The romance of Spanish history

Preface

TF the word Romance necessarily implies fiction, it is -*- inappropriately used in the title page of this volume. But if it may also imply that which is strange and wonderful, though true, then it is appropriately used. It has become a common remark that truth is stranger than fiction. To give a minute narrative of all the important events in Spanish history would occupy folio volumes. The writer has endeavored to glean, from the many centuries which have passed away, those well-authenticated incidents which, in his judgment, would prove most interesting and instructive to American readers. He is not aware that there is any statement in these pages which will be called in question by any well-instructed student of History. The writer cherishes the hope that this volume may aid in luring the eager readers of our land from the present engrossing devotion to fiction, to the far more instructive and not less romantic incidents of real history. Should these pages prove, in that respect, a success, the work may be followed by others giving the history of the birth, the struggles, the career, of other great kingdoms of the globe.

John S. C. Abbott.

Chapter I. The Early History Of Spain

Geography of Spain. — Its Aborigines. — Colonial Settlements. — Its Conquest by Carthage. — Designs of Rome upon Spain. — Strife between Rome and Carthage for its Possession. — Siege of Saguntum. — Campaigns of the Scipios. — Roman Extortion. — Exploits of Viiiatus. — His Assassination. — Achievements of Sertorius. — Campaign of Pompey. — Governorship of Julius Caesar Page 17

CHAPTER n.

SPAm, ROMAN AND GOTHIC.

The Strife between Pompey and Caesar. — The Victorj' of Caesar. — Spain under the Caesars. — The beneficent Reign of Augustus. — Tiberius Caligula, — Kero. — The four good Emperors. — Invasion of Spain by northern Barbarians. — Introduction of Christianity. — Martyrdom. — The Gothic Invasion and Empire. — Euric. — Theodoric. — The Crown elective. — The Arians and Trinitarians. — Jealousy of the Nobles. — Adoption of the Catholic Faith. — Collection of Wamba. — Whimsical Letter of Paul 37

CHAPTER HI.

THE MOORISH INVASION.

Conflict between Wamba and Paulus. — Reign of Wamba, and his singular Fate. — Conspiracy of the Jews. — The Reign of Roderic. — Invasion of the Saracens. — Death of Roderic. — Triumph of the Moorish Invasion. — Conflicts of the Caliphs. — Damascus against Bagdad. — Civil War in Spain. — Invasion of Gaul

1^

X CONTENTS.

by the Moors.—Charles Martel, and the Battle of Tours. — Moorish Splendor in Cordova. — The Moorish Monarch}^ Page 59

CHAPTER IV.

THE CONFLICT BETWEEN THE MOORS AND THE CHRISTIANS.

Peril of the Moorish Monarchy. — Growth of the Christian Kingdoms. — Invasion of the Norman Pirates. — Death of Mohammed. — Moorish Insurrections. — The Reign of Caliphs. — Luxury of the Moorish Monarchs. — Splendors of Zarah. — Griefs of Abderaman. — The Challenge. — Battle of Soria. — Scenes of Anarchy. — Decline of Moorish Power. — Perfidy of Yussef. — His Conquest of Moorish Spain 81

CHAPTER V.

SPAIN A BATTLE-FIELD.

(From II 18 A.D. to 1369 A.D.)

Contentions of African and Spanish Moors. — The Kingdoms of Castile, Leon, and Portugal. — Navarre becomes a Kingdom. — Degeneracy of the Christians. — Illustrious Moors.— Terrible Battle of Toloza.^ — Cordova wrested from the Moors. — The Moorish Kingdom of Granada. — Capture of Seville. — Granada tributary to Castile. — General Embroilment. — Illustrative Anecdotes. — Decisive Battle of Tarifa. — ^Declension of the Moors. — The Three Peters. — Desolate Condition of the World 103

CHAPTER YI.

CHIVALRY AND CRIME.

Gentleness and Cruelty of the Moors. — The Moorish Ladies.— Anecdote. — Granada a Fief of Castile. — A Queen besieged. — Independence of the Nobles. — Anecdote of the King and the Nobles. — The Kingdom of Aragon. — Its Civil Dissensions. — Strange Scene in the Palace.— The Deposition of Henry IV. of Castile. — War between Henry and Alfonso. — Griefs of Isabella. — Her Matrimonial Engagements. — Declared Heir to the Castilian Throne 124

CHAPTER VII.

