History of the Roman empire

Front matter

HISTORY

OP

THE ROMAN EMPIRE,

Preface

TO THE AMERICAN EDITION.

S^

The present valuable addition to the " History of Rome " was not published in England when that work was prepared for the press in this country. It is, therefore, thought better to publish it, as it was published in England, as a separate work, than as a second volume of that work, although none can feel the history of Rome to be complete without tracing it, not only from its rise to its highest pitch of greatness, but through the gradual steps of its decline and fall.

The present volume is peculiarly valuable on many accounts. It embraces a period, the history of which exists in no accessible form, while its facts are of a most interesting and important nature, as connected with the rise, and spread, and influence, and corruptions of the Christian church. It forms a connecting link between the times and nations properly called ancient, and those properly called modern, inasmuch as it displays the first inroads of the peoples and races destined gradually to mould the latter, upon the strength, and power, and sway of the former, and their final rise upon their ruins.

The same impartiality marks this History, both in its treatment of civil and ecclesiastical affairs, as marks Mr. Keightley's other histories.

IV PREFACE TO THE AMERICAN EDITION.

The labor of the editor has been somewhat more called for in this volume than in the " History of Rome." More points seemed to need note and illustration, it being a period less familiar. In some places, too, owing to the confusion of authorities, errors of dates, he, had crept in, all of which have been carefully altered. In this case, the alterations have been made without any distinctive mark. In all other cases, the same marks of addition or alteration as have been used in the other volumes of this series of historical works have been here used. That series, comprising the Histories of Greece, Rome, and England, is completed with this volume.

J. T. S.

Boston, December 1, 1840.

PREFACE .

The present work completes my History of Rome. Instead, however, of entitling it a second volume, I have made it a distinct work ; for, having been induced to depart from ray original plan, and write a History of England after the completion of that of the Roman Republic, and fearing lest some event might occur to prevent my completing my design, I was desirous that a work on which I had employed so much time and thought should not present an imperfect appearance. A further motive was, that some persons were of opinion that the History of the Empire would not be read so generally in schools as that of the Republic ; and I wished to shun the imputation of forcing any one to buy a volume that he might not want.

This last opinion I am disposed to regard as erroneous. There is no part of the Roman history more necessary to be read in classical schools than the reio;ns of Augustus and his successors to the end of that of Domitian ; for, without a knowledge of the history of that period, the writers of the Augustan age, and Juvenal, cannot be fully understood. Of this period we have actually no history, at least none adapted to schools ; and hence arises the imperfect acquaintance with the historic allusions in Horace and the other poets which most readers possess, in consequence of being obliged to derive their information piecemeal from annotations. I have, therefore, taken especial care, in the present volume, to obviate this inconvenience ; and I believe that scarcely any historic allusion in those poets will be found unnoticed.

Another feature of this work is, the sketch of the history of the church, its persecutions, sects, and heresies, during the first four centuries, with brief notices of the principal

VI PREFACE.

Fathers and their writings. To write a history of the Roman Empire without including that of the church, would have been absurd ; but, as readers might not have sufficient confidence in me as an ecclesiastical guide, and as my works are chiefly designed for youth, I have deemed it the safer course to take as my usual authority the learned and candid Mosheim, whose works have stood the test of nearly a century, and are always included in the list of those recommended to students in divinity. It is the work De Rebus Christianis ante Constantinum, in the excellent translation of Mr. Vidal, that I have chiefly used. At the same time, I must declare that I am by no means a stranger to the Fathers. Many years ago, I had occasion to read them a good deal ; and the opinions which I then formed of them as writers and teachers have been confirmed by my renewed acquaintance with their works.

