The tree-lifter

PART I. Page

Practical part of transplanting - - 1

Advantages of the system - - - - 1

Description of the tree-lifter - - - - 3

Description of implements - - - - 6

Description of water-cask - - - - 8

Directions for practice - - - - 9

Part II

Theory of transplanting, or, physiology of trees IN REFERENCE TO TRANSPLANTING - - - 14

Chapter I

The food of plants is imbibed by the surface of THE ROOTS - - - - " - 14

Proportion the head of a transplanted tree to the root - - - - - -14

Prefatory remark to entering on the physiology of trees - - - - - - 14

The course of this Treatise will go, with the sap, from the root, through the wood to the leaf, and back by the bark to the root - - - - 15

Except the unripe ends of roots, trees imbibe from all parts exposed to moisture, and transpire from all parts exposed to drought - - - - 16

The food of trees is imbibed by the surface of the roots 16

Food of agastric animals imbibed by the surface - 16

Seeds imbibe by the surface - - - - 17

Cuttings imbibe by the surface - - - 18

The coiled branch imbibes by the surface - - 19

Radishes imbibe by the surface - - - 19

The unripe ends of roots do not imbibe - - 20

Formation of the ends of roots - - - 20

Ends of roots consist only of bark, which is the descend¬ ing, not the ascending, conduit r - - 21

CONTENTS.

Vll

Page

Experiments in proof - - - 22

Seedlings are not nourished by their roots till the roots become woody, but by the seed - - 22

Symmetrical growth on root of horse-chestnut - 23

Twin oaks - - - - - - 24

That a radish is fed only by its end a fallacy - - 24

Experiments in proof - - - - - 26

That branches are the same length as roots a fallacy, and that the ends of branches drip on to the ends of roots a fallacy - - - - - 31

Branches shorter than roots, and the drip is through them, not outside them •* - - - 31

Form of the root a flat circle, like a wheel; form of the head a globular circle, like a ball - - 32

The head robs the root of a little rain, but more than repays this by condensation - - - 33

Rain and condensation are often shed inwards or towards the stem - - - - - - 36

Argument from the Gardener’s Chronicle considered - 38

The spade the destroyer of wall-fruit trees - - 39

Unphilosophical remedies - - - - 40

That roots absorb only by sponges or capillary stomata at their ends a scientific vulgar error - - 41

Whether this is true or not of vital importance to trans¬ planting - - - - - - 42

Ends of roots to a tree what children are to a common¬ wealth - - - - - - 43

Chapter II

Course of the sap from the root to the leaf, and back to the root - - - - - 44

Course of the upward sap through the whole of the wood - - - - - - 44

The upward sap goes through the heart-wood; proof by experiment - - - - 45

And through the sap-wood ; proof by example - 46

By what mechanical power is the upward sap raised ? - 47

Vlll

CONTENTS.

Page

Where is the sap elaborated ? Whence the new growth in girthing deposited ? - - - 50

Sap supposed to be elaborated in the leaf - - 51

Growth in girthing supposed to be deposited from this elaborated sap in returning down the bark - - 51

First office of the leaf, transpiration and excretion - 51

Leaf supposed by some to absorb the food of plants - 53

Second office of the leaf, the formation of winter-bud - 67

Third office of the leaf, the changing of the sap from the upward conduit, the wood, to the downward conduit, the bark - - - - - - 68

The growth in girthing is from the downward sap, or dependent on it; proof by experiment - - 68

And supposed to be deposited from the bark — - 69

But elaboration certainly takes place before the sap reaches the leaf - - - - - 71

And also after it quits the leaf - - - 71

Received theories of growth in girthing - - 72

The pith or medulla, and medullary rays or silver grain 73 Medullary rays longitudinal plates, only bounded in length by the height of trees and length of branches and roots - - - - - - 74