MARRIAGE OF FERDINAND AND ISABELLA.

Demands for the Hand of Isabella. — Suit of Richard, Duke of Gloucester ; of the Duke of Guienne. — Claims of Ferdinand. — Opposition of Henry IV. to

CONTENTS. Xi

Ferdinand. — INIarriage witli Ferdinand. — Rivalry of Joanna. — Conflict between Isabella and her Brother Henry. — Coronation of Isabella. — Civil War. — Ecclesiastical Soldiers. — Career of Alfonso. — Union of Castile and Aragon Page 146

CHAPTER YIII.

m

THE CONQUEST OF GRANADA.

The Siege and Capture of Malaga. — Chivalry of Ferdinand. — Desperation of the Moors. — Terms of Capitulation. — Doom of the Captives. — Siege of Baza. — Influence of the Queen. — Brilliant Pageant. — The Affiance of the Infanta Isabella. — The Tournament. — Siege of Granada. — Chivalric Encounters. — Santa Fe. — The Fall of Granada. — The Extinction of the Moorish Empire in Spain 1G6

CHAPTER IX.

CnmSTOPHER COLUMBUS.

Birth of Columbus. — Early Life. — Struggles and Disappointments. — His Cause adopted by Isabella. — Sailing of the Expedition. — The Voyage. — Mutinous Conduct of the Crew. — Land discovered 190

CHAPTER X.

'THE NEW WORLD.

Land discovered. — Scenery of the New World. — Sail from Island to Island. — Disappointment. — The return Voyage. — Landing at Portugal. — Arrival at Palos. — Reception by Ferdinand and Isabella 211

CHAPTER XI.

THE GLORY AND THE SH^iilE OF THE SPANISH COURT.

Efiects of the Inquisition. — Expulsion of the Jews. — Their Sufferings. — Attempt to assassinate Ferdinand. — Second Expedition of Columbus. — Intellectual Culture of Isabella. — Royal Alliances. — IMarriage of Joanna to Prince John. — Death of John. — Death of Isabella, Queen of Portugal. — Death of her Son. — Expulsion of the Moors. — Cardinal Ximenes. — His Character and Death. , 234

XU CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XII.

SUBSEQUENT YOYAGES OF COLUMBUS.

Columbus and the Egg. — The Destruction of La Navidad. — Exploring Tours. — The third Woyage. — Columbus superseded by Bobadilla. — Columbus in Chains. — The fourth Voyage. — Wrecked upon the Island of Jamaica. — The Eclipse of the Moon. — The Rescue. — Return to Spain. — Death and Burial Page 253

CHAPTER XIII.

DOHIESTIC SORROWS.

Visit of Philip and Joanna to Spain. — Insanity of Joanna. — Scene in the Courtyard of the Castle, — Jealousy of Joanna. — Death of Isabella. — Death of Philip. — Marriage of Ferdinand with Germaine. — Sad Fate of Joanna. — Ferdinand's Tour to Naples. — Royal Revels. — Death of Ferdinand 272

CHAPTER XIV.

CHARLES V. AND HIS SON PHILIP.

Reign of Charles V. — Election as Emperor. — His melancholy Temperament. — Death of his Mother. — His Abdication. — The Monastery of St. Just. — Cloister Life. — The mock Burial. — Death. — Wretchedness of the Nations. — Early Life of Philip. — His Marriage with Mar}'- of Portugal. — Death of Mary. — Marriage with Mary of England. — Joylessness of the bridal Couple. — Nuptial Fetes. — Philip summoned to the Abdication 290

CHAPTER XV.

THE REIGN OF PHILIP II.

Extent of the Empire of Philip II. — Sadness of Queen Mary. — Her Death. — Philip solicits the Hand of Queen Elizabeth. — Marries Elizabeth of France. — Disappointment of his son, Don Carlos. -♦Death of Hemy I. — The Autode FL — Sorrows of Isabella. — Fate of Don Carlos. — The Father accused of the Murder of his Son 306

CONTENTS. Xlll

CHAPTER XVI.

