Mental and moral science : a compendium of psychology and ethics

Preface

The present treatise contains a Systematic Exposition of Mind, a History of the leading Questions in Mental Philosophy, and a copious Dissertation on Ethics.

The Exposition of Mind, occupying nearly half the work, is, for the most part, an abridgement of my two volumes on the subject. I have singled out, and put in conspicuous type, the leading positions ; and have given a sufficient number of examples to make them understood. It is not to be expected that the full effect of the larger exposition can be produced in the shorter ; still, there may be an occasional advantage in the more succinct presentation of complicated doctrines.

As regards the Controverted Questions, I have entered fully into the history of opinion, so as to present the different views, both formerly, and at present, entertained on each. Nominalism and Eealism, the Origin of Knowledge in the mind, External Perception, Beauty, and Free-will, are the chief subjects thus treated.

The Dissertation on Ethics is divided into two parts.

Part First — The Theory of Ethics — gives an account of the questions or points brought into discussion ; and handles at length the two of greatest prominence, the Ethical Standard, and the Moral Faculty.

Part Second — The Ethical Systems — is a full detail of all the systems, ancient and modern, by conjoined Abstract

IV PREFACE.

and Summary. With few exceptions, an abstract is made of each author's exposition of his own theory, the fulness being measured by relative importance ; while, for better comparing and remembering the several theories, they are summarized at the end, on a uniform plan.

It is not solely with the view of furnishing a complete manual of Mental and Moral Philosophy, that I have included in the. same volume, a System of Psychology, and an exhaustive Dissertation on Ethics. The connexion of the two subjects is of the most intimate kind ; all the leading Ethical controversies involve a reference to the mind, and can be settled only by a more thorough understanding of mental processes.

Aberdeen, April, 1868.

Chap. I. Definition And Divisions Of Mind

Page.

1. Human Knowledge falls under two departments ... ... 1

2. The Object department marked by Extension ; the Subject, by

the absence of this property ... ... ... ... ib.

3. Subject Experience — Mind proper — has three functions, Feeling,

Will, and Thought. Other classifications of Mind ... ... 2

4. Order of arrangement for exposition ... ... ... 3

5. Concomitance of Mind and a Material Organism ... ... 4

Chap. II. The Nervous System And Its Functions

1. The Brain is the principal organ of Mind. Proofs ... ... 5

2. The Nervous System consists of a Central mass, and ramifying

3. The nervous substance made up of white and of grey matter.

The ^m and the corpuscles ... ... ... ... 6

4. The Central nerves, or cerebro- spinal axis composed of parts. I.

The Spinal Cord ; the Reflex Movements. II. The Brain. Parts of the Brain : (1) Medulla Oblongata, (2) Pons Varolii, (3) Cerebral Hemispheres, (4) Cerebellum ; their several functions ... ... ... ... ... ... 7

5. The nerves are divided into Cerebral and Spinal ... ... 11

6. The function of a nerve is to transmit influence ... ... ib.

7. Incarrying and outcarrying nerves ... ... ... 12

Book I. Movement, Sense, And Instinct

CHAP. I.

MOVEMENT AND THE MUSCULAR FEELINGS.

1. Muscular Feelings compared with Sensations. The muscular

2. Spontaneous Activity of the system. Proofs and illustrations 14

VI CONTENTS.

THE MUSCULAR FEELINGS. p AGa<

3. Three classes of feelings connected with muscle ... ... 17

Feelings of Muscular Exercise.

4. The dead strain, or action without movement. Systematic De-

scription : Physical Side ; Mental Side. Plan of describing

the Feelings generally, Note .. ... ... ... 18

5. Examples of the dead strain ... ... ... ... 22

6. Exertion with movement ... ,.. ... ... ... ib.

7. Slow movements ; allied to repose and passivity ... ... ib.

8. Waxing and waning movements ... ... ... ... 23

9. Quick movements; their exciting character... ... ... ib.

10. Passive movements : the stimulus of riding ... ... 24

Discriminative or Intellectual Sensibility of Muscle.

11. With every feeling, we have consciousness of degree ... ib.

12. Consciousness of Exertion, or Expended Force. The Mechanical

13. Consciousness of degrees of Continuance of exertion, either as

dead strain or as movement. Time. Space ... ... 25

14. Consciousness of the Velocity of Movement... ... ... 26

CHAP. II.

