Elements of mental philosophy

Preface

The Philosophy of the Mind has grown up, like other sciences, from small beginnings. Many propositions, coming too, in many instances, from able writers, have been thrown aside ; truth has been sifted out from the mass of error, until at last a great number of important principles is ascertained. But while it is exceedingly necessary that our youth should be made acquainted with these principles, it is impossible that they should go through with all the complicated discussions which have been held in respect to them. Many of the books in which these discussions are contained have become exceedingly rare ; and, if they were not so, no small number of students, who are now in the course of as thorough an education as our country affords, would not be able to purchase them. And besides, by placing before the student a mass of crude and conflicting statements, his mind becomes perplexed. To be able to resolve such a mass into its elements, and to separate truth from error, implies an acquaintance with the laws of the intellect, and a degree of mental discipline, which he is not yet supposed to have acquired ; and hence, instead of obtaining much important knowledge, he becomes distrustful of everything

Now these evils, saying nothing of the loss of time attendant on such a course, are to be remedied in the same way as in other sciences. In other departments of learning, ingenious men discuss points of difficulty ; conflicting arguments are accumulated, until the preponderance on one side is such that the question in debate is considered

IV PREFACE.

settled Others employ themselves in collecting facts, id classifying them, and in Reducing general principles ; and when all this is done, the important truths of the science, collected from such a variety of sources, and suitably arranged and expressed, are laid before the student, in order that he may become acquainted with them. And this is what is attempted, to some extent, to be done in the present work, which is an abridgment of a larger work on the same subject. In the larger work, the principles of Eclecticism and Induction, which have just been referred to, are applied on a more extensive scale than in the present. I have been obliged necessarily to exclude from the abridgment many interesting and striking illustrations and facts, and some general philosophical views, wdiich would have had a place if our limits had permitted. I indulge the hope, nevertheless, as the abridgment has been made with no small degree of care, that it will answer the purpose for which it is particularly designed ; viz., the assistance of those youth who need some knowledge of Mental Philosophy, but are not in a situation to prosecute the subject to any great extent.

THOMAS C UPHAM

Bcwdan College, May, 1840

Contents

DIVISION I.

THE INTELLECT OR UNDERSTANDING.

t '.^TTSLLECTIVE OR INTELLECTUAL STATES OF THE MIND.

Part I

INTELLECTUAL STATES OF EXTERNAL ORIGIN. CHAPTER I.

ORIGIN OF KNOWLEDGE IN GENERAL.

Auction Page

1. The mind susceptible of a threefold division . . 1?

2. The Intellect susceptible of a subordinate division . . . ;b.

3. Of the connexion of the mind with the material world . . 1-8

4. Our first knowledge in general of a material or external origin . 19

5. Shown further from what we notice in children . . . .20 f). Further proof of the beginnings of knowledge from external causes 21

7. The same subject further illustrated 22

8. Illustration from the case of James Mitchell .... 23

Chapter II. Sensation And Perception

y. Sensation a simple mental state originating in the senses .

10. All sensation is properly and truly in the mind

11. Sensations are not images or resemblances of objects .

12. The connexion between the mental and physical change not ca

pable of explanation

13. Of the meaning and nature of perception ....

14. Perception makes us acquainted with a material world

15. Of the primary and secondary qualities of matter

16. Of the secondary qualities of matter

Chapter III. The Senses Of Smell And Taste

17. Nature and importance of the senses as a source of knowjed^e 30

18. Connexion of the brain with sensation and perception

19. Order in which the senses are to be considered .

20. Of the sense and sensations of smell ....

21. Of perceptions of smell in distinction from sensations . K2. Of the sense and the sensations of taste,

Chapter IV. The Sense Of Hearing

23. Organ of the sense of hearing .... . 35

24. Varieties of the sensation of sound 36

25. Manner in which we learn the place of sounds . . . .3*7

VI CONTENTS.

