A new grammar of the English language ...

Front matter

.11/7

NEW GRAMMAR

ENGLISH LANGUAGE

Preface

By circumstances, which need not be stated, the attention of the author was recently attracted to English grammar. On examining the grammars in common use, he discovered in all of them what seemed to him to be errors ; and he thought that, by devoting a few of his leisure hours to the investigation of the subject, he might derive pleasure and advantage from the employment, and might perhaps render an acceptable service to English literature.

Perceiving that the leading rules and principles found in modern grammars were derived from old ones, and believing that the early grammarians copied too closely from the grammars of other languages, particularly the Latin, then the only language used by the learned, he has, in sketching the outline of this, taken no other whatever for his guide, but has sought for rules and principles in the best specimens of English composition, in the common and ordinary use of words, and in their present and obvious import.

From the course pursued, it has resulted, that this grammar differs from most others in several particulars. First (and least important,) It arranges certain words, some usually called articles and others pronouns, in the class of adjectives : — Second, It denies that the auxiliaries, could, might, should, and would usually refer to past time, in other words, that they are signs of a past tense : — Third, It denies that the Potential mode has more than two tenses : — Fourth, It rejects the Subjunctive mode : — Fifth, It substitutes for it, or rather it recognises, a Conditional mode : — Sixths it ap-

IV preface:.

plies new names to several of the tenses : — Seventh^ Rejecting the passive as a class of verbs, it exhibits the English verb conjugated in three different ways : — Eighth, The Syntax is simplified, considerably shortened, and compiled without reference to the grammar or construction of any other language. Of these particulars, the second is most im~ portant. If that is correct,, the third, fourth, and fifth must be correct also.

These deviations from rules and principles generally received as correct will doubtless be attributed by many to the love of innovation ; and many will feel a natural reluctance to admit that what they have been taught, and have themselves taught, is erroneous. But no candid critic will permit his preconceived opinions to hurry him to a decision ; he will neither condemn nor approve until he shall have thoroughly examined and patiently inquired whether, in each of the several foregoing particulars, this grammar is correct or not. The notes at the end of the book may afford some assistance to any one disposed to make the inquiry.

But admitting that it is correct, and that others are erroneous, in all these particulars, does this, the reader may inquire, give it any practical superiority 1 Are the errors of sufficient importance to require correction ? We have had able and successful teachers, learned and elegant writers, who never used nor studied any English grammar, but Lowth's or Murray's. — In reply, it may be observed that, to point out the particular effects upon style of the alterations proposed ; to show how they would render it more regular, precise, and perspicuous, though not difficult, must be superfluous. It is sufficient to say that, in teaching any art or science, it cannot be indifferent whether the fundamental rules and principles inculcated are true or false ; that from truth, whether in morals or science, none but good — from error, none but evil, consequences can flow; that whatever is correct must necessarily be simple, free from inconsistencies and absurdities, and of easy acquisition ; and that, by regarding only the peculiar idiom and character of a language, in ascertaining and adjusting its rules and principles, it will, thus released from foreign fetters, be left free to advance to the highest degree of excellence of which it is susceptible. And it may also be observed that our most elegant writers learned the grammar of their language, not so much from Lowth or Murray, as from studying the purest specimens of English composition ; from attending carefully to the meaning and force of words.;

PREFACE. V

and from consulting and regarding more that indefinable sense of propriety which constitutes good taste, than the precepts of their instructors. Indeed, of their disregard of them, almost every page of their writings bears witness. It is to these models of composition, as has before been observed, that particular regard has been paid in ascertaining the rules and principles of the language.

The grammar of our language has received too little attention from men engaged in literary pursuits. Those who have written on the subject, with the exception of Tooke and Webster, have paid too much regard to ancient, and too little to cotemporary and cognate languages — and too little also to the language itself as it is spoken and written. It is not a subject unworthy the attention of men who have attained an elevated rank as scholars. It has, on the contrary, high claims upon those who feel an attachment to elegant literature, and a solicitude for the improvement of the medium by which so much pleasure and instruction is imparted. The learned of France and Italy, by the attention which they have devoted to this branch of literature, have acquired for their respective languages a high reputation ; would our own scholars but consider the subject worthy their attention, they might easily vindicate the claim of the English to an equality at least with either.

