A history of Greek classical literature

Preface

In entering upon a general survey of Classical Literature, that of Greece first engages the attention, not only as constituting the oldest literature of Europe, but as the source from which Rome derived all her mental culture. The literature of Rome was distinguished not by originality of talent, but by cultivation of taste. Rome owed to Greece all her genius for poetry, her knowledge of philosophy, her skill in historical composition. To Greece, then, the scholar first turns, in order to seek for the germs of that intellectual excellence, which, when expanded and matured, has influenced and formed the taste of the most civilized nations in Europe.

In forming a correct estimate of Greek Literature, the nation in which it took its rise must be viewed in two different and, as it at first sight appears, somewhat contradictory aspects; first, in its oneness as a nation, next in its subdivision into different races, distinct enough to give rise to almost

a2

IV PREFACE.

opposite intellectual phenomena, but not enough to destroy nationality. Unity and combination against the non-Greek, or, as the Greeks called it, the Barbarian element of the human race, and jealousy between the opposing sections of the Hellenic portion, constitute the key to Greek Political History, and it is the leading principle also in Greek Intellectual and Literary History. In everything relating to Greece this tendency to union, accompanied with an insurmountable principle of disunion and division of race, is discernible. The natural boundaries of river and mountain presented at one and the same time obstacles to physical and moral amalgamation, and yet, notwithstanding this separation, there was a sympathy between Greek and Greek which never existed between Greek and Barbarian.

In literature, as in their political and social relations, the author, to whatever race he might belong, found common sympathies, to which he could appeal, and which he was sure to awaken. Hence each poet, although local in blood, in prejudices, in principles, was boasted of by Greece universal as the common property of the Hellenic name. No one could fail to observe the difference between Ionian, iEolian, Dorian, Boeotian and Sicilian; and yet to see in all, the common features which distinguish the Greek nation

PREFACE. Y

from the other nations of the world. It is in the earliest phase of Greek literature that nationality is most manifest. Homer was an Ionian, and displays all the intellectual characteristics of the Ionian race, yet he unites in himself the peculiarities of the other races likewise. He is the representative of the Greek national mind. The versatility which could paint all the varied elements which go to make up Greek character, must have been the attribute of a nature possessing in itself somewhat of each of them. In the Homeric poems the terse, rude and satiric wit of the Dorian occasionally appears amid the graceful polish of the Ionian. Achilles, the chieftain of the Thessalian mountaineers, Ulysses, the monarch of the enduring and wily islanders, are portraits evidently the work of one who could understand and sympathize with the feelings of both of them.

But whilst it is necessary to bear in mind the unity and nationality of Greek literature, it is also important to remark the different intellectual peculiarities which characterize the great races into which Greece was divided. The refined and energetic mind of the Ionian developed itself in the epic, elegiac and iambic poetry ; and their poetical genius reached its zenith in the activity and life-like representations of the Attic tragedy and comedy. In prose, the same

VI PREFACE.

mind was the first to exercise its acuteness and ingenuity in philosophical speculations, and to satisfy its inquisitive thirst after knowledge in the wide field of historical inquiry ; for with them history, as the name implies (/Wof/a), was at first not mere compilation ((jvyyguQyi), but original investigation. The same structure of the ear which led to the modulation of Ionic poetry, gave birth to the melodious dialect in which Herodotus and Hecatseus narrated their stories; and when a modern dialect succeeded, and literature was transplanted to the soil of Attica, we recognize the same, or even greater, sweetness in Attic purity and simplicity. The philosophical spirit there combined with the habit of historical research, and Ionian Athens gave birth to Thucydides, the father of philosophical history, as Asiatic Ionia did to Herodotus, the father of the history of induction and inquiry.

Again, the same talent developed itself in the critical faculty which was so strong in Aristotle, which could analyse the principles of beauty and of taste, and thus reduce to rule and system, and bring within the province of art and science the laws which in these matters regulate the operations of the human mind. And lastly, the imagination, combined with the logical power, produced oratory, which shed a lustre upon the decline and fall of Greek liberty.

