Elements of English grammar

Appendix

. BY JONATHAN MORGAN, A. B.

SECOND EDITION REVISED AND CORRECTED.

PORTLAND, ME.:

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1844,

BY JONATHAN MORGAN, A. B.,

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Maine.

n

Preface To The Second Edition

In publishing my first edition, in 1814) I did not do it, because any want of Grammars then existed, such as they were, but because a want of system then was, whereby to solve all the proper forms of speech, in our language, and reduce the whole to a regular and plain set of rules. That edition, from the hasty manner of its compilation, I found to partake so largely of the errors, then prevalent, in the systems, then in use, that I gave it up, without geting it into use. Since that time, I have been leisurely at work, in endeavoring to understand the language better, and to correct all the prevailing errors. By consulting Took, and other eminent writers, and carefully examining the language, in all my various readings, I am satisfied that I have attained the true system of the English, as it is now spoken and written, by the people, and have reduced the whole to a perfect system, within itself, independent of any spoken, or written language.

In these inquiries, I have fully satisfied myself, and on a careful and candid examination of the work, I believe that others will also be satisfied that the true system of English, as now settled and used, by the people, is as perfect, within itself, as any language, that ever has been, or now is spoken. It having, from long use and practice, acquired a settled character and form, and one which probably never will change again, especially in the United States of America, it has appeared proper and necessary, to me, that these forms should be explained and systemized, for the use of all classes, speaking and using the language.

The English is now fast assuming an importance, that no other ever has, nor ever will assume. It is now the settled language of all North America, north of Mexico, and South of the Russian possessions at 55 degrees north, of Great Britain, Ireland, a part of the West Indies, and the Island of New Holland. It will also be the spoken language, mixed, or unmixed, by Southern Africa, a part of Western Africa, and over a very extensive territory, in the East Indies. These countries embrace such an extent of territory, and will eventually comprise such a population, that it must, more than any other, in time? become the language of travellers.

The parts of the language mostly needing correction, are the verbs, in their various classifications. One great hinderance, in systemizing our language, has been the constant attempt to force upon it a Subjunctive mood, no such mood having been formed and adopted by the people. Consequently wrong expositions were constantly given, and wrong rules applied. The language, under such treatment, shared the common fate of abuse and error.

This error naturally led to another, the misunderstanding of the Potential. For, supposing that we had a Subjunctive, hypothetic speech was constantly used and explained, in that supposed mood, no such existin-g. From this error arose another, that of neglecting the Potential mood which is all the hypothetical mood, which we have, or need. The errors attending the Potentiaj mood have been the use and application of the imperfect and pluperfect tenses of the Indicative to tb is mood, where the acts and circumstances of the verb, in these two tenses, had no analogy to the acts and circumstances of the verb, in those two tenses, in the Indicative.

It became apparrent that a reformation must be made of those errors. From a careful examination of the imperfect and pluperfect tenses, in the potential, 1 found that both of these tenses, instead of being absolute and positive, as in the indicative, were both hypothetical and indefinit e and that their associations were entirely different, from their associations, in the Indicative.

I, therefore, dismissed the imperfect and pluperfect tenses, r rom the Potential, and substituted in their places, the first and second indefinites. See those tenses, as explained. The use and application of these tenses, at once, relieve the Potential mode from ail embarrasment, doubt and difficulty, and makes this mood, which has given so much thouble to teachers and learners, perfectly clear and intelligible.

The nouns needed but little improvement, simply the addition in form, of a second declention, which the nouns, from established use, have assumed and from which,, they will never depart, whether teachers adopt, acknowledge and use that form, or not. The other improvements, which iv PREFACE.

seem to be necessary, in the Etymology, were the definitions of the several classes of speech, theii origin, and the explanation of their original terras.