The advantages, therefore, to be derived by students from this volume are, illustrations of the Latin poets, some knowledge of the early history of the church, and tolerably correct ideas of the causes and course of the decline and fall of the mighty empire whose rise and progress have been traced in the History of Rome. Nearly one half of it, it will be observed, is devoted to the history anterior to the commencement of Gibbon's work, which begins with the reign of Commodus. As I have already said, that part of the history is not generally accessible ; and with respect to the remainder, few, I believe, would willingly put Gibbon into the hands of youth.

The same attention has been directed to chronology and geography as in my other histories. The Roman proper names had become so confused in this period, that it was not possible for me to mark the prcenomina, and arrange names under their gentes, as I have so carefully done in the History of Rome. I have further employed the modern forms of the names, as it would have seemed mere affectation to use Vespasianus, Constantinus, etc.

T. K.

London, August 26, 1840.

Chapter 1

C. JULIUS CiESAR OCTAVIANUS AUGUSTUS.

The Roman empire. — Regulation of it by Augustus. — Augustus in Spain — in Asia. — Laws. — Family of Augustus.-^ Death of Agrippa. — German wars. — Death of Drusus, and of Maecenas. — Literature 1

CHAPTER H.

AUGUSTUS, (continued.)

Tiberius. — Banishment of Julia. — German wars of Tiberius. — Defeat of Varus. — Death and character of Augustus. — Form and condition of the Roman empire 20

CHAPTER HI.

TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS NERO CiESAR.

Funeral of Augustus. — Mutiny of the legions. — Victories of Germanicus. — His death. — Civil government of Tiberius. — Rise and fall of Sejanus. — Death of Agrippina and her children, — Death of Tiberius 39

CHAPTER IV.

CAIUS JULIUS CaeSAR CALIGULA.

Accession of Cams. — His vices and cruelty. — Bridge over the Bay of Baiae. — His expedition to Germany. — His mad caprices. — His death _. 67

Vin CONTENTS.

CHAPTER V.

TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS DRUSUS CSBSAR.

Accession of Claudius. — His character. — His useful measures. — Messalina and the freedmen. — Her lust and cruelty. — Claudius in Britain. — Vicious conduct of Messalina. — Her death. — Claudius marries Agrippina. — Is poisoned by her 77

CHAPTER VI.

NERO CLAUDIUS CAESAR.

Decline of Agrippina's power. — Poisoning of Britannicus. — Murder of Agrippina. — Nero appears on the stage. — Murder of Octavia. — Excesses of Nero. — Burning of Rome. — Conspiracy against Nero. — Death of Seneca. — Deaths of Petronius, Thraseas, and Soranus. — Nero visits Greece. — Galba proclaimed emperor. — Death of Nero 90

CHAPTER VII.

THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION.

The Jewish Messiah. — Jesus Christ.- — His religion. — Its propagation. — Causes of its success. — Church government 116

Part II. Emperors Chosen By The Army

CHAPTER I.

GALBA, OTHO, VITELLIUS.

Galba. — Adoption of Piso. — Murder of Galba. — Otho. — Civil war. — Battle of Bedriacum. — Death of Otho. — Vitellius. — Vespasian proclaimed emperor. — Advance of the Flavians. — Storming of Cremona. — Burning of the Capitol. — Capture of Rome. — Death of Vitellius 124

Chapter II. The Flavian Family

State of affairs at Rome. — German war. — Capture and destruction of Jerusalem. — Return of Titus. — Vespasian. — Character

CONTENTS. IX

PAGE.

of his government. — His death. — Character and reign of Titus. — rublic calamities. — Death of Titus. — Character of Domitian. — Conquest of Britain. — Dacian war. — Other wars. — Cruelty of Domitian. — His death. — Literature of this period. . 145

CHAPTER in.

NERVA, TRAJAN, HADRIAN, ANTONINUS, AURELIUS.

Nerva. — Adoption of Trajan. — His origin and character. — Dacian wars. — Parthian wars. — Death of Trajan. — Observations.

— Succession of Hadrian. — His character. — Aifairs at Rome.

