Breeding of farm animals

Book 1 GcpyflghtiN?

COPYRJGHT DEPOSIT.

B, V

Merritt W; Harper

Professor of Animal Husbandry

in the New York State College of Agriculture

at Cornell University

NEW YORK

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY

LONDON

Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Limited 1914

<o

Co^

Copyright, 1914, by

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY

All Rights Reserved

Entered at Stationers* Hall LONDON. ENGLAND

Printed in U. S. A.

Preface

This book is an attempt at arranging useful information concerning the breeding of farm animals and adapting it to the needs of the farmer, breeder and student. It includes a brief discussion of the fundamental principles underlying animal breeding, such as development, selection, variation and heredity, together with the more practical phases of the work.

The book represents experience, both as a breeder and instructor. It differs from other books on the breeding of animals in that special emphasis is placed on the importance of proper care and management of the parents, together with the proper development of young stock, as these are of the utmost importance to the practical breeder, and in connection with selection give advancement. An attempt has been made to direct attention away from the speculations that characterized the earlier books and to center interest in the more practical features of breeding farm animals.

To get the essentials involved in animal improvement clearly before us, extended use has been made of the facts disclosed by the Advanced Register for Holstein- Friesian cattle and by Wallace's Year Book for horses, as the advancement gained by the methods here employed is significant. Because of the nature of the m.aterial it has been found necessary to present a few rather long and complicated tables. These should be carefully considered by the reader in order that he may learn to analyze and generalize of his own accord. This will stimulate interest and lead to closer observation of farm animals generally.

To promote interest in correct type and breed characteristics many photographs of the several classes of farm animals have been used. Untouched photographs

V

VI PREFACE

have been employed, as they show type and breed features to advantage.

Realizing the many difficulties that present themselves in the breeding of farm animals, the writer will be glad to correspond with those persons into whose hands the book may fall concerning such difficulties and also to receive suggestions that may make the book more useful as a practical guide and text.

M. W. HARPER.

Cornell University,

Ithaca, N. Y., August 3, 1914.

CHAPTER I Page

Farm animals provide labor, food and clothing — Number and value of farm animals — Human population increasing, number of farm animals decreasing — Farm animals costly — Relation of food to production — -Distribution of farm animals — Improving farm animals — Environment — Heredity — Selection — Propagation of animals.

CHAPTER n

Female reproductive organs — Male reproductive organs — The cell — Cell division — The chromosomes — The germ cells — The egg cell — The sperm cells — Chromosome reduction — Fertilization.

CHAPTER in

The Determiners of Heredity 21

Darwin's Pangenesis — Weismann's germ plasm — Opposite views — Approved practice not involved — The hereditary bridge — The hereditary material — The enzyme theory — The chromosome theory — Chromosome combination — Origin of hereditary material — Basis of controlling determiners of heredity.

CHAPTER IV

Heredity in Animal Breeding 31

Brewer's fundamental propositions — Complex nature of heredity — Offspring in general resemble parents — Particular offspring unlike the parent — Some offspringhigher and some lower than their parents — Medium offspring the most frequent — The high parent and his offspring — The high offspring and his parents — The law of ancestral hereditv — Reversion and atavism — Blended, exclusive and particulate inheritance.

vii

Vlll CONTENTS

CHAPTER V

Page

The law when one pair of characters are involved, Monohybrids — Dominants and recessives — The law when two pairs of characters are involved, Dihybrids — Three Mendelian principles — Creation of new forms — Application of Mendel's Law — Transferring characters — Possibilities of Mendelism — Mendelism and reversion — Limitations of Mendelism.

CHAPTER VI

Selection in Animal Breeding 56

Objects of selection — Standard of excellence in selection ■ — History of the breeds — Breed peculiarities — Vigor, longevity and fertility — Large numbers promote uniformity — The exceptionable breeding animal — Comparative value of sire and dam — Influence of the sire — Suitability for mating.

