A system of intellectual philosophy

Front matter

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Qass.

Book.

Prefatory Note

TO THE REVISED EDITION,

Since the publication of the first edition of this work, the author has had the benefit resulting from successive years in teaching the same, and of a careful reading of other works upon the same subject. In this manner, he has been eDabled to perceive defects that needed correction in the work, as first presented. The work is now given to the public, as the result of his mature reflections upon this fundamental science. Some of the most important chapters have been so entirely rewritten and remodeled, as to render the present, in some important respects, a new work on Intellectual philosophy. I may notice, among others, the chapter on Sense, the examination of the true as distinguished from false systems of Philosophy, in the chapter on Miscellaneous Topics, and the development of the evidence of the being and perfections of God, in the last chapter. The author has always been fully persuaded of the correctness of his views in respect to external perception, but has felt a growing dissatisfaction with his manner of presenting the subject, in the chapter referred to. In the present edition, this subject, so fundamental to a right system of mental science, is so presented as to meet his ideas in most, if not all respects. One of the great wants of the age is a fundamental examination of false systems of Philosophy, as developed in

Vlll PREFATORY NOTE.

Materialism, and in the various forms of Idealism, as distinguished from the true system. This he has attempted, and, as it appears to him, accomplished, in the chapter on Miscellaneous Topics. The improvements made, in presenting the topic last named, will be appreciated, we think, by all who carefully read the chapter in which they appear. It has been the aim of the author to give to the public a work, on this great science, which should meet the fundamental philosophic wants of the age. As such an attempt, he commends his production to the careful study of all who would understand this science.

I close with a suggestion to teachers who may introduce this work to their pupils as a text-book. No system of questions is here proposed. Each topic has a heading, however, which gives the subject-matter therein developed. My own method of teaching has always been, to read to the class this heading, and then require the student to state, in his own words, the subject-matter contained in the topic referred to. Two benefits result to the pupil by this mode of teaching : 1. He is made to understand the subject much better than he can by any system of questions. 2. He acquires the important habit of first forming distinct conceptions of a subject before speaking, and then of clothing his thoughts in appropriate language. Much higher and more perfect forms of mental discipline are acquired by this mode of teaching, than by any other which we have ever tried.

Cleveland, Ohio, August 1854.

Contents

CHAPTER I. page

Introduction

Classification of the Sciences — Object of Mental Philosophy — What is to be expected from such Investigations — Mental Philosophy, as a Science, possible — The Method in conformity to •which Psychological Researches should be conducted — The above the only Psychological Method — Utility of this Science — State of Mind requisite to a successful prosecution of this Science , 1-12

Chapter II. Classification Of Mental Phenomena And Powers

Mental Faculties indicated by the phenomena above classified — Object of Mental Philosophy — Meaning of the words Mental Faculties 13-16

CHAPTER m.

PHENOMENA OF THE INTELLIGENCE.

Principle of Classification — Contingent and necessary Phenomena of Thought defined.

CONTENTS.

IDEAS OF BODY AND SPACE.

Idea of Body contingent — Idea of Space necessary — Other characteristics of these two Ideas — Idea of Body relative — Idea of Space absolute — Idea of Body implies that of Limitation — Idea of Space implies the absence of Limitation — Idea of Body, a sensible representation — Idea of Space a pure rational conception.

IDEAS OF SUCCESSION, AND TIME, OR DURATION. Idea of Succession contingent — The Idea of Time necessary — Other characteristics of these Ideas.

IDEAS OF THE FINITE AND OF THE INFINITE. Remarks of Locke — Characteristics of these Ideas — Idea of Finite contingent and relative ; that of the Infinite necessary and absolute.

IDEAS OF MENTAL PHENOMENA AND PERSONAL IDENTITY. Idea of Mental Phenomena contingent and relative — Idea of Personal Identity necessary — Necessary ideas distinguished as conditional and unconditional.

IDEAS OF PHENOMENA AND SUBSTANCE.

Idea of substance explained — Idea of Phenomena contingent and relative — that of Substance necessary — Our ideas of Substance not obscure, but clear and distinct.

IDEAS OF EVENTS AND CAUSE.

