The Circle of Knowledge: A Classified, Simplified, Visualized Book of Answers (part 6 of 9)

=The Union Successes in the Southwest.=--But the serious campaigning did not begin until January, 1862. Then the whole line west of the Alleghanies (made up of the armies of Ohio and Missouri), turning on Pittsburgh as a center, swept southward, captured Forts Henry and Donelson, defeated the Confederates at Shiloh, captured Corinth, took Island Number 10, and drove them from Fort Pillow. Meantime Farragut entered the Mississippi from the Gulf, passed Forts Jackson and St. Philip, captured New Orleans, and sent Commodore Davis up the river to take Memphis. Memphis fell June 6, 1862, and, save for Vicksburg, the Mississippi was open for navigation. When the year closed the Confederates had been driven to the east into the mountains of Tennessee, where, December 31, 1862 to January 2, 1863, was fought the desperate and bloody battle of Murfreesboro. The Union troops won, and the Confederate army fell back to Chattanooga.

=The Peninsular Campaign Favors Confederate Arms.=--With the Army of the Potomac meantime all had gone ill. The affair at Bull Run in July, 1861, had been followed by the transfer of the army to McClellan. But McClellan wasted time, wore out the patience of the North, and forced Lincoln to issue General Order Number One for the forward movement of all armies on February 22, 1862. Obedient to this McClellan began his Peninsular Campaign against Richmond, was out-generaled by Lee, and in the second battle of Bull Run suffered so crushing a defeat that Lee ventured to cross the Potomac and enter Maryland, and encountered McClellan, on the field of Antietam. In that battle Lee was beaten and fled across the Potomac. But McClellan failed to follow up the victory and was removed, the command of the Army of the Potomac passing to Burnside. Burnside led it across the Potomac and the Rappahannock and on December 13, 1862, lost the battle of Fredericksburg. For this he was replaced by Hooker, who, May 1-4, 1863, fought and lost the battle of Chancellorsville.

=The Turning Point of the War.=--Lee now again took the offensive, crossed the Potomac, entered Pennsylvania, and at Gettysburg met the Army of the Potomac under Meade. On that field was fought the decisive battle of the war. Then (July 1-4, 1863) the backbone of the Confederacy was broken, and the two armies returned to their old positions in Virginia.

While Meade was beating Lee at Gettysburg, Grant captured Vicksburg, July 1-3, 1863. For this he was sent to command the army of Rosecrans, then besieged by Bragg at Chattanooga. Again success attended him, and in November he stormed Lookout Mountain, defeated Bragg in the famous “Battle above the Clouds,” and drove him in disorder through the mountains. For these signal victories he was raised to the rank of Lieutenant General in 1864, and placed in command of the armies of the United States.

That year is memorable for the great march of Sherman to the east from Chattanooga to the sea, for the victories of Sheridan in the valley of the Shenandoah, for the Wilderness Campaign of Grant, the shutting up of Lee in Richmond, and by the re-election of Lincoln. His competitor was General McClellan, whom the northern Democrats put forward on the platform that the war was a failure, and that peace should be made with the South. In the spring of 1865 came the retreat of Lee from Richmond, and, on April 9, his surrender at Appomattox Court House.

=THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR, 1861-1865=

===================+==============================+=================== =Causes of the War=| =Influencing Events= | =Results of the | | War= -------------------+------------------------------+------------------- Real, but remote:|The invention of the cotton |The Union was pre- |gin, 1793. |served. (1) The doctrine of| | popular sovereign- |Fugitive slave laws, 1793 and |Slavery was ty. Different con- |1850. |abolished. structions of the | | Constitution. |Protective tariff laws. |Secession as a | |working program was (2) Slavery. Dif- |Missouri compromise, 1820. |shown to be imprac- ferent systems of | |ticable. labor in the North |Nullification act in South | and the South. |Carolina, 1832. |The war cost the | |lives of nearly one (3) Lack of inter- |Annexation of Texas, 1845. |million able-bodied course between the | |men. North and the |Omnibus bill, 1850. | South. | |The national debt |Kansas-Nebraska bill, 1854 |was increased to (4) The increase of| |$2,750,000,000. territory. |Dred Scott decision, 1857. | | |An incalculable Immediate: |Personal liberty bills, 1857. |amount of property The secession of | |was destroyed. the states. |John Brown raid, 1859. | | | |Anti-slavery papers, books, | |and speeches. | | | |New England Anti-Slavery So- | |ciety was organized, 1832. | | | |Anti-slavery parties: | | Liberty party, 1840-1848. | | Free-Soil party, 1848-1856. | | Republican party, 1854. | -------------------+------------------------------+-------------------

=CAMPAIGNS AND BATTLES=

Naval engagements are printed in italics; names of victorious commanders in =bold-face= type.

=LAND AND SEA ENGAGEMENTS=

===================+==================+================================= =Name, Location | =Commanders= | =Casualties= and Date | +----------------+---------------- of Battle= | | =Union= | =Confederate= | +--------+-------+--------+------- | |=Killed=|=Wound-|=Killed=|=Wound- | | | ed= | | ed= -------------------+------------------+--------+-------+--------+------- =1861= | | | | | | | | | | =Bombardment of |=Gen. Beauregard= | No casualties on either side Fort Sumter= (April|vs. Maj. Anderson.| | | | 13-14) | | | | | | | | | | =Bull Run=, |=Gen. Beauregard= | 481| 1,011| 362| 1,390 Virginia (July 21) |and =Gen. | | | | |Johnston= vs. Gen.| | | | |McDowell. | | | | | | | | | =Wilson Creek=, |=Gen. Price= vs. | 223| 721| 331| 764 Missouri (August |Gen. Lyon. | | | | 10) | | | | | | | | | | =1862= | | | | | | | | | | =Pea Ridge=, |=Gen. Curtis= and | 203| 972| 1,040| 3,638 Arkansas (March 6- |=Gen. Franz Sigel=| | | | 8) |vs. Gen. Van Dorn.| | | | | | | | | _Monitor and Merri-|=Lt. J. L. Worden=| 0| 1| 0| 2 mac_, Hampton |vs. Capt. Franklin| | | | Roads, Virginia |Buchanan. | | | | (March 9) | | | | | | | | | | =Fort Donelson=, |=Gen. Grant= vs. | 560| 746| 466| 1,534 Tennessee (February|Gen. Floyd, Gen. | | | | 15) |Pillow and Gen. | | | | |Buckner. | | | | | | | | | =Shiloh, or Pitts- |=Gen. Grant= vs. | 1,735| 7,882| 1,128| 8,012 burg Landing=, |Gen. Johnston and | | | | Tennessee (April 6-|Gen. Beauregard. | | | | 7) | | | | | | | | | | =Drury’s Bluff=, |=Gen. Beauregard= | 422| 2,380| 514| 1,086 Virginia (May 15) |vs. Gen. Butler. | | | | | | | | | =Seven Pines, or |=Gen. Johnston= | 891| 3,627| 1,987| 2,233 Fair Oaks=, |vs. Gen. | | | | Virginia (May 31) |McClellan. | | | | | | | | | =Gaines Mill=, |=Gen. A. Elzey= | 3,000| 4,500| 2,000| 4,000 Virginia (June 27) |vs. Gen. F. J. | | | | |Porter. | | | | | | | | | =Malvern Hill=, |=Gen. McClellan= | 2,860| 3,500| 3,023| 4,077 Virginia (July 1) |vs. Gen. Lee. | | | | | | | | | =Cedar Mountain=, |=Gen. Jackson= vs.| 450| 660| 223| 1,060 Virginia (August 8-|Gen. Banks. | | | | 9) | | | | | | | | | | =Bull Run No. 2, or|=Gen. Lee= and | 798| 4,023| 1,090| 6,154 Manassas=, Virginia|=Gen. Jackson= vs.| | | | (August 29-30) |Gen. Pope. | | | | | | | | | =Antietam=, Mary- |=Gen. McClellan= | 2,010| 9,416| 1,842| 9,399 land (September 16-|vs. Gen. Lee. | | | | 17) | | | | | | | | | | =Corinth=, Missis- |=Gen. Rosecrans= | 315| 1,812| 1,423| 5,692 sippi (October 3-4)|vs. Gen. Van Dorn.| | | | | | | | | =Perrysville=, |=Gen. Buell= vs. | 916| 2,943| 980| 1,520 Kentucky (October |Gen. Bragg. | | | | 8) | | | | | | | | | | =Fredericksburg=, |=Gen. Lee= vs. | 1,152| 9,101| 505| 4,061 Virginia (December |Gen. A. E. | | | | 11-13) |Burnside. | | | | | | | | | =Murfreesboro, or |=Gen. Rosecrans= | 1,533| 7,245| 1,384| 6,892 Stone River=, |vs. Gen. Bragg. | | | | Tennessee (December| | | | | 30, 1862, to | | | | | January 2, 1863) | | | | | | | | | | =1863= | | | | | | | | | | =Chancellorsville=,|=Gen. Lee= and | 1,512| 9,518| 1,718| 10,563 Virginia (April 30 |=Gen. Jackson= vs.| | | | to May 4) |Gen. Hooker. | | | | | | | | | =Vicksburg=, Mis- |=Gen. Pemberton= | 1,848| 2,378| 1,420| 2,151 sissippi (May 19- |vs. Gen. Grant. | | | | 25) | | | | | | | | | | =Gettysburg=, Penn-|=Gen. George G. | 2,834| 13,709| 4,000| 14,000 sylvania (July 1-3)|Meade= vs. Gen. | | | | |Lee. | | | | | | | | | =Chickamauga=, |=Gen. Bragg= vs. | 1,644| 9,262| 6,000| 10,000 Georgia (September |Gen. Rosecrans. | | | | 18-20) | | | | | | | | | | =Chattanooga, in- |=Gen. Grant=, | 757| 4,529| 850| 2,150 cluding Orchard |=Gen. Sherman= and| | | | Knob, Lookout Moun-|=Gen. Hooker= vs. | | | | tain and Missionary|Gen. Bragg. | | | | Ridge=, Tennessee | | | | | (November 23-25) | | | | | | | | | | =1864= | | | | | | | | | | =Wilderness=, |=Gen. Grant= vs. | 2,309| 12,188| 1,956| 10,444 Virginia (May 5-7) |Gen. Lee. | | | | | | | | | =Spottsylvania=, |=Gen. Grant= vs. | 3,288| 19,278| 3,342| 20,187 Virginia (May 8-11)|Gen. Lee. | | | | | | | | | =Spottsylvania=, |=Gen. Grant= vs. | 2,031| 7,956| 1,752| 7,248 Virginia (May 18) |Gen. Lee. | | | | | | | | | =Bermuda Hundreds=,|=Gen. Butler=, vs.| 201| 998| 864| 2,136 Virginia (May 26- |Gen. D. H. Hill. | | | | 30) | | | | | | | | | | =Cold Harbor=, |=Gen. Lee= vs. | 1,905| 10,570| 364| 1,336 Virginia (June 2-3)|Gen. Grant. | | | | | | | | | =Petersburg=, |=Gen. Lee= vs. | 1,298| 7,474| 984| 6,721 Virginia (June 15- |Gen. Smith, Gen. | | | | 19) |Hancock and Gen. | | | | |Burnside. | | | | | | | | | =Petersburg=, |=Gen. Grant= vs. | 112| 506| 801| 1,417 Virginia (June 20- |Gen. Lee. | | | | 30) | | | | | | | | | | =Peach Tree Creek=,|=Gen. Thomas= vs. | 301| 1,411| 880| 3,916 Georgia (July 20) |Gen. Hood. | | | | | | | | | =Atlanta=, Georgia,|=Gen. Logan= vs. | 499| 2,142| 1,162| 7,337 =Hood’s First |Gen. Hood. | | | | Sortie= (July 22) | | | | | | | | | | =Petersburg=, |=Gen. Grant= vs. | 419| 2,076| 799| 4,023 Virginia (from July|Gen. Lee. | | | | 1, exclusive of | | | | | losses at the | | | | | Crater and Deep | | | | | Bottom) (July 31) | | | | | | | | | | =Petersburg=, |=Gen. Grant= vs. | 87| 484| 101| 605 Virginia (August 1-|Gen. Lee. | | | | 31) | | | | | | | | | | =Opequan=, Virginia|=Gen. Sheridan= | 653| 3,719| 1,632| 3,868 (September 19) |vs. Gen. Early. | | | | | | | | | =Cedar Creek=, |=Gen. Sheridan= | 588| 3,516| 961| 3,239 Virginia (October |vs. Gen. Early. | | | | 19) | | | | | | | | | | =Fair Oaks=, |=Gen. McClellan= | 120| 783| 150| 301 Virginia (October |vs. Gen. Johnston.| | | | 27-28) | | | | | | | | | | =Petersburg=, |=Gen. Grant= vs. | 170| 822| 240| 761 Virginia (Sept. 1 |Gen. Lee. | | | | to Oct. 30) | | | | | | | | | | =Franklin=, Tennes-|=Gen. Hood= vs. | 189| 1,033| 1,141| 5,113 see (November 30) |Gen. Schofield. | | | | | | | | | =Nashville=, Ten- |=Gen. Thomas= vs. | 399| 1,741| 584| 3,021 nessee (December |Gen. Hood. | | | | 15-16) | | | | | | | | | | =1865= | | | | | | | | | | =Petersburg=, |=Gen. Grant= vs. | 298| 2,565| 341| 3,092 Virginia (April 2) |Gen. Lee. | | | | | | | | | =Appomattox=, |=Gen. Grant= vs. | 203| 297| 189| 386 Virginia (April 9) |Gen. Lee. | | | | -------------------+------------------+--------+-------+--------+-------

=Lincoln Assassinated, and Beginning of Reconstruction.=--On April 14, 1865, Lincoln was assassinated and Andrew Johnson became president. With the succession of Johnson the era of reconstruction, political and social, begins. The outcome of political reconstruction was the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth amendments to the Constitution of the United States, the impeachment of Andrew Johnson, and a long list of acts to protect and assist the freedmen of the South. The outcome of social reconstruction was the rise of the Ku Klux Klan, the passage and use of the Force Act, and the dreadful condition of affairs which ruined the South for a decade.

In the North the effect of such measures was to split the Republican party and put seven presidential candidates in the field in 1872. One represented the Temperance party; another the Labor party, denouncing Chinese labor and the non-taxation of Government land; a third was the Liberal Republican, demanding union, amnesty, and civil rights, accusing Grant of packing the Supreme Court in the interests of corporations, and calling for a repeal of the Ku Klux laws. The Liberal Republicans having chosen Horace Greeley as their candidate, the Democrats accepted and indorsed him. But he pleased neither party, and the discontented Liberals and the discontented Democrats each chose a candidate of their own. The Republicans nominated Grant and elected him.

=Election of Hayes Decided by an Electoral Commission.=--His second term (1873-1877) was the nadir of our politics, both state and national, and ended with the disputed election and the rise of the Independent or “Greenback party,” demanding the repeal of the act for the resumption of specie payments and the issue of the United States “greenback” notes, convertible into bonds, as the currency of the country. Double returns and doubtful returns from the Southern states put the votes of thirteen electors in dispute. As the House was Democratic and the Senate Republican, the joint rule under which the electoral votes had been counted since 1865 could not be adopted. A compromise was necessary, and on January 29, 1877, the Electoral Commission of five Senators, five Representatives, and five judges of the Supreme Court was created to decide on the doubtful returns. Of the fifteen, eight were Republicans and seven Democrats, and by a strict party vote the thirteen electoral votes were given to the Republicans and Rutherford B. Hayes declared elected.

=Resumption of Specie Payments by the Government.=--The memorable events of his term (1877-1881) were the resumption of specie payments on January 1, 1879; the passage of the Bland Silver Bill, restoring the silver dollar to the list of coins, making it legal tender, and providing for the coinage of not less than two million nor more than four million each month; and the rapid growth of the National or Greenback Labor party. Hayes was followed in 1881 by James A. Garfield, whose contest with the Senators from New York over the distribution of patronage led to his assassination by the hand of a crazy applicant for office. Chester A. Arthur then became President, was followed in 1885 by Grover Cleveland, who was succeeded in 1889 by Benjamin Harrison, who was in turn succeeded in 1893 by Grover Cleveland.

The presidential campaign of 1896 was one of the most exciting and important that has ever taken place. It was a contest respecting principles, and party platforms never received more attention. The amount of financial and political literature distributed and read was enormous, and political speeches, almost without number, were delivered. The cooperation of very many gold standard Democrats greatly increased the Republican strength and McKinley and Hobart were elected by a large majority of the electoral votes and by a plurality of over six hundred thousand of the popular vote.

=McKinley and the Spanish-American War.=--The administration of President McKinley was notable in many respects, and marked a new era in the foreign policy of the United States. Chief of the events was the Spanish-American war, which was precipitated in 1898, largely through the cruel treatment of the Cuban people by the mother country, Spain. Public opinion in the United States had been much divided in regard to the Cuban difficulties, but the division was in no sense sectional and a majority believed that war was not only justifiable but inevitable.

On February 15, 1898, the United States battleship Maine was destroyed in Havana harbor, and many believed this to have been the work of the Spaniards. Thereupon a congress was held, and a resolution passed demanding the withdrawal of Spain from Cuba. But before the message could be delivered, the American minister in Madrid received his passports and the Spanish government declared war. On April 22, Rear-Admiral Sampson began the blockade of Havana and the northern coast of Cuba with his North Atlantic squadron.

Meanwhile Dewey, who had been stationed at Hong-Kong with the American squadron, was ordered to begin operations, and sailed to Manila Bay in the Philippines. He entered Manila Bay early Sunday morning, May 1, 1898. The Spanish fleet lying in the harbor was protected by the guns of the batteries at Cavité, a few miles from Manila.

The Spaniards knew that he had left Hong-Kong, but he came sooner than he was expected and caught them unawares. He had planned to do this so that he might choose his own time for attack. As soon as he reached Manila Bay he opened upon the Spanish fleet a terrible fire of shot and shell. His fire was answered vigorously from the war vessels and the shore batteries, but the guns of the enemy were not well aimed and their shot did little damage. After a sharp fight of about two hours Dewey withdrew his fleet, in order, it is said, to give his men time for breakfast, but more likely to see how his ammunition was holding out.

After three hours he returned to the attack. By this time most of the Spanish vessels were in flames. An hour later the Spanish batteries “were silenced and the ships sunk or burned and deserted.” In the conflict the Spaniards lost every vessel and hundreds of men were killed, wounded, and missing. No American was killed and but seven wounded; while no American vessel was seriously damaged.

The battle of Manila is one of the great naval actions of history; never before had so much been won with so little loss of life and ships. Congress made Dewey a Rear Admiral, gave him a vote of thanks, and voted him a sword. Soon after the war he was made Admiral, the highest rank in the navy.

About the same time the Spanish Admiral, Cervera, had left the Cape Verde Islands en route for Santiago, where he arrived on May 19. Strict watch was kept by Sampson to prevent the escape of the enemy, and the Merrimac was sunk at night to block the Spanish squadron in the harbor, but the ship drifted too far to prevent Cervera’s exit. This difficult feat was intrusted to Ensign Richmond P. Hobson and six men. They performed their dangerous task, notwithstanding a severe fire from the Spanish land batteries. They were captured, but Admiral Cervera was so moved by their bravery that he sent word to the Americans that they were safe and would be well treated.

=SUMMARY OF SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR, 1898=

=Causes= =Treaty and Results=

Underlying: The Treaty of Paris, December 10, 1898, stipulated as follows: Sympathy for the oppressed Cubans. The “reconcentrados,” people driven Spain gives up title to Cuba. into the towns by Weyler, died by thousands, and Americans who aided Spain cedes Porto Rico, Guam and them are arrested and their the Philippines to the United property destroyed. States.

The proximity of Cuba and its geo- The United States gives Spain graphical position make its situa- $20,000,000. tion of great importance to the United States. The direct cost of the war to the United States is about Destruction of American property. $130,000,000.

Publication of a letter of the Soldiers killed, 430. A large Spanish Minister, in which he number die of disease. speaks slightingly of President McKinley. The United States becomes the guardian of Cuba. Immediate: An increase in our navy and stand- The blowing up of the battleship ing army. Maine. The war in the Philippines.

The question of territorial expan- sion in our politics.

=LAND AND SEA ENGAGEMENTS=

=====================+==================+================================= =Name, Location and | =Commanders= | =Casualties= Date of Battle= | +----------------+---------------- | |=United States= | =Spanish= | +--------+-------+--------+------- | |=Killed=|=Wound-|=Killed=|=Wound- | | | ed= | | ed= ---------------------+------------------+--------+-------+--------+------- =THE ARMY= | | | | | | | | | | =Guantanamo= (June |... | 6 | 16 | ... | ... 11-20, 1898) | | | | | | | | | | =Bombardment of |... | ... | ... | ... | ... Santiago= (June 22,| | | | | 1898) | | | | | | | | | | =Las Guasimas=, |=Gen. Wheeler= vs.| 16 | 50 | 28 | 124 Cuba (June 24, |Gen. Linares. | | | | 1898) | | | | | | | | | | =El Caney=, Cuba |=Gen. Lawton= and | 88 | 356 | 120 | 400 (July 1, 1898) |=Gen. Chaffee= vs.| | | | |Gen. Vara de Rey. | | | | | | | | | =San Juan=, Cuba |... | 151 | 1,007 | 204 | 1,340 (July 1-3, 1898) | | | | | | | | | | =Santiago=, Cuba |=Gen. Shafter.= | 2 | 13 | ... | ... (July 10-12, 1898) | | | | | | | | | | =Santiago Campaign=|=Gen. Shafter= vs.| 260 | 1,341 | ... | ... (June 21 to July |Gen. Toral. | | | | 17, 1898) | | | | | | | | | | =Porto Rico Cam- |=Gen. Miles.= | 3 | 40 | ... | ... paign= (July 25-28,| | | | | 1898) | | | | | | | | | | =The Reduction of |=Gen. Merritt.= | 17 | 106 | ... | ... Manila= (August 13,| | | | | 1898) | | | | | | | | | | =THE NAVY= | | | | | | | | | | =Manila Bay=, |American Command- |American Casualties: Philippine Islands |er: =Geo. Dewey.= |Seven men slightly injured. No (May 1, 1898). | |damage to ships. American Vessels: |Spanish Commander:| Olympia, |Admiral Montijo. |Spanish Casualties: Baltimore, | |All ships destroyed. 450 men Raleigh, | |killed and wounded. Boston, | | | | | Concord, | | | | | Petrel. | | | | | Spanish Vessels: | | | | | Reina Cristina, | | | | | Castella, _Don | | | | | Antonio de Ulloa_, | | | | | Isla de Luzon, | | | | | Isla de Cuba, | | | | | General Lezo, | | | | | Marquis de Duero,| | | | | Cano Velasco, | | | | | Isla de Mindanao,| | | | | Sandoval, _José | | | | | Garcia_, Leyte | | | | | and torpedo boat | | | | | Barcelona. | | | | | | | | | | =Bombardment of |By torpedo boat | 1 | 11 | | Cienfuegos=, Cuba |Winslow. | | | | (May 11, 1898). | | | | | | | | | | =Bombardment of San|=Admiral Sampson.=| 1 | 7 | | Juan= (May 12, | | | | | 1898) | | | | | | | | | | =Before Santiago= |American Command- |American Casualties: (July 3, 1898) |er: =Winfield |One man killed. American Vessels: |Schley.= |Brooklyn struck thirteen times, Brooklyn, | |Texas once, but neither badly Texas, Oregon, |Spanish Commander:|damaged. Iowa, |Admiral Cervera. | Gloucester. | |Spanish: All ships destroyed, Spanish Vessels: | |more than 600 men killed and Almirante, | |wounded, and rest surrendered. Oquendo, | | Christobal Colon,| | Vizcaya, _Infanta| | Maria Teresa_, and | | torpedo boats | | Pluton and | | Furor. | | ---------------------+------------------+---------------------------------

The total number of vessels captured from Spain during the war of 1898 was 58.

On June 21, Major-General Shafter arrived off Santiago and successfully landed his troops at Baiquiri, and three days later the Spaniards were driven back from Sevilla. General Shafter then began his attack on Santiago, whither the Spaniards had retreated. Operations began on July 1. The severest fighting took place at San Juan Hill and El Caney, a garrisoned post, where a body of five hundred Spaniards offered a desperate resistance for some hours. By sundown the hills on which the enemy were posted, including San Juan, were occupied by the Americans. The attacking force consisted of regular infantry and dismounted cavalry, with an irregular corps of mounted men known as the Rough Riders. The latter, under the command of Colonels Leonard Wood and Roosevelt, took a prominent part in the fight. On July 4 the city was summoned to surrender, but without success. In the meanwhile Admiral Cervera’s squadron had been ordered to sea by the Madrid government. He accordingly left Santiago harbor the same day at nine a. m. with the object of effecting its escape by keeping close to the western shore. The American fleet, temporarily under Schley’s command, at once engaged the Spaniards, and by two o’clock succeeded in burning, beaching, or capturing all the enemy’s vessels. After this Santiago surrendered, July 17, and Spain sued for peace. It was arranged that Spain should evacuate Cuba, should cede Porto Rico to the United States, as well as her islands in the Antilles, and one of the Ladrones, and should leave the United States in the possession of Manila. In 1899 a treaty was signed, and Spain evacuated Cuba, the Philippines, and other islands for an indemnity of twenty million dollars.

=Insurrection in the Philippine Islands.=--A day or two after the final vote on the treaty a body of Philippines under Amilio Aguinaldo, a native of great ability, attacked the American defenses at Manila. The next day the Americans returned the attack, and for nearly a year there was a resistance to the American rule on the part of the tribes which Aguinaldo represented. These tribes belonged to the Tagals, a Malay race. They are in a minority as regards the whole population, but are among the most intelligent. By the close of the year 1899 the organized resistance on the part of the Tagals appeared to be nearly ended, and the army of Aguinaldo reduced to marauders and bandits, and the insurrection against the authority and sovereignty of the United States was ended in July, 1902, after the capture and surrender of the insurgent leader.

=Assassination of McKinley and Succession of Roosevelt.=--Shortly after his re-election to a second term, on September 6, 1901, the country was shocked by the assassination of President McKinley by an anarchist named Czolgosz. This was the third time in the history of the country that the chief executive was stricken down by the hand of an assassin. The Vice-President, Theodore Roosevelt, then succeeded to the presidency and continued, in all essential details, the policy of his lamented predecessor.

Under President Roosevelt, a champion of administrative reform and the regulation of commercial trusts, the status of Cuba was settled; progress was made in the Philippines; the navy was very greatly strengthened; the Isthmian Canal question was solved in favor of the Panama route, and the Republic of Panama recognized; and the President reasserted with emphasis the Monroe Doctrine as the key to foreign policy. The Alaska boundary was fixed by a mixed commission. The United States took part with the European powers in armed intervention at Peking in 1899; and an arbitration treaty with Great Britain and other countries was arranged for.

In a second term (1905-1909) President Roosevelt maintained his popularity by the same policy. In 1906 an insurrection broke out in Cuba, and in October American troops again took possession of the island. When confidence had been restored the United States authorities withdrew.

=President Taft and the Rise of the Progressives.=--In 1908 the Republican, Taft, defeated Bryan, the Democratic candidate. Mr. Roosevelt had refused to be a candidate again and was instrumental in securing Mr. Taft’s nomination. President Taft was elected on a Rooseveltian programme of anti-trust legislation and promises of a reduced tariff. In 1910-1911 attempts were made at a Reciprocity of Duties Treaty with Canada, so as to establish freer trade between the two countries. The Canadian general election of 1911 gave an emphatic negative to the proposal.

During the latter part of 1912 a renewed insurrection in Mexico brought about strained diplomatic relations with that country.

In Ohio, Minnesota, and Indiana, however, Democratic governors were elected, and these results pointed to a political reaction in the West, largely owing to supposed inequities in the tariff and to the dominance of trusts.

In 1910 an “insurgent” or progressive section, to which Mr. Roosevelt adhered, formed itself within the Republican party; and the state elections in November resulted in a Democratic triumph without a parallel since that of the year 1890.

=Democrats Restored to Power under Leadership of Woodrow Wilson.=--In 1913 Woodrow Wilson swept the country on a Democratic programme, having a clear majority over the two Republican ex-presidents (Roosevelt and Taft) opposed to him. His election was fought chiefly on the tariff question, his main argument being that some industries were receiving unfair protection at the expense of others.

Shortly after the inauguration of President Wilson (May 31, 1913), the Seventeenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States, providing for the direct election of Senators by the people of the states, instead of by their respective legislatures, became effective. On October 3, of the same year, the Underwood Tariff Act became a law. Following this, on December 23, the Currency and Banking Bill, providing regional reserve banks throughout the country, was signed.

In 1914 the continued insurrectionary conditions in Mexico led to the seizure of the custom house at Vera Cruz by a United States fleet, resulting in an American loss of eighteen marines killed and seventy wounded. Subsequently diplomatic representatives of the republics of Argentina, Brazil, and Chile (popularly known as the “A B C powers”) offered their services as mediators, were accepted by the United States and the troops withdrawn. The temporary lull, however, thus brought about was soon succeeded by a series of struggles between the provisional Mexican government and the insurrectionists, led by Francisco Villa, which have ever since continued with little abatement. In 1916 the border raids of the Mexican bandits resulted in so many outrages upon American lives and property that the President was compelled to order United States troops to the Rio Grande for the protection of our citizens, and finally a detachment under General Pershing was sent into Mexican territory.

The important La Follette Seaman’s bill, to promote the welfare of American seamen and provide for their safety at sea, was approved March 4, 1915; and, in the same year (February 20), the Panama-Pacific Exposition was opened at San Francisco. On November 12, the United States assumed a protectorate of the Republic of Hayti.

During 1916 the Republic of Santo Domingo likewise passed under an American protectorate and the Rural Credits Bill became a law, whereby a system of Farm Loan Banks was created.

From the very beginning of the European war the administration of President Wilson was brought face to face with numerous intricate and several critical diplomatic situations growing out of that titanic conflict. The relationship of the United States, as a neutral nation, to the belligerent countries engaged in this war gave rise to more difficult and significant issues than any other president was compelled to meet since the time of Lincoln, if indeed, it has not been unprecedented in our entire history.

=President Wilson Re-elected and His Policies Approved=.--At the national election, in November, 1916, President Wilson was re-elected over his opponent, Charles E. Hughes. Following his re-election (December, 1916) the President proffered the services of this government to the belligerent powers of Europe in an effort to re-establish peace between these great contending coalitions. In spite of foreign complications, the year 1916 closed a period of unparalleled industrial and commercial prosperity for the United States, and more than ever confirmed its position as a great world power, with an immense field of new possibilities and corresponding duties.

On January 2, 1917, Congress re-assembled and began the consideration of important questions of national defense, railroads, and foreign policy growing out of the European war. In February, diplomatic relations were severed by the United States with Germany, and was succeeded in March by a declaration of armed neutrality on the part of our government.

Meanwhile great activity characterized all departments of the national government along lines of military preparedness, supported by unprecedented appropriations by Congress.

The supreme national industrial event of the Wilson administration, however, was the opening of the Panama Canal for navigation on August 14, 1914, and its use since that time as an instrumentality of world traffic.

PANAMA CANAL.--This gigantic engineering project was designated by Count de Lesseps, of France, in 1879, and actual work began by the French Panama Canal Company, in 1881. Negotiations extending from 1901 to 1904 resulted in the taking over of the holdings of the French company by the United States, and work was started by United States government engineers in May of the latter year. Since that time the project has been steadily carried forward to completion.

The Canal is about fifty miles in length from deep water in the Caribbean Sea to deep water in the Pacific Ocean. The channel ranges in width from three hundred to one thousand feet. The average bottom width of the channel in this project is six hundred and forty-nine feet, and the minimum width is three hundred feet. The Canal has a minimum depth of forty-one feet. The time required for the passage of a ship of medium size through the entire length of the Canal is estimated at from nine and one-half to ten hours, and for larger vessels from ten and one-half to eleven hours.

The actual construction cost at present estimated for completing the Canal is $325,201,000, which includes $20,053,000 for sanitation and $7,382,000 for civil administration. These figures do not include the $50,000,000 paid to the New French Canal Company and to the Republic of Panama for property and franchises. Hence it is estimated that the total construction cost of the Canal to the United States will approximate $375,000,000.

=TABLE OF STATE AND TERRITORIAL GOVERNMENT=

In all the States except Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, Washington and Wyoming and the Territory of Alaska, the right to vote at general elections is restricted to males of twenty-one years of age and upward. Women in Illinois, Iowa and Michigan have a restricted vote and in several States may vote at school elections.

=============================+===============================+============= STATES AND POPULAR NAME | PREVIOUS RESIDENCE REQUIRED | GOVERNORS +-------+--------+------+-------+------+------ | In | In | In | In | Sala-|Length | State | Co. | Town | Pre- | ries | Term | | | | cinct | | Years -----------------------------+-------+--------+------+-------+------+------ =Alabama= “Lizard” |2 years| 1 year| 3 mos.| 3 mos.|$7,500| 4 =Alaska= |1 year |... |30 days|30 days| 7,000| 4 =Arizona= |1 year |30 days|30 days|30 days| 4,000| 2 =Arkansas= “Bear” |1 year | 6 mos.|30 days|30 days| 5,000| 2 =California= “Golden” |1 year |90 days|... |30 days|10,000| 4 =Colorado= “Centennial” |1 year |90 days|30 days|10 days| 5,000| 2 =Connecticut= “Nutmeg” |1 year |... | 6 mos.|... | 5,000| 2 =Delaware= “Diamond” |1 year | 3 mos.|... |30 days| 4,000| 4 =Dist. of Col.= |... |... |... |... | ...| ... =Florida= “Flower” |1 year | 6 mos.| 6 mos.| 6 mos.| 6,000| 4 =Georgia= “Cracker” |6 mos. | 6 mos.|... |... | 5,000| 2 =Hawaii= |1 year |... |... | 3 mos.| 7,000| 4 =Idaho= |6 mos. |30 days|... |... | 5,000| 2 =Illinois= “Prairie” |1 year |90 days|30 days|30 days|12,000| 4 =Indiana= “Hoosier” |6 mos. |... |60 days|30 days| 8,000| 4 =Iowa= “Hawkeye” |6 mos. |60 days|10 days|10 days| 5,000| 2 =Kansas= “Sunflower” |6 mos. |30 days|30 days|10 days| 5,000| 2 =Kentucky= “Blue Grass” |1 year | 6 mos.|... |60 days| 6,500| 4 =Louisiana= “Creole” |2 years| 1 year|... | 6 mos.| 5,000| 4 =Maine= “Pine Tree” |3 mos. | 3 mos.| 3 mos.| 3 mos.| 3,000| 2 =Maryland= “Old Line” |1 year | 6 mos.| 6 mos.| 1 day | 4,500| 4 =Massachusetts= “Bay” |1 year | 6 mos.| 6 mos.| 6 mos.|10,000| 1 =Michigan= “Wolverine” |6 mos. |20 days|20 days|20 days| 5,000| 2 =Minnesota= “North Star” |6 mos. |30 days|30 days|30 days| 7,000| 2 =Mississippi= “Bayou” |2 years| 1 year| 1 year| 1 year| 5,000| 4 =Missouri= |1 year |60 days|60 days|... | 5,000| 4 =Montana= “Mountain” |1 year |30 days|... |... | 5,000| 4 =Nebraska= |6 mos. |40 days|10 days|10 days| 2,500| 2 =Nevada= “Silver” |6 mos. |30 days|30 days|30 days| 7,000| 4 =New Hampshire= “Granite” |6 mos. | 6 mos.| 6 mos.| 6 mos.| 3,000| 2 =New Jersey= “Jersey Blue” |1 year | 5 mos.|... |... |10,000| 3 =New Mexico= |1 year |90 days|... |30 days| 5,000| 5 =New York= “Empire” |1 year | 4 mos.|30 days|30 days|10,000| 2 =North Carolina= “Old North” |2 years| 6 mos.| 4 mos.| 4 mos.| 5,000| 4 =North Dakota= “Sioux” |1 year | 6 mos.|90 days|90 days| 5,000| 2 =Ohio= “Buckeye” |1 year |30 days|20 days|20 days|10,000| 2 =Oklahoma= |1 year | 6 mos.|... |30 days| 4,500| 4 =Oregon= “Sunset” |6 mos. |30 days|... |30 days| 5,000| 4 =Pennsylvania= “Keystone” |1 year |... |... | 2 mos.|10,000| 4 =Porto Rico= |1 year |... | 1 year|... | 8,000| 4 =Rhode Island= “Little Rhody”|2 years|... | 6 mos.|... | 3,000| 2 =South Carolina= “Palmetto” |2 years| 1 year| 4 mos.| 4 mos.| 3,000| 2 =South Dakota= “Coyote” |6 mos. |30 days|10 days|10 days| 3,000| 2 =Tennessee= “Volunteer” |1 year | 6 mos.|... |... | 4,000| 2 =Texas= “Lone Star” |1 year | 6 mos.| 6 mos.|... | 4,000| 2 =Utah= |1 year | 4 mos.|... |60 days| 6,000| 4 =Vermont= “Green Mountain” |1 year | 3 mos.| 3 mos.| 3 mos.| 2,500| 2 =Virginia= “Old Dominion” |2 years| 1 year| 1 year|30 days| 5,000| 4 =Washington= “Evergreen” |1 year |90 days|30 days|30 days| 6,000| 4 =West Virginia= “Panhandle” |1 year |60 days|60 days|... | 5,000| 4 =Wisconsin= “Badger” |1 year |... |10 days|10 days| 5,000| 2 =Wyoming= |1 year |60 days|10 days|10 days| 4,000| 4 -----------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------+------

=============================+=============================+===========+===== STATES AND POPULAR NAME | LEGISLATURES |MEMBERS’ |ELEC- | |TERMS |TORAL +-----+-------+---------------+-----+-----+VOTE, | Ann.| Limit | Salaries of |Sena-| Re- |1916 | or | of | Members |tors | pre-| |Bien.| Ses- | | | sen-| | | sion | | | ta- | | | | | |tives| -----------------------------+-----+-------+---------------+-----+-----+----- =Alabama= “Lizard” |Quad.|50 days|$4.00 per diem | 4 | 4 | 12 =Alaska= |Bien.|60 days|$15.00 per diem| 4 | 2 | 0 =Arizona= |Bien.|60 days|$7.00 per diem | 2 | 2 | 3 =Arkansas= “Bear” |Bien.|60 days|$6.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 9 =California= “Golden” |Bien.|None |$1,000 term | 4 | 2 | 13 =Colorado= “Centennial” |Bien.|90 days|$1,000 term | 4 | 2 | 6 =Connecticut= “Nutmeg” |Bien.|None |$300 term | 2 | 2 | 7 =Delaware= “Diamond” |Bien.|60 days|$5.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 3 =Dist. of Col.= |... |... |... | ... | ... | 0 =Florida= “Flower” |Bien.|60 days|$6.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 6 =Georgia= “Cracker” |Ann. |50 days|$4.00 per diem | 2 | 2 | 14 =Hawaii= |Bien.|60 days|$600 session | 4 | 2 | 0 =Idaho= |Bien.|60 days|$5.00 per diem | 2 | 2 | 4 =Illinois= “Prairie” |Bien.|None |$3,500 annum | 4 | 2 | 29 =Indiana= “Hoosier” |Bien.|61 days|$6.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 15 =Iowa= “Hawkeye” |Bien.|None |$1,000 session | 4 | 2 | 13 =Kansas= “Sunflower” |Bien.|50 days|$3.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 10 =Kentucky= “Blue Grass” |Bien.|60 days|$10.00 per diem| 4 | 2 | 13 =Louisiana= “Creole” |Bien.|60 days|$5.00 per diem | 4 | 4 | 10 =Maine= “Pine Tree” |Bien.|None |$300 annum | 2 | 2 | 6 =Maryland= “Old Line” |Bien.|90 days|$5.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 8 =Massachusetts= “Bay” |Ann. |None |$1,000 annum | 1 | 1 | 18 =Michigan= “Wolverine” |Bien.|None |$800 annum | 2 | 2 | 15 =Minnesota= “North Star” |Bien.|90 days|$1,000 session | 4 | 2 | 12 =Mississippi= “Bayou” |Bien.|None |$500 session | 4 | 4 | 10 =Missouri= |Bien.|70 days|$5.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 18 =Montana= “Mountain” |Bien.|60 days|$10.00 per diem| 4 | 2 | 4 =Nebraska= |Bien.|60 days|$10.00 session | 2 | 2 | 8 =Nevada= “Silver” |Bien.|60 days|$600 term | 2-4 | 2 | 3 =New Hampshire= “Granite” |Bien.|None |$200 term | 2 | 2 | 4 =New Jersey= “Jersey Blue” |Ann. |None |$500 annum | 3 | 1 | 14 =New Mexico= |Bien.|60 days|$5.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 3 =New York= “Empire” |Ann. |None |$1,500 annum | 2 | 1 | 45 =North Carolina= “Old North” |Bien.|60 days|$4.00 per diem | 2 | 2 | 12 =North Dakota= “Sioux” |Bien.|60 days|$5.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 5 =Ohio= “Buckeye” |Bien.|None |$1,000 annum | 2 | 2 | 24 =Oklahoma= |Bien.|60 days|$6.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 10 =Oregon= “Sunset” |Bien.|40 days|$3.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 5 =Pennsylvania= “Keystone” |Bien.|None |$1,500 session | 2 | 2 | 38 =Porto Rico= |Ann. |60 days|$5.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 0 =Rhode Island= “Little Rhody”|Ann. |60 days|$5.00 per diem | 2 | 2 | 5 =South Carolina= “Palmetto” |Ann. |40 days|$200 term | 4 | 2 | 9 =South Dakota= “Coyote” |Bien.|60 days|$5.00 per diem | 2 | 2 | 5 =Tennessee= “Volunteer” |Bien.|75 days|$4.00 per diem | 2 | 2 | 12 =Texas= “Lone Star” |Bien.|90 days|$5.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 20 =Utah= |Bien.|60 days|$4.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 4 =Vermont= “Green Mountain” |Bien.|None |$4.00 per diem | 2 | 2 | 4 =Virginia= “Old Dominion” |Bien.|60 days|$500 session | 4 | 2 | 12 =Washington= “Evergreen” |Bien.|60 days|$5.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 7 =West Virginia= “Panhandle” |Bien.|45 days|$4.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 8 =Wisconsin= “Badger” |Bien.|None |$500 annum | 4 | 2 | 13 =Wyoming= |Bien.|40 days|$8.00 per diem | 4 | 2 | 3 -----------------------------+-----+-------+---------------+-----+-----+-----

Note.--Residents of the District of Columbia never had the right to vote therein for national officers, or on other matters of national concern after the territory embraced in it was ceded to the United States and became the seat of the general Government.

* Or persons unable to read and write in English. † Or citizens of Mexico who desire to become citizens of Arizona under treaties of 1848 and 1854. ‡ Indians who have not severed tribal relations. (a): Women can vote in school elections. (b): Also soldiers, sailors and marines in United States service. (c): Women taxpayers can vote on tax propositions. (d): Or by Queretaro treaty. (e): Women can vote in all elections except those pertaining to Constitutional officers or Constitutional propositions. (f): Males born in Porto Rico who formally renounced allegiance to a foreign power. (g): One year’s residence in the United States prior to election is required. (h): Who has paid six months before election all taxes then due, and can read and write any section of the State Constitution, or can show that he owns and has paid all taxes due the previous year on property in the State assessed at $300 or more. (i): Failure to pay poll tax. (j): Or those unable to speak, read and write the English or Hawaiian language. (k): Women can vote in school and city elections. (l): Offenders against elective franchise rights, guilty of bribery, betting on elections, and persons convicted of a felony and not restored to citizenship by the Executive. Convicts in House of Refuge or Reformatory not disqualified. (m): All of the States and Territories pay mileage also, except New Jersey, but free transportation is accorded in New Jersey by all railroads to members by law.

=GOVERNMENTS OF THE UNITED STATES, BRITISH EMPIRE, GERMANY, AND FRANCE ARRANGED IN PARALLEL COLUMNS=

=UNITED STATES= =BRITISH EMPIRE=

Form of Government: Republic. The Form of Government.--Monarchy in general plan of the government of the form, but republic in practice. The United States is determined by the monarchy is constitutional and Constitution. The central government limited. is limited to the exercise of the The British Empire consists of the powers specifically enumerated in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Constitution, or implied therein, Ireland, the Empire of India, and while the remaining governmental the British Dominions beyond the powers, not denied to the states by Seas, including the self-governing the Constitution, are reserved to the Dominions, and the Crown Colonies, states. The general government is in Protectorates, and other Dependen- three fairly well defined parts, the cies, the whole forming one Empire. legislative, executive, and judicial.

=I. Constitution.=--The present Con- =I. Constitution.=--The British stitution was adopted September 17, Constitution is mainly unwritten and 1787. customary, but its development is marked by certain outstanding and Ratification of the Constitution.-- fundamental laws, of which the prin- The Constitution was ratified by the cipal are: Magna Charta, 1215; the thirteen original States in the fol- Habeas Corpus Act, 1679; the Act of lowing order: Settlement, 1701; the Act of Union Delaware, Dec. 7, 1787, unanimous- with Scotland, 1707; the Act of Union ly. with Ireland, 1800; and the Parlia- Pennsylvania, Dec. 12, 1787, vote ment Act, 1911. The first secured 46 to 23. annual parliaments and the equal ad- New Jersey, Dec. 18, 1787, unani- ministration of justice; the second mously. established the liberty of the per- Georgia, Jan 2, 1788, unanimously. son; the third provided for the Prot- Connecticut, Jan 9, 1788, vote 128 estant succession to the throne; the to 40. fourth and fifth created the United Massachusetts, Feb. 6, 1788, vote Kingdom; and the last enabled the 187 to 168. Commons to pass certain Acts without Maryland, April 28, 1788, vote 63 the adherence of the other Chamber. to 12. South Carolina, May 23, 1788, vote 149 to 73. New Hampshire, June 21, 1788, vote 57 to 46. Virginia, June 25, 1788, vote 89 to 79. New York, July 26, 1788, vote 30 to 28. North Carolina, Nov. 21, 1789, vote 193 to 75. Rhode Island, May 29, 1790, vote 34 to 32.

Amendments.--Congress may, by two- thirds vote of both Houses, propose amendments to the Constitution, or upon application of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, must be ratified by the Legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three- fourths thereof.

=II. The President.= =II. The Sovereign.=

How Elected.--The several steps in How Designated.--The King’s legal the election of the President are: title rests upon the Act of Settle- ment, in 1701, under William III., by State Electors are chosen at a Gener- which the succession to the Crown of al Election held on the Tuesday fol- Great Britain and Ireland was settled lowing the first Monday of November on the Princess Sophia of Hanover and of every fourth year; the number of the “heirs of her body, being Protes- Electors of each State being equal to tants.” The throne is hereditary in the number of Senators and Represen- the English house of Saxe-Coburg- tatives to which the State is en- Gotha with mixed succession, the sons titled in Congress. of the Sovereign and their descen- dants having precedence of daughters, The Electors meet in their respective but daughters and their descendants States on the second Monday in preference over lateral lines. The January following their election, Sovereign is designated King (or and vote by ballot for President and Queen) of Great Britain and Ireland, Vice-President; and at the same time and Emperor (or Empress) of India. make certificates of their vote and transmit the same to the President of the Senate.

The Senate and House of Representa- tives meet together on the second Wednesday of February next ensuing, and count the votes of the State Electors, when, if there is an elec- tion, the President of the Senate declares who is elected President and Vice-President.

In case there is no choice by the State Electors, the President is elected by the House of Representa- tives from the three candidates who received the most electoral votes for President; in which election the vote is taken by States, each State having but one vote, and a majority of all the States being necessary to a choice.

Term of Office.--Four years. Term of Office.--Holds office for life, by hereditary title, and cannot be removed. Eligibility.--A natural born citi- zen; resident of the United States fourteen years; minimum age thirty- five years.

Salary.--Fixed by law at $75,000 Salary or Civil List.--The Civil per year. List Act, 1910, gave the King $2,350,000. Provision for other mem- bers of the Royal Family, $730,000. The Prince of Wales, as the income of the Duchy of Cornwall, $435,000. The King in addition to his Civil List receives the revenues of the Duchy of Lancaster amounting to $320,000.

