Essays on the principles of morality, and on the private and political rights and obligations of mankind

Front matter

V

ESSAYS

PEIICIPLES OF MOEALITY,

Preface

The Author of this Work died in the spring of 1828, leaving in manuscript the three Essays of which it consists. We learn from himself that the undertaking originated in a belief (in which he probably is far from being alone) that the existing treatises on Moral Philosophy did not exhibit the principles nor enforce the obligations of morality in all their perfection and purity ; that a work was yet wanted which should present a true and authoritative standard of rectitude — one by an appeal to which the moral character of human actions might be rightly estimated. This he here endeavours to supply.

Rejecting what he considered the false grounds of duty, and erroneous principles of action which are proposed in the most prominent and most generally received of our extant theories of moral obligation, he proceeds to erect a system of morality upon what he regards as the only true and legitimate basis — the Will of God. He makes, therefore, the authority of the Deity the sole ground of duty, and His communicated will the only ultimate standard of right and wrong ; and assumes, " that wheresoever this will is made known, human duty is determined ; and that neither the conclusions of philosophers, nor advantages, nor dangers, nor pleasures, nor sufferings, ought to have any opposing influence in regulating our conduct."

The attempt to establish a system of such uncompromising morality, must necessarily bring the writer into direct collision with the advocates of the utilitarian scheme, particularly with J)i. Paley ; and accordingly it will be found that he frequently enters the lists with this great champion of Expediency. With what success — how well he exposes the fallacies of that specious but dangerous doctrine — how far he succeeds in refuting the arguments by which it is sought to be maintained, and in establishing another system of obligations and duties and rights upon a more stable foundation, must be left to the reader to determine.

In thus attempting to convert a system of Moral Philosophy, dubious, fluctuating, and inconsistent with itself, into a definite and harmonious code of Scripture Etfcics, the Author under-

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PREFACE.

took a task for which, by the original structure of his mind and his prevailing habits of reflection, he was, perhaps, peculiarly fitted. He had sought for himself, and he endeavours to convey to others, clear perceptions of the true and the -right ; and in maintaining what he regarded as truth and rectitude, he shows every where an unshackled independence of mind, and a fearless, unflinching spirit. The work will be found, moreover, if we mistake not, to be the result of a careful study of the writings of moralists, of much thought, of an intimate acquaintance with the genius of the Christian religion, and an extensive observation of human life in those spheres of action which are seldom apt to attract the notice of the meditative philosopher.

In proceeding to illustrate his principles, the author has evidently sought, as far as might be, to simplify the subject, to disencumber it of abstruse and metaphysical appendages, and, rejecting subtleties and needless distinctions, to exhibit a standard of morals that should be plain, perspicuous and practicable.

Premising thus much, the work must be left to its own merits. It is the last labour of a man laudably desirous of benefiting his fellow men ; and it will fulfil the Author's wish, if its effect be to raise the general tone of morals, to give distinctness to our perceptions of rectitude, and to add strength to our resolutions to virtue.

The following Essays are now published in a cheap form, in order to disseminate more widely right views of the Christian's moral obligation. The importance of having sound views of our moral, social, and political rights and duties cannot be too highly estimated ; and it is hoped, that the extensive diffusion of a work, so ably exposing the laxity of many dangerous popular notions and practices, and the sophistry by which these are upheld — particularly the evil and impolicy of War — may at this period, under the Divine blessing, prove of great utility.

The present Edition contains the whole of the original one, published in England in two volumes octavo, at twenty-one shillings sterling ; and, for the more easy reference to any particular subject, a copious Index has been added.

Chap. II. Standard Of Right And Wrong, . . . .16

The Will of God— Notices of Theories— The communication of the Will of .God— The supreme authority of the expressed Will of God— Causes of its practical rejection — The principles of expediency fluctuating and inconsistent — Application of the principles of expediency — Difficulties- Liability to abuse — Pagans.

