The making of England

Preface

The present work is only a partial realization of an old-standing project of mine, for it is now some ten or twelve years since I made collections for, and actually began, a history of England up to the Norman Conquest. This work, however, was interrupted by the preparation of my Short History, and has since been further delayed by my revision and expansion of that work ; and, now that my hands are free, the state of my health forbids my carrying out this earlier plan in its full extent. I have thought it better, therefore, to gather up. and complete what I could of the history of the earlier times up to the union of England under Ecgberht; and this the more because these years form a distinct period in our national history whose interest and importance have, I think, still to be fully recognized. They form, in fact, the period of the Making of England — the age during which our fathers conquered and settled over the soil of Britain, and in which their political and social life took the form which it still retains. The centuries of administrative organization which vi PREFACE.

stretch from Ecgberht to Edward the First, the age of full national development which extends from Edward's day to our own, only become fully intelligible to us when we have fully grasped this age of national formation. I cannot but feel, therefore, that it is no slight misfortune that such a period should remain comparatively unknown ; and that its struggles, which were in reality the birth-throes of our national life, should be still to most Englishmen, as they were to Milton, mere battles of kites and of crows. Whether I have succeeded in setting these struggles in a truer and a more interesting light, my readers must decide. The remoteness of the events, the comparative paucity of historical materials, no doubt make such an undertaking at the best a hazardous one ; and one of the wisest of my friends, who is, at the same time, the greatest living authority on our early history, warned me at the outset against the attempt to construct a living portraiture of times which so many previous historians, themselves men of learning and ability, had left dead. Perhaps it is my own vivid interest in the subject which has encouraged me, in spite of such a warning, to attempt to convey its interest to others. In doing so, however, I have largely availed myself of some resources which have been hitherto, I think, unduly neglected. Archaeological researches on the sites of villas and towns, or along the line of road or dyke, often furnish us with evidence even more trustworthy than that of written chronicle; while the ground itself,

PREFACE.

Vll where we can read the information it affords, is, whether in the history of the Conquest or of the Settlement of Britain, the fullest and the most certain of documents. Physical geography has still its part to play in the written record of that human history to which it gives so much of its shape and form ; and in the present work I have striven, however imperfectly, to avail myself of its aid.

I may add, in explanation of the reappearance of a few passages, relating principally to ecclesiastical matters, which my readers may have seen before, that where I had little or nothing to add or to change I have preferred to insert a passage from previous work, with the requisite corrections and references, to the affectation of rewriting such a passage for the mere sake of giving it an air of novelty.

John Richard Green.

Introduction

BRITAIN AND ITS FOES.

A.D. • PAGE

Britain Fortunate in .the Moment of its Conquest 1,2

Rapidity of its Organization and Development 2, 3

Shown in its Roads and its Towns 3, 4

But this Civilization of Little Depth 5

Britain indeed little more than a Military Colony 6

Its Civilization Hindered by the Physical Character of the Country . 7, 8

Its Downs ... . . 9

Its Waste and Fen ,,,,....... 10

Its Woodlands , , , , ■ . 1 1

Effect of this on the Provincials .12

Probable Severances between the Romanized and Un-Romanized Provincials . . . . . . . . " . . • 13

This Heightened by Misgovernment and Disaffection .... 14

The Severance perhaps Accounts for the Success of the Pictish Inroads 14, 15 While Picts Attack by Land, Scots and Saxons Attack by Sea . . 15

The Pirate-boats of the Saxons 16

Letter of Sidonius Describing their Piracy 16,17

, Their Work mainly Slave-hunting . . . . . . .17

Effect of their Presence in the Channel . ... . . , ... 18,19

Creation of the Saxon Shore 19, 20

Fortresses of the Saxon Shore . 20

The Roman Troops Strong Enough to Guard Britain to the Last . . 21

Withdrawal of "the Roman Troops ' 21,22

The Province Defends itself for Thirty Years . . . . 23, 24

But at Last Strives to Divide its Foes by Calling in Pirates against the

CHAPTER I. THE CONQUEST OF THE SAXON SHORE. 449-r. 500

449. Three Jutish Keels Land in Thanet 26

Their Landing-place at Ebbsfleet . . .' . . ". .28

Their Encampment in Thanet 29

The Jutes Aid the Britons ... . . . . . • 31 x CONTENTS.