PHILIP II., m., AND lY.

Death of Isabella.— Anne of Austria. — Oppression of the Morescoes. — Their Insurrection.— Horrors of the Conflict. — Don John of Austria. — Anecdotes. — Religion and Bigotry. — Character of Philip, — The Escurial. — Death of Philip. —Reign of Philip III.— The Regency. —Death of Don John Page 325

CHAPTER XVII.

THE SPANISH BOURBONS.

Claimants for the Crown of Spain. — War of the Succession. — Vicissitudes of Battle. — Recognition of Philip V. — Death of Maria Louisa. — Elizabeth Farnese. — Abdication of Philip V. — Accession of Louis. — His Bride. — Her Wajnvardness. — Death of Philip V. — Accession of Ferdinand VI. — Accession of Charles III. — Power of the Jesuits. — Doom of Olivede. — Siege of Gibraltar 344

CHAPTER XVIII.

CHARLES IV. AND MARL\ LOUISA.

Character of Charles IV. and his Wife. — Manuel Godoy. — The Insurrection in INIadrid. — Domestic Quarrels. — Forced Abdication of the King. — Appeal to Napoleon. — Views of the Emperor. — The Interview at Bayonne. — Testimony of Alison ; of Thiers ; of Napier. — The Spanish Bourbons sell the Crown. — Remarks of the Emperor 373

CHAPTER XIX.

THE EXILE AND RETURN OP THE SPANISH COURT.

Life at Valen^ay. — Letter from the Emperor to Talleyrand. — Proclamation to the Spanish People. — Interview between the Emperor and Joseph Bonaparte. — Restoration of Ferdinand. — Debasement of the Spanish People. — Despotic Measures of Ferdinand. — Birth of Isabella and Louisa,— Death of Ferdinand. — Civil War. — Reign of Isabella II 402

XIV CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XX.

THE BEVOLUTION.

The Eoyal Family. — Inglorious Reign of Isabella II. — Revolutionary Attempts. — Political Parties. — Banishment of the Duke and Duchess of Montpensier. — Increasing Discontent. — Retirement of the Court to San Sebastian. — The Insurrection. — Flight of the Queen. — The Provisory Government. — Arguments for the Monarchy. — The Constituent Assembly. — The Vote. — Testimony of General Dix. — Spirit of the new Constitution. — Difficulties of the Patriots. — The Struggles of Humanity: Page 432

ILLUSTRATIONS.

THE ESCmiiAL '. Frontispiece.

THE MARTYRDOM OF FRUCTUOSUS, BISHOP OF TARRAGONA Page 45

THE TRIUMPH OF WAMBA AND HUMILIATION OF PAULUS 62

THE CHIVALRIC ENCOUNTER 90

MOORISH H03IAGE TO THE CHRISTIAN QUEEN 130

QUEEN ISABELLA 151

THE CORONATION OF ISABELLA 157

THE LAST SIGH OF THE MOOR 188

COLUMBUS IN HIS STUDIO 192

COLUMBUS AT THE DOOR OF THE CONVENT 195

THE L-VNDING 212

SPANISH CONQUESTS IN AMERICA 216

ERECTING THE CROSS 224

THE RETURN VOYAGE.,,.' 228

COLUMBUS BEFORE FERDINAND AND ISABELLA 232

COLUMBUS AND THE EGG 254

THE COLONY DESTROYED 256

THE SOUTH A3IERICAN COAST 259

COLUMBUS IN CHAINS 262

THE ECLIPSE 267

THE RESCUE 269

INTERVIEW WITH THE SPANISH PRINCES 398

Romance of Spanish History.

CHAPTER I.

THE EARLY HISTORY OF SPAIN.

Geography of Spain.— Its Aborigines.— Colonial Settlements.— Its Conquest by Carthage.— Designs of Rome upon Spain. — Strife between Rome and Carthage for its Possession.— Siege of Saguntum.— Campaigns of the Scipios.— Roman Extortion. — Exploits of Viriatus. — His Assassination — Achievements of Sertorius.— Campaign of Pompey.— Governorship of Julius Ca;sar.

