The Greeks and the Persians

Preface

In the pages of Herodotus the history of the Persian Wars becomes the history of the world. The fortunes of the tribes and nations which were absorbed successively into the great mass of the Persian Empire, before it came into collision with the only force capable of withstanding it, are traced with a fulness of detail due probably to the fact that no written history either of the Greek tribes or of their Eastern and Western neighbors was yet in existence.

In the present volume the non -Hellenic peoples are noticed only in so far as their history bears on that of the Greek tribes, or as their characteristics illustrate the relations and even the affinity of the latter with races which they regarded as altogether alien and barbarous.

In relating the history of that great struggle between the despotism of the East and the freedom and law of the West, which came practically to an end with the discomfiture of the Persian army at Plataia and the ruin of the Persian fleet at Mykale, I have striven to trace the lines of evidence, sometimes vi Preface.

faintly marked, but seldom broken, which enable us to test the traditional stories and with more or less clearness to ascertain the real course of events. In short, my effort has been to show rather how far the history may be regarded as trustworthy than how much of it must be put aside as uncertain or fictitious. That it contains some traditions which are not to be trusted and others which are actually false, * is beyond question; and in such instances I have placed before the reader the evidence which will enable him to form his own judgment in the matter. But it is more satisfactory to note that with little doubt the real course of the events which preceded and followed the battle of Marathon or the march of Leonidas to Thermopylai may be determined by evidence supplied in the narrative of Herodotus himself; and that the history thus recovered throws a singularly full and clear light on the motives of all the contending parties, and on the origin and nature of the struggle which was decided chiefly by Athenian energy and heroism.

The history of this struggle forms a portion of that ground which I have had to traverse in the first volume of my a History of Greece." But although the materials have been necessarily re-arranged and much of the history is presented from a different point of view, I have given, much as I gave them in my larger volume, the descriptions of the most striking scenes or the most important actors in the great strife which carried Athens to imperial dominion. I felt that I could scarcely hope to make these descriptions

Preface. vil

more clear or forcible by giving them in different words, and that any attempt to write down to the capacities of young readers was wholly uncalled for in a history which in its vivid pictures and stirring interest appeals with equal force to the young and to the old alike.

Note on the Spelling of Greek Names.

No attempt has been made in this volume to alter the spelling of Greek names which have assumed genuine English forms — e. g. Athens, Thebes, Corinth, Thrace. It would be well, perhaps, if such forms had been more numerous.

The Latin form has been kept, where it has become so familiar to English ears that a change would be disagreeable, e. g. Thucydides, Cyrus. This last name is, indeed, neither Latin nor Greek; and the adoption of either the Greek or the Latin form is a matter of comparative indifference. Probably it would be to the benefit of historical study to revert to the true Persian form, and to write Gustashp for Hystaspes.

But these exceptions do not affect the general rule of giving the Greek forms, wherever it may be practicable or advisable to do so. This rule may be followed in all instances in which either the name or the person are unknown to the mass of English readers. Thus, while we still speak of Alexauder the Great, his obscure predecessor, who acts a subordinate part in the drama of the Persian wars, may appear as Aleuandros.

The general adoption of the Greek form is, indeed, justified, if not rendered necessary, by the practice of most of the recent writers on Greek History. It is, therefore, unnecessary perhaps to say more than that the adoption of the Greek form may help on the change in the English pronunciation of Latin, which the most eminent schoolmasters of the day have pronounced to be desirable. So long as the Phrygian town is mentioned under its Latin form, Celcence, there will be a strong temptation for young readers to pronounce it as if it were the Greek name for the moon, Selene It is well, therefore, that they should become familiarized with the Greek form Kelainai, and thus learn that the Greek spelling involves practically no difference of sound from that of the true Latin pronunciation, the sound of the C and K. being identical, and the diphthong ai being pronounced as we pronounce at in/azY, while oi and ei have the sound of our ee in sheen.