Quarrel between Jutes and Britons 31

Obstacles in the Way of Jutish Attack . 32

Their Sack of Durovernum 33

March on the Medvvay Valley 33

455. Battle of Aylesford 34

457. Battle of the Cray Drives Britons to London 35

Revolution in Britain under Aurelius Ambrosianus .... 36

Aurelius Drives Back the Jutes into Thanet 36

The Fortress ofRichborough 36

465. The Final Overthrow of*the Britons at Wipped's-fieet .... 37

465-473. Conquest of the Rest of the Caint 37,38

The Jutes Forced to Halt by Physical Obstacles 38

Descents of the Saxons on either Flank of the Caint . . . 38,39

477. Saxon War-bands under JEUa. Land at Selsea 40

477-491. The Coast slowly Won by these South Sexe 41

491. Siege of Anderida 41

Roman Life here as Shown in Villa at Bignor ..... 43

Descents of Saxons in District North of the Thames .... 44

Fall of Camulodunum 45

Character of the Settlement of these East Sexe 45

Barriers which Prevent their Advance into the Island .... 47

4f;0. Landing of the Engle . -47

Their German Home-land .48

Their Conquest of East Anglia 49

Settlement of the North-folk and South-folk 50

Probably Refrained from Attacking Central Britain . . . 51

Their Settlement Completes the Conquest of the Saxon Shore . . 52

CHAPTER II. CONQUESTS OF THE ENGLE. c. 500-r. 570

The Bulk of Britain still Guarded by Strong Natural Barriers . 53, 54

The Engle Stretch Northward along the Coast 54

e. 500. They Conquer the District about Lindum 55

Settlement of the Lindiswara 56

Other Engle Seize Holderness 56

And Establish a Kingdom of the Deirans in the Wolds and District

round 58

Eboracum 58, 59

500-520. Fall of Eboracum 60

Conquest of the Plain of the Ouse , .61

Conquest of Eastern and Western Yorkshire ..... 62, 63

Flight of the Britons Shown in Remains at Settle 64

Attack of the Engle still further North . . . . . . .65

The Roman Wall .66

Little Permanent Change Wrought by Pictish Inroads . . . 67, 68

500-547. Conquest and Settlement of the Engle in the Basin of the Tweed . 68, 69

CONTENTS. xi

547. Ida Sets Up the Kingdom of the Bernicians at Bamborough . . . 69

iil-c. 580. Slow Advance of these Bernicians from the Coast 70

The Engle in the Valley of the Trent 72

Physical Character of the Trent Valley 72

Descent of the Engle from Lindum 73

The Snottingas Settle on the Edge of Sherwood . . . . -75

The Bulk of the Engle Follow the Fosse Road to the Valley of the Soar 76

550. Fall of Ratse and Settlement of the Middle Engle 76

Meanwhile the Gyrwas Break in on the Towns around the Wash . . 77 Their Two Tribes, the North and South Gyrwas .... 78, 79

The Engle Attack our Northamptonshire 79

Its Physical Character at this Time 80

Settlement of the South Engle 80

c. 560. Advance of the West Engle 81

The Pec-ssetan Settle in our Derbyshire ( 81

The Rest of the West Engle in our Staffordshire 82

The West Engle become Known as Mercians, or Men of the March . 82

CHAPTER III. CONQUESTS OF THE SAXONS, c. 500-577

Character of British Coast to the Westward of Sussex ....?''