SENSATION.

2. Sensations classified. Defects of the enumeration of the Five

Senses. Omission of Organic Sensations ... ... ib.

SENSATIONS OP ORGANIC LIFE.

Organic Muscular Feelings.

3. Pains of injury of muscle. Fatigue and Repose ... ... 28

Organic Sensations of Nerve.

4. Acute Diseases of the nerves, nervous Fatigue, Healthy nerves,

Organic Feelings of the Circulation and Nutrition,

5. Thirst, Inanition, arrested circulation, good and ill health ... 31

Feelings of Respiration.

6. Suffocation, Closeness, Exhilaration of change to pure air ... 32

Feelings of Heat and, Cold.

7. Pain of Chillness, Pleasure of transition to warmth .., ... 33

Sensations of the Alimentary Canal.

8. Classification of the kinds of Food

9. Feelings of Digestion : Relish and Repletion, Hunger, Nausea,

CONTENTS. Vli

SENSE OF TASTE. PAGE.

1. Objects of Taste : chiefly the materials of Food ... ... 36

4. Tastes in Sympathy with the Stomach : Eelishes and Disgusts ib.

5. Tastes proper : Sweet and Bitter ... ... .. ... 38

6. Tastes involving Touch : Saline, Alkaline, Sour, Astringent,

SENSE OF SMELL.

1. Smell related to the Lungs ... ... ... ... 39

2. Objects of Smell : gaseous or volatile bodies ... ... ib.

3. Development of odours, by heat, light, and moisture ... ib.

6. Mode of action of odours a process of oxidation ... ... ib.

7. Sensations of Smell : in sympathy with the lungs are Fresh and

8. Proper olfactory sensibility : Fragrant odours and the opposite ib. 9* Odours involving tactile sensibility : Pungency ... ... 42

SENSE OF TOUCH.

1. Touch an intellectual Sense. The Objects, solid bodies ... 43

2. Sensitive surface the Skin, interior of the mouth, and nostrils... ib.

3. Action simple pressure ... ... ... ... ... ib.

4. Sensations : (Emotional) Soft Touch, Pungent Touch, Tempera-

ture, Tickling and acute pains ... ... ... ... 44

5. Intellectual Sensations : Plurality of Points — Weber's experi-

6. Combinations of Touch with Muscular Feeling : Kesistance,

Hardness and Softness, Roughness and Smoothness, Extension or the Co-existing in Space ... ... ... 47

SENSE OF HEARING.

1. Objects of Hearing — material bodies in a state of tremor ... 51

3. The mode of action in hearing ... ... ... .. ^

4. Sensations of Sound: General Emotional effects— Sweetness,

Intensity, Volume ... ... ... ... ... ib.

5. Musical Sounds : Pitch, Waxing and Waning, Harmony and

6. Intellectual Sensations : Clearness, Timbre, Articulate sounds,

Distance and Direction ... ... ... ...55

SENSE OF SIGHT.

3. Mode of action, in the first place an optical effect ... ... 59

4. Binocular Vision. Seeing objects erect by an inverted image 60

5. Sensations of Sight (Optical) : Light, Colour, Lustre ... ib.

6. Sensations involving the Movements of the Eye : Visible Move-

ment, Visible Form, Apparent Size, Distance, Volume, Visible

Vlll CONTENTS.

Chap. III. The Appetites

Pagb.

The Appetites defined. Sleep, Exercise and Repose, Thirst, Hunger, Sex ... ... ... . . ... ... 67

Chap. IV. The Instincts

Instinct defined. Instincts classified ... ... ... 68

THE PRIMITIVE COMBINED MOVEMENTS.

h The Locomotive Rhythm ... ... ... ... 69

3. Primitive Associated movements ... ... ... ... 70

4. Harmony of Pace in the movements ... ... ... ib.

THE INSTINCTIVE PLAY OP PEELING.

1. Union of Mind and Body shown in the Expression of Feeling ib,

2. Physical Accompaniments of the Feelings : Movements of the

3. Voice and Respiratory Muscles ... ... ... ..72

4. Muscles of the Body generally ... ... ... ... 73

5. Organic Effects : Lachrymal Organs, Sexual Organs, Digestion,

Cutaneous changes, Heart, Lacteal Gland in Women ... ib.