The Syntax, also, required a corresponding correction, and I have added such rules, to the old stock, as appeared to me to be necessary and proper to complete this branch of the English system. The great want, in all the publications on English Grammmar, has been a want of a full and proper system of the verbs. It seems to have been the constant aim of all our ablest men, who have written upon the subject, to break the verbs down into the three tenses ; the past, present and future, throwing all the other forms of tenses, into the participles, and adjectives. And some have even discarded the participles, and flung them all into the class of adjectives. And some have allowed only the Indicative, Imperative and Infinitive moods.

But the language has assumed.a different, more enlarged and elegant form. That is, the common people have had and felt a more refined taste, in the use of their language, than the literati have manifested, and the people would not give it up, nor alter it. And so the contest has been maintained.

We might give up all the improvement of our languge, if we would, and go back to the first stage of society, and use only nouns and verbs. We might also give up all other improvements and refinements, and go back to a state of simple nature, live in huts and clothe in sknis. We might do without horses and carriages, rail-roads, steamboats, houses, and various articles of dress, and perhaps be more rebust and hedthy. But the fact is, people never did and never will voluntarily give up any improvement, after becoming accustomed to it.

We should consider, on this subject, the present form of our language, in attempting to alter it by introducing a new mood, that we have to contend with women and children. See interjections and remark there. They are mostly the framers and makers of language, being more given to talk, than men, they unquestionably give the great leading forms and features to language, which men cultivate, improve and beautify.

Some very eminent men have contended that we have no cases to our nouns, or but one, the nominative. But this notion, as also the notion above noticed, of the moods and tenses of the verbs, has not acquired a general acknowledgment. These notions have probably grown out of another equally wrong, that the language w r as so heterogeneous and unsettled, that it could not be reduced to a perfect system, within itself. These errors have withheld those improvements, which it deserved, and of which it has been so capable. It has also induced our own literati, to turn that nice and classic attention, of which their own tongue has been so richly deserving, to others more refined and cultivated. The consequence has been that our pure, good, old mother English has been, like a bastard child, turned into the streets to famish and shiver in the cold, while foreign tongues have been introduced to the luxuries and warm comforts of our parlors, to the shame and disgrace of the English nations. No wonder that foreigners call it a gibberish and beggarly English. And this foul disgrace will continue to overshadow our language, so long as our literati shall refuse to adopt, in form, what the common people have, long since, adopted in practice.. For it would be as useless to undertake to alter the common and natural laws of matter, as to alter the settled and uniform language of a nation, except by conquest, and the introduction of a new tongue, by an overwhelming military power.

I have .hoped that the English literati, on seeing the beauties and conveniences of our language ully exemplified and explained, will give up old errors, to which they have, so long, through negigence, adhered, and turn their attention, from foreign tongues, which are of no use, except as matters of curiosity, and bestow it upon their own', which is the only one of any intrinsic value to them and the English nations. Foreign languages are mere curiosities, to' us, ours, the same importance, as our comforts, property, liberty and lives. It is no wonder that foreigners have- so uniformly dispised our language, seeing that we have treated it with such sovereign contempt, in refusing to learn and systemize it ourselves.

After a labor of about thirty-five years, I feel fully satisfied that I have reduced the English Language to as perfect a system, within itself, on its own idiom, and without any reference to any foreign tongue, except in points, wherein they naturally coincide, as -ny language, that ever has been, or now is spoken by any nation whatever. I therefore hope that the English literati will give up their prejudices against their own tongue, and use it, as the people have settled it, in their daily use and conversation.