Chapter I. Origin And Growth Of Greek Civilization

PAGE General character of Oriental history . . I

Rapid extension of the Roman Empire . . 2

Hindrances to the extension of Persian power in the

Political growth of the Greek race . . • 4

Isolation of the Greek cities . . • 4

General character of the early Greek civilization . 5 Religious character of the Greek state . . 7

Causes retarding the growth of the civil power . 8 The city the ultimate unit of Greek society . . 9

National characteristics of the Greeks . .10

Comparison between the Greeks and the subjects of

Eastern empires . . . .12

Influence of the great festivals on the education of

the Greeks . . . . . 13

Rise and growth of Greek philosophy . . 14

Chapter II

SETTLEMENTS AND GOVERNMENT OF THE GREEKS. Extent of the Hellenic world . . .16

Geography of Northern Greece . . .18

Geography of the Peloponnesos . . 19

Contents.

B.C.

The coast-line of Greece The Thessalians The Boiotians The Spartans The Spartan constitution The population of Lakonia The military system of Sparta Character of the Greek colonies Greek colonies in Italy and Sicily Corinth and Korkyra

Epeirots and other tribes of Northern Hellas Greek settlements on the northern coast of the Egean sea .....

The Asiatic Greeks .

Physical geography of Asia Minor .

The Kingdom of Lydia .

PAGE

, 20

, 21

. 22

. 22

. 23

. 24

• 25

. 26

. 27

. 28 29

32 32 33 35

?545

Chapter III. The Persian Empire Under Cyrus, Kambyses, And Dareios

Cyrus and Astyages . . . 36

The Median empire . . . • 37

Connection of the Median, Lydian, and Assyrian

Empires . . . . . 38

The Median people . . . • 39

Geography of Persia . . . • 39

The Lydian Kingdom and the Asiatic Greeks . 41

History of the war between Kroisos and Cyrus . 42

Popular stories of the reign and fall of Kroisos . 43 Sources of the popular accounts of the reign of

Kroisos . . . . • 47

Events in Asia Minor after the fall of Kroisos . 49

Expedition of Cyrus against Babylon . . • 49

Siege and fall of Babylon . . . • 5 2

Contents. xi

b. c. PAGE Death of Cyrus, and invasion of Egypt by Kam-

The formation of Egypt . . . . 54

Character of the Egyptian people . . . 56

Opening of Egypt to the Greeks . . . 58

Reigns of Nekos, Amasis, and Psammenitos . 59

? 525 Conquest of Egypt by the Persians . . .61 Failure of the expedition into Ethiopia and the

Failure of the proposed expedition against Carthage 62

The last days of Kambyses . . .64

The record of Behistun . . . .66

? 520 Revolt of the Medes . . . .67

Revolt of Babylon . . . . -67

Despotism of Polykrates at Samos . . • 68 Organization of the Persian Empire under Dareios 69

The story of Demokedes . . . . 70

? 516 Expedition of Dareios to Scythia . . • 73

The Ionians at the bridge across the Danube . 75

Operations of Megabazos in Thrace . . 76

Chapter IV

HISTORY OF ATHENS IN THE TIMES OF SOLON, PEISISTRATOS, AND KLEISTHENES.

Growth of hereditary sovereignty among the Greeks 77

Origin of Greek tyrannies . . . . 79

Early history of the Athenian people . . 80

New classification of the citizens by Solon . . 82

Results of the legislation of Solon . . .84

560-525 Usurpation of Peisistratos . . .85

Subsequent fortunes of Peisistratos . . . 85

Despotism of his sons, Hippias and Hipparchos . 86

510 Expulsion of Hippias from Athens . . . 88

The reforms of Kleisthenes . . . .89 xii Contents, b. c. page

The new tribes ....

The Ostracism ....

Opposition of Isagoras, ending in the triumph of

Kleisthenes ....

509 Embassy from the Athenians to Artaphernes, satrap

of Sardeis ....

