Mental science; a compendium of psychology, and the history of philosophy

Front matter

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Author's Preface

The present treatise contains a Systematic Exposition of Mind, and a History of the leading Question's in Mental Philosophy,

The Exposition of Mind is, for the most part, an abridgment of my two volumes on the subject. I have singled out, and put in conspicuous type, the leading positions ; and have given a sufficient number of examples to make them understood. It is not to be expected that the full effect of the larger exposition can be produced in the* shorter; still, there may be an occasional advantage in the more succinct presentation of complicated doctrines.

As regards the controverted Questions, I have entered fully into the history of opinion, so as' to exhibit the different views, both formerly, and at present, entertained on each. Nominalism and Realism, the Origin of Knowledge in the mind. External Perception, Beauty, and Free-will, are the chief subjects thus treated.

Aberdeen, April^ 1868.

INTRODUCTORY NOTICE TO THE AMERICAN

EDITION.

The author of the present volume, Mr. Alexander Bain, is Professor of Logic, Mental Philosophy, and English Literature, in the University of Aberdeen, in Scotland, and i.s also Examiner in Logic and Moral Philosophy in the University of London. His contributions to the Science of Mind have given him a high reputation in Europe both as an original inquirer and as an authoritatii^e expositor of the most advanced views ; and as this is his first work upon these subjects which has been republished in this country, a few words respecting its claims and the author's position will be appropriate in this place.

It is now generally admitted that, as regards its capability of progress, expansion, and the improvement of its methods, Mental Science forms no exception to the other branches of growing knowledge. Those who are familiar with the recent progress of thought understand that the later advances of Physiology have brought that subject into very close relation with questions of Mind. So important are the data thus contributed, and so intimate the mutual dependence of these subjects, that it is no longer g INTEODUOTORY NOTICE.

possible to study Mind, in the true scientific spirit, without taking into account its material accompaniments. The method hitherto employed of studying mental phenomena by introspection is not superseded, but it has undergone an important extension. ^N'o system of Mental Philosophy can ever dispense with the necessity of observing and analyzing the processes of thought and feeling as they are revealed in consciousness ; but it is equally certain that any system which stops with this, and neglects the living organism by which thought and feeling are manifested and conditioned, can no longer command the approval of those who seek a full and scientific acquaintance with the subject. This inclusion of its physiological factors, with the consequient widening of its sphere, not only brings the subject of Mental Philosophy into harmonious relation with the other sciences, and gives to its method more precision and completeness, but it also leads to certain practical advantages of much importance.

The old system, which occupied itself with inquiries concerning mind as an isolated abstraction, threw but little light upon the real psychical mechanism and workings of human nature. In this respect it was narrow and deficient, and, failing to reach practical ends, it became obnoxious to the charge of ' fruitlessness.' Indeed, its adherents, so far from denying this imputation, have actually attempted to turn it into a merit. Holding to the ancient doctrine that all quest of knowledge for its mere vulgar uses is degrading, they maintain that the object of mental studies is not so much the establishment of truth for the sake of the benefits which may be derived from it, as the' intellectual interest and pleasure of its pursuit ; and the claims of metaphysical studies are therefore made to rest chiefly on their alleged value as an educational gymnastic. This was avoII enough so long as all knowledge Avas in an imperfect state, and all studies fruitless of application — so long, for example, as physics pursued by a false method remained barren of valuable results. But when the clew

INTEODUCTORY NOTICE. f^

to the understanding of Nature was once ^seized, and science after science arose, clear, positive, and demonstrable, followed by results so practical, beneficent, and universal as to give a new impulse to civilization, it was impossible that the old aims of study should not undergo profound revision, and their practical bearings upon human welfare rise to a higher appreciation. Metaphysics alone has refused to change, and, clinging to its old method, has stood as a landmark of the past, stationary in the midst of progress, vacant of benign influence, while all other knowledges were blossoming and fruiting in the useful service of society. It was, therefore, natural that this study, challenged by the spirit of the age, should decline in interest as it has done, and fall under the protection of tradition.