CHAPTER YH Unit of Selection — Character 65

Character defined — Germinal, acquired and congenital character — Correlated characters — Limit selection to useful characters — Base selection on limited number of characters — Records of performance — Actual breeding test valuable — Breeder's fancy points — ^Fashionable breeding — Pasr" 5 fads.

CHAPTER Vni

Variation general among farm animals — Variation basis of improvement — Nature of variation — Non-inheritable variation — Inheritable variation — Variations distinguished from the nature of characters involved — ^Quantitative variation— Qualitative variation — Functional variation — Variations in pattern — Degrees of variations — Continuous variations — Discontinuous variations — Mutations — Sports — Abnormality — Malformation — Monstrosity — Study of variation — Finding the type— Variability or deviation from type — Plotting frequency curve.

CONTENTS IX

CHAPTER IX

Page

Some external causes of variations — Climate and locality — Care and management — Food supply — Training and developing — Use and disuse — Injuries and mutilations- Chemical agents — Breeder's control of the external causes of variations — Some internal causes of variation — Maturation a cause of variation — Fertilization a cause of variation — Mendelism a cause of variation — Cross breeding a cause of variation — Cell division a cause of variation — Relative fertility and longevity.

CHAPTER X

Individual Merit and Selection 102

The breeder a judge — Types of animals — Utility of types — Uniformity of type — Breeds of animals — Standard of perfection — Value of breed characteristics — Age and individual merit — Constitutional vigor.

CHAPTER XI Pedigree and Selection 114

Form and contents of a pedigree — Tracing and writing pedigrees — Comparative value of ancestors — Animal with inbred pedigree — Pedigree with exceptional animal — Value of family names — Significance of breeder's i ^le — Proportion of pure-bred animals.

CHAPTER XII

Standards of performance — Trotting and pacing standard — Holstein-Friesian seven-day standard — Holstein- Friesian, Jersey and Guernsey yearly standard — Ayrshire yearly standard — Brown Swiss yearly standard — The_ advanced register record — Value of advanced register record in selection — Exact measure of breeding capacity — Vigor and performance — Meat, wool and egg production — Value of show awafds.

X CONTENTS

CHAPTER XIII Improvement Due to Selection Based on Performance

Page

Characters considered and methods of presentation — Developing the trotter — Influence of time records — Breeding of great sires — Developing the dairy cow — Influence of butter-fat records — Breeding cows with advanced register records — Holstein-Friesian cows with records as breeders — Breeding of advanced register bulls — Registered animals without registered parents.

CHAPTER XIV Improvement Due to Selection the Result of Prepotency 152

Breed prepotency — Individual prepotency — Prepotency among horses — The famous grandsires — Breeders of performers and breeders of breeders — Prepotency among dairy cattle — Sires of performers and sires of breeders — Performers and prepotency— Famous Holstein-Friesian cows — Prepotency in sex.

CHAPTER XV

Improvement Due to Accumulative Development 166

Modifying characters — Modified characters in heredity — Accumulative development in the trotter — Accumulative development in the dairy cow — Results accomplished — Improvement a slow process — Methods employed.

CHAPTER XVI Systems of Breeding 176

Purposes in breeding — Pure-bred breeding — Grading — Cross-breeding — Line-breeding — Inbreeding — Breeding from the best — Co-operative breeding.

CHAPTER XVII Formation of Breeds 185

Domestication a necessity — Evolution of farm animals — Origin of breeds — Robert Bakewell — Bakewell's principles — Influence of Bakewell's methods — Forming of new breeds — Origin of the Thoroughbred — Origin of the Shorthorn — Origin of the Oxford — Origin of the Holstein-Friesian — Origin of the Standardbred.

CONTENTS xi

CHAPTER XVIII

Page

Origin of pedigrees — Eligibility to registration — Advanced register — Breed associations — Live st»ck shows — British methods — French methods — Further improvement needed — Need of extending improvement.