Failure of the efforts of the Spartans for the resto ration of Hippias

Discomfiture of the Spartan king, Kleomenes, at Eleusis ....

Invitation to Hippias to attend a congress of Spartan allies

Return of Hippias to Sigeion .

Chapter V. 96 97

THE IONIC REVOLT.

Intrigues of Hippias at Sardeis . . . 99

Embassy from Athens to Artaphernes . .100

? 502 Revolt of Aristagoras against the Persian king . 100

Mission of Aristagoras to Sparta and Athens . 102

The burning of Sardeis . , . .105 Extension of the revolt to Byzantion and other cities 106 Causes of the revolt in Kypros (Cyprus) and Karia 107

Defeat of the Ionian fleet at Lade . . .108

Disunion and weakness of the Asiatic Greeks . no

495 Siege and capture of Miletos . . .111

Suppression of the revolt . . . .111

Retreat of Miltiades to Athens . . .in

Chapter VI. The Invasion Of Datis And Artaphernes

Administration of Artaphernes in Ionia . .112

?493 Measures of Mardonios . . . . 113

Conte7tts. xiii

b. c. page

? 492 Discomfiture of Mardonios in Thrace . . 1 1 \

Mission of the envoys of Dareios to the Greek cities 115

? 496 War between Argos and Sparta . . .117

Deposition of Demaratos . . . . "8

Expedition of Datis and Artaphernes against Naxos

and Eretria . . . . .118

490 Landing of the Persians at Marathon . .120

Early career and character of Aristeides and The-

mistokles . . . . .121

Preparations of the Persians at Marathon . .123

The Plataians and the Athenians . , .125

Real designs of Hippias and the Persians . .125

March of the Athenians to Marathon . . .127

The plain of Marathon . . . .128

Victory of the Athenians . . . .128

Importance of the battle of Marathon . .130

Popular traditions of the fight . . .130

Closing scenes of the reign of Dareios . .131

Charges brought at Athens against the Alkmaionidai 132

489 Expedition of Miltiades to Paros . . . .133 Trial and death of Miltiades . . . . . 134

Conduct of the Athenians in the case of Miltiades . 135

Chapter VII. The Invasion And Flight Of Xerxes

General character of the narratives relating to the

expedition of Xerxes ..... 140

484 Preparations for the invasion of Europe . . .140

481 Progress of Xerxes from Sousa to Sardeis . . 143

Bridges across the Hellespont . . . .144

480 March of Xerxes from Sardeis . . . .145

Passage of the Hellespont . . . . .147

Conversation of ^erxes with Demaratos . . 150

XIV

Contents.

March of the Persian army to Therme .

Arrival of the Persian fleet off the Magnesian coast

Development of the Athenian navy 483 Ostracism of Aristeides ....

Growing wealth of Athens 480 Congress at the isthmus of Corinth

Interpretation of the Delphian oracles .

Neutrality or indifference of the Argives, Korky raians, and Sicilian Greeks

Abandonment of the pass of Tempe

Occupation of Thermopylai by the Greeks Leonidas .....

Importance of the conflict at Thermopylai

Damage of the Persian fleet by a storm off the nesian coast

The struggle in Thermopylai

Value of the traditional history of the struggle

The Greek fleet at Artemision

Arrival of the Persian ships at Aphetai

Victory of the Greeks at Artemision

Second battle off Artemision .

Victory and Retreat of the Greeks

The Greek fleet at Salamis .

Building of the Isthmian wall

Depression of the allies ....

ans to Argolis, Aigina,

Migration of the Athen:

Salamis .

Success of Xerxes Ravages of Phokis Attack on Delphoi

Traditions relating to the attack on Delphoi Occupation of Athens by Xerxes .