PREFACE. Vll

Such was the career of Ionian and Attic intellect, far superior in every point of view but one to that of the Dorian and iEolian races ; for their characteristics, as might be expected from their origin, were the same. But there was one excellence peculiar to themselves. The palm in lyric poetry was due to the iEolians of Lesbos. They could boast of the passionate emotions of Alcseus, in which love, though full of tenderness, breathes an almost chivalrous respect for the beloved object, and is elevated far above a mere sensual passion. Theirs were the burning strains of Sappho, whose simplicity, whatever may have been her faults, could not disguise her most secret thoughts and feelings.

Again, the Dorian originated and cultivated the religious and fervid enthusiasm of the dithyrambic chorus, and then modifying and adapting it to the drama, handed down those beautiful odes which adorn the texture of Attic tragedy. They consecrated the lyric muse to the service of religion, and to the celebration of the victors in the national games of Greece. The prolific talent of Simonides exhibited itself in his numerous epinician odes, and still more in his plaintive and pathetic threni. And the lofty Pindar far outstripped his contemporary, Simonides, if not in feeling, at least in grandeur. Such were the

Vlli PREFACE.

claims of the Dorian race to literary reputation ; but these were all. Their very chorus was not finished and brought to perfection by themselves, but by the genius of the Attic dramatists. They had no history, no oratory, no philosophy.

The literature of Greece has been stamped, by universal testimony, as beyond comparison with that of subsequent periods. We admire and imitate the Greeks, but we cannot equal them. We take their works as models, not arbitrarily, but after putting them to the test of those principles of taste which form part of our nature; and when put to this test they never fail.

But Greek literature is not only admirable, as presenting a picture of the human intellect in its highest state of perfection, but also for its moral value. It is a monument to all ages of unselfish industry, of enthusiastic devotion to a great purpose. Each author seems impressed with the idea that he has a duty to perform, a message to deliver. The lower motives which too often give an impulse to the literature of modern times, did not influence them. The poet, the philosopher, the historian, were urged on by an irresistible devotion to their work, or at least felt no motive more selfish than a desire to be loved and admired by their contemporaries, or to enjoy an undy-

PREFACE. IX

ing reputation in after ages. Private means were, in many cases, only considered valuable as affording to the possessor an opportunity for indulging his tastes, and undertaking a literary career. They were ungrudgingly expended in procuring a liberal education and the advantages of foreign travel, for their own sakes, and not with any hope of a pecuniary return. Few writers think so little of self as the ancients ; their minds and thoughts are absorbed in that of which they write, their sentiments are freely revealed in their works ; but it is very difficult to derive from them any information respecting themselves. Although, therefore, it is impossible not to admire the unselfishness from which this results, it is a cause of regret that, for the same reason, the sources from which their private histories are derived are often of doubtful credit.

Only a few words are necessary respecting the author's object in giving to the public this work, and the mode in which he has carried it into effect. He feels that apologies are due for venturing on a field in which so many, superior to himself in abilities and learning, have already successfully laboured ; but he wished to collect within a moderate compass such facts and observations as might be interesting to the general reader, but which are now scattered over a

X PREFACE.

wide surface, and cannot be brought together without pains and trouble.

To the researches of his predecessors in the history of ancient literature, and to the labours of modern philologers, especially Mr. Donaldson, he acknowledges the deepest obligation. As the present work is the result of reading and study during a period in which, from the position which he has occupied, it has been his duty to collect information from all possible sources, he cannot always say to whose investigations particular statements are due, nor can he always separate his own original observations from those which he has derived from other authorities.

Owing to the limits within which he has wished to confine himself, he has often stated the conclusions to which he has come, without entering into the grounds and reasons on which they are based. He hopes, therefore, that this apology will be accepted, for some parts of the work being in a dogmatic form, instead of that controversial one which, to the minds of some readers, appears more satisfactory.