The shake, and cup-shake - - - - 74

Lateral as well as longitudinal flow of sap through the whole wood - - - - - 76

The longitudinal pith-channels extend throughout the tree, from the pith of the original seedling to the finest ramifications of the roots and branches of the largest tree which is entirely alive - - - 77

Diminution of the size of the pith and its disappearance vulgar errors - - - - - 78

Whether the pith is the conduit of the upper sap or not 80 Do the central piths of budded buds, of grafts, and of the shoots of coppice-wood, communicate with Dutrochet’s concentrical piths ? - - - 81

Office of the pith unknown - - - - 85

As the sap-channels are general, not peculiar, pruning increases the supply of the leader - - - 85

CONTENTS.

IX

CHAPTER III. Page

Upward growth of the head, and downward GROWTH OF THE ROOT - - - - 87

Upward growth of the head, and downward growth of the root, considered together - - - 87

The upward growth of a tree, or lengthening of its shoot, is by the enlargement of all the parts of that shoot; and all these parts progress bodily upward - 87

The downward growth of the tree, or lengthening of the root, is simply by growth at the end of the root - 88

By what agency is the head directed upward and the root downward ? - - - - 89

Turgescence, and the action of light on turgescence, probably direct the growth of the head of the plant 90 Cellular formation of the bark of green shoots - 90

How turgescence acts on the cellular formation - 91

How light acts on this cellular turgescence - - 91

Dutrochet, Knight, Davy, &c. think that gravity directs the growth both of the head and roots of trees. Ex¬ periments in proof - - - - - 94

Upward growth of first gemmule when deprived of light - - - - - -97

Crane-neck growth of first gemmule of a double-seeded plant, to shield it while forced through the earth - 98

Roots grow through the earth almost without force - 98

Provision to enable the gemmule of a single-seeded plant to thrust itself through the earth - - 101

Probable distinct organisation of the first gemmule - 101 Strong downward determination of tap-root, and pro¬ bable distinct organisation of it - - - 104

Tap-root only proper to seedlings, and a contrivance for fixing them - - - - - 107

That the growth of the head and root of a tree is di¬ rected by gravity disputed - - - -112

General growth of head towards light; general growth of root to wherever it can find good soil - - 118

A new layer of bark is formed every year - - 120

X

CONTENTS.

Page

That roots have no pith an error - - - 123

There is no true circulation of the sap, like that of the blood of animals - - - - - 125

CHAPTER IV. Barked horse-chestnut at Esher - - - 127

Best time for transplanting with the ball of earth - 133 The growth in girthing descending from the head or any particular branch is general round the stem ; but it is greatest on the side proper to the branch - 138 And the growth may be mechanically and continually turned from one side of the stem to the other - 138

Lateral upward growth of the root - - - 139

Origin of spurs and the swell of the roots - - 143

A tap-rooted tree should have no spurs or swell of the root ------ 145

Girthing of the stem dependent on the quantity of branches above it - - - - 146

There is a constant circulation of sap even in winter - 148 • If so, coppice-wood should be cut as late in winter as possible - - - - - -149

Best time for felling timber - - - - 152

Roots should not be covered deeply - - - 152

That a hill affords no more space for growth than its base would, an error - - - - 153

Effect of wind on trees - 155

Effect of sea breeze mechanical, not chemical - - 156

PART III. Are soils enriched, impoverished, or poisoned by

VEGETABLE GROWTH? THESE QUESTIONS INCLUDE, EXCRETION OF ROOTS; SOCIABILITY OF PLANTS; AC¬ CUMULATION OF SOIL IN WOODS ; GENERAL DENU¬ DATION OF SOIL FROM WASH OF RAIN - - 158

CONTENTS.

