The universal geography : the earth and its inhabitants

Front matter

BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME FROM THE

SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND

THE GIFT OF

Chap. I. General Remarks on Asia

Plateaux : Highlands and Lowlands, p. 3. Geological Formation : Igneous Forces, p. 6. Climate: Diminution of Moisture, p. 8. Areas of Inland Drainage, p. 9. Rivers flowing Seawards, p. 12. Temperature, Rainfall, Vegetation, p. 14. Peninsulas, p. 15. Inhabitants, Culture, p. 18. Religions, p. 21. Historical Retrospect, Migrations, p. 23. European Influences, p. 24. Progress of Discovery, p. 25. Political Rivalries, p. 28.

Chap. II. Caucasia ■

I. Caucasia: The Ponto-Caspian Mountain System, p. 33. The Great Caucasus, p. 34. Geological Formation, Volcanic Action, p. 38. "Water Systems, Snow-line, Rainfall, Glaciers, p. 40. Vegetation, Fauna, p. 43. Inhabitants : Varied Ethnical and Linguistic Elements, p. 46. Russian Conquests : Main Physical Divisions, p. 4S. II. Western Caucasia: Kuban Basin, p. 50. River Systems : Kuban Basin, p. 50. Taman Peninsula, p. 53. Inhabitants : the Cherkesses, p. 54. The Abkhasians and Cossacks, p. 57. Topography, p. 60. III. Central Caucasus : Kuma and Terek Basins, p. 64. River Systems : Kuma Basin, p. 65. The Terek, p. 68. Inhabitants: the Kabards, p. 70. The Osses and Nogai Tatars, p. 71. Topograph}', p. 73. IV. Eastern Caucasia : Daghestan, p. 78. River Systems, p. 79. Inhabitants : the Chechenzes, p. 79. The Lezghians, Tats, and Tatars, p. 83. Topography, p. 86. V. Incur, Rion, and Chorukh Basins : Mingrelia, Imeritia, Svania, Lazistan, p. 88. Climate, Flora and Fauna, p. 91. Inhabitants: the Svans and Rachians, p. 92. The Imeritians, Mingrelians, and Lazes, p. 94. Topography, p. 96. VI. The Kura Basin : Georgia, Transcaucasian Tatary, p. 100. River Systems: the Kura, p. 100. Agriculture, Irrigation Works, Climate, p. 104. Lower Kura Basin : Apsheron Peninsula, p. 106. Inhabitants : the Georgians, p. 111. The Khevsurs, Pshavs, and Tushes, p. 116. The Tatars, Talishes, Slavs, and Germans, p. 119. Topography, p. 120. VII. Russian Armenia : Ararat, Ala goz, Plateau of Lake Gok-chai, and Araxis Basin, p. 130. Orography: Ararat, Ala-goz, p. 130. Lake Gok-chai, the Karabagh, Flora and Fauna, p. 136. The Araxis Basin, p. 139. Inhabitants: the Armenians, p. 140. Topography, p. 145. VIII. General Condition and Administration of the Caucasus, p. 150. Land Tenure, Agriculture, p. 152. Population, Industries, Trade, Education, p. 154. Religions, Finance, Administration, p. 158.

Chap. III. The Aralo-Caspian Basin : Russian Turkestan, the Turkoman Country, Khiva, Bokhara, Region of the Upper Oxus ...... ....

I. General Survey, p. 161. II. The Pamir and AlaI, p. 165. Flora, Fauna, Lukes of the Pamir, p. 170. The Alai Highland, p. 171. III. The Tian-shan, p. 175. Orographic System, p. 176. Katun and Yulduz Highlands, p. 179. Semirechinsk Region, p. 182. Ala-tau Highland, p. 183. Lake Issik-kul and Western Tian-shan Highlands, p. 184. IV. Tarragatai Highlands and Balkhash Basin, p. 189. Lake Balkhash, p. 191. Semirechinsk River System : the Hi, p. 192. V. The Aralo-Caspian Hydrographic System, p. 193. The Turkestan Deserts, p. 194. Flora and Fauna of Turkestan, p. 195. Water System: the Sir, p. 198. The Oxus River System, p. 201. The Aral Sea, p. 208. The Turkoman Deserts and

PAGB iv CONTENTS.