— Hadrian in Gaul and Britain — in Asia and Greece — in Egypt. — Antinous. — Adoptions. — Death of Hadrian. — His character as an emperor. — Rebellion of the Jews. — Reign ot Antoninus Pius. — M. Aurelius. — Parthian war. — German wars.

— Revolt of Cassius. — Death of Aurelius. — His character. . . . 167

CHAPTER HI.

COMMODUS, PERTINAX, JULIANUS, SEVERUS.

Commodus, — Conspiracy against him. — Perennis. — Cleander. — Maternus and the deserters. — Death of Cleander. — Vices of Commodus. — His death, — Elevation and murder of Pertinax. — Empire put to auction. — Pescennius Niger. — Septimius Severus. — Clodius Albinus. — March of Severus. — Death of Julian. — Praetorians disbanded. — Severus at Rome. — War with Niger — with Albinus. — Parthian war. — Family of Severus. — Plautianus. — Severus in Britain. — His death. — Maxims of government 189

Chapter IV. Caracalla, Macrinus, Elagabalus, Alexander

Caracalla and Geta. — Murder of Geta. — Cruelty of Caracalla. — German war. — Parthian war. — Massacre at Alexandria. — Murder of Caracalla. — Elevation of Macrinus. — His origin and character. — Conspiracy against him. — His defeat and death. — Elagabalus. — His superstition and cruelty. — Adoption of Alexander. — Death of Elagabalus. — Mamaea. — Alexander's character and mode of hfe. — Murder of Ulpian. — Revolution in Persia. — Persian war. — Alexander in Gaul. — His murder. — The Roman army 207

CONTENTS.

Chapter V

MAXIMIN, PUPIENUS, BALBINUS, AND GORDIAN, PHILIP, DECIUS, GALLUS, ^MILIAN, VALERIAN, GALLIENUS.

The empire. — Maximin. — His tyranny. — Insurrection in Africa.

— The Gordians. — Pupienus and Balbinus. — Death of Maximin. — Murder of the emperors. — Gordian. — Persian war. — Murder of Gordian. — Philip. — Secular Games. — Decius. — Death of Philip. — The Goths. — Gothic war. — Death of Decius.

— Gallus. — .^milian. — Valerian. — The Franks. — The Alemans. — Gothic invasions. — Persian war. — Defeat and captivity of Valerian. — Gallienus. — The Thirty Tyrants. — Death

of Gallienus 223

Chapter VI. Claudius, Aurelian, Tacitus, Probus, Carus, Carinus

AND NUMERIAN.

Claudius. — Invasions of the Goths. — Aurelian. — Alemannic war. — War against Zenobia. — Tetricus. — Death of Aurelian. — Tacitus. — His death. — Probus. — His military successes. — His death. — Cams. — Persian war. — His death. — Death of Numerian. — Election of Diocletian. — Battle of Margus 240

Chapter VII. The Christian Church

Persecutions of the church. — Corruption of religion. — The Ebionites. — Gnostic heresies. — Montanus. — The Paschal Question. — Councils. — The hierarchy. — Platonic philosophy, its effects. — Rites and ceremonies. — Christian writers. . 259

Chapter I. Diocletian And Maximian

State of the empire. — Character of Diocletian. — Imperial power divided. — The Bagauds. — Carausius. — Rebellion in Egypt. — Persian war. — Triumph of the emperors. — Their resignation. — Persecution of the church 286

CONTENTS. XI

CHAPTER 11.

GALERIUS, CONSTANTIUS, SEVERUS, MAXENTIUS, MAXIMIAN,

LICINIUS, MAXIMIN, CONSTANTINE.

The emperors and Csesars. — Constantine. — Maxentius. — Fate of Maximian. — War between Constantine and Maxentius. — Constantine and Licinius. — Constantine sole emperor. — Constantinople founded. — Hierarchy of the state. — The army. — ^The great officers. — Conversion of Constantine. — Deaths of Crispus and Fausta. — The imperial family. — War with the Goths. — Death and character of Constantine 299

CHAPTER HI.