The idea of events contingent and relative ; that of Cause necessary — Theory of Dr. Brown and others — Observations on 'Mr. Dugald Stewart.

IDEA OF POWER.

Conclusion of the present Analysis 17-37

Chapter IV. Application Of The Preceding Analysis

LOGICAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER OF IDEAS.

Logical order — Chronological order.

PRIMARY INTELLECTUAL FACULTIES PRE-SUPPOSED BY THE

PRECEDING ANALYSIS.

These Faculties why called Primary — Also called Intuitive Faculties— Relation of Primitive Intuitive Faculties to each

CONTENTS. XI

other — Importance of the Truths above elucidated — Classification of Intellectual Phenomena given by Kant 38-46

Chapter V. Consciousness

Consciousness Defined — Self-Consciousness conditioned on Reason, but not a function of Reason — Natural, or spontaneous, and Philosophical, or reflective Consciousness — Process of classification and Generalization in Reflection, illustrated — Functions of Consciousness — Necessity of relying implicitly upon the testimony of Consciousness — Consciousness, a distinct function or faculty of the Intellect — Theory of Dr. Brown — Meaning of the term Consciousness as employed by Sir William Hamilton 47-59

Chapter VI. Sense

To be distinguished from Sensation — Spontaneous and voluntary determination of Sense — Mental process in Perception — Objects of Perception — Common and Philosophic doubts in respect to the comparative validity of the affirmations of Sense and Consciousness — The province of Philosophy — Comparative validity of the affirmations of Sense and Consciousness— True theory of external Perception — Theory verified — The above Theory verified as a truth of Science — Qualities of Matter: Primary qualities, Secundo-primary qualities, and Secondary qualities — What these qualities are in general — Representative and Presentative Knowledge — True theory of Perception stated and verified — False theories of external perception : The Scholastic Theory ; The Cosmothetic Theory, and the Idealistic Theories — Reasons for the Idealistic Theories — Objections to these Theories — Hypothesis, that all our knowledge of Matter is derived through Sensation exclusively, the main source of error in Philosophy — Explanation given by Kant and the Transcendental School generally of the fact of Sense-perception — Is color a primary or secondary quality of Matter? — Validity of our knowledge of the Non-Ego or Matter — Conclusion of the present Exposition 60-107

Xll CONTENTS.

Chapter VII. Secondary Faculties

UNDERSTANDING.

Notions Particular and General.

ELEMENTS OF WHICH NOTIONS ARE CONSTITUTED. Contingent Elements — Necessary Elements : Substance and Cause the fundamental elements of all Notions — Evolution of these Laws not Arbitrary — I. Time and Space — Errors of Kant: 1. In respect to the relation of Phenomena and Noumena to Time and Space — 2. Relation of the ideas of Time and Space to Phenomena — II. Identity^and Diversity, Resemblance and Difference — III. The idea of a Whole, as including its parts, or Parts, in reference to the Whole — Kant's Antinomy of Pure Reason — IV. The Category of Quantity — The Category of Quantity distinct from that previously considered — V. Of Quality — VI. Of Relation — VII. Of Modality — VIII. The Idea of Law — Conceptions as distinguished from Notions — A Fact often attending Perception— Mistake of Mr. Stewart — Notions and Conceptions charaterized as complete or incomplete, true or false — Mistake of Coleridge in respect to the Understanding 108-125

Chapter VIII. Faculty Of Judgment

Abstraction — Abstract Notions, what, and how formed? — General Notions, how formed.

CLASSIFICATION.

Forms of Classification — Classification, in what sense arbitrary — Genera and Species.

GENERALIZATION.

Rules in respect to Generalization — The term General sometimes used in a limited sense.

GENERAL TERMS.

Theory of the Realists — Theory of the Nominalists — Theory of the Conceptualists.