Resolution of the Peloponnesians to retreat to the

Isthmus .......

under

Magand

PAGE

153 153 154 154 155 156

158 160

161 162

175 175

175 176 176 177

Contents. xv

PAGE

Opposition of Themistokles 179

Message of Themistokles to Xerxes . . .180

The battle of Salamis 181

Determination of Xerxes to retreat . . .182

Engagement of Mardonios to finish the conquest of

Greece 183

Artemisia, queen of Halikarnassos . . .184

The pursuit of the Persian fleet by the Greeks abandoned at Andros . . . . . .185

The retreat of Xerxes 187

Operations of Artabazos in Chalkidike . . .189

Capture of Olynthos, and blockade of Potidaia . 189 Exactions of the Greek allies at Andros and elsewhere ........ 190

Honors paid to Themistokles by the Spartans . 190

Chapter VIII

THE BATTLES OF PLATAIA AND MYKALE, AND THE FORMATION OF THE ATHENIAN CONFEDERACY.

479 Efforts of Mardonios to win the friendship of the

193 194

196 196 196 197 198 198

Alarm of the Spartans ....

Second occupation of Athens by the Persians Departure of the Spartan army for Attica Paction of Mardonios with the Argives . Ravaging of Attica, and burning of Athens Retreat of Mardonios into Boiotia .

The feast of Attaginos ....

March of the allies towards Plataia Death of the Persian general Masistios . Inaction of both armies ....

Athenian traditions relating to the preparations for

battle 199

B

XVI

Contents.

B.C.

The battle of Plataia ....

Storming of the Persian camp The gathering of the spoil . . .

Privileges granted to the Plataians The retreat of Artabazos

Siege of Thebes

Punishment of the Thebans .

Voyage of the Greek fleet to Samos

Retreat of the Persian fleet to My kale .

Battle of Mykale ....

Burning of the Persian ships .

Desire of the Spartans to be freed from further

cern in the war ....

The allies at the Hellespont .

The siege of Lesbos ....

Death of the satrap Artayktes Expedition of the allies to Kypros (Cyprus) Reduction of Byzantion Formation of the Athenian Confederacy Practical end of the struggle with Persia

PAGE

L-

MAPS.

Greek and Phenician Colonies .

Greek Settlements in Asia Minor Thermopylai . . .

Battle of Salamis , Battle of Plataia .

to face Title-page

to face page 33

" 160

" 181

« 181

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.

B. C.

7630 ?

?570

?559 ?

527 ?525

? 522

?520

59 85 36

85 88

52 86

53 61

6 7

Athens . . Conspiracy of Kylon.

Egypt . .. Founding of Naukratis in the reign of Psammitichos.

Dethronement of Apries by Amasis.

Athens . . Seizure of the Akropolis by Peisistratos. Media . . Defeat and dethronement of Astyages (?) by Cyrus, who establishes the Persian Empire.

Assyria . Conquest of Nineveh by Kyaxares and

Nabopolassar.

Asia Minor Conquest of the Asiatic Hellenes by Kroisos (Croesus), King of Lydia. (?) First conquest of Ionia.

Athens . . Death of Solon.

Miltiades sent by Hippias as governor of the Thrakian Chersonesos.

Asia Minor Fall of Kroisos The Lydian empire absorbed in that of Persia. (?) Second conquest of Ionia.

Revolt of Paktyas against Cyrus.

Conquest of Lykia by the Persians. (?) Third conquest of Ionia.

Babylon . Siege and capture of Babylon by Cyrus. Athens . . Death of Peisistratos.

Egypt . . Invasion of Kambyses, King of Persia.

Failure of the Persian Expedition to Amoun and Ethiopia; and abandonment of the expedition against Car^ thage.

Samos . , Death of Polykrates, tyrant of Samos. Persia . . Election or accession of Dareios to the Persian throne.

Suppression of the Magian rebellion. Babylon . Revolt and conquest of Babylon.

xvii

Chronological Table.

PAGE

73 77

28 84

125 95

108 106 108 117

Scythia .

Lemnos .

Athens .