PAGE

Highlands, p. 213. The Atrek and Gurgan Rivers, p. 214. The Ust-urt Plateau, p. 215. East Coast of the Caspian, p. 217. VI. Inhabitants of the Aralo-Caspian Regions, p. 219. The Turkomans, p. 220. The Kara-Kalpaks and Kirghiz, p. 225. The Taranchis and Dungans, p. 231. The Uzhegs, p. 233. The Sartes, Tajiks, and Galehas, p. 234. VII. States of the Aralo-Caspian Basin : I. Baktriana, or Afghan Turkestan, p. 237- Wakhan, p. 238. Badakshan, p. 240. Kunduz and Barman, p. 244. Khulm, Balkh, Andkhoi, p. 247. II. Merv: the Southern Turkomans, p. 250. III. Bokhara, p. 252. Shignan and Roshan, p. 253. Darvaz and Karateghin, p. 253. Hissar : the Iron Gate, p. 255. Topography: Bokhara, p. 257. IV. Khiva, p. 203. V. Russian Turkestan, p. 268. Ferghana Basin : Topography, p. 272. Samarkand, p. 272. Kulja Basin : Topography, 284. Administration of Turkestan, 287.

I. Sibehia, p. 292. Progress of Conquest and Discovery, p. 293. Water Highways, Portages, Highlands, p. 297. River Systems, p. 300. Northern Seaboard, p. 303. Pacific Seaboard: Transbaikalia, p. 304. Climate, p. 305. Flora, p. 310. Fauna, p. 314. Inhabitants : the Chudes, p. 317. II. The Altai Highlands, p. 319. Flora and Fauna of the Altai, p. 323. Inhabitants : the Kahnuks, Tatars, and Russians, p. 324. Topography, p. 327. III. The Ob Basin: Governments of Akmolinsk, Semipalatinsk, Tomsk, Tobolsk, Easieen Districts of the Governments of Perm and Orenburg, p. 329. The Irtish Basin, p. 330. Course of the Ob, p. 334. Inhabitants of the Ob Basin : the Voguls, p. 338. The Ostiaks, p. 340. The TJral Mining Districts, p. 344. Topography of West Siberia, p. 346. IV. Yenesei-Baikal Basin, p. 352. Basin of the Western Yenesei, p. 352. Inhabitants : the Ohules, p. 355. The Soyots and Karagasses, p. 356. The Tung-uses, p. 358. Topography, p. 361. The Baikal- Angara Basin, p. 364. The Tunka Highlands, p. 366. Lake Baikal, p. 368. The Angara Water System, p. 373. Inhabitants: the Buriats, p. 375. Topography, p. 378. V. Basin of the Lena: Shores of the Arctic Ocean, p. 382. The Lena and its Inhabitants, p. 384. The Yana, Kolima, and Indigirka Rivers, the Arctic Islands, New Siberia, p. 388. Inhabilants: the Yakuts, Yukaghirs, and Chuvantzes, p. 393. Topography, p. 398. VI. Bering Peninsula, Basin of the Anadir, and Kamchatka, p. 399. Bering Strait and Sea, p. 402. Climate: Fauna and Flora, p. 406. Inhabitants: the Chnkchis, p. 408. The Koriaks and Karnehadales, p. 413. Topography, p. 416. VII. The Stanovoi Highlands, Amur Basin, Russian Manchuria, p. 417. The Stanovoi Uplands : the Yablonoi Range, p. 419. The Daurian Plateau, p. 420. The Amur River System, p. 423. The Sungari and Usuri Rivers, p. 425. 'J he Lower Amur and its Delta, p. 428. The Manchurian Seaboard, p. 431. Climate of Manchuria, p. 432. Manchurian Fauna and Flora, p. 434. Inhabitants : the Golds and other Tungus Tribes, p. 436. The Tazi, Mandzi, Giliaks, and Russians, p. 437. The Kamenshiki, p. 440. Topography, p. 442. VIII. Sakhalin, p. 448, Highlands, p. 452. Climate, Fauna, Flora, p. 453. Inhabitants: the Ainos and Oroks, p. 455. Topography, p. 457. IX. Material Condition and Administration of Siberia, p. 459. Social Elements : the Exiles and Outlaws, p. 459. The Siberian Russians : the Commune, p. 463. Religious Sects : the Stranniki, p. 465. Agriculture, the Chase and Fisheries, p. 465, Mining Industries, p. 467. Manufactures, Trade, p. 469. Highways of Communication, the Trakt, Railway Projects, p. 471. Education, Administration, p. 472. Siberian Political Life, p. 474. Growth of the Russian Empire, p. 475. Merv, p. 47S. The Dera-goz, 481. The Akhal Tekke Country, 483. Races of Asiatic Russia grouped accoeding to their Affinities and Religions, p. 485.

