Education as a science

Preface

In the present work I have surveyed the Teaching Art, as far as possible, from a scientific point of view ; which means, among other things, that the maxims of ordinary experience are tested and amended by bringing them under the best ascertained laws of the mind.

I have devoted one long chapter to an account of the Intellect and the Emotions in their bearings on education. The remainder of the work is occupied with the several topics more specially connected with the subject.

There are certain terms and phrases that play a leading part in the various discussions ; and to each of these I have endeavoured at the outset to assign a precise meaning. They are — Memory, Judgment, Imagination, proceeding from the Known to the Unknown, Analysis and Synthesis, Object Lesson, Information and Training, doing One Thing Well.

A separate consideration is also bestowed on Education Values, or an enquiry into the worth of the various subjects included in the usual routine of instruction ; the largest amount of space being given to Science.

Under the designation — Sequence of Subjects (Psyv i PREFACE.

etiological and Logical), a number of important matters are brought forward, it is thought, in an advantageous way. In the first place, we are interested to know what is the order of the unfolding of the faculties, and what influence that order should have in the arrangement of studies. Such is the psychological question. In the next place, there is a sequence growing out of the dependence of the subjects themselves ; which in most cases is plain enough, but occasionally becomes perplexed by disguises. This I call the logical or analytical problem of education.

These preparatory matters being disposed of, the main topic — the Methods of Teaching — is entered upon. After adverting to what concerns the first elements of Reading, I proceed to the delicate question of the commencement of Knowledge teaching. It is here that we are introduced to the Object Lesson, which, more than anything else, demands a careful handling ; there being great apparent danger lest an admirable device should settle down into a plausible but vicious formality. The latter part of this chapter treats of the methods applicable to Geography, History, and the Sciences.

The Mother Tongue has a place appropriated to itself. Everything that relates to it as an acquirement — Vocabulary, Grammar, the Higher Composition, and Literature — is minutely canvassed.

A chapter is assigned to an estimate of the value of Latin and Greek at the present day. The provisional arrangement whereby the higher knowledge was for centuries made to flow through two dead languages should

PREFACE. Vll

now be considered as drawing to a close. The question then arises whether any new sphere of utility lias been discovered for these languages, sufficient to reward the labour of their acquisition when their original purpose has ceased. On the assumption that the present system must sooner or later be changed, I suggest what I consider to be, in relation to the higher studies, the curriculum of the future.

On the wide subject of Moral Education, the plan adopted is to bring into prominence the points where the teaching appears most ready to go astray. As respects Religion, I have principally confined myself to the connection between it and moral instruction.

A short chapter on Art teaching endeavours to cleat away some prevailing misconceptions, especially in the relationship of Art and Morality.

The general strain of the work is a war, not so much against error, as against confusion. The methods of education have already made much progress ; and it were vain to look forward to some single discovery that could change our whole system. Yet I believe that improvements remain to be effected. I take every opportunity of urging, that the division of labour, in the shape of disjoining incongruous exercises, is a chief requisite in any attempt to remodel the teaching art

Aberdeen : November 18, 187S.

Chapter I. Scope Of The Science Of Education

Wherein consists the scientific treatment of any art .

PACE

I

The Prussian idea — harmonious development . James Mill's definition — too wide .

Usual divisions of education give too much The art of health should be excluded

J. S. Mill's definition

The province of the schoolmaster a safe guide . The final end — happiness— how qualified The plastic power of mind involved Psychological and Logical (or analytic) branches Leading terms to be precisely fixed Combination of experience and theory . . Conduct of the understanding not included

Chapter II. Bearings Of Physiology

Physical health and its conditions assumed Physiological aspect of the plastic property of the mind The various bodily organs may be unequal in power n

1 1

X

CONTENTS.

The brain may be nourished at the expense of the other organs, and vice versd .....•••••• ' 2

Intellect and emc'ion may compete for brain support . . .13 Memory or acquisition as brain growth— its cost . . . . 13

Chapter III. Bearings Of Psychology

All parts of Psychology applicable : the Intellect more especially

IS

DISCRIMINATION.

The foundation of Intellect 16

Conditions : — (1) mental watchfulness, (2) absence of undue excitement, (3) interest, (4) juxtaposition 17

Examples of discrimination iS

THE RETENTIVE FACULTY.

Statement of the primary law : — time or repetition necessary . 20 Other things aiding . . ... . ...21

General Circumstances favouring Retentiveness.