Korkyra Athens .

Plataia .

Eleusis .

Boiotia , Sparta .

Naxos

Asia Minor

Argos . .

Scythian expedition to Dareios.

Conquest of Lemnos by Miltiades.

Conspiracy of Aristogeiton, and death of Hipparchos.

Foundation of the Colony from Corinth.

Invasion of Kleomenes, king of Sparta, who expels Hippias. Fall of THE Petsistratidai.

Factions between the Alkmaionid Kleisthenes, and Isagoras, who is aided by Kleomenes.

Reforms and expulsion of Kleisthenes, followed by his return.

Embassy from Athens to Sardeis, to ask for an alliance with the Persian king.

Alliance between Plataia and Athens.

Demaratos deserts Kleomenes, who is compelled to abandon his attempts against Athens.

Victories of the Athenians in Boiotia and Euboia.

Hippias pleads his cause before a congress of Peloponnesian allies.

The Corinthians protest against all interference with the internal affairs of independent cities; and Hippias returning to Sigeion, busies himself with intrigues for the purpose of precipitating the power of Persia upon Athens.

Some oligarchic exiles from Naxos ask help from Aristagoras of Miletos, at whose request Artaphernes sends Mega* bates to reduce the island.

Ionian Revolt. On the failure of the expedition, Aristagoras revolts against Dareios, and seeks help first at Sparta, where he gets nothing; then at Athens, where the people dispatch twenty ships in his service.

Burning of Sardeis by the Ionians and Athenians.

Extension of the Ionian revolt to Byzantion and Karia.

Defeat and death of Aristagoras.

Capture and death of Histiaios

Defeat of the Ionian fleet at Lade.

War between Sparta and Argos.

Chronological Table.

xix

B. C.

? 49 6 ?495

PAGE Il8

489 486

485 484

II 9

I20 I3O

159 144

148 152 160

161 163

Sparta . . Deposition and exile of Demaratos. Death of Kleomenes.

Miletos . . Fall of Miletos in the sixth year of the Ionian Revolt.

Suppression of the Ionian Revolt.

Third (? fourth) conquest of Ionia.

Ionia . . Political reforms of Artaphernes and Mardonios.

Thrace . . Destruction of the fleet of Mardonios by a storm on the coast of Athos.

Athens ") The Persian heralds sent by Dareios are

and \ said to be thrown into the Barathron at

Sparta J Athens and into a well at Sparta.

Naxos . . Artaphernes and Datis, the latter claiming to be king of Athens, takes Naxos.

Euboia . . The town of Eretria is betrayed to the Persians.

Marathon . Landing of Hippias with the Persians at Marathon.

Defeat of the Persians and departure of their fleet.

Paros . . Expedition of Miltiades to Paros. On its failure he is sentenced to a fine of fifty talents, but dies before it is paid.

Persia . . Death of Dareios, who is succeeded by Xerxes.

Xerxes makes preparations for the invasion of Egypt.

Sicily . . Gelon becomes master of Syracuse.

Egypt . . Re-conquest of Egypt by Xerxes.

Persia . . The invasion of Hellas resolved upon by Xerxes, who marches to Sardeis.

Athens . . Ostracism of Aristeides.

Congress of allies at the isthmus of

Corinth.

Mission to Gelon, tyrant of Syracuse.

Hellespont Construction of the bridges of boats for the passage of the army.

Thrace . . Review of the Persian army at Doriskos.

Thessaly . Xerxes at the Tempe.

Abandonment of the pass by the Greeks, and consequent Medism of the Thessalians.

Sparta . June. Departure of Leonidas for Thermopylae

Magnesia Destruction of a large portion of the Persian fleet by a storm on the Magnesian coast.

XX

Chronological Table.

B. C.

PAGE I70

174 175

Attica .

Phokis .

Athens .

Salamis

Artemision The Greek fleet takes up its station on

the northern coast of Euboia.

