drop hollows the stone not by force, but by constant falling.
=H=
=Haud passibus æquis=--Virgil (hawd pass´i-bus ē´kwīs).--With unequal steps.
=Hic et ubique= (hik et ubī´kwe).--Here and everywhere. (“Here, there, and everywhere.”)
=Hic jacet= (hik ja´set).--Here lies. An inscription frequently carved on monuments dedicated to deceased persons.
=Hoc age= (hok aj´e).--Do this.
=Homo sum: humani nihil a me alienum puto=--Terence (hom´o sum humā´nī nī´hil ā mē ali-ē´num pū´to).--I am a man: I count nothing human indifferent to me.
=Honesta mors turpi vita potior=--Tacitus (hones´ta maws tur´pī vī´tā pō´shior).--An honorable death is preferable to a base life.
=Honor virtutis præmium= (hon´or virtu´tiss prē´mium).--Honor is the reward of virtue (or valor).
=Humani generis decus= (humā´nī jen´er-iss dek´us).--The glory of the human race. These words are inscribed on Sir Isaac Newton’s monument on the rood-screen in Westminster Abbey.
=Humanum est errare= (humā´num est errā´re).--It is human to err. “To err is human, to forgive, divine.”--Pope.
=I=
=Ibidem= (ibī´dem).--In the same place.
=Idem= (ī´dem).--The same.
=Id est= (i. e.).--That is, that is to say.
=Ignis fatuus= (ig´niss fat´u-us).--A deceiving fire: a Will-o’-the-wisp; an inflammable gas frequently seen over marshes, which leads the traveler who pursues it into the bog.
=Ignorantia legis excusat neminem= (ignoran´shia lē´jis excū´sat nem´inem).--Ignorance of the law excuses nobody.
=Imo pectore= (ī´mo pek´tor-e).--From the bottom of the heart.
=Impedimenta= (im-pedi-men´ta).--The baggage of an army; luggage in traveling.
=Imperium in imperio= (imper´ium in imper´io).--One government within another.
=Imprimatur= (imprimā´tur).--Let it be printed. The term is used to signify the permission to print a book.
=Imprimis= (im-prī´miss).--In the first place, chiefly, especially.
=In æternum= (in ēter´num).--Forever.
=In articulo mortis= (ar-tik´ulo mor´tis).--At the point of death.
=In capite= (kap´i-te).--In chief.
=In cauda venenum= (kaw´dā venē´num).--There is poison in the tail. The sting of the scorpion is at the tip of its tail.
=In cœlo quies= (se´lo kwī´ēs).--There is rest in heaven.
=In commendam= (commen´dam).--In recommendation.
=In curia= (kū´ri-ā).--In the court.
=Index expurgatorius= (in´dex expurgator´ius).--A list of prohibited books. The term employed for the list of books which are allowed to be read after revision by the papal authorities. The I. E. was commenced by Pope Paul IV. (1555), and published by Pope Pius IV. (1559), after organization by the Council of Trent (1545-1563). Press censorship exists in Russia and some other nations.
=In esse= (ess´e).--In being.
=In extenso= (exten´so).--At full length.
=In extremis= (extrē´miss).--At the point of death.
=In flagrante delicto= (flā-gran´te delik´ō).--In the very act.
=In formâ pauperis= (for´mā paw´per-iss).--As a poor man. A law term denoting the status of a person who, having just cause of action, has no money to pay costs, counsel under these circumstances being appointed by the court.
=In foro conscientiæ= (for´ō con-shi-en´shi-ē).--Before the tribunal of conscience.
=Infra dignitatem= (in´frā dignitā´tem).--Beneath one’s dignity.
=In hoc signo vinces= (in hoc sig´nō vin´sēs).--Under this standard (sign) thou shalt conquer. Motto of the Emperor Constantine, who first used it on his standard (labarum) in the battle against Maxentius, A. D. 312.
=In limine= (lī-min-e)--At the threshold.
=In loco parentis= (lō´kō paren´tiss).--In the place of a parent. A law term denoting the guardian who takes charge of a child in the event of the death or mental incapacity of its parents.
=In medias res= (med´i-ass rēs).--Into the midst of things, e. g., to come to the point at once.
=In medio virtus= (med´i-o vir´tus).--Virtue lies in the mean.
=In memoriam= (memor´i-am).--To the memory of.
=In nomine= (nom´i-ne).--In the name of.
=In nubibus= (nū´bi-bus).--In the clouds.
=In nuce= (nū´se).--In a nutshell.
=In pace= (pā´se).--In peace.
=In perpetuum= (per-pet´u-um).--Forever.
=In posse= (poss´e).--Possible.
=In præsenti= (prē-sen´tī).--At present, now.
=In propria persona= (prō´pri-ā persō´nā).--In person. A law term applied to a litigant who conducts his own case.
=In puris naturalibus= (pūr´īs naturā´li-bus).--Stark naked.
=In re= (rē).--In the matter of (legal).
=In rerum natura= (rēr´um natū´rā).--In the nature of things.
=In situ= (sī´tū).--In its original situation.
=In statu pupillari= (stā´tū pupillār´ī).--In the state of being a ward (legal).
=In statu quo= (kwō).--In the state in which it was, we were, etc. (legal).
=In tenebris= (ten´e-brīs).--In darkness.
=Inter alia= (in´ter al´i-a).--Among other things (legal).
=Inter nos= (nōs).--Between ourselves.
=Inter pocula= (pō´ku-la).--At one’s cups.
=Inter se= (in´ter sē).--Among themselves.
=In toto= (tō´tō).--In the whole; entirely.
=Intra muros= (in´trā mū´rōs).--Within the walls.
=In transitu= (trans´i-tū).--On the passage.
=In vacuo= (vak´u-ō).--In a space devoid of air.
=In vino veritas= (vī´no ver´i-tas).--There is truth in wine--i. e., the truth comes out under its influence.
=Ipse dixit= (ip´se dix´it).--He himself said it: dogmatic assertion.
=Ipsissima verba= (ipsīss´i-ma ver´ba).--The very words.
=Ipso facto= (ip´so fak´to).--In the fact itself.
=Ipso jure= (ip´so ju´re).--By the law itself.
=Ira furor brevis est=--Horace (ī´ra fū´ror brev´iss est).--Anger is a short madness.
=Ita lex scripta est= (it´a lex scrip´ta est).--Thus the law is written.
=J=
=Jacta alea est= (jak´ta ā´le-a).--The die has been cast. Famous phrase said to have been used by Julius Cæsar on crossing (49 B. C.) the Rubicon, the sacred boundary of the domestic Roman Empire, by which act he declared war against Pompey and the Senate.
=Jure divino= (jū´re dīvī´no).--By divine law.
=Jure humano= (humā´no).--By human law.
=Jus civile= (jus sīvī´le).--The civil law. The term commonly used to describe the Roman law and the various modern systems based upon it, as contrasted with the English common law.
=Jus divinum= (dīvī´num).--The divine law; the law which is right with respect to things divine.
=Jus gentium= (jen´shium).--The law of nations; the law that all nations esteemed to be equitable.
=L=
=Laborare est orare= (laborār´e est orār´e).--To labor is to pray (or Work is worship).
=Labore et honore= (labōr´e et honōr´e).--By industry and honor.
=Labor ipse voluptas= (lab´or ip´se vo-lup´tas).--Labor itself a pleasure.
=Labor omnia vincit= (lab´or om´ni-a vin´sit).--Labor conquers all things.
=Lapsus calami= (lap´sus cal´a-mi).--A slip of the pen.
=Lapsus linguæ= (lin´gwē).--A slip of the tongue.
=Lapsus memoriæ= (mem-ōr´i-ē).--A slip of the memory.
=Lares et Penates= (Lār-ēs et Penā´tēs).--Household gods.
=Latet anguis in herba=--Virgil (la´tet an´gwis in her´bā).--A snake is concealed in the grass.
=Laus Deo= (laws Dē´o).--Praise to God.
=Lex non scripta= (skrip´ta).--The unwritten law--i. e., the common law.
=Lex scripta.=--The written law--i. e., the statute law.
=Lex talionis= (tal-i-ō´niss).--The law of retaliation.
=Lex terræ= (ter´rē).--The law of the land.
=Loco citato=--loc. cit. (lok´ō sit-ā´tō).--In the place quoted.
=Locus in quo= (kwō).--The place in which (legal).
=Locus sigilli= (si-jill´ī).--The place of the seal.
=Lusus naturæ= (lū´sus natū´rē).--A freak of nature.
=M=
=Magna est veritas, et prævalebit= (mag´na est very´tass et prē-val-ē´bit).--Great is truth, and it will prevail.
=Magni nominis umbra= (mag´nī nom´i-niss um´bra).--The shadow of a great name.
=Magnum bonum= (mag´num bō´num).--A great good.
=Magnum opus= (op´us).--A great work. The chief work of a distinguished author is frequently so called.
=Mala fide= (mā´lā fī´dē).--In bad faith.
=Mandamus= (mandā´mus).--We command: a law writ.
=Manibus pedibusque=--Terence (man´i-bus pedi-bus´kwe).--With hands and feet--i. e., with might and main.
=Materia medica= (mā-ter´i-a med´ic-ca).--Substances used in medicine.
=Mea culpa= (mē´ā kul´pā).--By my fault.
=Medio tutissimus ibis= (med´i-o tū-tiss´imus ī´bis).--The middle is the safest course.
=Me judice= (jū´di-se).--I being judge; i. e., in my own opinion.
=Memento mori= (me-men´tō mor´ī).--Remember that you must die. Words used at Egyptian banquets to remind the guests of their mortality.
=Memorabilia= (memorabil´i-a).--Things to be remembered. The name of a work by Xenophon, the Athenian general, historian, and philosopher (c. 445-359 B. C.).
=Mensa et thoro= (men´sā et thor´ō).--From bed and board.
=Mens conscia recti= (mens con´shia rek´tī).--A mind conscious of rectitude.
=Mens sana in corpore sano= (mens sā´na in kor´por-e sā´no).--A sound mind in a healthy body.
=Meo animo= (mē´o an´im-o).--In my opinion.
=Meo periculo= (per-ī´kulo).--At my own risk.
=Meum et tuum= (mē´um et tū´um).--Mine and thine.
=Mirabile dictu=--Virgil (mī-rā´bil-e dik´tū).--Wonderful to tell.
=Mirabile visu= (vī´su).--Wonderful to see.
=Mirabilia= (mī-ra-bil´i-a).--Wonderful things.
=Mittimus= (mit´i-mus).--We send. A writ by which a culprit is committed to jail. A legal phrase for the writ transferring records from one court to another.
=Modo et forma= (mod´o et for´mā).--In manner and form.
=Modus operandi= (mod´us operan´dī).--The manner of operation.
=More suo= (su´o).--In his own way.
=Mors janua vitæ= (maws jan´u-a vī´tē).--Death the gate of life.
=Mors omnibus communis= (om´nibus kommū´nis).--Death is common to all of us.
=Mors ultima linea rerum est=--Horace (ul´tim-a lī´ne-a rēr´um est).--Death is the boundary line of all things.
=Mos pro lege= (mōs pro lē´je).--Custom for law (a law phrase).
=Motu proprio= (mō´tū prō´priō).--Of his own accord.
=Multum in parvo= (mul-tum in par´vō).--Much in little.
=Mutatis mutandis= (mu-tā´tis mu-tan´dis).--Things being changed which ought to be changed; i. e., with necessary changes.
=N=
=Necessitas non habet legem= (necess´it-ass non hab´et lē´jem).--Necessity has no law.
=Ne fronti crede= (nē front´tī krē´de).--Trust not to appearances.
=Nem. con.=--abbreviation for =nemine contradicente= (nem´in-e contra-dī-sent´e).--No one speaking in opposition: without opposition.
=Nem. dis.=--abbreviation for =nemine dissentiente= (dis-sen-shi-en´te).--No one dissenting: without a dissenting voice.
=Ne plus ultra= (nē plus ul´trā).--No more beyond: i. e., perfection.
=Ne quid nimis=--Terence (nē kwid nim´iss).--Not too much of anything; i. e., shun extremes.
=Nescit vox missa reverti=--Horace (nes´sit vox miss´a rever´tī).--The spoken word cannot be recalled.
=Ne sutor ultra crepidam=--Pliny (sū´tor ul´tra crep´i-dam).--Let the cobbler stick to his last; i. e., let everyone attend to his own business.
=Nihil ad rem= (ni´hil ad rem).--Nothing to the point.
=Nullum quod tetigit non ornavit= (kwod tet´i-git non ornā´vit).--He touched nothing which he did not adorn. These Latin words form part of Dr. Johnson’s epitaph on Oliver Goldsmith in Westminster Abbey.
=Nil conscire sibi=--Horace (con-sī´re sib´ī).--To be conscious of no wrong.
=Nil desperandum.=--Never despair.
=Nisi Dominus frustra= (ni´si dom´in-us frus´trā).--Unless the Lord be with us, we strive in vain. Motto of the City of Edinburgh.
=Nisi prius= (ni´si prī´us)--literally, Unless previously. A trial at Nisi Prius may be defined as a trial, before a judge and jury, of a civil action that has been brought in one of the superior courts.
=Nolens volens= (nō´lens vō´lens).--Whether he will or not.
=Noli me tangere= (nō´lī me tan´jer-e).--Don’t touch me.
=Nolle prosequi= (noll´e prō´sek-wī).--To be unwilling to proceed (legal term). An undertaking by a plaintiff that he will not proceed with part or the whole of his suit.
=Non compos mentis= (kom´poss men´tiss).--Not sound in mind.
=Non constat= (kon´stat).--It does not appear.
=Non est inventus= (inven´tus).--He has not been found.
=Non licet= (liss´et).--It is not lawful.
=Non multa, sed multum= (mul´ta sed mul´tum).--Not many things, but much.
=Non obstante= (ob-stan´te).--Notwithstanding.
=Non omnia possumus omnes=--Virgil (om´ni-a poss´u-mus om´nēs).--We cannot, all of us, do all things.
=Non quo sed quomodo= (kwō sed kwō´mod-ō).--Not by whom, but in what manner.
=Non sequitur= (sek´wit-ur).--It does not follow.
=Non sibi, sed patriæ= (sib´i sed pat´ri-ē).--Not for himself, but for his country.
=Nosce teipsum= (nos´se tē-ip´sum).--Know thyself. The Latin form of the Greek inscription over the portico of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi.
=Noscitur ex sociis= (noss´i-tur ex sō´si-īs).--He is known by his companions.
=Nota bene= (N. B.) (nō´tā bē´nē).--Mark well.
=Novus homo= (nov´us hom´o).--A new man--one who has raised himself from obscurity. Term applied to men who in the days of the Roman Republic and Empire rose to distinction but did not belong to an ancient gens.
=Nulli secundus= (null´ī se-kun´dus).--Second to none.
=Nunc aut nunquam= (nunk awt nun´kwam).--Now or never.
=O=
=Obiit= (ob´i-it).--He (or she) died. An inscription on tombs, indicating the fact of the death of the person interred.
=Obiter dictum= (ob´it-er dik´tum).--A thing said by the way, incidentally; plural, =obiter dicta=.
=Odium theologicum= (ō´di-um theo-loj´i-kum).--Hatred among divines. Theological controversy usually provoking great bitterness on the part of the disputants.
=Omnia ad Dei gloriam= (om´ni-a ad Dē´ī glor´i-am).--All things to the glory of God.
=Omnia bona bonis= (om´ni-a bō´na bō´nīs).--To the good all things are good.
=Onus probandi= (ō´nus pro-ban´dī).--The burden of proving (legal).
=Optimates= (op-ti-mā´tēs).--Aristocrats. Literally, the best. In ancient times the aristocracy was composed of men selected for their superior vigor as the best in the tribe.
=Opum furiosa cupido=--Ovid (op´um furi-ō´sa ku-pī´dō).--The ungovernable greed for wealth.
=Ora et labora= (ōr´ā et lab-ōr´ā).--Pray and work.
=Ora pro nobis= (ōr´ā pro nō´bis).--Pray for us. The words of the refrain of the well-known hymn in the Roman Catholic mass.
=Ore rotundo= (ōr´ē rō-tun´dō).--With round, full voice.
=O tempora! O mores!=--Horace (tem´por-a mor´ēz).--O the times! O the manners!
=Otium cum dignitate= (ō´shi-um kum dig-ni-tā´te).--Ease with dignity.
=Otium sine dignitate= (sin´e).--Ease without dignity.
=P=
=Pace tua= (pā´se tū´ā).--With your permission.
=Pacta conventa= (pak´ta con-ben´ta).--Terms agreed on.
=Pari passu= (par´i pass´u).--With equal pace; in equal proportion.
=Pariter pax bello=--Cornelius Nepos (par´it-er pax bell´o).--Peace is produced by war: i. e. by a show of hostile preparations war is often averted.
=Particeps criminis= (par´ti-seps krī´min-iss).--A sharer in the guilt: an accomplice (legal).
=Passim= (pas´sim).--Everywhere.
=Pater noster= (pat´er nos´ter).--Our father. The two first words at the commencement of the Lord’s Prayer.
=Pater patriæ= (pat´er pat´ri-ē).--The father of his country. The name given to Cicero by the Roman Senate. The term was also applied to some other distinguished Romans. In later times Andrea Dorea and George Washington were thus distinguished.
=Patres conscripti= (pat´rēz kon-skrip´tī), i. e. =patres et conscripti.=--Fathers and elect--the title of the assembled Senate.
=Patria cara, carior libertas= (pat´ri-a cār´a cār´i-or lib´er-tas).--My country is dear, but liberty is dearer.
=Pax in bello= (bell´o).--Peace in war--i. e., a weak prosecution of hostilities.
=Pax vobiscum= (vo-bis´kum).--Peace be with you.
=Peccavi= (pek-kā´vī).--I have sinned.
=Pendente lite= (pen-den´te lī´te).--While the lawsuit is pending (legal).
=Peraget angusta ad augusta= (per-ag´et an-gus´ta ad aw-gus´ta).--Through difficulties to grandeur.
=Per annum.=--By the year.
=Per centum.=--By the hundred.
=Per contra.=--Contrariwise.
=Per diem= (dī´em).--By the day.
=Per fas et nefas= (fass et nef´ass).--Through right and wrong.
=Per mare, per terras= (mar´e ter´ras).--By sea and by land: i. e., everywhere.
=Permitte Divis cetera= (per-mitt´e dī´vīs sē´ter-a).--Leave the rest to the gods.
=Per saltum= (salt´um).--By a leap. A legal phrase frequently used.
=Per se.=--By itself (legal).
=Perseverando= (per-sev-er-an´dō).--By perseverance.
=Petitio principii= (pet-ī´shi-o prin-sip´i-i).--A begging of the question.
=Pinxit= (pinks´it).--He painted it; word placed in the corner of a canvas after the signature of the artist.
=Plebs= (pleb´s).--Common people. The name given to the third and lowest rank of the orders into which the Roman state was divided.
=Pleno jure= (plē´no jū´re).--With full authority.
=Pluries= (plū´ri ēz).--Often, frequently.
=Poeta nascitur, non fit=--Horace (po-ē´ta nass´it-ur non fit).--A poet is born, not made.
=Pons asinorum= (ass´in-or´um).--The bridge of asses (applied to Euclid i. 5).
=Posse comitatus= (poss´e com-i-tā´tūs).--The power of the county. A legal phrase expressing the power of the county or citizens, who are summoned to assist an officer, as the sheriff, in suppressing a riot or executing any legal process.
=Post bellum auxilium= (pōst bell´um awx-il´i-um).--Help after the war.
=Postea= (post´e-ā).--Afterwards.
=Post factum nullum consilium= (fak´tum null´um con-sil´i-um).--After the deed is done there is no need for consultation.
=Post meridiem=--P. M. (mer-ī´di-em).--After mid-day.
=Post mortem.=--After death. Term applied to the examination of a body to discover the cause of death.
=Post nubila Phœbus= (nū´bil-a fē´bus).--After clouds the sun shines. Phœbus Apollo, “the radiant Apollo,” a god who personified the sun.
=Post obitum= (ob´it-um).--After death. An undertaking given to a usurer to repay a loan on the death of a relative, from whom money is expected, is called a post obit.
=Post tenebras lux= (ten´e-bras).--After darkness comes light.
=Postulata= (post-u-lā´ta).--Things demanded.
=Prima facie= (prī´mā fā´si-ē).--On the first view or appearance. A legal term frequently employed to denote that on the evidence already given there is a good case for further investigation.
=Primum mobile= (prī´mum mō´bil-e).--The source of motion: the mainspring.
=Primus inter omnes= (prī´mus in´ter om´nēs).--The first among all.
=Primus inter pares= (par´ēs).--The first among his equals or peers: e. g., an archbishop among bishops.
=Principia, non homines= (prin-sip´i-a non hom´in-ēs).--Principles, not men.
=Principiis obsta= (prin-sip´i-īs ob´sta).--Withstand the beginnings (i. e. of evil).
=Pro aris et focis= (ar´is et fō´sīs).--For our altars and our hearths.
=Pro bono publico= (prō bōnō pub´li-kō).--For the public good.
=Pro et con.=--For and against.
=Profanum vulgus=--Horace (pro-fā´num vul´gus).--The common herd.
=Pro forma= (for´mā).--For the sake of form.
=Pro hac vice= (hak vi´se).--For this time.
=Pro patria= (pat´ri-ā).--For our country.
=Pro rata= (rā´ta).--Proportionally.
=Pro rege, lege, et grege= (rē´je lē´je et grej´e).--For the king, the law, and the people.
=Pro re nata= (rē na´tā).--Under the present circumstances, as matters are.
=Pro salute animæ= (sal-ū´te an´im-ē).--For the welfare of the soul.
=Pro tanto= (tan´to).--As far as it goes.
=Pro tempore=--pro. tem. (tem´por-e).--For the time being.
=Punica fides= (pū´nik-a fīdēs).--Punic (or Carthaginian) faith, i. e. treachery.
=Q=
=Quantum= (kwan´tum).--As much, so much.
=Quantum sufficit= (kwan´tum suf-fī´sit).--As much as is sufficient. A term frequently used in medical prescriptions, as Q. S.
=Quasi= (kwā´si).--As if, just as, as it were.
=Quid nunc?= (kwid nunk).--What now? What news? Also applied as a name to a person who is always seeking to satisfy his curiosity as to current news.
=Quid pro quo= (kwid prō kwō).--One thing for another.
=Quoad hoc= (kwō´ad hok).--To this extent.
=Quo animo?= (kwō an´im-ō).--With what purpose or intention?
=Quod erat demonstrandum=--Q. E. D. (kwod er´at dem-on-stran´dum).--Which was to be proved. A term used in geometry at the end of propositions, to indicate that the theorem is proved.
=Quod erat faciendum=--Q. E. F. (fas-i-en´dum).--Which was to be done. A term used in geometry at the end of problems, to show that they have been solved.
=Quod scripsi, scripsi= (skrip´sī).--What I have written, I have written. Words used by Pilate when he refused to alter the inscription he had written over the crucified Savior.
=Quod vide=--q. v. (vī´de).--Which see.
=Quo jure= (kwō jū´re).--By what right.
=Quomodo= (kwō-mod-o).--In what manner, how.
=Quondam= (kwon´dam).--At one time, once, formerly.
=Quos Deus vult perdere, prius dementat= (kwōs dē´us vult per´der-e, prī´us dē-men´tat).--Those whom God has a mind to destroy, He first deprives of their senses.
=R=
=Rara avis in terris, nigroque simillima cygno=--Ovid (rār´a av´iss in ter´rīs nī-grō´kwe sim-ill´im-a sig´no).--A rare bird on the earth, and very like a black swan: i. e., a prodigy. This species being almost entirely unknown in the time of the Romans.
=Recipe= (res´ip-e).--Receive.
=Recte et suaviter= (rek´tē et swa´vit-er).--Justly and pleasantly.
=Redeunt Saturnia regna= (red´e-unt sat-ur´ni-a reg´na).--The age of Saturn (i. e. the golden age) returns.
=Reductio ad absurdum= (re-duk´shi-o ad ab-surd´um).--A reducing a position to an absurdity.
=Rem acu tetigisti= (rem ak´ū teti-gist´ī).--You have hit the nail on the head (lit. touched the matter with a needle-point).
=Requiescat in pace=--R. I. P. (rek-wi-ess´kat in pā´se).--May he (or she) rest in peace. Symbol used on monuments, expressing a prayer for the repose of the soul.
=Res gestæ= (rēs jest´ē).--Exploits.
=Res judicata= (jūdi-ka´ta).--A case or suit already decided.
=Respice finem= (res´-piss-e fī´nem).--Look to the end.
=Respublica= (rēs-pub´lik-a).--The common weal; the commonwealth. Name applied to the Roman state prior to the time of the Empire.
=Resurgam= (re-sur´gam).--I shall rise again. Frequently inscribed on memorials to the dead.
=Ride si sapis= (rī´de sī sap´iss).--Laugh if you are wise; i. e., the wise cultivate a cheerful habit of mind.
=Ruat cœlum= (rū´at sē´lum).--Let the heavens fall.
=Rus in urbe= (russ in ur´be).--The country in town.
=S=
=Sal atticum= (sal at´tik-um).--Attic salt--i. e., wit. Salt was used both by the Greeks and Romans as the common term for wit; Attic (i. e. Athenian) wit being especially delicate and elegant.
=Salus populi suprema est lex= (sal´us pop´u-li su-prē´ma est lex).--The welfare of the people is the supreme law.
=Salve= (sal´vē).--How are you? I hope you are well. A form of familiar salutation among the Romans.
=Salvo jure= (sal´vō jū´re).--Saving the right.
=Sanctum sanctorum= (sank´tum sank-tor´um).--The holy of holies. In ecclesiastical law the chancel of a church is so called; also frequently applied to a private room or study.
=Sartor resartus= (sar´tor re-sar´tus).--The tailor patched. The title of Carlyle’s well-known work.
=Satis superque= (sat´iss su-per´kwe).--Enough and more than enough.
=Satis verborum= (ver-bor´um).--Enough of words.
=Secundum artem= (sek-un´dum ar´tem).--According to rule.
=Secundum naturam= (na-tūr´am).--According to nature.
=Semper avarus eget=--Horace (sem´per av-ār´us ej´et).--The covetous man is ever in want.
=Semper felix= (fē´lix).--Always happy.
=Semper fidelis= (fid-ē´liss).--Always faithful.
=Semper idem= (ī´dem).--Always the same. (This is the masculine form; the feminine form is e´a-dem, and the neuter id´em--all three singular.)
=Semper paratus= (par-a´tus).--Always ready.
=Senatus populusque Romanus=--S. P. Q. R. (sen-ā´tus popu-lus´kwe Ro-mā´nus).--The senate and the Roman people.
=Seniores priores= (sen-i-or´ēz pri-or´ēz).--Elders first. Elderly persons being accorded in ancient times special reverence. Cicero (106-43 B. C.) wrote a work, De Senectute, in praise of old age.
=Seriatim= (ser-i-ā´tim).--In a series.
=Servabo fidem= (ser-vā´bō fid´em).--I will keep faith.
=Sic= (sik).--Thus: so. Generally used ironically to call attention to a literary error.
=Sic itur ad astra=--Virgil (sik it´ur ad ass´tra).--Such is the way to immortality (lit., to the stars).
=Sic passim= (pas´sim).--So everywhere.
=Sic transit gloria mundi= (sik trans´it glor´i-a mun´dī).--Thus passes away earthly glory. Words said to have been used at the inauguration of the early Popes.
=Sic vos non vobis=--Virgil (sik vōs non vō´biss).--Thus you toil, but not for yourselves. The poet here refers to bees, who make honey, but not for their own use.
=Similia similibus curantur= (sim-il´i-a sim-il´i-bus ku-ran´tur).--Like things are cured by like. Motto of homœopathic school of medicine.
=Sine die= (sin´e dī´ē).--Without a day being appointed: indefinitely.
=Sine invidia= (in-vid´i-ā).--Without envy.
=Sine odio= (ō´di-ō).--Without hatred.
=Sine qua non= (sin´e kwā non).--An indispensable condition.
=Siste, viator= (sis´te vi-ā´tor).--Stop, traveler.
=Si vis pacem, para bellum= (sī viss pā´sem par´ā bell´um).--If you wish for peace, prepare for war.
=Sola nobilitas virtus= (sō´la no-bil´itas vir´tus).--Virtue alone is true nobility.
=Sola virtus invicta= (sō´la vir´tus in-vik´ta).--Virtue alone is invincible.
=Spectemur agendo= (spek-tē´mur a-jen´dō).--Let us be tried by our actions.
=Spes mea in Deo= (spēs mē´a in Dē´o).--My hope is in God.
=Spes tutissima cœlis= (spēs tu-tiss´im-a sē´līs).--The safest hope is in heaven.
=Sponte sua= (spon´te su´ā).--Of one’s own accord.
=Stat magni nominis umbra=--Lucan (stat mag´nī nom´in-iss um´bra).--He stands the shadow of a mighty name.
=Status quo= (stā´tus kwō).--The state in which. A legal term indicating the position in which a case stood before certain action was taken in it.
=Status quo ante bellum= (an´te bell´um).--The state in which both parties were before the war.
=Stet.=--Let it stand--i. e., remain as it was.
=Sua cuique voluptas= (sū´a ku-ī´kwe vol-up´tas).--Every man has his own pleasures.
=Suaviter in modo, fortiter in re= (su-ā´vit-er in mod´o for´ti-ter in rē).--Gentle in the manner, but vigorous in the deed.
=Sub judice= (jū´diss-e).--Under consideration. A legal phrase used to indicate that a case is still under consideration, during which time it is held to be contempt of court to comment upon the case in the public press or elsewhere.
=Sub pœna= (pē´nā).--Under a penalty.
=Sub rosa= (rō´sā).--Under the rose: privately. The rose in ancient times was the emblem of silence, and was used in decorations to show that anything said during the entertainment was not to be divulged. Cupid presented Harpocrates (the god of Silence) with a rose, not to betray the amours of Venus.
=Sub silentio= (sil-en´shi-o).--In silence.
=Sufficit= (suf-fī´sit).--It is enough.
=Sui generis= (sū´ī jen´er-iss).--Of its own kind; i. e., not referable to any particular class.
=Summum bonum= (sum´mum bō´num).--The chief good.
=Suo marte= (sū´o mar´te).--By one’s own exertions, without the assistance of others.
=Suppressio veri= (sup-press´i-o vēr´ī).--Suppression of the truth.
=Suum cuique= (su´um ku-ī´kwe).--Let every man have his own.
=T=
=Tabula rasa= (tab´u-la rā´sa).--A smooth or blank tablet. From the waxen tablets on which the ancients wrote with a sharp instrument called a stilus or style, and with the broad upper end of which writing was erased.
=Tanto melior!= (tan´tō mel´i-or).--So much the better! well done! excellent!
=Telum imbelle sine ictu=--Virgil (tē´lum im-bell´e sin´e ik´tū).--A feeble weapon, thrown without effect.
=Tempora mutantur, et nos mutamur in illis= (tem´-por-a mū-tan´tur et nōs mū-tā´mur in ill´īs).--The times are changed, and we with them.
=Tempus fugit= (fū´jit).--Time flies. A Latin inscription frequently seen upon sun-dials and old church clocks.
=Tempus omnia revelat= (om´nia re-vē´lat).--Time unveils all things.
=Terra firma= (ter´ra firm´a).--Solid earth; a safe footing.
=Terra incognita= (ter´ra in-kog´nit-a).--An unknown country.
=Tertium quid= (ter´shi-um kwid).--A third something. A logical term.
=Toga virilis= (tog´a vir-ī liss).--The garb of manhood, assumed by Roman youth in their sixteenth year with considerable ceremony, usually at the feasts of Bacchus in March.
=Totidem verbis= (tot´id-em ver´bis).--In just so many words.
=Toto cœlo= (tō´tō sē´lō).--By the whole heavens: diametrically opposite.
=Tria juncta in uno= (trī´a junk´ta in ū´no).--Three joined in one.
=Troja fuit= (Trō´ja fū´it).--Troy was--i. e., exists no longer. Refers to the destruction of Troy by the Greeks (1184 B. C.).
=Tu quoque, Brute!= (tū kwō´kwe Brū´tē).--And thou too, Brutus! When Brutus, the friend and favorite of Julius Cæsar, struck the latter at his assassination, he uttered the words Tu quoque, Brute! pulled his toga over his face, and sank, pierced with wounds, at the foot of Pompey’s statue.
=U=
=Ubique= (ub-ī´kwe).--Everywhere.
=Ubi supra= (ub´i su´prā).--Where above mentioned.
=Ultima ratio regum= (ul´tim-a rā´shi-o rē´jum).--The last argument of kings. Louis XIV. placed this inscription on his great guns.
=Ultima Thule= (ul´tim-a Thū´lē).--The utmost boundary or limit. Thule was an island regarded by the ancients as the most northerly point in the whole earth, and variously supposed to have been Iceland and one of the Shetland group.
=Ultimus Romanorum= (ul´tim-us Ro-man-or´um).--The last of the Romans.
=Ultra vires= (ul´trā vī´rēs).--Beyond one’s powers; beyond the rights possessed (legal).
=Uno animo= (ū´no an´im-o).--Of the same opinion.
=Usque ad nauseam= (us´kwe ad naw´se-am).--To utter disgust.
=Ut infra= (in´frā).--As below.
=Ut supra= (su´prā).--As above.
=V=
=Vade mecum= (vā´de mē´cum).--Go with me: a constant companion. Title given to medical and other handbooks for convenient reference.
=Vale= (valē´), or =Valeas= (val´e-ass).--Farewell, adieu. The usual parting salutation of the Romans.
=Valeat quantum valere potest= (val´e-at kwant´um val-ēr´e pot´est).--Let it pass for what it is worth.
=Valete, ac plaudite= (val-ē´te ak plaud´it-e).--Farewell, and clap. (The concluding words of a Latin comedy.)
=Vanitas vanitatum= (van´it-ass van-it-ā´tum).--Vanity of vanities.
=Variæ lectiones= (var´i-ē lek-shi-ō´nēs).--Various readings.
=Variorum notæ= (var-i-or´um nō´tē).--The notes of various authors.
=Varium et mutabile semper femina=--Virgil (var´i-um et mū-tā´bil-e sem´per fē´min-a).--A woman is ever changeable and capricious.
=Velis remisque= (vē´līs rē-mīs´kwe).--With sails and oars--i. e., with tooth and nail, with might and main.
=Veni, vidi, vici= (vē´nī, vī´dī, vī´sī).--I came, I saw, I conquered. By these three words--so easy was the victory--Julius Cæsar informed the Senate of his having defeated Pharnaces near Zela, 47 B.C.
=Ventis secundis= (ven´tīs se-kun´dīs).--With favorable winds.
=Verbatim et literatim= (ver-bā´tim et lit-er-ā´tim).--Word for word and letter for letter.
=Verba volant, scripta manent= (ver´ba vol´ant, scrip´ta man´ent).--Words fly, writings remain.
=Verbum sat sapienti= (ver´bum sat sap-i-en´tī).--A word is enough to a wise man.
=Veritas odium parit=--Terence. Truth procures hatred.
=Veritas vincit= (very´tass vin´sit).--Truth conquers.
=Versus= (ver´sus).--Against. A legal term.
=Vestigia= (ves-tī´ji-a).--Tracks; traces.
=Vestigia nulla retrorsum= (ves-tī´ji-a null´a ret-ror´sum).--No steps backward.
=Vetera extollimus, recentium incuriosi=--Tacitus (vet´er-a ex-toll´im-us re-sen´shi-um in-ku-ri-ō´sī).--We exalt the deeds of old, being indifferent to those of recent times.
=Vexata quæstio= (vex-ā´ta kwēs´ti-o).--A much-debated question.
=Via= (vī´ā).--By way of.
=Via media= (vī´a med´i-a).--A middle course.