1. The PHYSICAL CONDITION

The outlay of the brain in acquirement, compared with other exercises .......

Times when retentiveness is at its best

2. Concentration. Influence of the Will .

Pleasure in the work .....

Operation of pain ......

Neutral excitement. Its best modes Retentiveness follows delicacy of discrimination Sharpness of transition .....

23 25 27

33 35

SIMILARITY, OR AGREEMENT.

Shock of similarity in diversity 36

Discoveries of agreement favoured, (1) by the smallness of the differences, (2) by juxtaposition, (3) by cumulation of instances . . 37

CONTENTS.

XI

CONSTRUCTIVENESS.

PAGE

Conditions : — (ij something to construct from, (2) a clear conception of what is aimed at, (3) trial and error . .... 41-3

ALTERNATION AND REMISSION OF ACTIVITY.

Sleep the only entire cessation of mental action Relief given by alternation or transition . Study and sport or pleasure ....

Obseiving and doing

Repetition of what has been learnt .

Memory and judgment. — Language and Science

Different kinds of acquirements alternated .

45 46

47 47

CULTURE OF THE EMOTIONS.

Associations of pleasure and pain ..... Happy associations dependent on special conditions Painful growths ; passionate outbursts .... Moral improvement, distinguished from the motives to duty Disinterested repugnance to wrong. ....

52 53 54 56 59

PLAY OF MOTIVES : — THE SENSES.

The organic sensibilities principally affected in punishments The muscular pains. Nervous pains — ennui . Privation of nourishment ......

Skin inflictions ......

PLAY OF MOTIVES : — THE EMOTIONS.

Survey of the different emotions appealed to .

The Emotion of Terror.

Fear may or may not accompany pain E\ils of working by fear

. 66 . 67

The Social Motives.

General aggregate of social emotion

The iutenser forms unsuitable in education

. 68

Xll CONTENTS.

PAGE

Best mode of bringing sociability to the aid of study ... 70 Influence of the multitude on the individual 7°

The Anti-Social and Malign Emotions.

Checks to Anger. Cruelty 7?

Legitimate outlets for malevolent passion : — Punishments, actual and

ideal ; humour ; play . . . . . . . • 74

Anger, an aid in discipline ........ 7^

The Emotion of Power.

Actual and ideal power — a first-class motive 77

The Emotions of Self .

Self-complacency and self-esteem ....... 78

Love of praise or admiration ........ 79

The apportioning of praise in education ...... 79

Dispraise, censure .......... 80

The Emotions of Intellect.

Pleasures of Knowledge. . . . . . . . .81

Bearings on utility. Certainty sought after 82

The stimulus of the emotions unattended with the desire of truth . 83 General knowledge. Its severity, and the two modes of overcoming our repugnance to it . . . . . . . . .84

1. Pleasurable flash of discoveries of identity, and relief from an in-

tellectual burden ......... 85

Dislike induced by the technical formalities of science . . 87

Opposition of the concrete and the abstract .... 88

2. Abstractive separation necessary in order to trace causation . . 89 Curiosity, as found in children, often spurious 90

The Emotions of Activity.

Natural or spontaneous activity of the system 92

Gratified self-activity as a motive in teaching 93

Feeling of origination very powerful, but not immediately applicable 94

Feeling suitable to the learner — admiration for superior knowledge . 95

CONTENTS. Xlll

T)ie Emotions of Fine Art*

PAGE

Fine art influential as enjoyment ....... 96

Various effects of art : — symmetry, proportion, design, rhythm,

time 97

Music as a moral power. Poetry ....... 97

Tlie Ethical Emotions.

Sympathies, social yearnings, reciprocated good conduct ... 99

The Feelings as Appealed to in Discipline*

General question of moral control . 100

Erroneous methods . . . . . . . . .101

Nature of authority. The school compared with the family . . 102 Principles applicable to authority in general . . . . .104

Bentham's exhaustive view of punishment ..... 106

Discipline in the school :— influence of good physical surroundings ; teaching arts ; teacher's personality ; tact . . . . .108

One man against a multitude is in the post of danger . . .111

Emulation — Prizes— Place-taking.

Ambition to be first . . . . . . . . .112

Prizes. Praise or commendation . . . . . . 113

Punishment.

Censure or reproof. Forms of disgrace . . . . . . 114

Detention from play . . . . . . . . 1 1 5

Corporal punishment . . . . . . . . .116

The Discipline of Consequences.