From the same desire to economize space, he has almost always contented himself with giving references to illustrative passages, instead of quoting the passages themselves ; whilst, at the same time, he has inserted translations, in order that the sense and spirit of the

PREFACE. XI

author may be conveyed to those who are unacquainted with the language of the original.

If the reader recognizes in this work statements which are already familiar to him, and observations which appear trite, they will be found, it is hoped, such as could not be omitted in a work which professes to be a history. If, on the contrary, he observes what he considers important omissions, let him remember that it was the author's duty to exercise his judgment, to the best of his power, in making a selection from a vast mass of materials. It will readily be believed that one of the principal difficulties which the author has encountered in his task, has been the making this selection, and determining what might be omitted, without violating the fidelity of history.

In most instances the author believes that his statements are justified by competent authority; wherever he has given his own views and opinions, he offers them with diffidence, as to their correctness, although he has adopted them as the result of deliberate conviction.

Chapter I. Page

Limits of this work. — Its twofold division. — Origin and affinities of the Greek language — Indo-European and Semitic races. — Their languages compared. — The Greek dialects. — Connexion of the Ionians with the Pelasgians. — Origin of the Greek alphabet. . . . . . .1

Chapter II

Poetry precedes Prose literature. — First developments of Greek poetry religious. — Worship of Nature. — Greek climate. — Worship of the Sun-god. — Ancient traditions. — Linus. — Hylas. — Lityerses. — Adonis. — Bards. — Testimony of Homer. — Orpheus. — Eumolpus. — Thamyris. — Musaeus. — Chrysothemis. — Philammon. — Olen. . . . . .20

CHAPTER, III.

No actual literature before Homer. — His birth-place. — Different traditions reconciled. — Argument in favour of Smyrna. — Difficult to determine whether he was an Ionian or an xiv CONTENTS.

PAGE iEolian. — Life by Herodotus and Suidas. — Importance of this legendary biography. — The Chorizontes, or Separators. — Their doctrines reviewed. — Payne Knight. — Nitzsch. . .31

Chapter IV

Theory of Hedelin and Perrault. — Heyne. — Bentley's sequel. — Wood's Essay on Homer. — Wolfs Prolegomena. — The grounds of Wolf's theory. — Observations of Nitzsch in opposition to Wolf's arguments. — How far he agrees with his opponent. — Argument from the state of the language. — Power of memory — The question can only be decided by internal evidence. — Wolf denies the poetical unity of the poems. — Interpolations and alterations highly probable. — The materials of the poems. — Ancient lays. — Objection to Heyne's hypothesis. — Lachmann's hypothesis. . . . . .41

Chapter V

I. Language, style, and taste of the Iliad. — Homeric verse. — Simile. — Dramatic power. — Other points of resemblance. — Language, versification, etc., of the Odyssey. — Style of the Iliad and Odyssey compared. — II. Plan of the Iliad and Odyssey. — Epitomes of both. — General observations. . . 52

Chapter VI

III. Consistency in the characters. — Their individuality. — Achilles. — Agamemnon. — Menelaus. — Nestor. — Ajax. — Diomede. — Odysseus. — Hector. — Priam. — Paris. — Helen. — Hecuba. — Andromache. — Telemachus. — Penelope. — Euryclea. — Nausicaa. — Eumseus. — The conditions required by the opponents of Homer's personality not fulfilled. — The most probable theory. — Reason why spurious poems and passages were received as genuine. — Passages which have been considered as interpolations. — Wolf's opinion of his own arguments. — What historic truth is contained in the Homeric poems. . . 78

CONTENTS. XV

Chapter VII. Page

The Homeric age. — Division of the subject. — Value of Homeric testimony. — Religion. — Zeus and the other deities. — Worship. — No Hero-worship. — Divination. — Dreams. — Future state. — Government. — Kingly power hereditary and limited. — Administration of Justice. — Social habits and institutions. — Hospitality. — Barbarism in war. — Insecure state of society. — Love. — The condition of the Female sex. — Female employments. — Households. — Marriage. — Old age. — Death. — Science. — Astronomy. — Geography. — Medicine. — Arithmetic. — Poetry. — Oratory. — Music. — Statuary. — Painting. — Ornamental arts. — Useful arts. — Art of War. . . . .95