=Vice= (vi´se).--In the place of.
=Vice versa= (vi´se ver´sā).--The terms being exchanged.
=Vide= (vī´dē)--See.
=Vide et crede= (vī´de et krē´de).--See and believe.
=Vide ut supra= (vī´de ut sū´prā).--See as above; see the preceding statement.
=Videlicet=--viz. (vid-ē´liss-et).--To wit; namely.
=Vi et armis= (vī et ar´mīs).--By force and arms--i.e., by main force.
=Vincit amor patriæ= (vin´sit am´or pat´ri-ē).--The love of our country prevails.
=Vincit omnia veritas= (vin´sit óm´ni-a very´tass).--Truth conquers all things.
=Vincit veritas= (vin´sit very’tass).--Truth conquers.
=Vinculum matrimonii= (vin’ku-lum mā-tri-mō´ni-i).--The bond of marriage.
=Vindex injuriæ= (vin’dex in-jū´ri-ē).--An avenger of injury.
=Vir sapit qui pauca loquitur= (vir sap´it kwī paw´sa lok´-wit-ur).--He is a wise man who says but little.
=Virtus est vitium fugere=--Horace (vir´tus est vish´i-um fū´jer-e).--It is virtue to avoid vice.
=Virtuti nihil obstat et armis= (vir-tū´tī ni´hil ob´stat et ar´mīs).--Nothing can resist valor and arms.
=Virtuti non armis fido= (vir-tū´tī non ar´mīs fī´dō).--I trust to virtue, and not to arms.
=Virtutis amor= (vir-tū´tiss am´or).--The love of virtue.
=Vis inertiæ= (viss in-er´shi-ē).--The power of inertia: passive resistance.
=Vivat regina!= (vī´vat rē-jī´na).--Long live the Queen! The phrase formerly used at the conclusion of royal proclamations.
=Vivat rex!= (vī´vat rex).--Long live the King!
=Viva voce= (vī´vā vō´se).--By the living voice: by oral testimony. That portion of an examination in which the candidate is tested as to his knowledge of the subject by an examiner who personally interrogates him.
=Vivida vis animi= (vī´vid-a viss an´im-ī).--The vigorous strength of intellect: the lively vigor of genius.
=Vivit post funera virtus= (vi´vit post fū´ner-a vir´tus).--Virtue survives the grave.
=Vox et præterea nihil= (vox et prē-ter´e-ā ni´hil).--A voice and nothing more.
=Vox populi, vox Dei= (pop´u-lī, Dē´ī).--The voice of the people is the voice of God. Quoted as a proverb by William of Malmesbury, author of “De Gestis Regum Anglorum,” twelfth century.
=Vulgo= (vul´gō).--Generally, commonly.
=Vultus est index animi= (vul´tus est in´dex an´im-ī).--The countenance is the index of the mind.
LITERATURE
Literature, in the widest sense, is the record of the impressions made by external realities of every kind upon great men, and of the reflections which these men have made upon them.
VAST RANGE OF LITERATURE
The subject matter of literature covers the whole range of human life and activity, as well as every known manifestation of physical nature. For not only are actual events and the doings and sayings of actual persons reproduced in it, but the rules deduced from the observation of the conditions of man’s life are included in its records. Similarly it presents to us not merely what individual men found to interest them in particular countries in a particular epoch, but also the general laws which have been gradually formulated by long-continued observation of the processes of nature.
Literature, therefore, plays a very important part in the life of man. It is the greatest of the secondary sources of knowledge, and it makes an immense contribution to the sum total of facts--the joint result of the experience of the individual and of the race--which gives to each one of us a wide outlook upon the world at large. But we must remember that literature--as literature--is concerned solely with the subjective outlook upon the world.
WHY WE STUDY LITERATURE
In order to realize to how large an extent the subjective existence of man is made up of the material of books, we will pause a moment to consider what literature does for us. Through literature we converse with the great dead, with Plato, with Buddha, with Montaigne, with Addison; we walk the streets of Babylon, of Athens, of Rome, of Alexandria; we see great monuments, reared ages ago and long since crumbled to the dust; we recreate the life of distant epochs, and thus by comparison gauge the progress achieved by the men of today. Through literature we learn wisdom from Aristotle, geometry from Euclid, law from Justinian, morality from Christ and St. Paul. Literature makes the physical features, the inhabitants, the climate, the products of the antipodes as familiar as those of the neighboring county.
HOW IT HAS CREATED NEW WORLDS AND PEOPLES
More than this, the masters of creative literature have made regions of their own which they have peopled with the children of their genius. Homer has given us an Ægean of sunlit islands and purple seas; Dante, a dark and mysterious Inferno; Milton, a Garden of Eden; Shakespeare, an Elizabethan England, with landscapes more brightly hued, and men and women more finely real, than the landscapes or the people of the England of Elizabeth; Molière, a France more natural and more vivid than the France of the Grand Monarque. And so it is that Odysseus, Antigone, Beatrice, Hamlet, Tartufe and the rest, these spiritual offspring of great souls, live side by side with Moses, Alexander, Cæsar, Joan of Arc, Henry VIII., and Washington: for literature has made the personalities of each almost as familiar to us as those of our dearest or most intimate friends.
HOW LITERATURE HELPS US INTERPRET LIFE
There is one other important point which must be noticed. It is this: the subjective outlook reacts upon the objective. The knowledge of the world which we gain through our own previous experiences, and through literature, increases our capacity for understanding the objective world, and heightens and intensifies the pleasure which we derive from the contemplation of works of art or of nature. It is this principle which underlies the truth which Goethe states when he says that a traveler does not take anything out of Rome which he has not first brought into it.
LITERATURE IS THE BRAIN OF HUMANITY
Just as in the individual the brain preserves a record of his previous sensations, of his experience, and of his acquired knowledge, and it is in the light of this record that he interprets every fresh sensation and experience, so the race at large has a record of its past in literature, and it is in the light of this record alone that its present conditions and circumstances can be understood. The message of the senses is indistinct and valueless to the individual without the co-operation of the brain; the life of the race would be degraded to a mere animal existence without the accumulated stores of previous experience which literature places at its disposal.
BOOKS AS LIBERAL EDUCATORS
So great is the part that books play in our life, or, at least, in the formation of our several personalities, that to master the contents of certain books of admitted excellence has always been considered a chief element in a liberal education; that is to say, it is a recognized method of introducing the mind to the world at large. We must, nevertheless, recognize a broad distinction in the manner in which books render us this assistance. In the case of some books the value of the contribution consists mainly, though not exclusively, in the actual facts which they contain; in others, the actual facts are of secondary importance and their chief value consists in the manner in which these facts are brought before our minds. No hard and fast line can be drawn between the two classes, but the difference may be broadly indicated by saying that while the former give us the facts of life, the latter give us pictures of life.
The distinction may be illustrated by one or two examples. Such works as Locke’s Essay on the Human Understanding, and Gibbon’s Decline and Fall of Rome, must obviously be placed under the head of books in which the facts are of first importance. Equally, the novels of George Eliot, in which she gives us a full and truthful picture of English midland life, must be included among those books where the presentation of the facts is of more importance than the facts themselves. And so, too, in the case of The Story of an African Farm, where we have a picture of rural life in South Africa, or in Diana of the Crossways. Only in the latter work the personality of the central character is so commanding that the book is not so much a picture as a portrait--a portrait of a beautiful and wayward woman exposed to temptation by the very abundance of her own gifts.
Here, then, we have two distinct elements, matter and manner; and it is upon the degree in which these elements are respectively present in any given work that the main divisions of literature--the division which separates works of creative literature from works of literature, simply so-called--is based.
Poetry, drama, history, biography, essays, description, criticism, the great masterpieces of fiction--all open up to us the untold wealth of reality and imagination.
ENGLISH LITERATURE
The English is the most remarkable as well as the most prolific of modern literatures. Before the Saxons invaded Britain there was a Celtic literature of a rhythmic character, preserved, in the main, orally by the Gaelic and Cymric elements of the population. Gaelic literature is associated with Fionn, Ossian, and the battle of Gabhra, alleged to have been fought A. D. 284, while Cymric literature finds powerful utterance in Aneurin’s poem, the Gododin, which celebrates the battle of Cattraeth, fought, according to tradition, in the year 570. During the fifth and sixth centuries various Teutonic tribes effected a settlement in Britain, and the island was ultimately subjugated by the Saxons. In the middle of the eleventh century it again suffered conquest at the hands of the Normans. The institutions and language of the conquerors were largely imposed upon the natives, and so great has been the vitality of the Saxon speech that about two-thirds of the words now composing the English language are, radically or derivatively, of Saxon origin.
So, the fabric of English literature is colored with the varying tints of racial characteristics--the somber imagination of the Celt, the flaming passion of the Saxon, the golden gaiety of France, and the prismatic fancy of the South. There have been many influences brought to bear upon its speech; yet, in this composite texture, the Anglo-Saxon element is dominant. That is the first outstanding fact of importance.
THE ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD, 449-1066
The existing remains of Anglo-Saxon literature include compositions in prose and poetry, some of which must be referred to a very early period, one or two perhaps to a time before the Angles and Saxons emigrated to England. Gildas, the author of a Latin treatise on British history, is the precursor of the Anglo-Saxon writers, but the earliest author of real distinction is St. Columbanus, an Irish missionary to western Europe, who wrote religious treatises and Latin poetry, and died in 615.
Cædmon, a monk of Whitby, was the first Anglo-Saxon writer of eminence who composed in his native tongue. Encouraged by the Abbess Hilda, he wrote his Paraphrase, in which he discoursed of the Creation and the Fall, and other Biblical themes. His verse was constructed neither in measure nor rhyme, but it was differentiated from prose by a kind of rough poetic alliteration.
The most important Anglo-Saxon poem is that called Beowulf, after its hero, extending to more than six thousand lines. This poem may be described as the heathen complement to Cædmon’s Christian Paraphrase. Beowulf is a Scandinavian prince, who slays a fiendish cannibal, after encountering supernatural perils, and is at last slain in a contest with a frightful dragon. Its scene appears to be laid entirely in Scandinavia. Its date is uncertain; parts of it may have been brought over at the emigration from Germany, though in its present form it is much later than this.
The next great name in the early literature is that of the Venerable Bede, who was born at Jarrow, and became the great monastic teacher of Wearmouth, dying in 735. He wrote numerous works in Latin, the chief of which was his famous Ecclesiastical History of the Anglo-Saxons.
Alcuin, a native of northern England and an earnest student and teacher, became the chief intellectual light in the court of Charlemagne. John Scotus Erigena wrote, among other things, a work on the Division of Nature, which is regarded as laying the foundation of the scholastic philosophy. King Alfred (901), great in arms and noble and enlightened in character, translated into Anglo-Saxon the histories of Bede and Orosius, and Boethius’s Consolations of Philosophy. Other contributions to literature are likewise attributed to him. Ælfric, the grammarian, who died in 1006, wrote his eighty Homilies for the use of the common people.
The well-known Saxon Chronicle is a survey of early English history, written by various authors. It began soon after the time of Alfred, and continued to the death of Stephen in 1154. Among its entries in verse is a spirited poem on the battle of Brunanburh, fought victoriously by Athelstan against his combined Danish and Celtic foes in 937. Besides the leading writers above cited, there were others of less importance who graced the Anglo-Saxon period--a period embracing some five hundred years from the time of Columbanus to the Norman Conquest.
THE NORMAN-FRENCH PERIOD, 1066-1400
New conditions were imported into the learning and literature of England by the Norman Conquest. Although the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, referred to above, was continued until 1154, the native language practically ceased for a time to be employed in literature. For nearly a century and a half the old language was supplanted, Latin being employed in law, history, and philosophy, French in the lighter forms of literature. Monastic chronicles were the order of the day, and these were only of real value as they drew near to, and actually dealt with, contemporary events. The Norman trouvère displaced the Saxon scop, or gleeman, introducing the Fabliau and the Romance.
English literature was not greatly influenced by the Fabliau until the time of Chaucer; but the Romance attained an early and striking development in the Arthurian cycle, founded upon the legends of Geoffrey of Monmouth, Bishop of St. Asaph, who wrote the History of British Kings.
Much of this Latin chronicle is imaginative. It began with a mythical Brutus of Troy, and ended with Cadwallader. King Arthur was a prominent figure in the book, and from this time the romantic legends concerning him and his court became a prominent feature in the Anglo-Norman literature. Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Chronicle was abridged by Alfred of Beverley, and rewritten in French verse by Geoffrey Gaimar and “Maistre” Wace, the latter version becoming permanent as the Roman de Brut. Wace, who died in 1184, was also the author of the Roman de Rou.
Walter Map or Mapes, poet and prose writer, gave form and substance to the Arthurian legends, uniting them into a harmonious whole as the spiritual allegory of the Holy Grail. Map attacked the abuses and corruptions of the Church in a series of witty and vigorous Latin poems. Hitherto there had been no man of such genius among the early writers.
Two of the most important of the monastic chroniclers were Ordericus Vitalis, who wrote the Ecclesiastical History of England and Normandy, a conscientious if disorderly record, and William of Malmesbury, who flourished at the same time and wrote a History of English Kings. The latter writer has been placed by Milton next to Bede.
Early in the thirteenth century English began to recover its position, and Layamon’s Brut was the first important piece of literature in transition English. Layamon, who was “a priest of Ernleye-upon-Severne,” wrote in English verse, and he interpolated many things into Wace’s narrative. His work was completed about 1205. A St. Augustine canon, named Ormin, was the author of Ormulum, a metrical paraphrase, with expositions, of the Gospel of the day. To the same period belong the early ballads of the Robin Hood type and the rendering into English verse of Havelok the Dane and other metrical romances.
Roger Bacon, the great scientific investigator, was a Franciscan who settled at Oxford. Bacon enshrined the results of his knowledge in his Opus Majus, Opus Minus, and Opus Tertium. Robert of Gloucester was a monk in the time of Henry III. and Edward I. who wrote in English rhyme a chronicle from the siege of Troy to the death of Henry III.
PERIOD OF CHAUCER.--The first great era of English literature may be said to begin about the year 1300, and to extend to the introduction of printing by Caxton in 1477. The overshadowing name in this period is that of Chaucer, who has been styled the Father of English Poetry.
The accounts of Chaucer’s early life are uncertain, but he acquired the favor of Edward III. through John of Gaunt. In the reign of Richard II., however, he fell upon evil times, and he died in the year 1400 at the age of seventy-two. His Canterbury Tales are immortal, alike for their poetic qualities, their unrivaled delineations of character, and their pictures of the middle-class English life of the period. Although the poet was influenced in his style and choice of subject by Dante and Boccaccio, he infused into his creations a dramatic force and a breath of sympathy which are the characteristics of the highest genius. His earlier and minor poems--such as The Romaunt of the Rose, The Court of Love, and The House of Fame--were the fruit of his French and Italian studies. Hallam classes Chaucer with Dante and Petrarch in the mighty poetic triumvirate of the Middle Ages.
John Gower, next in contemporary importance to Chaucer, wrote the Confessio Amantis, an English poem, which included a number of tales that were moralized to illustrate the seven deadly sins.
Langlande, or Longlande, author of The Visions of Piers Plowman--a poem which stands out for its graphic force--“sought to animate men to the search for Christ, and battled vigorously with Church corruptions.” Langlande is more distinctly English in his language than Chaucer, and his poem was a representative one as showing the workings of the national mind in religion and politics.
James I. of Scotland takes high rank for The King’s Quhair, and Lawrence Minot for his series of poems on the victories of Edward III. Barbour’s heroic poem of the Bruce also calls for mention. Thomas Occleve, author of a poem on the duty of kings, and John Lydgate, to whom we owe the Falls of Princes, and other compositions, were likewise considerable poets.
For a long period Sir John de Mandeville was regarded as “the father of English prose,” but this claim is now abandoned. The larger portion of his Travels was borrowed from a worthy Friar Odoric and from other writers, while the whole narrative is more entertaining than veracious. John Wyclif, who gave to his countrymen the first English version of the whole Bible, has been not inaptly styled the “Morning Star of the English Reformation.” Sir John Fortescue, Chief Justice in the reign of Henry VI., was the author of a fine legal treatise, De Laudibus Legum Angliæ, and of an admirable constitutional work on the Difference Between Absolute and Limited Monarchy, in which he contrasted the French rule with the English to the disparagement of the former.
INFLUENCE OF CAXTON.--William Caxton, who introduced the art of printing into England, gave an impetus to literature whose effects have been of incalculable value. The earliest work which can with certainty be maintained to have been printed in England was the Dictes and Sayings of the Philosophers, published in 1477. In 1474, however, Caxton had issued at Bruges the first book printed in the English tongue, the Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye, and soon after this he printed the Game and Playe of the Chesse. Caxton was a most assiduous workman, and produced editions of Chaucer, Lydgate, Gower, and Sir Thomas Mallory’s King Arthur, translations of Cicero’s De Senectute and De Amicitia, and other works.
William Dunbar, the Chaucer of the North, is placed by Sir Walter Scott at the head of the roll of Scottish poets. Dunbar led a checkered life, and his works are remarkable for their strong human lights and shadows. His allegorical poem, The Thistle and the Rose, was written in celebration of the marriage of James IV. with Henry VII.’s daughter Margaret. The Golden Terge, another of his poems of fantasy, is very descriptive and rhetorical. The Dance of the Seven Deadly Sins powerfully depicts--under the lead of Pride--a procession of the seven deadly sins in the infernal regions. Dunbar was equally remarkable in the comic as in the serious vein.
At the close of the fifteenth century many of the best spirits of the age were drawn to Oxford for the study of Greek. It was taught by William Grocyn and the physician Linacre. Erasmus came over from Paris to acquire it, and while at Oxford he made the acquaintance of young Thomas More, who wrote a defense of the new branch of learning. More afterwards entered upon the thorny paths of statecraft, and paid for his opposition to Henry VIII. with his head. More was the leading prose writer of his time, and his Life and Reign of Edward V.--in which he draws a somber picture of the usurper Richard--is the earliest specimen of classical English prose; but his real fame rests upon the Utopia, in which he imagines an ideal commonwealth in the New World, discovered by a supposed companion of Amerigo Vespucci. The root idea was borrowed from Plato.
When William Tyndale completed his famous translation of the New Testament in 1525, More adversely criticized it on the ground of its Lutheran bias in the choice of words. Tyndale replied with spirit, however, and also defended against More the exposition of the Lord’s Supper published by John Frith. In 1530 Tyndale completed, with the help of Miles Coverdale, his translation of the Pentateuch, and six years later he was put to death for heresy in Belgium. Coverdale’s translation of the whole Bible appeared in 1535.
Many Church writers and reformers flourished at this time. To Cranmer was largely due The Book of Common Prayer, a work which contains some of the noblest specimens of English in our literature. He was also responsible for a book of Twelve Homilies and a revised translation of the Scriptures, known as Cranmer’s Bible. The martyr Latimer was the author of sermons which are rare specimens of vigorous eloquence, while Bishop Fisher preached and wrote trenchantly on the other side. John Knox, the great Scottish reformer, wrote a History of the Scottish Reformation, and he was so indignant at the fact that three ruling sovereigns were women that just before the accession of Elizabeth he issued from Geneva his First Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of Women. John Foxe, the martyrologist did much for Protestantism by his work on the Acts and Monuments of the Church; and Roger Ascham, classical tutor to Queen Elizabeth, and author of Toxophilus and The Schoolmaster, was the first writer on education in the language. Mention must not be omitted here of the unfortunate Earl of Surrey, who was the first writer of blank verse in England, and who did much to invest English poetry with accuracy, polish, and a general spirit of refinement. Surrey used the medium of blank verse in translating two books of the Æneid. With his friend, Sir Thomas Wyatt, he also transplanted the sonnet into the garden of English verse.
THE ELIZABETHAN AND PURITAN PERIODS, 1559-1660
The most brilliant, as well as the most virile, era in English literature was that extending from the accession of Elizabeth in 1558 to the closing of the theaters by the Long Parliament in 1648. No other period of ninety years in English history exhibits such a profusion of literary effort and achievement, especially on the dramatic and imaginative sides. The former portion of this period, however, known as the Elizabethan age--but really extending to the middle of the reign of James I.--was the greater in conception. It witnessed not only the rise but the culminating splendor of the drama. Miracle plays or mysteries were the forerunners of the drama. They were acted in churches and convents, and by their dramatic representations of Biblical episodes it was sought to influence the people in favor of virtue.
There was something grotesque, however, in the choice of Satan as the first comedian, while the general treatment of sacred subjects was most objectionable. In course of time the plays changed into moralities, in which abstract qualities such as Justice and Vice took the place of Scripture characters. Next to these, and before the drama proper, came a series of farcical productions, of which Heywood’s Interludes may be taken as a type.
EDMUND SPENSER.--One great name interposes between these early plays and the drama, namely, that of Edmund Spenser. He restored the glory of English poetry from the long eclipse it suffered after the death of Chaucer. Spenser’s Shepherd’s Calendar applied pastoral images to the religious conflicts of the time, and under the name of Algrind he introduced Archbishop Grindal, whose firmness in encouraging free search for Scripture truth he applauded. To his master, Chaucer, the poet paid tribute under the name of Tityrus. In 1590 Spenser published his great but unfinished allegorical epic The Faerie Queene, in which he depicted man with all his capacity for good striving heavenwards. The work is “an intense utterance of the spiritual life of England under Elizabeth.” Spenser’s Colin Clout Come Home Again was written in memory of his friendship for Sir Walter Raleigh. The purely poetic qualities were redundant in Spenser, and these have made him a favorite with all his singing brethern since his death.
Sir Philip Sidney has gained a reputation as an English classic for his Defense of Poesie, but his romance of Arcadia is the more widely known, as it was the more warmly appreciated on its publication. Later critics have censured it, but it is rich and highly finished in its phrases, and “full of fine enthusiasm and courtesy of high sentiment, and of the breath of a gentle and heroic spirit.”
BEGINNING OF ENGLISH COMEDY AND TRAGEDY.--The first English comedy, Ralph Roister Doister, was written by Nicholas Udall, Master of Eton, between 1534 and 1541. It was avowedly modeled upon Plautus, and intended for the edification of Eton boys.
The first tragedy was Gorboduc, a new rendering of the old British story of Ferrex and Porrex by Thomas Sackville (Lord Buckhurst), and Thomas Norton. It was acted at the Inner Temple in 1561, and also before the queen by command. It substituted English for Latin in a play constructed after the manner of Seneca, and “its grave dwelling upon the need of union to keep a people strong, a truth of deep significance to England at that time, pleased Elizabeth.” But nearly twenty years yet elapsed before the drama obtained a stable hold, and theaters began to be built.
John Lyly, author of the Euphues, wrote a number of mythological plays, and George Peele produced The Arraignment of Paris and The Device of the Pageant in 1584-1585; but Christopher Marlowe, with his “mighty line,” was the first great Elizabethan dramatist. His genius was somber, and his tragedies dark and terrible. His Tamburlaine the Great was produced in 1587, but his Doctor Faustus was not published until ten years after his death, which occurred in 1593.
WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE.--In the latter part of the sixteenth century began the career of the greatest poet the world has ever seen, William Shakespeare. A period of less than twenty-five years covers the production of all those comedies and histories which are the wonder of modern literature. We marvel what kind of man that could be whose intellect could conceive such widely different works as A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Venus and Adonis, Romeo and Juliet, The Rape of Lucrece, the famous Sonnets, The Merchant of Venice, Othello, Macbeth, King Lear, and Hamlet. Shakespeare seems to sum up within himself the whole of poetry and of human philosophy. His power and universality are unique, and will probably ever remain so.
Ben Jonson, the greatest and most scholarly of his contemporaries, wrote from 1596 to 1637; but he lacked the freedom and naturalness of Shakespeare. Beaumont and Fletcher worked in unison with a success rarely attained by collaborators. Massinger was a dramatist of undoubted power, as his New Way to Pay Old Debts testifies; and Dekker, Heywood, Marston, and Middleton would all have taken a higher niche in the temple of fame had they lived in a less prolific age. Ford and Webster produced plays of a dark and terrible cast, and the list of Elizabethan dramatists closes with James Shirley who was purer in thought and expression than any of his predecessors. Other poets of this period were Thomas Tusser, who gave an excellent picture of English peasant life in his Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry, and Michael Drayton described this favored isle itself in his Polyolbion. The learned John Donne gave utterance to his metaphysical conceits, while Drummond of Hawthornden attested his claim to the title of the finest Scottish poet of his day. Carew, Herrick, and Suckling produced their exquisite lyrics, and Herbert chanted the solemn strains of The Temple.
ELIZABETHAN PROSE WRITERS.--The great prose writers of the period must be headed with the illustrious name of Francis Bacon. The father of the inductive philosophy was regarded by those of his contemporaries who knew him best as “one of the greatest men and most worthy of admiration that had been for ages.” His adventurous intellect could not be bound by mere tradition. He brought his keen analytical faculty to bear upon the study of man and nature, so that in his matchless Essays we have the result of his penetration into the human mysteries, while his philosophy of nature stands revealed in the two books of the Advancement of Learning, in which he laid the basis for his New Organon.
“Who is there,” Burke demands, “that upon hearing the name of Lord Bacon does not instantly recognize everything of genius the most profound, everything of literature the most extensive, everything of discovery the most penetrating, everything of observation of human life the most distinguishing and refined?”
George Buchanan ranks as the Scottish Virgil from the elegance of his Latin verse, while he exhibited equal command over Latin prose. Richard Hooker gave a new elevation and dignity to English prose by his Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity. Sir Walter Raleigh, the admirable Crichton of his age, carried the English name abroad, but returned only to find imprisonment and the scaffold. He glorified his prison life by the production of his great History of the World, which is especially memorable for its vivid recital of the histories of Greece and Rome. Camden the antiquary constructed his Britannia, and Hakluyt and Purchas indited their wonderful records of travel. James I. threw his ill-digested learning into treatises on Divine Right, Witchcraft, etc.; Burton wrote his quaint and erudite work, The Anatomy of Melancholy; Selden, the chief of the learned men of his time, according to Milton, alternated politics with the production of his Treatise on Titles of Honour and his History of Tithes; Hobbes of Malmesbury, the terseness of whose style is unique, promulgated his theory of action and morals, as well as his absolutism in politics, in The Leviathan; Howell first showed what correspondence might become in his Familiar Letters, and genial old Izaak Walton wove an immortal spell over all lovers of good literature by his Lives of Donne, Hooker, and others, and The Complete Angler. Altogether the age was one eminently full of intellectual life.
THE PURITAN PERIOD.--The decline of the drama, and the end of what we may call the Pagan Renaissance, were contemporaneous with the birth of the great constitutional struggle which began with James I. and did not terminate until the English Revolution.
It is strange that such a time of upheaval should have produced the greatest Christian epic, The Paradise Lost, and the greatest Christian allegory, The Pilgrim’s Progress, which are to be found in any literature. Three great men represented the various forms of the religious struggle going forward; the saintly Jeremy Taylor, a poet among preachers, upheld the cause of Episcopacy; Richard Baxter, while desiring the church discipline and the form of belief, advocated a greater liberty for the individual conscience; and John Milton was a type of the religious freedom and toleration which found best exposition in the principles of the Independents. Milton’s Eikonoklastes broke down the buttresses of kingly authority; his Areopagitica was a noble argument in behalf of intellectual liberty; while his Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained, and Samson Agonistes were not merely magnificently great as poetry, but Christian evidences of the most sublime type.
John Bunyan, a man of the people, came forward with words that burn and images that enthrall, to show the way from a world of vice to a pure and Holy City. Thomas Fuller, remembering that “blessed are the peacemakers,” sought to heal that strife between king and people which was beyond all healing save that of the sword. Some men held themselves aloof from violent controversy while yet maintaining independence of thought--as, for example, Thomas Browne in the Religio Medici, published in 1642.
The anti-Puritans had their champions in Samuel Butler, whose fierce wit blazed forth in Hudibras; in the great Royalist writer, Clarendon; and in that staunch Royalist and Churchman, Bishop South, whose antipathy to the Nonconformists may be partly condoned by his brilliant wit. Among other writers of the time may be mentioned the versatile Barrow; the powerful satirists Wither, and Bishop Hall; Harrington, the author of the Oceana; the patriotic Algernon Sidney, with his admirable Discourses on Government; and those garrulous but inimitable chroniclers, Pepys and Evelyn.
The poets were many and varied, including Waller, Davenant, Denham, Marvell, Lovelace, and Cowley.
PERIOD OF THE RESTORATION TO THE RISE OF THE NOVEL, 1660-1740
Extremes always lead to revulsion, and from Puritanism we pass to the licentious court of Charles II., with the songs of Rochester, and the works of Etherege. The comic dramatists of the Restoration and the period immediately succeeding--Wycherley, Congreve, Vanbrugh, and Farquhar--vividly and wittily reflect the glittering life and base morality of the age. One stronger intellect did bring with it for a time the sense of a fresher and diviner air, when John Dryden sang with vigor and insight, and also produced his best comedies and tragedies. Otway likewise showed a momentary gleam of the old Elizabethan dramatic fire. In the sphere of mental and natural philosophy, Locke, Newton, and Boyle grappled with problems hitherto considered unsolvable, and illumined for the world the devious and mysterious paths of scientific inquiry. The selection of names in every branch of English literature, and in every age, can, of course, only be illustrative, not exhaustive.
PERIOD OF DRYDEN AND POPE.--The eighteenth century witnessed a great revolution in English literature, especially on the poetic side. Imagination, passion, and nature were dethroned, and poetry became didactic, philosophical, and political.
Dryden manifested something of the qualities of both schools, but when Alexander Pope arose the new order triumphed. Everything was sacrificed to precision and artificiality.
Pope was the most brilliant and impressive of the new writers. His Essay on Man and his Essay on Criticism enshrined many old philosophical truths in epigrammatic form. The heroic couplet became in his hands an instrument for cutting diamonds, but the lover of poetry longs after a time to exchange his dazzling couplets for the flowers of poesy. In all that he did, however, whether the work took the form of satires, essays, epistles, or translations, Pope was the finished artist.
The minor poets of Pope’s period included John Philips, known by his Splendid Shilling; John Gay, the author of the Shepherd’s Week, and the Fables; Samuel Garth, the writer of the mock heroic poem of _The Dispensary_; and Richard Blackmore, who tried to restore the epic in Prince Arthur.
Prose literature had many distinguished exponents. Jonathan Swift looms up before us as a gloomy, overshadowing figure, whose saturnine genius found bitter yet powerful expression in Gulliver’s Travels, the Battle of the Books, and the Tale of a Tub. His command of English was masterly, but his wit was coarse, his life hopelessly sad, and his death miserable.
Daniel Defoe was not only one of the most vigorous of political pamphleteers, but practically the father of the English novel by his Robinson Crusoe, a work which has surpassed almost every other in its uninterrupted popularity. Defoe invested fictitious events with an unapproachable semblance of truth. Metaphysical literature had its best representative in the philosopher Bishop Berkeley, the founder of Idealism in English philosophy; Bernard de Mandeville unfolded a new satirical philosophy in The Fable of the Bees, which was intended to prove that the vices of society are the foundation of civilization; and Bishop Butler sought to reconcile reason and revelation by his closely argumentative work, the Analogy of Religion.
RISE OF THE ESSAY AND MODERN NEWSPAPER.--A new and interesting form of literary effort, which popularized letters and criticism, was the periodical essay, instituted by Joseph Addison and Sir Richard Steele.
The latter began the Tatler, which dealt in humorous and incisive fashion with the social and political life of the times. Steele was aided by Addison, and they afterwards founded the more famous Spectator, which was inimitable in its humor and criticism. The Guardian and the Freeholder followed, and a higher tone was given to both literature and manners by these admirable publications.
The modern newspaper had its origin in the Public Intelligencer, begun in August, 1663, by Sir Roger L’Estrange. The Oxford Gazette began in November, 1665, and the London Gazette on the 5th of February, 1666. Defoe, while in prison, began the publication of the Review (February, 1704).
The drama at the close of the seventeenth century had, besides the greater names already mentioned, Sedley, Shadwell, Mrs. Behn, and Mrs. Centlivre, all of whose comedies, however, were licentious. Nicholas Rowe wrote heavy tragedies, which are no more likely to rise again in popularity than Addison’s Cato. Foote, Cibber, and Fielding reproduced the follies of the times in their comedies and farces; and the Beggar’s Opera, by Gay, produced in 1728, was the first specimen of the English ballad opera. Sentimental comedy is associated with Macklin, the Colmans, Murphy, Cumberland, and others; but the two greatest names in English comedy in the eighteenth century are Goldsmith and Sheridan. The delightful humor of The Good-natured Man and She Stoops to Conquer is only to be matched by the sparkling wit of the Rivals and the School for Scandal.
Samuel Johnson, born in 1709, began to write in 1744, and from that period until his death in 1784 he was an acknowledged leading power in letters. His Lives of the Poets, his Rasselas, The Rambler, and the great Dictionary were remarkable undertakings in various fields; while the world could afford to part with a thousand masterpieces rather than lose that immortal Biography by Boswell which has enshrined his master’s opinions and conversations. The Letters of Junius remind us of the right of criticism over public events and public men, and of the struggle by which the freedom of the press was ultimately won.
RISE OF THE NOVEL AND PERIOD OF ROMANTICISM, 1740-1837
The modern novel of actual life and manners dates from 1740, when Samuel Richardson published his Pamela, a story that was the talk and wonder of the town. It was followed by Clarissa Harlowe, its author’s masterpiece--a book charged with pathos, and instinct with tenderness and morality. Henry Fielding, “the prose Homer of human nature,” and, if not so delicate, a more powerful artist than Richardson, issued his Joseph Andrews in 1742, and his world-famous Tom Jones in 1749. Tobias Smollett wrote his Roderick Random in 1748, and this was followed by other stories as realistic as Fielding’s but much more marred by caricature. Laurence Sterne’s Tristram Shandy and the Sentimental Journey were novelties in prose writing, and, although they are thin as novels, they will live for their peculiar wit and pathos. Goldsmith’s Vicar of Wakefield, published in 1766, stands alone for its idyllic beauty and charming simplicity. Fanny Burney’s Evelina and Cecilia were noticeable for invention and observation and skill in portraiture.
The poetry of the second half of the century was varied in character, but it closed with a noble elevation in Burns. To the heavy religious poems of Blair and Young succeeded the more artistic strains of Gray and Collins and Goldsmith, and the mystical yearnings and Elizabethan fervor of Blake. Thomson, one of the most excellent of descriptive poets, had given place to Shenstone, who had less genius but more taste, and a third writer of the Spenserian stanza was found in Beattie. Percy’s Reliques of Ancient English Poetry brought the ballad again into favor; while Chatterton deceived the very elect by his marvelous imitation of the older forms of poetry.
William Cowper, notwithstanding his fastidiousness and over-refinement, was a poet of a high and genuine order. He let nature have its way in such exquisite poems as the Lines to His Mother’s Picture and the Loss of the “Royal George,” while any humorist might envy the delightful abandonment of John Gilpin. His larger poems are severer in style, yet many of their pictures, testifying to a reverent love of nature, remain imprinted on the memory; and they are full of happy phrases and turns of expression.
The new life infused into Scottish poetry was heralded by Michael Bruce, a sweet singer who died at twenty-one, and by Allan Ramsay, whose pastoral drama of the Gentle Shepherd affords one of the most beautiful and tender pictures of Scottish rural life. The ballad acquired a new pathos and interest in such productions as Lady Anne Barnard’s Auld Robin Gray.
But the poetic genius of Scotland found its ripest and fullest expression in Robert Burns. His love songs have the freshness and fervor of the Elizabethan lyrics; his poems of man and of nature, like those of Cowper, reveal the highest aspirations for the welfare of humanity; his humorous compositions are as lifelike in their character-painting as they are full to overflowing of fun; and his serious poems reveal a pathos which has never been excelled. Nature seemed to put on new beauties when Robert Burns chanted her praises, and the daisy can never again seem commonplace since he immortalized it. The poor at length acquired their laureate in this sweet singer of the North.