CHAPTER V. THE SENSE OF TOUCH, .•-action Pa^a

26. Of the sense of touch in general and its sensations . . .38

27. Idea of externality suggested in connexion with the touch . . ib.

28. Origin of the notion of extension, and of form or figaie . . 40

29. On the sensations of heat and cold . . . ... 41

30. Of the sensations of hardness and softness .... 42

31. Of certain indefinite feelings sometimes ascribed to the touch . 4.4

32. Relation between the sensation and what is outwardly signified . i,>

Chapter VI. The Sense Of Sight

33. Of the organ of sight, and the uses or benefits of that scnao 46

34. Statement of the mode or process in visual perception . 47

35. Of the original and acquired perceptions of sight . . 48

36. The idea of extension not originally from sight . .49

37. Of the knowledge of thefigure of bodies by the sight . 50

38. Illustration of the subject from the blind . .51

39. Measurements of magnitude by the eye . .52

40. Of objects seen in a mist .53

41. Of the sun and moon when seen in the horizon . . . . ib.

42. Of the estimation of distances by sight 54

43. Signs by means of which we estimate distance by sight . . 55

44. Estimation of distance when unaided by intermediate objects . 56

45. Of objects seen on the ocean, &c. ...."'. 57

CHAPTER 711.

: PS OF SENSATION AND PERCEPTION.

46. General view (' ;he law of habit and of its applications . . 58

47. The law of hab:i applicable to the mind as well as the body . ib.

48. Of habit in relation to the smell 59

49. Of habit in relation to the taste 60

50. Of habit in relation to the hearing 62

51. Application of habit to the touch 64

52. Other striking instances of habits of touch 65

53. Habits considered in relation to the sight 66

54. Sensations may possess a relative, as well as positive increase of

power 68

55. Of habits as modified by particular callings and arts . . .69

56. The law of habit considered in reference to the perception of the

outlines and forms of objects 70

57. Notice" of some facts which favour the above doctrine . . .71 fi8. Additional illustrations of Mr. Stewart's doctrine . . .73

Chapter VIII. Conceptions

59 Meaning and characteristics of conceptions .

60. Of conceptions of objects of sight .

61. Of the influence of habit on our conceptions

62. Influence of habit on conceptions of sight

63. Of the subserviency of our conceptions to description

64. Of conceptions attended with a momentary belief

65. Conceptions which are joined with perceptions .

66. Conceptions as conrected with fictitious representations

CONTENTS.

VII

CHAPTER IX. SIMPLICITY AND COMPLEXNESS OF MENTAL STATES, fectioa

67. Origin of the distinction of simple and complex .

68. Nature and characteristics of simple mental states

69. Simple mental states not susceptible of definition

70. Simple mental states representative of a reality .

71. Origin of complex notions, and their relation to simple

72. Supposed complexness without the antecedence of simple feelings

73. The precise sense in which complexness is to be understood

74. Illustrations of analysis as applied to the mind ....

75. Complex notions of external origin ......

76. Of objects contemplated as wholes

Pag*

Chapter X. Abstraction

77. Abstraction implied in the analysis of complex ideas . . 92

78. Instances of particular abstract ideas 93

79. Mental process in separating and abstracting them . . 94

80. General abstract notions the same with genera and species . 95

81. Process in classification, or the forming of genera and species . 96

82. Early classifications sometimes incorrect 97

83. Illustrations of our earliest classifications ib.

84. Of the nature of general abstract ideas ..... 98

85. The power of general abstraction in connexion with numbers, &c. 99

86. Of general abstract truths or principles ib.

87. Of the speculations of philosophers and others .... 100

Chapter XI. Of Attention

88. Of the general nature of attention 101

89. Of different degrees of attention 102

90. Dependence of memory on attention 103

91. Of exercising attention in reading 104

92. Alleged inability to command the attention 105

Chapter XII. Dreaming

J3. Definition of dreams and the prevalence of them

94. Connexion of dreams with our waking thoughts

95. Dreams are often caused by our sensations .

96. Explanation of the incoherency of dreams. (1st cause)

97. Second cause of the incoherency of dreams

98. Apparent reality of dreams. (1st cause)

99. Apparent reality of dreams. (2d cause)

100. Of our estimate of time in dreaming

101 . Explanation of the preceding s'atpments

. 107

. ib.

. 108

. 110

. ib.

. Ill

. 112

. 113

. 114

Part II. Intellectual States Of Internal Origin* Chapter I

INTERNAL ORIGIN OF KNOWLEDGE.

102. The soul has fountains of knowledge within

103. Declaration of Locke, that the soul has know\dge in itself

119 120 fill CONTENTS.

Section Paga

104. The beginning of knowledge is in the senses . . 120

105. There may also be internal accessions to knowledge . J21

106. Instances of notions which have an internal origin . 122

107. Other instances of ideas which have an internal origin ib

CHAPTER II.

