Chapter II. — Oceanic Basins. — Depth of the Seas. — Lev%l of the Surface of the Ocean 20
Chapter III. — Composition of Sea-water. — Specific Weight. — Salt Marshes, Natural and Artificial. — Various Substances. — Differences of Saltness. — Marine Salt 35
Chapter IV. — Various Colors of Sea-water. — Reflections, Transparency, and Proper Color. — Temperature of the Depths of the Sea 41
Chapter V. — Formation of Ice. — Ice-floes, Fields of Ice, and Icebergs. — Ice in the Baltic and tlie Black Sea : 46
Chapter VI. — Waves of the Sea. — Regular and Irregular Undulations. — Height of the Waves. — Their Size and Speed. — Ground-swell. — Coast-waves .".... 59
Book Ii.— Currents
Chapter VII. — Great Movements of the Sea. — General Causes of Currents. — The Five Oceanic Rivers 67
Chapter VIII. — The Gulf Stream. — Influence of this Current on Climate. — Its Importance to Commerce 70
Chapter IX. — Currents of the South Atlantic and the Indian Ocean. — Double Eddy of the Pacific Ocean 82
Chapter X. — ^Lateral Eddies. — Rennell's Current. — Counter-current in the Sea of the Antilles. — Equilibrium of the Waters m tlie Baltic, the Bosporus, at th^Entrances to the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. — Exchange of Water and Salt between the Seas 88
Book Iii.— The Tides
Chapter XL — Oscillations of the Level of the Seas. — Theory of the Tides 94
Chapter XII. — Theory of Whewell on the Origin and Propagation of Tidal Waves. — Origin of the Tide in each OceBiic Basin. — " Estabhshment " of Ports. — "Co-tidal" Lines^ 102
Chapter XIII. — Apparent Irregularities of the Tides. — Extraordinary size of the Tidal Wave in certain Bays. — Interference of Ebb and Flow. — Diurnal Tides. — Inequalities of successive Tides. .•. 106
Chapter XIV.— Tidal Currents. — Races and Whirlpools. — Tidal Eddies. — Eiver Tides 116
Chapter XV. — Ebb and Flow in Lakes and Inland Seds. — Currents of the Euripus. — Scylla and Charybdis 122
CONfENTS. '
BOOK IV.— THE SHORES AND ISLANDS. • Page
Chapter XVI. — Incessant Modifications of the Coast-line. — The Fjords of Scandinavia and other Countries near the Poles .' , 127
Chapter XVII. — Filling up the Fjords by Marine and Fluvial Alluvium 133
Chapter XVIII.— Destruction of Cliffs. — llie Coasts of the Channel. — The Straits of Dover. — Action of Shingle and Sand. — Giants' Caldrons. — Spouting WSlls on the Coasts.— Tidal Wells 139
Chapter XIX. — Undermining of Rocks. — Varied aspect of Cliffs. — Platforms at their Bases. — Resistance of the Coasts. — Breakwaters formed by the Rubbish. — Heligoland. — Destruction of Low Shores 147
Chapter XX. — Normal form of Shores. — Cuitcs of " Greatest Stability." — Formation of New Shores. — Coast Ridges and Sand-banks. — Inland Bays 156
Chapter XXI. — Shallows of the Coast. — Deposit from Calcareous Rocks. — Appearance of Strands and Beaches 172
Chapter XXII. ^ — Origin of Islands. — Islands of Continental Origin. ^ — Rocks of the Shores. — Islands of Depression, Elevation, and Erosion. — Islands of Oceanic Origin. — Atolls and Volcanoes 179
BOOK v.— THE DUNES
Chapter XXIII. — Dunes resulting from the Decomposition of Rocks. — Formation of moving Dunes on the Sea-shore. — Symmetrical Disposition of Ridges of Sand 187
Chapter XXIV. — Height of the Hillocks. — Advance of the Dunes. — Displacement of ' ' Etangs. " — Disappearance of Villages 195
Chapter XXV. — Obstacles opposed by Nature to the Progress of Dunes. — Fixation of the Sands by Seeds 202
Book I.— The Air And Winds
Chapter I. — Air the Agent of the Vital Circulation of the Planet. ^ — Phenomena of Reflection and Refraction. — Mirage '. 206
Chapter II. — Weight of the Air. — Height of the Upper Strata. — Barometric Measures 213
Chapter III. — Mean Pressure of the Atmosphere under vanous Latitudes. — Density of the Air in the Northern Hemisphere. — Diurnal Oscillations of the Barometrical Column. — Annual Oscillations. — Iri-egular Variations. — Isobarometric Lines 217
Chapter IV. — General Law of the Circulation of Winjb. — Trade-winds from the North-east and South-east. — Equatorial Calms. — Oscillation of the System of Winds 223
Chapter V. — Counter Trade-Avinds or Returning Winds 228
Chapter VI. — The Trade-winds of the Continents. — The Monsoons. — Etesian Winds 235
Chapter VII. — Land and Sea Breezes. — Winds from the Mountains. — Solar Breezes. — Local Winds. — The Simoon, Sirocco, Foehn, Tempests, and Mistral 240
Chapter VIII. — Zone of variable Winds. — Struggle of opposing Winds. — Mean Direction of the Atmospheric Currents. —Law of Gyration 245
BOOK II.— HURRICANES AND WHIRLWINDS. Pap.'