THE Spanish peninsula, separated from France on tlie north by the Pyrenees, and bounded on the three remaining sides by the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, contains an area of 225,600 square miles, being a little larger than France. Nature has reared a very formidable barrier between Spain and France, for the Pyrenees, extending in a straight line 250 miles in length, from the Bay of Biscay to the Mediterranean, and often rising in peaks more than ten thousand feet in height, offer but three defiles which carriages can traverse, though there are more than a hundred passes which may be surmounted by pedestrians or the sure-footed mule. The soil is fertile ; the climate genial and salubrious ; and the face of the country, diversified with meadows and mountains, presents, in rare combination, the most attractive features both of loveliness and sublimity.

History does not inform us when and how this beautiful peninsula — called Hispania by the Komans — first became inhabited. Whether the earliest emigrants crossed the straits of Gribraltar from Africa, or came from Asia, coasting the shores of the Mediterranean, or descended from France through the defiles of the Pyrenees, can now never be known. The first glimpse we catch of Spain, through the haze of past ages, reveals to us the country inhabited by numerous barbaric tribes, fiercely hostile to each other, and constantly engaged in bloody wars. The mountain fastnesses were infested with robber bands, and rapine and violence everywhere reigned. The weapons grasped by these fierce warriors consisted of lances, clubs, and slings, with sabres and hatchets, of rude fashion but of keen edge. Their food was mainly nuts and roots. Their clothing consisted of a single linen garment, girded around the waist ; and a a woollen tunic, surmounted by a cloth cap, descended to the feet. As in all barbarous nations, the hard work of life was performed by the women.

The names even of most of these tribes have long since perished ; a few however have been transmitted to our day, such as the Celts, the Gallicians, the Lusitanians, and the Iberians. Several ages before the foundations of Rome or of Carthage were laid, it is said that the Phoenicians, exploring in their commercial tours the shores of the Mediterranean, established a mercantile colony at Cadiz. The colonists growing rich and strong, extended their dominions and founded the cities of Malaga and Cordova. About 800 years before Christ, a colony from Rhodes settled in the Spanish peninsula, and established the city of Rosas. Other expeditions, from various parts of Greece, also planted colonies and engaged in successful traffic with the Spanish natives.

THE EAELY HISTORY OF SPAIN. 19

Four hundred years before Christ, the Carthaginian republic was one of the leading powers, and Carthage was one of the most populous and influential cities on the globe. The Carthaginians crossed the narrow straits which separate Africa from Spain, landed in great strength upon the Spanish peninsula, and, after a short but severe conflict, subdued the foreign colonies there, brought the native Spaniards into subjection, and established their own supremacy over all the southern coast. Cadiz became the central point of Carthaginian power, from whence the invaders constantly extended their conquests. Though many of the interior tribes maintained for a time a sort of rude and ferocious independence, still Carthage gradually assumed dominion over the whole of Spain.

In the year 235 B.C., Hamilcar, the father of the illustrious Hannibal, compelled nearly all the tribes of Spain to acknowledge his sway. For eight years Hamilcar waged almost an incessant battle with the Spaniards. Still it was merely a military possession which he held of the country, and he erected Barcelona and several other fortresses, where his soldiers could bid defiance to assaults, and could overawe the surrounding inhabitants. He was a stern conqueror, and the subjugated people regarded him with dread. In one insurrection, which his severity provoked, two-thirds of his army perished, and Hamilcar himself also was slain. His son-in-law, Asdrubal, was intrusted with the supreme command.

Asdrubal adopted a conciliatory policy, courting alliance

with those tribes whom he could not easily vanquish. He

founded the city of Carthagena, on the gulf to which he

..gave the same name. He had intended this place for his

capital, having formed the plan of organizing Spain into a kingdom, independent of Carthage, over which he designed to assume the monarchy.

