Elements of moral science

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Preface

In the following work, I have attempted to present the more important truths of Moral Science, in such a form as may be useful in Schools and Academies. With this view, it has been not merely abridged^ but also rewritten ; the argument in general omitted, and merely the result stated ; and the illustrations adapted to the comprehension of the young. The style, so far as possible, has been rendered simple; and the words and phrases selected with special reference to the ordinary language of persons not accustomed to moral speculations. Such at least has

IV. PBEFACE.

been the attempt. How far it has succeeded, can be learned only from experiment.

To each section and chapter, a number of Questions have been added. These are not designed as aids for learnmg the text ; but, as exercises for practice, after the text has been learned. They, therefore, sometimes involve inferences from the truths stated in the text, and at other times, the practical application of the doctrines taught, to the purposes and business of ordinary life.

As this work is designed for schools, it may not be amiss to suggest the method, in w^hich, the author supposes it may be most successfully taught. He would advise, that, in general, the text

PREFACE. f.

be given as a lesson by itself. After this has been learned, the succeeding lesson, may be, the questions which follow, with a review of the section to which they refer. In this manner, I think the pupil will be the most likely to exercise his own mind upon the subject, and will thus understand it better, and retain it more perfectly. It is of course understood, that these questions are but a specimen of those which might easily be raised from the subjects presented. A thoughtful instructor will derive great pleasure from adding to them from his own reflections. It will also be a useful exercise, for each pupil to furnish questions to be answered by the other members of the class. If the ins^tructor feel disposed to examine more

ELEMENTS OF MORAL SCIENCE.

Part L

Chapter I

of moral law, of moral action, and of intention.

Section L Of Moral Law.

Moral science is the science of moral law. Whenever men observe that two events are so connected together, that, as often as one occurs, the other always follows it, they apply to such a connection the name of law. They also call the first event the cause, and the second the effect. For instance :

II has been observed, that when water is cooled down to a certain point, it becomes solid, or is changed into ice ; and hence, chemists have laid it down as a law that water freezes at this particular point. Again, they have observed, that, if its temperature be raised to a certain point, it turns into vapor, or boils ; hence they have laid it down as 1

2 OF Law.

another law^ that, at this particular point, water boils ; that is^ thoy mean to inform u^ of the universal fict, that, whenever, under given circumstanees, one event occurs, the other event will also invariably occur. And they say that cold is the cause of the freezing of water, and heat the cause of its boiling.

But, it is evident, that two events could not be thus mvariably connected, unless there were some power exerted to connect them, and some being, v\ho, at all times, and in all places, exerted this power. Hence the fact, that the laws of nature exist, teaches us the existence of the Supreme Being, the Creator and Preserver of all things. And hence, every change which we see^is a proof of the existence of God.

And it is also evident, that the Creator has connected events together in this manner, to direct our cow^uct. Thus, having connected a certain decree of heat with the boilino; of water, he intends to teach us, that, if we wish to make water boil, we must raise it to that degree of heat. And thus, in general, since he adheres unchangeably to the laws which he has established, we can never acrornplish any purpose, but by attempting to do it in precisely the way that he has appointed.

Let us now apply this to morals. Every

OF MORAL LAW, 3

one knows that he perceives certain actions to be right or wrong. Every one feels, that it is wrong to he, to steal, to murder, to be cruel. Every one knows it is right to tell the truih, to be honest, affectionate, kind and grateful. And, if even a young person will think for a moment, he will perceive, that there are certain results, which always follow these two sorts of actions. If any one do wrong, as for instance^ if he lie, or steal, or abuse another person, he feels a peculiar sort of unhappiness, which is called the feeling of guilt ; he is afraid of being detected, he wislies he had not done it, and if he be detected h.e knows that every one dislikes and despises him for his conduct : And, on the contrary, if he have done right, as, if he have told the truth, been grateful, or have returned good for evil, he feels a peculiar pleasure, is satisfied with himself, and kaows that all men will look upon him with respect.

Now as these events, and a multitude of others, are thus found connected together, we desia:nate such a connection by the term law. And, as the foundation of this connection is what is called the moral nature of an action, we call the law a moral law.