Chapter IX. — Aerial Eddies. — Cyclones of the Equatorial Regions. — The "Great Hurrifane " 251
CHArxER X. — Speed of the revolving Masses of Air. — Speed of the Cyclone. — Fall of the Barometric Column. — Irregularities of the Wind in the Path of the Cyclone 257
Chapter XI. — Spiral of the Hurricanes in the two Hemispheres. — Theory of Cyclones. — Nautical Instructions to avoid Hurricanes 263
Chapter XII.— Eddies of Tempests.— Whirlwinds 26}»
Book Iii.— Clouds And Rains
Chapter XIII. — The Vapor of Water. — The Moisture of the Air. — Absolute Moisture and relative Moisture 27t>
Chapter XIV. — Formation of Mists and Clouds. — Height, Thickness, Form, and Aspect of Clouds 280
Chapter XV. — Influence of the Winds on the Formation of Snow and Rain. — Distribution of Rain over Plains and Mountains 285
Chapter XVI. — Tropical Rains. — Rainy and Dry Seasons. — Periodicity of Rains 292
Chapter XVII. — Rains beyond the Tropics.^ — ^Winter Rains. — Rains of Spring and Autumn. — Summer Rains.— Rains of the Polar Regions 297
Chapter XVIII. — Countries without Rain. — Geological action of Rains. — Contrast of the two Hemispheres 300
Book Iv.— Thunder-storms, Auroras, Magnetic Currents
Chapter XIX. — Height of Thunder-clouds. — Distribution of Thunder-storms in various Regions of the Earth. — Cause of these Phenomena 305
Chapter' XX. — Polar Auroras 314
Chapter XXI. — Terrestrial Magnetism. — Declination, Inclination, and Intensity of the Movements of the Needle. — Magnetic Poles and Equator. — Isogonal Lines and their Secular, Annual, and Diurnal Variations. — Isoclinal Lines. — Isodynamic Lines 324
BOOK v.— CLIMATES
Chapter XXII. — Solar Heat. — Irregularities of Local Climates. — Equalization of the Temperature below the Surface of the Ground 331
Chapter XXIII. — Contrast between the Climates of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, between those of the Eastern and Western Sides of Continents, those of the Coasts and the Interior of Countries, and of Mountains and Plains 335
Chapter XXTV. — Isothermal Lines.^ — ^Thermal Equator. — Poles of Cold. — Increase of Temperature toward the Poles. — Open Seas 341
Chapter XXV. — Extremes of Temperature. — Isochimenal and Isotheral Lines. — Daily and monthly Variations. — Decrease of Warmth in the upper Strata of the Air. — Variations of Climate during the Historical Period 345
10 • CONTENTS.
PAET III. — LIFE.
