Theory of morals: an inquiry concerning the law of moral distinctions and the variations and contradictions of ethical codes

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CHAPTER I. Moral Classifications of Actions

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1. Importance of Moral Distinctions, . . 1

2. Search for their Nature or Law, . .1

3. Platonic Theory of Morals, . 1

4. First Objection to it, . . . , . 2

5. Modified Form of that Theory. Second Objection to it, 2

6. Selfish Theory of Morals, .... 4

7. Paradoxes resulting from that Theory, • • . 4

8. Modifications of it. The Stoics, . . .5

9. The Epicureans, . . . . . 5

10. The Semi-Stoics, « . . . . . 6

11. The Semi-Epicureans, .... 7

12. Both these Sects compelled to adopt the Idea of a

Future Retribution, .... 8

13. True Characteristic of Actions morally right and mor-

ally wrong, ..... 9

14. Distinctions to be noted, .... 9

15. Human Actions the original Subject-matter of Moral

Judgment, ...... 9

16. Composite Nature of Actions. Event and Motive, 10

17. Use of the Terms Right and Wrong, Virtuous and

Vicious, Good and Bad, . . . . 10

18. Positive and Negative Actions, . . .11

19. Definition of Wrong Actions, . . . 11

VI CONTENTS.

20. Positive and Negative Sense of the Terms Pleasure

21. Definition and Classification of Right Actions, . 12

22. The Classification of Acts externally considered, de-

pendent on their Results, . . . .12

23. Characteristics of Praiseworthy, Indifferent, and Wrong

Actions, restated,- . . . . , 13

24. Proofs of those Characteristics drawn from Moral Codes, 14

25. They appertain to what are called Duties to Others.

Justice, Benevolence, . . . . 16

26. They appertain to what are called Duties to Ourselves, 17

27. How Duties to Ourselves affect Others, . . 17

28. Application of this Idea to the Case of Imprudence, 18

29. To the Case of Intemperance in general, . . 18

30. To the Case of Gluttony, . . . . 19

31. To the Case of Intoxication, ... 19

32. To the Case of Incontinence, . . . .20

33. To the Case of Economy, . .... 21

34. Duties to God. Mystic Hypothesis. Its Origin and

Foundation, . . . . . . 21

35. Origin of Religious Worship, . . . 23

36. How Acts of Worship acquired the Character of Moral

37. Progress of Spiritualism, . . . . 25

38. Mystic Theory of Morals, . . . .27

39. Amalgamation of the Mystic and Selfish Theories, 27

40. Theory of Utility, or of Interest well understood, . 28

41. Objections to that Theory, . . . . 28

42. Alleged Law of Human Action on which the Selfish

Theory is founded, . . . . .30

43. Mystic Application of the Doctrine of Selfishness to

44. Paradox of Self-sacrifice thence resulting, . . 32

45. Divergent Schools of Semi-mystic Moralists to which

that Paradox gives rise, . . . . 32

46. Examination of the Selfish Theory, . . .33

47. Corrected Statement of the Law of Human Action, 33

48. Scholastic Notion of Happiness inconsistent with Facts, 34

49. True Sense of the Word Happiness as descriptive of

what is attainable, .. ... 35

CONTENTS. Vll

50. Necessary Connexion between Perception and Emotion, 36

51. List of simple, original Emotions, ... .37

52. Classification of Motives, .... 39

53. Law of their joint Operation, . . . ,39

54. Hopes and Fears, their Influence upon Action, . 39

55. General Direction of human Action, . . .41

56. Pleasures and Pains of Activity. Their Agency. Wea-

riness, Ennui, ..... 42

57. Difference in this Respect between the Child and the

Man, the Savage and the Civilized, the Educated and the Uneducated, . . . . .43

58. Sentiment of Benevolence. Love, Humanity, . 44

59. Classification of Actions as Disinterested and Selfish, . 44

60. Ambiguous Use of the Term Self-interest, . 45

61. Sentiment of Benevolence the Source of Moral Distinc-

62. Difference between Good and Evil in general, and Mor-

al Good and Evil, . . . . . 46

63. Reasons of the superior Rank assigned to Emotions of

64. Plausibility thence resulting to the Selfish Theory, 47

65. Reason why many benevolent Men adopted that Theory, 48

66. Service they have rendered to practical Morals, . 48

67. Selfish Defenders of Disinterestedness, . . 49

68. Self-sacrificing Theory of Morals, . . .50

69. Paradoxes to which that Theory leads, . . 51

70. Required Modifications of the Disinterested Theory of

71. Moral Estimate of Actions (looking to the Event) which

produce complex Results, ... 54

72. Moral Classification of Actions (looking to the Motive),

as Meritorious, Obligatory, Indifferent, Permissible, and Criminal, .... . .55

73. Considerations which determine this Classification stat-

ed in five Propositions, .... 56

74. Conclusions which will follow the Establishment of

these Propositions, . . . . .58

Vlll CONTENTS.