" Scarcely an idea prevailed among English scholars, that their language had an origin and character of its own. It is only by an attention to the elementary'structure'of our own language, on scientific principles, that rational improvement can be expected. A -train of circumstances has led to a general system of fal?e teaching in England and America. It is a short time since all the learned works in Europe, were written in Greek, or Latin. These tongues ceasing to be any where spoken were emphatically caH© J the learned languages, and what they called the vulgar

PREFACE. v

tongue was made an object of absolute contempt. However excellent the literature of Greece and Rome may be, it was great pedantry? in the English Colleges, in attempting to graft the origi nal branches of our language upon these foreign stocks. A strange ignorance exists both in England and America, of the real fountains of our native speech. All that has been done in exploring their sources, has been done by a few unaided individuals. The necessary consequence has been that good English has always been sacrificed to bad Greek and Latin. And all attempts to explain our mother tongue, have been by arbitrary and partial analogies, from foreign languages, with which i has but a remote affinity. The English tongue is, in its original structure, one of the easiest in the world, to learn and follow ; but made one of the most difficult, by the errors of false practice.

" On the subject of reducing English to a regular and perfect system, the most opposite opinions have and do prevail. One says it is already fixed and can admit no change. Another, that it needs and is capable of reform. Another opinion is that a living language can neither be arrested nor guided in its course. I would ask, were the Greek and Latin languages, reduced to the perfect forms of grace, ease and beauty, by the people who spoke and wrote the languages, or by the barbarians who broke them down and mutilated them with their own vulgar and uncooth tongues, as they did also the fine arts of those nations ?

" One of the first ideas presented, in relation to the United States, is the peculiar situation, in which we are placed respecting ourselves and all other nations. For we have no account of any other nation, the prime object of whose government was, or is to diffuse instruction among the whole body of the people. The attempt was never before made, on a national plan, to produce unitormity among all classes of the people, in the speaking and writing of a national language Both of these objects are of prime importance, in the United States.

" All that concerns our public happiness, our union and peace within ourselves ; all which tends to develope our resources, improve and perpetuate our institutions : all which may give us wealth, strength and glory, among the nations, depends on tne general course of instruction ; that instruction, in a great degree, on the goodness, purity, and uniformity of our national language, which is the common instrument and medium of intercommunication among us all. Our population has increased, from 2,500,009, to about 17,000,000, in about 66 years, and still progressing at the same rapid rate, which is beyond all parellel.

" Our course of moral and physical progress is greater than that of our numbers. This impulse extending, not only to ourselves, but to the civilized world, must take its direction, from the gen eral literature of our country, connected to a greater extent, than most people are aware, with the_ degree of cultivation given to our speech. The principles of language, therefore, necessarily blend themselves, with our prime interests, as a nation ; and to those who are prepared to enter on this investigation, it is a source of unceasing admiration, that while the great, leading rules of speech, in the English language, are few and simple ; the minor variations are endless.

" The relative changes of words connected with the workings of that, adopt themselves to every imaginable form of utterance, and run into each other, by such gradations, as are hardly obvious to the keenest observations of critical philosophy. Instead of considering the study of language, as a mere task of the schools, reason is to believe that a better understanding of its elements and beauties will lead to great improvements, in mental and physical researches.

" The structure of speech, as exhibited, in the different conditions of society, is an exhaustless store of practical facts and principles, which go far beyond all abstract reasoning, in teaching to man the great lesson, know thou thyself." — CardelVs Essay.

An eminent English writer observes, " that as any branch of learning tends to important and useful results, gains ground, in public estimation, and tends to overthrow prevailing errors, it may be expected to call forth angry denunciations, from those, who dispise what they will not learn, an^ are wedded to prejudices, which they cannot defend."

In parsing language, it is not the mere giving of names to words, which is intended. The objec* is much higher, and more at ientific. It is to arrange the words of a sentence, under their proper classes, by understanding the true meaning. And this will always show to what^class the words belong, without any possibility of mistake. When this course shall be properly pursued, .the scholar will have a clear understanding of the language, and a true application ;of the parts Of speech. If he will follow carefully the rules laid down, under each class of speech, he will never err, in the application of the different words to their proper classes, for the rules there given, by which to designate, are all certain and never fail.