CHAPTER XIX

The inevitability of the dairy cow — The use of pure-bred animals — The use of grade animals — Foundation animals — The first generation — Breeding the young heifers — Continued judicious selection the means of improvement — The Glista family — Advancement requires time — Influence of sires.

CHAPTER XX

Business of breeding — Expense of equipment reduced — Uniformity of animals favored — Market facilities increased — Disposal of surplus females — Cow-testing associations — Advanced register testing promoted —Education features — The young breeder.

CHAPTER XXI

Sex in Breeding 229

Equality in number of the sexes — Sex determination by external factors — Time of breeding — Alternating ova — Male and female testicles — Sexual excitement — Age and vigor — Food supply — Sex determination by internal factors — Sex difference slight — Influence of fertilization — Accessory chromosome theory — Sex limited inheritance — Sex control not desirable.

CHAPTER XXII

Proi^ficacy in Breeding 237

Conditions that influence prolificacy — High prolificacy desirable — Cumulative effect of prolificacy — Prolificacy in horses — Prolificacy in cattle — Prolificacy in sheep — Prolificacy in swine — Prolificacy in poultry — Prolificacy hereditary.

XU CONTENTS

CHAPTER XXIII

Page

Prevalence of sterility — Causes of sterility — Idleness and overfeeding — Overwork and adverse conditions — Excessive sexual use — Timidity, irritability and excitability — Size of male and female — Hybrid among animals usually sterile — Freemartin often sterile — Hermaphrodites — Cryptorchids — Diseases of the reproductive organs — Drugs as a remedy for sterility — Dilation of the os uteri — Yeast solution in vagina — Management of breeding animals.

CHAPTER XXIV Conception and Development of Fetus 258

Estrum or heat — Ovulation— Conception — Artificial impregnation — Formation of the embryo — Development of the fetus — Position of fetus — Relative size of fetus — Intra-uterine influences— Telegony.

CHAPTER XXV Abortion and Premature Birth 268

Prevalence of abortion — Kinds of abortion — Accidental abortion — Infectious abortion — Avenue of infection — Control of infectious abortion — Avoid using infected bulls — ■ Isolate infected covers — Use disinfectants freely — Age immunity in contagious abortion.

CHAPTER XXVI Pregnancy and Gestation 277

Signs of pregnancy — Duration of gestation — The mare — The cow — The ewe — The sow — Other animals — Poultry — Number of young at birth — Poultry — Care of pregnant animals — Signs of parturition — Preparation for parturition — Normal parturition.

CHAPTER XXVII

Difficult parturition — Wrong presentations — Eversion of uterus — Retained afterbirth — Inflammation of the vagina and uterus — Milk fever — Garget — Cowpox — Mammitis — Altered milk secretions.

CONTENTS Xlll

CHAPTER XXVIII

Page

Ailments of New-Born 298

Asphyxia — Constipation — Navel infection — Diarrhea — Infectious diarrhea — Sore mouth — Sore eyes — Chilled lamb — Thumps — Umbilic hernia — Scrotal hernia — Castration of males.

CHAPTER XXIX

Development of Young Animals 306

Condition of parents — Feeding while young — Relative development — Developing the young horse — Developing the heifer — Developing meat-producing animals — Environment, development, selection and efficiency.

Appendix 315

Table showing types and breeds of farm animals — Table showing period of gestation.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Page