Chapter VIII

Homeric hymns and minor poems. — Proof that they are spurious. — The hymn preludes. — Battle of Frogs and Mice. — Margites. — Hesiod. — Climate of Bceotia as compared with that of the Asiatic coast. — Dulness attributed to the Boeotians. — Causes of it. — Parallel drawn between Bceotia and Germany. — Characteristic features of the Hesiodic poetry. — The age of Hesiod subsequent to that of Homer. — Proof of this from language, philosophy, and geography. — Imitations of Homer. — Notices of Hesiod contained in his works. — Works and Days. — Theogony. — Eoe?e. — Cyclic Poets. . . . .123

Chapter IX

Elegies and Iambics the literature of free institutions. — Elegy soft as well as patriotic. — Its musical accompaniment. —

Its metre compared with the Epic. — Callinus. — Tyrteeus.

Archilochus. — Simonides. — Mimnermus. — Solon. — Theognis. — Xenophanes of Elea.— Phocylides. — Iambics.— Archilochus of Paros. — He invented the Epode. — Simonides of Amorgos and Solon.— Hipponax. — Choliambic metre.— Hesiod's fable the oldest. — Archilochus and Stesichorus. — iEsop. — His life. 137

XVI CONTENTS.

Chapter X. Page

Greek Music. — Terpander the inventor of musical science. — The Greeks did not understand harmony. — Definition of dp/jLovacij. — The three genera. — Improvements introduced by Terpander. — The colours. — Modes. — The Dorian mode the oldest. — Character of Dorian music. — Conservative principles of the Dorians. — Eleven-stringed lyre of Timotheus. — Olympus of Phrygia. — Thaletas of Crete. . . . .152

CHAPTER XL

Lyric poetry. — ■ Its two schools or subdivisions. — Their general characteristic features compared. — The Dorian lyric examined in detail. — Pseans. — Nomes. — Hyporchemes.— Parthenia. — Prosodia. — Dithyrambs. — Cyclian chorus. — Etymology of dithyramb. — The worship of Apollo and Diana a criterion of Doric origin. — Simplicity of Dorian belief. — Characteristics of Apollo. — Scolia, etc. — Eumelus. — Alcman. — Arion. — The legend told by Herodotus. — Alcseus. — Sappho. — Her character and biography. — Erinna. . . .159

Chapter XII

Stesichorus. — Biography. — Legends. — Characteristics of his poetry. — The improver of Bucolic poetry. — Ibycus. — The cranes of Ibycus.— Anacreon. — The poems attributed to him spurious. — Biography. — His associates, especially Mimnermus. — Story of his death. — Simonides. — His life. — Legend respecting him. — Epitaph on Archedice. — Bacchylides. — Pindar. — Characteristic features of his age. — Rise and progress of Boeotian poetry. — Biography. — Style of Pindar's poetry. — Epinician odes. — His mode of producing variety. — Advice of Corinna. — Religious character of Pindar's mind. — Testimony of Horace. — Pindaric metres. . . . . . .183

CONTENTS. XVli

Chapter XIII. Page

Poetry naturally precedes Prose composition. — Causes which probably led to the introduction of Prose writing. — The change gradual. — Influence of political circumstances. — The era of the Seven Sages. — Periander. — Pittacus. — Thales. — Solon. — Cleobulus. — Bias. — Chilon. — Sacerdotal and Orphic literature. — Ionia the parent of prose literature as well as of poetry. — The Logographi. — The character of their works. — Their authority. — Cadmus. — Acusilaus. — Hecatseus. . .204

