Practical essays

Front matter

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UNBTED STATES OF AMERICA.

Preface

The present volume is in great part a reprint of articles contributed to Reviews. The principal bond of union among them is their practical character. Beyond that, there is little to connect them apart from the individuality of the author and the range of his studies.

That there is a certain amount of novelty in the various suggestions here embodied, will be admitted on the most cursory perusal. The farther question of their worth is necessarily left open.

The first two essays are applications of the laws of mind to some prevailing Errors.

The next two have an educational bearing : the one is on the subjects proper for Competitive Examinations ; the other, on the present position of the much vexed Classical controversy.

The fifth considers the range of Philosophical or Metaphysical Study, and the mode of conducting this study in Debating Societies.

The sixth contains a retrospect of the growth of the Universities, with more especial reference to those of Scotland ; and also a discussion of the University Ideal, as something more than professional teaching.

The seventh is a chapter omitted from the author's " Science of Education " ; it is mainly devoted to the methods of self-education by means of books. • The situation thus assumed has peculiarities that admit of being handled apart from the general theory of Education.

The eighth contends for the extension of liberty of thought, as regards Sectarian Creeds and Subscription to Articles. The total emancipation of the clerical body from the thraldom of subscription, is here advocated without reservation.

The concluding essay discusses the Procedure of Deliberative Bodies. Its novelty lies chiefly in proposing to carry out, more thoroughly than has yet been done, a few devices already familiar. But for an extraordinary reluctance in all quarters to adapt simple and obvious remedies to a growing evil, the article need never have appeared. It so happens, that the case principally before the public mind at present, is the deadlock in the House of Commons; yet, had that stood alone, the author would not have ventured to meddle with the subject. The difficulty, however, is widely felt : and the principles here put forward are perfectly general; being applicable wherever deliberative bodies are numerously constituted and heavily laden with business.

Aberdeen, March, 18S4.

Contents

COMMON ERRORS ON THE MIND.

Error regarding Mind as a whole — that Mind can be exerted without bodily expenditure, . . .

Errors with regard to the FEELINGS, ....

II. Errors Of Suppressed Correlatives

Meanings of Relativity— intellectual and emotional, . - .43

All impressions greatest at first. Law of Accommodation and habit, 44 The pleasure of rest presupposes toil, . . . . .45

Knowledge has its charm from previous ignorance, . .. . ib.

Silence is of value, after excess of speech, . . . .46

Previous pain not, in all cases, necessary to pleasure, . . ib.

Simplicity of Style praiseworthy only under prevailing artificiality, . 47 To extol Knowledge is to reprobate Ignorance, . . .48

Authority appealed to, when in our favour, repudiated when against

Fallacy of declaring all labour honourable alike, . . , ib.

The happiness of Justice supposes reciprocity, . . 51

Love and Benevolence need to be reciprocated, . . -53

The moral nature of God — a fallacy of suppressed correlative, . 54

A perpetual miracle — a self-contradiction, .... ib.

Fallacy that, in the world, everything is mysterious, . . 55

Proper meaning of Mystery, ...... 56

Locke and Newton on the true nature ©f Explanation, . . 57

The Understanding cannot transcend its own experience. — Time and

Space, their Infinity, . . . . . .58

We can assimilate facts, and generalise the many into one. This

alone constitutes Explanation, ..... 63 Example from Gravity : not now mysterious, . . ... 64

Body and Mind. In what ways the mysteriousness of their union

might be done away with, ..... 65

CONTENTS.

III. The Civil Service Examinations

I. Historical Sketch.

First official recommendation of Competitive Examinations, .

Successive steps towards their adoption,

First absolutely open Competition — in the India Service,

Macaulay's Report on the subjects for examination and their values.

Table of Subjects. Innovations of Lord Salisbury, .

An amended Table, ......

PAGE

73 74 76 79

II. The Scheme Considered.

Doubts expressed as to the expediency of the competitive'system, . 80 Criticism of the present prescription for the higher Services, . . 81

The Commissioners' Scheme of Mathematics and Natural Science

objectionable, . . . . . . ib.

Classification of the Sciences into Abstract or fundamental, and Concrete or derivative, ...... 82

Those of the first class have a fixed order, the order of dependence, . 83 The other class is represented by the Natural History Sciences, which

bring into play the Logic of Classification, . . .84

Each of these is allied to one or other members of the primary

Sciences, ........ ib.

The Commissioners' Table misstates the relationships of the various

The London University Scheme a better model, . . .87

The choice allowed by the Commissioners not foun led on a proper

The higher Mathematics encouraged to excess, . . .90

Amended scheme of comparative values, . . . .91

Position of Languages in the examinations, . . . .92

The place in education of Language generally, . . . ib.

Purposes of Language acquisition, ..... ib.

Altered position of the Classical languages, . . . -93

Alleged benefits of these languages, after ceasing to be valuable in

their original use, ...... 94

The teaching of the languages does not correspond to these secondary values, ....... 97

Languages are not a proper subject for competition with a view to

appointments, ....... 101

For foreign service, there should be a pass examination in the languages needful, ....... 102

XU CONTENTS.

PAGE

The training powers attributed to languages should be tested in its

own character, ....... 104

Instead of the Languages of Greece, Rome, &c., substitute the History

and Literature, ....... 105

Allocation of marks under this view, . . . . .107

Objections answered, ....... 108

Certain subjects should be obligatory, . . , . .110

IV. The Classical Controversy

Its Present Aspect.

Attack on Classics by Combe, fifty years ago, .... 115 Alternative proposals at the present day : —

1. The existing system, . . . . , .116 Attempts at extending the Science course under this system, . . 117

2. Remitting Greek in favour of a modern language. A defective

arrangement, . . . . . . .119

3. Remitting both Latin and Greek in favour of French and German, 121

4. Complete bifurcation of the Classical and the Modern sides, . 122 The Universities must be prepared to admit a thorough modern alternative course, ........ ib.