The Will of God, . . . . . . . . . 'l6

The communication op the Will of God, . . . . .19

CHAP. III. SUBORDINATE STANDARDS OF RIGHT AND WRONG, . 31 Foundation and limits of the authority of subordinate moral rules.

Chap. IV. Collateral Observations, 32

Identical authority of Moral and Religious Obligations, . . 32 Identical authority of moral and religious obligations — The Divine attributes — Of deducing rules of human duty from a consideration of the attributes of God — Virtue : " Virtue is conformity with the standard of rectitude " — Motives of action.

The Divine Attributes, . . . . . . .33

Chap. V. Scripture, 37

The morality of the Patriarchal, Mosaic, and Christian dispensations — Their moral requisitions not always coincident — Supremacy of the Christian morality — Of variations in the Moral Law — Mode of applying the precepts of Scripture to questions of duty — No formal moral system in Scripture — Criticism of Biblical morality — Of particular precepts and general rules Matt. vii. 12. — 1 Cor. x. 31. — Rom. hi. S. — Benevolence, as it is proposed in the Christian Scriptures.

The Morality of the Patriarchal, Mosaic, and Christian Dispensations, . . . . . . . . .37

Mode of Applying the Precepts of Scripture to Questions of Duty, 42

Benevolence, as it is Proposed in the Christian Scriptures, . 51

Chap. VI. The Immediate Communication Of The Will Of God, 54

Conscience— Its nature — Its authority*-Review of opinions respecting a moral sense — Bishop Butler — Lord Bacon — Lord Shaftesbury — Watts — Voltaire — Locke — Southey — Adam Smith — Paley — Rousseau -Milton — Judge Hale — Marcus Antoninus — Epictetus — Seneca — Paul — That every human being possesses a moral law — Pagans — Gradations of light — Prophecy — The immediate communication of the Divine Will perpetual — Of national vices : Infanticide : Duelling— Of savage life.

Chap. III. Utility, . . . . . . . . .91

Obligations resulting from Expediency — Limits to these obligations. CHAP. IV. THE LAW OF NATIONS.— THE LAW OF HONOUR, . . 95 Section I. The Law op Nations, . . . . . .95

Obligations and authority of the Law of Nations— Its abuses, and the limits of its authority— Treaties.

Section II. The Law of Honour, . . . . . .99

Authority of the Law of Honour — Its character.

ESSAY II.

PRIVATE RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS.

Chap I. Religious Obligations, . ^ . . . . .103

Factitious semblances of devotion — Religious conversation : Sabbatical institutions — Non-sanctity of days— Of temporal employments : Travelling : Stage-coaches : 'f Sunday papers :" Amusements — Holydays — Ceremonial institutions and devotional formularies —Utility of forms — Forms of Prayer

Extempore prayer—Scepticism — Motives to Scepticism.

Sabbatical Institutions, . . . . . . .107

Ceremonial Institutions and Devotional Formularies, . . 112

Chap. II. Property, .119

Foundation of the Right to Property — Insolvency: Perpetual obligation to pay debts : Reform of public opinion : Examples of Integrity — Wills, Legatees, Heirs: Informal Wills : Intestates — Charitable Bequests — Minor's Debts — A Wife's Debts— Bills of Exchange— Shipments— Distraints — Unjust Defendants — Extortion — Slaves — Privateers — Confiscations — Public Money — Insurance — Improvements on Estates — Settlements — Houses of infamy — Literary property — Rewards.

Chap. III. Inequality Of Property, . . . .144

Accumulation of Wealth: its proper limits — Provision for Children : "Keeping up the Family."

Chap. IV. Litigation— Arbitration, 150

Practice of early Christians— Evils of Litigation— Efficiency of Arbitration.

Chap. V. The Morality Of Legal Practice, . . .154

Complexity of Law— Professional Untruths— Defences of Legal Practice- Effects of Legal Practice : Seduction: Theft: Peculation— Pleading— The Duties of the Profession — Effects of Legal Practice on the profession, and on the public.