BOOK I.— THE EARTH AND ITS FLORA: Page
Chapter I. — The Assemblage of living Creatures. — Number of Vegetable Species. — Proportion of Dicotyledons, Monocotyledons, and Cryptogams. — Forests and Savannas [ [ 356
Chapter II. — Influence of Temperature, Moisture, and Solar Kays on Vegetation. — Distribution of Plants 361
Chapter III. — Particular Habitats of Species. — Salt-water and Fresh-water Plants. — Littoral Species. — Parasites. — Terrestrial Species. — Influence of the Soil on Vegetation. — Plants associated together. — Sea- weed. — Extent of Areas 368
Chapter IV. — Contrast of the Floras in the different parts of the World. — Insular and continental Floras. — Increasing richness of Vegetation in the direction from the Poles to the Equator , 373
Chapter V. — Distribution of Vegetation on the Slopes of Mountains. — Mingling of the different Floras. — Upper limits of the Plants in various parts of the World. — Irregularities in the Vertical Distribution of Plants 379
Chapter VI. — Unconnected Species. — Displacement of Areas in consequence of Geological Changes. — Plants of Great Britain. — Naturalization. — Incessant Modification of Floras 386
Book Ii.— The Land And Its Fauna
Chapter VII. — Origin of Life. — Species of Animals. — Multitude of Organisms. — Contrasts of Land and Sea , 393
Chapter VIIL— The Oceanic Fauna 396
Chapter IX. — Influence of Climate and physical Conditions on the Species of Animals 401
Chapter X. — Food of Animal Species. — Contrast of Faunas. — Areas of Habitation.— Changes in the Surface of the Areas. — Birth and Disappearance of Species 406
Chapter XI. — Great Terrestrial Faunas. — Homoiozoic Zones 411
Chapter XII. — Distribution of Species on the Slopes of Mountains and in the Depths of the Sea..... .* 416
Chapter XIII. — Geological Labors of certain Animal Species. — Coral Reefs and Islands 421
Book Iii.— Earth And Man
Chapter XIV. — The Influence of Nature on the Destiny of Mankind. — Antiquity oft th^ Human Race on the Earth. — Monogenists and Polygenists. — Fusion of Human Races 434
Chapter XV. — Influence of Climate. — Tropical Zone. — Frigid Zone. — Temperate Zone 440
Chapter XVI. — Influence of the raised Outline of the Earth on Mankind. — Table-lands, Mountains, Hills, and Plains , 445
Chapter XVII. — Influence of the Sea and running Waters. — Traveling and Commercial Nations. — Islands and Islanders...- 452
•
CONTENTS. 11
PaRo
Chapter XVIII. — Blending of different Climates. — The Influence of Civilization on the Featm-es of a Country 456
Chapter XIX. — The course of History. — Harmony existing between Countries and the Nations inhabiting them 4G1
Book Iv.— The Work Of Jian
Chapter XX. — Reaction of Man on Nature. — Exploration of the Globe. — Voyages of Discovery. — Ascents of Mountains 466
Chapter XXI. — Reclamation of the Earth by Cultivation. — Ancient and modern Irrigation 470
Chapter XXII. — The Culture of Marshes. — Drainage of the Ground in the Country and Towns 474
Chapter XXIII. — The Draining of Lakes and Inlets of the Sea. — The Lake of Copais, the Lake of Fucino, the Sea of Haarlem, the Zuyder Zee. — Polders. — The Purification of Saline Marshes 478
Chapter XXIV. — Dikes on the Sea-shore. — Points of Defense. — Point-de-Grave 487
Chapter XXV. — Natural and artificial Ways of Communication. — Sea-shores, Deserts, and Savannas. — Rivers, Canals, and Railways. — Bridges and Viaducts. — The cutting through Isthmuses. — The Suez Canal. — The Isthmuses of Central America... 495
Chapter XXVI. — The industrial Power of Man. — The Electric Telegraph. — Possession taken of the Sea. — Cultivation of Oysters 504
Chapter XXVII. — Comparative Harmlessness of Hurricanes. — Prevision of Weather. — Modification of Climates effected by the Labor of Jian 510
Chapter XXVIII. — Influence of Man on the Flora and Fauna of a Country. — Encroachment effected by the more common Species. — Extension given by Agriculture to certain cultivated Species '. 516
Chapter XXIX. — Influence of Man on the Beauty of the Earth. — Disfigurement and Embellishment of the Land. — The diverse Action of different Nations. — The Appreciation of Nature. — The Progress of Mankind 522
ILLUSTRATIONS.
