The farmers' school book

Front matter

(Si

TUfJ ^

NED AS A REiQING BOOK H

Chap. XV. — The Nature of Manures— Varieties . . 65

Chap. XVI. — The Nature of Manures— continued . 68 Chap. XVII. — Stimulating Manures— Lime, Plaster,

Ashes, and Marl 71

Chap. XVIII. — Improvement of the Soil 77

Chap. XIX.— Succession of Crops 81

Chap. XXII.— Hemp 98

Chap. XXIII.— Hops 106

A 2

6 CONTENTS.

Chap. XXIV.-Rutabaga 114

Chap. XXV.— Pasture 119

Chap. XXVI.— The Culture of Silk 126

Chap. XXVII.— History of Silk 128

Chap. XXVIII.— Silk— continued 133

Chap. XXIX.— Sugar made from Beets 139

Chap. XXX. — Beet Sugar — continued 146

Chap. XXXI.— Best Breeds of Cattle 151

CuAP. XXXII.— The different Breeds of Neat Cattle

compared 155

Chap. XXXIII.— On Buying and Stocking a Farm

wiih Cattle : 157

Chap. XXXIV.— The Cow— Raising Calvres ... 161

Chap. XXXV.— Working Oxen 166

Chap. XXXVI.— Pasturing Cattle 169

Chap. XXXVII.— Soiling Cattle 172

Chap. XXXVIII.— Stall-feeding Beef Cattle . . . 177

Chap. XXXIX.— Milch Kine 180

Chap. XL. — The Pasture and other Food best for

Cows, as it regards their Milk 182

Chap. XLI. — The Management of Milk and Cream —

Making and Preserving Butter 185

Chap. XLII.— Making and Preserving Cheese . . .192

Chap. XLIII.— Swine 196

Chap. XLIV.— Diseases of Cattle 199

Chap. XLV. — Diseases peculiar to Oxen, Cows, and

Calves 207

Chap. XLVI.— Diseases of Horses 209

Chap. XLVII— Sheep 214

Chap. XLVIII.- Sheep— continued 219

Chap. XLIX.-The Farm-yard 223

Chap. L. — The Farm-yard — continued 238

Preface

Children may read and study in the school-room what they will practise when they become men. They now read the " English Reader," or some other " Collection" that they do not understand, or feel any interest in ; and which, the worst of all, never gives them one useful idea for the practical business of hfe.

This little work has been published to take the place of such almost useless, unintelligible reading. Its object is to give children, while they arc receiving their school education, a scientific, practical knowledge of the labours of manhood. To the Young Farmer the work is invaluable, and it will seize the feelings and get the attention of every child that is learning to read. The improvement of our schools, and the interests of Agriculture, have long been calling for such a work. It has now appeared, full of the most useful information, yet in a small, cheap form. The schools may obtain it without delay.

8 PREFACE.

The introduction, and the part which relates to Chymistry, together with a portion of the chapters on Cattle, and the nature and properties of the Soil, it was necessary for me to write. I have been greatly assisted on the subject of Sheep Husbandry by Judge Duel's invaluable periodical, the " Cultivator." That part which relates to the manufacture of Sugar from the Beet is taken from Pedder's Report, the best source of information we have. The chapter on Hemp was written by the Honourable Henry Clay of Kentucky. Much assistance has also been obtained from many of the first writers of the day on Agriculture, and particularly from an able English work called the " Complete Grazier."

The work is emphatically a choice collection of the most important things which our best writers have said on the science and practice of Agriculture, A concise manual for farmers while engaged in their labours, and a large amount of the most useful information for children to read over and over again in their schools.

Introduction

1. The King of Sparta being asked " what things he thought most proper for boys to learn." answered, " Those things which they expect to do when they are men." The young farmer has not taken this advice. He has learned nothing of his profession, while receiving his education. The study of Agriculture has not even been pursued in the district schools !