Allowing children to suffer by natural consequences. Advantages and defects of the method . . . . . . . .118

Chapter IV. Terms Explained

Importance oi a preliminary clearing-up of leading tenns. . . 120 xiv CONTENTS.

MEMORY, AND ITS CULTIVATION.

PAGE

Means of strengthening the memory 120

JUDGMENT, AND ITS CULTIVATION

Judgment has a variety of meanings . . . . . .122

Its contrast to memory . . . . . . . . .123

IMAGINATION.

Conception, or the conceiving faculty . . . . . 1 24

Can this be cultivated as a whole ? . . . . . . .125

The creative faculty . . . . . . . . .126

Imaginative literature. The gratifying of emotion the leading circumstance . ........ 127

PROCEEDING FROM THE KNOWN TO THE UNKNOWN.

An admitted principle, but liable to uncertainty in its application . 128

ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS.

Analysis has certain distinct meanings . . . . . .129

Synthesis an unsuitable term . . . . , . . • 131

OBJECT LESSONS.

Occasion of the first introduction of the phrase . . . .132 Reference to acquiring the meanings of names . .... 133 Selection of objects as texts . . . . . . . .135

INFORMATION AND TRAINING.

What things properly constitute information 136

What is comprised under discipline, or training . . . . 13Q

ONE THING WELL.

Minute acquaintance with a subject in detail . . . . . r t2

How far a synoptical view of certain subjects may be of value . .143

The beginner must abide by one scheme . . . . . .144

Abuses of midtum non multa , ...... 14c

CONTENTS. XV

Chapter V. Education Values

PAGE

The survey of values to embrace science and language . * . 146

THE SCIENCES.

Science in general inculcates the aiming at truth .... 146

Defects of unscientific practice ....... 147

The antithesis of the individual and the general .... 147

The Abstract Sciences.

Mathematics as the type of the deductive or demonstrative method . 14S Important formula? derived from mathematics, and applied elsewhere : — plurality of factors influencing a result ; definite and indefinite solutions ; totalizing fluctuations ; probabilities . 149 Practical applications numerous and important; but, for the majority, the value of this training counts for most . . . . .152

Improper claims made for this science . . . . . .153

What mathematics does not do 153

The Experimental and Inductive Sciences.

Best guides to ascertaining facts by observation and experiment . 154 Over-generalization corrected . . . . . . . .154

Limits to empirical generalities . . . . . . 155

As ' useful knowledge.' Applications of natural philosophy, chemistry, and physiology . . . . . . . 155

The Sciences of Classification.

To classify is an education in itself. . . . . . .158

The Natural History Sciences . . . . . . .158

Their popular interest and useful applications . . . . .159

As contributing to the art of lucid composition . . . .159

The Science of Mind.

The common knowledge of mind compared with the science of mind 160 Preparation for the study 160 xvi CONTENTS.

PAGE

Logic, a suitable accompaniment to the scientific course . . . 161

Summary of the effects of culture in science. The analyzing operation 161

Bearings on fine art — a mixed influence 1 62

The Practical or Applied Sciences.

Some of these purely professional 163

The sociological group : — politics, political economy, legislation, law or jurisprudence ......... 164

Ethics, grammar, rhetoric, and philology . ... 166

The practical sciences do not give mental training . . . .167

LANGUAGES.

Languages to be valued according to the use we are to make of them 167 Language is an affair of memory, helped by the sciences of grammar and rhetoric 168

MECHANICAL TRAINING.

General training of the bodily organs ...... 169

May be pushed too far . . . . . . . . .169

TRAINING OF THE SENSES.

Increase of discriminating power . . . . . . .170

Different applications of sense training . . . . . .170

Drawing, as a general training. Does not necessarily cultivate the power of observation . . . . . . . . .171

The fascination for drawing has serious drawbacks . . .172

Chapter VI. Sequence Of Subjects— Psychological

The educator works on a growing brain . . . . . .173

Order of manifestation of the faculties ...... 176

Peculiarities of the infant mind . . . . , , . 177

Earliest motives to take in knowledge 1 77

CONTENTS.

XV 11

Activity and pleasuie ....

Intensity of sensation is an influence The active energies bring forth experience How to gain attention to the indifferent The means to pleasure receive notice The active senses are occupied somehow . The finishing stroke is outward compulsion Questions to be considered : — At what age should mence ?......