Powers and Duties of the President. Powers and Duties.--Has command of --Commander-in-Chief of the Army and army and navy. Navy. Communicates with Congress by message. Approves or disapproves Parliament cannot be assembled, pro- Acts of Congress. Makes treaties rogued, or dissolved except by the with advice and consent of the express command of the Sovereign. Senate. Appoints Public Officers with the advice and consent of the Senate. At the commencement of a new Parlia- Commissions Public Officers of the ment must deliver, either in person United States. Grants reprieves and or by a commission authorized for pardons for offenses against the that purpose, a speech declaring the United States. cause of the summons.

The Vice-President.--Elected by Bills passed by Parliament must re- State Electors the same as the Presi- ceive the assent of the Sovereign in dent; or by the Senate, in case there order to become law. is no choice by the State Electors. Term of office same as for the Presi- Has legally a veto power; but, be- dent. Eligibility same as required of cause the influence of the Executive the President. Salary fixed by law at over legislation has passed into the twelve thousand dollars per year. hands of the Ministers, the veto of the Crown has been disused since The Presidential Succession.--In 1707. case of the removal, death, resigna- tion, or inability of the President, Has power to appoint all officers in the Vice-President takes the Presi- the army and navy, judges, ambas- dent’s place. sadors, colonial governors, bishops and archbishops of the Established In case of the removal, death, resig- Church, and grants all degrees of nation, or inability of both Presi- nobility. dent and Vice-President the heads of the Executive Departments succeed to May make treaties of any kind. the Presidency in the order in which the Executive Departments are named May grant pardon to any particular below; but such officer must be con- offender. stitutionally eligible to the Presi- dency, must have been appointed to The Privy Council.--The King in the cabinet by the advice and with Council is the supreme executive the consent of the Senate, and be not authority in the realm. The Privy under impeachment. The Secretary of Council meets as a whole at the be- Agriculture and the Secretary of Com- ginning of a new reign and on other merce and Labor are ineligible to the occasions of state and ceremony, pos- presidency by reason of the fact that sesses certain administrative powers, these two cabinet offices were and is the Supreme Court of the Em- created subsequent to the passage of pire. Its personnel includes the the act of the forty-ninth Congress royal princes and the archbishops, in which provision was made for the Members of the Cabinet and of the presidential succession. royal household, the Speaker of the House of Commons, the ambassadors, the principal colonial governors, colonial statesmen, certain judges, and members of both political parties who have never been in office.

The important functions of the Coun- cil are the bringing into operation by means of orders in council of the provisions of many statutes which Parliament leaves to the executive to enforce, temporarily or permanently, at such time or times as it may deem necessary and desirable. These orders have all the force and validity of law.

THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS

Acts of Congress become laws:-- When signed (approved) by the Presi- dent; or, by his failure to make ob- jection in writing (veto) within ten days after any act is submitted to him, unless Congress by adjournment within that time prevents its return; but Congress has power to pass a law over the President’s veto by a vote of two-thirds of each House.

THE CABINET THE MINISTRY

Composed of the heads of the The Cabinet, or Inner Council, executive departments. under the presidency of the Prime Minister, consists of Ministers, Appointed by the President with the drawn from the ranks of the party in advice and consent of the Senate. power and appointed by the Sovereign on the advice of the Prime Minister. Salary.--Secretary of State, $12,000; all other cabinet members, twelve thousand dollars annually.

HEADS OF DEPARTMENTS Members (As reconstituted in June, 1915) and their salaries. Department of State.--Has charge of foreign affairs. Prime Minister and First Lord of the Treasury $25,000 Treasury Department.--Has charge of fiscal affairs. Lord High Chancellor (and $20,000 as speaker of the Department of War.--Has charge of House of Lords) 50,000 the Army and military affairs. Minister without Portfolio unpaid Department of Justice.--Has charge of the legal affairs of the Govern- _Lord President of the Council_10,000 ment. Lord Privy Seal unpaid Post-office Department.--Has charge of postal affairs. First Lord of the Admiralty 22,500

Navy Department.--Has charge of the Secretaries of State: Navy and naval affairs. Home Affairs 25,000 Foreign Affairs 25,000 Department of the Interior.--Has Colonies 25,000 charge of domestic affairs, including War 25,000 public lands, pensions, patents, India 25,000 Bureau of Education, etc. Chancellor of the Exchequer 25,000 Department of Agriculture.--Has charge of agricultural affairs, in- Minister of Munitions 25,000 cluding Weather Bureau, etc. Secretary for Scotland 10,000 Department of Commerce and Labor.-- Has charge of domestic and foreign Chief Secretary to the Lord affairs, relating to commerce, trans- Lieutenant of Ireland 21,125 portation, Department of Labor, etc. Presidents of Committees of the Council: Board of Trade 25,000 Local Government Board 25,000 Board of Education 10,000

First Commissioner of Works 10,000

Attorney-General 35,000

Board of Agriculture 10,000

Relations to Parliament.--The Chief of the Cabinet and of the Ministry is called the Prime Minister or Premier. He is the leader of the House of Par- liament of which he is a member. He dispenses the greater portion of the patronage of the Crown. Other members of the Cabinet are the leaders of Parliament, shaping and directing the business of the Houses.

Tenure of Office.--Dependent upon Tenure of Office.--Dependent upon the will or favor of the President. the favor of the House of Commons; for if not sustained, they must all resign. When a Ministry resigns it is the function of the sovereign to call upon some statesman to form another administration. There is no restric- tion upon the Royal choice, but the statesman usually selected is the leader of the opposing party in one of the two Houses.

Powers and Duties.--As stated Powers and Duties.--All real above, but under the direction of the authority is with the Cabinet. The President. executive government is nominally in the Crown, but practically in the Cabinet. The Ministers are at the heads of the administrative depart- ments. The Sovereign does not sit with the Cabinet.

Other Ministers.--The Ministry in- cludes a number of minor posts whose occupants have no seat in the Cabinet.

=III. Congress.=--Consisting of both =III. Parliament.=--Parliament con- the Senate and the House of Represen- sists of two Houses, the House of tatives as co-ordinate bodies. Lords and the House of Commons. The Sovereign alone has the power of sum- Duration.--The term of each moning or proroguing or dissolving Congress is for two years, commencing Parliament, and gives the Royal March 4th of the odd years. Assent to measures which have passed both Houses. Unless it be dissolved Regular Sessions.--Annual, begin- by the Crown, Parliament exists five ning the first Monday in December. years from the date on which it was first to meet. The demise of the Special Sessions.--At the call of Crown does not dissolve Parliament, the President. but, on the contrary, renders an im- mediate assembling of the two Houses Membership.--Each House is the necessary; and if there be no Parlia- judge of the elections and qualifica- ment in existence, the old Parliament tions of its own members. must reassemble, and may sit again for six months, if it be not within Congress has General Powers of that time dissolved by the new Legislation.--To provide for the Sovereign. raising and disbursement of revenue. To borrow money; to coin money and to All British dominions are subject regulate its value; and to fix the (except as regards taxation) to the standard of weights and measures. To legislation of the British Parlia- regulate foreign and interstate com- ment; but no Act of Parliament af- merce. To declare war, and to main- fects a colony unless that colony is tain an army and navy. To establish specially mentioned. If the legis- post-offices and post roads. To enact lature of a colony enacts a law which patent and copyright laws. To enact is repugnant to an imperial law af- uniform naturalization and bankruptcy fecting the colony, it is to the ex- laws. To provide for the punishment tent to which it is repugnant abso- of crimes against the United States. lutely void. To establish courts inferior to the Supreme Court. To provide for orga- nizing and calling out the militia. To admit new States into the Union. To provide for the governments of the Territories. To exercise exclusive jurisdiction over the District of Columbia, public lands, public build- ings, forts, and navy yards. To enact all laws necessary and proper for carrying into execution all the powers vested by the Constitution in the government of the United States.

THE SENATE.--Composed of two THE HOUSE OF LORDS.--The House at Senators from each State (ninety-six present consists of three Princes of in 1917), chosen by popular vote for the Blood, two Archbishops, twenty- six years, one-third retiring every one Dukes, twenty-six Marquesses, one two years. hundred and twenty-one Earls, forty- six Viscounts, twenty-four Bishops, three hundred and fifty-six Barons, sixteen Scottish Representative Peers elected for each Parliament, and twenty-seven Irish Representative Peers elected for life. The members hold their seats by virtue of heredi- tary title; by creation of the Sovereign; by virtue of office (English bishops); by election for life (Irish peers); by election for duration of Parliament (Scottish peers).

Qualifications.--Must be at least Qualifications.--Must be at least thirty years of age, must have been a twenty-one years of age. citizen of the United States for nine years, and must be an inhabitant of the State which he represents.

Remuneration.--Members receive Remuneration.--Receive no pay. seven thousand five hundred dollars, with mileage.

Organization.--The Vice-President Organization--Quorum.--Three, in- of the United States is the Presi- cluding the Lord Chancellor; thirty dent of the Senate. Is elected by the for final vote on a bill. The Lord Electoral College. Votes only in case Chancellor, who is a member of the of a tie. Cabinet, presides. He is appointed by mere delivery of the Great Seal to Quorum.--A majority of members. him by the Sovereign and is principal legal adviser of the Crown. His patronage is very extensive. He nominates the puisne judges and county court judges; the holder of the office may not be a Roman Catho- lic.

Committees.--Members are divided Committees.--Special committees are into standing committees, chosen by appointed to make investigations, and the Senate itself, which act in the report on matters which could not be preliminary examination, and shaping undertaken by the whole House. of measures to be voted on.

Powers and Duties.--In concurrence Powers and Duties.--In concurrence with the House of Representatives, it with the House of Commons, makes the makes the laws. It also has power to laws, having a revising power over confirm or reject all appointments to all bills proposed by the House of office by the President of the United Commons, except those relating to States, and all treaties. The members public revenue and expenditure, which constitute a high court for the trial it must pass or reject without amend- of impeachments. Elects Vice-Presi- ment. dent of the United States if regular election fails. It is the highest appellate court of the United Kingdom. It may in certain cases try members of its own body; it tries any person who may be impeached by the House of Commons, and it also decides claims to the peerage.

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES.-- HOUSE OF COMMONS.--This body Composed (in 1917) of four hundred consists of six hundred and seventy and thirty-five members elected every elected members representing county, second year for two years by the borough, and university constituen- people of the States in the propor- cies. Roughly speaking, about one- tion of one Representative for every sixth of the population are electors. 211,877 inhabitants. Each State, how- ever, is entitled to at least one mem- ber, whatever its population.

Qualifications.--Must be at Qualifications.--Must be at least twenty-five years of age, must least twenty-one years of age. have been seven years a citizen of Clergymen are disqualified from sit- the United States, and must be an in- ting as members, also English and habitant of the State from which he Scottish peers, government contrac- is chosen. tors, and sheriffs and returning officers for the localities for which they act.

Organization--Quorum.--A majority Organization--Quorum.--Forty mem- of members. Elects its own presiding bers, including the Speaker. Elects officer, who is called the Speaker, its own presiding officer, who is salary twelve thousand dollars per called the Speaker, who has a resi- year. dence in the Palace of Westminster, and receives a salary of $25,000 per annum.

Remuneration.--Members receive Remuneration.--$2,000 per year seven thousand five hundred dollars (since 1911). and mileage.

_Powers of the House of Representa- Powers and Duties.--May originate tives._--Elects its Speaker (pre- and, in concurrence with the House of siding officer) and its other offi- Lords, pass resolutions and bills; cers. Elects President of the United but bills relating to the imposition States if the regular election fails. of taxes and the granting of supplies Prosecutes impeachments before the for the service of the State must be Senate. Originates all bills for originated in the House of Commons. raising revenue.

Committees.--Almost all the acts of Committees.--The business of the the House are under the control of House is almost entirely under the Standing Committees, appointed by the direction of the Ministry; however, Speaker. commissions and select committees are from time to time appointed to make investigations and report on matters which could not be undertaken by the House.

=IV. The Judicial Department.= =IV. Judicial Departments=, or Courts of Law. JUDGES OF THE UNITED STATES COURTS Privy Council.--The Judicial Com- Appointed by the President with the mittee of the Privy Council (which advice and consent of the Senate. hears appeals from Colonial and Indian Courts, and also from Ecclesi- Tenure of Office.--During life or astical Courts) consists of the Lord good behavior; but may retire on full Chancellor, Lord President, ex-Lords salary after reaching the age of President, the Lords of Appeal in seventy years, and after ten years’ Ordinary, and such other members of service on the bench. the Privy Council as shall from time to time hold or have held “high judi- THE SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED cial office.” No dissenting judgments STATES are allowed, but the Judicial Commit- tee can grant special leave to Members.--A Chief Justice and Eight appeal. Associate Justices. The English courts of law having Salaries.--Chief Justice, fifteen jurisdiction in actions between thousand dollars; Associate Justices, parties are: each fourteen thousand five hundred dollars. HOUSE OF LORDS

Terms of Court.--One each year, be- Lord High Chancellor and such peers ginning on the second Monday in of Parliament as are holding or have October. held high judicial office. This is the ultimate Court of Appeal from all Original Jurisdiction.--In all the courts in the United Kingdom. cases affecting Ambassadors, Ministers, and Consuls. In all cases in which a State is a party.

Appellate Jurisdiction.--In cases of law and equity where the Inferior Courts have original jurisdiction, with such exceptions and regulations as Congress has made.

The Chief Justice.--Presides over the Senate when it sits as a Court of Impeachmenet for the trial of the President.

INFERIOR COURTS There are two Courts of Appeal below these divisions: Jurisdiction.--In cases between citizens of different States. In Lords of Appeal in Ordinary.-- Con- cases in which the United States is sisting of six Justices. a party. In cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction. In trials for Court of Appeal.--Ex-Officio crimes against the United States; but Judges, the Lord High Chancellor, the the trial of crimes must be by jury, Lord Chief Justice of England, the and must be held in the State where Master of the Rolls, and the President the crime was committed. of the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division. Appeals to the Supreme Court may be had in all cases of law and equity, The High Court comprises the King’s with such exceptions and regulations Bench, Chancery, and Probate, Divorce as Congress has made. and Admiralty Divisions.

KINDS OF INFERIOR COURTS High Court of Justice, Chancery Di- vision.--(Administration of trusts, United States Circuit Courts of company cases, mortgages, patents, Appeals.--Organized in 1891 to re- etc.). Consists of the Lord High lieve the United States Supreme Court Chancellor and six other Justices. in Appellate Cases. Number: One in each Judicial Circuit. Members: Three High Court of Justice, King’s Bench judges selected from the District Division.--(Contracts, torts, bank- Courts. ruptcy, etc.). Consists of the Lord Chief Justice of England and fifteen Number.--One in each Judicial other Justices. Circuit. _High Court of Justice, Probate, Di- Members.--Three judges selected vorce and Admiralty Division._-- from the District Courts. (Wills, matrimonial cases, and mari- time cases). Consists of two United States Circuit Courts.-- Justices.

Number of Circuits.--Nine. Court of Criminal Appeal.--All the Judges of King’s Bench Division. Number of Judges.--Each Circuit has two, three, or four Circuit Judges, Court of Arches.--An ecclesiastical and a Justice of the Supreme Court is court unites the powers of the jus assigned to each Circuit. The canonicum with new powers conceded District Judge also may sit in a Cir- by the Church Discipline Act, 1841, cuit Court. and the similar statute of 1874, exercising authority in both pro- Salary of Circuit Judges.--Fixed by vinces. The Judicial Committee of law at seven thousand dollars per Privy Council is the Court of Final year. Appeal in ecclesiastical causes.

United States District Courts.-- Bankruptcy Court.--Consisting of one Justice. Number of Districts.--One or more in each State. At present there are seventy-three Judicial Districts.

Salary of District Judge.--Fixed by law at seven thousand dollars per year.

United States Court of Claims.--

Jurisdiction.--Claims against the United States, including all claims which may be referred to it by Congress.

Members.--One Chief Justice and four Associate Justices.

Salaries.--Chief Justice, six thousand five hundred dollars; Associate Justices, each six thousand dollars.

In addition to the above named courts, Congress has established courts of local jurisdiction in the District of Columbia and in the Territories.

=GERMANY= =FRANCE=

Form of Government.--The Empire, Form of Government.--France, since according to the Constitution of the overthrow of Napoleon III., in April 16, 1871, is a Confederate 1870, has been a republic governed by League, bearing the name German Em- a President and two Chambers under pire, under the hereditary presi- the Constitution. dentship of the King of Prussia, who holds the title of German Emperor, and whose eldest son is styled His Imperial and Royal Highness.

=I. Constitution.= =I. Constitution.=

Adoption.--Present Constitution Adoption.--Present Constitution adopted April 16, 1871. The Constitu- adopted February 25, 1875. It has tion of the German Empire is sub- undergone but slight modifications. stantially that of the North German The present French Constitution re- Confederation, which came into force mains a mixture of monarchical and in 1867, and which was adopted by the republican institutions, and it has Empire in 1871, after the southern fully maintained its strong and old- states of Germany had combined with established centralization. The the northern. Constitution of 1875 is based on uni- versal suffrage. It was revised in 1875, 1884, 1885 and 1889.

Amendments.--Amendments to the Amendments.--Whenever the two Constitution can be proposed by Houses agree that revision is neces- either of the legislative bodies, are sary, and also agree upon particular passed by ordinary legislative pro- points that should be revised, the cess, requiring for their passage a National Assembly, composed of the majority simply of the votes of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies, Reichstag, but they fail if fourteen sitting as one body, convenes at Ver- votes are cast against them in the sailles, and acts upon the amendments Bundesrath. proposed, the vote of an absolute majority being decisive. The National Assembly also elects the President of the republic.

=II. Chief magistrate=, styled the =II. Chief Magistrate=, or President Deutscher Kaiser. of the Republic.

How Designated.--The election of Term of Office.--Elected for seven Wilhelm I., King of Prussia, as years by the National Assembly, and German Emperor (1871) was by vote of is re-eligible. the Reichstag of the North German Confederation, on the initiative of The National Assembly meets for the all the reigning Princes of Germany. purposes of this election, as for the The Imperial dignity is hereditary revision of the Constitution, at Ver- in the House of Hohenzollern, and sailles. The revision of the Consti- follows the law of primogeniture in tution and the election of President the male line. He must be occupant of are its only functions. the throne of Prussia under the pro- visions of Prussian law. Qualifications.--Must be a citizen, not a member of any family which has Term of Office.--Holds office for occupied the throne of France. life,and cannot be removed.

Salary or Income.--Royal Civil List Salary.--$140,000. of Emperor, $3,700,000. Responsibilities.--May be impeached by the Chamber of Deputies, and tried by the Senate, in case of high treason.

Powers and Duties.--Commander-in- Powers and Duties.--Has command of Chief of the imperial army. the army and navy.

Summons, opens, adjourns, and closes May convene the Chambers on extraordi- the two Houses. He may dissolve the nary occasions. Reichstag upon advice of the Bundes- rath. May adjourn the Chambers at any time for a period not exceeding one month. All measures passed by the Bundes- Can close a regular session of the rath are presented to the Reichstag Chambers at his discretion after it in the name of the Emperor. has continued five months; an extra session when he pleases. Can with the Bills passed by the two Houses must consent of the Senate dissolve the be promulgated by the Emperor. Chamber of Deputies even before the expiration of five months. This puts In cases where he regards them as in- an end to the session of the Senate volving a change in the Constitution, also, but not to its life. The Presi- he need not promulgate them if four- dent must order a new election in teen votes have been cast against case of dissolution. them in the Bundesrath. At the commencement of a new session All official acts of the Emperor re- of the Chambers the President of the quire the counter-signature of the republic sends a message, which is Chancellor. read by one of the Ministers.

Appoints and may, at his pleasure, Bills passed by the Chambers must be remove the Imperial Chancellor. Ap- signed by the President, and counter- points and may, with the counter- signed by one of his Ministers. signature of the Chancellor, remove all minor officers in the imperial Has no veto power, but is authorized service. to demand a reconsideration of any measure by the Chambers. May declare war if defensive, and make treaties and peace; but for de- Has power to appoint and remove all claring offensive war the consent of officers of the public service, sub- the Bundesrath must be obtained. ject to the counter-signature of the Minister whose department is affected Has power to grant pardons. in each case.

May make treaties of peace, alliance and commerce, but cannot declare war without the advice of the Chambers.

Has power to grant pardons.

Succession.--In case of his death, resignation, or removal, the Council of Ministers act until the National Assembly can meet and elect a new President.

THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS

Imperial Chancellor.--He has no Powers and Duties.--As a Cabinet, counterpart in any other constitu- the Ministers represent the adminis- tional government. He is the Em- tration in the Chambers; as a Coun- peror’s responsible proxy, control- cil, they exercise a general over- ling the politics of the Empire. sight of the administration of the laws, with a view of giving unity of Appointment and Tenure of Office.-- direction to the affairs of the Appointed by the Emperor. Must be one State. The President may be present of Prussia’s seventeen representa- at all Council meetings. tives in the Bundesrath. His term is dependent upon the pleasure of the Cabinet and Council of Ministers.-- Emperor. Both the Cabinet and the Council con- sist of the same persons. The Cabinet Responsibility.--Does not consist is a political body; the Council, an in a liability to be forced to re- administrative body. sign, but consists simply in amena- bility to the laws. Appointment.--Chosen by the Presi- dent, generally from among the mem- bers of the Chambers.

Powers and Duties.--Must give an Members of the Cabinet.--Membership account of the administration to the may vary somewhat: Reichstag, and submits the annual budget. He is the center and source Premier and Foreign Minister. of all the administrative depart- ments, dominating the entire imperial Ministers of State. service. He superintends the ad- ministration of the laws of the Em- Minister of Justice and Vice- pire by the States. As chairman of President of the Council. the Bundesrath he is simply a Prussian representing the King of Minister of War. Prussia, as the Emperor has no place in the Bundesrath. Minister of Marine.

The army and navy, however, are not Minister of the Interior. directly controlled by him, but by the General Field-Marshal. Minister of Finance.

The following are the imperial Minister of Agriculture. authorities or Secretaries of State; they do not form a Ministry or Minister of Public Works. Cabinet, but act independently of each other, under the general super- Minister of Commerce. vision of the Chancellor: Minister of Colonies. Chancellor of the Empire. _Minister of Instruction and Secretary for Foreign Affairs. Minister of Inventions affecting National Defense._ Imperial Home Office and Council of State.--Gives advice on Representative of the Chancellor. all projects of law which the Cham- bers or the Government wish to submit Imperial Admiralty. to it, and on administrative regula- tions and by-laws. Its decision is Imperial Secretary of Justice. final in all disputes arising in matters of administration. Imperial Treasury. Is presided over by the Minister of Imperial Post-Office. Justice, and is composed of Council- lors, Masters of Requests, and Secretary for the Colonies. Auditors, all appointed by the Presi- dent of the republic. And, in addition, the following presidents of imperial bureaus: Relations to the Chambers.--Are the leaders of the Chambers. Railways. Whether members of the Chambers or Imperial Exchequer. not, they have as Ministers the right to attend all sessions of the Cham- Imperial Bank. bers and take a specially privileged part in the debate. Imperial Debt Commission. Tenure of Office.--Dependent upon _Administration of Imperial Rail- the favor of the Chambers; for, if ways._ not sustained, they must all resign.

Imperial Court Martial.

Acting under the direction of the Chancellor of the Empire, the Bundes- rath represents also a supreme ad- ministrative and consultative board, and as such has twelve standing com- mittees--namely, for army and forti- fications; for naval matters; tariff, excise and taxes; trade and commerce; railways, posts and telegraphs; civil and criminal law; financial accounts; foreign affairs; for Alsace-Lorraine; for the Constitution; for the standing orders; and for railway tariffs.

=III. The Government.= =III. The Chambers.=--Consist of the Senate and House of Deputies. The legislative functions of the Empire are vested jointly in the Bun- desrath or Federal Council which re- presents the several states, and by the Reichstag or Diet of the Realm, which represents the German nation. The Emperor has no veto on laws passed by these bodies. All laws for the Empire must receive the votes of an absolute majority.

The consent of the Federal Council and Reichstag is necessary in regard to certain specified treaties. The Emperor has the right to summon, open, adjourn, and close the Reichs- tag. The Federal Council and Reichs- tag must be summoned to meet every year; the Reichstag cannot be sum- moned without the adherence of the Federal Council.

BUNDESRATH, or Federal Council, is THE SENATE is composed of three composed of sixty-one votes repre- hundred members chosen by the Depart- senting the individual states. They ments and Colonies for nine years, are appointed by the governments one-third of the members retiring (i. e. the Executives) of the every three years. States for each session. Until 1884 the Senate contained The apportionments of representa- seventy-five life members, the life tion in the Bundesrath among the list having been originally made up States of the Empire is as follows: by election by the National Assembly Prussia seventeen votes, Bavaria six, of 1875, and vacancies being filled Saxony and Würtemberg four each, by the Senate itself. In 1884 this Baden, Hesse and Alsace-Lorraine each arrangement was abolished, and since three, Mecklenburg-Schwerin and that year vacancies in the life roll Brunswick each two, the other States have been filled by ordinary nine- (seventeen) one apiece. year Senators.

Qualifications.--Must be a French- man, and at least forty years of age.

Remuneration.--Receive no pay. Remuneration.--15,000 francs ($3,000).

Organization--Quorum.--The Im- Organization--Quorum.--A majority perial Chancellor or his substitute of members. Elects its own President (at regular meeting). The Imperial and Vice-Presidents. Chancellor presides. Votes with the other Prussian representatives, whose votes must be undivided; and, in case of a tie, Prussia’s vote decides.

Committees.--There are three Committees.--Each month the members standing committees and eight commis- are divided by lots into “Bureaux.” sions, two of which are appointed by These select all the special commit- the Emperor, five wholly by the Bun- tees to which bills are referred, desrath, and one in part by the Bun- except when the House chooses itself desrath, being made up principally of to elect a committee. members ex-officio.

Each commission consists of represen- tatives of at least five States of the Empire.

Powers and Duties.--May originate Powers and Duties.--In concurrence bills to be sent to the Reichstag. with the Chamber of Deputies, makes Its consent is indispensable to the the laws, and has in law-making the validity of all legislation. Members same prerogatives as the Chamber, may speak on the floor of the Reichs- except that bills relating to revenue tag. Acting under the direction of originate with the Chamber. It is a the Imperial Chancellor, it is the court of justice for trying the supreme administrative board. It is President of the republic and the in some cases the highest court of Ministers. It may originate, and, in the Empire. Is the court of appeal concurrence with the Senate, pass between two or more States of the resolutions and bills; but bills re- Empire. lating to finance must be originated by the Chamber of Deputies. Has power to bring accusations against the President of the republic and the Ministers.

REICHSTAG, or Imperial Diet, is THE CHAMBER OF DEPUTIES is composed composed (in 1917) of three hundred (in 1917) of five hundred and eighty- and ninety-seven members, and four Deputies, distributed among the elected for five years by universal Departments and certain colonies in suffrage. the proportion of one Deputy to seventy thousand inhabitants. The Deputies are chosen for a term of four years by universal suffrage, the Arrondissements serving as electoral districts.

Qualifications.--Must be at least Qualifications.--Must be a citizen twenty-five years of age, and have of France, and at least twenty-five lived at least one year in one of the years of age. German States.

Organization--Quorum.--A majority Organization--Quorum.--A majority of members. Elects its own presiding of members. Chooses its own Presi- officer, who is called the President. dent, Vice-President and other officers.

Remuneration.--3,000 marks ($750) Remuneration.--15,000 francs per session, with deduction of twenty ($3,000). marks ($5.00) for each day’s absence; they have free passes over German railways during session.

Powers and Duties.--Has power to Powers and Duties.--May originate, originate and, with the advice and and, in concurrence with the Senate, consent of the Bundesrath, to enact pass resolutions and bills; but bills the laws. It also exerts a control- relating to finance must be origi- ling influence through its power to nated by the Chamber of Deputies. Has give or withhold its sanction to power to bring accusations against certain ordinances to whose validity the President of the republic and the Constitution makes its concur- Ministers. rence necessary, through its right to inquire into the conduct of affairs; and in many other ways not suscepti- ble of enumeration.

Committees.--There are no standing Committees.--Each month the members committees, but select committees are are divided by lot into eleven occasionally appointed by election “Bureaux,” which select all the from the seven “Sections” into which special committees to which bills are the members are divided by lot for referred, except when the Chamber committee work. chooses to appoint a committee di- rectly.

=IV. Judicial Department.= =IV. Judicial Department.=

The laws of the Empire take prece- The judicial system is under direct dence of the Federated States within control of the government. All Judges the scope of the Constitution of the are nominated by the President of the Empire; they are compulsory on all republic. They can be removed only by Governments of the Empire. a decision of the Court of Cassation constituted as the Conseil A uniform system of law courts exists Supérieur of the magistracy. throughout the Empire, though, with the exception of the Reichsgericht, THE COURT OF CASSATION. all courts are directly subject to the Government of the special State The Court of Cassation, which sits in which they exercise jurisdiction, at Paris, is the highest court for all and not to the Imperial Government. criminal cases tried by jury, so far The appointment of the judges is also as regards matters of law. a State and not an Imperial function. The Empire enjoys uniform codes of Courts of Appeal.--The highest commercial and criminal law. courts are the twenty-six Courts of Appeal, composed each of one presi- IMPERIAL SUPREME COURT. dent and a variable number of mem- bers, for all criminal cases which Reichsgericht (Imperial Supreme have been tried without a jury. Court), to which there is a right of appeal from all inferior courts, sits Court of Assizes.--In all cases of at Leipzig, and consists of one a délit or a crime the preliminary hundred judges, appointed by the inquiry is made in secrecy by an Kaiser on the recommendation of the examining magistrate (juge d’in- Bundesrath. struction), who may either dismiss the case or send it for trial before The Oberlandesgerichte (Supreme a court where a public prosecutor Court), which are the first courts of (procureur) endeavors to prove the the second instance, have original charge. The Court of Assizes is jurisdiction in serious offenses, and assisted by twelve jurors, who decide are presided over by seven judges. by simple majority on the fact with respect to offenses amounting to The Landgerichte (County Courts) crimes. have a fairly extensive jurisdiction in civil and criminal cases and in divorce proceedings. There are five judges in the criminal chamber of a Landgericht, four votes being re- quired to make a conviction valid. Three judges from such a court pre- side at intervals over jury courts (Schwurgerichte), and juries do not, therefore, form a permanent part of the system.

Not the least important work of the Landgerichte is to revise the deci- sions of the Amtsgerichte, which are the lowest courts of the first in- stance, being controlled by single judges, who are competent to hear only petty civil and criminal cases.

The Amtsgerichte (Police or Dis- Justices of the Peace (juges de trict Courts) are the lowest courts, paix) are the courts of lowest each with a single judge competent to jurisdiction in France. They try try petty civil and criminal cases, small civil cases and act also as divorce cases, etc. judges of Police Courts, where all petty offenses (contraventions) are disposed of. The Correctional Courts pronounce upon all graver offenses (délits), including cases involving imprisonment up to five years. They have no jury, and consist of three judges belonging to the civil tri- bunals of first instance.

For commercial cases there are, in two hundred and twenty-six towns, Tribunals of Commerce and Councils of Experts (prud’hommes). In the towns are police courts.

=IMPORTANT BIOGRAPHICAL FACTS RELATING TO THE PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES=

=TABLE I. BIRTH AND PARENTAGE=

===============================+=====================+=======+========= =NAMES OF PRESIDENTS= | =PARENTS= |=Pater-|=Father’s -------------------------------+----------+----------+nal An-|Business= | =Father= | =Mother= |cestry=| -------------------------------+----------+----------+-------+--------- 1. =George Washington= |Augustine |Mary Ball |English|Planter 2. =John Adams= |John |Susanna |English|Farmer | |Boylston | | 3. =Thomas Jefferson= |Peter |Jane |Welsh |Planter | |Randolph | | 4. =James Madison= |James |Nellie |English|Planter | |Conway | | 5. =James Monroe= |Spence |Eliza |Scotch |Planter | |Jones | | 6. =John Quincy Adams= |John |Abigail |English|Lawyer | | | | 7. =Andrew Jackson= |Andrew |Elizabeth |Scotch-|Farmer | |Hutchinson|Irish | 8. =Martin Van Buren= |Abraham |Maria Hoes|Dutch |Farmer 9. =William Henry Harrison= |Benjamin |Elizabeth |English|Statesman | |Bassett | | 10. =John Tyler= |John |Mary |English|Jurist | |Armistead | | 11. =James Knox Polk= |Samuel |Jane Knox |... |Farmer 12. =Zachary Taylor= |Richard |Sarah |Scotch-|... | |Strother |Irish | 13. =Millard Fillmore= |Nathaniel |Phebe |English|Farmer | |Millard | | 14. =Franklin Pierce= |Benjamin |Anna |English|Farmer | |Kendrick | | 15. =James Buchanan= |James |Elizabeth |Scotch-|Merchant | |Speer |Irish | 16. =Abraham Lincoln= |Thomas |Nancy |English|Farmer | |Hanks | | 17. =Andrew Johnson= |Jacob |Mary |English|Sexton | |McDonough | | 18. =Ulysses Simpson Grant= |Jesse Root|Harriet |Scotch |Farmer | |Simpson | | 19. =Rutherford Birchard Hayes=|Rutherford|Sophia |Scotch |Merchant | |Birchard | | 20. =James Abram Garfield= |Abram |Eliza |English|Farmer | |Ballou | | 21. =Chester Alan Arthur= |William |Malvina |Scotch-|Clergyman | |Stone |Irish | 22. =Grover Cleveland= |Richard |Anne |English|Clergyman |Falley |Neale | | 23. =Benjamin Harrison= |John Scott|Elizabeth |English|Farmer | |Findlay | | | |Irwin | | 24. =Grover Cleveland= |Richard |Anne |English|Clergyman |Falley |Neale | | 25. =William McKinley= |William |Nancy C. |Scotch-|Iron Mnfr. | |Allison |Irish | 26. =Theodore Roosevelt= |Theodore |Martha |Dutch |Merchant | |Bullock | | 27. =William Howard Taft= |Alphonso |Louise M. |English|Lawyer | |Torrey | | 28. =Woodrow Wilson= |Jos. |Jessie |Scotch-|Clergyman |Ruggles |Woodrow |Irish | -------------------------------+----------+----------+-------+---------

=TABLE II. EDUCATION, PROFESSION, RELIGION AND POLITICS=

========================+================+========+=======+=========+====== =NAMES OF PRESIDENTS= | =Educational | =Early | =Pro- |=Reli- |=Poli- | Advantages= | Voca- | fes- |gious | tics= | | tion= | sion= |Connec- | | | | |tion= | ------------------------+----------------+--------+-------+---------+------ 1. =George Washington= |Common School |Surveyor|Planter|Episcopa-|Feder- | | | |lian |alist 2. =John Adams= |Harvard |Teacher |Lawyer |Unitarian|Feder- |College, 1755 | | | |alist 3. =Thomas Jefferson= |College of |Lawyer |Lawyer |Liberal |Repub- |William and | | | |lican |Mary, 1762 | | | |[12] 4. =James Madison= |Princeton |Lawyer |Lawyer |Episcopa-|Repub- |College, 1771 | | |lian |lican 5. =James Monroe= |Entered College,|Lawyer |Politi-|Episcopa-|Repub- |William and Mary| |cian |lian |lican 6. =John Quincy Adams= |Harvard College,|Lawyer |Lawyer |Unitarian|Repub- |1787 | | | |lican 7. =Andrew Jackson= |Self Taught |Lawyer |Lawyer |Presbyte-|Demo- | | | |rian |crat 8. =Martin Van Buren= |Academy |Lawyer |Lawyer |Reformed |Demo- | | | |Dutch |crat 9. =William Henry |Entered Hampden-|Medicine|Army |Episcopa-|Whig Harrison= |Sidney College | | |lian | 10. =John Tyler= |College, William|Lawyer |Lawyer |Episcopa-|Demo- |and Mary, 1806 | | |lian |crat 11. =James Knox Polk= |University of |Lawyer |Lawyer |Presbyte-|Demo- |North Carolina | | |rian |crat 12. =Zachary Taylor= |Common School |Soldier |Army |Episcopa-|Whig | | | |lian | 13. =Millard Fillmore= |Public School |Tailor |Lawyer |Unitarian|Whig 14. =Franklin Pierce= |Bowdoin College,|Lawyer |Lawyer |Episcopa-|Demo- |1824 | | |lian |crat 15. =James Buchanan= |Dickinson |Lawyer |Lawyer |Presbyte-|Demo- |College, 1809 | | |rian |crat 16. =Abraham Lincoln= |Self Taught |Farmer |Lawyer |Liberal |Repub- | | | | |lican 17. =Andrew Johnson= |Self Taught |Tailor |Politi-|Liberal |Repub- | | |cian | |lican 18. =Ulysses Simpson |West Point Mili-|Tanner |Army |Methodist|Repub- Grant= |tary Academy, | | | |lican |1843 | | | | 19. =Rutherford Birchard|Kenyon College, |Lawyer |Lawyer |Methodist|Repub- Hayes= |Ohio, 1842 | | | |lican 20. =James Abram |Williams |Teacher |Lawyer |Disciples|Repub- Garfield= |College, 1856 | | | |lican 21. =Chester Alan |Union College, |Teacher |Lawyer |Episcopa-|Repub- Arthur= |1848 | | |lian |lican 22. =Grover Cleveland= |Common School |Teacher |Lawyer |Presbyte-|Demo- | | | |rian |crat 23. =Benjamin Harrison= |Miami Universi- |Lawyer |Lawyer |Presbyte-|Repub- |ty, Ohio, 1851 | | |rian |lican 24. =Grover Cleveland= |Common School |Teacher |Lawyer |Presbyte-|Demo- | | | |rian |crat 25. =William McKinley= |Entered Alleghe-|Lawyer |Lawyer |Methodist|Repub- |ny College | | | |lican 26. =Theodore Roosevelt=|Harvard, 1880 |Publi- |Publi- |Reformed |Repub- | |cist |cist |Dutch |lican 27. =William Howard |Yale, 1878 |Lawyer |Lawyer |Unitarian|Repub- Taft= | | | | |lican 28. =Woodrow Wilson= |Princeton, 1879 |Lawyer |Educa- |Presbyte-|Demo- | | |tor |rian |crat ------------------------+----------------+--------+-------+---------+------

[12] The first Republican party, founded by Jefferson, later developed into the Democratic party of today.

=TABLE III. MARRIAGE, CHILDREN AND ELECTION TO THE PRESIDENCY=

=======+=============+=====+===========================+============== =Terms=| =Name= |=Mar-| =Wife’s Name= | =Children= | |ried=| +------+------- | | | |=Boys=|=Girls= -------+-------------+-----+---------------------------+------+------- 1-2 |=Washington= |1759 |Martha (Dandridge) Custis | 0 | 0 | | |(1732-1802), widow with two| | | | |children | | 3 |=Adams= |1764 |Abigail Smith (1744-1818) | 3 | 2 4-5 |=Jefferson= |1772 |Martha (Wayles) Skelton | 0 | 6 | | |(1748-1782), widow of | | | | |Bathurst Skelton | | 6-7 |=Madison= |1794 |Dolly (Payne) Todd (1772- | 0 | 0 | | |1849), widow | | 8-9 |=Monroe= |1786 |Elisa Kortwright (1768- | 0 | 2 | | |1830) | | 10 |=Adams, J.Q.=|1797 |Louisa Catherine Johnson | 3 | 1 | | |(1775-1852) | | 11-12 |=Jackson= |1791 |Rachel (Donelson) Robards | 3 | 0 | | |(1767-1828), divorced wife | | | | |of Captain Robards | | 13 |=Van Buren= |1807 |Hannah Hoes (1783-1819) | 4 | 0 14 |=Harrison= |1795 |Anna Symmes (1775-1864) | 6 | 4 |=Tyler= |1813 |(1) To Letitia Christian | 3 | 4 | | |(1790-1842) | | | |1844 |(2) To Julia Gardiner | 4 | 2 | | |(1820-1889) | | 15 |=Polk= |1824 |Sarah Childress (1803-1891)| 0 | 0 16 |=Taylor= |1810 |Margaret Smith (1788-1852) | 1 | 3 |=Fillmore= |1826 |(1) Abigail Powers (1798- | 1 | 1 | | |1853) | | | |1858 |(2) Caroline (Carmichael) | 0 | 0 | | |McIntosh (1813-1881), a | | | | |widow | | 17 |=Pierce= |1834 |Jane Means Appleton (1806- | 3 | 0 | | |1863) | | 18 |=Buchanan= | ... |Unmarried | ... | ... 19-20 |=Lincoln= |1842 |Mary Todd (1818-1882) | 4 | 0 20 |=Johnson= |1827 |Eliza McCardle (1810-1876) | 3 | 2 21-22 |=Grant= |1848 |Julia Dent (1826-1902) | 3 | 1 23 |=Hayes= |1852 |Lucy Ware Webb (1831-1889) | 7 | 1 24 |=Garfield= |1858 |Lucretia Rudolph (1832- | 4 | 1 | | |----) | | |=Arthur= |1859 |Ellen Lewis Herndon (1837- | 1 | 1 | | |1880) | | 25 |=Cleveland= |1886 |Frances Folsom (1864- | 2 | 3 | | |----) | | 26 |=Harrison= |1853 |(1) Caroline Scott (1832- | 1 | 1 | | |1892) | | | |1896 |(2) Mary Scott (Lord) | 0 | 1 | | |Dimmick (1858- ----) | | 27 |=Cleveland= | ... |Frances Folsom (1864- | ... | ... | | |----) | | 28-29 |=McKinley= |1871 |Ida Saxton (1844-1907) | 0 | 2 29-30 |=Roosevelt= |1883 |(1) Alice Lee (1861-1884) | 0 | 1 | |1886 |(2) Edith Kermit Carow | 4 | 1 | | |(1861- ----) | | 31 |=Taft= |1886 |Helen Herron (1861- ----) | 2 | 1 32 |=Wilson= |1885 |(1) Helen Louise Axsen | 0 | 3 | | |(1860-1914) | | | |1915 |(2) Edith Bolling Galt | ... | ... | | |(1872- ----) | | -------+-------------+-----+---------------------------+------+-------

=TABLE IV. TERM OF OFFICE, DEATH AND PLACE OF BURIAL=

=======+=============+=========+===============+=========+=============== =Terms=| =Name= | =Elected|=Residence When|=Age When| =Term of | | Presi- | Elected= | Inaugu- | Office= | | dent= | | rated= | -------+-------------+---------+---------------+---------+--------------- 1-2 |=Washington= | 1789 |Mt. Vernon, Va.| 57 |April 30, 1789- | | | | |Mar. 4, 1797 3 |=Adams= | 1796 |Quincy, Mass. | 62 |Mar. 4, 1797- | | | | |Mar. 4, 1801 4-5 |=Jefferson= | 1800 |Monticello, Va.| 58 |Mar. 4, 1801- | | | | |Mar. 4, 1809 6-7 |=Madison= | 1808 |Montpelier, Va.| 58 |Mar. 4, 1809- | | | | |Mar. 4, 1817 8-9 |=Monroe= | 1816 |Oakhill, Va. | 59 |Mar. 4, 1817- | | | | |Mar. 4, 1825 10 |=Adams, J.Q.=| 1824 |Quincy, Mass. | 58 |Mar. 4, 1825- | | | | |Mar. 4, 1829 11-12 |=Jackson= | 1828 |Hermitage, | 62 |Mar. 4, 1829- | | |Tenn. | |Mar. 4, 1837 13 |=Van Buren= | 1836 |Kinderhook, | 55 |Mar. 4, 1837- | | |N. Y. | |Mar. 4, 1841 14 |=Harrison= | 1840 |North Bend, | 68 |Mar. 4, 1841- | | |Ohio | |April 4, 1841 |=Tyler= | ... |Williamsburg, | 51 |April 6, 1841- | | |Va. | |Mar. 4, 1845 15 |=Polk= | 1844 |Nashville, | 50 |Mar. 4, 1845- | | |Tenn. | |Mar. 4, 1849 16 |=Taylor= | 1848 |Baton Rouge, | 65 |Mar. 4, 1849- | | | La. | |July 10, 1850 |=Fillmore= | ... |Buffalo, N. Y. | 50 |July 10, 1850- | | | | |Mar. 4, 1853 17 |=Pierce= | 1852 |Concord, N. H. | 49 |Mar. 4, 1853- | | | | |Mar. 4, 1857 18 |=Buchanan= | 1856 |Wheatland, Pa. | 66 |Mar. 4, 1857- | | | | |Mar. 4, 1861 19-20 |=Lincoln= | 1860 |Springfield, | 52 |Mar. 4, 1861- | | |Ill. | |April 15, 1865 20 |=Johnson= | ... |Greeneville, | 57 |April 15, 1865- | | |Tenn. | |Mar. 4, 1869 21-22 |=Grant= | 1868 |Washington, | 47 |Mar. 4, 1869- | | |D. C. | |Mar. 4, 1877 23 |=Hayes= | 1876 |Fremont, Ohio | 54 |Mar. 4, 1877- | | | | |Mar. 4, 1881 24 |=Garfield= | 1880 |Mentor, Ohio | 49 |Mar. 4, 1881- | | | | |Sept. 19, 1881 |=Arthur= | ... |New York City | 51 |Sept. 20, 1881- | | | | |Mar. 4, 1885 25 |=Cleveland= | 1884 |Buffalo, N. Y. | 48 |Mar. 4, 1885- | | | | |Mar. 4, 1889 26 |=Harrison= | 1888 |Indianapolis, | 55 |Mar. 4, 1889- | | |Ind. | |Mar. 4, 1893 27 |=Cleveland= | 1892 |Buffalo, N. Y. | 56 |Mar. 4, 1893- | | | | |Mar. 4, 1897 28-29 |=McKinley= | 1896 |Canton, Ohio | 54 |Mar. 4, 1897- | | | | |Sept. 14, 1901 29-30 |=Roosevelt= | 1904 |Oyster Bay, | 43 |Sept. 14, 1901- | | |N. Y. | |Mar. 4, 1909 31 |=Taft= | 1908 |Cincinnati, | 51 |Mar. 4, 1909- | | |Ohio | |Mar. 4, 1913 32 |=Wilson= | 1912 |Princeton, | 56 |Mar. 4, 1913- | | |N. J. | |... -------+-------------+---------+---------------+---------+---------------