But that the study of mind in its larger aspects, that is, the actual study of man as a thinking, feeling, and active being, must issue in the noblest applications, is beyond all rational question. In the whole circle of human interests there is no need so vital and urgent as for a better understa?iding of the laws of mind and character. We may dispense with this kind of information or with that, but the acquirement of true ideas concerning human nature, the springs of its action, the modes of its working, and the conditions and limits of its improvement, is indispensal^le for all. Parents need it for the training of their children ; teachers in the instruction of their pupils ; employers in their intercourse with the employed ; physicians in treating their patients ; clergymen in the management of their congregations; judges and juries in the administration of justice, and statesmen in legislating for the people. In short, whoever lives in social relations requires this knowledge for better and higher guidance in the whole sphere of life. The extension of the subject of Mental Philosophy so as to include the physiological elements and conditions, and help to a better understanding of the constitution of man, is therefore an important step in the direction of our greatest needs. Human nature is

8 INTRODUCTOEY NOTICE.

no longer to be dealt with by the student in fragments, but as a vital whole. In place of the abstraction mind, is substituted the living being, compounded of mind and body, to be contemplated, like any other object of science, as actually presented to our observation and in our experience. This enlargement of the domain of mental studies, while it is but a part of the general evolution of knowledge, relieves the subject of the reproach of emptiness, and places it at the head of all the sciences in the scale of direct and comprehensive utility. The study of Mind has always ranked as the noblest and most elevating of intellectual pursuits ; but its questions can certainly lose nothmg in interest or dignity, as it is more and more clearly perceived that they involve the highest concernments of humanity.

Nor are the benefits here claimed by any means still prospective ; much has already been done. The labors of various eminent men of the present and past generation, such as Sir Charles Bell, Marshall Hall, Sir Benjamin Brodie, Drs. Laycock and C. rpenter. Sir Henr^ x^olland, Herbert Spencer, and others xia\ resulted in the establishment of a body of facts and principles in mental physiology^ which has variously influenced the popular works upon mental philosophy from Abercrombie to the present time. But while the authors here enumerated have been mainly occupied with the physiological elucidations, there was still wanting the thinker who, taking up the whole subject in an impartial spirit, and giving due weight to what is valuable in both the old statement and the new, should incorporate all the needed elements into a harmonious, comprehensive, and unitary scheme of Mental Science.

Professor Bain has proved to be the man for this undertaking. He has a distinguished place among the original cultivators of mental science in the aspect here considered. Thirteen years ago he brought out an elaborate work on " The Senses and the Intellect," of whicli the third edition is now in press. This was followed by " Tlie

INTEODUCTOEY NOTICE. 9

Emotions and the Will," completing a systematic exposition of the mind. His views were afterward still further developed and applied in a treatise on '' The Study of Character." In these works, while following out the scheme of psychology as laid down by Reid, Stewart, Brown, James Mill, and Sir William Hamilton, the author pushed to a still higher point the analysis and generalization of the mental phenomena, and presented a large stock of original examples and applications. He was the first to introduce into psychology a full handling of all the known physiological accompaniments of the mind, and to show how" valuable are the lights which can be derived from them. His works have now the leading place in the teaching of mental philosophy in Great Britain ; and the estimate placed upon them by competent judges is exemplified by the following quotations. Mr. John Stuart Mill, in an able analysis of " The Senses and the Intellect," in the Edinburgh Review^ remarked :

"Bain has st4.pj,^.v beyond all his pred^kiTessors, and has produced an exposition of the raind, of the sch*^^]^ of ^ocke and Hartley, equally remarkable in what it has successfuiit doii^ /^and in what it has wisely refrained from — an exposition which deserves to take rank as the foremost of its class, and as marking the most advanced point which the d posteriori psychology has reached "

*' Belonging essentially to the association school, he has not only, with great clearness and copiousness, illustrated, popularized, and enforced by fresh arguments all which that school had already done toward the explanation of the phenomena of mind, but he has added so largely to it, that those who have the highest appreciation and the warmest admiration of his predecessors, arc likely to be the most struck with the great advance which this treatise constitutes over what those predecessors had done, and the improved position in which it places their psychological theory. Mr. Bain possesses, indeed, a union of qualifications peculiarly fitting him for what, in the language of Dr. Brown, may be called the physical investigation of mind. With analytic powers comparable to those of big most distinguished predecessors, he combines a range of appropriate knowledge still wider than theirs ; having made a more accurate study than perhaps any previous psychologist of the whole round of the physical sciences, on which the mental depend both for their methods, and for the necessary material substratum of their theories ; while those sciences, also, are themselves in a far higher state of advancement than in any former age. This is especially true of the. science most nearly allied, both in subject and method, with psychological investigations, the science of Physiology ; which Hartley, Brown, and Mill had unquestionably studied, and knew

10 INTRODUCTORY NOTICE.

perhaps as well as it was known by any one at the time when they studied it, but in a superficial manner compared with Mr. Bain ; the science having in the mean while assumed almost a new aspect, from the important discoveries which have been made in all its branches, and especially in the functions of the nervous system, since even the latest of those authors wrote."