2. When a boy wishes to become a carpenter, or a shoemaker, or a blacksixdth, he considers it necessary to study his business for seven or eight years. And if he chooses one of the professions — law, physic, or divinity — he devotes ten or twelve years to the study of those things which he expects to do when he becomes a man. If he desires to be a merchant, the different markets, products, and the wants of the people, the facilities of commerce, the value of exchanges, the supply and demand of articles,

10 INTRODrCTION.

engross his attention, and all the powers of his mind, for months and years.

3. But knowledge is more important, more valuable to the farmer, than to the tradesman, or to the professional man. The farmer shon'.d understand Chyimistry, that he may know and change the nature of the soils, tiiat he may riginly prepare the best manures, and wisely mix the dilferent earths — and, also, that he may understand the way- in wliich the plants take in their nourishment from the air and earth, and be prepared to assist them in this nice operation.

4. He should know something of Geology, that he may see the nature of the different soils, which are mostly made of pulverized rocks. B^'' knowing the nature and location of the rocks in the neighbourhood, he can foxm a Very correct opinion of the nature and properties cf the soil, and judge how far the heavy rains or the droughts will aifect the crops.

5. Mineralogy should be studied to some extent. Plaster, lime, marl, &c. are discovered by means of this science. The properties of these stimulating manures, so vfiluable to the farmers, would never have been known or applied, if the study of mineralogy had been neglected. There are beds of plaster, marl, and lime, ir almost every section of our country ; and if the farmers would give a little attention to this simple and delightful part of natural science, mines of wealth would open on many a barren corner of the farm.

6. Manures are now but little studied or understood. They are so made, or so applied, that but little good, compared to what they might do, is derived from them. The moisture of the barn-yard is permitled to soak into the earth, or to run off to uncultivated portions of the farm. Fermentation is either checked too soon, or goes much too far. And the manure is frequently left in the yard till all the nutritive gases have evaporated and become lost in the air.

7'. Long, warm manures, which should be put on hard, cold soils, are often put on soils that are open and warm. Rotten, cold manures, containing nothing but a few salts, which should be used only on warm, light soils, are mixed with clayey, heavy lands : and a crop that requires a certain manure, is frequently dressed Avith one directly opposite in its character. There is not much knowledge of manures, and frequently less judgment in their application.

8. The rank weeds that grow under the fences, on the sides of the road, and among the crops in the field, together with tlie potato topsy might be gathered and throwai into heaps to ferment, and thus furnish to the farmer yearly a large quantity of the most \^aluable manure. Manure is the life of the farm, and the agriculturist should make all he can, and know how to apply it to the best purposes.

9. The Grasses are a very important study. Only two or three of these, such as timothy and clover, are generally cultivated. That there are twenty or thirty different kinds well adapted to our soil, and that some of these are much larger and quicker in their growth, is known only to a few. The common grass is raised from year to year without seeking for any thing better. But this is not considered jjrojitable farming.

10. The different Grains are not always selected for their appropriate soils. Each grain has its own particular food, and the soil that is rich in nutriment for one kind, may have nothing nourishing for another. It requires long observation, and much knowledge of the distinct individual food of the grain we wish to raise, and of the existing properties of the soil we cultivate, to make a, wise adaptation of grains to soils. A rotation of crops is always necessary, and much study is required to know the best rotation.

11. How often do farmers sow foul, imperfect seed ! They not only show indifference to Vac most profitable grains, but they not unfreqiiently, because the trouble is somewhat IgsH, sow seed of inferior growth, or that \trhicli is mixed with the seed of the most destructive and troublesome weeds. By using such seed, the farm soon becomes unfit for cultivation. I-'arniers also neo-lect to destroy the first groAvtIi of any fdril weed. They permit it to go to seed, to spread its roots, and finally to take fall possession of the soil, when one hour's v.^ork at itrst would save the farm.

12. The best breeds of Cattle are not always selected. Although it costs as mAich to Ivccp a siilall, light, bony r&ce of cattle, as it does to feed a square, meaty, heavy breed, yet most farmers still continue to raise the old, unprofitable stock, and appear indifferent to the advantages of the better breeds that have been introduced by observing, enterprising men. Farmers may receive double the profits frorii their cows and beef cattle, if they will only obtain the better, improved breeds.