Chapter II

Laws of the Operation of the Sentiment of Benevolence, AND OF THE OTHER PRINCIPAL EMOTIONS WHICH MODIFY OR CONTROL IT.

1. Proposed Method of establishing and illustrating the

above five Propositions, . . . 59

2. First Law of the Action of the Sentiment of Benevolence, 59

3. Consequences of that Law, . . . .60

4. Complaint owes its Efficacy to that Law, . . . 62

5. Pains ordinarily superior in Force to the Sentiment of

6. Second Law of the Action of the Sentiment of Benevo-

7. Sentiment of Malevolence. Law of its Action. Anger, *

Retaliation, Revenge, . . . .64

8. Mutual Relations of the Sentiments of Malevolence and

9. Origin of Punishments, . . . .66

10. Variations in the Force of the Sentiment of Malevolence, 67

11. Objects of that Sentiment, . . . .67

12. How it spreads, . . . . . 68

13. It often rests upon purely fanciful Grounds, . . 69

14. Why we hate those we have injured, . . 70

15. Third Law of the Action of the Sentiment of Benevo-

16. Effect of visible Beauty upon Benevolence, . 71

17. Effect upon Benevolence produced by the Voice and

Faculty of Speech, . . . . .71

18. Effect of the Sexual Sentiment upon Benevolence. Love, 72

19. Effect of Admiration upon Benevolence. Romantic Love,

Loyalty, Devotion, Indifference, Ennui, Contempt, 75

20. Origin of Attachments or Friendships. Benefits, . 76

21. Effect of Benevolence upon Benevolence. Gratitude, 76

22. Coloring thence afforded to the Selfish Theory of Morals, 77

23. Sentiment of Self-comparison. Law of its Action, 78

24. Bashfulness, Pride, Vanity, Modesty, Humility, . 80

26. Various other Influences of the Sentiment of Self-com-

CONTENTS. IX

27. Government originates in it, . . . 82

28. It constitutes the chief Motive to the Pursuit of Wealth, 83

29. Ambition, Covetousness, . . . . 84

30. The Sentiment of Self-comparison often cooperates with

31. Color hence given to the Stoical Theory of Morals, . 84

32. Susceptibility to the Pain of Inferiority essential to or-

dinary Virtue, ..... 85

33. Desire of Superiority essential to extraordinary Virtue.

Self-respect, Emulation, Shame, Love of Reputation, Love of Fame, Love of Glory, . . .86

34. Pleasures of Virtue and Pains of Vice. Self-applause,

35. Reproach owes its Power to this Sentiment, . . 87

36. Special Cooperations and Oppositions of Self-Compari-

son and Benevolence, .... 88

37. Paradoxes of Lucretius and Rochefoucault explained, 88

39. Love of Knowledge chiefly dependent on Self-comparison, 90

40. Moral character ascribed to the Love of Knowledge, 91

41. Cooperation of the Sentiment of Self-comparison with

Malevolence. Envy, Jealousy, Magnanimity, . 91

Chapter III

Of certain Qualities or Temperaments, called Virtues, because they are essential to the performance of beneficial Actions.

1. General Description of these Qualities or Temperaments, 92

2. Wisdom, or Prudence, .... 92

3. Courage. Distinction between Moral Fear, Fear of

Shame, and Fear in general, . . . .92

4. Necessity of distinguishing between Admiration and

Moral Approbation, .... 95

6. Double Character of Courage and Fortitude, Physical

and Moral, ..... 95

8. Constancy, Firmness, Steadiness, Perseverance, Tem-

per, Self-control, Patience, Fidelity, . . 96

X CONTENTS.