Professor Masson, of the University of Edinburgh, in his late work entitled "Recent British Philosophy/' speaking of Mr. Bain's treatise, says : " It is, perhaps, the richest natural history of the Human Mind in the language — the most fully mapped out and the most abundant in happy detail and illustration."

The works here so decisively commended by the highest authorities have not been republished in this country ; they are besides expensive to import, and are too voluminous for popular use. The present volume is an abstract of them, and presents in a compressed and lucid form the views which are there more extensively elaborated. It is not only the best but it is the only manual of Mental Philosophy yet produced which combines a clear exposition of the laws of feeliuQ- and thouQ-ht, with a full statement of their physiological connections so far as known, together Avith a succinct historical review of the progress of opinion upon controverted questions in the domain of Mind. It was prepared by the author at the solicitation of many who wished a statement of his views in a form convenient for general use, and of gentlemen engaged in teaching, who desired a work for their classes which should represent the present state of thought upon the subject: and as the educational want which it meets in England is equally urgent here, it has been republished in the belief that it will be appreciated by the public and welcomed by our best instructors. E. L. Y.

New York, June^ 1868.

c

TABLE OF CONTENTOTIf^

Chap. I. Definition And Divisions Of Mind

Pagb.

1. Iliiman Knowledge falls under two departments ... ... .1

2. The Object department marked by Extension ; the Subject, by

the absence of this property ... ... ... ..'. ib,

3. Subject Experience — Mind proper — has three functions, Feeling,

Will, and Thought. Other classifications of Mind ... ... 2

4. Order of arrangement for exposition ... ... ... 3

5. Concomitance of Mind and a Material Organism .., ,., 4

CHAP. 11.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND ITS FUNCTIONS.

1. The Brain is the principal organ of Mind. Proofs ... ... 5

2. The Nervous System consists of a Central mass, and ramifying

3. The nervous substance made up of white and of grey matter.

T^hQ Jibres diT\di ih.Q corpuscles ... ... ... ... 6

4. The Central nerves, or cerebro- spinal axis composed of parts. I.

The Spinal Cord ; the Eeflex Movements. II. The Brain. Parts of the Brain: (1) Medulla Oblongata, (2) Pons Varolii, (3) Cerebral Hemispheres, (4) Cerebellum; their several functions ... ... ... ... ... ... 7

5. The nerves are divided into Cerebral and Spinal ... ... 11

(i. The function of a nerve is to transmit influence ... ... ib.

7. Incarrying and outcarrying nerves ... ... ... 12

Book I. Movement, Sense, And Instinct

CHAP. I.

MOVEMENT AND THE MUSCULAR FEELINGS.

1. Muscular Feelings compared with Sensations. The muscular

2, Spontaneous Activity of the system. Proofs and illustrations 14

VI CONTENTS.

THE MUSCULAR FEELINGS. Tage.

3. Thrpo classes of feelings connected with muscle ,„ ,., 17

Feelings of Muscular Exercise,

4. The dead sirainy or action without movement. Systematic De-

scription : Physical Side ; Mental Side. Plan of describing

the Feelings generally, Note „ ... ... ,.. 18

5. Examples of the dead strain ... ... ,.* ... 22

6. Exertion with movement ... ,.. ... ... ,,, ib,

7. Slow movements ; allied to repose and passivity . ... ... ib,

S. Waxing and waning movements ... ... ... ,,. 23

9. Quick movements; their exciting character... ... ... ib,

10. Passive movements : the stimulus of riding ... ,», 24

Discriminative or Intellectual Sensibility of Muscle.

