A smaller history of Greece, from the earliest times to the Roman conquest

Preface to the Revised Edition

The investigations of modern scholars in the departments of Greek history, literature, and antiquities have done much to correct erroneous beliefs, to widen the realm of positive knowledge in these subjects, and to mark more precisely the limits of that positive knowledge. In preparing a new edition of Dr. Smith's Smaller History of Greece the reviser has endeavored to be guided by the important results of these investigations. He has sought especially to correct the inaccuracies of the old edition and to supply noteworthy omissions. No attempt has been made to change the plan of the original work, and it is hoped that the characteristic features which have made Dr. Smith's History popular are preserved in the revised edition.

A few chapters have been largely rewritten, notably the fifth, tenth, nineteenth, and twenty- second ; on the other hand, in many portions of the narrative few important additions or changes have been found necessary. The reviser has depended largely upon the recent histories of Busolt and Holm, but has aimed to verify all direct statements by reference to the original Greek sources. In dealing with the constitutional history of various Greek states and with the history of Greek literature he has constantly consulted iv PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION

An entirely new series of maps and plans has been engraved for the present edition. Many of these are based upon maps in Kiepert's Atlas Antiquus, others upon originals in Baumeister's Denkmiiler des Jdassischen Altertums, the Mittheilungen des deutschen arehdologischen Institute zuAthen, Bursian's Geographie von Griechenlandy and other standard authorities. Most of the illustrations which appeared in the old edition have been discarded as unprofitable or antiquated. Their place has been supplied by a somewhat smaller number of new illustrations. An especial and, it is hoped, valuable feature of the revised edition is the Pronouncing Vocabulary which has been incorporated with the Index, the latter having been very greatly increased in volume.

The reviser gratefully acknowledges his indebtedness to Professor Perrin, who has read the proofsheets and has offered many helpful suggestions.

New Haven, November, 1896.

Contents

CHAPTER PAGE

I. GEOGRAPHY OF GREECE 1

II. ORIGIN OF THE GREEKS AND THE HEROIC AGE . . 6

Chapter I Geography Of Greece

Situation and Extent of the Country. — Greece is the southern portion of a great peninsula of Europe, washed on three sides by the Mediterranean Sea. It is bounded on the north by Macedonia and Illy ri a, being separated from them for the most part by mountain ranges. It extends from the 40th degree of latitude to the 36th, its greatest length being not more than 250 English miles, and its greatest breadth only 180. Its surface is considerably less than that of Portugal. This small area was divided among a number of independent states, many of them containing a territory of only a few square miles, and none of them larger than an English county. But the heroism and genius of the Greeks have given an interest to the insignificant spot of earth bearing their name which the vastest empires have never gained.

Hellas and the Hellenes — The name of Greece was not used by the inhabitants of the country. They called their land Hellas, and themselves Hellenes. l

HISTORY OF GREECE Chap. I

At first the word Hellas signified only a small district in Thessaly, from which the Hellenes gradually spread over the whole country. The names of Greece and Greeks come to us from the Romans, who gave the name of Grcecia to the country and of Greed to the inhabitants.

Northern Greece — The two northerly provinces of Greece are Thessaly and JEjnrus, separated from each other by Mount Pindus. Thessaly is a fertile plain enclosed by lofty mountains, and drained by the river Peneus, which finds its way into the sea through the celebrated Vale of Tempe. Epirus is covered by rugged ranges of mountains running from north to south, through which the Acheloiis, the largest river of Greece, flows towards the Corinthian Gulf.

Central Greece. — In entering central Greece from Thessaly the road runs along the coast through the narrow pass of Thermopylae, between the sea and a lofty range of mountains. The district along the coast was inhabited by the eastern Locrians, while to the west and south were Doris and Phocis, the greater part of the latter being occupied by Mount Parnassus, upon the slopes of which lay the town of Delphi, with its celebrated oracle of Apollo. Southeast of Phocis is Doeotia, which is a large hollow basin, enclosed on every side by mountains, which prevent the waters from flowing into the sea. Hence the atmosphere was damp and thick, to which circumstance the* witty Athenians attributed the dulness of the inhabitants. Thebes was the chief city of Bceotia. South of Boeotia lies Attica, which is in the form of a triangle, having two of its sides washed by the sea, and its base united to the land. Its soil is light and dry, and is better adapted for

Chap. I PELOPONNESUS 3

the growth of fruit than of grain. It was particularly celebrated for its olives, which were regarded as the gift of Athena, and were always under the care of that goddess. Athens was on the western coast, between four and five miles from its port, Piraeus. West of Attica, towards the isthmus of Corinth, is the small district of Megaris.

