The Influence of Sea Power upon History

Preface

Introductory

Chapter I: Discussion of the Elements of Sea Power.

History of Sea Power one of contest between nations, therefore largely military

Permanence of the teachings of history

Unsettled condition of modern naval opinion

Contrasts between historical classes of war-ships

Essential distinction between weather and lee gage

Analogous to other offensive and defensive positions

Consequent effect upon naval policy

Lessons of history apply especially to strategy

Less obviously to tactics, but still applicable

Naval strategic combinations surer now than formerly

Wide scope of naval strategy

Chapter II: State of Europe in 1660. Second Anglo-Dutch War, 1665-1667. Sea Battles of Lowestoft and of the Four Days.

The sea a great common

Advantages of water-carriage over that by land

Navies exist for the protection of commerce

Dependence of commerce upon secure seaports

Development of colonies and colonial posts

Links in the chain of Sea Power: production, shipping, colonies

General conditions affecting Sea Power:

I. Geographical position

II. Physical conformation

III. Extent of territory

IV. Number of population

V. National character

VI. Character and policy of governments

England

Holland

France

Influence of colonies on Sea Power

The United States:

Its weakness in Sea Power

Its chief interest in internal development

Danger from blockades

Dependence of the navy upon the shipping interest

Conclusion of the discussion of the elements of Sea Power

Purpose of the historical narrative

Chapter III: War of England and France in Alliance Against the United Provinces, 1672-1674.--Finally, of France Against Combined Europe, 1674-1678.--Sea Battles of Solebay, the Texel, and Stromboli.

Accession of Charles II. and Louis XIV

Followed shortly by general wars

French policy formulated by Henry IV. and Richelieu

Condition of France in 1660

Condition of Spain

Condition of the Dutch United Provinces

Their commerce and colonies

Character of their government

Parties in the State

Condition of England in 1660

Characteristics of French, English, and Dutch ships

Conditions of other European States

Louis XIV. The leading personality in Europe

His policy

Colbert's administrative acts

Second Anglo-Dutch War, 1665

Battle of Lowestoft, 1665

Fire-ships, compared with torpedo-cruisers

The group formation

The order of battle for sailing-ships

The Four Days' Battle, 1666

Military merits of the opposing fleets

Soldiers commanding fleets, discussion

Ruyter in the Thames, 1667

Peace of Breda, 1667

Military value of commerce-destroying

Chapter IV: English Revolution. War of the League of Augsburg, 1688-1697. Sea Battles of Beachy Head and La Hougue.

Aggressions of Louis XIV. on Spanish Netherlands

Policy of the United Provinces

Triple alliance between England, Holland, and Sweden

Anger of Louis XIV

Leibnitz proposes to Louis to seize Egypt

His memorial

Bargaining between Louis XIV. and Charles II.

The two kings declare war against the United Provinces

Military character of this war

Naval strategy of the Dutch

Tactical combinations of De Ruyter

Inefficiency of Dutch naval administration

Battle of Solebay, 1672

Tactical comments

Effect of the battle on the course of the war

Land campaign of the French in Holland

Murder of John De Witt, Grand Pensionary of Holland

Accession to power of William of Orange

Uneasiness among European States

Naval battles off Schoneveldt, 1673

Naval battle of the Texel, 1673

Effect upon the general war

Equivocal action of the French fleet

General ineffectiveness of maritime coalitions

Military character of De Ruyter

Coalition against France

Peace between England and the United Provinces

Sicilian revolt against Spain

Battle of Stromboli, 1676

Illustration of Clerk's naval tactics

De Ruyter killed off Agosta

England becomes hostile to France

Sufferings of the United Provinces

Peace of Nimeguen, 1678

Effects of the war on France and Holland

Notice of Comte D'Estrees

Chapter V: War of the Spanish Succession, 1702-1713. Sea Battle of Malaga.