11. With every feeling, we have consciousness oi degree ... ib,

12. Consciousness of Exertion, or Expended Force. The Mechanical

13. Consciousness of degrees of Continuance of exertion, either as

dead strain or as movement. Time. Space ... ... 25

14. Consciousness of the Velocity of Movement... ... ... 26

CHAP. 11.

SENSATION.

2. Sensations classified. Defects of tlie enumeration of the Five

Senses. Omission of Organic Sensations ... ... ib,

SENSATIONS OP ORGANIC LIFE.

Organic 3hisctilar Feelings,

3. Pains of injury of muscle. Fatigue and Eepose ... ... 28

Organic Sensations of Nerve.

4. Acute Diseases of the nerves, nervous Fatigue, Healthy nerves,

Organic Feelings of the Circidation and Nutrition,

5. Thirst, Inanition, arrested circulation, good and ill health ... 31

Feelings of Fespiration,

6. Suffocation, Closeness, Exhilaration of change to pure air ... 32

Feelings of Heat and Cold,

7. Pain of Chillncss, Pleasure of transition to warmth ... ... 33

Sensations of the Alimentary Canal,

8. Classification of the kinds of Food

9. Feelings of Digestion : Kelish and Repletion, Hunger, Nausea,

CONTENTS. VU

SENSE OF TASTE. PaGE.

1. Objects of Taste : chiefly the materials of Food ... ... 36

4. Tastes in Sympathy with the Stomach : Relishes and Disgusts ib. 6. Tastes proper : Sweet and Bitter ... ... ., ... 38

6. Tastes involving Touch : Saline, Alkaline, Sour, Astringent,

SENSE OF SMELL.

1. Smell related to the Lungs ... ... ... ... 39

2. Objects of Smell : gaseous or volatile bodies ... ... ib.

3. Development of odours, by heat, light, and moisture ... ib.

6. Mode of action of odours a process of oxidation ... ... ib.

7. Sensations of Smell : in sympathy with the lungs are Fresh and

8. Proper olfactory sensibility : Fragrant odours and the opposite ib. 9' Odours involving tactile sensibility : Pungency .., ... 42

SENSE OF TOUCH.

1. Touch an intellectual Sense. The Objects, solid bodies ... 43

2. Sensitive surface the Skin, interior of the mouth, and nostrils... ib.

3. Action simple pressure ... ... ... ... ... ib.

4. Sensations: (Emotional) Soft Touch, *Pun gent Touch, Tempera-

ture, Tickling and acute pains ... ... ... ... 44

5. Intellectual Sensations ; Plurality of Points — Weber's experi-

6. Combinations of Touch with Muscular Feeling: Resistance,

Hardness and Softness, Poughness and Smoothness, Extension or the Co-existing in Space ... ... ... 47

SENSE OF HEARING.

1. Objects of Hearing — material bodies in a state of tremor ... 51

3. The mode of action in hearing ..." ... ... ,, ^2

4. Sensations of Sound: General Emotional effects— Sweetness,

Intensity, Volume ... ... ... .. ,,. id,

5. Musical Sounds : Pitch, Waxing and Waning, Harmony and

6. Intellectual Sensations : Clearness, Timbre, Articulate sounds,

Distance and Direction ... ... ... ... 55

SENSE OF SIGHT.

3. ]\lode of action, in the first place an optical effect ... ... 59

4. Binocular Vision. Seeing objects erect by an inverted image 60

5. Sensations of Sight (Optical) : Light, Colour, Lustre ... ib.

6- Sensations involving the Movements of the Eye : Visible Movement, Visible Form, Apparent Size, Distance, Volume, Visible

VIU CONTENTS.

CHAP. HI.

THE APPETITES.

The Appetites defined. Sleep, Exercise and Bepose, Thirst, Hunger, Sex ... ... ... . , .„ ,.. 67

CHAP. IV.

THE INSTINCTS.

Instinct defined. Instincts classified ... ,., ... (Jg

THE PRIMITIVE COMBINED MOVEMENTS.

1. The Locomotive Ehythm ... ... ... ... 69

3. Primitive Associated movements ... ... ... .,, 70

4. Harmony of Pace in the movements ... ... ... ib,

THE INSTINCTIVE PLAY OF PEELING.