Historical and philosophical literature attained a high level at this period. Edward Gibbon, though lacking human sympathy, had great creative power and originality, and his Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire is one of the most massive of historical conceptions, worked out with stately eloquence. David Hume, whose History of England does not take such high rank, was more original in his philosophical speculations, referring all actual knowledge to experience, and making utility the standard of virtue.
Adam Smith, by his Wealth of Nations, established his claim to be regarded as the founder of the modern system of political economy, and one of the benefactors of his species. All questions of labor and capital were placed by this work on a scientific basis, and it paved the way for the doctrine of free trade.
Edmund Burke’s Reflections on the French Revolution caused a revulsion of feeling against France, while his Letters on a Regicide Peace increased the war fever in England. The former work was answered by Thomas Paine in his Rights of Man, and the latter by Sir James Mackintosh in his Vindiciæ Gallicæ. Burke’s philosophical works are models of eloquence and construction. William Paley, in his Evidences of Christianity and other works, skillfully defended revealed religion against the attacks of its enemies.
Towards the close of the century the newspaper press received a strong impetus by the establishment of The Times and other important journals; knowledge likewise began to be condensed and methodized in Cyclopædias; while criticism took a wider as well as a more popular range in the first decade of the nineteenth century by the foundation of the Edinburgh and Quarterly Reviews.
We cannot pass from the eighteenth century without noticing the remarkable development in hymnology. George Wither issued the earliest English hymn-book in 1623, Hymns and Songs of the Church; but the first hymn-book of the modern type was published by John Wesley for use in the Church of England in 1737. Among the hymnologists of the eighteenth century whose compositions remain in general use until this day may be mentioned A. M. Toplady, John Newton, the Wesleys, Isaac Watts, William Cowper, and Philip Doddridge.
ROMANTICISM AND THE EARLY NINETEENTH CENTURY.--The literature of the nineteenth century is almost overwhelming in its magnitude and variety. In nearly every branch it has attained a higher level than in the preceding century, and in nothing is this more noticeable than in poetry. Although the century opened when Crabbe, the reporter of rural life, was painting his Dutch-like pictures, we soon pass on to higher things. There was a great revival in imaginative poetry before 1820.
Byron, with his precociousness in love and genius, took a high flight in his Childe Harold, and although all his works--Don Juan, Manfred, Cain, etc.--were impressed by his own gloomy personality, he yet made living verse.
Shelley, imbued with revolutionary ideas and aspirations after an ideal being, was one of the greatest poets of the age, now Miltonic in his elegiac verse in Adonais, and now unapproachable in his lyrics. No singer has ever drawn deeper from the wells of poetic inspiration.
Wordsworth, contemplative and philosophic the patriarch of the Lake School, taught the dependence of the poet on nature, and from the Lyrical Ballads to the Excursion he illustrated his own saying in his works, that “poetry is emotion recollected in tranquillity.” He threw off the conventional, and endeavored to pierce to the heart of things, whether in man or in nature.
Fancy and imagination were made perfect in the exquisite creations and sensuous verse of Keats; wit and pathos abounded in Thomas Hood; while historic and romantic poetry found notable exemplars in Southey, Scott, Rogers, Campbell, and Coleridge. Hannah More and Joanna Baillie sought to galvanize the classical drama; Cunningham sang his Scottish songs; and Keble consecrated sacred hopes in the Christian Year.
The historic novel was made memorable by Sir Walter Scott, whose extraordinary fecundity was the wonder of his generation. His novels were the first and greatest prose result of the revived spirit of romanticism. Jane Austen did for the domestic novel what Scott did for the historical. The pictures of English life in Pride and Prejudice, Mansfield Park, and the remaining stories by this writer, have never been excelled. Her painting of manners was exquisite, and while her characters and incidents were of the most every-day description, she lifted them out of the commonplace by her exquisite touch and her absolute truthfulness to nature.
THE VICTORIAN PERIOD TO THE PRESENT, 1837- ----
The Victorian age may justly be called great in history, philosophy, biography, fiction, and poetry. Macaulay, in the earlier half of the Victorian period, illumined history by the brilliant glow of his imagination; while in the latter half Carlyle was not only his equal in history, but the first man of letters of his time. In his prose epic, The French Revolution, there was the vigor of a Rembrandt; biography was ennobled by his Cromwell; while throughout all his works--from Sartor Resartus to the latest of his utterances--he upheld the dignity of labor, and the sacredness of duty.
English history in all periods, and the progress and growth of the constitution, found brilliant chroniclers or scholarly interpreters in Hallam, Freeman, Froude, Green, Stubbs, Brewer, and Gardiner; while the philosophical aspects of history have been vividly presented by Buckle and Lecky. Rome lived again in the pages of Merivale; the Jewish race in those of Milman; and Greece in those of Grote and Thirlwall.
Turning to philosophy and science, John Stuart Mill exercised a profound influence upon the age as metaphysician, logician, politician, and moralist. Charles Darwin revolutionized scientific thought by promulgating the theory of evolution, which Herbert Spencer, its most conspicuous philosophical exponent, applied to psychology, morals, and politics. Logic and science had other exponents in Brewster, Whately, Bain, Hugh Miller, John Tyndall, T. H. Huxley, T. G. Tait, and W. K. Clifford. John Ruskin has eloquently wedded art and morality, while biography and criticism have found representative writers in Lockhart, Forster, De Quincey, Masson, Arnold, “Christopher North,” Lewes, Helps, Trevelyan, John Morley, and others. Religious thought was deeply impressed by the school of religious literature which arose with the Oxford movement. In poetry, its greatest result was Keble’s Christian Year, while its greatest product in prose was the beautiful and haunting style of Cardinal Newman, best shown in his Apologia.
Pusey, Arnold, Maurice, Robertson, Stanley, Liddon, Martineau, Gladstone, Spurgeon, and many more of all creeds contributed in a lesser degree.
The literature of fiction was surprising in its growth, and practically limitless in its variety. Thackeray showed to what a pitch of literary excellence and finish the novel might attain, and also demonstrated its power as a moral scourge. Dickens, the Hogarth of modern novelists, evoked smiles and tears in myriads of homes by his vivid pictures of life; and George Eliot reflected much of the sadness and unrest of the time in her searching and minutely conscientious works. Charlotte Brontë uttered a passionate note on behalf of her suffering sisters; and Mrs. Gaskell proved herself a genuine artist in the delineation of human life.
Of later women writers, mention must be made of Mrs. Oliphant, Miss Braddon, Mrs. Henry Wood, and “Ouida”--all different in style, yet all equally prolific. Marryat, James, Ainsworth, Warren, and others still find readers.
Charles Kingsley struck a sympathetic human note in his fictions; Anthony Trollope was the most interesting even of all his brethren; Wilkie Collins was a master of mystery; Richard Jefferies was the interpreter of nature; Charles Reade was an intense moral reformer; George Meredith has delighted and puzzled his admirers by his brilliant powers and genius; Lord Lytton is still read for two or three of his healthiest works; and Lever and Lover for their rollicking Irish wit.
It would be invidious to attempt to give a catalogue of all contemporary novelists worthy of mention; but in addition to those already mentioned the names will occur of R. D. Blackmore, Thomas Hardy, Robert Buchanan, George Macdonald, and William Black--all widely different in their gifts and work, but all imbued with a sense of the dignity of the novelist’s art. Newer writers of imaginative and adventurous fiction have sprung up in Hall Caine, J. M. Barrie, Rider Haggard, R. L. Stevenson, and Rudyard Kipling.
TENNYSON AND OTHER POETS.--In poetry two names stand out above the rest through the Victorian age. Tennyson, the most artistic of all poets, deservedly occupies the first place from the breadth of his range. His lyrics are the finest since Shelley; his Idylls of the King deserve the name of epic poetry; his dramas are finely conceived; and his In Memoriam sums up the religious aspirations of the time.
Robert Browning, massive and profound in thought, was of all modern poets the most full of pith, energy, and moral aspiration. Mrs. Browning may well be called the daughter of Shakespeare, for never did poet play more divinely upon the Æolian harp of the human heart. Walter Savage Landor exhibited the classical spirit, and Matthew Arnold had an unbroken elevation in his verse. Swinburne is a master of music and rhythm, Rossetti is a perfect artist in construction, while William Morris is a Spenserian singer cast upon a later age.
Among later poets of undoubted gifts are Alfred Austin, William Watson, Clough, Christina Rossetti, Coventry Patmore, and Sir Lewis Morris.
The dramas of Talfourd, Sheridan Knowles, R. H. Horne, Lord Lytton, and Sir Henry Taylor exhibited striking but widely varying merits.
The minor poetic singers and writers of fugitive verse of both sexes are too numerous for particularization.
SUMMARY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE
NOTE.--Titles of words in italics indicate that they are poetic or dramatic.
I. THE ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD, 449-1066 ==================+======================+============================ AUTHOR AND DATES | REPRESENTATIVE WORKS | LITERARY CHARACTERISTICS ------------------+----------------------+---------------------------- Unknown |Traveller’s Song |Illustrates the sentiment of 700 | |a wandering singer and the | |Anglo-Saxon’s love of home. | | UNKNOWN |Beowulf |An epic song, illustrating | |the powerful imagination of | |the race. | | UNKNOWN |Anglo-Saxon Chronicle |Contains in addition to 700-1154 | |historical data, one or two | |war-songs: Battle of Malden, | |etc. | | CAEDMON |_Paraphrase of |Showing how strong an appeal 600-? |Scripture_ |the Bible Story made to the | |reverence of the race. | | BEDE |Ecclesiastical |Inspired by early Christian 673-735 |History; Poems |sentiment. | | Unknown |Judith |Paraphrase of Bible 710-? | |narrative. | | CYNEWULF |Poems |Serious poems of moral 750-? | |simplicity and power. | | Alfred the Great |Translations |Some original matter inter- 849-901 | |polated, e. g., narrative of | |Othere, versified by Long- | |fellow. | | Alcuin |Letters, Biographies; |Friend of Charlemagne. Wrote 735-804 |Christ, _Elene |a comparatively pure Latin. |Andreas_, etc. | | | Ælfric |Homilies, Grammar |Writings in Latin; a man of 955-1020 | |power and sincerity. | | II. THE NORMAN-FRENCH PERIOD, 1066-1400 | | William of |History of Kings of |Of some value as an Malmesbury |England |original. 1095-1142 | | | | Geoffrey of |History of English |Largely legendary. The Monmouth |Kings |stories are rehashed in sub- 1154 | |sequent authors down to | |Spenser, Shakespeare and | |Milton. | | Wace, Richard |Romance of Rollo; |In reality a French trouvere 1112-1184 |Brut d’Angleterre |though a subject of the King | |of England. First mention of | |Arthur’s Round Table. | | Mapes, Walter |De Nugus Curialium; |First mention of the Holy 1143-1210 |_Queste de Saint |Grail. |Graal_, etc. | | | LAYAMON |_Chronicles of |A devout priest and the 1150-1210 |Britain_ |first to make the new | |English a literary medium. | | Orm |Ormulum |Also English. Some of the 1187-1237 |(paraphrase) |homilies are simple and | |touching expressions of | |devotion. | | Bacon, Roger |Natural Science |A man in advance of his age, 1214-1294 |Philosophy |he is said to have | |anticipated Francis Bacon in | |making experiment the basis | |of knowledge. | | Gloucester, Robert|Chronicle of England|Valuable for giving outlines of | |of history of Norman 13th Century | |England. | | Mandeville, Sir |Travels |Possibly a pen-name. His John | |travels are an extraordinary 1300-1371 | |farrago of invention and | |report. | | Barbour, John |The Bruce |Spirited and patriotic, 1316-1395 | |loved by true Scotchmen. | | Langland, William |Piers, the Plowman |Extraordinary man of broad 1330-1400 | |humanity. First expression | |of the voice of the poor. | | Wycliffe, John |Translation of Bible |A man of great power and 1324-1384 | |sincerity. A philosopher and | |scholar. | | Gower, John |Ballads; _Lover’s |Friend of Chaucer. A volumi- 1325-1408 |Confession_ |nous poet, not of high rank. | | CHAUCER, GEOFFREY |Canterbury Tales; |A scholar. A poet of chival- 1330-1400 |Short poems |ry and a witty narrator of | |stories in verse. Introduced | |French and Italian metres. | |Equally eminent in descrip- | |tion and characterization. | | III. ENGLISH PERIOD TO THE TIME OF ELIZABETH, 1400-1559 | | JAMES I. OF |The King’s Quhair, |A decided poetic talent in SCOTLAND |(Choir, etc.) |the chivalric fashion. 1394-1437 | | | | MALORY, SIR THOMAS|Morte d’Arthur |Worked over a large part of 1430 | |the Arthurian legends in | |prose. The original for | |Tennyson’s “Idylls of the | |King.” | | Caxton, William |The Game of Chess; |Introduced the Art of print- 1422-1492 |Translation of the |ing, brought out Malory’s |Æneid |book and made and published | |many translations and | |adaptations. | | Dunbar, William |Thistle and Rose; |The Scotch Chaucer; much in- 1460-1530 |Golden Terge |ferior to Chaucer and less | |of a popular poet. | | MORE, SIR THOMAS |Utopia, Life of Edward|A man of fine character. 1478-1535 |V. |“Utopia” first written in | |Latin and translated into | |nervous English. Plan | |suggested, perhaps, by | |Plato’s “Republic.” | | TYNDALE, WILLIAM |Translation of Bible |On his translations of the 1484-1536 | |Scriptures, later versions | |are founded. | | Wyntoun, Andrew |_Chronicle of |Story of Wallace. Much 15th Century |Scotland_ |admired by Walter Scott. | | IV. THE ELIZABETHAN AND PURITAN PERIODS, 1559-1660 | | WYATT, SIR THOMAS |Sonnets and Lyrics |Introduced with Howard the 1503-1542 | |Italian forms; sonnet and | |madrigal, made Italian | |literature a new force in | |England. | | HOWARD, HENRY, |_Translation of the |Introduced Italian forms and EARL OF SURREY |Aeneid_; _Songs and |blank verse. 1517-1547 |Sonnets_ | | | Foxe, John |Book of Martyrs |His book had great influence 1517-1587 | |in strengthening the | |reformers and was one of the | |literary influences on the | |Puritans who came to | |America. | | Sackville, Thomas |_Mirror for |A poet of force and imagina- 1536-1608 |Magistrate_ |tion. Afterwards, as Lord | |Buckhurst, a courtier and | |politician, worked in col- | |laboration with others and | |had a hand in first English | |Tragedy. | | SPENCER, EDMUND |Fairie Queen; |Called the “poet’s poet.” 1552-1599 |Shepherd’s Calendar |Great in romantic allegory, | |the ode, and the sonnet. | | Raleigh, Sir |History of the World |A politician and adventurer; Walter | |friend of Spenser. Some fine 1552-1618 | |passages in his work. | | Hooker, Richard |Ecclesiastical Polity |His prose has dignity and 1553-1600 | |force. His book is the | |authority for the Church of | |England. | | BACON, FRANCIS |Essays, Novum Organum |Many beautiful and acute 1561-1626 | |things in his essays and his | |philosophical works. | | SHAKESPEARE, WM. |Dramas, Sonnets, |Compounded of all writers 1564-1616 |(37 plays) |best: wit, humor, character- | |izations, philosophy, | |musical phrase, power and | |construction. | | Chapman, George |Translation of Homer|Full of vigor and verve, 1559-1634 | |especially his Homer. | | JONSON, BEN |The Alchemist; |A scholar and literary man. 1574-1637 |Sejanus; Timber, |A learned constructor of |etc. |plays, had also the true | |lyrical faculty. | | | |}Well constructed plays but BEAUMONT, FRANCIS |Dramas: Philaster;|}of a decidedly low moral 1584-1616 |Maid |}tone. Beaumont is supposed | |}to have been the more FLETCHER, JOHN |Tragedy: _Woman |}promising but died before 1579-1625 |Hater_; etc. |}Fletcher, who continued to | |}produce plays alone, about | |}forty. | | Burton, Robert |Anatomy of Melancholy |Full of out-of-the-way 1577-1640 | |learning and quotations | |bearing on the subject. | | Herbert, George |The Temple, etc. |Animated by a devotional 1593-1633 | |spirit and an aesthetic | |spiritualism. | | HERRICK, ROBERT |Poems |Lyrics, many of them of 1591-1674 | |charming quality and in- | |genious construction. | | Walton, Isaak |The Compleat Angler |Prose of a delightful char- 1593-1683 | |acter, full of simple piety | |and love of out-door nature. | | Fuller, Thomas |Church History of |A chronicle, with passages 1608-1661 |England, etc. |of wit or natural pathos. | | MILTON, JOHN |Areopagitica: |A poet, grave, learned, of 1608-1674 |_L’Allegro and Il |mental dignity but gifted |Penseroso_; Comus; |with musical power as much |Paradise Lost; |as Shakespeare. |Paradise Regained, | |etc. | | | Taylor, Jeremy |Holy Living, etc. |The “Shakespeare of 1613-1667 | |Divines.” Passages of rare | |poetic beauty and organ-like | |volume. | | Baxter, Richard |Saint’s Rest |One of the “Vade mecums” of 1615-1691 | |the later Puritans. Earnest | |and sincere. | | V. PERIOD OF THE RESTORATION TO THE RISE OF THE NOVEL, 1660-1740 | | BUNYAN, JOHN |Pilgrim’s Progress; |Simple, idiomatic, with pas- 1628-1688 |Holy War |sages of rare beauty. Ani- | |mated by simple, natural | |piety. A classic too much | |neglected. | | BUTLER, SAMUEL |Hudibras |A rhyming jingle, destitute 1612-1680 | |of elevation but with here | |and there a witty couplet. | |Anti-Puritan throughout-- | |favorite book of Charles II. | | DRYDEN, JOHN |Virgil Translated; |A fine critic. The father of 1631-1700 |St. Cecilia’s Day, |fluent prose. Many energetic |etc. |lines of verse, especially | |in his satires. A man of | |fine talent but limited | |genius. | | Pepys, Samuel |Diary |His Diary, not intended to 1633-1703 | |be public, throws light on | |the life and habits of a | |capable business man of the | |18th century. | | LOCKE, JOHN |On Human Under- |A sound, practical thinker, 1632-1704 |standing; Essays; |whose works illustrate the |Thoughts on Education,|common sense and unspiritual |etc. |tone of his age. | | NEWTON, SIR ISAAC |Principia, etc. |A great mathematician, he 1642-1727 | |laid the foundation of our | |understanding of the | |mechanical structure of the | |universe. | | DEFOE, DANIEL |Robinson Crusoe |A born story-teller and 1661-1731 | |pamphleteer. | | SWIFT, JONATHAN |Tale of a Tub; |Unequalled as a satirist, 1667-1745 |Gulliver’s Travels |and writer of allegories, in | |simple, nervous, idiomatic | |English. | | STEELE, SIR |Essays (established |A good second to Addison. RICHARD |the Tatler) | 1672-1729 | | | | ADDISON, JOSEPH |Essays in The Tatler |Originator of the Social 1672-1719 |and The Spectator |essay marked by kindly, | |gentlemanlike humor in the | |urbane style. | | Berkeley, Bishop |Philosophy |A very acute thinker. 1684-1753 | |English founder of one form | |of idealism. | | Young, Edward |Night Thoughts |Rather a ponderous poet, on 1683-1765 | |semi-doctrinal subjects. | | POPE, ALEXANDER |Essays on Man, |The model poet of his time 1688-1744 |etc. |and century. Used the deca- | |syllabic couplet almost ex- | |clusively, but imparted to | |it vigor, pungency and some | |variety. | | Butler, Bishop |Natural and Revealed |The orthodox moralist of his 1692-1752 |Religion |day, ponderous in style and | |commonplace in method. | | Carey, Henry |Sally in our Alley, |A light gift of doggerel 1700-1743 |etc. |satire. | | Thompson, James |The Seasons, etc. |A delicate feeling for the 1700-1748 | |quieter aspects of nature, | |harmoniously expressed. | | VI. RISE OF THE NOVEL AND PERIOD OF ROMANTICISM, 1740-1837 | | RICHARDSON, SAMUEL|Clarissa Harlowe; |Sentimentally moral, but 1689-1761 |Pamela; Sir Chas. |gifted with the story- |Grandison |telling faculty. | | FIELDING, HENRY |Tom Jones; Amelia; |Depicts life broadly and 1707-1754 |Jonathan Wild, etc. |faithfully. The first great | |realistic novelist. | | JOHNSON, SAMUEL |Dictionary; Rasselas; |A man of eighteenth century 1709-1784 |Lives of the Poets |learning and letters. The | |critical authority of his | |day. | | HUME, DAVID |History of England |The first learned historian 1711-1776 | |of England. A philosopher of | |acumen. | | Sterne, Laurence |Tristram Shandy; |A writer in whom affectation 1713-1768 |Sentimental Journey |becomes an art. Some | |pathetic passages have | |become classic. | | GRAY, THOMAS |_Elegy in Country |A scholar-poet. Production 1716-1771 |Churchyard_, etc. |limited, but of fine work- | |manship. | | SMOLLET, T. GEORGE|Humphrey Clinker, |Originator of the Sea-Story. 1721-1771 |Roderick Random, etc. |Inclined to vulgar coarse- | |ness. | | Akenside, Mark |_Pleasures of the |A man of scholarship and 1721-1770 |Imagination_ |culture, who wrote poetry | |without a decided gift. | | SMITH, ADAM |Wealth of Nations |The first great economist. 1723-1790 | |The moderns hardly equal to | |him in natural keenness of | |insight. | | GOLDSMITH, OLIVER |Vicar of Wakefield; |A true and graceful touch 1728-1774 |Essays; _She Stoops to|both in prose and poetry. |Conquer_; _Deserted |Makes hack-work literature. |Village_, etc. |Supposed to be the original | |compiler of “Mother Goose’s | |Melodies.” | | BLACKSTONE, SIR |Commentaries on Laws |Learned and careful, with WILLIAM |of England |conception of the dignity of 1723-1780 | |law. | | BURKE, EDMUND |Essays, Orations |Prose, sometimes musical and 1729-1797 | |poetical and at the same | |time, a statesman’s grasp of | |principle. | | GIBBON, EDWARD |Decline and Fall |A pains-taking and learned 1737-1794 |of Roman Empire |historian. Constructive | |powers of broad scope. | | Boswell, James |Life of Samuel Johnson|The true reporter’s instinct 1740-1795 | |for the point of a story. | |Otherwise, a toady. | | COWPER, WILLIAM |The Task; _John |Divests poetry of the affec- 1731-1800 |Gilpin_; etc. |tations of Pope. Writes on | |simple themes. | | Paley, William |Evidence of Christian-|A cognent reasoner on the 1743-1805 |ity, Natural Theology |old premises. | | More, Hannah |Coelebs in Search of a|Something of a minor poet, 1745-1833 |Wife; Sacred Dramas |something of a dramatist and | |story-teller. | | SHERIDAN, RICHARD |Speeches; The Rivals; |Writer of witty dialogue and B. |School for Scandal; |constructor of telling stage 1751-1816 |Song; etc. |situations. Comedies still | |acted. | | BURNS, ROBERT |_Cotter’s Saturday |Lyrics, songs and satires in 1759-1796 |Night_, etc. |Scotch dialect, marked by | |music, pathos and wit. | | Edgeworth, Maria |Popular Tales, etc. |Stories of middle-class 1767-1849 | |domestic life of excellent | |moral tone and some power of | |characterization. | | WORDSWORTH, WM. |The Excursion; |Nature poems and descriptive 1770-1850 |Poems |poems. Many fine sonnets. | |First expression of modern | |feeling for nature. | | Hogg, James |Shepherd’s Calendar; |Scotch verses. One or two 1770-1835 |Pastorals |lyrics of sweetness and | |simplicity. | | Montgomery, James |Hymns, Poems |A man universally esteemed; 1771-1854 | |best remembered now for his | |hymns of which some hundred | |are found in our Hymnals. | | SCOTT, SIR WALTER |Waverly Novels, etc.; |Originator of the historical 1771-1832 |Lady of the Lake, |novel. Tone natural and |etc. |wholesome. Secure in the | |estimation of posterity. | | Smith, Sidney |Sermons, Essays, etc. |A witty divine. Master of 1771-1845 | |the expository style. | | COLERIDGE, SAMUEL |Essays; _Rhyme of |A man of remarkable gifts, T. |Ancient Mariner_, |both intellectual and 1772-1834 |etc. |poetic; a natural master of | |verbal melody. | | SOUTHEY, ROBERT |Biographies of Nelson,|A man of industry and worth. 1774-1843 |Wesley; Poems, |Better as a prose stylist |etc. |than a poet. | | LAMB, CHARLES |Essays of Elia, etc. |A quaint and delicate 1775-1834 | |essayist-- friend of | |Coleridge. | | LANDOR, WALTER |Imaginary Conversa- |Classic scholar and writer. SAVAGE |tions, etc. _Count |Reactionary and old- 1775-1864 |Julian_; _Heroic |fashioned in his thought but |Idyls_, etc. |a remarkable stylist. | | AUSTEN, JANE |Pride and Prejudice, |Her novels depicting upper 1775-1817 |Emma, etc. |middle-class life are | |delightfully realistic and | |full of quiet life. | | PORTER, JANE |Scottish Chiefs, |Novels in an antiquated 1776-1850 |Thaddeus of Warsaw |style of exaggerated | |romance. | | CAMPBELL, THOMAS |Pleasures of Hope, |Something of a critic, his 1777-1844 |Lyrics, etc. |lyrics have much vigor and | |verve. | | HALLAM, HENRY |Europe during Middle |Strong, vigorous, historical 1777-1859 |Ages, Introduction to |writing from a standpoint |Literature, Constitu- |now antiquated. |tional History of | |England | | | Hazlitt, William |Table Talk, English |Critical essays; contain 1778-1830 |Poets, etc. |some true eloquence, and | |many powerful phrases. | | Moore, Thomas |Biographies; _Lalla |Songs of much melody, but of 1779-1852 |Rookh_, _Irish |an unreal sentimentality. |Melodies_, etc. | | | De Quincey, Thomas|Confessions of an |Passages of magnificent 1785-1859 |Opium Eater, etc. |color. A learned man, | |lacking in sound realistic | |judgment. | | Hunt, Leigh |Essays, Sketches, |A minor poet. A literateur 1784-1859 |Memoirs; Poems |of appreciation rather than | |of creative power. | | Wilson, John |Noctes Ambrosiannae, |A virile man. As a writer, 1785-1854 |etc.; Poems |“of his age, not for all | |time” nor indeed for an | |entire century. | | Peacock, Thos. L. |Crotchet Castle, |A literatteur, novel writer, 1785-1866 |Rododaphne, etc. |and verse writer of wit and | |epigrammatic power but no | |constructor. | | Byron, Lord |Poems |Vigorous, eloquent, 1788-1824 | |sardonic, iconoclastic, | |lacking in divine sympathy. | |A great satirist, and in | |many regards a great poet. | | SHELLEY, PERCY |Queen Mab, |A remarkable gift of lyrical BYSSHE |Adonais, _The Sky |melody. Full of generous 1792-1822 |Lark_, etc. |impulse and the unbalanced | |judgment of youth. A genius. | | Marryat, Capt. |Peter Simple, Jacob |Boy’s stories but evincing Fred |Faithful, etc. |considerable narrative 1792-1848 | |skill. | | Hemans, Felicia |Lyrics |A minor poet of grace, 1793-1835 | |sweetness and tenderness. | | GROTE, GEORGE |History of Greece |A learned and sound histori- 1794-1871 | |an, but superseded by modern | |exact research. | | Arnold, Thomas |Roman History, |A man of wide influence as 1795-1842 |Sermons, Essays |head-master of Rugby. An | |historian of the old school. | | KEATS, JOHN |Endymion, |A true poet, dying too young 1795-1821 |Hyperion, etc. |to reach full fruition of | |his remarkable artistic | |powers. | | Pollock, Robert |Course of Time |A poet, sound, serious and 1798-1827 | |heavy; suits Scotch theo- | |logians. | | Hood, Thomas |Poems |A humorous poet of the first 1798-1845 | |rank; some pathetic verses | |of high quality. | | VII. THE VICTORIAN PERIOD TO THE PRESENT, 1837- ---- | | Lover, Samuel |Handy Andy, Rory |A writer of slap-dash Irish 1797-1868 |O’More; Songs, |and other good stories. |Ballads | | | CARLYLE, THOMAS |French Revolution, |A very great though one- 1795-1881 |Cromwell, etc. |sided man. A prose poet, an | |historian of insight and | |industry, impatient of | |shams. | | MACAULAY, THOMAS |Essays, History of |He makes history alive and B. |England; _Lays of |readable. A partisan but on 1800-1859 |Ancient Rome_ |the right side. | | James, G. P. R. |Novels (historical) |Historical novels of an an- 1801-1860 | |tiquated pattern, popular in | |their day for good reasons. | | Miller, Hugh |Old Red Sandstone, |A self-made scientific 1802-1856 |Schools and School- |geologist, who did good |masters, etc. |service in popularizing | |science. | | Praed, Winthrop |The Vicar; _The Red |The best writer of “Society Mackworth |Fisherman_ |Verse,” urbane, cultured, 1802-1839 | |witty. His verses are | |beautifully finished. | | Martineau, Harriet|Political Economy, |A woman of remarkably strong 1802-1876 |etc. |intellect. Her positions | |well argued but perhaps too | |radical. | | LYTTON, SIR EDWARD|Last Days of Pompeii, |A versatile and successful BULWER |Last of the Barons, |literatteur, successful in 1803-1873 |etc. |several forms of the novel, | |but pre-eminent in none. | | Disraeli, Benjamin|Lothair, Vivian Grey, |Society novels eminently 1804-1881 |etc. |readable but thoroughly | |artificial. | | MARTINEAU, JAMES |Philosophical Works, |A philosophical thinker of 1805-1900 |etc. |insight and honesty. | | MILL, JOHN STUART |Political Economy |Of thorough intellectual 1806-1873 | |honesty and diamond-clear | |intellect, he furthered the | |cause of political justice | |and personal freedom. | | Lever, Charles |Tom Burker, Charles |Irish tales full of pith and 1806-1872 |O’Malley, etc. |spirit. | | DARWIN, CHARLES |Origin of Species, |Lucid and attractive in 1809-1882 |Descent of Man |style, and an unflinching | |lover of truth; he has had a | |greater influence on thought | |than any man of his time. | | Milnes, Richard |Life and Remains of |A man of culture not without Monckton (Lord |Keats; _Poems, |distinction as a minor poet. Houghton) |legendary and |A true lover of literature. 1809-1885 |historical_ | | | FitzGerald, Edward|Euphranor, etc.; _The |The Rubaiyat is the only 1809-1883 |Rubaiyat_ |instance where a translation | |of a classic equals the | |original.--FitzGerald was | |one of the last of the | |“Letter Writers.” | | BROWNING, |Aurora Leigh, |A pleasing lyrical gift and ELIZABETH BARRETT |Poems |warm, human sympathy made 1806-1861 | |her a favorite poetess in | |the Victorian era. | | TENNYSON, ALFRED |In Memoriam, _Idyls |The national poet of the 1809-1892 |of the King_ |late 19th century; a pains- | |taking artist and master of | |verbal melody. | | Kinglake, Alex. |Eothen |A brilliant historian of the William | |Crimean war. 1809-1890 | | | | Gaskell, Elizabeth|Cranford, Mary Barton,|A writer of charming quiet 1810-1865 |etc. |feminine humor. One of the | |first to make the economic | |problems the basis of a | |story. | | THACKERAY, WILLIAM|Vanity Fair, The |Satirist and humorist, but MAKEPEACE |Newcomes |with great powers of char- 1811-1863 | |acterization, especially of | |the every-day social | |elements. DICKENS, CHARLES |David Copperfield, |A broader humorist than 1812-1870 |Oliver Twist, etc. |Thackeray, appealing to the | |common human sympathies and | |the ordinary sense of the | |ridiculous. | | BROWNING, ROBERT |Dramatic Lyrics, |A powerful poet, intent more 1812-1889 |Poems, _The Ring and|on subtlety than lucidity, |the Book_ |intellectual rather than | |sympathetic. | | Reade, Charles |Peg Woffington, |A vigorous narrator, 1814-1884 |Cloister and Hearth, |animated by hatred of in- |etc. |justice. Analysis of human | |motives, superficial. | | Rawlinson, George |Five Great Monarchies |A learned Assyrian and 1815-1902 | |Oriental scholar. | | Trollope, Anthony |Barchester Towers, |Admirably realistic presen- 1815-1882 |etc. |tation of English society, | |political and ecclesiasti- | |cal. | | Froude, James |History of England |A brilliant prose writer, Anthony | |makes history human and 1818-1894 | |interesting and suggestive. | | KINGSLEY, CHARLES |Hypatia, etc.; Poems|His novels, in spite of 1819-1875 | |slight affectations and a | |taint of sentimentality, are | |vigorous and wholesome. | | RUSKIN, JOHN |Stones of Venice, |A great stylist. As art- 1819-1900 |Modern Painters |critic too subjective and | |governed by the moral sug- | |gestiveness of the object. | |As political economist, too | |idealistic and regardless of | |human nature. | | Bronte, Charlotte |Jane Eyre, The Profes-|Great power in her novels 1816-1855 |sor, etc. |which, however, are based on | |narrow experience. | | SPENCER, HERBERT |First Principles, etc.|Applied principle of evolu- 1820-1903 | |tion to sociology, history, | |etc. A thinker, but | |ponderous in style. | | ELIOT, GEORGE |Silas Marner, etc., |The greatest woman novelist. 1819-1880 |Spanish Gypsy, |A realist with insight. |Poems |Powers of wit and character- | |ization; construction not | |remarkable. | | TYNDALL, JOHN |Scientific Papers |Unsurpassed as a popularizer 1820-1893 | |of Darwin’s ideas, unless it | |be by Huxley. | | ARNOLD, MATTHEW |Essays and Criticisms;|Critic and poet. Liberal in 1822-1888 |Sohrab and Rustum, |thought but dominated by |etc. |aristocratic prejudice on | |the literary side. As a | |poet, inclined to despairing | |pessimism; weak in the power | |of verbal melody. | | Muller, Max |Science of Language, |Did much to spread knowledge 1823-1900 |etc. |of the general facts and | |principles of philology and | |Oriental learning. | | FREEMAN, EDWARD A.|Histories |A conscientious, honest, 1823-1892 | |painstaking historian, | |destitute of the power to | |make his subject interesting | |except to himself. | | Hughes, Thomas |Tom Brown at Oxford, |A manly, breezy person, who 1823-1896 |etc. |wrote one good book for | |boys. | | Collins, Wilkie |Woman in White, etc. |Unsurpassed as a constructor 1824-1889 | |of plots, i. e. born story- | |teller, not misled by | |psychological analysis. | | Macdonald, George |Sir Gibbie, Alec |Wrote many novels showing 1824-1905 |Forbes, etc. |some power of writing dia- | |logue. Essentially of his | |day. | | HUXLEY, THOMAS |Man’s Place in Nature |A master of exposition and, HENRY | |with Tyndall, very effective 1825-1895 | |in presenting the idea of | |evolution. | | BLACKMORE, R. D. |Lorna Doone, etc. |Infused an element of 1825-1900 | |romance into the modern | |novel, “Lorna Doone.” | | Bagehot, Walter |Physics and Politics |Original, sound, and 1826-1877 | |striking on political and | |economic topics. | | Mulock, Dinah |John Halifax, etc. |Author of some twenty novels Naria | |of which “John Halifax” is 1826-1887 | |the best. Also of pleasing | |minor verse. | | Rossetti, Dante |The Blessed Damozel,|A highly imaginative poet; a Gabriel |etc. |master of color in verse and 1828-1882 | |on canvas. | | Oliphant, Margaret|Chronicles of |Novels of middle-class life, 1828-1897 |Carlingford, etc. |of excellent tone, full of | |quiet observation. Plots, | |slight, but hold the atten- | |tion. | | MEREDITH, GEORGE |The Egoist, Diana of |Novels of extraordinary 1828-1910 |the Crossways, etc. |power. Style epigrammatic | |and not attractive. | | McCarthy, Justin |History of our own |A prolific journalist, 1830-1912 |Times, Novels |novelist and historian of | |modern times. | | Ingelow, Jean |Poems, _High Tide on|A charming lyrical talent, 1820-1897 |Coast of Lincolnshire_|of limited productive power. | | Meredith, Owen |Biography of Bulwer |Fluent writer of light verse 1831-1891 |Lytton; Lucile |and society verse. | | Arnold, Edwin |Light of Asia, |An able journalist and 1832-1904 |Poems |prolific minor poet. | | Seeley, John |Ecce Homo, etc. |An able historical writer, Robert | |his “Ecce homo” had con- 1834-1895 | |siderable influence on con- | |temporary philosophies-- | |religious thought. | | MORRIS, WILLIAM |Essays on Art, etc.; |Prolific as a narrative 1834-1896 |Poems, _Earthly |poet, fond of classic and |Paradise_ |medieval legends. As a poet, | |more fluent than thoughtful. | | Hamerton, Philip |Intellectual Life |An excellent critic of I. | |pictorial art and inter- 1834-1894 | |preter of French life and | |character for Englishmen. | | Green, John |History of the English|Industrious and conscien- Richard |People |tious, he viewed the 1837-1883 | |“History of the English | |People” as something more | |than a record of war and | |politics. Clear and simple | |as a stylist. | | SWINEBURNE, |Poems |A poet of remarkable musical ALGERNON CHAS., | |power, a master of headlong 1837-1909 | |but involved prose, a critic | |of enthusiasm and eloquence, | |caring little for principles | |or reasoned judgment. | | BRYCE, JAMES |American Commonwealth,|A writer on politics of 1838- |Holy Roman Empire |great common sense and | |statesmanlike scope. A | |trustworthy authority. | | Besant, Walter |East London, etc., |A voluminous writer of 1838-1901 |Novels |novels, his History of | |London is a real contribu- | |tion of knowledge of the | |past. | | Morley, John |English Men of Letters|A sound literary historian 1838- | |and critic and a thinker of | |force and scope. | | Pater, Walter |Marius the Epicurean, |A wonderfully finished prose Horatio |etc. |style which sometimes 1839-1891 | |diverts attention from the | |justness and beauty of the | |thought. | | Dobson, Henry |Vignettes in Rhyme, |The English Horace. An Austin |Proverbs in Porcelain |authority on eighteenth 1840- | |century social and literary | |life. Charming light verses. | | Hardy, Thomas |Tess of D’Urbeville, |Novels depicting country 1840- |etc., Novels |life. A writer of broad | |humanity. His books possess | |at once wit, realism and an | |idyllic quality. | | Black, William |In Silk Attire, etc., |His stories have consider- 1841-1898 |Novels |able charm but not much | |force. They depict Gaelic | |Scotland pleasantly but | |unconvincingly. | | Buchanan, Robert |Alone in London; |A minor poet and dramatist W. |Poems |of considerable output. 1841-1901 | |Known for his mistaken | |attack on Rossetti in “The | |Fleshly School of Poetry.” | | Stevenson, Robert |Essays, Novels; |Careful and finished as a Louis |_Child’s Garden of |stylist, an excellent story- 1850-1894 |Verses_, etc. |teller: “Treasure Island” | |and his Scottish Tales are | |true classics. | | Zangwill, Israel |Novels, Dramas, Essays|As Jew, an exponent of the 1864- | |Zionistic movement. Success- | |ful in the essay and | |especially in the novels | |depicting Jewish scenes and | |characters. | | Kipling, Rudyard |Stories, Novels, |A vigorous, audacious, effi- 1865- |Poems |cient writer. The most | |original genius among | |English literary men of | |today. | | Phillips, Stephen |Ulysses, _Paolo and |A writer of lyric tragedies 1868- |Francesca_ |in blank verse, akin in | |spirit to to the French | |classic drama. | | ------------------+----------------------+----------------------------
AMERICAN LITERATURE
The development of American literature may be treated under three distinctly marked periods: (1) a colonial or ante-revolutionary period (1620-1775), during which the literature of the colonies was closely assimilated in form and character to that of England; (2) a first American period (1775-1865), which witnessed the transition from a style for the most part imitative to one in some degree national; and (3) a second American period from 1865 to the present time, in which the literature of the country has assumed a more decided character of originality.
