The Conquest of England ... Second edition

Preface

. A few words of introduction are needed to the following unfinished story of the " Conquest of England," in which I may explain how far these pages in their present form represent the final work and intention of their writer. I cannot do this save by giving some short account of how the book was written, and the tale of the two volumes, the " Making of England " and the " Con quest of England," forms in fact but one story. After Mr. Green had closed the fourth volume of his History of the English People, an apparent pause in the illness against which he had lonobeen struggling made it seem possible that some years of life might yet lie before him. For the first time he could look forward to labour less fettered and hindered than of old by stress of weakness, in which he might gather up the fruit of past years of preparation ; and with the vehement ardour of a

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. VIII new hope he threw himself into schemes of work till then denied him. But he had scarcely begun to shape his plans when they were suddenly cut down. In the early spring of 1881 he was seized by a violent attack of illness, and it needed but a little time to show that there could never be any return to hope. The days that might still be left to him must henceforth be conquered day by day from death. In the extremity of ruin and defeat he found a higher fidelity and a perfect strength. The way of success was closed, the w7ay of courageous effort still lay open. Touched with the spirit of that impassioned patriotism which animated all his powers, he believed that before he died some faithful work might yet be accomplished for those who should come after him. At the moment of his greatest bodily weakness, when fear had deepened into the conviction that he ha*d scarcely a few weeks to live, his decision was made.

The old plans for work were taken out, and from these a new scheme was rapidly drawn up in such a form that if strength lasted it might be wrought into a continuous narrative, while if life failed some finished part of it might be embodied in the earlier History. Thus under the shadow of death the Making of England was begun. During the five

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. IX summer months in which it was written that shadow never lifted. It was the opinion of his doctors that life was only prolonged from day to day throughout that time by the astonishing force of his own will, by the constancy of a resolve that had wholly set aside all personal aims. His courage took no touch of gloom or disappointment ; every moment of comparative ease was given to his task ; wdien such moments failed, hours of languor and distress were given with the same unfaltering patience. As he lay worn with sickness, in his extreme weakness unable to write a line with his own hand, he wras forced for the first time to learn how to dictate ; he had not even strength himself to mark the corrections on his printer's proofs, and these too w7ere dictated by him, while the references for the volume wrere drawn up as books were carried one by one to his bedside, and the notes from them entered by his directions.

With such sustained zeal, such eager conscientiousness was his work done, that much of it was wholly re-written five times, other parts three times ; till as autumn drew on lie wTas driven from England, and it became need ful to bring the book rapidly to an end which fell short of his original scheme, and to close the last chapters with less finish and fulness of labour.

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. X The spring of 1882 found the same frail and suffering life still left to him. But sickness had no force to queix-.h the ardour of his spirit. Careful only to save what time might yet remain for his work he hastened to England in May, and once more all sense of weakness seemed to vanish before the joy of coming again to his own hind. He had long eagerly desired to press forward to later periods of English history, in which the more varied forces at w7ork in the national life, and the larger issues that hung on them, might give free play to his own personal sympathies. But the conditions of his life shut out the possibility of choice ; and he resolutely turned again to the interrupted history of early England, to take up the tale at the period of its greatest obscurity and difficulty. In the scheme which wras drawn up at this time the present volume was to have closed with the " Conquest of England" by the Danes.

This plan was in fact a return to the division adopted in the Short History of the English People, where the conquest by Swein was looked on as the turning-point of the story, and a new period in the history of England began from the time when the English people first bowed to the yoke of foreign masters, and "kings from Denmarkwere succeeded by kings from Normandy, and these

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. XI by kings from Anjou." The eight chapters which bring the narrative to the Danish Conquest form the work that filled the last months of his life — a work still carried on with the same patient and enduring force, and clone with that careful haste which comes of the knowledge that each month's toil may be the last. The book in this earlier form was finished and printed in the autumn, though in the pressing peril of the time the final chapters were so brief as to be scarcely more than outlines. Once more he was forced to leave England for the south. In spite of fast-increasing illness, and oppressed by heavy suffering, he there reviewed his whole work with earnest care. It seemed to him still far from his conception of what it might be ; the difficulty of the subject roused in him a fresh desire to bring it home with living interest to his readers ; and he believed this might be done by some added labour on his part.