1. Union of Mind and Body shown in the Expression of Feeling ib,

2. Physical Accompaniments of the Feelings : Movements of the

3. Voice and Pespiratorj^ Muscles ... ... ... .. 72

4. Muscles of the Body generally ... ... ... ... 73

5. Organic Effects : Lachrymal Organs, Sexual Organs, Digestion,

Cutaneous changes, Heart, Lacteal Gland in Women ... ib.

6. G-eneral principle connecting Pleasure and Pain with bodily

functions. Proofs of the Principle. Laughter and Sobbing 75

7. Operation of Stimulants ... ... ... ... 78

8. Law of Self-conservation ... ... ... ... 79

THE INSTINCTIVE GERMS OF THE WILL.

1. Voluntary power, a bundle of acquisitions ... ... ... ih.

2. Primitive foundations of the Will. I. — Spontaneity ... ib,

3. II. — Law of Self-conservation ... ... ... ... 80

4. Accident brings about coincidences between feelings and ap-

propriate movements ... ... ,. ... ... ib,

5. III. — The -coincidences are confirmed by a process of association 81

Book II. The Intellect

1. The intellectual functions commonly expressed by Memory,

Keason, Imagination, &;c. ... . . ... ... S2

2. The primary attributes of Intellect — JDiffcrcncc^ Agreement^

3. Applications of a Knowledge of the Intellectual Powers ... 84

CONTENTS. . IX

CHAP. I.

EETENTIYENESS— LAW OF CONTIGUITY.

Page.

1. Retentiveness mostly comprehended under the Law of Conti-

2. Statement of the Law ... ... ... ... ... ib,

MOVEMENTS.

3. Spontaneous and Instinctive actions strengthened by exercise 86

4. Conjoined or Aggregated Movements ... ... ... ih.

.5. Successions of Movements ... ... ... ... 87

6. Intervention of Sensations in trains of Movement ... ... ib,

7. Conditions governing the rate of Acquisition generally ... ib.

8. Circumstances favouring the adhesion of Movements... .. 88

9. All acquirements suppose Physical Vigour ... ... ... 89

IDEAL FEELINGS OF MOVEMEJ^T. — THE SEAT OP iDEAg,

10. Association of Ideas of Movement ... ... .. ... ib,

11. The seat of Ideas the same as of Sensations or Actualities ... ib.

12. The tendency of Ideas to become Actualities a source of activitv

distinct from the Will ... ... ... ... ..".90

13. The principle applied to explain Sympathy ... ... ... 91

14.' Points common to the Idea and to the Actuality ... ■ ... 92

15. Ideas of Movement may be associated ... .. ... ih.

16. The rate of adhesion follows the law of Actual Movement ... ib.

17. Movement is mentally known as expended energy in special

SENSATIONS OF THE SAME SENSE.

18. In all the senses, different sensations are associated together ... 93

19. Separate ideas become self-sustaining by repetition ... ... ih.

20. Association of Sensations of Touch ... .. ... ... 94

21. Law of the Rate of Acquirement in Touch ... ... ... ib.

22. The acquirements of Touch most numerous in the blind ... 95

23. Associations of Sounds; Musical and Articulate Sounds ... ib.

24. Associations of Sights : Forms and Coloured surfaces ... 97

SENSATIONS OF DIFFERENT SENSES.

25. Movements with Sensations. Muscular Ideas with Sensations ;

Architecture. Sensations with Sensations ... ... 98

26. Law of the Rate of such acquirements ... ... ... 100

27. Localization of the Bodily Feelings ... ... .. 101

28. Our body is an object fact with subject associations ... ... 102

29. Associations makes differences in sensations alike in quality ... ib.

ASSOCIATES WITH PLEASUKE AND PAIN.

30. Pleasure and Pain can persist and be reproduced ideally ... ih.

32. The Special Emotions converted into Affections ... ... 104

33. Association of emotions with indifferent objects : Ritual ... ib.

34. The interest of Ends transferred to the Means : Money, Formali-

35. Influence of association in Fine Art. Alison's Theory ... 106

X CONTENTS.

Page.

36. The Language of the Feelings has to be acquired ... ... 107

37. The Signs of Happiness are cheering to behold ... ... «^-

38. Memories of Pleasure and Pain ... ... ... ... 108

39. Association has a share in the Moral Sentiment ... ... t^»

ASSOCIATIONS OF VOLITION".