6. General principle connecting Pleasure and Pain with bodily

functions. Proofs of the Principle. Laughter and Sobbing 75

7. Operation of Stimulants ... ... ... ... 78

8. Law of Self -conservation ... ... ... ... 79

THE INSTINCTIVE GERMS OP THE WILL.

1. Voluntary power, a bundle of acquisitions ... ... ... ib.

2. Primitive foundations of the Will. I. — Spontaneity ... ib.

3. II. — Law of Self-conservation ... ... ... ... 80

4. Accident brings about coincidences between feelings and ap-

propriate movements ... ... .. ... ... ib.

5. III. — The coincidences are confirmed by a process of association 81

Book II. The Intellect

1. The intellectual functions commonly expressed by Memory,

Reason, Imagination, &c. ... . . ... ... 82

2. The primary attributes of Intellect — Difference, Agreement,

3. Applications of a Knowledge of the Intellectual Powers ... 84

CONTENTS. IX

Chap. I. Retentiveness— Law Of Contiguity

Page.

1. Retentiveness mostly comprehended under the Law of Conti-

2. Statement of the Law ... ... ... ... ... ib.

MOVEMENTS.

3. Spontaneous and Instinctive actions strengthened by exercise 86

4. Conjoined or Aggregated Movements ... ... ... ib.

5. Successions of Movements ... ... ... ... 87

6. Intervention of Sensations in trains of Movement ... ... ib.

7. Conditions governing the rate of Acquisition generally ... ib,

8. Circumstances favouring the adhesion of Movements... .. 88

9. All acquirements suppose Physical Vigour ... ... ... 89

IDEAL FEELINGS OF MOVEMENT. — THE SEAT OF IDEAS.

10. Association of Ideas of Movement ... ... .. ,,, ib.

11. The seat of Ideas the same as of SeDsations or Actualities ... ib.

12. The tendency of Ideas to become Actualities a source of activity

distinct from the Will ... ... ... ... ... 90

13. The principle applied to explain Sympathy ... ... ... 91

14. Points common to the Idea and to the Actuality ... ... 92

15. Ideas of Movement may be associated ... .. ... ib.

16. The rate of adhesion follows the law of Actual Movement ... ib.

17. Movement is mentally known as expended energy in special

SENSATIONS OF THE SAME SENSE.

18. In all the senses, different sensations are associated together ... 93

19. Separate ideas become self-sustaining by repetition ... ... ib.

20. Association of Sensations of Touch ... .. ... ... 94

21. Law of the Rate of Acquirement in Touch ... ... ... ib,

22. The acquirements of Touch most numerous in the blind ... 95

23. Associations of Sounds ; Musical and Articulate Sounds ... ib.

24. Associations of Sights ; Forms and Coloured surfaces ... 97

SENSATIONS OF DIFFERENT SENSES.

25. Movements with Sensations. Muscular Ideas with Sensations ;

Architecture. Sensations with Sensations ... ... 98

26. Law of the Rate of such acquirements ... ... ... 100

27. Localization of the Bodily Feelings ... ... .. 101

28. Our body is an object fact with subject associations ... ... 102

29. Associations makes differences in sensations alike in quality ... ib.

ASSOCIATES WITH PLEASXTRE AND PAIN.

30. Pleasure and Pain can persist and be reproduced ideally ... ib.

32. The Special Emotions converted into Affections ... ... 104

33. Association of emotions with indifferent objects : Ritual ... ib.

34. The interest of Ends transferred to the Means : Money, Formali-

35. Influence of association in Fine Art. Alison's Theory ... 106

X CONTENTS.

Page.

36. The Language of the Feelings has to be acquired ... ... 107

37. The Signs of Happiness are cheering to behold ... ... &>

38. Memories of Pleasure and Pain ... ... ... ... 108

39. Association has a share in the Moral Sentiment ... . .. ib.

ASSOCIATIONS OF VOLITION.

40. Contiguous association of actions and states of feeling ... 109

NATURAL OBJECTS.

41. Our ideas of external nature are associations of sensible qualities ib.

42. The Naturalist mind represents disinterested association ... 110

43. In minds generally, the feelings sway the recollections of nature ib.

NATURAL AND HABITUAL CONJUNCTIONS;

44. Association of things habitually conjoined in our view ... ib.

45. Maps, Diagrams, and Pictorial Kepresentations ... ... Ill

SUCCESSIONS.