Eome was now rising rapidly into power, and, with insatiable lust of conquest, turned her eyes to Spain, wishing to wrest the important province from her rival, Carthage. Asdrubal, with great energy, was preparing for this approaching strife, when he was assassinated by a slave, whose master, a native prince, he had put to death. Hannibal was now twenty-six years of age, when he succeeded his brother-in law in command of the army and as governor of Spain. He was a man of heroic mould ; merciless, in accordance with the ferocity of the times, but singularly sagacious, bold, and self-reliant, and endowed with the rare ability of embracing the most extensive combinations, while, at the same time, he could attend to the minutest details.

Hannibal when a child, before his father's death, had taken a solemn oath never to make peace with the Komans. He now, with all his amazing energy, made preparations for a death-struggle with Eome, which was then threatening the supremac}^ of Carthage everywhere, both on the land and on the sea. Eome had entered into alliance with one of the powerful Spanish tribes, the Saguntines. Their principal city, Saguntum, was situated upon the Mediterranean, on the site of the present city of Murviedro. Hannibal commenced his war upon Eome by marching at the head of an army 150,000 thousand strong against Saguntum. The siege and destruction of this city are described by Livy with great graphic skill.

A According to the narrative of Livy, the besieged made the most heroic resistance. The destruction of Saguntum is regarded as one of the most sublime and terrible of the, tragedies of war. For nine months the storm of battle raged incessantly around tlie walls. Every assault was successfully repelled. In many fierce sorties the works of the besiegers were demolished, and the plain was strewed with the dead. On one occasion Hannibal himself was very severely wounded. As he effected breaches in the walls with his battering-rams, he found other walls reared behind them still more substantial, and lapping over the gaps. But Hannibal was a man whom no disasters could dishearten. Obstacles only nerved him to greater effort and endurance. He reared enormous towers on wheels, and rolled them up to the walls, that his men might fight on a level with those who defended the ramparts. Thus month after month of this truly demoniac strife lingered away, until famine commenced its cruel devastations in the city. The women and children perished by thousands. Gaunt and skeleton spectres stalked through the streets, none having food but those for whom it was indispensable to enable them to fight. The end now drew nigh. Human endurance could accomplish nothing more. There was plenty in the camp of Hannibal, and his broken ranks were continually filled up by fresh recruits.

The Saguntines, finding that they must fall, resolved with barbaric heroism that their fall should be the sublimest act in the drama ; an act which should fill the world with their renown. They accomplished their design. For more than two thousand years, the story of the fall of Saguntum has echoed through the corridors of history.

In the heart of the city they collected an enormous mass of every thing combustible, so that upon the touch of the flambeau it would blaze and glow like a furnace. Upon this vast pile they placed their wives and their children, and all their valuable effects.

The fathers, husbands, and brothers capable of bearing arms then formed themselves into solid columns, and suddenly rushing from the gates, fell upon the besiegers with the utmost fury. No man thought of self-protection, but strove only to sell his life as dearly as possible. The slaughter was awful. In the midst of the terror, uproar, and tumult, the torch was applied to the majestic pyre, and it flamed, crackling and roaring, to the skies. It was but a short agony ere all the writhing victims were consumed to ashes. The Carthaginians, having overpowered and cut down their desperate assailants, rushed into the city to find it but a mass of flame, with scarcely a living inhabitant. Mercilessly they destroyed the few stragglers who were left in the streets.

Thus perished Saguntum, one of the most flourishing cities of ancient Spain. This event, which occurred in the year 219 B.C., ushered in the Second Punic War — a war which swept nearly the whole then known world with fire, and almost deluged it with blood. The destruction of Saguntum was a fitting prelude to the scenes which ensued. Spain was now a captive in the hands of Carthage ; many of the tribes being willingly captive, but others restless and struggling to be free.

The Spanish tribes, who had been hostile to Carthage, were indignant that Eome had not sent her legions to aid her allies, the SaguntineSj/ The remissness of the Komans in this afiair seems inexplicable. They, however, as soon as they heard of the fall of Saguntum, prepared to send an army into Spain to conquer the country from Carthage. Ambassadors were dispatched to visit the disaffected tribes, and to incite them to coalition with Rome. But the Spanish chieftains received the ambassadors with great coldness.