This grammar, though smaller than most others, contains, it is believed, all that is necessary for a student to know in regard to etymology and syntax. That others are larger may be attributed, in some degree, to the prevalent and injurious error that the grammar of our language is as complex as that of others ; that it is intricate, difficult, and abstruse ; and that minute explanations, many divisions, and a multiplicity of rules are necessary to enable the learner to understand it. It is, in truth, much more simple, and has fewer anomalies, than any other. The incumbrance of inflection being in a great degree dispensed with, but little more is necessary than to acquire an accurate knowledge of the meaning, force, and manner of use of the words which compose the language, especially the auxiliaries, to become master of its grammar. This knowledge can be acquired only by the constant and habitual use of it ; and foreigners may therefore be pardoned for complaining of the difficulty they meet with in learning and speaking it. But let any one familiar with it compare its excellencies and defects with the excellencies and defects of others, and he will be convinced that it is inferior to none.

VI PREFACE.

and that it exhibits unequivocal evidence of being formed by a thinking people, accustomed to analyze their thoughts, and in a period distinguished beyond all others for the advancement of reason and all the intellectual faculties. Certainly no language was ever formed under more favorable auspices. Whether this little book is well devised and adapted for use in schools, instructers must decide. To exhibit the true principles of the language has been the object to which the author has principally directed his attention. He believes, however, that they will find it well adapted for that purpose, a capable and experienced instructer having assisted in preparing this edition for the press. From the use of a few terms to which they have not been accustomed, the first impression upon their minds will doubtless, in most cases, be unfavorable ; but as the author believes that the appellations which have been rejected are very inappropriate, and are real impediments in the way of the scholar ; and that those which he proposes are appropriate, descriptive, and will assist him in his progress, he cannot do otherwise than present them for consideration and trial.

Index

Active Conjugation, 30.

Adjective, 2. Derivation of the name, 13. Definition, 13. Two kinds

of, 14. Often used as nouns, 14, 74. Sometimes have the sign

of the possessive case, 14. Comparison of, 15. Syntax of, 67* Mverh, 2, 49. Syntax of, 68.

Arrangement, 58, 68.

Article, 16, 98.

Auxiliaries, 18. Ellipsis of, 55. Table of, 104. The use of them a

distinguishing characteristic of the language, 106, 108. Often

omitted by the poets, 109.

Be, used as an auxiliary, 20. Remarks on, and conjugation of, 34. Its

use after conjunctions regulated entirely by custom, 35, 111. Can, May, and Must, auxiliaries, 18. Signs of the potential mode, 23.

The time they express, 28.

Capital letters, use of, 97.

Classification of Words, 1, 120.

Conditional Mode. 22. Signs of, 23, 104. Has two tenses, 27. Note

upon, 105.

Conjugation, 29. Three forms of, 30.

Conjunctions, 3, 52. Do not govern verbs, 58. And see note on the

Subjunctive Mode.

Could, Might, Should, and Would, auxiliaries, 19. Signs of the Conditional Mode, 23, 104. The time they denote, 26, 28. Note

upon, 99.

Do, used as an auxiliary, 20. Verbs conjugated by the help of, 37. Ellipsis, 53. Of auxiliaries has led to the supposition that the English

language has a subjunctive mode, 107, 109. Imperative Mode, 23. Has one tense, 29.

Indefinite Active Conjugation, 30, 39.

Indicative Mode, 22. Has six tenses, 24.

Infinitive Mode. 22. Sign of, 22, 104. Has two tenses, 24. Ellipsis of

sign of, 56.

Interjection, 3, 53.

Irregular Verbs, 44.

Mode, definition of, 22. Table of Modes, 104. JVoun, 2, 3. Syntax of, 59, 64, 65, 66.

Ought, remarks on, 123.

Passive Verb, not a class, but a form of the verb, 18, 30, 42, 122. Parsing, what, 58. Directions for, 70. Exercises in, 75. Participle, three kinds of, 21. Syntax of, 65.

Vlll INDEX.

Potential Mode, 22. Signs of, 23, 104. Has but two tenses, 27, 105.

Preposition, 3, 51, Syntax of, QQ.

Pronoun, 2, ]6. Syntax of, 60, 61, 63. Possessive of, 121.

Signs of Tenses, 18, 104.

Shall, auxiliary, 19, 20. Change of termination, 21.