The western half of central Greece consists of western Locris, JEtolia, and Acarnania. These districts were less civilized than the other countries of Greece, and were the haunts of rude robber tribes even as late as the Peloponnesian war.

Peloponnesus. — Central Greece is connected with the southern peninsula by a narrow isthmus, near which stood the city of Corinth. So narrow is this isthmus that the ancients regarded the peninsula as an island, and gave to it the name of Peloponnesus, or the island of Pelops, from the mythical hero of this name. Its modern name, the Morea, was bestowed upon it from its resemblance to the leaf of the mulberry.

The mountains of Peloponnesus have their roots in the centre of the country, from which they branch out towards the sea. This central region, called Arcadia, is the Switzerland of the peninsula. It is surrounded by a ring of mountains, forming a kind of natural wall, which separates it from the remaining Peloponnesian states. The other chief divisions of Peloponnesus were Achaia, Argolis, Laconia, Messenia, and Elis. Achaia is a narrow strip of country lying between the northern barrier of Arcadia and the Corinthian Gulf. Argolis, on the east, contained several independent states, of which the most important w T as Argos. Laconia and Messenia occupied the

4 HISTORY OF GREECE Chap. I

whole of the south of the peninsula from sea to sea ; these two countries were separated by the lofty range of Taygetus, running from north to south, and terminating in the promontory of Trenarum (now Cape Matapan), the southernmost point of Greece. Sparta, the chief town of Laconia, stood in the valley of the Eu rotas, which opens out into a plain of considerable extent towards the Laconian Gulf. Messenia, in like manner, was drained by the Pamisus, whose plain is still more extensive and fertile than that of the Eurotas. JElis, on the west of Arcadia, contains the memorable plain on the banks of the Alpheus where the Olympic games were celebrated.

The Adjacent Islands. — Of the numerous islands which line the Grecian shores, the most important was Eubcea, stretching along the coasts of Locris, Bceotia, and Attica. South of Eubcea was the group of islands called the Cyclades, lying around Delos as a centre ; and east of these were the Sporades, near the Asiatic coast. South of these groups are the large islands of Crete and Rhodes. Lemnos, Jmbros, Samothrace, and Thasos lie farther north in the Thracian Sea, while to the west of Greece are Zaeynthos, CephaUenia, Ithaca, Leucas, and Corey ra.

Influence of the Country upon the People The physical features of the country exercised a most important influence upon the political destinies of the people. Greece is one of the most mountainous countries of Europe. Its surface is occupied by a number of small plains, either entirely surrounded by limestone mountains or open only to the sea. Each of the principal Grecian cities was founded in one of these small plains ; and, as the mountains which separated it from its neighbors were lofty and

Chap. I NATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS 5

rugged, each city grew up in solitary independence. But at the same time it had ready and easy access to the sea, and Arcadia was almost the only political division that did not possess some territory upon the coast. Thus shut out from their neighbors by mountains, the Greeks were naturally attracted to the sea, and became a maritime people. Hence they possessed the love of freedom and the spirit of adventure which have always characterized, more or less, the inhabitants of maritime districts.

APOLLO

Coin of Rhodes

Chapter II Origin Of The Greeks And The Heroic Age

Early Legends No nation possesses a history till

events are recorded in written documents ; and, so far as we know, it was not till the 8th century b. c. that the Greeks began to employ writing as a means for perpetuating the memory of any historical facts. Before that period everything is vague and uncertain ; and the exploits of the heroes related by the poets must not be regarded as historical facts. On the other hand, really authentic history does not begin till long after that period ; for in the earliest written records legend is still interwoven with fact.