Xl

Page

The food of plants is extracted from the soil. But if the plants are returned to the soil, no impoverish¬ ment takes place - - - - - 158

Roots do not excrete - - - - -161

Sociability of plants a fancy - - - - 165

Sociability of holly and beech owing to holly bearing shade better than other plants - - - 175

The soil of woods does not become poorer, but richer - 179 Is there any other cause for this besides protection by the roots from aqueous denudation ? - - 179

Aqueous denudation is universal, and is not confined only to the lines of torrents and rivers - - 181

No necessity for rotation in Nature’s cropping - 207

Part IV

For beauty we should have every variety of growth - 210 Trees cannot attain their maximum height by nature,

— that is, without pruning and thinning - - 210

The works of God can be improved by man - - 211

To grow valuable timber, maximum head on maximum height of branchless stem - - - - 212

Rules for pruning for height - - - - 212

Plantations are, and should be , planted too thick to grow, and should be thinned every year - - - 214

No turnips without hoeing; no trees without thinning - 215 Never too late to thin - - - - 215

Cut the worst plants worst placed ; leave the best plants best placed - - - - -215

Pruning does not increase the aggregate quantity of wood made by a tree, but, by improving its location , increases the measurable timber - - - 217

That a branchless stem is a natural attribute of a tree is a mistake of De Candolle’s - - - 221

Xll

CONTENTS.

i

Page

A living branch forms a cross-grain; when it dies, an united knot; what is afterwards inclosed, a disunited, movable knot - - - - -224

Healing over an amputated branch - 230

Prejudice against pruning with the saw, a vulgar error 233 Explanation of Plates I. and II. 234

The pruner’s pulley ----- 242 Best time for pruning ----- 245 Measurement and longevity of trees - - - 246

PART V. Concluding Remarks - 267

ERRATUM.

In page 78. line 1. and in page 79. line 12. for “ 232 ” read “ 234.”

THE

TREE-LIFTER,

FART I.

PRACTICAL PART OF TRANSPLANTING.

ADVANTAGES OF THE SYSTEM.

Among the advantages of transplanting with the “Tree-lifter” may be reckoned its cheapness. Its simplicity is such that the whole may be performed, and even single-handed, by a common day labourer. One man may plant one tree per day, of from twenty-five to thirty feet in height. To transplant trees without the ball of earth requires great skill, care, labour, and expense in tracing out the small fibres of the roots, whose extreme points, with their supposed spongioles, could by no delicacy of operation be retained, and which after all are nearly valueless. All transplanted trees are the better for being watered; but with the ball of earth this is by

B no means necessary. To transplant without the ball of earth, and not to water, for at least two summers, is hopeless. This is a great expense, besides staking, and tying, which plants with the ball of earth do not need. The growth of trees transplanted with “ the tree-lifter ” is not checked; but without a ball of earth, trees transplanted, with whatever care, or at whatever expense, are checked in their growth for eight or ten years, and if they do not die, they become living scarecrows.

In fact, trees transplanted by the tree-lifter are very much in the same situation as those prepared for transplanting, as it is called, in the old-fashioned way, by cutting a trench round them. This method was originated in the time of Charles the Second, by Lord Fitz-Harding, as Evelyn tells us. But the trees transplanted by the tree-lifter gain the great advantage of making their new roots in the ground where they are to remain for ever, and escape the in¬ juries of a subsequent removal.

The best months for transplanting the gene¬ rality of English trees, with the ball of earth, are July, August, and September.

Over the nursery plant, as a single tree, the transplanted tree has the advantage of a start of

OF TRANSPLANTING.

from twenty-five to thirty years, besides saving the expense of the material, and carpenter’s work, for at least two fences for each tree.

The system recommended would have pecu¬ liar advantages for planting or for keeping up avenues.

DESCRIPTION OF THE TREE-LIFTER.

