The senses and the intellect

Preface

rPHE object of this treatise is to give a full and systematic account of two principal divisions of the science of mind, — the Senses and the Intellect. The remaining two divisions, comprising the Emotions and the Will, will be the subject of a future treatise.

While endeavouring to present in a methodical form all the important facts and doctrines bearing upon mind, considered as a branch of science, I have seen reason to adopt some new views, and to depart in a few instances from the most usual arrangement of the topics.

Conceiving that the time has now come when many of the striking discoveries of Physiologists relative to the nervous system should find a recognised place in the Science of Mind, I have devoted a separate chapter to the Physiology of the Brain and Nerves.

In treating of the Senses, besides recognising the so-called muscular sense as distinct from the five senses, I have thought proper to assign to Movement and the feelings of Movement a position preceding the Sensations of the senses ; and have endeavoured to prove that the exercise of active energy originating in purely internal impulses, inde-

VI PREFACE.

pendent of the stimulus produced by outward impressions, is a primary fact of our constitution.

Among the Senses, have been here enrolled and described with some degree of minuteness the feelings connected with the various processes of organic life, — Digestion, Respiration, &c. — which make up so large a part of individual happiness and misery.

A systematic plan has been introduced into the description of the conscious states in general, so as to enable them to be compared and classified with more precision than heretofore. However imperfect may be the first attempt to construct a Natural History of the Feelings, upon the basis of a uniform descriptive method, the subject of mind cannot attain a high scientific character until some progress has been made towards the accomplishment of this object.

In the department of the Senses, the Instincts, or primitive endowments of our mental constitution, are fully considered ; and in endeavouring to arrive at the original foundation, or first rudiments, of Volition, a theory of this portion of the mind has been suggested.

In treating of the Intellect, the subdivision into faculties is abandoned. The exposition proceeds entirely on the Laws of Association, which are exemplified with minute detail and followed out into a variety of applications.

London, June, 1855.

Chapter I. Definition Of Mind

PAGE

i. Definition stated ........ i

2. Explanatory remarks ..... . . 2

(1.) Consciousness the first attribute of mind . . ib.

(2.) Action a part of mind . . . . ib.

Mental actions are guided by feeling ... 3

Exclusion of powers of nature . . . ib.

„ of certain animal functions. . . 4

Spontaneous movements not excluded . . ib.

Volition the term for true mental actions . . 5

(3.) Thought or Intelligence ib.

Implies Discrimination . . . . ib.

Associating of ends with means .... ib.

Intelligence distinct from Feeling and Volition . 6

3. Classifications of mental phenomena .... ib.

Division into Understanding and Will . . ib.

Intellectual Powers and Active Powers . . ib.

Dr. Brown's classification ..... 7

Sir William Hamilton's . . . . . ib.

Mr. Morell's ib.

Dr. Sharpey's ....... ib.

4. Plan of the present work ...... 8

Chapter II. Of The Neryous System

1. Connexion of mental processes with bodily organs .

2. Proofs that the Brain is the principal organ of Mind

(1.) Local feelings during mental excitement (2.) Effects of injury of the brain vm

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

(3.) Products of nervous waste increased by excitement ib.

(4.) Connexion of size of brain with mental energy . ib.

(5.) Specific experiments on the nerves . . ib.

Parts of the nervous system . . . . . ib.

OF THE NERVOUS SUBSTANCE.

Nervous substance of two kinds, white and grey Nerve fibres and nerve vesicles Connexion of fibres with vesicles Size of nerve fibres ....

Size of vesicles .....

OF THE NERVOUS CENTRES.

5. Enumeration of parts of the Cerebro-spinal centre

6. Detailed description

(1.) The Medulla Oblcmgata (2.) The Pons Varolii (3.) The Cerebrum .

Cerebral Hemispheres Smaller masses of the cerebrum Corpora Striata .

Thalami optici .