9. Hopefulness or Faith, Doubtfulness, Despondency, Skepticism, Folly, Credulity, . . .97

1 1. Capacity or Ability, bodily and mental. Healthfulness, 99

12. These Qualities have a Moral Character only as they are

connected, or not, with the Sentiment of Benevolence, 99

CHAPTER IV. Definitions of Virtue

1. Why all Definitions of Virtue have failed, . 100

2. Proper Moral Sense of the Term Virtue. What Ac-

tions are called Disinterested, . . . 101

3. Definitions of Virtue proposed by the Self-sacrificing

Moralists, Forensic and Mystic, . . . 101

4. Stoic Definition of Virtue, .... 102

5. Definitions proposed by the various Partisans of the

Selfish Theory, . . . . . 102

6. Platonic Definition, . . . . .104

7. Definition proposed by Aristotle and his Followers, 104

8. Fault common to all these Definitions, . .104

Chapter V

Of Moral Obligation, Duty, Rights, Responsibility, Merit, Demerit, Punishments, and Rewards.

1. Introduction, . . . . . 105

2. Moral Obligation, ..... 105

3. Difference between Moral or Mental Necessity, and

Moral Obligation, .... 105

4. All Actions of all Kinds originate in Mental Necessity, 106

5. Extent of Moral Obligation in general, . . 107

6. Measure of its Extent in any given Community, . 107

7. Its Extent as regards Individual xlctors, . . 107

8. Duty, Responsibility, .... 108

1 1. Disapprobation, Punishment, .... 108

CONTENTS. XI

12. Effect of Admiration upon Disapprobation, . 109

13. Approbation, Merit, ..... 109

15. Confusion in which the Mystics have involved this Sub-

16. Paradoxical Consequences of the Mystic Theory of

Morals, . . . . . . Ill

17. Great theological Controversy thence resulting, . 113

18. First Aspect of that Controversy. Free Will denied to

Man by the pure Mystics. Consequences, . . 113

19. Attempts of the Semi-mystics to avoid those Conse-

20. Second and third Aspects of that Controversy. Three

great Schools of Theology, . . . 116

21. First School. Application to Theology of the Selfish

22. Second School. Theological Opinions of those who re-

ject the Selfish Theory without adopting the Theory of pure Benevolence, . . . . 1 19

23. Third School. Application of the Moral Theory of pure

Benevolence to Theology, . . . . 122

24. Benefits thence resulting to practical Morals, . 127

25. Views of the Character of Man entertained by these

three theological Schools, . . . . 129

Chapter VI

Grounds of Moral Judgment as respects individual Actions and Actors.

1 . In Case the Act be apparently beneficial, . 130

2. In Case the Act be apparently injurious, . .132

3. Rule according to which Men are commonly pronoun-

ced Virtuous or Vicious, . . . 132

4. Bias with Respect to those who are special Causes to

us of Pleasure or Pain, .... 133

5. Reason why Men incline to an unfavorable Opinion of

the Moral Character of others, . . • . 134

6. That Reason not operative with Respect to the Dead,

or those highly exalted above us, . . 135

7. Apparent Inconsistencies thence resulting, . . 135

Xll CONTENTS.

CHAPTER i

Of Personal Security, and the Rights and Duties relative to IT.

1. Object of this Part, . . . 137

3. Reasons why Death is considered so great an Evil, 138

4. Light in which Homicide is regarded by some Mystic

5. Paradoxes thence resulting, . . .340

6. Forensic View of Homicide. Self-defence, . . 141

7. Homicide to save one's own Life, . . 141

8. Meritorious Homicide. War, . . . 141

10. Modern European Code of Forensic Morals, or Law of

14. Retaliatory Homicides. Origin of the Idea of the Moral

Obligation of Revenge, . . . . 147

15. Retaliatory Homicides esteemed permissible and obliga-

16. Retaliatory. Homicides esteemed meritorious. Knight-

errantry, Lynch Law, . . . . 149

17. Further Observations upon Duelling. Its Mystic Origin, 149

18. Mitigations of criminal Homicide, . . . 150

20. How Civilization affects Ideas respecting Homicide, 153

21. Rank and Character of the Party slain, how it affects

our Judgment respecting the Act. Regicide, . 153

22. Reasons of the Abhorrence felt for criminal Homicide

in civilized Countries, .... 154

CONTENTS. Xlll

23. Homicides justifiable in a Mystic Point of View. Reli-

gious Persecutions. Hereticide, . . . 155

24. Wounds, Blows, Poisons, and other Injuries to the Per-

25. Restraint, Imprisonment, . . . .157

26. Compulsion, Slavery, . . . . 157

Chapter II

Rights of Property. Duties and Crimes correlative to those Rights.