Subjunctive Mode, not inserted in the list of Modes, 22. Has no peculiar sign or auxiliary, !I04. Not derived from the Saxon, 108. Not necessary, 108. Tends to render style ambiguous, 109. Differs from indicative in only two persons of one tense, 109. Which diiference arises from the ellipsis of an auxiliary, 109. Had its origin with the old English poets, 109. Not always used by good writers, 110. Quotation fiom Burke, 111. Be and loerc not subjunctive. 111. Different theories of the subjunctive mode. 111. Absence of personal terminations not required to express doubt, &c. 112. Mode does not depend upon other words, 22, 112. The English has no mode invariably subjunctive, 113. J/" never used in a subjunctive clause, 113. The potential of the English corresponds with the subjunctive of other languages, 113.

Syntax, 58. Violations of, 85.

Tense, Derivative, 23. Definition, 23. Three principal tenses, 23. The several tenses described, 24-28. Note on the names of the tenses, 115. Use of the tenses, 69, 118.

Were, not strictly a part of the verb, to be, 34, 111. Not the subjunctive form of that verb. 111.

IFifZZ, used as an auxiliary, 20. Change of termination, 21.

Verb, 2. Derivation of the name, 17. Two kinds of, 17. Transitive verb, 18. Intransitive verb, 18. The modification called a passive verb, 18, 122. Syntax of, 60, 64.

NEW GRAMMAR

ENGLISH LANGUAGE,

Grammar is the art of speaking and writing a language with verbal propriety.

It is divided into four parts : Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody.

Orthography treats of letters or spelling ; Etymology of words ; Syntax of sentences ; Prosody of the harmony of composition, and applies chiefly to poetry.

In the subsequent pages Etymology and Syntax only will be treated of.

Part I. Etymology

It belongs to this part of grammar to show into how many kinds or classes the words of a language may be divided ; the nature or properties of the words of each class ; and the modifications or changes which they may admit.

There are, in the English language, eight different kinds or classes of words, commonly called Parts of Speech ; namely, Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections. 1

'a ETYMOLOGY.

1. A Noun is the name of any person, object or thing which can be perceived by any of the senses, or can be made the subject of conversation : thus, Philadelphia is the name of a place ; Bonaparte is the name of a man ; iron is the name of a metal ; dog is the name of a kind of animals ; judgment is the name of a faculty of the mind ; temperance is the name of a virtue. The following words are nouns :

George, tree, soul.

success,

Smith, chair, truth.

vacancy.

Nile, stone.

glory.

nothing.

Troy, fire, virtue, defect.

2. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun ; of this class of words, there are but few in the language, and the principal are, /, thou, he, she, it, who,

3. Adjectives are used to express the quality of the things which are spoken of when nouns are used, or to describe or point them out ; and they are always connected with some noun or pronoun expressed or understood : as tall tree ; hard stone ; a soul ; tenth chair ; true glory. The following words are adjectives :

good.

great, this.

one.

bad.

small.

that.

five, beautiful, white, many, ninth, ugly, sweet.

several, fiftieth.

4. We use a Verb when we wish to say that any person or thing is or exists, does any thing or suffers ; as, God is good ; the Lord liveth ; horses run ; trees grow '; the farmer hoes corn, and mows grass ; criminals are punished. The following words are verbs :

be, sing, think.

die.

exist, catch.

teach.

endure, live.

ride.

strike, sustain, enjoy, read.

go, receive.

5. Adverbs describe the manner in which actions are done ; in other words, they modify the meaning of verbs ;

NOUNS. d

as, horses run swiftly ; she sings charmingly ; thus saith the Lord. They are also used to modify the meaning of adjectives and other adverbs, to express time, &c. The following words are adverbs :

discreetly, twice, there, yes,

truly, often, here, no,

humbly, soon, therefore, not,

artfully, again, thereby, never.

6. A Preposition expresses the relation between two or more words, or between the ideas which the words are used to express : as, the heavens are above the earth ; the book lies on the table ; the Gospel was preached to the Gentiles.

7. A Conjunction joins words and sentences together : as, trees and animals live and grow ; to desert friends, or to do injustice to enemies, is mean as well as wicked.

8. An Interjection is a word or sound expressing passion or emotion : as, oh, alas, fie, poh.

All the parts of speech are contained in the following paragraph.