The Shorthorn bull "Avondale" Frontispiece

Diagram showing principles involved in animal breeding 6

Reproductive organs of the mare 11

Diagram of a typical cell 13

Diagram illustrating cell division or mitosis 14

Diagram of the germ cells 17

Diagram illustrating maturation in the egg cell 18

Diagram showing maturation in both germ cells 19

Diagram illustrating Weismann's theory of descent 24

Shorthorn bull "Shenstone Albino" 26

Shorthorn cow "Maxwalton Missie" 29

Guernsey bull "Hayes Cherub 2d" 34

Guernsey cow "Dolly Dimple" 36

Cheviot sheep of good type 39

Black and white guinea pigs showing Mendelian phenomena 43

Diagram illustrating Mendelian dominants and recessives 45

Guinea pigs illustrating Mendelian phenomena 47

Percheron mares of excellent type 57

Shropshire sheep uniform in type 60

Brown Swiss herd true to type 61

Poland China sow of good type 64

Shire stallion "Lockinge Hingist" 67

Dutch Belted herd of excellent type and characteristic markings 63

Hampshire sow with characteristic markings 70

Hereford cattle with characteristic markings 72

Variation among light horses 75

Variation among heavy horses 78

Rambouillet ram "Ohio Boy." Fine wool type 81

Rambouillet ewe. Fine wool type S3

Plotting a frequency curve 86

Shropshire ewe. Medium wool, mutton type 88

Belgian mare "Bella" 91

Catalonian jack ==^^_^^ 99

XV

XVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Span of execellent mules 100

Zebu cattle, native of Trinidad 101

Percheron stallion "Idlefonse" 103

Thoroughbred mare "Blue Girl" 104

Hereford bull "Point Comfort 14th" 107

Poland China boar 116

Aberdeen Angus bull "Leroy of Meadowbrook" 117

Aberdeen Angus cow "Glencarnock Isla" 119

Dorset-Horned ram 121

Duroc Jersey boar 123

Standardbred stallion "Kremlin," 2.07^ 126

Berkshire sow 128

Dutch Beltqd bull "Auten" 129

Dutch Belted cow "Jennie" 134

Holstein-Friesian cow "Glista Omicron" 142

Holstein-Friesian cow "Glista Eglantine" 145

Holstein-Friesian cows with high records of performances 149

Standardbred stallion "McKinrjey," 2.11^ 155

Polled Durham bull "The Confessor" 160

Polled Durham bull "Sultan's Creed" 163

Suffolk stallion "Westside Chieftain" 167

Holstein-Friesian cow "Gl. Omicron" and daughter,"Gl. Eglantine" 170

High egg-producing hens _ 172

High wool-yielding ewe 174

Brown Swiss bull "Myone Boy" 178

Brown Swiss cow "Arlena" 181

Cotswold ram. Long wool type 186

Robert Bakewell 188

A prize-winning flock of Oxford sheep 193

Hereford heifer "Scottish Lassie" 198

Beef cattle parade on show grounds 200

Cheshire hog of excellent type 203

"Glista Ernestine" and her ancestors 212

"Glista Cora" and her ancestors 215

High-producing Holstein-Friesian cows 216

Southdown ewe lambs, uniform in conformation 220

Brown Swiss yearling heifers of uniform type 223

Ayrshire cows uniform in type and color 225

Berkshire swine true to type „^=, 227

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XVU

Page

Jersey bull "Raleigh's Fairy Boy" 230

Jersey cow "Jacoba Irene" 233

Galloway bull, a prize winner 23'4

Galloway heifers true to type 236

Cheshire barrow of excellent type 239

Hampshire barrow, showing breed marking 241

Dorset Horned lambs 243

Southdown yearling ram 245

Red Polled bull "Teddy's Best" 249

Red Polled cow "Cosy 2d' 251

Berkshire sows at pasture 255

Poland China boar of good conformation 257

Ayrshire cow "Kilnford Bell 3d" 263

Hampshire sow 265

Aberdeen Angus true to type 269

Large Yorkshire boar 270

Tamworth sow "Oakhill Fancy" 1 271

Percheron stallion "Imprecation" 279

Berkshire boar "Handsome Lee" 283

Normal presentation of young at parturition 286

Large Yorkshire sows 289

Belgian stallion "Polo Nord" 292

Group of Swiss Toggenburg does 295

Chester White boar 299

Hampshire ram 303

Duroc Jersey boar 304

Clydesdale stallion 307

Poland China barrows, grand champion pen 308

Percheron colt "Merlin" 310

Hampshire sow 313

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

The breeding of animals and plants is receiving much attention from the practical as well as the scientific man. This activity is due to a realization of the economic importance of plants and animals on the part of our foremost men of affairs. The well being, indeed the veryexistence, of man rests ultimately upon his ability to produce cultivated plants and domesticated animals in abundance. Possibly never before has any question attracted an interest so universal as that of the reproduction of plants and animals, including man.