He resolved to make important changes in the original plan and in its order, to rewrite some portions, and to extend the history beyond the Conquest of England by the Danes to its Conquest by the Normans. The printed book was at once cancelled. With a last effort of supreme ardour and devotion, he set himself to a task which he was never to finish. A new

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. XII opening chapter was formed by drawing together the materials he possessed for a sketch of the English people at the opening of their long struggle with the invaders. But as the chapter drew towards its end his strength failed. The pages which nowT close it were the last words ever written by his hand — words written one morning in haste, for weakness had already drawn on so fast that when in weariness he at last laid down his pen he never again found strength even to read over the words he had set down. But even then his work was not over. In this last extremity of weakness his mind still turned constantly to the story of his people. He w7ould still hope, night by night, that on the coming day there might be some brief moment in which he could even yet dictate the thoughts that were shaping themselves in his mind — some larger account of the history of the English shires which was now taking form after long thinking, or some completer view of the rule of the Danish kings, or some insight of a more sure judgement and knowledge into the relations of the Norman Conquest.

Many years before, listening to some light talk about the epitaphs wdiich men might win, he had said half unconsciously, '' I know what men will say of me : ' He died

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. XIII learning;''' and he made the passing wTord into a noble truth. " So long as he lived he strove to live worthily." By patient and laborious work, by reverence and singleness of purpose, by a long self-mastery, he had " earned diligently " his due reward in experience, knowledge, matured wisdom, a wider outlook, and a deeper insight. It was impossible for him not to know that his powers wrere only now coming to their full strength, and that his real work lay yet before him. " I have work to do that I know is good," he said wdien he heard he had only a few days to live. " I will try to win but one week more to write some part of it down." Another conquest than this however lay before him. It was as death drew nearer still that for the first time he said, " Now I am w7eary ; I can work no more."

Thus he laid down with uncom plaining patience the task he had taken up with unflinching courage. " God so granted it him." In those last days, as in his latest thoughts, the great love he bore his country was still as it had ever been the true inspiration of his life. The single aim that guided all his work till the end came, was the desire to quicken in others that eager sense which he himself had of how rich the inheritance of our fathers is with the promise of the future, and to

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. XIV bring home to every Englishman some part of the beauty that kindled his own enthusiasm in the story, whether old or new, of the English People. A very few words will explain the work which was left to me by my husband to do in preparing this volume for publication. In the earlier part of the book I have carried out the alterations in the order of subjects which had been decided on by him, and the first six chapters may be looked on as representing his final plan, save that some alterations would have been made in the first chapter, and some passages, such as the account of the shires, wTere not rewritten as he had intended. Chapters vii. and viii. were left in a wholly unfinished state, having been laid aside for consideration and revision. The materials for them had not even been drawn into any consecutive order, and I am responsible for the division and naming of these chapters, and in great part for the arrangement of the subjects.

The closing chapters (ix., x., xi.), which have been included in the book according to Mr. Green's later plan, stand on a different footing from the rest. They were written many years ago, I believe in 1875, and wrere then laid aside and never revised in any way. The materials for them existed partly

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. XV in a printed form, and partly in manuscript notes and papers, all alike written some years ago, and consisting merely of very rough and imperfect fragments hastily jotted down and then thrown aside. My work has been to draw these various parts together into a connected whole ; and in order to carry on the unfinished tale to the Norman Conquest I have inserted some pages (pp. 567 577) from the earlier History of the English People. These chapters then, wholly unrevised and dealing with the history of the eleventh century in a partial way only, and under some of its aspects, must be looked on as incomplete outlines. It had been Mr. Green's hope to enrich them by a careful study of the social history of England during this period, and an indication of the kind of work that might have been done in this direction will be found in the passage (pp. 436-466) which describes London and the trading towns.