B

13. Sheep, if there is a good selection and proper care, may be made very profitable to the farmer. But their nature is so imperfectly understood, and their favourite, healthy food, so seldom known or procured, that their profits are greatly diminished by the yearly loss of the flock by death. It is surprising that men will continue to lose their sheep from year to year, without paying any attention to their diseases and the remedies. The most profitable breed is not always procured. Habit and indolence still, in many places, continue to raise the English sheep, with its tbin^ long, coarse wooly and its larsfe consumins: carcass.

CD O

14. Swine, perhaps, receive the least of our attention. Tlie long snout, the sharp oack, the stilted bony limbs, the maw that is always devouring, yet always squealing for more, are what we see in almost every part of the country. The short nose, the fat cheek, the broad back, and the small short limb, or in one word, the Berkshire Hog, we seldom meet with. Farmers may save half their corn, and have double the quantity of pork, if they will only take a little pains in bettering the race of their hogs.

15. RooT.s, sucli as the parsnip, the carrot,

INTRODUCTION. IB

and the rutabaga, should be raised for his cattle by every farmer. One acre of roots will give as much food as three acres of grass. The cattle likewise are kept in a much better condition on roots than on hay exclusively. By a little labour in raising roots, the farmer may at least double the profits fix>m his stock. It is unaccountable that turnips, carrots, &c., are not more generally cultivated for cattle !

16. The Beet Sugar is soon to become one of the most common and most profitable products of the farm. Every farmer can make his own sugar from the beet as easily as he can make cider from the apple. The process of raisino- the beet and that of makino: the sug-ar are described in this book. That which relates to this subject is taken from " Pedder's Report,'^ the latest and most authentic source of information on this interesting subject.

17. Silk is also becoming one of our articles of produce. The raising of the silkworm and the mulberry tree, and the manufacture of tlie raw silk, are briefly but fully discussed in this work. The necessary information on this subject is here given in a small space. Farmers should plant the mulberry seed without delay. The culture of silk is simple and very profitable.

18. Hemp is also a profitable crop for farmers. I have obtained for this work the best treatise on the growth and manufactnre of hemp that has yet been published. It is from the pen of tlie Honourable Henry Clay of Kentucky. He has cultivated this crop lari;ely, and speaks after long and close observation. The culture of hemp may be made profitable in tliis state. The culture of Hops is also very ably and fi-eely described.

19. The best ARCiiiTECTur.E of farmhouses, of barns and other outhouses, should also be studied by tlie young agriculturist. Conyenience, security, and protection of the stock, should be studied in the location and structure of the farm buildings. We often see the fences around the barn and the house thrown down by tlie cattle, and the Vvdiole stock allowed to roam in every direction, through the garden, and over the grain and tlie meadows, during the whole feeding time of fall and spring.

20. And we often see the liog pen between the road and the house, and the barn on the other side of the road directly opposite to the house. These oJojects should be placed in the field directly back of the dwelling. Why it is that some farmers will have the hog pen an^

INTRODUCTION. IT

llio barn-yard immediately under the windows and door of their dAvelling I could never imagine ] The cattle are permitted to run around the house, and in the door-yard, and bite oiFand tread down the young trees ; and the pigs are permitted to trouble the kitclien door, and to upset -the milk barrel, and to root up the garden ! But I have never been able to tell why this was so.

21, There is much to learn and much to correct. No other man should be so observins; — so familiar with nature, in all her silent and wonderful operations — so well acquainted with every department of natural science, as the Farmer. Nature and the Farmer, work together — for the same object — in the same workhouse — and with the same tools and materials. Nature is struggling with all her great energies to feed and bless the human race ; and to aid her is the work of the farmer. But he will be a poor help, unless he understands her mode of operation.