=======+=============+======+=========+======+===============+============ =Terms=| =Name= |=Died=|=Cause of| =Age | =Place of | =Place of | | | Death= | at | Death= | Burial= | | | |Death=| | -------+-------------+------+---------+------+---------------+------------ 1-2 |=Washington= | 1799 |Pneumonia| 67 |Mt. Vernon, Va.|Mt. Vernon, | | | | | |Va. 3 |=Adams= | 1826 |Natural | 90 |Quincy, Mass. |Unitarian | | |decline | | |ch., Quincy, | | | | | |Mass. 4-5 |=Jefferson= | 1826 |Chronic | 83 |Monticello, Va.|Monticello, | | |diarrhœa | | |Albemarle | | | | | |Co., Va. 6-7 |=Madison= | 1836 |Natural | 85 |Montpelier, Va.|Montpelier, | | |decline | | |Hanover Co., | | | | | |Va. 8-9 |=Monroe= | 1831 |Natural | 73 |New York City |Hollywood, | | |decline | | |Richmond, | | | | | |Va. 10 |=Adams, J.Q.=| 1848 |Paralysis| 80 |Washington, |Unitarian, | | | | |D. C. |Quincy, | | | | | |Mass. 11-12 |=Jackson= | 1845|Consump- | 78 |Hermitage, near|Hermitage, | | |tion | |Nashville, |near Nash- | | | | |Tenn. |ville, Tenn. 13 |=Van Buren= | 1862 |Asthma | 79 |Kinderhook, |Kinderhook, | | | | |N. Y. |N. Y. 14 |=Harrison= | 1841 |Pleurisy | 68 |White House, |North Bend, | | |fever | |Washington, |Ohio | | | | |D. C. | |=Tyler= | 1862 |Bilious | 71 |Ballard House, |Hollywood, | | |attacks | |Richmond, Va. |Richmond, | | |with | | |Va. | | |bronchi- | | | | | |tis | | | 15 |=Polk= | ... |Chronic | 53 |Nashville, |Nashville, | | |diarrhœa | |Tenn. |Tenn. 16 |=Taylor= | 1850 |Cholera | 65 |White House, |Springfield, | | |morbus | |Washington, |Ky. | | |and | |D. C. | | | |typhoid | | | | | |fever | | | |=Fillmore= | 1874 |Paralysis| 74 |Buffalo, N. Y. |Forest Lawn, | | | | | |Buffalo, | | | | | |N. Y. 17 |=Pierce= | 1869 |Dropsy | 64 |Concord, N. H. |Concord, | | |and in- | | |N. H. | | |flamma- | | | | | |tion of | | | | | |stomach | | | 18 |=Buchanan= | 1868 |Rheumatic| 77 |Lancaster, Pa. |Woodward | | |gout | | |Hill, Lan- | | | | | |caster, Pa. 19-20 |=Lincoln= | 1865 |Assassi- | 56 |Washington, |Oak Ridge, | | |nated by | |D. C. |Springfield, | | |Booth | | |Ill. 20 |=Johnson= | 1875 |Paralysis| 66 |Greeneville, |Greeneville, | | | | |Tenn. |Tenn. 21-22 |=Grant= | 1885 |Cancer of| 63 |Mt. McGregor, |Riverside, | | |the | |N. Y. |New York | | |tongue | | |City 23 |=Hayes= | 1893 |Neuralgia| 70 |Fremont, Ohio |Fremont, | | |of heart | | |Ohio 24 |=Garfield= | 1881 |Assassi- | 49 |Elberon, Long |Lake View | | |nated by | |Branch, N. J. |Cemetery, | | |Guiteau | | |Cleveland, | | | | | |Ohio |=Arthur= | 1886 |Bright’s | 56 |New York, N. Y.|Rural | | |disease | | |Cemetery, | | | | | |Albany, | | | | | |N. Y. 25 |=Cleveland= | ... |... | ... |... |... 26 |=Harrison= | 1901 |Pneumonia| 67 |Indianapolis, |Crown Hill | | | | |Ind. |Cemetery, | | | | | |Indiana- | | | | | |polis, Ind. 27 |=Cleveland= | 1908 |Heart | 71 |Princeton, |Princeton, | | |failure | |N. J. |N. J. 28-29 |=McKinley= | 1901 |Assassi- | 58 |Buffalo, N. Y. |Cemetery, | | |nated by | | |Canton, Ohio | | |Czolgosz | | | 29-30 |=Roosevelt= | ... |... | ... |... |... 31 |=Taft= | ... |... | ... |... |... 32 |=Wilson= | ... |... | ... |... |... -------+-------------+------+---------+------+---------------+------------

=TABLE V. LATER CAREER, WRITINGS AND SOBRIQUETS=

=============+======================================================== =Name= | =Career After Leaving the Presidency= -------------+-------------------------------------------------------- =Washington= |Agricultural pursuits; appointed commander-in-chief |(1798) because of threatened war with France. =Adams= |Member of the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention of |1820. =Jefferson= |Retired to his plantation at Monticello, Va.; devoted |much time to the University of Virginia. =Madison= |Retired to Montpelier, Va.; contributed large service to |University of Virginia; served in the Virginia Constitu- |tional Convention, 1829. =Monroe= |Retired to private life in Virginia; served as a member |of the Virginia Constitutional Convention in 1830. =Adams, J.Q.=|Was returned to Washington as a member of the House of |Representatives; served from 1830 to his death. =Jackson= |Retired to the “Hermitage,” near Nashville, Tenn.; |always took a deep interest in public affairs. =Van Buren= |Was renominated in 1840, 1844, and 1848 for the |presidency. =Harrison= |Died in office. =Tyler= |Retired to his estate in Virginia; presided at the peace |convention held in Washington in 1861. =Polk= |Died in office. =Taylor= |... =Fillmore= |Was candidate for president in 1852 and in 1856; spent |his remaining years at Buffalo, N. Y. =Pierce= |Traveled in Europe; retired to Concord, N. H. =Buchanan= |Retired to Lancaster, Pa.; devoted himself to writing |defense of his administration. =Lincoln= |Died in office. =Johnson= |Retired to home in Greeneville, Tenn.; chosen United |States Senator in 1875. =Grant= |Made tour of the world and retired to private life in |New York. =Hayes= |Was president of the Board of Freedmen, and president of |the National Prison association. =Garfield= |Died in office. =Arthur= |Died the year following his retirement. =Cleveland= |Retired to New York to practice law; at the end of |second term retired to Princeton, N. J. =Harrison= |Professor of International law at Leland Stanford Uni- |versity, California; afterward practiced law. =McKinley= |Died in office. =Roosevelt= |In March, 1909, headed a scientific expedition to |Africa, organized in the interest of the Smithsonian |Institution; resumed literary work and politics. =Taft= |Kent Professor of Law at Yale University. =Wilson= |... -------------+--------------------------------------------------------

=============+======================================================== =Name= | =Writings of the Presidents= -------------+-------------------------------------------------------- =Washington= |Maxims; Transcripts of Revolutionary Correspondence. =Adams= |Essay on Canon and Feudal Laws; _Defense of the Ameri- |can Constitution_. =Jefferson= |A Summary View of the Rights of America; _The Declara- |tion of Independence_; Act for Freedom of Religion. =Madison= |_Reports of Debates During the Congress, of the Con- |federation and Federal Congress_; Essays. =Monroe= |A View of the Conduct of the Executive; The People; |The Sovereign. =Adams, J.Q.=|Poems of Religion and Society; _Lectures on Rhetoric |and Oratory_; Criticisms of Paine’s “Rights of Man;” |Defense of Washington’s Policy of Neutrality =Jackson= |... =Van Buren= |_Inquiry Into the Origin and Causes of Political Parties |in the United States_. =Harrison= |_A Discourse on the Aborigines of the Valley of the |Ohio_. =Tyler= |... =Polk= |... =Taylor= |... =Fillmore= |... =Pierce= |... =Buchanan= |Résumé of My Administration. =Lincoln= |Orations. =Johnson= |Speeches. =Grant= |Shiloh; Vicksburg; Chattanooga; The Wilderness; |The Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant. =Hayes= |... =Garfield= |Discovery and Ownership of the Northwestern Territory; |Garfield’s Words. =Arthur= |... =Cleveland= |Writings and Speeches. =Harrison= |Speeches; This Country of Ours; _Views of an Ex- |President_. =McKinley= |Speeches. =Roosevelt= |The Naval War of 1812; Essays on Practical Politics; |The Winning of the West; _Hero Tales From American |History_; American Ideals; Life of Oliver Cromwell; |African Game Trails. =Taft= |... =Wilson= |Congressional Government; The State; _An Old Master, |and Other Political Essays_; _Mere Literature and Other |Essays_; George Washington; _A History of the American |People_. -------------+--------------------------------------------------------

=============+======================================================== =Name= |=Presidential Sobriquets= -------------+-------------------------------------------------------- =Washington= |“Father of his Country;” “American Fabius.” =Adams= |“Colossus of Independence;” “Son of Liberty.” =Jefferson= |“Sage of Monticello,” “Long Tom.” =Madison= |“Father of the Constitution.” =Monroe= |“Last Cocked Hat.” =Adams, J.Q.=|“Old Man Eloquent.” =Jackson= |“Old Hickory;” “Cæsar of the White House.” =Van Buren= |“Little Magician;” “Wizard of Kinderhook.” =Harrison= |“Tippecanoe.” =Tyler= |“Young Hickory.” =Polk= |Also “Young Hickory.” =Taylor= |“Rough and Ready;” “Old Buena Vista.” =Fillmore= |“The American Louis Philippe.” =Pierce= |“Purse.” =Buchanan= |“Old Public Functionary;” “Bachelor President.” =Lincoln= |“Honest Old Abe;” “Rail-splitter;” “Great Emancipator.” =Johnson= |“Sir Veto.” =Grant= |“Unconditional Surrender;” “Old Three Stars.” =Hayes= |“President de Facto.” =Garfield= |“The Martyr President;” “The Dark Horse.” =Arthur= |“Our Chet;” “America’s First Gentleman.” =Cleveland= |“Man of Destiny;” “The Claimant.” =Harrison= |“Son of His Grandfather;” “Hoosier President.” =McKinley= |“Prosperity’s Advance Agent;” “Bonaparte of Politics.” =Roosevelt= |“Teddy;” “The Rough Rider;” “T. R.;” “Our Strenuous |President.” =Taft= |“The Globe Trotter;” “The Judicial President.” =Wilson= |“The Scholar in Politics.” -------------+--------------------------------------------------------

=CANADA.=--What is known as the Dominion of Canada is a confederation of the colonies of British North America, constituted in 1867 by the British North America Act of that year. Upper and Lower Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick were the first to unite under the provisions of that statute, and the Dominion of Canada now includes the whole of the British North American possessions excepting Newfoundland.

Canada is nearly as large as the whole of Europe, and about 750,000 square miles larger than the United States without Alaska. The census figures for 1911 were:

Area Popula- sq. mi. tion Prince Edward Island 2,184 93,728 Nova Scotia 21,428 492,338 New Brunswick 27,985 351,889 Quebec 351,873 2,002,712 Ontario 260,862 2,523,274 Manitoba 73,732 455,614 British Columbia 355,855 392,480 Alberta 255,285 374,663 Saskatchewan 251,700 492,432 Yukon (Territory) 207,076 8,512 Northwest Territories 1,921,685 17,196 --------- --------- Total 3,729,665 7,204,838

In 1912 parts of the Northwest Territories were transferred to Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec.

NEWFOUNDLAND.--The island of Newfoundland, on the northeast side of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, has a total area of 42,750 square miles, with a population (1911) of 238,670. Attached to the government of the island is a coastal strip of the Labrador peninsula 120,000 square miles (population 3,949).

=Physical Features.=--Both the Atlantic and Pacific shores abound in deep indentations forming magnificent harbors and sheltered bays. On the Atlantic the principal bay is the Bay of Fundy, remarkable for its high and rushing tide, the water rising from twelve to seventy feet. There is also the Hudson Bay, connected with the Atlantic by Hudson Straits, really an inland sea with an area of three hundred and fifty thousand square miles, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence, eighty thousand square miles in extent.

The most striking physical features of Canada are the Rocky Mountains, the Laurentian Range, and the chain of immense fresh water lakes forming part of the boundary with the United States.

The Laurentian Range extends along the north side of the St. Lawrence, the Ottawa River, and then stretches away to Lake Superior and the north, the length of the range being about three thousand five hundred miles. It forms the watershed between Hudson Bay and the St. Lawrence, and varies in height from one to three thousand feet.

The eastern portions of Canada are generally well timbered, and the same is true of British Columbia, and the region north of the Saskatchewan. Westward of the Red River, between the forty-ninth and fifty-fifth parallels, there is an immense fertile plain, suitable for general agriculture and grazing, extending nearly to the Rocky Mountains.

This range consists of triple chains with valleys between; the most easterly has the greatest elevation near the fifty-second parallel, the highest peaks being Mounts Brown, Murchison, Hooker, Columbia, Forbes, Bryce, Alberta, and Freshfield. The average height of the chain is from seven thousand to eight thousand feet. In the north, adjoining Alaska, is Mt. Logan, and, on the dividing line, St. Elias. (See Mountains of the World for elevations.)

=Lakes and Rivers.=--Canada is well watered, the country presenting a network of lakes and rivers. The system of the St. Lawrence alone, with the great lakes Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie, and Ontario (between the last are the celebrated falls of Niagara), drains an area in Canada of three hundred and thirty thousand square miles. (See North America and United States.)

Other important lakes are Winnipeg, Winnipegosis, Manitoba, Lake of the Woods, Great Slave, Great Bear, and Athabasca.

Next to the St. Lawrence the chief rivers are the Saskatchewan and the Winnipeg, flowing into Lake Winnipeg, and the Nelson, flowing from it into Hudson Bay; the Assiniboine and the Red River, which join their waters to flow into Lake Winnipeg; the Albany and the Churchill, emptying into Hudson Bay; the Athabasca and the Peace Rivers, flowing into Lake Athabasca, and the Slave River, from it into Great Slave Lake; the Mackenzie, fed from both the Great Slave and the Great Bear lakes, and emptying into the Arctic Ocean; the Fraser and Thompson, in British Columbia, emptying into the Pacific; and in the eastern provinces, the Ottawa, chief tributary of the St. Lawrence, itself fed by the Gatineau and Matawan; the Saguenay, emptying Lake St. John into the St. Lawrence; and the St. John, which flows into the Bay of Fundy, in New Brunswick, which it partly separates from the State of Maine.

The principal islands of the Dominion are: on the east, Cape Breton, Prince Edward and Magdalen Islands, and Anticosti, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence; and on the west coast, Vancouver Island and Queen Charlotte Island. Lying along the north in the great Arctic Archipelago are immense islands, all of which, excepting Greenland, belong to Canada.

=Climate.=--The cold winter and the heat in summer are frequently extreme, but the climate is a healthy one. The winter may be said to continue from the middle of November to the end of March, or about four and a half months. British Columbia probably possesses the finest climate in North America.

In some inland parts of Canada the maximum temperature may be from ninety to ninety-six degrees, and the minimum from twenty to twenty-six degrees below zero. But although there are these extremes, the air is always dry, bracing, and exhilarating.

=Products and Industries.=--The chief industries of Canada are those of agriculture, stock-raising, dairy-farming, “lumbering” or timber trade and forestry, shipbuilding, fisheries, and mining. An extensive trade is maintained with the United States and England, the exports being timber, fish, and furs, with dairy produce and live stock; wheat and wheat flour, barley, and other agricultural products, cod and other fish, coal, and minerals.

The minerals are chiefly coal, silver, nickel, gold, copper, iron, asbestos, lead, salt, mineral oils and gypsum. Gold is or has been worked in Nova Scotia, Quebec, and Ontario, and largely in Yukon (Klondike) and British Columbia, where there are yet immense fields to open up. Silver mines are worked in Ontario; those at Cobalt (producing also cobalt, nickel and arsenic) have been the richest yet discovered in Canada. Iron ore is found all over the Dominion. Copper has been mined to a considerable extent both in Quebec and Ontario, and the deposits of the ore are of great extent. There are very large coal deposits in Nova Scotia. The coast of British Columbia is rich in coal of a good quality. Coal is known to exist over a vast region, stretching from one hundred and fifty to two hundred miles east of the Rocky Mountains, and north from the frontier for about one thousand miles.

The forest products of Canada constitute one of her most important sources of wealth. They find their way to all parts of the world--to the United States, to the United Kingdom, and to the Australian commonwealth.

Great progress has recently been made in the development of manufactures. The “national policy” comprises a high protective system, but since 1901 gives a preference to Britain.

Quebec has tanning industries and manufactures boot and shoes, the manufactures of woolen and cotton goods are increasing, and there are sugar refineries in Halifax and Montreal. Such wooden articles as doors, window sashes, etc., are manufactured in large numbers.

=People.=--The province of Ontario is thickly settled on the south, along the river and the lake shores, by a population which is mainly of British descent, with a considerable infusion of Germans. The province of Quebec is peopled in great part by descendants of the original French settlers; they are called habitans; many of them speak an archaic French dialect and keep up peculiar manners and customs, and they are Roman Catholic in religion.

The principal nationalities represented are English, Irish, Scotch, French, German and Indian, though there are also some few Dutch, Russian, Chinese, Welsh, Italians, Jews, half-breeds, etc.

Though English is the general language of Canada, the French language is by statute an official language in the Dominion parliament and in Quebec, but not now in any other province. Members of the Quebec and Manitoba parliaments may also address the House in either English or French.

RELIGION AND EDUCATION.--There is no state religion in Canada, and absolute toleration is there an accomplished fact. Roman Catholics, Methodists, Presbyterians, the Church of England, Baptists, Lutherans, and Congregationalists are all represented.

Canada has long been in the enjoyment of free education, and the control of the system is in the hands of the provinces, except where the Act of Confederation secures the permanence of the denominational schools which existed at the time of confederation. Teachers are trained at provincial normal schools.

In Ontario and Quebec there are separate schools for Protestants and Roman Catholics.

The principal universities of Canada with the dates of their foundation are as follows:

=PRINCIPAL UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES OF CANADA=

=====+========+=============+=========+=============+======+=====+======= Orga-|Colleges| Location | Control | President or| In- | Stu-|Volumes nized| | | | Chairman of |struc-|dents|in | | | | Faculty | tors | |Library -----+--------+-------------+---------+-------------+------+-----+------- 1881|Alma |St. Thomas, |Methodist|Robt. I. | 21 | 200| 2,500 |College |Ont. | |Warner, D.D. | | | 1838|Arcadia |Wolfville, |Baptist |Geo. Barton | 24 | 250| 2,500 |Univer- |N.S. | |Cutten, D.D. | | | |sity | | | | | | 1818|Dal- |Halifax, N.S.|Non-Sect.|A. Stanley | 86 | 417| 28,000 |housie | | |MacKenzie, | | | | | | |B.A. | | | 1894|Havergal|Toronto, Ont.|... |N. W. Hoyles,| 65 | 350| 1,000 |Ladies’ | | |Kc. | | | |College | | | | | | 1789|Kings |Windsor, Ont.|Prot. |Rev. T.W. | 13 | 91| ... |Univer- | |Epis. |Powell. D.D. | | | |sity | | | | | | 1844|Knox |Toronto, Ont.|Pres- |Rev. Alfred | 9 | 140| 22,000 |Theo. | |byt’n. |Gandier, D.D.| | | |College | | | | | | 1907|Mac- |A. de Belle- |Non-Sect.|F.C. | 50 | 407| 9,000 |donald |vue, Q. | |Harrison, | | | |College | | |D.Sc. | | | 1906|McGill |Vancouver, |Non-Sect.|Geo. E. | 24 | 340| 1,600 |Univ. |B.C. | |Robinson | | | |Col. | | |(Act.) | | | 1821|McGill |Montreal, |Indepen. |Wm. Peterson,| 280 |2,104|140,000 |Univer- |Can. | |M.A. | | | |sity | | | | | | 1887|McMaster|Toronto, Ont.|Baptist |A.L. | 30 | 300| 20,000 |Univer- | | |McCrimman, | | | |sity | | |M.A. | | | 1873|Montreal|Montreal, |Prot. |E.I. Rexford,| 5 | 30| 7,000 |Diocesan|Can. |Epis. |M.A. | | | |Theo. | | | | | | 1863|Mt. |Sackville, |Methodist|Byron C. | 21 | 250| 12,000 |Allison |N.B. | |Borden, D.D. | | | |Univer- | | | | | | |sity | | | | | | 1874|Ontario |Whitby, Ont. |Methodist|Rev. J.J. | 22 | 185| 7,000 |Ladies’ | | |Hare, M.A. | | | |College | | | | | | 1867|Presby- |Montreal, |Pres- |John | 21 | 80| 20,000 |terian |Can. |byt’n. |Scringer, | | | |College | | |D.D. | | | 1855|Provin- |Truro, N.S. |State |David Soloam,| 20 | 425| 4,000 |cial | | |LL.D. | | | |Nor. | | | | | | |College | | | | | | 1847|Queen’s |Kingston, |Non-Sect.|Very Rev. | 125 |1,610| 67,000 |Univer- |Ont. | |D.M. Gordon | | | |sity | | | | | | 1888|Ridley |St. Cath’n’s.|Anglican |Rev. J.O. | 15 | 160| 2,500 |College |Ont. | |Miller, M.A. | | | 1899|St. |Toronto, Ont.|... |Rev. D.B. | 18 | 250| ... |Andrew’s| | |Macdonald, | | | |College | | |M.A. | | | 1851|Trinity |Toronto, Ont.|Prot. |Rev. T.C.S. | 24 | 180| 15,000 |College | |Epis. |Macklem | | | 1845|Univ. of|Lennoxville, |Prot. |Rev. R.A. | 9 | 60| 11,500 |Bishop’s|Que. |Epis. |Parrock | | | |Col. | | | | | | 1912|Univ. of|Calgary, Alb.|Non-Sect.|F.H. Dougall | 11 | 268| ... |Calgary | | |(Act.) | | | 1852|Univer- |Quebec |Non-Sect.|Mgr. Amedee | 70 | 474|100,000 |site | | |Gosselin, | | | |Laval U.| | |M.A. | | | 1877|Univ. of|Winnipeg, |State |James A. | 43 | 881| 12,790 |Manitoba|Man. | |MacLean, | | | | | | |Ph.D. | | | 1800|Univ. of|Fredericton, |State |Cecil C. | 18 | 165| 10,000 |New |N.B. | |Jones (Chan.)| | | |Bruns- | | | | | | |wick | | | | | | 1907|Univ. of|Saskatoon, |State |Walter C. | 41 | 381| ... |Sas- |Sask. | |Murray, M.A. | | | |katche- | | | | | | |wan | | | | | | 1855|U. of |Antigonish, |Catholic |H.P. | 19 | 225| 22,000 |St. |N.S. | |MacPherson, | | | |Fran. | | |D.D. | | | |Xav. | | | | | | |Col. | | | | | | 1841|Victoria|Toronto, Ont.|Methodist|Rev. R.P. | 28 | 610| 25,080 |Col. and| | |Bowles, M.A. | | | |Univ. | | | | | | 1873|Wesleyan|Montreal, |Methodist|Rev. J. | 4 | 100| 5,000 |Theo. |Can. | |Smyth, B.A. | | | |Col. | | | | | | 1877|Wycliffe|Toronto, Ont.|Prot. |Thos. R. | 8 | 118| ... |College | |Epis. |O’Meara, | | | | | | |LL.D. | | | -----+--------+-------------+---------+-------------+------+-----+-------

=Government.=--Canada is a self-governing dominion created by an Act of the British Parliament in March, 1867, known as the British North America Act. The Act provides that the Constitution of the Dominion shall be similar in principal to that of the United Kingdom; that the executive authority shall be vested in the Sovereign of Great Britain and Ireland, and carried on in his name by a Governor-General and Privy Council; and that the legislative power shall be exercised by a Parliament of two Houses, called the “Senate” and the “House of Commons.”

Therefore, the executive government of Canada is vested in the king, who is represented by a Governor-General appointed by him for a term of five years. The emoluments of the Governor-General are, however, paid out of Canadian revenues.

The Governor-General has a right, which is, of course, very seldom exercised, to disallow or reserve bills for imperial consent. The Constitution of Canada cannot be altered save by the Imperial Parliament, but to all intents and purposes Canada has complete autonomy.

=The Legislature.=--The legislative power is a Parliament, consisting of an Upper House, styled the Senate, and a House of Commons.

The Senate consists at present of eighty-seven members, distributed between the various provinces thus: twenty-four for Ontario, twenty-four for Quebec, ten for Nova Scotia, ten for New Brunswick, four for Prince Edward Island, three for British Columbia, four for Manitoba, four for Alberta, and four for Saskatchewan. The members of the Senate are appointed for life by the Crown on the nomination of the Ministry for the time being; each nominee must be thirty years old, a resident in the province for which he is appointed, a natural born or naturalized subject of the king, and the owner of property amounting to four thousand dollars.

The House of Commons is chosen every five years at longest, and consists of two hundred and thirty-one members, elected as follows: eighty-two being elected for Ontario, sixty-five for Quebec, sixteen for Nova Scotia, eleven for New Brunswick, fifteen for Manitoba, eleven for British Columbia, three for Prince Edward Island, twelve for Alberta, fifteen for Saskatchewan, and one for Yukon. The House of Commons is also composed of natural born or naturalized subjects of the king; no property qualification is necessary, and its members are elected upon a very wide suffrage. The members of the House themselves elect their Speaker, and twenty, including the Speaker, form a quorum.

Each province has also a separate Legislature and administration, with a Lieutenant-Governor, appointed by the Governor-General, at the head of the Executive.

=The Judicature.=--Justice is administered, as in England, by judges, police magistrates, and justices of the peace, of whom the first named are appointed by the Governor-General, for life, from among the foremost men at the Bar in the several provinces. The highest court is the Supreme Court of Canada, composed of a Chief Justice and five associate judges, and holding three sessions in the year at Ottawa. The only other Dominion Court, viz., the Exchequer Court of Canada, is presided over by a separate judge, and its sittings may be held anywhere in Canada. The Provincial Courts include the Court of Chancery, Court of King’s Bench, Court of Error and Appeal, Superior Courts, County Courts, General Sessions, and Division Courts. The duties of coroners are generally analogous to those in force in England, as are also methods of civil and criminal procedure, while trial by jury prevails.

=Cities.=--The capital and seat of government of the Canadian Dominion is at Ottawa, population, 1911, 87,062.

Montreal, however, is the largest city of Canada, 470,480. It has extensive trade and manufactures, and from it the magnificent Victoria tubular bridge carries the Grand Trunk Railway of Canada across the St. Lawrence, which is here two miles wide.

Quebec, 79,910, the capital of the lower province, is the great shipping place for the Lower St. Lawrence, and is a picturesque old town, with walls and fortifications. Near it are the memorable Plains of Abraham.

Toronto, 376,538, on the northwest shore of Lake Ontario, is the local capital of the western provinces and the educational center of the Dominion, possessing a university and numerous schools.

Other cities include: Winnipeg, Man., 136,035; Vancouver, B. C, 100,401; Hamilton, Ont., 81,969; Quebec, Que., 78,910; Halifax, N. S., 46,619; London, Ont., 46,300.

=Ottawa= is situated upon the south bank of the Ottawa River, one hundred and twenty miles from its junction with the St. Lawrence at Montreal. The river here forms the splendid Chaudière Falls (two hundred yards wide and forty feet high), above which a suspension bridge spans the river, and which supply the motive-power for the numerous lumber mills, flour mills and factories.

East of the city the River Rideau forms a second fall. The Rideau Canal passes through the center of the city, and connects with the Rideau Lakes, and so with the great lakes beyond. Opposite the city, to the northeast, the Gatineau River joins the Ottawa.

It is a city of stately public buildings, of turfed drives and wooded pleasure grounds, and there is a constant round of social and official events connected with the meetings of Parliament and other public functions. The Grand Trunk system has added to the attractions of the city by building the Chateau Laurier, which enjoys a continent-wide reputation as being in the first rank of famous hotels.

The parliamentary buildings, constructed in the Italian Gothic style after 1860, are on a bluff on the river bank. They include the handsome library building and the Victoria Tower (one hundred and eighty feet). Adjoining buildings on Parliament Hill are devoted to departments of the Dominion government. The residence of the Governor-General--an old fashioned building, called Rideau Hall--is about a mile from the city. The post-office, city hall, banks and telegraph offices are handsomely built of stone.

Ottawa is the place of residence of the bishop of Ontario (Church of England), and of the Roman Catholic bishop of Ottawa, who has a cathedral here. There are a normal school and a collegiate institute, a very large college conducted by the Oblate Fathers, a ladies’ college, a musical academy, an art school, a well-equipped geological museum, and the parliamentary library, with three hundred thousand volumes.

The industries of Ottawa are mostly connected with lumber. In the winter thousands of men are engaged in cutting timber and drawing it to the streams, and in the spring the freshets carry the rafts down to the mills. Flour, iron wares, bricks, leather, and matches are also manufactured.

The city was begun in the last years of the eighteenth century by a settler named Wright, of Boston, Massachusetts, who built a residence near the Chaudière, and called the village which he founded Hull. The construction of the Rideau Canal stimulated the settlement, which was called Bytown. In 1854 its name was changed to Ottawa, and the town was created a city. In 1858 Ottawa was chosen as the administrative capital of Canada. The first parliament met here in 1865.

=History.=--In 1534 Jacques Cartier landed on the Gaspé coast of Quebec, of which he took possession in the name of Francis I., king of France. Little was done by way of settlement till 1608, when Champlain founded Quebec. From this time till 1763 Canada, from Acadia (Nova Scotia) to Lake Superior and down the Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico, was held to be French territory.

The struggle between Great Britain and France for supremacy was long and bitter, but ended in 1763 with the treaty of Paris, by which all the French dominions in Canada were ceded to Britain, save the small islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon, retained by France as fishing stations. Hudson Bay territory, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland had passed to England by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713.

Through the American War of Independence, what is now Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois was lost in 1783 to the United States, no longer British colonies. Quebec was in 1791 divided into Lower and Upper Canada. A rebellion took place in 1837-1838, and the provinces were reunited in 1840. Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick were separated from Nova Scotia in 1770 and 1784. British Columbia was made a crown colony in 1858, and Vancouver Island joined to it in 1866. The confederation of all the British North American provinces--except Newfoundland--took place in 1867-1871, and the prosperity of the Dominion was only temporarily disturbed by the Red River rebellion of 1869.

The fishery rights have repeatedly been a source of controversy between Canada and Great Britain on the one hand and the United States on the other, and the dispute about sealing in Behring Sea and off the Alaskan coasts was only settled by arbitration in 1893. The Alaska boundary dispute was settled in 1903.

A proposed reciprocity agreement with the United States in the year 1911 saw the decisive defeat at the polls of the Laurier policy and the Liberal party. In October Robert L. Borden took over the reins of government, as Premier, and Earl Grey was succeeded as Governor-General by the Duke of Connaught. In 1916 the Duke of Devonshire succeeded as Governor-General.

The great European war of 1914 and following brought Canada to the vigorous support of Great Britain and the Entente Allies, and has done much toward the political, military and economic solidarity of the Dominion.

=MEXICO= (or Méjico; Span. pron. Meh´hē-co, from a native word), a federal republic of North America, embraces twenty-seven states, a federal district, and four territories. It extends between the United States and Guatemala, with an extreme length of nearly two thousand miles; its breadth varies between one thousand and (in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec) one hundred and thirty miles. It has a coast-line of almost six thousand miles, but with scarcely a safe harbor beyond the noble haven of Acapulco. On the Atlantic side, with its sand banks and lagoons, there are only open roadsteads, or river-mouths generally closed to ocean vessels by bars and shallows; harbor works, however, have been constructed at Vera Cruz and Tampico.

From the southeast and northwest extremities of the republic there extend the peninsulas of Yucatan and Lower California, enclosing the Gulfs of Campeche and California, respectively. In area (751,300 square miles) Mexico almost equals Great Britain and Ireland, France, Germany and Austria-Hungary together.

=Surface.=--For the most part Mexico consists of an immense tableland, which commences in the United States, and rises to over eight thousand one hundred feet at Marquez, seventy-six miles north by west of Mexico City; at El Paso, on the northern frontier, the elevation is only three thousand seven hundred and seventeen feet. The most important mountain range is the Sierra Madre (over ten thousand feet, and extending from Tehuantepec into the United States); parallel with this run the Sierras of the east coast and of Lower California.

The surface of the country is also much broken up by short cross-ridges and detached peaks. There are numerous volcanoes, but only a few of them are more or less active. The more prominent are Orizaba (Citlaltepetl, “star mountain”), Popocatepetl (“smoking mountain”); Ixtaccihuatl (“white woman”); Nevada de Toluca, and Malinche.

On the Atlantic side the plateau descends abruptly to the narrow strip (about sixty miles) of gently sloping coast land; toward the Pacific, where the coast lands vary in width from forty to seventy miles, the descent is more gradual.

=Rivers and Lakes.=--From their rapid fall the rivers of such a mountainous region could never be of value for transport or communication. The Rio Grande del Norte, the boundary river, is only navigable for sixty miles up from the Gulf of Mexico, and the largest interior river--the Rio Grande de Santiago, flowing west to the Pacific--is barred across by many waterfalls, though its upper course expands to form Lake Chapála, the largest sheet of water in Mexico, fully fifty miles in length.

=Climate and Landscape.=--Though Mexico lies just on the border of the torrid zone, the climate is governed to a far greater extent by elevation than by position in latitude, and distinct climates are recognized at different stages just as in the plateau of Abyssinia.

The low coast land and the maritime region below an elevation of two thousand feet, called the Tierra Caliente, presents all the characteristics of tropical lands.

Above an elevation of two thousand feet, and up the slopes of the mountains to a height of about five thousand feet, a climate is found in which the landscape takes the aspect of that of the temperate zone.

This stage is known as the Tierra Templada.

Still higher, above five thousand feet, a cool region is reached, which is known as the Tierra Fria. This includes the summit of the tableland and the pine covered slopes of the mountains up to the height at which some of the peaks are capped with perennial snows. Much of this high tableland is valuable only for pasture; towards the north and northeast, where the plateau is wider, the landscape becomes bare and dry, and salt lakes like those of the plateau region of the western United States appear. Deeply cut “cañons” or “barrancas,” gorges with steep walls furrowed out by the mountain torrents, are characteristic of the plateau.

=Production and Industry.=--The vegetation of Mexico has the same wide range as the climate. In the lowlands dye woods and valuable timbers abound in the virgin forests, as well as medicinal plants, india rubber, palms, etc.; and oranges and bananas, many varieties of cactus, agave, sisal, olives, sugar, coffee, cocoa, rice, indigo, cotton and tobacco, besides the omnipresent maize, all thrive. The vine flourishes in some districts, especially near El Paso, Durango, and Parras, in Coahuila, where a good wine is made; and mulberry plants have been imported from Europe to develop the silk industry. In Lower California a good deal of archil is collected, and chicle gum is extracted and prepared in the forests along the coast.

Agriculture in Mexico is steadily developing. Silver mining has been an important industry ever since the conquest. Gold is also produced. Copper is largely mined in some sections, being found in a pure state in Chiapas and Guanajuato, and elsewhere associated with gold. Other important minerals are iron, including enormous masses of meteoric iron ore, and the mountain a mile from Durango, the Cerro de Mercado, a solid mass of magnetic iron ore; lead, found associated with silver; and sulpher, zinc, quicksilver, platinum, cinnabar, asphalt and petroleum, besides salt, marble, alabaster, gypsum, and rock salt in great quantities. There are also said to be large deposits of coal, some of excellent quality.

Mexico is the original home of the “cattle range” business, and there vast herds of horses, cattle, and sheep form the principal wealth of the people.

Woolen and cotton spinning and weaving, and other branches of industry are encouraged by high protective duties.

=People.=--The population of Mexico consists mainly of the indigenous Indian race, and of the dominant Spaniards or their descendants. Spaniards born in Europe are now very few in number, but the government of the country is in the hands of the “Creoles,” or people of Spanish descent born in Mexico. They number about twenty per cent, mixed Hispano-Americans, or mestizos, forty-three per cent, and full blood Indians thirty-five per cent of the whole population. The mestizos are the farmers and rancheros, the muleteers and servants. Whites and mestizos speak Spanish.

The Roman Catholic is the religion of the country, but all beliefs are tolerated, and education, now free and compulsory, is making steady progress.

=Government.=--The Mexican constitution is closely modeled upon that of the United States. The president, who is assisted by secretaries of state, is elected for four years, and can be re-elected for a second term. The legislative power is vested in a Congress, consisting of a Senate of fifty-six members, and a Chamber of Deputies of two hundred and thirty-three members. The judicial system occupies the same position as that of the United States; and the several states have elective governors and legislatures.

Owing to revolutionary conditions the civil government was practically suspended in September, 1914. (See under History of Mexico.)

=Cities.=--The principal cities are Mexico City, the capital, population 470,000. Puébla, east of the capital, among the mountains, is the second town and the most industrious place in Mexico. Guadalajara, northwest, is also a city of magnificent palaces and churches. Vera Cruz, founded by Cortez, is the only port on the Atlantic. On the Pacific side the chief seaports are Mazatlan and Acapulco, with a fine harbor. Other important towns are Oaxaca, Puebla, and Durango.

The railway system joins that of the United States at El Paso on the Rio Grande.

=Mexico City= is situated seven thousand four hundred and ten feet above the sea at the lowest level of the great basin (fourteen hundred square miles) of the Anahuac plateau.

All the main streets converge on the Plaza Mayor, where the site of the old teocalli is occupied by the no less famous Cathedral. The walls of this imposing building, forming a cross four hundred and twenty-six by two hundred and three feet, alone cost nearly two million dollars, and the interior with its twenty chapels and elaborate ornamentation, much more. Built into the foot of one of the two open towers (two hundred and eighteen feet) is the famous “Aztec” (Toltec) calendar stone.

Facing the cathedral is the Municipal Palace, and on the sides of the plaza are the National Palace (the old vice-regal residence), the national Monte de Piedad, the postoffice, and the national museum.

Other noteworthy buildings are the national picture gallery and library (two hundred and fifty thousand volumes), the national observatory, the school of mines, the mint, the Iturbide hotel, and the former palace of the Inquisition, now a medical college; and, mostly in secularized ecclesiastical edifices, there are also schools of law and engineering, a conservatory of music, and an academy of fine arts.

Among the monuments of the city are the noble Columbus monument, the statue of Cuauhtemotzin, the last of the Aztec emperors, and that of the engineer Martinez.

The principal streets are broad, clean, and well paved and lighted, with houses of stone gaily painted in bright colors. In addition to the alameda, with its stately beaches, Mexico is remarkable for the extent and beauty of its paseos, or raised paved roads, planted with double rows of trees, which diverge far into the country from every quarter; and there are still on Lakes Chalco and Xochimilco, where a line of steamers runs, a few of the floating gardens for which the ancient city was so celebrated.

Attempts had long been made to drain the valley of Mexico. The federal government finally undertook the work, and operations begun in 1890 were completed in 1898 at a cost of about sixteen million dollars. Extensive drainage and sanitation works have since been carried out at a cost of five million seven hundred and fourteen thousand nine hundred and eighty-two dollars.

In 1905 a sumptuous legislative palace, a national Pantheon for the ashes of the great men of Mexico, and a monument to perpetuate the heroes of the independence were under construction, at a cost of thirty million dollars.

The trade of Mexico is chiefly a transit trade, but it has now extensive cotton and linen factories, paper mills, tobacco and cigars, gold and silver work, pottery, silverware, cork, bricks, and soap--many of them due to foreign enterprise.

=History of Mexico.=--The history of ancient Mexico exhibits two distinct and widely differing periods--that of the Toltecs and that of the Aztecs. Both were Nahua nations, speaking a language which survives in Mexico to this day.

The eighth century is the traditional date when the Toltecs are related to have come from the north, from some undefined locality, bringing to Anahuac, or Mexico, its oldest and its highest native civilization, about 1325. A hundred years later, under the reign of Montezuma II., they had attained a suzerainty over all the tribes from the Atlantic to the Pacific.

On the coming of the Spaniards under Cortez in 1519, Aztec rule was finally overthrown, chiefly by means of the assistance the Spaniards received from those peoples whom the Aztecs had held in cruel bondage.

In 1540 Mexico was united with other American territories--at one time all the country from Panama to Vancouver’s Island--under the name of New Spain, and governed by viceroys (fifty-seven in all) appointed by the mother country, Spain. For nearly three centuries it may be said to have lain in sullen submission beneath its cruel conqueror’s heel, till in 1810 the discontent, which had been gaining ground against the vice-regal power during the war of Spain with Napoleon, broke into open rebellion under the leadership of a country priest named Hidalgo.

In 1822 General Iturbide had himself proclaimed emperor; but the guerilla leader Guerrero, his former ally, and General Santa Anna raised the republican standard, and in 1823 he was banished to Italy with a pension. Returning the following year he was taken and shot, and the federal republic of Mexico was finally established.

For more than half a century after this (till 1876) the history of Mexico is a record of chronic disorder and civil war. In 1836 Texas secured its independence, for which it had struggled for several years, and which Mexico was compelled to recognize in 1845. In that year Texas was incorporated with the United States, and after the Mexican war of 1848 Mexico ceded half a million square miles to the United States.

The Emperor Napoleon III. declared war against the president, Juarez, in 1862; the Austrian Emperor of Mexico, Maximilian, imposed by the French, was executed in 1867, and the republic re-established. Diaz was re-elected president for the eighth time in 1910, but, being too autocratic, had to resign under pressure of revolution in 1911. In the ensuing welter of revolts and conspiracies President Madero was set aside and killed, and the United States applied pressure to eliminate President Huerta. From this time on the relations of the United States with Mexico became more strained. During 1915-1916, following repeated attacks made by bands of Mexican bandits upon American border towns and assaults by Mexicans upon Americans and other foreigners in Mexico, the relations between the two countries approached a crisis. Early in 1916 nineteen men, nearly all of them Americans, were taken from a train near Chihuahua and killed by a band of bandits.

Conditions became still more tense when, on March 9, several hundred bandits led by Villa raided and burned the town of Columbus, N. M., killing nine American civilians and eight United States soldiers. On March 10 President Wilson ordered five thousand United States troops into Mexico to catch Villa, and two days later the first troops crossed the border. On March 16 the first clash occurred between Villa outposts and the American expeditionary force. On June 18 the war department ordered all the state militia mobilized, and within the next two weeks fifty thousand of the state soldiers had been rushed to the border.

President Wilson later in the year named an American commission at the suggestion of General Carranza, which, jointly with a Mexican commission, began its sessions at New London, Conn. The sessions continued until November 24, when a protocol was signed providing for the withdrawal of the United States troops from Mexico in forty days, conditioned upon the Carranza Government showing within that time that it could protect the border and prevent raids by bandits upon American territory.

Two days before the signing of this protocol Villa, at the head of a strong force, attacked Chihuahua City, and after a battle lasting several days captured the city.

Carranza forces regained control of Chihuahua City December 3, and Villa’s forces fled to the mountains west of the city, where they were later reported to be gathering new recruits in preparation for more extensive operations.

The year 1917 was ushered in with the struggle between the Carranza and Villa factions still in progress.

LEADING COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA

=ARGENTINA=, or =ARGENTINE REPUBLIC=, takes its name from the river La Plata (“River of Silver”). After Brazil, it is the largest state of South America. Its territory reaches from the Pilcomayo River, on the borders of Bolivia, southward for two thousand four hundred miles to Staten Island, off the southeastern extremity of Tierra del Fuego; and from the slope of the Andes on the west to the Uruguay River and the Atlantic in the east.

=Physical Features.=--Excepting on the northwest, where the spurs of the Andes reach down into the state, the surface of Argentina presents vast monotonous and level plains, broken only by the detached ridges of Córdova and San Luis, in the western interior. In the north the portion of the region called the Gran Chaco, within the frontier, is partly forest covered, but all the central and southern region presents only vast treeless plains or “pampas,” covered at most seasons with coarse grass, which is green in the winter months, but which dries up in summer so as to give an aspect of aridity to the plains. Some portions of the interior, called “Salinas,” are barren and white throughout the year.

=Rivers.=--The great watercourse of the country is the Paraná, formed by the union of the Upper Paraná and Paraguay rivers near the northeastern corner of the state. This is a noble river, in all parts of its course through Argentine territory scarcely ever less than a mile in width, and in some places spreading out in lateral channels, or “riachos,” to a breadth of ten miles.

The Pilcomayo, which forms part of the northern boundary, has now been explored throughout its length, and is navigable at high water; the Vermejo, the next river southward, has of late years become a regularly navigated highway from the Paraguay up to the northeastern provinces; the Salado, farther south, flowing directly to the Paraná, is also an important river; but the remaining streams which tend eastward to the Paraná have not strength of water sufficient to resist evaporation in crossing the dry plains, and terminate for the most part in marshes and salt lakes.

=Climate.=--The climate in the extreme north is very hot, for it lies north of the tropic of Capricorn. The more remote southern territories have an extremely disagreeable climate, but are not really so cold as might be expected from their relatively high latitude. But the country in general enjoys an equable, temperate, and healthful climate. Stormy southwest winds, called “pamperos,” sweep over the plains at times, and raise great clouds of dust, which fly across the plains.

=Production and Industry.=--The principal productions are wheat, maize, oats, linseed, sugar, wool, hides, cattle, sheep, and horses.

The great wealth of the state, however, lies in its countless herds of cattle and horses and flocks of sheep, which are pastured on the “pampas,” and which multiply there very rapidly. The rearing and tending of these herds is the great and characteristic industry of the country; these also yield enormous quantities of hides, horns, and salted beef.

The northwestern provinces of the Argentine Republic, crossed by the lower ramifications of the Andes, are rich in metals, including gold, silver, nickel, copper, tin, lead, and iron, as well as in several kinds of marble, jasper, and precious stones. On the Rio Vermejo petroleum wells have recently been discovered.

The export of frozen beef and mutton is an important industry. The exports are made up entirely of pastoral and agricultural products, with the exception of quebracho, copper, manganese, and wolfram.

=People.=--The people of the country are mostly Spanish in their language and descent, although there are many Italians, French, Americans, Swiss, and Germans. The Gauchos, or herdsmen of the plains, are a hardy and spirited, but ignorant race, often of partial Indian descent. Some of the Indians of the remote districts have become skilled in the rearing of flocks and herds.

The religion is Roman Catholic. The government is closely modeled upon that of the United States.

EDUCATION.--Primary education is secular, free and nominally compulsory from the ages of six to fourteen. Schools are maintained by provincial taxation, and controlled by provincial boards (except in the capital, where there is a National Council), with grants from the Federal Government. Secondary education is controlled by the Federal Government in lyceums and normal schools. There are also Special Government Schools--one naval, one military, one mining, and one agriculture. There are National Universities at Cordoba and Buenos Aires, and Provincial Universities at La Plata, Santa Fé, and Paraná.

=Government.=--The Constitution vests the executive power in the hands of a President, who is also Commander-in-chief of the troops, elected by representatives of the provinces for six years, not being immediately re-eligible; and the legislative authority in that of a Senate of thirty members, two chosen by the capital and two by the legislature of each province, and a House of Deputies of one hundred and twenty members elected for four years by the people, one-third of the Senate retiring every three years, and one-half of the House retiring every two years.

The Judicial system consists, like that of the United States, of a Federal Supreme Court and Courts of Appeal, with Provincial Courts in each state for non-national or single state cases.

=Cities.=--The chief seaport is Buenos Aires, the capital and largest city, with a population of 1,315,000 in 1911. La Plata lies twenty-five miles to the southeast of the Federal capital, and, although founded in only 1882, already numbers 80,000 inhabitants. A canal joins it to the vast docks of Ensenada.

Córdova (53,000), nearly in the center of the state, is the seat of the chief observatory of the Republic.

Rosario (135,000), on the right bank of the Paraná, more than two hundred miles up from the La Plata inlet, is a substantially built town, and a great outlet of the animal produce of the interior plains.

Tucuman (55,000) and Salta in the northwestern mountain region, and Mendoza (32,000) at the eastern base of the Andes, where they are crossed to enter Chile, with Corrientes (18,000) on the Paraná, are other important places.

=Buenos Aires= (bwā´nōs ī´rez; Sp. pron. bwā´nōs ī´res; Eng. pron. usually Bonos Ai´rez) stands on the right bank of the Plata, which here, at a distance of one hundred and fifty miles from the open sea, is twenty-eight miles across.

The city is partitioned into blocks of about one hundred and fifty yards square. The streets are regularly laid out at right angles to each other and well lighted. Many are planted with trees, and there are numerous open squares and several fine parks, the most famous being Palermo Park (eight hundred and forty acres). The main buildings are the Roman Catholic Cathedral, the chapel of Santa Felicitas, the Casa Rosada, or Government House, the university, the Opera House, and various government and municipal buildings. Much of the town has lately been rebuilt on European lines. It is the terminus of six railway lines, and has excellent street car, cable, and telephone services. There are manufactories of furniture, machinery, carriages, leather, hats, textiles, boots, tobacco, liquors, etc., and the trade is very large.

An elaborate system of harbor works was carried out between the years 1887 and 1895 at a cost of twenty million dollars; it includes an advanced river wall, a north and south basin, and a series of four docks, which connects two channels of the Rio de La Plata, and so brings large vessels up to the wharfs. About half of the inhabitants are of European birth or descent. Among the Europeans the vast majority are Italian; the rest are principally Spanish, French and British. Newspapers are published in French, English, Italian, and German, as well as in Spanish.

=History.=--The river La Plata was visited by the Spaniards in 1516, and the country was colonized in 1535, when Buenos Aires was founded. For many years the country was regarded as a part of Peru. The progress of the colony was not more hindered by the bloody wars which prevailed with the natives for a hundred years than by unwise legislation at Madrid.

In 1776 Buenos Aires became the capital of a new viceroyalty. In 1806 that capital was occupied by a British force under General Beresford, but the town was soon besieged and compelled to surrender. In 1808 the British forces under Whitlock assaulted the town, but after very severe loss were themselves compelled to capitulate.

In 1810 the colonists founded a local provisional government. A sanguinary war for independence followed, which did not cease till 1824. Spain acknowledged the independence of the country in 1842. The first half-century of Argentine autonomy was much disturbed by revolutions.