This was part of his latest work last autumn, and has been inserted into the story of the reign of Cnut at his desire. I have judged it best to print these closing chapters without any addition of reference or notes, save the few which I have been able to draw up from his own papers. Those who have read the Making ot'

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. England will understand that Mr. Green was accustomed to base his views on wide and full reading, and I have been unwilling to risk any system of notes which must inevitably have seemed to rest his conclusions on a foundation narrower than that of his own thought and reading. I have felt the less difficulty in adopting this course owing to the elaborate system of references for this period which Mr. Freeman has supplied to students. I have been specially careful throughout the book to preserve the exact wTords of the writer, even in dealing with the unfinished manuscript notes. The exceptions to this rule are the two paragraphs that open chapter ii., which I myself added at his own request, and the greater part of the paragraph on the custom of the feud at p. 278, which was left unfinished, and which I briefly concluded.

The materials for the reign of Cnut were very imperfect, and occasionally, as in pp. 465-469, and again at the close of the chapter, I have been forced to make some expansions and alterations so as to form a consecutive and intelligible narrative. The character of Godwine on pp. 538-541 I have drawm up from some rough pencilled jottings on the margin of a paper, using the exact words I found, but shaping them into continuous sentences and a general order. The few

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. XVII notes which I have added throughout the book are all marked as my own. Two of the maps included in this volume, " England at the Peace of Wedmore," and " England under the Ealdormen," are taken from rough unrevised plans made by Mr. Green ; for the rest of the maps I am myself responsible. I cannot close without a very earnest expression of sincere gratitude to the friends who out of their generous affection for his memory have helped me in my task with constant and ready sympathy ; I have especially to thank Professor Stubbs for the kindness with which he has read through my work, and given me the advantage of his counsel. Alice Stopfoed Green. 14, Kensington Square, November, 18S3. P.S. — I may perhaps add that, with a view to future editions, it had been Mr. Green's intention to ask in the preface to this volume for suggestions from those who may have any local knowledge which might help to throw light on any points either in this book, or in the "Making of England." I should be glad, so far as lay in my power, to carry out his wishes in this matter. CONTENTS.

Chapter I. The England Of Ecgberht

PAGE Political and social changes which followed the settlement of the English in Britain 1,2 The gradual union of the conquering and the conquered races . 2, 3 The purely English form given to the new society ... 3 The gradual advance of cultivation 4 Illustrated in the condition of Dorset 5 — 7 The changes brought about by the introduction of Christianity . 8, 9 Its long strife with the older religions . . . . . .10,11 Its bringing in of a new social class . . . . . .12 And of a parochial organization 13, 14 Results of this new ecclesiastical system on the old organization of English life 14,15 Influence of Christianity in the growth of pilgrimages . . 1G, 17 The pilgrims' route 18 The popularity of pilgrimages 18, 19 Influence of Christianity on law .... ... 20 Character of the first written codes of law .... 20 — 22 Influence of Christianity on early English jurisprudence . . 22 Early developement of the conception of public justice . 22 — 24 Origin of the judicial character of folk-moot and hundred-moot . 21, 25 The extent of the jurisdiction of the "folk" . . . 25—27 The limitations introduced in the right of private vengeance . . 27, 28 The difficulties in enforcing the "folks' justice " . . . .28,29 CONTENTS.

PACE Causes which led to the developement of the "justice of the king" 29,30 The king and his court .....•••• 31 The king's progresses .32 Their influence on public justice ....... 33 The results of the consolidation of Britain into the Three Kingdoms — In the growing importance of the king .... 33, 34 In the decline of the ætheling 34, 35 In the elevation of the thegn ..... 35 In the loss of power of the folk-moot .... 36 In the change of character of the Witenagemot . 36 — 38 Causes which led to the overthrow of the balance of power among the Three Kingdoms . 38, 39 758-793. Internal condition of Northumbria ..... .40,41 Its religious and intellectual life ...... .41,42 . Invasion of tin northnien and its results ..... 43 The apparent strength of Mercia ....... 44 Its real weakness ... 45 The superiority of Wessex derived from the character of the country ........... 45, 46 From the varied composition of the kingdom .... 46 From its administrative order ....... 47 The character of Eegberht's supremacy 48, 49