Corpora Quadrigemina Ventricles of the Brain (4.) The Cerebellum .

Owen's classification of the parts of the Brain

7. Internal Structure of the Brain

White part of tlie Brain Three systems of fibres Grey matter qftlie brain Its distribution .

8. Plan of Structure indicated by the arrangement of white

and grey substance .

OF THE CEREBRO-SPINAL NERVES.

9. Nature of the ramifying nerve cords Fibres and Funiculi .

Vessels .....

Branching and Conjunction of nerves Origins or Roots of the nerves .

Termination of nerves

TABLE OF CONTENTS. IX

FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

PAGE

10. Subject of Function . . . . . . . 36

Functions of the Nerves.

11. Division into Spinal and Cerebral Nerves . . -37 A nterior and posterior roots of Spinal Nerves . . ib.

12. Function of a nerve is to transmit influence . . -38 Experimental proofs . . . . . . -39

13. Property of conduction belongs to all the white matter of

the nervous system ....... 40

14. Sentient and M otor roots of spinal nerves . . ib.

15. Cerebral Nerves . . . . . . . .42

Functions of tlie Spinal Cord and Medulla Oblongata.

16. The Nerve Centres in general ....

Necessary to sensation and movement in the trunk and

extremities of the body .....

A centre of movements not voluntary .

Experimental proofs ......

18. Automatic or reflex actions and their centres .

(1.) Movements in Digestion ....

(2.) Movements in Respiration ....

(3.) Winking of the Eyes .....

(4.) Muscular tone ......

Experiments on the tonicity of muscle ib.

48 50 51 52

Functions of the lesser grey centres of the Brain.

19. Uncertainty of the functions of these bodies . . . 53 Functions of the Cerebral Hemispheres.

20. Experiments on the convolutions . . . . ib. Enumeration of Functions . . . . . 54

Functions of the Cerebellum.

21. Harmonizing and co-ordinating the locomotive move-

Experiments of Flourens . . . . . . 55

Importance of the white matter of the brain . . .56

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

22. 23-

Of the Nerve, Force and the Course of Power in the Brain.

PAGB

Nerve force is of the nature of a current . . -57

Analogy between it and electricity does not amount to identity ......... 58

A closed circuit not necessaxy .... ib.

Waste of nerve fibre by the act of conduction . ib. Nerve force derived from, the common source of natural power 1 , the Sun . . . . . . -59

Impropriety of looking on the Brain as a Sensorium . 60 A current action is involved in every exertion of the brain 6 1

Book I. Movement, Sense, And Instinct

Reasons for including Appetites and Instincts in the department of the Senses ........ 65

Arrangement of Book I. . . . . . .66

CHAPTER I.

OF SPONTANEOUS ACTIVITY AND THE FEEDINGS OF MOVEMENT.

1. Feelings connected with Movement, a distinct class . 67

Their consideration to precede the five Senses . . ib.

OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM.

Muscular Tissue .

Structure of Voluntary Muscles

Size of Muscular fibres Nerves of Voluntary Muscle Sensibility of Muscle

Classification of muscular sensibilities Irritability or Contractility of Muscle .

Classes of muscular stimuli Tonicity, or Tonic Contraction of muscle

Connected with the spinal cord

7i ib.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

XI

PROOFS OF SPONTANEOUS ACTIVITY.

Movements anterior to, and independent of Sensation Proofs that there are such movements .

(i.) Tonicity of the muscles ....

(2.) Permanent closure of the sphincter muscles

(3.) Activity maintained by involuntary muscles

(4.) Act of wakening from sleep

(5.) Early movements of infancy

Activity of young animals in general Meaning of ' freshness'

(6.) Activity under excitement

(7.) The active temperament

(8.) Growth of Volition ....

Regions of Spontaneous Activity.

The muscles act in groups, or systems Locomotive apparatus Vocal organs .....