1. What Property is, . . . . . 159

2. Reason why Violations of Property are esteemed immoral, 159

3. Cases to which these Reasons do not apply, . 160

4. Mystic Doctrines as to the Rights of Property, . 160

5. Influence of the Distribution of Property on Respect for

the Rights of Property, .... 161

6. Imperfection of the Laws ; how they diminish Respect

for the Rights of Property, . . . .162

7. Property in Men. Slaves, . . . 162

8. Malevolence the Origin of Slavery, . . . 162

9. MaJevolence essential to the Continuance of Slavery, 163

10. Important Difference in this Respect between Property

in Slaves and other Kinds of Property, . . 164

11. Different Lights in which Slavery is regarded. Anti-

Slavery and Pro- Slavery Feeling, . . 164

12. Mystical Defenders of Slavery, . . . 165

CHAPTER III. Of Promises, Contracts, and Truth in general

1. Reason why Breaches of Promise and Violations of

Truth are esteemed Wrong, . . . 166

2. Extorted Promises, ..... 166

3. Promises involving a Violation of the Rights of Third b

XIV CONTENTS.

4. Obligation to speak the Truth, . . . 166

5. Cases in which Deception is esteemed permissible, . 167

6. Cases in which Deception is esteemed a Duty, . 167

7. Decisions of some Mystic Moralists upon these Points, 167

8. Similar Decisions by some Forensic Moralists, . 168

9. Why Truth is so much praised, . . . 168

10. Detestation of Falsehood not chiefly dependent on the

Moral Sentiment, ..... 169

11. Moral Character of simple Falsehood, . . 169

12. Pain of Inferiority the chief Security for Truth, . 170

13. Slander, Judicial Falsehood, Fraud, . . 171 ,14. Cheating in Trade, . . . . .171

15. Unfair Advantages, .... 172

16. Legal Doctrines respecting Contracts and Frauds, . 172

CHAPTER IV. Political Duties

1. Forensic View of Political Duty, . . . 173

2. Mystic View of Political Duty, . . .174

3. This View leads to Theocratic Despotism, . 174

4. Doctrine of the Divine Right of Governors, . . 176

5. This Doctrine equally applicable to all Forms of Gov-

6. History of the Doctrine of the Divine Right of Princes 178

7. Doctrine of the Indefeasible Right of Princes. Theory

ofHobbes, 180

8. Theory of Locke and the English Whigs, , 182

9. Doctrine of Natural Rights, . . . .182

10. Paradoxes to which that Doctrine has led, . 183

11. Duties of good Citizenship. Patriotism, Public Spirit, 185

Chapter V

Of the unequal Burden or Duty imposed on Women,

AND HEREIN OF CHASTITY.

1. Opinion of the Inferiority of Women, . . 186

2. Position of the Wife in Savage Communities. Polygamy, 186

3. Origin of Harems, and Female Seclusion, . 187

CONTENTS. XV

4. Subordination in the Harem, . . . .188

5. Distinction between Wives and Concubines, . 188

6. Substitution of Monogamy for Polygamy. Its Causes

and Consequences, . 189

7. Position of Women among the Romans, and in Modern

8. Chastity in Women, ..... 191

9. Chastity in Men, ..... 193

10. Grounds of this Distinction, — as regards Women, . 194

11. As regards Men, ..... 197

12. Grounds of the Severity exercised towards Women for

Breaches of Chastity, . . . . 198

13. Failure of this Severity to accomplish its Object. True

Means of promoting Chastity, . . . 194

14. Communities in which Women approach nearest to

Equality with Men, . . . . 200

15. Grounds of the Liberty allowed to Married Women in

such Communities, .... 202

16* That Liberty not extended to the Unmarried, and why, 204 17. Position of Women in the Northern States of America.

Societies for Moral Reform, .... 204

CHAPTER VI. Ascetic Systems of Morals

1. Luxury. Definition of it, ... 206

2. Political Ascetics, ..... 206

3. Philosophical Ascetics, .... 207

4. Mystic Ascetics, ..... 209

5. Mystic Theory of Asceticism, . . . 209

6. Disciples of this Doctrine in all Ages and Countries, 211

7. Tendency to an Alliance between Asceticism and Self-

8. Mystic Doctrines on the Subject of Chastity, . 212

9. War of the Poets against the Ascetics, . . 214 10. Superior Justice towards Women, of Ascetic-mystic

XVI CONTENTS.

Chapter VII

Mutual Duties of Relatives, Friends, Inferiors, Superiors, Enemies, and Strangers.