THE COLONIAL PERIOD, 1620-1775
The literary traditions of the United States were in large part inherited from England. Although from the time of the Stuart restoration in England, in 1660, there are indications of a divergence in social and political temper, which in the long run must find expression in a distinct American literature, yet the literary emancipation of America was much more gradual than the political.
The first literature in America was the product of men educated in other lands, who happened to be drawn to the New World, and who wrote about the new country.
The first work of broad interest concerning the colonies that subsequently became the United States was the famous Captain John Smith’s _True Relation of Such Occurrences and Accidents of Note as Hath Happened in Virginia_. This is an interesting and romantic work; but Smith was in America for three years only of his adventurous life, and consequently his narrative is highly colored. _The History of the Plymouth Plantation_, by Governor Bradford, and the _History of New England_, by John Winthrop, are productions of a colder clime than Virginia and of a less glowing imagination than Captain John Smith’s.
Aside from such records, more interesting always from the standpoint of history than from that of literature, the sum of colonial production, north or south, is very small. In New England, where most books were written, if not always there published, we find chiefly theological polemics, often presented with attractive titles but rarely with any other power to carry them to posterity.
The Poems of Anne Bradstreet were very highly praised in their day, but almost the only book of lasting value and interest written in the century was Cotton Mather’s Magnalia Christi Americana (1702). Mather was one of a great clerical and literary family. He wrote many other books, but none retains the interest of posterity. The Magnalia, however, is still a noble monument of a wonderful generation.
Franklin’s Poor Richard’s Almanac, begun in 1732 and carried on by him for twenty-five years, was a book of almost literary rank. “Poor Richard” was a fictitious character in whose mouth Franklin put a simple philosophy which became as widely popular in its sphere as the more scholarly utterances of the Spectator.
The two great literary figures of the eighteenth century may be properly considered together. Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758) may represent to us the passing domination of theology; Benjamin Franklin, the domination just beginning of politics and secular common sense. They are the first Americans to make a lasting reputation by letters, and, curiously enough, with each literature was but a means to an end.
The remarkable effect of the preaching and writing of Jonathan Edwards came largely from the direct simplicity and clearness which makes his style almost no style at all. As for Franklin, he learned to write systematically, as he did everything else, and regarded his power to express himself chiefly as one of the means whereby he accomplished his purposes for the good of society. Edward’s great works on the Freedom of the Will and other theological topics are probably read now by few, and the same may be said of much of Franklin’s writings. But Franklin’s Autobiography is still one of the most interesting things of its kind. Both men belonged to the time and place: America was expressing herself, whether in literary form or not.
In the years preceding the Revolution another real opportunity opened, and oratory became one of the genuine modes of national expression. Patrick Henry, James Otis, John Adams, Joseph Warren, Richard Henry Lee, Samuel Adams, spoke under the best conditions for literature, because they had something that had to be said. Yet their eloquence now is more a matter of fame than of fact. Of some, hardly more than a few slight reports remain to give us a notion of the powers that fired an earlier generation. This summary of colonial literature gives an idea of a very meagre literary production that was but natural. There was little written in America, and that little was compelled by the practical issues of the politics or theology of the time.
We shall readily understand that though such a review indicates slight literary appreciation as we understand the term, it does not imply a lack of intelligence. If the colonists had been less intelligent they might have produced more literature. Folk poetry and legend, with which true literature is apt to begin, is not the result of education.
The Americans were, comparatively speaking, a well-educated people. They very early provided for that literary scholarship training which comes from scholastic training. The colleges of the colonies, Harvard (1636), William and Mary (1693), Yale (1701), Princeton (chartered as the College of New Jersey, 1746), Columbia (originally King’s, 1754), Brown (College of Rhode Island, 1764), Rutgers (originally Queens, 1766), Dartmouth (1769), and the University of Pennsylvania (founded as an academy by Franklin, 1754; chartered 1779), show a great appreciation of learning on the part of the colonists.
A somewhat wider if less scholastic culture is evidenced by the foundation of libraries, the Library Company of Philadelphia (1731), the Redwood Library of Newport (1747), the Charleston Library (1748), and the New York Society Library (1754), being the earliest.
FIRST NATIONAL PERIOD, 1775-1865
The two decades that brought the eighteenth century to a close were full of exciting political events, but barren of literature. The fathers could make a nation by adopting a constitution and abiding by it, but the creation of a national literature was not so easy a matter. National poetry did not come with national life. The efforts of Trumbull (1750-1831), and Barlow (1754-1812), are as good as the ordinary poetical work of the time in England, but they are not the expression of the soul of the new nation.
The first real literature was in prose, arising from natural imitation of past models under conditions of culture which led to appreciation of such imitation.
Washington Irving, then twenty-four years old, living the pleasant life of a clever young fellow in a small provincial city, joined with his brother William and James Kirke Paulding in one of the periodicals modeled after the Spectator common in the eighteenth century. Their venture was called Salmagundi, and although not remarkable in itself, its success gave confidence, so that two years afterward, feeling his own power, Irving wrote Knickerbocker’s History of New York, one of the first pieces of American belles-lettres to become known in Europe as well as America. These productions came naturally from the conditions of Irving’s life; so did the Sketch Book, with which he became a professed man of letters, the representative, we may say, of the first period of our national literature.
Irving had pre-eminently the gift for literary expression; in his hands everything became literature--history, biography, descriptive as well as satire, story, essay. He showed the possibility of giving literary form to American material.
The same thing was done in a special department of literature by James Fenimore Cooper. Charles Brockden Brown had written novels, but they have not survived. Cooper, on the other hand, so far saw the essential quality of certain elements of American life, that the figures of Leatherstocking, the American pioneer, Harvey Birch, the patriot, and Long Tom Coffin, the sailor, are still living figures.
In fiction also two masters of equal power were shortly to develop a form of literature in which America has produced much of the first order. Nathaniel Hawthorne and Edgar Allan Poe made of the short story a means of artistic presentation, which has been more highly appreciated in our day than it was in their own.
The first true poet was William Cullen Bryant. In the same year with Cooper’s first American novel (1821) appeared a volume of Bryant’s poems, of which one at least, Thanatopsis, had already excited admiring attention. Bryant’s long and honorable life was devoted to many interests beside poetry, but he maintained throughout the pure and idealistic touch, and the intimate appreciation of nature that characterized his first work.
The first quarter of the nineteenth century, then, saw a beginning, slight indeed, but such as to endure, of a true literature in the departments of poetry, fiction, belles-lettres. The fifty years following saw more substantial production in each direction.
The American poets of the middle of the century are not of the very first rank, but each is genuinely representative of some true poetic quality or way of looking at things.
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow presents the beauty and charm of American life and history in melodious and figured verse; John Greenleaf Whittier expresses the soul of our life and history in lyrics of most sincere human quality; Edgar Allan Poe gives a few most intense emotions in singularly perfect and individual form, while Walt Whitman expresses a certain American ideality in a strange mode of utterance, which despite its faults is characteristically strong.
As a poet Lowell is at his best in satire, Holmes in wit, Emerson in sententious wisdom.
In the field of fiction there was not so much that was good. It was not till he had written short stories for twenty years that Hawthorne found time for the novel for which he had so long felt himself capable. He wrote four, of which three at least are masterpieces. As a novelist he had no rivals; but there were not a few who carried on the tradition of the short story, of whom the most noteworthy were Fitz James O’Brien (1828-1862), Harriet Prescott, 1835 (afterward Mrs. Spofford), and Edward Everett Hale. The Diamond Lens, The Amber Gods, and The Man Without a Country of the latter are very typical works.
In history also there was first-rate expression. George Bancroft, William H. Prescott, John Lothrop Motley, and Francis Parkman, were all original workers and all men of literary power. The first two were rather too much influenced by the literary ideals of the past, but Motley and Parkman attain a perfection of literary history which seems impossible in our day of development and division of labor.
More specifically American, though perhaps more temporary, is the oratory of the period. Political conditions were still such as to encourage eloquence. Three names stand together as representative of American public life: Daniel Webster, Henry Clay, and John C. Calhoun. Their oratory has dignity, representative character and force. Three other orators should be mentioned: Edward Everett, Wendell Phillips, and Henry Ward Beecher, one eminent on great public occasions, one in public discussion and agitation, and the third in the pulpit. And we must add the name of a speaker whose simple sincerity gave him at times a greater power of speech than that of any other man of his day, Abraham Lincoln.
Several other elements of the literature of this time are important. The New England movement of idealistic thought, somewhat expressed by Transcendentalism, is represented by Ralph Waldo Emerson, a figure more thoroughly characteristic of American thinking than any other writer. Singularly individual and different from any other man of his time, he is yet typical of a combination of ideality and common sense thoroughly American.
James Russell Lowell is another important figure of the period: noteworthy as a poet, a critic, a scholar, an essayist, he is especially interesting as the successor of Irving as the representative man of his literary generation. He made literature an active factor in life and yet never allowed it to lose its literary quality.
Oliver Wendell Holmes is best known as a humorist, and perhaps the most American in that field in which America has a very special place. Humor is more than most branches of literature a matter of taste. It must be enough, therefore, to note, without attempting to discriminate or describe, the achievements of Artemus Ward (1834-1867), of Mark Twain and of Frank R. Stockton (1834-1902). In this second period of our literature occurred the Civil war. Such an event could not have been without its effect upon men of letters both South and North. In the North especially do we perceive the strongest influence: the anti-slavery element cannot be dissociated from the work of Lowell or Whittier. Yet in literature the war produced little of permanence. It is the backbone of Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe’s title to remembrance; but powerfully effective as was Uncle Tom’s Cabin, it is probable that there was more real genius in those presentations of that old New England life of which she was herself a product.
SECOND NATIONAL PERIOD, 1865- ----
In considering the period from the Civil war to the present, the most remarkable thing is the great increase of production and the slight accession to the rolls of genius. Such is especially the case with fiction; there have been very many good novels and short stories written, but there is no such commanding personality as Hawthorne.
The two chief figures of the seventies and eighties, at least, were Henry James and William Dean Howells. With great differences, they are yet both masters of the realistic school which was dominant in the second half of the century, in Europe as well as in America. Their superiority might remain unquestioned, were it not for the decline of interest in the kind of novel in which they excelled. In the early eighties a change in tone was perceptible.
The first noteworthy American representative of romantic or idealistic fiction which then began to appear was Marion Crawford, who has retained power and popularity for twenty-five years. He and a few other innovators were followed by a number of writers who found and presented the charm and romance of American history. These have now in their turn passed away except Winston Churchill who would seem really to have more enduring power than his companions. But the realistic movement was not without its results, for it directed American novelists, and especially story writers, into an appreciation of the specific qualities of different parts of their country.
The first writer to have this especial flavor was, it is true, the romanticist Bret Harte. His followers were more realistic: George Washington Cable gave a charming presentation of Creole life in New Orleans, and since the Grandissimes (1880) there have been a great number who have drawn pictures of the especial life of particular localities. Most noteworthy of these are Miss Mary N. Murfree (“Charles Egbert Craddock”), Miss Mary E. Wilkins (now Mrs. Freeman), James Lane Allen, Thomas Nelson Page, and Hamlin Garland.
If we are to mention any other novelist of the present day whose work seems likely to endure, it must be Mrs. Edith Wharton, who rather continues the traditions of Henry James.
In poetry no one has for forty years appeared who has been considered the equal of the earlier generation. Sidney Lanier and Edmund Clarence Stedman will probably be considered the chief figures of the seventies, while Richard Hovey (1864-1900) and James Whitcomb Riley are superior to their later contemporaries.
There has been much history in recent years, and if there are no historians of the rank of Motley and Parkman, the reason may lie in the difference that has come into the methods of historical study. John Fiske was a philosopher before he became a historian. Justin Winsor was a master of authorities, and his labors as an editor rendered possible one of the characteristic productions of the time, the Narrative and Critical History of America, written by a number of special scholars. Of other contemporary writers most noteworthy are probably Henry C. Lea, whose works deal with different phrases of the history of civilization, and Captain A. T. Mahan, whose studies of the influence of sea power on history have attracted the attention of the world.
Coincidently, a new school of humor has risen in the writing of F. P. Dunne, creator of the sagacious Mr. Dooley, and George Ade, author of Fables in Slang. Earlier humorists, aside from “Mark Twain” and Charles F. Browne (“Artemus Ward”), are Henry W. Shaw (“Josh Billings”) (1818-1885), Joel Chandler Harris (1848-1908), the author of _Uncle Remus’ Stories_, amusing dialect fantasies. In the summary of American literature one can hardly omit the names of Sarah Margaret Fuller (“Ossoli”), R. H. Dana, author of Two Years Before the Mast, and Donald G. Mitchell, author of Reveries of a Bachelor and Dream Life.
Recent and contemporary historians and essayists deserving of mention are T. W. Higginson, C. E. Norton, and William James.
Another form of writing should be mentioned, though its results are perhaps too ephemeral to be called literature. The newspaper is, however, a very important part of everybody’s reading. It has been learning, however, to appeal more and more to an enormously wide audience, with the result that whatever literary character it may have had is now hard to find. In the middle of the century certain great editors had very definite literary standing, as Bryant of the New York Evening Post, Henry J. Raymond (1820-1869) of the Times, Horace Greeley (1811-1872) of the Tribune. Later figures must include Charles A. Dana (1819-1897), who gave a very distinctive character to the Sun; James Gordon Bennett (1841) of the Herald, and E. L. Godkin (1831-1902) of the New York Evening Post, and Henry Watterson of the Louisville Courier-Journal.
=SUMMARY OF AMERICAN LITERATURE=
NOTE.--Poetic and dramatic writings are indicated by italics.
==================+======================+============================ AUTHOR AND DATES | REPRESENTATIVE WORKS | LITERARY CHARACTERISTICS ------------------+----------------------+---------------------------- John Smith |True Relation of |A romantic recital of Virginia--1580- |Virginia |thrilling adventures. 1631 | | | | William Bradford |History of Plymouth |A full and clearly written Plymouth Col.-- |Plantation |account to 1649. 1588-1657 | | | | John Winthrop |History of New England|A simple, personal narra- Massachusetts-- |--1630-1649 |tive, with occasional fresh- 1590-1649 | |ness of style. | | Anne Bradstreet |Poems; _The Tenth |An affected and cumbersome Massachusetts-- |Muse_ |didactic poem. 1613-1672 | | | | Henry Norwood |A Voyage to Virginia |Surprisingly well written in Virginia--1628- | |parts, and informative. 1670(?) | | | | William Penn |Brief Account of Penn-|Confidently religious and Pennsylvania-- |sylvania |philanthropic in tone. 1644-1718 | | | | James Blair |Sermons, No Cross, No |Comparatively modern prose, Virginia--1656- |Crown |written with pious zeal. 1742 | | | | Cotton Mather |Elegy of Rev. |Voluminous ecclesiastical Massachusetts-- |Nathaniel Collins, |writings of “pedantic and 1663-1728 |Sermons, etc. |fantastic quaintness.” | | William Byrd |The Dividing Line, and|Full of fresh, humorous Virginia--1674- |other tracts |observations on life. 1744 | | | | Robert Beverly |History of Virginia |A straightforward narrative Virginia--1675- | |of slightly polemic purpose. 1716 | | | | JONATHAN EDWARDS |Sermons, Surprising |Strong and highly imagina- Connecticut--1703-|Conversions, etc. |tive proclamations of 1758 | |Calvinism. | | BENJAMIN FRANKLIN |Poor Richard’s |Wise and sagacious utter- Pennsylvania-- |Almanac, Autobiography|ances of a fair, avowed 1706-1790 | |utilitarian. | | THOMAS JEFFERSON |Notes on Virginia, |Full of wise foresight and Virginia--1743- |Declaration of |keen acumen. 1826 |Independence | | | JOHN MARSHALL |Life of Washington, |Profound and wise, but Virginia--1755- |Decisions, etc. |rather heavy. 1835 | | | | ALEXANDER HAMILTON|Contributions to the |Keen and ingenious, full of New York--1757- |Federalist |information. 1804 | | | | Alexander Wilson |American Ornithology |Pioneer investigations of a Scotland--1766- | |shrewd observer. 1813 | | | | Charles Brockden |Wieland, Ormond, etc. |Weird and sensational, of Brown | |the Godwin type. Pennsylvania-- | | 1771-1810 | | | | William Wirt |Life of Patrick Henry,|Interesting and informative, Maryland--1772- |Letters of a British |but also imaginative. 1834 |Spy | | | Robert Treat Paine|Adams and Liberty; |Superficial, but of notice- Massachusetts-- |Poems |able metrical facility. 1773-1811 | | | | HENRY CLAY |Speeches, Letters |Attractive because of per- Kentucky--1777- | |sonality and power. 1852 | | | | Washington Allston|Art Lectures; Poems |Highly artistic in intent South Carolina-- | |and achievement. 1779-1843 | | | | James Kirk |Novels |Romances of little present Paulding | |interest. New York--1779- | | 1860 | | | | FRANCIS SCOTT KEY |Poems, _Star |The chief poem is a national Maryland--1780- |Spangled Banner_, |song of patriotic ardor. 1843 |etc. | | | WILLIAM E. |Addresses, Sermons, |Social papers, clear, CHANNING |Essays |tolerant, thoughtful. Massachusetts-- | | 1780-1842 | | | | JOHN JAMES AUDUBON|Birds of America, |Marked by keen observation Louisiana--1780- |Quadrupeds of America |and wide interest. 1851 | | | | JOHN C. CALHOUN |Speeches, Papers, etc.|Forceful in logical thinking South Carolina-- | |and clear exposition. 1782-1850 | | | | DANIEL WEBSTER |Orations |Elevated in thought and New Hampshire-- | |eloquent. 1782-1852 | | | | Thomas Hart Benton|Thirty Years View |Rich and racy observations North Carolina-- | |of wide experience. 1782-1858 | | | | WASHINGTON IRVING |Knickerbocker’s |Humorous, with delicate New York--1783- |History of New York, |sentiment and grace. 1859 |Sketch Book, etc. | | | Richard Henry Dana|Poems, _The |Overambitious and not Massachusetts-- |Buccaneer_, etc. |wholly successful. 1787-1879 | | | | JAMES FENIMORE |Leather Stocking |Romantic and overfortunate COOPER New Jersey |Tales, The Spy, etc. |in coincidence, but --1789-1851 | |readable. | | Jared Sparks |American Biographies |Commendable efforts of a Connecticut--1789-| |pioneer biographer. 1866 | | | | Fitz Greene |Poems, _Marco |Frankly humorous and Halleck |Bozzaris_, etc. |delightfully fresh. Connecticut--1790-| | 1867 | | | | George Ticknor |History of Spanish |Scholarly and authentic. 1791-1871 |Literature | | | John Howard Payne |Home Sweet Home, |Universal in appeal and New York--1792- |Poems |satisfying in form. 1852 | | | | Samuel G. Goodrich|Peter Parley Books |Popular introductions with a Connecticut--1793-| |flavor of fiction. 1860 | | | | WILLIAM CULLEN |Addresses, Letters; |Dignified and poised, BRYANT |Poems, Thanatopsis|serious and helpful. Massachusetts-- | | 1794-1878 | | | | Joseph Rodman |The Culprit Fay, |Cleverly executed, but Drake |Poems |ingeniously fanciful. New York--1795- | | 1820 | | | | James G. Percival |Poems; Prometheus,|Unsustained, though not Connecticut--1795-|etc. |without positive merits. 1856 | | | | John Pendleton |Swallow Barn, Horse |Old-fashioned but interest- Kennedy |Shoe Robinson, etc. |ing pictures of southern Maryland--1795- | |life. 1870 | | | | WILLIAM H. |Conquest of Peru, |Excellent history, very PRESCOTT |Ferdinand and |interestingly told. Massachusetts-- |Isabella, etc. | 1796-1859 | | | | Amos Bronson |Concord Days, Table |Suggestingly idealistic, but Alcott |Talks; _Sonnets and |lacking in general interest. Massachusetts-- |Canzonets_ | 1799-1888 | | | | George Bancroft |History of the United |Faithfully prepared and Massachusetts-- |States |honestly presented. 1800-1891 | | | | Horace Bushnell |Nature and the Super- |Serious, didactic efforts Connecticut--1802-|natural, Work and Play|with spiritual purpose. 1876 | | | | George D. Prentice|Essays; Poems |Witty, sarcastic, daring and Connecticut--1802-| |effective. 1870 | | | | RALPH WALDO |Conduct of Life, |The prophet of American EMERSON |Representative Men, |culture. Coalesces oriental Mass.--1803-1882 |Essays; Poems |conceptions and occidental | |individualism. | | Jacob Abbott |Rollo Books |Popular favorites of unso- Maine--1803-1879 | |phisticated youth. | | NATHAN’L HAWTHORNE|Twice Told Tales, |Marked by a subtle mastery Massachusetts-- |Scarlet Letter, Marble|and the touch of genius. 1804-1864 |Faun, etc. | | | Charles E. A. |History of Louisiana, |Entertaining and scholarly Gayarré |Fernando de Lemos, |bilingual productions. Louisiana--1805- |etc. | 1895 | | | | Nathaniel P. |Poems; Sketches, |Skillfully elaborated but Willis |Editorials, etc. |diminishing in fame. Maine--1806-1867 | | | | William Gilmore |Poems; Novels, |Versatile, original and Simms |Biography, etc. |artistic. South Carolina-- | | 1806-1870 | | | | HENRY W. |Outre Mer, |Popular in appeal and simple LONGFELLOW |Hyperion, Poems, |in form. Maine--1807-1882 |Hiawatha, etc. | | | JOHN G. WHITTIER |Editorials; _Household|With Burns’ love of nature Massachusetts-- |Poems_ |and human nature. 1807-1892 | | | | EDGAR ALLAN POE |Tales; Poems, |Excellent in artistic Maryland--1809- |Raven, _Annabel |“totality of effect.” 1849 |Lee_, etc. | | | Albert Pike |Hymns to the Gods, |Of recognized interest and Massachusetts-- |Poems, etc. |merit. 1809-1891 | | | | OLIVER WENDELL |Autocrat of the Break-|Clever, witty, versatile, HOLMES |fast Table, Novels; |and skillful. Massachusetts-- |Poems | 1809-1894 | | | | Margaret Fuller |Summer on the Lakes, |Notable in transcendental Ossoli |Papers on Literature |aim and in merit of Massachusetts-- |and Art |achievement. 1810-1850 | | | | Harriet Beecher |Uncle Tom’s Cabin, |Far-reaching in its influ- Stowe |etc. |ence. Connecticut--1811-| | 1896 | | | | JOHN LOTHROP |Dutch Republic, United|A rapid, easy style in pre- MOTLEY |Netherlands |senting results of research. Massachusetts-- | | 1814-1877 | | | | Rufus W. Griswold |Christian Ballads; |Valuable critical studies Vermont--1815-1857|Poets and Poetry of |marred by partisanry. |America, Famous Poets | | | John G. Saxe |The Money King, _New|Humorous and sprightly. Vermont--1816-1887|Rape of the Lock_, | |etc. | | | Samuel A. Allibone|Literature and |Laborious and valuable. Pennsylvania-- |Authors, etc. | 1816-1889 | | | | HENRY D. THOREAU |Walden, Excursions |Redolent of nature love, and Massachusetts-- | |cultured scholarship. 1817-1862 | | | | J. G. Holland |Timothy Titcomb’s |Enjoyed a large popularity. Massachusetts-- |Letters, Katrina | 1819-1881 | | | | Edwin P. Whipple |Essays and Reviews, |Of very distinct cultural Massachusetts-- |American Literature |value. 1819-1886 | | | | JAMES RUSSELL |Among My Books, My |Keen, sparkling, scholarly, LOWELL |Study Windows, Biglow |and artistic. Massachusetts-- |Papers, Poems, _Sir | 1819-1891 |Launfal_, etc. | | | WALT WHITMAN |Poems, _Leaves of |Unique in claim and form. New York--1819- |Grass_, My Captain, | 1892 |etc. | | | Julia Ward Howe |Social and Philosoph- |Representative of the spirit New York--1819- |ical Papers, _Battle |of the times. 1910 |Hymn of the Republic_ | | | Margaret J. |Beechen Brook, |Cultured and of human Preston |Cartoons, _Colonial |interest. Virginia--1820- |Ballads_ | 1897 | | | | Richard Grant |Words and Their Uses; |Scholarly and suggestive. White |Everyday English | New York--1821- | | 1885 | | | | Thomas Buchanan |Poems; Drifting; |Commendable, especially in Read |Sheridan’s Ride, |form. Pennsylvania-- |etc. | 1822-1872 | | | | Edward Everett |The Man Without a |Vigorous and pointed, but Hale |Country, His Level |provincial. Massachusetts-- |Best | 1822-1909 | | | | Donald G. Mitchell|Dream Life, Reveries |Attractive in meditation and Connecticut--1822-|of a Bachelor |grace. 1909 | | | | FRANCIS PARKMAN |Oregon Trail, Montcalm|Romantic, picturesque and of Massachusetts-- |and Wolfe, etc. |real interest. 1823-1893 | | | | George W. Curtis |Potiphar Papers, Prue |Widely popular and New York--1824- |and I, etc. |effective. 1892 | | | | BAYARD TAYLOR |Northern Travel, |Too good at many things to Pennsylvania-- |Greece and Russia; |be best at any. 1825-1878 |Poems of the Orient,| |Translation of Faust| | | Stephen Collins |Old Folks at Home, |Popular in vein and melody. Foster |Old Uncle Ned, | Pennsylvania-- |etc. | 1826-1864 | | | | LEW WALLACE |The Fair God, Prince |Uneven, but at times highly Indiana--1827-1905|of India, Ben Hur |successful. | | Chas. Dudley |My Summer in a Garden,|Catholic in interests and Warner |Little Journeys, etc. |attainments. Massachusetts-- | | 1829-1900 | | | | John Esten Cooke |Novels, Survey of |Prime favorites with Virginia--1830- |Eagle’s Nest, etc., |romantic youth. 1886 |Lives of Lee and | |Jackson | | | Paul Hamilton |Sonnets, Legends, |In sonnets excellent, in Hayne |Lyrics |other poems too prolific. South Carolina-- | | 1831-1886 | | | | LOUISA MAY ALCOTT |Little Women, Little |Influential in their popular Massachusetts-- |Men |appeal. 1832-1888 | | | | Edmund C. Stedman |Victorian Poets, Poets|Showing creative power and Connecticut--1833-|of America, Alice of |critical ability. 1908 |Monmouth | | | Chas. Farrar |Artemus Ward, His |Humorous in exaggeration and Browne (Artemus |Book, etc. |perversion. Ward), Maine-- | | 1834-1867 | | | | Frank R. Stockton |Rudder Grange, The |Ingenious in plot, straight- Pennsylvania-- |Lady or the Tiger |forward in style. 1834-1902 | | | | Moses Coit Tyler |History of American |Accurate and exhaustive. Connecticut--1835-|Literature | 1900 | | | | SAMUEL L. CLEMENS |Innocents Abroad, |Thoroughly representative of Missouri--1835- |Huckleberry Finn, etc.|American humor. 1910 | | | | Thomas Bailey |Novels, Marjorie Daw, |Cultivated and of literary Aldrich |etc. |talent. New Hampshire-- | | 1836-1907 | | | | WILLIAM DEAN |Venetian Life; Rise of|Realistic and entertainingly HOWELLS |Silas Lapham, etc. |descriptive. Ohio--1837- | | | | John Burroughs |Wake Robin, Winter |Strongly uttering the charms New York--1837- |Sunshine |of nature. | | Mary Mapes Dodge |Hans Brinker |In high favor with children. New York--1838- | | 1905 | | | | Albion W. Tourgee |A Fool’s Errand, |Valuable for the point of Ohio--1838-1905 |Bricks Without Straw |view. | | Thomas R. |Life of Cooper, |Of recognized scholarship Lounsbury |Studies in Chaucer, |and ability. New York--1838- |etc. | 1915 | | | | Francis Bret Hart |Luck of Roaring Camp, |Of international fame. New York--1839- |Gabriel Controy; |Faithful and skillfull 1902 |Poems |character portrayal. | | Joaquin Miller |_The Danites in the |With the sweep and breadth Indiana--1841- |Sierras_, _Surge of |of the prairies. |the Sierras_ | | | SIDNEY LANIER |The Boy’s Froissart; |Artistic to a high degree. Georgia--1842-1881|Tiger-Lilies, | |Poems | | | John Fiske |Myths and Mythmakers, |Scholarly and fairminded. Connecticut--1842-|Histories | 1901 | | | | HENRY JAMES |Daisy Miller, Portrait|Of characteristic conception New York--1843- |of a Lady, etc. |and style. 1916 | | | | George W. Cable |Old Creole Days, etc. |Successful in achievement of Louisiana--1844- | |purpose. | | Elizabeth S. |Gates Ajar, etc. |Widely read for religious Phelps Ward | |sentiment. Massachusetts-- | | 1844- | | | | Arthur S. Hardy |Passe Rose, etc. |Of trained literary ability. 1847- | | | | James Lane Allen |Flute and Violin, The |Reaching a high standard of Kentucky--1849- |Choir Invisible, etc. |excellence. | | Francis Marion |Novels, Travel, Des- |Best known for his Crawford |criptive Sketches |Saracinesca series, the New York--1854- | |scenes of which are laid in 1909 | |modern Rome. | | JAMES WHITCOMB |Poems, _Rhymes of |His combination of humor, RILEY |Childhood_, _The Book |pathos, and sentiment Indiana--1852-1916|of Joyous Children_, |appeals to high and low |etc. |alike. | | Mary N. Murfree |Novels, In the Tennes-|Absorbing studies in (Charles Egbert |see Mountains, etc. |southern life and character. Craddock), Tenn.--| | 1850- | | | | Eugene Field |Poems, _Little Boy |Holds a special place in Missouri--1850- |Blue_, _A Dutch Lulla-|American literature as the 1895 |by_, _Love Song of |poet of Christmas and |Childhood_, etc. |childhood. | | Amelie Rives |Novels, Virginia of |Her later writings show more Virginia--1863- |Virginia, The Quick or|charity of thought and rich- |the Dead, etc. Poems|ness of expression than was | |characteristic of her | |earlier productions. | | Thomas Nelson Page|Novels, On Newfound |An interpreter of local life Virginia--1853- |River, Marse Chan, |and color of unusual |etc. |insight. | | Henry J. Van Dyke |Novels, The Other Wise|Keen in observation, health- Pennsylvania-- |Man, etc.; Poems |ful in tone, delightful in 1852- | |style. | | ------------------+----------------------+----------------------------
PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF LITERARY ALLUSIONS
Concise, explanatory paragraphs concerning Famous Books, Poems and Dramas; Literary Characters, Plots and Scenes; Pen Names of Famous Writers; Soubriquets and Nicknames; Literary Geography, Shrines and Haunts; and numerous other literary references.
KEY TO THE SOUNDS OF LETTERS
ä, as in farm, father; ȧ, as in ask, fast; a, as in at, fat; ā, as in day, fate; â, as in care, fare; a, as in final; e, as in met, set; ē, as in me, see; ẽ, as in her, ermine; i, as in pin, sin; ī, as in pine, line; o, as in not, got; ō, as in note, old; ô, as in for, fought; ö, as in sole, only; õ, as in fog, orange; ö, sound cannot be exactly represented in English. The English sound of u in burn is perhaps the nearest equivalent to ö; oo, as in cook, look; ōō, as in coon, moon; u, as in cup, duck; ū, as in use, amuse; û, as in fur, urge; ü sound cannot be exactly represented in English. The English sound of u in luke and duke resembles the original sound of ü. The letter N represents the nasal tone of the preceding vowel, as in encore (_ä_N-kōr´).