46. Successions of Cycle, Evolution, Cause and Effect ... ... ib.

MECHANICAL ACQUISITIONS.

47. Summary of conditions of Mechanical Acquirement ... ... 114

48. Proper duration of exercises ... ... ... ...115

ACQUISITIONS OF LANGUAGE.

49. Oral Language involves the Voice and the Ear ... ... 116

50. Language a case of heterogeneous adhesion ... .. ib.

51. Language includes fixed trains of words ... .. ... 117

52. Operation of Special Interest in lingual acquisitions ... .. ib.

53. Elocution involves an Ear for Cadence ... ... ...118

54. Written language appeals to the sense of Visible Form ... ib.

55. Short methods of acquiring language ... ... ... ib.

56. Verbal adhesiveness an aid to the memory of expressed Know-

RETENTIVENESS IN SCIENCE.

57. Knowledge, as Science, is clothed in artificial symbols ... ib.

58. The Object Sciences are Concrete or Abstract ... ... ib.

59. The Subject Sciences are grounded on self-consciousness ... 120

60. Circumstances favouring acquirements in mental Science ... ib.

61. Supposed faculty of Self-Consciousness ... ... .. 121

BUSINESS, OR PRACTICAL LIFE.

62. Acquirements in the higher branches of Industry ... ... 122

ACQUISITIONS IN THE FINE ARTS.

63. Fine Art constructions give refined pleasure ... ... ib.

64. Conditions of Acquisition in Fine Art ... ... ... 123

HISTORY AND NARRATIVE.

65. History the succession of events as narrated ... ... ib.

66. Transactions witnessed impress themselves as Sensations and

67. Events narrated have the aid of the Verbal Memory ... ib.

CONTENTS. Xi

OUR PAST LIFE. PAGE.

68. The complex current of each one's existence ... ...124

CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS ON RETENTIVENESS.

69. Existence of a Retentive faculty for things generally. Superior

plasticity of early years; Limitation of acquirements ; Temporary adhesiveness ... ... ... ... ... 125

Chap. II. Agbeement—law Of Similarity

2. Similarity, in one mode, implied under Contiguity .. ... 128

3. Impediments to the revival of the past through similarity ... ib.

FEEBLENESS OF IMPRESSION.

4. Impediment of Feebleness or Faintness, By what peculiarities

overcome. Conditions of reproduction by Similarity ... 129

SIMILARITY IN DIVERSITY — SENSATIONS.

5. Impediment of Diversity. Special condition for this case ... 130

6. Movements and Feelings of Movement identified ... ... 131

8. Tastes. Identification ending in Classification ... ... 133

9. Touch. Effects generalized and classified ... ... ... 134

10. Hearing. Articulate language identified under diversity of

utterance and cadence. Diversity of Meaning ... ... ib.

11. Sight. Colours, Forms, and their combinations ... ... 136

12. Effects common to the Senses generally ... ... ... 137

CONTIGUOUS AGGREGATES — CONJUNCTIONS.

IS. Objects affecting a Plurality of Senses ... ,. % ... 138

14. Aggregates of associated Properties and Uses. The Steam En-

gine. Davy's discovery of the composition of the alkalies. Botany and Zoology ... ... ... M> , ... ib.

PHENOMENA OF SUCCESSION.

15. Successions ideDtified under diversities. Cycle, Evolution, Cause

and Effect. Newton's discovery of gravitation ... ... 141

REASONING AND SCIENCE IN GENERAL.

16. Generalizing power of the mind gives birth to : I. — Definition ;

II. — Induction ; III. — Deduction. Reasoning by Analogy 143

17. Scope of the Eeasoning Faculty ... ... ... ... 146

BUSINESS AND PRACTICE.

18. Discoveries in Practice due, in part, to Similarity ... ... ib.

ILLUSTRATIVE COMPARISONS AND LITERARY ART.

19. Figures of Similitude abound in all great works of literary

genius. Bunyan, Shakespeare, Bacon, Milton ... ... 149

XU CONTENTS.

THE FINE ARTS IN GENERAL. PAGE.

20. Similarity exemplified in certain of the Fine Arts ... ... 149

SIMILARITY IN ACQUISITION AND MEMORY.