3 1 43 3.1 782

Delightful hopes flatter the young man ; but, alas, he

5 5 4 3 16 1

soon painfully experiences the deceitfulness of hope.

Many words belong sometimes to one class and sometimes to another ; thus fear may be used as a noun and a verb ; and further may be used as an adjective, a verb, and an adverb.

Chapter I. Of Nouns

Noun is from the Latin word nomen, signifying name. A noun is the name of any thing which exists, or of which we caii have an idea: — Boston, man, tree, the soul, thought ; the beginning of the world ; he waited for the moving of the waters.

Nouns are either Proper or Common.

Proper nouns are the names appropriated to individuals, or single objects : — George, Vermont, Hudson, Joioler, the horse, Eclipse.

Common nouns are the names of sorts or species, and are equally applicable to any individual of the sort or species : — animal, river, tree, dog, virtue.

In the class of common nouns are comprised a large number called, by some grammarians, Abstract Nouns. They are the names of abstract qualities, or of objects which can be contemplated only by the mind ; as, goodness, religion, opinion, devotion, faith, he.

Proper nouns, when used to denote a class, become common nouns: — he is the Washins-ton of the asie : Charles the Twelfth, that Ccesar of the north.

A common noun, when used as the name of an individual, becomes a proper noun : — Mr. Carpenter is a baker ; the sloop. Eagle.

To Nouns belong Person, Gender, Number, and Case.

PERSON.

There are three persons : first, second, and thu'd. Nouns are of the first person when used to designate the person speaking or writing : — "I, Paul, write to thee," &;c. ; they are of the second person when used to designate the person addressed ; — " child of mortality, whence comest thou ; " and they are of the third person when they designate the person or thing spoken of: — "the tree is known by its fruit ; " " memory is a faculty of the mind.^^ Nouns are seldom used in the first or second person.

GENDER.

Gender has reference to sex ; and as there are but two sexes, the male and the female, all the nouns, in some languages, are considered as belonging either to the masculine or the feminine gender. But there being many objects or things without sex, the names of these, in some

NOUNS. O

Other languages, are considered as belonging to the neuter (Latin for neither) gender ; and in most languages, the different genders of nouns are distinguished by different terminations. The mode of distinguishing the gender of nouns by changing their terminations, or of classing them according to their terminations, does not prevail, to any great extent, in the English language ; of course, the same word (friend, for instance) is often applied indifferently, and without modification, to persons or beings who belong to one or the other of the two sexes, or to both ; and hence arises the propriety, if not necessity, of a fourth gender, which has been properly denominated the common gender.

There are, therefore, in English grammar, four genders — the Masculine, the Feminine, the Neuter, and the Common.

Nouns designating males are of the masculine gender : — man, bull, gander.

Nouns designating females are of the feminine gender: —'Woman, coiv, goose.

Nouns designating objects or things without sex are of the neuter gender: — field, star, thought, joy.

Nouns designating persons or beings who belong to one or the other sex, but not distinguishing the sex, are of the common gender : — parent, child, scholar, elephant^ bird, cattle, sheep.

Nouns of the neuter gender are sometimes, by a figure of speech, used in the masculine or feminine gender. We say of the sun, he is setting ; and of a ship, she sails well.

The feminine gender is distinguished from the masculine in three different modes, viz.

1. By different words :

lASCULINE.

FEMININE.

MASCULINE.

FEMININE

Bachelor,

Maid.

Lad,

Lass.

Boy,

Girl.

Nephew,

Niece.

Brother,

Sister.

Sloven,

Slut.

Drake,

Duck.

Uncle,

Aunt.

Friar,

Nun. 1*

Wizard,

Witch.

NOUNS.

2. By difference of termination.

Abbot,

Abbess.

Jew,

Jewess.

Actor,

Actress.

Landgrave,

Landgravine.

Executor,

Executrix.

Peer,

Peeress.

Heir,

Heiress.

Shepherd,

Shepherdess.

Hero,

Heroine.

Widower,

Widow.

And in the case of many other words, the feminine is distinguished from the mascuhne by the addition of ess.

3. By prefixing a word indicative of sex :

A cock-sparrow, A man-servant, A he-bear, A male-child,

A hen-sparrow.

A maid-servant.

A she-bear.

A female-child.

NUMBER.