Origin of the Greeks The Pelasgians are universally represented as the most ancient inhabitants of Greece. The Hellenes were a tribe of invaders who originally dwelt in the south of Thessaly, and gradually spread over the rest of Greece. The Pelasgians disappeared before them, or were incorporated with them, and their dialect became the language of Greece. The Hellenes considered themselves the descendants of one common ancestor, Hellen, the son of Deucalion and Pyrrha. To Hellen were ascribed three sons, Dorus, Xuthus, and iEolus. Of these Dorus and JEolus gave their names to the Dorians and JEolians\ and Xuthus, through his two sous, Ion and Achrcus, became the forefather of the

Chap. II ORIENTAL INFLUENCE 7

Ionians and Achceans. Thus the Greeks accounted for the origin of the four great divisions of their race. The descent of the Hellenes from a common ancestor, Hellen, was a fundamental article in the popular faith. It was a general practice in antiquity to invent fictitious persons for the purpose of explaining names of which the origin was buried in obscurity. It was in this way that Hellen and his sons came into being ; but though they never had any real existence, the tales about them may be regarded as the traditional history of the races to whom they gave their names. Oriental Influence. — The civilization of the Greeks and the development of their language bear all the marks of home growth, and probably were not greatly affected by foreign influence. The traditions, however, of the Greeks would point to a contrary conclusion. It was a general belief among them that the Pelasgians were reclaimed from barbarism by Oriental strangers, who settled in the country and introduced among the rude inhabitants the first elements of civilization. Attica is said to have been indebted for the arts of civilized life to Cecrops, who, according to late tradition, was a native of Sais in Egypt. To him is ascribed the foundation of the city of Athens, the institution of marriage, and the introduction of religious rites and ceremonies. Argos, in like manner, has its foreign hero in the Egyptian Danaiis, who fled to Greece with his fifty daughters, to escape from the persecution of their suitors, the fifty sons of his brother ^Egyptus. The Egyptian stranger was elected king by the natives, and from him the tribe of the Danai derived their name, which Homer frequently uses as a general appellation for the Greeks. Another colony was the one led from

8 HISTORY OF GREECE Chap. II

Asia by Pelops, from whom the southern peninsula of Greece derived its name of Peloponnesus. Pelops is represented as a Phrygian, and the son of the wealthy king Tantalus. He became the founder of a powerful dynasty, one of the most renowned in the Heroic age of Greece. From him was descended Agamemnon, who led the Grecian host against Troy.

The tale of the Phoenician colony, conducted by Cadmus, which founded Thebes in Boeotia, rests upon a different basis. Whether there was such a person as the Phoenician Cadmus, and whether he built the town called Cadmea, which afterwards became the citadel of Thebes, as the ancient legends relate, cannot be determined; but it is certain that the Greeks were indebted to the Phoenicians for the art of writing ; for both the names and the forms of the letters in the Greek alphabet are evidently derived from the Phoenician. With this exception the Oriental strangers left no important traces of their settlements in Greece ; and the population of the country continued to be essentially Grecian, uncontaminated by any foreign element.

The Heroes: Heracles, Theseus, and Minos. — The period which preceded the dawn of history in Greece is called the age of heroes. These heroes were believed to be a noble race of beings, possessing a superhuman though not a divine nature, and superior to ordinary men in strength of body and greatness of soul.

Among the heroes three stand conspicuously forth: Heracles, the national hero of Greece ; Theseus, the hero of Attica ; and Minos, king of Crete, the principal founder of Grecian law and civilization.

Heracles was the son of Zeus and Alcmena ; but

Chap. II HERACLES AND THESEUS 9

the jealous anger of Hera raised up against him an opponent and a master in the person of Eurystheus, at whose bidding the greatest of all heroes was to achieve those wonderful labors which filled the whole world with his fame. In these are realized, on a magnificent scale, the two great objects of ancient heroism, the destruction of physical and moral evil, and the acquisition of wealth and power. Such, for instance, are the labors in which he destroys the terrible Nemean lion and Lernean hydra, carries off the girdle of Ares from Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons, and seizes the golden apples of the Hesperides, guarded by a hundred-headed dragon.