Latin should not be compulsory in the modern side, . . . 124

Defences of Classics, . . . . . . .126

The argument from the Greeks knowing only their own language —

never answered, ....... ib.

Admission that the teaching of classics needs improvement, . . 127

Alleged results of contact with the great authors of Greece and

Rome — unsupported by facts, . . , . . .129

Amount of benefit attainable without knowledge of originals, . 132

The element of training may be obtained from modern languages, . ib. The classics said to keep the mind free from party bias, . . 133

Canon Liddon's argument in favour of Greek as a study, . . 134

V. Metaphysics And Debating Societies

Metaphysics here taken as comprising Psychology, Logic, and their

dependent sciences, ...... 139

Importance of the two fundamental departments, . . . 140

The great problems, such as Free-will and External Perception,

should be run up into systematic Psychology, . . I41

Logic also requires to be followed out systematically, . . 142

Slender connection of Logic and Psychology, . . 144

Derivative Sciences : — Education,

^Esthetics — a corner of the larger field of Human Happiness The treatment of Happiness should be dissevered from Ethics, Adam Smith's loose rendering of the conditions of happiness Sociology — treated, partly in its own field, and partly as a derivative of Psychology, ....

Through it lies the way to Ethics, The sociological and the ethical ends compared, Factitious applications of Metaphysical study, Bearings on Theology, as regards both attack and defence, Incapable of supplying the place of Theology, Polemical handling of Metaphysics, Methodised Debate in the Greek Schools, Much must always be done by the solitary thinker, . Best openings for Polemic : — Settling the meanings of terms, Discussing the broader generalities, .... The Debate a fight for mastery, and ill-suited for nice adjustments The Essay should be a centre of amicable co-operation, which would

have special advantages, Avoidance of such debates as are from their very nature interminable

THE UNIVERSITY IDEAL— PAST AND PRESENT.

The Higher Teaching in Greece, .

The Middle Age and Boethius, ....

Eve of the University, ......

Separation of Philosophy from Theology,

The Universities of Scotland founded — their history, .

First Period.— The Teaching Body, ....

The Subjects taught and manner of teaching,

Second Period. — The Reformation,

Modified Curriculum— Andrew Melville,

Attempted reforms in teaching, ....

System of Disputation, .....

Improvements constituting the transition to the Third Period,

The Universities and the political revolutions,

How far the Universities are essential to professional teaching : pe:

ennial alternative of Apprenticeship, . The Ideal Graduate, . . . , .

CONTENTS.

VII. The Art Of Study

Study more immediately supposes learning from Books, The Greeks did not found an Art of Study, but afforded

Demosthenes, ....

Quintilian's " Institutes" a landmark, Bacon's Essay on Studies. Hobbes, . Milton's Tractate on Education, Locke's " Conduct of the Understanding" very specific as

of Study, ....

Watts's work entitled " The Improvement of the Mind," What an Art of Study should attempt, Mode of approaching it, .

1. First Maxim — " Select a Text-book-in-chief," Violations of the maxim : Milton's system, Form or Method to be looked to, in the chief text-boo] The Sciences. History, Non-methodical subjects, Repudiation of plans of study by some, Merits to be sought in a principal Text-book, Question as between old writers and new, Paradoxical extreme — one book and no more, Single all-sufficing books do not exist, Illustration from Locke's treatment of the Bible,

II. "What constitutes the study of a book ? " i. Copying literally :— Defects of this plan, .

2. Committing to memory word for word, Profitable only for brief portions of a book, . Memory in extension and intension, .

3. Making Abstracts, ....

Variety of modes of abstracting,

4. Locke's plan of reading, A sense of Form must concur with abstracting, Example from the Practice of Medicine,

Example from the Oratorical Art, . „__ .

Choice of a series of Speeches to begin "ttpon,

An oratorical scheme essential,

Exemplary Speeches, ....

Illustration from the oratorical quality of negative tact. Macaulay

Speeches on Reform, Study for improvement in Style,

III. Distributing the Attention in Reading, .

PAGE

205 206

209 210 212

21S ib.

222 223 224 225 226

245 247 248

XV

IV. Desultory Reading, . . . -.

V. Proportion of book-reading to Observation at first hand,

VI. Adjuncts of Reading. — Conversation, Original Composition,. . . . . ,

PAGE

RELIGIOUS TESTS AND SUBSCRIPTIONS.

Pursuit of Truth has. three departments :— order of nature, ends of practice, and the supernatural, ....

Growth of Intolerance. How innovations became possible, .

In early society, religion a part of the civil government,

Beginnings of toleration — dissentients from the State Church,

Evils attendant on Subscription: — the practice inherently fallacious.

Enforcement of creeds nugatory for the end in view .

Dogmatic uniformity only a part of the religious character : element of Feeling, . ... . , . . .

Recital of the general argument for religious liberty, .

Beginnings of prosecution for heresy in Greece :— . Anaxagoras, crates, Plato, Aristotle, .....

Forced reticence in recent times :— Carlyle, Macaulay, Lyell,

Evil of disfranchising the Clerical class,

Outspokenness a virtue to be encouraged,

Special necessities of the present time : conflict of advancing knowledge with the received orthodoxy,

Objections answered : — The Church has engaged itself to the State to teach given tenets, „ .

Possible abuse of freedom by the clergy,

The history of the English Presbyterian Church exemplifies th absence of Subscription, ....

Various modes of transition from the prevailing practice, .

257 261 263 264 265

273 274 ib.

284 287