CONSTANTINE II., CONSTANTIUS, CONSTANS.

Slaughter of the imperial family. — Persian war. — Deaths of Constantine and Constans. — Magnentius. — Gallus. — Julian. — Silvanus. — Court of Constantius. — War with the Limigantes. — Persian war. — Julian in Gaul. — Battle of Strasburg. — Julian proclaimed emperor. — His march from Gaul. — Death of Constantius 318

CHAPTER IV.

JULIAN, JOVIAN.

Reformations of Julian. — His religion. — His tolerance. — Julian at Antioch. — Attempt to rebuild the temple at Jerusalem. — The Persian war. — Death of Julian. — Election of Jovian. — Surrender of territory to the Persians. — Retreat of the Roman army. — Death of Jovian 337

CHAPTER V.

VALENTINIAN, VALENS, GRATIAN, VALENTINIAN 11., AND

THEODOSIUS.

Elevation of Valentinian and of Valens. — Procopius. — German wars. — Recovery of Britain. — Rebellion in Africa. — Quadan war. — Death of Valentinian. — His character. — Gratian. — The Goths. — The Huns. — The Gothic war. — Battle of Hadrianople and death of Valens. — Ravages of the Goths. — Theodosius. — Settlements of the Goths. — Maximus. — Death of Gratian. — Defeat of Maximus. — Massacre at Thessalonica. — Clemency of Theodosius. — Death of Valentinian II. — Defeat and death of Eugenius. — Death and character of Theodosius. — State of the empire 358

Xll CONTENTS.

CHAPTER Vi.

THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH.

PAGi:.

Suppression of paganism. — Religion of the fourth century. — State of morals. — The Donatists. — The Arians. — Other heretics. — Ecclesiastical constitution. — Fathers of the church. — The Manichseans 387

CHAPTER Vn.

HONORIUS, VALENTINIAN III., ETC.

Division of the empire. — Rufinus. — The Goths in Greece. — Gildo. — Invasion of Italy by Alaric — by Radagaisus. — Murder of Stilicho. — Claudian. — Alaric's second invasion. — Sack of Rome. — Death of Alaric. — Barbarians in the empire. — Valentinian III. — Boniface and ^tius. — Genseric. — His conquest of Africa. — Attila. — Theodoric. — Battle of Chalons. — Attila's invasion of Italy. — Murder of^tius — and ofValentinian. — Maximus. — Sack of Rome by Genseric. — Avitus. — Majorian. — Severus. — Anthemius. — Nepos and Glycerius. — Romulus Augustus. — End of the empire. — Conclusion 409

HISTORY

OF

THE ROMAN EMPIRE

Part I. The C^sarian Family

CHAPTER L*

C. JULIUS C^SAR OCTAVIANUS AUGUSTUS.

THE ROMAN EMPIRE. REGULATION OF IT BY AUGUSTUS.

AUGUSTUS IN SPAIN IN ASIA. LAWS. FAMILY OF

AUGUSTUS. DEATH OF AGRIPPA. GERMAN WARS.

DEATH OF DRUSUS, AND OF MAECENAS. LITERATURE.

The battle of Actium, fought between M. Antonius and C. CsBsar Octavianus, in the 723d t year of Rome, termina-

* Authorities : Velleius Paterculus, Suetonius, Dion Cassius. For a fall account of the authorities for this History, see Appendix (A.)

t We shall use the Varronian chronology in this volume, as it is the one followed by Tacitus, Dion, and other historians. [In the former part of this work, Mr. K. made use of the Catonian computation. It is immaterial which is used, though the Varronian is undoubtedly the more correct, and was employed by the editor in the " Chronological Table," at the end of that work. The difference is only two years — a difference of little importance with respect to the history of the Republic, but of more in reference to the history of the Empire. See the editor's " Comparative View of Ancient History, and Explanation of Chronological Eras," p. 92, title, Era of the Foundation of Rome. — J.T. S.] > 1- > J J