UNDERSTANDING AND JUDGMENT DISTINGUISHED. Distinction between the Understanding and Judgment verified— Observations of Kant — Relations of the Understanding and Judgment 126-138

CONTENTS. Xlll

Chapter IX. Association

Term defined — Term Association, why preferred — The Associating Principle not without law — Law of Association stated and defined — The present Hypothesis, when established as the Law of Association — A priori Argument — All the Phenomena referred to the commonly received Laws, can be explained on this Hypothesis — Phenomena exist which can be accounted for on this, and on no other Hypothesis — Those falling under the relation of Analogy — Phenomena of Dreaming — Phenomena of Somnambulism — Facts connected with particular Diseases — This Hypothesis established and illustrated, by reflecting upon the facts of Association — Argument summarily stated — Explanatory Remarks— Reasons why different objects excite similar feelings in our Minds — Application of the Principles above illustrated — Ground of the Mistake of Philosophers in respect to the Laws of Association — Action of the Associating Principle in different Individuals — Influence of Habit

— Standards of Taste and Fashion — Vicissitudes in respect to such Standards — Peculiarities of Genius associated with Judgment, or correct Taste — Influence of Writers and Speakers of splendid Genius, but incorrect Taste

— Danger of Vicious Associations — Unrighteous Prejudices, how justified — Giving Individuals a bad Name, spreading false Reports, &c. — Influence of the Associating Principle in perpetuating existing mental Characteristics 139-161

Chapter X. Memory And Recollection

Terms defined — States of Mind entering into and connected with these Processes — The above statement verified — Principle on which Objects are remembered with Ease and Distinctness— Deep and distinct Impressions, on what conditioned— Diversity of Powers of Memory, as developed in different Individuals — Philosophic Memory — Local Memory — Artificial Memory.

MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS.

A ready and retentive Memory — The vast and diverse Power of Memory possessed by different Individuals — Improvement of Memory — Memory of the Aged — Duration of Memory 161-172

XIV CONTENTS.

Chapter XI. Imagination

Definitions of distinguished Philosophers — Objections to the above Definitions — Another definition proposed — Imagination and Fancy distinguished — Another Definition of the term Fancy.

IMAGINATION AND FANCY ELUCIDATED.

Preliminary Remarks — Elucidation.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CREATIONS OF THE IMAGINATION.

1. Elements of Diverse Scenes blended into one Whole —

2. Blending the Diverse — 3. Blending Opposites — 4. Blending things in their Nature alike — 5. Combining Numbers into Unity, and dissolving and separating Unity into Number — 6. Adding to, or abstracting some Quality from, an object — 7. Blending with external objects the Feelings which they excite in us — 8. Abstracting certain Characteristics of Objects, and blending them into Harmony with some leading Idea — 9. Throwing the fleeting Thoughts, Sentiments, and Feelings, of our past Existence, into one beautiful Conception.

REMARKS ON THE PRECEDING ANALYSIS.

Remark of Coleridge.

CREATIONS OF THE IMAGINATION, WHY NOT ALWAYS FICTIONS.

Sphere of the Imagination not confined to Poetry — Law of Taste relative to the Action of the Imagination.

IMAGINATION THE OKGAN OF IDEALS.

Idea defined — Ideal defined — Ideals, Particular and General— Ideals not confined to Ideas of the Beautiful, the Grand, and the Sublime — Ideals not fixed and changeless, like Ideas — Ideals the Foundation of Mental Progress — Ideals in the Divine and Human Intelligence.

ACTION OF THE JUDGMENT RELATIVE TO THAT OF THE IMAGINATION.

Taste defined — Productions of the Imagination when not regulated by correct Judgment or good Taste.

CONTENTS. XV

PRODUCTIONS IN WHICH THE ACTION OF THE FANCY OR IMAG- INATION IS MOST CONSPICUOUS.

COMBINATIONS OF THOUGHT DENOMINATED WIT, AS DISTIN- GUISHED FROM THOSE RESULTING FROM THE PROPER AC- TlOjtf OF THE IMAGINATION OR FANCY.

Bombast — Burlesque — Sarcasm.

PROPRIETY OF USING THE IMAGINATION AND FANCY IN WORKS OF FICTION.

False idea in respect to the Influence of Familiarity with the popular Fictitious Writings of the Day — Imagination and Fancy — How improved 173-213

Chapter XII. Reason

Reason defined — Coleridge's Characteristics of Reason as distinguished from the Understanding.

Secondary Ideas of Reason — Idea of Right and Wrong.