As we find these events, namely y)]easure following right actions, and pain following bad actions^ to be invariable^ we know |;hat tliej

4 OF MORAL LAW.

mnst have been connected together by God our Creator and our Judge. And as he has manifestly connected them together for the purpose of teaching us, we may hence learn, how he wishes us to act. Thus, if God have always connectod pl<?asure with honesty, and pain with dishonesty, it is as plainly his will that we should be honest, as though he had said so by a voice from heaven. If every murderer in a country be punished whh death, it is just as clearly a direction for our conduct-, without any written prohibition, as whh it.

By thus observing the consequences of actions, we may learn what, in many respects, is the law, or will of our Creator. Besides this, however, we have a revelation of his will made in the Holy Scriptures, in which he both informs us how we should act, and also makes known to us still further the consequences which he has connected with obedience and disobedience.

These laws, classified and illustrated, form the Science of Moral Philosophy.

Questions.

1. Give an example^of some natural law, that is, of some event wliich you see always foUowi g some other event.

2. Give an example of some moral law.

3. How do you prove the existence of God?

or MORAL ACTION. O

4. Give an example of some law by which God iniends to direct our conduct.

5. Can you remember any instance in your life, in which you have felt \he pleasure attending good actions and tlie pain attending bad actions ?

6. Why did God connect pain with one kind of actions, and pleasure with anotlier kind of actions?

7. If you were to attend to these pleasures and pains, would you not know your duty much bettei', and be much happier?

8. Why do you not attend to them, and act accordingly ?

9. Do you think you understand what is meant by moral science. Explain h, hi your own lan2;uai{e.

Section II. Of Moral Action and Intention

It may here be asked, what is a moral action. When any one does any thing o.i purpose, we call this an action.

Bui, both brutes and men do things on purpose. Animals frequently injure each otlier, and injure men, with the intention of doing so.

6 OF INTENTION^

If however, we compare the actions of brutes with those of men, we shall find that we observe a difference between them. We feel that the brute does not l{:7iow better^ or does not, and cannot know that it is wrong ; while we feel that the man does, or can, know that it is wrong. Now, as the brute cannot distinguish between right and wrong, we do not consider his action a moral action ; but as the man can make this distinction, we call his action a moral action.

Again, every one knows that we sometimes do things by accident, as, we may injure a person by throwing a ball, without seeing that he is in the way. In this case, we do not feel guilty, although we always should feel sorry. Our conscience does not accuse us, unless we intended to do harm, or were culpably negligent.

Again, we sometimes intend to do some one a kindness, and it turns out, in the end, that what we have done, is an injury to him. Thus, suppose I send some food to a sick man, and the food gives him pain ; [ regret liis pain, but I cannot disapprove of my act, for I intended to do him a kindness. From these, and such like instances, any one may see, that we always judge of the moral quality of actions by the iateulion*

OF INTENTION, 7

Our intentions may be wrong in several ways.

1. Where we intend to injure another. As when we strike a person in anger, or speak against another, for the sake of making other people think badly of him.

2. Where we intend to gratify ourselves, without any regard to the misery we cause to others. Such is the case, when one person makes sport of another, just for the sake of fun, without having any mahce towards him. We have no riglit to gratify ourselves, at the expense of the happiness of any one else.

And, in general, we may lay it down as a universal rule, that our intention is wrong, whenever we intend to do any thing contrary to any law of God. This law is summed up in the two precepts, thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart ; and, as ye would that others should do unto you, do ye even so unto them.

3. As the moral character of an action is determined by the intention ; if we intend to do wrong, although we may not actually do it, this intention is wicked. And when we really intend to do good, though we may not be able to carry our intention into effect, this intention is acceptable to God. Thus God was pleased with David because he intended to build the temple, though he was not permitted to do it-

8 OF INTENTION.

Thus the good wishes, and benevolent desires of the poor, may be as much charhy in the sight of God, as the ahnsof the rich.

4. As a good intention is necessary to a virtuous action, if an action, which God has commanded, be performed without a good intention, the act is not virtuous in the sight of God. It is right to do justice to a poor widow. But the unjust judge, who neither feared God nor regarded man, and who avenged the poor widow because she troubled him, did not perform a virtuous action. His only intention was, to get rid of trouble. Thus a child may do what its parents command, but do it in a bad temper. Though he may do the action ^ he is not an obedient child, unless he does it from good will, and with love to his parents.