The Estuary of the Southampton Water Leads up to Gwent ... 84

495-514. Attempts of Saxons Known as Gewissas to Penetrate by this Estuary . 84

519. Conquest of the Gwent in Battle of Charford 85

519. Cerdic and Cynric become Kings of the West Saxons .... 85

520. Gewissas Repulsed by Britons at Mount Badon 86

530. Conquest of the Isle of Wight, and Settlement of Jutes in it . . .87

520-552. Long Pause in West-Saxon Advance . 87

Physical Barriers that Arrested them 88

552. Cynric again Advances to the West 88

552. Fall of Sorbiodunum 89

552-556. Settlement of the Wil-sastan 90

556. Victory of the West Saxons at Barbury Hill Makes them Masters of the

Marlborough Downs j ... 91

Conquest of our Berkshire 92

Britain now Open to the West Saxons 93

They are Able to Advance along the Upper Thames .... 93 Obstacles which had till now Prevented the English Advance from the

Mouth of the Thames 94

The Water-way Blocked by the Fortress of London .... 95 Original Character of the Ground about London .... 95~97

London not a British Town 97

Its Site the Centre of a Vast Solitude. 98

Its Rapid Growth under the Romans 99, 100

Its Importance as the Centre of their Road System . . . .101 Stages of its Growth 101,102 x[[ CONTENTS.

. Its Later Greatness 102

.It long Resists Successfully the East Saxons and the Jutes of Kent . 103

Advance of the East Saxons on our Hertfordshire 104

540-560. Fall of Verulamium . . - 105

Settlement of the Middle Saxons . 106

Growth of Kent since its Conquest 107, 108

568. The Fall of London Sets the Jutes Free to Advance to the West . . 109 Meanwhile the West Saxons are Advancing on the Same Tract from

the West 109

Their Road Open to them by the Fall of Calleva . . . . 110,111

Their Advance along the Thames Valley 112

568. They Meet and Defeat the Jutes at Wimbledon . . . . . 113

Settlement of the West Saxons in our Surrey 114

The District of the Four Towns 114-116

The Icknield Way Guides the West Saxons to it . . . . . 117

They Cross the Thames at Wallingford 119

571. Cufhwulf's Victory at Bedford 119

West Saxons Occupy the District of the Four Towns .... 120 The Close of their Advance to the North probably Due to the Presence

of the Engle in Mid-Britain 121

577. They Attack the Severn Valley 122

League of the Three Towns against them . . . . . . 123

577. Their Victory at Deorham 124

Their Settlement as the Hwiccas along the Lower Severn, on the Cotswolds, and by the Avon 125, 126

Chapter IV. The Settlement Of The Conquerors

At the Battle of Deorham Half Britain has become English . . . 127 Henceforth the Work of the English is that of Settlement rather than

Conquest 127, 128

Character of the Settlement Determined by that of the Conquest . . 128 Characteristics of the Conquest—

. (1) The Weakness of the Attack 128

(2) Stubbornness of the Defence ...... 129

(3) Nature of the Conquered Country 129

Hence the Slowness of the Conquest and the Driving-off of the Conquered People 130

The Britons, not Slaughtered, but Driven Off . . . . . .131

Proofs of this Displacement —

(1) The New Inhabitants Know themselves only as English-

men 133

(2) The Unconquered Britons Know them only as Strangers . 133

(3) Evidence of Local and Personal Names . . . . 134

(4) Evidence of Language ... . . . . . 135

CONTENTS. xiii

PAtSE

. (5) Evidence of Changed Institutions " . . . . 136

= (6) Evidence Drawn from Destruction of Towns . . . 137 (7) Evidence Drawn from the Change of Religion . . 138,139 But Roman Britain still Influenced the New England —

(1) It Gave it its Limits . . . . . . . 140

. (2) It Determined the Bounds of Kingdoms and Tribes . 141, 142 , (3) It Influenced the Social Settlement ... . . . 142

But in all Other Ways Roman Life Disappeared . . . . . 143

The Change Shown in the Conquest of Kent . . ... 143

. (1) The Caintin Roman Times . . . .... 144

,(2) The Caint after the Jutish Conquest . . . . 145,146

The New English Society that Sprang up on this Ruin . . . 147, 148 The Slowness of the Conquest Allows the Transfer of the Whole English,Life . 149

