Elements of mental philosophy : abridged and designed as a text book for academies and high schools

Front matter

No

LIBRARY

DEPARTMENT OF STATE.

Preface

The present work has been prepared in the hope ofpromoting a more general acquaijitance with an important department of science. As it is designed chiefly for those who are youngs and are in a course of education, it lays claim to no other merit, than what might ordinarily be expected in a text-book, founded on the inquiries of many valuable writers. Guided by their researches, it endeavours to give a condensed, but impartial view of Mental Philosophy, so far as its principles are understood at the present time ; and the writer has learnt from a number of esteemed instructers of youth,that his design is approved by them. He is by no means insensible to this favourable sentiment ; and if the present work should prove to be the means of awakening an increased interest in mental science, he will feel himself amply rewarded for whatever trouble it may have occasioned.

The Philosophy of the Mind has grown up like other sciences from small beginnings. Many propositions, coming too in many instances from able writers, have been thrown aside ; truth has been sifted out from the mass of errour, until at last a great number of important principles is ascertained. But while it is exceedingly necessary, that our youth should be made acquainted with these principles, it is impossible, that they should go through with all the complicated discussions, which have been held in respect to them. Many of the books, in which these discussions are contained, have become exceedingly rare ; and if they were not so, no small number of students, who are now in the course of as thorough an education as our country afibrds, would not be able to purchase them. And besides, by placing before the stu"

4 PREFACE.

dent a mass of crude and conflicting statements, his mind becomes perplexed. To be able to resolve such a mass into its elements, and to separate truth from errour, implies an acquaintance with the laws of the intellect, and a degree of mental discipline,which he is not yet supposed to have acquired ; and hence, instead of obtaining much important knowledge, he becomes distrustful of every thing.

JN'ow these evils, saying nothing of the loss of time attendant on such a course, are to be remedied in the same way as in other sciences. In other departments of learning, ingenious men discuss points of difficulty ; conflicting arguments are accumulated, until the preponderance on one side is such, that the question in debate is considered settled. Others employ themselves in collecting facts, in classifying them, and in deducing general principles; and when ail this is done, the important truths of the science,- collected from such a variety of sources and suitably arranged and expressed, are laid before the student, in order that he may become acquainted with them. Very seldom any one thinks it advisable, that the pupil, in the course of an education limited to a very few years, should be obliged to attempt an acquaintance with every scientific tract and book, whether of greater or less value. It is neither desirable nor possible, that he should be able to consult all the Memoirs of Institutes and of Royal Societies ; and still less to read the multitude of half-formed suggestions,which are either struck out in the momentary heat of debate, or are developed from all quarters in the natural progress of the mind. It belongs rather to professional men and to public instructers, to engage in this minute and laborious examination,and to present those whom they instruct with the results of their inquiries. It may indeed be desirable to give them some knowledge of the history of a science,and to point out such authors as are particularly worthy of being consulted by those, whose inclination and opportunities justify more particular investigations. But this is all, that is either demanded, or can be profitable in the ordinary course of education. And this is what is attempted to be done in the present work.

It has been my desire and endeavour, as was intimated at the beginning of these remarks,to give a concise,but correct view of the prominent principles in Mental Philosophy, so iar as they seemed at present to be settled. The statement of

PREFACE. " 5

these principles is attended with a perspicuous summary of the facts and argujpents, on which they are based ; together with occasional remarks on the objections, which have been made from time to time. In selecting facts in confirmation of the principles laid down, I have sought those, which not only had a relation to the point in hand, but which promised a degree of interest for young minds. Simplicity and uniformity of style has been aimed at, although in a few instances the statements of the writers referred to have been admitted with only slight variations, when it was thought they had been peculiarly happy in them. As my sole object was the good of young men, [ did not feel at liberty to prejudice the general design, by rejecting the facts, arguments, and in some cases even the expressions of others. ^

THOMAS C, UPHAM,

BowDOiN College, Maine.

THIRD ABRIDGED EDITION.