A pair of wheels eight feet in diameter, stand¬ ing four feet six inches apart, or the same width apart as the common carts and waggons of the country. Twenty spokes. Width of the tire, two inches one-eighth. The wheels quite straight, and undished . An iron axle of three inches diameter throughout, and perfectly straight. An iron wheel, fixed with a linch-pin, on each end of the axle, outside the box of each wooden wheel. The iron wheels to have six spokes, ending in wooden handles projecting one foot beyond the rims. One wooden handle fixed on the rims between each spoke. The ends of these twelve handles to be just within the rims of the wooden wheels. The entire machine thus forming simply a windlass on wheels. A strong iron ring playing loose on the axle, and a strong

B 2 iron hook playing loose on this ring, to hold the weight when raised.

Shafts ten feet four inches from the axle; to take on and off the axle by means of a hook and screw. Five chains, twelve feet six inches in length, with a hook at each end; one chain, fourteen feet six inches in length, with a hook at each end, and with six round links at each end, to distinguish it from the other chains. A box with six compartments to hold the chains. Two strong planks, eight feet in length, with a hole bored in each, to fit on to a pin on the shafts, along which, and across the axle, the planks are to rest when carried on the machine. A box or thill on the shafts to carry four blocks for the wheels, spades, pickaxes, &c. A South American surcingle, and three or four rope traces with a hook at each end. A strong rope to be attached by one end to the axle. At the other end a strong iron ring to receive the chains which encircle the ball of earth, and to be attached to the hook and ring on the axle, when the weight is raised.

Possibly the dimensions here given might be increased with advantage.

“ The draught axle ” or timber wheels should,

OF TRANSPLANTING.

like this machine, have straight arms to the axle. If the arms are bent, the lower parts of the wheels stand nearer together than the upper parts. But when the shafts are raised to take up the load, the lower parts of the wheels are wrenched from one another; and when the shafts are hauled down to raise the load, the lower parts of the wheels are again wrenched together. This, with heavy loads and rough deep ground, requires force which no machinery will stand long.

The only argument which I know in favour of bent arms to axles is one which I never heard mentioned or saw stated: it prevents wabbling . It indeed creates friction between the boxes and the ends of the axles, since the wheel inclines to run up the arm which is bent down. But this is not so bad as the friction and wear and tear caused by wabbling. With straight arms, wabbling can only be prevented by having the arms and boxes very long. This increases the friction; perhaps as much as results from forcing a conical wheel to run straight instead of circling out¬ ward from the carriage.

B 3

DESCRIPTION OF THE PRUNING SAW, AND PRUNING LADDER.

The best instrument to prune small trees with is a carpenter’s turning saw , with coarse teeth, set wide for the purpose; having a large handle, with a hook to attach it to boughs or the rounds of a ladder, and admitting of the blade being taken in and out by screws, and replaced when broken. The saw is held by the round part of the handle while sawing a branch from below upward; and all branches should, if possible, be begun from below, to avoid tearing the bark and last layers of wood as the branch falls. A chopping instrument, such as a bill¬ hook, besides bruising the bark and splitting the wood, is apt to cut too close, or not close enough, or both; that is, to begin by cutting too close, and to finish by not cutting close enough. Or if it finishes close to the stem, great risk is run of injury to the bark or branches above that amputated. In the case of cutting too close, the parts from which the new healing growth is to proceed are injured ; in the case of not cutting close enough, a dead stump is left to be enclosed

OF TRANSPLANTING.

I by the annually increasing stem, which is pro¬ bably rotten before it is enclosed. Besides, a chopping instrument is not adapted to getting between branches to thin them out. These saws will pass between branches which are too close better even than the knife. One of these blades fixed on a light rod is the best instrument to clear leaders which cannot be reached with a knife or a hand-saw. In this case, work the saw in a line with the stem of the tree; not across it. These saws may be bought at Cole¬ man’s, cutler, Haymarket.