The Brazilian-Argentine war against Paraguay (1865-1870) was interrupted and followed by renewed revolts at home. For a time the great material progress of the country was accompanied by an equally remarkable movement in favor of stability of government and the repression of factions. But once more dissensions and an insurrection in Buenos Aires led to civil war (1890), which again was followed by a disastrous financial panic (1891); and political and commercial crises, with riots and risings in various parts of the country, continued to succeed one another and to prevent progress. In May, 1910, the Argentine celebrated its centenary of independence.

=BRAZIL= (brä-zil´; Portuguese pron. brä-zēl´), a republic of South America, of which it covers nearly half, is little less in area than the whole of Europe, its area being 3,300,000 square miles, including the Acrá territory bought from Bolivia in 1902. It has a length of 2,660 miles, and a breadth of 2,705 miles between extreme points. It borders on every state in South America except Chile. The name was given by early explorers from thinking that the red dyewood (brazil-wood) found here was identical with the East Indian dyewood known to them as Brasil.

=Surface.=--This vast territory presents two contrasted regions. First, the wide, low lying, and humid forest plain of the Amazon River in the north; second, the uplands in the south, which are traversed by radiating hills and mountain ridges, and which present wide grass plains between woods and bush-covered country.

The northern coast is bordered by low, alluvial bottom lands and sandy plains, full of lakes, and in places very sterile; while the southern angle of the country is rolling campo land, bordered by a low sandy coast. Above its eastern angle a large area of coastlands and neighboring plateau is subject to periodical devastating drought.

The highest mountain ranges of Brazil rise in the center of the southeastern uplands, where the Montes Pyrenéos rise to nine thousand five hundred feet, but the coast range, or Serra do Mar, to the south of the beautiful Gulf of Rio de Janeiro, hardly yield to these, for within it the Itatiaiossu is scarcely six hundred feet lower, while the Organ Mountains, at the back of Rio, have summits which reach up to seven thousand five hundred feet.

=Rivers.=--Brazil possesses three great river-systems--the Amazon, La Plata, and San Francisco.

The Amazon and its tributaries drain fully a half of the country. To the east of the Madeira these tributaries are tableland rivers, broken by rapids and freely navigable for comparatively short distances. West of the Madeira they are lowland rivers, sluggish, bordered by extensive flood plains, and afford free navigation for long distances. The La Plata system drains nearly one-fifth of the country through its three branches--the Paraguay, Paraná, and Uruguay.

The first of these is a lowland river, freely navigable for a long distance, while the other two are tableland rivers, full of obstructions, and without free outlets for their upper level navigation.

The San Francisco is a tableland river, flowing northeast between the Goyaz and maritime mountains, and then, breaking through the latter, southeast to the Atlantic. It is not freely navigable because of the Paulo Affonso Falls. The other coast rivers are generally short.

=Climate.=--Brazil lies almost wholly within the tropics, and is still in great part unexplored and unsettled. The climate of Brazil varies greatly--the lowlands of the Amazon and a great part of the coast being hot, humid, and unhealthy, while the tablelands and some districts of the coast swept by the trade winds are temperate and healthy.

=Production and Industry.=--The minerals are very considerable and valuable, comprising gold, silver, iron, diamonds, topazes, and other precious stones. Its forests are immense, abounding in the greatest variety of useful and beautiful woods adapted for dyeing, cabinet work, or ship-building; among these are mahogany, logwood, rosewood, brazil-wood, etc.

Its agricultural produce is abundant; maize, beans, cassava root, and nuts are very generally cultivated; also, in some parts, wheat and other European cereals.

Cattle raising is an important industry, the number being computed at eighteen million. Cotton is being largely cultivated for export, and is being used for home manufactures. Sugar cane is grown in large and increasing quantities in the northern provinces, Pernambuco being the center of the sugar-producing zone.

India rubber comes from the more northern provinces, especially the valley of the Amazon, and is shipped from Pará and Manáos; and coffee, though also grown in the north, comes chiefly from Rio de Janeiro, Minas, São Paulo, and Esperito Santo. Tobacco and cocoa are grown largely, especially in Bahia. The exports consist solely of the raw produce of the soil.

=People.=--The inhabitants of Brazil, as of other parts of South America, present three great elements--that of the aboriginal Indians, that of the European conquerors and colonists and their descendants, and that of the Africans introduced as slaves. The most important section of the Brazilians are the descendants of the Portuguese settlers. There are, however, several flourishing German and Italian colonies in the southern states.

The number of pure white people is very small in proportion to those who have some mixture of Indian or African blood, and the Brazilians themselves have developed into a number of more or less distinct physical types in the widely separated provinces of the republic. Formerly about one-half of the entire population of Brazil was formed of negro slaves.

The Roman Catholic is the established religion, and is supported by the state; but all other sects are tolerated. There are, however, very few Brazilians who are not Roman Catholics.

Education is still in a very backward condition. The language is Portuguese, with dialectal varieties.

=Government.=--According to the new Constitution of 1890, the empire was abolished and the Brazilian nation is constituted a Federal Republic under the title of the United States of Brazil, each of the twenty provinces forming a separate state with local self-government. At the head of the federation is a president with executive authority, elected by the people for six years. The National Congress with legislative functions comprises a Senate and Chamber of Deputies, the senators being chosen three for each state, for nine years, the deputies for three years in the proportion of one to every seventy thousand of the population. The franchise extends to all citizens not under twenty-one years of age.

=Cities.=--The capital city is Rio de Janeiro, the second largest in South America. Next in importance is the city and seaport of Bahia (230,000), finely placed on an inlet of the Atlantic, the oldest city of Brazil. Pernambuco, also called Recife from a reef of rock which forms the natural breakwater of its harbor, is the fourth in population, being now surpassed by São Paulo, which ranks next to the capital (332,000). Maranhão, on an island of the north coast; Pará, in the Tocantins estuary; Rio Grande, and Santos are the other notable places along the Atlantic. In the interior the principal towns are Ouro Preto, in the gold mining region, and Diamantina, the center of the diamond fields. Cuyabá, in the interior, is important as being at the head of the regular navigation into Brazil by way of the Paraná and Paraguay rivers.

=Rio de Janeiro= (Ree´o deh Zha-nay´e-ro) stands on the west side of one of the most magnificent natural harbors in the world. An inlet of the Atlantic, the bay of Rio de Janeiro runs fifteen miles northwards, varying in width from two miles to seven; it is girdled on all sides by picturesque mountains (one thousand five hundred to three thousand feet), covered with tropical vegetation. The entrance, less than a mile wide, passes between two bold headlands, one of them called the Sugar-loaf (one thousand two hundred and seventy feet).

The city and its suburbs stretch nearly ten miles along the shore. About three miles southwest of the city stands the precipitous cone of Corcovado (two thousand three hundred and thirty-six feet), with a cog-railway up to the top. Public institutions are the vast hospital of La Misericordia; the national library with three hundred thousand volumes; the national museum; the large lunatic asylum; the botanical gardens, with a celebrated avenue of palms; the observatory; the Geographical and Historical institute; the former royal palace at Sāo Christovão, the arsenal, the naval dockyards, the academy of fine arts, a cadet-school, a school of medicine, a conservatory of music, a polytechnic school, etc. A good water supply, chiefly by an aqueduct twelve miles long, and a new system of sewage draining, much improved the city health; but surrounding hills shut out the breezes, and the heat grows intense in summer.

The population includes many foreigners: Portuguese, British, French, and Germans.

Rio de Janeiro is also the commercial capital, sending out one-sixth of the total exports of Brazil, and bringing in forty-five per cent of the imports. The chief export is coffee.

The whole sea frontage of the city is lined with quays, and has been improved by extensive new harbor works, embracing a dock of seventy-five acres, a breakwater three thousand two hundred yards long, an elevated railway, hydraulic cranes, warehouses, etc.

The city possesses cotton, jute, and silk mills, tobacco and hat factories, machine shops and tanneries.

=History of Brazil.=--As early as 1480, expeditions sailed from Europe in search of the island of Brasil, rumored to exist in the western seas. Brazil was discovered on January 26, 1500, by Vincent Yañez Pinzon, who landed at Cape St. Augustine, near Pernambuco, and then followed the coast north to the Orinoco. In the same year a Portuguese expedition to the East Indies, under Pedro Alvarez Cabral, discovered the Brazilian coast near Porto Seguro on April 25 (April 22, Cazal). Cabral took formal possession, and named his new discovery “Terra de Vera Cruz.” Two Portuguese expeditions were sent out in 1501 and 1503, the first exploring the coast, and the second planting a colony and bringing back a rich cargo of brazil-wood, which gave a name to Portugal’s new possession.

In 1530 the Portuguese government resolved upon the definite settlement of Brazil. Many of the earliest colonies failed through lack of means, and from inability to hold their ground against the natives. In 1567 a Huguenot colony, established on the bay of Rio de Janeiro twelve years before, was overthrown by the Portuguese, who then founded the present capital of Brazil.

The discovery of gold in Minas Geraes in 1693, and of diamonds in 1729, gave a new impetus to the growth of the country, one result of which was the removal of the colonial capital from Bahia to Rio de Janeiro. The cultivation of cotton, tobacco, and sugar cane had already attained great prominence and prosperity.

In 1808 the royal family of Portugal was expelled by the French and took refuge in Brazil, and the very first act of Dom João VI. was to open Brazilian ports to foreign commerce. He then removed various restrictions on domestic industries, founded a printing office and library, created new courts, and opened various schools and public institutions. All these acts greatly stimulated the growth of the country.

In 1821 he returned to Portugal, leaving his eldest son in Brazil as prince regent. Personal ambition, and the advice of men opposed to government from Lisbon, led the young prince to declare for Brazilian independence, September 7, 1822. He was proclaimed and crowned emperor as Dom Pedro I. before the end of the year, the small Portuguese force in the country being quickly and easily expelled. The constitution was ratified and sworn to early in 1825, and some amendments were added in 1835.

The new empire, however, did not start smoothly, nor was the reign of Dom Pedro I. a fortunate one. Vexed with the opposition encountered, he in 1831 voluntarily abdicated in favor of his eldest son, and withdrew to Portugal. During the next nine years Brazil was governed by regencies, but in 1840 a popular agitation led to the declaration of the young prince’s majority, at fifteen years of age, and to his coronation the following year as Dom Pedro II. The reign was one of almost unbroken peace, interrupted by two wars--one with Buenos Aires in 1852, and the other with Paraguay in 1865-1870.

At the revolution of November, 1889, the empire became a republic, and Dom Pedro and his family were exiled. Under the new and enlightened constitution and a succession of patriotic presidents, Brazil has enjoyed a season of peace and prosperity such as it has not experienced since its colonial times. In 1904 the third Pan-American congress was held in Brazil, and did much to bind closer the bonds existing between her and the other American republics.

=CHILE= (Tchee´lee; Span. Chile, pron. Tchee´lay), is one of the republics of South America, on the west coast, and borders on Peru, Bolivia, and Argentina. It reaches from the southern boundary of the coast line of Peru to the southern extremity of Tierra del Fuego, through a distance of about two thousand eight hundred miles, rising inland to the summits of the Andes, which here form a single chain at a distance of about one hundred miles from the ocean. The Strait of Magellan is by treaty considered neutral as between Chile and Argentina. Its breadth varies from forty to two hundred miles.

=Physical Features.=--The range of the Andes, visible from the sea all along the coast of Chile, towers up in a series of volcanic cones and snowclad peaks; the loftiest summit, that of Aconcagua, being probably the highest point of all the South American continent.

Numbers of streams descend from the range, and have furrowed deep valleys across the width of the country. The most considerable of these are the Maypú near the center of Chile, and the Maule and Biobio in the south, both of which are to some extent navigable.

In the south are also many deep lakes. Mineral waters, chiefly saline and sulphureous, are abundant. The most important islands are those constituting the southern province of Chiloé; Juan Fernandez also belongs to Chile.

=Climate.=--This long strip of maritime country presents remarkable gradations of climate from north to south. Nearest the Peruvian frontier the coast-land of Tacna, Tarapacá and Atacama is a hot, rainless, sandy desert without sign of vegetation. Southward is found a temperate climate which enjoys a moderate rainfall. This central belt is the most valuable and the most productive agricultural region of Chile. Farther south the westerly winds blow toward the mountains from over the wide Pacific and bring with them such quantities of moisture that the rainfall is excessive; here, in southern Chile, in consequence of the abundant moisture, the mountain slopes are densely covered with evergreen forest.

=Production and Industry.=--Agriculture and mining are the principal occupations. Wheat, maize, barley, oats, beans, peas, lentils, wines, tobacco, flax, hemp, Chile pepper, and potatoes are grown extensively; the vine and all fruit trees flourish. The live stock includes cattle, sheep, horses, goats, and pigs. The mineral wealth is considerable, the country being extremely rich in copper ore, and some rich gold mines have been discovered. The rainless north yields more especially nitrate of soda, iodine, borate of soda, gold and silver, a large number of mines yielding both being in actual work in Tarapacá, Guanaco, and Cachinal in Atacama, and Caracoles in Antofagasta; the center, copper and silver; and the south, iron and coal. The nitrate exports are extremely valuable. There are smelting works for copper and silver, tanneries, corn and saw mills, starch, soap, biscuit, rope, cloth, cheese, furniture, candle, and paper factories, breweries and distilleries; and the domestic industry furnishes cloth, embroideries, baskets, and pottery. The many ports favor commerce, and six lines of steamers connect the country with Panama and the Magellan Strait. The staple articles of export are nitrate of soda, iodine, copper bars and ores, silver ores, corn, flour, hides, and guano.

=People.=--The inhabitants of northern and central Chile are, for the most part, descendants of the intermixed Spaniards and native Indians. In the upper classes the race has been kept more purely Spanish than in any other South American country.

Chile is a Roman Catholic country, but other religions are tolerated. Education receives much attention. There is a first class university at Santiago, and a lyceum in every provincial capital. The language spoken in Chile is Spanish, but with many local words of Indian origin.

=Government.=--Under the constitution voted in 1833, Chile is governed by a president who is elected for five years by delegates nominated by ballot, who is not re-eligible. A Senate and Chamber of Deputies form the legislature. The Senate, of thirty-two members, is elected by the provinces for six years; the Chamber, of ninety-four members, by the departments for three years, by electors over twenty-one, and able to read and write.

=Cities.=--Santiago, the capital, has 350,000 inhabitants; Valparaiso, 180,000; Concepcion, Iquique, Talca, Chillan, Antofagasta, over 30,000.

=Santiago= (San-tee-âh´go) stands near the western base of the Andes, one thousand seven hundred feet above sea-level, and one hundred and fifteen miles by rail east by southeast of Valparaiso. The snow-capped mountains seem to enclose it on the north and east; while in the east of the city rises the picturesque park, Cerro de Santa Lucia (eight hundred feet above the plain), dotted with grottoes, statues, kiosks, restaurants, an historical museum, and an observatory. The small but turbulent stream, the Mapocho, is crossed by five bridges.

The city is regularly laid out, lighted with gas and electric light, and has electric railways in all directions. Most of the houses are of one story only, owing to the earthquakes (the most serious occurred in 1575, 1647, 1730, 1822, 1835, 1906).

On the great Plaza Independencia are the government palaces, the Grand English Hotel, the cathedral, and the archbishop’s palace. On the site of the Jesuit church, burned down in 1863, a monument was erected in memory of the two thousand worshipers who perished in the fire.

Santiago boasts a noble Alameda, or boulevard, adorned with four rows of poplars and statues. Facing it are the University and the National Institute. The city has also a military school, schools of arts and agriculture, a conservatory, a national library with one hundred and two thousand volumes; botanical and zoological gardens, etc.

The manufactures include cloth, ship’s biscuits, beer, brandy, etc., and it has also an ice factory, a fruit-conserving establishment, and copper-smelting works.

Santiago was founded by Pedro de Valdivia in 1541.

=History of Chile.=--The name Chile is supposed to be derived from an ancient Peruvian word signifying “snow.” The first European to land in Chile was the Portuguese discoverer Magellan, after his famous voyage through the strait which now bears his name. He landed at Chiloé in 1520.

After the conquest of Peru by Pizarro, an expedition was made to Chile from that country overland under the leadership of Diego de Almagro in 1535. This expedition penetrated as far as the Rio Clano, but returned unsuccessful. Another was sent under command of Pedro Valdivia in 1540, which succeeded in annexing the territory as far as the River Maipu. Santiago, the capital, was founded by Valdivia in 1542. During the colonial period the governors of Chile were appointed by the viceroys of Peru.

In 1810 a revolt against the Spanish power broke out, in which Don Bernardo O’Higgins, son of one of the last viceroys of Peru, but a native of Chile, played a conspicuous part, and finally became the first dictator of the new republic. The first constitutional president was General Blanco Encalada. The government was unsettled until 1847. A revolution broke out in 1851, but since then there has been no serious attempt to overturn the government by force of arms.

In 1864 Chile gave Peru very valuable support in her war with Spain. Valparaiso was bombarded by the Spaniards in 1866. In 1879 Chile declared war against Bolivia, and immediately thereafter against Peru, with which Bolivia was allied. For a time the Peruvian fleet kept the Chileans in check, but in August, 1879, the Peruvian ironclad Huascar was captured by the Chilean men-of-war Cochrane and Blanco Encalada, both armor plated. After this event the success of the Chileans was uninterrupted--Peruvian towns were bombarded, warships captured, and Lima taken by storm June 21, 1881. The Chileans occupied Lima and Callao until 1883, when a treaty of peace was signed.

President Balmaceda’s unconstitutional government led to civil war in 1891, when the congressionalists were victorious. The decisive battle was fought near Valparaiso on August 28, and Balmaceda committed suicide.

In September, 1910, the centennial celebration of the first declaration of independence from the Spanish crown took place, many foreign governments sending special delegations.

LEADING COUNTRIES OF ASIA

=CHINA=, or more accurately the Chinese Republic, is an extensive dominion of Eastern Asia of which China proper constitutes the principal portion. For centuries this dominion has been known as the Chinese Empire, and it is still frequently referred to as such, although the form of government is now republican. China includes a number of dependencies or subject territories, viz.: Manchuria, Mongolia, Tibet, East Turkestan, and the small territories between Mongolia and Tibet.

By its natives China is never so called, but usually by the Chinese words for “The Middle State,” or “The Republic of the Middle Flower.” The name China (Chi-na, land of Chin) comes to us from India through Buddhism. Various old names are Serica and Cathay, and in the Bible “Land of Sinim.”

China and its dependent territories have an area of 4,300,000 square miles. The population of the whole is variously estimated at from 300,000,000 to 440,000,000. The great bulk of this falls to the provinces of China proper: the population of all the dependencies (Manchuria, Tibet, Mongolia, East Turkestan), making but some 16,000,000 or 25,000,000 of the total.

=Surface.=--Occupying all the central and eastern portion of the continent of Asia, the limits are for the most part very distinctly marked out by great natural features. The boundary with Russian Siberia on the north runs along the Amur River and the crests of the Sayan and Altai Mountains; towards western Turkestan the alpine heights of the Thian Shan and the Pamir form the limit; the snow clad Himalaya range separates China from the hot plains of India in the south, and the mountains of Yunnan continue the natural frontier eastward again to the coasts of the Pacific.

Within these wide exterior limits China includes a number of regions, some of which are strongly contrasted with one another in their natural features and in the character of their population. Along the eastern or maritime border, where the rivers flowing down from the mountain region of the interior have spread out in wide alluvial plains next the sea, lie China proper and Manchuria, filled with a teeming population of busy agriculturists and townsfolk. Within, on the high plateau of Central Asia, the region of bare steppes and deserts, and the mountain skirts round it, are the countries of Mongolia, Eastern Turkestan, and Tibet, thinly peopled for the most part by nomadic pastoral tribes.

CHINA PROPER may be described as sloping from the mountainous regions of Tibet and Nepal toward the shores of the Pacific on the east and south. The most extensive mountain range in it is the Nan Ling or Southern Range, a far extending spur of the Himalayas. Commencing in Yunnan, it bounds Kwangsi, Kwangtung, and Fukien, on the north, and, passing through Chekiang, enters the sea at Ningpo.

North of this long range, and west of the one hundred and thirteenth meridian, on to the borders of Tibet, the country is mountainous, while to the east and from the great wall on the north to the Po-yang Lake in the south, there is the Great Plain, comprising the greater part of the provinces of Chihli, Shantung, Honan, Anhui, and Kiangsu. The Great Plain extends on both sides of the lower Hoang-ho, between the great cities of Peking and Nanking, over an area more than three times as extensive as England. Sedulously irrigated or drained, and cultivated in every corner, this great plain supports the densest agricultural population in the world.

In the provinces west from Chihli--Shansi, Shensi and Kansu--the soil is formed of what are called the loess beds, which are extremely fertile, the fields composed of it hardly requiring any other manure than a sprinkling of its own fresh loam. The husbandman in this way obtains an assured harvest two and even three times a year. This fertility, provided there be a sufficient rainfall, seems inexhaustible.

=Seas, Rivers and Canals.=--The semi-mediterranean seas and gulfs of the Pacific along the coasts of China are distinguished by separate names. In the north, between the Korean peninsula and the mainland of China, is the Hoang Hai or Yellow Sea, three hundred miles wide, named from the lemon color of its waters, filled with the alluvium brought down to it by the Hoang-ho, and so shallow that its muddy bed is frequently furrowed by passing vessels. Within or northward lie the Bay of Korea and the Gulfs of Pechihli and Liaotung, the two last separated almost entirely from the outer China Sea by the projecting promontories of Shantung and Liaotung. South of the Yellow Sea, between the mainland and southern Japan, with the chain of the Luchu Islands and Formosa, extends the wider Tunghai or Eastern Sea; and from this the Fukien Channel, between Formosa and the coast of China, one hundred miles wide, leads into the great mediterranean called the Nanhai or South Sea of China, which is almost completely shut in by Borneo and the Philippine Islands. The coasts of the Yellow Sea bordering on the great plain are low and flat; southward thence to the Island of Hainan the shores of China rise steep, and are dotted round with rocky islets.

The rivers of China--called for the most part ho in the north, and chiang (kiang) in the south, are one of its most distinguishing features.

Two of them stand out conspicuous among the great rivers of the world: the Ho, Hoang-ho, or Yellow River, and the Chiang, or Yang-tze-kiang. They rise not far from each other among the mountains of Tibet. The Ho pursues a tortuous course seaward through North China; the Chiang or Yang-tze through Central China. The terrible calamities caused by the inundations of the Hoang-ho have procured for it the name of “China’s Sorrow.” The Ho is not much under the Chiang in length--somewhat over three thousand miles.

Besides these may be noted the Pei-ho, which gathers the waters of the northern portion of the great plain, and forms a highway of communication between the capital city of Peking and the port of Tien-tsin, thirty-five miles above its mouth; the Min, the river of the province of Fukien, by which the Bohea teas are brought down to the port of Fu-chou; and the Si-kiang, the largest river of southern China, one of the delta branches of which forms the Chu-kiang, or river of the great port of Canton.

The three largest lakes of China lie immediately south of the course of the Yang-tze. The Tung-ting-hu, seventy miles long, and the Poyang-hu, nearly as large, are expansions of the mouths of the chief southern tributaries of the Yang-tze in Central China; the third, the Tai-hu, lies south of the estuary.

CANALS.--Greatest of all the public works in China is the Grand Canal, which traverses the great plain for a distance of seven hundred miles, passing from Tientsin, on the Pei-ho, in the north, across the course of the Hoang-ho to the lower course of the Yang-tze, connecting a system of water communications which extends from the capital to the chief parts of the empire. It is but the greatest sample of the system of canals, great and small, which form a network over all parts of the lowlands of China. Steam communication, however, all along the eastern seaboard from Canton to Tientsin has now very much superseded its use.

The glory of making this canal is due to Kublai, the first sovereign of the Yüan dynasty.

After the Grand Canal, as a gigantic achievement, comes the Great Wall, on the north side next Mongolia. Not so useful as the canal, and having failed to answer the purpose for which it was intended--to be a defense against the incursions of the northern tribes, there it still stands, the most remarkable artificial bulwark in the world.

It was in 214 B. C. that Shih Hwang Ti determined to erect a grand barrier all along the north of his vast empire. The wall commences at the Shanhai Pass and extends westward continuously almost into the heart of the continent for a distance of one thousand five hundred miles, over mountain and valley, and across rivers and ravines. It is a rampart of earth, ten to thirty feet high, broad enough at the top to admit of several horsemen passing abreast, and was formerly cased on the sides and top with bricks and stones, and was flanked by numerous projections or towers, gates being left at intervals for the passage of travelers and the collection of customs. Now it has fallen in many places, and its gates are negligently guarded, and northward of Peking the growing Chinese population has spread and settled the country to a considerable distance beyond its barrier.

=Climate.=--The climatic conditions naturally vary considerably over so large a stretch of country. In the lofty Tibetan plateau and the less elevated plains of Mongolia, the climate is exceedingly dry, and is marked by great extremes of hot and cold. The basins of the two great rivers, being nearer the Pacific, are moister and more equable. In this part of China proper the dry season lasts from November to February, the remaining months, particularly May, being extremely wet. The rainfall is of a copious tropical nature.

Generally speaking, China is a cold country in comparison with other regions in the same latitude. From July to September, however, the weather is intensely hot, and the heat is accompanied by typhoons, which are much dreaded for their violent and devastating effects.

=Production and Industry.=--Agricultural pursuits occupy the majority of the people, the chief products being tea, silk, indigo, cotton, cereals, rice, and sugar. Agriculture is held in higher estimation here than in any other land in the world. The land is freehold, and is held by families in small holdings.

There is much coal in all the provinces, and iron ore is also plentiful in Shansi. Copper ore is plentiful in Yunnan. Southern Yunnan also furnishes a variety of precious stones--rubies, amethysts, sapphires, topazes, opals, besides malachite, and the steatite or soapstone, in which the Chinese carve figures of all sorts.

The much prized Yu, or jade, brought formerly from Turkestan, comes now from the Hoang-ho valley; lapis lazuli (for the preparation of ultramarine) is found in the mountains of Che-kiang, in the east coast region. Large beds of porcelain clay occur in this province also, and in its neighboring one of Kiang-si.

About one-fourth of the world’s supply of new silk comes from China. Cotton and wool mills, flour and rice mills are important industries.

Before European manufactures had reached their higher development, fine “Nankeen” calico was largely imported from China to Europe. “China ware,” or porcelain, was first made by the Chinese, and so ignorant were the early Portuguese traders of its value, that they called it “porcellana,” believing it perhaps to be made of shells; the secret of its manufacture was not discovered till the beginning of the eighteenth century. In the province of Kiang-si, not far from Yao-chou, there are porcelain factories which were founded by an emperor in 1004 A. D.

The Chinese also excel in carpentry; paper making from the bamboo was invented among them as early as the second century B. C. They are highly skilled in the use of metals; bronze vases exist which date from 1760 B. C., and the great bells on the towers of Peking, cast during the Ming dynasty, are still perfect; the sonorous gong metal alloy is as yet a Chinese secret; in their delicate embroideries, carvings in ivory, engravings on wood and stone, lacquered wares, and rich silks and satins, they show astonishing handicraft.

=People, Religion and Education.=--The Chinese, as we have seen in the Book of Races, belong to the Mongolian race. They are stout and muscular as compared with other eastern peoples, temperate, industrious, cheerful, and easily contented; but they are addicted to gambling.

The dress of the poor is very much alike in both sexes; and though it is regulated for all classes by sumptuary laws, it is varied among the wealthy by the richness of the materials and the various ornamentation.

The three chief religions of China are Confucianism, Tâoism, and Buddhism. It is difficult to estimate the comparative number of their adherents. To claim a majority for those of any one of them is very absurd. As a matter of fact, Confucianism represents the intelligence and morality of China; Tâoism its superstitions; and Buddhism is ritualism and idolatry, while yet it acknowledges no God.

Besides these three national systems, Mohammedanism has numerous adherents in the northern and western provinces.

There are temples of Confucius in every great town, and twice a year, in spring and autumn, sacrifices of animals, fruit, and wine are offered in honor of the sage.

The majority of the Tâoists, or followers of Laotse, imitate the Buddhists in their monastic life, and many of them live as hermits in the mountain caves of the upper Yang-tze, or in the most romantic spots of the mountains of China.

The Grand Lama of Tibet is the pope of the Buddhist Church, but the priests in China have no political power, and are viewed with contempt by the literary and governing classes. In Peking, however, several large monasteries of Tibetan and Mongolian Buddhists are supported at the expense of the government.

The native Roman Catholics of China are said to number more than a million, but Protestants are very few.

In 1906, after the Russo-Japanese war, a new system of compulsory primary education was established. The curriculum is largely based upon the Japanese. Modern sciences, history, geography, and foreign languages are taught. Special schools have been established (technical, agricultural, normal, language, etc.). Thousands of temples have been converted to educational purposes. Old style examination halls have been pulled down, and colleges built on the sites. The educational facilities are, however, very inadequate. Girls’ schools, formerly non-existent, are still very few in number. The only government medical school is an army one, but the government has recognized the Union Medical College, opened in Peking by the Protestant missions there. Many Chinese students have proceeded to Japan, America, and Europe to study there. The government is using the money returned by the American government from the Boxer indemnity to send students to America.

There is a university in Peking and a number of colleges under foreign management. In 1911 there were five hundred and forty-five foreigners employed in educational work.

=Government.=--Until February 12, 1912, China was a monarchy, in practice almost absolute. Since that day it has been a republic under a president who holds office for a term of five years. Many changes were made at the time of the revolution. A cabinet was substituted for the old grand council, grand secretariat, and government council; the cabinet being composed of a prime minister, two associate ministers, the various ministers of state, and the heads of various boards. A privy council was also formed. Administration is carried on by the following ministries: (1) Of Foreign Affairs; (2) Interior; (3) Finance; (4) Education; (5) War; (6) Marine; (7) Justice; (8) Agriculture, Works, and Commerce; (9) Posts and Communications; (10) Colonies. There are also a large number of minor boards and offices, divided into twenty-two provinces for local administration.

=Cities.=--There were in 1910 about twenty-three towns with populations exceeding 50,000, but all figures are based upon estimates.

Peking 1,000,000 Canton 1,250,000 Hankow 900,000 Tientsin 850,000 Shanghai 700,000 Fuchow 650,000 Chungking 600,000 Suchow 500,000 Ningpo 450,000 Hangchow 400,000 Nanking 300,000 Changsha 250,000 Chinkiang 200,000 Antung 150,000 Wuhu 130,000 Amoy 120,000 Wenchow 100,000 Swatow 90,000 Chefoo 90,000 Shasi 85,000 Ichang 70,000 Kongmun 60,000 Wuchow 60,000 Niuchwang 50,000

=Peking, or Pei-Ching= (“Northern Capital”) is situated in a sandy plain, and is surrounded by walls with sixteen gates, each surmounted by towers one hundred feet high; and it consists, in fact, of two cities--the inner and the outer--known also as the Manchu or Tartar and the Chinese, the northern and the southern.

The walls of the Manchu city average fifty feet in height, and are fully sixty feet wide at the bottom; those of the Chinese city (rectangular in plan) are thirty feet high and twenty-five feet wide. The circuit of the two cities measures twenty-one miles, including an area of nearly twenty-six square miles.

The Manchu or Inner City is divided into three portions; and at the heart of it are two enclosures, into the innermost of which entrance is forbidden to all except such as have official claims to admission. It is called the “Purple Forbidden City,” is very nearly two and one-quarter miles in circuit, and in it are the palaces of the former emperors and other members of the imperial family.

The T’âi Ho, or “Hall of Grand Harmony,” is built of marble on a terrace twenty feet high, and rising itself an additional one hundred and ten feet; its principal apartment is two hundred feet long and ninety feet wide. Surrounding the Forbidden City is the “August City,” about six miles in circuit, and encompassed by a wall twenty feet high. In the western part of the “August City” is the “Western Park” with a large artificial lake, a summer-house, gardens, the copper statue of Buddha (sixty feet high), and the temple of “Great Happiness.”

In the General City are the principal offices of the government, the observatory, the Provincial Hall for literary examinations, the Colonial Office, and the “National Academy.” In the northeastern corner is the Russian mission, and west from it the “Palace of Everlasting Harmony,” a grand monastery for over a thousand Mongol and Tibetan monks. A little farther west stands, amidst cypresses, the temple of Confucius. To the “Temple of Emperors and Kings,” near the south wall, the emperors went to worship the spirits of nearly two hundred predecessors. The great Tutelary Temple of the capital is grimy, and full of fortune-tellers. All the foreign legations and Christian missions are within the Inner City. The new Roman Catholic Cathedral is conspicuous.

The Chinese or Outer City is very sparsely populated; much of the ground is under cultivation or wooded.

The “Altar to Heaven,” with its adjunct, the “Altar of Prayer for Grain,” and the “Altar of Agriculture,” are both near the southern wall. The “Altar to Heaven” stands on a splendid triple circular terrace of white marble, richly carved, in a grove of fine trees. The “Altar of Prayer for Grain,” was burned down in 1889.

The principal streets of the Chinese City are more than one hundred feet wide, but the side streets are mere lanes. The streets are seldom paved and are deep either in mud or in dust. In the smaller streets the houses are miserable shanties; in the main streets both private houses and shops are one-story brick edifices, the shops gay with paint and gilding.

There are three Catholic cemeteries (Portuguese, French, and native) and a Russian one; and there are mission buildings, Russian and others, and hospitals.

=History.=--Chinese historical documents begin with the reigns of Yâo and Shun. In 403 B. C. we find only seven great states, all sooner or later claiming to be “the kingdom,” and contending for the supremacy, till Ts’in (Ch’in) put down all the others, and in 221 B. C. its king assumed the title of Hwang Tî, or emperor. From that year dates the imperial form of the Chinese government, which thus existed for more than two thousand one hundred years.

The changes of dynasty were many, two or more sometimes ruling together, each having but a nominal supremacy over the whole nation. The greater dynasties have been those of Han (206 B. C.-220 A. D.), T’ang (618-906), Sung (960-1279), Yüan (the Mongol, 1280-1367), the Ming (1368-1643), and the Ch’ing (Manchû-Tartar, from the Manchû conquest of China in 1643 to the 1912 revolution).

It was not till after the Cape of Good Hope had been doubled, and the passage to India discovered by Vasco da Gama in 1497, that intercourse between any of the European nations and China was possible by sea. It was in 1516 that the Portuguese first made their appearance at Canton; and they were followed at intervals of time by the Spaniards, the Dutch, and the English in 1635. The Chinese received none of them cordially; and Chinese dislike of them was increased by their mutual jealousies and collisions with one another. In the meantime trade gradually increased, and there grew up the importation of opium from India. From the measures of the Chinese to prevent the import of opium came the first English war with China in 1840; the result of which was the opening of Canton, Amoy, Fûchâu, Ningpo, and Shanghâi to commerce, and the cession of Hongkong to Great Britain. A second war, in 1857, France being allied with Great Britain, ended in the opening of five more treaty ports. A third war (1860) and the march on Peking did even more to open China to the world.

After a war in 1884-1885 France secured permanent control of Tongking and Annam.

In 1894 Japan, reviving old claims on Korea, drove the Chinese out of Korea, and after victories on land and at sea, captured Port Arthur and Wei-hai-wei. By the treaty of 1894 Japan secured as indemnity Formosa and the Liao-tung peninsula; but the protests of Russia, Germany, and France made Japan resign Liao-tung. Russia obtained a lease of Port Arthur and Talienwan, with railway and other privileges in Manchuria; Germany obtained Kiao-chau and concessions in Shantung; and Great Britain, as an offset, obtained a lease of Wei-hai-wei and sought to secure trading freedom in the Yang-tze-kiang valley.

Russia’s refusal to evacuate Manchuria and her movements in Korea led to war with Japan in 1903, the defeat of the Russian armies in Manchuria, the destruction of the Russian fleet, and the fall of Port Arthur (1905), China being nominally neutral. By the peace (1905) Japan secured dominance in Korea, the Russian leases in Liao-tung, and great influence in southern Manchuria and on China generally.

A series of far-reaching reforms, promoted by a nationalist reform party in 1898, were summarily cancelled by the dowager empress, who assumed supreme authority. The reactionary and anti-foreign “Boxer” association (“The Fist of Righteous Harmony”), encouraged by the court, made extermination of foreigners its war cry in that year, and besieged the legislations in Peking. After a two months’ siege by an army of Japanese, Russians, British, Americans, French, and Germans this condition was relieved. The constitutional movement began in 1911, followed by a revolution. The leader of the revolt at Han-kau was the able general, Li Yuan-hung, but the inspirer of the revolution was Dr. Sun Yat-sen, at that moment in America.

On October 13 the rebels proclaimed a republic in the province of Hu-peh, with Li Yuan-hung as president, and notified the foreign consuls that the property and persons of foreigners would be respected.

On February 12, 1912, the throne issued three edicts, in which it announced its will to abide by the decision of the National Convention and accept the republic, entrusting Yuan with the task of bringing about the new constitution in conjunction with the Nan-king government, and, after exhorting all to peacefully accept the new order, announced the abdication of the dynasty.

A constitution of seventy clauses was promulgated; the emperor was to retain his title and receive a pension, and be accorded the civility due to a foreign sovereign. On February 27 the Nan-king Assembly endorsed this decision by electing Yuan president, and he was formally installed on March 10.

Yuan’s administration was hampered by the movements in Mongolia and Tibet towards autonomy, movements countenanced by Russia and Great Britain respectively. Difficulties were also put in the way of China by the European powers in the matter of a development loan, but President Yuan, supported by Dr. Sun Yat-sen, seems to have laid securely the foundations of the largest republic the world has yet seen.

President Yuan Shi-ki was assassinated in 1916, and succeeded by Li Yuan-hung.

=INDIA,= the Indian Empire of the British crown, is an extensive region of southern Asia, and next after China the most populous area in the world. It occupies the central peninsula of southern Asia, and has a length of some nineteen hundred miles, a breadth of sixteen hundred, and an area, inclusive of Burma, of 1,766,650 square miles. The natural boundaries of this vast region are, on the north, the range of the Himalaya Mountains, which separates it from Tartary, China, and Tibet; on the west, the mountainous frontiers of Afghanistan and, farther south, of Persia; on the southwest and south the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean; on the east the hill ranges which border upon Burma and the Bay of Bengal.

=Surface.=--The region presents a diversified surface and scenery. It has indeed been called “an epitome of the whole earth,” consisting as it does of mountains far above the level of perpetual snow, broad and fertile plains bathed in intense sunshine, arid wastes, and impenetrable forests.

The most prominent feature in the relief of India is the great range of snowy peaks named the Himalaya, or “abode of snow,” which rises on the edge of the Tibetan plateau, above the northern plains, stretching out in a continuous chain for nearly eighteen hundred miles. The mean height of this portion of the borders of the Tibetan plateau, defined very clearly by the channels of the Indus and the Bramaputra, is estimated at thirteen thousand feet; the mean breadth of its base is about one hundred and fifty miles. Its summits rise to twenty-nine thousand feet, and most of the difficult passes ascending from the valleys and gorges of the Indian side are not lower than about sixteen thousand feet.

Southward from the bases of the Himalaya and the Sulaiman mountains the great plain of northern India spreads out, reaching across the whole breadth of Hindustan from the Arabian Sea to the Gulf of Bengal.

Southward of the great plain the land begins to rise again. The first elevations reached in this direction are those of the long range of the Aravali hills, which extend for four hundred miles from northeast to southwest, marking the edge of the western section of the great plain. It is bold and precipitous on that side which falls toward the Indian desert, but less so on the southeast; its average height is about three thousand feet, Mount Abu, being the highest point.

Behind the Aravali hills lie the plateaus of Malwa and Bundelkhand, extending over the country generally termed central India; These are fertile tablelands of uneven surface elevated from one thousand five hundred to two thousand feet above the sea level, and traversed by a number of minor hill ridges.

The greater part of south India is occupied by the wide tableland of the Deccan. The name ghat was originally applied by the natives to the passes in the outer slopes of the ranges which run parallel with the two coasts of the southern portion of the great promontory of India enclosing the Deccan, and which had to be ascended to reach the high interior country from the coast; but this name Ghat has been transferred to these ranges or outer edges of the tableland themselves.

The western Ghats, about eight hundred miles in length, clothed with magnificent teak forests, form by far the boldest and most continuous escarpment of the Deccan plateau, ascending abruptly from a low base, generally at a distance of about thirty miles from the sea.

The eastern Ghats differ from the western in being much lower, in rising at a much greater distance from the coast of the Bay of Bengal, and with a gentle slope, giving access by wide openings to the interior. Their average height is about fifteen hundred feet, the highest point, near Madras, only about three thousand feet above the sea. The Deccan plateau between these supporting buttresses has thus a gradual eastward slope, and is characterized by undulating treeless plains, ridges and isolated flat-topped hills capped with basalt. Large portions of it are also covered with jungle, often overgrowing the ruins of former towns and temples, but there is no extent of forest.

Between the eastern Ghats and the sea lies the extensive maritime plain generally named the Karnatic, reaching back from the Coromandel coast for about fifty miles. The soil of this plain proves abundantly fertile when it is watered, but there are few streams, and a supply of water for irrigation has to be stored in reservoirs.

=Rivers.=--The river system of India consists of three great rivers: the Indus, the Ganges, the Bramaputra.

The Indus rises on the northern slopes of the Himalayas, sweeps round and enters at the western extremity of the range, and waters the Punjab.

The Ganges is formed by the amalgamation of the streams which drain the southernmost slopes of the Himalayas.

The Bramaputra rises also within easy distance of the Indus in the northern slopes of the Himalayas, flows east for some considerable distance, and then enters India at the extreme eastern point of the Himalayas. It is therefore to be noticed that the river system, of such vast importance to the people of India, is the drainage of both the northern and the southern slopes of the Himalayas.

The Ganges is the sacred river of the Hindus, rises in a snow-field of the southern face of the Himalayas at an elevation of nearly fourteen thousand feet above the sea, rushing down as a torrent to the highest accessible point on its banks (ten thousand three hundred feet), where the temple of Gangotri is built. To the Hindu a bath or a drink of the sacred water at this point has wonderful atoning virtues, and those who cannot themselves make the pilgrimage hither are supplied with flasks of the holy element bottled by the priests of Gangotri. At Allahabad the Jumna, which has followed a parallel course from the mountains, adds its strength; thence, by Benares and Patna, it passes eastward to weave its many mouths with those of the Bramaputra, and to wage a battle twice daily with the inflowing tide among the malarious islands of the Sundarbans. One of the westerly delta branches, the Hugli, on which Calcutta stands, is the most frequented highway to the sea.

=Climate.=--The whole country has three well-marked seasons--the cool, the hot, and the rainy. The cool months are November, December, January, and a part of February; the dry hot weather precedes, and the moist hot weather follows the periodical rains. The rainy season falls in the middle of summer and is called monsoon. It is the occasional failure of the monsoons that causes the periodical famines to which the country is liable.

The central tableland is cool, comparatively, but the alternations of heat and cold differ greatly elsewhere.

In the northwest there is burning heat with hot winds in summer, and frost at night in winter.

In the south the heat is more tempered, but the winter is cool only, and not cold.

The fall of rain varies greatly in different parts of the country. In the northeastern and other outlying parts it exceeds seventy-five inches. In the Deccan, in the upper basins of the Ganges and the Indus, it is thirty, and in the lower regions of the Indus less than fifteen inches. The remainder of India is placed between the extremes represented by these damp and dry belts.

=Production and Industry.=--The large majority of the population of India are engaged in agricultural pursuits, nearly 200,000,000 being either engaged in tilling the soil or dependent upon those so engaged. Great irrigation works have been carried out, the area irrigated being 42,486,724 acres.

The principal crops cultivated are rice, wheat, millet, pulse, and other food grains, oil-seeds, tea, cotton, sugar-cane, tobacco, and indigo.

Tea is grown largely under European supervision in the Eastern Himalayas, and already surpasses the China teas. Coffee is grown in the south, but with checkered success. Among the dyes, indigo and lac (red) are noteworthy. The indigenous flowers are not rich, the water lilies being the best; the flowering shrubs are very fine.

Of trees in the plains near the coasts the palm order with its several varieties strikes the observer. Inland the mango fruit-tree and the orange, the umbrageous banyan, the sacred peepul, and the bamboo are features in the landscape. In the hills the teak and other useful timber trees are obtained. In the Himalayas are the cedar, the pine, the fir, the juniper.

The cultivation of opium is a government monopoly and heavy duties are levied on the exports of opium, a duty being also paid to the Indian treasury.

Almost all the metals and minerals are represented in India, but of the useful metals, excepting iron, the quantity is not known to be large. Coal exists in many parts, especially in the northeast--at Bardwan, near Calcutta, and in Assam. Gold is found in Mysore, and in the sands of many streams; copper near Delhi and elsewhere; salt is obtained in large quantity from the mines in the northwest of the Punjab, and by evaporation from the coast lagoons all round India, and from salt lakes in Rajputana. Most of the precious gems, including diamonds, rubies, sapphires, and emeralds, are found, some abundantly, some rarely, though the supply of the once famous diamonds of Golconda seems to have ceased.

Metal and textile workers, glass and pottery workers, with their dependants, number close on twenty millions, and there are large numbers employed in service.

The textile manufactures of India were famous in long past centuries throughout the civilized world; such were the gold brocades of Delhi, brought thence to imperial Rome, the muslins of Dacca, made for the Mongol court, and the pattern colored cloths of Calicut (calico), the shawls of Kashmir, and the silks and carpets of Multan. All these home-made fabrics, however, have declined before the products of the great factories.

=Peoples.=--The broad division of the peoples of India includes a northern group of Aryan nations, occupying the great plains and the northern seaboard on each side, and the non-Aryan inhabitants of the Deccan plateau in southern India. This division also corresponds to that of the languages of India, separating those related to the Sanscrit, the language of the Aryan conquerors of the north, from the Dravidian and Kolarian of the south. (See Book of Races.)

LANGUAGES.--Though nearly a hundred and fifty languages, derived from nearly twenty linguistic families, are spoken in India, three of those families--the Aryo-Indian, the Dravidian, and the Tibeto-Burman--represent the speech of ninety-seven per cent of the inhabitants.

Hindustani, a dialect of Hindi, has become the literary language of Hindustan, and is the lingua franca of India. English is understood by many.

RELIGIONS.--The chief religions are Hinduism (218,000,000 in 1911), Mohammedans (66,000,000), Buddhists (11,000,000), Animists (10,000,000), and Christians (4,000,000).

=Government.=--India is a dependency of Great Britain, consisting partly of territory under the direct administration of British officials, and partly of native states, all subordinate, in varying degrees of relationship, to British authority.

The nine great provinces are Madras, Bombay, Bengal, the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, the Punjab, Burma, Eastern Bengal and Assam, the Central Provinces, and the Northwestern Frontier Province.

In accordance with the Royal Titles Act of 1876 the King of Great Britain and Ireland assumes the additional title of Emperor of India. The Parliament of the United Kingdom is supreme over India; but all the statutes relating to India are in the nature of either constitutional enactments or financial provisions.

In India the supreme authority, both executive and legislative, is vested in the governor-general in council. The governor-general, or viceroy, who generally holds office for five years, receives a salary of eighty-five thousand dollars a year, and has power to overrule his council in cases of emergency. The council is composed of six ordinary members, all appointed, like the governor-general himself, by the crown for a period of five years. Since 1909 one of the members has been a native of India.

The work of the council is distributed among the departments of finance, commerce, home and foreign affairs, revenue and agriculture, army, legislation, education, and public works. The foreign department is under the special care of the viceroy.

The seat of the supreme government of India is Delhi, with an annual migration to the hill-station of Simla for the hot season.

=Cities.=--The capital, Delhi, has a population (1911) of 391,828. The other chief cities are: Calcutta (1,216,514), Bombay (972,930), Madras (517,335), Hyberabad (499,840), Rangoon (293,316), Lucknow (260,621), Lahore (228,318), Ahmedabad (215,448), Benares (204,222). In addition there are twenty cities with populations exceeding 100,000.

=Delhi= (Del´lee), since 1912 the capital of the Indian Empire is located on the right bank of the Jumna, nine hundred and fifty-four miles northwest of Calcutta. It was the capital of the Afghan or Pathan, and afterwards of the Mogul, empire. It is the terminus of the East Indian and Rajputana railways, the former crossing the Jumna by a fine iron bridge.