Great pains have been taken with this nev^ edition. The more important improvemeii|s, contained in the larger v^^ork in two volumes, have been introduced into this. Teachers will find it, in some respects, essentially altered from any former impression ; and this may occasion a temporary inconvenience, as different editions cannot be used in the same class. But it is hoped they will be willing to overlook this, in consideration of the decided improvements, which they may expect to meet with in various parts of the work. In a treatise embracing such a multiplicity of topics, it it could hardly be expected,that the first attempts would be so successful as to leave nothing for further and more exact inquiry.

NovEMB, 1832.

COJ^TEIS^TSo

Introduction

Chap. 1— utility of mental philosophy.

SECT.

Objects of this science and objections against it 1

Its supposed practical inutility 2

Its supposed practical inutility answered . ^

Mental Philosophy tends to gratify a reasonable curiosity 4

Further grounds for this view 5

Mental Philosophy teaches us where to limit our inquiries 6

Remarks of Mr. Locke on this point. '

Helps us in the correction of mental errours 8

Is a help to those, who have the charge of early education 9

Has a connection with other departments of science '_ 10

Mental science is a guide in our intercourse with men 1 1

Illustrates the nature and wisdom of the Creator 12

Of the mental efforts necessary in ' this study 13

II. — IMPLIED OR. PRIMARY TRUTHS.

Importance of certain preliminary statements in mental philosophy 14

Nature of sucii preliminary statements 15

Of the name or designation given them 16

Primary truth of personal existence 17

Occasions of the origin of the idea or belief of personal existence 18

Primary truth of personal identity 19

Pteasons for regarding this a primary truth 20

Of the existence of matter 21

There are original and authoritative grounds of belief 22

Primary truths having relation to the reasoning power 23

No beginning or change of exisfence without a cause 24

Occasionsof the origin of the primary truth of effects and causes 25

Matter and mind have uniform and fixed laws 26

This primary truth not founded on reasoning 27

Of the distinction between primary and ultimate truths 28

Chap. I.- -IMMATERIALITY OF THE MIND

Of certain frivolous inquiries concerning the nature of the mind 29

Origin & application of the terms, material and immaterial SO

Difference between mind and matter shown from language. SI

Their different nature evinced by their respective properties ' 32

The material quality of divisibility not existing in the mind S3

Opinions of Buffier on the soul's indivisibility 34

Contents

The soul's immateriality indicated by the feeling of identity 35

The material docli ine makes man an automaton or machine 36

No exact correspondence between the mental and the bodily state 37

Chap. II. — Lfws of the mind I^- GENERAL

Existence of laws even in material

objects ' ■ 43

Objection from the apparent disorders in nature. , 44 Remarks of Montesquieu on laws 45 Of laws in relation to the mind. 46 Mental laws may be divided into

two classes 47

Distinction between the susceptibilities and the laws of the mind 48

Chap. III. — laws that limit the MirfD.

Evidence of the general fact of the mind's being limited. 49

Objection to this inquiry from the incompleteness of the mind's history 50

The mind limited as to its knowledge of the essence or interiour nature of things 51

Our knowledge of the nature of mind itself limited 52

Remarks on the extent of this limitation 53

Our knowledge of matter in certain respects limited 54

Our ignorance of the reciprocal connection of mind and matter 55

Illustrated in the case of voluntaryaction 56

Further illustrations of our ignorance in respect to this connection 57

Of space as a boundary of intellec- . tual effort ' 58

Of the relation of time to our mental conceptions 59

Mystery of human freedom as coexistent with the Divine prescience 60

Limits of the mind indicated by the terms, infinity, eternity, &c. 61

Of restraints resulting from ultimate fiicts of the mind 62

The sentient part, as well as the intellect has limits 63

Mental limitations implied in man'sinferiority to his Creator 64

Chap. IY — laws of belief. (I) co^-scIous^•ESS.