Failure of the Spanish line of the House of Austria

King of Spain wills the succession to the Duke of Anjou

Death of the King of Spain

Louis XIV. accepts the bequests

He seizes towns in Spanish Netherlands

Offensive alliance between England, Holland, and Austria

Declarations of war

The allies proclaim Carlos III. King of Spain

Affair of the Vigo galleons

Portugal joins the allies

Character of the naval warfare

Capture of Gibraltar by the English

Naval battle of Malaga, 1704

Decay of the French navy

Progress of the land war

Allies seize Sardinia and Minorca

Disgrace of Marlborough

England offers terms of peace

Peace of Utrecht, 1713

Terms of the peace

Results of the war to the different belligerents

Commanding position of Great Britain

Sea Power dependent upon both commerce and naval strength

Peculiar position of France as regards Sea Power

Depressed condition of France

Commercial prosperity of England

Ineffectiveness of commerce-destroying

Duguay-Trouin's expedition against Rio de Janeiro, 1711

War between Russia and Sweden

Chapter VI: The Regency in France. Alberoni in Spain. Policies of Walpole and Fleuri. War of the Polish Succession. English Contraband Trade in Spanish America. Great Britain Declares War Against Spain, 1715-1739.

Death of Queen Anne and Louis XIV

Accession of George I

Regency of Philip of Orleans

Administration of Alberoni in Spain

Spaniards invade Sardinia

Alliance of Austria, England, Holland, and France

Spaniards invade Sicily

Destruction of Spanish navy off Cape Passaro, 1718

Failure and dismissal of Alberoni

Spain accepts terms

Great Britain interferes in the Baltic

Death of Philip of Orleans

Administration of Fleuri in France

Growth of French commerce

France in the East Indies

Troubles between England and Spain

English contraband trade in Spanish America

Illegal search of English ships

Walpole's struggles to preserve peace

War of the Polish Succession

Creation of the Bourbon kingdom of the Two Sicilies

Bourbon family compact

France acquires Bar and Lorraine

England declares war against Spain

Morality of the English action toward Spain

Decay of the French navy

Death of Walpole and of Fleuri

Chapter VII: War Between Great Britain and Spain, 1739. War of the Austrian Succession, 1740. France Joins Spain Against Great Britain, 1744. Sea Battles of Matthews, Anson, and Hawke. Peace of Aix-La-Chapelle, 1748.

Characteristics of the wars from 1739 to 1783

Neglect of the navy by French government

Colonial possessions of the French, English, and Spaniards

Dupleix and La Bourdonnais in India

Condition of the contending navies

Expeditions of Vernon and Anson

Outbreak of the War of the Austrian Succession

England allies herself to Austria

Naval affairs in the Mediterranean

Influence of Sea Power on the war

Naval battle off Toulon, 1744

Causes of English failure

Courts-martial following the action

Inefficient action of English navy

Capture of Louisburg by New England colonists, 1745

Causes which concurred to neutralize England's Sea Power

France overruns Belgium and invades Holland

Naval actions of Anson and Hawke

Brilliant defence of Commodore l'Etenduere

Projects of Dupleix and La Bourdonnais in the East Indies

Influence of Sea Power in Indian affairs

La Bourdonnais reduces Madras

Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748

Madras exchanged for Louisburg

Results of the war

Effect of Sea Power on the issue

Chapter VIII: Seven Years' War, 1756-1763. England's Overwhelming Power and Conquests on the Seas, in North America, Europe, and East and West Indies. Sea Battles: Byng off Minorca; Hawke and Conflans; Pocock and D'Ache in East Indies.

Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle leaves many questions unsettled

Dupleix pursues his aggressive policy

He is recalled from India

His policy abandoned by the French

Agitation in North America

Braddock's expedition, 1755

Seizure of French ships by the English, while at peace

French expedition against Port Mahon, 1756

Byng sails to relieve the place

Byng's action off Port Mahon, 1756

Characteristics of the French naval policy

Byng returns to Gibraltar

He is relieved, tried by court-martial, and shot

Formal declarations of war by England and France

England's appreciation of the maritime character of the war

France is drawn into a continental struggle

The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) begins

Pitt becomes Prime Minister of England

Operations in North America

Fall of Louisburg, 1758

Fall of Quebec, 1759, and of Montreal, 1760

Influence of Sea Power on the continental war

English plans for the general naval operations

Choiseul becomes Minister in France

He plans an invasion of England

Sailing of the Toulon fleet, 1759

Its disastrous encounter with Boscawen

Consequent frustration of the invasion of England

Project to invade Scotland

Sailing of the Brest fleet

Hawke falls in with it and disperses it, 1759

Accession of Charles III. To Spanish throne

Death of George II

Clive in India

Battle of Plassey, 1757

Decisive influence of Sea Power upon the issues in India

Naval actions between Pocock and D'Ache', 1758, 1759

Destitute condition of French naval stations in India

The French fleet abandons the struggle

Final fall of the French power in India

Ruined condition of the French navy

Alliance between France and Spain

England declares war against Spain

Rapid conquest of French and Spanish colonies

French and Spaniards invade Portugal

The invasion repelled by England

Severe reverses of the Spaniards in all quarters

Spain sues for peace

Losses of British mercantile shipping

Increase of British commerce

Commanding position of Great Britain

Relations of England and Portugal

Terms of the Treaty of Paris

Opposition to the treaty in Great Britain

Results of the maritime war

Results of the continental war

Influence of Sea Power in countries politically unstable

Interest of the United States in the Central American Isthmus

Effects of the Seven Years' War on the later history of Great Britain

Subsequent acquisitions of Great Britain

British success due to maritime superiority

Mutual dependence of seaports and fleets

Chapter IX: Course of Events from the Peace of Paris to 1778. Maritime War Consequent upon the American Revolution. Battle off Ushant.

French discontent with the Treaty of Paris

Revival of the French navy

Discipline among French naval officers of the time

Choiseul's foreign policy

Domestic troubles in Great Britain

Controversies with the North American colonies

Genoa cedes Corsica to France

Dispute between England and Spain about the Falkland Islands

Choiseul dismissed

Death of Louis XV

Naval policy of Louis XVI

Characteristics of the maritime war of 1778

Instructions of Louis XVI. To the French admirals

Strength of English navy

Characteristics of the military situation in America

The line of the Hudson

Burgoyne's expedition from Canada

Howe carries his army from New York to the Chesapeake

Surrender of Burgoyne, 1777

American privateering

Clandestine support of the Americans by France

Treaty between France and the Americans

Vital importance of the French fleet to the Americans

The military situation in the different quarters of the globe

Breach between France and England

Sailing of the British and French fleets

Battle of Ushant, 1778

Position of a naval commander-in-chief in battle

Chapter X: Maritime War in North America and West Indies, 1778-1781. Its Influence upon the Course of the American Revolution. Fleet Actions off Grenada, Dominica, and Chesapeake Bay.

D'Estaing sails from Toulon for Delaware Bay, 1778

British ordered to evacuate Philadelphia

Rapidity of Lord Howe's movements

D'Estaing arrives too late

Follows Howe to New York

Fails to attack there and sails for Newport

Howe follows him there

Both fleets dispersed by a storm

D'Estaing takes his fleet to Boston

Howe's activity foils D'Estaing at all points

D'Estaing sails for the West Indies

The English seize Sta. Lucia

Ineffectual attempts of D'Estaing to dislodge them

D'Estaing captures Grenada

Naval battle of Grenada, 1779; English ships crippled

D'Estaing fails to improve his advantages

Reasons for his neglect

French naval policy

English operations in the Southern States

D'Estaing takes his fleet to Savannah

His fruitless assault on Savannah

D'Estaing returns to France

Fall of Charleston

De Guichen takes command in the West Indies

Rodney arrives to command English fleet

His military character

First action between Rodney and De Guichen, 1780

Breaking the line

Subsequent movements of Rodney and De Guichen

Rodney divides his fleet

Goes in person to New York

De Guichen returns to France

Arrival of French forces in Newport

Rodney returns to the West Indies

War between England and Holland

Disasters to the United States in 1780

De Grasse sails from Brest for the West Indies, 1781

Engagement with English fleet off Martinique.