=A=
=Aaron= (ā´ron or ar’on).--A character in Shakespeare’s Titus Andronicus, a Moor of unnatural wickedness beloved by Tamora, queen of the Goths. The character shows originality of conception, but is otherwise repellant.
=Abaddon= (a-bad´on).--The Hebrew name of an evil spirit or destroying angel called Apollyon in Greek. In mediæval literature he is regarded as the chief of the demons of the seventh hierarchy and the one who causes wars and uproars. Klopstock introduced him in his Messiah under the name of Abbadona. He represents him as a fallen angel still bearing traces of his former dignity and repenting of his part in the rebellion against God. In Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress he meets and fights with Pilgrim.
=Abdalla= (ab-dal´ä).--(1) The Mufti, a character in Dryden’s tragedy Don Sebastian. (2) One of Sir Brian de Bois Guilbert’s slaves, in Scott’s Ivanhoe. (3) Brother and predecessor of Giaffer, pasha of Abydos, by whom he was murdered, in Byron’s Bride of Abydos.
=Abdiel= (ab´di-el).--A seraph in Milton’s Paradise Lost, the only seraph who remained loyal when Satan stirred up the angels to revolt.
=Abonde= (a-bön-de´).--A character in French literature that corresponds to our Santa Claus, the good fairy who comes at night, especially New Year’s night, to bring toys to children while they sleep.
=Abu-Hassan= (ā-bö-has´an).--As related in the Arabian Nights, Abou Hassan is a merchant of Bagdad who is carried in his sleep to the bed of the Caliph Haroun-al-Raschid and on awaking is made to believe himself the caliph. Twice in this way he was made to believe himself caliph and afterward became in reality the caliph’s favorite and companion.
=Absalom and Achitophel= (ab´sa-lom and a-kit´ō-fel).--A poetical satire by John Dryden, directed against the political faction led by the Earl of Shaftesbury. The names in the title are given to the duke of Monmouth and the earl of Shaftesbury. Like Absalom, the son of David, Monmouth was remarkable for his personal beauty, his popularity, and his undutifulness to his father.
=Absolute, Captain.=--A character in Sheridan’s comedy, The Rivals. He is distinguished for his gallant, determined spirit, his quickness of speech, and dry humor.
=Absolute, Sir Anthony.=--An amusing character in Sheridan’s Rivals. He is represented as testy, positive, impatient, and overbearing, but yet of a warm and generous disposition.
=Acadia= (a-kā´di-ä), =Acadie= (ä-kä´-dē´).--The original, and now the poetic, name of Nova Scotia. In 1755, the French inhabitants were seized, forcibly removed and dispersed among the English colonists on the Atlantic coast. Longfellow has made this event the subject of his poem Evangeline.
=Acrasia= (a-krā´zi-ä).--In Spencer’s Faërie Queene, a witch represented as a lovely and charming woman, whose dwelling is the Bower of Bliss, which is situated on an island floating in a lake or gulf, and is adorned with everything in nature that can delight the senses. The word signifies intemperance. She is the personification of sensuous indulgence and intoxication. Sir Guyon, who illustrates the opposite virtue, is commissioned by the fairy queen to bring her into subjection, and to destroy her residence.
=Acres, Bob.=--A character in Sheridan’s The Rivals, celebrated for his cowardice and his peculiar method of allegorical swearing.
=Adam.=--(1) Adam is a character frequently alluded to in the Talmud. Many strange legends are related of him. He was buried, so Arabian tradition says, on Aboncais, a mountain of Arabia. (2) In As You Like It, Shakespeare, he is an aged servant to Orlando and offers to accompany Orlando in his flight and to share with him his carefully-hoarded savings of five hundred pounds. (3) In Shakespeare’s Comedy of Errors, Adam is an officer known by his dress, a skin-coat.
=Adamastor= (ad-am-ȧs´tor).--The phantom of the Cape of Good Hope in the Lusiad: a terrible spirit described by Camoens as appearing to Vasco da Gama and prophesying the misfortunes which should fall upon other expeditions to India.
=Adam Bede= (bēd).--A novel by George Eliot, the chief character of which is a young carpenter, a keen and clever workman, somewhat sharp-tempered and with a knowledge of some good books. He has an alert conscience, good common sense and “well-balanced shares of susceptibility and self-control.” He loves Hetty Sorrel, but finally marries Dinah Morris.
=Adams, Parson.=--A character in Fielding’s story of Joseph Andrews, distinguished for his goodness of heart, poverty, learning, and ignorance of the world, combined with courage, modesty, and a thousand oddities.
=Adonais= (ad-ō-nā´is).--An elegiac poem by Shelley, commemorating the death of Keats. The name was coined by Shelley probably to hint an analogy between Keats’ fate and that of Adonis.
=Advancement of Learning, The.=--A prose treatise by Francis, Lord Bacon, which contains not only the germ of his Latin work, De Augmentis Scientiarum, but really the pith and marrow of the Baconian philosophy, if taken in connection with the second book of the Novum Scientiarum Organum. An analysis of the work may be read in Hazlitt’s Lectures on the Literature of the Age of Elizabeth.
=Æneid= (ē-nē´id), or =Æneis= (-is).--An epic poem, in twelve books, by Vergil, recounting the adventures of Æneas after the fall of Troy, founded on the Roman tradition that Æneas settled in Latium and became the ancestral hero of the Roman people. The hero, driven by a storm on the coast of Africa, is hospitably received by Dido, queen of Carthage, to whom he relates the fall of Troy and his wanderings. An attachment between them is broken by the departure of Æneas, in obedience to the will of the gods, and the suicide of Dido follows. After a visit to Sicily, Æneas lands at Cumæ in Italy. In a descent to the infernal regions he sees his father, Anchises, and has a prophetic vision of the glorious destiny of his race as well as of the future heroes of Rome. He marries Lavinia, daughter of Latinus, king of the Latini, and a contest with Turnus, king of the Rutuli, the rejected suitor follows, in which Turnus is slain. The poem is a glorification of Rome and of the Emperor Augustus, who, as a member of the Julian gens, traced his descent from Julus (sometimes identified with Ascanius), the grandson of Æneas.
=Agamemnon= (ag-ȧ-mem´non).--The greatest of the tragedies of Æschylus. The scene is laid in Argos, in the palace of Agamemnon, at the time of the king’s return from the capture of Troy; the catastrophe is the murder (behind the scenes) of Agamemnon and Cassandra (whom he has brought captive with him) by the queen Clytemnestra, urged on by her paramour Ægisthus.
=Agnes.=--(1) A young girl in Molière’s L’Ecole des Femmes, who affects to be remarkably simple and ingenuous. The name has passed into popular use, and is applied to any young woman unsophisticated in affairs. (2) A strong womanly character in David Copperfield who proves a true friend to David’s “child-wife,” Dora, and to David himself. Later Dora dies and David marries Agnes.
=Agnes, The Eve of St.=--(1) A poem by John Keats. It is characterized by Leigh Hunt as “the most delightful and complete specimen of his genius; ... exquisitely loving; ... young but full-grown poetry of the rarest description; graceful as the beardless Apollo; glowing and gorgeous with the colors of romance.” St. Agnes was a Roman virgin who suffered martyrdom in the reign of Diocletian. (2) A poem by Tennyson, published in 1842.
=Agapida= (ä-gä-pē´thä), =Fray Antonio=.--The fictitious writer to whom Washington Irving originally attributed the authorship of the Conquest of Granada.
=Agib= (ā´gib).--(1) The third Calendar in the story of “The Three Calendars” in the Arabian Nights’ Entertainments. (2) In the story of Noureddin Ali and Bedredden Hassan in The Arabian Nights, a son of Bedredden Hassan and the Queen of Beauty.
=Agramant= (ä´grä-mänt).--In Boiardo’s Orlando Innamorato and Ariosto’s Orlando Furioso, the young king of Africa.
=Ague-Cheek= (ā´gū-chēk), =Sir Andrew=. A character in Shakespeare’s comedy Twelfth Night, a timid, silly but amusing country squire, to whom life consists only of eating and drinking. He is stupid even to silliness, but so devoid of self-love or self-conceit that he is delightful in his simplicity.
=Ahasuerus= (a-haz-ū-ē´rus).--Chief character in Sue’s A Wandering Jew, the cobbler who pushed away Jesus when, on the way to execution, He rested a moment or two at his door. “Get off! Away with you!” cried the cobbler. “Truly, I go away,” returned Jesus, “and that quickly; but tarry thou till I come.” And from that time Ahasuerus became the “wandering Jew,” who still roams the earth, and will continue so to do till the “second coming of the Lord.”
=Ahmed= (äh´med), or =Achmet= (äch´met).--In the Arabian Nights, noted for a magic tent he possessed which would cover a whole army but might be carried in the pocket. He also possessed a magic apple which would cure all diseases.
=Aladdin= (a-lad´in).--In the story of “Aladdin or the Wonderful Lamp,” in the Arabian Nights’ Entertainments, the son of a poor widow in China, who becomes possessed of a magic lamp and ring which command the services of two terrific jinns. Learning the magic power of the lamp, by accidentally rubbing it, Aladdin becomes rich and marries the Princess of Cathay through the agency of the “slave of the lamp” who also builds in a night a palace for her reception. One window of this palace was left unfinished, and no one could complete it to match the others. Aladdin therefore directs the jinns to finish it, which is done in the twinkling of an eye (hence the phrase “to finish Aladdin’s window”; that is, to attempt to finish something begun by a greater man). After many years the original owner of the lamp, a magician, in order to recover it, goes through the city offering new lamps for old. The wife of Aladdin, tempted by this idea, exchanges the old rusty magic lamp for a brand new useless one (hence the phrase “to exchange old lamps for new”), and the magician transports both palace and princess to Africa, but the ring helps Aladdin to find them. He kills the magician, and, possessing himself of the lamp, transports the palace to Cathay, and at the sultan’s death succeeds to the throne.
=Al Araf= (äl ä rȧf).--The Mohammedan limbo, between paradise and jehennam, for those who die without sufficient merit to deserve the former, and without sufficient demerit to deserve the latter. Here lunatics, idiots, and infants go at death, according to the Koran. The subject of an uncompleted poem by Edgar A. Poe.
=Alasnam= (a-las´nam).--The hero of a story in the Arabian Nights entitled “The History of Prince Zeyn Alasnam and the Sultan of the Genii,” Alasnam has eight diamond statues, but had to go in quest of a ninth more precious still, to fill the vacant pedestal. The prize was found in the lady who became his wife, at once the most beautiful and the most perfect of her race.
=Albracca= (äl-bräk´kä).--In Bojardo’s Orlando Innamorato, a castle of Cathay to which Angelica retires in grief at being scorned and shunned by Rinaldo, with whom she is deeply in love. Here she is besieged by Agricane, King of Tartary, who resolves to win her, notwithstanding her indifference to his suit.
=Alceste= (äl-sest´).--The principal character in Molière’s comedy The Misanthrope: a disagreeable but upright man who scorns the civilities of life and the shams of society.
=Alcina= (äl-che´na).--A fairy, the embodiment of carnal delights, in Boiardo’s Orlando Innamorato and Ariosoto’s Orlando Furioso the sister of Logistalla (reason) and Morgana (lasciviousness). When tired of her lovers she changed them into trees, beasts, etc., and was finally, by means of a magic ring, displayed in her real senility and ugliness. Compare Acrasia, Armida, and Circe.
=Aldine= (al´din) =Press=.--The press established at Venice by Aldus Manutius. See Manutius.
=Aldingar= (al´ding-gär), =Sir=.--A character in Percy’s Reliques. This ballad relates how the honor of Queen Elianor, wife of Henry Plantagenet, impeached by Sir Aldingar, her steward, was submitted to the chance of a duel, and how an angel, in the form of a little child, appeared as her champion, and established her innocence.
=Alhambra= (al-ham´brä).--A volume of legends and descriptive sketches by Washington Irving. “The account of my midnight rambles about the old place,” says the author, “literally true, yet gives but a feeble idea of my feelings and impressions, and of the singular haunts I was exploring. Everything in the work relating to myself and to the actual inhabitants of the Alhambra is unexaggerated fact; it was only in the legends that I indulged in romancing, and these were founded on material picked up about the place.”
=Ali Baba= (ä´lē bä´bä).--A character in The Arabian Nights’ Entertainments, in the story “Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves” a poor wood-cutter who, concealed in a tree, sees a band of robbers enter a secret cavern, and overhears the magic words “open sesame” which opens its door. After their departure he repeats the spell and the door opens, disclosing a room full of treasures with which he loads his asses and returns home. His brother Cassim, who discovers his secret, enters the cave alone, forgets the word “sesame,” and is found and cut to pieces by the robbers. The thieves, discovering that Ali Baba knows their secret, resolve to kill him, but are outwitted by Morgiana, a slave.
=Alice in Wonderland.=--A little girl through whose dream pass the scenes of Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland and Behind the Looking-glass, two popular stories for children by Lewis Carroll (Charles Dodgson). They have been translated into several European languages.
=Alice Brand.=--In Scott’s Lady of the Lake, Alice signed Urgan the dwarf thrice with the sign of the cross, and he became “the fairest knight in all Scotland”; when Alice recognized in him her own brother.
=Allan-a-Dale.=--A friend of Robin Hood’s in the ballad. He is introduced into Sir Walter Scott’s Ivanhoe as Robin Hood’s minstrel.
=All’s Well That Ends Well.=--A comedy by Shakespeare. The hero and heroine are Bertram, Count of Roussillon, and Helena, a physician’s daughter, who are married by the command of the king of France, but part because Bertram thought the lady not sufficiently well-born for him. Bertram flees to Florence, but, ultimately, Helena wins his love and all ends well.
=Allworthy, Mr.=--In Fielding’s novel of Tom Jones, a man of amiable and benevolent character; intended for Mr. Ralph Allen, who was also celebrated by Pope.
=Almighty Dollar.=--A personification of American worship. Washington Irving originated the phrase in The Creole Village.
=Alp.=--Siege of Corinth, Byron. The hero of this poem.
=Amadis de Gaul.=--The hero of an ancient and celebrated Portuguese romance.
=Amanda= (a-man´dä).--A young woman who impersonates Spring in Thomson’s Seasons.
=Amaryllis=, =Amarillis= (am-a-ril´is).--In Spenser’s pastoral Colin Clout’s Come Home Again, is the countess of Derby. Her name was Alice, and she was the youngest of the six daughters of Sir John Spenser, of Althorpe, ancestor of the noble houses of Spenser and Marlborough. After the death of the earl, the widow married Sir Thomas Egerton, keeper of the great seal (afterward baron of Ellesmere and viscount Brackley). It was for this very lady, during her widowhood, that Milton wrote his Arcades.
=Ambrose.=--A sharper in Lesage’s Gil Blas, who assumed in the presence of Gil Blas the character of a devotee. He was in league with a fellow who assumed the name of Don Raphael, and a young woman who called herself Camilla, cousin of Donna Mencia. These three sharpers allure Gil Blas to a house which Camilla says is hers, fleece him of his ring, his portmanteau, and his money, decamp, and leave him to find out that the house is only a hired lodging.
=Amelia= (a-mē´liä).--The title of one of Fielding’s novels, and the name of its heroine, who is distinguished for her tenderness and affection. The character of Amelia is said to have been drawn from Fielding’s wife.
=Amine= (ä-mēn´).--In Arabian Nights a female character who leads her three sisters by her side as a leash of hounds.
=Aminte= (ä-mant´).--Les Précieuses Ridicules, Molière. A contradictory character in this comedy. She dismisses her admirers for proposing to marry her, scolds her uncle for not carrying himself as a gentleman, and marries a valet whom she believes to be a nobleman.
=Amlet= (am´let).--The name of a gamester in Vanbrugh’s Confederacy. =Amoret= (am´ō-ret).--(1) The name of a lady married to Sir Scudamore, in Spenser’s Faërie Queene. She is the type of a devoted, loving wife. (2) The heroine of Fletcher’s pastoral drama, The Faithful Shepherdess.
=Amys and Amylion.=--Two faithful friends. The Pylades and Orestes of the feudal ages. Their adventures are the subjects of ancient romances.
=Ancient Man.=--In Tennyson’s Idylls of the King, means Merlin, the old magician, King Arthur’s protector and teacher.
=Ancient Mariner, The.=--A poem by Samuel Taylor Coleridge. The hero, an ancient mariner “with a long gray beard and glittering eye,” suffers terrible evils, and likewise inflicts them on his companions, from having shot an albatross, a bird of good omen. All his comrades perish of hunger, but, as he repents, he is permitted to regain the land. At intervals his agony returns, and he is driven from place to place to ease his soul by confessing his crime and sufferings to his fellows, and enforcing upon them a lesson of love for “all things, both great and small.”
“The Ancient Mariner,” says Swinburne, “is perhaps the most wonderful of all poems. In reading it we seem rapt into that paradise revealed by Swedenborg, where music and color and perfume were one, where you could see the hues and hear the harmonies of heaven. For absolute melody and splendor it were hardly rash to call it the first poem in the language.”
=Andrews, Joseph.=--The hero in Fielding’s novel by the same name, written to ridicule Richardson’s Pamela. Fielding presents Joseph Andrews as a brother to the modest and prudish Pamela, and pictures him as a model young man.
=Angelica= (an-jel´i-kä).--(1) In Bojardo’s Orlando Innamorato, is daughter of Galaphron, king of Cathay. She goes to Paris, and Orlando falls in love with her, forgetful of wife, sovereign, country and glory. Angelica, on the other hand, disregards Orlando, but passionately loves Rinaldo, who positively dislikes her. Angelica and Rinaldo drink of certain fountains, when opposite effects are produced in their hearts, for then Rinaldo loves Angelica, while Angelica loses all love for Rinaldo. (2) The heroine of Congreve’s comedy of Love for Love; in love with Valentine, but the ward of Sir Sampson Legend, who seeks to marry her. She jilts the old man, however, and marries the younger lover. Angelica is supposed to represent Mrs. Bracegirdle; Valentine the author himself who was enamoured of the actress, and was the rival of the dramatist, Rowe, in her affections. (3) The heroine of Ariosto’s Orlando Furioso. She was beloved by Orlando, but married Medoro. Also the name of the heroine of Farquhar’s plays of the Constant Couple, and Sir Harry Wildair.
=Angelic Doctor.=--A name bestowed upon Thomas Aquinas, because he discussed the knotty point of “how many angels can dance on the point of a needle.”
=Angelo= (an´je-lō).--A character in Shakespeare’s _Measure for Measure_; also the name of a goldsmith in the Comedy of Errors.
=Angiolina.=--The wife of the doge of Venice, in Byron’s _Marino Faliero_.
=Anna Karénina= (än´nä kä-rā´nē-nä).--A novel of Tolstoy, perhaps the most representative of his works. It first appeared serially, but with long intervals, in a Moscow review, and was published in 1877.
=Annabel Lee.=--The title and subject of a poem by Edgar Allan Poe, which begins--
It was many and many a year ago, In a kingdom by the sea, That a maiden there lived whom you may know By the name of Annabel Lee.
=Anne.=--Perrault’s La Barbe Bleue, the sister of Fatima, the seventh and last wife of Bluebeard. Fatima, having disobeyed her lord by looking into the locked chamber, is allowed a short respite before execution. Sister Anne ascends the high tower of the castle, with the hope of seeing her brothers, who were expected to arrive every moment. Fatima, in her agony, keeps asking “sister Anne” if she can see them, and Bluebeard keeps crying out for Fatima to use greater dispatch. As the patience of both is exhausted the brothers arrive, and Fatima is rescued from death.
=Annie Laurie=, eldest of the three daughters of Sir Robert Laurie, of Maxwelton. In 1709 she married James Fergusson, of Craigdarroch, and was the mother of Alexander Fergusson, the hero of Burns’ song The Whistle. The song of Annie Laurie was written by William Douglas, of Fingland, in the stewardy of Kirkcudbright, hero of the song Willie Was a Wanton Wag.
=Antipholus of Ephesus= (an-tif´ō-lus ov ef´e-sus), and =Antipholus of Syracuse= (sir´a-kūs).--Twin brothers, sons to Ægeon and Æmilia, in Shakespeare’s Comedy of Errors.
=Antonio= (än-tō´nē-ō).--(1) The merchant of Venice in Shakespeare’s play of that name, the friend of Bassanio, and the object of Shylock’s hatred. (2) The usurping Duke of Milan, and brother to Prospero, in Shakespeare’s Tempest. (3) The father of Proteus, in Shakespeare’s Two Gentlemen of Verona. (4) A minor character in Shakespeare’s Much Ado About Nothing. (5) A sea captain, friend to Sebastian, in Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night.
=Antony and Cleopatra.=--Historical tragedy by Shakespeare which may be considered as a continuation of Julius Cæsar. In the opening scene of Julius Cæsar absolute power is lodged in one man. In the conclusion of Antony and Cleopatra a second Cæsar is again in possession of absolute power, and the entire Roman world is limited under one imperial ruler. There are four prominent characters in this play: Cleopatra, voluptuous, fascinating, gross in her faults, but great in the power of her affections; Octavius Cæsar, cool, prudent, calculating, avaricious; Antony, quick, brave, reckless, prodigal; Enobarbus, a friend of Antony, at first jocular and blunt, but transformed by penitence into a grief-stricken man who dies in the bitterness of despair.
=Apocalypse.=--The Greek name of the last book of the Testament, termed in English Revelation. It has been generally attributed to the Apostle St. John, but some wholly reject it as spurious. In the first centuries many churches disowned it, and in the fourth century it was excluded from the sacred canon by the council of Laodicea, but was again received by other councils, and confirmed by that of Trent, held in the year 1545. Most commentators suppose it to have been written after the destruction of Jerusalem, about A. D. 96; while others assign it an earlier date. Its figures and symbols are impressive.
=Apocrypha= (a-pok´ri-fä).--The word originally meant secret or hidden, and it is said that books of the Apocrypha are not found in either the Chaldean or the Hebrew language. These books were not in the Jewish canon, but they were received as canonical by the Catholic church, by the council of Trent. The apocryphal writings are ten in number: Baruch, Ecclesiasticus, Wisdom of Solomon, Tobit, Judith, two books of the Maccabees, Song of the Three Children, Susannah, and Bell and the Dragon. Their style proves that they were a part of the Jewish-Greek literature of Alexandria, within three hundred years before Christ; and as the Septuagint Greek version of the Hebrew Bible came from the same quarter, it was often accompanied by these Greek writings, and they gained a general circulation. No trace of them is found in the Talmud; they are mostly of legendary character, but some of them are of value for their historical information, their moral and maxims, and for the illustrations they give of ancient life.
=Apologia pro Vita Sua:= “Being a History of His Religious Opinions,” published by John Henry Newman. The Apologia will probably never be equaled as a specimen of acute self-analysis. The only subsequent work of a similar nature with which it can be compared or associated is Mr. Gladstone’s Chapter of Autobiography, which was designed to defend the consistency of his action in reference to the Irish church.
=Arabian Nights Entertainments=, consisting of one thousand and one stories, told by the sultana of the Indies to divert the sultan from the execution of a bloody vow he made to marry a lady every day and have her head cut off next morning, to avenge himself for the disloyalty of the first sultana. The story on which all the others hang is familiar. Scheherezade, the generous, beautiful young daughter of the vizier, like another Esther, resolves to risk her life in order to save the poor maidens of her city, whom the sultan is marrying and beheading at the rate of one a day. She plans to tell an interesting story each night to the sultan, breaking off in a very exciting place in order that the sultan may be tempted to spare her life so that he may hear the sequel.
=Aram= (ā´ram), =Eugene.=--A romance by Lord Lytton, founded on the story of the Knaresborough schoolmaster who committed a murder under peculiar circumstances.
=Archimage= (är´ki-māj), or =Archimago= (är-ki-mā´gō).--A character in Spenser’s Faërie Queene, a hypocrite or deceiver. He is opposed to holiness embodied in the Red Cross Knight, wins the confidence of the knight in the disguise of a reverend hermit, and by the help of Duessa, or Deceit, separates him from Una, or Truth.
=B=
=Barons’ Wars, The.=--An historical poem, in six books, by Michael Drayton. “In some historic sketches,” says Campbell, “he reaches a manner beyond himself. The pictures of Mortimer and the queen, and of Edward’s entrance into the castle, are splendid and spirited.”
=Bartholomew= (bär-thol´ō-mū) =Fair.=--A comedy by Ben Jonson, valuable for its lively pictures of the manners of the times. It is chiefly remarkable for the exhibition of odd humors and tumblers’ tricks.
=Basilisco= (bas-i-lis´kō).--Soliman and Perseda, old play. A boasting knight who became so popular with his foolish bragging that his name grew into a proverb.
=Bassanio= (ba-sä´ni-ō).--Merchant of Venice, Shakespeare. The lover of Portia who won her when he chose a leaden casket in which her portrait was hidden.
=Bath, Major.=--Amelia, Henry Fielding. A noble-minded gentleman, pompous in spite of poverty, and striving to live according to the “dignity and honor of man.” He tries to hide his poverty under bold speech even when found doing menial service.
=Battle, Sarah.=--Essays of Elia, Lamb. Sarah considered whist the business of life and literature one of the relaxations. When a young gentleman, of a literary turn, said to her he had no objection to unbend his mind for a little time by taking a hand with her, Sarah declared, “Whist was her life business; her duty; the thing she came into the world to do. She unbent her mind afterward over a book.”
=Beatrice= (bē´a-tris, or -trēs).--Divine Comedy, Dante. Daughter of an illustrious family of Florence for whom Dante had a great love. In his poem she is represented as being his guide through paradise. Beatrice is also the name of the heroine of Shakespeare’s Much Ado About Nothing.
=Beauty and the Beast.=--Fairy tale by Mme. Villeneuve. Oft repeated in stories for children, Beauty and the Beast are known in many forms. In the original tale young and lovely Beauty saved the life of her father by putting herself in the power of a frightful but kind-hearted monster, whose respectful affection and deep melancholy finally overcame her aversion to his hideousness, and induced her to consent to marry him. By her love Beast was set free from enchantment and allowed to assume his own form, a handsome and graceful young prince.
=Bede, Adam.=--Adam Bede, George Eliot. An ideal workman, hero of the novel.
=Bedivere= (bed´i-vēr).--Tales of the Round Table. Bedivere was the last knight of King Arthur’s Round Table.
=Beggar’s Opera, The=, by John Gay, first acted at Lincoln’s Inn Fields, in 1727, is the first, and perhaps the best, specimen of English ballad opera. It was acted in London amid unprecedented applause, and obtained scarcely less popularity through the provinces. It was said that it made Rich, the manager, gay; and Gay, the poet, rich. Hazlitt says of the Opera, that “it is indeed a masterpiece of wit and genius, not to say of morality.”
=Belarius= (be-lā´ri-us).--A nobleman and soldier in the army of Cymbeline, king of Britain.
=Belch= (belch), =Sir Toby.=--Twelfth Night, Shakespeare. Uncle to Olivia, a jolly, carefree fellow, type of the roysterers of Queen Elizabeth’s days.
=Belinda= (be-lin´dä).--Rape of the Lock, Pope. Poetical name of the heroine, whose real name was said to be Arabella Fermor. In a frolic Lord Petre cut a lock from the lady’s hair. This was so much resented that it broke the great friendship between the two families. The poem, Rape of the Lock, was written to bring the people into a better temper and lead to reconciliation. Belinda is also the name of the heroine in a novel written by Maria Edgeworth.
=Bell, Adam.=--Old Ballad. A famous wild outlaw belonging to the north country and celebrated for his skill as an archer.
=Bell, Laura.=--Pendennis, Thackeray. One of the sweetest heroines in English literature.
=Bellman.=--L’Allegro, Milton. The watchman who patrolled the streets and called out the hour of night. Sometimes he repeated scraps of pious poetry in order to charm away danger.
=Bell-the-Cat.=--Name given to a nobleman at Lauder, Scotland, early in the sixteenth century. King James II. called an assembly of Scottish barons to resist a threatened invasion of his realm by Edward IV. of England. After long discussion one of the barons related the nursery tale of a convention of mice in which it was proposed to hang a bell on the cat’s neck, to give warning of her presence. No one would serve on the mouse committee. To the story Archibald Douglas responded by saying, “I will bell the cat,” and was afterward known by the name, Bell-the-Cat.
=Belphœbe= (bel-fē´bē).--Faërie Queene, Spenser. A delicate and graceful flattery offered to Queen Elizabeth through the huntress, Belphœbe, intended as a likeness of the queen. The name taken from belle, meaning beautiful, and Phœbe, a name sometimes bestowed on Diana.
=Belvawney, Miss.=--Nicholas Nickleby, Dickens. She belonged to the wonderful Portsmouth theater, always took the part of a page and gloried in silk stockings.
=Belvidera= (bel-vē-dā´rä).--Venice Preserved, Otway. The beautiful heroine of the almost forgotten tragedy. Sir Walter Scott said “more tears have been shed, probably, for the sorrows of Belvidera and Monimia than for those of Juliet and Desdemona.”
=Benedick= (ben´ē-dik).--Much Ado About Nothing, Shakespeare. A young lord of Padua who is gentleman, wit, and soldier. He was a pronounced bachelor, but after a courtship full of witty sayings and coquetry he marries the lovely Beatrice. From this gentleman comes the name Benedick or Benedict, applied to married men who were not going to marry.
=Benengeli= (ben-en-gē´lē), =Cid Hamet.=--Don Quixote, Cervantes. Supposed to be a writer of chronicles among the Moors and claimed as authority for the tales of adventure recorded by Cervantes. The name, Cid Hamet, has been often quoted by writers.
=Ben Hur.=--A novel by General Lew Wallace. Messala, the Roman playmate and young friend of Ben Hur, afterward became his remorseless enemy. Ambitious, hard, and cruel, when he came into power he made Ben Hur a galley slave, confiscated his property and imprisoned the mother and sister. Ben Hur escaped, returned later as a wealthy Roman, and entered in the famous chariot race against Messala, who had put up enormous sums in wagers. Messala recognized Ben Hur, and hoped to win the race and bring him to final ruin; but Messala himself was thrown and seriously injured. His cruelties were made known, and he was at last slain by his wife, Isas, the daughter of Balthasar.
=Bennet, Mrs.=--Amelie, Fielding. An improper character.
=Benvolio= (ben-vō´li-ō).--Romeo and Juliet, Shakespeare. One of Romeo’s friends who would “quarrel with a man that had a hair more or a hair less in his beard than he had.” Mercutio says to him, “Thou hast quarreled with a man for coughing in the street.”
=Beowulf= (bā´ō-wulf).--The name of an Anglo-Saxon epic poem of the sixth century. It received its name from Beowulf, who delivered Hrothgar, King of Denmark, from the monster Grendel. This Grendel was half monster and half man, and night after night stole into the king’s palace, called Heorot, and slew sometimes as many as thirty of the sleepers at a time. Beowulf put himself at the head of a mixed band of warriors, went against the monster and slew it. This epic is very Ossianic in style, full of beauties, and most interesting.
=Bertram= (ber´tram).--Guy Mannering, Scott. The character was suggested by James Annesley, Esq., rightful heir of the earldom of Anglesey, of which he was dispossessed by his uncle Richard. He died in 1743. Bertram was also the name of the haughty and dissolute count, husband of Helena in Shakespeare’s comedy All’s Well That Ends Well.
=Bianca= (bi-an´kä).--(1) The youngest daughter of Baptista of Padua, as gentle and meek as her sister Katherine was violent and irritable. (2) The sweetheart, “almost” wife of Cassio, in Shakespeare’s Othello.
=Biglow Papers, The.=--A series of satirical poems, in the quaint Yankee dialect, ascribed to a certain Hosea Biglow, but really written by the American poet, James Russell Lowell.
=Birch, Harvey.=--The Spy, Cooper. The chief character of the novel.
=Biron= (bē-rôn´).--Love’s Labor’s Lost, Shakespeare. A merry madcap young lord, in attendance on Ferdinand, king of Navarre.
=Black-Eyed Susan.=--Ballad, John Gay. The heroine of the popular sea song.
=Black Knight of the Black Lands.=--Sir Peread. Called by Tennyson Night or Nox. He was one of the four brothers who kept the passages of Castle Dangerous, and was overthrown by Sir Gareth. Idylls (Gareth and Lynette).
=Blatant Beast.=--Faërie Queene, Spenser. A bellowing monster typical of slander; or, an impersonation of what we now call Vox Populi, or the Voice of the People.
=Bleak House.=--A novel by Charles Dickens, the title of which was suggested, it is said, by the situation of a certain tall brick house at Broadstairs, which stands high above and far away from the remainder of the town, and in which the author resided for several seasons.
=Blimber= (blim´er), =Miss Cornelia.=--Dombey and Son, Dickens. The daughter of Dr. Blimber, the head of a first-class educational establishment conducted on the forcing, or cramming, principle. She is a very learned, grave, and precise young lady, “no light nonsense about her,” who has become “dry and sandy with working in the graves of deceased languages.”
=Blithedale= (blīth´dāl) =Romance, The.=--A story by Nathaniel Hawthorne, founded on the author’s experience as a member of the Brook Farm community. “Its predominant idea,” says R. H. Hutton, “is to delineate the deranging effect of an absorbing philanthropic idea on a powerful mind; the unscrupulous sacrifices of personal claims which it induces, and the misery in which it ends. There is scarcely one incident in the tale properly so called except the catastrophe.”
=Blowzelinda= (blou-ze-lin´dä), or =Blowsalinda= (blou-za-lin´dä).--Shepherd’s Week, John Gay. The country girl, heroine of this pastoral poem, written more than one hundred and fifty years ago, but quoted as a picture of the poverty and rudeness of rural life at that time.
=Bobadil= (bob´a-dil), =Captain.=--Every Man in His Humor, Jonson. A boasting coward, who passes himself off with young and simple people for a Hector.
=Bœuf, Front de= (beuf, fron du).--Ivanhoe, Scott. One of King John’s followers. A ferocious scoundrel.
=Bois-Guilbert= (bwa´gel-bär´), =Brian de.=--Ivanhoe, Scott. A brave but cruel, crafty, and dissolute commander of the Knights Templar.
=Boniface= (bon´i-fās).--The Beaux’s Stratagem, Farquhar. A fine representation of an English landlord. Hence applied to landlords generally.
=Bontemps= (bôn-ton´), =Roger.=--Song, Beranger. Known in France as the personification of care-free leisure. The equivalent, among the French peasantry, for the English proverb, “There’s a good time coming,” is Roger Bontemps. This one of Beranger’s most celebrated songs was written in 1814.
=Bottom, Nick.=--A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Shakespeare. A man who fancies he can do everything, and do it better than anyone else. Shakespeare has drawn him as profoundly ignorant and with an overflow of self-conceit. Oberon, the fairy king, desiring to punish Titania, his queen, commissioned Puck to watch her till she fell asleep, and then to anoint her eyelids with the juice of a plant called “love-in-idleness,” the effect of which, when she awoke, was to make her dote upon Bottom, upon whom Puck had fixed an ass’s head.
=Bourgeois Gentilhomme, Le= (bōōr-zhwä´ zhon-tē-yōm´ lû).--A comedy by Molière, with music by Lulli, produced in 1670. The hero is a tradesman, M. Jourdain, who is ambitious to marry his daughter to a titled husband.
=Bowling, Tom.=--Roderick Random, Smollett. A name made almost famous as hero of the novel. Critics have said, “The character of Tom Bowling, in Roderick Random will be regarded in all ages as a happy exhibition of those naval heroes to whom Britain is indebted for so much of her happiness and glory.” The Tom Bowling referred to in Dibdin’s famous sea song was Captain Thomas Dibdin, brother of Charles Dibdin, who wrote the song.