Chapter II. The Coming Of The Wirings

829-858. 787. The first coining of the pirates 50, 51 793,794. Their raids on Northumbria . ..... . . 51 The significance of their attack 52 Growth of the Scandinavian peoples ...... 52. 53 Conditions of their life . 54 55 Character of their country ........ CONTENTS. XXI PAGE Their early customs and religion 57, 58 The Wikings 58 Their mode of warfare 59 The causes of their wanderings 60, 61 The two lines of their attack on Europe 62 Settlement of the northmen in South Jutland ... 62 A.D. 800. Their attack on the Franks 63 8lO. The death of Godfrid and civil war in South Jutland . . .63, 64 834. Descent of the northmen on the Isle of Sheppey .... 64 c. 820. Their descent on Ireland 65, 66 832. Thorgil's settlement in Ireland 66 Its effect in arousing the West-Welsh to arms .... 67 EfEect of the pirate attacks in arresting the consolidation of England 68 The political relations of Wessex and Kent 69 The military resources of Wessex ...... 69, 70 Relation of the Church to the Frankish kings .... 70 Peculiar position of the English bishops 71 National character of the Church 72 Effect upon the Church of the pirate invasion .... 72 838.

Its alliance with the West-Saxon kings 73 839. Death of Ecgberht and accession of Æthelwulf .... 73 837 et seq. Extension of the Wiking settlement in Ireland .... 74 837-845. The Wikings attack Wessex "75 845. Death of Thorgils 76 845-848. The pirates leave Wessex to attack Frankland . . . .76,77 Importance of Kent . . . 77, 78 838. Pirate-raids on East-Anglia and Kent 77, 78 851. Æthelwulf 's victory at Aclea 79 855. Pirate settlement in the Isle of Sheppey 79 Æthelwulf s foreign policy 79, 80 853. Æthelwulf's conquest of the North-Welsh 80 854. Æthelwulf's pilgrimage to Rome 81 The Franks under Charles the Bald 81 Æthelwulf's visit to Charles the Bald, and his marriage with 856. Judith 82 856. Wessex rises against Æthelwulf 82, 83 Æthelwulf retires to Kent and is succeeded in Wessex by 857. Æthelbald 83,84 b CONTENTS.

Chapter III. The Making Of The Danelaw

858—878. A D PAGE 858. Death of Æthelwulf 85 860. Æthelbald dies and is succeeded by Æthelberht .... 85 866. Death of Æthelberht and accession of Æthelred .... 86 Extent of the Scandinavian conquests . . ..... 86 The importance of Britain to the pirates 87 First appearance of the Danes 87, 88 Their mode of warfare ......... 89, 90 866. Attack of the Danes on East-Anglia under Ivar the Boneless . 90, 91 867. Their attack on Northumbria and conquest of York . . .91, 92 Ruin of the religious houses . . 92, 93 Position of the Primate of York 94 868. Æthelred drives the Danes back from Mercia .... 95 869. The Danish conquest of East-Anglia under Ivar and Hubba . 96 870. Martyrdom of Eadmund of East-Anglia ..... 96 Mercia pays tribute to the Danes 96, 97 The danger of Wessex 97 87i. The Danish attack on Wessex 98 849.

The birth of Ælfred 99, 100 His childhood 99 His position as Secundarius 101 Political significance of his marriage ...... 101 87i, Danish victory at Reading and encampment on Ashdow'n . . 102 Importance of this position 102 Æthelred's victory at Ashdown 103 871. Ælfred becomes king 104 871. Ælfred buys peace from the Danes 105 874. The Danish conquest of Mercia 106 875. Halfdene conquers Bernicia and ravages Cumbria and Strathclyde 106, 107 876. The pirates gather their forces for a final attack on Wessex . . 107 876. Guthrum' s attack on the southern coast 108 877. Ælfred recovers Exeter from the Danes .... 108 CONTENTS. XXIII AD' PAGE 878. The Danes overrun Wessex . . 109 Ælfred falls back behind Selwood 109, 110 His refuge in Athelney 110,111 878. Ælfred's victory at Edington Ill 878. The peace of Wedmore Ill Its political consequences .112 Its effect on the European struggle with the pirates . . . 113 The importance of the Danish settlement in Britain . . . 114 868-876.