The Settlement that of.Numerous Separate Folks . . . . . 151

Traces of such Folks in Kent . . . . . . . . . ;. r5 r

But Early Fusion sof such Fglks in Three Great Kingdoms . . 152,153 And Recognition by the Three Kingdoms of a National Unity . <, 153 Character of.the English Civilization ........ . . . 154

(1) The Saxons Long in Contact with Rome . ... . 154

(2) Their Early Art 155

(6) Its Weak Hold on the Settlers 162, 163

(7) Their Military Life 164, 165

The Folk itself. Its Shape Drawn from War .... 166, 167

(1) The Host . 167

(2) The Military Organization Shapes the Civil Organization . 169

(3) The Hundred-moot and Folk-moot .... 170, 171

(4) The King. 172

(5) Eorl and Ceorl . . . 173

The English Township . , 175, 176

. (1) .Its Boundaries 177,178

. (2) .The Freeman's Home 178

. (3) The Farm and its Labor 180, 181

. (4)JThe1BondofttieKin . . . . , . . .^182,183 . (5) .The. Common Holding of Land . . . . .i '. 184

Chapter V. The Strife Of The Conquerors. 577-617

Change of Relations between Conquerors and Conquered . .' . 189 Early Severance "between the Two Races - . r ■ -.......'. . . '.\ .190 xiv CONTENTS.

Shown in the Story of Beino . 190,191

This Passes Away with the Battle of Deorham 192

The Britons no longer Driven from the Soil 192

Their Increasing Numbers as the Conquest Spreads Westward . . 193 Change, too, in Relations of the Conquerors themselves . . 193, 194

They Divide into Greater and Lesser Powers 195

After-history a Strife of the Greater Powers for Supremacy . . . 195 The West Saxons under Ceawlin the Leading English Power . 195, 196

583. Ceawlin's March on the Upper Severn Valley 198

Storm of Uriconium 199

Ceawlin Defeated at Faddiley . 200

Rising of the Hwiccas Throws Ceawlin Back on the Older Wessex . 201

591. Ceawlin Defeated at Wanborough 202

Internal Troubles of the West Saxons 202

iEthelberht of Kent Seizes the Opportunity 203

r. 584-589. His Marriage with Bertha 204

Canterbury 205

Before 597. yEthelberht's Supremacy 206

Its Limits 207

Before 588. War between Bernicians and Deirans 208

585-588. Gregory and the English Slaves at Rome 210

588. Death of JElla. 211

588. Conquest of Deira by the Bernician King ^Ethelric . . . .211

The Union of the Two Kingdoms in Northumbria 211

The Three Great Kingdoms fairly Established 212

593. yEthelfrith Succeeds iEthelric as King of Northumbria . . . . 212

597. Roman Mission to the English under Augustine 213

iEthelberht Receives the Missionaries in Thanet 213

They Settle at Canterbury 214

Future Issues of their Coming 215

597. Conversion of iEthelberht and his People 216

601. Gregory's Plan for the Ecclesiastical Organization of Britain . . 216, 217

Augustine's Interview with the Welsh Clergy 217

Condition of the Britons at this Time 218

The Stubbornness of their Resistance 218,219

Disorganization of What Remained of Britain .... 219,220

Rejection of Augustine by the British Clergy 221

Consolidation of the British States 222

Its Result a Revival of the British Strength 223

Alliance of Northern Britons with the Scots 224

603. Their Force Crushed by ^Ethelfrith in the Battle of Daegsastan . . 225 Northumbrian Supremacy Established over Northern Britons . 225, 226 iEthelberht at last Resolves to Carry Out Gregory's Scheme . 226, 227

604. Establishment of Bishop at Rochester 228

604. Bishop Set over the East Saxons at London . . . . . 228, 229

Raedwald, King of East Anglians, Baptized at ^Ethelberht's Court . 229

The East Anglians Reject Christianity 230

?607. Fall of ^Ethelberht's Supremacy 230

CONTENTS. XV

Rsedwald Establishes a Supremacy over Mid-Britain .... 230

This Revolution Aided by the Troubles of the West Saxons . . 231

And by ^Ethelfrith's Embarrassments with the House of JEUa. . . 232 The House of Mlla. Finds Shelter among the Welsh, who are Attacked

by ^Ethelfrith 232

Position and Importance of Chester in Roman Times .... 233

613. iEthelfrith's Victory at Chester 234,235

Results of this Battle on the Britons and on Northumbria . . . 236 yEfhelfrith Drawn to the South by the Weakness of Wessex and Fall

of Kent 238

616. The East Saxons Revolt from Kent at ^Ethelberht's Death . . . 238 iEthelfrith Brought into Collision with Raedwald by the House of ^Ella 239