=Boz= (boz), =Sketches by.=--By Charles Dickens. They were the first of their class. Dickens was the first to unite the delicately playful thread of Charles Lamb’s street musings--half experiences, half bookish fantasies--with the vigorous wit and humor and observation of Goldsmith’s Citizen of the World, his Indigent Philosopher, and Man in Black, and twine them together in the golden cord of essay, which combines literature with philosophy, humor with morality, amusement with instruction. The most powerful and popular of the sketches are probably those entitled, A Visit to Newgate, The Drunkard’s Death, Election for Beadle, Greenwich Fair, and Miss Evans at the Eagle.
=Bracebridge Hall=, or The Humorists.--Miscellaneous sketches, in fiction and essay, by Washington Irving, published in 1822.
=Brag, Jack.=--Jack Brag, Theodore Hook. Hero of the novel and a spirited embodiment of the arts employed by a vulgar pretender to creep into aristocratic society, and of his ultimate discomfiture. General Burgoyne figures in an old ballad known as Sir Jack Brag.
=Bramble, Matthew.=--Humphrey Clinker, Smollett. Noted character in the novel described as “an odd kind of humorist,” afflicted with the gout, and “always on the fret,” but full of generosity and benevolence.
=Brass, Sally, and Sampson.=--Old Curiosity Shop, Dickens. Brother and sister, well mated, he a shystering lawyer and she getting ahead of him in villainy. Sampson was dishonest, sentimental, and affected in manner, and both are interesting characters to read about.
=Brentford= (brent´fōrd), =The Two Kings of.=--The Rehearsal, Villiers. Much question has been raised as to who was to be ridiculed under these characters. The royal brothers, Charles II. and James II., have been suggested; others say the fighting kings of Granada. In the farce the two kings are represented as walking hand in hand, as dancing together and singing in concert.
=Briana= (brī-ā´nä).--Spenser’s Faërie Queene. The lady of a castle who demanded for toll the locks of every lady and the beard of every knight that passed. This toll was established because Sir Crudor, with whom she was in love, refused to marry her till she had provided him with human hair sufficient to purfle a mantle with. Sir Crudor, having been overthrown in knightly combat by Sir Calidore, who refused to give the passage pay, is made to release Briana from the condition imposed on her, and Briana swears to discontinue the discourteous toll.
=Brick, Jefferson.=--In Dickens’ Martin Chuzzlewit. A very weak, pale young man, the war correspondent of the New York Rowdy Journal, of which Colonel Diver was editor.
=Bride of Abydos, The.=--A Turkish tale, told in octosyllabic verse by Lord Byron, and published in 1813. It is in two cantos, and opens with the well-known song imitated from Goethe, beginning: “Know ye the land where the cypress and myrtle.” The name of the “bride” is Zuleika, and that of her lover, Selim.
=Bride of Lammermoor, The.=--A romance of Sir Walter Scott, published in 1819, and characterized as a tragedy of the highest order, uniting excellence of plot with Scott’s usual merits of character and description.
=Brook Farm.=--The full name was “Brook Farm Institute of Agriculture and Education,” a stock company of nearly seventy members, located on a farm of two hundred acres at West Roxbury, Mass. Among the members were George Ripley, Charles A. Dana, George William Curtis, Margaret Fuller and Nathaniel Hawthorne. Among their frequent visitors were Ralph Waldo Emerson, Theodore Parker, Bronson Alcott. This idyllic life lasted about five years, from 1841 to 1846. Brook Farm was a financial failure but it was important in intellectual results. Hawthorne has written the story of the experiment in Blithedale Romance.
=Brown, Tom.=--Tom Brown’s School Days and Tom Brown at Oxford, Thomas Hughes. The hero of these stories of school days, a typical English schoolboy and undergraduate.
=Brunhild= (brön´hild).--Nibelungenlied. The story of Brunhild holds large place in ancient German romance. She was, herself, a warrior, proud and skillful, and she promised to be the bride of the man who could conquer her in three trials, in hurling the lance, in throwing the stone, and in leaping after the stone when thrown. By the arts and bravery of Siegfried, she was deluded into marrying Gunther, king of Burgundy; but, discovering the trick, she planned and accomplished the destruction of Siegfried, and the humiliation of Chriemhild, his wife.
=Bumble, Mr.=--Oliver Twist, Dickens. A pompous, disagreeable beadle, who figures largely in the beginning of the story. The name Bumble has since attached itself to the office.
=Bunsby= (bunz´bi), =Jack.=--Dombey and Son, Dickens. A commander of a ship looked up to as an oracle by his friend Captain Cuttle. He is described as wearing a “rapt and imperturbable manner,” and seeming to be “always on the lookout for something in the extremest distance.”
=Bunthorne= (bun´thôrn).--Patience, Sullivan. A gloomy poet showing most distinctly in his gloom surrounded by the characters of a comic opera. He was inserted as a satire on the æsthetic craze, turning into ridicule the imitators of Rossetti.
=Burchell= (ber´chel), =Mr.=--Vicar of Wakefield, Goldsmith. A prominent character who passes himself off as a poor man, but is really a baronet in disguise. He is noted for his habit of crying out “Fudge!” by way of expressing his strong contempt for the opinions of others.
=Burd Helen.=--Scotch Ballad. A traditional name standing for constancy. She was carried to England by fairies and imprisoned in a castle. The youngest brother of the fair Burd Helen was guided by the enchanter Merlin and accomplished the perilous task of rescuing his sister. This is recited in the line “Childe Rowland to the dark tower came,” quoted by Shakespeare. Only a fragment of the old ballad has been preserved.
=Buskin.=--Tragedy. The Greek tragic actors used to wear a sandal some two or three inches thick, to elevate their stature. To this sole was attached a very elegant buskin.
=Buzfuz=, (buz´fuz) =Serjeant.=--Pickwick Papers, Dickens. A pompous, chaffing lawyer, who bullies Mr. Pickwick and the witnesses in the famous breach of promise suit, Bardell vs. Pickwick.
=Byfield.=--A New England parish, the scene of an historical novel by John Lewis Ewell. Here lived the ancestor of Longfellow to whom the poet dedicated The Village Blacksmith, himself a blacksmith, keeping his accounts in peculiar orthography. According to the deed of sale in 1681, the Byfield Indians got a larger price from the first English settlers than was paid for Manhattan Island.
=C=
=Caius= (kā´yus), =Doctor.=--Merry Wives of Windsor, Shakespeare. A physician in the comedy who adds a touch of humor. He is most conspicuous as the lover of Anne Page.
=Calandrino= (kä-län-drē´nō).--A simpleton frequently introduced in Boccaccio’s Decameron; expressly made to be befooled and played upon. His mishaps, as Macaulay states, “have made all Europe merry for more than four centuries.”
=Caleb.=--(1) The enchantress who carried off St. George in infancy. (2) A character in Dryden’s satire of Absalom and Achitophel, meant for Lord Grey, one of the adherents of the Duke of Monmouth.
=Caleb Quotem.=--A parish clerk or jack-of-all-trades, in Coleman’s play The Review, or Ways of Windsor. Coleman borrowed the character from Throw Physic to the Dogs, an old farce.
=Caliban= (kal´i-ban).--A savage and deformed slave of Prospero in Shakespeare’s Tempest. He is represented as being the “freckled whelp” of Sycorax, a foul hag, who was banished from Argier (or Algiers) to the desert island afterward inhabited by Prospero. From his rude, uncouth language we get the phrase “Caliban style,” “Caliban speech,” meaning the coarsest possible use of words.
=Calidore= (kal´i-dōr).--A knight in Spenser’s Faërie Queene, typical of courtesy, and said to be intended for a portrait of Sir Philip Sidney.
=Calista.=--The name of a celebrated character in Rowe’s _Fair Penitent_.
=Callipolis= (ka-lip´o-lis).--Battle of Alcazar, George Peele. A character in the Battle of Alcazar, used by Sir Walter Scott and others as a synonym for lady-love, sweetheart, charmer. Sir Walter always spells the word Callipolis, but Peele calls it Calipolis.
=Calydon= (kal´i-don).--A forest celebrated in the romances relating to King Arthur and Merlin.
=Camaralzaman, Prince.=--Arabian Nights.--One of the stories of the Arabian Nights and the name of a prince who fell in love with Badoura, princess of China, the moment he saw her.
=Camancho= (kä-mä´chō).--Don Quixote, Cervantes. A character in an episode in Don Quixote, who gets cheated out of his bride after having made great preparations for their wedding.
=Camballo= (kam-bal´o), or =Cambel=.--Faërie Queene, Spenser. A brother of Candace. He challenged every suitor to his sister’s hand, and overthrew all except Triamond, who married the lady.
=Cambalu.=--In the Voyages of Marco Polo the chief city of the province of Cathay.
=Cambuscan= (kam-bus-kan´, or kam-bus´kan).--A Tartar king identical with Genghis Khan. The king of the Far East sent Cambuscan a “steed of brass, which, between sunrise and sunset, would carry its rider to any spot on the earth.” All that was required was to whisper the name of the place in the horse’s ear, mount upon his back, and turn a pin set in his ear. When the rider had arrived at the place required, he had to turn another pin, and the horse instantly descended, and, with another screw of the pin, vanished till it was again required. This story is begun by Chaucer in the Squire’s Tale, but was never finished.
=Camelot= (kam´e-lot).--A parish in Somersetshire, England (now called Queen’s Camel), where King Arthur is said to have held his court. In this place there are still to be seen vast intrenchments of an ancient town or station--called by the inhabitants “King Arthur’s Palace.”
=Camilla= (ka-mil´ä).--(1) The virgin queen of the Volscians, famous for her fleetness of foot. She aided Turnus against Æneas. (2) Wife of Anselmo of Florence in Don Quixote. Anselmo, in order to rejoice in her incorruptible fidelity, induced his friend Lothario to try to corrupt her. This he did, and Camilla was not trial-proof, but fell. Anselmo for a time was kept in the dark, but at the end Camilla eloped with Lothario. Anselmo died of grief, Lothario was slain in battle, and Camilla died in a convent.
=Camille= (kä-mēl´).--(1) In Corneille’s tragedy of Les Horaces. When her brother meets her and bids her congratulate him for his victory over the three curiatii, she gives utterance to her grief for the death of her lover. Horace says, “What! can you prefer a man to the interests of Rome?” Whereupon Camille denounces Rome, and concludes with these words: “Oh, that it were my lot!” (2) Whitehead dramatized the subject and called it The Roman Father.
=Canace= (kan´a-se).--Faërie Queene, Spenser. A paragon among women, the daughter of King Cambuscan, to whom the king of the East sent as a present a mirror and a ring. The mirror would tell the lady if any man on whom she set her heart would prove true or false, and the ring (which was to be worn on her thumb) would enable her to understand the language of birds and to converse with them. Canace was courted by a crowd of suitors, but her brother gave out that anyone who pretended to her hand must encounter him in single combat and overthrow him. She ultimately married Triamond, son of the fairy, Agapë.
=Candide= (_kä_N-dēd´), =ou l’Optimisme= (ōō lop-tē-mēzm´).--A philosophical novel by Voltaire, published in 1759. It is named from its hero, who bears all the worst ills of life with a cool, philosophical indifference, laughing at its miseries. Written ostensibly to ridicule philosophical optimism, and on the spur given to pessimist theories by the Lisbon earthquake, Candide is really as comprehensive as it is desultory. Religion, political government, national peculiarities, human weakness, ambition, love, loyalty--all come in for the unfailing sneer. The moral, wherever there is a moral, is, “Be tolerant, and cultivez vôtre jardin”; that is to say, Do whatsoever work you have to do diligently.
=Candor, Mrs.=--A most energetic slanderer in Sheridan’s _School for Scandal_.
=Canterbury Tales, The=, by Geoffrey Chaucer, consist of a Prologue and twenty-four narratives of which only two, Chaucer’s Tales of Melibœus and The Parson’s Tale, are in prose, the remainder being written in couplets of ten syllables, which have laid the foundation for the most popular form of English verse.
The plan of the poem is as follows: The author supposes that, on the evening before he starts on a pilgrimage to the shrine of St. Thomas-à-Becket, at Canterbury, he stops at the Tabard Inn, in Southwark, where he finds himself in the midst of a company of twenty-one, of all ranks and ages and both sexes, who are also bound for the same destination. After supper, the host of Tabard, Harry Baillie by name, proposes that, to beguile the journey there and back, the pilgrims shall each of them tell two tales as they come and go; and that he who by the general voice shall have told his story best, shall, on their return to the hostelry, be treated to a supper at the common cost. This is agreed to with acclamation; and, accordingly, the pilgrims start next morning on their way, listening, as they ride, to the heroic tale of the brave and gentle knight who has been chosen to narrate the first tale.
It will be understood that Chaucer does not profess to give to the world all the stories told. As a matter of fact, he gives only twenty-four, of which two have been already named, the remainder being those told by the Knight, the Miller, the Reeve, the Cook, the Man of Law, the Wife of Bath, the Friar, the Sompnour, the Clerk, the Squire, the Franklin, the Doctor, the Pardoner, the Shipman, the Prioress, the Monk, the Nun’s Priest, the second Nun, the Canon’s Yeoman, the Manciple, and Chaucer himself (Sir Topas). Unfinished, as it is, however, the poem was immensely popular, even in the author’s time; and it was one of the first books that was issued from the press of Caxton, probably in 1475.
=Caora= (kä´ō-rä).--Description of Guiana, Raleigh. A river on the banks of which are a people whose heads grow beneath their shoulders. Their eyes are in their shoulders, and mouths in the middle of their breasts. The original picture is found in Hakluyt’s Voyages, 1598.
=Capulet= (kap´ū-let).--The head of a noble Veronese house in Shakespeare’s tragedy of Romeo and Juliet, hostile to the house of Montague. He is at times self-willed and tyrannical, but a jovial and testy old man.
=Capulet, Lady.=--The proud and stately wife of Capulet, and mother of Juliet.
=Caradoc= (kar´a-dok).--A knight of the Round Table. Also, in history, the British chief whom the Romans called Caractacus. Caradoc is the hero of an old ballad entitled The Boy and the Mantle.
=Carker= (kär´ker).--A scoundrelly clerk in Dickens’ Dombey and Son.
=Carton, Sidney.=--A hero transformed by unselfish love in Dickens’ Tale of Two Cities. He voluntarily goes to the guillotine to save his successful rival in love.
=Casca= (kas´kä).--Julius Cæsar, Shakespeare. A blunt-witted Roman, one of the conspirators against Julius Cæsar.
=Cassandra= (ka-san´drä).--A daughter of Priam, king of Troy, gifted with the power of prophecy; but Apollo, whom she had offended, brought it to pass that no one believed her predictions. Shakespeare makes use of this character in Troilus and Cressida.
=Cassibelan.=--Great uncle to Cymbeline, in Shakespeare’s play by that name.
=Cassio= (kash´iō).--A Florentine, and lieutenant of Othello, and a tool of Iago, in Shakespeare’s tragedy of Othello. Iago made Cassio drunk, and then set on Roderigo to quarrel with him. Cassio wounded Roderigo. Othello suspended Cassio, but Iago induced Desdemona to plead for his restoration. This interest in Cassio confirmed the jealous rage of Othello to murder Desdemona and kill himself. After the death of Othello, Cassio was appointed governor of Cyprus.
=Castle Dangerous.=--A keep belonging to the Douglas family, which gives its name to one of Sir Walter Scott’s Tales of My Landlord. It was so called by the English because it was always retaken from them by the Douglas.
=Castle of Indolence.=--The title of a poem by Thomson, and the name of a castle, described in it as situated in a pleasing land of drowsiness, where every sense was steeped in the most luxurious and enervating delights.
=Castlewood, Beatrix.=--The heroine of Thackeray’s novel Henry Esmond, a picture of splendid, lustrous, physical beauty.
=Caudle, Mrs. Margaret.=--The feigned author of a series of curtain lectures by Douglas Jerrold, published in Punch, purporting to be the lectures delivered by Mrs. Margaret Caudle to her patient husband, Job Caudle, between the hours of ten at night and seven in the morning.
=Cauline, Sir.=--A knight in Percy’s Reliques, who served the wine to the king of Ireland. He fell in love with Christabelle, the king’s daughter, and she became his troth-plight wife, without her father’s knowledge. When the king knew of it, he banished Sir Cauline. After a time the soldain asked the lady in marriage, but Sir Cauline challenged his rival and slew him. He himself, however, died of the wounds he had received, and the Lady Christabelle, out of grief, “burst her gentle hearte in twayne.”
=Cecilia, St.=--A patron saint of the blind, also patroness of musicians, and “inventor of the organ.” According to tradition, an angel fell in love with her for her musical skill, and used nightly to visit her.
=Celadon= (sel´a-don) =and Amelia.=--Lovers of matchless beauty and most devoted to each other. Being overtaken by a thunderstorm, Amelia became alarmed, but Celadon, folding his arm about her, said, “’Tis safety to be near thee, sure”; but while he spoke Amelia was struck by lightning and fell dead in his arms.
=Celia.=--Faërie Queene, Spenser. (1) Mother of Faith, Hope and Charity. She was herself known as Heavenliness and lived in the hospices Holiness. (2) Celia, cousin to Rosalind in Shakespeare’s comedy _As You Like It_. Celia is a common poetical name for a lady or a lady-love.
=Chadband= (chad´band), =The Rev.=--A clerical character in Dickens’ Bleak House. He will always stand as a type of hypocritical piety.
=Chanticleer= (chan´ti-klēr).--The cock in the tale of _Reynard the Fox_, and in Chaucer’s Nonne Prestes Tale.
=Charlemagne= (chär´le-män).--The romance of Charlemagne and his paladins is of French origin, as the romances of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table is of Celtic or Welsh origin. According to one tradition Charlemagne is not dead, but waits, crowned and armed, in Odenberg, near Saltzburg, till the time of the antichrist, when he will wake up and deliver Christendom. According to another tradition, Charlemagne appears in seasons of plenty. He crosses the Rhine on a golden bridge, and blesses both cornfields and vineyards.
=Charmian= (chär´mi-an).--A kind-hearted but simple-minded female attendant on Cleopatra in Shakespeare’s play of Antony and Cleopatra.
=Cheeryble= (chēr´i-bl) =Brothers, The.=--A firm of benevolent London merchants in Dickens’ Nicholas Nickleby.
=Chery and Fair-Star.=--Countess d’Aulnoy’s Fairy Tales. Two children of royal birth, whom their father’s brothers and their mother’s sisters cast out to sea; they are found and brought up by a corsair and his wife. Ultimately they are told of their birth by a green bird and marry each other. A similar tale is found in The Arabian Nights.
=Chibiabos.=--The musician in Longfellow’s Hiawatha, personifying harmony in nature.
=Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage.=--A poem, in the Spenserian stanza, by Lord Byron. It consists of four cantos, of which the first and second were published in 1812, the third in 1816, and the fourth in 1818; and the preface to the first two cantos contained the following explanation of the origin and purpose of the poem.
“It was written,” says Lord Byron, “for the most part, amid the scenes which it attempts to describe. It was begun in Albania; and the parts relative to Spain and Portugal were composed from the author’s observations in those countries.... the scenes attempted to be sketched are in Spain, Portugal, Epirus, Acarnania, and Greece (the third canto describes scenes in Belgium, Switzerland, and the Valley of the Rhine; and canto four is chiefly occupied with Rome).... A fictitious character is introduced for the sake of giving some connection to the piece, which, however, makes no pretensions to regularity. It has been suggested to me by friends, on whose opinion I set a high value, that in this fictitious character, Childe Harold, I may incur the suspicion of having intended some real personage; this I beg leave, once for all, to disclaim. Harold is the creation of imagination, for the purpose I have stated. In some trivial particulars, and those merely local, there might be grounds for such a notion; but in the main points, I should hope, none whatever. It is almost superfluous to mention that the appellation ‘Childe’ is used as more consonant with the old structure of versification which I have adopted.”
=Children in the Wood.=--Two characters in an ancient and well-known ballad entitled The Children in the Wood, or The Norfolk Gent’s Last Will and Testament. This is said to be a disguised recital of the alleged murder of his nephews by Richard III.
=Chillingly, Kenelm.=--The hero in a novel by this name by Bulwer.
=Chillon= (shē-yôn), =The Prisoner of.=--A poem by Lord Byron, founded on the story of Francois de Bonnivard, the hero of Genevan independence, and published in 1816. Bonnivard was born in 1496, and died in 1571. An account of his life, in France, is prefixed to the poem.
=Chingachgook.=--A sagamore of the Mohicans and father of Uncas, in Cooper’s Leather-Stocking Tales.
=Chloe= (klō´ē).--Daphnis and Chloe, Longus. (1) The shepherdess loved by Daphne. (2) Paul and Virginia by St. Pierre is founded on this romance. (3) Chloe is also a shepherdess in Shakespeare’s As You Like It.
=Chœreas.=--The lover of Callirrhoë, in Chariton’s Greek romance.
=Chriemhild=, or =Kriemhild= (krēm´hild).--The heroine of the German epic poem, the Nibelungenlied. She is represented as a woman of the rarest grace and beauty, and rich beyond conception. By the treacherous murder of her husband she is transformed into a furious creature of revenge. For plot of this epic cycle, see “Kriemhild.”
=Christabel= (kris´ta-bel).--(1) The subject and heroine of an old romance by Sir Eglamour of Artois. (2) The heroine of an ancient ballad Sir Cauline. (3) The lady in Coleridge’s poem Christabel.
=Christian= (kris´tian).--The hero of John Bunyan’s allegory Pilgrim’s Progress. He flees from the “City of Destruction,” and journeys to the “Celestial City.” He starts with a heavy burden on his back, but it falls off when he stands at the foot of the cross. All his trials on the way are depicted.
=Christiana= (kris-tē-ä´nä).--The wife of Christian, who, starting with her children and Mercy from the “City of Destruction,” forms the subject of Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress, part II. She was placed under the guidance of Mr. Great-Heart, and met her husband at the Celestial City.
=Christmas Carol, A.=--A ghost story of Christmas, by Charles Dickens, published in 1843, with illustrations by John Leech. “We are all charmed,” wrote Lord Jeffrey to the author, “with your Carol, chiefly, I think, for the genuine goodness which breathes all through it, and is the true inspiring angel by which its genius has been awakened. The whole scene of the Cratchits is like the dream of a benevolent angel, in spite of its broad reality, and little Tiny Tim in life and death almost as sweet and touching as Nelly.”
=Christmas Eve.=--A poem by Robert Browning, in which, “after following through a long course of reflection the successive phases of religious belief, he arrives at the certainty that, however confused be the vision of Christ, where His love is, there is the Life; and that, the more direct the revelation of that Love, the deeper and more vital is its power.”
=Christopher, St.=--The giant that carried a child over a brook, and said, “Chylde, thou has put me in grete peryll. I might bere no greater burden.” The Chylde was the Christ and the burden was the “Sin of the World.” This has been a favorite theme for painters.
=Chrysalde= (krē-zäld´).--A character in Molière’s _L’Ecole des Femmes_; a friend of Arnolphe.
=Chrysale= (krē-zäl´).--An honest, simple-minded, henpecked tradesman, in the same comedy by Molière.
=Chuzzlewit, Martin.=--The hero of Dickens’ novel of the same name. The story is remarkable for the attention it directed to the system of ship hospitals and to the workhouse nurses whose prototype in Sarah Gamp has become famous all over the world.
=Chuzzlewit, Jonas.=--A miser and a murderer, the opposite type of character from Martin.
=Cimmerians= (si-mē´ri-anz).--A people described by Homer dwelling “beyond the ocean stream,” in a land where the sun never shines.
=Cinderella.=--Heroine of a fairy tale. She is the drudge of the house, while her elder sisters go to fine balls. At length a fairy enables her to go to the prince’s ball; the prince falls in love with her, and she is discovered by means of a glass slipper which she drops, and which will fit no foot but her own. She is represented as returning good for evil and heaping upon her half-sisters every kindness a princess can show.
=Cipango= (si-pang´gō).--A marvelous island, described in the Voyages of Marco Polo, the Venetian traveler. It is represented as lying in the Eastern seas, some one thousand five hundred miles from land, and of its beauty and wealth many stories are related. Columbus made a diligent search for this island.
=Clärchen= (klār´chen).--A female character in Goethe’s Egmont, noted for her constancy and devotion.
=Clare, Ada.=--The wife of Carstone, and one of the most important characters in Dickens’ Bleak House.
=Clavileño= (klä-vē-lān´yō), =El Alígero=.--The wooden horse on which Don Quixote got astride in order to disenchant the Infanta Antonomasia, her husband, and the Countess Trifaldi. It was “the very horse on which Peter of Provence carried off the fair Magalona, and was constructed by Merlin.” This horse was called Clavileño, or Wooden Peg, because it was governed by a wooden pin in the forehead.
=Cléante= (klā-ont´).--Brother-in-law of Orgon in Molière’s Tartuffe. He is distinguished for his genuine piety, and is both high-minded and compassionate. The same name occurs in two other plays by Molière.
=Cleishbotham= (_klēsh´bo_TH-am), =Jedediah=.--Schoolmaster and parish clerk of Gandercleuch, who employed his assistant teacher to arrange and edit the tales told by the landlord of the Wallace inn of the same parish. These tales the editor disposed in three series, called by the general title of The Tales of My Landlord. Of course the real author is Sir Walter Scott.
=Clementina, Lady.=--A beautiful and accomplished woman, deeply in love with Sir Charles Grandison, in Richardson’s novel of this name.
=Cleon= (klē´on).--(1) In Shakespeare’s Pericles, governor of Tarsus, burned to death with his wife Dionysia by the enraged citizens, to revenge the supposed murder of Marina, daughter of Pericles, prince of Tyre. (2) The personification of glory in Spenser’s Faërie Queene.
=Clifford, Paul.=--An attractive highwayman and an interesting hero in Bulwer’s novel by the same name. He is familiar with the haunts of low vice and dissipation, but afterward is reformed and elevated by the power of love.
=Clinker, Humphrey.=--A novel by Smollett. The hero, by the same name, a philosophic youth, meets many adventures. Brought up in the workhouse, put out by the parish as apprentice to a blacksmith, he was afterward employed as a hostler’s assistant. Having been dismissed from the stable, and reduced to great want, he at length attracts the notice of Mr. Bramble who takes him into his family as a servant. He becomes the accepted lover of Winifred Jenkins, and at length turns out to be a natural son of Mr. Bramble.
=Cloten= (klō´ten).--A rejected lover of Imogen, in Shakespeare’s play of Cymbeline.
=Clorinda= (klō-rin´dä).--Jerusalem Delivered, Tasso. Clorinda, the heroine of this poem, is represented as an Amazon inspiring the most tender affection in others, especially in the Christian chief Tancred; yet she is herself susceptible of no passion but the love of military fame.
=Clouds, The.=--A famous comedy by Aristophanes. Strepsiades (“Turncoat”) sends his spendthrift son Phidippides to the phrontistery (“thinking shop”) of Socrates, who appears as a sophist, to be reformed by training in rhetoric. Phidippides refuses to go; so Strepsiades goes himself, and finds Socrates swinging in a basket, observing the sun and ether. Socrates summons the Clouds, his new deities, and undertakes to make a sophist of him and free him from the religion of his fathers. Unfortunate results of his new knowledge show Strepsiades his error, and he abandons Socrates and sets the phrontistery on fire.
=Cock, The.=--A famous tavern in Fleet street, London, opposite the Temple. Tennyson has immortalized it in his _Will Waterproof’s Lyrical Monologue_.
=Cœlebs= (sē´lebz).--The hero of a novel by Hannah More, _Cœlebs in Search of a Wife_.
=Colada.= (_kō-lä´_TH_ä_).--The sword taken by the Cid from Ramon Berenger, count of Barcelona. This sword had two hilts of solid gold.
=Colin Clout= (kol´in klout).--A name that Spenser applies to himself in the Faërie Queene and Shepherd’s Calendar. Colin Clout also is introduced into Gay’s pastorals.
=Cologne= (kō-lōn´), =The Three Kings of.=--The three magi who visited the Infant Savior, and whose bodies are said to have been brought by the Empress Helena from the East to Constantinople, whence they were transferred to Milan. Afterward they were removed to Cologne and placed in the principal church of the city. Their names are commonly said to be Jaspar, Melchior, and Balthazar.
=Comedy of Errors.=--A comedy by Shakespeare. Twin brothers of exact likeness named Antipholus are served by attendant slaves named Dromio also of striking resemblance. The humor of the play lies in the complications that arise. The two brothers are lost at sea with their servants and are picked up by different vessels. After long separation they all reappear in Ephesus. There is great entanglement of plot until both brothers face each other in a trial before the duke and all is explained.
=Complete Angler, The= (or, The Contemplative Man’s Recreation. “A discourse, of Fish and Fishing, not unworthy the Perusal of most Anglers”).--A famous treatise by Izaak Walton, published in 1653. “Whether,” says Sir John Hawkins, “we consider the elegant simplicity of the style, the ease and unaffected humor of the dialogue, the lovely scenes which it delineates, the enchanting pastoral poetry which it contains, or the fine morality it so sweetly inculcates, it has hardly its fellow in any of the modern languages.”
=Comus.=--A masque, or dramatic poem, by John Milton, published in 1637. It was written for the earl of Bridgewater, and acted at his residence, Castle Ludlow, in Shropshire, on Michaelmas night, 1634. The music is by Henry Lawes. Comus (a revel) was the Roman god of banqueting and festive amusements; but in Milton’s poems he appears as a lewd enchanter, whose pleasure it is to deceive and ruin the chaste and innocent.
=Coningsby= (kon´ingz-bi).--A novel by B. Disraeli. The characters are meant for portraits: thus, “Rigby” represents Croker; “Monmouth,” Lord Hertford; “Eskdale,” Lowther; “Ormsby,” Irving; “Lucretia,” Mme. Zichy; “Countess Colonna,” Lady Strachan; “Sidonia,” Baron A. de Rothschild; “Henry Sidney,” Lord John Manners; “Belvoir,” duke of Rutland, second son of Beaumanoir.
=Consuelo= (kôN-sü-ā-lō´).--A noted novel by George Sand. The heroine has the same name, and is an impersonation of noble purity sustained amidst great temptations.
=Cophetua= (kō-fet´ū-ä).--An imaginary African king, of whom a legendary ballad told that he fell in love with a beggar maid and married her. This ballad is found in Percy’s Reliques. Tennyson has given us a modern version in The Beggar Maid.
=Copperfield, David.=--A novel by Charles Dickens. David is Dickens himself, and Micawber is Dickens’ father. According to the tale, David’s mother was nursery governess in a family where Mr. Copperfield visited. At the death of Mr. Copperfield, the widow married Edward Murdstone, a hard, tyrannical man, who made the home of David a dread and terror to the boy. When his mother died, Murdstone sent David to lodge with the Micawbers, and bound him apprentice to Messrs. Murdstone and Grinby, by whom he was put into the warehouse, and set to paste labels upon wine and spirit bottles. David soon became tired of this dreary work, and ran away to Dover, where he was kindly received by his [great-]aunt Betsy Trotwood, who clothed him, and sent him as day-boy to Dr. Strong, but placed him to board with Mr. Wickfield, a lawyer, father of Agnes, between whom and David a mutual attachment sprang up. David’s first wife was Dora Spenlow, but at the death of this pretty little “child-wife,” he married Agnes Wickfield.
=Cordelia= (kôr-dē´liä).--King Lear, Shakespeare. The youngest of Lear’s three daughters, and the one that truly loved him.
=Corinne= (ko-rēn´).--The heroine of a novel, of the same name, by Madame de Staël.
=Coriolanus= (kō´ri-ō-lā´nus).--An historical play by William Shakespeare. In the plot, and in many of the speeches, Shakespeare has followed Sir Thomas North’s Life of Coriolanus, included in his translation of Amyot’s Plutarch. “The subject of Coriolanus,” says Prof. Dowden, “is the ruin of a noble life through the sin of pride. If duty be the dominant ideal with Brutus, and pleasure of a magnificent kind be the ideal of Antony and Cleopatra, that which gives tone and color to Coriolanus is an ideal of self-centered power. The greatness of Brutus is altogether that of the moral conscience; his external figure does not dilate upon the world through a golden haze like that of Antony, nor bulk massively and tower like that of Coriolanus. A haughty and passionate personal feeling, a superb egoism, are with Coriolanus the sources of weakness and of strength.”
=Corsair, The.=--A poem, in three cantos, by Lord Byron, published in 1814. The hero is called Conrad, and is described, in a well-known passage, as leaving
“a Corsair’s name to other times, Link’d with one virtue, and a thousand crimes.”
The heroines are Medora, whom Conrad loves, and Gulnare, “the Harem queen,” whose love is given to Conrad, and who kills her master, Seyd, in order that Conrad may be free.
=Corydon= (kor´i-don).--A shepherd in one of the Idylls of Theocritus, and one of the Eclogues of Vergil. Used by Shakespeare and later poets to designate a rustic swain.
=Costard= (kos´tärd).--A clown, in Shakespeare’s Love’s Labor’s Lost, who apes the display of wit, and misapplies, in the most ridiculous manner, the phrases and modes of combination in argument that were then in vogue.
=Cotter’s Saturday Night, The.=--A poem by Robert Burns of which his brother remarks: “Robert had frequently remarked to me that there was something particularly venerable in the phrase, ‘Let us worship God,’ used by a decent, sober head of a family introducing family worship. To this sentiment of the author the world is indebted for the Cotter’s Saturday Night. The hint of the plan and title of the poem are taken from Ferguson’s Farmer’s Ingle.”
=Count of Monte Cristo.=--A celebrated romance by Alexander Dumas, in which Edmond Dantes, the hero, suffers unjust imprisonment for many years. He finally escapes, only to be apprised of the death of his father and the marriage of his former sweetheart. From information derived from a fellow prisoner, he then comes into possession of great riches through the successful discovery of hoards of treasure in the island of Monte Cristo. His remaining years are given over to a vindication of his former life.
=Coverly= (papers by Steele and Addison), =Sir Roger de=, was a member of a hypothetical club, and was noted for his modesty, generosity, hospitality, and eccentric whims. He was most courteous to his neighbors, most affectionate to his family, most amiable to his domestics. Sir Roger, who figures in thirty papers of the Spectator, is the very beau-ideal of an amiable country gentleman of Queen Anne’s time.
=Crabtree.=--A character in Smollett’s novel, _The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle_.
=Crane, Ichabod.=--The name of a Yankee schoolmaster, whose adventures are related in the Legend of Sleepy Hollow, in Irving’s Sketch-Book.
=Crawley= (krâ´li), =Rawdon=.--The husband of Becky Sharp in _Vanity Fair_, Thackeray’s novel without a hero.
=Creakle= (krē´kl), =Mr.=--A tyrannical and cruel schoolmaster in Dickens’ David Copperfield.
=Cressida= (kres´i-dä).--The heroine of Shakespeare’s play, Troilus and Cressida, also the heroine of one of Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales.
=Croaker.=--A character in Goldsmith’s comedy, The Good-Natured Man.
=Crummles= (krum´lz), =Vincent.=--A theatrical head of a theatrical family in Dickens’ Nicholas Nickleby.
=Crusoe, Robinson.=--Title and hero of a novel by Daniel Defoe. Robinson Crusoe is a shipwrecked sailor, who leads a solitary life for many years on a desert island, and relieves the tedium of life by ingenious contrivances (1719). The story is based on the adventures of Alexander Selkirk, a Scotch sailor, who in 1704 was left by Captain Stradding on the uninhabited island of Juan Fernandez. Here he remained for four years and four months, when he was rescued by Captain Woodes Rogers and brought to England.
=Cuttle, Captain.=--A character in Dickens’ Dombey and Son, good-humored, eccentric, pathetic in his simple credulity.