Appendix : Statistical Tables . 4S9

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

MAPS PKINTED IN COLOUES.

1. Hypsographical Map of Asia. Frontispiece.

2. Ethnographical Map of tho Caucasus 46

3. Lakes Balkhash and Issik-kul . .191

4. The Delta of the Amu-daria

5. Ethnographical Map of Northern Asia

6. Victoria Bay, or Gulf of Peter the Great

303 432

PLATES.

Cliffs in the " Yellow Earth," north of Tai-

yuen, Shan-si . To face page 11

The Upper Yang-tse-kiang . 13

The Darial Defile 42

Jews of the Caucasus . . 56

Patigorsk — View takenfrom the Mashuka Slopes 73

Svan Types ... 92

Mingrelian Types and Costumes 95

Georgian Types and Costumes . . Ill

Imerian Types and Costumes— Group of Dancers 115

Khevsur in Armour . 118

A Street in Tiflis ... 1 24

Armenian Types and Costumes 140

Town of Girusi . 149 Shchurovskiy Glacier . . .173 Kizil-kum Desert — Dussihai Wells . .194

Lake Iskander-kul 202

Shores of the Caspian . . . 208

Turkoman Customs — Pursuit of the Bride 222

Kirghiz Horsemen . . . To face page 226

Kirghiz crossing a Paver , . 229 Tajiks of Bokhara . . -234

Colossal Idols, Upper Bamian Valley 245 The Iron Gate Defile on the Karshi-Derbent

Eoute 257

Bokhara — Assembly in front of the Mosque . 258

Bukhtarma Valley — Altai Highlands 319

Ostiak Types and Costumes . 341

Yekaterinburg . 34S

General View of Tobolsk 350

General View of Omsk 351

Tungus Types and Costumes 359

Irkutsk — View taken before the Fire of 1878 380

Chukchi Types and Costumes 4 OS

General view of Petropavlovsk 416

Gold Types and Costumes 436

Port of Ayan, Sea of Okhotsk . . 442

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

ILLUSTBATIONS IN TEXT.

ASIATIC RUSSIA.

Plateaux and Plains of Central Asia Parallelism of the Main Asiatic Ranges Mount Everest ....

The Han-hai : a dried-up Sea- hedr .

Arid Regions and Closed Basins of Asia

FJO.

2. 3. 4. 5.

6. Isobars in January .....

7 . Isobars in July ...

8. Curves of the Eastern Asiatic Seaboard and

Islands .......

9. Density of the Asiatic Populations

10. Distribution of the Asiatic Races

11. Chief Religions of Central Asia

12. Chief Itineraries of Central Asia

13. European Influence in Asia

CAUCASIA.

It. Bed of the Caspian .....

15. Geological Formations of tire Central

Caucasus ...

1 6. Hot Springs and Naphtha Regions in the

Caucasus . . ...

17. Profile of the Caucasus as seen from Pati-

gorsk .....

18. Rainfall of the Caucasus .

19. The Kazbek : View taken from the

Kazbek Station

20. Kazbek and Devdoraki Glaciers

21. Forests of the Caucasus

22. The Western Caucasus seen from off Cape

Kodor . , ...

23. The Akhtari Liman .

24. The Kuku-Oba Mud Volcano .

25. Abkhasian Type

26. Cossack Sentinel

27. Valley of the Bzib .

28. The Taman Peninsula

29. Valleys of Erosion in the Kuban Basin

30. Passanaur, on the Tiflis-Vladikaykaz

31. The Elbruz Group .

32. Ramification of the Kalaiis

33. Delta and flooded Districts of the Lwer

Terek ... 31. The Terek Floods of 1863 .

35. Patigorsk and the Region of Thermal

Waters

36. The Vladikavkiz-Ananur Route through

the Terek Valley

37. The Tebulos-mta Group

38. Mouths of the Terek and Lower Sulak

39. The Kuba District

40. Nogai Youth

41. Mount GOnib

42. Derbent .

43. Mouth of the Rion

44. Upper Ingur Valley

45. Mingrelian Lady

46. Kutais and the Rion and Kvirila Junction

FIG

AGE

SO.

St.