CONTENTS.

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PAGE

CHAP. X. ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE, 384

Substitution of justice for law — Court of Chancery — Of fixed laws — Their inadequacy — They increase litigation — Delays — Expenses — Informalities — Precedents — Verdicts — Legal proof— Courts of Arbitration — An extended system of arbitration — Arbitration in criminal trials— Constitution of courts of arbitration— Their effects — Some alterations suggested — Technicalities — Useless laws.

CHAP. XI. OF THE PROPER SUBJECTS OF PENAL ANIMADVERSION, 403

Crimes regarded by the Civil and the Moral Law — Created offences — Seduction — Duelling— insolvents — Criminal debtors — Gradations of guilt in Insolvency — Libels : mode of punishing — Effects of the laws respecting Libels— Effects of public censure — Libels on the Government — Advantages of a free statement of the truth — Freedom of the Press.

CHAP. XII. OF THE PROPER ENDS OF PUNISHMENT, . . .423 The three Objects of Punishment :— Reformation of the Offender :— Example : — Restitution — Punishment may be increased as well as diminished.

CHAP. XIII. PUNISHMENT OF DEATH, 428

Of the three objects of punishment, the punishment of death regards but one — Reformation of minor offenders : Greater criminals neglected — Capital punishments not efficient as examples — Public executions — Paul — Grotius— Murder — The punishment of death irrevocable — Rousseau- Recapitulation.

CHAP. XIV. RELIGIOUS ESTABLISHMENTS, 438

The primitive church— The established church of Ireland— America— Advantages and disadvantages of established churches — Alliance of a church with the sta f e — An established church perpetuates it own evils— Persecution generally the growth of religious establishments — State religions injurious to the civil welfare of a people — Legal provision for Christian teachers — Voluntary payment — Advancement in the church — The appointment of religious teachers.

CHAP. XV THE RELIGIOUS ESTABLISHMENTS OF ENGLAND AND

IRELAND, 463

The English Church the offspring of the Reformation, the Church esfabUshinent, of Papacy — Alliance of Church and State — " The Priesthood averse from Reformation "—Noble Ecclesiastics —[Purchase of advowsons — Non-residence — Pluralities— Parliamentary Returns — The Clergy fear to prpach the truth — Moral Preaching — Recoil from Works of Philanthropy — Tithes — "The Church is in Danger" — The Church establishmetU is in danger— Monitory Suggestion.

CHAP. XVI. OF LEGAL PROVISION FOR CHRISTIAN TEACHERS.— OF VOLUNTARY PAYMENT, AND OF UNPAID MINISTRY, . . 486

Compulsory payment — America — Legal provision for one church unjust — — Payment of Tithes by dissenters — Tithes a "property of the church" — Voluntary payment — The system of remuneration— Qualifications of a minister of trie gospel — Unpaid ministry — Days of greater purity.

CHAP. XVII. PATRIOTISM, . . . . . . .502

Patriotism as it is viewed by Christianity — A. Patriotism which is opposed to general benignity — Patriotism not the soldier's motive.

CHAP. XVIII. SLAVERY, 506

Requisitions of Christianity professedly disregarded — Persian Law — The slave system a costly iniquity.

CHAP. XIX. WAR, 511

Want of enquiry : Indifference to human misery : National irritability : Interest : Secret motives of Cabinets : Ideas of glory — Foundation of military glory.

Coxseciuences op War, . . . . . . .521

Destruction of human life : Taxation : Moral depravity : Familiarity with plunder : Implicit submission to superiors : Resignation of moral agency : Bondage and degradation— Loan of armies— Effects on the community.

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CONTENTS.

ESSAY III.

POLITICAL RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS

PAGE

Chap. I. Principles Of Political Truth, And Of Political Rectitude, .294

I. " Political Power is rightly exercised only when it is possessed by consent of the community" — Governors officers of the Public — Transfer of their rights by a whole people — The people hold the sovereign power — Right of Governors — A conciliating system.