This Idea exists in all Minds in which Reason is developed — Idea of Right and Wrong necessary — Ideas dependent on that of Right and Wrong, &c. — Chronological Antecedent to the Idea of Right and Wrong, &c.

Idea of Fitness.

This Idea synonymotis with Right and Wrong, &c.

Idea of the Useful, or the Good.

The Summum Bonum.

Relations of the Ideas of Right and Wrong, and of the Useful, to each other.

This purely a Psychological Question — Nature of Virtue — Happiness a Phenomenon of the Sensibility — Relation of Willing to Happiness — Conclusion necessarily resulting From the Facts above stated — Argument Expanded — Additional Considerations — Argument stated in view of another Example — Result of the Discussion thus far — Other important Considerations — The above Argument of Universal Application — Obligation not affirmed in view of the subjective Tendencies of Right or Wrong Willing — -Another General Consideration — Mutable Actions.

XVI CONTENTS.

Ideas of Liberty and Necessity.

Ideas defined — These Ideas Universal and Necessary — Idea of Liberty realized only in the action of the Will — Chronological Antecedents of these Ideas.

Idea of the Beautiful and Sublime.

Opinions of Philosophers — Considerations indicating the existence in the Mind of Ideas of Reason, designated by the terms Beautiful and Sublime — Objection to the Universality of these Ideas — Chronological Antecedent of these Ideas — Illustration from Cousin — Explanatory Remarks.

Idea of Harmony — Reflections.

Mind constituted according to fundamental Ideas — Poetry defined.

Idea of Truth.

Idea defined — Chronological Antecedent of this Idea.

Idea of Law.

Coleridge's Definition of Law — Law, Subjective and Objective— Conclusion from the above — Chronological Antecedent to this Idea — Apparent Mistake in respect to Law — Theory and Law distinguished — Nature of Proof — Fundamental and superficial Thinkers. '

The Philosophic Idea.

Chronological Antecedent of this Idea.

First Truths, or Necessary Principles of Reason, as distinguished from

Contingent Principles.

Contingent and Necessary Principles defined and distinguished— First Truths defined — Kind of Proof of which Necessary Ideas or Principles admit — Statement illustrated by a Reference to the Idea of God — Idea and Principle of Reason distinguished — Axioms, Postulates, and Definitions.

Idea of Science, Pure and Mixed.

Idea of Science defined — Pure Sciences — Mixed Sciences.

Function of Reason denominated Conscience. Conscience defined — General Remarks — Objection — Term Conscience as used in the Scriptures,

General Remarks pertaining to Reason.

Relation of Reason to other Intellectual Faculties — Through Reason Man is a Religious Being — Reason common to all Men — Error of Coleridge — Paralogism of Cousin — Transcendentalism— Reason, in what sense Impersonal — Reason, in what sense identical in all Men 214-269

CONTENTS. XV11

Chapter XIII. Recapitulation, With Additional Suggestions

Intellectual Faculties enumerated — Influence of the above Distinctions — Errors of Kant — Classification of the Primary Mental Faculties.

Remarks upon the Relations of Intuitions to one another. Intuitions cannot be opposed to each other — Different Intuition Faculties cannot contradict each other — The logical Consequents of no one Intuition can be in opposition to any primary Intuition, nor to the logical Consequents of the same — Error of Kant and Coleridge.

Secondary Faculties.

Understanding — The Judgment — The Associating Principle— Imagination 270-282

Chapter XIV. Spontaneous And Reflective Developments Of The Intelligence

General characteristics of all Objects of Knowledge, and of our Knowledge of the same — Distinct Apprehension conditioned on Attention — Spontaneous Development of the Intelligence— Characteristics of this Spontaneity — Characteristics Illustrated.

Additional Remarks and Illustrations.

Categories of Spontaneous and Reflective Reason — Relation of Observation and Reflection to this original Spontaneity — Confidence reposed in the first Truths of Reason, how weakened — Use of the Common Demonstrations of the Divine Existence — Conclusions arrived at by a process of Reasoning, when false — Reasons of the Diversity and Difference of the opinions of Men — Sources of Error 283-292

Chapter XV. Origin Of Ideas

The two Schools in Philosophy — Principles of Locke — Theory of Kant — Principles of Locke tested with reference tp Necessary Ideas — Principles of Locke fail in respect to 2*

XV111 CONTENTS.