22. At present how deficient is the farmer's ■education ! He does not learn that which makes his profession profitable and honourable ! Farming, in too many instances, is merely BLIND IMITATION !— thoughtless, unpro-

B 2 ductive toil — the slavish delving of the hands, without the delights or the aid of the intellect! This must be so when there is no science to guide ; when, in their only education, the children learn nothing of their profession! Then let /Aa^ be taught in the common school, which will make farming delightful, lionourahley and j)roJitahle.

THE

FARMERS' SCHOOL BOOK

Chapter I. Ciiymistry General Principles

1. CiiYMisTRY is the science which makes ii8 acquainted with the elementary parts of bodies: and, also, with the manner in which these parts act upon each other. The object of chymistry, then, is to find out the elementary parts of substances or bodies — the nat^ire of these constituent parts — the laws which unite and separate them, and the results of this union and separation.

2. Natural philosophy speaks of the size, weight, hardness, or softness of a body, of a loaf of bread for example, while chymistry finds out the ingredients in it— flour, water, salt, and yeast, which make the loaf

3. Natural philosophy says that m.atter, among several other qualities, has extension, which means length, breadth, and thickness; impenetrability, which means, that no two particles can be in the same space at one time; and divisibility, mean^ jn^, that every piece of matter can be divided into

20 CHYMISTRT — OENERAX PRINCIPXES.

several smaller pieces. Chymistry shows what all bodies are made of, awd how the elementary parts which compose them are put together.

4. Substance, or body, means any kind of matter, solid, fluid, or aeriform — any thing we can see, taste, touch, or smell. A stone is a solid body, so is a piece of wood ; water is a fluid body, and the air, vapours, and gases, are aeriform bodief:

5. Substances are either simple or compound. A simple substance is one that cannot be reduced into any thing more simple. There are fifty-three simple substances ; only thiity-seven of them are used m the arts, or i-n agriculture.

6. A compound substance is one composed of two or more simple bodies. Water is a compound body, being composed of the two simple substances, oxygen and hydrogen. Almost all the objects we see axe composed of several substances.

7. A compound body can be separated into its simple elements. Air is a compound body, and can he separated into oxygen and nitrogen — ^^the two simple substances which compose it. Again, put oxygen and hydrogen together, and water is formed — a compound -body 'being made out<of these two simple ones.

8. There is a tendency in particles and masses of matter to approach each other. This is called attraction. It acts upon matter at great distances. The sun attracts the earth, the earth attracts the moon ; and if we throw a stone into the air, the earth has such an attraction on the stone as to draw it down again to the ground. When any^ thing •falls, it is drawn to the earth bv a force which We ^1 the attraction of gravitation.

CHYMISTRY GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 21

■9. Particles of matter have another tendency to approach each other, called the attraction of cohesion. While gravitation acts upon bodies at great distances, cohesion acts only upon particles at insensible distances. Cohesion brings particles of matter of the same khid into seeining contact, and keeps tiiem in that situation.

10. On some particles it acts with great force, and o.n others, the action, if any, is not perceptible. On solids its force is intense ; on liquids the force is weaker; and on the particles of air, and the gases, it apparently has no action. There is considerable cohesion in ice, less when changed into a liquid, and not any when changed into a vapour.

11. Take two bullets; cut a piece from each, so as to niake a fiat surface, put them together with some pressure, and they will stick to each other with great force. A piece of glass, when laid flatly upon another piece, coheres with considerable force. The c/Dhesion of a stone is destroyed ])ypounding it into a powder, and the cohesion of a lump of sugar is destroyed by dropping it into water — the water having a stronger attraction for the sugar than the particU^s of sugar have for each other.

12. Heat destroys cohesion, as when ice, or wax, or lead, is melted. It seems to be an opposing power to cohesion. The atoms of bodies would come into actual contact, if it were not for a force called repulsion. This force is supposed to be heat, and prevents the atoms from *^' '' each other. The blacksmith, by infusin

a piece of iron, destroys, to a degree, its^

22 CIIYMISTRY GENERAL PRINCIPLES,

thus rendering it soft and pliable for his use. The hardness or softness of a body is in proportion to its cohesion.