II. " Political Power is rightly exercised only when it subserves the welfare of the community "—Interference with other nations — Present expedients for present occasions — Proper business of Governments.

IH. " Political Power is rightly exercised only when it subserves the welfare of the community by means which the Moral Law permits ' -' — The Moral Law alike binding on nations and individuals — Deviation from rectitude impolitic — " The Holy Alliance " — Durable fame.

I. "Political Power is rightly possessed only when it is possessed by Consent of the community," ..... 295

II. "Political Power is rightly exercised only when it subserves the Welfare of the community," ...... 301

IH. " Political Power is rightly exercised only when it subserves the Welfare of the community by means which the Moral Law

CHAP. n. CIVIL LIBERTY, 310

Loss of Liberty— War— Useless laws.

CHAP. ni. POLITICAL LIBERTY, 312

Political Liberty the right of a community — Public satisfaction. CHAP. IV. RELIGIOUS LIBERTY, 314

Civil disabilities— Interference of the Magistrate— Pennsylvania— Toleration — America — Creeds — Religious Tests — " The Catholic Question."

CHAP. V. CIVIL OBEDIENCE, . . . . . . .322

Expediency of Obedience — Obligations to Obedience — Extent of the Duty — Resistance to the Civil Power — Obedience may be withdrawn — King James — America — Non-compliance — Interference of the Magistrate — Oaths of Allegiance.

CHAP. VI. FORMS OF GOVERNMENT, . . . . 333

Some general principles — Monarchy — Balance of interests and passions — Changes in a constitution — Popular government — The world in a state of improvement — Character of legislators.

CHAP. VII. POLITICAL INFLUENCE— PARTY— MINISTERIAL UNION, 342

Influence of the Crown — Effects of influence — Incongruity of public notions — Patronage — American States — Dependency on the mother country — Party — Ministerial Union — " A party man " — The council board and the senate — Resignation of offices.

CHAP. Vin. BRITISH CONSTITUTION, 353

Influence of the Crown — House of Lords — Candidates for a peerage — Sudden creation of peers — The bench of Bishops — Proxies — House of Commons — The wishes of the people — Extension of the elective franchise — Universal suffrage — Frequent elections — Modes of election — Annual parliaments — Qualification of voters and representatives — Of choosing the clergy — Duties of a representative — Systematic opposition — Placemen and pensioners — Posthumous fame.

CHAP. IX. MORAL LEGISLATION, 375

Duties of a Ruler — The two objects of moral legislation— Education of the People— Bible Society — Lotteries — Public-houses — Abrogation of bad laws —Primogeniture— Accumulation of property.

CONTENTS.

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PAGB

CHAP. VI. PROMISES. — LIES, . .. . . . . .169

Promises.— Definition of a Promise— Parole— Extorted Promises— John Fletcher.

Lies. — Milton's Definition — Lies in War: to Robbers: to Lunatics : to the Sick — Hyperbole — Irony — Complimentary Untruths — " Not at Home " — Legal Documents.

CHAP. VII. OATHS, 179

Their Moral Character— Their Efficacy as Securities of Vera-, city— Their Effects, . . . . . . . .179

A Curse— Immorality of oaths— Oaths of the ancient Jews— Milton— Paley — The High Priest's adjuration— Early Christians— Inefficacy of oaths- Motives to veracity — Religious sanctions : Public opinion : — Legal penalties—oaths in Evidence : Parliamentary Evidence : Courts Martial— The United States— Effects of Oaths : Falsehood— General obligations.

CHAP. VIII. THE MORAL CHARACTER, OBLIGATIONS, AND EFFECTS OF PARTICULAR OATHS, . . . . ' . . .195

Subscription to Articles of Religion, . . . . .195

Oath of Allegiance— Oath in Evidence— Perjury— Military oath— Oath against Bribery at Elections— Oath against simony — University oaths— Subscription to articles of religion — Meaning of the 39 articles literal — Refusal to subscribe.