Theseus was a son of iEgeus, king of Athens, and of iEthra, daughter of Pittheus, king of Trcezen. Among his many memorable achievements the most famous was his deliverance of Athens from the frightfill tribute imposed upon it by Minos for the murder of his son. This consisted of seven youths and seven maidens, whom the Athenians were compelled to send every nine years to Crete, there to be devoured by the Minotaur, a monster with a human body and a bull's head, which Minos kept concealed in an inextricable labyrinth. The third ship was already on the point of sailing with its cargo of innocent victims, when Theseus offered to go with them, hoping to put an end forever to the horrible tribute. Ariadne, the daughter of Minos, became enamoured of the hero, and being supplied by her with a clew to trace the windings of the labyrinth, Theseus succeeded in killing the monster, and in tracking his way out of the mazy lair. Theseus, on his return, became king of Attica, and proceeded to lay the foundation of the future greatness of the country. He united into one political

10 HISTORY OF GREECE Chap. II

body the twelve independent states into which Cocrops had divided Attica, and made Athens the capital of the new kingdom. He then divided the citizens into three classes — namely, Eupatridce, or nobles ; Geomori, or husbandmen ; and Demiurgi, or artisans.

Minos, king of Crete, whose history is connected with that of Theseus, appears, like him, the representative of an historical and civil state of life. Minos is said to have received the laws of Crete immediately from Zeus ; and traditions uniformly represent him as king of the sea. Possessing a numerous fleet, he reduced the surrounding islands, especially the Cyclades, under his dominion, and cleared the sea of pirates.

The Argonautic Expedition and the Trojan War. — The voyage of the Argonauts and the Trojan war were the most memorable enterprises undertaken by collective bodies of heroes.

The Argonauts derived their name from the Argo, a ship built for the adventurers by Jason, under the superintendence of Athena. They embarked at the harbor of Iolcus in Thessaly for the purpose of obtaining the golden fleece which was preserved in JE& in Colchis, on the eastern shores of the Black Sea, under the guardianship of a sleepless dragon. The most renowned heroes of the age took part in the expedition. Among them were Heracles and Theseus ; but Jason is the central figure and the real hero of the enterprise. Upon their arrival at iEa, after many adventures, King ^Eetes promised to deliver to Jason the golden fleece, provided he yoked two fire-breathing brazen-footed oxen, and performed other wonderful deeds. Here, also, as in the legend of Theseus, love played a prominent part. Medea, the daughter of yEetes, who was skilled in magic and supernatural

Chap. II THE TROJAN WAR 11

arts, furnished Jason with the means of accomplishing the labors imposed upon him; and as her father still delayed to surrender the . fleece, she cast the dragon asleep during the night, seized the fleece, and sailed away in the Argo with her beloved Jason.

The Trojan war was the greatest of all the heroic undertakings. It formed the subject of numerous epic poems, and has been immortalized by the genius of Homer. Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy, abused the hospitality of Menelaus, king of Sparta, by carrying off his wife Helen, the most beautiful woman of the age. All the Grecian princes looked upon the outrage as one committed against themselves. Responding to the call of Menelaus, they assembled in arms, elected his brother Agamemnon, king of Mycenae, leader of the expedition, and sailed across the JEgean in nearly twelve hundred ships to recover the faithless fair one. Several of the confederate heroes excelled Agamemnon in fame. Among them Achilles, chief of the Thessalian Myrmidons, stood pre-eminent in strength, beauty, and valor ; while Odysseus, king of Ithaca, surpassed all the rest in the mental qualities of counsel and eloquence. Among the Trojans, Hector, one of the sons of Priam, was most distinguished for heroic qualities, and formed a striking contrast to his handsome but effeminate brother Paris. Next to Hector in valor stood iEneas, son of Anchises and Aphrodite. Even the gods took part in the contest, encouraging their favorite heroes, and sometimes fighting bv their side or in their stead.

It was not till the tenth year of the war that Troy yielded to the inevitable decree of fate ; and it is the events of a part of this year which form the subject of the Iliad. Achilles, offended by Agamemnon, ab-

12 HISTORY OF GREECE Chap. II

stains from the war ; and in his absence the Greeks are no match for Hector. The Trojans drive them back into their camp, and are already setting fire to their ships, when Achilles gives his armor to his friend Patroclns, and allows him to charge at the head of the Myrmidons. Patroclns repulses the Trojans from the ships, but the god Apollo is against him, and he falls under the spear of Hector. Desire to avenge the death of his friend proves more powerful in the breast of Achilles than anger against Agamemnon. He appears again in the field in new and gorgeous armor, forged for him by the god Hephaestus at the prayer of Thetis. The Trojans fly before him, and, although Achilles is aware that his own death must speedily follow that of the Trojan hero, he slays Hector in single combat.