=Cymbeline= (sim´be-lin).--Title and hero of Shakespeare’s play. Imogen, daughter of Cymbeline, king of Britain, married clandestinely Posthumus Leonatus; and Posthumus, being banished for the offense, retired to Rome. One day, in the house of Philario, the conversation turned on the merits of wives, and Posthumus bet his diamond ring that nothing could tempt the fidelity of Imogen. Through the villainy of Iachimo, Cymbeline was forced to believe Imogen untrue. The villainy was in time disclosed, and the beautiful character of Imogen revealed.
=D=
=Dalgetty= (dal´get-i), =Captain Dugald=.--A soldier of fortune in Sir Walter Scott’s Legend of Montrose, distinguished for his pedantry, conceit, valor, vulgar assurance, knowledge of the world, greediness, and a hundred other qualities, making him one of the most amusing, admirable, and natural characters ever drawn by the hand of genius.
=Damocles= (dam´ō-klēz).--A flatterer in the court of Dionysius of Syracuse. By way of answer to his constant praises of the happiness of kings, Dionysius seated him at a royal banquet, with a sword hung over his head by a single horsehair. In the midst of his magnificent banquet, Damocles, chancing to look upward, saw a sharp and naked sword suspended over his head. A sight so alarming instantly changed his views on the felicity of kings. The phrase signifies now evil foreboding or dread, a tantalizing torment.
=Damon and Pythias= (pith´i-as).--(1) A play by Richard Edwards, printed in 1571. Its main subject is tragic, but it calls itself a comedy. (2) A tragedy by John Banim and Richard Lalor Sheil, produced in 1821. (3) Two noble Pythagoreans of Syracuse, who have been remembered as models of faithful friendship. Pythias having been condemned to death by Dionysius, the tyrant of Syracuse, begged to be allowed to go home, for the purpose of arranging his affairs, Damon pledging his own life for the reappearance of his friend. Dionysius consented, and Pythias returned just in time to save Damon from death. Struck by so noble an example of mutual affection, the tyrant pardoned Pythias, and desired to be admitted into their sacred fellowship.
=Dandie Dinmont.=--A jovial, true-hearted store-farmer, in Sir Walter Scott’s Guy Mannering.
=Daphnis= (daf´nis) and =Chloe= (klō´ē).--A prose-pastoral love story in Greek, by Longus, a Byzantine. Gessner has imitated the Greek romance in his idyll called Daphnis. In this love story Longus says he was hunting in Lesbos, and saw in a grove consecrated to the nymphs a beautiful picture of children exposed, lovers plighting their faith, and the incursions of pirates, which he now expresses and dedicates to Pan, Cupid and the nymphs. Daphnis, of course, is the lover of Chloe.
=Darby and Joan.=--This ballad is frequently called The Happy Old Couple. The words are sometimes attributed to Prior. Darby and Joan are an old-fashioned, loving couple, who are wholly averse to change of any sort. It is generally said that Henry Woodfall was the author of the ballad, and that the originals were John Darby (printer, of Bartholomew Close, who died 1730) and his wife Joan. Woodfall served his apprenticeship with John Darby.
=Dares= (dā´rēz).--One of the competitors at the funeral games of Anchises in Sicily, described in the fifth book of Vergil’s Æneid.
=David.=--(1) He was the uncle of King Arthur. St. David first embraced the ascetic life in the Isle of Wight, but subsequently removed to Menevia, in Pembrokeshire, where he founded twelve convents. (2) One of the Israelite kings. (3) In Dryden’s satire called Absalom and Achitophel, represents Charles II.; Absalom, his beautiful but rebellious son, represents the duke of Monmouth.
=Davy.=--Henry IV., Shakespeare. The varlet of Justice Shallow, who so identifies himself with his master that he considers himself half host, half varlet. Thus when he seats Bardolph and Page at table, he tells them they must take “his” good will for their assurance of welcome.
=Dawfyd.=--The Betrothed, Scott. The one-eyed freebooter chief.
=Dawkins= (dâ´kinz).--Oliver Twist, Dickens. Known by the sobriquet of the Artful Dodger. He is one of Fagin’s tools. Jack Dawkins is a scamp, but of a cheery, buoyant temper.
=Dayonet, Sir.=--In the romance Le Mort d’Arthur he is called the fool of King Arthur.
=Deans, Douce Davie.=--A poor herdsman at Edinburgh, and the father of Effie and Jeanie Deans, in Sir Walter Scott’s novel, _The Heart of Midlothian_.
=Deans, Effie.=--A beautiful but unfortunate character in Sir Walter Scott’s Heart of Midlothian.
=Deans, Jeanie.=--The heroine of Sir Walter Scott’s Heart of Midlothian, described as a perfect model of sober heroism, of the union of good sense and strong affections, firm principles, and perfect disinterestedness; and of calm superiority to misfortune, danger, and difficulty which such a union must create.
=Decameron= (de-kam´e-ron), =The.=--A collection of romances by Giovanni Boccaccio. It derives its name from its framework. Seven gentlemen and three ladies retire from Florence, during the plague, to a pleasant garden retreat, where they beguile the time by narrating various stories of love adventure.
=Dedlock, Lady.=--Wife of Sir Leicester, beautiful, and apparently cold and heartless, but suffering constant remorse. The daughter’s name is Esther Summerson, the heroine of the novel.
=Dedlock, Sir Leicester.=--A character in Bleak House, by Charles Dickens. An honorable and truthful man, but of such fixed ideas that no man could shake his prejudices. He had an idea that the one thing of greatest importance to the world was a certain family by the name of Dedlock. He loved his wife, Lady Dedlock, and believed in her implicitly. His pride had a terrible fall when he learned the secret of her life before her marriage and knew the terrible fact she had been hiding from him that she had a daughter.
=Deerslayer, The.=--The title of a novel by J. F. Cooper, and the nickname of its hero, Natty, or Nathaniel Bumppo. He is a model uncivilized man, honorable, truthful, and brave, pure of heart and without reproach. He is introduced in five of Cooper’s novels: The Deerslayer, The Pathfinder, The Last of the Mohicans, The Pioneers, and The Prairie. He is called “Hawk-Eye” in The Last of the Mohicans; “Leather-Stocking” in The Pioneers; and “The Trapper” in The Prairie, in which last book he dies.
=Defarge= (da-färzh´), =Mme.=--Wife of the following, a dangerous woman, everlastingly knitting.
=Defarge, Mons.=--Tale of Two Cities, Dickens. Keeper of a wine shop in the Faubourg St. Antoine in Paris. He is a bull-necked, implacable-looking man.
=Della Crusca Accademia= (del´lä krös´kä äk-kä-dā´mē-ä).--Applied in England to a brotherhood of poets, at the close of the eighteenth century, under the leadership of Mrs. Piozzi. This school was conspicuous for affectation and high-flown panegyrics on each other. It was stamped out by Gifford, in The Baviad, in 1794, and The Mæviad, in 1796. Robert Merry, who signed himself Della Crusca, James Cobb, a farce-writer, James Boswell, biographer of Dr. Johnson, O’Keefe, Morton, Reynolds, Holcroft, Sheridan, Colman the Younger, Mrs. H. Cowley, and Mrs. Robinson were its best exponents.
=Delphin Classics.=--For the use of the dauphin, son of Louis XIV. the writings of thirty-nine Latin authors were collected and published in sixty volumes. Notes and an index were added to each work. An edition of the Delphin Classics was published in London in the year 1818.
=Delphine, Madame.=--Old Creole Days, George W. Cable. A free quadroon connected with the splendor of Lafitte, the smuggler and patriot. Madame Delphine disowned her beautiful daughter Olive in order to assure to her the rights of a white woman.
=Demetrius= (de-mē´tri-us).--Midsummer Night’s Dream, Shakespeare. The young Athenian to whom Egeno promised his daughter Hermia in marriage.
=Dempster, Janet.=--A character from George Eliot’s Scenes From Clerical Life. She was a woman of generous impulse, succumbed to drink through the brutality of her husband, but was restored by a clergyman to a life of nobility.
=De Profundus.=--Out of the Depths. The one hundred and thirtieth Psalm is so called from the first two words in the Latin version. In the Catholic liturgy it is sung when the dead are committed to the grave.
=Deronda, Daniel.=--One of George Eliot’s strongest character sketches in her novel of the same name.
=Deserted Village, The.=--A poem by Oliver Goldsmith. It was “instantaneously popular. Two new editions of it were called for in the following month, and a fourth in August, and passages from the poem were in every mouth, and the topics which it suggested, of depopulation, luxury, and landlordism, were discussed in connection with it.”
The Deserted Village has been identified with Lissoy, a quaint Irish village in the parish of Kilkenny West, of which Goldsmith’s father was the pastor, and whose natural features are accurately described in the poem.
=Desmas.=--The repentant thief is so called in The Story of Joseph of Arimathea. Longfellow, in The Golden Legend, calls him Dumachus. The impenitent thief is called Gestas, but Longfellow calls him Titus.
=Dhu, Roderick.=--A highland chieftain and outlaw in Scott’s poem Lady of the Lake, cousin of Ellen Douglas, and also her suitor. He is slain by James Fitz-James.
=Diana.=--In Shakespeare’s All’s Well That Ends Well, daughter of the widow of Florence with whom Helena lodged on her way to the shrine of St. Jacques le Grand. Count Bertram wantonly loved Diana, but she brought about a reconciliation between Bertram and his wife Helena.
=Diggon= (dig´on), =Davie.=--A shepherd in the Shepherd’s Calendar, by Spenser. He drove his sheep into foreign lands, hoping to find better pasture; but was amazed at the luxury and profligacy of the shepherds whom he saw there.
=Diggory= (dig´ō-ri).--In Goldsmith’s She Stoops to Conquer, a barn laborer, employed on state occasions for butler and footman by Mr. and Mrs. Hardcastle. He is both awkward and familiar, laughs at his master’s jokes and talks to his master’s guests while serving.
=Dimmesdale= (dimz´dāl), =Arthur.=--In Hawthorne’s romance, The Scarlet Letter, a Puritan minister of great eloquence, whose conscience compels him to make a public confession of sin.
=Dinah.=--(1) St. Ronan’s Well, Scott, Daughter of Sandie Lawson, landlord of the Spa hotel. (2) A character in Mrs. Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin.
=Dinah, Aunt.=--In Sterne’s Tristram Shandy. She leaves Mr. Walter Shandy one thousand pounds, which he fancies will enable him to carry out all the schemes that enter into his head.
=Dinah Friendly.=--The Bashful Man, Moncrieff. Daughter of Sir Thomas Friendly.
=Dingley Hall.=--Pickwick Papers, Dickens. The home of Mr. Wardle and his family.
=Divina Commedia= (dē-vē´nä kom-mā´dē-ä), (or, Divine Comedy).--The first poem of note ever written in the Italian language. It is an epic by Danté Alighieri, and is divided into three parts: Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise. Danté called it a comedy, because the ending is happy; and his countrymen added the word divine from admiration of the poem. The poet depicts a vision, in which he is conducted, first by Vergil (human reason) through hell and purgatory; and then by Beatrice (revelation), and finally by St. Bernard through the several heavens, where he beholds the Triune God.
“Hell” is represented as a funnel-shaped hollow, formed of gradually contracting circles, the lowest and smallest of which is the earth’s center. “Purgatory” is a mountain rising solitary from the ocean on that side of the earth which is opposite to us. It is divided into terraces, and its top is the terrestrial paradise. From this “top” the poet ascends through the seven planetary heavens, the fixed stars, and the “primum mobile.”
In all parts of the regions thus traversed there arise conversations with noted personages. The deepest questions of philosophy and theology are discussed and solved; and the social and moral condition of Italy, with the corruptions of church and state, are depicted with indignation. Fifty-two years after the poet’s death the republic of Florence set apart an annual sum for public lectures to explain the Divine Comedy to the people in one of the churches, and Boccaccio himself was appointed first lecturer.
=Doctor Syntax.=--The hero of a work entitled The Tour of Dr. Syntax in Search of the Picturesque. Doctor Syntax is a simple-minded, pious, hen-pecked clergyman, but of excellent taste and scholarship, who left home in search of the picturesque. His adventures are told in eight-syllable verse by William Combe.
=Dods.=--The old landlady in Scott’s novel called St. Ronan’s Well. An excellent character, a mosaic of oddities, all fitting together and forming an admirable whole. She was so good a housewife that a cookery book of great repute bears her name.
=Dodson and Fogg.=--The lawyers employed by the plaintiff in the famous case of “Bardell vs. Pickwick,” in the Pickwick Papers, by Charles Dickens.
=Doeg= (dō´eg).--Absalom and Achitophel, Dryden. Doeg was Saul’s herdsman, who had charge of his mules and asses. He told Saul that the priests of Nob had provided David with food; whereupon Saul sent him to put them to death, and eighty-five were ruthlessly massacred.
=Dogberry= (dog´ber-i) =and Verges= (ver´gēz).--Two ignorant conceited constables, in Shakespeare’s Much Ado About Nothing.
=Dolla Murrey.=--A character in Crabbe’s Borough who was devoted to playing cards. She died at the card table.
=Dolly Varden= (vär´den).--Barnaby Rudge, Dickens. Daughter of Gabriel Varden, locksmith. Dolly dressed in the Watteau style, and was lively, pretty, and bewitching.
=Dombey and Son.=--A novel by Dickens. Mr. Dombey is a self-sufficient, purse-proud, frigid merchant who feels satisfied there is but one Dombey in the world, and that is himself. When Paul was born, his ambition was attained, his whole heart was in the boy, and the loss of the mother was but a small matter. The boy’s death turned his heart to stone.
=Dombey, Florence.=--A motherless child, hungering and thirsting to be loved, but regarded with indifference by her father, who thinks that sons alone are worthy of regard.
=Domesday Book= (or, Doomsday Book),--The name of one of the oldest and most valuable records of England, containing the results of a statistical survey of that country made by William the Conqueror, and completed in the year 1086. The origin of the name--which seems to have been given to other records of the same kind--is somewhat uncertain; but it has obvious reference to the supreme authority of the book in doom or judgment on the matters contained in it.
=Dominie Sampson.=--Guy Mannering, Scott. A village schoolmaster and scholar, poor as a church mouse, and modest as a girl. He cites Latin like a porcus literarum and exclaims “prodigious!” He is no uncommon personage in a country where a certain portion of learning is easily attained by those who are willing to suffer hunger and thirst in exchange for acquiring Greek and Latin.
=Don Adriano de Armado.=--A pompous, fantastical Spaniard in Shakespeare’s Love’s Labor’s Lost, who had a mint of phrases in his brain.
=Donatello= (don-ä-tel´lō).--The hero of Hawthorne’s romance The Marble Faun. He is a young Italian with a singular likeness to the Faun of Praxiteles. He leads an innocent but purely animal existence, until a sudden crime awakens his conscience and transforms his whole nature.
=Don Cherubim.=--The Bachelor of Salamanca, in Le Sage’s novel of this name; a man placed in different situations of life, and made to associate with all classes of society, in order to give the author the greatest possible scope for satire.
=Donegild.=--Man of Law’s Tale, Chaucer. The mother of Alla, king of Northumberland, hating Constance, the wife of Alla, because she was a Christian, she put her on a raft with her infant son and turned her adrift. When Alla returned from Scotland and discovered this cruelty of his mother, he put her to death. The tradition of St. Mungo resembles the Man of Law’s Tale in many respects.
=Don Juan= (don jū´an; Sp. pron. dōn Hö-än´).--Typifies in literature a profligate. He gives himself up so entirely to the gratification of sense, especially to the most powerful of all the impulses, that of love, that he acknowledges no higher consideration, and proceeds to murder the man that stands between him and his wish, fancying that in so doing he had annihilated his very existence. He then defies that Spirit to prove to his senses his existence. The Spirit returns and compels Don Juan to acknowledge the supremacy of spirit, and the worthlessness of a merely sensuous existence. The traditions concerning Don Juan have been dramatized by Tirso de Molina. Glück has a musical ballet, Don Juan, and Mozart has immortalized the character in his opera Don Giovanni; and Byron in a half-finished poem.
=Don Quixote= (dōn kē-hō´tā).--A celebrated Spanish romance by Cervantes. Don Quixote is represented as “a gaunt country gentleman of La Mancha, full of genuine Castilian honor and enthusiasm, gentle and dignified in his character, trusted by his friends, and loved by his dependents,” but “so completely crazed by long reading the most famous books of chivalry that he believes them to be true, and feels himself called on to become the impossible knight-errant they describe, and actually goes forth into the world to defend the oppressed and avenge the injured, like the heroes of his romances.” The fame of Cervantes will always rest upon this incomparable satire.
=Dorrit.=--See Little Dorrit.
=Doorm.=--Idylls of the King (Enid), Tennyson. An earl called “the Bull,” who tried to make Enid his handmaid; but, when she would neither eat, drink, nor array herself in bravery at his bidding, “he smote her on the cheek”; whereupon Geraint slew the “russet-bearded earl” in his own hall.
=Dora.=--David Copperfield, Dickens. The child-wife to David, affectionate and tender-hearted. She was always playing with her poodle and saying simple things to her “Dody.” She could never be his helper, but she looked on her husband with idolatrous love. When quite young she died.
=Dorastus.=--The hero of an old popular “history” or romance, upon which Shakespeare founded his Winter’s Tale. It was written by Robert Greene, and was first published in 1588, under the title of Pandosto, the Triumph of Time.
=Dorothea.=--The heroine of Goethe’s celebrated poem of _Herman und Dorothea_.
=Dory, John.=--A character in Wild Oats or The Strolling Gentleman, a comedy by John O’Keefe.
=Dotheboys Hall= (dö´the-boiz hâl).--Nicholas Nickleby, Dickens. A school for boys kept by a Mr. Squeers, a puffing, ignorant, overbearing brute, whose system of education consisted of alternately beating and starving.
=Doubting Castle.=--The castle of the giant Despair, in which Christian and Hopeful were incarcerated, but from which they escaped by means of the key called “Promise,” which was able to open any lock in the castle.
=Dousterswivel= (dös´ter-swiv-el), =Herman.=--Scott, The Antiquary. A German schemer, who obtains money under the promise of finding hidden wealth by a divining rod.
=Drawcansir= (drâ´kan-ser).--A bragging, blustering bully, in George Villiers, duke of Buckingham’s The Rehearsal, who took part in a battle, and killed everyone on both sides, “sparing neither friend nor foe.”
=Driver.=--Guy Mannering, Scott. Clerk to Mr. Pleydell, advocate, Edinburgh.
=Dromio.=--The Brothers Dromio. Twin brothers exactly alike, who serve two brothers exactly alike, in Shakespeare’s Comedy of Errors, based on the Menæchmi of Plautus.
=Dry-as-dust, The Rev.=--An imaginary personage who serves to introduce Scott’s novels to the public.
=Dudu.=--One of the three beauties of the harem, into which Juan, by the sultana’s order, had been admitted in female attire.
=Duessa= (dū-es´sa).--A foul witch, in Spenser’s Faërie Queene, who under the assumed name of Fidessa, and the assumed character of a distressed and lovely woman, entices the Red-cross Knight into the House of Pride.
=Duff, Jamie.=--Guy Mannering, Scott. The idiot boy attending Mrs. Bertram’s funeral.
=Dulcinea del Toboso= (dul-sin´ē-ä del tō-bō´zō).--A country girl whom Don Quixote courts as his lady love.
=Dumain= (dū-mān´).--A lord attending on the king of Navarre in Shakespeare’s Love’s Labor’s Lost.
=Duncan.=--(1) A king of Scotland immortalized in Shakespeare’s tragedy of Macbeth. Shakespeare represents him as murdered by Macbeth, who succeeds to the Scottish throne, but according to history he fell in battle. (2) A highland hero in Scott’s Lady of the Lake.
=Dunder, Sir David=, of Dunder Hall.--A conceited, whimsical old gentleman, who forever interrupts a speaker with “Yes, yes, I know it,” or “Be quiet, I know it.” Ways and Means, by Colman.
=Dundreary= (dun-drēr´i), =Lord.=--A grotesque character in Taylor’s comedy, Our American Cousin, noted for his aristocratic haughtiness of manner. The character is said to have been created by the actor Sothern.
=Durandana= (dö-rän-dä´nä).--The name of the marvelous sword of Orlando, the renowned hero of romance, said to have been wrought by the fairies, who endued it with such power that its owner was able to cleave the Pyrenees with it at a blow.
=Durandarte= (dö-rän-där´te).--A fabulous hero of Spain. Cervantes has introduced him, in Don Quixote, in the celebrated adventure of the knight in the cave of Montesinos.
=Durden= (der´den), =Dame.=--(1) The heroine of a popular English song. She is described as a notable housewife, and the mistress of five serving-girls and five laboring men. The five men loved the five maids. (2) A sobriquet playfully applied to Esther Summerson, the heroine of Dickens’ Bleak House.
=Durward= (der´wārd), =Quentin.=--A novel by Scott. Quentin Durward is a young archer of the Scottish guard in the service of Louis XI. of France. When Liège is assaulted, Quentin Durward and the Countess Isabelle, who has been put into his charge, escape on horseback. The countess publicly refuses to marry the Duc d’Orléans, to whom she has been promised, and ultimately marries the young Scotchman.
=Dwarf, Alberich.=--In the Nibelungen Lied the dwarf “Alberich” is the guardian of the famous hoard won by Siegfried from the Nibelungs. The dwarf is twice vanquished by the hero, who gets possession of his “Tarn-Kappe” (cloak of invisibility).
=Dwarf, The Black.=--A novel by Sir Walter Scott. The dwarf is a fairy of the most malignant character; a genuine northern Duergar, and once held by the dalesmen of the border as the author of all the mischief that befell their flocks and herds. In Scott’s novel the black dwarf is introduced under the aliases of Sir Edward Mauley; Elshander, the recluse; Cannie Elshie; and the Wise Wight of Mucklestane Moor.
=E=
=Ecce Homo= (ek´sē hō´mō).--The title of a semi-theological work, attributed to Professor Seeley, and published in 1865, in which the humanity of Christ is considered and enforced, apart from his divinity. The phrase, “The enthusiasm of humanity,” was originated in this work; to which, it may be mentioned, Dr. Joseph Parker replied in his Ecce Deus published in 1866.
=Eckhardt, The Faithful.=--A legendary hero of Germany, represented as an old man with a white staff, who, in Eisleben, appears on the evening of Maundy Thursday, and drives all the people into their houses, to save them from being harmed by a terrible procession of dead men, headless bodies, and two-legged horses, which immediately after passes by. Other traditions represent him as the companion of the knight Tannhäuser, and as warning travelers from the Venusberg, the mountain of fatal delights in the old mythology of Germany. Tieck has founded a story upon this legend, which has been translated into English by Carlyle, in which Eckhardt is described as the good servant who perishes to save his master’s children from the seducing fiends of the mountain. The German proverb, “Thou art the faithful Eckhardt; thou warnest everyone,” is founded upon this tradition.
=Eclecta.=--The “Elect” personified in The Purple Island, by Phineas Fletcher. She is the daughter of Intellect and Voletta (free-will).
=Ector, Sir.=--The foster-father of King Arthur, and lord of many parts of England and Wales. Father of Sir Kay, seneschal to King Arthur.
=Edenhall, The Luck of.=--A painted goblet in the possession of the Musgrave family of Edenhall, Cumberland, said to have been left by the fairies on St. Cuthbert’s Well. The tradition runs that the luck of the family is dependent on the safe-keeping of this goblet. The German poet Uhland embodied the legend in a ballad, translated into English by Longfellow.
=Edgar.=--Son to Gloucester, in Shakespeare’s tragedy of Lear. He was disinherited for his half-brother Edmund.
=Edgar=, or =Edgardo=.--Master of Ravenswood, in love with Lucy Ashton in Scott’s Bride of Lammermoor.
=Edith.=--The Maid of Lorn in Scott’s Lord of the Isles, who married Ronald when peace was restored after the battle of Bannockburn.
=Edith, The Lady.=--Ivanhoe, Scott. Mother of Athelstane “the Unready” (thane of Coningsburgh).
=Edith Granger.=--Daughter of the Hon. Mrs. Skewton, married to Colonel Granger of Ours, who died within two years. Edith became Mr. Dombey’s second wife, but the marriage was altogether unhappy.
=Edith Plantagenet= (plan-taj´e-net), =The Lady.=--The Talisman, Scott. Called “The Fair Maid of Anjou,” a kinswoman of Richard I., and attendant on Queen Berengaria.
=Edmund.=--A bastard son of Gloucester in Shakespeare’s tragedy of _King Lear_.
=Edward, Sir.=--The Iron Chest, Colman. He commits a murder, and keeps a narrative of the transaction in an iron chest. Later, he trusts the secret to his secretary, Wilfred, and the whole transaction now becomes public.
=Edward.=--Count Robert of Paris, Scott. Brother of Hereward, the Varangian guard. He was slain in battle.
=Edwin.=--(1) The hero of Goldsmith’s ballad entitled The Hermit. (2) The hero of Mallet’s ballad Edwin and Emma. (3) The hero of Beattie’s Minstrel.
=Edyrn.=--Idylls of the King (Enid), Tennyson. Son of Nudd. A suitor for the hand of Enid and an evil genius of her father, who opposed him. Later, Edyrn went to the court of King Arthur and became quite a changed man--from a malicious “sparrow-hawk” he was converted into a courteous gentleman.
=Egeus= (ējē´us).--Father of Hermia in Shakespeare’s _Midsummer Night’s Dream_.
=Eglamour.=--A character, in Shakespeare’s Two Gentlemen of Verona, who is an agent of Silvia in her escape.
=Eglamour= (eg´la-mör), =Sir.=--A valiant knight of the Round Table, celebrated in the romances of chivalry, and in an old ballad.
=Eglantine= (eg´lan-tīn), =Madame.=--The prioress in Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales, who was “full pleasant and amiable of port.” She was distinguished for the ladylike delicacy of her manners at table, and for her partiality to “small hounds,” and a peculiar mixture in her manner and dress of feminine vanity and slight worldliness, together with an ignorance of the world.
=Egyptian Thief.=--A personage alluded to by the Duke in Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night. The reference is to the story of Thyamis, a robber-chief and native of Memphis.
=Elvir.=--Harold the Dauntless, Scott. A Danish maid, who assumes boy’s clothing, and waits on Harold “the Dauntless,” as his page.
=Elaine.=--A mythical lady in the romances of King Arthur’s court. She is called “the lily maid of Astolat” in Tennyson’s Idylls of the King. She died for love of Sir Launcelot, and then at her request was borne on a barge to the castle of King Arthur, holding a lily in one hand, and a letter to Launcelot in the other.
=Elbow.=--A constable, in Shakespeare’s Measure for Measure, modest and well-meaning, though of simple mind and the object of wit among those who are wiser but not better.
=El Dorado.=--A name given by the Spaniards to an imaginary country, supposed, in the sixteenth century, to be situated in the interior of South America, and abounding in gold and all manner of precious stones.
=Electra.=--The daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, and the heroine of a tragedy by Sophocles and of another by Euripides.
=Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard.=--By Thomas Gray. Dr. Johnson gives 1750 as the date of publication; and declares that the piece “abounds with images which find a mirror in every mind, and with sentiments to which every bosom returns an echo.” The churchyard was that of Stoke Poges, near Eton.
=Elim.=--The Messiah, Klopstock. The guardian angel of Libbeus the Apostle. Libbeus, the tenderest and most gentle of the apostles, at the death of Jesus also died from grief.
=Elissa.=--Step-sister of Medina and Perissa, in Spenser’s _Faërie Queene_. They could never agree upon any subject.
=Elliott, Hobbie.=--There are seven by this name in the Black Dwarf, by Sir Walter Scott. The farmer Elliott himself and his bride-elect, Grace Armstrong; Mrs. Elliott, Hobbie’s grandmother; John and Harry, Hobbie’s brothers; Lilias, Jean, and Arnot, Hobbie’s sisters.
=Elops.=--Milton gives this name to the dumb serpent which gives no warning of its approach.
=Elsie.=--The daughter of Gottlieb, a farm tenant of Prince Henry of Hohenneck, who offered her life as a substitute for the prince. She was rescued as she was about to make the sacrifice. Longfellow has told this story in The Golden Legend.
=Elspeth= (el´speth).--(1) A character in Sir Walter Scott’s Antiquary. (2) An old servant to Dandie Dinmont in Scott’s _Guy Mannering_.
=Elvira.=--(1) In Cibber’s Love Makes a Man, sister of Don Duart, and niece of the governor of Lisbon. She marries Clodio, the coxcomb son of Don Antonio. (2) The young wife of Gomez, a rich old banker, in Dryden’s The Spanish Fryer. She carries on a liaison with Colonel Lorenzo, by the aid of her father-confessor Dominick, but is always checkmated, and it turns out that Lorenzo is her brother.
=Emelye.=--The sister-in-law of “Duke Theseus,” beloved by the two knights, Palamon and Arcyte.
=Emile= (ā-mēl´).--A philosophical romance on education by Jean Jacques Rousseau (1762). Emile, the chief character, is the author’s ideal of a young man perfectly educated, every bias but that of nature having been carefully withheld.
=Emilia= (ē-mil´i-ä).--(1) A lady attending Hermione in Shakespeare’s Winter’s Tale. (2) Wife to Iago, and waiting woman to Desdemona, in the tragedy of Othello, a woman of thorough vulgarity and loose principles, united to a high degree of spirit, energetic feeling, strong sense, and low cunning. (3) The sweetheart of Peregrine Pickle in Smollett’s novel The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle.
=Em’ly, Little.=--David Copperfield, Dickens. Daughter of Tom, the brother-in-law of Dan’el Peggotty, a Yarmouth fisherman, by whom the orphan child was brought up. David Copperfield and Em’ly were at one time playfellows. While engaged to Ham Peggotty (Dan’el’s nephew) Little Em’ly runs away with Steerforth, a friend of David’s, who was a handsome but unprincipled gentleman. Being subsequently reclaimed, she emigrates to Australia with Dan’el Peggotty and old Mrs. Gummidge.
=Empyrean.=--According to Ptolemy, there are five heavens, the last of which is pure elemental fire and the seat of Deity; this fifth heaven is called the empyrean.
=Endell, Martha.=--David Copperfield, Dickens. A poor girl, to whom Em’ly goes when Steerforth deserts her.
=Endymion= (en-dim´i-on).--A beautiful shepherd boy whom Diana kissed while he lay asleep on Mount Latmus. The story was made the subject of an English poem by Keats, in memory of his much loved friend, the poet Shelley. Shelley pronounced it “full of some of the highest and the finest gleams of poetry.”
Also a lyric by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow founded on the old mythic story of the mortal youth who was beloved by Diana, and received her kiss--
When, sleeping in the grove, He dreamed not of her love.
=Enid.=--A mythical lady mentioned in a Welsh triad as one of the three celebrated ladies of Arthur’s court--a beautiful picture of conjugal patience and affection. Her story is told in the Mabinogion and in Tennyson’s Idylls of the King. In the midst of an impure court she is the personification of purity.
=Eolian Harp.=--Baruch. There is a rabbinical story of the aërial harmony of the harp of David, which, when hung up at night, was played upon by the north wind.
=Epigram.=--A short, pointed or antithetical poem; or any short composition happily or antithetically expressed.
=Epithalamium= (ep=´=i-thā-lā´mi-um).--Was a species of poem which it was the custom among the Greeks and Romans to sing in chorus near the bridal-chamber of a newly married couple. Anacreon, Stesichorus, and Pindar composed poems of this kind, but only scanty fragments have been preserved. Spenser’s Epithalamium, written on the occasion of his marriage, is one of the finest specimens of this kind of verse.
=Eppie.=--(1) St. Ronan’s Well, Scott. One of the servants of the Rev. Josiah Cargill. In the same novel is Eppie Anderson, one of the servants at the Mowbray Arms, Old St. Ronan’s, held by Meg Dods. (2) In George Eliot’s Silas Marner the child of Godfrey Cass, brought up and adopted by Silas Marner, whose love transformed him from a miser into a tender, loving father.
=Ermangarde of Baldringham, Lady.=--The Betrothed, Scott. Aunt of the Lady Eveline Berenger, “the Betrothed.”
=Ermeline.=--The wife of Reynard, in the tale of Reynard the Fox.
=Ermina.=--The heroine of Tasso’s Jerusalem Delivered, who fell in love with Tancred. When the Christian army besieged Jerusalem, she dressed herself in Clorinda’s armor to go to Tancred, but, being discovered, fled, and lived awhile with some shepherds on the banks of the Jordan. Meeting with Vafrino, sent as a secret spy by the crusaders, she revealed to him the design against the life of Godfrey, and, returning with him to the Christian camp, found Tancred wounded. She cured his wounds, so that he was able to take part in the last great day of the siege.
=Ernest, Duke.=--A poetical romance by Henry of Veldig (Waldeck), contemporary with Frederick Barbarossa. It is a mixture of Greek and oriental myths and hero adventures of the crusader.
=Error.=--Faërie Queene, Spenser. A monster who lived in a den in “Wandering Wood,” and with whom the Red-cross Knight had his first adventure. She had a brood of one thousand young ones of sundry shapes, and these cubs crept into their mother’s mouth when alarmed, as young kangaroos creep into their mother’s pouch. The knight was nearly killed by the stench which issued from the foul fiend, but he succeeded in “rafting” her head off, whereupon the brood lapped up the blood, and burst with satiety.
=Escalus= (es´ka-lus).--An ancient and kind hearted lord, in Shakespeare’s Measure for Measure, whom Vincentio, the duke of Vienna, joins with Angelo as his deputy during a pretended absence on a distant journey.
=Escanes= (es´ka-nēz).--A lord of Tyre, in Shakespeare’s Pericles.
=Esmeralda.=--Notre Dame de Paris, Victor Hugo. A beautiful gypsy girl, who, with tambourine and goat, dances in the “place” before Notre Dame.
=Esmond, Henry.=--A cavalier and fine-spirited gentleman in the reign of Queen Anne. Hero of Thackeray’s novel by the same name.
=Esmond.=--A novel by W. M. Thackeray, published in 1852. Its most striking feature is its elaborate imitation of the style and even the manner of thought of the time of Queen Anne’s reign, in which its scenes are laid.
=Esprit des Lois= [es-prē´ dâ lwa (or, Spirit of the Laws)].--A celebrated philosophical work by Montesquieu, published at Geneva in 1748. The author begins somewhat formally with the old division of politics into democracy, aristocracy, and monarchy. He discusses the principles of each, and their bearings on education, on positive law, on social conditions, on military strength (offensive and defensive) on individual liberty, on taxation and finance. Then an abrupt return is made from the effects to the causes of constitutions and polity. The theory of the influence of physical conditions, and especially of climate, on political and social institutions--a theory which is perhaps more than any other identified with the book--received special attention, and a somewhat disproportionate space is given to the question of slavery in this connection. From climate Montesquieu passes to the nature of the soil as in its turn affecting civil polity. He then attacks the subject of manners and customs as distinct from laws of trade and commerce, of the family, of jurisprudence, of religion. The book concludes with an elaborate examination of the feudal system in France.
=Essay on Man.=--A poem by Alexander Pope, in four epistles: Of the Nature and State of Man With Respect to the Universe; Of the Nature and State of Man With Respect to Himself as an Individual; Of the Nature and State of Man With Respect to Society; and Of the Nature and State of Man With Respect to Happiness. Its fundamental idea is to the effect that the system of the universe is a “benevolent system, in which every virtue, as well as every passion, has its object and end.”
“If,” says Professor Ward, “the Essay on Man were shivered into fragments, it would not lose its value; for it is precisely its details which constitute its moral as well as literary beauties. Nowhere has Pope so abundantly displayed his incomparable talent of elevating truisms into proverbs, in his mastery over language and poetic form.”