Delhi is walled on three sides, has ten gates, and stands on high ground, the famous palace of Shah Jehan, now the fort, looking out over the river and a wide stretch of wooded and cultivated country. To the north, about a mile distant, rises the historic “ridge,” crowned with memorials of the Indian mutiny, and commanding a fine view of the city, the domes and minarets of which overtop the encircling groves.

The palace buildings comprise the cathedral-like entrance hall, the audience hall, and several lesser pavilions, covering in all an area of one thousand six hundred feet by three thousand two hundred feet, exclusive of gateways. The beautiful inlaid work and carving of these buildings are the admiration of the world, and is worthy of its famous inscription: “If there is a heaven on earth, it is this--it is this!”

In the heart of the city stands the Jama Masjid (“great mosque”), one of the largest and finest structures of the kind in India, which also owes its origin to Shah Jehan. Among the notable monuments in the neighborhood are the imperial tombs, including that of Hamayun, second of the Mogul dynasty; the old Kala Masjid, or black mosque; and the thirteenth century Kutab Minar, ten miles to the south, which is two hundred and thirty-eight feet high, and tapers gracefully from a diameter of forty-seven feet at the base to nine feet at the summit.

Modern Delhi is noted for its broad main streets, the chief being the Chandni Chauk, or Silver Street, with its high clock tower, and the institute and museum.

Delhi has a large trade in wheat and other produce, and its bazaars are noted for gold and silver work, precious stones, shawls, and costly fabrics.

=Simla=, since 1864 the summer headquarters of the British government in India, stands on the slopes (seven thousand feet) of the Himalayas, in a beautiful situation, one hundred and seventy miles north of Delhi. Its first house was built in 1819, and it was first visited officially by the Indian government in 1827. There are two vice-regal residences, handsome government buildings, and a fine town hall. Population sixteen thousand in winter, and considerably more in summer.

=Calcutta=, on the left bank of the Hughly, the largest and westernmost branch of the Ganges delta, is about eighty miles from the sea. The government buildings, Bishop’s College (now an engineering school), High Court, town hall, bank, museum, university, St. Paul’s cathedral, and many other English buildings have earned for it the name “City of Palaces.” The native quarters, though improved, are still squalid, the houses of mud or bamboo. An esplanade, numerous quays, an excellent water-supply, gas, and tramway services, add to the amenities. There are extensive dockyards, warehouses, ironworks, timber yards, and jute mills. Extensive railway and steamboat communications make it the chief emporium of commerce in Asia.

=Bombay= stands on an island, connected with the coast by a causeway, and has a magnificent harbor and noble docks. It is rapidly surpassing Calcutta in trade, and is one of the greatest of seaports; its position promises to make it the most important commercial center in the East, as it already is in the cotton trade of the world. It swarms with people of every clime, and its merchandise is mainly in the hands of the Parsees, the descendants of the ancient fire worshippers. It is the most English town in India. It came to England from Portugal as dowry with Catherine of Braganza, wife of Charles II., who leased it to the East India Company for fifty dollars a year. Its prosperity began when the Civil war in the United States afforded it an opening for its cotton.

=Benares=, the most sacred city of the Hindus, and an important town in the Northwest Provinces, is on the Ganges, four hundred and twenty miles by rail northwest of Calcutta. It presents the amazing array of one thousand seven hundred temples and mosques with towers and domes and minarets innumerable. The bank of the river is laid with continuous flights of steps whence the pilgrims bathe; but the city itself is narrow, crooked, crowded, and dirty. Many thousands of pilgrims visit it annually. It is a seat of Hindu learning; there is also a government college. The river is spanned here by a magnificent railway bridge. There is a large trade in country produce, English goods, jewelry, and gems; while its brass work “Benares ware,” is famous.

=Agra=, a city in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, is on the Jumna, one hundred and thirty-nine miles southeast of Delhi by rail, and eight hundred and forty-one miles northwest of Calcutta. The ancient walls embrace an area of eleven square miles, of which about one-half is now occupied. The houses are mostly built of red sandstone, and, on the whole, Agra is the handsomest city in upper India.

Some of the public buildings, monuments of the house of Timur, are on a scale of striking magnificence. Among these are the fortress built by Akbar, within the walls of which are the palace and audience hall of Shah Jehan, the Moti Masjid or Pearl Mosque, and the Jama Masjid or Great Mosque.

Still more celebrated is the white marble Taj Mahal, situated without the city, about a mile to the east of the fort. This extraordinary and beautiful mausoleum was built by the Emperor Shah Jehan for himself and his favorite wife, who died in 1629, and is remarkable alike for the complexity and grace of the general design, and the elaborate perfection of the workmanship. In the center, on a raised platform, is the mausoleum, surmounted by a beautiful dome, with smaller domes at each corner, and four graceful minarets (one hundred and thirty-three feet high). Of British edifices the principal are the Government House, the Government College, three missionary colleges, the English church, and the barracks.

The climate, during the hot and rainy seasons (April to September), is very trying; but the average health of the city is equal to that of any other station in the United Provinces.

The principal articles of trade are cotton, tobacco, salt, grain, and sugar. There are manufactories of shoes, pipe stems, and gold lace, and of inlaid mosaic work, for which Agra is famous.

=History.=--It is impossible to speak positively as to the aboriginal prehistoric populations of India; probably the most primitive peoples now left--the Dravidian hill-tribes--represent waves of invasion from the north. The history of civilization in India may, however, be traced from the invasion--probably one thousand years or more B. C.--of the Aryan race from central Asia, a race of the Indo-Germanic type in physique and speech. Their language was Sanskrit, their religion and civilization that of the Vedas, or ancient Hindu scriptures.

Out of the union of the Aryans with the earlier inhabitants the modern races of India have sprung. Buddhism arose in India with the teaching of Budda about 500 B. C, and for a while superseded the Vedic faith, corrupted as it had been by the degraded aboriginal superstitions; and India was substantially Buddhist till the revival of Hinduism, in its modern or Brahmanic form (more idolatrous and superstitious than the ancient faith), in the sixth century A. D.

In 1001 A. D. came the first wave of Mohammedanism, and soon all India fell under Mohammedan domination, though the bulk of the people clung to the Hindu religion. By the beginning of the eighteenth century a new Hindu power, that of the Mahrattas, arose, and seriously weakened the Moslem emperor, the Grand Mogul. The Dutch, Portuguese, and French, as well as the British, established themselves in the empire; in the eighteenth century the French more than rivaled the British in power. But the power of the British East India Company, originally traders, became dominant after the battle of Plassey in 1757.

Gradually English power as represented by the company, its diplomatists, and its soldiers, extended over a great part of India, and the governors--Clive, Warren Hastings, Wellesley, Amherst, Bentinck, Dalhousie, Canning--consolidated what was really the empire of Great Britain in the East. Then in 1857 came the great mutiny, stamped out in blood, and the government was assumed by the British crown in 1858. British rule in India has been steadily consolidated, but no great annexation has since taken place, except that of Upper Burma in 1886.

After the mutiny, India settled down to a period of peace, broken only by the constant suspicion of Russian intrigue in Afghanistan. This led in 1878 to the second Afghan war. The Amir was deposed, and his successor promised to receive a British resident, who was in a short time murdered, as was also his escort. This resulted in the famous march of General Roberts from Kabul to Kandahar, and eventually an Amir who was favorable to the British was set up. This Amir reigned until 1901, and his successor remained friendly to the British.

Finally, in 1907, a convention between Russia and Britain was signed, and later an agreement as to the line of delimitation of their respective spheres of influence in Persia was arrived at in 1912. Quetta and the southeastern districts of Afghanistan were annexed after the second Afghan war, and the purchase of the Suez Canal was of great use in the defense of India. British supremacy over the Afghan tribes was also recognized.

After his coronation in 1911, George V. of Great Britain visited India and held a Coronation Durbar at the beginning of 1912 in India itself, this being the first visit of an English raj to the Indian empire, and the capital of India was officially proclaimed as Delhi.

=JAPAN=, an island empire off the east coast of Asia, separated from Siberia by the Sea of Japan. The name Japan is a corruption of Zipangu, itself a corruption of the Chinese pronunciation of the native name Nihon or Nippon (“Land of the Rising Sun”).

Japan comprises four large islands, Honshu (the Japanese mainland), Shikoku, Kiushu, and Yezo or Hakkaido; the Luchu Islands, Formosa, divided from China by the Formosa Channel; and Korea (annexed in 1910 and renamed Chosen). A small group of islands, Bonia, six hundred miles southeast of Tokio, also belongs to Japan.

The Kwantung province, including Port Arthur and Darien, was leased to Japan by Russia (with the consent of China) in 1905, while the southern portion of Sakhalin (ceded to Russia in 1875) became once more Japanese.

The empire includes also nearly four thousand small islands.

The islands comprising the Japanese Empire have been likened to the British Isles in their position relative to the Continent, the Sea of Japan and the Strait of Korea resembling the North Sea and Strait of Dover. In their general extent of surface the comparison also holds good. The three contiguous islands of Japan proper are, however, considerably larger than Great Britain, while the northern possession of Yezo is three thousand square miles larger than Ireland.

The empire with its dependencies comprises an area of 235,886 square miles, with a population of 67,142,798.

=Surface Characteristics.=--The islands are eminently volcanic, and eighteen of the summits are still active; the chief of these, Fuji-san, or Fuji-yama, the loftiest and most sacred mountain of Japan, about sixty miles from Tokio, has been dormant since 1707. Japan is also liable to frequent, and occasionally disastrous, earthquakes.

The country is very mountainous, and not more than one-sixth of its area is available for cultivation. The numerous ranges extend in directions parallel to the length of the group, giving varied and picturesque landscapes of hill and valley. Their irregular coast-line is indented with splendid natural harbors, such as the Bay of Yedo on the southeast coast; the beautiful “inland sea” of Japan, with its intricate channel between hundreds of islets, separates the island of Shikoku from the larger one of Hondo, and the enclosed Suwonada and Bugo Channel, divide the southwestern island of Kiushu from both of these.

=Lakes and Rivers.=--From the mountainous character of the long narrow islands the rivers are generally impetuous, and of small economic importance, except for irrigation. Among the most important may be noted the Yodo-gawa, which flows from the fiddle-shaped Lake Biwa, the largest fresh water expanse in Japan, thirty-five miles long, to the “inland sea;” the broad and rapid Ten-riu-gawa, or “River of the Heavenly Dragon,” which flows south from the central mountains of Nippon; and the Tone-gawa, which enters the Pacific, but sends a branch to the Bay of Yedo, which is crossed within the capital by the Nippon Bassi, or bridge of Japan, from which, as a starting point, all distances throughout the kingdom are measured.

=Climate.=--The islands of Japan have a climate that may be compared with that of South Britain. The extremes, however, are greater, summer being hotter, and winter colder, than in England, increasing to almost Siberian rigor in the north. June, July, and August form the Satkasi, or rainiest period; the autumn succeeding is the pleasantest and most genial season of the year. Hurricanes, storms, and fogs, are frequent in the seas round Japan, where warm and cold ocean currents also bring about great differences of sea temperature.

=Products and Industries.=--The islands have a very beautiful flora, including many ornamental plants. The great feature of the vegetation is the intermixture of tropical growths, such as the bamboo, palms, tree-ferns, and bananas, with those of temperate regions, the pine, oak, beech, chestnut and maple. Characteristic are the paper mulberry, the vegetable-wax tree, the camphor and lacquer trees. The cultivated crops are rice, maize, wheat, barley, tobacco, tea, and cotton.

Japan is also very rich in minerals. Gold, silver, and copper are especially abundant in the north, and coal and iron beds seem to extend throughout the group. Petroleum is also being produced in large quantities, especially in the Province of Echigo.

=People.=--With the exception of the wilds of Yezo, peopled by eighteen thousand Ainos, the Japanese islands are inhabited by a single race speaking various dialects of the same tongue. Probably the Japanese are the issue of the intermarriage of victorious Tartar settlers, who entered Japan from the Korean peninsula, with Malays in the south and Ainos in the main island. See Book of Races.

There are two prevailing religions in Japan--Shintoism, the indigenous faith; and Buddhism, introduced from China in 552 and still the dominant religion among the people. Francis Xavier introduced Christianity in 1549, and the Roman Catholic Church and the Greek Church both carry on a flourishing work in Japan. Of the Protestant missions there are also many actively at work.

In education, as well as in matters of religion, enormous changes and advances have been made in recent years. Education is in the lower grades free and compulsory. Secondary schools are state aided, and prepare for a three years’ course at the universities, which is largely devoted to the study of European languages. There are high schools for girls, and the technical and special schools are well attended. There are three State Universities, at Tokio, Kyoto, and Tohoku.

=Production and Industry.=--Agriculture is the chief occupation of the Japanese, and they are excellent and careful farmers. In the mechanical arts also they excel; especially in the use of metals, in the manufacture of porcelain and glass lacquered wares, and silk fabrics. The chief manufactures are silk and cotton, cotton yarn, matches, paper, glass, lacquer ware, porcelain, and bronze, and ship building is an important industry in the yards.

The chief exports are silk, cotton, yarns, rice, tea, fish, copper, matches, coal, camphor, straw plaits, porcelain, earthenware, lacquer-ware, and marine products.

The commercial development of Japan has of late been marvelous. There were five thousand nine hundred and eighty-five miles of railroad open in 1914, in addition to eight hundred and thirty-six miles open in Korea, while the South Manchurian Railway (China) is under Japanese control.

=Government and Administration.=--The government is an hereditary monarchy, the succession being now exclusively in the male line. The Cabinet consists of ten Ministers of State, presided over by a Minister President.

The Upper House, or House of Peers, consists of about three hundred and thirty members--male members of the royal house, life peers, peers elected either for life or for seven years, and other persons nominated by the emperor. The lower house, or House of Representatives, has three hundred and sixty-nine members, who serve for four years, elected by citizens paying taxes of not less than ten yen (five dollars) per annum. The first general election took place in 1890.

Penal and civil codes have been drafted on a European basis, and with a commercial code were published in 1890, and came into force in 1893.

=Cities.=--The capital of the Japanese Empire, Tôkiô, formerly called Yedo, is the residence of the emperor; population, 2,186,079. Other cities are: Osaka, 1,226,590; Kiôto, the ancient capital, 442,462; Nagoya, 378,231; Kōbe, 378,197; Yokohama, 394,303; Hiroshima, 142,763; Nagasaki, 176,480; Kanazawa, 110,994; Kure, 100,679. The chief ports are Yokohama, Kōbe, Osaka, Nagasaki, and Hakodate.

=Tokio, or Tokei= (“Eastern Capital”), is the chief city of the Japanese Empire. Until 1868, when the emperor removed his court thither from Kyōtō, it was known as Yedo (“Estuary Gate”). Its position at the mouth of the rivers which drain the largest plain of Japan, fits it to be a national center. The lower portion of the city, which is flat and intersected by canals, stretches between the two parks of Ueno (north) and Shiba (south), famous for their shrines. Midway rises the castle or palace, a fine structure in Japanese style, furnished in European manner, and lighted with electricity, within a double ring of high walls and broad moats. In spring-time the city is gay with plum and cherry blossoms. The immense enclosures, formerly inhabited by the nobles and their retainers, are gradually disappearing, and handsome modern buildings in brick for the use of the various government departments are taking their place. Of the fifteen city divisions the northern, Hongo and Kanda, are mostly educational, and contain the buildings of the Imperial University, Law School and other institutions. The student population is astonishingly large. The seaward districts of Nihonbashi, Kyobashi, and Asakusa are industrial and commercial, while the government offices are located in Kojimachi ku.

Yokohama is the port of entry (seventeen miles off), and a great harbor scheme to cost twenty million dollars was planned in 1911-1912. The city is subject to disastrous fires; that of April, 1892, burned four thousand houses in one morning. Tokio has three railway termini and a system of electric railways. Almost every phase of modern civilization is to be found within its vast area.

=History.=--Before 500 A. D. Japanese history is mere legend. Buddhism was introduced from Korea in 552; and in the next century Chinese civilization strongly influenced Japan. About the end of the twelfth century, the weakness of the emperor led the military head (Shogun) to assume a large share of the supreme power, and he handed it on to his descendants. Hence the statement often made that Japan had a Mikado or spiritual emperor who reigned but did not govern, and a “Tycoon” (Shogun) who did govern though he paid homage to the nominal sovereign. The military caste was now dominant until the reign of Iyeyasu (c. 1600), whose descendants reigned till 1868.

Total exclusion of foreigners was the rule till 1543, when the Portuguese effected a settlement; but in 1624 all foreigners were expelled and Christianity interdicted. The policy of isolation was rigidly pursued from 1638 till 1853, when Commodore Perry of the United States Navy steamed into a Japanese harbor, and effected a treaty with the Shogun. Soon sixteen other nations followed the American example, and free ports were opened to foreign commerce.

In 1867-1868 a sharp civil war broke the feudal power of the daimios or territorial magnates, suppressed the Shogunate, and unified the authority under the Mikado. In a very few years Japanese students took a place of their own in western science; and how thoroughly the Japanese had laid to heart what they had learned abroad in the military and naval arts was partially revealed by the swift and complete success of the war with China about Korea in 1894, and more impressively by their amazing triumph over the great military empire of Russia, in 1904-1905, whom they defeated in a succession of bloody battles, took Port Arthur, and utterly destroyed the Russian fleet. By the peace that followed the Russians not only evacuated southern Manchuria, but recognized Japan’s preponderance in Korea, and gave up to Japan the “leases” of Port Arthur and the Liao-tung peninsula Russia had wrested from China.

A conspiracy against the life of the emperor was discovered in September, 1910. The same year saw the passing of a bill enabling foreigners to own land in Japan proper, under certain restrictions. But the principal event of 1910 in Japanese history was the formal annexation of Korea, the treaty with the emperor of Korea being promulgated on August 29. According to the new commercial treaty with the United States, ratified by the Senate on February 24, 1911, the clause in the old treaty was omitted, wherein each side reserved the right of regulating immigration from one country to the other. In 1910 and 1911 important agreements were also made with Russia with special reference to Manchuria.

Japan entered the European war on August 23, 1914, on the side of the Entente Allies, and immediately began the blockade and siege of the German colony at Kiao-Chow on the Shantung promontory of China. In November, 1915, the present emperor, Yoshihito, was crowned.

=THE COLONIAL DIVISIONS OF THE WORLD=

The following tables show how the colonies of the world have been divided among the various nations:

NOTE.--Practically all the German colonial possessions throughout the world are at this date (1917) in military possession of the Entente Allies, and will be so held pending the terms of the final treaty of peace at the close of the present European war.

THE GREAT FOREIGN WARS OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY

In the various wars the victorious contestants are indicated in =bold face= type, as are also the victorious leaders and the battles won by them. The figures prefixed show with which of the warring parties the leaders are identified, and who were the victors in the battles named. Naval battles are shown in italics. Consult the Table of Foreign Battles for details concerning the more important military actions.

=TROJAN WAR= (Partly mythical).--1193-1184 B. C.

(1) =Greeks= vs. (2) Trojans.

CAUSE: Greeks avenge the abduction of Helen of Troy by Paris.

LEADERS: (1) =Agamemnon=, =Achilles=, =Ulysses=; (2) Hector.

CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Siege of Troy.=

RESULTS: Capture and destruction of Troy, or Ilium.

=FIRST MESSENIAN WAR.=--743-724 B. C.

(1) =Spartans= vs. (2) Messenians.

CAUSE: Spartans covet Messenian land.

LEADER: (2) Aristodemus.

CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Siege of Mount Ithome.=

RESULTS: Messenians become tributary of Sparta and their land is, in part, confiscated.

=SECOND MESSENIAN WAR.=--645-628 B. C.

(1) =Spartans= vs. (2) Messenians.

CAUSE: Spartan oppression causes Messenian revolt.

LEADERS: (1) =Tyrtaeus= (poet); (2) Aristomenes.

CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Eira.=

RESULTS: Greater part of Messenians flee to Sicily. Those remaining become helots (Spartan serfs).

=FIRST SACRED WAR.=--600-590 B. C.

(1) =Amphictyonic League= vs. (2) Crisæans.

CAUSE: People of the city of Crisa (port of Delphi) oppress pilgrims to the oracle.

LEADER: (1) =Cleisthenes of Sicyon.=

CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Siege of Crisa.=

RESULTS: For the first time Greek cities join in an effective league. Crisa destroyed.

=PERSIAN WARS.=--500-479 B. C.

(1) =Persians= vs. (2) Greeks.

CAUSE: Aid given by Athens and Eretria to revolting Ionic Greek cities, leading to burning of Sardis, 497 B. C.

a. First Persian Expedition--493 B. C.

LEADER: (1) =Mardonius.=

CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Three hundred ships lost by storm off Mt. Athos.=

RESULTS: Partial success against Macedonians and Thracians. Continued plans of Darius for subjugating Greece.

b. Second Persian Expedition--490 B. C.

LEADERS: =Datis,= (1) =Artaphernes;= (2) Miltiades.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Naxos=, =Eretria=; (2) Marathon (490 B. C.)

RESULTS: The Athenians are victorious and the Persians retreat to Asia Minor.

c. Third Persian Expedition--481-480 B. C.

Xerxes desires to avenge his father’s defeat.

LEADERS: (1) =Xerxes=; (2) Leonidas, Eurybiades, Themistocles.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Thermopylæ=, Salamis, =Artemisium=, =Athens burned.=

RESULTS: Xerxes retreats to Persia after his defeat at Salamis.

d. Fourth Persian Expedition--479 B. C.

War continued by troops which Xerxes left behind.

LEADERS: (1) =Mardonius=; (2) Pausanias, Aristides.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) Athens laid waste; (2) =Platæa=, =Mycale.=

RESULTS: All Persian invasions and attempts to subjugate Greece cease.

=THIRD MESSENIAN WAR.=--464-456 B. C.

(1) =Helots of Messenian descent= vs. (2) Spartans.

CAUSE: Confusion following earthquake gives Helots courage to revolt.

CHIEF ACTION: (2) Mt. Ithome besieged. Sparta sent home her Athenian allies.

RESULTS: Messenians capitulate and are allowed to leave the Peloponnesus never to return. Athens retaliates by settling them at Naupactus.

=PELOPONNESIAN WAR.=--431-404 B. C.

(1) =Sparta and Allies= vs. (2) Athens and Allies.

a. First Period--431-421 B. C.

CAUSE: Envy of Sparta and her allies at Athens’ growing power and influence. Discontent among some of the Athenian subject states.

LEADERS: (1) =Archidamus=, =Agis=, =Brasidas=; (2) Demosthenes, Cleon, Nicias.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Invasion of Attica=, =Plague in Attica=, =Siege of Platæa=, =Delium=, =Amphipolis.= (2) Mitylene, Sphacteria.

RESULTS: By the peace of Nicias (421 B. C.) both sides are to restore conquests and prisoners but terms are imperfectly carried out.

b. Second Period or Decelean War--413-404 B. C.

CAUSE: Sparta takes advantage of Athens’ weakness, resulting from the failure of the expedition to Syracuse, to renew the war.

LEADERS: Alcibiades serves Athens, Sparta and Athens in turn. (1) =Lysander=; (2) Conon.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Decelea occupied.= =Attica ravaged.= =Many subject states of Athens revolt.= =Notium, Ægospotami, Surrender of Athens=; (2) Abydos, Cyzicus, Arginusæ.

=Results=: The Spartans tear down the walls of Piræus and Athens. Athens loses her foreign possessions and fleet but becomes an independent ally of Sparta. Sparta is now supreme in Greece.

=GAULS’ INVASION OF ITALY.=--390 B. C.

(1) =Gauls= vs. (2) Romans.

CAUSE: Roman people refuse to surrender Roman ambassadors who had aided the Etruscans against the Gauls.

LEADERS: (2) M. Manlius, Capitolinus, Camillus.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Battle of the Allia.= =Sack of Rome.=

RESULTS: Gauls retire on payment of ransom. The overthrow of Rome had no permanent effect on her fortunes.

=SECOND SACRED WAR.=--c. 355-346 B. C.

(1) =Phocians= vs. (2) Amphictyons.

CAUSE: Phocians seize and plunder Delphi because of fine imposed by Amphictyonic Council.

LEADERS: (1) =Onomarchus=; (2) Philip of Macedon.

RESULTS: Thebans and Thessalians invite aid of Philip against Phocians and he takes their place in the Amphictyonic Council.

=THIRD SACRED WAR.=--339-338 B. C.

(1) =Macedonians= vs. (2) Athenians, Thebans.

CAUSE: Amphictyons call in Philip to punish Amphissa, whereupon he seizes Elatea, thereby threatening Athens. Athenians aroused by Demosthenes.

LEADERS: (1) =Philip of Macedon.=

CHIEF ACTIONS: =Chæronea.=

RESULTS: Philip gains leadership of Greece. Henceforth Greece is under the control of Macedonia.

=SAMNITE WARS.=--343-290 B. C.

(1) =Romans= vs. (2) Samnites.

a. First Samnite War--343-341 B. C.

CAUSE: A duel between two rival races for supremacy in Italy. Campanians implore aid of Romans against Samnites who are laying waste their territories in revenge for aid given the Sidicini of Teanum.

LEADERS: (1) =Marcus Valerius Corvus=, =P. Decius Mus.=

RESULTS: Capua is retained by the Romans and Teanum surrendered to Samnites.

b. Second or Great Samnite War--326-304 B. C.

CAUSE: The occupation of Palaeopolis by the Samnites. In 311 B. C. the Etruscan cities joined in the war against Rome.

LEADERS: (1) =Papirius Cursor=; (2) Fabius Rullianus Gavius Pontius.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Fregellæ=, =Sutrium=, =Lake Vadimonis=, =Bovianum=; (2) Caudine Forks.

RESULTS: Samnites sue for peace. They resign all their conquests but retain their independence within their native mountains.

c. Third Samnite War--298-290 B. C.

CAUSE: While Romans are engaged with the Gauls the Samnites enter Lucania and refuse to withdraw.

LEADERS: (1) =Q. Fabius Rullianus=, =P. Decius Mus= (=son=); (2) Gellius Egnatius, Gavius Pontius.

CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Sentinum.=

RESULT: Samnites defeated but not crushed.

=WARS OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT IN ASIA=--334-328 B. C.

(1) =Greeks= vs. (2) Persians, Egyptians, Bactrians, Indians (Hindus).

CAUSE: A war of conquest, a scientific expedition and a journey of discovery.

LEADERS: (1) =Alexander the Great=, =Nearchus=; (2) Darius III., Memnon.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Granicus=, =Issus=, =Siege of Tyre=, =Arbela.=

RESULTS: Alexander conquers Asia from the Mediterranean Sea to the Indus River and from the Arabian Sea to the Jaxartes River and begins the Hellenizing of the East. Founds Alexandria in Egypt. The empire breaks up after Alexander’s death 323 B. C.

=ROMAN WAR WITH TARENTUM AND EPIRUS.=--282-272 B. C.

(1) =Romans= vs. (2) Tarentum and King Pyrrhus.

CAUSE: The people of Tarentum capture Roman ships and insult Roman embassy. They call in King Pyrrhus of Epirus.

LEADERS: (1) =Manius Curius=; (2) Pyrrhus.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Beneventum=, =Tarentum=; (2) Heraclea, Asculum.

RESULTS: Pyrrhus returns to Epirus and his allies one by one submit to Rome, which is left supreme from Straits of Messina to the River Arno and the headland of Ancona.

=FIRST PUNIC WAR.=--264-241 B. C.

(1) =Romans= vs. (2) Carthaginians.

CAUSES: A struggle for supremacy in Sicily. Pretext, Campanian mercenaries, having seized Messina, appeal to Rome for aid.

LEADERS: (1) =C. Duilius=, =M. Atilius Regulus=, =P. Claudius Pulcher=, =C. Lutatius Catulus=; (2) Hamilcar Barca, Himilco, Hanno.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Agrigentum=, =Mylæ=, =Ecnomus=, =Panormus=, =Ægadian Islands=; (2) Siege of Lilybæum, Drepana.

RESULTS: Carthaginians surrender Sicily and pay a war indemnity. Carthage retains the Western Mediterranean and Rome is launched on her career of conquest.

=SECOND PUNIC WAR.=--218-201 B. C.

(1) =Romans= vs. (2) Carthaginians.

CAUSES: A duel to the death between East and West. Pretext, Hannibal’s attacks on Saguntum in Spain.

LEADERS: (1) =Q. Fabius Maximus=, =Publius Scipio=, =P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus=; (2) Hannibal, Hasdrubal.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Syracuse=, =Capua=, =Metaurus=, =Zama=; (2) Ticinus, Trebia, Trasimene, Cannæ.

RESULTS: Hannibal succumbs as a result of the loyalty of Italy. Carthage forced to give up Spain, to pay an annual tribute, to surrender her fleet, and to agree not to go to war without the permission of Rome.

=FOUR MACEDONIAN WARS.=--214-146 B. C.

(1) =Romans= vs. (2) Greeks.

CAUSE: Alliance of Philip, King of Macedon with Carthage.

LEADERS: (1) =T. Quinctius Flaminius=, =L. Aemilius Paulus=; (2) Philip of Macedon, Perseus.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Cynoscephalæ=, =Pydna.=

RESULT: Macedonia becomes a Roman province.

=THIRD PUNIC WAR=--149-146 B. C.

(1) =Romans= vs. (2) Carthaginians.

CAUSE: War of Carthage with Massinissa gives Rome the pretext for completing the destruction of Carthage.

LEADERS: (1) =Scipio=, =Æmilianus=, =Africanus=.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Siege of Carthage=.

RESULT: Carthage destroyed. Most of her territory becomes a Roman province of Africa.

=JUGURTHINE WAR.=--111-105 B. C.

(1) =Romans= vs. (2) Jugurtha of Numidia.

CAUSE: Jugurtha, disregarding intervention of Rome, captures Citra and massacres male population.

LEADERS: (1) =C. Marius=; (2) Jugurtha.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Muthul=, =Citra=.

RESULTS: Numidia divided. The war reveals the corruption and incapacity of the Senatorial government of Rome.

=MARSIAN OR SOCIAL WAR.=--90-88 B. C.

(1) =Romans= vs. (2) Italian Allies.

CAUSE: Italian socii (allies) are denied the right of Roman citizenship.

LEADER: (1) =C. Marius=, =Sulla=.

CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Asculum=.

RESULT: Italians form a Federal republic, Italia, with capital at Corfinium. Roman citizenship granted to all Italian residents.

=FIRST ROMAN CIVIL WAR=--88-82 B. C.

(1) =Optimates= vs. (2) Democrats.

CAUSE: Reform measures of Sulpicius are carried by means of violence. Command of army of Asia is transferred from Sulla to Marius.

LEADERS: (1) =Sulla=, =Pompey=; (2) Marius, Cinna, Sertorius, Carbo.

CHIEF ACTIONS: =Sacriportis=, =Colline=, =Gate=, =Sulla’s proscriptions=; (2) Marius’s Reign of Terror.

RESULT: Sulla is appointed dictator.

=THREE MITHRIDATIC WARS=--88-63 B. C.

(1) =Romans= vs. (2) Pontines and Armenians.

CAUSES: Ambition of Mithridates VI. and Roman interference.

LEADERS: (1) =Sulla=, =Lucullus=, =Pompey=; (2) Mithridates (Pontus), Tigranus (Armenia).

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Chæronea=, =Orchomenus=, =Cabira=, =Tigranocerta=; (2) Massacre of Italians in Asia.

RESULTS: Reorganization of the East; Pontus, Syria and Cilicia become Roman provinces.

=GLADIATORIAL AND THIRD SERVILE WAR.=--73-71 B. C.

(1) =Romans= vs. Revolted Gladiators and Slaves.

CAUSE: Uprising of a band of gladiators, escaped from Capua and joined by many slaves of southern Italy.

LEADERS: (1) =Crassus=, =Pompey=; (2) Spartacus.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Silarus=; (2) Mt. Vesuvius.

RESULTS: Revolt put down with cruelty, six thousand crucified.

=GALLIC WAR=--58-51 B. C.

(1) =Romans= vs. (2) Tribes of Gaul.

CAUSE: Desire to extend the Roman empire.

LEADERS: (1) =Julius Cæsar=; (2) Vercingetorix, Ariovistus.

CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Siege of Alesia.=

RESULTS: Conquest and organization of Gaul by Cæsar. Gauls Romanized; boundaries of the old world enlarged (Cæsar’s expedition to Britain 55-54 B. C.); means acquired for changing Rome into a monarchy.

=SECOND ROMAN CIVIL WAR.=--49-31 B. C.

First period, 49-45 B. C.

(1) =Followers of Cæsar= (=democrats=) vs. (2) Followers of Pompey (republican aristocrats).

CAUSE: Struggle for mastery between Cæsar, conqueror of Gaul, and Pompey, conqueror of the East.

LEADERS: (1) =Cæsar=; (2) Pompey and his sons.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) “=Crossing the Rubicon=,” =Pharsalus=, =Thapsus=, =Munda.=

RESULT: Cæsar is appointed dictator for life. He is the founder of the new monarchy at Rome.

Second period--43-42 B. C.

(1) =Friends of Cæsar= (=Second Triumvirate=) vs. (2) Cæsar’s Assassins.

CAUSE: Assassination of Cæsar, 44 B. C.

LEADERS: (1) =Antony=, =Octavius=, =Lepidus=; (2) Brutus, Cassius, Sextus Pompey.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =New proscription= (=Murder of Cicero=), =Philippi=.

RESULT: Brutus and Cassius, defeated, commit suicide.

Third period--31-30 B. C.

(1) =Octavius= vs. (2) Antony.

CAUSE: A continued struggle for supreme power.

LEADERS: (1) =Octavius=; (2) Antony, Cleopatra.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Actium.=

RESULTS: Triumph of Octavius, grand nephew of Julius Cæsar. End of the republic and beginning of the empire.

=JEWISH WAR=--A. D. 66-70.

(1) =Romans= vs. (2) Jews.

CAUSE: Revolt of the Jews against Rome.

LEADER: (1) =Titus, son of Emperor Vespasian.=

CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Siege of Jerusalem.=

RESULT: Destruction of Jerusalem and the temple.

=DACIAN WARS.=--86-90, 101-102, 105-107.

(1) =Romans= vs. (2) Dacians.

CAUSE: Rome desires to extend her conquests.

LEADERS: (1) =Domitian=, =Trajan=; (2) Decebalus.

RESULTS: Dacia is made a Roman province. Roman conquest and empire reaches its highest point.

=CIVIL WARS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.=--193-284.

CAUSES: Contests for the throne among rival generals (barrack emperors).

RESULT: Reorganization of empire by Diocletian (284-305).

=WARS OF CONSTANTINE THE GREAT FOR THE EMPIRE.=--310-323.

(1) =Constantine= vs. (2) Others, Augusti.

CAUSES: Confusion following abdication of Diocletian.

LEADERS: (1) =Constantine=; (2) Maxentius, Maximinus, Licinius.

CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Turin.=

RESULTS: Constantine becomes sole ruler of Roman empire. He redistricts the empire, moves the capital to Constantinople and recognizes Christianity.

=INVASION OF ROMAN EMPIRE BY NORTHERN BARBARIANS=--375-493.

(1) =Romans= vs. (2) Teutons and (Huns), Teutonic Tribes; Visigoths, Vandals, Suevi, Franks, Burgundians, Ostrogoths, Alemanni, Jutes, Saxons, Angles, Lombards.

CAUSES: The Huns (Mongolians) press upon the Teutons, who are forced to seek new lands within the boundaries of the Roman empire.

LEADERS: (1) =Valens=, =Stilicho Ætius=, =Leo= (=bishop of Rome=); (2) Alaric; Walja (Visigoth); Genseric (Vandal); Hengist and Horsa (Saxons); Attila (Hun); Theodoric the Great (Ostrogoth).

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Battle near Chalons= (=451=); (2) Adrianople, Sack of Rome.

RESULTS: Visigothic kingdom of Tolosa (Toulouse) (415-507). Vandals settle in Africa (429-534). Carthage (439).

Burgundians occupy Rhone Valley (443).

Angles, Saxons and Jutes invade England (449), Huns and Ostrogoths ravage Gaul.

Huns destroy Aquileia and Venice founded (452).

Vandals plunder Rome (455).

Odoacer gains ascendency in Rome. The fall of the Roman empire (476).

Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy (493-555).

Overthrow of the Roman empire in the West, though it continued in the East until 1453. This blending of Roman and Teutonic elements under the influence of the Christian religion and what remained of classic civilization formed the civilization of the middle ages.

=WARS OF JUSTINIAN=--533-534.

(1) =Eastern Empire= vs. (2) Vandals in Africa and (3) Ostrogoths in Italy--535-555.

CAUSE: Desire to restore West to Eastern empire.

LEADERS: (1) =Belisarius=, =Narses=; (3) Vitiges Totila.

CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Battle of Taginae= (=552=).

RESULTS: Destruction of Vandal power in Africa and of the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy. Exarchate established at Ravenna.

=WARS OF THE FRANKS=--486-814.

(1) =Franks= vs. (2) Neighboring Peoples.

CAUSES: Desire to extend the limits of Frankish territory and to ward off attacks from without.

LEADERS: (1) =Clovis= (=486-511=), =Charles Martel= (=814-741=), =Pepin the Short= (=751-768=), =Charlemagne= (=768-814=).

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Soissons= (=486=), =Clovis conquers Alemanni and becomes a Catholic Christian= (=496=), =Battle of Tours= (=732=), =Conquest of Burgundy= (=534=), =Charlemagne conquers Lombards= (=774-776=), =Saxons= (=772-804=), =Bavarians= (=788=), =Avars= (=791=), =Northern Spain= (=778=).

RESULTS: Franks become leading power in the West and revive the Western Empire. (Christmas day, 800).

=HEPTARCHIC WARS IN ENGLAND=--588-828.

CAUSES: Struggle for supremacy among the seven Teutonic kingdoms.

LEADERS: Ethelbert (Kent), Edwin (Northumbria), Offa (Mercia), Egbert (Wessex).

CHIEF EVENTS: The supremacy was successively held by kings of Kent, Northumbria, Mercia, and Wessex, Maserfield (642), Ellandun (825).

RESULT: All England at last united under Egbert, king of Wessex (802-837).

=SARACEN OR MOHAMMEDAN WARS=--632-1492.

CAUSE: Saracens are ambitious to found a world wide Mohammedan empire.

LEADERS: (1) =Omar=, =Amru=, =Hassan=, =Mousa=, =Tarik=, =Abderrahman=, =Mohammed II.=, =Abdallah=; (2) Yezdegerd (Persia), Leo the Isaurian, Charles Martel, Constantine, Palæologus, Ferdinand of Aragon.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Yarmouk= (=Syria=), =Damascus Jerusalem Cadesia= (=Persia=), =Alexandria=, =Carthage= (=697=), =Xeres= (=Spain=), =Granada=, =Toledo=; (2) Constantinople (716), Tours, Jerusalem, Las Navas de Tolosa (1212).

(1) =Constantinople= (1453).

(2) Granada (1492).

RESULTS: The Saracens attempted to conquer and convert Europe at three different times between 710 and 1492. Their power began to wane from the latter date.

=NORTHMEN INVASIONS=--Ninth and Tenth Centuries.

(1) =Northmen= vs. (2) People of Western and Southern Europe.

CAUSES: Opportunity for plunder and conquest and later the driving out of adventurous spirits by the organization of settled kingdoms in the north.

LEADERS: (1) =Hastings=, =Rolf=, =Sweyn=, =Canute=; (2) Alfred (England), Odo (France).

CHIEF EVENTS: In England--Treaty of Wedmore, Massacre of Danes (1002).

In France: Siege of Paris. Grant of Normandy to Rolf (977).

RESULTS: The Northmen are the last swarm of Teutonic conquerors. They readily assimilate civilization and infuse new energy into western Europe.

=NORMAN CONQUEST=--1066.

(1) =Normans= vs. (2) English.

CAUSE: William, duke of Normandy wishes to increase his territory and his power.

LEADERS: (1) =William the Conqueror=; (2) Harold, king of England.

CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Hastings.=

RESULTS: The king received added power and a modified feudalism introduced into England. Southern Italy and Sicily were also conquered by bands of Normans in the eleventh century and the kingdom of Naples founded.

=CRUSADES=--1096-1270.

(1) =European Christians= vs. (2) Turks and Moslems.

First Crusade--1096-1099.

CAUSES: The appeal of the eastern emperor for aid, the desire to recover the Holy Sepulcher from the infidels, the love of adventure, and hope of gain.

LEADERS: (1) =Peter the Hermit=, =Godfrey of Bouillon=, =Bohemond of Tarentum=, =Robert of Normandy.=

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Nicæa=, =Antioch=, =Jerusalem.=

RESULTS: Jerusalem is subdued and a transient kingdom is founded at Jerusalem.

Second Crusade--1147-1149.

CAUSE: The conquest of Edessa by the Moslems threatens Jerusalem. Preaching of Saint Bernard.

LEADERS: (1) =Conrad III. of Germany=, =Louis VII. of France.=

CHIEF ACTION: Unsuccessful attack on Damascus.

RESULTS: Armies almost annihilated by hunger, disease and the enemy.

Third Crusade--1189-1192.

CAUSE: Capture of Jerusalem by Saladin.

LEADERS: =Richard I. of England=, =Philip Augustus of France=, =Frederick Barbarossa of Germany=; (2) Saladin.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Acre.=

RESULTS: The Latin Christians secure by treaty the privilege of visiting the tomb of Christ for three years without molestation.

Fourth Crusade--1201-1204.

(1) =Crusaders= vs. (2) Eastern Empire.

CAUSES: Appeals of Innocent III. Through influence of the Venetians the Crusaders turn aside to attack Constantinople.

LEADERS: (1) =Dandolo, Doge of Venice=, =Baldwin of Flanders.=

CHIEF ACTION: (1) Sack of Constantinople.

RESULTS: Division of eastern empire. The Venetians get the monopoly of trade and most of the islands and coast lands of the Ægean and Ionian seas. The remainder is erected into a feudal state, the Latin empire.

Children’s Crusade (legendary)--1212.

CAUSES: Ignorant enthusiasm aroused by visions and miraculous tales.

LEADER: A shepherd lad, Stephen of Vendome.

CHIEF EVENTS: Thousands of children, women and peasants march from France and Germany to the Mediterranean.

RESULTS: Only a small number return home; the others perish on the way or are sold into slavery by French merchants.

Fifth Crusade--1228-1229.

CAUSE: Vow of Frederick II. of Germany. He goes under pope’s excommunication.

LEADER: (1) =Frederick II.=

RESULTS: Frederick, by treaty with the sultan, secures a truce for ten years and the restoration of Bethlehem, Nazareth and Jerusalem to the Christians; Jerusalem is finally lost in 1244.

Sixth Crusade--1248-1254.

CAUSE: Louis IX. of France starts on a crusade via Egypt.

LEADERS: (1) =Louis IX.=, later =St. Louis=.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Damietta=; (2) Expedition to Cairo.

RESULT: Louis is captured in battle and released on payment of heavy ransom and evacuation of Damietta.

Last, Seventh Crusade--1270-1291.

CAUSES: Louis IX. goes against Mohammedans of Tunis, Prince Edward of England to Syria.

LEADER: (1) =Louis IX.=, =Prince Edward=.

CHIEF EVENTS: Death of Louis by the plague; (2) Acre, last Christian stronghold in Syria, falls (1291).

RESULTS: The results of the crusades were development of commerce, introduction of new customs, products and manufactures, increase in freedom of lower classes, especially townsmen, and the power of the crown.

=WAR OF THE EMPIRE=--1158-1183.

(1) =Empire= vs. (2) Italian Communes.

CAUSE: Frederick Barbarossa’s attempt to restore imperial rights over the cities of northern Italy.

LEADERS: (1) =Frederick I. Barbarossa=; (2) Pope Alexander III.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Milan= (1162); (2) Legnano (1176).

RESULTS: By treaty of Constance (1183) the cities of Lombardy are recognized as practically self-governing republics, the barest overlordship remaining to the emperor.

=WARS OF THE BARONS IN ENGLAND=--1215-1265.

(1) =Barons= vs. (2) Kings John and Henry III.

CAUSES: Misgovernment of John and Henry III.

LEADERS: (1) =Stephen Langton=, =Simon de Montfort=;

(2) King John, Prince Edward, later Edward I.

CHIEF EVENTS: (1) =Signing of Magna Charta=, =Lewes=, =Simon de Montfort’s Parliament=; (2) Evesham.

RESULTS: The beginning of constitutional monarchy--henceforth the king is below the law, not above it.

=HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR=--1337-1453.

(1) =English= vs. (2) French.

CAUSES: The conflict of interests of the French and English kings in Guienne, Flanders and Scotland. Edward III. advances claim by descent to the throne of France.

LEADERS: (1) =Edward III.=, =Edward the Black Prince=, =Prince Henry V., Duke of Bedford=; (2) Du Guesclin, Charles V., Joan of Arc.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Crécy=, =Calais=, =Poitiers=, =Peace of Bretigny=, =Agincourt=, =Treaty of Troyes=; (2) Orleans (1429), Castillon (1453).

RESULTS: England loses all her land in France except Calais. During the earlier stage of this war about one-third of the population of western Europe perished from the Black Death.

=AUSTRO-SWISS WAR=--1315-1388.

(1) =House of Hapsburg= vs. (2) Swiss Confederation.

CAUSES: Hapsburgs assert feudal rights over the peasants of the Swiss cantons.

LEADERS: (1) =Leopold III. of Austria=; (2) Arnold von Winkelried.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (2) Morgarten, Sempach, Näfels.

RESULT: Independence of Swiss secured.

=HUSSITE WAR=--1419-1436.

(1) =Bohemian Followers of John Huss= vs. (2) Catholic Europe.

CAUSES: Execution of John Huss, the Bohemian religious reformer, by the council of Constance.

LEADERS: (1) =Ziska=, =Procopius the Great=; (2) Emperor Sigismund, Cardinal Cesarini, Frederick of Brandenburg.

CHIEF EVENTS: Revolt of Prague. Four crusades repulsed.

RESULTS: After the overthrow of the radical Hussites (Taborites) by the conservative Hussites (Calixtines) in the battle of Lipan a Catholic reaction set in which culminated in 1462 with the revocation of the compacts made by the Council of Basel with the Hussites.

=WARS OF THE ROSES=--1455-1485.

(1) =Yorkists= (=White Rose=); vs (2) Lancastrians (Red Rose).

CAUSES: Misgovernment under Henry VI. encourages Richard, duke of York, representing the second line of descent from Edward III., to claim the throne against Henry VII. (third line).

LEADERS: (1) =Richard, duke of York=, =Edward IV.=, =Richard III.=; (2) Duke of Somerset, Queen Margaret, Earl of Warwick (“King-maker”), first a Yorkish and then a Lancastrian, Henry VII.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =St. Albans=, =Northampton=, =Mortimer’s Cross=, =Towton=, =Barnet=, =Tewkesbury=; (2) Wakefield, Bosworth Field.

RESULTS: Henry Tudor (Lancastrian in the female line) secures throne as Henry VII. By his marriage with Elizabeth of York he unites the warring factions and establishes an almost despotic rule in England.

=WARS FOR CONTROL OF ITALY=--1494-1529.

(1) =French= vs. (2) Spanish.

CAUSES: Conflicting claims to the throne of Naples and to the duchy of Milan.

LEADERS: (1) =Charles VIII.=, =Louis XII.=, =Bayard=, =Francis I.=; (2) Ferdinand of Aragon, Charles V., duke of Bourbon, Fürstenburg.

CHIEF ACTIONS: Invasion of Italy by Charles VIII. (1494), League Cambray (1508), Holy League (1511).

(1) =Marignano=; (2) Pavia.

RESULTS: All the leading powers of western Europe were drawn into this struggle. By the peace of Cambraes (1529), France renounced her claims to Italy. One effect of these wars was to tie the hands of Charles V. so as to prevent his putting down Lutheranism in Germany.

=SCHMALKALDIC WAR=--1546-1547.

(1) =Charles V.= (2) League of Schmalkalden.

CAUSES: Charles V. attempts to crush Protestantism in Germany.

LEADERS: (1) =Emperor Charles V.=, =Duke Maurice of Saxony=; (2) John Frederic, Elector of Saxony, Philip, Landgrave of Hesse.

CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Mühlberg.=

RESULTS: Protestantism temporarily crushed. Its recovery in 1552 was followed by the religious peace of Augsburg 1555.

=RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE=--1562-1598.

(1) =Catholics= vs. (2) Huguenots (Protestants).