Nature and degrees of belief 65 Of ihe objects of belief 66

Ofthe laws of belief 67

Consciousnescs a law of belief 68 Of what is to be understood by

Consciousness properly a complex

state ofthe mind 70

Ofthe proper objects or subjects of

The objects of consciousness whollyinternal and mental 72 The belief from consciousness of th& most decided and highest kind 73-

Chap. V — laws of belief. (li) the senses.

General statement as to the confidence placed in the senses 74

The belief arising f>om the senses may be considered in two respects 7S

Objection to reposing confidence in the senses 76

The senses imperfect rather than fallacious 77

Some alleged mistakes ofthe senses owing to want of care 78

Of mistakes in judging of themotion of objects 79

Of mistakes as to the distances and magnitude of objects 80

The senses liable to be diseased Si

Our knowledge of the material world from the senses 82

Correctness of their testimony in this respect ' 83

The senses as much grounds of belief as other parts of our constitution 84

CONTENTS.

Opinions of Locke on the testimony of the senses 85

Chap. VI — laws of belief.

(Ill) TESTIMONY.

Of testimony and the general fact cf its influencing belief 86

Of the various explanations of the origin of confidence in testimony _ 87

Connection of a reliance on testimony with a disposition to utter the truth 88

This reliance greatly confirmed by experience 89

Objections to our reliance on testimony 90

Further remarks on this objection 91

Chap. VIl — laws of belief.

(IV) MEMORY.

All men place a reliance on memory 92

Limitations of our reliance on memory 93

Origin of men's reliance on memory 94

Memory the occasion of belief farther than what is actually remembered 95

Chap. VIII — laws of belief.

(V) RELATIVE SUGGESTION and

reasoning.

Meaning of Relative Suggestion

and its connection with belief 96 Classes of relations and intuitive

perceptions of relation 97

Of the intuitive perceptions called

axioms 98

Of reasoning as a ground of belief 99 Evidence that men confide in the

results of reasoning 100

Chap. IX — laws of association. (I) primary laws.

Meaning of association and extent of its applications 101

Of the term Association and its general laws 102

Resemblance the first general law of association 103

Resemblance in every particular not necessary 104

Of resemblance in the effects produced 105

Contrast the second general or primary law 106

Contiguity the third general or primary law 107

Cause and effect the fourth primary law 108

Chap. X — laws of association. (II) secondary laws.

Of secondary laws and their connection wdth the primary 109

Of the influence of the lapse of time 110

Secondary law of rejJbtition or habit 111

Of the secondary law of co-existentemotion 112

Original difference in the mental constitution 113

The foregoing law as applicable to the intellect 114

Of associations suggested by present objects of perception 115

Causes of increased vividness in the foregoing instances 1 1 6

CpIAP . XI. — LAW of kabit.

General view of the law of habit

and of its application 1 17

Illustrations of the law of habit 118

Application of this law to feelings --

or em.otions 119

Chap. XII — simplicity and complexness of mental states.

Origin of the distinction of mental states as simple and complex 120

Of the general nature of simple and mental states 121

Sinjple mental states not susceptible of definition , 122

Means of obtaining a knowledge of our simple notions 123

Origin of complex notions and their relation to simple 124

Of the precise sense in which complex ness is to be understood 125

Illustrations of analysis as applied to the mind 126

Chap. XUI — general classification.

CONTENTS.

The mental states divided into the intellectual and sentient 127

Evidence in favour of this classification from what we observe in men generally 128

This classification frequently recognized in writers 129

Languages referred to in proof of this generic arrangement 130

The nature of this classification a matter of consciousness 131

Of the different names given to it 132

Classification of the intellectual states of the mind 133

Part Second. Intellectual States Of The Mind

CLASS FIRST.

INTELLECTUAL STATES OF INTE?.- KAL ORIGII\\

ORIGIN OF KNOWLEDGE IN GSN.- ERAL.

Of the mind considered in itself 134

Connection of the mind with the m.aterial world 135

Of the origin or beginnings of knowledge 136

Our first knowledge in general of a m.aterial or external origin 137

Further proof of the beginnings of knowledge from external causes 138

The same subject further illustrated 139

Of connatural or innate knowledge _ 140

The doctrine of innate knowledge not susceptible of proof 141

The discussion of this subject superseded and unnecessary 142

Further remarks on the rise of knowledge by means of the senses 142

Chap. II — ^sensatioj? and perception.