=Essays= (or, Counsels Civil and Moral).--By Francis, Lord Bacon. In the dedication to his brother Anthony, the author says he published the Essays “because many of them had been stolen abroad in writing,” and he desired to give the world a correct version of his work. The word Essays, he says, “is late; but the thing is ancient, for Seneca’s Epistles to Lucilius, if you mark them well, are but essays, that is, dispersed meditations, though conveyed in the form of epistles.” “The transcendent strength of Bacon’s mind is visible.” says Hallam, “in the whole tenor of these Essays, unequaled as they must be, from the very nature of such compositions. They are deeper and more discriminating than any earlier, or almost any later, work, in the English language; full of recondite observations, long matured, and carefully sifted.”
=Estella.=--The heroine of Dickens’ novel of Great Expectations.
=Estotiland=, or =Estotilandia=.--An imaginary region in America, near the arctic circle, referred to by Milton as “cold Estotiland,” and variously fabled to have been discovered by Frisian fishermen in the fourteenth century, and by a Pole named John Scalve, in 1477.
=Etzel= (et´sel), i. e., =Attila=.--King of the Huns, a monarch ruling over three kingdoms and more than thirty principalities; being a widower, he married Kriemhild, the widow of Siegfried. In the Nibelungenlied, where he is introduced, he is made very insignificant.
=Eugénie Grandet= (u-zhā-nē´ gron-dā´).--A novel by Balzac, written in 1833, published in 1834. The heroine, Eugenie, is sacrificed to the cold-blooded avariciousness of her father. This is one of Balzac’s best novels.
=Eulalia= (ū-lā´li-ä), =St.=--In the calendar of saints there is a virgin martyr called Eulalia. She was martyred by torture February 12, 308. Longfellow calls Evangeline the Sunshine of St. Eulalia.
=Eulenspiegel= (oi´len-spē-gel).--The hero of a German tale, which relates the pranks and drolleries of a wandering cottager of Brunswick.
=Euphrasy.=--Paradise Lost, Milton. The herb eye-bright, so called because it was once supposed to be efficacious in clearing the organs of sight. Hence, the Archangel Michael purged the eyes of Adam with it, to enable him to see into the distant future.
=Evan Dhu M’Combich.=--Waverley, Scott. The foster-brother of M’Ivor.
=Evan Dhu of Lochiel.=--Legend of Montrose, Scott. A Highland chief in the army of Montrose.
=Evangeline.=--The title and heroine of a tale in hexameter verse by Longfellow, in two parts. Evangeline was the daughter of Benedict Bellefontaine, the richest farmer of Acadia (now Nova Scotia). At the age of seventeen she was legally betrothed by the notary-public to Gabriel, son of Basil the blacksmith; but next day all the colony was exiled by the order of George II., and their houses, cattle, and lands were confiscated. Gabriel and Evangeline were parted, and now, sustained by the brightness of hope, she wandered from place to place to find her betrothed. Basil had settled in Louisiana; but when Evangeline reached that distant land, Gabriel had gone. She sought him on the prairies, and, again far north, in Michigan, but ever a few days, a few weeks, too late. At length, grown old in this hopeless quest, she came to Philadelphia and became a sister of mercy. The plague broke out; and, as she visited the almshouse in ministration, she saw an old man who had been smitten with the pestilence. It was Gabriel. He tried to whisper her name; but death closed his lips. “All was ended now;” and “Side by side, in nameless graves, the lovers are sleeping.”
=Evangelist.=--In Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress, represents the effectual preacher of the gospel who opens the gate of life to Christian.
=Evans, Sir Hugh.=--In Shakespeare’s Merry Wives of Windsor, a Welsh parson and school-teacher, ignorant but pedantic, who has a ludicrous quarrel with Dr. Caius.
=Excalibur= (eks-kal´i-bẽr), or =Excalibar=, or =Escalibor=.--The sword of the mythical King Arthur. Arthur received it from the hands of the Lady of the Lake. It had a scabbard the wearer of which could lose no blood. There seems, however, to have been also another sword called Excalibur in the early part of the story. This was the sword, plunged deep into a stone, which could be drawn forth only by the man who was to be king. After two hundred knights had failed, Arthur drew it out without difficulty.
=Excursion, The.=--A poem, in blank verse, by William Wordsworth, published in 1814, and forming the second part of a poem in three parts, to be entitled The Recluse, which the author had at one time contemplated. It consists of nine books, respectively entitled The Wanderer, The Solitary, Despondency, Despondency Corrected, The Pastor, The Churchyard Among the Mountains, The Same Subject Continued, The Parsonage, Discourse of the Wanderer, and An Evening Visit to the Lake.
=Eyre= (âr), =Jane.=--A novel by Charlotte Brontë, published in 1847, with a dedication to William Makepeace Thackeray, as “the first social regenerator of the day.” The early scenes are laid in the Lowood Institution, which has been identified with a school established by the Rev. W. Carus Wilson, at Cowen’s Bridge, near Leeds, and which is described with stern but unpleasing realism. Much of the book was derived from the author’s own personal experience.
=Ezzelin, Sir.=--Lara, Byron. The gentleman who recognizes Lara at the table of Lord Otho, and charges him with being Conrad the Corsair. A duel ensues, and Ezzelin is never heard of more. A serf used to say that he saw a huntsman one evening cast a dead body into the river which divided the lands of Otho and Lara, and that there was a star of knighthood on the breast of the corpse.
=F=
=Faa, Gabriel.=--Guy Mannering, Scott. Nephew of Meg Merrilies. One of the huntsmen at Liddesdale.
=Fadladeen.=--The hypercritical grand chamberlain in Moore’s poem Lalla Rookh. Fadladeen’s criticism upon the several tales which make up the romance are very racy and full of humor; and his crestfallen conceit when he finds out that the poet was the prince in disguise is well conceived.
=Faerie Queene= (fā´e-ri kwēn), =The.=--A poem by Edmund Spenser, published in 1590. This great allegorical epic is divided into six books, of which the first contains the Legend of the Knight of the Red Cross, or Holiness; the second the Legend of Sir Guyon, or Temperance; the third the Legend of Britomartis, or Chastity; the fourth the Legend of Cambal and Telamond, or Friendship; the fifth the Legend of Artegall, or Justice; and the sixth the Legend of Sir Calidore, or Courtesy. There originally existed twelve books, but the last six, excepting two cantos on Mutability, were lost by the poet’s servant in crossing from Ireland to England--a circumstance to be deeply regretted by every lover of true poetry. The finest things in Spenser are the character of Una, in the first book, the House of Pride, the Cave of Mammoth, and the Cave of Despair; the account of Memory; the description of Belphœbe; the story of Florimel and the Witch’s Son; the gardens of Adonis and the Bower of Bliss; the Mask of Cupid; and Colin Clout’s Vision, in the last book.
=Fag.=--A lying servant to Captain Absolute in Sheridan’s Rivals.
=Fagin.=--An old Jew in Dickens’ Oliver Twist, who employs young persons of both sexes to carry on a systematic trade of robbery.
=Fainall, Mr. and Mrs.=--Noted characters in Congreve’s comedy The Way of the World.
=Faineant, Le Noir= (The Black Idler).--In Sir Walter Scott’s Ivanhoe, a name applied to Richard Cœur de Lion in disguise, by the spectators of a tournament, on account of his indifference during a great part of the action, in which, however, he was finally victorious.
=Fair Maid of Perth.=--The title of a novel by Sir Walter Scott, and the name of the heroine.
=Fair Rosamond.=--Prototype of many heroines of fiction, a daughter of Walter de Clifford. According to a popular legend, which has no foundation in fact, Henry II. built a labyrinth or maze to conceal her from Queen Eleanor, who discovered her by means of a silken clew and put her to death. She is commonly, though erroneously, stated to have been the mother of William Longsword and Geoffrey, archbishop of York.
=Fairservice, Andrew.=--A shrewd Scotch gardener at Osbaldistone Hall in Rob Roy, Sir Walter Scott.
=Fairy of the Mine.=--A malevolent being, supposed to live in mines, busying itself with cutting ore, turning the windlass, etc., and yet effecting nothing.
=Faithful.=--One of the allegorical personages in Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress, who dies a martyr before completing his journey.
=Faithful, Jacob.=--The title and hero of a sea tale, by Captain Marryat (1835).
=Fakenham Ghost.=--A ballad by Robert Bloomfield, author of _The Farmer’s Boy_. The ghost was a donkey.
=Fakreddin’s Valley.=--Over the several portals of bronze were these inscriptions: (1) The Asylum of Pilgrims; (2) The Traveler’s Refuge; (3) The Depository of the Secrets of All the World.
=Falkland.=--In Godwin’s novel called Caleb Williams. He commits murder, and keeps a narrative of the transaction in an iron chest. Williams, a lad in his employ, opens the chest, and is caught in the act by Falkland. The lad runs away, but is hunted down. This tale, dramatized by Colman is entitled The Iron Chest.
=Falstaff= (fâl´stȧf), =Sir John.=--A famous character in Shakespeare’s comedy of the Merry Wives of Windsor, and in the first and second parts of his historical drama of Henry IV. He is as perfect a comic portrait as was ever sketched. In the former play he is represented as in love with Mrs. Ford and Mrs. Page, who make a butt and a dupe of him; in the latter he figures as a soldier and a wit; in both he is exhibited as a monster of fat--sensual, mendacious, boastful, and cowardly. In Henry V. his death is described by Mrs. Quickly.
=Fang.=--(1) A sheriff’s officer, in the second part of Shakespeare’s King Henry IV. (2) Oliver Twist, Charles Dickens. A bullying insolent magistrate, who would have sent Oliver Twist to prison, on suspicion of theft, if Mr. Brownlow had not interposed.
=Fata Alcina.=--Orlando Innamorato, Bojardo. Sister of Fata Morgana. She carried off Astolfo on the back of a whale to her isle, but turned him into a myrtle tree when she tired of him.
=Fata Morgana= (fä´tä mor-gä´nä).--The name of a potent fairy, celebrated in the tales of chivalry, and in the romantic poems of Italy. She was a pupil of the enchanter Merlin, and the sister of Arthur, to whom she discovered the intrigue of his queen, Geneura, or Guinever, with Lancelot of the Lake. In the Orlando Innamorato of Bojardo, she appears at first as a personification of fortune, inhabiting a splendid residence at the bottom of a lake, and dispensing all the treasures of the earth, but she is afterward found in her proper station subject to the all potent Demogorgon. Also, as sister to King Arthur and pupil of Merlin. She lived at the bottom of the lake and dispensed good fortune as she liked.
=Fat Boy, The.=--A laughable character in Dickens’ Pickwick Papers; a youth of astonishing obesity whose employment consists in alternate eating and sleeping.
=Fathom, Ferdinand, Count.=--The title of a novel by Smollett, and the name of its principal character, a complete villain, who proceeds step by step to rob his benefactors and finally dies in misery and despair.
=Fatima= (fä´tē-mä).--(1) A female worker, in the story of Aladdin, in the Arabian Nights’ Entertainments. (2) The last of the wives of Bluebeard, and the only one who escaped being murdered by him.
=Faust= (foust).--A celebrated tragedy by Goethe, the materials of which are drawn in part from the popular legends of Dr. Faustus, a famous magician of the sixteenth century. A rich uncle having left him a fortune, Faust ran to every excess, and, when his fortune was exhausted, made a pact with the devil (who assumed the name of Mephistopheles, and the appearance of a little gray monk), that, if he might indulge his propensities freely for twenty-four years, he would at the end of that period consign to the devil both body and soul. The compact terminated in 1550, when Faust disappeared. His sweetheart was Margherita, whom he seduced, and his faithful servant was Wagner.
=Faustus= (fâs´tus).--A tragedy name; represented as a vulgar sorcerer tempted to sell his soul to the devil (Mephistopheles), on condition of having a familiar spirit at his command, the possession of earthly power and glory, and unlimited gratification of his sensual appetites, for twenty-four years; at the end of which time, when the forfeit comes to be exacted, he shrinks and shudders in agony and remorse, imploring yet despairing of the mercy of heaven. This has been the theme of many writers. It is the subject of an opera by Gounod.
=Femmes Savantes= (_fam sȧ-vä_N´), =Les= (or, The Learned Women).--Comedy by Molière. These women go in for women’s rights, science, and philosophy, to the neglect of domestic duties and wifely amenities. The “blue-stockings” are (1) Philaminte, the mother of Henriette, who discharges one of her servants because she speaks bad grammar; (2) Armande, sister of Henriette, who advocates platonic love and science; and (3) Bélise, sister of Philaminte, who sides with her in all things, but imagines that everyone is in love with her. Henriette, who has no sympathy with these “lofty flights,” is in love with Clitandre; but Philaminte wants her to marry Trissotin, a bel esprit. However, the father loses his property through the “savant” proclivities of his wife, Trissotin retires, and Clitandre marries Henriette, the “perfect” or thorough woman.
=Fenella.=--A fairy-like creature, a deaf and dumb attendant on the countess of Derby, in Sir Walter Scott’s Peveril of the Peak.
=Fenton= (fen´ton).--A character in Shakespeare’s Merry Wives of Windsor, who wooes the rich Anne Page for her money, but soon discovers inward treasures in her which quite transform him.
=Feramorz= (fer´a-mōrz).--Lalla Rookh, Thomas Moore. Feramorz in Lalla Rookh is the young Cashmerian poet, who relates poetical tales to Lalla Rookh, in her journey from Delhi to Lesser Bucharia. Lalla Rookh is going to be married to the young sultan, but falls in love with the poet. On the wedding morn she is led to her future husband, and finds that the poet is the sultan himself, who had gallantly taken this course to win the heart of his bride and beguile her journey.
=Ferdinand= (fer´di-nand).--(1) A character in Shakespeare’s Tempest. He is a son of the king of Naples, and falls in love with Miranda, the daughter of Prospero, a banished duke of Milan. (2) King of Navarre, character in Love’s Labor’s Lost.
=Ferrers= (fer´erz)--Endymion. The hero of Benjamin Disraeli’s novel Endymion.
=Ferrex and Porrex.=--Two sons of Gorboduc, a mythical British king. Porrex drove his brother from Britain, and when Ferrex returned with an army he was slain, but Porrex was shortly after put to death by his mother. One of the first, if not the very first, historical plays in the English language was Ferrex and Porrex, by Thomas Norton and Thomas Sackville.
=Fib.=--Nymphidia, Drayton. One of the fairy attendants to Queen Mab.
=Fidele= (fi-dē´lē, or fi-dāl´).--Subject of an elegy by Collins.
=Fidelie.=--Cymbeline, Shakespeare. The name assumed by Imogen, when, attired in boy’s clothes, she started for Milford Haven to meet her husband Posthumus.
=Fidessa.=--Faërie Queene, Spenser. The companion of Sansfoy; but when the Red-cross Knight slew that “faithless Saracen,” Fidessa turned out to be Duessa, the daughter of Falsehood and Shame. See “Duessa.”
=Figaro= (fē´gä-rō).--A character introduced by Beaumarchais in his plays Le Barbier de Seville, Le Mariage de Figaro, and La Mère Coupable, used later by Mozart, Paisiello, and Rossini in operas. In the Barbier he is a barber; in the Mariage he is a valet. In both he is gay, lively, and courageous; his stratagems are always original, his lies witty, and his shrewdness proverbial. In the Mère Coupable he has become virtuous and has lost his nerve. He also appears in Holcroft’s Follies of a Day, taken from Beaumarchais’ Mariage de Figaro.
=Finetta= (fi-net´tä).--The Cinder Girl. A fairy tale by the Comtesse d’Aulnoy. This is merely the old tale of Cinderella slightly altered.
=Fingal= (fing´gal).--A mythical hero, whose name occurs in Gaelic ballads and traditions, and in Macpherson’s Poems of Ossian.
=Fleance= (flē´ans).--A son of Banquo, in Shakespeare’s tragedy of Macbeth. The legend relates that after the assassination of his father he escaped to Wales, where he married the daughter of the reigning prince, and had a son named Walter. This Walter afterward became lord high steward of Scotland, and called himself Walter the Steward. From him proceeded in a direct line the Stuarts of Scotland, a royal line which gave James VI. of Scotland, James I. of England. This myth has been seriously accepted by some as fact.
=Fledgeby.=--Our Mutual Friend, Dickens. An overreaching, cowardly sneak who pretends to do a decent business under the trade name of Pubsey & Co.
=Florentius.=--A knight whose story is related in the first book of Gower’s Confessio Amantis. He bound himself to marry a deformed hag, provided she taught him the solution of a riddle on which his life depended.
=Florian= (flō-ryon´).--The Foundling of the Forest, W. Dimond. Discovered in infancy by the Count de Valmont, and adopted as his own son, Florian is lighthearted and volatile, but with deep affection, very grave, and the delight of all who know him.
=Florimel= (flor´i-mel).--A female character in Spenser’s Faërie Queene, of great beauty, but so timid that she feared the “smallest monstrous mouse that creeps on floor,” and was abused by everyone. She was noted for sweetness of temper amid great trials. The word Florimel signifies “honey-flower.”
=Florizel= (flor´i-zel).--A prince of Bohemia, in Shakespeare’s Winter’s Tale, in love with Perdita.
=Fluellen= (flö-el´en).--A Welsh captain, who is an amusing pedant, in Shakespeare’s Henry V.
=Flying Dutchman.=--A spectral ship, seen in stormy weather off the Cape of Good Hope, and considered ominous of ill-luck. Captain Marryat has taken this theme for his novel The Phantom Ship.
=Folk.=--Fairies, also called “people,” “neighbors,” “wights.” The Germans have their kleine volk (little folk), the Swiss their hill people and earth people. See Fairies.
=Ford.=--Mr. and Mrs. Ford are characters in The Merry Wives of Windsor. Mrs. Ford pretends to accept Sir John Falstaff’s protestations of love, in order to punish him by her devices.
=Fortinbras= (fôr´tin-bras).--Prince of Norway, in Shakespeare’s tragedy Hamlet.
=Fortunatus= (fôr-tū-na´tus).--The hero in one of Straparolla’s fairy tales. The nursery tale of Fortunatus records that he had an inexhaustible purse. It is from the Italian fairy tales.
=Fortunio’s= (fôr-tu´ni-o) =Horse.=--Comrade not only possessed incredible speed, but knew all things, and was gifted with human speech.
=Francesco.=--The Iago of Massinger’s Duke of Milan.
=Francesca da Rimini= (frȧn-ches´kȧ dȧ rē´mē-nē).--A dramatic poem by James Henry Leigh Hunt published in 1816. Francesca was the daughter of Guido da Polenta, Lord of Ravenna, in the latter part of the thirteenth century, and was married to Lanciotto, son of Malatesta da Rimini, who, discovering her criminal intercourse with his brother, revenged himself by putting them both to death. Her story forms an episode in Dante’s Inferno.
=Frankenstein= (fräng´ken-stīn) (or, the Modern Prometheus).--A novel by Mrs. Shelley, published in 1818. It was commenced in the summer of 1816, when Byron and the Shelleys were residing on the banks of the Lake of Geneva, and when, “during a week of rain, having amused themselves with reading German ghost stories, they agreed at last to write something in imitation of them. ‘You and I,’ said Lord Byron to Mrs. Shelley, ‘will publish ours together.’ He then began his tale of the Vampire;” but “the most memorable result,” writes Moore, “of their storytelling compact, was Mrs. Shelley’s wild and powerful romance of Frankenstein, one of those original conceptions that take hold of the public mind at once and forever.”
The hero of the book, a native of Geneva, and a student, constructs a monster of grewsome human remains and gives it life by galvanism. The monster feels that he is unlike all other human beings, and in revenge for the injury inflicted upon him by his creator, murders his friend, his brother, and his bride, and finally seeks out Frankenstein himself, with a view to wreaking a similar revenge on him. The hero, however, happily escapes his enemy, who retires to the utmost extremity of the globe, in order to put an end to his miserable life; and Frankenstein himself falls ill and dies on his way home after his last final flight from the monstrosity whom he has himself brought into the world.
=Freeport, Sir Andrew.=--The name of one of the members of the imaginary club under whose direction the Spectator was professedly published. He is represented as a London merchant of great eminence and experience, industrious, sensible and generous.
=French Revolution, The.=--A history, in three parts, by Thomas Carlyle, published in 1837, and described by Lowell as “a series of word-pictures, unmatched for vehement power, in which the figures of such sons of earth as Mirabeau and Danton loom gigantic and terrible as in the glare of an eruption; their shadows swaying far and wide, grotesquely awful. But all is painted by eruptive flashes in violent light and shade. There are no half tints, no gradations, and we find it impossible to account for the continuance in power of less Titanic actors in the tragedy, like Robespierre, on any theory, whether of human nature or of individual character, supplied by Mr. Carlyle.”
=Friar Lawrence.=--The Franciscan monk who attempted to befriend the lovers in Romeo and Juliet.
=Friar Tuck.=--Chaplain and steward of Robin Hood. Introduced by Sir Walter Scott in Ivanhoe. He is a self-indulgent, combative Falstaff, a jolly companion to the outlaws in Sherwood forest.
=Friday.=--Robinson Crusoe’s faithful man Friday pictured by Defoe.
=Froissart= (froi´särt).--The Cronicles of England, Fraunce, Spayne, Portyugale, Scotlande, Bretayne, Flanders, and other places adjoynynge, translated out of Frenche into our maternalle Englysche Tonge, by “John Bourchier, knight, Lord Berners.” Printed in 1523. The history extends from 1326 to 1400. Froissart resided in England as secretary to Queen Philippa from 1361 to 1366, and visited it again in 1395, when he paid a visit to Scotland.
=Frollo, Archdeacon Claude.=--A noted character in Victor Hugo’s Notre Dame de Paris, absorbed in a bewildering search for the philosopher’s stone.
=Front de Bœuf.=--Ivanhoe, Sir Walter Scott. A follower of Prince John of Anjou, and one of the knight’s challengers.
=Froth, Master.=--A foolish gentleman in Shakespeare’s _Measure for Measure_. His name explains his character.
=Fusbos= (fus´bos).--Utopia, Sir Thomas More. Minister of state to Artaxaminous, king of Utopia.
=Fyrapel, Sir.=--The Leopard, the nearest kinsman of King Lion, in the beast epic of Reynard the Fox.
=G=
=Gadshill.=--A companion of Sir John Falstaff, in the first part of Shakespeare’s King Henry IV.
=Galahad= (gal´a-had), =Sir.=--A celebrated knight of the Round Table who achieved the quest of the Holy Grail. Tennyson has made him the subject of one of his idylls. In Malory he is also represented as the perfect knight, clad in wonderful armor. He was the only knight who could sit in the “Siege Perilous” a seat reserved for the “knight without a flaw,” who achieved the quest of the “Holy Grail.”
=Galapas= (gal´a-pas).--A giant of marvelous height in the army of Lucius, king of Rome. He was slain by King Arthur.
=Galaphrone=, or =Galafron.=--A king of Cathay and father of Angelica in Bojardo’s Orlando Innamorato and Ariosto’s Furioso.
=Gamp, Mrs.=--A nurse who is a prominent character in Dickens’ novel of Martin Chuzzlewit. She is celebrated for her constant reference to a certain Mrs. Harris, a purely imaginary person, for whose feigned opinions and utterances she professes the greatest respect, in order to give the more weight to her own.
=Gan=, =Ganelone=, =Ganelon=, or =Gano.=--The character of Sir Ganelon was marked with spite, dissimulation, and intrigue, but he was patient, obstinate, and enduring. He loved solitude, disbelieved in the existence of moral good, and has become a byword for a false and faithless friend. Dante has placed him in his Inferno.
=Gander-Cleugh.=--“Folly-Cliff,” that mysterious place where a person make a goose of himself, in Tales of My Landlord, Sir Walter Scott.
=Garcia, Pedro.=--A mythical personage, of whom mention is made in the preface to Gil Bias, in which is related how two scholars of Salamanca discovered a tombstone with the inscription “Here lies interred the soul of the Licentiate Pedro Garcia,” and how, on digging beneath the stone, was found a leathern purse containing a hundred ducats.
=Gareth.=--In Arthurian Romance a knight of the Round Table, who was first a scullion in King Arthur’s kitchen, but afterward became champion of the Lady Linet, or Lynette, whose sister Lionès, or Lyonors, he delivered from Castle Perilous.
=Garganelle= (gär-ga-nel´).--The mother of Gargantua in Rabelais’ celebrated romance of this name.
=Gargantua= (gär-gan´tū-ä).--Rabelais’ celebrated romance, the hero of which is a gigantic personage, about whom many wonderful stories are related. He lived for several centuries, and at last begot a son, Pantagruel, as wonderful as himself. The Pleasant Story of the Giant Gargantua and of his Son Pantagruel, so satirized the monastic orders of his time that it was denounced by the spiritual authorities. Francis I., however, protected the author, and allowed him to print the third part of it in 1545.
=Gargery= (gar´jer-i), =Mrs. Joe.=--Great Expectations, Dickens. Pip’s sister. A virago, who kept her husband and Pip in constant awe. Joe Gargery, a blacksmith, married to Pip’s sister. A noble-hearted, simple-minded young man, who loved Pip sincerely. Joe Gargery was one of nature’s gentlemen.
=Gaspar=, or =Caspar.=--(The white one), one of the three magi or kings of Cologne. His offering to the infant Jesus was frankincense, in token of divinity.
=Gaunt, Griffith.=--Hero of a novel by Charles Reade, of same title.
=Gavotte.=--Name given to a certain dance common among people in the upper Alps.
=Gawain=, or =Gawayne= (gä´wān), =Sir=.--A nephew of King Arthur, and one of the most celebrated knights of the Round Table; noted for his sagacity and wonderful strength. He was surnamed “the courteous.” His brothers were Agravaine, Gaheris, and Gareth.
=Gebir= (gā´bēr).--A legendary eastern prince, said to have invaded Africa and to have given his name to Gibraltar. He is the subject of a poem of the same name by Walter Savage Landor.
=Gellatley= (gel´at-li), =Davie=.--The name of a poor fool in Sir Walter Scott’s novel of Waverley.
=Geneviève= (zhen-vyāv´).--(1) The heroine of a ballad by Coleridge. (2) Under the form Genovefa, the name occurs in a German myth as that of the wife of the Count Palatine Siegfried, in the time of Charles Martel. Upon false accusations her husband gave orders to put her to death, but the servant intrusted with the commission suffered her to escape into the forests of Ardennes, where she lay concealed, until by accident his husband discovered her retreat, and recognized her innocence.
=Genevra.=--A lady in Aristo’s Orlandos’ Furioso. Her honor is impeached, and she is condemned to die unless a champion appears to do combat for her. Her lover, Ariodantes, answers the challenge, kills the false accuser, and weds the dame. Spenser has a similar story in the Faërie Queene, and Shakespeare availed himself of the main incident in his comedy of Much Ado About Nothing.
=Geraint= (ge-rānt), =Sir=.--One of the knights of the Round Table. His story is told in Tennyson’s Idylls of the King under _Geraint and Enid_.
=Geraldine.=--A name frequently found in romantic poetry, especially Scott’s Lay of the Last Minstrel. The name is said to have been adopted from the heroine connected with Surrey, whose praises are celebrated in a famous sonnet.
=Gertrude of Wyoming.=--Heroine of a poem by Thomas Campbell.
=Gesta Romanorum= (jes´tä rō-ma-nō´rum).--A collection of old romances compiled by Pierre Bercheure, prior of the Benedictine convent of St. Eloi, Paris. Shakespeare, Spenser, Gower, and many later writers have gone to this source. It took its present form in England about the beginning of the fourteenth century, the foundation coming from Roman writers, to which were added religious and mystical tales.
=Giaour= (jour), =The=.--Byron’s tale called The Giaour is represented as told by a fisherman, a Turk, who had committed a crime which haunted him all his life. See Hassan.
=Gibbie, Goose.=--A half-witted boy in Scott’s Old Mortality.
=Gibbie, Sir.=--A simple-hearted, fine character in George Macdonald’s novel by the same name.
=Giant Despair.=--Pilgrim’s Progress, Bunyan. A giant who is the owner of Doubting Castle, and who, finding Christian and Hopeful asleep upon his grounds, takes them prisoners, and thrusts them into a dungeon.
=Giant Grim.=--Pilgrim’s Progress, Bunyan. A giant who seeks to stop the march of the pilgrims to the Celestial City, but is slain in a duel by Mr. Great-heart, their guide.
=Giant Slay-good.=--Pilgrim’s Progress, Bunyan. A giant slain in a duel by Mr. Great-heart.
=Gil Blas= (zhēl bläs).--A romance by Le Sage. The hero is the son of Blas of Santillanê squire or “escudero” to a lady, and brought up by his uncle, Canon Gil Perês. Gil Blas went to Dr. Godinez’s school of Oviedo and obtained the reputation of being a great scholar. He had fair abilities, a kind heart, and good inclinations, but was easily led astray by his vanity. Full of wit and humor, he was lax in his morals. Duped by others at first, he afterward played the same devices on those less experienced. As he grew in years, however, his conduct improved, and when his fortune was made, he became an honest, steady man.
=Glaucus= (glâ´kus).--A fisherman of Bœotia who has become the fisherman’s patron deity.
=Glaucus.=--Son of Hippolytus. Being smothered in a tub of honey, he was restored to life by Æsculapius.
=Gloriana.=--In Spenser’s Faërie Queene, the “greatest glorious queen of Faëry land.”
=Glumdalca= (glum-dal´kä).--Tom Thumb, Fielding. Queen of the giants, captive in the court of King Arthur.
=Glumdalclitch= (glum-dal´klich).--Gulliver’s Travels, Swift. A girl nine years old “and only forty feet high.” Being such a “little thing,” the charge of Gulliver was committed to her during his sojourn in Brobdingnag.
=Glumms.=--Peter Wilkins, Robert Pullock. The male population of the imaginary country Nosmubdsgrsutt, visited by Peter Wilkins. Both males and females had wings which served both for flying and for clothes.
=Godiva= (gō-dī´vä).--A poem by Alfred Tennyson. The story of the lady and Peeping Tom of Coventry is told in full by Dugdale. Godiva was the wife of Leofric, earl of Mercia, and undertook to ride naked through the town if he would remit a tax under which the people groaned. The earl consented and the lady kept her word.
=Golden Ass, The.=--A romance in Latin by Apuleius. It is the adventures of Lucian, a young man who had been transformed into an ass, but still retained his human consciousness. It tells us the miseries which he suffered at the hands of robbers, eunuchs, magistrates, and so on, till the time came for him to resume his proper form. It is full of wit, racy humor, and rich fancy, and contains the exquisite episode of Cupid and Psyche.
=Golden Legend, The.=--The title of an ecclesiastical work in one hundred and seventy-seven sections, dating from the thirteenth century, written by one James de Voragine, a Dominican monk, and descriptive of the various saints’ days in the Roman calendar. It is deserving of study as a literary monument of the period, and as illustrating the religious habits and views of the Christians of that time.
=Goneril= (gon´er-il).--The oldest of the three daughters to King Lear, in Shakespeare’s tragedy. Having received her moiety of Lear’s kingdom, the unnatural daughter first abridged the old man’s retinue, then gave him to understand that his company was not wanted and sent him out a despairing old man to seek refuge where he could find it. Her name is proverbial for filial ingratitude.
=Gonzalo= (gon-zä´lō).--An honest old counselor in Shakespeare’s Tempest, a true friend to Prospero.
=Goody Blake.=--A character in Wordsworth’s poem entitled Goody Blake and Harry Gill. A farmer forbids old Goody Blake to carry home a few sticks, which she had picked up from his land, and in revenge she invokes upon him the curse that he may “never more be warm;” and ever after “his teeth they chatter, chatter still.”
=Goody Two-Shoes.=--The name of a well-known character in a nursery tale by Oliver Goldsmith. Goody Two-Shoes was a very poor child, whose delight at having a pair of shoes was unbounded. She called constant attention to her “two-shoes” which gave her the name.
=Gradgrind= (grad´grīnd).--A hardware merchant in Dickens’ Hard Times. He is a man of hard facts and cultivates the practical. His constant demand in conversation is for “facts.” He allows nothing for the weakness of human nature, and deals with men and women as a mathematician with his figures.
=Gradgrind, Mrs.=--Wife of Thomas Gradgrind. A little, thin woman, always taking physic, without receiving from it any benefit.
=Gradgrind, Tom.=--Son of the above, a sullen young man, much loved by his sister.
=Gradgrind, Louise.=--A faithful daughter and sister.
=Grandison, Sir Charles.=--The hero of Richardson’s novel The History of Sir Charles Grandison. Designed to represent his ideal of a perfect hero--a union of the good Christian and the perfect English gentleman.
=Gratiano= (grä-tē-ä´no).--(1) A friend to Antonio and Bassanio in Shakespeare’s Merchant of Venice. He “talks an infinite deal of nothing, more than any man in Venice.” (2) Brother to Brabantio, in Shakespeare’s tragedy of Othello. (3) A character in the Italian popular theater called Commedia dell’ Arte. He is represented as a Bolognese doctor, and has a mask with a black nose and forehead and red cheeks.
=Great-Heart, Mr.=--In Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress, the guide of Christian’s wife and children upon their journey to the Celestial City.
=Gremio= (grē´mi-ō).--In Shakespeare’s Taming of the Shrew, an old man who wishes to wed Bianca.
=Griffin-feet.=--Fairy Tales, Comtesse d’Aulnoy. The mark by which the Desert Fairy was known in all her metamorphoses.
=Grimalkin.=--A cat, the spirit of a witch. Any witch was permitted to assume the body of a cat nine times.
=Grimwig.=--Oliver Twist, Dickens. An irascible old gentleman, who hid a very kind heart under a rough exterior. He was always declaring himself ready to “eat his head” if he was mistaken on any point on which he passed an opinion.
=Griselda= (gri-zel´dä), =The Patient=.--A lady in Chaucer’s Clerk of Oxenford’s Tales, immortalized by her virtue and her patience. The model of womanly and wifely obedience, she comes victoriously out of cruel and repeated ordeals. The story of Griselda is first told in the Decameron. Boccaccio derived the incidents from Petrarch, who seems to have communicated them also to Chaucer, as the latter refers to Petrarch as his authority.
=Grub Street=, London, is thus described in Dr. Johnson’s dictionary: “Originally the name of a street near Moorfields, in London, much inhabited by writers of small histories, dictionaries, and temporary poems, whence any production is called Grub street.” The name was freely used by Pope, Swift, and others.
=Grundy.=--“What will Mrs. Grundy say?” (What will our rivals or neighbors say?) The phrase is from Tom Morton’s Speed the Plough, but “Mrs. Grundy” is not introduced into the comedy as one of the dramatis personæ. The solicitude of Dame Ashfield, in this play, as to “what will Mrs. Grundy say?” has given the latter great celebrity, the interrogatory having acquired a proverbial currency.
=Gudrun= (gö-drön´).--Edda, Sämund Sigfusson. A lady, married to Sigurd by the magical arts of her mother and on the death of Sigurd to Atli (Attila), whom she hated for his cruelty, and murdered. She then cast herself into the sea, and the waves bore her to the castle of King Jonakun, who became her third husband.
=Gudrun.=--North-Saxon poem. A model of heroic fortitude and pious resignation. She was the daughter of King Hettel (Attila), and the betrothed of Herwig, king of Heligoland.
=Guendolen= (gwen´dō-len).--A fairy whose mother was a human being.
=Guildenstern.=--The name of a courtier in Shakespeare’s tragedy Hamlet.
=Guinevere= (gwin´e-ver), or =Guenever=.--A corrupt form of =Guanhumara=, daughter of King Leodegrance of the land of Camelyard. She was the most beautiful of women, was the wife of King Arthur, but entertained a liaison with Sir Launcelot du Lac. Arthur, when informed of the conduct of Launcelot, went with an army to Brittany to punish him. Mordred, left as regent, usurped the crown, proclaimed that Arthur was dead, and tried to marry Guinevere; but she shut herself up in the Tower of London, resolved to die rather than marry the usurper. When she heard of the death of Arthur, she stole away to Almesbury, and became a nun.