1. Parents and Children, . . . . 215

2. Why the Tie of Blood appears less strong in Civilized

Communities, ..... 216

3. Other Effects of an enlarged Sphere of the Sentiment

of Benevolence, . . . , • 217

4. Duties of Friendship. Their Origin, . . 217

5. Breaches of the Duty of Friendship, esteemed more

criminal than Breaches of the Duty of Love, and why, 218

6. Duties to Superiors, .... 220

7. Respect due from the Young to the Old, . . 220

8. Grounds and Measure of the Respect due to those above

9. Gallantry towards Women. Its Origin and Extent, 221

10. Duties of Superiors to Inferiors, . . , 221

11. Remarkable Difference between Codes of Law and

Codes of Morals as to the Extent of the Right of Property, ..... 222

12. Duty of Munificence, or Liberality, . . . 222

13. Duty of Charity. Pity, .... 223

14. Distinction between Pity and Sympathy, . . 224

15. Women peculiarly susceptible to Pity, . . 225

17. Duty to Enemies. Forgiveness, Candor, or Charity in

the widest Sense, . . , . 225

18. Right of making War. Practicability of its Extinguish-

19. Duties to Strangers. National Prejudices, . . 228

20. Piracy and the Slave Trade, ... 229

21. Hospitality. Duties of a Host, . . .229

CHAPTER VIII. Duties of Sympathy and Self-respect

1. Definition of Sympathy, .... 231

2. Union of Sympathy with Malevolence, . • 231

3. Virtuous Indignation, so called, . . . 233

CONTENTS. XVI 1

4. Cruel Customs thence arising. Torture, Cannibalism,

Mutilation, . . . - . 233

5. Political and Religious Cruelties. Hatred of Innovators, 234

6. Slow Progress of Freedom of Inquiry, . . 235

7. What are esteemed Duties of Sympathy often in Con-

tradiction to the Dictates of Benevolence, . 235 f

8. Effects of Mystic Sympathy, . . . .237

9. Duties of Self-respect, .... 238

CHAPTER IX. Duties to God, or Religious Duties

1. Mystic Idea of God. Consequences thence Resulting, 240

2. Current Theology modified and determined by current

3. Religious Forms and Ceremonies, . . . 241

4. Different Images under which God is represented. Cor-

responding Ideas of Religious Duty, . . 242

5. Philosophical Idea of God, Controversy between the

Philosophers and the Mystics, . . . 243

6. Attempted Alliance between Philosophy and Mysticism.

Semi -Mystics, ..... 245

7. This Alliance rejected by the thorough Mystics, . 245

8. Religious Faith. Different Ideas of it, . • 246

9. Reasons why Religious Faith has been reckoned a

10. That Opinion on the Decline, . . ^ 249

11. Vice of Hypocrisy, ..... 249

12. Want of Faith complained of by recent Moralists. Their

probable Meaning, ..... 251

CHAPTER X. Morals a progressive Science

1. Actions produce Consequences of three Kinds, . 252

2. Progress of Moral Opinions, .... 252

3. Upon what subjects Moral Opinions have been most

4. Decisions of Common Sense on Questions of Morals, 254

c

XVlll CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I. Connexion between Happiness and Virtue

1. Two Aspects of this Question : first, as respects Com-

munities ; second, as respects Individuals, . 255

2. Sets of Circumstances upon which Happiness is de-

3. Effect of an Increase of Virtue on the Happiness of a

Community, . . . . 256

4. Hence Moralists have been inclined to maintain that

Individuals are happy in Proportion to their Virtue, 256

5. Falsity of that Doctrine, .... 257

6. Nature of the Distinction between the Right and the

7. Injustice and Danger of supposing Happiness and Vir-

tue to be inseparable, .... 260

8. That Doctrine partially true of ordinary Virtue ; not

true of extraordinary Virtue, . . . 261

9. True Aim of the enlightened Moralist, . 261

CHAPTER II. Means of raising the Standard of Morals

1. By increasing the average Force of the Sentiment of

2. Development of Moral Character in Children, . 263

3. Cooperating Motives. Good and Bad Children, . 264

4. Developement of Moral Character in Youth and Man-

5. Classification of Mankind into Good and Bad, Conscien-

tious and Unprincipled, . . . . 266

6. How this Means operates as to individual Actions, . 267

7. Increase of the average Force of Benevolence a Means

at once conservative and reformative, . . 267

CONTENTS. Xix

8. First Means of increasing the Force of the Sentiment

of Benevolence, — Exercise, Habit, . . 268

9. Second Means, — Alleviation of counteracting Pains, 269

10. Why Civilization is considered favorable to Virtue and

Happiness. Celebrated Paradox of Rousseau, . 270

11. Commencement of a great social Revolution, . 271

12. That Revolution still in Progress, . . 272

THEORY OF MORALS.