Relative priority of different branches Age when memory is at its best What are the sciences that come late ? Best age for moral impressions .

education com

PAGE I 7 8 179

186 187 188

Chapter VII. Sequence Of Subjects -logical

Order of logical dependence exemplified .....

The momentous transition from concrete to abstract . Classing goes on from the first ; but the abstract notion involves sudden leap .........

The manner of going to work : — I. Selection of particulars

2. Placing of instances .......

3. Continuous accumulation. Brilliant examples obstructive . Contrast a great help ........

4. Taking advantage of the flash of agreement

5. Showing cause and effect as depending on properties in their

isolation .... ....

6. Representative particulars given for retaining the notion

7. The definition by language ... ...

What things are implied in analytical or logical sequence Cases where sequence does not apply .....

1. Correlatives are known together — the order of statement being in

different .........

2. The mixing of notions of different degrees of advancement .

3. The gratification of the feelings ......

4. Impatience to advance to matters of interest

5. The language memory may hold things in the unmeaning state

6. Detached propositions may be understood to a certain extent

190 191

192 193 194 194

197 197 1 98

201 203 205 205 205 207

CONTENTS.

7. Precepts may be culled from different sciences .

8. The cultivation of independent organs or faculties

9. Knowledge of language and knowledge of things proceed to-

DOUBTFUL CASES OF SEQUENCE.

In Arithmetic, the order of the empirical and the rational Grammatical teaching — the order given in the 'Code' . Sequence in the mother tongue— vocables and sentence-structure Grammar a late subject : on a par with algebra Early knowledge — its several stages ....

The tale or narrative — metrical composition — imaginative fiction Difficulties of the start in knowledge ....

The early foundations. Culture of the imagination The object lesson :— aid to the conceptive faculty . Sequence in the reading books .....

Natural history subjects. Animals preferred .

Plants and minerals .......

In these lessons sequence too much dispensed with .

The interest of personality leads to ai. aversion of the order

Stages of natural history study .....

Sequence in geography .......

Too much expected in the commencement

The methodical study by object lessons ....

History, a mixture of what is easy to the young with what appeals the mature mind .......

The elementary conceptions of society ....

Erroneous methods of commencing history

Proper teaching when the age arrives ....

Sequence in the sciences ......

to

209 210 212 213 214 214

225 226 227 228 229

Chapter VIII. Methods

Rhetorical arts of communicating knowledge . Certain points of teaching not included in rhetoric .

230 231

CONSTRUCTIVE ACQUIREMENTS.

Laws of the constructive faculty .

CONTENTS. xix

Speaking.

PAGE

Exercises in articulation ........ 233

The analysis of sounds gives the order of precedei ce . . , 234

The Manual C (instructive ness.

Writing and drawing .235

The sense element in mechanical aptitudes . . . . . 235

The manual exercises in the Kindergarten. Danger of being too much engrossed with these ........ 236

Writing combined with elementary drawing ..... 236

Reading.

First steps of the alphabet 238

Names of letters and words ........ 239

Our irregu'ar spelling to be approached by the cases of uniformity . 241

Pronunciation and elocution ........ 243

Knowledge exercises to be forborne at first ..... 242

Example of premature attempts ....... 244

THE OBJECT LESSON.

Dangers to be avoided ......... 247

The lesson ranges over natural history, physical science, and the useful arts ........... 248

249 249 250

Direction given to point out, — first, qualities, and next, uses . Account of unobvious or hidden properties ....

Distraction arising from different outlets .....

Necessity of pre-arranging the lessons .....

A definite purpose, or limitation of scope ....

Example of a piece of chalk .......

Distinction of the special or individual lesson, and the generalized ltsson ..........

Examples from minerals and plants .....

Adding to the store of concrete conceptions ....

Examples from animals. Individuality and Generality . Instance of the camel ........

The object les=on in the primary sciences ....

Consists of empirical statements ......

The principle taught should rule the lesson ....

Example of the Atmosphere ....,,.

254 254

XX

CONTENTS.

GEOGRAPHY.

Preparatory object lessons ....

Inadequacy of the chance impressions of the child

The laws of the object lesson to be strictly attended

Introduction of cause and effect into description

Aid of sketches from nature .

Meaning of a map

Local situation, form and magnitude

Geographical description

Physical geography

Connection of geography with history

The verbal memory in geography .

Map Drawing ....

to

275 276 276 277 278 279

280 280

HISTORY.