This method, if properly pursued, will relieve the teacher and scholar from the practice, which has too much been in use, of making the adverb class a lumberhole, wherein to throw all words' not readily and distinctly understood. No wonder the study of English has hitherto been so un. inviting a science ; because the prevailing opinion has been that the language, in itself, has been vi PREFACE.

and is altogether irregular and not reducable, to system, and to regular and certain rules, and it never can be taught either with pleasure nor understanding, so long as this opinion shall prevail. The like fatality would befall any science, under like circumstances.

Let it be taught purely and understood clearly, and it will become a pleasing, profitable and ad_ mired branch of the sciences, and would at once, be relieved from the degrading appellation of beggarly English. With these few remarks, I submit the work to the candid examination of the public, and criticism of the learned, not doubling that they will treat it with impartial candor and do it justice.

Portland, 1844. JONATHAN MORGAN.

ENGLISH GBAMMAE.

English Grammar (a) is the tot of speaking and writing the English language with propriety.

v .,-, • i • „a +,.^™ fiiA n-rppk word Gramma, a letter, and

fa) Grammar is derived trom the ixreeK wuiu ,

tied rules of speech.

It is divided into four parts : Orthography, Etymology, Syntax and Prosody.

Part I. * Of Orthography

Orthography teaches the art of correct Sp&IWp tfi *t£>, «*»^

per arrangement of letters into syllables and syllables into words, and their nature and powers.

Chapter I

OF THE LETTERS. § 1. Of the nature of the letters and a perfect alphabet. A letter is the first principle, or least part of a word. THE ALPHABET, (b)

The Eno-lish Alphabet has twenty-six letters.

rt) Ow word alphabet is derived from two Greek words, alpha beta, i e./a and b, the two first letters in order in the Grecian alphabet. It ..gnifieth the whole order of the letters, in any language.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Roman. Italic.

Cap. Small.

Cap,

Small.

A a

B b

C c

D d

E e

F f

I i

J

K i

k

L

M m

N n

O

P

Q R

T t

U u

V

V w w

X

X

Y Z y

z

A a

B b

C c

D d

E e

g h

I i

J K i

L i

M m

M no

P R

V

q

r

S s

T t

U u

V

V

W w

X

X

Y Z y

z

IS perfect alphabet cannot be had in any language. That would require a inct character for each distinct articulate sound. This would render the number so great, that the memery could not retain them, which alone would defeat the whole purpose and design. We must be content, therefore, with these arbitrary characters, which we have, however imperfect, and learn to supply that defect, by skill and practice.

These letters are principally divisible into two kinds, vowels and consonants.

A vowel (c) is a simple articulate sound, formed by opening the mouth, in a particular manner, and made by a single impulse of the voice.

(c) A vowel is derived from the Latin word vox, from which is derived the English word, voice, also.

The vowels are seven: a, e, i 9 o, m, w, ?/,

The vowels are divided into pure, impure and mixed.

The pure vowels are, a, e, i, o, u.

Note. They are called pure, because they never change their vowel for a consonant sound. I have put i among the pure vowels, because custom has not decided, as yet, whether it be pure or impure. Some give it the sound of y, in certain cases : as, Spaniard, Indian, valiant, &c. Others hold it to be a pure vowel, forming a distinct syllable, in all such words. The mutilation of i into y is evidently a corruption of the pure pronunciation of this vowel, and an error which ought to be corrected. See letter C.

The impure vowels are, w fy y

Old I

English.

Cap.

Small.

Name.

a b c ce

S i f

S ge, or je m ft ah, or aitch i i

J ja, or jay ft ka, or kay

I el, or ell m m em

-N n en o

J> pe

* cu, ku ft t ar es t te m u u, you

V b ve m to double u, or we

X ex ! efcs y> wy, or ye f ze, or zed

They are called impure because they are sometimes consonants. Literally speakng, they are not vowels ; for to, when a vowel, sounds u simple ; and 7/, e or i, simple. See them treated in their order. But another reason may be given for calling the simple vowels pure, because they form all the simple vowel sounds. And distinguished, in this way, they will always remain pure.