Understanding-conceptions — Error of Kant — Position of Kant true in respect to Understanding -conceptions and Affirmations of the Judgment.

True Explanation.

Intuitions — Notions — The Judgment — Associating Principle and the Imagination — Scientific Movement.

Manner in which the General, Abstract, and Universal, are eliminated

from the Concrete and Particular.

General Notions — Abstract Notions — Universal and Necessary Ideas — Error of Cousin 293-304

Chapter XVI. Laws Op Investigation

Investigation and Reasoning distinguished — Substances, how known — Induction of Phenomena, for what purposes made — Induction pertaining to particular Substances — Induction for purposes of Classification into Genera and Species — Finding a General Fact, or Order of Sequence — The probable and Improbable — Order of Sequence — The Discovery of Universal Law.

Testimony.

Characteristics of the Statements made by a Witness — Circumstances which go to establish the Credibility of a Witness — Corroborating Circumstances aside from the Character of the witness — Concurrent Testimony 305-315

Chapter XVII. Reasoning

The Syllogism the universal Form of Reasoning — The above Principle verified — Forms in -which the Major Premise appears — Principles which lie at the Basis of all Conclusions from a Process of Reasoning — Remarks upon these Principles— Remarks on Aristotle's Dictum.

Different kinds of Reasoning.

Distinctions elucidated — Distinction between Demonstrative and Probable Reasoning — Common Impression in respect to the extent of Demonstrative Reasoning — Method of Proof — Real Proof found in no other Method — Sources of Fallacies in Reasoning.

CONTENTS. X13C

Conception of Logic.

All Things occur according to Rules — Logic defined — Relations of Logic to other Sciences 316-330

Chapter XVIII. Miscellaneous Topics

The bearing of the Philosophy of Locke upon Science, properly so called.

Kant's distinction between Analytical and Synthetical Judgments — Analytical and Synthetical Judgments defined and distinguished — Consequences which Kant deduced from the Judgments as defined by himself — Error of Kant in defining and applying these Distinctions.

True and False Systems of Philosophy.

Criterion or Tests by which we can distinguish the True from all False Systems — Theory of Realism : This Theory verified — Materialism : Conditions on which the Material Hypothesis can be sustained: Objections to Materialism — Systems of Idealism — Ideal Dualism : What are Realities according to this System — Remarks on this System — Subjective Idealism : System stated : Remarks upon this System — Pantheism or the System of Absolute Identity : Elements and characteristics of the system : Remarks upon this System — Pure Idealism : System stated : General Remarks upon the Systems — General Remarks upon Idealism.

Modern Transcendentalism.

Eclecticism of Cousin : System stated : Remarks upon this system — Common Sense Defined — Common Sense a standard of Truth — Philosophic Principles, why rejected by the mass of Mankind — Dictates of Common Sense, how known and distinguished — Characteristics of Men distinguished for Common Sense 331-404

Chapter XIX. The Intelligence Of Man As Distinguished From That Of The Brute

Brute Instincts classified — Manifestations of Instinctive Intelligence— Principle on which the Argument is based — Points of Resemblance between the Man and the Brute — Hypotheses on which these common Facts may be Explain-

XX CONTENTS.

ed — Points of Dissimilarity between Man and the Brute —

Facts applied — General Remarks 405-422

Chapter XX. Matter And Spirit

Principles on which the Argument is based — Principles applied— Common Objections .....423-426

Chapter XXI. Immortality Of The Soul

Preliminary Considerations — Principles on which the Argument is based — Direct Argument — Future Retributions. ..427-436