Sensation a simple mental state

originating in'the senses 143

All sensation is prooerly and tru- 2 ly in the mind 144

Sensations are not i images or resemblances &c. of objects 145 The connection between the mental and physical change not capable of explanation 146 Of the meaning of perception 147 Of the primary and secondary

qualities of matter 148

Of the secondary qualities of

matter 149

Of the nature of mental powers or faculties 150

Chap. Ill — the senses of smell AND taste.

Nature and importance of the senses as asource of knowledge 151

Of the connection of the brain with sensation and perception 152

Order in which the senses are to be considered 153

Of the sense and sensations of smell 154

Of perceptions of smell in distinction from sensations 155

Of the sense and the sensations of taste 156

Design and uses of the senses of smell and taste 157

Chap. IV — the sense gp'

HEARING.

Organ of the sense of hearing 158-

Nature of sonorous bodies and the medium of the communication of sound f59

Varieties of the sensation of sound 1 60

Manner in which we- learn the place of sounds 161

Application of these viev\^s to the art of ventriloquism 162

Uses of hearing and its connection v;ith oral language 163

Chap. V

-THE SENSE CF TOUCH.

Of ibe sense of touch &. the sensations in general 164

The idea of externality or outness suggested by the sense of touch 165

The idea of externality or outness

CONTENTS.

further considered 166

Origin of the notions of extension and of the former figure of bodies 167

On the sensations of heat and cold 168

On the sensations of hardness and softness 169

Of certain indefinite feeHngs sometimes ascribed to the touch 170

Relation between the sensation and what is outwardly signified 171

Chap. VI^ — the sense of sight.

Of the organ of sight and the uses or benefits of that sense 172

Statement of the mode or process in visual perception 173

Of the original and acquired "perceptions of sight 174

The idea of extension not originally from sight 175

Of the knowledge of the figure of bodies by the sight 176

Measurements of magnitude by thee^'e 177

Of objects seen in the mist and of the sun and moon in the horizon 178

Of the estimation of distance bv sight 179

Of the estimation of distance when unaided by intermediate objects 180

Of the senses considered as a foundation of belief and knowledge 181

Illustration of the subject of the preceding section 182

Chap. VII — haeits of sensation

AND PERCEPTION.

Of the law. of habit in general and

its applications 183

Ofhabit in relation to the smell 184 Of habit in relation to the taste 185 Of habit in relation to the hearing 186 Application ofhabit to the touch 187 Habits considered in relation to

the sight 188

Sensations may possess a relative, as well as positive increase of power J 89

Whether the mind can attend to more than one object at a time 190 On attending at the same time to

different parts of music 191

The principle considered in reference to the outlines and forms of objects 192

Notice of some facts which favour the above doctrine 193

Chap VIII — mdscular habits.

Instances in proof of the existence oi' muscular habits 194

Conside>ed by some writers to be involuntary 195

Objections to the doctrine of involuntary muscular habits 196

Chap. IX — conceptions .

Meaning of conceptions and how they diflfer from certain other states of the mind 197

Of conceptions of objects of sight 198

Of the influence of habit on our conceptions 199

Of the subserviency of our conceptions to description 200

Of conceptions attended with a momentary belief 201

Conceptions which are joined with peiceptions 202

Of our conceptions at tragical representations 203

Application of these principles to diversities in the mental character of individuals 204

Chap. X — casual associations.

Association sometimes misleads our judgments 205

Casual association in respect to the place of our sensation 206

Connection of our ideas of extension and time 207

Of high and lownotesin music 208

Connection of the ideas of extension and colour 209

Whether there be heat in fire &c. 210

Whether there be meaning in words ? 21 1

Benefit of examining such connections of thought 212

Power of the will over mental associations 213

Associations controlled by an indi-

CONTENTS.

n rect voluntary power

Chap. XI — complex notions of

EXTERNAL ORIGIN.