ORIGINAL SUGGESTION.

108. Import of suggestion, and its application in Reid and Stewart 123

109. Ideas of existence, mind, self-existence, and personal identity 124 110 Of the nature of unity, and the origin of that notion . . . 126

111. Nature of succession, and origin of the idea of succession . . 127

112. Origin of the notion of duration . 128

113. Illustrations of the nature of duration ib.

114. Of time and its measurements, and of eternity .... 129

115. The idea of space not of external origin 130

116. The idea of space has its origin in suggestion .... 131

117. Of the origin of the idea of power 132

118. Occasions of the origin of the idea of power ... . ib.

119. Of the ideas of right and wrong 133

120. Origin of the ideas of moral merit and demerit . . . .134

121. Of other elements of knowledge developed in suggestion . .135

122. Suggestion a source of principles as well as of ideas . . . ib

CHAPTER III.

CONSCIOUSNESS.

123. Consciousness the 2d source of internal knowledge; its nature . 136

124. Further remarks on the proper objects of consciousness . . 137

125. Consciousnes a ground or law of belief 138

126. Instances of knowledge developed in consciousness . . . ib

CHAPTER IV.

RELATIVE SUGGESTION OR JUDGMENT.

127. Of the susceptibility of perceiving or feeling relations . . HO 128 Occasions on which feeiings of relation may arise . . .141

129. Of the use of correlative terms . . . . . . . 142

130. Of relations of identity and diversity ib.

131. (n.) Relations of degree, and names expressive of them . . 143

132. (in.) Of relations of proportion 144

133. (iv.) Of relations of place or position 145

134. (v.) Of relations of time 146

135. (vi.) Of ideas of possession 147

136. (vii.) Of relations of cause and effect , 148

137. Of complex terms involving the relation of cause and effect . 14!»

138. Connexion of relative suggestion with reasoning . . . h*>

CHAPTER V. association, (i.) primary laws.

139 Reasons for considering this subject here . . .151

140. Meaning of association and illustrations ib.

141. Of the general laws of association 152

142. Resemblance the first general law of association . 153

143. Of resemblance in the effects produced . . . .154

144. Contrast the second general or primary law .... 155

145. Contiguity the third general or primary law . . . 157

146. Causp and effect the fourth primary law , . . lf>8

CONTENTS O

CHAPTER VI.

ASSOCIATION. (II.) SECONDARY LAWS.

Paga

147. Secondary laws, and their connexion with the primary „ 159

148. Of the influence of lapse of time 160

149. Secondary law of repetition or habit 161

150. Of the secondary law of co-existent emotion ... 162

151. Original difference in the mental constitution . .163

152. The foregoing as applicable to the sensibilities . . . 164

CHAPTER VII.

153. Remarks on the general nature of memory . . ". 106

154. Of memory as a ground or law of belief 167

155. Of differences in the strength of memory 168

156. Of circumstantial memory, or that species of memory which is

based on the relations of contiguity in time and place . . 169

157. Illustrations of specific or circumstantial memory . . . 170

158. Of philosophic memory, or that species of memory which is based

on other relations than those of contiguity . . . .171

159. Illustrations of philosophic memory J 72

160. Of that species of memory called intentional recollection . . 173

161. Nature of intentional recollection 174

162. Instance illustrative of the preceding statements . . . . ib.

163. Marks of a good memory 175

164. Directions or rules for the improvement of the memory . . 177 £65. Further directions for the improvement of the memory . . 179 '66. Of observance of the truth in connexion with memory . .180

CHAPTER VIII.

DURATION OF MEMORY.

167. Restoration of thoughts and feelings supposed to be forgotten . 181

168. Mental action quickened by influence on the physical system . 183

169. Other instances of quickened mental action, and of a restoration

of thoughts 184

170 Effect on the memory of a severe attack of fever . . . . ib.

171. Approval and illustrations of these views from Coleridge . 185

172. Application of the principles of this chapter to education . . 187

173. Connexion of this doctrine with the final judgment and a future

life 189

CHAPTER IX.

REASONING.

Mi. Reasoning a source of ideas and knowledge . . .190

575. Definition of reasoning, and of propositions 191

T76. Process of the mind in all cases of reasoning . . 192

177. Illustration of the preceding statement .... 193

'78. Grounds of the selection of propositions . . . 194

179 Reasoning implies the existence of antecedent or assumed px< po-

sitions 195

180 Further considerations on this subject , 196

181. Of differences in the power of reasoning ..... 197

182. Of habits of reasoning 198

183 Of reasoning in connexion with language or expression . 199

134- Illustration of the foregoing section .... .200

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER X.