From the five pure vowels we derive eleven simple vowel sounds, as ap pears by the following table.

a as heard in at a ate

e r ebb e eel o as heard in not o note u but u bull i in u use i pine

Note. Some reckon a broad, as a simple vowel sound ; but it is no more so than o soft, like oo is. See them treated in their order.

The mixed vowels are divided into double and triple, or diphthongs and tripthongs. (d.)

(d) I would here notice an error, in the pronunciation of these words, which is becoming very common and ought to be cured. Pk is of Grecian origin, and should always sound f. But a modern corruption of pronunciation, is beginning to drop the A, and give the p its proper sound.

A diphthong is the combination of two vowels, into one sound. They are the following: aa, ae, ai, ao, ciu, aw, ay; e«, ee, ei, eu, ew, ey ; ia, ie, io, iu; oa, oe, oi, oo, on, oic, oy ; ua, ue, ui, uo, uy. See these under their respective initial vowels.

Diphthongs are divided into pure and impure. A pure diphthong is the union of two vowels in the one sound : as oi in voice, oil in thou, &/C.

An impure diphthong has but one of the vowels sounded : as ea in learn, eo in people, &c.

A triphthong is the union of three vowels in one articulate sound. They are eau, ieu lew, uai, iwi, uea, uee, uoy.

Triphthongs are divided into pure and impure.

In the pure triphthongs, all the vowels unite in one articulate sound : as uai in quail ; uoi in quoit.

All the pure triphthongs are preceded by q, and if preceded by another letter, they become impure, for they can only be sounded after q.

An impure triphthong has but one of the vowels sounded : as eau in beauty.

A modern corruption of pronunciation has .rendered some of the pure diphthongs impure in some words ; as ai in laid ; ou in throvgh; oi in oil. If public speakers and teachers would pay such attention to this part of our language, as to be fully sensible of their harmony and elegance, they would all soon be restored. Our universities and academies must begin and perfect the reformation, or it will never be done. And aa was formerly two syllables, and ought still to be.

A consonant is a letter, which cannot be sounded by itself, but must always have a vowel associated with it. (e)

(e) It is derived from con and sono, latin, which means to sound together : i. e. with a vowel.

1*

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

The following table, perhaps, will give as full a representation of them, as can well be exhibited to the eye, which, by their different associations, c Miibinations and inflections, with each other and the vowels, form all the elementary and associated sounds in our language.

s as heard in so, thus t too, not

V

w vail, rave wo, who y

z ye, yet

zeal, uz x, or ks ch exact church ng sh th ing, ang, ong, ung shut, hush then, then, oath zh vision.

b as heard in bay, but

d day, had

f of off, for

g x egg, go, gender

h hot, oh

k kite, knock

1 lad, all

m came, male

n not, no

p pin nip

q quit

r rot, for

Gh and ph are omitted, because they have the sound of/. C is useless having always the sound of -As, or s; andj, also having no sound but g soft.

Consonants are divided into semivowels and mutes.

The semivowels all begin their own names with a vowel. They are /, h, I, m, n, r, s, x.

These are divided into vocal and aspirate. The vocal are formed in the voice, and are I, m, n, r. They are also called liquids, because they readily unite with the other consonants, and flow into their sounds after the manner of vowels (f ) -

(f) Some writers reckon v, id, y r z, th, zh, and ng, among the vocal. In solving this question, it is undoubtedly a better way to pronounce the letters separately, than to combine them, with others. And I believe that every one will be readily convinced, on paying proper attention to the subject, that I, m, n, r, are really vocal, i.e. formed in the voice ; and that, in the pronunciation of the others, the organs of speech change, from an open full mouthed pronunciatian, to a contraction of the organs with an aspiration, or breathing, in the pronunciation. See these letters treated in order.