And, finally, every person must have observed, that our intentions are very much inliuenced by our previous feelings. Any one who allows himself to indulge in envious or revengeful or malicious feelings, is much more likely to do envious or revengeful or malicious actions, than another person who never suffers himself to indulge in such thoughts. Hence we see, that such feelings, as they lead us to do wrong actions, must, in themselves, be wrong. This is what our blessed Saviour means, when he tells us, that out of the heart proceeds all manner of evlL

Questions.

1. Do brutes and men both act ?

2. What is the great difference between brutes and men ?

3. Can we influence men, in any way different from that in which we influence brutes ?

4. Can you illustrate this by an example ?

5. W^hat is the best way of influencing men ?

6. If men will not be influenced by knowing that an action is right or wrong, what are they like ?

7. Do young persons ever act thus ?

8. Is it honorable or disgraceful to act thus ?

9. If a person injure us by accident, ought we to feel as if he had done wrong ? If not, why ? Give an example.

10. If a person intend to do us a kindness and injure us, ougl)t we to feel grateful or displeased ? And why ? Give an example.

1 1 . Give an example of an action with a bad intention.

12. Give an example of a wrong action done thoughtlessly.

13. Do you ever do such actions ?

14. Give an example of something wrong, when no action is really done.

15. Give an example of a right action, without any good intention.

16. Show how people make themselves wicked by indulging in wicked thoughts.

CHAPTER 11.

OF CONSCIENCE.

Section I.

M^at we mean by Conscience ; and how Conscience admonishes us.

Whenever we do any thing, there must always be something with which we do it. Thus if we walk, we must have legs to walk with. If we see, we must have eyes to see with. If we hear, we must have ears to hear w^ith ; and so of a thousand cases.

This is equally true of our internal, or mental actions. Thus if we think, or feel, we must have a mind, to think or feel with. If we remember, w^e must have a memory, to remember with.

Now every one knows that he has the power of observing the difference between right and wrong in the actions of men ; and that he also is subject to peculiar feelings, in consequence of the existence of such qualities

01* CONSCIENCE. II

In his actions. We give the name conscience^ to that faculty which man has, and which brutes have not, by which we make this distinction^ and suffer or enjoy these feehngs.

If now, we will observe, we shall see, that we are conscious of the feelings of rio;ht or wrong in our actions which respect both God and man. If a boy tell a lie, though no one knows it, or swear, and no one hears him, or break the holy sabbath, though no one sees Lim, he feels guilty of sin against God, and he justly fears that God will punish him. If he steal his neighbour's property, or cheat his play mates, or strike or abuse them, he feels guilty of injuring them, is ashamed to look them in the face, and is conscious that he deserves to be punished by his parents for his conduct.*

And hence we say, that conscience is that power of the mind, by which we distinguish between right and wrong in our actions, w^ieiher they have respect to our fellow men, or to God. And, as w^e form the same judgments respecting the actions of other men, as we do respecting our own, we say, that conscience is the power by which w^e distinguish betw^een right and wrong in moral action. J t is by the

*lt mny be added, that we are consci us of some of these feelings, when we abuse brute animals.

12 HOW CONSCIENCE

same power that we feel a sort of impulsion to do what we know to be right, and a sort of warning not to do what is wrong ; and also, by which we in the one case feel pleasure, and in the other case feel pain.

Let us now reflect for a moment upon our feelings respecting right and wrong, that w^e may observe in what manner conscience admonishes us.

1. Suppose we are considering about an action, in order to decide whether or not we shall do it. Let us take a case. Suppose a child were so wicked as to be angry with his father, and was considering whether he should strike him. He would probably think, first of all, that his father was stronger than he, and would punish him for it. This would show that it was unwise, for he would lose more than he would gain. But suppose his father was sick in bed, and so weak that he could not punish his child for doing wrong. If the child reflected for a moment, he would feel that it was wrong to strike his parent, and that it made no difference whether his father could punish him or not. And if a child saw^ another child strike a sick father, instead of doing him all the good he could, he would say that the child had done a very wicked thing, and that he ought to be punished for it. And if

ADMONISHES US. 13

lie saw the child, in attempting to strike his father, hurt himself badly, every one would be sorry for liim, but they would all say that it served him right, and that he deserved il.