While man makes economic use of many species of animals, this discussion is limited to that of breeding farm animals, including horses, cattle, sheep, swine and poultry, although other species occasionally may be used as illustrations and examples.

Farm animals provide labor, food and clothing. — Few realize the extent of our dependence upon farm animals. The horse has fought our wars and won our battles and is our principal beast of burden. In connection with improved machinery, he has increased man's productive power many fold. It is estimated that the horses of the United States are equal in productive industry to that of 100,000,000 laborers. In America, it is the horse that enables us to make farming an attractive business, rather than a peasant's drudgery, as in many of the older nations of the world.

In the United States, approximately one-half of the amount spent for food by the average family goes for the purchase of meat, eggs and dairy products. Our standard foods are bread and potatoes, meat, milk and eggs, 1hree of which are provided directly by farm animals, while the other two are largely dependent upon the horse or ox to furnish the labor necessary for their propagation and cultivation.

The wool of the sheep and the fiber of the cotton and flax furnish the materials out "of which we clothe ourselves. Again, the first of these materials is a direct byproduct of the body of one class of farm animals, and the cultivation of the others is accomplished very largely by means of horse labor.

Number and value of farm animals. — We possess a greater number of farm animals than any other single country in the world, although some nations, including their dependencies, excel us in some classes, particularly the British Empire in the case of sheep. Of all of the farm animals in the world approximately one-fifth of the horses, one-half of the mules, one-sixth of the cattle, onetwelfth of the sheep and two-fifths of the swine are to be found in the United States. This represents a vast

Number and Value of Farm Animals

Census

Census

Class

Total number value per

head

Total number value per

head

Human population

Horses, mules and asses

Cattle, dairy

Cattle, other than dairy. . . .

Poultry

75,994,575

$50.80

29.68

21.78

3.69

2.77

0.34

91,972,266

$111.72

34.56

24.50

6.88

4.44

0.52

Total value of farm animals

Total value of farm crops . .

2,998,704,412

5,487,161,223

*Farm value, tlncludes goats.

amount of wealth, as is illustrated in the foregoing tabulation, which gives the total population for the United States, both human and animal, and the average value per head for the several classes of farm animals as given in the twelfth and thirteen censuses.

Human population increasing, number of farm animals decreasing.— While the average value per head of all farm animals has increased immensely during the past decade, the number has materially decreased. This is significant, especially when compared with the increase in human population. Exclusive of poultry, the twelfth census shows that in 1900 there were almost three head of farm live stock for each human inhabitant, whereas the thirteenth census shows that in 1910 there were approximately two head of stock for each inhabitant. The year book of the department of agriculture gives further reduction in the number of animals on farms, particularly cattle. It is important to note this decrease has taken place in the meat-producing animals — cattle other than dairy, sheep and swine. Horses, dairy cattle and poultry show increase about in proportion to that of the human population. We may well inquire why this is true and its general significance.

Farm animals costly. — Few persons realize the expense of maintaining farm animals. We need but to reflect a moment and the enormity will become apparent to us. Practically every farmstead throughout this broad land is devoting much of its energies to animal production. Farm animals not only consume vast quantities of expensive food, but require labor in caring for their needs as well as shelter for themselves and their food. Further, the loss from death among our extensive animal population is great, running into many millions of dollars in the case of swine alone.