CHAP. IX. IMMORAL AGENCY, 206

Publication and circulation of books — Seneca — Circulating Libraries — Public-houses — Prosecutions — Political affairs.

CHAP. X. THE INFLUENCE OF INDIVIDUALS UPON PUBLIC NOTIONS

OF MORALITY, . . . ■ 213

Public notions of morality— Errors of public opinion : their effects— Duelling— Scottish Bench— Glory— Military virtues— Military talent— Bravery — Courage — Patriotism not the soldier's motive — Military fame — Public opinion of unchastity : In women : In men— Power of character — Character—Character in Legal men — Fame — Faults of Great men— The Press — Newspapers — History : Its defects : Its power.

CHAP. XI. INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION, 239

Ancient Classics — London University — The Classics in Boarding-schools — English Grammar — Science and Literature — Improved system of Education — Orthography : Writing : Reading : Geography : Natural History : Biography : Natural Philosophy : Political Science — Indications of a revolution in the system of Education — Female Education — The Society of Friends.

CHAP. XII. MORAL EDUCATION, 254

Union of Moral principle with the affections— Society— Morality of the Ancient Classics— The supply of motives to virtue — Conscience — Subjugation of the Will— Knowledge of our own Minds— Offices of public worship.

CHAP. XIH. EDUCATION OF THE PEOPLE, 265

Advantages of extended Education— Infant Schools— Habits of enquiry.

CHAP. XIV. AMUSEMENTS, 269

The Stage— Religious Amusements— Masquerades— Field Sports— The Turf — Boxing — Wrestling — Opinions of Posterity — Popular amusements needless.

CHAP. XV. DUELLING, 273

Pitt and Tierney— Duelling the offspring of intellectual meanness, fear, and servility — " A fighting man" — Hindoo immolations — Wilberforce — Seneca.

CHAP. XVI. SUICIDE, 280

Unmanliness of Suicide— Forbidden in the New Testament— Its folly— Legislation respecting suicide— tl erdict of Felo de se.

CHAP. XVII. RIGHTS OF SELF-DEFENCE, 235

These rights not absolute— Their limits— Personal attack— Preservation of property— Much resistance lawful— Effects of forbearance— Sharpe— Barclay— Ellwood, xii

CONTENTS.

Lawfulness op War, page . 531

Influence of habit— Of appealing to antiquity— The Christian Scriptures- Subjects of Christ's benediction— Matt, xxvii. 52. — The Apostles and Evangelists — The Centurion— Cornelius — Silence not a proof of approbation—Luke xxii. 36. — John the Baptist — Negative evidence — Prophecies of the Old Testament — The requisitions of Christianity of present obligation — Primitive Christians — Example and testimony of early Christians —Christian soldiers — Wars of the .Tews — Duties of individuals and nations Offensive and defensive war — Wars always aggressive — Paley — War wholly forbidden.

Op the probable and practical Effects op adhering to the Moral Law in respect to War, ....... 558

Quakers in America and Ireland— Colonization of Pennsylvania— Unconditional reliance on Providence— Recapitulation— General Observations.

CONCLUSION,

INTRODUCTORY NOTICES.

Of the two causes of our deviations from Rectitude — want of Knowledge and want of Virtue — the latter is undoubtedly the more operative. Want of knowledge is, however, sometimes a cause ; nor can this be any subject of wonder when it is recollected in what manner many of our notions of right and wrong are acquired. From infancy, every one is placed in a sort of moral school, in which those with whom he associates, or of whom he hears, are the teachers. That the learner in such a school will often be taught amiss, is plain.— So that we want information respecting our duties. To supply this information is an object of Moral Philosophy, and is attempted in the present work.