Again, suppose a child to feel that it was wrong to strike his father, he would also feel something which seemed to tell him not do it. If he were angry, there would be two kinds of feelings within him. His angry feelings would urge him to do it, and his conscience would say, you ought not to do it. And he would be a bad, or a good boy, just as he obeyed his angry passions, or as he obeyed his conscience. Or, to take another case. Suppose a boy had received some money which was given him to buy play-things for himself. As he was going to the toy shop, he met a poor woman whose children v/ere starving for want of something to eat. His love of play would urge him to buy the play-things. But his conscience would urge him to reheve the poor starving children. A selfish boy would yield to his love of toys, and leave the children to starve. A good boy would yield to his conscience, and deny himself, and give the money to the poor.

We may learn how conscience admonishes us also, by observing how we feel after an action has been performed. Thus, take the last case. If a boy had been benevolent^he would i4 HOW CONSCIENCE

feel happy, he would approve of what he had done. And if he had seen such an action done by another, he would love him for it, and desire to see him rewarded. And if the benevolent boy, in passing along the street, had found twice as much money as he gave aw^ay to the poor children, every one would be glad of it, and say that he deserved to be lewarded.

On the contrary, if a boy, instead of be'ng kind to these children, had left thern to perish, or more especially, if he had called them names, or had struck them ; when he went away and thought upon his conduct, he w^ould feel ashamed, sorry and very unhappy, and be afraid that some misfortune would happen to him. And if we should see any one act so wickedly, we should feel a dislike to him, we should not wdsh to associate w4th him, and should say that he deserved to be punished.

This is one great reason why persons who have done wrong are so fearful, and cowardly ; and why those who have done well are so much bolder. He who has done wrong knows that he deserves to be punished ; and hence he is afraid that every body is going to punish him. He who has done w^ell, knows that he deserves to be rewarded, and hence he is afraid of no one.

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^DMONI S HE S U &. IS

And this is one reason, why those who have done wrong are so commonly found out. He who has done wrong is afraid and ashamed, and he shows it in his coimtenance, and his actions; and the more he tries to conceal it, the more clearly he discovers it. Thus the Bible tells us, the wicked is snared in the work* of his own hand ; and though hand join in hand, the wicked shall not go unpunished.

Questions.

1. It is said that if we do any thing, we. m^ust have something to do it with. Give examples of this.

2. How do you know that you have a conscience ?

3. When you disobey your parents, how do you feel I

4. When you sin against God, how do you feel ?

5. What is it that produces these feelings ?

6. When you do well, and obey God, how do you feel ?

7. What is it that produces these feelings ?

8. Have brutes any such feelings ? Why ?

9. When you have been thinking whether or not you should do some particular wrong act, have you never feU something teUing you. you ought not ? What was it that forbade you ?.

16 IMPROVEME^NT AND ABUSE

1 0. When you have been thinking about doing a good action, have you not felt something urging you to do it? What was it that urged you to do it?

11. Do you not feel displeased with persons who lie, and steal, and act cruelly ? What makes you feel thus ?

12. When a boy has done wickedly, does he feel as happy when he comes home as when he has behaved well ? Give an example.

13. Why is wicked conduct so easily found out?

14. Why are people so afraid when they have done wrong ?

15. Why are good people so often happy, when they come to die ?

16. Why are bad people so often miserable, when they come to die ?

Section XL

Of the manner in which we may improve or abuse our Conscience. •

Every one must have observed, that all our faculties are capable of being improv^ed or injured. Some persons of the same age are

OF CONSCIENCEo 17

Stronger than others. One man is stronger in his arras, and anotlier is stronger in his legs^ And so of our interna] facuhies. One manhas a powerful, and another a weak memory. One has a great facility in writin'j^, and another writes with difScultye And so of a vast variety of cases.

Now if w^e look at these instances again,, we shall find this to he the general fact respecting tliem. Those facult es are the strongest which are used the most. If one man be stronger than another,, we shall find that he uses his strength more, or, that he works more than the other. He whose occupations require the use of his arms, becomes strong in his arms, while he who walks or runs much, becomes strong in his legs. He who uses his memory a good deal, remembers easily, that is, acquires a strong memory ; while he who rarely tries to recollect what he hears or reads, very soon has a weak memory. And thus men have come to this i.eneral conclusion, that all our faculties are strengthened by use, and weakened by disuse.

This rule applies to conscience in several particulars.