" Are you not ashamed," said an Iberian chief, " to expect that we should prefer your friendship to that of the Carthaginians? Can we forget your perfidy to the Saguntines, who perished because you came not to their aid? Go seek alHes elsewhere, among those who have not heard of the fate of Saguntum."

The ambassadors could make no reply, and, in confusion, returned to Kome, having entirely failed in their mission. Publius Scipio was then consul at Eome. As Hannibal was marching across the Alps for the invasion of Italy, Publius Scipio sent his brother Cnaeus Scipio, a distinguished general, with an army to Spain by water. He landed at Ampurias, in Catalonia, a little north of the river Ebro, with the very inadequate force of 10,000 infantry and 700 cavalry. Hannibal had left a Carthaginian general by the name of Hanno in command of the troops in Catalonia, though Hasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, was commander-in-chief in Spain.

Scipio, conscious of his weakness, moved with great caution, doing every thing in his power to conciliate the natives, and to enlist them on his side. He was extremely affable and friendly, complimenting the chiefs upon their bravery, and soon he so won their confidence that large numbers gathered around his banners. Ere long he was in a condition to offer battle to Hanno, and, encountering him upon the plains of Catalonia, defeated him with great loss. His little fleet also met the Carthaginian fleet near the mouth of the Ebro, and sinking a portion of the ships, dispersed the rest. Thus the whole of Catalonia and the coast from the Ebro to the Pyrenees fell into the hands of the Romans.

These successes were followed by others still more decisive. Many of tlie tribes joined tlie conquering Romans, The consul, Publius Scipio, soon embarked for Spain with large re-enforcements, and joined his brother. By their vigorous co-operation nearly the whole peninsula was soon wrested from the Carthaginians, and Spain became a Roman province. A few fortresses only still held at bay the legions of Scipio. But Hasdrubal possessed many of the qualities of his heroic brother Hannibal. He gathered re-enforcements from Carthage, formed alliance with several tribes, and wretched Spain became the bloody battle-field where Rome and Carthage struggled for the supremacy of the world. The fortunes of war as usual ebbed and flowed on many a hard-fought field ; now the banners of the one party, and again those of the other, floating amidst the huzzahs of victory. At length, in two terrible battles, both Publius and Cnaeus Scipio were slain, and the Roman army was nearly exterminated.

The Carthaginians, flushed with victory, approached the fortified camp where the remnants of the Roman legions were entrenched. Their escape was hopeless, and their doom seemed sealed. A Roman general, Lucius Martins, by an earnest harangue roused the soldiers to the bold resolve to avenge the death of the Scipios, and to sell their lives as dearly as possible. At midnight he led his whole band, who were inspired with the energies of despair, into the Carthaginian camp, bursting the barriers with shrieks and fury as of incarnate fiends. The Carthaginians were totally unprepared for such an attack, not dreaming that their crushed foes would dare to leave their ramparts.

Every Roman had his especial duty assigned him ; some fired the tents; some plunged into them with sword and battle-axe ; some guarded the avenues to cut off the fugitives. The flames, the clamor, the butchery, the utter bewilderment of the Carthaginians, the heroic efforts of the Romans, the gloom of night illumined by the lurid flames of the conflagration, presented a scene of horror which can not be conceived. The massacre was awful, and before the morning dawned nearly the whole Carthaginian army was destroyed. All who were not slain were dispersed in wild disorder, leaving the whole Carthaginian camp in the hands of those whom, the evening before, the Carthaginians had regarded but as victims awaiting their execution.

The Roman Senate, animated by this astonishing achievement, immediately dispatched a strong armament to Spain under the leadership of Pubiius Cornelius Scipio, a son of the consul who had recently perished in battle. This young man, then but twenty-four years of age, who subsequently obtained the surname of Africanus, in honor of his exploits in Africa, had already acquired much celebrity in Rome, not only for his heroism, but for the earnest religious character which he had remarkably exhibited. Being peculiarly endowed with those qualities which attract the affections as well as the admiration of men, he soon became the idol of the army, and many of the Spanish chieftains with enthusiasm espoused his cause.