617. Eadwine Seeks Shelter in East Anglia 240

Hesitations of Rasdwald 241

Eadwine and the Stranger 242

617. iEthelfrith Defeated by Rasdwald at the Idle 243,244

Chapter VI. The Northumbrian Supremacy. 617-659

1 7-633. Eadwine Established as King of Northumbria 245

The Kingdom of Elmet ......... 246, 247

Eadwine's Conquest of Elmet 249

His Power at Sea, and Conquests of Anglesea and Man .... 250

He Establishes his Supremacy over Mid-Britain 251

626. His Victory over the West Saxons 251

Eadwine Supreme over All the English save Kent 252

Character of his Rule over Northumbria 252

He is Pressed by his Kentish Wife to Become Christian . . . 255

627. The Northumbrian Witan Accept Christianity .... 255, 256

The New Faith Rejected in East Anglia 257

Rising of the Mercians 258

Penda King of the Mercians . . 258

Penda Becomes Supreme over Mid-Britain 259

His Battle with the West Saxons at Cirencester . . . . . 259

Probable Annexation of the Hwiccan Country 260

Strife between Penda and Eadwine for East Anglia . . ■ . . 260

Alliance of Penda with Cadwallon 261

The Hatfield Fen 262

633. Eadwine Defeated and Slain by Penda at Hatfield 264

Northumbria Broken Up into its Two Kingdoms 264

Penda Conquers East Anglia 265

Oswald King of the Bernicians . . 266

Battle of the Heaven-field 268

From this Time the Struggle of the Welsh is a Mere Struggle of Self-

Defence 268

635. Oswald Calls for Missionaries from Ireland 269 xvi CONTENTS.

Influence of its Physical Characteristics on the History of Ireland . 269

Early Ireland a Huge Grazing-ground . 270

Its Primitive Institutions -. . .271

Its Contrast with the Rest of Europe 272,273

The Conversion of Ireland 275

The Irish Church Moulded by the Social Condition of Ireland . 276, 277 Influence of the Celtic Temper on Irish Christianity .... 278

Its Poetic and Romantic Temper . . ...... . . . 279

The Foreign Missions of the Irish Church .. ., • . . . 280

635. Aidan Summoned by Oswald to Lindisfarne 281

The Irish Missionaries in Northumbria . . . . . . 281, 282

Oswald Re-establishes the Northumbrian Supremacy . . . 283, 284

642. Oswald Slain by Penda at. the Maserfeld , 286

Northumbria again Broken Up. 287

Penda Ravages Bernicia 287

651. Oswiu Reconquers Deira 288

Final Restoration of Northumbria 289

652. Conversion of Penda's Son Peada . . . . . . . 290

Conversion of the East Saxons . 291

654. Penda Reconquers East Anglia . . . .... . . 292

Penda Attacks Oswiu 293

655.. Penda Defeated and Slain at the Winwaed . . . . . . 293

Wreck of the Mercian State . . . 294, 295

Oswiu Supreme, over all the English 296

659. Revolt of the Mercians under Wulfhere 296-298

Abandonment by Northumbria of her Effort after Supremacy . 298, 299 . (Note on the Impcrium of the Early Kings) ..... 298-300

Chapter VII. The Church And The Kingdoms. 659-690

With the Failure of Northumbria National Union Seems Impossible . 301 Entry of a New Element into English Life in the Church . . . 361 All the English States save Sussex now Christian . . . .. . 302

The Organizing Force of Roman Christianity . . . '. . 302

But the Dominant Christianity in Britain now Irish .... 303

Activity of the Irish Church in the North after the Winwasd . 1 . 304

651-676. The Mission Work of Cuthbert . 304-308

The Irish Church Devoid of Organizing Power . . ... . 308

The Success would have Brought About a Religious Schism in

Britain . t 308, 309

The Roman Party in Northumbria •.