Chapter XIV

Greek Philosophy owed its origin to the Greek mind, and not to foreign influences. — Influence of religion, poetry, and politics. — Pherecydes of Syros first treated of philosophical subjects. — There was, however, as yet, no philosophical system. — Thales the first physical philosopher. — The earliest philosophical doctrines difficult to discover. — The Oriental origin of Greek philosophy insisted on by comparatively modern authorities. — Arguments against this theory. — Period at which Oriental doctrines were first infused into Greek philosophy. — Point of resemblance between the philosophical and poetical literature of Greece. — Philosophy followed the subdivisions of the Greek nation. — The Ionian and Dorian schools. — The Eleatic school, — Its relation to the other two. . . 225

Chapter XV

Two systems in the Ionian school, the dynamical and mechanical. — The philosophy of Thales. — Anaximander. — Anaximenes. — Heraclitus. — Pythagoras. — Bis doctrines of number and harmony. — His theory of the human soul. — His belief in the superiority of intellectual activity to corporeal organization. — The Eleatic school. — Its origin. — Xenophanes. — His history and doctrines. . . . 241

VOL. I.

XVlll CONTENTS.

Chapter I. Page

Age of Pisistratus. — Establishment of Tyrannies in Greece. — Patronage of literature by Pisistratus. — The Drama. — Dramatic taste of the Ionian race. — Nature of dramatic poetry. — Religious character of the Attic drama. — Religious drama of the Romish Church. — The religion of Greece not unfavourable to the drama, or to its forming a part of an act of worship. — The ludicrous element natural to the Dionysiac worship. — Some nations destitute of dramatic literature. — The two elements of the drama, the chorus and the dialogue. — The chorus is (1) the religious and moral element, and (2) the representation of the spectators. — The essence of the drama is the dialogue. — Lyrical comedy and tragedy. . . .259

Chapter II

Origin of the dialogue. — Account given by Aristotle. — Origin of the terms rpayw^'a and ka>juw£/a. — Twofold nature of the Dionysiac worship. — Its history and introduction into Greece. — Amalgamation of it with the Eleusinian worship of Iacchus. — The progressive advance of the Tragic drama traced. — Introduction of satyrs. — Arion. — Thespis. — Phrynichus. — Chcerilus.— Pratinas. — Athenian political and dramatic greatness contemporaneous. . . . . .273

Chapter III

Homeric spirit of the three great tragic poets. — Their religious belief and mythology compared with those of Homer. — Successive eras of poetry and religious belief. — iEschylus, his

CONTENTS. XIX

PAGE

life. — Observations upon the style and language of iEschylus. — His extant tragedies. — The Persians. — The Seven against Thebes. — The Suppliants. — The Prometheus Bound. — The Orestean trilogy, Agamemnon, Choephori, and Eumenides. — Symbolism of this trilogy. — Political object of the Eumenides. — Quotations. . . . . . .285

Chapter IV

Sophocles compared with iEschylus. — His birth, parentage, and education. — Dramatic success. — Appointed one of the Ten Generals. — Unfitness for the office. — His political sentiments and conduct. — The unnatural conduct of his son Iophon. — Chorus in the (Edipus Coloneus. — His death. — Epigrams of Simonides and Simmias. — Character of his poetry. — The ethical character of the Sophoclean drama. — His dramatic reforms. — The number of his compositions. — The chronological order of those extant. — Antigone. — Electra. — The grandeur of iEschylus contrasted with the beauty of Sophocles. . . . 305

Chapter V

The three tragic poets form successive eras in literary taste. — These are analogous to the progress made by the individual mind. — Euripides, his life and character. — Religious, political and philosophical sentiments unpopular. — Unjustly slandered. — His supposed hatred of the female sex. — Story of his marriages and divorces. — His exile, death, and epitaph. — The age of Euripides a philosophical era. — The effects of this on his poetry. — Was Euripides the most tragic of poets ? — His prologues. — The real objections to them. — The use which he makes of Divine interposition. — His political principles. — His fondness for special pleading. — His lyric power. — Monodies. — Chronological list of plays. — Alcestis. — Medea. — Hecuba. — Electra. — Cyclops. — Passages from the tragedies of Euripides. — Ion. — Achaeus. — Agathon. — Euphorion. — Iophon. — The younger Sophocles and Euripides. — Chaeremon. — Theodectes. 321

XX CONTENTS.