When it is considered by what excellences the existing treatises on Moral Philosophy are recommended, there can remain but one reasonable motive for adding yet another — the belief that these treatises have not exhibited the Principles and enforced the Obligations of Morality in all their perfection and purity. Perhaps the frank expression of this belief is not inconsistent with that deference which it becomes every man to feel when he addresses the public ; because, not to have entertained such a belief, were to have possessed no reason for writing. The desire of supplying the deficiency, if deficiency there be ; of exhibiting a true and authoritative Standard of Rectitude, and of estimating the moral character of human aetions by an appeal to that Standard, is the motive which has induced the composition of these Essays.

In the First Essay the writer has attempted to investigate the Principles of Morality. In which term is here included, first, the Ultimate Standard of Right and Wrong ; and, secondly, those Subordinate Rules to which we are authorized to apply for the direction of our conduct in life. In these investigations he has been solicitous to avoid any approach to curious or metaphysical enquiry. He has endeavoured to act upon the advice given by Tindal, the Reformer, to his friend John Frith : " Pronounce not or define of hid secrets, or things that neither help nor hinder whether it be so or no ; but stick you stiffly and stubbornly in earnest and necessary things."

In the Second Essay these Principles of Morality are applied in the determination of various questions of personal and relative duty. In making this application, it has been far from the writer's

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INTRODUCTORY NOTICES.

desire to deliver a system of Morality. Of the unnumbered particulars to which this Essay might have been extended, he has therefore made a selection ; and in making it. has chosen those subjects which appeared peculiarly to need the enquiry, either because the popular or philosophical opinions respecting them appeared to be unsound, or because they were commonly little adverted- to in the practice of life. Form has been sacrificed to utility. Many great duties have been passed over, since no one questions their obligation ; nor has the author so little consulted the pleasure of the reader as to expatiate upon duties simply because they are great. The reader will also regard the subjects that have been chosen as selected, not only for the purpose of elucidating the subjects themselves, but as furnishing illustration of the General Principles — as the compiler of a book of mathematics proposes a variety of examples, not merely to discover the solution of the particular problem, but to familiarize the application of his general rule.

Of the Third Essay, in which some of the great questions of Political rectitude have been examined, the subjects are in themselves sufficiently important. The application of sound and pure Moral Principles to questions of Government, of Legislation, of the Administration of Justice, or of Religious Establishments, is manifestly of great interest ; and the interest is so much the greater, because these subjects have usually been examined, as the writer conceives, by other and very different standards.

The reader will probably find, in each of these Essays, some principles or some conclusions respecting human duties to which he has not been accustomed — some opinions called in question which he has habitually regarded as being indisputably true, and some actions exhibited as forbidden by morality which he has supposed to be lawful and right. In such cases I must hope for his candid investigation of the truth, and that he will not reject conclusions but by the detection of inaccuracy in the reasonings from which they are deduced. I hope he will not find himself invited to alter his opinions or his conduct without being shown why ; and if he is conclusively shown this, that he will not reject truth because it is new or unwelcome.

With respect to the present influence of the Principles which these Essays illustrate, the author will feel no disappointment if it is not great. It is not upon the expectation of such influence that his motive is founded or his hope rests. His motive is, to advocate truth without reference to its popularity ; and his hope is, to promote by these feeble exertions, an approximation to that state of purity, which he believes it is the design of God shall eventually beautify and dignify the condition of mankind.

PART I.

PRINCIPLES OF MORALITY.

Chapter I Moral Obligation

Foundation of Moral Obligation.

There is little hope of proposing a definition of Moral Obligation which shall be satisfactory to every reader ; partly because the phrase is the representative of different notions in individual minds. No single definition can, it is evident, represent various notions ; and there are probably no means by which the notions of individuals respecting Moral Obligation can be adjusted to one standard. Accordingly, whilst attempts to define it have been very numerous, all probably have been unsatisfactory to the majority of mankind.