CONTIN. 1 A ted the contest for. the supreme power in the Roman state, which had continued for so many years. After the death of his rival, Caesar, now in the thirty-fourth year of his age, saw himself the undoubted master of the Roman world. An army of forty-four legions* regarded him as its chief; the civil wars and the proscription had cut off all the men of eminence at Rome ; the senate and people vied with each other in their willingness to accept a sovereign ; and though we may despise their servility, reason will evince that they were right in their determination ; for he must be strangely inthralled by sounds, who, charmed by the mere words liberty and republic, looks back through the last century of the history of Rome, and prefers the turbulent anarchy, which then prevailed, to the steady, firm rule of a single hand. We will add, though the assertion may appear paradoxical, that their knowledge of Caesar's character may have given them fair hopes of his proving an equitable sovereign.

But, independently of all other considerations, the enormous magnitude of the Roman empire was incompatible with any other form of government than the monarchic, if the happiness of the subjects was to be a matter of moment. The formation of this empire is perhaps the most striking phenomenon in the annals of the world. Fabulous as is the early history of Rome, the fact of its having been in its commencement nothing more than a single town, or rather village, with a territory of a very few miles in compass, may be regarded as certain. Step by step it thence advanced in extent ; under its kings it became respectable among the Italian states : when the supreme magistracy was made annual, the consuls were anxious to distinguish their year by some military achievement; their ambition was sustained by the valor and discipline of the legions, and the wisdom of the senate cemented together into one strong and firm mass the various territories reduced by the arms of Rome. In the East, empires of huge extent are at times formed with rapidity, but their decay is in general equally rapid ; modern Europe has seen great empires formed by a Charlemagne and a Napoleon, but they fell to pieces almost as soon as erected : the Roman empire, on the contrary, endured for centuries. Perhaps the nearest parallel is that of Russia; but of this the stability remains to be proved : watched by

* Orosius, vi. 18. These legions, however, were far from complete, some of them being mere skeletons.

B. C. 29.] RETURN OF AUGUSTUS. 3

jealous and powerful rivals, its step is stealthy, artful, and treacherous, while that of Rome was comparatively open, bold, and daring.

The Roman empire, at the time of which we write, embraced all the countries contained between the Ocean, the Rhine, and Euphrates, on the west and east, and the mountain ranges of the Alps and Hasmus on the north, and that of Atlas and the African sandy desert on the south. With respect to the condition of the various nations and peoples contained within its limits, it may be compared to that acquired with such rapidity by England in India. A portion were under the immediate government of the sovereign state, while others, under the name of allies, possessed a certain degree of independence in their internal relations, but their external policy was under the control of Rome.* As aristocracy and democracy are equally tyrannic to subjects, the oppressions of the proconsuls and propraetors, set over the provinces by the republic, had been such as to make the provincials look forward with hope to the establishment of a monarchy at Rome. Such, then, was the condition of the Roman world at the time when our narrative commences.

When intelligence of the death of Antonius reached Rome, the senate hastened to decree to Csesar the tribunitian power for life, a casting-voice in all the tribunals, the power of nominating to all the priesthoods, and various other honors. They ordered that he should be named in all the public prayers, and libations be poured to him at both public and private entertainments. It was directed that the gates of Janus should be closed, as war was now at an end.f

Caesar, meantime, having regulated the affairs of Egypt, over which he placed Cn. Cornelius Gallus as governor, set out on his return for Rome. He spent the winter in the province of Asia, adjusting the affairs of the surrounding countries; and during his abode, there the Parthian king Phraates sent his son to him to be conducted as a hostage to Rome. In the summer (725) he proceeded to Italy, and on coming to Rome he celebrated a triumph of three days' duration for his own victories at Actium and Alexandria, and