21. Labour of Acquisition saved by the tracing of similarities ... 150

Chap. III. Compound Association

1. Associations may combine their force. Statement of the Law 151

COMPOSITION OE CONTIGUITIES.

2. Conjunctions : Local associations ; Persons ; Uses and Proper-

ties. Successions: Language ... ... ... ... 152

COMPOSITION OF SIMILARITIES.

3. This case sufficiently expressed under the Law of Similarity ... 154

MIXED CONTIGUITY AND SIMILARITY.

4. Great discoveries of similarity remembered partly by contiguity 155

5. Aid to Similarity by the proximity of the things desired ... ib.

THE ELEMENT OF FEELING.

7. Influence of the Feelings on the trains of thought ... ... ib,

INFLUENCE OF VOLITION.

8. The influence of the Will indirect. Modes of its operation ... 1-57

OBSTRUCTIVE ASSOCIATIONS.

9. Exemplified in the conflict of the Artistic and the Scientific

ASSOCIATION OF CONTRAST.

10. Contrast may be analyzed into Relativity, Contiguity, Similarity,

and the influence of Emotion .. „. ... ... 160

Chap. IV. Constructive Association

1. Processes of Original Creation ... ... ... ... 161

MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTIVENESS.

2. Movements combined into new groupings. Three conditions

of the Constructive Process generally ... ... ... 162

VERBAL CONSTRUCTIVENESS.

3. Learning to Articulate ... ... .. ... ... 163

4. Construction of Sentences ... ... ... ... 164

5. Higher Combinations of language ... ... ... ib.

CONTENTS. Xlll

FEELINGS OF MOVEMENT. Page.

6. Constructing new muscular ideas. Hitting a mark. Archi-

CONSTRUCTIVENESS IN THE SENSATIONS.

7. Organic Life ; unknown forms of pleasure and pain. The higher

senses. Visua] constructiveness ... ... ... 166

CONSTRUCTION OF NEW EMOTIONS.

8. The Simpler Emotions must be experienced. Change of degree.

Transfer to new obj ects ... ... ... ... 1 68

CONCRETING THE ABSTRACT.

9. Construction, from abstract elements, of images in the Concrete 169

REALIZING OF REPRESENTATION OR DESCRIPTION.

10. Verbal descriptions, or other Kepresentations, realized ... ib.

CONSTRUCTIVENESS IN SCIENCE.

11. Definitions, Inductions, Deductions, and Experimental dis-

coveries involve constructiveness ... ... ...170

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTIONS.

ment; adapting one's views to others. Oratory „. ... 171

CONSTRUCTIVENESS UNDER FEELING.

13. Certain constructions satisfy some present emotion : — Emotional

character appears in literary composition. Bias. The Myth 172

14. Fine Art constructions adapted to Esthetic feelings ... ... 173

15. Imagination best exemplified under Fine Art constructiveness.

Its elements are, (1) Concreteness, (2) Originality, (3) the presence of Emotion. Fancy. Ideality ... ... ... 174

Chap. V. Abstraction— The Abstract Idea

NOMINALISM AND REALISM.

1. First stage of Abstraction to compare, identify, and classify ... 176

2. Abstraction means attending to points of agreement and neglect-

ing points of difference. Question how far this mental separation is possible ... ... ... ... ... ib.

3. In one view? to abstract is to refer to a class ... ... 177

4. Cases where we seem to form a pure abstraction : — (1) Material

separation ; (2) Lineal Diagrams ; (3) Verbal Definition . 1 78

5. The only generality, having separate existence, is the Name -.. 179

6. Realism and Conceptualism ,.. ... ... ... 180

7. Natural tendency to ascribe separate existence to abstractions ib.

XIV CONTENTS.

Chap. VI. The Origin Of Knowledge

EXPERIENCE AND INTUITION. PAGE.

1. Question as to the existence of Intuitive or Innate truths ... 181

2. Importance attached to the Intuitive origin of knowledge ... ib.

3. Characters ascribed to Innate principles — Necessity and Uni-

4. Objection to the doctrine of Intuition — it presumes on the finality

of some one Analysis of the mind ... .., ... ifa

5. Innate ideas improbable ... ... ... ... ... 184

6. Innate general ideas would require innate particulars ... ib.

7. The character of Necessity has nothing to do with Innate origin ib.

8. Concessions of the supporters of Innate principles ... ... 186

9. The controversy turns at present on the Axioms of Mathematics

and the Law of Causation .. ... ... ... ib.