Of simplicity and complexness of mental states in general 215

Instances of simple ideas from the senses 216

Of objects contemplated as wholes 217

Complex notions preceded by simple ones 21 S

Imperfections of our complex nations of external objects 219

Of what are to be understood by chimerical ideas ' 220

Of the introduction of such notions in early life 221

Chap. XII — Abstraction.

Abstraction implied in the analysis of our complex notions 222

Instances of particular abstract ideas ^ 223

Mental process in separating or abstracting them 224

Of generalizations of particular abstract ideas 225

Of the importance and uses of abstraction 226

Chap. XIII — general abstract

IDEAS.

General abstract notions the same with genera and species 227

Process in classification or the • forming of genera and species 228

Early classification sometime incorrect 229

Illustrations of our first classifications from the Savages of Wateeoo 230

Of the nature of general abstract ideas 231

Objections sometimes made to the existence of general notions 232

Of the power of general abstraction in connection with numbers, &c. 233

Of general abstract truths or principles 234

Of the speculations of philosophers and others 235

Chap. XIV — of attention.

Of the general nature of attention 236

Of different degrees of attention 237

Dependence of memory on attention 238

Of exercising attention in , reading, &c. 240

Alleged inability to command the attention 241

Chap. XV — dreaming.

Definition of dreams and the prevalence of them 242

Connection of dreams with our waking thoughts 243

Dreams are often caused by our sensations ' 244

Explanation of the incoherency of dreams. (1st cause.) 245

Second cause of the incoherency of dreams 246

Apparent reality of dreams. (1st cause) 247

Apparent reality of dreams. (2d cause) 248

Of our estimation of time in dreaming 249

Of the senses sinking to sleep in succession 250

General remarks on cases of somnambulism 251

Explanation of cases of somnambulism 252

Part Second. Intellectual States Of The Mind

CLASS SECOND.

INTELLECTUAL STATES OF INTER- NAL ORIGIN.

Chap. I — of internal origin op

KNOWLEDGE.

The soul has fountains of knowledge within 253

Declaration of Mr. Locke, that the soul has knowledge in itself 254

Opinions of Dr. Cud worth on the general subject of internal knowledge 255 n

CONTENTS.

Further remarks of the same writer on this subject 256

Knowledge begins in the senses, but has internal accessions 257

Instances of notions, which have an internal origin 258

Chap. II — suggestion.

Import of the term su52;gestion and its application in Reid and Stewart 259

Ideas of existence, mind, self-existence, and personal identity 260

Of the nature of unity and the origin of that notion 261

Nature of succession, and origin of the idea of succession 262

Origin of the notion of duration 263

Of time and its measurements, and of eternity 264

Marks or characteristics of time 265

The idea of space not of external origin 266

The idea of space has its origin in suggestion 267

Characteristic marks of the notion of space 268

Of the origin of the idea of power 569

Notion of an original or first antecedent 270

Chap. Ill — consciousness.

Consciousness the second source of internal knowledge; its na- "ture 271

Objections to Locke's Essay concerning Human Understanding 272

Opinions of Mr. Stewart on this subject 273

Instances of notions originating from consciousness 274

Chap. IV — relative suggestion.

,0f the susceptibility of perceiving or feeling relations 275

Occasions on which feelings of

lation may arise 276

vOfthe use of correlative terms 277

Of the relations of identity and diversity 278

-P.f the relations of identity and diversity called axioms 279

[II.] Relation of fitness or unfitness 280

[III.] Relations of degree, and names expressive of them 281

Relations of degree sometimes exist in adjectives of the positive form 282

[IV.]Of relations of proportion 283

[V.] Of relations of place or positions 284

[V!.] Of relations of time 285

[VII.] Of relations of possessictn 286

[VIII.] Of relation of cause and effect 287

Instances of complex terms!involving the relation of cause and etiect 288

Connection of relative suggestion or judgment with reasoning 289

Chap. V — memory.