Movements of the face, tongue, and jaw Special aptitudes of animals Spontaneity in health and in disease .

ib.

OF THE MUSCULAR FEELINGS.

8. The Natural History of the Feelings a part of the science

of Mind 83

Method and order of description . . .84

9. Classification of Feelings of Movement . . . . ib.

Distinction among feelings as regards intelligence 85

I. Of Organic Muscular Feelings.

10. Forms of muscular pain . . . . . . ib.

Agent and change in the substance . . .86

Character of the feeling as Emotion . . . ib. The delineation of emotion .... ib.

Acute pains in general . . . . '87

Expression of pain . . . . . .88

Instigation of emotional outbursts . . . ib.

Character of acute pain as regards Volition . 89

The delineation of volitional peculiarities . . ib.

Relations with Intellect or Thought . . .90

Class of spasms and cramps . . . . . -91 xu

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

ii. Feelings of muscular fatigue .

Antecedent of the state Feeling, or Consciousness Expression Relations to Volition Relations to Intellect

14 15

17- 18.

22. 23-

24. 25.

26. 27.

II. Of the Feelings of Muscular Exercise.

Feelings proper to the muscular system Exertion unaccompanied by movement

Physical state of the muscle

Consciousness .

Volitional peculiarities

Intellectual aspect .

Examples of dead tension State of the muscles under movement 16. Slow movements

Gradual increase and diminution of movement Quick movements Feelings of interrupted movement Sudden loss of support Passive movements Physical enjoyment associated with the muscular tissue

III. Of tlte Discriminative or Intellectual Sensibility of

Muscle.

Basis of muscular discrimination ....

Varieties of difference in muscular action Feeling of degree of force expended Cases of the sense of graduated exertion

Feeling of Momentum

Appreciation of Weight ....

Discrimination of the degree of contraction in a muscle

Feeling of Linear Extension ; Size

Situation ; Form ......

Discrimination of velocity of movement

Mathematical and mechanical properties of matter per

ceived through muscular sensibility Sir W. Hamilton's distinction between the locomotive faculty and the muscular sense ib.

ib.

91 98

99 100 101

. ib.

. 108

. ib.

no

. ib.

• 113

. 114

. 115

. 116

• ii7 e

. ib.

TABLE OF CONTENTS. Xlll

CHAPTER II.

OF SENSATION,

Sensations of the five Senses Common or general sensibility Propriety of constituting the feelings

into a class of sensations Emotional and intellectual Senses of Organic Life

FAOB ib.

SENSATIONS OF ORGANIC LIFE.

1. Classification according to locality, or seat . . .122

2. Sensibility of Bones and Ligaments . . . . ib.

Organic Sensations of Nerve.

4. Nervous fatigue; Ennui ...... ib,

5. Feeling of the healthy and fresh condition of the nerve

Organic Feelings of the Circulation and Nutrition.

6. Thirst; Starvation; pleasures of pure animal existence . 126 Feelings of Respiration.

7. Respiratory process . . . . . . .127

Pure and impure air . . . . . . .128

The Lungs ......... ib.

8. Feelings of pure air : Freshness; feelings of Relief . 129

9. Feelings of insufficient and impure air ; Suffocation . 130

Cold a stimulant . . . . . . . .133

11. Feelings of Heat . ....... ib.

Sensations of the Alimentary Canal.

12. Digestion offers all the conditions of a sense . . .134

13. Objects of the Sense : — Materials of food .. . '.-. 135

14. General view of the Organs of digestion . . .136

15. Summary of the Physiology of digestion . . . 137

16. Alimentary Feelings: taking of food and healthy digestion 139

17. Nausea and Disgust . . . . . '. .141

18. Feelings of deranged digestive organs . . . .143

XIV

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Feelings of Electrical States.