Thermopylai March of Hydarnes over Anopaia for the

purpose of cutting off the Greek army. Victory of the Persians, and death of

Leonidas.

Euboia . . A Persian squadron sent round Euboia

to take the Greek fleet in the rear. Action off Artemision. The Greeks take

thirty ships.

A second storm does further damage to

the Persian fleet.

In a second sea-fight the Greeks have the

advantage, but resolve to retreat to

Salamis.

Fortification of the Corinthian isthmus. Migration of the people to Argolis, Salamis, and Aigina.

Devastation of Phokis by the Persians,

who are defeated, it is said, at Delphoi. Occupation of Athens by Xerxes.

Themistokles, by sending a message to

Xerxes, prevents the intended retreat of

the allies.

Battle of Salamis.

Xerxes determines to go home, leaving

Mardonios to carry on the war.

Departure of the Persian fleet.

March of Xerxes through Thessaly and

Thrace to the Hellespont.

Siege and capture of Olynthos by Arta-

bazos, who fails in his attempt on

Potidaia.

Siege of Andros by Themistokles.

Mardonios offers specially favorable terms

to Athens.

On their rejection he occupies Athens, but

abstains from doing any injury to the city

or country, until he learns, from the

entrance of the Spartan army into Attica,

that there was no hope of carrying out

his plans successfully.

Boiotia . . Retreat of Mardonios to Thebes after the

burning of Athens.

Advance of the allies into the territory of

Plataia.

Battle of Plataia. Defeat and death

of Mardonios.

Thrace ,

Andros .

Attica .

Chronological Table.

xxi

2O9 2IO

Retreat of Artabazos.

The Persian camp stormed.

Siege of Thebes. The Theban prisoners put to death at the Corinthian isthmus. Mykale . Probably midsummer. The allied fleet sails first to Samos, then to Mykale. Battle of Mykale. Ruin of the Persian fleet.

Foundation of the Athenian empire.

Lesbos . . Siege of Lesbos. Crucifixion of Ar-

tayktes.

Asia Minor Victories of Pausanias at Kypros (Cyprus).

Byzantion . Reduction of Byzantion. Formation of the Athenian confederacy. Practical end of the struggle between the Greeks and the Persians.

THE PERSIAN WARS.

Chapter I. Origin And Growth Of Greek Civilization

In all ages of the world's history Eastern empires have been great only so long as they have been aggressive. In every instance the lust of conquest has been followed by satiety, and the result of character of luxurious inaction has been speedy decay, history^ No other result seems possible where there is, in strictness of speech, no national life, no growth of intellect, no spirit of personal independence in the individual citizen. A society of rude and hardy warriors banded together under a fearless leader must crush the subjects of a despot who can look back only to the conquests of his forefathers as a pledge for the continuance of his prosperity ; but this infusion of new blood brings with it no change in the essential condition of things so long as the dominion of one irresponsible ruler merely gives way to that of another. The rugged mountaineers who lay the foundations of empire for their chief become the contented retainers of his children or his grandchildren, and in their turn pass under the yoke of some new invader.

In the sixth century before the Christian era this law

of growth and decay had made the Persians masters of

the Eastern world. The lords of Nineveh,

teM?on d of e *" who h ad P ull ed down from their seat the

the Persian ancient sovereigns of Babylon, had fallen

empire. ° ■,-

beneath the sway of the Median monarch and his more vigorous clansmen, and these again had found their masters in the hardy followers of the Persian Cyrus. Bursting with the force of a winter's torrent from the highlands which yielded them but sorry fare, the warriors of Iran had overthrown the empires of Media and Lydia, and added the wealth of Babylon and Egypt to the riches which their fierce enthusiasm had won for their kings.