The pruning ladder should be triangular; that is, to the Kentish fruit-ladder, wide at the base and narrow at the top, should be added a single prop. The lower end of the prop should diverge into two branches, to receive a wheel like that of a wheel-barrow. When lowered, the ladder is placed and wheeled on this prop. When reared, the prop being attached to the ladder by a rope, it is pulled towards you by raising the ladder by one of its lower rounds. If well made this ladder is perfectly wieldable, and safe at the height of upwards of twenty feet. )

The ladder is easily detached from the prop, and used singly, if required. It is the only safe

B 4 ladder against a tree. A common ladder must have four bearings; and if either of these should give way, the ladder will turn over. A widebased ladder needs only three bearings; that is, it is as safe from turning over with one bearing above as with two.

DESCRIPTION OF WATER-CASK.

I have found the following sort of water-cask very useful; either for common watering, or for the conveyance of liquid manures :

A pair of old gig wheels, four feet in diameter. A thirty-six gallon cask, thirty-two inches high. Swing this cask between the wheels by two iron arms, fifteen inches of the cask above the arms, seventeen inches below them. Or the arms which pass through the boxes of the wheels may be attached to an iron circle large enough to receive the cask, which will rest on the circle by three supports.

An iron handle to pass over the top of the cask, and sufficiently free from the cask to allow of its being tilted. The handle to take on and off the axle with a hook and screw.

A pair of old gig shafts to take on and off the handle.

OF TRANSPLANTING.

A leathern hose, with wire inside, at the lower part of the cask, just long enough, when turned over the cask, to reach the bottom of it on the other side. The hose to take on and off with a screw. A lid, opening with folding flaps, fas¬ tened by a bent hasp, which will pass over and secure the hose while in movement. A couple of leathern buckets. A hook before and behind the cask, to carry the buckets.

A wrought-iron bowl, to lade with.

This cask may be used either by hand, or with a horse, or donkey. It may be locked going down hill, as recommended for the “ tree-lifter.”

According to circumstances, or the power of approaching the tree, the hose or the buckets may be used, or the cask may be tilted.

DIRECTIONS FOR PRACTICE.

Choose a tree of from twenty to thirty feet in height, with several leaders, or with some unduly large branches. Prune the tree previously to digging round it, so as to take from the head at least as much as will, in all probability, be taken from the root, not by cutting in the head and branches of the tree, but by giving it a clear leader, and cutting out all branches large enough to compete with the stem, low enough to be reached by cattle, or the growth of which is up¬ right or parallel to the stem. Cut all close to the stem. Dig a trench round the tree, at the distance of about twenty inches from it. Under¬ mine the ball of earth, at the depth of about three feet, so that every root may be cut pre¬ vious to lifting it. Tie some old carpeting or matting round the stem of the tree. Place the machine, without the shafts, on the planks, and block the wheels ; the centre of the axle over the centre of the ball of earth, and the ring of the windlass rope at the foot of the tree. Place the chain with the round links horizontally, and loosely, round the lower part of the ball of earth, so that it lies on the ground in the pit. Cross the end held in the left hand twice over the end held in the right hand, and lay both ends down. Pass one of the other chains, as far as its middle, through the ring of the windlass rope. Pass the ends of this chain beneath the horizontal chain, and hook the ends back on the chain itself. Do the same with the four re¬ maining chains. So that wheji the windlass is worked, these live vertical chains, being at equal distances from each other, shall bear an equal

OF TRANSPLANTING.

distress from the weight of the ball. Fasten the horizontal chain, by hooking it to any conve¬ nient part of the vertical chains. Raise the ball of earth with the windlass, and place the ring of the windlass rope on the hook attached to the axle. The ball of earth carried thus is pressed togther by the chains acting towards one ano¬ ther, and the greater the weight the greater the inward pressure. A ball of earth resting on a sledge or truck soon shakes to pieces on the least movement, besides the difficulty and mischief done in lifting it on and off the truck.

The tree is lowered into the pit prepared for it with the same facility as it is raised. If it does not stand upright it is easily raised by the windlass, while earth is cast under where it is wanted. The unchaining is only reversing the enchaining. If during the carriage, owing to wet or the friability of the earth, the chains cut into the ball, and the load sinks, it is easy, by letting the load down altogether, to take up and tighten any one or every one of the chains.