[The Colored Maps, indicated in the list by capital letters, were printed in England, and by mistake were in txco instances incorrectly numbered. They are located, hoicever, in their proper places with reference toihe text.'\
Number Page
I. Straits OF Dover 21
1. Gulf of Cape Breton 22
2. Depths of the Adriatic 24
;'.. Profile of Bed of Adriatic 25
II. Submarine Platjiau 26
4. Profile of Bed of North Sea 26
.".. Depths of the English Channel 27
<;. Profile of the greatest Depth 27
III. North Atlantic Ocean 28
7. Section of Atlantic in Tropics 28
H. Depths at the ]\Iouth of the Ganges. . 31
'.). Comparative Saltness of Seas 36
10. Salt Marshes of Bessarabia 38
1 1 . Temperature of Sea-water 44
12. Glacier of La Madeleine 49*
13. Course of the Icebergs 53
IV. Antarctic Land 54
14. Icebergs of the Antarctic Ocean 54
15. Icebergs of tlie Antarctic Ocean 54
16. Route of the Peacock in Ice-pack 65
17. Course of Icebergs 56
18. Rollings of a Ship 60
19. Average Heights of Waves 61
20. Average Amplitude of Waves 62
21. Bay of St. Jean de Luz 65
V. Current of the Gulf Stream. . 70
22. Channel of Florida 72
23. Route of Steam-packets 80
VI. Oceanic Currents 84
24. Straits of Gibraltar 90
25. Profile of Straits of Gibraltar 91
26. LunarTide 96
27. Syzygy Tide, during New Moon 97
28. Syzygy Tide, during Full Moon 98
29. Tide during Quadrature 99
30. Tide at Southampton ■. 100
31. Co-tidal Lines of British Isles 105
32-34. Ckirves of the Tidal Waves 106
:r>. BavofFundv 107
Number Page
36. Mouth of the Avon 108
VII. Bay OF St. Michael 108
37. Straits of Noirmoutiers 109
38. Tides of the English Channel 110
39. Height of the Tides 112
40. Crossing of Tide-swellings 113
41. Course of the Tide in Irish Sea 117
42. Profile of a Tidal Wave 119
43. Height of the Tidal Wave 120
44. Plan of the Tidal Wave 120
45. Plan of two Tidal Waves 120
46. Tides of the Garonne 121
47. Profile of Straits of Messina 124
48. Lysefjord, Norway 128
49. Fjords of Greenland 129
50. Mouths of Cattaro 130
51. Fjords of South America 131
VIII. Fjords OF NoRAv AY 134
52. Ancient Fjords of Northern Italy... . 135
53. Fjords of South-east of Iceland....... 136
54. Filled-up Fjords of Christiansand 137
55. Ancient Fjords of Carentan 138
56. Roads of the Downs 140
57. Map of Abervrac'h 142
58. Giants' Caldrons of Haelstolmen 143
.^>9. Section of Giants' Caldrons 143
60. Tidal Wells 144
61. Clift' on the Mediterranean 148
62. Ocean Cliff. 149
63. Tides'of Inishmore 149
64. Heligoland 1.52
IX. Depths of the Zuyder Zee 154
65. Isleof Borkum in 1738 154
66. Isle of Borkum in 1825 155
67. Coast between Oneglia and Savone... 157
68. Section of Sea-shore 159
69. Mouth of the Liamone 160
70. Mouth of the Bidassoa 161
71. Mouth of the Oi-ne 162
ILLUSTRATIONS.
NUMBEE TaGB
72. Peninsula of Giens 163
73. Section across Peninsula of Giens... 163
74. Peiiinsula of Cape Sepet 164
75. Chesil Bank 165
76. Miquelon Isles 166
77. Coast-ridges 167
78. Lagunes and Lidi of Venice 168
X. Coast of North Carolina 169
79. Coasts of Dantzic and Pillau 170
80. Cape Ferret from 1768 to 1863 171
81. Road of La Madeleine, California. . . 172
82. Gulf of Carentan 173
83. Bahr-el-Assal and Gulf of Tedjura. 176
84. Clioa-Canzouni 183
85. Nossi-Mitsiou 184
86. Celebes and Gilolo 185
87. Section of Stramboli 185
88. Section of Panaria 186
89. Formation of a Dune 189
90. Formation of Sand Dunes 189
91. Section of a Dune 191
XL Dunes OF La Tkste 192
92. Crescent-shaped Dunes 193
93. Etangs, or Littoral Lakes 197
94. Formation of Etangs 198
95. Isle Thelenji, in Caspian Sea 199
96. Sable Island 199
97. Mirages at Verdon ; 211
98. Mirages at Sea 211
' 99. Tropical Hours of Equatorial Ocean 218
100. Pressure of dry Air at Apenrade.... 219
101. Variations in atmospheric Pressure. 221
102. Oscillations of the Barometer 222
XII. Showers of Volcanic Ashes . 228
103. Cloud of Cinders 229
104. Island of TeneriflFe 230
105. Theories of Trade-winds .•. . 231
106 Variations in Trade-winds 232
107. Trade-winds and Monsoons 238
108. General Direction of Winds 247
109. Direction of Winds in Fi-ance 248
110. Calm during Hurricane, 1861 254
111. Calm d.uring Hurricane, 1761 255
112. Spirals made by a Ship 258
113. Cyclone in Indian Ocean, 1852 259