Earliest lessons in history relate to human nature .

Object lessons on political constitutions .

Universal history sketched for the sake of chronology

Variety of uses and methods of history .

Political geography the natural opening .

The different scales of historic narrative .

The highest form of history . .

General History taught by selection

SCIENCE.

Arts of communication generally, and of the abstract idea in particular, pre-supposed 287

Arithmetic.

Use of objects in the concrete 288

What is implied in the conception of number 289

The decimal system and commencement of computation . . . 2S9

Aids to learning the multiplication table ...... 290

Understanding of the reasons, how far available .... 291

Arithmetic not thoroughly comprehended, until the higher mathematics is reached ......... 292

Utilizing of the arithmetical exercises for impressing important

numerical facts ..*»...,.. 292

CONTENTS. XXI The Higher Mathematics.

PAGE

The methods of impressing abstract and symbolical notions and

The real foundations of mathematics are attached to geometry . . 295

Concrete teaching of little avail ....... 296

Aids afforded by the teacher ........ 297

Algebra succeeds geometry ........ 297

Mathematics, in respect of teaching method, a type of the deductive

The Inductive Sciences have certain specialities . . . 299

Natural History.

The general and the special departments of the natural history

Mineralogy and Botany least complicated ..... 300

In Zoology there is a play of cross purposes ..... 301

PRACTICAL TEACHING.

Reasons for familiarizing pupils with the objects of experimental

science » . . . 303

How far practical work enters into a general training . . . 304

ORAL TEACHING AND TEXT-BOOKS.

Place and function of the text-book 305

Prescribing of tasks, with or without explanation .... 306

EXAMINATIONS GENERALLY.

Viewed, in the first instance, as part of the teaching . . . 308

The disadvantage of a composed catechism ..... 308

Questions appended to passages of information .... 308

Examinations at the close of the course or curriculum . . . 309

Examinations for public appointments. Considerations involved . 309

Chapter IX

Initial difficulty —the fusion of language and thought . . .312 Principle of one thing at a time . . . . . . . 313

XX11

CONTENTS.

CONDITIONS OF LANGUAGE ACQUISITION GENERALLY.

Uniting word to word by pure verbal adhesiveness .

Superior advantage of associating names at once with their objects

Importance of understanding the meanings conveyed

Disadvantage of beginning foreign languages too early

Aids to purely verbal acquisition .....

Technical devices ........

Modes o r fixing attention upon the words to be associated Proposa' to bring forward words in the order of frequency of occur rence

THE MOTHER TONGUE.

The names of known things seized willingly .....

Early stages of language show the teaching of knowledge under difficulties .........

Employment of the object lesson .....

Knowledge on its language side .....

Correction of vulgar and provincial errors

Explanations that count as thing-knowledge .

Language lessons proper — the teaching of synonymous words

Subtle reaction of the knowledge of things

The shades of difference in synonymous terms .

The knowledge-master as a word-master ....

The language-master working by easy stories and descriptions Committing passages to memory .....

Poetry preferred at first .......

Comparative advantages of prose passages

Impressing the sentence structure .....

Sentences also follow meaning or thought

Varying of sentence forms ......

Arrangement of words and clauses in sentences

Obverse equivalents especially valuable ....

TEACHING GRAMMAR.

Grammar abridges labour ....

Special uses : — I. Avoiding subtle errors

2. Isolating the language lesson

3. Training in the structure of sentences .

4. Contributing to the pupil's wealth of vocables

CONTENTS. XX111

The Age for commencing Grammar.

PAGE

344 345 346 347

Things necessary to be understood first . . . Teaching without book ......

Grammar not to be commenced before ten years of age How to fill up the previous time . . . Exercises paving the way to grammar The lesson in English to be isolated some time before beginning grammar ........... 347

Actual teaching of grammar. Differences of view on certain points . 349

THE HIGHER COMPOSITION.

Definitions and rules of rhetoric ...... 350

Essay writing. Different forms of exercises . . . . 351

The great aim, to distinguish good and bad in composition . . 353

Lessons impressed during promiscuous reading .... 353

ENGLISH LITERATURE.