The aspirate are formed in the breath, and have a breathing, or hissing sound, and are the following,/, h, s, x. (g)

(g) Perhaps x is not properly a consonant of any class, it being, in reality, a character representing the sound of ks.

The mutes may be divided into pure and impure.

The pure are those, whose sound cannot be at all prolonged, and are h, p, t.

The impure mutes are those, whose sound may be prolonged a little, and are 5, c, d, g,j, q, v, w, z, ng, sh, th, zh.

Mr. Perry divides the consonants into mutes, b, c, d, g,'h, q, t ; aspirate h; sibilant c, s, z ; liquids I, m, n, r. He subdivides them again into labial, dental, palatine, and nasal, i. e. as formed by the lips, teeth, palate, and nose.

It seems unnecessary to noti6e the gutturals, as those sounds are entirely lost in the American pronunciation.

§ 2. Of the Sounds of the Letters.

A has four sounds : 1, long as in day, name; 2, short, as in bat, fan ; 3, broad, or the sound of au diphthong, as in all, icall a want ; 4, flat, or the sound of broad a short, like a short, as in what.

DIPHTHONGS.

1. Aa as in Balaam, Canaan, Isaac. (/*)

(h) This is undoubtedly a corruption in the pronunciation of such words, for the old people at present make them simple vowels, thus Ba-la-am, Cana-an, Isa-ac. This is evident also from inspection, for in changing aa into an impure diphthong we make the syllable short.

2. Ae diphthong sounds e long : as in (Enigma, (Equator, Coesar. This orthography is derived from the latin language. Late writers generally omit the a, and retain the e, as enigma, equator, Cesar.

3. At has two sounds: 1, its pure diphthongal sound, as in ai ; 2, of a long, as in gain, sail.

4. Ao has one sound that of o long as in gaoU

5. Au has one sound : as in laurel, -applause, aunt, flaunt.

6 Aw is nothing more, in pronunciation, than au, as in law, saw, flaw.

7. Ay has two sounds: 4j the sound of ai, in the interjection ay. 2, The sound of a long, as in lay, day. In compound words the y is generally ehanged into i, as daily ; but not always, as in playful. But when the composition makes it a participle, the y is retained.

B has one unvaried sound, at the beginning, middle and end of words, as in bonny, husband, herb. It is sometimes silent, as' in thumb, debtor, bdellium. In some words it has the effect of e final, in lengthening or softening a preceding vowel, as in climb, comb, tomb.

C has three sounds' 1, hard like k before a, o, u, I and r, as in cane, cone, cut, clay, crazy. 2, Soft like s, before e, i, and y : as in cent, city, cymbal. 3, The sound of sh, before ea, and ia, in some words, as in ocean, social. Making ea, and ia impure diphthongs, in such words, is a very modern pronunciation. The old pure pronunciation makes those vowels, in all such terminations, distinct syllables, as O-ce-an, so-ci-al. (b)

C before z, at the beginning of words, is silent. As in Czar, Czarina. (b) Also before t, followed by u silent, as in victuals, pronounced vitals.

C hard is used at the end of words of more than one syllable, ending with the sound of k. In words of one syllable, some use ch, and some i only* The k is sufficient.

Ch has four sounds : 1, Natural, as in chin, chaff, charter. 2, Oft combined with ch natural, as in birch, church. 3, Hard like k as in Archipeligo, archives, archangel. 4, Soft like sh, in words derived from the French, as in chaise chevalier, machine. It is silent in some words, as in yacht.

This rule will generally hold true, that ch in words of Grecian origin is hard; in those of French origin, soft; and in pure English words, natural.

C is altogether supurfluous being always k, or s, in sound; and so is ch, being always k, or sh, in sound.

D has two sounds : its own sound at the beginning, middle, and end of words, as in death, kindred. 2, That of g soft, as in Indian. Between two Is it is silent, as in worldling.

Some speakers, of late, mutillate the sound of di into j, as midium into mijum, audience, aujence.