Nouns have two numbers, the Singular and the Plural. The singular expresses one object: — chair, table. The plural expresses more objects than one : — chairs, tables.

The plural number is generally denoted by adding s to the singular : — dove, doves ; a song, ten songs.

But when the singular ends in x, ss, s, sh, or ch sounded as in church, the plural is formed by adding es : — fox, foxes ; lass, lasses ; rebus, rebuses ; sash, sashes ; torch, torches ; and sometimes when the singular ends in o, as hero, heroes.

In some instances, when the singular ends in /or fe, those letters are changed into ves : — ■ calf, calves ; self, selves ; life, lives.

When the singular ends in y, with a consonant before it, the plural is formed by changing y into ies : — vanity, vanities ; body, bodies. But generally, when y has a vowel before it, s only is added : — valley, valleys ; delay, delays.

Some nouns are used only in the plural : — ashes, riches, scissors, victuals, politics, mathematics, &z;c.

Some nouns are used only in the singular: — wheat, hemp, pitch, pride, wine, oil, &c. A portion of these.

however, admit the plural termination, when different kinds are spoken of : — • " The 2vines of France are better than those of Germany."

Some nouns are the same in both numbers : — deer, sheep, swine, &:c.

News is singular ; and custom has sanctioned the use oi means as singular as well as plural.

The following table comprises words which form their plural irregularly :

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

Man, Men.

Goose,

Geese.

Woman, Women.

Mouse,

Mice.

Ox, Oxen.

Louse,

Lice.

Foot, Feet.

Die,

Dice.

Tooth, Teeth.

Penny,

Pence.

The following are from ancient languages :

Axis, Axes.

Stratum,

Strata.

Antithesis, . Antitheses.

Phenomenon,

Phenomena

Basis, Bases.

Arcanum,

Arcana.

Crisis, Crises.

Genus,

Genera.

Ellipsis, ElHpses.

Radius,

Radii.

Automaton, Automata.

Magus,

Magi.

When the pieces of coin are spoken of, penny becomes "pennies in the plural : — The English mint can coin one hundred pennies per minute.

CASE.

Case signifies the state of the noun, its relation to other words, or its position in regard to them.

Nouns have three cases ; the Nominative, the Possessive, and the Objective.

The Nominative is the original state of the noun, and simply expresses the name of the person or thing which acts, exists, or suffers : — John strikes Peter ; the Lord liveth ; Thomas was punished.

The Possessive expresses property or fitness, and is generally distinguished by the addition of an apostrophe and the letter 5 ; — the boy^s hat ; viriut's reward ; women's shoes. But when the plural ends in 5, and sometimes when the nominative singular ends in ss, an apostrophe only is added : — boys' hats ; for righteousness' sake.

In expressions like the following, the use of the possessive case has been condemned as inelegant if not improper : — " This is a book of my brother's." This fonn of expression had its origin when one w-as used where both a and one are now — " This is one (or ane) book of my brother's (books.) At this day, " this is one of my brother's books " w^ould be a more elegant expression.

Two nouns in the possessive case are sometimes properly used one after the other : '' Peter's wife's mother lay sick of a fever."

When one noun follows another, the latter being added to describe or define the former, and the two being connected by the preposition of, the sign of the possessive case is affixed to the latter only : " The king of Spain's revenue ; the Savioiu' of the world's exhortations ; the star of hope's last beam." In these and like cases, the two nouns constitute but one descriptive appellation.

In such expressions as the following, the sign of the possessive case is affixed to the last noun only : — King George's crown ; for David my servant's sake.

Whenever the possessive case sounds unpleasantly, it may be changed into the objective by using the preposition 0/ before it : — Such was the king's and the queen's pleasure — such was the pleasure of the king and the queen.

The Objective case does not differ in spelling from the nominative. A noun is said to be in this case when it follows, or expresses the object of, a verb, or follows a preposition : — John strikes Peter ; the sun enlightens the earth; fishes live in water; birds fly through .the air. Here the verbs strikes and enlightens, and the prepositions in and through, are said to govern the following nouns j that is, to place them in the objective case.

NOUNS.

To decline a noun is to recite its various cases. English nouns are thus declined :

SINGULAR.

Norn. Poss. Obj,

George, George's, George.

Stone, Stone's, Stone.

Lad, Lad's, Lad.

Lass, Lass's, Lass.

PLURAL.