1. The more frequently w^e use our conscience in judging between actions as right or wron;£i the more easily shall we learn to judge 2^

18 IMPROVEMENT AND ABUSE

correctly concerning them. He, who, before every action, will dtliberately ask himself, is this right or wrong, will seldom mistake what is liis duty. And children may do this, just as well as grown persons.

2. Our conscience is also improved in this respect by reflecting upon virtuous actions^ and thinking upon virtuous character. The more we do this, the easier do we learn to distinguish and avoid every thing that is wrong. It is for this reason that we should reflect much on the perfect character of our blessed Saviour, if we wish to improve our consciences, and make progress in virtue. So young persons should reflect upon the characters of Samuel, Joseph, Daniel, in theBible^ and of General Washington and other good men of later times. And of course, on the contrary, we shall weaken our power of making moral distinctions ; —

1. If we neglect to inquire into the moral character of our actions. If children or men go on doing right or wrong,just as it happens, without ever inquiring about it, they will at last care but little whether they do the one or the other ; and in many cases will hardly be able to distinguish between them. Every one knows, that cliildren v/ho are taught by their parents to reflect upon thoir actionsj and

OF CONSCIENCir. 19

distinguish between right and wrong, know much better how they ought to act, than those, whose parents never give them any instruction on the subject.

2. And again, we injure our power of judging correctly of moral actions, if we ahow ourselves to witness, or to hear of wickedness, or, if we are in the habit of letting wicked thoughts dw^ell in our minds. If a boy hear another swear, for the first time, he will feel it to be wrong. But if he associate much with him, he will soon care nothing about it, and very soon, will begin to swear himself. The same is the case with lying, cruelty ,^ bad language, and any other wickedness. This shows us, how careful we should be to avoid all bad company, and never to mingle with those who persist in doing wrong.

I have mentioned above, that we could all observe in the feeling of conscience, a sort of command, urging us to do what is right. Now this command becomes stronger or weaker^ just in proportion as we use it. For in stance ^ he who is careful always to do what his conscience commands, finds the power of temptation over him to be weaker. He who strives always to be just, and never to defraud any one of the least thing, either in play, or in earnest, will find a very strong opposition in

20 IMPROVEMENT AND ABUSE

his mind, to doing any injustice ; while he^ M who, only occasionally, allows himself to lie

I or cheat, will find that his opposition to lying

and dishonesty is gradually growing weaker, and it is well, if he do not, in the end, become a confirmed thief, and liar.

And it is moreover to be remarked, that both of these last rules, have an effect upon each other. The more we are in the habit of reflecting upon the right and wrong of our actions, the stronger will be our inclination to do right ; and the more scrupulously we do right, the more easily shall we be able to distinguish between right and wrong.

Once more. I have alluded to the factj that conscience is a source of pleasure and of pain. It is so, in a greater or less degree, in proportion as we use it.

The oftener we do good actions, the greater happiness we receive from doing them. Do you not observe how happy, kind and benevolent persons always are ? Do you not observe, that persons, w^ho very seldom do a good action, do it almost without pleasure, while really benevolent and kind people, seem to derive constant happiness, from making others happy ? And if there is so much happiness to be derived from doing good, we ought to be grateful that God has placed us

OF CONSCIENCE^ 21

in s: world, in which there is so much good to be done, and in which every one,^ poor as well as rich, young as well as old, may enjoy this: happiness, almost as much as he pleases.

And on the contrary, the more men disobey their consciences, the less pain do they suffer from doing wrong. When boys first lie, or use bad words, they feel guilty, and very unhappy ; but if they are so wicked as to form the habit of doing so, they soon do it without any pain,^and sometimes even become proud of it. This is the case with stealings or any other wickedness.

At first view, this might seem to be a benefit conferred on a wicked person ^ because he thus can do wrong, without so much suffering. But if we consider it a little more attentively^ we shall see that it is exactly the reverse. For, when a person is afraid to do wrong, and suffers in his conscience, in consequence of it,, he will do it rarely and secretly ; but when he ceases to be thus pained, he becomes bold^, and does it openly, and soon meets with the punishment which he deserves. And besides, it is very merciful in God, thus to admonish us by our conscience, when we do wrong. And when we cease to be thus admonished, it is a proof that he has become more and moreangry with uSy and is letting us go on to our