The Danish settlement in Northumbria 115 Traces in Yorkshire of this settlement .... 116, 117 The northern trade 118 Traces of their settlement in York .119 Their political organization and the Trithings . . . . 120 877. The Danish settlement in Mid-Britain 121 The political organization in Mid-Britain .... 122 The distribution of settlers 122, 123 880. The Danish settlement in East-Anglia ...... 123 The character of Guthrum's kingdom 124 Its English institutions, and adoption of Christianity by the Danes 125 Relations of the Danelaw with the Scandinavian realms . 126, 127 Relation of the Danelaw to Wessex 128 Real significance of the Danish settlement 129

Chapter IV

ÆLFRED. 878—901. Results of the want of political organization in the Danelaw . 130 Danger of Ælfred's position 131 878-884. Years of peace 131 Material and moral disorganization in Wessex . . . 132. 133 Military disorganization and weakness of the fyrd . . 133 — 335 Extinction of the free ceorls and growth of the thegns brought about by the war 135 Ælfred's employment of the thegns for military service . . 136 Ælfred's re-construction of the military system . . . 136, 137 b CONTENTS. A. P. PAGE 897. His creation of a navy 137, 138 The reorganization of public justice 139 The new relation of the king to justice .... 140, 141 Importance of English Mercia 142 Effect of the Danish wars on the kingly houses of Britain . . 143 Ælfred becomes king of the Mercians .... 143, 144 Ælfred's work in introducing a common law among the English peoples 145, 146 S78-884.

The descents of the Danes on Frankland .... 147, 148 884. Renewal of the Danish attack on England 148 884. The rising of East-Anglia 149 London under the Danes of East-Anglia .... 149, 150 886. Ælfred recovers London from Guthrum 151 886. Frith between Ælfred and Guthrum 151 The division of Essex . . .... 151, 152 Importance of the recovery of the Thames valley and of London 152, 153 Upgrowth of a new national sentiment .... 153, 154 The intellectual ruin brought about by the Danish wars . 154, 155 Importance of Wessex for the preservation 6*f English civilization 156 Ælfred's restoration of learning ...... 156, 157 He draws men of learning to his court .... 158, 159 Ælfred's work in the formation of English literature . . 160, 161 English the first prose literature of the modern world . . 162 Ælfred's translations 162 — 164 The Bishop's Roll of Winchester 164—166 c. 887.

Ælfred's work on the Chronicle 166, 167 The historical importance of the Chronicle ..... 167 890. Death of Guthrum 168 Growth of the Scandinavian kingdoms .... 168,169 893. Harold Fair-hair 169 Impulse given to the pirate-raids 169,170 893. Renewal of the Danish attack on southern Britain . . . 170 894. Hasting ravages Wessex 171 898. The rising of the Danelaw . 171 Alliance of the Danes and the Welsh 172 Hasting's occupation of Chester . 173 896, 897. Defeat of the Danes and ending of the war . . . 173, 174 Ælfred's life 174, 175 His love of strangers . . . . . . . . .176 CONTENTS. xxv PAGE Foundation of Athelney 177, 178 Othere and Wulfstan 178, 179 The organization of Ælfred's court 180 The royal revenue 181, 182 Ælfred's connexion with the Continent .... 182, 183 His relations with the Welsh 183 His relations with Bernicia and the Scots ..... 184 _ D Growth of the Scot kingdom 184, 185 901. Death of Ælfred 186 Character of Ælfred 186—188

Chapter V. The House Of

ÆLFRED. 901—937. 901. Eadward the Elder 189, 190 Peace with the Danes 191 901. Eadward takes the title of " King of the Anglo-Saxons " . . 192 The weakness of English Mercia 193 907. Eadward fortifies Chester 194, 195 910. Outbreak of war with the Danes 195 911. Eadward' s kingdom threatened from the north and from the south 196 912. Eadward's annexation of the Thames valley . . . 196, 197 Opening of war with East-Anglia 198 Eadward's conquest of southern Essex 198 Æthelflæd seizes the line of the Watling Street .... 198 The Watling Street 199,200 913. Æthelflæd's advance on the Upper Trent .... 200, 201 Æthelflæd secures the line of the Avon .... 201,202 918,919. Eadward's advance on the Ouse 203,204 921. He conquers Northampton 204 921, 922. He completes the conquest of East-Anglia, Essex, and the Fens 204, 205 917,918.