* These allies were either kings or republics. The former were those of Judaea, of the Arabs, the Nabathasans, Comagene, Cilicia, Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Armenia, Thrace, Numidia ; the latter, Cydonia and Lampeea in Crete, Cyzicus, Rhodes, Athens, Tyre and Sidon, Lycia, and the Ligurians of the Maritime Alps.

t Dion, li. 19, 20. Suet. Oct. 31.

those of his lieutenants in Dalmatia and Pannonia. He distributed money to the people ; he paid all his debts and forgave his debtors ; and the abundance of money became so great in Rome, that the rate of interest fell two thirds.*

We are told that at this time Caesar had serious thoughts of laying down his power and restoring the republic, and that he consulted with his friends Agrippa and Msecenas on the subject. The historian Dion Cassius has composed speeches for these two eminent men, the former of whom he makes advocate, though with but feeble reasons, the cause of the republic, while the latter lays down the whole system of the future monarchy. It is almost needless to state that these cannot be genuine speeches; yet the consultation may have been held. Ceesar was of a cautious temper ; he had the fate of his uncle, the dictator, before his eyes, and the examples of Sulla and Pompeius showed that power might be resigned with safety. A conspiracy of young Lepidus, the son of the triumvir and nephew of Brutus, to assassinate him on his return to the city, had lately been discovered, and the author put to death by Msecenas, who had the charge of the city.f Still it is difficult to believe that Caesar could have really intended to divest himself of his authority.

The counsel of Msecenas having prevailed, or such being his previous resolution, Csesar prepared to establish his power on a firm basis. The object which he proposed was to frame a constitution which, under the forms of the republic, should be in reality a disguised military monarchy. With this view he conceived it necessary that the senate should be limited in number and respectable in character ; whereas it was at this time in a state of the utmost degradation ; for the dictator, out of hatred to the aristocracy, had introduced all kinds of rabble into it, and after his death M. Antonius had, for money or out of favor, admitted any one that chose to seek the dignity, | so that the senators were now upwards of a thousand in number. Csesar adopted the following course of reformation. Having caused himself and Agrippa to be chosen censors, instead of arbitrarily ejecting unworthy persons from the senate, he made them judges of their own qualifications. Fifty were thus induced to resign voluntarily ; he then compelled one hundred and forty more to follow their example, and, having thus got rid

* Dion, li. 21. Suet. Oct. 41. t Veil. Pat. ii. 88. Suet. Oct. 19.

t Suet. Oct. 35.

B. C. 28-27.] REGULATION OF THE STATE. 5

of the most disreputable portion, he went no farther in his reformation for the present. As the patrician families had been greatly reduced by the civil wars, he augmented their number. In order to obviate the danger of civil commotions, he renewed the regulation of his uncle for preventing the senators from visiting the provinces without permission, excepting Sicily and Narbonese Gaul. To quiet their apprehensions on account of the late troubles, and prevent their forming any designs against himself in consequence of them, he assured them that he had burned all the papers of M. Antonius ; and he had in fact burned some, but he retained the greater part, to use, if he found it necessary.

The title of Imperator {^general) had been already conferred on Caesar, as on his uncle ; * and in his sixth consulate, (726,) when he formed the list of the senators, he received the denomination of Princeps Senatus, {First-of-the Senate,) according to the old republican custom ; and this he always used as his favorite title. Having forgiven all debts due to the state, and burnt the securities, gratified the people with shows, and done other popular acts, Caesar (727) addressed the senate, requesting them to take the government now into their own hands, and to permit him to retire to the enjoyment of a private station. He was heard with various emotions; a few only were in the secret, and knew his object; there were some who were willing to take him at his word, but the greater number had a horror of the anarchy and turbulence of a republic ; all therefore united, from different motives, in calling on him not to resign his authority. He yielded with well-feigned reluctance. The supreme power was conferred on him by a decree of the senate and people, and double pay was voted to his guards, to increase their vigilance and fidelity.