PAGB

, Akhalkalaki Plateau . 101

. Tatar Type . • 102

. The Kura and Araxis Confluence . . 103

Mouths of the Kura . . . 106

Chief Regions of Earthquakes in Caucasia 108

Oscillations of the Baku Coast during the

The Apsheron Peninsula . 110

Mtzkhet, Ancient Capital of Georgia 112 The Khevsur, Tush and Pshav Lands 117

The Suram Pass and Mesk Mountains . 121 The Kura Valley between Gori and

Mtzkhet . 122

Tiflis . . 125

Yelizavetpol and Vicinity 126

The Telav Basin . . 127

Baku and Cape Bail-Burni 128

Lenkoran .... 129

Recent Russian Conquests 131

Ararat . . . 132

Mount Ararat 133

Ala-goz . . 135

Lake Gok-ehai 136

The Alapolarim Lava Streams . .137

Araxis and Zanga Basin . . .143

Armenian AVoman . . . . .144

The Kars-chai Valley: Kars and Alex-

andrapol . . .146

Nakhichevan . . . 14S

Progress of Russian Conquest . . .150

Fever Districts in Caucasia 151

Density of the Population of the Caucasus

in 1873 per Square Mile . . 153

Highways in Caucasia .... 154 Section of the Route from Vladikavkaz to

Shiahs and Sunnites in Eastern Caucasia 156 Baku Harbour ... .157

Stavropol . . . 1,59

THE ARALO-CASPIAN BASIN.

Routes of Explorers in the Aralo- Caspian

Russian Encroachments in Turkestan . 164 Routes of Explorers in the Eastern Pamir 166 The Alai and Trans-Alai Range . 168

Relief of the Highlands and Plateaux

between the Ilindn-Kiish and Tian-

The Alai Plateau 172

Tho Shchurovskiy Glacier . 173

Routes of Explorers in the Western Pamir 174 Relative Area of the Tian-shan, Alps, and

Pyrenees . 175

Relative Relief of the Tian-shan, Alps,

and Pyrenees . . 176

Chief Crests of the Tian-shan . . .177

LIST OP ILLUSTEATIONS.

94. Eastern Chains of the Tian-shan

95. Routes of Explorers in the Eastern Tian-

shan

97. The Aktogoi Defile ....

98. Western Chains of the Tian-shan .

99. Routes of Explorers in the Western Tian-

shan

100. Safiru and Tarbagatai

101. Vegetation of the Kizil-kum

102. Range of Vegetation in Turkestan .

103. Petrov Glacier

104. Lower Part of the Iir-tash Glacier .

105. The Sir Delta .

106. Lake Victoria, or Sari-kul

107. Map in the Catalonian Atlas of 1375

108. Valley of the Uzboi at the A'idin Wells .

109. The Balkan Gulf ....

110. Inundation of the Oxus in 1878

111. The Aral Sea ....

112. Old River Beds of the Aralo-Caspian

Basin

113. Ak-tau and Mortviy-kultuk

114. Entrance to the Kara-boghaz

115. The Tuk-karagan Lakes

116. Tentiak-sor

117. Ogurchinskiy Island

118. Kulali Island

119. Turkoman Female Head-dress

120. Tekke Turkoman Oasis in the Atok

121. Area of the Turkoman Raids South of

Kizil-arvat

122. A Wealthy Kirghiz

123. A Kirghiz Woman

124. Populations of the Hi Basin

125. Sarte Type .

126. Population of Ferghana .

127. A Tajik Mollah .

128. Kila-panja, on the Upper Oxus : Forts

at the Foot of the Pamir

129. East Badakshan ....

130. Badakshan and Kunduz .

131. Bamian Pass and Kunduz Route

132. Ruins of Balkh and Mazar-i-sherif .

133. Saripul and Shibirkhan Valley

134. The Maimene Valley

135. Khanates of Afghan Turkestan West of

the Oxus .

136. Merv and Sarakhs Oases .

137. Ak-tash Valley and Mountain

138. Shehr-i-sebs and Karshi .

139. Bokhara: Ruins in the Interior of

the City .