CAUSE: Massacre of Huguenots at Vassy is a signal for uprising.

LEADERS: (1) =Duke of Guise=, =Henry III.=; (2) Catherine de Medici, Conde, Coligny, Henry of Navarre (Henry IV.)

CHIEF EVENTS: (1) =Massacre of St. Bartholomew= (1572); (2) Siege of Paris, Ivry (1590), Henry of Navarre becomes a Catholic (1593). Riots of Image Breakers. Council of Blood.

RESULTS: By the edict of Nantes (1598) the Huguenots are given equal political rights with Catholics, limited freedom of worship, the possession of La Rochelle and other strong places as cities of refuge.

=WAR OF LIBERATION IN THE NETHERLANDS=--1568-1648.

(1) =Spain= vs. (2) Revolted provinces in the Netherlands.

CAUSES: Political and religious tyranny of Spain. Duke of Alva enforces the Inquisition.

LEADERS: (1) =Duke of Alva=, =Alexander of Parma=; (2) William of Orange, Jan van Oldenbarneveldt, Maurice of Nassau.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Mechlin=, =Haarlem=; (2) Brill, Siege of Leyden, “Spanish Fury” at Antwerp, Pacification of Ghent (1576), Union of Utrecht (1579), Declaration of Independence (1581).

RESULTS: By the Peace of Westphalia (1648) the independence of the seven northern provinces, the United Netherlands, is recognized. The ten southern provinces continue under Spanish rule until 1713.

=THIRTY YEARS’ WAR=--1618-1648.

(1) =German Protestants and their Allies=, =England=, =Holland=, =Sweden and France= vs. (2) Imperial German Catholics and their Allies, Spain, Italy.

CAUSES: Disputes over interpretation of peace of Augsburg (religious and political disputes leading to the revolt of Bohemia). The war passes through four phases: (1) Bohemian-Palatinate, (2) Danish, (3) Swedish, (4) Swedish-French.

LEADERS: (1) =Frederick=, =Elector Palatine=, =Mansfield=, =Gustavus Adolphus= (=Sweden=), =Turenne and Conde= (=France=); (2) Emperor Ferdinand II., Maximilian of Bavaria, Tilly, Wallenstein.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Stralsund=, =Edict of Restitution=, =Breitenfeld=, =Lützen=; (2) White Hill, Magdeburg, Nōrdlingen.

RESULTS: This war is closed by the peace of Westphalia. Alsace thereby goes to France, Switzerland is separated from the empire and the Palatinate is divided. The secularized lands of northern Germany are secured to Protestantism, while leaving to Catholicism Austria, Bohemia and Bavaria. Germany is left desolate.

=CIVIL WAR IN ENGLAND=--1642-1649.

(1) =Royalists= (=Cavaliers=) vs. (2) Parliamentarians (Roundheads) allied with Scots (to 1647).

CAUSES: Charles I. attempts to force a personal government on England. His disputes with Parliament covered (1) taxation, (2) privileges of Parliament, (3) religion, (4) control of the militia.

LEADERS: (1) =Charles I.=, =Prince Rupert=, =Montrose=; (2) Cromwell, Essex, Fairfax, Leslie.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (2) Marston Moor, Naseby, Preston.

RESULTS: The second civil war (1648) determines the army leaders to bring Charles I. to trial and execution (1649). A Commonwealth was then established without King or House of Lords but with Oliver Cromwell as Protector (1653 to 1659). The son of Charles I. restored in 1660 as Charles II.

=FIRST THREE WARS OF LOUIS XIV.=--1667-1697.

(1) =France= vs. a. Spanish Netherlands; b. Dutch republic; c. Grand Alliance (German States, England, Holland).

CAUSES: Louis XIV.’s passion for fame and desire to increase French territory in Europe.

LEADERS: (1) =Turenne=, =Conde=, =Luxembourg=; (2) William III., De Ruyter.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Ravaging of Palatinate=, =Steenkirke=, =Neerwinden=; (2) Sasbach, La Hogue, Namur.

RESULT: Extension of boundaries of France to the northeast.

=SPANISH SUCCESSION (in America), QUEEN ANNE’S WAR=--1701-1714.

(1) =France=, =Spain and Bavaria= vs. (2) Austria, England, Holland, Portugal, Savoy.

CAUSES: Acceptance by Louis XIV. of the bequest of the Spanish dominion to his grandson, Philip of Anjou, in violation of the partition treaty to which he had consented.

LEADERS: (1) =Vendome Villars=, =Leopold of Dessau=; (2) Duke of Marlborough, Eugene of Savoy, Heinsius.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (2) Gibraltar, Blenheim, Ramillies, Turin, Oudenarde, Malplaquet.

RESULTS: By the peace of Utrecht in 1713 and that of Rastadt in 1714 Spain and the Indies go to Philip of Anjou; Naples, Milan, Sardinia and former Spanish Netherlands to the Austrians. England receives Newfoundland, Acadia and Hudson Bay Territory from France and Gibraltar from Spain.

=NORTHERN WAR=--1700-1721.

(1) =Sweden= vs. (2) Russia, Poland, Denmark, Saxony.

CAUSES: Peter the Great joins Poland, Denmark and Saxony for the purpose of despoiling Sweden, the first power of the north, of her Baltic ports.

LEADERS: (1) =Charles XII.=; (2) Peter the Great (Russia), Augustus II. of Saxony.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Invasion of Denmark=, =Narva=, =Invasion of Saxony=; (2) Pultava.

RESULTS: By the peace of Nystadt (1721) Sweden cedes large territories to Russia. Russia takes the place of Sweden as the foremost power of the north.

=WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION=--1740-1748.

(1) =Austria, supported by Hungary=, =Bohemia=, =England=, =Holland and Saxony= vs. (2) Prussia, France, Spain, Bavaria.

CAUSES: When Maria Theresa succeeded her father, Charles IV. of Austria, Frederick the Great of Prussia seized Silesia. This precipitated a struggle for Austrian territories. At the death of Charles VI. of Austria the right of Maria Theresa to the throne is contested chiefly by Frederick the Great of Prussia, who seizes Silesia.

LEADERS: (1) =Maria Theresa=, =George II. of England=, =Charles of Lorraine=; (2) Frederick the Great of Prussia, Emperor Charles VII., Schwerin.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Dettingen=; (2) Mollwitz, Chotusitz, Prague, Fontenoy, Hohenfriedburg, Soor.

RESULTS: By the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle Silesia is secured to Prussia, which state now becomes a great European power. This war is one phase of the long rivalry between France and Great Britain for sea power and dominion in America and India.

=SEVEN YEARS’ WAR, OR THIRD SILESIAN WAR=;

In America: =FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR=--1756-1763.

(1) =England=, =Prussia= vs. (2) France, Austria, Russia and Spain, Sweden.

CAUSES: Maria Theresa wishes to regain Silesia. Hostilities between French and English in America and India. George II.’s concern for his ancestral territory of Hanover.

LEADERS: (1) =Frederick the Great=, =Duke of Cumberland=, =Wolfe= (=America=), =Robert Clive= (=India=); (2) Daun (Austria), Charles of Lorraine, Montcalm (America).

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Dresden=, =Rossbach=, =Leuthen=, =Zorndorf=, =Minden=; (2) Kolin, Hohkirchen, Kunersdorf.

In America: (1) =Louisburg=, =Fort Duquesne=, =Quebec.=

In India: (1) =Plassey=, =Wandewash.=

RESULTS: The peace of Paris (1763) gives England Canada, the supremacy in India and certain islands, especially in the West Indies. Prussia retains Silesia. This war really founded the British empire which is based on sea power and colonial dominion.

=WARS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION=--1792-1802.

(1) =Revolutionary France= vs. (2) Coalitions of England, Austria, Prussia, Holland and Spain. The Empire, Russia.

a. First Coalition--1792-1797.

CAUSES: Intrigues of emigrés; horror of Europe at the execution of the king; French offer of aid to revolutionists in other countries.

LEADERS: (1) =Dumouriez=, =Kellermann=, =Jourdan=, =Hoche=, =Pichegru=, =Napoleon Bonaparte=, =Moreau=; (2) Duke of Brunswick, Coburg, Charles of Austria.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Valmy=, =Occupation of Nice and Savoy=, =Jemmapes=, =Execution of king= (=1793=), =Annexation of Belgium=, =Fleurus=, =Lodi=, =Siege of Mantua=; (2) Mainz, Neerwinden, Kaiserslautern, Wurzburg.

RESULTS: By peace of Campo Formio (1797) the French frontier is advanced to the Rhine, Venice is given to Austria and the Cisalpine and Ligurian republics founded in Italy under French control.

b. Bonaparte’s Egyptian Expedition--1798-1799.

CAUSES: Bonaparte aims to prepare the way to attack Great Britain’s power in India and dreams of rivaling early conquerors of the east.

LEADERS: (1) =Napoleon Bonaparte=; (2) Nelson (England).

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Battle of the Pyramids=; (2) Battle of the Nile at Aboukir, Acre.

RESULTS: Nelson’s victory removes a serious menace to British power in India, cuts off the French in Egypt and deprives France of communication with its best troops and ablest general.

c. Second Coalition--1799-1802.

CAUSES: The mistakes of the government of the Directory and the prestige of Nelson’s victory enable Great Britain to form the Second Coalition.

LEADERS: (1) =Napoleon=, =Joubert=, =Moreau=; (2) Suvaroff, Melas, Archduke John.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Marengo=, =Hohenlinden=; Napoleon’s passage of the Alps (Great St. Bernard); (2) Novi.

RESULTS: The Peace of Presburg ends the contest between France and Austria. Much harsher terms are imposed on Austria. Peace of Luneville with Austria (1801); Peace of Amiens with England (1802); Surrender of England’s conquests except Trinidad and Ceylon; Malta to be restored to Knights of Malta.

=NAPOLEONIC WARS=--1802-1815.

(1) =France under Napoleon= vs. (2) European Powers led by England.

a. Third Coalition--1805.

CAUSES: Neither England nor France regarded the peace of Amiens as more than a truce. Among the many causes of friction leading to renewal of war, chief place was given to England’s refusal to restore Malta.

LEADERS: (1) =Napoleon=; (2) Nelson, Mack, Alexander I. (Russia), Kutusoff.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Ulm=, =Austerlitz=; (2) Trafalgar.

RESULTS: As a result of his brilliant successes, Napoleon, in 1802 becomes consul for life and in 1804 took the title emperor of the French. Confirmation of treaty of Campo Formio, with the recognition of Batavian, Helvetian, Cisalpine and Ligurian republics.

b. (Fourth) War with Prussia and Russia--1806-1807.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Double battle of Jena and Auerstädt=, =Berlin decree=, =Eylau= (=indecisive=), =Friedland.=

RESULTS: By the treaties of Tilsit (1807) Russia recognizes Napoleon’s relatives as kings of Naples, Holland and Westphalia and consents to the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine and the grand duchy of Warsaw under Napoleon’s control. Alexander and Napoleon combine to dominate Europe. Prussia cedes territories containing half her population.

c. Peninsular War--1808-1814.

CAUSES: Rebellion of Spain against Joseph Bonaparte, whom Napoleon had placed on the throne.

LEADERS: (1) =Soult=, =Massena=; (2) Duke of Wellington.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Corunna=; (2) Talavera, Lines of Torres Vedras, Albuera, Salamanca, Vittoria, Toulouse.

RESULTS: French expelled from the peninsula.

d. Fifth War with Austria--1809.

LEADERS: (1) =Napoleon=; (2) Archduke Charles.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Aspern,=, =Wagram.=

RESULTS: Austria cedes thirty-two thousand square miles of territory, containing three and one-half million inhabitants.

e. Invasion of Russia--1812.

CAUSE: Alexander’s refusal to enforce Napoleon’s continental system, and other causes of dispute.

LEADERS: (1) =Napoleon=, =Marshal Ney=; (2) Kutusoff, Barclay de Tolly.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Smolensk=, =Borodino.= Burning of Moscow, Retreat from Moscow, Passage of the Beresina.

RESULT: Less than twenty thousand of the half million men in Napoleon’s army recrossed the Russian frontier.

f. War of Liberation--1813-1814.

CAUSES: The disastrous Russian campaign, together with the steady progress of the British in the peninsular war encouraged the oppressed states of Germany to rise against Napoleon’s tyranny, Prussia taking the lead.

LEADERS: (1) =Napoleon,=, =Ney=, =Macdonald=; (2) Frederick, William III., Francis I., Alexander I., Schwarzenberg, Blücher, Bernadotte.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Lützen=, =Bautzen=, =Dresden=; (2) Dennewitz, Leipzig, (Battle of the Nations). Allies enter Paris.

RESULTS: Driven from Russia in 1812, from Germany in 1813, Napoleon in 1814 was forced to surrender France itself. By the treaty of Fontainebleau he was given the Island of Elba and an annual revenue of two million francs.

g. Waterloo Campaign--1815.

CAUSES: Quarrels among the allies and dissatisfaction of French with Louis XVIII. tempt Napoleon to return from Elba.

LEADERS: (1) =Napoleon=, =Ney=; (2) Wellington, Blücher.

CHIEF ACTIONS: Napoleon lands at Cannes (March 1); enters Paris March 20.

(1) =Ligny=; (2) Quatre Bras, Waterloo (June 18).

RESULTS: Waterloo marks the final downfall of Napoleon. He is transported to the island of St. Helena, where he died in 1821. In the Congress of Vienna the allies reconstructed Europe, restoring in general the legitimate rulers and erecting barriers against democratic movements and liberal ideas.

=WAR OF GRECIAN INDEPENDENCE=--1821-1829.

(1) =Greeks, aided by England, Russia and France= vs. (2) Turks.

CAUSES: Revived feeling of Greek nationality, stimulated by a widespread secret society working for a restoration of a Greek empire at Constantinople.

LEADERS: (1) =Ypsilanti=, =Diebitsch= (Russia), =Codrington= (England), =Byron= (England); (2) Ibrahim, Pasha.

CHIEF ACTIONS: Massacre of Greeks at Chios.

(1) =Navarino=, =Adrianople=; (2) Missolonghi.

RESULTS: The treaty of Adrianople, 1829, compelled Turkey to acknowledge the independence of Greece, which chose as king the Bavarian prince Otto I.

=CRIMEAN WAR=--1854-1856.

(1) =Russia= vs. (2) Turkey aided by Great Britain, France and Sardinia.

CAUSES: The question of the political status and future of the lands of the Turkish empire. Immediate cause, the claim of Russia to a protectorate over all Greek Christians living under the sultan’s rule.

LEADERS: (1) =Mentchikoff=, =Gortchakoff=; (2) Canrobert, Pelissier (France), Raglan, Simpson (England).

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Balaclava=; (2) Alma, Siege of Sebastopol, Inkermann.

RESULTS: In the peace of Paris (1856) Russia’s claim to a protectorate is disallowed, the Danube is opened to navigation and the Black Sea is closed to war vessels of all powers.

=SEPOY MUTINY=--1857-1858.

(1) =Sepoys= vs. (2) English.

CAUSES: Uneasiness created by the rapid progress of British ways and rule causes a revolt of native Sepoy troops of India. Immediate cause the rumor that cartridges furnished troops were greased with a mixture of hog and beef fat--the one animal an object of loathing to Mohammedans, the other of religious worship to the Hindu.

LEADERS: (1) =Nana Sahib=; (2) Nicholson, Havelock, Campbell.

CHIEF ACTIONS: Mutiny of Sepoys at Meerut.

(1) =Massacre at Cawnpore=; (2) Delhi, Relief of Lucknow.

RESULTS: Following the suppression of the mutiny the charter of the East India company is revoked and India passes directly under the crown, a secretary of state for India being added to the British ministry.

=WAR OF ITALIAN LIBERATION=--1859.

(1) =Sardinia-Piedmont and France= vs. (2) Austria.

CAUSES: Since 1848 Sardinia-Piedmont had been the center of the movement for Italian unity. Following promises of aid from Napoleon III. Cavour traps Austria into declaring war over the question of disarmament.

LEADERS: (1) =Victor Emmanuel=, =Napoleon III.=, =Garibaldi=; (2) Francis Joseph II., Gyulay.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Montebello=, =Magenta=, =Solferino.= Peace signed at Zurich, November 10, 1859.

RESULTS: By this war Victor Emmanuel gained Lombardy. In 1860 Tuscany, Parma, Modena and the papal legations were added. In 1861 he gained Sicily and Naples, together with the title King of Italy. Venetia followed as a result of alliance with Prussia in 1866 and the addition of Rome in 1871 completed the unification of Italy.

=DANISH WAR=--1864.

(1) =Austria and Prussia= vs. (2) Denmark.

CAUSES: Incorporation of the duchy of Schleswig with Denmark in violation of treaty of 1852.

LEADERS: (1) =Gablenz= (=Austria=), =Prince Frederick=, =Charles= (=Prussia=); (2) Dermeza, Gerlach.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Invasion of Jutland=, =Storming of Düppel.=

RESULTS: Denmark gives up Schleswig-Holstein, which is jointly administered by Austria and Prussia.

=AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR=--1866.

(1) =Prussia with smaller North German States and Italy= vs. (2) Austria, Hanover, Saxony, and South German States.

CAUSES: Friction over Schleswig-Holstein enables Bismarck to force Austria into a war for supremacy in Germany.

LEADERS: (1) =William I.=, =Prince Frederick=, =Charles=, =Moltke=, =Victor Emmanuel=; (2) Benedek, Archduke Albert, Gablenz, Prince Charles of Bavaria.

CHIEF ACTIONS: In Bohemia: (1) =Soor=, =Koniggrätz or Sadowa=; (2) Trautenau. In the West: (1) =Aschaffenburg=; (2) Langensala. _In Italy_: (2) Custozza, Lissa.

RESULTS: Closed with the peace of Prague, August 23, 1866, which authorized the re-establishment of the federated German states, excluding Austria; Austria ceded Venetia to Italy, and her rights in Schleswig-Holstein to Prussia. Hanover, Hesse, Nassau are also annexed to Prussia.

=FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR=--1870-1871.

(1) France vs. (2) =Prussia= supported by all German States.

CAUSES: Jealousy of France at Prussian gains and friction over Hohenzollern candidacy for the throne of Spain. Bismarck’s falsification of the “Ems dispatch” tricked France into a declaration of war.

LEADERS: Napoleon III., MacMahon, Bazaine; (2) =William I.=, =Moltke=, =Prince Frederick Charles=, =Crown Prince Frederic William.=

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Saarbrucken=; (2) Weissenberg, Wörth, Vionville, Gravelotte, Sedan, Capitulation of Metz, Orleans, Capitulation of Paris.

RESULTS: Closed in 1871 with the treaty of Versailles with the following results: (1) The French military power was destroyed; (2) the western frontier of Germany was rendered secure; (3) The German empire was established; (4) Germany acquired Alsace and Lorraine. In France Napoleon III. is deposed and the Third Republic established, 1870.

=RUSSO-TURKISH WAR=--1877-1878.

(1) =Russia= vs. (2) Turkey.

CAUSES: Turkish misgovernment and revolts in her Christian subject provinces, which were barbarously put down (“Bulgarian atrocities”) arouse all Europe but Russia alone declares war.

LEADERS: (1) =Grand Duke Nicholas=, =Gurka=, =Grand Duke Michael=, =Alexander II.=; (2) Suleiman Pasha, Osman Pasha, Mukhitar Pasha.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Passages of the Danube at Shitova=, =Shipka Pass=, =Plevna=, =Storm of Kars.=

RESULTS: By the peace of San Stefano as revised in the congress of the powers at Berlin, Montenegro, Servia and Roumania become independent; Bulgaria remains tributary but receives a Christian prince; Russia obtains large indemnity and part of Armenia and also Bessarabia.

=CHINESE-JAPANESE WAR=--1894-1895.

(1) =Japan= vs. (2) China.

CAUSES: Rival claims to suzerainty over Korea.

LEADERS: (1) =Ito=, =Yamagata=, =Oyama=, =Nogi=; (2) Tso, Yeh, Wei.

CHIEF ACTIONS: =Yalu River=, =Port Arthur=, =Wei-hai-wei=, =Niuchwang.=

RESULTS: Treaty of Shimonoseki, signed April 17, 1895, removed Korea from Chinese influence; ceded Formosa and the Pescadores to Japan, and awarded to the latter an indemnity of $180,000,000.

=SOUTH AFRICAN OR BOER WAR=--1899-1902.

(1) =Great Britain= vs. (2) Transvaal, Orange Free State.

CAUSES: Resistance by the Boers to the British form of government in the Transvaal.

LEADERS: (1) =Sir George White Buller=, =Methuen=, =Roberts=, =Kitchener=, =French=; (2) Cronje, Botha, De Wet, Delarey.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Siege of Ladysmith=, =Paardeberg=; (2) Colenso, Spion Kop, Vaal Krantz, Magersfontein.

RESULT: Boers surrendered May 31, 1902; are granted the right of self-government under British sovereignty, and united with other self-governing British colonies in South Africa, in 1910, to form the Union of South Africa.

=RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR=--1904-1905.

(1) =Japan= vs. (2) Russia.

CAUSES: Russian encroachments in Manchuria, and their fortification of Port Arthur.

LEADERS: (1) =Togo=, =Kuroki=, =Oku=, =Nodzu=, =Oyama=, =Nogi=; (2) Kuropatkin, Alexieff, Makaroff, Stoessel, Stakelberg, Linievitch.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Port Arthur and Chemulpo=, =Vladivostok=, =Yalu River=, =Dalny=, =Siege of Port Arthur=, =Mukden=, =Sea of Japan.=

RESULTS: Closed September 5, 1905, by treaty of Portsmouth by which Korea passes under control of Japan, China regains Manchuria, and Japan is granted important railroad rights.

=BALKAN WAR=--1912-1913.

(1) =Montenegro=, =Bulgaria=, =Servia and Greece= vs. (2) Turkey.

CAUSES: Discontent with Turkish rule in Macedonia.

LEADERS: (1) =Savoff=, =Dimitrieff=, =Putnik=, =Constantine=; (2) Nazim Pasha, Mukhtar Pasha, Abdullah Pasha.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Kirk Kilisseh=, =Lule Burgas=, =Monastir.=

RESULTS: Turkey appealed to the powers, November 3, 1912, for intervention, and an armistice was signed December 3, 1912, ending one of the shortest and most sanguinary wars in history. The treaty of peace was signed May 30, 1913.

(2) =Servia=, =Greece=, =Roumania=, =Turkey= vs. Bulgaria.

CAUSES: Disputes over the division of Macedonia.

CHIEF ACTIONS: Mainly astounding atrocities and the re-occupation of Adrianople by Turkey.

RESULTS: Reorganization of the Balkan states. Albania was made independent under an international commission of control; Crete was ceded to Greece; Macedonia was divided among Greece, Servia, and Bulgaria; and Roumania gained a strip from the northwest of Bulgaria. On September 17, 1913, an agreement between Bulgaria and Turkey provided that the latter retain Adrianople, Kirk Kilisseh, and Dimotika. September 28 the treaty between Bulgaria and Turkey was signed at Constantinople.

=EUROPEAN WAR=--1914-1917.

(1) Entente Allies (Great Britain, France, Russia, Italy, Belgium, Servia, Montenegro, Roumania, Portugal, Japan) vs. (2) Teutonic Allies (Germany, Austro-Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria).

CAUSES: (1) The immediate occasion of this great conflict was the murder of the Crown Prince and Crown Princess of the Austro-Hungarian empire, on June 28, 1914, at Sarajevo, Bosnia, through the alleged instigation of a Servian revolutionary society, called the Narodna Odbrana, which had for its purpose the disrupting of the Austro-Hungarian empire, particularly those parts inhabited largely by Servians and other Slavic races, followed by a demand on the part of the Austro-Hungarian government that Servia suppress the criminal organization and permit the former to co-operate in the inquiry as to the accomplices on Servian territory in the murders of the Prince and Princess. This demand was refused by Servia, which immediately received the support of Russia, France and Great Britain, while Austria-Hungary received the support of Germany, and, later, of Turkey.

(2) The underlying causes were the following:

(a) The policy of Russia (popularly known as Pan-Slavism), an age-long political creed of Russian ambition, to dominate the Balkan countries and extend her dominions to the Bosphorus, the Ægean and the Adriatic.

(b) The ambition of France to regain Alsace-Lorraine, lost to her by the Franco-Prussian war.

(c) The determination of Great Britain to check the growth of Germany, politically, industrially, and especially commercially.

(3) More remote causes, and more specious ones, are alleged to be:

(a) The European political doctrine of the “Balance of Power,” which was the outgrowth of the Napoleonic wars, and received its first stamp of approval at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, which settled the important boundaries of the map of Europe for more than half a century afterward. Subsequently, the “great powers” of Europe assumed the point of view that any acquisition of power, territory or population by any one of them entitled all the others to compensation; so that the relative strength and importance might not be disturbed. This rule has been applied to every important war since Napoleon’s time, and any threatened disturbance of this “balance” has always had in it the germ of a general conflict. Hence arose the historic “alliances,” known as the Triple Alliance, on the one hand, and the Triple Entente, comprising France, Russia and Great Britain, on the other.

(b) Militarism, so-called, with its attendant jealousies and obstacles to social and economic reforms, and which might be said to be the direct fruits of the “balance of power” doctrine, as is also the doctrine of the “guaranteed neutrality” of certain small countries of Europe, which astute European diplomacy created for the purpose of “buffer” states.

MILITARY LEADERS: (1) Kitchener, French, Haig, Joffre, Grand Duke Nicholas, Kouropatkin, Brusiloff, Admirals Fisher and Jellicoe; (2) Emperor William, Hindenburg, Mackensen, Kluck, Falkenhayn, Archduke Frederick, Hoetzendorf, Crown Prince Frederick William, Admiral Tirpitz, Crown Prince Rupprecht, Enver Pasha.

CHIEF THEATERS OF ACTION: (1) Belgium; (2) Northern France; (3) Poland; (4) Dardanelles; (5) Servia and Balkans; (6) Roumania; (7) Austro-Italian Front; (8) Lithuania; (9) North Sea and Inlets; (10) Mediterranean; (11) German Colonial Possessions throughout the world.

RESULTS: Except for the loss of Germany’s Colonial Possessions, the results of the war to date (1917) largely preponderate in favor of the Teutonic Allies--the land campaigns being almost overwhelmingly in their favor. (See further Great Battles of the World.)

CHRONOLOGY OF GREAT EVENTS:

=1914=

June 28.--Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand and the Duchess of Hohenberg at Sarajevo, Bosnia, by Servian student.

July 28.--Austria declares war on Servia, and hostilities commence, after Germany and Austria refuse England’s invitation to a conference.

August 1.--Germany formally declares war on Russia, and troops are ordered mobilized.

France mobilizes.

August 3.--Germany declares war on France. German troops enter Belgium.

August 4.--War declared by England on Germany.

August 6.--Austria declares war against Russia.

August 9.--Servia declares war on Germany.

August 11.--Montenegro declares war on Germany.

August 12.--France declares war on Austria-Hungary.

August 12.--England declares war on Austria.

August 23.--Japan in state of war with Germany.

August 25.--Austria declares war on Japan.

August 29.--Austria declares war on Belgium.

August 30.--Paris prepares for a siege.

September 5.--England, France and Russia agree not to treat for peace separately.

October 30.--Russia declares state of war exists with Turkey.

November 5.--Great Britain officially announces state of war with Turkey.

Servia severs diplomatic relations with Turkey.

=1915=

February 17.--Germans begin submarine campaign by sinking British collier without warning.

February 24.--Britain closes Irish and North channels to all navigation.

March 1.--Great Britain declares virtual blockade of German coast.

March 15.--British council order prohibits all traffic to and from Germany.

May 23.--Italy declares war on Austria-Hungary.

October 14.--Bulgaria declares war on Servia.

=1916=

August 27.--Italy declares war on Germany.

Roumania entered the war on the side of the allies.

October 11.--Upon demand of Great Britain and France the entire Greek fleet and sea-coast forts were turned over to the allies or dismantled.

December 7.--David Lloyd George accepted British post of Prime Minister and First Lord of the Treasury.

December 8.--Roumanian army trapped in Prahova Valley, surrendered to General von Mackensen’s forces.

December 12.--Chancellor von Bethmann-Hollweg announced to the Reichstag that Germany and her allies proposed to enter forthwith into peace negotiations.

=1917=

February.--The chief occurrences in the opening months of this year were the blockade declared by Germany against the Entente Allies, and the announcement of unrestricted submarine warfare upon neutral shipping to the nations composing that alliance. This course was justified by the German government as a retaliation against the starvation blockade instituted by Great Britain and her allies.

GREAT AMERICAN AND FOREIGN BATTLES.

This table includes those battles of decisive or far-reaching importance upon the destinies of the contestants. The dates are according to the Old Style, or Julian, calendar down to 1582; after that date, according to the New Style, or Gregorian, calendar. The victors in the various battles are printed in =bold-face= type. Details of minor American battles will be found in connection with the Outline Tables of American History. †Naval battles. *Indecisive results.

BOOK OF LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

HOW TO SPEAK CORRECT ENGLISH

HOW TO WRITE CORRECT ENGLISH

ABBREVIATIONS, CONTRACTIONS AND DEGREES

FORMS OF WRITTEN ENGLISH

LETTER WRITING AND CORRESPONDENCE

DICTIONARY OF CLASSIC WORDS AND PHRASES

WORDS AND PHRASES FROM MODERN LANGUAGES

DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE

CHARTS OF ENGLISH AND AMERICAN AUTHORS

DICTIONARY OF LITERARY ALLUSIONS

PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF MYTHOLOGY

CHART OF GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHS

BOOK OF LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

HOW TO SPEAK CORRECT ENGLISH -- FUNDAMENTAL RULES -- THE ORGAN OF SPEECH -- VOWELS -- CONSONANTS -- TABLE OF CONSONANTS -- RULES OF PRONUNCIATION -- COMMON ERRORS IN PRONUNCIATION -- EXPRESSION -- INFLECTION OF THE VOICE -- WRITTEN ENGLISH -- RULES RELATING TO STYLE -- GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION -- RIGHT AND WRONG USE OF WORDS IN SPEAKING AND WRITING -- USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS -- ABBREVIATIONS, CONTRACTIONS AND DEGREES -- PUNCTUATION -- RHETORICAL FIGURES OF SPEECH -- FORMS OF WRITTEN ENGLISH -- LETTER WRITING OR CORRESPONDENCE -- OFFICIAL AND TITLED SALUTATIONS -- NARRATION -- (BIOGRAPHY -- FICTION AND DRAMA -- NEWS) -- EXPOSITION -- (ESSAY -- EDITORIALS) -- DESCRIPTION -- ARGUMENT -- POETRY AND POETICS -- PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF CLASSIC WORDS AND PHRASES -- PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF WORDS AND PHRASES FROM THE MODERN LANGUAGES -- ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE -- OUTLINE CHARTS OF ENGLISH AND AMERICAN AUTHORS -- DICTIONARY OF LITERARY ALLUSIONS: FAMOUS BOOKS, POEMS, DRAMAS, LITERARY CHARACTERS, PLOTS, PEN NAMES, LITERARY SHRINES AND GEOGRAPHY, AND OTHER MISCELLANY -- PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF MYTHOLOGY: GODS, HEROES, AND MYTHICAL WONDER TALES -- CHART OF GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHS, THEIR ORIGIN, RELATIONSHIP AND DESCENT.

HOW TO SPEAK CORRECT ENGLISH

Correctly spoken English is quite as important as correctly written English. Errors in pronunciation, modulation and general expression are of frequent occurrence, and it sometimes seems that the erroneous utterance of whole classes of words league the tongue and ear against their right use. An improved standard of pronunciation, therefore, is the safest bulwark against a permanent deterioration of our language, as well as a positive influence in advancing individual culture of speech.

=Five Fundamental Rules.=--The essential steps toward securing the unconscious ability to speak correctly may be set down as follows:

1. To thoroughly study the elementary sounds, and their mode of representation.

2. To observe the current usage of the best speakers with regard to such words as are most liable to be mispronounced.

3. To note the standard of pronunciation and expression of the best dramatic theaters.

4. By forming the habit of frequent reference to the dictionary and learning to interpret at sight the authorized pronunciation.

5. Ample practice in the reading and application of the leading principles of pronunciation that give words their true spoken values.

=The Organ of Speech.=--The mouth is the organ of speech; and the manner of production of the various sounds is of the first importance in the cultivation of correct pronunciation.

The sound uttered depends upon the form of the mouth. Change the form and you change the sound. Each particular sound is produced from a particular position.

Not more than one sound can be produced from one position of the mouth.

To produce a different sound you must change the position.

Each sound should be clear and precise. There should be no slurring.

The muscles must be under perfect control so that the mouth (lips and tongue included) may readily assume the position necessary for the emission of the required sound.

The proper use of the lips is the great factor in fluent speech.

It is from inability to use or negligence in using the muscles of the organ of speech that Americans are such indifferent linguists and frequently even incapable of distinct utterance of their own language.

The manner of production of the various sounds is of the first importance in the cultivation of correct pronunciation.

=Vowels.=--Pronounce the following words: moor; meer; merry; marry; mar; more. The whole compass of the mouth is brought into exercise by these words.

The first sound is produced from the lips. The second comes from a point just inside the mouth. The third sound point is farther back still. The last vowel is uttered from the throat.

If the sound a (long) as in bare, fair, is included, we have a scale of seven sounds produced by a gradual opening of the mouth, the sound point receding note by note from the front of the lips to the back of the throat, thus: moor, meer, merry, Mary, marry, mar, more.

In cultured English centers and in some parts of New England, the long sound of ä, No. 4, appears in such words as dance, France, glass, castle, cast, past, grasp, grant, etc.

In pronouncing the four words--meer merry, marry, mar--the mouth is gradually opened. The four separate “sound points” may be clearly recognized.

Repeat slowly:

1 2 3 4 meer merry marry mar mee mé mâ mä ee é â ä

O is a single sound. In conversation, however, it usually becomes double, being combined with the sound--oo (as in too, tooth, woo)--thus:

so is pronounced so-oo no is pronounced no-oo go is pronounced go-oo

The short o sound is pronounced as in hot, pot, nod, God.

O followed by a double consonant is short:

off not awf office not awfice coffee not cawfee cross, dross, loss, toss

The sound oo unites with the open sound ä to form the double sound in such words as--cow, how, now:

cä-oo cow nä-oo now dä-oo-n down ä-oo-t out

The sound u is a peculiar combination of at least three sounds. It is really a continued flow from ee to oo.

The letter is pronounced exactly as the word you. Speak the vowel very slowly.

The intermediate sound of û may be represented thus:

u is ee-û-oo duke is dee-û-oo-k tube is tee-û-oo-b mute is mee-û-oo-t

The same sounds occur in such words as few, new, mew.

The middle sound is the most important, and the first and last must be cut very short for a good style.

Ru and lu. When u is preceded by r or l, the first portion of the triple sound is omitted and a double vowel sound is heard--the last part also being cut very short.

=Consonants.=--Speak slowly and pronounce every letter.

INITIAL CONSONANTS.--Of these only two require special attention:

th and sh followed by r.

Children frequently say:--one, two, free; and grown-up people will speak of--shrimps as srimps.

Examples: three, shrimp; thread, shrill; throat, shrink; thrush, shroud; through, shrew.

FINAL CONSONANTS.--The slurring or omission of final consonants is a greater fault than the mispronunciation of vowels, for it points directly to carelessness and indolence on the part of the speaker.

R. It is sometimes stated that there is no r sound in English.

In singing the r is always made distinct.

It should also be apparent in conversation. Thus: father and farther are quite distinct. So, too, ma and mar.

The t belongs to the preceding syllable and the words should be pronounced thus: nat-ure, feat-ure, pict-ure, premat-ure, creat-ure, fut-ure, indent-ure, nurt-ure.

The consonant values of w and y are never terminal in a syllable, but are followed in the same syllable by a vowel. In attempting, for phonic practice, to sound either of these consonants apart from its vowel, make it continuous, not abrupt.

H cannot be separated from its accompanying vowel. Pronounce ha, he, hi, ho, hu, hy. Notice that the office of h is to cover the following vowel with breath. It will be seen, on careful examination, that any attempt to sound h alone will result in whispering a vowel with it.

Wh has for its initial sound simply unvocalized breath, poured through the lips placed in position for w. As a whole the digraph is sounded as it would naturally be if the order of the letters were reversed, thus, hw; as, when, while, whip, pronounced hwen, hwile, hwip.

Lisping children and Germans need to carefully observe the sounds of s and th.

The sound of s is formed by forcing unvocal breath between the tip of the tongue and the upper gum.

Th is produced by placing the tip of the tongue between the teeth or against the upper front teeth, and forcing vocal or unvocal breath between the tongue and the teeth. If vocal breath is used, sonant th is heard, as in this; if unvocal breath, then non-sonant th is produced, as in thin--this last is the sound made for s by those who lisp (lithp).

TABLE OF CONSONANTS

===============+===============+=========================+========+===== =Name according| =Checks= | =Spirants, Breathings= | =Liq- |=Na- to exit of | | [13] | uids |sals= sound= | | | Trills=| ---------------+-------+-------+------------+------------+--------+----- =Name according|=Tenues|=Mediæ |=Sharp Hard=| =Flat Soft=| | to quality of | Sharp | Flat | | | | sound= | Hard= | Soft= | | | | ---------------+-------+-------+------------+------------+--------+----- {Labials | p | b |... | w | ... | m O {Labiodentals|... |... |... | v | ... |... r {Dentals | t | d | th in | th in this | l | n g { | | | thunder | | | a { |... |... |{ s | z | ... |... n { |... |... |{ |{ j in (Fr.)| ... |... i { | | |{ sh |{ jour | | c { |... |... |{ |{ s in | ... |... {Palatals | | |{ |{ pleasure | | N { |... |... |{ ch in | j in John | r |... a { | | |{ church | | | m { |... |... |{ ch in | y in you | ... |... e { | | |{(Germ.) ich| | | s {Gutturals |k, q, c|g in go|ch in Scotch|g in (Germ.)| ... | ng { | | | (loch) | tage | | ---------------+-------+-------+------------+------------+--------+-----

[13] Some of the Breathings are often called Aspirates.

ACCENT OF WORDS

One syllable of every word with two or more syllables receives, in pronouncing, more force than another. This stronger force is called ACCENT, and the syllable which receives this force is said to be accent´ed.

MARKS OF ACCENT.--The primary accent is marked with a firm oblique stroke, thus: ob´ject, object´, discov´er. The secondary accent is marked by a similar but lighter stroke, or sometimes by two light strokes, thus: lem[´]on-ade´ (or lem´´on-ade´).

UNACCENTED VOWELS.--Every vowel, when under either the primary or the secondary accent, is distinct; that is, the exact sound of the vowel is evident, as short a, long i, broad o, etc. In an unaccented syllable, the vowel sound is sometimes doubtful; in most instances, however, it is not. For instance, a correct speaker says: ăttĕn´tĭve, ăn´ĕcdōte, cōmprēhĕnd´, ăllēgā´tiȯn, chăp´ĕl, prĕs´_e_nt, ĕm´ĭnĕnt, prāi´rĭe, a̤u´dĭĕnce, căl´loŭs.

RULES OF PRONUNCIATION

RULE I.--The letter u should not be sounded as ōō, except when immediately preceded by the sound of r.

Exceptions: sure and its derivatives, also sumac, tulle, hurrah, pugh.

Pronounce rule, fruit, garrulous, ruin, sure, tūne, mūle, institūte, constitūtion, sūture, dūty, lūcid.

RULE II.--A constituting or ending an unaccented syllable is short Italian a.

Examples: cȧnine´, lȧpel´, ȧgain´, ȧlas´, fȧtal´ity, al´kȧli, or´nȧment, pal´ȧtȧble.

When the a of terminal ary or any is immediately preceded by an accented syllable, it has the sound of short Italian a; thus, pri´mȧry, epiph´ȧny.

RULE III.--E or o constituting or ending a syllable is long.

Examples: ēvent, mēmentō, lōcōmōtion, sōciety, nōtōriety, sōbriety, supērior, infērior, thēōries, cōteriē, lōcō-fōcō.

RULE IV.--I constituting or ending an unaccented syllable not initial, is always short, and is usually short even in initial syllables, if unaccented.

Examples: Dĭvide, dĭrect, fĭnance, phĭlosophy, imĭtate, pĭazza, tĭrade, intĭmate, indĭvisĭble, nobilĭty.

In the initial syllables i, bi, chi, cli, cri, pri, tri, however, i is generally long.

Examples: īdea, īdle, īsothermal, bīology, Chīnese, chīrurgery, clīmatic, crīterion, prīmeval, trīangular, trīpod.

RULE V.--E before terminal n should always be silent in participles, and also in most other words.

Examples: given (giv n), taken (tak n), bitten (bit n), broken, spoken, riven, fallen.

But in the following words e must be sounded:

Aspĕn, chickĕn, glutĕn, kitchĕn, lichĕn, lindĕn, martĕn, mittĕn, suddĕn.

It must also be sounded in any word (not a participle) in which terminal en is immediately preceded by l, m, n, or r.

Examples: womĕn, lĭnen, omĕn, barrĕn, Helĕn, Allĕn, Ellĕn, woolĕn, pollĕn.

RULE VI.--E before terminal l should usually be sounded.

Examples: levĕl, bevĕl, novĕl, nickĕl, cancĕl, vessĕl, chapĕl, gravĕl, hovĕl, camĕl, channĕl, kernĕl, Abĕl, Mabĕl, panĕl, modĕl, funnĕl, flannĕl.

But in the following words the e before terminal l must not be sounded:

Betel (bē´tl), chattel (chat´tl), drivel, easel, grovel, hazel, mantel, mussel, navel, ravel, shekel, shovel, shrivel, snivel, swivel, teasel, weasel, and their derivatives.

RULE VII.--In all but the following words, i before terminal l or n must be sounded: devil, evil, weevil, basin, cousin, raisin.

Pronounce Latĭn, satĭn, matĭn, spavĭn, anvĭl, civĭl, cavĭl, councĭl, perĭl, javelĭn, lentĭl, pistĭl, resĭn, fusĭl, coffĭn, codicĭl, axĭl.

RULE VIII.--The eight words, bath, cloth, lath, moth, mouth, oath, path, wreath, and these only, require sonant ths in the plural.

Pronounce m_oth_s, p_ath_s, truths, o_ath_s, heaths, cl_oth_s, b_ath_s, l_ath_s, deaths, wr_eath_s, mo_uths_, Sabbaths, sheaths, piths, plinths, lengths, widths, depths, breadths, earths, myths, Goths, fourths, breaths.

RULE IX.--O in a final unaccented syllable ending in a consonant, frequently verges toward the sound of short u; as in custom, felon, bigot, bishop, method, carol, Briton. But it has its regular short sound in pentagon, hexagon, octagon, etc.

When, however, the termination on is immediately preceded by c, ck, s or t, the o is commonly suppressed.

Examples: bacon, beacon, beckon, benison, button, cotton, crimson, damson, deacon, garrison, glutton, lesson, mason, mutton, parson, person, poison, prison, reason, reckon, season.

RULE X.--I accented in most words from the French has the sound of long e.

Examples: pĭque, caprĭce, guillotĭne, quarantĭne, routĭne, suĭte, fatĭgue, valĭse, antĭque, Bastĭle, critĭque, palanquĭn, tambourĭne, regĭme (rā-zheem´), cuĭsĭne (kwe-zeen´), unĭque, intrĭgue, magazĭne.

RULE XI.--Ou in most words from the French has the value of ōō, but in Anglo-Saxon words it has the sound of ow, as in cow.

Examples: bouquet, contour, croup; out, bound, sound.

Note.--Ou has also other values, as in soul, rough, adjourn, could, ought, hough (hŏk), trough.

RULE XII.--X followed by an accented vowel, or by an accented syllable beginning with a silent h, has the sound of gz.

Examples: luxu´rious, exam´ple, exhaust´, exhale´, exhib´it, exam´ine, exalt´, exec´utive.

RULE XIII.--The termination tion is always shun, except when it follows the letter s or x, as in question (kwestyun), bastion, combustion.

Examples: notation, completion, equation, relation, suggestion, transition (tranzish´un).

RULE XIV.--The termination sion immediately preceded by an accented vowel is zhun; when not so preceded it is shun.

Examples: expulsion, immersion, mansion, excursion, diversion, explosion, adhesion, delusion.

RULE XV.--C is soft (s) before e, i and y, and hard (k) in other positions.

Examples: ca, ce, ci, co, cu, cy.

Exceptions: c is hard (k) in sceptic and scirrhus; and in the following words it has the sound of z: sacrifice (fīz), sice, suffice, discern, and their derivatives. It is silent in czar, victuals, indict, and their derivatives, and also in the termination scle, as in muscle, corpuscle.

RULE XVI.--G is generally soft (j) before e, i and y, and always hard (g) before other vowels.

Examples: ga, ge, gi, go, gu, gy.

Note.--The exceptions to the rule that g is usually soft before e, i and y are many; but they are nearly all common Anglo-Saxon words, such as get, give, gild, girl, girdle, giddy, foggy, gimlet, geese, gig, giggle, gift, gills, begin, gimp, beget, gird, gear, gizzard.

RULE XVII.--In an accented syllable of any primitive word, a vowel before r followed by a syllable beginning with a vowel or another r has its short sound.

Examples: Ărab, ărabesque, ărid, Ăristotle, Săracen, bĕryl, pĕril, delĭrious, ĭrritate, mĭracle, delĭrium, abhŏrrence, flŏrid, cŏroner, fŏreign, tŭrret, bŭrrow, cŭrry, coŭrage, fŭrrow, py̆rrhic, empy̆real.

RULE XVIII.--N ending an accented syllable has the sound of ng, if immediately followed by hard g or k, or any equivalent of k (c, q, or x).

Examples: co̱ṉ´gress, ga̱ṉ´grene, co̱ṉ´cord, tra̱ṉ´quil, u̱ṉ´cle, a̱ṉ´ger, hu̱ṉ´ger, mo̱ṉ´key, sa̱ṉ´guine, si̱ṉ´gle, cla̱ṉ´gor, exti̱ṉ´guish, bla̱ṉ´ket, twi̱ṉ´kle, co̱ṉ´course, Li̱ṉ´coln.

Exceptions: concrete, penguin, mangrove, Mongol, pancreas, and some others.

RULE XIX.--C, s, or t, when immediately preceded by an accented syllable and followed by e, i or u, has usually the force of sh, and is said to be “aspirated,” as in ocean, nauseate, Asiatic, negotiation.

RULE XX.--In pronouncing the terminal syllables, ble, cle, dle, fle, gle, kle, ple, stle, tle, and zle, no vowel sound is heard. Terminal cre, however, is pronounced kẽr. The combination of any of these terminations with ing forms but one syllable.

Examples: quibbling, doubling, circling, meddling, huddling, ruffling, shuffling, giggling, struggling, pickling, trickling, coupling, rippling, battling, whittling, whistling, jostling, puzzling, muzzling, massacring.

COMMON ERRORS IN PRONUNCIATION

1. Do not pronounce ing like in; as eve´nin for eve´ning, writ´in for writ´ing.

Pronounce the following: Speak´ing, read´ing, talk´ing, walk´ing, stop´ping, smok´ing, suppos´ing, expect´ing, cel´ebrating.

2. Do not pronounce ow like ur or uh; as hol´lur or hol´luh for hol´low, shad´ur or shad´uh for shad´ow.

Pronounce the following: Bor´row, to-mor´row, nar´row, yel´low, fel´low, wid´ow, pil´low, mel´lowing, swal´lowing.

3. Do not pronounce ed like id or ud; as unit´id or unit´ud for unit´ed, provid´id or provid´ud for provid´ed.

Pronounce the following: Rest´ed, resid´ed, decid´ed, regard´ed, exhib´ited, cel´ebrated, excit´ed, delight´ed, support´ed.

4. Do not pronounce ess like iss; as good´niss for good´ness, bold´niss for bold´ness.

Pronounce the following: Hard´ness, bad´ness, harm´less, care´less, clear´ness, ful´ness, seam´stress, host´ess, em´press.

5. Do not pronounce el like il, nor et like it, nor est like ist; as cru´il for cru´el, bask´it for bask´et, for´ist for for´est.

Pronounce the following: Fu´el, du´el, bush´el, yet, get, mark´et, hatch´et, rock´et, rack´et, riv´ulet, hon´est, bold´est, larg´est, small´est, young´est, strong´est.