Chapter VI

Situation and construction of the Theatre of Dionysus. — Date of its building. — Seats. — Thymele. — Stage. — Scenery.— Partly architectural, partly painted. — Curtain. — Logeion. — The effect produced by the grouping. — Size of theatre. — Contrivances to remedy the inconvenience of distance. — The theatre roofless, and therefore natural and artificial scenery was combined. — The Greeks lived in the open air. — Machinery The

eccyclema, and the occasions on which it was used. — Instrumental music. — Decorations of the orchestra and thymele. — Purposes for which the theatre was used. — The four Dionysia. — Liturgies and theoric fund. — Number and arrangement of tragic chorus. — Costume. — Distribution of parts amongst the actors. — Greek tragedy not like modern opera. . . 343

Chapter VII

The law of Blood-guilt.— Its early origin. — The form in which it was incorporated into the Athenian code. — Mention of it in the Iliad and Odyssey. — View in which it was regarded by tragic poets. — Ceremonies of purification. — Sources from which the subjects of Greek tragedy were derived. — Reverence for their ancient monarchs not inconsistent with Athenian liberty. — Some previous familiarity with the plot considered desirable. — Distance of time prevented tragedy from exciting the feelings too strongly. — Instruction given on matters of modern interest through the medium of ancient legend. — Examples from iEschylus and Euripides. . . .365

CONTENTS OP VOL. II.

BOOK II. {continued).

SECOND OR FLOURISHING ERA OF GREEK LITERATURE.

Chapter VIII

The descriptive accuracy and general truthfulness of Greek Literature. — In estimating this, two considerations necessary — 1. The changes which have taken place in the face of the country, — 2. Love for the softer beauties of Nature. — Why the Greeks do not describe landscapes. — The poets did not act disingenuously in selecting particular features for description.

— Place which the sea occupies in Greek poetry. — Whenever truth is wanted the Greek poets are always truthful. — Instances of Homeric accuracy. — This accuracy made use of as an argument against Homer's personality. — Such objections answered.

— Similar accuracy in iEschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. — Truthfulness the characteristic of Greek literature. — Irony. — Litotes. — iEschylus, — Aristophanes.

Chapter IX

Comedy, its origin. — Etymology. — First exhibited in Icaria by Susarion. — Epicharmus, his life, and character of his comedies. — Phormis. — Dinolochus. — Attic comedy, its threefold

VOL. II. b vi CONTENTS.

PAGE division. — Character of the old comedy, as traced in that of Aristophanes. — Its refinement, its elegance, and its grossness. —

Its effects for good and for evil Its impartiality. — Laws by

which it was prohibited. — The Parabasis. . . .14

Chapter X

Chionides. — Magnes. — Quotation from Aristophanes respecting him. — Cratinus. — Horace's opinion of him. — Testimony of Aristophanes. — Eupolis. — Story of his death. — Crates. —

Fragment of one of his comedies translated by Cumberland

Quotation from Aristophanes. — His life. — Age at which a dramatic poet could exhibit. — His first comedy, the Banqueters, — the Acharnians, — the Knights, — the Clouds, — the Wasps, — the Peace, — the Lysistrata, — Thezmophoriazusse, — the Ecclesiazusae, — the Frogs, — the Birds, — the Plutus. — Chronological Table. . . . . .25

Chapter XI

Why History was cultivated earlier among the Semitic nations than among the Greeks. — Pherecydes of Leros. — His works. — Charon of Lampsacus. — Hellanicus. — Herodorus of Heraclea. — Herodotus. — The improvements which he introduced into history. — His birth, parentage, native city. — His sources of information. — His travels. — The tradition that he recited his history at the Olympic Games. — His residence at Samos, Athens, and Thurii. — He did not travel much in Italy. — Some of his ideas taken from Sophocles. — His poetic talents. — Method in which he introduces his digressions. — His authority as an historian. — His style of writing. — His religious sentiments. — The geography of Herodotus. . . .49