Benedict Biscop its Head .

Still more Energetic Action of Wilfrid . 664. The Irish Party Defeated at the Synod of Wr

. 310

... .312

. . . . .312

CONTENTS. xvii

PAGE

The Synod Averted the Religious Isolation, and Secured the Religious

Oneness of England . • 3X4

Importance of the Primacy in the Reunited Church . . . 315, 316 Theodore, Named Primate by the Pope, Lands in Britain . . .317

Mercia now the Most Active English State 318

Wulf here King of the Mercians .318

Re-establishes the Mercian Supremacy in Mid-Britain . . 318,319

661. Extends it over Essex, Surrey, and Sussex ...... 319

39-672. Theodore Journeys over All England . 321

He is Everywhere Received as Primate 321

His First Ordering of the English Dioceses 322

673. Calls a Council at Hertford 323

Influence of these Councils on National Development . . . 323,324

Establishes a School at Canterbury 325

Influence of this School on English Literature 326

690. Ealdhelm in Wessex 326, 327

50-652. Conquest of the Forest of Braden by the West Saxons . . . 328,329

Maidulf Sets Up his "Burh" of Malmesbury 330

Ealdhelm's Work in this Forest Tract 330

Theodore's Second Organization of the Dioceses ..... 331 The English Dioceses Coextensive with the Kingdoms . . . 332

Theodore Subdivides them by Falling Back on the Tribal Demarcations 333 He Divides the See of East Anglia. ....... 333

His Division of the Mercian See 333

Mercia Under King iEthelred 334

The Monastic Movement of this Time Based on —

(1) A Passion for Solitude 335

(2) Social Impulse which Followed it 335

The Monasteries Rather Social and Industrial Centres than Religious . 335

Effect of this Impulse in Reclaiming the Country 336

The Forest of Arden 338>339

The Foundation of Evesham 340

The Fens of the Wash 341,342

Guthlac at Croyland 342

The Thames Valley . . . 344

The Nuns of Barking 345

Survey of the Rest of Mid-Britain 346,347

Theodore Invited to Organize the Church in Northumbria . . -347

Ecgfrith, King of the Northumbrians 347

His Conquest of Northern Lancashire and the Lake District . . 347

Carlisle and its Continuous Life . . 348

Ecgfrith's Triumphs over the Picts 349

Ecgfrith Defeats Wulfhere and Recovers Lindsey 350

Condition of Northumbria 350

Monastic Colonies along the Coast 351

Ebba's House at Coldingham 352

Relations of these Monastic Colonies to the Realm, and its Defence . 353 They Bring Labor again into Honor 354, 355

B

682. 684. 685.

xviii CONTENTS.

PAGE

Influence of the Movement on Poetry 356

Hilda's House at Streonashalh . . . . . . . 356, 357

Story of Csedmon 358

Character of Casdmon's Poem 358, 359

Influence of the Monastic Movement on Art 361,362

Greatness of Bishop Wilfrid 363

Theodore Divides the Northumbrian Dioceses 363

Wilfrid Appeals to Rome and is Exiled from Northumbria . . . 364 He Takes Refuge among and Converts the South Saxons . . . 364

War between Mercia and Northumbria 366

Ecgfrith Forced to Cede Lindsey 366

Theodore Creates Two Fresh Bishoprics in the North . . . . 366 Attack of the Northumbrian Fleet on the Shores of Ireland . . . 366

Rising of the Picts against Ecgfrith . . 367

Cuthbert's Words of Ill-omen 367

Ecgfrith and his Army Slain by the Picts at Nectansmere . . . 368 Wilfrid Submits to Theodore and is Restored to York .... 368

Theodore Dies 369

Later Completion of the Work of Organization by the Development of a Parochial System, by the Endowment of the Clergy, and by the Provision of Discipline within the Church . . . 369,370