Happily this question, like many others upon which the world is unable to agree, is of little practical importance. Many who dispute about the definition, coincide in their judgments of what we are obliged to do and to forbear ; and so long as the individual knows that he is actually the subject of Moral Obligation, and actually responsible to a superior power, it is not of much consequence whether he can critically explain in what Moral Obligation consists.

The writer of these pages, therefore, makes no attempts at strictness of definition. It is sufficient for his purpose that man is under an obligation to obey his Creator ; and if any one curiously asks " Why ?" — he answers, that one reason at least is, that the Deity possesses the power, and evinces the intention, to call the human species to account for their actions, and to punish or reward them.

There may be, and I believe there are, higher grounds upon which a sense of Moral Obligation may be founded ;

such as the love of goodness for its own sake, or love and gratitude to God for his beneficence : nor is it unreasonable to suppose that such grounds of obligation are especially approved by the universal Parent of mankind.

Chapter II. Standard Of Right And Wrong

The Will of God — Notices of Theories — The communication of the Will of God — The supreme authority of the expressed Will of God — Causes of its practical rejection— The principles of expediency fluctuating and inconsistent — Application of the principles of expediency — Difficulties — Liability to abuse — Pagans.

It is obvious that to him who seeks the knowledge of his duty, the first enquiry is, What is the Rule of Duty 1 What is the Standard of Right and Wrong 1 Most men, or most of those with whom we are concerned, agree that this Standard consists in the Will of God. But here the coincidence of opinion stops. Various and very dissimilar answers are given to the question, How is the Will of God to be discovered ? These differences lead to differing conclusions respecting human duty. All the proposed modes of discovering his Will cannot be the best nor the right ; and those which are not right are likely to lead to erroneous conclusions respecting what his Will is.

It becomes therefore a question of very great interest — How is the Will of God to be discovered ? and if there should appear to be more sources than one from which it may be deduced — What is that source which, in our investigations, we are to regard as paramount to every other I

THE WILL OF GOD.

When we say that most men agree in referring to the Will of God as the Standard of Rectitude, we do not mean that all those who have framed systems of moral philosophy have set out with this proposition as their fundamental rule ; but we mean that the majority of mankind do really believe (with whatever indistinctness) that they ought to obey the Will of God ; and that, as it respects the systems of philosophical

CIIAP. II.] STANDARD OF RIGHT AND WRONG. 17

men, they will commonly be found to involve, directly or indirectly, the same belief. He who says that the " Understanding"* is to be our moral guide, is not far from saying that we are to be guided by the Divine Will ; because the understanding, however we define it, is the offspring, of the Divine counsels and power. When Adam Smith resolves moral obligation into propriety arising from feelings of " Sympathy,"! tn e conclusion is not very different ; for these feelings are manifestly the residt of that constitution which God gave to man. When Bishop Butler says that we ought to live according to nature, and make conscience the judge whether we do so live or not, a kindred observation arises ; for the existence and nature of conscience must be referred ultimately to the Divine Will. Dr. Samuel Clarke's philosophy is, that moral obligation is to be referred to the eternal and necessary differences of things. This might appear less obviously to have respect to the Divine Will, yet Dr. Clarke himself subsequently says, that the duties which these eternal differences of things impose, " are also the express and unalterable will, command, and law of God to his creatures, which he cannot but expect should be observed by them in obedience to his supreme authority."^ Very similar is the practical doctrine of Wollaston. His theory is, that moral good and evil consist in a conformity or disagreement with truth — " in treating every thing as being what it is." But then he says, that to act by this rule f? must be agreeable to the Will of God, and if so, the contrary must be disagreeable to it, and, since there must be perfect rectitude in his will, certainly icrong."^ It is the same with Dr. Paley in his far-famed doctrine of Expediency. " It is the utility of any action alone which constitutes the obligation of it ;" but this very obligation is deduced from the Divine Benevolence ; from which it is attempted to show, that a regard to utility is enforced by the Will of God. Nay, he says expressly, " Every duty is a duty towards God, since it is his will which makes it a duty.' ? |j