40. Contiguous association of actions and states of feeling ... 109

NATUEAL OBJECTS.

41. Our ideas of external nature are associations of sensible qualities ib,

42. The Naturalist mind represents disinterested association ... 110

43. In minds generally, the feelings sway the recollections of nature ih.

NATURAL AND HABITUAL CONJUNCTIONS;

44. Association of things habitually conjoined in our view . ... «^.

45. Maps, Diagrams, and Pictorial Hepresentations ... ... Ill

SUCCESSIONS,

46. Successions of Cycle, Evolution, Cause and Efifect ... ... ib.

MECHANICAL ACQUISITIONS.

47. Summary of conditions of Mechanical Acquirement ... ... 114

48. Proper duration of esercises ... ... ... ... 115

49. Oral Language involves the Voice and the Ear ... ... 116

50. Language a case of heterogeneous adhesion ... .. ib.

51. Language includes fixed trains of words ... .. ... 117

52. Operation of Special Interest in lingual acquisitions ... .. ib,

53. Elocution involves an Ear for Cadence ... ... ... 118

54. AVritten language appeals to the sense of Visible Form ... ib. 65. Short methods of acquiring language ... ... ... ib.

56. Verbal adhesiveness an aid to the memory of expressed Know-

PvETENTIVENESS IN SCIENCE.

57. Knowledge, as Science, is clothed in artificial symbols ... ib,

58. The Object Sciences are Concrete or Abstract ... ... ib.

59. 'J'he Subject Sciences are grounded on self-consciousness ... 120

60. Circumstances favouring acquirements in mental Science ... ib.

61. Supposed faculty of Self-Consciousness ... ... .. 121

BUSINESS, OR PRACTICAL LIFE.

62. Acquirements in the higher branches of Industrj^ ... ... 122

ACQUISITIONS IN THE FINE ARTS.

63. Fine Art constructions give refined pleasure ... ... ih.

64. Conditions of Acquisition in Fine Art ... ... ... 123

HISTORY AND NARRATIVE.

65. History the succession of events as narrated ... ... t^.

66. Transactions witnessed impress themselves as Sensations and

67. Events narrated have the aid of the Verbal Memory ' ... ib.

CONTENTS. XI

OUR PAST LIFE. PAGE.

68. The complex current of each one's existence •„ ... 124

CONCLUDINa OBSERVATIONS ON BETENTIVENESS.

69. Existence of a Retentive faculty for things generally. Superior

plasticity of early years ; Limitation of acquirements ; Temporary adhesiveness ... ... ... ... ... 125

CHAP.^IL

• AGREEMENT- LAW OF SIMILARITY.

2. Similarity, in one mode, implied under Contiguity .. ... 128

3. Impediments to the revival of the past through similarity ... ib,

FEEBLENESS OF IMPRESSION.

4. Impediment of Feebleness or Faintness, By what peculiarities

overcome. Conditions of reproduction by Similarity ... 129

SIMILARITY IN DIVERSITY — SENSATIONS.

5. Impediment of Diversity. Special condition for this case ... 130

6. Movements and Feelin'^;s of Movement identified ..." ... 131

7. Sensations of Organic Life ... ... ... ... 132

8. Tastes. Identification ending in Classification ... ... 133

9. Touch. Effects generalized and classified ... ... ... 134

10. Hearing. Articulate language identified under diversity of

utterance and cadence. Diversity of Meaning ... ... ib.

11. Sight. Colours, Forms, and their combinations ... ... 136

12. Effects common to the Senses generally ... ... ... 137

CONTIGUOUS AGGREGATES— cox JUNCTIONS.

13. Objects affecting a Phirality of Senses ... . ... 138

14. Aggregates of associated Properties and Uses. The Steam En-

gine. Davy's discovery of the composition of the alkalies. Botany and Zoology ... ... ... , ,,, ib,

PHENOMENA OF SUCCESSION.

15. Successions identified under diversities. Cycle, Evolution, Cause

and Effect. Newton's discovery of gravitation ... ... 141

REASONING AND SCIENCE IN GENERAL.

16. Generalizing power of the mind gives birth to : I. — Definition ;

II. — Induction; III. — Deduction. Reasoning by Analogy 143

17. Scope of the Eeasoning Faculty ... ... ... ... Ii6

BUSINESS AND PRACTICE.