Cornwallis overruns the Southern States

He retires upon Wilmington, N. C., and thence to Virginia

Arnold on the James River

The French fleet leaves Newport to intercept Arnold

Meets the English fleet off the Chesapeake, 1781

French fleet returns to Newport

Cornwallis occupies Yorktown

De Grasse sails from Hayti for the Chesapeake

Action with the British fleet, 1781

Surrender of Cornwallis, 1781

Criticism of the British naval operations

Energy and address shown by De Grasse

Difficulties of Great Britain's position in the war of 1778.

The military policy best fitted to cope with them

Position of the French squadron in Newport, R. I., 1780.

Great Britain's defensive position and inferior numbers.

Consequent necessity for a vigorous initiative

Washington's opinions as to the influence of Sea Power on the American contest

Chapter XI: Maritime War in Europe, 1779-1782.

Objectives of the allied operations in Europe

Spain declares war against England

Allied fleets enter the English Channel, 1779

Abortive issue of the cruise

Rodney sails with supplies for Gibraltar

Defeats the Spanish squadron of Langara and relieves the place

The allies capture a great British convoy

The armed neutrality of the Baltic powers, 1780

England declares war against Holland

Gibraltar is revictualled by Admiral Derby

The allied fleets again in the Channel, 1781

They retire without effecting any damage to England

Destruction of a French convoy for the West Indies

Fall of Port Mahon, 1782

The allied fleets assemble at Algesiras

Grand attack of the allies on Gibraltar, which fails, 1782

Lord Howe succeeds in revictualling Gibraltar

Action between his fleet and that of the allies

Conduct of the war of 1778 by the English government

Influence of Sea Power

Proper use of the naval force

Chapter XII: Events in the East Indies, 1778-1781. Suffren Sails from Brest for India, 1781. His Brilliant Naval Campaign in the Indian Seas, 1782, 1783.