An idea of the cost of farm animals may be gained from the following tabulation, which gives the food of maintenance and production for the several classes of farm animals, as well as the approximate daily product and total annual cost for each class :

Food of Maintenance and Production

Mainte

Daily food lbs.

lance

Production

Animal weight

Annual cost*

Daily food lbs.

Daily product

Annual cost*

Horse 1,250

4 grain 18 hay

$47.45

15 grain 20 hay

Moderate work

$91.25

Cattle 1,250

25 hay

45.60

30 silage 12 hay

25 lbs. milk

or 2 lbs. beef

73.00

3 hay

5.50

1.5 grain 2.0 hay

0.4 lb. mutton

9.15

1 grain to

3.65

to

7.30 to 6 grain to 1.50 lbs. pork

14.60

to

21.90

18 fowls 100 lbs.

10.95

8 eggs, 1 lb.

or .75 lb. meat

18.25

*Because of the fluctuating price of feed, the cost is estimated with grain at $20 a ton and hay at $10 a ton. These prices afford a convenient basis, as they are easy to add to or take from, according to local conditions.

Relation of food to production. — There are approximately three pounds of edible dry matter in the 25 pounds of milk ; seven-tenths of a pound in the two pounds of beef; one-eighth of a pound in the .4 pound of mutton ; an average of two-fifths of a pound in the pork ; one-fourth of a pound in the .75 pound of fowl meat ; and approximately one-fourth of a pound of edible dry matter in the eight eggs.

According to this computation, the following amounts of dry matter in the food will be required by the several classes of farm animals, to produce one pound of edible dry matter in the product. Because of the variation among the individuals of the several classes, this calculation is supplemented by data from Jordan's "Feeding

Animals," which includes the digestible organic substance required to produce one pound increase in edible solids.*

Relation of Food to Production

Dairy cattle,

Swine.

Fowls

Beef

cattle, milk pork eggs meat mutton beef

Dry matter in the food required to produce one pound of edible dry matter in the product

5 lbs.

8 lbs.

15 lbs.

17 lbs.

23 lbs.

Digestible organic substance producing one pound increase edible solids

Since a pound of product in the shape of beef and mutton costs three to four times as much as in milk and pork, it is little wonder that beef cattle and sheep are decreasing. It is evident that, with the increasing human population, the time will come when it will be difficult, if not impossible to support as many animals as we do at the present. True, some classes of animals, particularly fowls and swine, can be kept, in part, upon refuse,, but an immense acreage of corn, oats and hay is necessary to maintain our farm animals. Before long much of this land will be required to support our increasing population in a more economic manner than we have hitherto been able to produce beef and mutton.

Distribution of farm animals. — The high food cost of beef and mutton does not mean that such meat cannot be produced at a profit. There are certain regions in which both products make a liberal return on the invest- '^lent, particularly when we consider the wool, the hide and like by-products. As would be expected, because

of the density of the population, we find poultry and dairy cattle most numerous in the Middle Atlantic and North Central states where food is high in price. Fifty per cent of the dairy cattle in the Union are in the North Central states. In like manner we find the meat-producing animals, particularly cattle and sheep, very numerous in regions that are sparsely populated and where food is cheap, although large numbers of meat animals, particularly swine, are to be found in the Central states. This is because of the abundance of meat-producing foods. Thus 45 per cent of our beef cattle are in the South Central states, 42 per cent of the sheep in the Mountain states and 60 per cent of the swine in the North Central states, while 54 per cent of the mules are in the South Central states.

Improving farm animals. — Since our animals are very costly, indeed so expensive that they are decreasing in number, it would seem well worth our time to give serious attention to methods of increasing their efhciency. While there are many factors entering into the improvement of

farm animals, many of which are little understood, yet the experience of successful breeders gives us abundance of evidence to suppose that environment, selection and heredity are by far the most important means by which farm animals are improved, as they control development, give efficiency and purify the blood. (Fig. 2.)