19. Electric and Yoltaic shocks ....

20. Electrical state of the Atmosphere

21. Baron Keichenbach's experiments

SENSE OF TASTE.

i. Bodies acting on the sense of Taste

2. Organ of Taste; — description of the Tongue .

3. Local distribution of the sensibility of the tongue

4. Mode of action in taste ....

5. Sensations of Taste ; — complex sensibility of the tongue

6. Order of Classification

7. Relishes

8. Disgusts

9. Sweet tastes : — descript

10. Bitter tastes

11. Saline tastes

12. Alkaline tastes .

1 3. Sour, or acid tastes

14. Asti-ingent tastes

15. Fiery tastes

16. Intellectual aspect of tastes ion of feeling of Sweetness ib.

SENSE OF SMELL.

1. Objects of Smell ......

2. Development of odours ....

3. Diffusion of odours .....

4. Organ of Smell : — description of the Nose

5. Action of odours ......

The presence of oxygen necessary to smell .

6. Sensations of smell : — their classification

7. Eresh odours ......

8. Close or suffocating odours ....

9. Nauseous odours ......

10. Sweet or fragrant odours: — sensation of sweetness

12. Pungent odours ......

13. Ethereal odours ......

14. Appetizing odours .....

16. Importance of the instrumentality of smell .

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

XV

SENSE OF TOUCH.

PAGE

1. Position assigned to touch by physiologists . . . 1 7 1 Touch an intellectual sense . . . . . .172

2. Objects of Touch ....... ib.

3. Organ of touch : — the Skin 173

Structure of the papillae . . . . .175

Functions and vital properties of the skin . . .176

Mode of action in touch . . . . . .177

Sensations : — Soft touch . . . . . .178

Pungent and painful sensations of touch . . .179 Sensations of Temperature . . . . . .180

Other painful sensations of the skin .... ib.

Intellectual sensations : — Impressions of distinguishable

Weber's observations . . . . . ib.

Sensations of touch involving muscular feelings . . 185 Weight ........ ib.

Hardness and Softness . * . . .186

Elasticity ....... ib.

Roughness and Smoothness . . . . ib.

Increase of sensibility by movement . . . 187 Clamminess . . . . . . . 188

Persistence of tactile sensations . . .189

12. Qualities of Extension and Solidity .... ib.

13. Distance, Direction, Situation, Eorm . . . .192

14. The senses all accompanied with activity . . .193

15. Touch concerned in handicraft operations . . .194

16. Power of touch to substitute sight .... ib.

17. Subjective feelings of touch . . . . .195

5- 6.

7- 8.

9- 10.

SENSE OF HEAKING.

Objects of hearing

The Ear

External ear .

Tympanum

Internal ear, or Labyrinth Action of the parts of the ear in the sensation of sound

Uses of the muscles of the ear Sensations of Sound ; their classification Quality (Emotional) : Sweetness in sounds

6. Intensity, Loudness: Suddenness

195 196

ib.

XVI

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

7. Volume, or Quantity .

8. Pitch, or Tune ....

9. Waxing and waning of sound

10. Complexity; Discord and Harmony

1 1. Clearness, or purity

12. Quality (Intellectual, or Discriminative)

13. Direction .....

14. Distance .....

15. Articulate form ....

1 6. Duration of an impression of sound

SENSE OF SIGHT.

1. Objects of Sight ......

Modes of Reflection of Light .

Transparency and opaqueness .

2. The Eye

Appendages of the eye

Globe of the eye

Coats of the eye . . . .

Iris, Ciliary processes, Ciliary ligament

Ciliary muscle ....

Humours of the eye

Muscles of the eye ....

3. Conditions of perfect vision

(1.) A sufficiency of light

(2.) Formation of the image on the retina

(3.) Minute size of ultimate divisions of retina

4. Adaptation of the eye to vision at different distances

The change not dependent on external muscles Action of the ciliary muscle Movements of the iris ....

The alteration of the eye-ball is for near distances Of Binocular Vision : — Wheatstone's experiments

Erect vision from inverted images

5 6.