13. When the attraction of cohesion is exerted suddenly, the particles unite indiscriminately, and form irregular masses. But when it resumes its force more slowly, the particles assume a perpendicular arrangement, and form masses of regular figures. This is termed cn/sfalization, and the regular-figured masses are called cryiitals.

li. Chj^mical attraction, or, as it is more generally termed, chyniical ajfudty, is exerted between the particles of different kinds of matter. Put water and oil into a tumbler, and the oil wili rise on the top, not mixing with the water ; but drop a piece of pearlash into the tumbler, and the oil, water, and pearlash will immediately unite and form soap. The reason is, that the pearlash has a strong chymical affinity for both water and oil, and becomes a bond of union between them.

15. Besides the three species of attraction that have been mentioned, there are electric and magnetic attraction. Rub a piece of sealing wax with a cloth, and put it near a feather, or a pile of fine sand, and the feather or particles of sand will jump o the wax and stick to it. This is electric attracion. By drawing the hand over a cat in the dark, sparks of fire are elicited. This is also electric attraction. The needle is directed to the pole by magnetic attraction.

Chapter II. Caloric

1. Caloric is a very thin, subtile fluid. It cannot be seen, and is known only by the sense of touch. It is the cause of all our feelings of warmth, m heat. Its particles repel each other ; that is, they have a tendency to separate and fly off It is imponderable, which means, it has no weight. A body is no hearier when it is hot, or what is the same thing, full of caloric, than when it is cold.

2. It is found in all substances : in ice, in stones, in wood, in metals, in water, and in air. Every thing contains some caloric. A liquid contains more caloric than a solid, and the aeriform subtances, such as air, vapour, and the gases, contain more caloric than the liquid substances. The more caloric a substance has, the less solid it is, except clay, and a few other bodies.

3. The attraction of cohesion makes solids. Caloric, it will be remembered, is an opposing power to cohesion, and therefore makes liquids. Every solid g?fbstance on the earth might be changed into a liquid or vapour, by infusing into it s-uflicient caloric. If we lay a piece of ice on the stove, the caloric soon changes it into water, and then into vapour.

4. Caloric is communicated from one body to another. If we put the hand on a hot body, calolic passes from ii into the hand, and causes th^ feeling- of warmth ; when we touch a body colder than the hand, the caloric goes from the hand into the body. Caloric desires to be in all bodies in an equal degree, and therefore goes from object to object, Avhen bodies are brought together. If we throw a hot ball into a pail of water, the large quantity of caloric ifi the ball goes off'immediately into the water, and in a short time the water and ball hate an equal temperature.

5. Caloric passes through some bodies with g-reat rapidity, while through other bodies it passes slowly. It goes speedily through an iron rod, so that we cannot touch the hand Avithin a foot of the heated end; but it goes so slowly through glass, that we can take hold of a glass rod within threfe inches of the melting end. Hence, some bodies are called good conductors of heat, or of caloric, and others bad conductors. Iron is a good conductor; glass, stones, wood, and charcoal, are bad conductors.

6. If we take a piece of wire, and a pipe stem, of equal length, and put a piece of wax on one end of each, and place the other ends in the fire, the wax on the wire will melt directly, wdrile the ivax on the pipe stem is no Warmer than when first ptit there—the wire being a good, and the clay a bad conductor of heat. Among the metals, gold is the best conductor of heat, platinum next, silver next, copper next — then iron, zinc, tin, lead, marble, &c.

7. Silks, woollens, and furs, are bad conductors of heat, and they are for this reason worn in winter, that we may retain the heat of the body as far as possible — the body being warmer in winter

CAtORiC, 29

than the surrounding air, it is wise to keep within us as much of our own caloric as we can. In summer we wish to let the heat of the body pass ofT, and should at this season wear those materials that are good conductors of heat, such as cotton, linen, &c.