18. Discoveries in Practice due, in part, to Similarity ... ... ih,

ILLUSTRATIVE COMPARISONS AND LITERARY ART.

19. Figures of Similitude abound in all great works of literary

genius. Bunyan, Shakeepeare, Bacon, Milton ... ... 149

XU CONTENTS.

THE FINE ARTS IN" GENERAL. PaSE,

20. Similarity exemplified in certain of the Fine Arts ... ... 149

SIMILARITY IN ACQUISITION AND MEMORY.

21. Labour of Acquisition saved by the tracing of similarities ... 150

CHAP. III. COMPOUNIi ASSOCIATION

1. Associations may combine their force. Statement of the Law 151

COMPOSITION or CONTIGUITIES.

2. Conjunctions : Local associations ; Persons ; Uses and Proper-

ties. Successions: Language ... ... ... ... 152

COMPOSITION OF SIMILARITIES.

3. This case sufficiently expressed under the Law of Similarity ... 154

MIXED CONTIGUITY AND SIMILARITY.

4. Great discoveries of similarity remembered partly by contiguity 155

5. Aid to Similarity by the ^ro^/;««Vf/ of the things desired ... ih.

THE ELEMENT OF FEELING.

7. Influence of the Feelings on the trains of thought ... ... «3.

INFLUENCE OF VOLITION.

8. The influence of the Will indirect. Modes of its operation ... 157

OBSTRUCTIVE ASSOCIATIONS.

9. Exemplified in the conflict of the Artistic and the Scientific

ASSOCIATION OF CONTRAST.

10. Contrast may be analyzed into Relativity, Contiguity, Similarity,

and the influence of Emotion .. ... ... ... 160

CHAP. lY.

CONSTRUCTIVE ASSOCIATION.

1. Processes of Original Creation "... ... ... ... 161

MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTIVENESS.

2. IMovpments combined into new groupings. Tlirco conditions

-^•f the Constructive Process generally ... ... ... 1C2

VERBAL CONSTRUClIVENEbS.

3. Learning to Articulate ... ... .. ... ... 103

4. Construction of Sentences ... ... ... ... 1G4

5. Higher Combinations of langunge ... ... ... ib.

CONTENTS. XUl

FEELINGS OF MOVEMENT. Paqh.

6. Constructing new muscular ideas. Hitting a mark. Architectural fitness ... .. ... ... ... 165

CONSTHUCTIVENESS IN THE SENSATIONS.

7- Organic Life ; unknown forms of pleasure and pain. The higher

senses. Visual constructiveness ... ... ... 166

CONSIRUCTION OF NEW EMOTIONS.

8. The Simpler Emotions must be experienced. Change of degree.

Transfer to new objects ... ... ... ... 168

CONCRETING THE ABSTRACT.

9. Construction, from abstract elements, of images in the Concrete 169

REALIZING OF REPRESENTATION OR DESCRIPTION.

10. Verbal descriptions, or other Eepresentations, realized ... ib.

CONSTRUCTIVENESS IN SCIENCE.

11. Definitions, Inductions, Deductions, and Experimental dis-

coveries involve constructiveness ... ... ... 170

PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTIONS.

ment; adapting one's views to others. Oratory ... ... 171

CONSTRUCTIVENESS UNDER PEELING.

13. Certain constructions satisfy some present emotion : — Emotional

character appears in literary composition. Bias. The Myth 1/2

14. Fine Art constructions adapted to Esthetic feelings ... ... 173

15. Imagination best exemplified under Fine Art constructiveness.

Its elements are, (1) Concreteness, (2) Originality, (3; the presence of Emotion. Fancy. Ideality ... ... ... 174

CHAP. Y.

ABSTEACTION~THE ABSTRACT IDEA.

NOMINALISM AND REALISM.

1. First stage of Abstraction to compare, identify, and classify ... 176

2. Abstraction means attending to points of agreement and neglect-

ing points of difference. Question how far this mental separation is possible ... ... ... ... ... ib,

3. In one view, to abstract is to refer to a class ... ... 177

4. Cases where we seem to form a pure abstraction : — (1) Material

separation; (2) Lineal Diagrams ; (3) Verbal Definition . ]78

5. The only generality, having separate existence, is the Name .. 179