Page

185 Of the subjects of demonstrative reasoning . . • 201

18G. Use of definitions and axioms in demonstrative reasoning 202

187. The opposites of demonstrative reasonings absurd . 203

188 Demonstrations do not admit of different" degrees of belief . 204

189. Oi the use ol liagrams in demonstrations .... 205

CHAPTER XI.

MORAL REASONING.

190. Of the subjects and importance of moral reasoning . . . 206

191. Of the nature of moral certainty 207

192. Of reasoning from analogy 208

193. Of reasoning by induction ........ 209

194. Of combined or accumulated arguments 210

CHAPTER XII.

PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS IN REASONING.

195. Rules relating to the practice of reasoning 211

i96. Of being influenced in reasoning by a love of the truth . " . ib

197. Care to be used in correctly stating the subject of discussion " . 212

198. Consider the kind of evidence applicable to the subject . . 213

199. Reject the aid of false arguments or sophisms . . . .it

200. Fallacia equivocationis, or the use of equivocal terms and phrases 215

201. Of the sophism of estimating actions and character from the cir-

cumstances of success merely 21 G

202. Of adherence to our opinions 217

203. Effects on the mind of debating for victory instead of truth . 218

Chapter XIII. Imagination

204. Imagination an intellectual rather than a sensitive process . . 219

205. The imagination closely related to the reasoning power . 220

206. Definition of the power of imagination .... 221

207. Process of the mind in the creations of the imagination . • 222

208. Further remarks on the same subject .... . 223

209. Illustration from the writings of Dr. Reid ib.

210. Grounds of the preference of one conception to another . 224

211. Illustration of the subject from Milton 225

212. The creations of imagination not entirely voluntary . . . ib.

213. Illustration of the statements of the preceding section . . 227

214. On the utility of the faculty of the imagination . . . .228

215. Importance of the imagination in connexion with reasoning . 229

Chapter XIV

DISORDERED INTELLECTUAL ACTION. (I.) EXCITED CONCEPTIONS OR APPARITIONS.

216. Disordered intellectual action as connected with the body . , 231

217. Of excited conceptions and of apparitions in general ... . 232

218. Of the less permanent excited conceptions of sight . . . ib.

219. Of the less permament excited conceptions of sound . . .231

220. First cause of permanently vivid conceptions or apparitions. —

Morbid sensibility of the retina of the eye . . . . 23"j

CONTENTS. XI

Section , Pago

221. Second caiue of permanently excited conceptions or apparitions.

Neglect of periodical blood-letting 237

222. Methods of relief adopted in this case 239

223. Third cause of excited conceptions. Attacks of fever . . 240

224. Fourth cause of apparitions and other excited conceptions. In-

flammation of the brain 241

225. Facts having relation to the fourth cause of excited conceptions . 242

226. Fifth cause of apparitions. Hysteria ..... 243

Chapter XV. Disordered Intellectual Action

(II.) INSANITY.

227. Meaning of the term insanity

. 244

228. Of disordered or alienated sensations .

229. Of disordered or alienated external perception

230. Disordered state or insanity of original suggestion

231. Unsoundness or insanity of consciousness .

232. Insanity cf the judgment or relative suggestion .

233. Disordered or alienated association. Light-headedness

234. Illustrations of this mental disorder

235. Of partial insanity or alienation of the memory .

236. .Of the power of reasoning in the partially insane .

237. Instance of the above form of insanity of reasoning

238. Partial mental alienation by means of the imagination

239. Insanity or alienation of the power of belief

DIVISION II.

THE SENSIBILITIES.

SENTIENT OR SENSITIVE STATES OF THE MIND.— SENTIMENTS

Introduction

CLASSIFICATION OF THE SENSIBILITIES.

240. Reference to the general division of the whole mind . . . 261

241. The action of the sensibilities implies that of the intellect . . ib.

242. Division of the sensibilities into natural or pathematic, and moral 262

243. The moral and natural sensibilities have different objects . . 263

244. The moral sensibilities higher in rank than the natural . . 264

245. The moral sensibilities wanting in brutes . . . . . ib.

246. Classification of the natural sensibilities . . . .265 247 Classification of the moral sensibilities . ... 266

PART I.