6. Do not pronounce ent like unt, nor ence like unce; as si´lunt for si´lent, sen´tunce for sen´tence.

Pronounce the following: Pru´dent, de´cent, mo´ment, gar´ment, mon´ument, gov´ernment, superintend´ent, par´liament (par´lĭ-ment), pa´tience, expe´rience, superintend´ence.

7. Do not insert the sound of short u before a final m; as hel´um for helm, chas´um for chasm.

Pronounce the following: Spasm, rhythm, phan´tasm, bap´tism, pa´triotism, elm, film, overwhelm´, worm.

8. Do not give the drawling sound ăōō for ou (i. e. äōō); as căōō for cow, hăōōs for house.

Pronounce the following: How, now, ground, sound, bound, found, town, gown, pound, confound´, around´, astound´.

9. Do not sound sh before r like s; as srub for shrub, srink for shrink.

Pronounce the following: Shred, shrine, shriek, shroud, shriv´el, shrunk´en.

10. Do not sound wh like w; as wen for when, wat for what.

Pronounce the following: Where, wheat, wharf, whale, whine, white, whim´per, whis´per, whip´ping, whit´tle.

11. Do not omit to give the sound of r after a vowel in the same syllable, as in arm, form, etc., not ahm, fawum, etc.

Pronounce the following: Dark, hark, start, chart, are, tar, remark´, course, for, nor, door, floor, lord, hon´or, do´nor, short, support´, report´, pa´per, or´der, horse, purse, warm, alarm´ing, return´ing, reform´ing.

12. Do not add the sound of r to a final vowel or dipthong; as lawr for law, ide´ar for ide´a.

Pronounce the following: saw, draw, paw, claw, pota´to, toma´to, com´ma, Em´ma.

13. Do not shorten the sound of long o in certain words by leaving off its vanishing element ōō.

Pronounce the following: Boat, bone, broke, choke, cloak, colt, comb, dolt, hole, home, home´ly, hope, jolt, load, on´ly, road, rogue, smoke, spoke, spok´en, stone, throat, toad, whole, wrote, yoke, bolster.

14. Do not omit the sound of d when preceded by n; as stan for stand, frenz for friends.

Pronounce the following: Stands, bands, wĭnds, wīnds, depends´, defends´, demands´, blind´ness, grand´mother, grand´father, hand´ful.

15. Do not omit the sound of d in the terminal letters lds; as wīlz for wilds, fēlz for fields.

Pronounce the following: Folds, holds, scolds, builds, scalds, unfolds´, child´s.

16. Do not omit the sound of t when preceded by c hard in the same syllable; as aks for acts, exak´ly for exact´ly.

Pronounce the following: Facts, tracts, com´pacts, inspects´, respects´, inducts´, instructs´, correct´ly, direct´ly, ab´stractly, per´fectly.

17. Do not omit the sound of t in the terminal letters sts; as fis´s for fists, pes´s for pests.

Pronounce the following: Posts, boasts, coasts, hosts, ghosts, accosts´.

18. Do not improperly suppress the vowel sounds in unaccented syllables; as ev´ry for ev´er-y, his´try for his´to-ry.

Pronounce the following: Belief´, crock´ery, fam´ily, fa´vorite, des´perate, des´olate, nom´inative, mis´ery, li´brary, sal´ary, com´pany, com´fortable, perfum´ery, mem´ory, vic´tory, slip´pery, part´iciple, sev´eral, bois´terous.

19. Do not suppress the sound of e or of i before l or n in those words in which it should be articulated; as lev´l for lev´el, civ´l for civ´il, kitch´n for kitch´en, Lat´n for Lat´in.

Pronounce the following: Trav´el, nov´el, bar´rel, par´cel, hov´el, chap´el, quar´rel, sor´rel, pen´cil, chick´en, lin´en, sud´den, mit´ten, sat´in.

20. Do not sound e or i before n or l in those words in which it is properly silent; e´ven for e´vn, heav´en for heav´n, ba´sin for ba´sn, haz´el for ha´zl, e´vil for e´vl.

Pronounce the following: Ha´ven, sev´en, gold´en, o´pen, short´en, wood´en, wak´en, wid´en, fro´zen.

21. After r, ch, or sh do not give the sound of long u when the simple sound of oo (long or short) should be heard; as rule for rool, fruit, for froot.

Pronounce the following: True, truth, grew, chew, sure, sug´ar, tru´ly, crew, brute, bru´tal, rude, through, cru´el, ru´by, ru´bicund.

22. Do not substitute the sound oo for that of long u; as toon for tune, doo´ty for du´ty.

Pronounce the following: Tube, duke, mute, nude, mu´sic, Tues´day, du´bious, lute, blue, illume´, illude´, in´stitute.

23. The vowel a, when unaccented, at the end of a word has the sound of ä (as in far) somewhat shortened; as com´ma not com´mĭ nor commā.

Pronounce the following: Dra´ma, da´ta, pi´ca, so´fa, al´gebra, Chi´na, Amer´ica, dilem´ma, mi´ca, alpac´a, a´rea, neb´ula.

24. Give to the vowel a in the unaccented terminal syllables al, ant, ance, its short sound, but do not make it prominent.

Pronounce the following: Na´tional, par´tial, fi´nal, eter´nal, ig´norant, ty´rant, in´stant, fla´grant, vig´ilance, ig´norance, in´stance, fra´grance.

25. Do not give to the vowel a (as in far), when unaccented and made brief, the sound of short u; as ŭbase´ for abase´, ŭrouse for arouse´.

Pronounce the following: Abound´, abate´, above´, about´, abridge´, amuse´, fanat´ic, ag´gravate, traduce´.

26. Do not give to long e, when unaccented and slightly abridged, the sound of short u; as ŭvent´ for event´, soci´ŭty for soci´ety.

Pronounce the following: Emo´tion, vari´ety, sobri´ety, sati´ety, anxi´ety, impi´ety.

27. Do not give to long o, when unaccented and slightly abridged, the sound of short u; as ŭbey´ for obey´, prŭpose´ for propose´.

Pronounce the following: Opin´ion, obe´dience, provide´, promote´, provoke´, pota´to, tobac´co, posi´tion, soci´ety, el´oquence, disposi´tion, mel´ody, composi´tion.

28. Do not sound short o, when unaccented, as short u; as ŭbscure´ for obscure´, cŭmmit´tee for commit´tee.

Pronounce the following: Observe´, oppose´, command´, conceal´, condi´tion, contain´, content´, possess´.

29. Do not lay too much stress on an unaccented syllable or a syllable having a secondary accent; as pri´ma´ry for pri´mary, ex´act´ly for exact´ly.

Pronounce the following: Gigan´tic, precise´ly, salva´tion, loca´tion, vaca´tion, ter´ritory, sec´ondary, mat´rimony, prom´issory, vac´cinated.

30. In unaccented syllables do not bring out the quality of the vowel too distinctly.

In many words, “there would be pedantry in scrupulously avoiding the short and easier sounds which the organs are inclined to adopt.” For instance, cab´bage in common conversation might be cab´bij, pal´ace, pal´ăs, etc.

a. When a at the end of an unaccented syllable is followed in the next syllable by n or r, it has nearly the sound of short e, as in mis´cel-la-ny, cus´tom-a-ry.

b. In the unaccented final syllable ate, of adjectives and nouns, the vowel a generally has a sound verging toward short e, as in del´i-cate, con-sum´mate (adj.).

EXPRESSION

Speak firmly; take time. Articulate clearly; do not slur.

Correct pronunciation: requires--1. Exact vowel sounds. 2. Distinct terminal consonants.

Read just as you would speak under the same circumstances, so that if you could be heard without being seen, it would be impossible to tell whether you were reading or talking.

Avoid a monotone. Dull repetition of words in the same pitch is disagreeable. Enter into the spirit of what you read, and give expression to your natural feeling.

The simplest way to emphasize a word is to pause after it. The word may be spoken a little louder or may be pronounced more slowly than the other words in the sentence.

When speaking in public, address the person standing just behind the back row.

INFLECTION OF THE VOICE

Rising inflection is used in incomplete thought, or thought carried through consecutive phrases. It is used to express emotion, surprise, prayer.

Falling inflection denotes complete thought. It expresses command, authority.

The voice has three pitches:--upper, middle, lower.

The upper register is the medium for the expression of excitement and earnestness. It must be used with care and artistic moderation, otherwise it is unpleasant.

Use it rarely. Be careful of straining the voice.

The middle register is used in familiar speaking, and general conversation. It is the most durable, and is the vehicle for everyday use.

The lower register is suited to grave, solemn, impassioned utterances. It should be used cautiously. Practice will mellow the voice.

WRITTEN ENGLISH.

Written English is the art of putting words together in order to convey our thoughts to others. Good composition conveys our thoughts correctly, clearly, and pleasantly, so as to make them readily understood and easily remembered.

To express ourselves well we must first have something to say. If we have not been able to come to any definite conclusion about a subject, we should be silent.

We must next choose the right names for the things or actions of which we are going to speak. This is not always easy, for we are apt to talk loosely of quantities and qualities; to say there are “thousands” when there are only hundreds, to call an event “marvelous” when it is only unusual, or to refer to “ages” when there are only years.

Again, we must arrange our words in the right way, so that they shall fit one another and combine to make good sense, just as we must put bricks or stones together properly to make a building stand. All language is a construction; it is the building or binding of words.

There are many forms of written English, or composition--from a simple letter to the most elaborate treatise--but all are made up of the same elements, namely: words, sentences and paragraphs. It is essential, therefore, that these elements be thoroughly mastered at the outset. Beyond this comes the matter of style, the essentials of which may be summed up in four words: Accuracy, Clearness, Strength and Grace.

Accuracy and Clearness are requisite in all kinds of writing to insure the faithful presentation of thought.

Strength and Grace are more especially applicable to the higher branches of prose composition and to poetry.

=Grammatical Connections.=--No expression can form part of a good composition unless it be constructed in accordance with correct grammar. Every sentence is inaccurate which gives wrong forms of the parts of speech, or violates the rules of syntax. The most common errors are of two kinds:

(1) Errors in the use of single words or forms.

(2) False concords, that is, wrong genders, numbers, cases and tenses. (See Right and Wrong Use of Words.)

RULES RELATING TO STYLE

GOOD STYLE POOR STYLE

{Correct forms }Wrong forms. {and concords. }Solecisms. { PURITY {Classic or good }Barbarisms. prescribes {English words. } the use of { {Proper words, i.e.,} {words fit for the }Improprieties. {occasion. }

{ {Roundabout, inflated { {or pedantic {Simplicity. {words or { {phrases. { { {Tautology. PERSPICUITY {Brevity. {Pleonasm. prescribes { {Verbosity. { { {Ambiguity or { {Obscurity. { { a. In words. {Precision. { b. In sentences { { from bad { { arrangement.

CHOICE AND USE OF WORDS.--Good usage--the usage of the best writers and speakers--sanctions only words that are in reputable, national, and present usage.

The term Barbarism is applied to unauthorized language. Some offenses against good usage are the following:

1. Obsolete words, words gone out of use.

2. Provincialisms, words peculiar to some locality.

3. Colloquialisms, words peculiar to familiar conversation.

4. Solecisms, ungrammatical expressions.

5. Archaisms, expressions which would be obsolete except for their occasional use in poetry.

The term Impropriety is used to designate reputable words misapplied.

Slang is a general name for current, vulgar, unauthorized language. It may take the form of barbarism or impropriety.

Use the fewest and simplest words that the subject will bear.

Specific words are usually more forcible than general terms.

Foreign and technical terms should be used with care.

Use idioms wherever it is possible.

Coherence demands that the parts shall be so connected that the thought will be clear and compact.

The length of sentences is governed by the effect to be produced. Short sentences give vigor, emphasis, and rapidity. Long sentences give weight and rhythm.

A well-constructed sentence keeps the same subject as long as possible.

All modifying elements should be placed as near as possible to the words they modify.

A Dangling Element--one that modifies nothing--must be avoided. Example: Looking into the water, a fish was seen.

A “Squinting Construction” is one that is so poorly placed in the sentence as to modify equally well the part preceding and the part following. Example: Will you say to Mr. Brown, when he comes, I will be ready.

Redundancy--A weak repetition of an idea--must be avoided.

Pleonasm consists in the addition of words which can be omitted without affecting the construction or the meaning of the sentence.

Tautology, or repeating a thought that has just been stated.

Verbosity or Prolixity is the fault in sentence-making caused by using needless words.

Don’t begin a sentence with--and, but, also, so, then, next, however, after this, of course, in consequence, as a matter of fact.

THE PARAGRAPH.--A Paragraph is a division in composition treating only one part of the subject. A paragraph must conform to the same rules that should govern the whole composition; that is, it must show unity, massing, and coherence.

Unity demands that all the thoughts in a sentence, in a paragraph, or in the whole theme shall cluster about one main idea.

Massing demands that the important thoughts shall be placed in prominent places.

Coherence demands that thoughts shall be closely connected.

The length of paragraphs is not to be regulated absolutely: the subject-matter to be treated, the appearance of the page, and the comfort of the reader must all be considered. In a dialogue a new paragraph is begun with each change of speaker.

THE SENTENCE.--Rhetorically, sentences may be classified as periodic, loose, and balanced.

A Periodic sentence is one that holds the thought in suspense until the end. Example: In all his long life, from the time when, as a twelve-year-old boy, he was roaming in the fields and fishing the streams, to the days of his manhood, when he was upholding the honor of his state in the Senate, he showed the same simple, democratic nature.

A Loose sentence is one in which there is no attempt to show suspense; the different parts may come in where natural ease of expression suggests.

A Balanced sentence is one in which contrasting thoughts are stated in similar forms. Example: God made the country and man made the town.

The periodic and the balanced sentence are likely to result in artificiality of expression unless used with care. The loose sentence gives ease and naturalness, but these desirable qualities may easily change to slovenliness of expression in the hands of a careless writer.

Sentences, like paragraphs, should show unity, massing, and coherence.

Unity demands that the sentence shall have one main idea. The unity of a sentence is destroyed by putting together ideas that should be separated, by making the wrong idea subordinate, or by making ideas coördinate that are not of equal importance.

Examples of lack of unity:--

1. The words are very simple and I think it very strange that a tinker could write such a good book.

2. We went up the main road about half a mile, when we came to a pasture.

Massing in the sentence demands that the main thought shall be placed where it will “readily catch the eye.”

RIGHT AND WRONG USE OF WORDS IN SPEAKING AND WRITING

=A and An.=--a is used before a consonant sound; an, before a vowel sound; as, “a boy;” “an eye;” when a vowel has a consonant sound, as in the word eulogy, a, and not an, is required. In the case of words beginning with h, an is always required when h is silent; as, “an heir;” when h is aspirated, a is required, unless the accent is on the second syllable, when an is used; as, “a history;” “an historian.”

=Abbreviations.=--Such abbreviations or contractions as e’er, ne’er, o’er, e’en, ’tis, ’mid, and ’neath, are legitimate in verse, but should not be used in prose.

=Ability for capacity.=--Ability is the power of doing; capacity the faculty of receiving. “The ability is in me to do him good.” “Man’s capacities have never been measured.”

=Abortive.=--That is abortive which is premature, not brought to completion. A plan may be abortive but not an act. We may speak of an abortive effort.

=About.=--Not to be used as almost. “The day is almost gone,” not “The day is about gone.”

=Above= is an adverb, not an adjective. Say “The address given above,” not “The above address;” the “foregoing section,” not the “above section.”

=Accept of.=--Never use the preposition after this verb. We accept invitations, presents, hospitality, and the like.

=Accept and Except.=--Accept means to take when offered; except means to leave out, to exclude. I accepted the gift. All except two will go.

=Accord.=--To accord means to render or bestow upon another, as honor: therefore one should never say, “The information he desired was accorded him.”

=Administer.=--The man died from blows administered by the policeman. Oaths, medicine, affairs of state are administered. Blows are dealt.

=Affect, Effect.=--To affect means to influence or to pretend. To effect means to bring about. “He affected intoxication.” “He affected the audience strongly.” “I shall effect a reform.”

=Afraid.=--The adjective afraid should not be used for the verb fear; thus: we say, “I am afraid of fire,” but “I fear I cannot go,” not “I am afraid I cannot go.”

=Aggravate= means to heighten, intensify, or make worse. Do not use it for annoy or provoke.

=Ain’t.=--This is illiterately employed as a contraction for are not, am not, is not. Even as a contraction of am not it is censured by many critics, the form I’m not being universally preferred. “Am I not?” is required in interrogative sentences.

=Allow.=--This word is frequently misused for think, as “I allow that I shall go to town.” Say, “I think that,” etc.

=Allude= means to refer to indirectly, and not the same as mention. “By mentioning his lifelong companion he alluded to his wife.”

=Almost.=--Careless speakers sometimes err in saying most for almost, as, for example, “I have read most all the books in the library,” for “almost all.”

=Among and Between.=--Among is distributive, and may apply to any number more than two; between is used of only two persons or things; as, “They discussed this among themselves;” “This is between us two.”

=Among One Another.=--“Among one another” is censured by critics, “with one another,” or “among themselves” being suggested as preferable.

=And= should not be used instead of to in such sentences as “I’m going to go and get it,” for “I’m going to get it”; “Try and do it,” for “Try to do it.”

=Angry At and Angry With.=--“Angry at” is used when expressing anger for an animal or an inanimate object; “Angry with,” for a human being; as, “He is angry at his dog;” “He is angry with his brother.”

=Anybody else’s, Anybody’s else.=--The predominance of usage seems to be in favor of the first form, which is correct according to analogy of similar cases, which “throw” the apostrophe and s to the last word of the unified expression, generally nouns in apposition.

=Any One, One,= anybody, each, any one, everybody, either, neither, one, some one, somebody, should be followed by singular pronouns, or verbs.

Any one, anybody, each, every one, everybody, either, neither, nobody, some one, somebody, may be followed by he or his.

“Any one of these patterns is suitable.” “Every one of the ladies is here.” “Each one of the soldiers has a new uniform.” “If any one wishes to make a suggestion, I wish he (or she, or he or she) would make it.” “Anybody in his senses would have done it.”

One should be followed, by one or one’s. “One dislikes to be told of one’s errors.”

=Appreciate= means to estimate justly. “I appreciate his ill-will.” means “I am fully aware of the extent and intensity of his ill-will.”

=Apt, Likely, Liable.=--Apt means quick or skillful. “He is apt to learn,” means that he learns readily. “He is likely to learn,” means that he will probably learn. “He is liable to learn,” is incorrect. Liable for means responsible for; liable to means subject to. “He is liable for the entire sum, and liable to imprisonment if he does not pay.”

=Apprehend and Comprehend.=--Apprehend means to perceive; as, “I apprehend danger.” Comprehend means to understand; as, “I comprehend your meaning.”

=As= should not be used for that in such constructions as, “I do not know that I do.”

=As--As, So--As.=--Use the former in affirmative and the latter in negative propositions. “We are as wise as our teachers.” “I am not so young as I used to be.”

=As If It Was.=--Were, and not was, is required after as if, for the reason that the supposition is not known; thus: “It looks as if it were all right,” not “it looks as if it was all right.”

=As though= is often used for as if. In the sentence “He walked as though he were lame,” if the ellipsis is supplied the error will be evident. “He walked as (he would walk) though he were lame.” As though is seldom correct.

=At, At and To, At All.=--The presence of at improves such constructions as “He is at home,” instead of “He is home.” At and to are superfluous in such sentences as, “Where is he?” and “Where has he gone?” hence, their use should be avoided. At all is superfluous in such sentences as, “There is no use in your going;” “I do not know him.”

=Authoress, Actress.=--The terms “author_ess_,” “doctr_ess_,” “editr_ess_,” “poet_ess_,” “lectur_ess_,” are no longer used, author, doctor, etc., being correct for both sexes. Act_ress_, not actor, however, is the required form for the feminine gender.

=Avocation, Vocation.=--Avocation should not be used for vocation. Vocation is one’s employment; avocation, one’s diversion from that employment.

=Awful, Awfully.=--Do not use these words as intensives or for supposed force. Awful should mean that which inspires awe. “The awful mysteries of the world unseen.”

=Bad, Badly.=--Bad is not to be used for severe, as “I have a bad headache.” Badly is also inelegantly used for very much, as “I need money badly.”

=Character.=--It is in general wrong to speak of a person as a character. Character is justly applied to the ideal personages delineated by novelists. Possessing no real personality, they are characters and nothing more.

=Character, Reputation.=--One’s character is what one really is; one’s reputation is what people think of one. We may have a good character and a poor reputation, and vice versa.

=Choose, Chosen.=--“She has chose the blue silk.” Say “has chosen.” But say, in the imperfect, “she chose him in preference to the others.”

=Combine together.=--“He combined them together.” Omit together.

=Commence, Begin.=--Begin, when followed by a verb, takes to and the infinitive after it. Commence should take the present participle. We “begin to do,” we “commence working.” Begin may take the participle, but commence should take the infinitive.

=Consonant.=--“It is consonant to our nature,” is a more usual expression than “it is consonant with.” But consonant with is not improper.

=Contractions=, while not permissible in dignified utterance or in formal writing, are in accordance with the conversational employment of the language. The following is the list:

I’m not, you’re not, he’s not, we’re not, they’re not are used in the declarative form, and isn’t he (she, or it), aren’t you (we, they) in the interrogative. In the declarative form, You’re not, he’s not, etc., are preferable to you aren’t, he isn’t, etc. Am I not is not contracted, ain’t being regarded as objectionable for am I not, and as a vulgarism for isn’t. [See ain’t.]

“He (she or it) don’t” for He (she or it) doesn’t is always incorrect. I don’t, you don’t, he doesn’t, we don’t, you don’t, they don’t, are in accordance with the conversational employment of the language.

Mayn’t I (or may I not) is correct in the interrogative form; you can’t (or you can not) in the declarative form. In this connection note that may is used when asking and granting permission, and that can, which ordinarily expresses ability, is used in the declarative form when denying permission; thus: “May I go.” “No, you can not.”

The contractions shan’t and won’t are in accordance with conversational usage.

=Conversant.=--We are conversant with men and in things. Conversant about things is improper.

=Converse together.=--“They conversed together for more than an hour.” Omit together.

=Copy.=--We copy after a person; we copy after actions. We copy from things, as from a picture, or from a statue. In such case, a copy from the work is also said to be a copy after the artist.

=Correspond.=--Correspond, meaning to hold intercourse by means of letters, is followed by with. “I have corresponded with him for several years.” With is also used with correspond, to signify consistent with. Correspond is frequently followed by to, when it expresses adaptability or appropriateness. “His style of living corresponded to his means.”

=Cover over.=--“He covered it over.” Say “he covered it.”

=Dead corpses.=--“Evil spirits are not occupied about the dead corpses of bad men.” Omit dead; it is implied in corpses.

=Dependent.=--“He is dependent of his father.” Say “dependent on.” But with independent say of.

=Derogate.=--Say derogate from, derogatory to, “derogation from,” or to.

=Depot, Station.=--A depot is properly a place where goods or stores are kept. The place where a railway train stops for passengers may better be called a station.

=Did, Done.=--“Who done it?” Say “who did it?” “who has done it?”

=Differ.=--We differ with a person in opinion. One differs from another in other respects. The English barbarism of differ to, different to, is intolerable, and reverses the meaning of the word to.

=Direct, Address.=--We address a letter to a person. We direct it to his post office, to the point at which, or to the person through whom, he will receive it. A letter addressed to the president may be directed to his secretary.

=Disappointed, Agreeably Disappointed.=--It is better to say agreeably surprised. The meaning most closely associated with disappointment is that it is not agreeable.

=Dissent.=--We dissent from, not with.

=Distinct, Distinctly.=--“The girl speaks distinct.” Say “speaks distinctly.”

=Divide.=--We divide things between two, among many.

=Drank, Drunk.=--“He was very thirsty, and drunk eagerly.” Say “drank.” “He has drank three glasses of soda water.” Say “has drunk.” “Drunken,” the ancient form of the participle, is not now used.

=Drove, Driven.=--“They have drove very fast.” Say “they have driven.” But, using the imperfect, say “They drove the people out, and locked the gates.”

=Dry.=--“I am dry, let me have a glass of water.” Say “I am thirsty.” Using dry in this sense suggests the dramshop.

=Each, Either.=--“A row of trees stood on either side of the river.” The use of either in such cases is disapproved by some writers, but it is sanctioned by long and unexceptional usage, and by the deliberate judgment of well-informed critics. The use of each--“a row of trees stood on each side of the river” is indisputably correct.

=Each=, =Every=, =Either= are singular, and take the verb in the singular number. Such errors as the following should be guarded against: “Each of the daughters take an equal share.” Say “takes.” “Every leaf, every twig, every blade, every drop of water, teem with life.” Say “teems.” Also, instead of “one of those houses have been sold,” say “has been sold.”

=Eat, Ate, Eaten.=--Say “I ate my breakfast at five o’clock this morning,” not “I eat it,” or “I et it.” “I have eaten my dinner,” not “I have ate it,” or “I have et it.”

=Either= is followed by or. “I shall either send it or bring it myself.”

=Either and Neither= are used when two objects are mentioned, or two assertions are made; when there are more than two objects or assertions, they need not be employed. In such case, instead of either, no pronoun or conjunction need be used; instead of neither, no or not may be employed. When two persons are mentioned, “Either you or I must go.” In case of three persons, “You or I or John must go.” With two assertions, negative, “He will neither do it himself nor let any one else do it.” With three negative assertions, “He will not publish the accounts of his office, or allow the public access to them, or permit them to be examined by competent, impartial parties.” Usage on the last point is not uniform. Very many good writers use neither, nor, nor, with three or more negative assertions.

=Emigrant, Immigrant.=--An emigrant is a person who goes out from a country or a state to reside in another; an immigrant is one who comes into the state to live, from abroad.

=Equally as.=--As should not be used after equally. Say equally high, equally dear, equally handsome, etc.; not equally as high, equally as dear, equally as handsome.

=Equally as well as.=--“I can do it equally as well as he.” Omit equally; it is implied in the words as well as.

=Equally the same.=--“It is equally the same.” Say “it is the same.”

=Everybody, Anybody.=--Refers to male and female.

For want of a pronoun of common gender, use the masculine--he, his, him--unless the other sex is specified. “They” is plural and must not be used.

Anybody can do what they like. (wrong.)

Anybody can do what he likes.

Everybody will have to make up their minds. (wrong.)

Everybody will have to make up his mind.

Everybody has their faults. (wrong.)

Everybody has his faults.

If anybody calls, let them wait. (wrong.)

If anybody calls, let him wait.

=Exceeding, Exceedingly.=--“He was exceeding kind to me.” Say exceedingly kind. “She was exceeding careful.” Say exceedingly careful.

=Except=, =Unless=, are often used confusedly. “I shall go except I am ill.” Say “unless I am ill.” “I saw them all unless two or three.” Say “except two or three.” The correct usage is easily learned by observing that except should be used as a preposition, unless as a conjunction.

=Fall.=--We fall under reproach, notice, censure, etc. We fall from our friends, from virtue; we fall upon our enemies, among evil associations, into bad habits.

=Farther, Further.=--Farther refers to space; further to time, degree, and extensions of thought. The distinction is not a necessary one, but it is now very generally observed.

=Fewer, Less.=--Fewer relates to numbers, less to quantities. “No man had less friends,” should be fewer friends. But say less money, less strength, etc.

=Few, Little, Many, Much.=--Few and many refer to number; little and much to quantity. In speaking of articles that are rated by counting, use few and many; in speaking of articles which are rated by measure, use little and much. “A few potatoes,” “so many days.”

=First.=--“The two first” should be “the first two.” There can be only one first.

=Fluent, Fluently.=--“He speaks very fluent.” Say very fluently.

=Forward=, backward, toward, upward, onward, downward, hitherward, thitherward, afterward, heavenward, earthward, etc., should be written without the final s which is often added to them.

=Funeral obsequies.=--Say obsequies. The sense of funeral is contained in this word. It would be as proper to speak of a “wedding marriage-ceremony” as of “funeral obsequies.”

=Generally=, always, never, often, rarely, seldom, sometimes, are adverbs which generally come before the verb.

=Gentleman friend, Lady friend.=--Instead of “my gentleman friend,” say “my friend Mr. ----.” Instead of “my lady friend,” say “my friend Miss ----,” or Mrs. ----.

=Gentleman, Lady.=--These titles have been applied without discrimination till they have lost almost all the meaning they once had. Many persons have ceased to use them entirely, and employ man and woman as good enough titles for anybody. There are no nobler titles than man, woman; no higher expressions for qualities of grace or virtue than manly, womanly.

=Get.=--“I am afraid Mary is getting crazy.” Say “is growing,” or “is becoming crazy.” “John got left by the train.” Say “was left.” We get anything that we come in possession of. We may also get a disease. But get must be followed by a noun as its object.

=Good for Well.=--“He can do it as good as any one else can.” Say as well.

=Got.=--I have a pen. Not I have got a pen.

=Gratuitous.=--“That is a gratuitous assumption.” It is better to say “unfounded,” “unreasonable,” or “unwarranted.”

=Guess.=--Guess is commonly used in the United States to mean think, as in “I guess you are right” for “I think,” etc.

=Had ought.=--Provincial and incorrect. Had or any form of the verb to have cannot correctly be used as an auxiliary with ought. Use should or ought not. Not “He hadn’t ought to have gone,” but “He should not have gone.”

=Hain’t.=--A vulgarism. There is no such contraction for have not or has not.

=Hang, Hanged.=--The verb hang has two forms for the past participle, hanged and hung. Hanged is used for persons; hung for other objects. “The man was hanged.” “The coat was hung on the rack.”

=He, Him.=--It is him whom.--“It is him whom you said it was.” Say “it is he.”

=Healthy, Healthful.=--That is healthy which is in good health; that is healthful which promotes health. “Bread and milk is a healthful food which makes healthy children.”

=I and Me.=--“They went with James and I.” Say “with James and me.”

=If I was.=--Use the subjunctive in all cases where the conditions are contrary to fact. “If I were you, I should go.” “If I were a man, I should practice law.” I am not you, and I am not a man. Use the indicative in cases of uncertainty. “If I was in town that day, I did not see you.” I am uncertain as to whether I was or not.

=In, Into.=--Use in to signify rest in a place; use into to signify motion toward a place. “He was standing with his hands in his pockets.” “I put my hands into my pockets.” “I came in an automobile.” “The stranger walked into the room.”

=Indeterminate possessive.=--“Every child should obey their parents.” Say “his parents.” “No one should incur censure for being careful of their good character.” Say his, or her if talking more particularly of women. “Let each of us mind their own business.” Say “his own business.” Their is frequently used improperly, as a substitute. In such cases, his or her should be used, according as the object most prominent in the expression, or in the speaker’s thought, is masculine or feminine. In cases of doubt or indifference, use his. In the nominative we may say one. But in the possessive and objective we must say his, him or her.

=Indifferent, indifferently.=--“He was indifferent honest.” Say “indifferently honest.”

=Infinitive.=--See Split Infinitive.

=Ingenuous, Ingenious.=--Ingenuous is simple, honest, open, unaffected. Ingenious is skillful, versatile, ready in contriving.

=Jew, Hebrew, Israelite.=--A Jew is a member of the Hebraic division of the Semitic race; in consequence Hebrew is the linguistic name of the Jews. Historically, under the theocracy, they were known as Hebrews; under the monarchy, as Israelites; and during foreign domination, as Jews. The modern representatives of this stock call themselves Hebrews in race and language, and Israelites in religion, but Jews in both senses.

=Jewelry, Jewels.=--Jewelry is a collective noun, and jewels is a plural noun. In nice usage the term jewelry designates the stock of a jeweler; jewels, the articles of adornment worn by a lady.

=Join issue and Take issue.=--In nice usage, “join issue” means to admit the right of the denial of a statement. “Take issue” means merely to deny.

=Kind of= should not be used for somewhat. Instead of “I am kind of tired,” one properly says, “I am somewhat tired.”

=Kind of a.=--A is superfluous in such constructions as, “What kind of man is he?” (not “kind of a”). The same rule applies to sort.

=Kind and Kinds.=--See These and This.

=Know, Knew, Known.=--“I knowed it.” Say “I knew it.” “I have knowed it all along.” Say “I have known it.”

=Latter end.=--“I expect to get through by the latter end of the week.” Say “by the end of the week.” “The latter end of that man shall be peace.” Say “the end of that man.”

=Learn, Teach.=--These words are often confounded. The pupil learns, the instructor teaches. One person cannot learn another, but must teach him.

=Leave, Lief.=--Say “give me leave to tell you,” not lief. But “I would as lief do it as not,” not leave.

=Leisure upon one’s hands.=--“If you have any leisure upon your hands.” Say “if you are at leisure.”

=Lend, Loan.=--“Loan me five dollars.” Say “lend me five dollars.” The money having been lent him, the borrower has obtained a loan of that sum, or has borrowed it.

=Lengthways, Sideways, Otherways.=--These forms are erroneous. Say, and write, lengthwise, sidewise, otherwise.

=Lie, Lay.=--Distinguish between the verbs:--lie--to tell lies

Present Tense--He lies like truth. He is lying.

Past Tense--But he lied unto him. Wherefore have ye lied to me? Why have you been lying to me?

lie--to lie down

Present--The dog lies under the table. The dog is lying under the table.

Past--He lay upon the bed. He has lain there for hours. He has been lying there for hours.

lay--to put a thing down

Present--The boy lays his books on the table. The boy is laying his books on the table.

Past--He laid his head upon the block. The hen has laid an egg. The hen has been laying all the winter.

=Liable, Apt.=--Apt means fit, ready, quick to do a thing, or to be subjected to certain conditions. It generally implies willingness. Liable signifies bound to duties, subject or exposed to inconveniences or dangers, and implies no regard to the will of its subject. “John will be apt to catch the fever if he goes into that house,” should be “John will be liable,” etc. A person who is studious may be spoken of as apt to learn, and liable to become dyspeptic.

=Like.=--“We don’t do that like you do.” Say “as you do.” This misuse of like is common with English women novelists. As should be used when a verb follows, or is understood to follow. Where no verb is implied, like may be employed.

=Like for As.=--Like should not be used as a conjunction. Say: “Do as I do,” not, “do like I do,” or, “do like me.”

=Like, Love.=--Love is often used instead of like, and is thereby made to lose all its force. We love what the heart goes out to, that for which we entertain a fond and lasting affection. We love wives, husbands, parents, children, near friends. We like what we have a taste for, what pleases us in passing, or what is generally agreeable to us, as acquaintances, sweetmeats, pleasant weather, music, painting, reading. We regret for a long time the loss of what we love, we soon cease to be troubled at missing what we like.

=Limb.=--“She fell, and bruised her limb.” Say what limb. The arm is a limb, as well as the leg. The foolish shame which avoids mentioning the leg by name, is not modesty, but prudery.

=Lit.=--Not to be used for lighted. Instead of saying “He lit the gas,” say “he lighted the gas.” Do not say “He lit on his feet,” but “he lighted on his feet.”

=Locate.=--“I shall locate in Iowa.” Say settle. Locate has acquired a certain technical currency. The purchaser of land warrants locates by selecting a particular tract to claim under it. Place, settle, fix, establish, can be substituted for it in most cases, and are better.

=Mad.=--Should not be used for angry.

=Mail man.=--An inelegant form for postman.

=Me being.=--“Me being absent, the young folks lived high.” Say “I being absent,” or “while I was absent,” or “during my absence.”

=Me, I.=--“Is it me you mean?” Say “is it I?” or “do you mean me?”

=Me, My.=--“In consequence of me neglecting.”--“The horse got away in consequence of me neglecting to fasten the gate.” Say “in consequence of my neglecting,” etc.

=Monstrous.=--Monstrous does not mean large. It means ill-formed, misshapen, deviating from the course of nature, of a character to inspire unpleasant feelings. But an object so unusually large as to appear terrible may be figuratively styled monstrous.

=More--than=, not more--as. “He was more beloved but not so much admired as his brother.” This sentence must be recast.

“He was more beloved than his brother, but not so much admired.” Or,

“Though not so much admired as his brother, he was more beloved.”

=Mortgagor, Mortgagee.=--The mortgagor is the debtor, who pledges the property which is in mortgage. The mortgagee is the creditor, to whom the mortgage is made.

=Most.=--Not to be used for almost; as “He is here most every day.”

=Mutual.=--Does not mean common, but reciprocal. “We may have a common friend, but a mutual dislike”; that is, a dislike for each other.

=Myself.=--Not to be used for I. Do not say “John and myself are friends”; but “John and I,” etc.

=Near, Nearly.=--“I lost near twenty pounds.” Say “nearly twenty pounds.”

=Neither for Either.=--“That is not the case, neither.” Say “either.” The double negative is wrong.

=Neither, Nor.=--Negatives other than neither may take or or nor as their correlative. With subjects connected by “either--or,” “neither--nor,” the verb must be singular:--

Neither he nor his brother were trained for the ministry.

should be

Neither he nor his brother was trained for the ministry.

Either the master or his servant was responsible.

Neither ignorance nor negligence has been the cause of his ruin.

=New beginner.=--Say beginner. When one begins anything, he is new at it of course.

=Nice.=--A very generally misused word. Properly nice means delicate, discriminating, fastidious. The works of a watch show nice construction; a man may be nice in his manners. The word should not be used to mean agreeable or charming as “I had a nice time.”

=Nicely.=--Do not use nicely for well, as “The sick man is doing nicely.”

=Nobody else.=--“There was nobody else but him.” Omit else.

=No for Not.=--“I cannot tell whether this is correct or no,” is wrong. Say, “I cannot tell whether this is correct or not.”

=None=, is the same as no one, and is properly singular. It is, however, used in both numbers, according as the context seems to make appropriate.

=Not as I know of.=--Incorrectly used for not that I know of.

=Not me.=--“Who made that noise?” “Not me.” Say “not I.” “It wasn’t me.” Say “it wasn’t I.” The use of me is defended by some writers.

=Not only--but also.=--Correlatives must be placed immediately before the words connected.

“He not only lent me his horse but also sent his carriage.”

“He lent me not only his horse but also his carriage.”

=Number, Quantity.=--Number should be used in speaking of objects that are counted, quantity with those that are measured. Much, little, and less, answer to quantity, and many, few, and fewer, to numbers; more answers to both.

=Of.=--“A child of four years old.” Say “a child four years old,” or “a child of four years.”

=Off of.=--“There were ten yards of the cloth before I cut this piece off of it.” Say “before I cut this piece off it,” or “from it.”

=One.=--One is the only singular personal pronoun of common gender.

“One must not forget one’s duty to one’s country.” This frequent repetition is disagreeable.

“No man must forget his duty to his country.”

“A man must not forget his duty to his country.”

=Only= is best placed immediately before the word it modifies. In case there can be no ambiguity it may be placed immediately after the word it modifies.

Only I wrote to him to-day. (No one else wrote.)

I only wrote to him yesterday. (I did not telephone.)

I wrote only to him to-day. (I wrote to no one else.)

I wrote to him only to-day. (No longer ago than to-day.)

I wrote him to-day only. (I had not written before.)

This car for members only. (For none but members.)

=Only, Alone.=--“He alone can do it,” implies that he can do it without help. It would be better, “He can do it alone.” “He only can do it,” signifies that he, and no other person, can do it. Using alone in the sense of only may lead to ambiguity.

=Onto.=--We get on a horse and on a chair, not onto.

=Orate.=--An unauthorized form commonly used to mean to give an oration.

=Over.=--Do not use over in the sense of more than; as, “I have over a hundred dollars”; “The stick is over a yard long.”

=Over a bridge.=--“He went over the bridge.” It is more exact to say, “he went across the bridge.” A bird may fly over a bridge, if it does not touch the bridge.

=Overhead and ears.=--“We went in overhead and ears.” Say overhead. The head carries the ears. But “overhead and ears in debt” is a phrase which it will be hard to abolish.

=Partial, Partially.=--“This view is partially correct.” “Partly correct,” or “in part correct,” is better. Partially means, properly, one sided, with bias.

=Persuasion=, in the sense of religious denomination or belief, is objectional. Sect, denomination, belief, or “school of belief,” are proper substitutes.

=Plunge down.=--“He plunged down into the stream.” Omit down.

=Possessives.=--

Rule.--Use the apostrophe and the letter s (or change the form) only when the noun (or pronoun) itself represents the possessor.

This is a photograph of my uncle.

She is a servant of my aunt’s.

This is a criticism of John. (Some one else wrote it about John.)

This is an opinion of John’s. (John’s opinion; that is, John uttered it.)

This is an opinion of John. (Some one else uttered it.)

=Plural and Singular Words.=--Molasses is singular. The habit of giving it a plural construction is an error. Say “that molasses is souring,” not “them molasses are souring.”

Words like scissors, snuffers, tongs, trousers, etc., denoting articles which are paired or coupled, are plural, and take a plural verb. “The scissors are dull,” not “is dull.”

This is the birthplace of the President. (Not President’s.)

This is the private office of the Secretary. (Not Secretary’s.)

He is a friend of the Bank’s. (One of several friends.)

He is an enemy of mine. (One or more possessed by me.)

He is a brother of mine. (One or more possessed by me.)

He is a friend of hers. (One or more possessed by her.)

I cannot endure that rasping voice of Bridget’s. (One voice.)

=Prepositions.=--Never use a preposition to end a sentence:

For whom is that? To whom are you writing? The matter to which I am referring.

Two prepositions should not come together, as: “That is the man I went to for advice.” But, “That is the man to whom I went for advice.”

=Previous, Previously.=--“He wrote me previous to his coming.” Say “previously to his coming.”

=Quantity, Number.=--Quantity is used of that which can be measured; number, of that which can be counted; as, “There is a large quantity of sugar on hand”; “There are a large number of eggs in the basket.”

In connection with the use of the singular or the plural verb with the word number, note that the plural verb is used when number means several; the singular, when number is used to stand for a unit; as, “A number of persons are going” (several); “The number is limited to five.”

=Quite.=--“There are quite a number of Americans here.” Say “there are several.” One is quite a number. It is correct to say “there are quite twenty” to express that the number is completely made up--which is the meaning of quite.

=Raised.=--“I was raised in the South.” Say “brought up.” “I was raised in Mr. Stephens’ family.” Say “taken care of,” “brought up,” “instructed,” or “trained.” We “raise” horses, cattle, sheep, swine, poultry and crops, but apply a more refining process to human beings.

=Ran, Run.=--Say “this horse has often run a mile in two minutes and a half; yesterday he ran a mile in two minutes and three-quarters.”

=Rang, Rung.=--“I have rang the bell half a dozen times.” Say “have rung.” But say in the imperfect, “they rang the bells merrily for Christmas day.”

=Rather--than, Prefer--to.=--“He preferred doing nothing rather than run the risk of doing wrong,” should be “He preferred doing nothing rather than running the risk of doing wrong”; or “He preferred to do nothing rather than to run the risk of doing wrong.”

=Receipt and Recipe.=--One properly says, “The receipt calls for three cupfuls of flour,” recipe being restricted in its use as a medical term. Century gives the following: Receipt is distinguished from recipe by the common restriction of that word [recipe] to medical and relative uses; as, “A receipt for a pudding.”

=Reckon.=--Provincial for think. “I reckon he will come soon.” Say “I think” or “I believe.”

=Reference, Recommendation.=--A person seeking employment or position, names certain persons who know him as his references. They may, if they are so disposed, and can do so with truth, give him their recommendation.

=Regard.=--“In regard of this matter.” Say “in regard to,” or “with regard to.”

Regarded from that standpoint, but looked at in that light.

=Relations, Relatives, Kin, Kindred.=--It is better to speak of ones relatives than of his relations. Relations has other meanings. Kin and kindred are old English words, which deserve to be more in fashion than they are.

=Relative Pronouns.=--Who is used exclusively with persons, which exclusively with things, and that with persons and things. In common conversation that is more frequently used with persons than who. But who is considered more elegant.

Examples of the correct use of the relative pronouns, who, which, that, and what:

I gave the money to the driver, who will give it to his employer.

I brought her a book, from the library, which she enjoyed very much.

This is the house that she bought.

I do not want you to repeat what I have told you.

(1) In the last sentence what is equivalent to that which or the thing which. It differs from the other relative pronouns in that its antecedent is never expressed, it being implied in the word itself (that which).

(2) What is always of the neuter gender, and is used in only the nominative and the objective case. Who, whose, and whom are either masculine and feminine (common gender) and are used, respectively, in the nominative, the possessive, and the objective case.

(3) Which is neuter and may be used in either the nominative or the objective case.

(4) Whose is the form of the possessive for either who or which.

=Remarkable, Remarkably.=--“She is a remarkable pretty girl.” Say remarkably pretty.

=Reside and Live.=--The simple word live is preferable to reside when referring to one’s place of residence, reside being reserved for more stately occasions.

=Respect.=--Instead of “in respect of,” say “in respect to,” or “with respect to.”

=Respectfully and Respectively.=--Respectfully mean in a respectful manner; respectively refers to persons or things thought of singly; as, “He behaved respectfully toward his parents”; “The names of the boys are, respectively, John, Henry, and James.”

=Rise up.=--“He rose up and left the room.” Say “he rose”; say also, raise, lift, hoist; not raise up, lift up, hoist up.

=Saw, Seen, See.=--“I see him last Monday.” Say “I saw him.” “I seen him yesterday.” Say “I saw him.” “I haven’t saw him for along time.” Say “I haven’t seen him.” See is present, saw imperfect, seen the participle. The habit of confusing them prevails widely.

=Section.=--“Mr. ---- does not live in this section.” Say “in this neighborhood,” “vicinity,” or “part of the country.” A section, in geography, is one square mile, or six hundred and forty acres of land, which has been laid out by the government.

=Shall and Will.=--Shall in the first person and will in the second and third persons denote mere futurity.

Will in the first person and shall in the second and third denote volition.

In asking questions shall must always be used with a subject in the first person. In the second and third persons we use shall and will according to the answers that we expect. When we expect the answer shall, we use shall in asking the question. When we expect the answer will, we use will in asking the question.

Similar statements are true of should and would.

The proper use of shall, will, should, and would in indirect discourse may be determined by turning the sentence into the direct discourse and choosing the proper word according to the rule.

With all three persons, we may use would to express a wish. Also we may use would without regard to future time, to denote that an action is customary; as, “He would often fish for days in succession.”

Should is sometimes used in its original sense of ought; as, “You should not do that.”

The forms given below are examples of the simple future statement.

Examples:

I shall be happy. We shall be happy. You will be happy. You will be happy. He will be happy. They will be happy.

If we wish to add the idea of a compelling force, or of determination or obligation, the proper auxiliary for the first person is will; for the second and third persons, shall.

Examples:

I will go means I am determined to go.

You shall go means You must go.

He shall go means He must go.

We will go means We are determined to go.

You shall go means You must go.

They shall go means They must go.

I shall have satisfaction means that the satisfaction will come in the course of time.

I will have satisfaction means I am determined to have it.

=Sink down.=--“The stone sunk down in the water.” Omit down.

=Some for Somewhat.=--“He is some better today.” It is better to say “he is somewhat better.”

=Split Infinitive.=--To explain, to thank (infinitive). These words should not be separated (split). “Have the goodness to clearly explain,” should be “Have the goodness to explain clearly.”

“I want to personally thank you,” should be “I want to thank you personally.”

=Tenses.=--In subordinate clauses the tense of the verb is relative to the tense of the principal verb.

“He intended to have done so,” should be “He intended to do so.”

The imperfect tense, I did is used in speaking of events which took place before a time that is past.

The perfect tense, I have done, is used in speaking of events which have been completed before the present time.

=Than me.=--“He is taller than me.” The word after than should be in the same case with the word before it.

=Than him.=--“You are stronger than him.” Say “than he.”

=That.=--See Relative Pronouns.

=Thee and You.=--“I owe thee a heavy debt of gratitude, and you will not permit me to pay it.” Avoid such confusion of numbers. Use the same word--either thee or you--in both clauses.

=Them, They.=--“It was them.” Say “it was they.”

=These, This.=--I don’t like these sort of folks (this sort).

Those kind of boots--that kind (those kinds).

=These kind, Those sort.=--Kind and sort are singular nouns, and should be modified by singular adjectives. Say “this kind,” “that sort.”

=They, Everyone.=--Do not use they indefinitely instead of everyone, as, “They are always in a hurry in the city”; better say “Everyone is in a hurry in the city.”