Chapter XXII. The Idea Op God

Preliminary Considerations — God the Unconditioned Cause of all that exists Conditionally — Possible Hypothesis on this subject — None but the Theistic Hypothesis can be true — The Theistic Hypothesis established as a truth of Science — Attributes necessarily implied in the idea of the Unconditioned — Attributes of the Unconditioned necessarily supposed in the facts of the Universe — Facts of Creation bearing upon our present inquiries — The Theistic Hypothesis intuitively certain from these Facts — Truth of this Hypothesis more particularly developed — Does Creation indicate the character of God as Infinite and Perfect — God, the Infinite and Perfect — This a first Truth of Reason — Reason why these elements have not yet been designated — Foundation of the conviction that God is both Infinite and Perfect — Relation of the idea of God, above elucidated, to all other ideas of Him — The idea of a system of Theology — Postulate, Axioms, &c, in Theology — Kind of Proof pertaining to each particular Attribute — This Science to be evolved in the light of the Works of God, Material and Mental, and of the teachings of Inspiration — Theology, Natural and Revealed— Difference between a Mystery and Absurdity in Theology — Absurdity defined — Mystery defined — Mystery and Absurdity defined in another form — Fundamental characteristics of a real Revelation from God — Revealed Theology defined — Defects of Method in the common systems of Theology — Use of the common Treatises on Natural Theology — Conclusion 437-476

INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY.

Chapter I. Introduction

CLASSIFICATION OF THE SCIENCES.

All substances may be classified under two general divisions, Matter and Mind. This arrangement presents a twofold division of the sciences, to wit, Material, and Mental.

OBJECT OF MENTAL PHILOSOPHY.

Mental Philosophy is the science of Mind, and of the human Mind in particular. Its object is a correct classification of the phenomena, for the purpose of a full and distinct development of the Powers, Susceptibilities, and Laws of the human Mind. This department of inquiry being completed, Mental Philosophy, as a science, then ascends to an investigation of the wide field of Moral Obligation, for the purpose of developing the extent, limits, and grounds of human responsibility.

WHAT IS TO BE EXPECTED FROM SUCH INVESTIGATIONS.

The field before us is of almost boundless extent. We are not, therefore, to expect, that any one treatise will present all 1 that may be known of the human Mind. All that I hope to accomplish, is to introduce the inquirer to the science, and give to his inquiries, in respect to it, a right direction. His own investigations will then lead him to exhaustless treasures of wisdom and knowledge.

MENTAL PHILOSOPHY, AS A SCIENCE, POSSIBLE.

Every substance in existence is known, and can be known by us, through and only through its respective phenomena. This, with us, is the changeless condition of knowledge, in respect to all realities which lie around us in the universe. Every power or substance in existence is knowable to us, so far only as we can know its phenomena. The question, then, whether Mental Philosophy is possible to us, depends wholly upon this, whether the Mind, in the action of its varied powers and susceptibilities, is so revealed to itself, that it can know its own operations or phenomena ? To this question, but one answer can be given. We are so constituted, that we have a knowledge of whatever passes in the interior of our minds. This power, or law of our Mental Faculties, explain the fact in whatever manner we please, is denominated Consciousness, which is a faithful witness of whatever passes within us. On the authority of Consciousness, all men do and must rely. Here Skepticism itself assumes the garb of positive faith : for in the language of Descartes, "let a man doubt everything else, he cannot doubt that he doubts; " and "he cannot doubt that he doubts " for this reason, that he cannot but rely, in some form or other, upon the testimony of his own Conciousness.

Not only are all things which pass within us given as phenomena of Consciousness, but we have also the power of retaining these phenomena under the eye of the mind, until we have fully resolved them into their original elements, and

INTRODUCTION. 3

marked their characteristics. This power or exercise of the mind is denominated reflection, and is conditioned on the Will. Mental Philosophy then becomes possible for the same reasons, and on the same conditions, that physical science, or Natural Philosophy is possible. Facts equally undeniable, and equally distinct and palpable, are given as the foundation of both sciences. All that is required in either instance, is, that our researches be conducted upon right principles — that we introduce into our investigations nothing but actual facts, — that these facts be correctly arranged and classified, — and that none but legitimate conclusions be drawn from them.

THE METHOD IN CONFORMITY TO WHICH PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCHES SHOULD BE CONDUCTED.