The Iliad closes with the burial of Hector. The death of Achilles and the capture of Troy were related in later poems. The hero of so many achievements perishes by an arrow shot by the un warlike Paris, but directed by the hand of Apollo. The noblest combatants had now fallen on either side, and force of arms had proved unable to accomplish what stratagem at length effects. It is Odysseus who now steps into the foreground and becomes the real conqueror of Troy. By his advice a wooden horse is built, within which he and other heroes conceal themselves. The infatuated Trojans are treacherously persuaded to admit the horse within their walls. In the dead of night the Greeks rush out and open the gates to their comrades. Troy is delivered over to the sword, and its glory sinks in ashes. The fall of Troy is conjecturally placed in the year 1184 b.c.

The return of the Grecian loaders from Trov forms

Chap. II SOCIETY IX THE HEROIC AGE 13

another series of poetical legends. Several meet with tragical ends. Agamemnon is murdered, on his arrival at Mycenae, by his wife ClyUemestra and her paramour JEgisthus. But of these wanderings the most celebrated and interesting are those of Odysseus, which form the subject of the Odyssey. After twenty years' absence he arrives at length in Ithaca, where he slays the numerous suitors who devoured his substance and contended for the hand of his wife Penelope.

The Homeric poems must not be regarded as a record of historical persons and events, but, at the same time, they present a valuable picture of the institutions and manners of the earliest known state of Grecian society.

Society and Civilization in the Heroic Age. — In the Homeric age Greece was already divided into a number of independent states, each governed by its own king. The authority of the king rested upon hereditary and divine right. He was leader in war, supreme judge, and chief priest. His power was limited, however, in three ways. First, he was bound to follow immemorial usage, the unwritten law of the land. Secondly, he must consult an advisory council (Boule) of nobles and elders. Thirdly, his measures must be approved by the general assembly of freemen (Agora). These two bodies became in the Republican age the sole depositories of political power.

The Greeks in the Heroic a^e were divided into the three classes of nobles, common freemen, and slaves. The nobles were raised far above the rest of the community in honor, power, and wealth. They were distinguished by their warlike prowess, their large estates, and their numerous slaves. The condition of

14 HISTORY OF GREECE Chap. II

the general mass of freemen is rarely mentioned. They possessed portions of land as their own property, which they cultivated themselves ; but there was another class of poor freemen, called Thetes, who had no land of their own, and who worked for hire on the estates of others. Slavery was not so prevalent in the Heroic age as at a later time, and appears in a less odious aspect. The nobles alone possessed slaves, and they treated them with a degree of kindness which frequently secured for the master their affectionate attachment.

Society was marked by simplicity of manners. The kings and nobles did not consider it derogatory to their dignity to acquire skill in the manual arts. Odysseus is represented as building his own bedchamber and constructing his own raft, and he boasts of being an excellent mower and ploughman. Like Esau, who made savory meat for his father Isaac, the Heroic chiefs prepared their own meals and prided themselves on their skill in cookery. Kings and private persons partook of the same food, which was of the simplest kind. Beef, mutton, and goat's flesh were the ordinary meats, and cheese, flour, and sometimes fruits also formed part of the banquet; wine was drunk diluted with water, and the entertainments were never disgraced by intemperance, like those of our northern ancestors. The enjoyment of the banquet was heightened by the song and the dance, and the chiefs took more delight in the lays of the minstrel than in the exciting influence of the wine.

The wives and daughters of the chiefs, in like manner, did not deem it beneath them to discharge various duties which were afterwards regarded as menial. Not only do we find them constantly employed in

Chap. II CIVILIZATION IX THE HEROIC AGE 15

weaving, spinning, and embroidery, but like the daughters of the patriarchs they fetch water from the well and assist their slaves in washing garments.