Fig. 2 — Diagram Showing Relationship of linvironment. i nlS

THE Principles Involved in Animal Im- fgrm is UScd tO denote the conditions of life as a whole, both good and bad, into which the animal comes and by which it may be eithei advanced or retarded, but with which it must live and compete. The environment consists largely of food, shelter and care, including training and developing. To obtain greatest advancement the animal must be well fed at all times, but more especially while young, since the individual retarded at this age will never reach that degree of perfection which it otherwise would had it been properly nourished during the days in which growth was possible.

The shelter required for advancement necessarily varies much with the several classes of farm animals and with the climate, but should be sufficient to keep the animal in comfort. Exposure to very hot sun, as well as to cold rains and storms, is especially harmful to all classes of farm animals. The care should be such as to encourage greatest development at all times. Many persons fail in breeding animals by depending on heredity alone to maintain and improve their stock.

While greatest advancement cannot be obtained without suitable food and care, training and development are even more important. There seems to be a tendency on the part of some breeders to overlook this fact. It must be remembered, however, no matter how suitable the conditions, indeed no matter how pure the heritage, maximum usefulness in many economic attributes or features of farm animals cannot be attained without proper training and development. This fact is well illustrated in the case of Standardbred horses and dairy cows, the only two classes of farm animals in which we have accurate records of performance. We know exactly what these animals can do and know definitely when progress has been made. Further, we know positively that maximum efficiency depends upon proper training and development, as such is necessary to bring out all of the possibilities of the individual.

Heredity. — This term is commonly defined as the tendency of the offspring to resemble the parent. In the main, therefore, the individuality of the offspring is similar to that of the parent. Thus in common usage we have the expression "like begets like," although in an exact sense no animal is like either parent. The idea of heredity signifies the transmission of the determiners of individuality from parent to offspring. Walter briefly defines environment as what the animal has, training as what he does, and heredity as what he is, thus denoting purity of blood. Further, he says that while what an animal has and does are of great importance, especially to the individual, yet what he is, is of far more importance in the long run.* This is probably true, but we will never know exactly what an animal is; that is, what his capabilities are, unless the environment and the training have been such as to develop all of the potentialities with which the individual is endowed. Of course, it is recognized that the animal must be capable of development, or the effect of suitable environment and proper training will come to naught.

Selection. — Heredity does not distinguish between the good and the bad, and so far as it is concerned the offspring may obtain either or both from the parent. Here is where selection plays a very significant part in the improvement of our farm animals. The successful breeder selects and propagates animals with desirable attributes, features or characters, by which is meant detail of form or function, and eliminates those individuals that fail to come up to expectation.

As suggested, not all animals are endowed with the same capabilities for development, even under suitable environment, as some individuals make remarkable advancement, while other individuals fail to equal their predecessors. Here, again, selection proves the key to efficiency, for all animals that fail to develop up to the standard are disregarded, and only those that come up to expectation are retained for breeding purposes. Thus

the average efficiency of the animals retained is superior to the averag"e of those born into the herds. Since the degree of selection employed in practice is the controlling factor in the efficiency of our living farm animals, it would seem well worth while to give careful consideration to the methods whereby selection can be used more effectively.

Propagation of animals. — So important are environment, selection and heredity in the development of our farm animals that the influence of many factors operating to decrease the number of normal births, as well as proper development while young, are often overlooked. These very factors often are of greatest concern to the practical breeder. The dairy farmer with a herd of 40 cows is more concerned in having his cows freshen regularly and normally than in the individuality of the offspring. The same is true in breeding horses, beef cattle, sheep and swine, with added interest in methods whereby the many fatal diseases of the young may be avoided and proper development secured. The proper growth of the new individual, both before and after birth, is beset by many difficulties. The number of animals that fail to breed as well as those that give birth to premature young is great. This is a source of immense financial loss in dairy cattle and all pure-bred animals. Further, it has been stated that approximately one-fourth of all the young animals born die before they are one month of age. Surely it is well worth our time to consider methods whereby this great loss may be avoided.