Having shown that Mental Philosophy, as a science, is possible, we will now contemplate the question in respect to the Method which should be adopted in conducting our investigations. Every philosopher commences his inquiries in conformity to a certain ideal of which he has conceived, and which he has assumed, as involving the most perfect method in conformity to which such investigations can be conducted. A remark of Cousin on this point demands special attention. " As is the method of a philosopher, so will be his system ; and the adoption of a method, decides the destiny of a philosophy." It becomes us, therefore, at the threshold of our inquiries, to stop, and with great care, determine the Method in conformity to which we are to investigate the powers, susceptibilities, and laws of the n^sterious substance before us. The following Principles I would propose as involving and announcing the true Method to be adopted :

I. We should present to cur own minds, with great distinctness, the question, what are the fads which lie at the basis of all our conclusions in respect to this science ; facts upon which all legitimate conclusions do and must rest ? They are, as all must admit, the facts which lie under the eye of Consciousness. But what are these facts ? In other words, what are the sole and exclusive objects of Consciousness? Not, surely, as Cousin observes, the " external world, or its Creator — not the substance, nature, essence, or Faculties of the soul itself." They are the soul in its manifestations — in the exercise of its various Faculties. Upon these all our conclusions in regard to the nature of these Faculties, as well as upon the nature of the soul itself, and of all other objects are based. As the sole basis of physical science, we have the phenomena of perception. As the basis of Psychology, we have the phenomena of Consciousness, and these only. As we know the mind only through its phenomena, or manifestations, so all legitimate conclusions in respect to it must be revealed and affirmed by these manifestations. Hence I remark,

2. That in pursuing our investigations according to the true Psychological Method, we shall commence with no questions in respect to the nature or essence of mind, whether it is material or immaterial, or in respect to its various powers, or functions, nor in respect to the origin of mental phenomena. All such questions are to be adjourned, until we have observed, characterized', and classified the phenomena, or operations, which noio, in our present state of mental development, lie under the eye of Consciousness. The question, in regard to the origin of mental phenomena, involves, as its foundation and starting point, a knowledge of such phenomena as they now exist. Otherwise we are inquiring after the origin of that of the nature of which we are profoundly ignorant. So also, if, before we have attained this knowledge, we study and attempt the resolution of questions pertaining to the nature or essence of the mind, or in respect to its Faculties, we violate

INTRODUCTION. O

the fundamental law of all correct philosophizing, to wit : that substances are known and are to be studied only through their phenomena. The true Psychological Method does not neglect any legitimate questions in respect to ontology, or the origin of mental phenomena. It simply adjourns these, till another preliminary department of inquiry has been completed.

In pursuing our inquiries in respect to mental phenomena, and in respect to the characteristics of particular phenomena, two rules of fundamental importance present themselves, — to wit : Suppose or assume, as real, nothing which does not exist — and omit, or disregard, nothing which does exist.

3. The phenomena which lie under the eye of Consciousness clearly indicate a diversity of mental powers, or functions. In conformity to the true Psychological Method, a fundamental aim of the Mental Philosopher will be, to adopt those principles of classification by which these different powers or functions shall be distinctly revealed to the Mind. Two self-evident principles will guide him in determining the different powers or functions of the Mind. 1. Phenomena, in their fundamental characteristics alike, are to be attributed to one and the same Faculty. 2. Phenomena, in their fundamental characteristics unlike, suppose a diversity of powers or functions. Hence the vast importance of classification with exclusive reference to fundamental characteristics.

4. Amid the endlessly diversified phenomena of Consciousness, there are, in the depths of the Mind, particular phenomena, which reveal the Laics which govern the action of the different mental powers. One of the principal aims of the Mental Philosopher, in conformity to a correct Psychological Method, will be, to fix upon, and develope those facts, or phenomena, by which the Laics of thought, feeling, and action, are revealed. No department of inquiry in the

1* wide field of Mental Science is of greater importance than this.

5. Having, by careful reflection, and in conformity to correct principles, ascertained, classified, and arranged the phenomena of the Mind, as they now lie under the eye of Consciousness, a correct Psychological Method would then lead us to move the important questions pertaining to the origin of these phenomena, to Ontology, and to the nature, extent, limits, and grounds of Moral Obligation. This completes the circle of investigations in the wide domain of Mental Science. Much will be done for Philosophy, if this circle is completed according to the method above developed.