Chapter XII

Philosophical History. — Thucydides its inventor. — His life. — Extent of his history. — The authenticity of the eighth book examined. — Summary of Greek history in the first book. —

CONTENTS. vii

PAGE

Story of Harmodius and Aristogiton. — The plan of his history. — Digressions. — Chronological arrangement. — The advantage of his being a contemporary historian. — The speeches of Thucydides. — Their value. — Their style. — Truthfulness in his general narrative. — Graphic power. — His chief intellectual qualities. — Herodotus and Thucydides compared. . .76

Chapter XIII

Xenophon. — His birth. — Connexion with Socrates. — Joins the expedition of Cyrus. — The Retreat of the Ten Thousand. — His history of it. — Argument of the work. — His manner of life in his retirement at Scillus. — The Hellenics. — The Cyropaedia. — The Memorabilia of Socrates. — The view of the Socratic doctrines contained in it compared with that of Plato. — Other treatises of Xenophon. — General character of his works. — Ctesias. — His works on Assyrian and Persian history, and on the natural history of India, of little value. . . .94

Chapter XIV

Eloquence a feature of Greek literature. — Examples. — Sicilian schools of eloquence. — Tisias and Corax. — Greek prose improved by the Sophists. — First school of rhetoric at Athens established by Gorgias. — Rivalry between the orators and

philosophers. — Oratory abused during Peloponnesian war

Constitution and character of the Athenian ecclesia. — Examples. — The externals of oratory most appreciated by the Athenians. — Care taken in the composition of orations. — Necessary qualifications of an orator. — The influence of free institutions on oratory. . . . . . .108

Chapter XV

Earliest written orations. — Antiphon. — His life and occupation. — Resemblance of his style to that of Thucydides. — Andocides. — His life, politics, and dates of his extant orations. — His troubles and exile. — Value of his orations. — Lysias. — Migrates

Vlll CONTENTS.

PAGE

to Thurii. — Is exiled, and returns to Athens. — Assists Thrasybulus and his party. —His style.— Influence of Herodotus on it. — Influence of Isocrates on oratory. — Various criticisms on his

style. — His life and suicide. — Isaeus Little known of his life.

— He was a pupil of Lysias and Isocrates, and instructor of Demosthenes. ...... 125

Chapter XVI

Circumstances which led to the perfection of oratory. — Parentage and birth of Demosthenes. — Dishonesty of his guardians. — ■ His self-education. — Acts as choregus. — Prosecutes Midias. — Instances in which he distinguished himself as an orator. — His Philippic and Olynthiac orations, — His denunciation of the treachery of iEschines. — His speech De Corona. —

Imprisonment. — Exile. — Death ■ Criticism on his style. —

iEschines. — His parentage and family. — He was schoolmaster, secretary, soldier and ambassador. — Sent on two occasions as delegate to the Amphictyonic council. — His exile and death. — Hyperides. — His upright character. — Accuses Demosthenes. — Leaves Athens. — His death. — Demades. — His great talents and unprincipled character. — His death. — Lycurgus. — His financial

abilities Anecdote related by Plutarch. — Statue erected to his

honour. — Dinarchus. — His birth, politics, and style. . . 1 34

CHAPTER XVII. Philosophy flourished later than literature Diogenes of

Apollonia. — His physical theory. — Anaxagoras. — His character and philosophical system. — His inconsistencies. — His theory of knowledge. — His system compared with that of his predecessors. — Parmenides. — The time of his birth uncertain. — Celebrated as a legislator. — A moral poet rather than a philosopher. — His view of human nature mournful. — Zeno. — His connexion with Parmenides. — Founder of dialectics. — His fallacies. — His physics.— Melissus. — His system a negative one. ■ — His physics nearly those of the Eleatic school. — Empedocles.