How literary criticism passes into the history of literature . . 354

Selection of authors for special study . . . . . 355

Preference of later authors to earlier ; of prose to poetry . . . 355

Consideration of the matter as far as possible excluded . . . 357

Chapter X. The Value Of The Classics

Original reasons for the study of Latin and Greek in Modern Europe 359 Arguments for the continued use of these languages :— I. The infor

mation still locked up in Greek and Latin authors . . .361

II. The art treasures of Greek and Roman literature inaccessible except through the languages ....... 365

III. The classical languages train the rr.ind ..... 366

What the training consists in : — Grammar ; translation . Comparison of the advantages possessed by other subjects Supplying materials for the mind to work upon

IV. Classics as a preparation for the mother tongue

The words derived from Classics must still be learned in their new meanings ......... 374

In regard to syntax, the study is obstructive .... 377

3^7 371 xxiv CONTENTS.

PAGE

V. Classics as an introduction to philology. Small value of this

contribution 378

Case on the other side : — I. The cost 380

II. The mixture of conflicting studies distracts the learner . . 382

There is a fallacy in proposing to cultivate different faculties

in the same exercise ....... 383

III. The study devoid of interest 385

IV. Evil of pandering to authority 386

Note on the opinions of Mr. Henry Sidgwick, Mr. Alexander J.

Ellis, and Mr. Matthew Arnold 387

Chapter XI. The Renovated Curriculum

The Higher Education should embrace : — I. SCIENCE . . . 390

II. The Humanities, including (1) History and the Social Science,

and (2) some portion of Universal Literature . . 391

III. English Composition and Literature .... 392 Reasons for requiring all the three departments .... 392 A certain time to be allowed for extra or additional subjects, and

foreign languages to have the foremost claim .... 393

Other additional subjects ........ 394

Reasons for the scheme ........ . 394

Arrest of the present tendency to over-specializing in liberal studies . 395

Objections considered : — Supposed ruin of Classics . . . . 395

Alleged inaptitude of many minds for science ..... 396

Chapter XII. Moral Education

First lessons in morality— personal experience of what is forbidden

and what is allowed ......... 398

Resembles our first education in the Physical laws .... 399

Supplementary teaching — What ? . . . . . . . 400

Lessons of the schoolmaster. He presents selected and cumulated

examples of the consequences of good or ill conduct . . .401

Importance to this end of a good classification of the virtues . . 404

CONTENTS. XXV

PAGE

The fundamental virtues are prudence, justice, benevolence. They cross and re-cross . ....... 404

4*3

413 414

415 416

Correct apprehension of the motives — self-regarding and social Survey of the social relationships ......

Moral teaching, like oratory, demands resources of language . Moral ideals — the tendency to exaggeration ....

Cautions needful in moral lessons ......

1. The dislike of the pupils, to be taken account of

2. The need of working by conciliation rather than fear .

3. The self- regarding motives most available ....

Occasions when the heroic motives may be used . Mixed sentiment of personal dignity ....

4. The employment of poetry and romance ....

5. Mutuality or reciprocity in services .....

6. Appeals to the humane sentiment .....

7. The vice of lying has a background of selfishness, which ought

to be traced out in each case . . . . . . .416

8. Miscarriages in moral teaching : — The examples from animals

irrelevant and futile . . . . . . . .417

Modes of representing the blessings of labour .... 418

Poverty and contentment. The inequalities of wealth. Need of

sound teaching in the social science . . . . . .419

Religion as related to morality 420

As taught on its own account, partly intellectual, but still more

Chapter XIII. Art Educa Tion

The essential of art teaching is the culture of art emotion . , 425

This comes incidentally to learning the practice of any fine art . 426

Independent cultivation of cesthetic sensibility. Example of the taste

Conditions — a happy and disengaged state of mind, and a good

Taste as discrimination ......

Music, Elocution, Painting, &c

The difficult questions of art culture raised by poetry The poets claim to be moral teachers . . . Fiction attacked on the score of morality

428 429 429 430 431

XXVI

CONTENTS.

The class too wide to be discussed as a whole ....

Fiction viewed as an exciting stimulus

The impression received depends on the previous culture of the reader ...........

The drama merely a department of fiction ; rendered more impressive for good or for evil by stage representation ....

The educating influence of the Theatre, as such, confined to elocution and demeanour . . . . . . . . . • 433

Chapter XIV. Proportions

Examples of disproportion amounting to miscarriage

Excesses in mathematics, and in minute scholarship in Classics

Liability to disproportion in natural history .

Excesses in primary sciences ......

Languages, ancient and modern .....

Antiquarian part of our own language ....

Excess of attention to expression as compared with thought Primary education, and its relation to secondary