114. Cyclone in Indian Ocean, 1860 260
115. Parabola described by a Hurricane. 261
116. Simultaneous Cyclones 264
XIII. Range of Hurricane, 1848... 265
117. Direction of Cyclones 266
118. Tempests of the North Atlantic 269
119. Storm in the Pyrenees 270
120. Storm in the Pyrenees 271
NuMBEE Page
121. Hurricane of Monville 272
122. Whirlwinds of Dust 274
123. Whirlwinds of Dust 274
124. Variations in Hygometric Degrees.. 278
125. States of Thermometer and Hy-
grometer 278
126. Winds and Clouds at Teneriflfe 283
127. Rain-fall in Valley of the Saone 287
128. Altitudes in Valley of the Saone... . 287
129. Comparative amounts of Rain-fall . . 289
130. Rains around tlje Gulf of Mexico ... 293
131. Rain-falls at Calcutta and Madras... 294
132. Rain-fall at Anjarakandy.* 295
133. Rain-fall in the Basin of the III 298
134. Rains in France 299
135. Rains in parts of Europe 299
136. Ravines in Craters of Reunion 302
XIV. Rain Map of the World 303
137. Average of Stojms in Europe 806
138. Proportion of Hailstorms 807
140. Storm in Plain North of Pyrenees... 309
141. Hailstorms of Orleans 310
142. Hailstorms of Lower Rhine 311
143. Aurora Borealis of August, 1859.... 316
144. Aurora Borealis of Sept. ,1859 317
145. Monthly Distribution of the Aurora 318
146. Monthly Distribution of the Aurora 819 •147. Auroras seen at New Haven, Conn. 320
148. Circumpolar Zone of the Aurora. . . . 321
XV. ISOGONIC AND ISOCLINIC LiNES . 829
149. Isodynamic Lines 330
150. Temperatures of the Saone and
Rhone 384
151. Distribution of Temperatures, July. 385
152. Distribution of Temperatures, Oct.. 336
153. Distribution of Temperatures, Jan. . 887
154. Valuation of Temperature at Paris . 338
155. Continental and Oceanic Climates. . 389
XVI. Isothermal Lines 341
XVI. Winter Isothermal Lines... 343
XVIII. Isothermal Lines in the North 347
156. Climate of the British Isles 847
157. Variations of Temperature at Paris. 348
158. Monthly Variations of Temperature 849
159. Temperatures at Brussels 350
160. Variation of Temperature at Halle . 350
161. Different Temperatures at Halle.... 351
162. Succession of Climates on Mont
163. Treeless Regions around North Pole 358
XIX. Forests OF the VosGES 359 n^LUHTBATIONS.
Number Paoe
1G4. Forests of Transylvania 800
165. Northward Distribution of riants... 'MVl
166. Polar Limits of Plants 863
167. Polar Limits of Plants 364
XX. Sargasso Sea 369
168. Mediterranean Flora 375
169. Botanical Map of Java 381
1 70. Stages of Vegetation in Teneritle . . . 38§
171. Stages of Vegetation on Canigou.... 382
172. Stages of Vegetation on Sulitjelma. 384
173. Height of Plants on Canigou and
Alps 385
174. Organisms from the Sea-bottom 399
175. Profile of a Coral Reef. 423
176. Roadstead in Island of Tahiti 424
177. Gambler Island 425
178. Profile of Gambler Island 426
179. Atoll of Menchik'off. 426
180. Brown's Archipelago 427
181. Part of Kingsmill Group 428
182. The Red Sea and its Coral Reefs... 429
183. The Kfiys of Florida 430
XXI. Great Barrier Reefs 431
184. Bahama Archipelago 431
185. Cross-section of Bahama Islands.... 432
186. Eleuthira and New Providence Isl-
ands 433
187. Deinsity of Population in Belgium . . 443
Number Page
188. Density of Population in Greece.... 443
189. Valgodemar 446
190. Valley of the Plessur ■ 447
191. Villages of Aliennont 458
192. Monte San-Giulano , 459
XXII. Grecian Archipelago 463
XXIII. •Unexplored Polar Regions 467
193. The Lake of Copais ' 479
194. The Polders of Haariem 480
195. The Zuyder Polder 483
196. The Salt-works of Trapani 485
197. Profile of a Sea-dike in Friesland... 487
198. The Dikes of Uithuizen 488
XXIV. Works at Point-de-Grave. 489
199. The Embankments of Westkapelle. 490
200. The Embankments of Petten 491
201. Progressive Depths of the Clyde.... 496
202. The Railways of Lancashire 497
203. Populations of English Cities 498
XXV. Passes of the Maurienne.. 499
204. The Isthmus of Corinth 501
XXVI. Isthmus OF Suez 502
XVII. Isthmus of Central America 503
205. The Transatlantic Cables 506
206. The Roadstead of Aiguillon 508 .
207. Shipwrecks in the Mediterranean... 511
•
THE ATMOSPHERE, METEORS, AND LIFE.
PAUT I -THE OCEAN.
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