7. Sensations of Sight

8. Sensation of mere light

9. Artificial lights .

10. Colour

1 1 . Harmony of colours

12. Lustre . .

13. Optical and muscular feelings combined

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

XV11

14. Motion: — spectacle of moving objects .

15. Visible movements enter into intellectual imagery

16. Sensations of distance from the eye

17. Form, outline, apparent magnitude

18. Solid effect

19. Position .....

20. Permanent imagery of forms Emotional effect of largeness ; — the sublime ib.

ib.

ib.

Chapter III. Of The Appetites

1. Appetite a species of Volition . . . . .249

Enumeration of Appetites .

ib.

3. Exercise and Repose ....

. ib.

4. Thirst and Hunger ....

• 251

5. Appetite of the Sexes ....

• 254

6. Accustomed routine of life ....

ib.

7. Appetite liable to give false indications ib.

CHAPTER IT.

OF THE INSTINCTS.

1. Definition of Instinct . . . . . . .256

2. Enumeration of instinctive or primitive arrangements . ib.

OF THE REFLEX ACTIONS.

3. Enumeration of automatic, or reflex actions . . .257

4. Reflex action generated in the operation of the senses . 258 Dr. Carpenter's view of sensori-motor excitement . . 259

OF THE PRIMITIVE COMBINED MOVEMENTS.

5. Interest of the inquiry into primitive arrangements . 261

6. The locomotive rhythm . . . . . .262

Proofs of the instinctive origin of this combination ib.

7. This implies an arrangement for reciprocating each limb 263

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

8. Also an alternate movement of corresponding limbs

9. Lastly, a vermicular propagation of movement

10. Associated or consensual movements

Associated actions of the two eyes

1 1 . Law of harmony of state of the muscular system

1 2. One sense instinctively acting for another ib.

270 271

OF THE INSTINCTIVE PLAY OF EMOTION.

13. Movements and effects diffused hy Emotion . . .272 Miiller on 'Movements due to the passions of the

14. Sir Charles Bell on the movements of the face . . 275

15. Muscles of the face concerned in expression . . .276

Muscles of the eye-brow . . . . . ib.

16. Muscles of the nose ....... 278

17. Muscles connected with the movements of the mouth . ib.

18. Effects of pleasing and painful emotion on the face . 280

19. Expression may arise from the relaxation of muscles . 281

20. Depressing action of certain emotions . . . .282

21. Stimulation of the organs in Astonishment . . . 283

22. Effects of emotion not muscular ; Lachrymal secretion,

Causes of Laughter . . . . . . .285

Nature of the movements in laughter . . . .286

Convulsive outburst of grief ,

OF THE INSTINCTIVE GEKM OF VOLITION.

26. Volition a compound of spontaneity and something else 289 Miiller on the first commencement of voluntary acts . ib.

27. Spontaneity alone insufficient to constitute voluntary

Voluntary command of the organs not instinctive . . 292

28. States of feeling impel to some action or other . . 293

29. Coincidence of a state of feeling and a suitable action at

fii'st accidental . . . . . . .294

A pi'ocess of acquisition connects the two together . 296

30. Spontaneity and the volitional impulse of feeling belong

to all animals ........ ib.

31. Summary of the theory of volition .... 297

32. Instinct of self-pi-eservation only an example of volition 298

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

XIX

OF THE SPECIAL ACTIVITIES AND INSTINCTS.

Tlie Voice page

33. Anatomy of the organ of voice ..... 299

34. Muscles of the larynx ....... 302

35. The laiynx as an instrument of sound .... 303

36. The articulate voice . . . . . . .306

Vowel utterance ...... 307

Consonants — their formation and classification . ib.

37. Mental phenomena of voice ...... 309

38. Sensibility to degrees of vocal tension . . . .310

39. The voice an organ of the expression of feeling . . 311

Book II. Intellect

General characters that distinguish the Intellect