Place the upper surface of the ball of earth at precisely its former level, and do not cover it; but raise a very slight ridge of earth round the outside of its circumference, so as to form a pan or irrigation cup . Tie some bushes round the stem to prevent cattle from rubbing it. The organisation of the bark is easily mechanically injured and destroyed by any bruise, or by cattle rubbing against it. It is the common error to believe that the bark is chemically poi¬ soned by the oil from the skin of cattle.

It may be found necessary to stay the sway of the tree, while in movement, by ropes from the stem to the shafts.

In going down steep hills the machine may be held back by a horse ridden behind, and hooked on by the South American surcingle and single trace; or the machine may be very conveniently blocked by lashing a bar of wood across the shafts, close in front of the wheels, and taking out the screw which fastens the shafts to the axle. The horse will then bear back against the wheels instead of against the axle, and the fric¬ tion against the wheels will increase or decrease directly as the downward impetus.

This application of a common mode of block¬ ing wheels has the advantage of being entirely self-acting. It needs neither the attention nor personal service of the driver; nor is it left to his judgment at what time, or how much, or how little, to put on or to take off. Without any stoppage or trouble, friction is acquired at

OF TRANSPLANTING.

the exact time and in the exact quantity that is required, and ceases of itself as the necessity for it ceases.

The principle of locking two-wheeled car¬ riages by creating friction on the wheels induces a slight downward pressure on the horse’s back. But the long shafts act as a lever in the horse’s favour, and the extra pressure on his back is not to be spoken of in comparison with the labour of bearing back a loaded cart.

That this is a fact any one may convince himself practically, by taking the water-cart which I have described down a hill which is so steep that he could not hold the cart back without this mode of blocking the wheels. Might not this mode of blocking be applied to two-wheeled carts ?

THE FOOD OF TREES IS IMBIBED [Part II.

Proportion the head of a trans¬ planted tree to the root.

Prefatory re¬ mark to enter¬ ing on physio¬ logy of trees.

PART II.

THEORY OF TRANSPLANTING, OR, PHYSIOLOGY OF TREES IN REFERENCE TO TRANSPLANTING.

Chapter I. The Food Of Trees Is Imbibed By The Surface Of The Roots

The supply must be equal to the demand; if not, scarcity will ensue. He who expects that a diminished root will support an undiminished head will be disappointed. This is the funda¬ mental principle of transplanting. And in trans¬ planting, the head must be curtailed exactly in proportion as you have to curtail the root.

Before entering on physiology, I would say one word to defend myself from the charge of egotism and plagiarism. When I mention Sir Humphrey Davy, I may say that immortal names are among those who have written on the physiology of trees. Yet so much doubt and difference prevail among the authors on the

Chap. I.] BY THE SURFACE OF THE ROOTS

subject, that one cannot adopt a single opinion without opposing many, held by minds, perhaps, as clear and comprehensive as Sir Humphrey’s. It is, then, to save the reader’s time if I lay down as certain what better men have doubted or controverted; or if I use the words, “ I think this,” or “ I think that,” in stating other people’s opinions.

The sap is absorbed by the roots.* Its course upward is through the whole of the wood, heart-wood as well as sap-wood, of the root, the stem, and the branches. It thence passes through the insides of the leaves and buds, and returns through their outsides into the bark, and descends again to the roots. From the ascend¬ ing sap the growth in elongation of the stem and branches takes place, and from the descend¬ ing sap the growth in girthing of them, and also the growth in elongation of the roots.

But I imagine that, besides this vertical or longitudinal flow of the sap between the roots and the branches, there is also a horizontal or

* Even this first principle is quite contrary to the opi¬ nions of the mass of physiologists, ancient and modern. Priestley, Senebier, De Saussure, Liebig, &c., think the more head, the more root it will feed. I think the more root, the more head it will feed.