Criterion of the ' inconceivability of the opposites* ... ... ib<

CHAR VII.

OF EXTEKNAL PERCEPTION.

1. Two separate questions :— the Theory of Vision^ and the Percep-

tion of the External and Material World ... ...188

THEORY OE VISION.

2. Two views of our Perception of Distance by sight ... .. ib.

3. The native sensibility of the eye includes (1) Light and Colour,

(2) Visible Figure and Visible Magnitude ... ... 189

4. The visible signs of variation of Distance from the eye ... ib.

5. The import of Distance is something beyond the ocular sensations 190

6. Experience associates the visible signs of Distance with the

movements that give the meaning of Distance ... ... 191

7. Distance an inference. Experiments of Wheatstone ... ib.

8. The perception of Distance illustrated by the Stereoscope ... 192:

9. Admission by Berkeley's opponents that the instinctive percep-

tion is aided by associations ... ... ... ... 19$

10. Objection to the theory of Acquired Perception, that we are not

conscious of tactual or locomotive reminiscences ... ... 194

11. Farther objection that the early experience of children is insuffi-

cient to form the supposed associations ... ... ... ib.

12. Observations on persons born blind and made to see ... ... 195

13. Instinctive Perceptions of the Lower Animals ... ... ib.

14. Observations on infants ... ... ... ... ... 196

15. Hypothesis of hereditary transmission of the perception ..,. 197

PERCEPTION OF A MATERIA!* WORLD.

1. All Perception or Knowledge implies mind , VI ... ib.

2. The Perception of Matter a distinct attitude of the consciousness 198

3. The common view of material perception self-contradictory ... ib.

CONTENTS. XV

Page.

4. Analysis of Perception ; I. — The putting forth of Muscular

Energy, as opposed to Passive Feeling ... ... ... 198

5. II. — Uniform connexion of Definite Feelings with Definite

6. Our own body is a part of our Object experience ... ... 200

7. III. — Object — the common to aU; Subject — the special to each 201

8. Giving separate existence to the Object a species of Realism ... 202

THEORIES OF THE MATERIAL WORLD.

Berkeley. Classification of the objects of knowledge :- — (1) Ideas imprinted on the senses; (2) Ideas of passions of the mind; (3) Ideas of memory and imagination. Peculiarity of using Idea for Sensation. The first class exist in a mind, no less than the others. The vulgar opinion a contradiction. Distinction of Primary and Secondary Qualities of no avail. Supposed substratum — matter. The reality of things not abolished.. Spirit is something apart from ideas .... ... ih

Hume. Summary of his philosophical doctrines generally. The popular belief is that the images on the senses are the external objects. Philosophy teaches that nothing can be present to the mind but a perception. The dispute is one as to fact. By Perception we cannot know either continued or distinct existence. We attain these by the mind's tendency to go on, even where objects fail. We have no idea of substance. There is no such thing as self in the abstracts Mind is a bundle of conceptions ... ... ..* ... ... 205

Reid. Reclaimed against Idealism on the ground of Common Sense. His statements confused and contradictory • . some point to mediate perception, others to immediate perception. According to J. S. Mill, his leaning was to the first ... 2.07

Stewart substantially at one with Reid.. Brown ... ... 208

Hamilton". Classifies the Theories of Perception. His own called Natural Realism, or Immediate Perception. Involves a self-contradiction. His so-called ultimate analysis involves complex notions ... ... ... ... ,.. ib.

Ferrier. His fundamental position. He iterates the essential implication of Object and Subject. Exposes the self-contradictions of the prevailing views. Regards Perception as an ultimate fact ... ... ... ... ... 210

Mansel. Criticism of Berkeley. Analysis of Perception ... 211

Bailey. Makes Perception a simple, indivisible, ultimate fact ... ... ... .. ... ... 212

J. S. Mill. Advances a Psychological Theory of the Belief in a Material World. Postulates (1) Expectation, and (2) the Laws of Association. Substance, Matter, or the External World, is a Permanent Possibility of sensation. Distinction of Primary and Secondary Qualities. Application to the permanence of Mind ... ... ... ... .., ib.

XVI