Caesar thus attained his object, the legal establishment of his power ; but he refused to receive it for more than a period of ten years, alleging that by that time the state would be brought to a condition of order and tranquillity. He, further, though accepting the charge of superintendence over the whole empire, would not assume the direct government of all the provinces ; but, making a division of them into two classes, committed the more peaceful and orderly,

* Hence our word Emperor. It was usually bestowed by the soldiers on their general after a victory. It now became the constant title of the monarch, being prefixed instead of postfixed (as in the ordinary way) to his name.

1* such as Africa, Asia, Baetic Spain, to the senate and people ; while he reserved to himself the administration of the more warlike and turbulent, such as Gaul, northern Spain, and Egypt. The governors of the former were to be selected by the senate out of their own body by lot ; they were to hold their office for the space of a year, under the title of Proconsul, whether they had been consuls or not ; their jurisdiction was to be purely civil, and they were therefore neither to carry swords nor wear the military habit. Csesar himself was to appoint directly the governors of the remaining provinces; they were to be named Legates and Propraetors, to continue in office as long as he pleased, and to wear a sword and the military habit, as having the power of life and death over the soldiery. A proconsul was to be preceded by twelve, a proprcBtor, by six lictors. Quaestors appointed by Csesar were to be sent into all the provinces to collect and regulate the revenue, and all the governors and inferior officers were to receive fixed salaries, and not be allowed to pay themselves, as under the republic.

The senate decreed at this time that laurels should be placed before the doors of Caesar's house on the Palatium, and an oak-leaf-crown be suspended over them, to indicate that he was perpetual victor over the enemies of the state, and perpetual preserver of the citizens. It was also proposed to confer on him some peculiar appellation. He himself would have preferred that of Romulus, as being a second founder of the state ; but finding that it would excite suspicion of his aiming at royalty, he acquiesced in that of Augustus, which was proposed by L. Munatius Plancus, and which indicated a certain degree of sanctity.*

Augustus, (as we shall henceforth name him,) having thus laid the foundations of his power, quitted Rome under the pretext of completing the conquest of Britain.! Finding Gaul in an unsettled state, he remained some time there, to reduce it to order. The incursions of the Asturians and Cantabrians into the Roman provinces in Spain then induced him to assume the conduct of the war against them. He, however, found them a foe in contending with whom little glory was to be acquired ; for they would not descend from their mountains and give battle in the plain, and they har-

* The Tiber overflowed on the night following the decree. Dion, liii. 20. This is thought to be the inundation noticed by Horace, Carm. i. 2.

t Hor. Carm. i. 35, 29.

B. C. 24-33.] ILLNESS OF AUGUSTUS. 7

assed his troops by ambushes in the woody glens. Vexation and fatigue causing him to fall sick, he retired to Tarraco, leaving the command with C. Antistius, by whorp and T. Carisius some advantages were gained over these mountaineers. Augustus then discharged such of the soldiers as had served out their leojal time, and founded for them in Lusitania a town named Augusta Emerita, (Merida.) He then returned to Rome, (730,) having been absent during the better part of three years.* He had hardly, however, quitted Spain, when the Cantabrians and Asturians again took arms ; and though the propraetor L. ^Emilius chastised them, these hardy mountaineers were never, properly speaking, conquered, and they always retained their rude independence.

At this time also (730) avarice or the lust of conquest induced Augustus to order ^lius Gallus, the governor of Egypt, to undertake an expedition against the Happy Arabia.! In the attempt, however, to cross the sandy desert, his troops suffered so severely from the heat of the sun, the bad quality of the waters, and a novel kind of disease, and they were so harassed by the native tribes, that, after losing the greater part of them, Gallus was obliged to give up his design ; and the conquest of Arabia was never again attempted by the Romans,|