=Though= is followed by yet. “Though he was rich, yet for our sakes he became poor.”

=Through.=--Often misused in the sense of finished. “I am through with my breakfast,” instead of “I have finished my breakfast.”

=To be.=--The verb “to be” takes the same case after it as before it. Example: “Who is there?” “It is I.” Say “It was I who rang the bell.”

=Trousers, Waistcoat, Gown, Petticoat=, are good old respectable English words, which point out particular garments without possibility of mistake. They are better than the new ones, pantaloons, vest, dress, skirt.

=Try and.=--“I will try and do it.” Say “I will try to do it.”

=Unique= is not properly modified by very, unique meaning the only one of its kind.

=Use to.=--Used to, not use to, is the correct form; as, “I used to go there very often.” In negative constructions “didn’t used to” is always incorrect.

=View to and View of.=--One properly says, “With a view to finding out.” or “With the view of finding out.”

=Visit with.=--Visit is improperly followed by with in such constructions as, “I am visiting with friends in New York,” “I am visiting friends,” etc., being the correct form.

=Vocation.=--A man’s vocation is his calling, his regular business. His avocation is something outside of his business with which he occupies himself incidentally. My friend’s vocation is the practice of law; his avocation is photography. Still, while avocation, in the sense of vocation, is usually avoided by good writers, such use has some sanction of authority.

=Want.=--Avoid want in the sense of “ought” or “had better,” as, “You want to hurry if you are going to catch the car”; better say “You had better hurry if you expect to catch the car.”

=Was, Were.=--“Was you?” “You was.” Say “were you?” “You were.”

=Way, Away.=--Way should not be used for away. “I saw him away (not way) down the road.”

=What for Who, Which, and That.=--See Relative Pronouns.

=Where for In which.=--“It is a cause where justice is particularly concerned.” Say in which. “We presented a paper where his case was fully explained.” Say “a paper in which.” But where may be used instead of which and a preposition when place is the predominant idea. “The old house where I was born.”

=Whether= is followed by or. “Whether he will go or not, I cannot tell.”

=Which.=--See Relative Pronouns.

=Who.=--See Relative Pronouns.

=Without, Unless.=--Without must not be used for unless. “You won’t catch the train without you run,” should be, “You won’t catch the train unless you run.”

“My uncle would not take me without my mother wished it,” should be “My uncle would not take me unless my mother wished it.”

=Wrong and Wrongly.=--Wrong is an adverb as well as an adjective. For this reason, wrong is often interchangeably used with wrongly; as, “The mail was sent off wrong” (or wrongly). When preceding the verb, wrongly is required; as “The letter was wrongly addressed.”

USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS

The following are the general rules for the use of capitals, together with the abbreviations most commonly used. Many special uses of capital letters are also insisted upon by writers which cannot be reduced to general rules.

=Rule 1.=--The first word of every sentence should begin with a capital letter.

A sentence preceded by an introductory word or clause such as Resolved, Be it enacted, etc., begins with a capital notwithstanding the introductory word.

=Rule II.=--The first word of a direct quotation, of an important statement, and of a direct question, should begin with a capital.

Examples:

One truth is clear: Whatever is, is right.--Pope. Ask yourselves this question: Are you doing right?

=Rule III.=--The first word of every line of poetry should begin with a capital.

=Rule IV.=--All proper names begin with capitals. If the proper name consists of several words, all are capitalized except articles, prepositions, and conjunctions.

Examples:--San Diego, Burton-on-Trent, the Grand Army of the Republic.

The words street, road, lake, river, mountain, etc., should begin with capitals when used in connection with proper names.

Examples:--Crawford Road, Prospect Street, Lake Erie, Cuyahoga River, Little Mountain.

North, South, East, and West, should begin with capitals when they mean sections of the country and not points of the compass.

Example:--Chicago, the largest city of the West, is south of Lake Michigan.

Capitalize city only when part of the corporate name, New York City, Washington City.

=Rule V.=--Names of days and months always take a capital; but the names of seasons of the year are not commonly capitalized.

=Rule VI.=--Titles of office before personal names, and other titles so placed which are not mere common names of vocation, are written with capitals.

Examples:--Senator Jones, Doctor (or Dr.) Brown, Aunt Jane, Miss or Master Gray; but coachman Smith, barber Harris, etc.

Titles of dignity are also commonly capitalized when used alone, as in address, or with the definite article.

Examples:--the President, Senator, Judge, the Judge, District Attorney.

When title, with or without Christian name, precedes “de,” use lower-case “d”; this rule applies also to “la,” “di,” “von,” “van,” etc.

Examples:--Marquis de Lafayette, Di Cesnola, Prince von Moltke, Von Humboldt, Dr. la Mond, De Chaulnes, Mr. van Renssalaer.

=Rule VII.=--Many special names of a common kind are, in particular uses, treated as proper nouns and capitalized.

Examples:--Congress, Parliament, Senate, _House of Representatives_, State (for one of the United States), _Hudson River Railroad_, Aldine Printing Company.

Capitalize the names of political parties; as, Republican Party, Democratic Party, Progressive Party, etc.

Capitalize Christmas Day, New Year’s Day, Lincoln’s Birthday, Washington’s Birthday, Good Friday, Decoration Day or Memorial Day, Fourth of July, Labor Day, Election Day, Thanksgiving Day, etc.; a noted day, as Black Friday, etc.; but blue Monday.

Capitalize Northerner, Southerner, Northern gentleman, Southern blood, etc.

Capitalize names of important events and periods: as, the Creation, the Fall, the Flood, the Reformation, the Revolution (French or American), Civil War (American), the Middle Ages, the Union, Reconstruction.

Capitalize religious denominations; as, Methodist, Episcopal Church, St. Mark’s Church, Church and State, etc.

Church is without the capital always when used alone or when meaning congregation or building; as, a Methodist church in Hoboken.

Capitalize College, Club, Society, etc., when referring to that particular body, in by-laws, proceedings, or other publications of a college, club, society, company, etc.

Capitalize Monsieur, Madame, Signor, etc.

Capitalize State only when referring to one of the United States.

=Rule VIII.=--Adjectives and nouns derived from proper names are written with capitals.

Examples:--Jacksonian, New Yorker, Congressman (if Congress has a capital).

Names of countries and places, and adjectives derived from them.

Examples:--a German dictionary. The best Spanish wines.

But such words used in some other common way are not capitalized.

Examples:--morocco leather, russia leather, india rubber, plaster of paris, etc.

=Rule IX.=--Names of families and larger groups in natural history, and of genera, are written with capitals; also botanical specific names derived from proper names, and those that have formerly been genus-names, though zoölogical usage gives a small initial to every specific name.

Examples:--Asplenium Trichomanes (a fern). Menticirrhus americanus (a fish). Carya alba (a hickory tree).

=Rule X.=--In headings the important words only should be capitalized.

Titles of books, newspapers, plays, and the like, are written with capitals beginning the important words, most commonly nouns, principal verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. The word the is capitalized as part of the title if the title is quoted exactly.

Examples:--A History of the Rebellion. Free Trade and Protection. Put Yourself in his Place. Milton’s Select Poems. The Beginnings of Poetry.

=Rule XI.=--The pronoun I and the interjection O are capitalized.

=Rule XII.=--All names of God, all words that may be regarded as titles of the Deity, should begin with capitals.

=Rule XIII.=--In compound words, as vice-president, ex-president, etc., the prefix (vice) should not be capitalized.

=Rule XIV.=--In personification it is usual to capitalize the personified words.

Examples:-- Vice is a monster; smiling Spring. The Voice of Nature; but: true to nature.

ABBREVIATIONS, CONTRACTIONS AND DEGREES

Military or naval and some professional titles preceding names are nearly always abbreviated; as Capt. Jones, Dr. Brown, Rev. Dr. Smith.

Titles of collegiate degree are abbreviated; as, _William Lee, Ph. D., LL. D._

In general writing, it is better to avoid abbreviation as far as possible.

A., a. Adjective.

A. Alto.

A., ans. Answer.

a., @ (Lat. ad). To; At.

ä, ää. The like quantity of each.

A. A. A. S. American Association for the Advancement of Science.

A. B. (Lat. artium baccalaureus). Bachelor of Arts.

Abbr., Abbrev. Abbreviated, Abbreviation.

Abl., ablat. Ablative.

Abp. Archbishop.

A. C. (Lat. ante Christum). Before Christ; Analytical Chemist.

Acad. Academy.

Acc., Accus. Accusative.

Acc., Acct. Account.

A. D. (Lat. anno Domini). In the year of our Lord.

A. D. C. Aide-de-camp.

Ad., advt. Advertisement.

Adj. Adjective.

Adjt. Adjutant.

Adjt. Gen. Adjutant-General.

Ad lib., Ad libit. (Lat. ad libitum). At pleasure.

Adm. Admiral.

Admr. Administrator.

Admx. Administratrix.

Adv. Adverb.

Æ., Æt. (Lat. ætatis). Of Age, Aged.

A. G., Agt.-Gen. Adjutant-General.

Ag. (Lat. argentum). Silver.

Agl. Dept. Agricultural Department.

Agr., Agric. Agriculture, Agricultural.

Agt. Agent.

A. L. of H. American Legion of Honor.

Al., Ala. Alabama.

Alas. Ter. Alaska Territory.

Ald. Alderman.

Alex. Alexander.

Alf. Alfred.

Alg. Algebra.

A. M. (Lat. anno mundi). In the year of the world.

A. M. (Lat. ante meridiem). Before noon.

A. M. (Lat. artium magister). Master of Arts.

Am., Amer. America, American.

Amer. Phil. Soc. American Philosophical Society.

Amt. Amount.

an. (Lat. anno). In the year.

Anal. Analysis.

Anat. Anatomy, Anatomical.

Anc. Ancient.

Anon. Anonymous.

Ans. Answer.

Ant., Antiq. Antiquities, Antiquarian.

Anthrop. Anthropology, Anthropological.

A. O. U. W. Ancient Order of United Workmen.

Ap., App. Apostle, Apostles.

A. P. A. American Protestant Association; American Protective Association.

Apoc. Apocalypse, Apocrypha.

Apog. Apogee.

App. Appendix.

approx. Approximate, -ly.

Apr. April.

Aq. (Lat. aqua). Water.

Ar. Arab. Arabic, Arabian.

A. R. A. Associate of the Royal Academy.

Arab. Arabic, Arabian.

Aram. Aramaic.

Arch. Architecture.

Archæol. Archæology.

Archd. Archdeacon.

Arith. Arithmetic, Arithmetical.

Ariz. Arizona.

Ark. Arkansas.

Art. Article.

A. S., A.-S. Anglo-Saxon.

Asst. Assistant.

A. S. S. U. American Sunday School Union.

Assyr. Assyrian.

Astrol. Astrology.

Astron. Astronomy, Astronomical.

Atty. Attorney.

Atty.-Gen. Attorney-General.

A. U. A. American Unitarian Association.

A. U. C. (Lat. anno urbis conditæ). In the year from the building of the city--Rome.

Aug. Augustus; August.

Auxil. Auxiliary.

Avoir. Avoirdupois.

B., Brit. British.

b. Born.

B. A. Bachelor of Arts [A. B.]

Bal. Balance.

Balt., Balto. Baltimore.

Bap., Bapt. Baptist.

Bar. Barrel, Barometer.

Bart., Bt. Baronet.

bbl., bbls. Barrel, Barrels.

B. C. Before Christ.

B. C. L. (Lat. baccalaureus civilis legis). Bachelor of Civil Law.

B. D. (Lat. baccalaureus divinitatis). Bachelor of Divinity.

Bd. Bound.

Bdls. Bundles.

B. E. Bachelor of the Elements; Bachelor of Elocution.

Belg. Belgic, Belgian.

Ben., Benj. Benjamin.

Bib. Bible, Biblical.

Biog. Biography, Biographical.

Biol. Biology, Biological.

B. L., B. L. L. (Lat. baccalaureus legum). Bachelor of Laws.

B. ès L. (F. Bachelier ès Lettres). Bachelor of Letters.

bls. Bales.

B. M. (Lat. baccalaureus medicinæ). Bachelor of Medicine.

B. M., B. Mus. (Lat. baccalaureus musicæ). Bachelor of Music.

B. O. Branch Office.

B. O. Bachelor of Oratory.

Boh. Bohemian or Czech.

Bot. Botany, Botanical.

Bp. Bishop.

Br., Bro. Brother.

Brig. Brigade.

Brig.-Gen. Brigadier-General.

Brit. Britain, Britannia, British.

B. S. Bachelor of Surgery; Bachelor of Science.

B. Sc. (Lat. baccalaureus scientiæ). Bachelor of Science.

Bt. Baronet.

bush. Bushel.

B. V. Blessed Virgin.

B. V. M. Blessed Virgin Mary.

bx., bxs. Box, Boxes.

C. Cent, Cents; Centigrade; Consul; Centime, Centimes; a hundred.

C., Cap. (Lat. caput). Chapter.

C. A. Chartered Accountant.

Cal. California; Calendar.

Cant. Canticle.

Cantab. (Lat. Cantabrigiensis). Of Cambridge.

Cap. (Lat. caput). Capital; Chapter.

Caps. Capitals.

Capt. Captain.

Card. Cardinal.

Cath. Catharine; Catholic.

C. D. V. Carte-de-Visite.

C. E. Civil Engineer.

Celt. Celtic.

Cent. (centum). A hundred; Centigrade.

Centig. Centigrade.

Cert., Certif. Certify; Certificate.

Cf. (Lat. confer). Compare.

C. ft. Cubic feet.

C. G. Coastguard; Commissary-General.

C. G. S. Centimetre-Gramme-Second.

C. H. Court House.

Ch. Church; Chapter.

Chal., Chald. Chaldee.

Chan. Chancellor.

Chap. Chapter.

Chas. Charles.

Chem. Chemistry, Chemical.

Ch. Hist. Church History.

Chr. Christ; Christian; Christopher.

Chron. Chronology, Chronological.

Cit. Citation; Citizen.

Civ. Civil.

C. J. Chief Justice.

Class. Classical.

Clk. Clerk.

cm. Centimetre.

C. M. Certified Master; Common metre.

C. M. (Lat. chirurgiæ magister). Master in Surgery.

C. M. G. Companion of the Order of St. Michael and George.

Co. Company; County.

C. O. D. Cash on delivery; Collect (payment) on delivery.

Col. Colonel; Colossians; Column.

Colloq. Colloquial; Colloquialism; Colloquially.

Colo. Colorado.

Com. Commander; Commerce; Commissioner; Committee; Commodore; Common.

Comm. Commentary; Commerce.

Comp. Compare; Comparative; Compound, Compounded.

Con., contra (Lat.). Against.

Con. Cr. Contra Credit.

Cong. Congregation, Congregational, Congregationalist; Congress.

Conj. Conjunction.

Conn. Connecticut.

Contr. Contracted, Contraction.

Cop., Copt. Coptic.

Cor. Corinthians.

Cor. Mem. Corresponding Member.

Corrup. Corruption, Corrupted.

Cor. Sec. Corresponding Secretary.

Cos. Cosine.

C. P. Clerk of the Peace; Common Pleas.

C. P. A. Certified Public Accountant.

C. P. C. Clerk of the Privy Council.

C. P. S. (Lat. custos privati sigilli). Keeper of the Privy Seal.

C. Q. D. Come quick--danger.

Cr. Credit, Creditor.

C. R. (Lat. Civus Romanus). Roman Citizen.

C. R. (Lat. custos rotulorum). Keeper of the Rolls.

Cres. Crescendo.

Crystall., Crystallog. Crystallography.

C. S. A. Confederate States of America.

C. S. Court of Sessions, Clerk to the Signet.

Csks. Casks.

Ct. (Lat. centum). A hundred.

Ct. Court.

Ct., Conn. Connecticut.

C. T. A. U. Catholic Total Abstinence Union.

Cu. (Lat. cuprum). Copper.

Cub., Cu. ft. Cubic, Cubic foot.

Cur., Curt. Current--this month.

Cwt. A hundredweight; Hundredweights.

Cyc. Cyclopædia.

d. (Lat. denarius, denarii). A penny, Pence.

d. Died.

Dan. Daniel; Danish.

Dat. Dative.

Dav. David.

D. C., Dist. Col. District of Columbia.

D. C. L. Doctor of Civil (or Canon) Law.

D. D. (Lat. divinitatis doctor). Doctor of Divinity.

D. D. S. Doctor of Dental Surgery.

D. E. Dynamic Engineer.

D. Eng. Doctor of Engineering.

Dec. December.

decim. Decimetre.

Def. Definition.

Deft. Defendant.

Deg. Degree, Degrees.

Del. Delaware.

Dep., Dept. Department.

Dep. Deputy.

Der. Derived, Derivation.

Deut. Deuteronomy.

D. G. (Lat. Dei gratia). By the grace of God.

Dict. Dictionary.

Dim., Dimin. Diminutive.

Dis., Disct. Discount.

Dist. District.

Dist. Atty. District Attorney.

Div. Divide; Dividend; Division; Divisor.

D. Lit., D. Litt. Doctor of Literature.

D. L. O. Dead Letter Office.

D. M., D. Mus. Doctor of Music.

D. M. D. Doctor of Dental Medicine.

D. O. Doctor of Osteopathy; Doctor of Optics.

Do. (Ital. ditto). The same.

Dols. Dollars.

Doz. Dozen.

Dpt. Deponent.

Dr. Debtor; Doctor; Dram, Drams.

Dram. Dramatic, Dramatically.

D. Sc. Doctor of Science.

D. T. (Lat. doctor theologiæ). Doctor of Theology.

Du., Dut. Dutch.

Dub. Dublin.

Duo., 12mo. Duodecimo (twelve folds).

D. V. (Lat. Deo volente). God willing.

D. V. M. Doctor of Veterinary Medicine.

D. V. S. Doctor of Veterinary Surgery.

Dwt. (Lat. denarius, an English weight). Pennyweight, Penny- weights.

Dynam. Dynamics.

E. East, Eastern; English; Edinburgh.

Ea. Each.

Eccl., Eccles. Ecclesiastical.

Econ. Economy.

Ed. Editor; Edition; Edinburgh.

Ed., Edm. Edmund.

Edin. Edinburgh.

Edw. Edward.

E. E. Electrical Engineer.

e. g. (Lat. exempli gratia). For example.

Elec., Elect. Electric, Electricity.

Eliz. Elizabeth, Elizabethan.

Emp. Emperor, Empress.

Ency., Encyclo. Encyclopædia.

E. N. E. East-northeast.

Eng. England, English.

Eng., Engin. Engineer, Engineering.

Eng. Dept. Department of Engineers.

Ent., Entom. Entomology, Entomological.

Env. Ext. Envoy extraordinary.

Eph. Ephesians; Ephraim.

Epiph. Epiphany.

Epis. Episcopal.

Epist. Epistle, epistolary.

Eq. Equal, equivalent.

Equiv. Equivalent.

Esd. Esdras.

E. S. E. East-southeast.

Esq., Esqr. Esquire.

et al (Lat. et alibi). And elsewhere.

et al. (Lat. et alii, or aliæ, alia). And others.

etc., &c. (Lat. et cæteri, cæteræ, or cætera). And others, and so forth.

Ethnol. Ethnology, ethnological.

et seq., sq., or sqq. (Lat. et sequentes, or et sequentia). And the following.

Etym. or Etymol., Etymology.

Ex. Example; Examined; Exception; Exodus.

Exc. Excellency; Except, excepted.

Exch. Exchange; Exchequer.

Ex. Doc. Executive Document.

Exec. Executor.

Execx. Executrix.

Exod. Exodus.

Exon. (Lat. Exonia). Exeter.

Exr. Executor.

Exx. Executrix.

Ez. Ezra.

Ezek. Ezekiel.

E. & O. E. Errors and omissions excepted.

F. Fellow; Folio; Fahrenheit.

f. Farthing, farthings.

f., fem. Feminine.

f. Franc, francs.

Fahr. Fahrenheit.

F. A. S. Fellow of the Society of Arts.

F. C. Free Church of Scotland.

Fcp. Foolscap.

F. C. S. Fellow of the Chemical Society.

F. D., Fid. Def. (Lat. Fidei Defensor). Defender of the Faith.

Feb. February.

Fec. (Lat. fecit). He (or She) did it.

Fem. Feminine.

F. E. S. Fellow of the Entomological (or Ethnological) Society.

Feud. Feudal.

F. F. V. First Families of Virginia. (Humorous).

F. G. S. Fellow of the Geological Society.

fi. fa., Fieri facias. (Lat.). A form of judicial writ.

Fig. Figure, figures; figurative, figuratively.

Fl. Flemish; Florin, florins; Flourished.

Fla. Florida.

Flem. Flemish.

F. L. S. Fellow of the Linnæan Society.

F. M. Field Marshal.

Fo., Fol. Folio.

F. O. Foreign Office; Field Officer.

F. O. B. Free on board.

For. Foreign.

Fort. Fortification.

F. P. Fire-plug.

Fr. France, French; Francis; Francs.

fr. From.

F. R. C. S. Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons.

Fred. Frederick.

F. R. G. S. Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society.

Fri. Friday.

F. R. S. Fellow of the Royal Society.

F. S. A. Fellow of the Society of Arts, or of Antiquaries.

Ft. Fort; Foot, feet.

Fth. Fathom.

Fur. Furlong.

F. Z. S. Fellow of the Zoölogical Society.

F. & A. M. Free and Accepted Masons.

G. Genitive; Guinea, guineas; Gulf.

Ga. Georgia.

Gael. Gaelic; Gadhelic.

Gal. Galatians.

gal. Gallon, gallons.

G. A. R. Grand Army of the Republic.

G. C. B. Grand Cross of the Bath.

G. C. H. Grand Cross of Hanover.

G. C. L. H. Grand Cross of the Legion of Honor.

G. C. M. G. Grand Cross SS. Michael and George.

G. C. S. I. Grand Commander of the Star of India.

G. D. Grand Duke, Grand Duchess.

Gen. General.

Gen. Genesis; Genitive.

Gend. Gender.

Genit. Genitive.

Gent. Gentleman, gentlemen.

Geo. George; Georgia.

Geog. Geography, geographical.

Geol. Geology, geological.

Geom. Geometry, geometrical.

Ger., Germ. German.

Gi. Gill, gills.

G. L. Grand Lodge.

G. M. Grand Master.

Go., Goth. Gothic.

G. O. P. Grand Old Party.

Gov. Governor.

Gov.-Gen. Governor-General.

Govt. Government.

G. P.-O. General Post-Office.

gr. Grain, grains; Gross.

Gr. Great; Greek.

Gram. Grammar, grammatical.

gro. Gross.

G. T. Good Templars; Grand Tyler.

gtt. (Lat. gutta or guttæ). Drop or drops.

H. Hour, hours.

H. B. M. His (or Her) Britannic Majesty.

H. C. Heralds’ College; House of Commons.

H. C. M. His (or Her) Catholic Majesty.

h. e. (Lat. hoc est, hic est). That (or this) is.

Heb., Hebr. Hebrew, Hebrews.

Her. Heraldry, heraldic.

Hf.-bd. Half-bound.

H. H. His (or Her) Highness; His Holiness (the pope).

Hhd. Hogshead, hogsheads.

H. I. H. His (or Her) Imperial highness.

Hind. Hindu, Hindustan, Hindustani.

Hist. History, historical.

H. J., H. J. S. (Lat. hic jacet, hic jacet sepultus). Here lies, Here lies buried.

H. M. His (or Her) Majesty.

H. M. S. His (or Her) Majesty’s Service, Ship, or Steamer.

Hon., Honble. Honorable.

Hor., Horol. Horology, horological.

Hort., Hortic. Horticulture, horticultural.

H. P. Half-pay; High Priest; Horse power.

H. R. House of Representatives.

H. R. E. Holy Roman Empire, or Emperor.

H. R. H. His (or Her) Royal Highness.

Hun., Hung. Hungary, Hungarian.

Hund. Hundred, hundreds.

Hydraul. Hydraulics.

Hydros. (See Hyd.)

Hypoth. Hypothesis, hypothetical.

I. Island.

Ia. Iowa.

Ib., Ibid. (Lat. ibidem). In the same place.

Icel. Iceland, Icelandic.

Ich., Ichth. Ichthyology.

Id. (Lat. idem). The same.

Ida. Idaho.

i. e. (Lat. id est). That is.

I. H. S. (Lat. Iesus [or Jesus] Hominum Salvator). Jesus the Savior of Men.

Ill. Illinois.

Imp. (Lat. imperator). Emperor; Imperial; impersonal.

Imp., Imperf. Imperfect.

in. Inch, inches.

Incog. (Ital. incognito, incognita). Unknown.

Ind. India, Indian; Indiana.

Indic. Indicative.

Ind. Ter. Indian Territory.

Inf., Infin. Infinitive.

In loc. (Lat. in loco). In its place.

I. N. R. I. (Lat. Iesus [or Jesus] Nazarenus Rex Iudæorum [or Judæorum]). Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews.

Ins., Insur. Insurance.

Ins.-Gen. Inspector-General.

Inst. Instant; the present month; Institute, Institution.

Int. Interest.

Int. Dept. Department of the Interior.

Interj. Interjection.

Intrans. Intransitive.

In trans. (Lat. in transitu). On the passage.

Int. Rev. Internal Revenue.

Introd. Introduction.

Io. Iowa.

I. O. F. Independent Order of Foresters.

I. O. G. T. Independent Order of Good Templars.

I. O. O. F. Independent Order of Oddfellows.

I. O. R. M. Improved Order of Red Men.

I. O. S. M. Independent Order of Sons of Malta.

I. O. U. I owe you.

i. q. (Lat. idem quod). The same as.

Ir. Ireland, Irish.

Irreg. Irregular.

Is., Isa. Isaiah.

I. S. Irish Society.

Isl. Island.

I. S. M. Jesus Salvator Mundi.

It., Ital. Italy; Italic; Italian.

Itin. Itinerary.

J. Judge; Justice.

J. A. Judge-Advocate.

Jac. Jacob, Jacobus (= James).

Jan. January.

J. A. G. Judge Advocate General.

J. C. Jesus Christ.

J. C. D. (Lat. juris civilis doctor). Doctor of Civil Law.

J. D. (Lat. jurum doctor), Doctor of Laws.

Jer. Jeremiah.

J. H. S. [I. H. S.]

Jno. John.

Jon., Jona. Jonathan.

Jos. Joseph.

Josh. Joshua.

Jour. Journal.

J. P. Justice of the Peace.

Jr. Juror; Junior.

J. U. D. (Lat. Juris utriusque doctor). Doctor of both laws (i. e., of civil and canon law).

Jud. Judith.

Judg. Judges.

Jul. July; Julius; Julian.

Jun. June.

Jun., Junr. Junior.

Juris. Jurisprudence.

K. King; Knight.

Kan., Ks. Kansas.

K. B. Knight of the Bath.

K. B. King’s Bench.

K. C. King’s Counsel; Knights of Columbus.

K. C. B. Knight Commander of the Bath.

K. C. H. Knight Commander of the Guelphs of Hanover.

K. C. M. G. Knight Commander of St. Michael and St. George.

K. E. Knight of the Eagle.

Ken., Ky. Kentucky.

K. G. Knight of the Garter.

K. G. E. Knight of the Golden Eagle.

K. G. C. Knight of the Grand Cross.

K. G. C. B. Knight of the Grand Cross of the Bath.

K. G. F. Knight of the Golden Fleece.

K. G. H. Knight of the Guelphs of Hanover.

Kilog. Kilogramme.

Kilom., Kilo. Kilometre.

Kingd. Kingdom.

K. L. H. Knight of the Legion of Honor.

K. M. Knight of Malta.

Kn. N. S. Knight of the Loyal Northern Star (Sweden).

Knick. Knickerbocker.

Knt. Knight.

K. of P. Knights of Pythias.

Ks. Kansas.

K. S. Knight of the Sword (Sweden).

Kt. Knight.

K. T. Knight of the Thistle; Knight Templar.

K. T. S. Knight of Tower and Sword (Portugal).

Ky. Kentucky.

L. Latin; Lake; Lord; Lady.

L., l, £. (Lat. libra). Pound, pounds (sterling).

L., lb. ℔ lb. (Lat. libra). Pound, pounds (weight).

La. Louisiana.

L. A. Law Agent; Literate in Arts.

Lam. Lamentations.

Lat. Latin; Latitude.

lb. Pound, pounds (weight).

L. c. Lower case (in printing).

L. c., loc. cit. (Lat. loco citato). The place cited.

L. C. Lord Chamberlain; Lord Chancellor.

L. C. J. Lord Chief-Justice.

Ldp. Lordship.

Leg., Legis. Legislature, legislative.

Leip. Leipsic.

Lev. Leviticus.

Lex. Lexicon.

Lexicog. Lexicography, lexicographer, lexicographical.

L. G. Life Guards.

L. Ger. Low German or Platt Deutsch.

L. H. D. Doctor of Humanities.

L. I. Light Infantry; Long Island.

Lib. (Lat. liber). Book.

Lib. Library, librarian.

Lieut., Lt. Lieutenant.

Lieut.-col. Lieutenant-colonel.

Lieut.-gen. Lieutenant-general.

Lieut.-gov. Lieutenant-governor.

lin. Lineal, or right-line measures; e. g., lin. yd.; lin. ft., etc.

Linn. Linnæus, Linné, Linnæan.

Liq. Liquor, liquid.

Lit. Literally, literature, library.

Lit. D., Litt. D. (Lat. literarum doctor). Doctor of Literature.

Lith. Lithography.

Liv. Livre.

LL. B. (Lat. legum baccalaureus). Bachelor of Laws.

LL. D. (Lat. legum doctor). Doctor of Laws.

LL. M. Master of Laws.

L. M. Long metre.

Lon., Lond. London.

Lon., Long. Longitude.

Loq. (Lat. loquitur). He (or she) speaks.

Lou. Louisiana.

L. S. (Lat. locus sigilli). Place of the seal.

L. s. d. (Lat. libræ, solidi, denarii). Pounds, shillings, pence.

Lt. Lieutenant.

Lt. Inf. Light Infantry.

Luth. Lutheran.

m. Married; Masculine; Mètre, mètres; Mile, miles; Minute, minutes.

M. Marquis; Middle; Monday; Morning; Monsieur.

M. (Lat. mille). Thousand.

M. (Lat. meridies). Meridian, Noon.

M. A. (Master of Arts). [A. M.]

Mac., Macc. Maccabees.

Mad., Madm. Madam.

Mag. Magyar; Magazine.

Maj. Major.

Maj.-gen. Major-general.

Mal. Malachi; Malay, Malayan.

Manuf. Manufactures, manufacturing.

Mar. March; Maritime.

Marq. Marquis.

Mass. Massachusetts.

Math. Mathematics, mathematician, mathematical.

Matt. Matthew.

M. B. (Lat. medicinæ baccalaureus). Bachelor of Medicine.

M. B. (Lat. musicæ baccalaureus). Bachelor of Music.

M. C. Member of Congress; Master of Ceremonies.

Mch. March.

M. D. (Lat. medicinæ doctor). Doctor of Medicine.

Md. Maryland.

Mdlle. (Fr. mademoiselle). Miss.

Mdse. Merchandise.

M. E. Most Excellent; Military Engineer; Mining Engineer; Mechanical Engineer.

M. E. Methodist Episcopal.

Me. Maine.

Meas. Measure.

Mech. Mechanics, mechanical.

Med. Medicine, medical; Mediæval.

Mem. Memorandum, memoranda.

Messrs. (Fr. messieurs). Gentlemen.

Metall. Metallurgy.

Metaph. Metaphysics; Metaphorically.

Meteor. Meteorology, meteorological.

Meth. Methodist.

Mex. Mexico.

Mfd., Mfs. Manufactured, manufactures.

Mfg. Manufacturing.

M. H. Ger. Middle High German.

M. I. C. E. Member of the Institute of Civil Engineers.

Mich. Michaelmas; Michigan.

Mid. Middle; Midshipman.

Mil., Milit. Military.

M. I. M. E. Member of the Institute of Mining Engineers.

Min. Mineralogy, mineralogical; Minute, minutes.

Minn. Minnesota.

Min. Plen. Minister Plenipotentiary.

Miss. Mississippi.

Mlle. (Fr. mademoiselle). Miss.

MM. Their Majesties.

MM. (Fr. messieurs). Gentlemen.

mm. Millemetres; Micrometers.

Mme. (Fr. madame). Madame.

M. N. A. S. Member of the National Academy of Sciences.

Mo. Missouri; Month.

Mod. Modern.

Mod. (Ital. moderato). Moderately.

Mon. Monday.

Mons. (Fr. monsieur). Sir, Mr.

Mont. Montana.

M. P. Member of Parliament.

M. P. P. Member of Provincial Parliament.

M. P. S. Member of the Pharmaceutical Society; Member of the Philological Society.

Mr. Master, Mister.

M. R. A. S. Member of the Royal Asiatic Society.

M. R. C. P. Member of the Royal College of Physicians.

M. R. C. S. Member of the Royal College of Surgeons.

M. R. G. S. Member of the Royal Geographical Society.

M. R. I. Member of the Royal Institution.

Mrs. Mistress (when abbreviated pronounced mis´sis).

M. S. Master of Surgery.

M. S. Master of Science.

M. S. (Lat. Memoriæ sacrum). Sacred to the memory of.

MS. Manuscript.

MSS. Manuscripts.

Mt., Mts. Mount, mountains.

Mus. Museum; Music, musical.

Mus. B. (Lat. Musicæ Baccalaureus). Bachelor of Music.

Mus. D., Mus. Doc., Mus. Doct. (Lat. Musicæ Doctor). Doctor of Music.

Myth. Mythology, mythological.

N. Noon; North; Noun; Number; New; Neuter.

N. A. North America, North American.

Nap. Napoleon.

Nat. Natural; National; Natal.

Nat. Hist. Natural History.

Nat. Phil. Natural Philosophy.

Naut. Nautical.

N. B. New Brunswick; North Britain (i. e. Scotland).

N. B. (Lat. Nota bene). Note well, Take notice.

N. C. North Carolina.

N. D., N. Dak. North Dakota.

N. E. New England; Northeast.

Neb. Nebraska.

Neg. Negative, negatively.

Neth. Netherlands.

Neut. Neuter.

Nev. Nevada.

New Test., N. T. New Testament.

N. F. Newfoundland.

N. H. New Hampshire.

N. J. New Jersey.

N. Lat. North Latitude.

N. M. New Mexico.

N. N. E. North-northeast.

N. N. W. North-northwest.

No. (Lat. numero). Number.

nol. pros. (nolle prosequi). To be unwilling to proceed.

Nom. Nominative.

Non con. Non-content, dissentient. (The formula in which Members of the House of Lords vote.)

Non obst. (Lat. non obstante). Notwithstanding.

Non pros. (Lat. non prosequitur). He does not prosecute.

Non seq. (Lat. non sequitur). It does not follow (as a consequence).

n. o. p. Not otherwise provided for.

Nor., Norm. Norman.

Nor. Fr., Norm. Fr. Norman French.

Norw. Norway, Norwegian, Norse.

Nos. Numbers.

Nov. November.

N. P. Notary Public.

N. S. New style (since 1752); Nova Scotia.

N. T. New Testament.

Num., Numb. Numbers.

N. V. M. Nativity of the Virgin Mary.

N. W. Northwest.

N. W. T. Northwest Territory.

N. Y. New York.

N. Z. New Zealand.

O. Ohio; Old.

ob. (Lat. obiit.) He (or she) died.

Ob., Obad. Obadiah.

Obdt., Obt. Obedient.

Obj. Objective.

Obs. Obsolete.

Oct. October.

Oct., 8vo. Octavo.

O. H. Ger. Old High German.

O. K. “All correct.”

Okl. Oklahoma.

Old Test., O. T. Old Testament.

Olym. Olympiad.

Op. Opposite, opposition.

Opt. Optative; Optics, optical.

Ordn. Ordnance.

Ore. Oregon.

Orig. Original, originally.

Ornith. Ornithology, ornithological.

O. S. Old Style (previous to 1752); Old Saxon.

O. S. A. Order of St. Augustine.

O. S. F. Order of St. Francis.

O. T. Old Testament.

O. U. A. M. Order of United American Mechanics.

Oxf. Oxford.

Oxon. (Lat. Oxonia, Oxoniensis). Oxford; of Oxford.

Oxonien. (Lat. Oxoniensis). Of Oxford.

oz. Ounce. [The z in this contraction and in viz., represents an old symbol (ʒ), used to mark a terminal contraction.]

P. Page; Participle; Past; Pole; Port.

Pa. Pennsylvania.

P. a., par. a. Participial adjective.

Paint. Painting.

Pal., Palæont. Palæontology, palæontological.

Par. Paragraph.

Parl. Parliament, parliamentary.

Part. Participle.

Pass. Passive.

Pat. Patrick.

Payt. Payment.

P.C. (Lat. Patres Conscripti). Conscript Fathers.

P. C. Police Constable; Privy Council, Privy Councilor.

Pd. Paid.

P. E. Protestant Episcopal.

P. E. I. Prince Edward Island.

Penn. Pennsylvania.

Pent. Pentecost.

Per., Pers. Persia; Persian; Personal.

Per. an. (Lat. per annum). Yearly.

Per cent., per ct. (Lat. per centum). By the hundred.

Perf. Perfect.

Persp. Perspective.

Peruv. Peruvian.

Pet. Peter.

P. G. M. Past Grand Master.

Phar., Pharm. Pharmacy.

Ph. B. (Lat. Philosophiæ Baccalaureus). Bachelor of Philosophy.

Ph. D. (Lat. Philosophiæ Doctor). Doctor of Philosophy.

Phil., Phila. Philadelphia.

Phil. Philip; Philippians; Philosophy, philosophical.

Philol. Philology.

Philos. Philosophy, philosophical.

Ph. M. Master of Philosophy.

Photog. Photography, photographic, photographer.

Phren., phrenol. Phrenology, phrenological.

Phys. Physics, physical, physiology, physiological.

Physiol. Physiology, physiological.

Pinx., Pxt. (Lat. pinxit). He (or she) painted it.

Pk. Peck.

Pl. Place; Plate; Plural.

P. L. Poet Laureate.

Plff., Pltff. Plaintiff.

Plu. Plural.

Plup., Plupf. Pluperfect.

Plur. Plural.

P. M. (Lat. post meridiem). Afternoon.

P. M. Past Master; Peculiar Meter; Postmaster.

P. M. G. Postmaster-General.

P. O. Post-office.

P. & O. Co. Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company.

Pol. Polish.

Polit. Econ. Political Economy.

P. O. O. Post-office order.

Pop. Population.

Port. Portugal, Portuguese.

Poss. Possessive.

pp. Pages.

p. p. Past (or perfect) participle.

P. P. (Lat. pater patriæ). Father of his country.

P. C. C. (Ft. pour prendre congé). To take leave. [T. T. L.]

Pph. Pamphlet.

p. pr. Present participle.

Pr. Present; Priest; Prince.

P. R. (Lat. populus Romanus). The Roman people.

P. R. C. (Lat. Post Roman conditam). After the building of Rome. [A. U. C.]

Pref. Prefix; Preface.

prep. Preposition.

Pres. President; Present.

Prim. Primary.

Prin. Principal; Principles.

Print. Printing.

Prob. Problem; Probable, probably.

Prof. Professor.

Pron. Pronoun; Pronounced, pronunciation.

Prop. Proposition; Properly.

Pros. Prosody.

Pro tem. (Lat. pro tempore). For the time being.

Prov. Proverbs, proverbial, proverbially; Provincial, provincially; Provost.

Provinc. Provincial.

Prox. (Lat. proximo). Next of or of the next month.

Prs. Pairs.

Prus. Prussia, Prussian.

P. S. (Lat. post scriptum). Postscript.

P. S. Privy Seal.

Ps., Psa. Psalm, psalms.

Psychol. Psychology.

Pt. Part; Payment; Point; Port.

P. T. Post-town; Pupil teacher.

Pub. Public; Published, publisher.

Pub. Doc. Public Documents.

Pwt. Pennyweight.

Pxt. [PINX.]

Q., Qu. Query; Question.

Q. d. (Lat. quasi dicat). As if he should say.

Q. e. (Lat. quod est). Which is.

Q. E. D. (Lat. quod erat demonstrandum). Which was to be proved.

Q. E. F. (Lat. quod erat faciendum). Which was to be done.

Q. E. I. (Lat. quod erat inveniendum). Which was to be found out.

Q. l. (Lat. quantum libel). As much as you please.

Q. M. Quartermaster.

Q. M. Gen. Quartermaster-General.

Qr. Quarterly; Quire.

Q. S. Quarter Sessions.

Q. s. (Lat. quantum sufficit). A sufficient quantity.

Qt. Quart.

Qu. Queen; Query; Question.

Quar., quart. Quarterly.

Quar., 4to. Quarto.

Ques. Question.

Q. v. (Lat. quod vide). Which see.

Qu. Query.

R. Railway; Réaumur; River.

R. (Lat. rex). King; (Lat. regina.) Queen.

R. (Lat. recipe). Take.

R. A. Royal Academy, Royal Academician; Rear-Admiral; Royal Arch; Royal Artillery.

Rad. (Lat. radix). Root.

R. C. Roman Catholic.

R. E. Reformed Episcopal.

Réaum. Réamur.

Rec. Recipe.

Recd. Received.

Recpt. Receipt.

Ref. Reference.

Ref. Ch. Reformed Church.

Ref. Pres. Reformed Presbyterian.

Reg. Regular.

Reg., Regr. Registrar.

Reg., Regt. Regiment, regimental.

Rel. Pron. Relative Pronoun

Rem. Remark, remarks.

Rep. Report; Representative.

Rep. Repub. Republic; Republican.

Res. Resolution.

Retd. Returned.

Rev. Revelation; Revenues; Reverend; Reviews; Revise.

Revd. Reverend.

Revs. Reverends.

Rev. Stat. Revised Statutes.

R. F. D. Rural Free Delivery.

Rhet. Rhetoric, rhetorical.

R. I. Rhode Island.

Riv. River.

R. M. S. Royal Mail Steamer; Royal Mail Service.

R. N. Royal Navy.

Robt. Robert.

Rom. Roman, Romans.

Rom. Cath. Roman Catholic.

R. P. Regius Professor.

R. R. Railroad.

R. S. V. P. (Fr. Repondez s’il vous plait). Please reply.

Rt. Right.

Rt. Hon. Right Honorable.

Rt. Rev. Right Reverend.

R. T. S. Religious Tract Society

Rt. Wpful. Right Worshipful.

Russ. Russia, Russian.

R. V. Revised Version; Rifle Volunteers.

Ry. Railway.

S. Saint; Saturday; Section; Shilling; Sign; Signor; Solo; Soprano; South; Sun; Sunday; Sabbath.

s. Second, seconds; See; Singular; Son; Succeeded.

S. A. South Africa; South America.

S. A. (Lat. secundem artem). According to the rules of art.

Sab. Sabbath.

Sam., Saml. Samuel.

Sam., Samar. Samaritan.

Sans., Sansc., Sansk. Sanscrit, Sanskrit.

Sat. Saturday.

Sax. Saxon, Saxony.

S. C. South Carolina.

Sc. [SCIL. SCULL.]

S. caps., Sm. caps. Small capitals. (In printing.)

Sc. B. (Lat. scientiæ baccalaureus). Bachelor of Science.

Sc. D. (Lat. scientiæ doctor). Doctor of Science.

Sch. (Lat. scholium). A note.

Sci. Science.

Sci. fa. Scire facias.

Scil. Sc. (Lat. scilicet). Namely; to wit.

Sclav. Sclavonic.

Scot. Scotland, Scotch, Scottish.

Scr. Scruple, scruples.

Scrip., Script, Scripture, scriptural.

Sculp. Sculpture.

Sculp., Sculpt., Sc. (Lat. sculpsit). He (or she) engraved it.

S. D. Doctor of Science.

S. D., S. Dak. South Dakota.

S. E. Southeast.

Sec. Second.

Sec., Sect. Section.

Sec., Secy. Secretary.

Sec. Leg. Secretary of Legation.

Sen. Senate, senator.

Sen. Doc. Senate Document.

Sep., Sept. September.

Seq. (Lat. sequentes, sequentia). The following or the next.

Serg., Sergt. Sergeant.

Serg. Maj. Sergeant-Major.

Serv. Servian.

Sess. Session.

S. G. Solicitor-general.

Sh. Shilling, shillings.

Sing. Singular.

S. J. Society of Jesus.

S. J. C. Supreme Judicial Court.

Skr. Sanskrit.

Slav. Slavonic.

Soc., Socy. Society.

Sol.-gen. Solicitor-general.

Sp. Spain, Spanish; Spirit.

s. p. (Lat. sine prole). Without issue.

S. P. C. A. Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals.

S. P. C. C. Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children.

S. P. C. K. Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge.

Spec. Special, specially.

sp. gr., s. g. Specific gravity.

S. P. Q. R. (Lat. Senatus Populusque Romanus). The Senate and the People of Rome.

sq. Square; sq. ft. Square foot, feet; sq. in. Square inch, inches; sq. m. Square mile, miles; sq. yd. Square yard; sq. rd. Square rod.

Sr. Senior; sir.

S. R. I. (Lat. Sacrum Romanum Imperium). The Holy Roman Empire.

SS. Saints.

S. S. Sunday-school.

S. S. E. South-southeast.

S. S. W. South-southwest.

St. Saint; Stone; Strait; Street.

st. (Lat. stet). Let it stand (in printing).

Stat. Statute, statutes; Statuary.

S. T. B. Bachelor of Sacred Theology.

S. T. D. (Lat. sacræ theologiæ doctor). Doctor of Divinity.

ster., stg. Sterling.

Str. Steamer, steam vessel.

Subj. Subjunctive.

Suff. Suffix.

Sun., Sund. Sunday.

Sup. Superior; Superlative; Supplement; Supine.

Sup. Ct. Supreme Court.

Supt. Superintendent.

Sur., Surg. Surgeon, surgery.

Sur.-gen. Surgeon-general.

Surv. Surveying, surveyor.

Surv.-gen. Surveyor-general.

S. v. (Lat. sub voce). Under the word or title.

S. W. Senior Warden; Southwest.

Sw. Sweden, Swedish.

Switz. Switzerland.

Syn. Synonym, synonymous.

Synop. Synopsis.

Syr. Syria, Syriac; Syrup.

T. Tenor; Ton; Tun; Tuesday.

Tab. Table; Tabular statement.

Tan. Tangent.

Tech. Technical, technically.

Ten., Tenn. Tennessee.

Ter. Territory.

Term. Termination.

Teut. Teutonic.

Tex. Texas.

Th. Thomas; Thursday.

Theo. Theodore.

Theol. Theology.

Theor. Theorem.

Thess. Thessalonians.

Tho., Thos. Thomas.

Thu., Thur., Thurs. Thursday.

Tier. Tierce.

Tit. Title; Titus.

Tom. Tome, volume.

Tonn. Tonnage.

Topog. Topography, topographical.

Tp. Township.

Tr. Translation, translator, translated; Transpose; Treasurer; Trustee.

Trans. Transaction; Translation, translator, translated.

Trav. Travels.

Treas. Treasurer.

Trig., Trigon. Trigonometry, trigonometrical.

Trin. Trinity.

Tu., Tues. Tuesday.

Turk. Turkey, Turkish.

Typ. Typographer.

Typog. Typography, typographical.

U. C. (Lat. urbis conditæ). From the building of the city--Rome. [A. U. C.]

U. K. United Kingdom.

Ult. (Lat. ultimo). Last, of the last month.

um. Unmarried.

Unit. Unitarian.

Univ. University.

Up. Upper.

U. P. United Presbyterian.

U. S. United States.

U. S. A. United States of America; United States Army.

U. S. L. United States Legation.

U. S. M. United States mail; United States marine.

U. S. M. A. United States Military Academy.

U. S. N. United States Navy.

U. S. N. A. United States Naval Academy.

U. S. S. United States Senate; United States ship or steamer.

U. S. S. Ct. United States Supreme Court.

Usu. Usual, usually.

V. Verb; Verse; Victoria; Violin.

V., vs. (Lat. versus). Against.

V. (Lat. vide). See.

V. A. Vicar Apostolic; Vice-admiral.

Va. Virginia.

Val. Valve; Value.

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The Circle of Knowledge: A Classified, Simplified, Visualized Book of Answers (part 6 of 9)

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The Circle of Knowledge: A Classified, Simplified, Visualized Book of Answers (part 6 of 9)