Even at this early age the Greeks had made considerable advances in civilization. They were collected in fortified towns, which were surrounded by walls and adorned with palaces and temples. The massive ruins of Mycenae and the sculptured lions on the gate of this city belong to the Heroic age, and still excite the wonder of the beholder. Commerce, however, was little cultivated, and was not much esteemed. It was deemed more honorable for a man to enrich himself by robbery and piracy than by the arts of peace. Coined money is not mentioned in the poems of Homer. Whether the Greeks were acquainted at this early period with the art of writing is a question which has given rise to much dispute, and must remain undetermined ; but poetry was cultivated with success, though yet confined to epic strains, or the narration of the exploits and adventures of the Heroic chiefs. The bard sang his own song, and was always received with welcome and honor in the palaces of the nobles.

In the battles, as depicted by Homer, the chiefs are the only important combatants, while the people are an almost useless mass, frequently put to rout by the prowess of a single hero. The chief is often mounted in a war chariot, and stands by the side of his charioteer, who is frequently a friend. There is no cavalry.

Chapter III General Survey Of The Greek People — National

INSTITUTIONS

Bonds of Union between the Greek States. — The Greeks, as we have already seen, were divided into many independent communities, but several causes bound them together as one people. Of these the most important were community of blood and language — community of religious rites and festivals — and community of manners and character.

Community of Blood and Language. — All the Greeks were descended from the same ancestors and spoke the same language. They all described men and cities which were not Grecian by the term barbarian. This word has passed into our own language, but with a very different idea ; for the Greeks applied it indiscriminately to every foreigner, to the civilized inhabitants of Egypt and Persia as well as to the rude tribes of Scythia and Gaul.

Community of Religious Rites and Festivals: The Amphictyonic Council. — The second bond of union was a community of religious rites and festivals. From the earliest times the Greeks appear to have worshipped the same gods ; but originally there were no religious meetings common to the whole nation. Such meetings were of gradual growth, being formed by a number of neighboring towns, which entered into an

Chap. Ill THE AMPHICTYOXIC COUNCIL 17

association for the periodical celebration of certain religious rites at some common shrine. Of these the most celebrated was the Amphictyonic Council. It acquired its superiority over other similar associations by the wealth and grandeur of the Delphian temple, of which it was the appointed guardian. The temple of Demeter at Thermopylae was also under its protection. It held its meetings twice a year, in the spring and in the autumn ; and each time there seem to have been two sessions, one at Thermopylae and the other at Delphi. Its members, who were called the Amphictyons, consisted of sacred deputies sent from twelve tribes, many of which had several independent cities or states. But the Council was never considered as a national congress, whose duty it was to protect and defend the common interests of Greece ; and it was only when the rights of the Delphian god had been violated that it invoked the aid of the various states of the league. The Council also sought to foster peace, or at least fair methods of warfare, among its own members. The ancient Amphictyonic oath bound the associated tribes not to cut off running water from any city belonging to the league, nor to destroy any city utterly.

The Olympic Games. — The Olympic games were of greater efficacy than the Amphictyonic Council in promoting a spirit of union among the various branches of the Greek race, and in keeping alive a feeling of their common origin. They were open to all freemen who could prove their Hellenic blood, and were frequented by spectators from all parts of the Grecian world. They were celebrated at Olympia, on the banks of the Alpheus, in the territory

18 HISTORY OF GREECE Chap. Ill

of Elis. The origin of the festival was lost in ob- Bcurity ; but it was said to have been revived by Iphitus, king of Elis, and Lycurgus, the Spartan legislator, in the year 776 b.c. ; and accordingly, when the Greeks at a later time began to use the Olympic contest as a chronological era, this year was regarded as the first Olympiad. It was celebrated at the end of every four years, and the interval which elapsed between each celebration was called an Olympiad. The whole festival w r as under the management of the Eleans, who appointed some of their own number to preside as judges, under the name of the Hellanodieae. During the month in which it was celebrated all hostilities were suspended throughout Greece. At first the festival was confined to a single day, and consisted of nothing more than a match of runners in the stadium : but in course of time so manv other contests were introduced that the games occupied five days. They comprised various trials of strength and skill, such as wrestling, boxing, the Pancratium (boxing and wrestling combined), and the complicated Pentathlum (including jumping, running, the quoit, the javelin, and wrestling), but no combats with anykind of weapons. One day was set apart for contests of boys. There were also horse-races and chariot-races ; and the chariot-race, with four full-grown horses, became one of the most popular and celebrated of all the matches.