Nom. Poss. Ohj.

Georges, Georges', Georges.

Stones, Stones', Stones.

Lads, Lads', Lads.

Lasses, Lasses', Lasses.

Questions on the Noun.

Which words in the following sentences are nouns! Which are j/roper nouns 1 Which are common nouns 1 In ivhat number, person, and gender is each 1 Which are in the possessive case 1

Bonaparte was emperor of France.

Burke was the Cicero of England.

I, John Doe, grant to thee, Richard Roe, my house and land in Brooklyn.

Kings and queens are seldom happy.

Dogs are distinguished for their fidelity to their masters.

The children of our uncles and aunts are our cousins.

Aim at excellence, and you will surpass mediocrity ; aim at mediocrity, and you will fall short of it.

Cherish benevolent affections, and your reward will be the highest of earthly blessings — serenity of temper.

John's book was found in his brother's desk.

For David my servant's sake.

He spent his father-in-law's property.

PRONOUNS.

Chapter II. Of Pronouns

The word Pronoun is formed from two Latin words ; 'pro J for, and nomen, name or noun.

A Pronoun is a word used instead of, or as a substitute for, a noun, when repetition would be inelegant : — "The Lord is great, and he is also good ; Maria reads well, but she cannot write." A pronoun is also sometimes used as a substitute for a sentence : — "I am required," said lord Fitzgerald, in the Irish parliament, " to make an acknowledgment for having said that the king's ministers are the worst enemies the king has. I said so, it is true, and I am sorry for zV."

Pronouns are of two kinds, Personal Pronouns and Adjective Pronouns ; and, like nouns, they have person, gender, number, and case.

Personal pronouns are such as are used as substitutes for nouns designating persons, and are J, thou, he,- she, who. It is sometimes called a personal pronoun, but is generally used as a substitute for the names of things.

/ is of the first person, thou of the second person, and he, she, it, of the third person ; who is of the first, second, and third persons.

/ and thou are used in the masculine and feminine gender : he is of the masculine gender ; she is of the feminine gender ; it is of the neuter gender ; who is of the masculine and feminine gender.

The foregoing pronouns are varied to denote number and case, and are thus declined :

SINGULAR.

JVbm,

Poss.

06/.

I,

Mine,

Me.

Thou,

Thine,

Thee.

He,

His,

Him.

She,

Hers,

Her,

It,

It,

Who,

Whose,

Whom,

JVom.

PLURAL.

Poss.

Obj.

We, Ours, Us,

Ye or you, Yours, You.

They, Theirs, Them.

They, Theirs, Them.

They, Theirs, Them.

Who, Whose, Whom.

PRONOUNS. 11

His the possessive of he, and his, a defining adjective, are spelled alike. My and thy, defining adjectives, are sometimes, especially when followed by words beginning with vowels, spelled like the possessives of I and thou — mine, thine.

Instead of thou, you is invariably used in the second person singular, except in solemn style ; we do not say, thou didst it, but you did it. Ye is not used except in solemn style. We is used instead of / by kings and editors of newspapers.

Adjective pronouns are words partaking of the nature of pronouns and adjectives ; and all of them are sometimes used as adjectives. They are this, that, whaty which, both, other, none, one, and perhaps some others.

The foregoing words are pronouns when used as substitutes for nouns, as in the following phrases : — " Of wealth and poverty, it may be said, that both are temptations ; that tends to excite pride, this discontent. This is what I wanted. This is the tree luhich produces no finit. Ye shall lie down, and none shall make you afraid. I have called my mighty ones.^^

The same words are adjectives when used to qualify or define nouns expressed or understood : — " What man is that (man) ? What tree did you speak of? I will point out which tree I spoke of ; that tree yonder. TTiis (thought) is a sublime thought. Who is of both numbers."

It is not improbable that, in the infancy of language, all pronouns were defining adjectives ; and that, when used, the nouns which they defined, and now stand for, were also used.

Who, which, and that are called Relative Pronouns when they relate to a word or phrase going before, which is thence called the Antecedent : — " He, who runs, may read ; the light ivhich shineth in darkness ; the man is wise that avoids contention." What sometimes includes both the antecedent and the relative, and is, at the same time, the object of one verb and the nominative of another: — " One man admires what displeases another." It is synonymous with that which, or the thing which. That,

12 PRONOUNS.