NATURAL OR PATHEMATIC SENSIBILITIES.

NATURAL OR PATHEMATIC SENTIMENTS.

CLASS I.

EMOTIONS OR EMOTIVE STATES OF THE MIND.

Chapter I. Nature Of The Emotions

248. We have a knowledge of emotions by consciousness . . . 269

249. The place of emotions, considered in reference to other mental

acts 270

250. The character of emotions changes so as to comform to that of

perceptions 271

251. Emotions characterized by rapidity and variety . . . 272

Xll CONTE^S.

Chapter II. Emotions Of Beautv

Section H^a

252. Characteristics of emotions of beauty . . . 273

253. Of what is meant by beautiful objects . , 274

254. Of the distinction between beautiful and other objects . . 275

255. Grounds or occasions of emotions of beauty various . . 27G

256. All objects not equally fitted to cause these emotions . . . 277

257. A susceptibility of emotions of beauty an ultimate principle of our

mental constitution 278

258 Remarks on the beauty of forms. — The circle . . . 279

259. Original or intrinsic beauty. — The circle 280

260. Of the beauty of straight and angular forms \b.

261. Of square, pyramidal, and triangular forms 281

262. Of the original or intrinsic beauty of colours . . . 283

263. Further illustrations of the original beauty of colours . . 284

264. Of sounds considered as a source of beauty 286

265. Illustrations of the original beauty of sounds .... 287

266. Further instances of the original beauty of sounds . . . 290

267. The permanency of musical power dependent on its being intrinsic ib.

268. Of motion as an element of beauty 291

269. Explanation of the beauty of motion from Kaimes . . . 292

Chapter III. Associated Beauty

270. Associated beauty implies an antecedent or intrinsic beauty . 293 27L Objects may become beautiful by association merely . . . 294

272. Further illustrations of associated feelings 295

273. Instances of national associations 297

274. The sources of associated beauty coincident with, those cf human

happiness 298

275. Summary of views in regard to the beautiful .... 299

EMOTIONS OF SUBLIMITY.

276. Connexion between beauty and sublimity 300

277. The occasions of the emotions of sublimity various . . . 301

278. Great extent or expansion an occasion of sublimity . . .302

279. Great height an element or occasion of sublimity . . . ib.

280. Of depth in connexion with the sublime .... .303

281. Of colours in connexion with the sublime 304

282. Of sounds as furnishing an occasion of sublime emotions . . ib.

283. Of motion in connexion with the sublime .... 3U5

284. Indications of power accompanied by emotions of the sublime 306

285. Of the original or primary sublimity of objects . . . 307

286. Considerations in proof of the original sublimity of objects . b. 287 Influence of association on emotions of sublimity . . .308

Chapter V

288. General nature of emo' ons of the ludicrous

289. Occasions of emotions of the ludicrous

290. Of what is understood by wit

291. Of wit as it consists in burlesque or in debasing objects

292. Of wit when employed in aggrandizing objects .

293. Of the character and occasions of humour .

294. Of the practical utility of feelings of the ludicrous

CONTENTS.

Chapter VI. Instances Of Othb X Simple Emotions

Bectiou Pag4

295. Emotions of cheerfulness, joy, and gladness . . 314

296. Emotions of melancholy, sorrow, and grief . . , 315

297. Emotions of surprise, astonishment, and wonder . . . 310

298. Emotions of dissatisfaction, displeasure, and disgust . . ib.

299. Emotions of diffidence, modesty, and shame . . 317 800. Emotions of regard, reverence, and adoration . . . ib

CLASS II.

THE DESIRES.

Chapter I. Nature Of Desires

301. Of the prevalence of desire in this department of the mind . 321

302. Tho nature of desires known from consciousness . . . ib.

303. Of the place of desires in relation to other mental states . . 322

304. The desires characterized by comparative fixedness and perma-

nency .323

305. Desires always imply an object desired 324

306. The fulfilment of desires attended with enjoyment . . . ib.

307. Of variations or degrees in the strength of the desires . . . 325

308. Tendency to excite movement an attribute of desire . . . ib

309. Classification of this part of the sensibilities .... 320

310. The principles, based upon desire, susceptible of a twofold op-

eration 327

Chapter II. Instincts

311. Of instincts in man as compared with those of inferior animals 328

312. Illustrations of the instincts of brute animals . . . . io.

313. Instances of instincts in the human mind 330

314. Further instances of instincts in men 331

315. Of the final cause or use of instincts . . . ' . . . 332

Chapter III. Appetites

316. Of the general nature and characteristics of the appetites . . 333

317. The appetites necessary to our preservation, and not originally of

a selfish character . . . ib.