The conquest of Lydia brought the Persians into contact with tribes whose kinsfolk to the west of the

Egean Sea were to read a stern lesson to the

Hindrances haughtiest of earthly potentates, to show

tension 5 them what a spirit of voluntary obedience

Persian j- i aw can achieve against the armies of a

power in the °

west. despot who drives his slaves to battle with

a scourge, and to prove that the force of freedom may more than counterbalance the evils involved in a confederation of cities held together by the laxest of bonds. The struggle thus brought about between Europe and Asia was, in fact, the struggle between orderly government and uncontrolled despotism,- between law which insures freedom of thought, speech, and action, and the license of a tyrant whose iniquities can be cut short only by the dagger of the assassin. Had the Persian king succeeded here as he had succeeded before the walls of Agbatana [Ecbatana], of Babylon, and of Memphis, his hordes must have spread over the lands lying between the gates of the

Euxine and the Pillars of Herakles, and have fastened on all Europe the yoke which has now for more than four hundred years crushed out such freedom as yet remained to the subjects of the Byzantine Caesars. The Persian King may well be pardoned if he failed to see that any obstacles could arrest his progress. The hindrances which first checked and finally foiled him came not from any lord of armies as huge as his own, but from the citizens of an insignificant town, who were rather hampered than aided even by those of their kinsfolk in other cities who professed to be most earnest in the desire to beat off the invader. The approach of the Persian hosts had caused in the Greek cities generally a very paralysis of fear. The people of one city only were proof against the universal panic, and that city was Athens. That the issue of the conflict depended wholly on the conduct of the Athenians is the emphatic judgment of the only historian who has left to us a narrative of the struggle which may almost be regarded as contemporary. Herodotus was about six years old when the fall of Sestos left the way open for the establishment of the Athenian empire, and his life was passed in the disinterested search for the evidence which should enable him to exhibit in their true light the incidents and issues of the Persian wars. Hence the causes of these wars must, it is manifest, be sought in the previous history of Athens ; and this history makes it plain that the incident directly leading to the great struggle was the expulsion of the dynasty of the Peisistratids, whose downfall was owing to the blow struck by Solon against the exclusiveness of the nobles, who, styling themselves Eupatridai, had secured to their order the whole power of the state.

This revolution, the most momentous which the world has ever yet known, had long been going on among not a few of the tribes which gloried in the title growth of the of Hellenes or Greeks. The results thus Greek race. f ar ma y h ave been uncertain ; but although the flow of the title had in some cases been followed by an ebb which left them further from the goal aimed at, the whole movement marked an uprising of the human mind which no other age or country had ever witnessed. It was, virtually, the protest that a caste which formed a mere fraction of the body politic had no right to usurp the government of the whole, and that each citizen was entitled to have a share in the making of the laws which he was to obey. If the Athenians came to be foremost in carrying out this great change, it was not because they had been the first to begin it, still less because they possessed a power capable of coercing their neighbors, or because they were recognized as leaders of the Hellenic people generally.

In truth, the Hellenic or Greek world existed not as one of the organized and compact societies to which we give the name of nations, but as a set of inthe Greek dependent units, animated by feelings of

Clties - constant suspicion, jealousy, and dislike of

all except the members of their own city-community. Beyond this stage which made the city the final unit of society the Greeks, as a whole, never advanced. The result of the Persian Wars forced Athens into a position which compelled her to carry out a larger and a wiser policy : but the history of her empire was simply the history of a fierce and unwearied opposition by the Spartan confederacy to all efforts tending to substitute a common order for the irregular action of individual cities. This antagonism brought about the ruin of her confederacy, and from that time onward Greek history became little more than a record of wars directed against each city as it attained a degree of power which seemed likeiy to threaten the independence of its neighbors. It had indeed been little more than this in the times which preceded the Persian Wars ; but those times were marked by a vigorous intellectual and political growth which gave promise of better things than the Greeks themselves ever realized, and which has yielded its largest fruits on the soil of Britain.

There was, then, no Greek or Hellenic nation ; and if we take into account the conditions under which the Hellenic tribes grew up, we shall see that it