But Hasdrubal was not wanting either in energy or sagacity. He gathered large re-enforcements from Carthage and from his Spanish allies, and was soon again in condition to take the field. Both parties prepared with great vigor to submit the possession of Spain to the arbitrament of battle. Scipio, upon landing, marched directly upon Carthagena, and laid siege to the city. This movement was so rapid and unexpected, and the siege was prosecuted with such vigor, that the city was soon compelled to capitulate, and all its vast pecuniary and military treasures fell into the hands of the conqueror.

The conduct of Scipio on this occasion has given him great and enviable renown. There was among his captives a native maiden princess, of marvellous beauty, who at sight inspired him with the most passionate attachment. But so soon as Scipio learned that she was the affianced bride of a young Spanish chieftain, Allucius, he restored her to her lover. The parents of the maiden were overjoyed, and, in their gratitude, sent Scipio a very large present, as the gift-ransom for their child. Scipio bestowed this ransom upon the youthful pair, as the dowry of the maiden. Allucius immediately entered the Koman service, attached himself enthusiastically to Scipio, and contributed very essential aid to his subsequent enterprises.

The magnanimous victor, instead of making, according to the custom of the times, the citizens of Carthagena slaves, and sending them to the market to replenish his purse, gave them all their liberty, and restored to them their property. He did all in his power to alleviate the inevitable horrors of war, and to promote the happiness of the vanquished. Such conduct was as politic as it was unparalleled in those dark and cruel days. The fame of his clemency spread rapidly, and his popularitj^ daily increased. Still the Carthaginians were too strongly established in Spain to be easily driven out. Campaign after campaign ensued, with all their awful accompaniments of tumult, blood, and woe.

After three campaigns in as many years, which campaigns extended the devastations of war over nearly the whole peninsula, the Romans attained the decisive superi-

THE EAKLY HISTORY OF SPAIN. 27

ority. Steadily now Scipio advanced in his conquests, wresting fortress after fortress from the Carthaginians, until they were left in possession of Cadiz alone. Finding it impossible to hold this city, the Carthaginian troops abandoned it, escaping in their ships, and thus the whole Spanish peninsula was surrendered to Kome. The conquerors divided their prize into two provinces, which they called Hither and Farther Spain, the Eiver Ebro constituting the boundary between them. Each of these domains was intrusted to a Roman governor, who sometimes held the title of proconsul, and again that of praetor. Tarragona was the capital of Hither Spain. Farther Spain being of larger extent, the governor moved about, choosing his place of residence according to his pleasure. Such was the condition of the Spanish peninsula 200 years B.C.

Most of the Roman governors were inexorable tyrants, who made it the primary object of their administrations to wring as much money as possible from the miserable people. Their oppressions and outrages were constantly goading the tribes to revolt, which revolts were quelled by cavalry charges and dripping swords. For half a century there was seldom a day in which some of the tribes were not in open insurrection. Not unfrequently nearly the whole peninsula Would be in a blaze of war. Some of the mountain tribes, indeed, were never thoroughly subjugated, but in their wild retreats maintained a rude independence. Occasionally a Roman governor would be ignominiously defeated, but then some successor of surpassing energy would regain all that his predecessor had lost. War was the normal condition of the people ; peace its transient exception.

The Roman Government was thoroughly detested by the Spanish people; and if the tribes had possessed sufficient intelligence and virtue to combine, the invaders might easily have been driven from the land. But the Eomans, with superior sagacity, ever succeeded in fomenting the jealousy of the tribes, and thus, by arraying them against each other, held them all in subjection. ^The enormities perpetrated by these Eoman governors in Spain can never be described. Let but one be mentioned in illustration of many. A Eoman army was marching along the banks of the Tagus, on an expedition of conquest and plunder. A deputation from several tribes waited upon Lucullus, the proconsul in command of the army, offering to submit to Eome on certain terms which they proposed. Lucullus received them with apparent cordiality, and, with strong expressions of sympathy for the hardships to which they were exposed, said :

" Come to us, and we will conduct you to happier homes. We have, in Italy, abundance of uncultivated land, very fertile, beneath bright and sunny skies. There you can live almost without labor, and your lives will glide along like a cloudless summer day. Come in as large numbers as you please, and we will conduct you safely to those new homes, will provide farms for you all, and I will be your father."