140. Oasis of Bokhara

112. A Minaret in Khiva .

143. Khiva: Exterior of a Mosciue .

144. Krasnovodsk Bay .

145. Cheleken Island and Michael Gulf .

146. Hassan-kaleh Bay . . . .

147. Ashur-adeh ....

148. Valleys of the Atrek and Gurgen .

149. Samarkand

150. Samarkand : Approach to the Citadel

PAGE FIO. rA0E

178 151. Samarkand: The Gur-emir Tomb of

Tamerlane 272

180 152. Varzaminor : Upper Zarafshan Val-

183 153. Oasis of the Zarafshan 275

186 154. From Kokan to Marghilan . 277 155. Khojend: General View 279

187 156. Khojend and Neighbourhood . . 280 190 157. Plain of Tashkend . 281

196 158. A Street in Tashkend . 282

197 159. Kulja and Neighbouring Mines 285

198 160. Disputed Territory in Kulja . . 286

199 161. Chinese Type, Kulja . . 287 201 162. Projected Railway Lines in Western Asia 289 203

207 163. West Siberia, according to Herberstein . 293

208 164. Sakhalin, according to La Perouse . . 295

209 165. Gulf of Castries : La Perouse Gate . 296

210 166. Water Highways and Portages across Siberia . . 298

211 167. Duration of the Frost and Thaw on the

212 Yenisei and Lena . . 300

213 168. Drift Ice on the Banks of the Yenisei 301

214 169. Shores of the Yenisei worn by Glacial

216 1"0. Banksof the Yenisei: Ice-formed Levee 304

217 171. Climate of Yakutsk . 306 221 172. Northern Limit of Forest Vegetation 309

223 173. Trailing Larch 150 Years old : Quarter of the natural Size . 310

224 174. Larch Forest on the Boganida, a Tri-

227 butary of the Katanga. . . 312

228 175. Range of Animal Species in North Asia 313

232 176. The Chindagutui, a Tributary of the

233 Irtish, Province of Semipalatinsk 320

234 177. Lake Teletzkoye 321

239 180. The Ust-Kamenogorsk Defile . . 331

241 181. Lakes Chany and Sartlam in 1870 . 332

242 182. Dried-up Streams in the Barnaul District 334

243 183. Projected Canals between the Ob and

246 184. Network of Streams at the Ob and Ket

247 Junction . . . . 336 185. Lower Course and Mouth of the Ob 337

248 186. Lakes and Marshes in the Iset Basin . 345 251 187. Yekaterinburg and Berezovskiy 348 254 188. Upper Yenisei Basin and Minusinsk 256 Steppes . . . 353

189. Rock Inscription on the Banks op

259 the Yenisei . . 361

260 190. Region of the Yenisei Gold Mines . 362

261 191. From Krasnoyarsk to Kansk . . 363

262 192. The Munku-sardik Group . 365

263 193. Munku-sardik and Kamar-daban . 367

264 194. The " Cup " at the Source of the

267 195. Depths of the Western Baikal 370

268 196. The Angara below the Padunskiy

270 197. Rapids of the Angara . . . 375

271 | 198. Populations of the Irkutsk Government . 381

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

FIG.

199. Coast of the Taimir Peninsula

200. Old Lake traversed by the Vitim

201. Lena Delta .

202. Archipelago of New Siberia

203. Routes of Anjou and Wrangell

204. Kontam Bay : the Vega at Anchor

205. Yakutsk ...

206. Volcanoes at Cape Povorotnoii, South of

Avacha Bay

207. Bering Sea . .

208. Bering Strait .

209. Currents of the Bering Waters

210. Avacha Bay .

211. Plateaux and Highlands of East Siberia

212. Lake Khanka .

213. Isthmus of Kizi

214. Mouths of the Amur

215. Bay of the Golden Horn

216. Bay of Castries

PAGE

FIG.

PAGE

Harbour of Olga . . .433 Herbaceous Vegetation on the Islands

of the Amur ... 435

Blagoyyeshchensk, on the Amur 444

Nikolayevsk . . 445

America Bay . . 446

The Possiet Inlets . 447

La Perouse Strait . . . 449

Sakhalin : Cape La Jonquiere , 450

Mamia Rinzo Strait , . 451

Aino Girl . . 454

Sakhalin : the Dei Valley . . 456

Port of Muraviov . . 457

Density of the Siberian Population . 460 Produce of East Siberian Sable-hunting

Gold-washings in the Amur Basin 468

Vladivostok and the Eastern Bosporus . 473

HYPSOGRAPH

D eptli of the Sea,

Area of Depression.

Dovm to 6560 Feet. 6560 to 9800 Feet . Over 9800 Beet . Below the Level of Less than G

the JilediterVHjiean.

AL MAP OF ASIA levation. of tlie Land above the Level of tke Sea.

I I i i : !

A UNIVERSAL GEOGRAPHY,

ASIATIC RUSSIA.