Neglect of India by the French government

England at war with Mysore and with the Mahrattas

Arrival of the French squadron under Comte d'Orves

It effects nothing and returns to the Isle of France

Suffren sails from Brest with five ships-of-the-line, 1781

Attacks an English squadron in the Cape Verde Islands, 1781

Conduct and results of this attack

Distinguishing merits of Suffren as a naval leader

Suffren saves the Cape Colony from the English

He reaches the Isle of France

Succeeds to the chief command of the French fleet

Meets the British squadron under Hughes at Madras

Analysis of the naval strategic situation in India

The first battle between Suffren and Hughes, Feb. 17, 1782

Suffren's views of the naval situation in India

Tactical oversights made by Suffren

Inadequate support received by him from his captains

Suffren goes to Pondicherry, Hughes to Trincomalee

The second battle between Suffren and Hughes, April 12, 1782

Suffren's tactics in the action

Relative injuries received by the opposing fleets

Contemporaneous English criticisms upon Hughes's conduct

Destitute condition of Suffren's fleet

His activity and success in supplying wants

He communicates with Hyder Ali, Sultan of Mysore

Firmness and insight shown by Suffren

His refusal to obey orders from home to leave the Indian Coast

The third battle between Suffren and Hughes, July 6, 1782

Qualities shown by Hughes

Stubborn fighting by the British admiral and captains

Suffren deprives three captains of their commands

Dilatory conduct of Admiral Hughes

Suffren attacks and takes Trincomalee

Strategic importance of this success

Comparative condition of the two fleets in material for repairs

The English government despatches powerful reinforcements

The French court fails to support Suffren

The fourth battle between Suffren and Hughes, Sept. 3, 1782

Mismanagement and injuries of the French

Contrast between the captains in the opposing fleets

Two ships of Suffren's fleet grounded and lost

Arrival of British reinforcements under Admiral Bickerton

Approach of bad-weather season; Hughes goes to Bombay

Military situation of French and English in India

Delays of the French reinforcements under Bussy

Suffren takes his fleet to Achem, in Sumatra

He returns to the Indian coast

Arrival of Bussy

Decline of the French power on shore

The English besiege Bussy in Cuddalore by land and sea

Suffren relieves the place

The fifth battle between Suffren and Hughes, June 20, 1783

Decisive character of Suffren's action

News of the peace received at Madras

Suffren sails for France

His flattering reception everywhere

His distinguishing military qualities

His later career and death

Chapter XIII: Events in the West Indies after the Surrender of Yorktown. Encounters of De Grasse with Hood. The Sea Battle of the Saints. 1781-1782.

Maritime struggle transferred from the continent to West Indies

De Grasse sails for the islands

French expedition against the island of St. Christopher, January, 1782

Hood attempts to relieve the garrison

Manoeuvres of the two fleets

Action between De Grasse and Hood

Hood seizes the anchorage left by De Grasse

De Grasse attacks Hood at his anchorage

Hood maintains his position

Surrender of the garrison and island

Merits of Hood's action

Criticism upon De Grasse's conduct

Rodney arrives in West Indies from England

Junction of Rodney and Hood at Antigua

De Grasse returns to Martinique

Allied plans to capture Jamaica

Rodney takes his station at Sta. Lucia

The French fleet sails and is pursued by Rodney

Action of April 9, 1782

Criticism upon the action

The chase continued; accidents to French ships

The naval battle of the Saints, April 12, 1782

Rodney breaks the French line

Capture of the French commander-in-chief and five ships-of-the-line

Details of the action

Analysis of the effects of Rodney's manoeuvre

Tactical bearing of improvements in naval equipment

Lessons of this short naval campaign

Rodney's failure to pursue the French fleet

Examination of his reasons and of the actual conditions

Probable effect of this failure upon the conditions of peace

Rodney's opinions upon the battle of April 12

Successes achieved by Rodney during his command

He is recalled by a new ministry

Exaggerated view of the effects of this battle upon the war

Subsequent career of De Grasse

Court-martial ordered upon the officers of the French fleet

Findings of the court

De Grasse appeals against the finding

He is severely rebuked by the king

Deaths of De Grasse, Rodney, and Hood

Chapter XIV: Critical Discussion of the Maritime War of 1778.

The war of 1778 purely maritime

Peculiar interest therefore attaching to it

Successive steps in the critical study of a war

Distinction between "object" and "objective"

Parties to the war of 1778

Objects of the different belligerents

Foundations of the British Empire of the seas

Threatened by the revolt of the colonies

The British fleet inferior in numbers to the allies

Choice of objectives

The fleets indicated as the keys of the situation everywhere

Elements essential to an active naval war

The bases of operations in the war of 1778

In Europe

On the American continent

In the West Indies

In the East Indies

Strategic bearing of the trade-winds and monsoons

The bases abroad generally deficient in resources

Consequent increased importance of the communications

The navies the guardians of the communications

Need of intermediate ports between Europe and India

Inquiry into the disposition of the naval forces

Difficulty of obtaining information at sea

Perplexity as to the destination of a naval expedition

Disadvantages of the defensive

England upon the defensive in 1778

Consequent necessity for wise and vigorous action

The key of the situation

British naval policy in the Napoleonic wars

British naval policy in the Seven Years' War

Difficulties attending this policy

Disposition of the British navy in the war of 1778

Resulting inferiority on many critical occasions

Effect oil the navy of the failure to fortify naval bases

The distribution of the British navy exposes it to being out-numbered at many points

The British naval policy in 1778 and in other wars compared

Naval policy of the allies

Dives-gent counsels of the coalition

"Ulterior objects"