Intellectual knowledge not limited in its origin to one source or one power 290

Explanations in respect to the faculiy of memory 291

Of the differences in the strength of memory 292

Of the effects of disease on the memory 293

Memory of the uneducated 294

Memory of men of philosophical minds 296

Of the memory of the aged 297

Memory of persons ofa rich imagination 298

On the compatibility of strong memory and good judgment 299

Intentional memory or recollection ' SOO

Instance illustrative of thepre- . ceding 301

Marks ofa good memory 302

Directions or rules for the improvement of the memory S03

Chap. VI— duration of memory.

Restoration of thoughts and feelings, supposed to be entirely forgotten 304

Mental action quickened by influence on the body 305

Other instances of quickened mental actif)n and of a restoration of thoughts 306

Effect on the memory of a se-

CONTENTS.

vere attack of fever ' 307

Illustrations of these views from

Coleridge 308

Application of the principles of

this chapter to education 309 Connection of this doctrine with the final judgment and a future life 310

Chap. VII — Reasoning.

The reasoning power a source of new ideas 311

Of the object and excellency of reasoning 312

Definition of reasoning, and of propositions 313

Process of the mind in all cases of reasoning 314

Grounds of the select! on of 31 5

propositions 316

Of the difference in the powers of reasoning 317

Of habits of reasoning 317

Of limitations of the power of reasoning S18

Of reasoning connected with language or expression ' 319

Chap. VIII — demonstrative

PcEASONING.

Of the subjects of demonstrative reasoning 320

Use of definitions & axioms in demonstrative reasoning 321

The opposite of demonstrative reasoning absurd 322

Demonstrative reasonings do not admit of different degrees of belief 323

or the nature of demonstrative certainty 324

Of the use of diagrams in demonstrations 325

Of signs in general as connected with reasoning 326

Of the influence of demonstrative reasoning on the mental character 327

Further considerations on the influence of demonstrative reasoning 323

Chap. IX — moral, reasoning.

Of the subjects and im^)ortance of moral reasoninof. ' 329

Of the nature of moral certainty 330 Of reasoning from analogy S31

Caution to be used in reasoning

from analogy 332

Of reasoning from induction 333 Of combined and accumulated

arguments 834

Chap X. — practical directions

IN REASONING.

Practical rules in reasoning required by the frequency of its applications 335

[I] Of being influenced by a desire of the truth 336

[[I] Care to be used, in correctly stating the subject of inquiry and discussion 337

[III] Consider the kind of evidence applicable to the subject 338

[IV.] On excluding all unmeaning propositions 33^

[V.] Avoid the introduction of common-place propositions 340

[VI.] Reject the aid of false arguments or sophisms 341

[VIII] On the sophism of estimating actions and character fi'ora the circumstance of success merely 342

[IX.] On the use of equivocal terms and phrases 343

[X.] Of adherence to our opinions 344

Effects of debating for victory instead of truth 345

Ckap.XI — OF imagination.

Definition of the power of imagination 346

The creatiolns of imagination not entirely voluntary 347

Of iajaginations not attended with desire 348

Of imaginations attended with desire 349

Further illustrations of the same subject S50

Remarks from the writings of Dr. Reid 351

Grounds of the preference of one conception to another 352

Mental process in the formation of Milton's imaginary paradise " 353

CONTENTS.

Works of imagination give different degrees of pleasure 354 On the utility of the faculty of

the imagination 355

Of the importance of the imagination in connection with the reasoning power 356

Of misconceptions by means of

the imagination _ 357

Explanation of the above raisin representations of the imagination 358

Chap. XII — origin of prejudices.

Of the meaning of prejudices 359 Of preiudices in favour of our

youth * 360

Of prejudices of home and country Professional prejudices Prejudices of sects and parties Prejudices of authority Prejudices of personal friendships and dislikes ^ 365 Prejudices of custom or fashion 366 Correctives of fashionable prejudices 367 Of guarding against prejudices in early education 368