8. Air is a bad conductor oi caloric. On this account a thick blanket is not as warm as a quih ; air being between the two outside pieces and in the cotton. The more open or porous a body is, the less its conducting force. Animals living in cold regions are covered with fine furs, which almost prevent the hefit's escaping from the body ; while those living in warm parts are covered with coarse, thin hair^ offering no obstacle to the free escape of heat.

9. Bricks, being bad conductors of heat, are frequently heated and wrapped in a cloth, and used for keeping the feet warm in cold weather ; but a heated piece of plank is still better, because Wood does not lose Caloric as easily as brick.

10. Black is a better conductor of heat than white. Heat is reflected by white, but passes through black. Take a piece of black woollen cloth, and another of the same size and quality of white, and lay them upon the snow, when the sun is shining. In a few hours the black will be found to have sUnk below the surface of the snow, while the white will remain on the surface. The black cloth lets the rays of caloric pass through it, and melt the snow beneath, while the white reflects the caloric.

11. When we go into the sun in summer, it is wise to wear a whitish dress-^he white, turning

C the rays of the sun away from us, will make the heat less oppressive. In winter, by wearing black, the ra^^s of the sun enter the clothing, and give warmth to the person.

12. There are six sources of caloric: viz., tho sun's rays, combustion, friction, the mixture of different substances, electricity, and galvanisr». The sun is the great fountain of heat, and thus of life. Caloric comes from the sun at the rate of 200,000 miles in a second of time. Tt warms and thins the frozen juices of the plants in the spring, and cause the sap to circulate through the trunks and branches of the trees.

13. As there is caloric in every substance, whenever any thing is burned, a separation of the simple elements takes place ; the caloric is set at liberty, and produces in us the sensation of heat. The caloric that was before hidden in the wood or 3Dal,. has from decomposition become free and active.

14. When two hard bodies are brought together with great force, a portion of the hidden caloric is forced out. By striking a flint with a piece of steel, caloric enough is forced out to melt the bits of steel that are struck off, and this makes what we call a spark.

15. A freezing body gives off heat. Taking away the caloric (it has been said) makes a liquid a solid. Consequently, when water becomes ice, a quantity of caloric goes off from the water^ This accounts for the moderation of the weather during a snow storm. The caloric that is constantly escaping from the freezing vapour warms the atmosphere.

16. Melting produces cold. When snow and ice melt into water, they must have an additional quantity of caloric, which is taken directly from the atmosphere. Friction produces heat on the same principle as striking one hard body against another: viz., by forcing out the hidden caloric. Instances have occurred of whole forests burning down, by first kindling from the violent friction of the dry branches against each other by the wind.

17. The most intense heat can be obtained from a galvanic apparatus : strong enough to melt iron as quick as fire melts snow. If a piece of charcoal is ignited by the fire from a galvanic battery, it burns with the greatest intensity, and makes a light so bright that the eye cannot look upon it.

18. When two substances are mixed, and the mixture takes a more solid form, heat is produced ; for no substance can become more dense without giving oflf calorie. If we take a vial half full of water in the hand, and pour into it a little oil of vitriol, (sulphuric acid,) the hand will feel warm. The mixture by condensing gives out a portion of its caloric.

19. The mixture of some substances produces cold. If we put a tablespoon full of epsom salts into a tumbler, and then pour into the tumbler a little water, the tumbler will feel very cold. In this case the mixture has expanded, and taken the caloric from the tumbler.

20. Caloric expands bodies. When it enters a substance, it removes the particles farther from each other. Hence it enlarges the size of bodies, which become less compact. In this, caloric acts in opposition to cohesion. If we measure a piece

2S CALORIC.

of iron when it is" cold, and then heat it, we shall find by measuring again while hot, that is has increased in length and thickness.

21. The pendulum of a clock is longer in warm than in cold weather ; as clocks go slower in proportion as the pendulum is made longer, they are apt to go too fast in cold, and too slow in warm weather. We may lay it down, then, as a rule, that caloric expands all bodies ; that the expansion of the same body increases with the quantity of caloric which enters it.