318. Of the prevalence and origin of appetites for intoxicating drugs . 334

319. Of the twofold operation and the morality of the appetites . . 335

Chapter IV. Propensities

i>20. General, remarks on the nature of the propensities . . - 336

321. Principle of self-preservation, or the desire of continued existence 337

322. Of the twofold action of the principle of self-preservation . . 338 323 Of curiosity, or the desire of knowledge ib.

324, Further illustrations of the principle of curiosity .... 339

325, Of the twofold operation and the morality of the principle of curi-

osity 340

326. Imitativeness, or the propensity to imitation . . . .341

327. Practical results of the prir.ciple of imitatbn . . . 342

B

XIV

CONTENTS.

Bechon

328. Of the natural desire ot esteem

329. Of the desire of esteem as a rule of conduct .

330. Of the desire of possession ....

331. Of the moral character of the possessory principle

332. Of perversions of the possessory desire

333. Of the desire of power

334 Of the moral character of the desire of power

335. Propensity of self-love, or the desire of happiness

336. Of selfishness as distinguished from self-love

337. Reference to the opinions of philosophical writers

338. The principle of sociality original in the human mind

339. Evidence of the existence of this principle of sociality

340. Other illustrations of the existence of this principle 5*4-1. Relation of the social principle to civil society

Pag«

. 349

. 350

. 351

. 352

. 353

. 354

. 355

. 356

. 3£7

Chapter V. The Malevolent Affections

342. Of the comparative rank of the affections

343. Of the complex nature of the affections

344. Of resentment or anger

345. Illustrations of instinctive resentment .

346. Uses and moral character of instinctive resentment

347. Of voluntary in distinction from instinctive resentment

348. Tendency of anger to excess, and the natural checks to it

349. Other reasons for checking and subduing the angry passions

350. Modifications of resentment. Peevishness

351. Modifications of resentment. Envy

352. Modifications of resentment. Jealousy

353. Modifications of resentment. Revenge 954 Nature of the passion of fear

■355.

Chapter VI. The Benevolent Affections

Of the nature of love or benevolence in general . . . 371

Love, in its various forms, characterized by a twofold action . 372

Of the parental affection ib.

Illustrations of the strength of the parental affection . . . 374

Of the filial affection 375

The filial affection original or implanted 37f

Illustrations of the filial affection 371

Of the nature of the fraternal affection . . . . . . 379

On the utility of the domestic affections 380

Of the moral character of the domestic affections, and of the benevolent affections generally . . . . . . . 381

Of the moral character of the voluntary exercises of the benevolent affections 382

Of the connexion between benevolence and rectitude . 383

Of humanity, or the love of the human race . 384

Further proofs in support of the doctrine of an innate humanity,

or love for the human race 380

Proofs of a humane or philanthropic p :inciple from the existence

of benevolent institutions 387

Other remarks in proof of the same doctrine . . . 388

Oi patriotism or love of country 389

Of the affection of friendship 390

Of the affection of pity or sympathy 391

Of the moral character of pity 392

Of the affection of gratitude 394

CONTENTS. \V

CHAPTER VIJ.

THE BENEVOLENT AFFECTIONS.

LOVE TO THE SUPREME BEING.

Section Faga

376 jvfan created originally with the principle of love to God . . 395

377. That man was originally created with a principle of love to God,

further shown from the Scriptures 396

378. Further proof that man was thus created 398

379. Relation of the principle of supreme love to God to the other

principles of the pathematic sensibilities ib

380. The absence of this principle attended with an excessive and sin-

ful action of other principles 400

381. Further illustrations of the results of the absence of this principle 401

Chapter VIII. Habits Of The Sensibilities

382. Meaning of the term habit .... ... 404

383. Of habits in connexion with the appetites ib.

384. Of habits in connexion with the propensities .... 405

385. Of habits in connexion with the affections 406

385. Of the origin of secondary active principles . . . 408

PART II.

THE MORAL SENSIBILITIES OR CONSCIENCE. dORAL OR CONSCIENTIOUS STATES OF THE MIND. — MORAL SENTIMENTS