Æthelflæd attacks the Five Boroughs 206,207 922. Death of Æthelflæd 207 922. Eadward completes the conquest of Mid-Britain . . . 207, 209 Mercia made part of the West-Saxon kingdom .... 209 Political results of the conquest of the Danelaw .... CONTENTS. PAan The growth of commendation 209, 210 Growth of the new territorial character of the kingship . 210, 211 Importance of the oath of allegiance . . . . .211, 212 Danger of Eadward's position 212, 213 His fortification of the north-west frontier .... 213, 214 Relation of Wessex to Bernicia and the kingdom of the Scots 215,216 924. The northern league against Eadward 216 924. Submission of the north to Eadward ..... 216, 217 925. Æthelstan becomes king 217,218 His policy 219 925. Submission of the northern league to Æthelstan . . . 219,220 Submission of the Welsh 220, 221 926.

Æthelstan becomes King of Northumbria 221 Fusion of Danes and Englishmen 222, 223 Character of Æthelstan's Witenagemots .... 223 — 225 The work of the Witenagemots for public order . . . 225, 226 The regulation of trade and of coinage .... 227, 228 The origin of frith-gilds 228—230 Use of the word "shire" 230,231 West-Saxon origin of the shire ...... 231, 232 The early extension of the shire-system in Wessex . . 232 — 234 The extension of the shire over Mercia 234 — 236 The extension of the shire over the Danelaw . . . 236,237 The position of the shire-reeve ....... 238 Importance of his financial work ....... 239 Growth of his authority 240 The imperial claims of Æthelstan 240, 241 The real weakness of his empire ....... 242 Danger from the northmen of Ireland 242, 243 Danger from the northmen of Gaul ...... 243 912.

Hrolf's settlement in Gaul 243, 244 The results of this settlement on France and on England . 244, 245 Relations of the Danelaw and Normandy 246 The growth of the Norman duchy 247, 248 The effect on the foreign policy of the English kings . . 248 — 250 926-930- Æthelstan's alliances with foreign powers .... 249, 250 929. The dangers which threatened William Longsword . . 250, 251 933. His successful alliance with the House of Paris .... CONTENTS. XXVII AD' PAGE 934. Results of his policy seen in the renewal of the northern league against Æthelstan 252, 253 The significance of the league 253 937. The battle of Brunanburh 254 255

Chapter VI. Wessex And The Danelaw

■937—955. Political consequences of the battle of Brunanburh . . . 256 Restoration of the Northumbrian under-kingship .... 257 The weakness of the monarchy 257, 258 Political reorganization of Britain 258, 259 Position of the ealdormen 259, 260 The ealdormanries of East-Anglia and Essex . . . 260, 261 Eric Blood-axe 262, 263 Æthelstan sets Eric as king in Northumbria . . . 263, 264 936. Æthelstan continues his former policy with regard to Normandy 265 936. Lewis From-over-sea king of the West-Franks .... 265 The support given to him by Æthelstan .... 266, 267 The difficulties of Lewis and failure of Æthelstan's political schemes. . . 267,268 940. Death of Æthelstan and accession of Eadmund . . . 268, 269 Eadmund's policy 269,270 941. The revolt of the Danelaw 270 The position of Wulfstan of York 271 943.

The revival of the English Danelaw 272 Growth of the Norman power 272, 273 944. Invasion of Normandy by Lewis 273 944. Reduction of the Danelaw by Eadmund .... 273, 274 Political relations of Eadmund with the north .... 274 Cumbria under the Northumbrian and West-Saxon kings . 275, 276 Norwegian settlements in Cumbria 276, 277 945. The grant of Cumbria to the Scottish kings .... 277, 278 Eadmund's reform of the custom of the feud . . . 278, 279 945. Normandy freed from the West-Franks 280 946. Death of Eadmund . CONTENTS. a.d. The childhood and youth of Dunstan 281 284 c. 940. He becomes a monk ...... 284 Before 946. He is made Abbot of Glastonbury 285 946. Eadred becomes king 286 Dunstan becomes counsellor to Eadred .... 286, 287 Significance of Eadred's coronation 287, 288 947. Submission of the north to Eadred 289 947, 948.